v" BANCROFT LIBRARY AMERICA: AN ENCYCLOPA: DIA OF ITS History and Biography, ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS. WITH FULL ACCOUNTS OF PREHISTORIC AMERICA AND THE INDIANS, AND NOTES ON CONTEMPORANEOUS HISTORY, CONTAINING A COMPLETE RECORD OF EXPLORATIONS, CONQUESTS, REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES, POLITICAL CHANGES, SOCIAL MOVEMENTS, INDUSTRIAL ACHIEVE- MENTS, CURIOUS, IMPORTANT AND THRILLING EVENTS, REMARKABLE EXPEDITIONS, ROMANTIC ADVENTURES, AND MARVELOUS IN- VENTIONS, IN THE DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA, WITH BIOGRAPHIES OF THE LEADERS THEREOF. PROF. STEPHEN M. NEWMAN, M. A. THIRD EDITION REVISED AND BROUGHT DOWN TO DATE. Elegantlg Ellustratelu CHICAGO: Co BURN & COOK PUBLISHING Co., BRANCH OFFICES: SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. LANSING, MICH. FOND DU LAC, Wis. PKRRYVILLK, Mo. 1882. . COPYRIGHT l88l BY THE COBURN & NEWMAN PUBLISHING COMPANY COPYRIGHI l8S2 BY THE COBURN & COOK PUBLISHING COMPANY. HOMES OF AMERICA, WHOSE LOVE OF LIBERTY AND OF COUNTRY, WILL FINALLY MAKE THIS CONTINENT THE LAND OF TRUE FREEDOM. flf PASSION FLOWER OF PERU. ACCESSION UBRABY PREFACE The present wide-spread interest in the study of American history will effect two results. It will, for one thing, push out very much reading of a low, useless, and pernicious kind. The enkindled desire to understand the sufferings and achieve- ments in the record of the New World, or to live again in imagination the scenes which have been enacted upon the soil we tread, will consume the intellectual heed- lessness which is satisfied with the thin and sensational reading which falls in its way. One who has acquired a passion for investigating journeys, inventions, cus- toms, political enterprises and movements, and who finds the hours all too scanty for the purpose, is not likely to employ himself in reading that which wastes the time, enfeebles the mind, and blights the heart. The study of American history will also greatly increase the accurate knowl- edge of the circumstances attending the formation of our institutions, and by so doing, will extend and intensify the spirit of our life through a great circle. If we wish to understand the movement of an enterprise, we must note its condition at two or more points in its career. It is difficult for the ablest mind, when confining its view to the present moment, to trace in the hurry and confusion and endless details, the complete significance of the work which is being done, and to judge whither it ail tends. Nor can we look into the history of institutions with which we are closely associated, without a quickened pulse, a greater courage, and a truer patience. The passing accidents, and the abiding elements of enterprises and reforms, alone stand forth in this view. This volume is intended to serve as an instrumentality along the above lines of usefulness. Several principles have controlled its preparation. In the sttidy of historical events, as in the study of objects in the natural sciences, the mind must be continually held to the facts. Facts are the source and proof of all our historical knowledge. A clear statement of them will almost uni- versally arouse an interest in them. Nor can the minute details of them be ex- hausted. Yet upon some apparently trivial detail a change of government may hang. The certainty and comprehensiveness of our knowledge of history, as well as the possession of an unflagging interest, depend upon a frequent review of the facts. XXI XXII PREFACE. In any general study of American history the preservation of unity demands that the entire continent pass before the eye. No separation of explorations, settle- ments, of colonial growth, revolutionary struggles, and of the development of the idea of liberty, can be made even in the case of the United States, without fatally injuring the conception, and weakening the study. A moment's attention, for in- stance, will show that the region of the Great Lakes, the Mississippi, and Ohio Valleys, the Southern States and the Pacific Coast, cannot be studied apart from what the French and Spanish undertook to do in other sections of the continent. Within ten years after the American Revolution closed, those struggles in Mexico and South America began, which ended in throwing off Spanish authority. The Monroe doctrine emphasizes this unity of life upon the continent. The same reason demands that all forms of life be accorded their proper places in the presentation. The successes of industry and invention, the character of commercial and social activity, the educational and reformatory movements, etc.,, etc., depend largely upon the political ideas which hold sway over the homes of the country, and the civil aspirations which the people are led to indulge. American life and progress in every slight respect are vitally connected with the central historic movement of the continent. The formation of a just conception necessitates the keeping of the several elements of American history, so far as possible, before the mind, side by side. The inception of a new enterprise of any sort indicates something as to the fertility of thought and energy of will which characterize the day. It is therefore important to insert it in the order of time, where it had its birth. Its aid will be largely lost if it be separated from the events in the midst of which it sprang forth. The features of the present work are in harmony with the above ideas. Facts are made prominent. The attempt is made to leave them to have their own proper effect. The whole continent is brought to view. All lines of life are touched at indicative points. The whole is arranged to show the steady development of all things. Biographies are given to reveal the character of the training which the leaders of our life have had. Side notes are added to facilitate a reference to the condition of the world at large. No other work of this kind exists. Such a volume, it is evident, must exist before the apparatus for the study of American history will be fully perfected. It is needed now. With ^the desire to assist in establishing American ideas, this labor is committed to the public. " But thou, my Country, thou shalt never fell, Save with thy children thy maternal care, Thy lavish love, thy blessings showered on all These are thy fetters seas and stormy air Are the wide barrier of thy borders, where, Among thy gallant sons that guard thee well, Thou laugh'st at enemies ; who shall then declare The date of thy deep-founded strength, or tell How happy in thy lap the sons of men shall dwell ! " STEPHEN MORRELL NEWMAN. RIPON, WISCONSIN, March sth, 1881. LIST OF AUTHORITIES. XXIII The following works have been used in Appleton's American Cyclopaedia. Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Johnson's Cyclopaedia. Zell's Cyclopaedia. The Magazine of American History. Encyclopaedia of Chronology. Putnam's World's Progress. Haydn's Dictionary of Dates. Lyman's Historical Chart. Smith's Tables of Church History. Foster's Prehistoric Races of the United States. Baldwin's Ancient America. Squier's Notes on Central America. Beamish's Discov. of Amer. by the Northmen. Jones' Ancient America. Smithsonian Contributions, 10 vols. Wilkes' U. S. Exploring Expedition, 3 vols. Schoolcraft's Algic Researches. Schoolcraft's American Indians. Morgan's Ancient Society. Short's North Americans of Antiquity. MacLean's Mound Builders. Bancroft's History of United States, 10 vols. Hildreth's History of United States, 6 vols. Ramsay's History of United States. Von Hoist's History of United States. Bryant's History of United States. Grahame's History of North America. Robertson's History of South America. Maunder's History of the World. A View of South America and Mexico. Goodrich's History of America. Willard's History of United States. Denison's History of the New World. Higginson's Young Folks' History of U. S. Higginson's Y'g Folks' Book of Am. Explorers. Anderson's Manual of General History. Anderson's United States Reader. Anderson's Historical Reader. Barnes' Centenary History of United States. Abbott's Paragraph History of United States. Abbott's Paragraph Hist, of Amer. Resolution. Ridpath's History of United States. Lossing's Our Country, 3 vols. Prescott's Conquest of Peru, 2 vols. Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, 3 vols. Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella, 3 vols. Belknap's Biographies of Early Discoverers. Irving's Columbus, 3 vols. Parkman's Pioneers of France in New World. Parkman's Jesuits in North America. Parkman's Discovery of the Great West. the preparation of this volume: Parkman's Old Regime in Canada. Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac. Drake's Indians of North America. Hubbard's Indian Wars. Kennedy's La Plata, Brazil, and Paraguay. Burton's Battle Fields of Paraguay. Washburn's History of Paraguay. Fancourt's History of Yucatan. Dallas' Maroons of Jamaica. Henderson's History of Brazil. Southey's History of the West Indies. Frothingham's Rise of the Republic. Frothingham's Siege of Boston. Frothingham's Joseph Warren. Gibbs' Administrations of Washington and Adams, 2 vols. Stevens' History of Georgia. Morton's New England Memorial. Sabine's American Loyalists. Sabine's Notes on Duels and Duelling. Watson's Men and Times of the Revolution. Hanaford's History of Princeton, Mass. Onderdonk's Revolutionary Incidents of Queen's Co., N. Y. Palfrey's New England, 3 vols. Ingersoll's History of U. S. War Department. Demarest's Hist, of the Reformed Dutch Church. Waylen's Eccl. Reminiscenses of United States. Starr King's White Hills. Ames' Ten Years in Washington. Drake's Nooks and Corners of the New Eng- land Coast. Abbott's Mexico and the United States. Lossing's Common School History of the U S. Barnes' Brief History of the United States. Egle's History of Pennsylvania. History of Indiana. History of Wisconsin. Austin's History of Massachusetts. Lossing's Eminent Americans. Parton's People's Book of Biography. Burnet's Notes on Northwest Territory. Parton's Famous Men. Winsor's Handbook of American Revolution. Johnston's History of American Politics. Noyes' History of American Socialisms. Carey's Slave Trade. Goodell's Slavery and Anti-Slavery. Jay's Miscellaneous Writings. Lossing's American Centenary. Bishop's Hist, of Ameri'n Manufactures, 2 vols. Bolles' Industrial History of the United States. XXIV LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Lester's Our First Hundred Years, 2 vols. Haven's National Handbook. Young's American Statesman. Greeley's Political Text Book for 1860. Spaulding's Financial History of the War. 1 lartwig's Polar and Tropical Worlds. The Frozen Zone. Newcomb's Cyclopaedia of Missions. Parton's Franklin. Biglow's Franklin. Spark's Biographies. Irving's Washington. Life of Prescott. Life of Choate. Finney's Autobiography. Memoir of Bushnell. Allen's New England Tragedies in Prose. Smith's Brazil. Holland's Life of Lincoln. Raymond's Life of Lincoln. Aboott's Lives of the Presidents. Rights and Rulers of our Government. May's Recollections of the Anti-Slav'y Conflict Treasures of Science, History, and Literature. Pictorial History of the United States Wars. Pictorial History of the United States Navy. Greeley's American Conflict. Abbott's History of the Civil War. Annals of the War. Lossing's Pictorial History of the Civil War. Grant and His Campaigns. Grant and Sherman. Sherman and His Campaigns. Life of Maximilian. Life of W. H. Seward. Great Fires in Chicago and the West. Adams' Railroad Accidents. Spofford's American Almanac, 3 vols. Harper's Magazine. Scribner's Monthly, with files of other leading Reviews, W T eekly and Daily Newspapers. HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HISTORY. To any one -who has not made quite a definite beginning, a long list of books covering different periods of American history is confusing. The thought of read- ing them from first to last in the order given, always raises the question of the months or years which it will take to do so, and prevents that true deliberation which is the secret of profitable reading. This thought is accompanied by the de- sire to reach more or less hastily the interesting books or periods. On the other hand, many a beginning has been made for a life-time oi true study by having been forced back upon a single book found in the house, or borrowed from a neighbor. The writer looks back to such a point in his boyhood, and treasures a little old volume containing a history of Mexico and South America, with unspeakable grati- tude. To those who have made a beginning and know where they are, a list of books is helpful and easily accessible. A very good one is given at the close of that book, which serves so admirably as a beginning for amateur students, viz., Higginson's Toung Folks' History of the United States. Lists are given at the close of each division of Barnes" 1 Brief History of the United States. Both of the above em- brace the names of works of fiction, poems, and biographies in addition to strictly historical works. Lists under special topics are also to be found in Putnanfs Best Reading, and in President Noah Porter's Books and Reading. For fifty cents one can secure a thick catalogue, issued by Robert Clarke & Co. of Cincinnati, and HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HISTORY. XXV giving the names of large numbers of books on American history. The catalogue of any public library will also furnish hints. Mention ought here to be made of Justin Winsor*s Handbook of the American Revolution, which gives running comments upon the authors who have treated that subject as a whole, or any portion of it. For those who wish to read extensively upon the Revolution, this little book is invaluable. A good exercise consists in putting one of the lists first mentioned into such a form in a blank book or otherwise, that additions can be made to it of those books which are from time to time recommended to one, or are mentioned in standard periodicals. Works upon American history are now being issued very rapidly, and a little watchfulness, together with some questioning of friends, will enable one to make a list which in coming years will grow more and more valuable. The construction of a list of this kind will in itself give a knowledge of periods, changes, men and events in our history. There are a great many people who have an interest in American history, who yet do not care to sit down to the reading of the more exhaustive works which cover the history of the continent from its discovery nearly to the present time, nor to make investigations into the original authorities upon some special point or points. They read for mental health and cheer, and in the end acquire a wide range of historical knowledge concerning their country. For such the volume by Higginson above mentioned, and the same author's Young Folks' Book of American Explorers, are a fascination. The delightful works of Francis Parkman hold such readers to the nd. They are: The Pioneers of France in the New World, The Jesuits in North America, La Salle,or The Discovery of the Great West, The Old Regime in Canada, and Count Front enac. These make up a series upon the efforts of France and England in the New World. A volume upon Montcalm is in prepara- tion. Besides these the same author wrote a history of the Conspiracy of Pontiac. J3ryanfs Popular History of the United States, Prescotfs Conquest of Peru, and his Conquest of Mexico may safely be named for the above uses. The last-named work should be followed by Gen. Lew Wallace's novel A Fair God, which sets forth the scenes of the conquest with great power. Frothing ham's Siege of Boston and Joseph Warren and His Times, Lossing's Pictorial Field Books, one set upon the Revolution, another upon the War of 1812, and a third upon the Civil War, biographies like Irving' s Washington, Bigelov?s Franklin, Holland's Lincoln, Pierre M. Irving'* s Life of Washington Irving, will all be of great interest. Biographies of any other man or men toward whom the attention is turned, descrip- tive works upon portions of the continent which we would like to know about, should be sought definitely and persistently. Very few issues of our magazines are made without some historical or descriptive article calculated to aid and interest such general readers. A scrap relating to American history or biography can be found in almost every copy of our newspapers. A definite notice of such for a time will make it impossible afterward that similar ones should escape. In this way what was at first mere hap-hazard reading may be turned into a well-ordered and profit- able course. Our conception of the progress and condition of the continent will be dearer and clearer. XXVI HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HISTORT. But there are many young persons who, if they have the interest, have the time and facilities for building up a much more careful and systematic knowledge of American history, and might in the end become authorities upon some point to which they had given much attention. If such should make a well-assured beginning, the rest would follow as a matter of course. Very many of our beginnings are no be- ginnings worthy of the name. A beginning in reading American history, like an infant, must have time to be an infant, and also have great care and nourishment while it is such. Haste and forcing will in the end kill it. Hence deliberation is necessary. Begin anywhere, but let there be time taken to make it a very definite matter. It will pay many times over in the end. It is true that a general view of the whole field should be possessed before special work is begun. But it may be quite general. The attentive reading of one or two such books as Higginson's Young folks'' History of the United States will be sufficient. Having done this, the point for our special effort can be determined by answering the question:/' What do I desire to know about most of all in the historv of my country?" A gain in time and energy will result from settling this first. From this point you can go forward or backward. Atlases are essential. Take time from the very first to get a perfectly clear view of the geography of the section you are reading about. An understanding of the sea coast or river valleys prepares for an understanding of the success or defeat of different settlements, and the general course of the stream of colonization. The geography of the Hudson River and Lake Champlain sheds light on the Revolution- ary conflict in that region. Make skeleton maps illustrating the special features of the event or events which you are studying. It may be that the first desire will be to know what can be known of ancient or prehistoric America. The most accessible books, and the best is perhaps, Prof. Shorfs, The North Americans of Antiquity, or Foster's Prehistoric Races of the United States. A book like Squier's Peru will give some idea of ancient works in South America. During 1880 a series of articles on the ancient cities of Central America has appeared in the North American Review. The first book mentioned will easily lead to other works named therein. Some of the volumes of 'the Smith- sonian Contributions are rich upon the Mound Builders. The American Anti- quarian, a quarterly journal edited by Rev. Stephen D. Peet, Clinton, Wis., is the only periodical devoted exclusively to such studies. .It is able and interesting. Fu- gitive articles appear in Scribner's Monthly, and other' magazines. In studying the aborigines of the continent Drake 's Biography and History of the Indians of North America, though old, is valuable. Brief accounts are given in all histories of the country. The works of George Catlin may be accessible to some. The Introduction to Parkman's Jesuits in North America is a fine essay upon the Indians. Schooler affs Works contain vast information. Biographies of leading Indians can be found in all public libraries. Thomas W. Field issued An Essay toward an Indian Bibliography, which contains a great many hints concern- ing works upon the History, Antiquities, Languages, Customs, -Religion, Wars, Lit- erature, and Origin of the American Indians. Lewis H. Morgan's League of the HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HISTORT. XXVII Iroquois gives an accurate account of that remarkable confederation. For lighter reading, Coopers Leatherstocking Talcs, Longfelloiv 's Hia-watha, Lowell's Chippeiva Legend, and Whittier*'s Bridal of Pennacook,cai\ be interwoven. But it is more likely perhaps, that the first interest we feel will go out toward some later point in our history. We may wish to know the places at which, and the persons by whom, all the original settlements in America were made. We are cu- rious to look into the homes they built, to know what they were before they left the Old World, and watch their success in new surroundings. Huguenots and Cath- olics, Pilgrims and Puritans, Hollanders and Spaniards, Presbyterians and Quakers, poor debtors from English prisons, and persecuted Germans from the Palatinate, ne- gro slaves, Irish immigrants, German farmers, Norwegians, and Chinese, what por- tion of the country they have each lived in and built up, and how far has the blood of each mingled with the blood of others. We begin perhaps, with Jamestown in 1607, and carefully, slowly enlarge our view of the colony by hunting up informa- tion in every book at our command. We note its early promise, its great vicissi- tudes, its tobacco " fever," and the spread of little villages around it, with a thousand other bits. We hunt through Bancroft and Hildreth till we become enamored with the study of the process of settlement. Or we desire to know the history of the permission under which the colonies were planted, the form of charters, patents and grants which so lavishly gave away the American forests. We find out the first agreement effected by Columbus, the charters given to the London and Virginia Companies, the permit given by the great Dutch East India Company, the powers granted to each adventurer, the differ- ence between royal, proprietary, and charter colonies, the trouble over the transfer of the Massachusetts Bay charter, and hundreds of unsuspected, yet fascinating facts. Or we wish to begin with tracing the growth of the opposition between Great Britain and the American colonies, or with the Revolution in which that opposition ended, or we begin with the scenes in which our national constitution was formed > and the men who formed it, or with specific events like the Battle of Bunker Hill, from which we run out into the whole Revolution, or Perry's victory on Lake Erie, or the great 'debate between Webster and Hayne, in the United States Senate, or the evacuation of Fort Sumter in 1861, or the history of our own state, county, town, of some great exploration, adventure, enterprise. Anything entered upon slowly and minutely will open the whole wide field of America before us. The one hundredth anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781 enables us to profit by the extensive information which will be published by the greater number of our periodicals. The seizure of a present event will often lead to a permanent investi- gation. But, it may be asked, will not such investigations as have been spoken of above, necessitate the possession of large supplies of books. Not at all. Faraday began ex- periments in chemistry with a few broken dishes. With two or three small books the study of American history can be begun. The neighborhoods are very few in which a thoughtful, careful young person could not obtain the use of a number of works upon the subject. Perhaps a reading room near by will have The Maga- X.XVIII HINTS UPON READING AMERICAN HISTORT. zine of American History, or The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Bi- ography, upon its tables. . Boys can form a reading club, and with their collected pennies get such recent issues as Lossing^s Story of the United States Navy, Cof- fin's Old Times in the Colonies, The Boys of '76, and The Story of Liberty. Meager supplies need not prevent any one from making a positive beginning which is the result at which these hints are aimed. Having learned to walk, we do not need help. Having made a beginning in reading or studying American history, we can find our own way with comparative ease. One book will lead to another. Then, whether we hear the boat which bears Columbus from Santa Maria to the shore of the New World grate upon the sand, or feel our hearts beat as the energetic Balboa catches the first glimpse of the great Pacific, or press on with Cortes in spite of the remonstrances of Montezuma, up to the City of Mexico, or drag our weary feet through Southern forests with the brave but unfortunate De Soto, or watch in the morning twilight for the coming of British regulars along the street to the quiet vil- lages of Lexington and Concord, or study with curiosity the first feeble attempts with steam, on land and water, and with electricity in telegraphing, or pant for suc- cess with the struggling patriots of Mexico and South America, or find out to our amazement how many of the great men and leaders of America have had few and scanty privileges, and much hard work in their youth and early manhood, we alike conclude that the romance of our country's rapid course is greater and more health- ful than that of the mass of exciting and injurious reading spread before us on all sides. We become more vigorous in thinking, more manly in living, more powerful in building up ourselves and others. PART I, INTRODUCTORY STUDIES, 47-92, SECTION I. PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 49-67 American and European Antiquities, 49. First Period of Prehistoric America and Evi- dences, 50. Second Period, 51. Name of Mound Builders, 51. Great Mounds, 52. Wisconsin Animal Mounds, 53. Uses of Mounds, 54. Embankments and Inclosures, 54-56. Ancient Copper Mining, 56. Age of Mound Builders' Works, 57. Horace Greeley at Newark, O., 57. Indians Know Nothing of Them, 57. Civilization of Mound Builders, 58. Religious Character, 59. Mechanical and Artistic Products, 60. Who Were the Mound Builders, 61. Pueblos of Arizona, 61. Casas Grandes, 61. Cliff Dwellings, 63. 'Cave Dwellings, 64. Elevated Towers, 65. Remains in Yucatan and Central America, 65. Copan, 65. Uxmal, 66. Palenque, 67. Peruvian Remains, 67. Interest of American Archaeology, 67. SECTION II. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 68-88 Named Indians by Columbus, 68. Variety of Tiibes, 68. Unity, 69. Origin, 69. Study of Indian Languages, 69. Degrees of Civilization, 70. Wandering Tribes, 70. Settled Tribes, 70. Cities of Peru and Mexico, 70. Agriculture, 70. Domestic Animals, 71. Manufactures, 71. Historical Records, 72. Ornamentation, 72. War-paint, 72. XXX CONTENTS. Mining, 72. No Modern Idea of Work, 72. Government, 73. Sachems and Military Chiefs, 74. Personal Heroism, 74. Memory for Slights and Benefits, 75. William Penn and the Indians, 79. Restless Spirits, 79. Native Oratory, 79- Peculiar Cus- toms, So. Woman the Worker in Wilder Tribes, Si. Female Rulers, Si. Dreams, Si. The Supernatural, 81. Union of Natives and Foreigners, 82. Indian Celebrities, 82. Indian Ought to be Made a Citizen, 82. Wrong Methods of Dealing with Them, 82. Numbers on the Continent at its Discovery, 84. Eight Families within what is now the United States, 84. Algonquin, 84. Huron-Iroquois, 84. Mobilian, 86. Catawba, 86. Cherokees, 86. Uchees, 86. Natchez, 86. Dakotas, 87. Indians at Present in the United States, 88. Numbers not Diminishing, 88. Need of Justice and Education, 88. SECTION III. PRE-COLUMBIAN HISTORY AND TRADITIONS. 89-92 499-1488. The Buddhist Priest in Mexico, 89. Irish in Iceland, 90. First Northman in Iceland, 90. Svafarsson and Floki, 90. First Permanent Settlement in Iceland, 90. Discovery of Greenland, 90. Iceland a Republic, 90. Christianity in Iceland, 90. Greenland Redis- covered and Colonized, 90. North American Coast, 91. Northmen in Vinland, 91. Thorwald, 91. First Fight with Natives, 91. Thorstein, 91. Karlsefne's Colony, 91. Last Norse Colony in Vinland, 91. First Bishop in Greenland, 91. The Welsh Prince, 92. The Zeno Brothers, 92. Iceland under Denmark, 92. The Black Death, 92. The Last Bishop of Greenland, 92 Decline of Greenland, 92. Alonzo Sanchez, 92. Cous- in the Frenchman, 92. PART II, DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION, AND SETTLEMENT, 93-188, 1 492-- 1630. SECTION IV. THE GREAT DISCOVERY. 95-109 1492-1506. Christopher Columbus, 95. The Written Agreement, 96. A Letter of Privilege, 97. The First Departure, 97. Variation of the Needle, 97. The Sargasso Sea, 97. The New World, 98. Cigars and Maize, 98. Hayti Discovered, 98. Wreck of Santa Maria, 98. La Navidad, 98. Welcome of Columbus in Spain, 99. Renewal of Contract, 99. The Second Departure, 99. Caribbean Islands, 99. First Permanent Settlement, 99. Find- ing of Gold, 100. Tropical Products and Captives sent to Spain, 100. Misery at Isabel- la, TOO. The Coast of Cuba, 100. Jamaica Discovered, 100. Don Bartholomew Colum- bus, 100. Indian Slaves, 101. Suffering of Hayti Natives, 101. Opposition to Colum CONTENTS. XXXI bus, 101. His Return to Spain, 102. San Domingo Founded, 102. North America Discovered by Cabots, 102. The Third Departure of Columbus, 102. South America Discovered, 103. Pearl Fishery, 103. Americus Vespucius, 103. Cape St. Augustine, 104. Brazil, 104. Arrest of Columbus, 104. His Return to Spain in Chains, 104. First Sanction of Negro Slavery, 104. The Fourth Departure, 105. Attempted Settle- ment on Mainland, 105. Lonely Year, 105. A Daring Canoe Voyage, 106. Return of Columbus to Spain, 108. The Banks of Newfoundland, 108. The Gulf of St. Law- rence, 108. The First Sugar Cane, 108. Death and Character of Columbus, 108-109^ SECTION V. BALBOA AND CORTES 110-27 1507-1522. The Naming of America, no. Yucatan Discovered, 113. Cuba found to be an Island, 113. Porto Rico Subjugated, 113. Jamaica Colonized, 113. San Sebastian and Santa Maria, 113. Bahia Founded, 113. Increased Negro Importation, 113. Cuba Subjugated, 114. Romance in Yucatan, 114. The Fountain of Youth, 114. Approval of Indian Slavery, 114. The Pacific Ocean, 114. San Christobal, now Havana, Cuba, 117. Copper in Cuba, 117. Enlarged Slave Trade, 117. First Vessels on the Pacific, 117. De Cor. dova, 117. Execution of Balboa, 118. Sable Island, 118. Juan de Grijalva's Expe- dition, 118.. Fernando Cortes, 121. Battle of Tabasco, 121. Dona Marina, 121. Montezuma's Embassy, 122. Power of Cortes over his Soldiers, 122. Battle with Tlascalaus, 122. Cortes in the City of Mexico, 122. Montezuma Seized, 122.' Panama Founded, 122. Magellan on South American Coast, 122. Montezuma's Tribute, 125. March of Cortes to the Coast, 125. Death of Montezuma, 125. The Sorrowful Night, 125. Battle of Otumba, 126. De Ayllon in Carolina, 126. Magellan's Straits, 126. Pacific Ocean Named, 126. March of Cortes against City of Mexico, 126. Death of Magellan, 126. Death of De Leon, 126. Capture of City of Mexico, 127. Nicaragua Explored, 127. Bermuda Islands, 127. First Voyage Round the World, 127. First Negro Insurrection, 127. First Descent of American Volcano, 127. SECTION VI. GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 128-49 Central America Conquered, 128. Granada and Leon, 128. Santiago, Central America, Founded, 129. North American Coast Explored by Verrazzano, 129. A Remarkable March, 129. Francisco Pizarro, 129. Pizarro Left Panama, 129. Execution of Gua- temozin, 129. Cape Horn First Seen, 130. Indian Revenge, 130. Pizarro's Explora- tions, 130. A Great Contract Relating to Peru, 131. A Great Uprising in Central America, 131. Sebastian Cabot in South America, 131. Pizarro's Persistence, 131. A Ship Canal Across the Isthmus First Proposed, 132. Disaster in Florida, 132. Pizarro and Cortes in Spain, 132. Pizarro bound for Peru, 133. The Dye-woods of Brazil, 133. Civil War in Peru, 133. San Miguel, 133. Caxamalca, 133. Capture, Ransom and Death of Atahuallpa, 133-34. Spaniards in Cuzco, 134. Cartagena Founded, 134. First Recorded Eruption of Cotopaxi, 135. Quito Captured, 135. Jacques Cartier on the St. Lawrence, 135. Lima Founded, 135. Carder's Second Voyage, 135. Site of Montreal, 136. Buenos Ayres Founded, 136. First Printing, 136. First Mint, 136. First History, 136. Rebellion of Peruvians, 136. Death of Juan Pizarro, 136. Asuncion Founded, 137. From Florida to Mexico, 137. .Siege of Cuzco, XXXII CONTENTS. 137. Indians Declared Human, 137. Almagro Executed, 138. De Soto in Florida, 138. Juan Ortiz, 139. The Seven Cities, 139. Amazon Expedition, 139. The Mis- sissippi Discovered, 140. Francisco Pizarro's Death, 140. De Soto's Death, 142. Government of New World, 142. First Vessels on the Mississippi, 143. Cartier's Last Voyage, 143. Blasco Nunez de Vela, 143. Potosi Silver Mines, 144. Highest City on the Globe, 144. Pedro de la Gasca in Peru, 147. Death of Cortes, 147. Gon- zalo Pizarro's Defeat and Death, 148. La Paz Founded, 149. Settled Administration of Peru, 149. First Jesuits, 149. Gasca Returns to Spain, 149. Loss of Indians in Hayti, 149. SECTION VII. THE GREAT ENGLISH EXPLORERS 150-62 1551-1602. Pirates in Cuba, 150. Oldest Universities in America, 150. Huguenots in Brazil, 151. De Luna's Expedition to Florida, 151. Reverses in Chili, 151. The English Slave Trade Begun, 152. Huguenots in Florida, 152. Quicksilver Mines in Peru, 152. St. Augus- tine Founded, 155. Massacre at Fort Caroline, 155. De Gourge's Revenge, 155. Inquisition Established in America, 155. Sir Francis Drake, 156. Sir Martin Fro- bisher, 156. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Patent, 157. New Mexico, 158. Davis' Straits, 159. Another Freebooter, 160. Manteo Baptized, 160. Lost Roanoke Colony, 161. Saved by Fireflies, 161. Death of Drake and Hawkins, 161. A Forlorn Colony, 161. Tadousac, 162. Gosnold's New England Colony, 162. SECTION VIII. THE COMING POWER. 163-88 1603-1630. Samuel de Champlain, 163. Acadia, 164. First English Charter, 165. First Indian Fight in New England, 165. Hudson's First Voyage, 166. First English Colony, 166. Popham's Kennebec Colony, 166. Capt. Smith and Pocahontas, 166. Hudson's Second Voyage, 167. Germs of Manufacture, 167. Quebec Founded, 167. First Woman at Jamestown, 167. Hudson River, 168. Starving Times at Jamestown, 169. Sad Death of Hudson, 170. Tobacco first Cultivated, 171. New England Named, 172. Adriaen Block in Long Island Sound, 173. First Mass in Canada, 173. Baffin's Bay Discovered, 174. Pocahontas, 174. Powhatan, 175. Sir Walter Raleigh, 176. First Colonial Assembly, 176. Sale of Young Women, 176. Henrico College, 177. Negroes Brought to Jamestown, 177. The Pilgrims, 177. Mayflower Compact, 178. First Indian at Plymouth, 180. First Offence at Plymouth, 180. Death of Gov. Carver, 180. First Duel in New England,- 180. Origin of Thanksgiving, 181. Massacre at James- town, 181. First Fast Day, 182. Walloon Settlers, 183. Land at Plymouth, 183. Merry Mount, 184. Salem Founded, 185. Patroons, 185. Church in Salem, 186. Boston Founded, 187. Buccaneers, 187. American Colonization, 187. CONTENTS. XXXIII PART III, COLONIAL LIFE, 189-288, 1631-176O. SECTION IX. GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 191-217 1631-1661. First Conflagration in Boston, 191. Election of Selectmen, 192. First Frame House in Connecticut, 192. Spirit of Liberty, 193. Representative Government, 193. First Ballot, 194. A Heavy Currency, 194. First Grand Jury, 194. Death of Champlain, 194. Providence, R. I., Founded, 195. Earliest Code of Laws, 196. New Haven Colony, 197. First Cloth Making, 197. First Printing Press in English Colonies, 198. First Hospital, 198. First Nursery, 199. A Sunday Liquor Law, 199. Curious Finan- cial Peril, 200. Montreal Founded, 200. First Colonial League, 201. Miantonomoh, 202. Opechancanaugh, 203. Elder Brewster, 203. Two Legislative Houses in Massa- chusetts, 204. First Poll-Tax, 205. First Scythes, 206. Canonicus, 206. First Tem- perance Meeting, 207. John Winthrop, 207. Maryland Toleration, 208. Taxation in Barbadoes, 209. Prohibition of Slavery in Rhode Island, 210. Syracuse Salt Springs, 211. First Quakers, 212. Miles 'Standish, 212. Governor Bradford, 213. Adam Daulac's Heroism, 214. The Brandy Quarrel, 216. Last Quaker Execution, 216. Massasoit, 216. SECTION X. THE WIDENING FIELD. 218-46 1662-1692. First Connecticut Charter, 218. Alexander, 219. Eliot's Indian Bible, 220. Surrender of New Amsterdam, 220. John Endicott, 221. LaSalle, 222. Marquette, 222. First Ball in Canada, 223. Wives for Canadian Settlers, 223. The Cathedral of Mexico, 223. Thankfulness for Ignorance, 225. Hudson Bay Company, 225. The First Mail, 227. The White Mountains, 227. First Internal Colonial Taxation, 228. An Effectual Re- buff, 230. Death of Marquette, 230. King Philip, 230. First Vessel on the Upper Lakes, 232. A Great Journey, 233. William Penn's Grant, 234. Louisiana Named, 235. Peter Stuyvesant, 235. Uncas, 237. Roger Williams, 237. First School in Pennsylvania, 238. A Novel Currency, 239. Death of La Salle, 240. First Remon- strance against Slavery, 241. Sir Edmund Andros Arrested, 242. First American Con- gress, 243. First Newspaper, 244. First Paper Mill, 244. First Paper Money, 244. Mast Trees, 245. Witchcraft Delusion, 245. i XXXI V CONTENTS. SECTION XI. THE MATURING FORCES. -247-71 1693-1743, Episcopacy in New Yoik, 247. First Printing House in New York, 247. Connecticut Pluck, 247. Wiiliam and Mary College, 248. First Rice Planted, 248. Maryland Schools and Libraries, 248. William Penn Reinstated, 248. Death of Gov. Phips, 248. John Archdale, Quaker, Governor of Carolina, 248. Slavery among Quakers, 249. Piracy, 249. The Palmarese Nation, 250. Mrs. Dustin's Escape, 250. The Scotch Darien Colony, 250. Biloxi, Mobile Bay, Founded, 250. Captain Kidd, 251. First Emigration Pamphlet, 251. First New England Rum, 251. Natchez, 251. Dubuque Lead Mines, 251. Origin of Yale College, 251. Execution of Captain Kidd, 251. De- troit Founded, 252. Queen Anne's War, 253. Indications of Independence, 253. Massacre of Deerfield, 253. First Permanent Newspaper, 254. Alexander Selkirk, 254. Petticoat Insurrection, 254. Germs of Liberty, 255. Saybrook Platform, 255. Ger- man Immigration, 255. First Government Post-Offices, 255. Wreck of the Nottingham, 255 Diamonds in Brazil, 256. The Six Nations, 256. The Logwood Tree, 257. First Coffee Culture, 257. The Mississippi Scheme, 257. New Orleans Founded, 258. William Penn, 258. Melodies of Mother Goose, 259. Dunkards, 259. Daniel Defoe, 260. Failure of John Law, 260. First Inoculation for Small-Pox, 261. First Attempt at Marine Insurance, 261. The Apostle of Greenland, 261. First Masonic Lodge, 261. University of Havana, 262. Repeating Fire- Arm, 262. Duel on Boston Common, 263. Berkeley in America, 263. First Subscription Library, 264. Fear of "American Manu- factures, 264. Poor Richard's Almanac, 265. Georgia Founded, 265. First Jewish Synagogue, 266. Free Press in New York, 267. First Moravian Colony, 267. John Wesley's Sunday School, 268. First Bell Foundry, 268. Whitefield's Bethesda Or- phanage, 269. First Literary Magazine, 269. The Negro Plot, 270. Faneuil Hall, 270. Franklin Stoves, 270. First Cotton Gin, 270. American Philosophical Society, 271. SECTI ON XII. THE PREPARATORY DISCIPLINE 272-88 1744-1760. King George's War, 272. Capture of Louisburg, 272. Moravians Expelled from New York, 273. Princeton College Founded, 274. Silk in Connecticut, 274. The First Cook Book, 274. The Boston Mob, 274. First Telegraphic Attempt, 274. First Ex- ported Cotton, 274. First Muskets, 274. The Ohio Land Company, 275. Halifax Founded, 275. First Girl's School, 275. The Queen of the Creeks, 275. First Ana- tomical Dissection, 276. The Public Whipper, 276. First City Directory, 276. First Theatrical Company, 277. First Fire Insurance Company, 277. Liberty Bell, 277. The Post Office in America, 277. George Washington's Western Mission, 278. Fort du Quesne,*278. An American Congress, 278. Columbia College Founded, 279. Braddock's Defeat, 279. The Exiled Acadians, 279. Dieskau's Defeat, 280. Hendrick, 280. Pennsylvania's Discontent, 281. Fort William Henry Captured, 281. Destitution in Canada, 282. Jonathan Edwards, 282. Lord Howe Killed at Ticonderoga, 283. Fort du Quesne Captured, 283. Capture of Quebec, 284. Jorullo, the Mexican Volcano Created, 285. First Marine Insurance Office, 285. First Horn Combs, 285. Cherokee War, 285. Great Fire in Boston, 285. Attempt by French to Retake Quebec, 285. Downfall of Canada, 286. First Printing in Texas, 286. United Brethren in Christ, 286. CONTENTS. XXXV PART IV. REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES, 289-460, 17611824. SECTION XIII. THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 291-311 1761-1774. , Birth of Independence, 291. First Canal Route, 292. The Peace of Paris, 292. Pontiac's War, 292. Postmaster General's Trip, 294. The Right of Taxation, 294. The Famous Stamp Act, 295. The Resolutions of Patrick Henry, 295. Boston Riots, 296. Stamp Act Repealed, 296. Townsend's Bill, 297. Swamp Law, 297. The Ship-of-War Romney, 297. British Soldiers in Boston, 298. Earliest Church Discipline for Slave- holding, 299. First Life Insurance, 299. Pontiac, 299. Boston Massacre, 300. Death of Whitfield, 303. Boys of Plymouth, 304. Burning of the Gaspee, 304. Effectual Penalty for Intoxication, 305. Boston Tea Party, 305. Boston Port Bill, 306. Virginia Provincial Assembly, 307. Shakers, 308. Powder Alarm, 308. First Continental Con- gress, 308. The American Association, 309. Minute Men, 310. Slavery Among Quakers, 310. SECTION XIV. THE DAY OF TRIAL. 312-57 I775-I783- The First Blood, 312. Lexington and Concord, 313. Siege of Boston, 313. First Victory on the Atlantic, 314. Bunker Hill, 315. Dr. Joseph Warren, 316. First Continental Currency, 318. First Traitor, 319. Assault on Quebec, 320. Richard Montgomery, 320. First Piano-forte, 320. Yankee Doodle, 320. First Union Flag, 321. Evacuation of Boston, 322. Lee's Famous Resolutions, 322. Declaration of Independence, 323. United States National Seal, 325. Battle of Long Island, 326. Execution of Hale, 327. Battle of Trenton, 328. The Stolen March, 330. Bpunty Jumpers, 331. The Stars and Stripes, 332. Burgoyne's Invasion, 332. Battle of Bennington, 333. Battle of Still- water, 334. Burgoyne's Surrender, 334. Articles of Confederation, 336. Battle of the Kegs, 336. Light Horse Harry, 337. The Meschianza, 337. Battle of Monmouth, 338. Capt. Cook, 340. Nancy's Rock, 341. Clark's Famous Expeditions, 341. Putnam's Escape, 342. Stony Point Captured, 342. Paul Jones' Victory, 343. Col. White's Stratagem, 344. First Bank, 344. A Dark Day, 345. Destitution of American Army, 345. Battle of Hanging Rock, 346. Treason of Benedict Arnold, 346. Execution of Andre, 347. Battle of King's Mountain, 347. Marion's Patriotism, 347. Logan, 348. Pennsylvania Revolt, 349. Battle of Cowpens, 350. The Pine Log Cannon, 350. Execution of Hayne, 351. Cornwallis Surrendered, 351. Bank of North America, 352. Charles Lee, 353. Society of the Cincinnati, 355. Treaty of Peace, 356. Webster's Spelling Book, 356. XXXVI CONTENTS. SECTION XV. THE RISE OF A NATION. 358-409 1784-1799. First Episcopal Bishop, 358. First Agricultural Society, 359. First Law School, 359. First Daily Paper, 359. Brother Jonathan, 360. Nathaniel Greene, 361. The Annapolis Convention, 362. Extent of Slave Trade, 362. Shay's Rebellion, 362. First Practical American Steamboat, 364. Marietta, O., Founded, 366. John Ledyard, 367. Constitu- tion of United States, 367. Queen City, 374. The Doctors' Mob, 374, First Dentist, 375. First Presidential Campaign, 375. Ethan Allen, 375. The Tammany Society, 376. First Revenue Bill, 377. First Temperance Movement, 378. Benjamin Franklin, 379. Gen. Israel Putnam, 380. Maple Sugar, 382. John Sears' Folly, 382. Yankee Enterprise, 383. First Census, 383. St. Clair's Defeat, 384. First Internal Taxation, 385. Paul Jones, 385. The White House, 387. Canal Enterprise, 387. Postal Rates, 388. Second Presidential Campaign, 388. Democratic Clubs, 389. Roger Sherman, 389. John Hancock, 390. Whitney's Cotton Gin, 391. First Spanish Merinoes, 391. Richard Henry Lee, 392. Whisky Insurrection, 393. Baron Steuben, 393. First Cot- ton Sewing Thread, 394. Francis Marion, 395. Treaty with Algiers, 396. First Scientific School, 396. Revolt of the Maroons, 399. Anthony Wayne, 399. French , Depredations, 400. First Propeller, 400. Third Presidential Campaign, 400. The X. Y. Z. Mission, 401. Cast Iron Plow, 402. Alien and Sedition Laws, 402. Patrick Henry, 404. George Washington, 405. First Vaccination, 409. House Tax Insurrec- tion, 409. SECTION XVI. THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 410-60 1800-1824. Congressional Library, 410. Second Census, 411. First College Paper, 411. Fourth Presi- v dential Campaign, 411. Benedict Arnold, 412. West Point Academy, 414. Daniel Morgan, 414. Louisiana Purchase, 415. Samuel Adams, 415. Proposed Mississippi Steamboat, 416. Decatur's Achievement, 417. Alexander Hamilton, 417. Fifth Pres- idential Campaign, 419. Fin#t Fine Broadcloth, 419. William Moultrie, 420. Horatio Gates, 420. Henry Knox, 421. First Cargo of Ice, 422. First Trade Union Contest, 422. Aaron Burr's Trial, 423. Fulton's Triumph, 423. First Temperance Society, 424. Prison Ship Victims, 425. Sixth Presidential Campaign, 425. First Modern Sunday Schools, 426. First Mexican Uprising, 426. Third Census, 428. First Blood in Chili, 428. Breech-loading Rifle, 429. Declaration of War, 430. Surrender of Detroit, 431. Joel Barlow, 432. Seventh Presidential Campaign, 433. Uncle Sam, 433. "Don't Give up the Ship,' 1 435. Perry's Victory, 436. Tecumseh, 436. The First Stereotyping, 437. Battle of Lundy's Lane, 439. Burning of Washington, 439. The Star Spangled Ban- ner, 440. First Mexican Constitution, 441. The Hartford Convention, 441. Financial Panic, 442. Battle of New^ Orleans, 443. Eighth Presidential Campaign, 445. First Remington Rifle, 445. First Asylum for Deaf Mute 537- J ohn C. Calhoun, 538. Zachary Taylor, 540. The Fugitive Slave Law, 541. Seventh Census, 542. Uncle Tom's Cabin, 542. Northwest Passage, 542. The Yacht America, 543. First Cheese Factory, 545. Henry Clay, 546. Daniel Webster, 550. First Street Railway, 551. Seventeenth Presidential Campaign, 552. Kansas-Nebraska B iU> 553- Successful Whaling, 553. Paper Collars, 553. Present Fire Service, 553. X.XXVII1 CONTENTS. Insurance Company Swindle, 554. Great Fire at Quebec, 554. Birth of Republican Party, 554. San Salvador Destroyed, 555. First Railroad in Brazil, 555. First Kero- sene Oil Company, 556. Lieut. Strain's Isthmus Exploration, 556. Ostend Manifesto, 556. First Train on Panama Railroad, 557. Plan of Ayutla, 557. Bleeding Kansas, 557. Dr. E. K. Kane, 558. Filibusterism, 558. Law of Juarez, 561. American Reapers, 561. The Associated Press, 561. Know Nothing Convention, 562. Mormon Troubles, 562. Assault on Sumner, 562. Political Conventions, 565. The Sewing Machine War, 565. Eighteenth Presidential Campaign, 565. Kansas War, 566. The Sorghum Mania, 566. California Vigilance Committee, 566. First Black Hawk Horse, 566. The Heaviest Man, 567. New Constitution of Mexico, 567. Dred Scott Decision, 567. Panic of I 857, 569. Great Revival, 569. Kansas Troubles, 570. Fenianism, 570. Central Park, N. Y., 571. Mexican Troubles, 571. British Columbia, 572. Atlantic Cable, 572. Parker Cleaveland, 573. First Sleeping Car, 573. William H. Prescott, 574. Rufus Choate, 576. Horace Mann, 576. John Brown's Raid, 577. Washington Irving, 579. Great Comstock Lode, 579. Oil Fever, 580. Colorado Potato Beetle, 580. PART VI. NATIONAL CRISES, ssi-vso, I860- 1868. SECTI ON XIX. THE RESORT TO ARMS. 583-646- 1860-1862. Pemberton Mill Horror, 583. Anna Dickinson's First Speech, 584. Covode Investigation, 584. Japanese Embassy, 584. Democratic Convention, 585. Pony Express, 585. Theodore Parker, 585. Political Conventions, 586. Great Eastern, 586. Prince of Wales in America, 587. Nineteenth Presidential Campaign, 588. Revolutionary Message of President Buchanan, 588. Secession of South Carolina, 588. Eighth Census, 588. The Parrott Gun, 591. First Act of War, 591. Victory of Juarez, 591. Confederate States of America, 592. Lincoln's Inauguration, 593. Fort Sumter Evacuated, 593. Proclamations, 594. Bloodshed in Baltimore, 594. Loyalty of West Virginia, 594. Sewell's Point Conflict, 595. Occupation of Arlington Heights, 595. Contraband of War, 596. Acquia Creek, 596. Fairfax Court House, 596. Philippi, 597. Stephen A. Douglas, 597. Pig Point, 598. Little Bethel, 598. Big Bethel, 598. Romney Bridge, 599. Booneville, 599. Matthias Point, 599. Falling Waters, 600. Carthage, 600. Rich Mountain, Va., 600. Carrick's Ford, 601. Vienna, 601. Bull Run, 602. Capture of the Petrel, 603. Invasion of Illinois Checked, 603. Grand Army of the Potomac, 603. Dug Springs, Mo., 603. Army Rations, 604. Wilson's Creek, Mo., 604. Blockade of Hatteras Inlet, 605. Carnifex Ferry, 605. Capture of Lexington, Mo., 606. Decisive South American Battle, 606. Events on Gulf Coast, 607. CONTENTS. XXXIX Ball's Bluff, 607. The Trent Affair, 610. A Mistaken Proclamation, 610. The Stone Fleet, 611. Dranesville, Va., 611. Web Printing Press, 611. Shoddy, 612. First Iron-Clad Rams, 612. Rarey, the Horse Tamer, 612. .Prestonburg, Ky., 612. John Tyler, 613. Mill Spring, 613. Fort Henry Captured, 614. Burnside's Roanoke Expedition, 614. Fort Donelson, 615. Nashville Panic, 615. Expedition to New Orleans', 616. Confederate Privateers, 616. Pea Ridge, Mo., 616. Bell-metal for Cannon, 617. Merrimac and Monitor, 617. New Madrid, 621. New Berne, 621. Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, 622. Island No. 10, 623. Mitchell's Cavalry Raid, 623. War upon Mexico, 624. Capture of New Orleans, 624. Fort Macon, 627. Evacuation of Yorktown, 627. Williamsburg, 628. Capture of Norfolk, 628. Fort Pillow, 629. Butler's Woman Order, 629. Army Medical Museum, 629. Winchester, 629. Han- over Court House, 630. Fair Oaks, 630. Stuart's Raid, 631. Oak Grove, 631. Me- chanicsville, 631. Malvern Hills, 632. Guerilla Warfare, 633. Colored Troops, 633. National Cemeteries, 633. Exchange of Prisoners, 634. Martin Van Buren, 634. Cedar Mountain, 635. Groveton, 636. Second Battle of Bull Run, 636. Bragg's Invasion, 636. Carlos Antonio Lopez, 637. South Mountain, 638. Antietam, 638. Corinth, 639. Bragg's Invasion of Tennessee, 640. Butler Superseded by Banks, 641. Prairie Grove, Ark., 642. Fredericksburg, 642. Murfreesboro', 644. Greenbacks, 645. Catling Gun, 645. The War in Mexico, 645. SECTION XX. THE RETURN TO PEACE. 647-730 1863-1868. Emancipation Proclamation, 647. Dr. Lyman Beecher, 649. Banks' Raid in Western Louisiana, 649. Good for Evil, 650. The Sioux War, 650. The Impostor Gunboat, 650. Banks at the Red River, 651. The Veteran Reserve Corps, 651. The Responsive Chord, 651. Port Gibson, 652. Chancellorsville, 652. Stoneman's Cavalry Raid, 653. Val'andigham's Arrest, 653. Columbian Constitution, 654. Draft Difficulties, 654. Stonewall Jackson, 654. Big Black River, 656. French in City of Mexico, 656. Lee's Second Invasion, 656. 'Gettysburg, 657. Vicksburg, 661. Surrender of Port Hudson, 662. Mexico an Empire, 663. Draft Riot in New York, 663. Sam Houston, 664 . Capture of Morgan, 664. Quantrell's Raid, 664. Siege of Charleston, 665. Chicka- mauga, 665. Bristow Station, 666. Military Affairs in the West, 667. Beecher in Eng- land, 667. Boston Music Hall Organ, 668. Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech, 668. Chat- tanooga, 669. Andersonville, 670. Close of Siege of Knoxville, 670. A Monster Can- non, 671. The Eureka Mower, 671. Sherman's March through Mississippi, 671. Wistar's Raid, 672. Florida Expedition, 672. Kilpatrick's Raid, 672. First Accident Insurance, 672. Thomas Starr King, 673. Red River Expedition, 673. Massacre of Fort Pillow, 674. Battle of the Wilderness, 674. Sheridan's Raid toward Richmond, 675. Spottsylvania Court House, 675. Nathaniel Hawthorne, 676. Radical Conven- tion, 676. Cold Harbor, 676. Emperor Maximilian I, 677. Alabama and Kearsage, 677. Attack on Petersburg, 678. Important Congressional Action, 679. Early's Raid in the North Checked, 679. Peace Attempts, 680. Hall's Second Arctic Trip, 680. Cham- bersburg, Pa., Burned, 680. Mine Explosion at Petersburg, 680. Blockade of Mobile Port, 68 1. Seizure of Weldon Railway, 681. Capture of Atlanta by Sherman, 681. Papal Nuncio to Mexico, 682. Capture of the Florida, 682. Rogsr B. Taney, 682. Sheridan's Campaign, 683. Last Invasion of Missouri, 683. Twentieth Presidential Campaign, 684. Sherman's March to the Sea, 684. Henry R. Schoolcraft, 684. Pull- man Cars, 687. Insurrections in South America, 687. Grasshopper Depredations, 688. Edward Everett, 688. Fort Fisher, 689. The Thirteenth Amendment, 689. Sherman's March Through the Carolinas, 690. The Freedman's Bureau, 690. Averasboro 691 XL CONTENTS. Fort Steadman, 691. Five Forks, 692. Capture of Petersburg and Richmond, 692. Lee's Surrender, 693. Lincoln's Last Speech, 694. Assassination of Lincoln, 695. At- tempt upon Seward, (395. Abraham Lincoln, 696. Death of Booth, 703. Johnston's Surrender, 703. South American Alliance, 703. Proclamation of Rewards, 703. Jefferson Davis Captured, 704. Last Battle, 704. Disbanding of the Army,, 704. Pay Department, 705. Army Medical Department, 705. Sanitary Commisfion, 705. Chris- tian Commission, 706. The Shenandoah, 707. Execution of Assassin, 707. Execution of Wirz, 708. Thomas Corwin, 708. Soldiers' Homes, 709. Virginia City, Nevada, 709. Patagonian Colony, 709. Eliphalett Nott, 710. Valparaiso, Chili, Bombarded, 711. Civil Rights Bill, 711. Gen. Scott, 711. Fenian Raid on Canada, 712. Fourteenth Amendment, 713. Lewis Cass, 713. Portland, Me., Burned, '713. Great Trip up the Yukon, 713. Successful Atlantic Cable. 714. Agassiz's Amazon Trip, 714. Swinging Around the Circle, 715. Impeachment Proposed, 716. N. P. Willis, 716. A. D. Bache, 717. Chicago Water Works, 718. British North American Act, 718. Capture and Execution of Maximilian, 719. Purchase of Alaska, 719. Haydn Surveys, 719. Elias Howe, 720. John A. Andrew, 721. Fitz-Greene Halleck, 721. Patrons of Husbandry, 722. Stuyvesant Pear Tree, 722. Peruvian Revolution, 723. Ku-Klux Klan, 723. Impeachment of Johnson, 724. James Buchanan ,,725. Indiana Vigilance Committee, 726. Thaddeus Stevens, 727. Violent Earthquake, 728. Outbreak of Cuban Revolu- tion, 729. Twenty-First Presidential Campaign, 729. Jefferson Davis Discharged, 730. PART VII. PRESENT DEVELOPMENT, 731-1020, 1869-1881. SECTION XXI. THE PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 733-830 18691876. John Cassin, 734. The Fifteenth Amendment, 734. James Harper, 734. Fire in Comstock Lode, 735- Cuban Constitution, 736. Board of Indian Commissioners, 736. Pacific Railroad Opened, 736. Powell's Colorado Expedition, 737. First Peace Jubilee, 737. Henry J. Raymond, 737. Expedition for Cuba, 738. French Cable, 738. William Pitt Fessenden, 740. Black Friday, 740. Franklin Pierce, 741. George Peabody, 741. Shooting of A. D. Richardson, 742. Edwin M. Stanton, 743. Troubles in Hayti, 744. First Colored U. S. Senator, 745. Anson Burlingame, 745. Francisco S. Lopez, 746. George H. Thomas, 749. Emma Willard, 750. Rebellion in Argentine Republic, 751. San Domingo, 752. Admiral Dahlgren, 752. The Nathan Murder, 753. Admiral Farragut, 754. Insurrection in Peru, 755. Gen. Robert E. Lee, 755. Great Earth- quake, 757. First Narrow Gauge Railroad, 757. Ninth Census, 757. Isthmus Ex- plorations, 758. George Ticknor, 758. War Between Honduras and San Salvador, 759 CONTENTS. U. S. Fish Commission, 759. Alice Car j, 759. Treaty of Washington, 760. Civil Service Reform, 760. Stanley and Livingston, 760. Ku-Klux Bill, 761. Corean War, 761. Phoebe Gary, 762. Whaling Disaster, 762. Forest Fires and Burning of Chicago, 763. Gen. Anderson, 763. Thomas Ewing, 764. Tammany Ring Broken up, 764. Grand Duke Alexis, 765. S. F. B. Morse, 768. James Gordon Bennett, 769. Benito Juarez, 771. The Metis Disaster, 773. W. H. Seward, 774. San Juan Boundary, 776. Gen. Meade, 777. Great Boston Fire, 777. Horace Greeley, 778. Edwin Forrest, 780. Eight-Hour Movement, 781. Credit Mobilier Exposure, 782. Salary Grab, 783. Modoc Massacre, 784. Salmon P. Chase, 785. The Panic of '73, 788. The Virginius Affair, 789. Hoosac Tunnel, 790. Polaris Survivors, 791. The Telephone, 792. Woman's Crusade, 793. Charles Sumner, 794. Charley Ross, 797. Louisiana Embroglio, 800. Emma Mine Scandal, 801. Beecher Trial, 802. Pacific Mail, 803. Spelling Mania, 804. Whisky Ring War, 805. First Red Ribbon, 808. W. C. Ralston, 812. Fast Mail, 813. Henry Wilson, 815. Tweed's Escape, 816. Belknap's Exposure, 821. ' Centennial, 822. Santa Anna, 824. First Cremation, 830. SECTION XXII. THE VIGOR OF LIFE. 831-1020 1877-1882. Electoral Commission, 832. John D. Lee Executed, 833. Parson Brownlow, 835. John L. Motley, 837. Mollie Maguires, 839. Robert Dale Owen, 839. Great Railroad Strikes, 840. Brigham Young, 842. Oliver P. Morton, 845. Samuel Bowles, 848. Silver Bill, 849. Great Defalcations, 851. Savings Bank Panic, 852. William C. Bryant, 853. Sutro Tunnel, 855. Great Heat, 856. Kearneyism, 857. The Plague of '78, 858. Bayard Taylor, S6o. Father Purcell's Failure, 861. Phonograph, 862. Resumption, 862. The Learned Blacksmith, 865. Negro Exodus, 866. Ponca Troubles, 867. W. L. Garri- son, 870. The Uncle Sam, 874. Reform of Oneida Community, 875. Gen. John B. Hood, 876. The Ute Outbreak, 877. Gen. Joseph Hooker, 878. Zachariah Chandler, 879. Prostrate Peru, 881. Troubles in Mexico, 882. A Great Inventor, 883. Maine Election, 884. West Point Outrage, 888. Dr. Tanner's Fast, 892. Fast Trotting, 893. Chief Ouray, 894. The Morey Letter, 898. Garfield Campaign, 900. Fall of Lima, 907. Egyptian Obelisk, 908. Mentor, 911. Garfield's Cabinet, 912. "Dead-lock" in Senate, .915. Conflict of Words .between Senators Hill and Mahone, 916. Nomination of Robert- son, 916. Senators Conkling and Platt of New York Resign, 917. Miller and Lapham, Sen- ators from New York, 918. James T. Fields, 919. The Revised New Testament, 921. Members of New Testament Company in England, 922 ; in America, 923. Guiding Principles in Revising, 923. Thomas A. Scott, 925. Assassination of Garfield, 926. Statement of Previous Efforts and Preparations of the Assassin, 927. The President's Telegram, 931. Physicians and Surgeons in Attendance, 931. The Arrival of Mrs. Garfield, 932. Removal of the President to Long Branch, 933. Sidney Lanier, 934. General Burnside, 934. Death of Garfield, 937. Universal Regret, 939. Foreign Sympathy, 939. The Autopsy, 943. Names of Surgeons and Physicians, 944. General Arthur Becomes President, 945. Arthur's Inaugural, 946. His Proclamation Respect- ing the Death and Funeral of President Garfield, 946. The Funeral at Elberon, 949; At Washington, 950; at Cleveland, 951. Biography of Garfield, 955. Michigan Forest Fires, 964. Josiah G. Holland, 965. York town Centennial, 970. President's Procla- mation, 971. John W. Forney, 972. I. I. Hayes, 972. The Loss of the Jeannette, 074 Leonard Bacon, 974. Atlanta Cotton Exposition, 975. John William Draper, 977. XLII CONTENTS. Richard Henry Dana, 978. John Cotton Smith, 979. Guiteau's Trial, 979. Guiteau's Letter to General Sherman, 982. The Lawyers in the Case, 983. Guiteau Permitted to Address the Jury, 985. Verdict of the Jury, 987. Elaine's Eulogy on Garfield, 992. Henry W. Bellows, 1008. Henry W. Longfellow, 1008. Killing of Jesse James, 1013. Outlawry and Free Government, 1013. Ralph Waldjo Emerson, 1014. Arrivals from the Jeannette, 1018. Fate of the Rodgers, 1018. Storms in Iowa, 1018. De Long heard of, 1018. "Prohibition" in Iowa, 1018. Execution of Guiteau, 1019. Labor Srikes, 1020. Voters in the United States, 1020. Collision on the Ohio, 1020. Tex- arkana Disaster. 1020. Massacre of French Explorers in Valley of La Plata, 1020. Star-Route Trials, 1020. Unprecedented Jewish Immigration, 1020. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, GEORGE WASHINGTON (Steel Plate) Frontispiece PASSION FLOWER OF PERU 20 LANDSCAPE 46 GRAVE CREEK MOUND, W. VA. . . 52 SEPULCHRAL UR.V FROM LAPORTE, IND 54 ANCIENT WORKS AT MARIETTA, O 55 COPPER IMPLEMENTS OF WARFARE AND THE CHASE . . 59 STONE AXES 60 SCULPTURED PIPE 60 CLOTH FROM OHIO MOUNDS 61 ANCIENT IDOL AND ALTAR AT COPAN 62 ANCIENT VESSEL FROM SAN JOSE, NEW MEXICO 63 ANCIENT RUINS IN YUCATAN 64 RUIN AT TULOOM IN YUCATAN 66 INDIAN BAG, DRUM, ETC 71 INDIAN WEAPONS . 73 CROW CHIEF IN FULL DRESS 75 SCALP STRETCHED TO DRY 76 SQUAWS GOING TO MARKET 77 BRAVES TORTURING WHITES : 77 AN INDIAN DANCE 80 SQUAW AND CHILD 1 Si MEDICINE MEN 83 SUN WORSHIP JJY COROADOS IN BRAZIL. 85 HALF BREED 87 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS ... 96 CoDFISHING ON THE BANKS OF NEWFOUNDLAND 1OJ CATHEDRAL OF QUITO m FOUNTAIN AND AQUEDUCT, MEXICO 115 Rio POLOCHIC, GUATEMALA 115 XLIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ISLE OF SERPENTS, Rio DE JANEIRO 1 19 RIVER GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR 119 VIEW OF THE CITY OF PANAMA 123 CAPE HORN 130 JACQUES CARTIER 135 DESOTO'S MARCH 138 THE FALLEN MONARCH 145 MOSQUITO COAST 145 DELTA OF THE ORINOCO 153 DENIZENS OF THE SWAMP 153 SIR MARTIN FROBISHER 157 SIR WALTER RALEIGH SMOKING .* 160 POCAHONTAS 167 CAPT. SMITH AND THE COMPASS 169 THE FIRST INDIAN TOPER 171 LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS 1 79 FRONT OF CATHEDRAL OF MEXICO 224 CANADIAN TRAPPER 226 MARQUETTE DESCENDING THE MISSISSIPPI 228 PETER STUYVESANT 236 INDIAN ATTACK 243 MRS. DUSTIN AND THE INDIANS 249 SCOLD GAGGED.... 276 DEATH OF GEN. WOLFE 287 DISCOVERY OF SKELETONS 301 REMOVING CANNON FROM THE BATTERY 317 THE STOLEN MARCH 329 GEN. BURGOYNE .- 335 VALE OF WYOMING 339 WASHINGTON'S ARMY CHEST 355 A REVOLUTIONARY FLAG .' 357 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 379 PAUL JONES 386 WASHINGTON'S GRAVE 397 GEO. WASHINGTON 406 WASHINGTON'S SWORD AND CANE 409 BENEDICT ARNOLD 412 MORMON CHARACTERS 477 VIEW OF THE CITY OF MEXICO - 483 PLAZA OF GUADALAJARA 483 JOHN C. CALHOUN 539 HENRY CLAY 546 CRYSTAL LAKE, CAL 547 A STREET IN SAN FRANCISCO 547 DANIEL WEBSTER 550 A VILLAGE IN GREENLAND 559 IN WINTER QUARTERS ! 559 GATHERING CINCHONA BARK 563 CYPRESS GROVE IN MEXICO 568 ABRAHAM LINCOLN (Steel Plate) .- 589 JEFFERSON DAVIS 592 NAVAL ENGAGEMENT BETWEEN THE MERRIMAC AND MONITOR (Steel Plate) 619 CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS (Steel Plate) 625 BENJAMIN F. BUTLER. . . .* 641 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XLV GEN. STONEWALL JACKSON PRAYING IN His TENT 655 BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG (Steel Plate) . . 659 BOMBARDMENT OF ISLAND No. 10 (Steel .Plate) 685 WM. T. SHERMAN 735 DEVIL'S CASTLE, EAST GREENLAND. ... , 739 ICED IN ARCTIC REGIONS 747 GEN. ROBT. E. LEE 756 HORACE GREELEY 778 FIRST STEAMER ON THE ORINOCO 782 LIMA, PERU 905 TOWER ROCK, MISSISSIPPI RIVER 905 JAMES A. GARFIELD (Steel Plate) 913 MRS. ELIZA GARFIELD 928 LAST LOOK AT THE SEA 933 ON THE TRAIN FOR ELBERO.V 935 MRS. LUCRETIA GARFIELD 941 CHESTER A. ARTHUR 947 RECEIVING VAULT AT CLEVELAND 953 THE GARFIELD HOMESTEAD AT MENTOR '. 961 GUITEAU JURY 988-89 FRANCKLYN COTTAGE AT ELBERON, N. J 1007 " From the eternal shadow rounding All ozir sun and starlight here, Voices of our lost ones sounding Bid us be of heart and cheer, Through the silence, down the spaces, falling on the inward ear. " Let us draw their mantles o'er us Which have fallen in our way ; Let us do the work before us Cheerly, bravely, while we may, Ere the long night-silence cometh, and with us it is not day" WHITTIER PART I. STUDIES. Wordless -moans the ancient -pine ,' Lake and mountain give no ~ign ; Vain to trace this ring of stones y Vain the search of crumbling bones / Deepest of all mysteries And the saddest, silence is. * * * * * * * What strange shore or chartless sea Holds the awful mystery. * ****** Therefore -well may nature keep Equal faith ~uoith all -who sleep, Set her ivatch of hills around Christian grave and heathen mound. " WHJTTIER. SECTION I. antiquities of America do not yield in interest to those of any other part of the world. There is \^ a certain fascination in finding within the limits of what is known as the New World, relics which take us back into previous ages, and assert that the human life of the continent dates from a remote period. The number and activity of those who are engaged in this delight- ful study, are daily increasing. The scientific collections of the country are daily enlarging their lists of prehistoric treasures. In certain sections many per- sons may with ease become collectors of specimens, and add something to the gen- eral fund of knowledge relating to the life and civilization of prehistoric races upon the American continent. A piece of broken pottery with a glaze or a figure upon its surface, a mound and an inclos- ure thrown up regularly in perfect mathematical figures, an arrow-head picked out from its bed among the re- mains of the mastodon, and hundreds of other things turned up in the cultivation of the soil, or in excavations for mining purposes, speak eloquently of forgotten peoples and prehistoric times. Every record obtained is an unintentional one, so 4 far as the persons who left it were con- cerned. The study has most literally to do with remains, and remains only. This gives a peculiar zest to the work. The reconstruction of customs and thoughts and pursuits which have long ago disap- peared from the face of the earth, and are now known only by their partial and de- caying products carelessly thrown up from the soil, or uncovered amid the tansrle of O almost impenetrable forests, may well serve as a problem which shall rest and calm the mind when it is at times worn with the press and labor of the present day. In Europe the discoveries which bear upon the antiquity of the human race, are greatly more numerous than the same kind of discoveries in America. The ancient things of historic times, which were formerly worshiped for their age, are young, compared with some of these prehistoric revelations. Much more evidence will doubtless be gained in many sections of the Old World, which have not yet yielded up their treasures. Lake dwellings, shell heaps, and bone caves, abound in relics from which the story of former days is drawn by a close scrutiny. Yet enough scattered hints have been 49 50 INTRODUCTORY" STUDIES. gleaned from the soil of America to show that when our country becomes more fully investigated, there will be found here also rich evidences which will delight and reward the faithful stu- dent. The reality of the testimony to be obtained has been already very clearly demonstrated. Tnere is, then, a real prehistoric Amer- ica which divides itself very naturally into two portions. The first portion is that to which the isolated relics which have been found here and there upon the continent relate, and which is much the older of the two. The evidences bearing upon this, so far as man is concerned, are too meager to permit the drawing of any certain con- clusions. The remains of prehistoric ani- mals have been found in considerable abundance. Well-preserved skeletons of ancient mammoths are from time to time discovered, and are put into the museums of the country to astonish us by their gigantic size. But the remains which point unequivocally to the remote an- tiquity of man upon the continent, are comparatively few. Almost all of them require verification. It is a difficult work to draw correct conclusions from the po- sition in which a single human cranium has been found. There are many excep- tional geological changes which may have been in some respects quite the opposite of that which they are confidently affirmed- to have been. The deposition of soil by a river at its mouth, the decay of different substances in different kinds of soil and at different times, the position of the bones of the human skeleton in deep strata of the earth or in caves, the mingling together of them with the bones of extinct animals, and many other ever- present problems, require a flexible judg- ment in their examination, that the cir- cumstances of one age may not be heedlessly fixed upon another age. Hu- man skulls have been found, it is asserted, and probably with truth, in the bone caves of Brazil with the remains of ani- mals no longer known upon the earth. Relics of pottery have been found in the coast terraces of Ecuador, in what is thought by some to be a very old deposit. A skull was claimed to have been taken more than ten years ago from a mining shaft near Angelos, Calaveras County, California, at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet. Implements of unknown use have been found in the gravel deposits of California at a depth of thirty feet or more. A few years ago a piece of bas- ket-matting was found on Petit Anse Isl- and, Vermillion Bay, Louisiana, below the remains of a fossil elephant. A human skeleton was found in excavating for the foundations of gas works at New Orleans, at a depth of sixteen feet, be- neath the remains of four successive cypress forests. Dr. Dowler assumes an age of 14,400 years for it. The pelvic bone of a human being was found near Natchez by Dr. Dickeson, in such a po- sition as to affirm, at first, a great age. Human remains have been found with the remains of extinct animals elsewhere along the Mississippi Valley. In 1839 the remains of a mastodon were found in Gasconade County, Missouri, partially consumed by fire, which was supposed to have been kindled by human beings for the purpose of destroying the animal after it had been mired by its own weight in a swamp. Other evidences of the presence of man were found in the same place. At different times, arrow-heads and implements, and portions of skele- tons, have been found in geological posi- tions, which seem to teach a high an- PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 51 tiquity. Each of these asserted " finds " is made the pivot upon which a theory is hinged. But the discoveries have not been numerous enough in the same sec- tion or same deposit to make the verdict in any of the cases an entirely conclusive one. Often a single witness is the only one who can testify concerning the relic or relics. It is no depreciation of any witness to say that for scientific purposes this is not sufficient. In all other depart- ments we rigidly demand a great number of experiments, and an exact agreement of witnesses. Very frequently the geo- logical age of a discovery is disputed by different scientists, even when it is ac- knowledged to be authentic. Until, then, similar remains are found in other sections in positions to make the conclu- sion a decisive one by the weight of evi- dence, the most that can be said is, that the present state of the testimony carries back human life upon this continent some- where into the age of prehistoric animals, without revealing to us anything of the life and government of the period. We cannot make a people out of the present scattered fragments. All we can do is to grope back into the almost utter darkness with blinded eyes and blundering hands. But the prehistoric age of America in- cludes a second and later period, the re- mains of which are much more abund- ant and conclusive. We step aside from the puzzling questions of earlier life, to trace the life, government, customs, man- ufactures, of nations once filling a large portion of the New World. Here is a work of great distinctness and of peculiar pleasure, arising from the accessibility, ex- tent, and nature, of the object of study. To gaze upon these mute legacies which have come down to us out of the past, is like stepping into some place where the stillness is oppressive. The silence of the deepest forest solitude is totally unequal to the silence of a place where we know that human beings have been, and human voices have spoken. Vacant rooms with dusty furniture and echoing walls testify very minutely of the ones who have occupied them. The quality, position, and wear, of each article speak volumes concerning the character, tastes, and education,of the ones who have used it. To wisely discriminate the les- sons to be learned, to reject conclusions from imperfect data, are processes of great delicacy, and require the utmost care. Every possible trace of life must be gath- ered. The positions and kinds of earth- works, the age of trees and the depth of mould upon the banks, the apparent use of fire in the making of pottery or in the celebration of sacred rites, the smallest bits of wrought clay, half-burned shreds of cloth, pictured walls, sculptured stone, buildings matted with vegetation, and the crumbling skeletons which drop to dust upon exposure to the air, all require care- ful study and wise judgment. The dull dead things which were ages ago sur- rounded by a busy life, will reveal their secrets only to the true worker. The prehistoric people who have left their works very abundantly throughout the present territory of the United States, are now known as the Mound Builders. This simple name designates a large, powerful and intelligent population once occupying the great central valleys of the land. Any one can heap up dirt, and yet under this term lie many questions of character and civilization. Their re- mains have not been traced north of the Great Lakes or within the Atlantic States, except in a few doubtful instances. They fill the Central States up and down the 52 INTRODUCTORY' STUDIES. Ohio and Mississippi Valleys and are found in traces in certain States which border upon this section. The works left by this people vary in character. Prominent in the list and the special cause of bestowing the name, are mounds. One of the few individual mounds most worthy of mention, which has been called the " monarch of all such structures in the United States " stands on the plain of Cahokia, east of the Missis- sippi River at St. Louis, and within the present State of Illinois. A careless ob- server might pass it as a small hill, but a quick glance would assure one ot its arti- ficial position and regular form. It is al- most exactly of a rectangular shape. Its slopes and angles are weather - worn, but essential- ly true. The mound is seven hundred feet long and five hund/ed feet wide, and rises to a level of ninety feet above the base. The ascent is made at one side to a terrace one hundred and sixty feet by three hundred in extent, and thence to the summit platform, which is two hundred feet by four hundred and fifty. A conical mound about ten feet high stood at one point upon the highest platform. In this were found bones, vases, and stone implements. The struc- ture covers eight acres and contains nearly twenty millions cubic feet of earth, a vast mass to be collected into one gigantic pile. Most mounds are smaller, although there are others which nearly equal this one. There were at least two GRAVE CREEK MOUND, WEST VIRGINIA. [Foster's Prehistoric Races]. hundred of all sizes within the same sec- tion of Illinois. Large numbers of mounds were removed in building the great city of St. Louis, in Missouri, for which reason it is fcnown as the " Mound City." At Miamisburg, Ohio, was a great circular mound eight hundred and fifty-two feet in circumference, and sixty- eight feet high. At Grave Creek in Virginia there was another circular mound about one thousand feet in circum- ference, and seventy feet high. At a very thorough examination of it made forty years ago by running shafts into it, two ouriai vaults were found, one in the very base of the structure, con- taining tw o skeletons, and another thirty feet higher in the mound con- taining one skel- eton. The vaults were formed of upright timbers with beams laid across the top to support the roof. Several thousand shell beads, together with mica and copper ornaments, and a few carved stone ob- jects, were found in the two vaults. The most of these objects were in the upper vault with the single skeleton. A stone with an inscription in odd characters upon it has been exhibited as having been found in the excavation, but it is thought by a large number to be a fraud. It is of no certain value. At Seltzertown, Mississippi, was a mound covering nearly six acres. It was six hundred feet long and four hundred feet wide. The sum- mit, which contained four acres, was forty feet above the base, and upon it stood PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 53 three conical mounds, one at each end, and one in the middle. One of these cones was forty feet high, the others were slightly less. There were traces of eight other mounds upon this extensive summit area which was reached by a graded way up the side. Skeletons, pieces of pottery and vases which had evidently been used in offerings, were found within the small mounds. The north wall of the large mound was partially held in place by sun-dried brick filled with rushes, leaves and grass, to a thickness of two feet. At some points marks of hu- man hands are said to have been visible where the brick was pressed to its shape. Other cases of this wall building have been found, but no signs of the use of fire are visible upon any of them. The mounds above mentioned are among the best known, because of their size. But through those same regions are thousands of smaller ones which are no less charac- teristic, though not so large. In Ohio alone it is estimated that there are ten thousand of these structures. In Wiscon- sin there are hundreds upon hundreds of them, having a peculiar character con- fined mostly to the mounds of that State. They bear a stamp of their own in that many of them are in the shape of some animal or bird. A few instances of the form of a man have been discovered. The outlines are rude, but the intentions are visible. One of the most noticeable is what is known as the Turtle Mound at Waukesha, the body of which is fifty-six feet long and the tail two hundred and fifty feet. It is raised about six feet above the earth. Many curious forms are found in all parts of the State rising from one to four feet above the surface of the earth, or hollowed out within the soil. There are birds with long extended wings, and rep- tiles with a total length of one hundred to four hundred feet. Many of these mounds have been destroyed in order that houses might be built, or in the culti- vation of farms. But they are still found around Milwaukee, along the valleys of rivers, and upon the borders of the many beautiful lakes which fill the State. Their situation is almost uniformly cho- sen for purposes of elevation and beauty. Very few of these animal mounds are found elsewhere. In Adams County, Ohio, is a wonderful embankment one thousand feet in length running away in flowing curves to a threefold coil at the end like the coil of a serpent's tail. At the other end the ridge divides to a pair of jaws which are open, and in the act of swallowing an oval figure. The oval is very nearly perfect in form, being one hundred and three feet in one diameter and thirty-nine in the other. The embank- ment is about five feet high at the center, and a little less at the extremities. It is about thirty feet wide at its base, and lies upon the bank of Brush Creek, occupy- ing a sort of long projecting bluff by the side of that stream. In Licking County, in the same State, there is what is known as the Alligator Mound, with a body two hundred and fifty feet long and forty feet wide, and legs, each thirty-six feet in length. The other mounds which have been referred to, are of all shapes and sizes. They are four, six, eight-sided, square, rectangular or circular. Most mounds show traces of having been ascended by a spiral or a graded path. We come to some, square or otherwise^ which have a long, inclined bank of earth leading from some distance away from the base up to the top. We also come to others in Mississippi, which are connected by long causeways leading from the 54 /NTRODUCTORT STUDIES. summit of one mound to the summit of the next. But what were the uses of these struc- tures? The answer to this question is in some cases very clearly discerned. Many of the mounds were undoubtedly sepul- chral or mortuary. The remains of hu- man bodies are found in them in such po- sitions as to indicate that the mounds were constructed for their burial. Sepulchral urns of considerable beauty are found in numbers. Other mounds probably served SEPULCHKAL URN FROM LAPORTE, INDIANA. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] as the bases of great temples, which have now fallen wholly to dust ; or were used as platforms for the performance of sac- rificial rites, perhaps to elevate the holy ceremonies to the view of large multi- tudes. In some sections the great public buildings or communal dwellings may have been situated upon the largest plateau mounds. Evidences of this" are found in Mexico and Central America, where the structures upon similar mounds were built of more enduring materials than were used in the Mississippi Valley. There are other elevations which may have served as signal or lookout stations. They are so situated as to command ex- tensive views, and were probably Obser- vation Mounds. One of our best and most enthusiastic students of American Archaeology thinks that the animal struc- tures are the totems of the clans of the several regions, and that complete sys- tems of these totem mounds will be dis- covered when their relative positions are fully investigated. Other purposes than the above may have been served by portions of this extensive class of remains. Another class of works demands equal attention. In exploring the regions where the mounds are situated, immense inclos- ures reveal themselves. It is estimated that there are fifteen hundred in Ohio alone. They consist of embankments of earth or stone, often with ditches either inside or outside. Near Chillicothe, Ohio, are what have been known as the Hope- ton Works. There is a circle containing twenty acres. Touching one side of the circle lies a square, which likewise con- tains twenty acres. At the point where square and circle meet, two parallel em- bankments start, and run for quite a dis- tance. Other celebrated inclosures are near Newark, Ohio. About one mile west of the town is a very extensive sys- tem. There is a circle one mile in cir- cumference, the embankment being ten or twelve feet high, and sloping at an angle of forty-five degrees. The summit is wide enough for one person to walk upon. There is an entrance one hundred feet wide, from which the walls extend in a direct line outwardly, a distance of ninety feet, with a height of twenty feet. Around the inside ot the embankment is quite a deep ditch, and on the side next the bank is a narrow pavement of cobble stones. In the center of the level ground within the circle, is a small elevation about five feet high, in the form of a bird with outstretched wings. A gentleman from Newark says that "the whole ap- pearance of the structure indicates that its form has not materially changed by PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 55 lapse of time; the angles are sharp and clear; and but for the massive trees and decayed trunks upon the hanks, the visi- tor might imagine himself looking upon a work of recent date." About half a mile from this inclosure is another one. There is, as above, a circle nearly as large. There is also half a square, the other half having been destroyed by the plow. The square and the circle are con- through the long avenue. From this, an entrance was made into the square. From the square, the circle's interior was hidden because of the breastwork. But passing around the breastwork through the connecting avenue, passage was made into what seems to have been the inmost retreat of all. If anything was sacred, it was within that circle. If there were any religious rites they were un- ANCIENT WORKS AT MARIETTA, OHIO. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] nected by an avenue two hundred or more feet long, and one hundred feet wide. In the wall of the circle opposite the entrance from the square, is a mound twenty feet high. Just within the square, and hiding from any one standing in its center the interior of the circle, is a breast- work running across the entrance, one hundred feet or more in length. Beyond the square, two parallel ridges run away for nearly three miles. From the arrange- ment we judge that the approach was doubtedly connected with the circle. At Cedar Bank, Ohio, there are thirty-two acres inclosed by an embankment inside of which is a mound two hundred and forty-five feet long, and one hundred and fifty feet broad. Near Liberty, Ohio, is ' a series of circles running into each other, and covering sixty acres of land. A square containing twenty-seven acres, lies in the midst of them. Extensive works were found between the Ohio and Muskingum Rivers, on the site of Marietta, Ohio. 56 2NTRODUCTORT STUDIES. The inclosures covered about seventy-five acres in a beautiful situation, and presented the features which have already been de- scribed in connection with other remains, except that four mounds in the shape of truncated pyramids were within the larg- est inclosure. This form is more peculiar to the Southern States and Mexico. These works were mostly removed in founding and building Marietta. Three mounds were retained by special arrange- ment. Near Randolph, Indiana, is a rec- tangular embankment, with an entrance guarded by a ridge which starts from one side, runs out in the form of a small square, and comes back nearly to the other side of the entrance. It forms a complete vestibule. Besides these regular inclosures, there are upon the summits of hills, heavy embankments, evidently meant for fortification, and shaped accord- ing to the contour of the hill-top. In such cases, the entrances are guarded by protruding lines which run out from one side and the other, alternately, over-lap- ping each other, the whole made more secure by an outer raised breastwork covering the passage-way. Such an one is found in Butler County, Ohio, inclosing sixteen acres upon the top of a hill, the approach to which, along a narrow neck of land, is heavily protected in the man- ner just indicated. These are a few out of the great many inclosures in the country, some of which contain as many as four hundred acres each. Except those which were for defence, they are in exact geometrical figures, showing on the part of the builders a desire for regularity, and a knowledge of the means by Which it could be attained. In 1848 the announcement was first made that evidences of ancient copper mining had been discovered in the re- gion of Lake Superior. Mr. S. O. Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, stated that excavations had been found which were evidently made by human beings at a remote period. Upon investigation, numerous pits filled with leaves and other rubbish were traced along the veins of copper at the surface of the earth. They very readily es- caped attention except by a close scru- tiny, but upon being cleaned out, stone mauls and other implements were found in them. The knowledge concerning these pits has been constantly increasing. Some are small. Others are very large, being fifteen feet deep, and more than a hundred feet wide. The deposits within them indicate great age. An excavation twelve feet deep, fifteen feet high, and twenty-five feet long, was found upon the side of a bluff. In front was a large pile of excavated rock, some of the pieces of which were so large, that they must have been removed by means of levers. Large blocks of metal, and stone mauls with grooves around them, were found. An- other excavation, thirty feet deep, and partially filled with decayed wood and earthy deposits, was discovered. A mass of copper weighing nearly six tons, was found to have been raised some dis- tance above the bottom of the excavation, and to be resting upon skids, which were evidently adjusted by means of wedges. The upper surface of the mass had been thoroughly beaten, and an edge was turned down around it. A stone maul, weighing thirty-six pounds, and having a double groove around it, was found' in the debris. Trees were growing in the rub- bish and excavated matter, which showed an age of three hundred and four hun- dred years. These ancient mines will probably be found in abundance in por- PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 57 tions of the forest which the modern miners have not yet penetrated. There are no evidences of residence at the mines, in the ruins of cities, mounds, or roads. But copper, which is known to be Lake Superior copper by the spots of silver in it, has been found in most of the mounds of the Middle and Southern States. It seems to have been wrought cold, in every instance. It is thought, therefore, that the mines must have been worked by annual expeditions from the warmer regions of the South. These mines must have been deserted, also, centuries before the first Jesuit missionaries visited the region. The Indians had a slight amount of cop- per in use, but they seemed neither to know of these ancient mines, nor how to mine in any place. They took only what they found lying at hand, upon the surface, in places where they stumbled upon it. It is now known, also, that the Mound Builders mined in North Carolina for the mica which is found in large slabs in many of their mounds, and seems to have had a sacred value in their eyes. The present supply of the country is largely obtained from the same localities. There are several arguments used in determining the age of all these works. The trees which are found growing upon them are carefully studied. Instances of trees with two hundred and fifty, three hundred and fifty, and even eight hundred rings of annual growth, have been found, rooted directly in embankments. But these aged trees only carry us back to the time when the region had become an entire wilderness, not to the close of the ancient civilization. It has been shown that the growth of a forest and the change of vegetation would indicate a period much greater than the age of any single tree now known. In some cases evidences of successive generations of trees are found in fallen and decaying trunks. Many of the mortuary mounds have been opened, and portions of skele- tons found within them, but in such a con- dition as to show great age, often crumb- ling to dust upon exposure to the air. It was formerly stated that no one of these remains was to be found upon the lowest river-terrace of the present day. But this has since been shown to be a mis- take, as traces of mounds are known to exist in several such places. This shows how cautiously statements must be made as to the age and origin of these works. Horace Greeley once visited the remains near Newark, Ohio, saying before he went that he could easily tell by whom and when they were built. When he reached the spot, he silently surveyed the whole, noted the evidence of some kind of engineering skill, the correctness of the forms, the great trees growing out of the ridges, together with fallen and decayed ones lying in different directions, and last of all, the inside paved ditch. He then sat down and wrote a detailed description of it for the New York Tribune, Some one looked over his shoulder to see what explanation he would append to his de- scription, and read as follows : " As to the origin, by whom built, and for what purpose, all we can say is, ' It is here.' " This was the end of one attempted solution of the mystery. It seems to be certain that the close of this ancient civilization must have been at least a thousand years ago. The Indians have no knowledge or traditions concerning the origin of the mounds and inclosurcs which have been described. They seem to be utterly igno- rant of the construction of them. Some students think that this fact conclusively INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. shows that these curious works were produced neither by the Indians nor their ancestors. Others think it to be incon- clusive, because of the instances in which the Indians have lost all tradition of events in a previous generation. The truth seems to be that they would not lose knowledge or tradition concerning what must have been such an intimate part of a nation's life and work, from generation to generation, as the construction of these elevations and defences. The Indians have in a few cases built mounds, but only to a very limited extent. They have never been, since they were known to Europeans, a mound-building people. They also covered the whole country, while the Mound Builders filled the central valleys of the United States. These, and other indications found in the character of the works, seem to affirm a great distinctness between the life of the Mound Builders, and that of the Indian races of the United States, too great to be bridged by any supposable period of time. The great centers of population occu- pied by the Mound Builders are as well- known as are the centers of population to-day. The best sections of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, and of the States bordering upon the Gulf of Mexico, are filled with works which attest a large and busy population. The outlying com- munities swept over large areas, more or less thinly, but the central seats swarmed with inhabitants. The outer limits of their occupation aie not certainly known, for the whole field has not yet been thor- oughly investigated. The thickly popu- lated regions are, however, known beyond any possibility of contradiction. From all appearances, the Mound Builders came in to occupy the land with settled govern- ment or governments, and only disap- peared because they were obliged to give way before an overpowering force. The numerous great elevations and inclosures which they erected with such energy, were not meant to be transiently occupied. The evidences are all in favor of a settled habitation. The Mound Builders must also have been given to the arts of peace. Their civilization inclosed enough of religious and secular effort within its bosom, to make them capable of sustain- ing the large amounts of unproductive labor used in erecting the works we now gaze upon with such curiosity. Agricul- tural and trade relations must have existed. So many citizens as must have been employed in labor which would not directly yield food, could not have been sustained by the chase in a country filled with people. Copper, which is known to have been mined at Lake Superior, has been found in Peru. Obsidian, which has been found in the mounds, cannot, to present knowledge, be obtained in the central valleys of the United States. The inference is clear that a trade must have existed along the continent; if in stones and metals, then in other products like- wise. The intelligence of the Mound Builders must have been of a somewhat high type. Many of their structures exhibit a knowledge of, and taste for, form, which could not have been at all incidental, but were to all appearances inherent elements of their civilization. Inclosures and mounds exhibit an accu- racy which is, sometimes, when the great extent covered is regarded, very surpris- ing. A recent writer states that they must have had knowledge sufficient to enable them to lay out an exact circle before building any part of it, as some remains are found which indicate that different parties began throwing up the PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 59 wall at different points of the circumfer- ence at the same time. Favorite sizes appear in their structures. They must have had a way of estimating amounts and laying out plots of land. Their defensive inclosures upon the summits of headlands or bluffs are irregular, accord- ing to the contour of the height to be fortified. These, and the animal, or sym- bolic, or totem, mounds, are the only cases the marks of fire. The government, undoubtedly, had a great sway over the people through its alliance with some extensive religious ideas and forms. The home-life of the Mound Builders is a thing of the unknown, through the entire obliteration of buildings which served them for dwellings. The only conjecture possible is, that it may have been com- munal in abodes erected of perishable COPPER IMPLEMENTS OF WARFARE AND THE CHASE. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] in which they varied from regular geo- metrical figures. The presence of some great religious convictions and ceremonies, is dimly seen in the remains of their civilization. The exact form and nature are unknown, but the element is known. Mounds are found which seem to have been used for altar purposes. Sacrificial rites are judged to have entered into the life of the day. Sacred ceremonies appear to have been used in the burial of the dead. In burial mounds ashes are found in vases, accom- panied by other substances, which show material upon some of the large platform mounds. This is also in accord with the supposed purposes of some of the more durable buildings found on similar plat- forms in Mexico and Central America. The relation of members of the family to each other, the rearing of children, the training of the young in skill and knowl- edge, and other associated things, are hidden in deepest mystery. It is clearly seen that the Mound Builders were of a military character sufficiently pronounced to attempt the fortification of their possessions, and the 60 I NT ROD UC TOR T S TUDIES. skillful defence of them against invaders. Blazing fires on the tops of signal mounds, lighted one after the other in quick succession, would expose the enemy's approach. Defensive inclosures along the frontier, kept back the foe who attempted the conquest of the country. Stone and copper weapons are found. A people capable of mining copper so suc- cessfully in a region beyond their own viewing distant objects, together with numerous other articles. Some of the weapons are finely made. Some of their vessels are handsomely ornamented. Stone mauls, wooden shovels and other mining tools, are found in the Lake Superior region. Iron, galena and chert, are known to have been used to a lim- ited extent. Sculpture has appeared in some of the remains. Figures occur STONE AXES. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] proper territory, must have been of suf- ficient energy to at least make a brave stand against assaults. This much we can see; but the swaying of passions in war, the rallying of the communities to the defense of their beautifully chosen sites and laboriously constructed works, the success or downfall of military chief- tains, have all passed into oblivion. The mechanical and artistic products of the Mound Builders are constantly increasing through the opening of mounds and careful search for remains. Copper implements are very plentiful. In dif- ferent excavations have been found chis- els, gouges, rimmers of many patterns, pestles, gads, axes, spear-heads and arrow-heads, triangular, barbed, indented, knives, bracelets, pipes, vessels of all kinds, ornaments of great variety, tubes either for long beads and whistles or for upon their vessels and other constructions. Cloth-weaving was evidently known. The imprint of cloth texture has been repeatedly found. This was an art unknown to the Indians. Slabs, with hieroglyphic characters upon them, are among the more recent accu mulations, but there is much dispute over them as yet, and so much uncertain- ty, as to keep them from being put into the absolutely genuine relics. Mortuary remains are greatly sought after and studied. Skulls have been exhumed with great care. The attempt has been made to get a cast of the form of a Mound SCULPTURED PIPE. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 61 Builder, with partial success, by the use of clay. But with all the light yet gained there is much doubt attending the- life of the Mound Builders. Are the remains chronologically of the same, or of different periods ? What significance did the emblematic eleva- tions have ? What were the political forms of govern- ment? Was there one great government, or were there several distinct, yet CLOTH FROM OHIO harmonious peoples? MOUNDS. Whence did they come, and [Fosters Prehis- J toric Races.] whither did they go? If they were united, stable, industrious, how did they lose their territory? These and other questions can only be answered sug- gestively. The Mound Builders were, in great likelihood, the overflow of earlier Mexican races, and were pushed back from *our fertile valleys by the fiercer, bloodier Indian, whose tradition asserts that a previous people was in possession of North America when he came into it. The territory of the United States west of the Mississippi River, contains another large class of remains which to the arch- aeologist possess a fascination quite equal to that which attaches to the remains of the Mound Builders. In some respects the interest is a more peculiar one. For while mounds of all patterns and for all purposes, and inclosures regular and irregular, present many baffling questions, yet new features, possessing a vastly more romantic spell, have been discovered in the Southwestern territories of the United States by the scientific explorations of the last half dozen years. Through large portions of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and the State of Colorado, exist curious structures, only a small part of which were known before 1874. Some of the most unique were not known at all till that date. The entire remains may be enumerated as Casas Grandes, pueblos, cave-houses, cliff-houses, and elevated tow- ers. The pueblos have been known for a long time. Some of them are inhab- ited at the present day. Upon the river Zuni, between the stream and tall cliffs in the rear, stands the pueblo town of Zuni. Near the site of this modern pueblo can be traced the ruins of what are supposed to be the " seven cities of Cibola," which Coronado visited in 1540, and which caused so much speculation in his time. Through the different terri- tories quite a large number of pueblos are inhabited, but many are everywhere seen in ruins. It appears that their occupants have slowly been reduced in numbers till they are obliged to give up one after another of their towns. The pueblo buildings are large stone structures, raised to a height of two, and sometimes three stories. The lower one projects beyond the upper and is entered from this plat- form roof through trap-doors. The ascent is made to the roof on the out- side by means of ladders. There are no entrances in the walls of the lower story. Each pueblo has a large number of rooms, sufficient for the accommodation of quite a townful of people. These rooms open into one another in various ways, indicating a certain community of life. The buildings are made of stone, covered over quite heavily with mud. It is thought that some of them had as many as one thousand rooms each. The pueb- los usually cover three sides of a rectangle, but vary from this to a circular form. The full extent of these pueblo ruins has by no means been known till very INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. recently. They have been discovered in out-of-the-way recesses in the river can- yons where least suspected. Around them are found a great many piles and frag- ments of broken pottery. Beautiful ar- row-heads are in some places picked up In the valley or trie Gila in Southern Arizona, and in Chihuahua i Mexico, are found the ruins of a class of structures known as Casas Grandes. Unlike the pueblos further north, which are almost uniformly built of stone, these were built ANCIENT IDOL AND ALTAR AT COPAN. in abundance. Rock inscriptions occur at different points on the faces of the cliffs. The pottery is found to have been ornamented with work in relief. Fig- ures of small animals have been found upon finely shaped vases. of adobe or mud. Wherever the walls have fallen, the blocks of mud have washed back to shapeless earth again. But enough walls are still standing to make it certain that many large edifices filled the region. In some cases the out- PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 63 lines can be made out quite clearly. They present plans similar to those of the pueb- los. The pottery found in the vicinity was decorated by painting in a superior manner to anything now made. The problems pre- sented by these ruins are entirely simi- lar to those presented by the pueblos. T he-cliff C a V 6 dwell- ANCIENT VESSEL FROM SAN JOSE, NEW MEXICO. [Foster's Prehistoric Races.] ings of those same great regions have scarcely been known till since 1874. No more unique abodes are found in the world than some of the ones discovered by United States exploring parties in that and subsequent years. The precipitous walls of the river canyons are the chief points where these dwellings are situated. One of the cliff houses in the canyon of the Mancos River is described as built " over six hundred feet from the bottom of the canyon in a niche in the wall. Five hundred feet of the ascent to this aerial dwelling was comparatively easy, but a hundred feet of almost perpendicular wall confronted the party, up which they could never have climbed but for the fact that they found a series of steps cut in the face of the rock leading up to the ledge upon which the house was built. This ledge was ten feet wide by twenty feet in length, with a vertical space between it and the overhanging rock, of fifteen feet. The house occupied only half this space, the remainder having been used as an esplanade, and once was inclosed by a balustrade resting on abutments built partly upon the sloping face of the preci- pice below. The house was but twelve feet high, and two-storied. Though the walls did not reach up to the rock above, it is uncertain whether it ever had any other roof. The ground plan showed a front room of six by nine feet in dimen- sions, in the rear of which were two smaller rooms, each measuring five by seven feet. The left-hand room pro- jected along the cliff beyond the front room in the form of an L. The rock of the cliff served as the rear wall of the house. The cedar beams, upon which the upper floor had rested, had nearly all disappeared. The door opening upon the esplanade was but twenty by thirty inches in size, while a window in the same story was but twelve inches square. A window in the upper story which com- mands an extended view down the canyon corresponds in dimensions and position with the door below. The lintels of the window were small, straight cedar sticks laid close together, upon which the stones rested. Opposite this window was another and smaller one, opening into a semi-circu- lar cistern, formed by a wall inclosing the angle formed by the side wall of the house against the rock, and holding about two and a half hogsheads. The bottom of the reservoir was reached by descend- ing on a series of cedar pegs about one foot apart, and leading downward from the window. The workmanship of the structure was of a superior order ; the per- pendiculars were true ones and the angles carefully squared. The mortar used was of a grayish white color, very compact and adhesive. Some little taste was evinced by the occupants of this human swallow's nest. The front rooms were plastered smoothly with a thin layer of firm adobe cement, colored a deep maroon, while a white band eight inches wide had been painted around the room at both floor and 64 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. An examination of the immedi- ceiling. ate vicinity revealed the ruins of half a dozen similar dwellings in the ledges of the cliffs, some of them occupying posi- tions, the inaccessibility of which must ever be a wonder when considered as places of residence for human beings." with considerable difficulty, and many with great danger. The walls of the houses upon the very edges of precipices are firm and strong to-day. It is fre- quently found that crevices in the face of the cliffs have been walled up with small stones, to keep, it may be, intruders from ANCIENT RUIN IN YUCATAN. This detailed description, from a standard authority made up from the reports of the surveyors, gives an idea of this class of abodes, which are found in great abund- ance in the river valleys of our South- western territories. Some of them were reached only by descending from the top of the cliff. All of them are reached ascending in unexpected directions. Clusters of cliff-houses are sometimes found, indicating village life. At certain points it is impossible to see how any human beings could have scaled the dizzy heights to gain their abodes. The cave-houses differ little from the cliff-houses, except that instead of being PREHISTORIC AMERICA. 65 built on a shelf of the cliff, they are built in an opening into the face of the cliff walled up more or less to form a secure dwell- ing. Some of them are quite extensive and seem to have been intended to serve as fortified places in time of danger. They are found in caves eight hundred feet above the level of the valley be- low. Some were evidently reached by little holes cut in the surface of the cliff. In the valley of the Chelley a large cave village evidently existed in a cave which extends along the cliff for quite a distance. Through these regions are also found towers built on elevated places for purpo- ses of observation. Some of them com- mand extensive views. There are in certain sections of these territories remains which bear a certain resemblance to the remains of the Mound Builders in the great central valleys of the United States. The present inhabitants of the Moqtii and Zuni pueblos have traditions which link the disappearance of these earlier and partially-civilized tribes with the com- ing of the more savage and less stable red Indian. The results of the study of these matters are, as yet, very crude. In the extent and magnificence of ancient ruins, Yucatan, Central America, \vith portions of Mexico, excel all other parts of the continent. The civilization of ancient America seems to have reached its greatest height in those sections. Ruined cities have been discovered which were unknown to .the inhabitants when the Spaniards pushed their way into the country. So secluded were they by the matted vegetation which overgrew and hid them, that they escaped the eyes of travelers till comparatively recent years. In some cases it was only by accident that persons in penetrating the tangled forests, came upon extensive ruins, rich in architectural and sculptural remains. Since the first disclosures, however, ardent students have pressed in every direction, sometimes cutting their way through the otherwise impenetrable vegetation. It is known that explorers have passed within a half mile of extensive ruins without dis- covering them, so completely were they hidden. But one by one these ancient cities and villages have given themselves up, till in Yucatan alone, about twoscore have been more or less thoroughly exam- ined. Enthusiastic travelers have made explorations and reports until the ruined cities of Copan, Uxmal, and Palenque, are well and widely known. The first mentioned remains are situated near a village of the same name, in the Re- public of Honduras, Central America. A large space sixteen hundred feet long and nine hundred feet wide, is covered by the ruins. Substantial walls inclose the area. These ruins are thought to be older than any other upon the continent, and the time of their abandonment is not known with any certainty. A large plat- form, known as the temple, occupies a space six hundred and twenty-four by eight hundred and nine feet, and is elevated to a height of seventy feet. Next the river, the wall of this supposed tem- ple is perpendicular, but on the other sides the walls are sloping. It is estimated that 26,000,000 cubic feet of stone entered into the construction of this elevation. Depressions in the surface occur at different points, and figures and small structures at other points. Some of the figures have in front of them, sculptured stone blocks, which are thought to have served as altars. Elaborate carvings abound on every side. The massive character of the remains indicates engineering skill of considerable 66 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. extent on the part of the huilders. In all that section of the continent stone was used as a building material. Hence the solid character of the ruins. Yet they suffer from the inhabitants of the region to such a degree as to endanger some of principal ruin at Uxmal is a large plat- form. This pyramidal structure has two terraces besides the summit, which is over forty feet high. The lower terrace is five hundred and seventy-five feet long, and fifteen feet wide. A temple stands RUIN AT TUUJOM IN YUCATAN. the finest relics. Ignorance and indiffer- ence threaten to do sad work. Yucatan is exceedingly rich in remains. Uxmal is situated in this region. The ruins known by this name are very mag- nificent. Obelisks, with the face and form of some deity carved upon each, are found in numbers. As at Copan, the upon the summit platform, with a front of three hundred and twenty-two feet. The sculpture upon this temple is among the richest specimens yet found in ancient American remains. The temple con- tains twenty -two chambers or apartments, in two rows of eleven each. There are no windows in the structure, light being PREHISTORIC AMERICA. admitted to the inner apartments through the doors of the outer ones. These features occur in the other ruins of the region. Differences are found, but the conclusion is quite certain that one race formerly occupied all that portion of the continent now covered by Mexico, Yuca- tan and Central America. Palenque, situated in the Mexican province of Chi- apas, was the first extensive ruin discov- ered. The largest building is supported by a platform, as in the other cases, and bears a resemblance to the others. Painted stucco is found in certain parts of the ruins at Palenque. Mitla, in the State of Oajaca, furnishes an example of massive remains. Portions of the front of the palace are covered with beautiful mosaics. Frescoing is also found. In other sections exist ruins which have not yet been examined by the archaeologist. The work will progress slowly, because of the difficulty of making surveys. But the examination of these ruins, coupled with the study of Maya and other historical traditions, promises to throw still greater light upon the period of American civilization, once so unsus- pected. In South America the ruins through the regions held by the Peruvian Incas at the conquest of the country, constitute 67 the great field of study. It has been maintained by eminent scholars that the Inca civilization was preceded by another, to which certain extensive remains belong. A thorough and final settlement will require further study of the ruins which abound near Lake Titicaca, and upon the islands within it. They are mas- sive, and very ancient. The ancient Peruvians are known to have been intel- ligent and skillful. The American continent presents a very interesting archaBological field. The ethnological researches of scholars will bring a portion of the ruins into the clearer light of history. But the haze of uncertainty will always rest upon some of them. The study of the architecture, the sculpture, the hieroglyphics, the eth- nological traditions and records,of ancient America, will show, however, that nations have risen and fallen on our shores, while the nations of the Old World were going through similar mutations. Rise and decline have marked the pathways of the leading nations of the earth, from the beginning. The drama which took place in the kingdoms of the Orient, the North African powers, Greece and Rome, has had a part of its great enactment within our continent, in the ages of Prehistoric America. SECTION II. *VnW^HEN Columbus stepped upon |Af the beach of San Salvador, he V U supposed that he was standing ^\, u P on the s il f India. The name Indies was, therefore, very natu- rally applied by him to the islands he had discovered, and the name Indians to the inhabitants of them. Through nearly four centuries this term has been univer- sally applied to the native races of America, having become, in the course of time, a well-settled designation for them in all ordinary description. It includes in its use, all the tribes dwelling within the Western continent at the time of its discovery, and covers, therefore, the Mexicans and Peruvians with their appar- ent civilization, as well as the wilder tribes of South America, and the red men of North America. As the American continent was opened more and more widely to the knowledge of the world, a great variety of tribes was found to exist within it. This was very noticeable, even within the few islands to which the first explorations of Columbus were confined. There were the peaceable tribes of the Bahamas and the larger West India Islands, and the fiercer, more warlike Caribbee tribes, which made their raids upon other islands- for captives and booty. in the single island of Hayti these clans were found in a considerable number. Along the coast were such tribes as the one ruled by Guacanagari when Columbus discovered the island, -while in the interior, among the mountains, were other intractable ones, with whom no reliable intercourse could be held. The same variety existed throughout the entire continent. It was most apparent in the regions where the least civilization was found. In the vast territory now covered by the United States, there were scores of tribes with no common center of life and government. This was true in most cases, even of those tribes which belonged to the same great family. Each tribe wandered, hunted, fished, made war, according to its own likes and dislikes. But this variety was as real where the great governments of the continent spread themselves abroad in power. Cortes found different tribes subject to Montezuma, some willingly, some unwillingly. Pizarro came upon the same state of things* in Peru, and both leaders availed themselves of it, in their respective conquests. Yet beneath this fragmentary and jar- 68 THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 69 ring life of American tribes there existed a unity which was' real enough to have made thefti much stronger against the encroachments of the new comers, if they had known enough to have availed themselves of it. There are physical, .and to some extent, intellectual character- istics, which have been said by many to affirm an identity of race throughout the continent. There are similarities running through the customs and works of the various parts of the continent, which hint at the same thing quite clearly. Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, one of the most learned writers upon Indian affairs, finds a common principle running through the architecture of the American tribes, from the perishable " long house " of the Iro- quois in Central New York, to the " pue- blo houses " of New Mexico, and the deserted but durable "Palace" at Pa- lenque, or " Governor's House" at Uxmal, in Central America. This he names the principle of communism in living. He finds it illustrated in the fact that the Indians hunt in parties, and traces it dis- tinctly through other parts of tribal life and customs. Dr. Morton claims that there is a distinction in cranial character- istics which affirms a twofold race. Eth- nology has not yet settled this question. Much discussion has been had upon the question of the origin of the American races. Theories bordering upon the fanciful have been broached by writers of great learning, who have had curious notions to support. Among these is one affirming that the Indians are descendants of the ten lost tribes of Israel. Mr. George Jones, of England, spent years in establishing an argument to that effect, and finally issued it to the public in a printed work. He but followed a path trodden by quite a number of Span- ish and other writers. The subject is wrapped in very great obscurity. Little light is shed upon it, save by the tradi- tions of different tribes. While these testify very clearly in some cases to a migration, and assert that it took place from the West, they give no circumstan- ces to which certain knowledge can be attached. The Athabascans, of North America, have perhaps the most clearly- defined tradition of a journey across the Pacific. Most of the tribes of North America, however, have been found to . think that their own acquisition of the soil of this continent is of a comparatively recent date. This very doubtful histor- ical evidence, if it can be called historical, points to a time when the native races of America made their entrance into the land from the Northwest. The languages of the American In- dians have been diligently searched for testimony concerning this question. But they afford none which is decisive, as yet. They appear to stand by themselves without a clear affinity even of obscure roots to any other languages in the world. It is true they are comparatively little known, and the large number of dialects not fully understood makes it difficult to affirm anything as to what may be ex- pected to be revealed in this quarter in the future. The dialects of South Amer- ica are far more numerous than those 'of North America, and furnish no end of comparisons for the student. Much work has been done upon some of the Eastern dialects of North America. Scholars upon both sides of the Atlantic have been fascinated by the study of them till a good basis of grammatical knowledge has been laid for future use. We have grammars arid dictionaries in many dia- lects which are monuments of faithful 70 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. research. The growth and progress of American nations are constantly opening more of the original dialects of the country to the study, of the learned. We may hope for a more certain classification at some time, of the tongues which have ceased to be heard over a great part of the New World. The civilization, or lack of civilization, in America at its discovery, was of a great many different degrees. There were tribes which were entirely roving in all their instincts and modes of life. They formed no local attachments, and fled like the wind from place to place, according as they could best supply their temporary needs. For this reason, among others, their dwellings were of the most movable kind, and all their ar- rangements for living were of the least possible permanency. Most of the North American tribes partook somewhat of this feature. Many of them secured great sections of country, within the lim- its of which their roving bands hunted, fished, and cultivated the soil so far as it was cultivated by them at all. Some of their villages were built and palisaded in a comparatively strong manner. But even this was not a sign of permanence for a long series of years. When Jacques Cartier, the bold French mariner, first visited the present site of Montreal, he found such a village, and was received within its defences hospitably. But when Champlain reached the spot sixty- eight years afterward, not a trace of the former inhabitants remained. On the other hand the ferocious Iroquois held their abode for a long period in Cen- tral New York, around the beautiful lakes which are the delight of that re- gion. They were there in 1609 when Champlain discovered the lake which bears his name, and were never displaced by any Indian race. Their power faded only before that of the white man, for no tribe of Indians could ever hope to break it. In Mexico and Peru the dwell- ings of the natives were still more per- manent, and their life therefore was much more steady. Stone, which was unknown as a building material in the Eastern United States, was used very largely by the Southern nations. Hence, when Cortes entered the City of Mexico he was surprised to see the solidity and durability of the structures which lined the streets on either hand. Not many of the buildings were more than one story in height. The so-called Palace, built by Montezuma's father, in which Cortes quartered his troops, was a long, one- story stone building with a second story rising from the center of the flat roof. Everything was solid with stone. In Peru similar cities were found by Pizarro. Tumbez and Cuzco were fine examples of the permanent work of the higher American tribes. The methods of self-support among the Indians partook closely of this perma- nency, or lack of permanency, which characterized the different tribes. The roving tribes lived upon what they could easily get, of game or fish. Perhaps during the summer the squaws scratched a little maize or a few beans and squash seeds into the earth, with just enough labor to induce them to grow. Agricul- ture was unknown among them, save of this most vague and desultory kind. From these we ascend to the Mexican Indians, who cultivated the fruits of the earth in a systematic manner, and had their beautiful floating gardens upon the lake around the City of Mexico, for the raising of flowers and vegetables. To- THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 71 bacco was in quite common use through- out the continent. There were no do- mesticated animals save the dog, and the llama which was found only among the upon the needs of the tribes, just as the agricultural operations were. But they were also largely moulded by the delight in ornamentation which existed every - INDIAN BAG, Peruvians, who used its hair in the weav- ing of garments. Thousands of these latter animals were pastured upon the slopes of the Peruvian mountains. The manufactures of the continent were based DRUM, ETC. where. Each tribe constructed articles which were necessary for its use. The Northern Indians made snowshoes which the Southern Indians never constructed, because they never needed them for their 72 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. own use. Many ot the wandering tribes prepared the skins of animals as cover- ings for wigwams, or as garments. Pot- tery-making was common to the whole country to some extent. Pipes were fash- ioned in a great variety, of ways. Fine baskets were made by the Pacific tribes. Some of them were so closely woven that they would hold water. In Peru and Mexico the range of manufactures was considerably greater, without being exten- sive. The bow and arrow were made by all tribes. Different kind's of spears, and hatchets or tomahawks, were made by them. Weapons and clubs of various other sorts were made in abundance. The lasso was used in some portions of the continent, as was also the net for fishing. Water was drunk by the northern tribes until they became acquainted with the white man's terrible " fire-water " or rum, which has been such a curse to the land, even in its native races. Southern tribes had various extracts of plants or fruits, which were somewhat intoxicating. All tribes had arrangements, though exceed- ingly slight in many instances, for re- membering events. Hieroglyphics and other devices aided the memory, and en- abled them to preserve history to some extent, though not in such a manner as to benefit the modern student very greatly. Picture writing was in use for conveying intelligence. Ornamentation was common to all the tribes of the con- tinent. Anything which would catch the eye, such as feathers, shells, quills and the tails of animals, were used by them in various ways. Paint was used upon the skin by the wilder tribes, at certain times very profusely, sometimes covering the entire face and body with startling and hideous contrasts of color. The "war paint" of the North American Indian has become a well known thing- In the richer parts of the continent very valua- ble ornaments were often made out of the precious metals which the Indians of the South mined to some extent by the mere digging of holes upon the surface of the earth. They found gold and silver where to-day some of the richest mines of Mex- ico and Peru are situated. The wealth which Atahuallpa secured from his sub- jects for his ransom, which Pizarro after- ward found in Cuzco, the treasures which Cortes found in the closed room of the palace which was put at the disposal of the Spaniards, had all been a long time in accumulating, and did not repre- sent, of course, the annual product of the realms. Mexico and Peru each had millions upon millions of dollars in its soil which the Indian races would never have extracted. This wealth of the New World can only be reached by the mod- ern methods of shaft and tunnel. In none of their efforts did the Indians reach the idea of sustained and perma- nent work, as it prevails in civilized lands. There was not enough endurance among them to enable them to follow up hard work closely. The great results of their labor in many parts of the continent were accomplished by the combined efforts of a great many, rather than by the skill and trained strength of a few. The immense numbers who perished in the West Indies as soon as they were set to work by the Spaniards, is a proof of their in- herent weakness. Among the North American tribes the squaws did the drudgery, while the noble " lords of crea- tion " lay round at their ease, or joined in the athletic sports and games of their peo- ple. The endurance of the Indian upon the chase was very great, but his capa- bility of sustained daily labor was very THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 73 small. Yet the cities in Mexico and Peru could not have been built without great labor. The great road of Peru along the sides and across the immense organization, we well know. In this we have an exhibition of the higher civiliza- tion of the Southern tribes, and an indica- tion of a somewhat higher capacity for INDIAN WEAPONS. ravines of the Cordilleras was built at some time with a vast expenditure of effort. That these greater works have been produced under the authority of governments possessed of some degree of labor. But nowhere upon the continent did the idea of work exist as it is now manifested, in the uninterrupted and pro- longed enterprises of civilized countries. The governments of the New World INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. varied as the other arrangements of life did. In the wilder tribes, the government was apparently of a very slight, though really of a very strong character. Each tribe had its civil leader called a sachem, and its military chief. The former was entitled to his position by descent, the latter by deeds. The distinctions of blood and valor were devoutly recognized, and constantly maintained. Personal heroism has raised many a young Indian warrior to the position of an acknowledged mili- tary chief. On the other hand, the fam- ilies of blood were sacredly preserved in their hereditary rights. In Mexico and Peru the royal lines were kept in the possession of their peculiar distinctions very diligently. The pride of Powhattan, the father of Pocahontas, was a pride of blood as well as of valor. Indeed, the families of rank have often sedulously maintained their position in some of the wilder tribes, till the last lingering mem- ber has given up his life without issue. In the government of Indian tribes, each leader was expected to retain his inheri- tance, whether he was of royal blood or not, by a display of wisdom and courage. The prince who shrunk in times of doubt or danger, would be to them a prince only in name. Each tribe had its symbpl or totem, usually some animal, as the fox, the bear, the wolf, by which each war- rior in the clan was known. The totem of the Hurons, for example, was the porcupine. The tribes were governed by councils, which decided when war should be declared, and when any other import- ant step should be taken. In these councils the wisdom of the older men was greatly sought for. Age in a war- rior produced great veneration for him. In these general characteristics the mass of South American tribes was like the North American. The Inca of Peru, and the rulers of Mexico, were emperors in a more absolute sense, than were any tribal rulers in the rest of North and South America. Yet even in these cases, the hurling of .the missiles at Montezuma by his own people after he had submitted to the Spaniards, shows how quicklv thev dishonored a ruler who tamely yielded in time of danger. Boys were trained from the very first dawn of intelligence, in the idea of courage. An outward bearing 1 un- o o disturbed by anything, however strange and awful, was the height of personal character. After Pizarro had reached Caxamalca upon his march into the inte- rior of Peru, he sent a few mounted soldiers to the camp of Atahuallpa, just outside the city. The Inca sat immovable during the interview. At last, Hernando De Soto, noticing that the horses drew great attention from the Peruvians, who had never seen the like before, put spurs to his uneasy steed and dashed through their midst at a headlong pace, turning, wheel- ing, prancing, till the mettle of the ani- mal had been thoroughly shown. He then reined him up by the side of Atahu- allpa so suddenly that the Inca was sprinkled with foam which fell upon him by the closeness of the fiery charger. But not a muscle of the monarch moved, and not a change of position indicated that he felt any fear. He sat as quietly as before. Some of the Spaniards claimed that certain Peruvian officers who had shrunk with evident timidity from the path of the wonderful beast, were put to death after De Soto and his companions returned to the town. However this may be, the example of the Inca illustrates what was expected of every Indian war- rior, from the Arctic Ocean to Cape Horn. Pontiac, with one quick blow, struck his THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 75 tomahawk through the brain of one of his followers who was startled by a gun fired at Detroit in the night, by an Eng- front in times of danger. But, however slightly they exhibited any emotion in the midst of danger, or during the infliction. CROW CHIEF IN FULL DRESS. lishman. The teaching was stern, but in most cases it was effective. Indian war- riors usually maintained an unchanged of injury upon them by an enemy, they felt a hurt none the less keenly in spirit. They treasured the memory of wrongs 76 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. for years, with a constant watch for opportunities to redress them. When old Major Waldron met his death at their hands in Dover, N. H.,they cut him to pieces at the last before life was extinct, with horrid eagerness, exclaiming as they did so, that they were crossing out the score of their capture by him thirteen years before, when he deceived them by calling them to a mock parade, and took them all prisoners. They were quick to avenge the death of an Indian. Many cruel outbreaks have been occasioned by the thoughtless murders which have been committed by roving white adventurers. But if the Indian never forgave an injury, he was equally sensitive to a benefit. He remembered the latter as long as he did the former. King Philip is said to have charged his warriors, just before his intended outbreak was perfected, not to touch a family by whom he had been hospitably entertained. Friendly Indians have in many cases warded off the worst effects of savage descents upon pioneer settlements, by their desire to save some- body from whom they had received a favor. Yet the savage character is fiercely, tremendously cruel. Defenceless men and women, or innocent children, did not touch their hearts when they were upon the war path. They were sometimes so much intoxicated with their wild work as to. lose almost the semblance of human beings, and prove themselves fiends incar- nate. To tear a scalp from an enemy's head was a great delight. Such treasures were carefully preserved. But it should never be forgotten that so long as civil- ized governments wage a terrific war for the possession of a little territory, or to maintain a so-called interest, and batter down cities with shell and ball, destroying property by the million dollars, and the lives of young and old, so long should not much be said in anger, if the Indian, driven back from his old lands, and forced to make the concessions which put his territory into the white man's power, SCALP STRETCHED TO DRY. wage war in his way by a little closer contact, with arrow and tomahawk and scalping knife. The difference is more apparent than real, when we take into account the different circumstances. It is as bad for the one as for the other, and no worse. Wyoming and Cherry Valley massacres are horrible to contemplate, but the worst characters in those terrible destructions were white tories, not the red warriors, who plainly saw their own bloodthirsty deeds excelled by the hands of their allies. This inability to endure the encroachments ot the invader, forms the key to one whole line of Indian troubles in the history of America, North and South, from the first until now. The early settlements of the Atlantic coast SQUAWS GOING TO MARKET. BRAVES TORTURING WHITES. THE AM RR I CAN ABORIGINES. 79 and the little clearings out on the frontier, have alike been harassed by the cloud of the Indian's wrath. The friendly rela- tions which existed between William Penn and the Indians of Pennsylvania, show that it was possible to disarm them of their prejudices and make them gentle. The long regard for treaties at times in New England and in other parts of the country, exhibits their attempt to make the best of the situation, and respond heartily to the friendship of the superior race, until the accumulating sense of wrong from a succession of little slights, swept away all barriers, and brought a climax of blood, which was out of the power of any treaty to prevent. When we compare closely the histories of civil- ized governments and Indian tribes, we shall not find in the latter an over-propor- tion of excitable, irascible spirits, who, either in legislative halls or grand council wigwams, are ever ready to vent their fiery passions in hot attempts to lead others into retaliation for real or fancied wrongs. Many of the Indian conspir- acies were due to some leading braves of the fiercer kind, who induced their tribes by the arts of persuasion, which they knew how to use so powerfully, to rise in an endeavor to exterminate the invaders who were so rapidly filling the land. King Philip, Pontiac, Osceola, and in recent times a few Western chiefs, have in turn exercised this power, and gained a body of followers who were ready to fight or die. The great mass of Indian warriors was like the great mass of white population, easily led by some superior mind. The native eloquence of many of the leading Indian warriors has swayed their inferiors according to their wish. This eloquence has appeared in councils held by the whites and Indians for the arrangement of treaties. The savage orator, drinking in the influence of Nature^ drew from the heavens and the earth the figures which he used both abundantly and beautifully. There is a touch of poetry in most Indian oratory. In some, it is the prevailing element, and subordi- nates everything else, statement, argu- ment, appeal, to itself. When employed by a skillful mind, full of imaginative resources, it was very powerful. All ob- jections gave way before it. Especially did such impassioned appeal gain its point when it was subtly interwoven with some of those implied reproaches which no warrior could endure. It is the truth of history that Captain Jack, the apparent leader of the Modoc massacre in the lava beds, wfts finally pushed to consent to the deed which he did not approve, by the taunts which began to be circulated against him. He could resist argument with ai'gument, knowing it was best for his followers not to commit such an out- rage. But he could not resist reproaches of cowardice. The bravery of an Indian, like the virtue or valor of the Roman in military affairs, was his peculiarly cher- ished possession. Anything which stained it could not be borne by the true warrior. His character was at stake. He would commit cruel deeds and lead in a forlorn hope, rather than rest patiently under a burden of imputed cowardice. Of course there were all grades in Indian life and character, as well as in those of other races. But there are certain peculiar characteristics which distinguish peculiar races, and none the less so because they are faint in many individuals, and are not found at all in some. The highest type of Indian set forth by Cooper in rose-col- ored light may not have existed at all, and certainly did not exist without defects, 80 INTRODUCfORT STUDIES. which, to most people, would make his virtues very obscure. The Indian char- acter may have been overrated by some, but it is in equal danger of an underesti- mate from others. When the living, ignorant, untrained, passionate savage, stands before us, it is difficult to look through the ex- terior, which is so contrary to all our ideas of life, and discern z~ a the native gifts *- of manhood, v- which came to him from the hands of the Creator. A fair average of the prevalent judg- ments upon the Indian charac- ter would be as in so many oth- er things, not far from the | truth. There are peculiar ex- i hibitions of I character in In- dian life, and in the life of any other race, which will sup- port any one- sided view a person may choose to hold. The peculiar customs of Indian tribes appeared at almost every step of the way in their lives. In their peace councils a pipe was smoked by each party, as a sign that strife had ceased. A bundle of arrows, tied with the skin of a rattlesnake, was sent to the Plymouth colony as a AN INDIAN DANCE. sign of war. But the rattlesnake skin was sent back, filled with powder and shot, and nothing more was heard of war for a time. In the Southern tribes, sev- eral arrows with hair upon them, wei'e sometimes stuck in the path near an enemy's village, as a sign of intended hostility. War dances were prevalent in most tribes, and the fe clings were excited by wild midnight orgies, around a blazing fire, for the coming march. In cer- tain sections of the continent, the dance was liked for its own sake, and used on various oc- casions. Cap- tives were tor- mented in hid- eous ways, and put to death by a great variety of means. The mutilation of the first Jesuits who fell among the Iroquois, was terrible to look upon. Captives were sometimes set to run the gauntlet between two long lines. of women and children, or warriors, armed with clubs, knives, and other weapons, with a prospect of saving their lives, and perhaps of liberty, if the fearful ordeal could be borne, and the end of the lines reached in safety. Few persons have THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 81 escaped by running the gauntlet. Some captives were saved and adopted into the tribe in place of dead warriors. Guerrero and Aguilar, the two Spaniards who had lived in the tribes of Southern Mexico for several years previous to the arrival of Cortes upon the coast, rose to positions of great influence. The remnants of tribes were sometimes adopted into other strong tribes. Some of the Hurons, who remained after the fearful des- truction visited upon them by the Iroquois, were adopted into the tribes of their conquerors. Some of the Pe- quods, in New England, who were left alive after the Pequod war, became members of the Narragansett nation. In social life, the woman of the wilder tribes was the worker. She often went to her labor with her babe upon her back. The young men were trained in athletic sports, and in shooting. Games were frequent in many tribes. A game of ball was played in some sections of the country, for which great preparation was made, and in which great numbers joined. In the Southern tribes, as well as in Mex- ico and Peru, the station of woman was higher. In the West India Islands, some females rose to the position of acknowl- edged leaders, and became queens by right of ability, as well as of blood. Mo'st tribes had peculiar funeral ceremonies. The sick were treated simply with reme- dies derived from roots and barks. The " Medicine Man " was a prominent character in certain sections of the land, and by his insane rites sought to cure the sick, who were, he claimed, under the power of foes. Poisons were used upon arrow - heads to make them more deadly in war, or in pri- vate acts of re- venge. The hu- man sacrifices of Mexico are well known from the accounts which Prescott gives. The bloody character of the Aztec nation in this respect, re- moves much of the glitter from their civilization in other respects. Dreams were regarded by most tribes with superstition, and were made a forces of life. SQUAW AND CHILD. part of the governing Superstition existed more or less in every part of the continent. The untutored mind of the savage saw spiritual signs in the heavens, and on the earth. Nature, to him, was alive. The religious rites of the continent varied very greatly. There was a belief in good and evil spirits. Curious theories of origin, and of super- natural appearances among them, were INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. When Cortes 82 held by some tribes, landed in Mexico, the natives were look- ing for the return of Quetzalcoatl, a divinity, who, they said, had lived among them in foi'mer days and taught them many things. At his departure he had promised to come again, and doubtless this was associated at first with the strange entrance of the Spaniards into the country, and had something to do, it may be, with the ease of conquest. Long after the Monongahela fight in the French and Indian war, an old Indian came a long distance to see the man at whom he had fired fifteen times without hitting him. He believed that some supernat- ural power had given aid to Washington. The union between the native races of America and the conquering races, has been much greater in the Spanish American provinces than in others. Cortes began, immediately upon the con- quest of Mexico, to build up a state not composed of Spaniards alone, but of Spaniards and natives. Some of the Mexicans were educated at once, and the people of the two races began to inter- marry. These marriages, of course, we x re almost, if not quite entirely, of Spanish men and Mexican women, rather than the reverse. The Spanish soldiers remained in the country to a great extent, and few Spanish women had arrived in New Spain at this time. A similar process went on in Central America and Peru, so that in all these countries the Indian population is quite large, and the union of races somewhat real. Many Indians have risen to high political positions in the Central Ameri- can States, and some to the office of president. That great leader in Mexico, during the "war of reform," from 1857 to 1860, and since president of that country, and instrumental in gaining much of the present stability of the gov- ernment, Benito Juarez, was an Indian, the son of Indian parents in poor circum- stances. In North America we have had a few instances of men of Indian birth, who have become citizens of the United States, and useful servants of the govern- ment. Gen. Ely S. Parker, at one time Indian Commissioner, and a member of Gen. Grant's staff during the Civil War, was a Seneca Indian. His abilities are excellent, and his education fine. He is a civil engineer by profession. Other in- stances of less prominence, prove the value of the Indian character, and the ability of the Indian mind. There has been little fusion of races by marriage, in North America, save in certain sections between the French and Indians. There have been, from an early period, efforts for their education, chiefly in connection with missionary societies. Enough has been done to show that the Indian is capable of becoming a citizen, and con- ducting himself with all the dignity of a citizen. Christian education has wrought great changes in many tribes, and given them an idea that there is something to live for, besides the pleasure of passing one's days in an idle, dirty, roving man- ner. The Bible has recently been given to the Dakotas in their own language, and in the course of a few years we may expect to hear of more extensive work done in behalf of the wild Indians who live within the great territories of the United States. We may hope that there will be less and less need of arms and war, which have cost the government so many million dollars, and a greater and greater resort to justice and education, and civil bonds and Christian faith, in dealing with these diminished tribes, who THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 83 once held full sway over the vast terri- tory now covered by a powerful nation. The savagism of some of them may be to the fate of those beings who, when Columbus touched San Salvador, were enjoying the freedom of the continent, MEDICINE MEN. well-nigh ineradicable, but it is worth the while, even in extreme cases, to cultivate patience. A pathetic interest is attached save as they were disturbed by internal wars. In the United States the tribes have been removed from place to place, 84 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. during the growth of the nation, till they know not what spot to call home. Ex- plorers for gold and silver invade their last hunting grounds, and floods of adven- turers pour in around them. What wonder if they grow sick, and obstinate, and desperate, and bloodthirsty? When will the end be? There have been various estimates of the number of inhabitants in America at the time -when it was discovered by Columbus. It is impossible to arrive at an exact statement, but the reckoning which assigns about five millions to the entire continent, is to be accepted as suffi- ciently accurate for use. This is based upon an estimate of somewhat less than one million for the. present territory of the United States. Probably there were not far from three or four hundred thous- and east of the Mississippi River. In South America the tribes through the eastern and southern portions were very numerous. In Peru and Mexico there were several nations under each central government. The Aztec government in Mexico was a species of confederacy, like the Iroquois in Central New York. Within the present limits of the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, there were found eight more or less rad- ically distinct nations, some of them quite small. They were the Algonquins, Huron-Iroquois, Cherokees, Catawbas, Uchees, Natchez, Mobilians, and Dako- tas or Sioux. The Algonquin family occupied, perhaps, the largest territory, running from Pennsylvania, Virginia, Delaware and New Jersey, through Southeastern New York, along the At- lantic seaboard of New England, thence inland along the St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes, and beyond down through Illinois, Indiana, and a portion of Ken- tucky and Tennessee. The tribes intc* which this great family was divided were more or less wandering in their habits. They moved according to the demands of hunting and fishing. Some of the tribes were the Montagnais, on the St. Law- rence, with whom the Jesuit priests liv- ing at Quebec, wandered in the- winter in order to gain a hold upon them; the Algonquins proper, upon the Ottawa River; the Chippewas, Menomenees,. Miamis, Sacs, and Foxes, Kickapoos and Illinois, through the West and on the Great Lakes ; the Abenaquis in Maine ; the Narragansetts, Pequods, Massachu- setts and Mohegans in Southern New England; the Delawares, Powhattans and Shawnees further south, together with some other less important clans. Massa- soit, King Philip, Powhattan and his daughter Pocahontas, Black Hawk, Ppn- tiac and Tecumseh, were all members of this extensive family. When settlements began to be made, about the year i6oo r it is thought that this nation numbered not far from two hundred and fifty thousand. Within this Algonquin territory, shut in closely on every side, lay the Huron- Iroquois family. Of these the Hurons,. among whom was the field of the Jesuits' most successful labor, had their towns east of Lake Huron, the Andastes dwelt on the Susquehanna, the Eries upon the southern shore of Lake Erie, the Neutral Nation on the northern shore of the same lake, while the Iroquois proper, dwelt in Central New York, from the Hudson to the Genesee. The latter, who have ta- ken such a prominent place in the colonial history of the United States, were gain- ing great power when the country was discovered. The Iroquois confederacy was composed at that time of five tribes, 86 INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. distributed in the following order from east to west, in Central New York : Mo- hawks, Oneidas, Onandagas, Cayugas and Senecas. In 1712 the Tuscaroras were admitted to the confederacy, and since then they have been known in his- tory as the "Six Nations" instead of the " Five Nations," as before that date. Their league was of the republican order, and very strong. The different tribes were bound together by eight different totems, to each of which, some portion of the Senecas, Cayugas and Onandagas belonged, and to three of which some portion of the Oneidas and Mohawks be- longed. The totems were the Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, Heron, and Hawk. The Mohawks and Onei- das belonged to the Wolf, Bear and Tur- tle. These different tribes were thus crossed by several strong bands, like so many ties of relationship weaving their tough threads through all the affairs of the league. Hendrick, Cornplanter, Red Jacket, Brant, Dr. Wilson and Gen. Parker, were all members of the Iroquois. It is thought that they num- bered not more than twenty thousand at their greatest height of power. The remnants of these once powerful tribes are scattered through Canada, New York, Wisconsin, and other States. During the seventeenth century they ex- tended their dominion over all the other members of the Huron-Iroquois family. The Jesuit missions among the Hurons were almost blotted from existence by the terrible warfare of the Five Nations. Their strength faded away only before the face of foreign foes. Through Florida and the States west of it bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, lay the Mobilian family of tribes, stretching from the Atlantic to the Rio Grande, and characterized by greater agricultural ten- dencies than were the families further north. Some of these tribes, such as the Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, and Chick- asaws, gave the United States great trouble at times in reference to lands and removals beyond the Mississippi. Osce- ola, the Seminole chief, was one of the leaders in trouble within the present cen- tury. The Catawba family dwelt partly within North, and partly within South,. Carolina, along the Yaclkin and Cataw- ba rivers. They never gave much trouble to settlers, though they were frequently engaged in war with other tribes. Peter Harris, the last full blooded Catawba Indian, took an active and hon- orable part in the American Revolution.. West of the Catawbas, among the mountains of Upper Georgia, dwelt the Cherokees, who were a bold, warlike people. They were removed to the In- dian Territory in 1838 and in the late Civil War fought in large numbers in the Confederate army. When the cause of the Southern States began to hang in doubt, nine thousand of them withdrew to the Union army. The Uchees lived in the present State of Georgia. Their numbers were very- small. They had no tradition of a mi- gration into the country, and claimed to be much older than the tribes around them. The Natchez, dwelling on the east bank of the Mississippi, affirmed that they were the oldest nation within the country. In some respects they were like the Indians of the Gulf region of Mexico. They were sun or fire worshipers. They were almost exterminated by the French in the early history of the Mississippi Val- ley. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 87 "jflie Dakotas or Sioux lived west of the Mississippi, with the exception of two or three bands of them, like the Winne- bagoes in Wisconsin, and some other tribes, constituted the mass of population where now the great industries of the United States are giving employment to thousands of operatives. The life of this HALF BREED. small, wandering clans. They covered the territory of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains north of the Arkansas River. These families, with their numerous country at that time was a roving, fretful one. Tribes were hostile to each other, and thus they were already diminishing one another's numbers and strength, in preparation for the coming of the Euro- 88 INTRODUCTORT STUDIES. pean. United, they could have been strong to resist for years. Divided, they could at best make only spasmodic efforts and sink down each time into greater weakness than before. The Iroquois league was the point of greatest strength, but even that gradually wasted away be- fore the touch of adverse power. The Indians of the present time within the Eastern United States are but feeble, inefficient remnants of what they once were. In the territories lining < the slopes of the Rocky Mountains some still maintain their old fierceness, and are constantly giving the nation occasion to mourn the loss of some of its bravest officers and soldiers. It has been cur- rently believed during the last few years that the Indians were dying out. But the best statistics show quite conclusively that such is not the case. Without doubt some tribes have diminished in numbers from various causes, but that the Indian population of the United States is de- creasing, seems to be a mistake. It is at least holding its own, if not actually in- creasing. Men who have known them most intimately the last few years, de- clare it to be so. What does not this nation owe these tribes in the way of education, evangelization and citizenship? How important for the welfare of the nation that corruption in the work of supplying them be exchanged for hon- esty; and that broken promises be ex- changed for pledges which are made to be kept. The Indian history of the country is a sad one from the time when the followers of Columbus began to work the natives ot Hayti in the brooks and mountains to secure from them the reve- nue of gold-dust, down to the present day, when there are very few to respect the Indian's rights if the prospect of gold- mining in the Black Hills or elsewhere, holds out its flattering prizes. The inde- pendence of the Indian's spirit, the haughtiness of his pride, the obstinacy of his will, all fundamental parts of his na- ture, make it difficult to weave him into the course of civilized life. But to make the distance wider, by an unjustifiable disre- gard, or by a process of extortion, or by an insatiable greed, is to be untrue to the mission which the United States has to- ward the native races of its own territory. SECTION III. - COL {7M%IAJV&ISTO% TAN Tftd.ftlTIOJV'S. BRIEF review of the accidental maritime events which are alleged to have been connected with the American continent before the time of Cabot and Columbus, should pre- cede all study of the intentional and ef- fective explorations set on foot at the close of the fifteenth century. The geograph- ical awakening of the latter period is not fully understood until it is contrasted with the indefinite and roving enterprises of previous generations. Many of the less reasonable accounts, partially or wholly without foundation, claim an interest sim- ply because they bear to some extent upon early ocean navigation. The Northmen were the chief sea rovers of that time, but they were venturesome sailors, not scientific navigatoi's. They fell by accident upon the discovery which, at a later day, cost such a struggle, and proved such a boon, to the world. The story of their extensive voyages, drawn from their Sagas, teaches how unprepared the age must have been for new terri- torial possessions, since it passed by the fruits of their achievements, with scarcely a perceptible emotion. The efforts to colonize, puny as they were, and the fin?l abolition of all knowledge of the New 89 World, throw a great light upon the scientific and commercial deadness of the age of which such things could be true. The intrepid Vikings of the tenth and eleventh centuries were not a part of the civilization which about five centuries latei", claimed every inch of soil it touched, and took possession of it with floating banners, erected crosses and buried plates. Neither had the great problem of a pas- sage to the Indies dawned upon the mind of the world, to give force to the greed of nations. The little Norse vessels went here and there in Northern seas without chart or compass. Driving storms forced them through wastes of water, and upon strange coasts. A great rift separates the whole story from the modern determined conquest of the ocean. A mist, which will never be completely dissipated, cur- tains this olden time. The legendary seal rests upon much of the narration. 499. The Buddhist Priest in Mexico. A tradition, founded upon the Year Books of the Chinese, in which a minute account of the country and its inhabitants is given, asserts that Hoei Shin, a Buddhist priest, visited a land " twenty thousand li east of Tahan," and named it Fusang. Much has been said to prove Fusang to be 90 INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. Mexico, or perhaps California; and much, likewise, in depreciation of the whole ac- count, which has been pronounced entirely deceitful. The evidence drawn from the description of animals and plants in the narrative, is wholly uncertain. The event in itself was not an impossible one, and the voyage described may have had a foundation in fact. The wrecks of eastem VCSSels MA. Cambridge Umversity, Eng- found upon the Pacific coast land, founded. America m recent centuries. It seems entirely probable, however, that the country reached was nearer the priest's starting point than either Mexico or California would be. 725. Irish in Iceland. According to the Islcndinga bbk, the oldest piece of Icelan- dic literature, Irish settlers and Culdee anchorites landed in Iceland and colonized two or three places, where they remained till nearly the time of the arrival of the Northmen in the next century. They left traces of their presence in little bells, books and crosiers. Their settlements were chiefly in the isle of Papoen on the east coast, and of Papyle on the south coast of the island. They were originally induced to go thither by some report gained from an Irish monk. 861. First Northman in Iceland. Nad- doddr, a Norwegian Viking, was driven upon the coast of Iceland in a storm. He named it Snjaland, or Snowland, and after slight exploration, returned home. 864. Svafarsson and Floki. A Swe- dish navigator named Garthar Svafarsson, having been driven to Iceland in a storm, spent the winter there, and carried back an excellent account of the island. Before long, other hardy mariners visited Iceland. Among them was Floki, who, in an attempt to settle on the island, wintered on the coast, but returned to his own land with less favorable accounts than others before him had given. 874. The first permanent settlement in Iceland was formed at Reykiavik by Hjorleifr and Ingolfr, two Norwegian chieftains who had come here about three years before, to escape the tyranny of the home government. The place soon be- gan to flourish, because others came for the same reason. This is the settlement whose thousandth anniversary was cele- brated with such parade in 1874. 876. The Discovery of Greenland. Greenland was accidentally discovered by Gunnbjorn, a Northman, 890 Oxford Uni _ who was wrecked upon its -versify, En/?. , T , land, founded. eastern coast. It was known for a century afterward as "Gunnbjorn's Rocks," and remained uncolonized. 928. Iceland became a republic in government, and remained such for about three centuries. During this period it reached a high degree of prosperity and wealth. It had, at one time, over one hundred thousand inhabitants. Learning and literature flourished. It was the golden period of Icelandic history. 981. Christianity in Iceland. Chris- tianity was preached for the first time in Iceland by Friedrich, a Saxon bishop. He was brought to the island by Thor- wald, who had been converted to the faith by him in Denmark. 983. Greenland was re-discovered by Eric the Red, who had been banished from Iceland because of his turbulence and crimes. He conferred its present name upon the country, and visited the western coast at an inlet which he named Ericsfiord, at which point he conceived the idea of founding a colony. 985. Greenland Colonized. Eric the Red, having returned to Iceland after a short time, sailed again for Ericsfiord PRE-COLUMBIAN HISTORT AND TRADITIONS. 499-1488.] with a fleet of twenty-five vessels. Eleven of them were wrecked and lost upon the passage, but the rest arrived safely, and a prosperous town was formed. Other settlements were soon founded, and the country was explored in different direc- tions. Greenland was for centuries a flourishing region. 986. North American Coast. Biarne Herjulfson sailed from Iceland for Green- land, but on account of fogs and north winds, lost his course and came upon the coast of a strange land, which he sighted at different times in a northerly direction. It is thought that he came upon the Atlan- tic coast of North America, perhaps at Newfoundland or Labrador, and sailed along it until he arrived at the colony of Eric. No landing was made till Green- land was reached. 1000. Northmen in Vinland. Leif, son of Eric the Red, with thirty-five men, explored the coast of North Amer- ica for a long distance. He landed first at a place which he named Helluland, from the appearance of slate upon the coast. This is thought to have been Labrador or Newfoundland. He then found a region which he named Mark- land, from the wooded shores. He finally reached a pleasant country and spent the winter at some spot in it. As nearly as can be told, it was in the region of Rhode Island. The adventurers named it Vin- land, because they found wild grapes in great abundance. In the spring they returned to Greenland. 1002. Thorwald, a brother of Leif, sailed to Vinland and remained there two years. He came upon a cape which he named Kialarnes or Keel Cape. It was undoubtedly Cape Cod. 1004. First Fight with Natives. Thorwald and some of his men in their 91 explorations along the coast of Vinland, came into contact with the natives for the first time. The Northmen killed eight, and soon afterward were attacked by a large number and driven to their boats. Thorwald was severely wounded, and soon died. The colony returned to Green- land. 1005. Thorstein, a third son of Eric,, sailed for Vinland, but failed to find land, and returned. 1007. Karlsefne's Colony. Thorfinn Karlsefne sailed to Vinland with a col- ony of men and women. An attempt was made, for a few years, to support the colony in the vicinity of Mt. Hope Bay, Rhode Island. But at last, after several fierce conflicts with the natives, these colo- nists also gave up the enterpi'ise and re- turned to Greenland. A son had been born to Karlsefne in Vinland, and .was named Snorri, the first child of European parentage born on the American conti- nent. It is claimed that Thorwaldsen, the celebrated Danish sculptor, and one or two Danish scholars of repute, de- scended from Snorri. 1011. Last Recorded Norse Colony in Vinland. Freydis, daughter of Eric, now led an expedition to Vinland. But after discord and murder this company sailed away from Vinland, of which we do not hear after this time. It has been claimed that the old stone tower at New- port, Rhode Island, and the inscription upon Dighton Rock, which 1096-1272. lies upon the bank of Taun- The Crusades. ton River, are memorials of these visits of the Northmen. But other antiquari- ans have zealously opposed this view, and the origin of these relics is, therefore, by no means clear. 1121. First Bishop in Greenland. Greenland was erected into a bishop- INTRODUCTORY STUDIES. ric, and Arnold was consecrated as its first bishop. A considerable number of churches and monasteries had been built, and the ecclesiastical affairs of the country were on quite a firm foundation. 1170. The Welsh Prince. A tradi- tion drawn from some of the registers in Welsh abbeys asserts that Madoc, a Welsh prince, discovered and colonized America. It has been supposed by some that traces of the colony established by him have been found among the Indians of the 1302. Mariners United States in a tribe with compass invent- ,. . . . .. ed at Naples, by light skins who speak a dia- Gioia. lect allied to " Old English." 1265-1321. ., Dante. But the evidence drawn from the reports of early travelers, is en- tirely inconclusive. 1380. The Zeno Brothers. It is al- leged upon the authority of certain maps and letters published by one of their de- scendants, that Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, Venetian navigators, explored the whole 1324-1384. Atlantic coast of the present Wickiiffe. United States. But the story is in some respects so singular that it is probably a fabrication almost or quite en- tirely. 1387. Iceland acknowledged submis- sion to the King of Denmark and Nor- way. It soon suffered reverses which have greatly lessened ever since the strength of its civilization. 1402. The Black Death, a terrible plague, carried off nearly two-thirds of 1328-1400. the population of Iceland, Chaucer. an( j about nine-tenths of the cattle died during the following winter, from the inclement weather. 1406. The last bishop of Greenland, named Endride Andreason, was conse- crated. 1409. Decline of Greenland. The bishopric of Greenland was abandoned because of the loss of population and wealth. The country had suffered from the Black Death, and from 1440 _ invention hostile incursions. It was f Printing. now lost sight of, and had no more history till about the close of the sixteenth century. 1484. Alonzo Sanchez is alleged to have been driven across to Hayti by a storm, and, having spent some time in exploration, to have returned and revealed to Columbus what he had 1485 . 1509 _ Hen . discovered. This tradition rv VH., King j L.L Ji c of England. is undoubtedly empty of truth, having evidently originated since the achievements of Columbus took place. 1488. Cousin, the Frenchman. A French writer claims that Cousin, a Dieppe navigator, discovered America by being driven over the ocean in a westerly course by a storm. The account states that a man named Pinzon was with Cousin, and that he, having gone to Spain upon their return to Europe, inter- ested Columbus in the project, and sailed with him upon his first voyage. But the Pinzons were rich and energetic enough to have undertaken an enterprise of their own, if one of their number had evei been across the Atlantic. We have no evi- dence that such was the case. DISCOVERY, 1492-1630. "Look now abroad another race has filed These populous borders -wide the wood recedes^ And towns shoot up, and fertile realms are tilled; The land is full of harvests and green meads; Streams numberless, that many a fountain feeds , Shine, disembowered, and give to sun and breeze Their virgin waters; the full region leads New colonies forth, that toward the western seas Spread^ like a rapid Jlame among the autumnal trees.* BRYANT 94 SECTION IV. 2) IS CO r&ft T. f 92-7506. "\j WIDE collateral study of Euro- /jL pean science, government, and so- y \ cial life, in the fifteenth century, A A \vould show that the American -*X vX continent would have been brought to light within a short time even if Columbus O had not served as the foremost agent in .its accomplishment. The New World could not have been much longer hidden in deep obscurity. The world had reached a point at which the discovery was to be neither accidental nor unnecessary. The .attention of the learned was turned more and more to geographical science. Mar- itime enterprise was engrossing the thoughts of a great many upon the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic coast of Europe. Little vessels were .-gradually pushing their way into the ocean, though most sailors were as yet very timid when far from land. Explor- ers were following the coast of Africa, and at last rounded the Cape of Good Hope. The nations were eager for ter- ritorial expansion, and the increase of wealth. The question of a short and advantageous route to the riches of the Orient inflamed their passions. Hun- dreds of adventurers were ready for any enterprise which promised conquest and gold. The compass and astrolabe, then recent inventions, made victory over the ocean greater and more scientific. There were to be injustice, passion, bigotry, and many bloody deeds, to disgrace the sub- jugation of America, but in its virgin soil much true life was to root itself. By that life we live to-day. Many places lay claim to the honor of having been the birthplace of Columbus. No one of them all has better reasons for so doing than the beautiful city of Genoa, in Italy, upon the Mediterranean. The year of his birth is uncertain, but most -authorities set it at 1435. In his early boyhood he formed the plan of pursuing the life of a navigator, and was sent by his father, for a very short time, to the University of Pa via, where he studied the necessary sciences. At the age of four- teen years he made his first voyage, and sailed much upon the Mediterranean dur- 95 96 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. ing his youth. In 1477, after he had be- gun to mature the great purpose of his life, he sailed on a voyage into Northern seas, passing Iceland, as is thought, to lat- itude 73 or beyond. He had already gone, in 1470, to Lisbon, Portugal, at- tracted thither probably, by the zeal of Prince Henry in geographical study. His attention had already been aroused by the floating stories of unknown lands far off in the seas, and by the speculation of geographers upon the shape of the earth, and the position of the continents. He held communica- tion before long, with some of the scholars of the time, about these question j, and what he learned from them fixed in him a purpose to attempt a solu- tion of the prob- lem. While en- g aged in the work of construc- ting charts and maps at Lisbon, for his own support, the project of reach- ing Asia by sailing directly west, began to take greater possession of his mind. He soon made proposals for an expedi- tion, to the court of Portugal, and per- haps to the governments of Venice and Genoa, but could effect nothing. He af- terward sent his brother, Bartholomew, to the court of England to negotiate with Henry VII. While in Lisbon he mar- ried the daughter of a deceased naviga- tor, and thereby gained possession of CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. many charts and plans. His wife having died, he left Lisbon in 1484, with his little son, Diego, and began his application to the learned men and royal court of Spain. He pleaded his cause before the best minds of the day at Salamanca, and gained access to Ferdinand and Isabella. The views he presented met with favor from some, but were constantly hindered by the crude intellectual and religious notions of the time. Discouraged at last by the unceasing opposition, he left the court of Spain in February, 1 492 > and set out for France. Through the impassioned solicitation of Luis de St. Angel and Alonzo de Quin- tanilla, Queen Isabella sent a courier to over- take Columbus,, and summon him again to court- Upon his return the expedition was finally agreed upon, Queen Isa- bella promising- to assume the expense for her own crown of Castile, by the pledge of her jewels, a step rendered unnecessary by a loan from St. Angel, who was at the time ecclesias- tical treasurer of Aragon. This was the long-expected and patiently-awaited mo- ment of a score of years. The scientific and religious ambitions of Columbus seemed about to be realized. The defeats of his life were apparently, though not really, at an end. 1492. April 17. The Written Agree- 1492-1506.] THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 97 merit. Ferdinand and Isabella signed an agreement to undertake an expedition. The offices and honors of admiral and viceroy over the lands which would be discovered, were conferred upon Colum- bus and his heirs forever. It was also stipulated that one-tenth of all valuable substances found in the new realms should be reserved for him, and that he should receive an eighth of the profits whenever he chose to assume an eighth of the cost. 1492. April 30. A Letter of Privi- lege was drawn up by the monarchs, which repeated the agreement in the form of a commission, and authorized Columbus and his descendants to use the title Don before their names. 1492. Aug. 3. The First Departure. Columbus sailed before sunrise on the morning of Friday, from the Roads of Saltes, near Palos, with three vessels and one hundred and twenty persons, in- cluding ninety mariners. The largest vessel, named Santa Maria, was decked, and was commanded by Columbus him- self. The other two were caravels with- out decks, but each of them had a fore- castle, and a cabin in the stern. The Pinta was commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon ; the Nina by his brother, Vincente Yanez Pinzon. A third brother, Francisco Martin Pinzon, was pilot on board the Pinta. The Pinzons had added the third vessel to the expedition by their own wealth, and had enabled Columbus to provide an eighth of the whole cost. 1492. Aug. 9. The Canary Islands were reached, where the Pinta was re- paired, and stores were obtained. 1492. Sept. 6. The Unknown Ocean. The little fleet sailed from the Canary Islands directly west into the Atlantic, much to the disheartening of the more timid sailors, who now began to realize 7 very vividly, the nature of the enter- prise. 1492. Sept. 13. Variation of the Needle. Columbus for the first time noticed the variation of the compass needle from the North Star, and kept the knowledge of it from his officers and men for several days. When the pilots discovered it, the dejection they felt at losing sight of land was greatly increased through fear that the ordinary laws of nature would no longer hold good. Dur- ing the next few weeks the sailors were several times on the point of mutiny, and at last threatened the life of Colum- bus. They were constantly deceived, however, by signs of land, and were thus held on their way. 1492. Sept. 21. The Sargasso Sea. They entered that mysterious mass of floating seaweed in the middle Atlantic, known as the Sargasso Sea. The minds of the sailors were greatly excited with the fear of rocks, reefs and shoals. The Sargasso Sea lies in the center of the North Atlantic system of currents, near the Azores. At this point a large section of the ocean is nearly motionless. An area larger than France is covered with a seaweed commonly called Sargassum natans, more properly, Sargassum bacci ferum, with which is mingled anothel curious weed, called Macrocystis pyrifera with stems a thousand or fifteen hundred feet long, the size of a man's finger. From a distance the weed looks perfectly solid. Columbus, however, knew the ocean well enough to be convinced that his vessels were still in deep water. He therefore quieted his men, and kept his course. But in the management of such difficulties, the great explorer found need for all the resources of his wonderful nature. Few men have exhibited a more 98 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. complete self-possession in the midst of unexpected emergencies, or have united so great a skill with so sublime a faith. 1492. Oct. 12. Land was at last dis- covered about two o'clock on the morning of Friday, ten weeks, almost to an hour, from the time the fleet sailed from Palos. A moving light had been seen by Colum- bus earlier in the night, and had been confidently judged by him to be a sign of inhabited land. At daylight each com- mander landed with a boat's company, and Columbus took possession with the royal standard, in behalf of Ferdinand and Isabella, naming the island San Sal- vador. The natives manifested great curiosity. San Salvador, the native name of which was Guanahani, is one of the Bahamas, at a distance of two hundred and fifty miles from Florida. Columbus obtained from the natives a few gold or- naments in exchange for glass beads, and little hawks' bells. To the question where gold was procured, an invariable response was made by pointing to the south, across the water. After a few days Columbus cruised among the rest of the Bahama group, landing and naming several of the islands. He then sailed toward the south in search of the land of gold. _ 1492. Oct. 28. Cigars and Maize. Land was discovered, the Indian name of which was found to be Cuba. It was here that Columbus and his followers first saw the natives, both men and women, smoking rolls of leaves, either by holding them in the mouth, or in the ends of reeds, through which the smoke was in- haled. This was the tobacco plant which grew wild on the island, and whose name is thought, though other derivations have been proposed, to have since been drawn from the tabacos, the pipe or reed through which the Caribbee Indians smoked it. The Aztecs also used it as a roll of leaves sometimes, in a silver or shell holder. This is the origin of the modern cigar. The Spaniards pronounced the pei'fume " fragrant and grateful." Maize, which was cultivated by the natives, was now for the first time seen by Europeans. The name Indian corn was conferred upon it at a later day by the Pilgrims, at Plymouth, Mass. 1492. Dec. 6. Hayti was discovered and named Hispaniola, or Little Spain. Columbus everywhere treated the natives with great kindness, and prohibited any abuse of their confidence. 1492. Dec. 24. The Santa Maria was wrecked upon a shoal near Hayti by the cai'elessness of the pilot. By the aid of the natives the ammunition and stores of all kinds were safely landed. A fort was built out of the beams of the vessel, and named La Navidad. The native prince, Guacanagari, treated the Spaniards with great honor, and gave them gifts of gold. 1493. Jan. 4. Columbus left thirty- nine men at La Navidad, and sailed for Spain on board the Nina. He gave the. little colony earnest injunctions to behave honorably toward one another, and the natives. In the meantime the Pinta had deserted in search of gold, but was found, and sailed in company with the Nina. The vessels were beaten about by severe tempests, and were at last separated from one another. 1493. March 4. Columbus arrived at the mouth of the river Tagus, in Port- ugal, and sent a courier to the Spanish sovereigns to announce his coming. 1492-1506.] THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 99 1493. March 15. Columbus arrived at Palos, and was welcomed with great acclamations. At evening of the same day the Pinta arrived. Her commander, Martin Alonzo Pinzon, thinking that the Nina had been lost at sea, or hoping to arrive first and secure the glory, had for- warded a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella from Bayonne, on the Bay of Biscay. His plans being thwarted, and a letter of reprimand being received from the sov- ereigns, Pinzon sank away in chagrin, and died in a short time. Yet he should not be misjudged. He had been eager to take part in the expedition, and more than any other except Columbus, had helped carry it out to a complete success. He was evidently impatient at the thought that the honor would all descend upon one person. He was a leading navigator of his time, and as such, was proud and sensitive. His real and thorough partici- pation in the discovery, when so many were ready to falter, should be great commendation for him, and serve to put into just relations his temporary deviation from the path of true manliness. Colum- bus was everywhere laden with honor, especially at the royal court. He dis- played m public processions the products of the New World, together with a half dozen of the natives. 1493. May 2. A Papal Bull was issued, granting to the Spanish sovereigns full rights, titles, and powers in the newly discovered lands. 1493. May 25. The former contract between Columbus and the sovereigns was renewed, affirming the rights of Columbus and his descendants to the offices of admiral, viceroy and governor, in all the lands discovered. The royal seal was given to Columbus for use in giving letters patent and commissions. The honor shown to Columbus at this time began to excite envy in many breasts, and to prepare the way for that violation of all these solemn contracts against which he was obliged to contend for the rest of his life. 1493. Sept. 25. The Second Depar- ture. Columbus sailed from Cadiz on his second voyage with fifteen hundred men, in three ships and fourteen light caravels. There were miners, mechan- ics, husbandmen, and many restless adven- turers. Different kinds of seeds, and do- mestic animals, including horses, were taken upon this expedition. It was dur- ing the preparation for this voyage in some trivial matters, that the hostility to Columbus on the part of Fonseca, arch- deacon of Seville, subsequently bishop, and for a long time at the head of In- dian affairs for the New World, origina- ted. The same man was at a later time a deadly foe to Cortes. 1493. Nov. 3. Pierce Caribbee In- dians. Columbus having taken a route further south than on his former voyage, discovered the Caribbean Islands and landed at several, including Guadeloupe. After some intercourse with the natives, and some fighting, in which one or two Spaniards were killed with poisoned ar- rows, he sailed for Hayti. 1493. Nov. 27. The fleet arrived at La Navidad, Hayti, in the evening, and found next morning that the fort had been completely destroyed. The men left in it had failed to observe the faithful charge given them, and by jealousies among themselves and evil conduct to- ward the natives, had brought ruin upon their own heads. A part of the garrison,, as was afterward learned, went into ch 100 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. interior of the island, where they were slain by the inhabitants, who soon sur- prised and slew the rest at the fort. This was the beginning of evil, because it caused the growth of hostile feelings which Columbus had done so much to prevent. He mournfully searched for another suitable spot and founded a col- ony on the same island, a little east of Monte Christi. This first real colony in the New World he named Isabella. Houses were speedily built; squares and streets were laid out. But the colonists began to grow sick in body, through change of climate and malarial influ- ences, and sick in mind, as they realized that wealth even in the New World, would be the result of hard labor alone. Columbus found this year that the cotton tree grew wild, and that the inhabitants used the product of it in dressing, and in making fishing nets. 1494. January. Finding of Gold. In order to explore the island more fully and to allay the passion of some who only cared for the New World so far as it would bring them immediate riches, Cojumbus sent out a company under Alonzo de Ojeda to go into the interior and search for gold. They returned with fine specimens of gold ore, and with a quantity of gold dust which had been washed out of the sand of brooks. 1494. Feb. 2. Columbus sent twelve vessels home to Spain with fruit, gold, and Caribbee captives. After the de- parture of the fleet he discovered an in- cipient rebellion, and punished the ring- leaders. 1494. March 12. Fort St. Thomas. Columbus left Isabella under the com- mand of his brother, Don Diego, and started with four hundred men upon an expedition into the interior of the island. They crossed an extensive and beautiful valley, and then entered a region of lofty mountains. They soon found gold in the streams, and having selected a defensible position, built a fort, which they named St. Thomas. Fifty-six men were left as a garrison, and Columbus set out upon his. return. 1494. March 29. Misery at Isa- bella. Columbus arrived at Isabella and found sickness, discontent and unwilling- ness to work, rapidly increasing. Persons of rank complained at having a portion of labor assigned them. Columbus deter- mined to employ large numbers of them in further exploration of the island, and to sail with some himself to the west on a voyage of discovery. 1494. April 9. Alonzo de Ojeda was sent with four hundred men to St. Thomas, with directions to have the re- gion thoroughly explored. 1494. April 24. The Coast of Cuba. Columbus left Isabella with three cara- vels and sailed to the west along the south shore of Cuba, for several months in all, landing at different points until he deemed it best to go no further, on ac- count of the worn condition of the vessels. Before turning back, however, he took by a notary, the opinion of every person on -. board the three vessels that the land along which they were coasting was a conti- nent, and no one was afterward to contra- dict that assertion, except upon pain of severe punishment. They were then within a short distance of the west end of Cuba, which would have dispelled their illusion. 1494. May 3. Jamaica was dis- covered by a short trip to the south from the coast of Cuba. 1494. Sept. 4. Don Bartholomew 1492-1506.] THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 101 Columbus. The vessels reached Isabella upon their return. Columbus, shortly before their arrival, was stricken down with over-fatigue, and lay in a critical condition. At Isabella he found his brother, Don Bartholomew, who had been sent to England before the Spanish sov- ereigns had agreed to enter upon the at- tempt of discovery, with a request that Henry VII. would fit out an expedition. The English monarch accepted the pro- posal, and Don Bartholomew was re- turning to Spain for his brother, when he heard that the voyage had already taken place, and that Christopher was then at the Spanish court in triumph. Hasten- ing his journey, he arrived just after the second expedition had departed, and fol- lowed to the New World as soon as other vessels sailed thither. His presence in Isabella was most opportune. His vigor and decision were of great assistance. He was immediately invested with au- thority by his brother, that he might set about the regulation of the affairs of the colony, which had got into an unfortu- nate condition during the absence of the admiral. The soldiers, in exploring the interior, had aroused the hostility of the natives by their cruelty and excesses. Discord had arisen, and some of the ene- mies of Columbus had sailed to Spain. The natives had risen in fierce attacks on St. Thomas, and in threatened assaults on Isabella. 1494. Indian Slaves. Before the close of this year four ships arrived from Spain with provisions. Columbus sent them back soon with gold, metals, fruits, and five hundred Indian captives, to be sold as slaves. This blot on the fair fame of the great discoverer is to be ac- counted for by the condition of his times. These were the ones whom the compas- sionate queen ordered to be sent back at once. She at the same time sent com- mands that the islanders be treated mercifully. 1495. March 27. Suffering of Hayti Natives. Columbus, having recovered from his long illness, set out with an army to subdue the island. He accomplished his object, and established a tribute of gold dust and cotton to be paid by the natives monthly or quarterly. This tribute was the cause of great suffering among the natives, and was afterward diminished in amount. This was the beginning of that enforced labor in mining, which nearly annihilated the Indian population of Hayti during the next fifty years. It was with the greatest difficulty that the poor beings could, by toiling all the time, procure enough gold to satisfy the de- mand for tribute. They had been to- tally unaccustomed to labor except just as they pleased, and thousands of them per- ished beneath the burden. Add to this the fact that the Indian lands were soon given to Spanish settlers, who began to secure natives to work in cultivating the soil, or in mining, and it can be easily seen that their condition grew darker all the time in the strengthening of the slavery into which they had fallen. The hot sun of Hayti saw many of them perish miser- ably by the exactions of their cruel masters. 1495. April 10. Opposition to Co- lumbus. A royal proclamation was issued in Spain, granting the right of sailing on private voyages to the New World, and of trading there. This set loose a large number of adventurers and navigators. Just at this time a commis- sioner named Juan Aguado was sent out to study the affairs of the colonv, and re- port upon the difficulties found there, 102 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. knowledge of which had been diffused in Spain by the enemies of Columbus. Upon his arrival at Isabella, he began to collect information against Columbus from all quarters, through the misrepre- sentations of the colonists, who laid the burden of all their ills upon the shoulders of the admiral. 1496. March. 10. Columbus and Commissioner Aguado set sail for Spain in two caravels. Two hundred and twenty-five persons returned to Spain at the same time. Nearly fifty Indians were also carried. 1496. June 11. The vessels arrived at Cadiz, after much suffering from lack of food. The reception of Columbus by the people was extremely cool. Ferdi- nand and Isabella, however, gave him a cordial greeting. His reputation in the nation at large was on the decline, because his voyages had been no more profitable to those engaged in them. The com- plaints were disregarded by the sovereigns, and Columbus began to ask for a third expedition under his own command. But he met with indefinite delays of all kinds. These made it possible for English ex- plorers to discover the mainland of the western continent, over a year before Columbus set foot upon it. 1496. San Domingo was founded at the mouth of the river Ozema, in Hayti, in order to afford another seaport. It rapidly took precedence of Isabella. 1497. June 2. A royal edict was issued, retracting the right of private voyages and trade, so far as they conflicted with the claims of Columbus. NORTH AMERICA DISCOVERED. 1497. June 24. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, having obtained a patent from Henry VII. of England, sailed in a vessel named " Matthew," to the north* west in search of a passage to India, and this day discovered the coast of Labrador, fourteen months before Co- 1498 . 1515i Lmis Itimbus discovered the main- xii. King of land of South America. They returned without profit from their voyage. It is asserted by some on the authority of certain maps upon which the date was put by the Cabots themselves,, that this voyage took place in 1494. 1498. May. After the death of his father, Sebastian Cabot sailed again to the New World, with two ships and three hundred men. He coasted during the summer from Labrador to Chesapeake Bay, some say to Florida. Feeling sure that the land was a new continent, he re- turned to England. He had discovered and named Newfoundland, and reported at home the immense numbers of codfish which he had seen off its coast, which, he said, were nearly numerous enough to impede the vessel in its course. He thus,, perhaps, originated the great fishery on the Newfoundland Banks, though there is some evidence that the Basques had been there before his voyage. The young explorer was twenty-one years of age at the time of this expedition. These two voyages lay at the foundation of the claim which England afterward made to" North America. 1498. May 30. The Third Depart- ure. Columbus sailed from San Lucar de Barrameda upon his third voyage r with six vessels. His patience gave way at the moment of departure, when he knocked down and kicked Ximeno Bre- viesca, Fonseca's treasurer, a man who had harassed him in all his preparations. The long delay had worn out the re- markable patience of the admiral, and he 1492-1506.] could bear no more. The sovereigns were somewhat estranged by this unfor- tunate event. Columbus took a route to the south of his previous voyages. 1498. July 31. Trinidad was dis- covered, and named from the appearance of its mountains. SOUTH AMERICA DISCOVERED. 1498. Aug. 1. While cruising along the southern shore of Trinidad, Colum- bus beheld in the distance the low line of the South American coast. He entered the Gulf of Paria within a few days, and landed upon the mainland, which he thought to be another island. The natives had large strings of pearls which they said were procured on the coast to the north. Through lack of pi^ovisions and the ill-health of Columbus, the fleet sailed for Hayti. It was upon this cruise that Columbus experienced the high waves which in July and August mark the mouths of the Orinoco River. This river rises between April and October, thirty or more feet, and sometimes creates at its outlets a very dangerous sea for shipping. THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 103 1498. Pearl Fishery. The islands of Margarita and Cubagua, since noted for their pearl fishery, were discovered. Co- lumbus obtained a quantity of pearls to be sent home to Spain. 1498. Aug. 30. Columbus arrived at San Domingo, and was met by his 1498. Vasco da brother, Don Bartholomew. Ga, a doubled He learned that the natives the Cape of Good Hope, and reach- had been a source of con- ed India. stant trouble, and that a re- bellion of Spaniards, under Francisco Roldan, whom he had often befriended, was in existence. For two years from this time Columbus struggled with the task of regaining his authority, and finally succeeded to a certain extent. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. 1499. May 30. Alonzo de Ojeda, a companion of Columbus in his second expedition, sailed from Spain with four ships, on a voyage of discovery in the New World. Americus Vespucius, a Florentine merchant, accompanied him as navigator and geographer. They fol- lowed the charts which Columbus had already sent home to explain his third voyage, and reaching the South Ameri- can coast, sailed through the Gulf of Paria. At the entrance of Lake Mara- caibo they found an Indian town built upon piles over the water, and named it Venezuela, or Little Venice. The name has since been extended to the gulf, and to the whole region of country. Thence they crossed to Hayti, and kidnapping natives on different islands, returned to Spain, where they sold their captives for slaves. This voyage lies at the founda- tion of the name afterward conferred upon the Western continent. The claim has been made that this expedition was in 1497, and that Vespucius was the dis- coverer of the South American mainland, but the evidence that this is the true date of it is greatest. Columbus undoubtedly first saw the region. 1499. June. Pearls. Pedro Alonzo Nino and Christoval Guerra sailed from Palos, with thirty-three persons, in a ves- sel of fifty tons. They coasted through the Gulf of Paria to the island of Mar- garita, where they obtained, by trading with the natives, the largest amount of pearls which had yet been secured, some of them of great size and value. They 104 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. then returned safely to Spain with their riches. Nino was imprisoned for a time, because it was suspected that the voyagers had secreted a part of their pearls before taking out the royal portion. The charge was not sustained, and he was liberated to enjoy his wealth. 150O. Jan. 28. Cape St. Augustine was discovered by Vincent Yanez Pinzon, who sailed on a voyage of exploration with four ships. He afterward discovered the Amazon by the freshness of the water far out at sea, and was the first to cross the equinoctial line in the western Atlantic. He returned to Spain with the loss of two ships and a large number of his men, by a hurricane. 1500. April 26. Brazil was discov- ered by Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, who sailed from Portugal for India by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, arid kept far to the west. He took formal possession for the throne of Portugal. 1500. Diego de Lope sailed to the coast of South America and passed be- yond Cape St. Augustine a long distance, thus reaching further south than any explorer previous to himself, or for twelve years afterward. 15OO. GasparCortereal,a Portuguese navigator, sailed to the coast of North America, and having reached as far as Labrador, kidnapped fifty-nine natives, and sold them profitably for slaves upon his return. It is thought that the name Labrador, laborer, was first used after this voyage, because of the good qualities of the natives for work. 1500. Aug. 23. Arrest of Columbus. Don Francisco de Bobadilla, having been sent out to investigate the fresh charges made against Columbus, arrived in San Domingo. He at once assumed the su- preme authority, seized the house and effects of Columbus in the latter's absence, and as soon as possible, took the admiral and his brothers prisoners, and put them in irons. 1500. October. Columbus was sent to Spain in chains by Bobadilla. The officers of the caravel, pained at the sight, offered to remove the shackles, but Co- lumbus refused, saying that he would wear them till the further will of the sov- ereigns was known, and then preserve them as a part of the reward of his ser- vices. 1500. October. Eodrigo de Bastides sailed from Cadiz with two ships, and explored the northern coast of South America. His vessels were destroyed by the shipworm, and he reached Hayti with his crew, at great hazard. He returned to Spain with considerable wealth in pearls. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, after- ward the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean, came to the New World in this expedi- tion. 1500. Nov. 23. Columbus reached Spain, where a great reaction took place upon his arrival in chains. The sov- ereigns found that wrong had been clone by the unjust methods of Bobadilla. They ordered Columbus and his brothers to be freed, and received the admiral with great honor. They promised to re- call Bobadilla. 1501. Gaspar Cortereal sailed a sec- ond time for the coast of North America, to continue the traffic in slaves, but was never heard from. FIRST SANCTION OF NEGRO SLAVERY. 1,501. A royal ordinance was passed permitting Spanish emigrants to the New World to take with them negro slaves which had been born among Christians. 1492-1506.] 1502. Feb. 13, Don Nicholas de Ovando was sent out by the sovereigns after a long delay, to supersede Bobadilla as governor of the New World. He was directed to repair all the injuries done to the rights and property of Columbus and his brothers. 1502. First Mainland Settlement. Alonzo de Ojeda sailed with four ships on a second voyage. He passed over his former route through the Gulf of Paria, and undertook to found a colony upon the coast beyond. It was soon broken up by discord among its members. 1502. May 9, The Fourth Depart- ure. Columbus, with the authority of Ferdinand and Isabella, sailed from Cadiz upon his fourth voyage, which also proved his last one, with four hundred and fifty men in four caravels of from fifty to one hundred tons burden each. He designed to attempt the discovery of the strait which he supposed to exist at the south- west of Cuba. It had not yet been learned that Cuba was an island. 1502. June 29. He arrived at San Domingo, but was refused admission to the harbor by Gov. Ovando, for some reasons unknown. He predicted a severe storm, and warned a fleet which was about to convey Bobadilla and many others to Spain, not to put to sea. His judgment was rejected, the vessels sailed immediately, and were almost all carried down by the tempest which Columbus foretold. One vessel alone was able to keep on. A few put back to San Do- mingo in wretched condition. Many lives were lost, including Bobadilla ; also much treasure. Columbus shielded his own vessel as well as he could under the lee of the island, and soon afterward sailed on his way to the west. 1502. Aug. 14. Cape Honduras was THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 105 discovered and landed upon by Colum- bus. 1502. Sept. 14. Cape Gracias a Dios was discovered and named by Columbus, who then sailed southward along the coast of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and obtained slight quantities of gold from the natives. At last he abandoned his search for the strait, and returned upon his course. 1502. Miguel Cortereal sailed from Portugal to the North American coast in search of his brother Gaspar, but was also lost. 1502. Brazil was visited by Americus Vespucius, under the authority of the king of Portugal. He discovered the Bay of All Saints, built a fort for his ' stay of five months, loaded a cargo of Brazil wood, and returned to Spain. 1503. March. A settlement was at- tempted by Columbus in the district of Veragua, near the Isthmus of Panama, but the undertaking was broken up by the fierceness of the natives, who attacked the Spaniards, and killed many. The admiral was not to have the honor of planting the first colony upon the main- land. Leaving the coast he sailed to the east, passed through the mouth of the Gulf of Darien, and then bent his course northerly. 1503. June 24. A Lonely Year. He was obliged to beach his worn-out and worm-eaten vessels upon Jamaica. He arranged them for defence and shelter, and lived in them about one year. But it was a trying year. Troubles thickened about him. Differences broke out among his men, and at one time a portion of them revolted and separated from the vessels. A warfare took place, which, in addition to the hostility of the natives, made the position of Columbus one of 106 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. extreme peril. The natives finally re- fused to furnish food. At one time, Co- lumbus, knowing that an eclipse of the moon was about to take place, sent word to the Indians that the Gi'eat Spirit was angry with them for their treatment of the Spaniards, and that the moon would be darkened that night as a sign of his displeasure. The natives were overawed by the occurrence of the phenomenon, as it had been foretold, and for a time fur- nished an abundance of provisions. But they still hated the visitors to their shores. A DtiRIXQ CAXOE VOYAGE. 1503. It soon became apparent to Columbus and his followers at Jamaica, that they must have relief or perish. Food was still obtained upon the island with great difficulty, and sometimes only by force. Besides this, the differences among the sailors put a great burden of care and watchfulness upon the shoulders of Columbus, which he could not long endure. Hence some effort must be made to convey information concerning the con- dition of affairs to Hayti. Diego Mendez, a faithful follower of Columbus, volunteered to attempt the passage from Jamaica to Hayti in a large canoe. But the hostility of the natives broke up the first under- taking after the preparations had been made, and the eastern end of the island had been reached, where Mendez was intending to embark upon his perilous adventure. He made his way back to the admiral, and prepared once more for the trip. This time there were ;wo canoes, one containing Diego Mendez and several companions; the other containing Bar- tholomew Fiesco, with several others. Fiesco was also a devoted friend of Co- lumbus. The little company set out upon their way across the open sea, the men taking turns in paddling their frail vessels day and night. The heat of the first clay was excessive, and having no protection from the open sun, the men became ex- ceedingly thirsty, and by the second day all the drinking water on board had been exhausted. It was not long in the torrid atmosphere before the torments of thirst grew almost unendurable. A small quantity of water which had been kept back, was now given in small amounts to the weakened rowers. Through the sul- try calm they slowly made their way over the swells of the ocean, but could see no land. ' The Indians, of whom there were a number, began to die. Some lay help- less in the canoes. Mendez and Fiesco almost gave way to despair. The suffer- ings of all were almost unexampled. At last they caught sight of a small island named Navasa, about eight leagues from Hayti. Here they found rain water,, but this boon proved the death of some, who drank of it immoderately. They remained here a day, resting and eating the shell-fish which they found upon the shore. At night they crossed to Hayti, making the entire forty leagues in a little less than five days. They were now one hundred and thirty leagues from San Domingo, a distance which Mendez im- mediately set himself to accomplish. This he did with great toil, all for the sake of his beloved commander. The entire trip is one to which great romance at- taches. Mendez was finally instrumental in securing relief for the admiral, as will be seen. 1503. Negro slavery increased to such an extent, that Ovando, Governor of Hayti, wrote to the Spanish government, asking that the importation of negro- slaves might be stopped. 108 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1504. June 28. Columbus sailed for San Domingo in two vessels which were sent to his relief, one by the faithful Mendez, after great delay forced upon him, and the other by Ovando, who found that it could no longer be deferred. 1504. Aug. 13. He arrived at San Domingo, and was received with great apparent favor by Ovando and the people. He found his own estates in confusion, and with difficulty could make arrange- ments for a return to Spain. 1504. Sept. 12. Columbus sailed from San Domingo with two caravels, after having collected all the rents and dues he was able to secure. 1504. Nov. 7. He reached San Lu- car, Spain, with one vessel, the other having been sent back to San Domingo after a tempest. He was carried to Se- ville because of his ill-health, and began at once to try to retrieve his fortunes and secure a better administration for the New World. But Queen Isabella, his best friend, soon died, and Ferdinand deferred attention to the long-neglected claims. 1504. The Banks of Newfoundland are known to have been visited by fisher- men from different parts of Europe, as early as this year. In all probability they were occupied at an earlier date. The notice of the immense numbers of codfish in this vicinity by Cabot, is the only cer- tain record of the place before this year. 1505. May. Columbus visited the Spanish court and solicited from Ferdi- nand the restoration of his rights and privileges. But the politic king feared to give so much power to one subject, and paid little heed to the matter. 1506. The Gulf of St. Lawrence was visited by John Denys, of Honfleur, France, who afterward published a map of the region. 1506. The First Sugar Cane. Ovan- do, Governor of Hayti, worked the gold mines of the island with great energy and secured a large revenue for the Span- ish government. But slips of sugar cane brought from the Canaries were found to flourish, mills were set up, and the mak- ing of sugar was in a few years a great part of the labor of the island. 1506. No negro slaves could here- after be taken to the New World, accord- ing to a royal decree, except from Seville, and such as had been taught Christianity. DEATH OF COLUMBUS. 1506. May 20. Columbus having sunk away under increasing infirmities, died at Valladolid, aged about seventy years. His body was laid in the convent of St. Thomas. His long and patient struggles for the rights to which he was so keenly sensitive, were at last ended. Seldom has a man moved through so many novel and exciting scenes, exhibit- ing such excellent and remarkable qual- ities. Many rare features were combined in him. His quick nature drew from all quarters the supplies necessary to its growth and productive work. He was extremely sensitive when a boy, to the great awakening in geographical science then taking place among the maritime nations of Europe. He became what he was, because of the age in which he lived. He was an outgrowth of the period. But he was also unusually spon- taneous. He became one of the great original producers of the world. Both his receptivity and his spontaneity arose from the activity of his mind. The great Mediterranean Sea made his boyhood familiar with the minute indications of storm and calm, which he was so quick to notice in later years. He ranks among 1492-4506.] THE GREAT DISCOVERT. 109 the most eminent navigators which the world has ever had. Nothing escaped his eye. He could read the ocean and the sky as we read a book. His power of observation was extremely keen, and was trained to an exquisite degree. His imagination was also powerful, so that possibilities took shape before his mind as glowing probabilities. He never lost faith in his idea, either in the midst of the ridicule of scholars, or the inertia of royal courts. His long years of weari- some waiting did not diminish the burning desire within his breast. There is a unity to the life of Columbus from the begin- ning to the end, which is delightfully refreshing. His moral characteristics were also remarkable. He was almost always commanding, not through harshness, but through the moral dignity of his spirit. The opposition he experienced from jeal- ous foes and from uneasy adventurers, the long disregard to his rightful claims by the Spanish sovereigns, the almost at times inextricable confusion of the colonies, only serve to bring out by sharp contrast the moral superiority of the man to all ordinary failings. His relig- ious sensibilities were elevated to such a degree that he loyally connected all his explorations with the faith of his heart. Unselfish and pure in comparison with men of his times, he is a brilliant exam- ple of what can be done for the world by patience and wisdom. He is rightly entitled to the honor which is paid to noble spirits. SECTION V. 'HE West India islands could not longer limit the efforts of the ener- getic Spanish explorers whom the ^ discovery of America had now raised up. It began to be known that large continental lands were lying near, which offered remarkable scope for con- quest, and perhaps for wealth. The fas- cination of fitting out expeditions and attempting to fix settlements in these en- tirely new regions, possessed both capable and incapable men. Persons without standing and in debt at home, plunged into the recesses of the New World to make a fortune.* Men of talent burned to make themselves a name. The record of successive disasters could not arrest the work. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean by the heroic Balboa, the first knowledge of the strange Mexican em- pire gained by Grijalva, and the sight of Florida forests by De Leon, gave Spain and Spaniards a truer idea of the addi- tions which the Spanish realm had re- ceived. The conquest of Mexico was the first great struggle on the continent for the possession of a kingdom. The terrible evil of slavery, both Indian and negro, grew with a tropical growth, enshrouding much that was noble. We 1507-1522. regret that the workers of that early time could not have laid broader and bet- ter foundations, that we might have had grander national structures in all that part of the continent which they were subdu- ing. But their life was as yet almost en- tirely military in its methods and spirit. It had, therefore, all the abuses of military life in that age. There was yet no rooted, settled growth. THE OF AMERICA. 1507. America was named this year by the suggestion of a European geo- grapher, Waldsee Miiller (Martinus Hy- lacomylus) of Freiburg, who called it Americi Terra, in honor of Americus Vespucius, an account of whose voyage in 1499 had just been published. It is not probable that Vespucius had any un- due voluntary connection with this cir- cumstance. The term was at first applied only to what is now South America, which was regarded as an Antarctic con- tinent, but in time it came to be used of the whole western world. Americus Vespucius thus received the honor of dis- covery, though Columbus and the Cabots had seen the mainland of the New World before he did. 110 1507-1522.] BALBOA AND CORTES. 1507. A board of trade was estab- lished by Ferdinand, to have supreme power over the civil affairs of all the newly discovered lands, subject only to the crown. An ecclesiastical government was also instituted. The Indians were at this time wasting away very rapidly. 1508. Yucatan was discovered by Vincente Yanez Pinzon and Juan Diaz de Soils. 1508. Thomas Aubert, a Dieppe pilot, visited the Gulf of St. Lawrence and car- ried off a few. natives of the region to France, where they were objects of great curiosity. 1508. Cuba was first found to be an island, by Sebastian de Ocampo. 1509. Don Diego Columbus, son of Christopher, was made governor of Hayti in place of Don Nicholas de Ovando, after a long effort in claiming the rights inher- ited from his father. 1509. Porto Rico was subjugated by 1509-1547. Hen- J Ual1 P nCe de LeOn > wh ry vni King of was appointed governor by Ferdinand, and founded a town named Caparra. 1509. Jamaica was colonized by Juan de Esquivel. 1509. Nombre de Dios on the conti- nent near the Isthmus, was founded by Diego de Nicuesa, with seven hundred men. It was afterwaid broken up by the Indians and famine. 1509. San Sebastian, near the Isth- mus, was founded by Alonzo de Ojeda. After much suffering and the loss of many followers by the Indians, Ojeda returned to San Domingo for aid, having left Francisco Pizarro, afterward famous in the conquest of Peru, in command, but was never able to revisit the colony. Her- nando Cortes was prevented by sickness from sailing in this expedition. 113 1510. Santa Maria. Before the ar- rival of Ojeda at San Domingo, Martin Fernandez de Enciso sailed with supplies for the former's settlement. Vasco Nu- nez de Balboa, afterward the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean, succeeded in escap- ing his creditors, and sailed with Enciso by secreting himself in a cask till they were at sea. When found, he was at first threatened with being put off the ship, but was retained after his own earnest solicitation. His presence proved a great help to the expedition. Having arrived on the coast, Enciso met Pizarro with the remnant of the colony in a brigantine, sailing for Hayti. They all returned to San Sebastian, where everything had been destroyed by Indians, and at the recommendation of Balboa, who had been on the coast before with Bastides, they proceeded to the Gulf of Darien and founded a city called Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien. Enciso soon made himself unpopular by his authority, and was deposed by the people, who elected Balboa and Zamudio to serve as alcaldes. 1510. Fifty negro slaves were sent by Ferdinand from Seville, to work in the mines of Hayti. 1510. Bahia, in Brazil, was founded by Correa, the Portugese navigator, under the name of San Salvador. 1511. The remnant of the colony at Nombre de Dios were brought to Santa Maria. Nicuesa came with a few at first by invitation, to serve as governor in place of Enciso, but upon his arrival he was prevented from landing, and at last sailed for Hayti, and was never heard from. After his departure the rest of his follow- ers were brought away. Enciso and Za- mudio were sent to Hayti, and Balboa remained in sole command of the colony. 1511. Increased Negro Importation. 114 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. Ferdinand, learning that one negro was equal to four Indians for work, sent a large number to Hayti from Guinea. 1511. Cuba was subjugated by Don Diego Velasquez without losing a man. He founded the city of Bara^oa, on the Northeast coast, the oldest settlement in Cuba. 1512. Balboa was appointed captain general of Santa Maria, and heard this year of a great south sea. 1512. Romance in Yucatan. Val- divia having been sent from Santa Maria to Hayti for supplies, was wrecked. The survivors were stranded on the shore of Yucatan, and were all destroyed by the Indians, except two, Gonzalo Guerrero, who was adopted into a tribe and rose to great influence in it; and Jeronimo de Aguilar, who gained power in another tribe. Aguilar was found and taken away by Cortes in 1519, and served through the conquest of Mexico. Guer- rero refused to give up his Indian life, to which he had conformed like a native. 1512. March 3. The Fountain of Youth. Juan Ponce de Leon sailed with three ships to find the fountain which the Indians affirmed to exist in land at the North, whose waters, upon bathing in them, would make the old permanently young again. He searched through the Bahamas to no purpose, and then sailed to the Northwest. 1512. April 2. De Leon landed near the spot where St. Augustine was after- ward founded, and named the country Florida, because of the abundant vegeta- tion, and perhaps because of the time when he first reached it. His first view of it was on Palm Sunday, and his land- ing was on Easter Sunday. He found neither gold nor living springs and streams, and after a disappointing search, he finally returned to Porto Rico. The Gulf Stream was noticed for the first time by Alaminos, pilot of this expedition, who described it in a journal of the voyage. 1513. Approval of Indian Slavery. Owing to the opposition of the Domini- can priests in the New World to slavery, a decree of the Privy Council of Spain was finally issued, declaring the bondage of the Indians to be warranted by the laws of God and of man, and that only so could the natives be led into the Chris- tian faith. The Dominicans were the first abolitionists of America. THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 1513. Balboa having heard that En- ciso had lodged a successful complaint against him in Spain, determined to set out from Santa Maria at once, for the discovery of the great sea which was said to lie at the south. He hoped by so doing to thwart the plans of his ene- mies, and re-establish his reputation with the king. 1513. Sept. 1. He started with one hundred and ninety men, besides Indian guides and allies whose favor he had gained by kindness. 1513. Sept. 26. After a very diffi- cult march through the wilderness, he discovered the Pacific Ocean from the summit of a mountain. Thence he pro- ceeded with his followers to the coast, and took possessi6n for the Spanish crown by wading into the water with a royal standard, and proclaiming it subject to the Spanish power. He called it the South Sea. Balboa during this expedi- tion heard of the rich kingdom of Peru at the south. 1514. Jan. 19. Balboa having re- crossed the Isthmus, arrived at Santa Maria, and sent to Spain full accounts of FOUNTAIN AND AQUEDUCT MEXICO. RIO POLOCHIC, GUATEMALA. 115 1507-1522.] his discovery, together with pearls and gold, which he had obtained in large quantities. 1514. June 30. Don Pedrarias Davila, who had been appointed governor of the region of Darien, arrived from Spain with two thousand cavaliers and adven- turers. He began at once to try to crush Balboa, and soon undertook legal action against him. A royal ordinance had instituted an ecclesiastical government for Darien, and a Franciscan friar was sent out with Davila as bishop. The large force of Davila was soon depleted very greatly by malarial diseases. Many returned to Cuba. 1515. Balboa was appointed governor of the provinces of the South Sea. Peace was apparently arranged between him and Davila. 1515. July 25. San Cristobal in 1515-1547. Franas I. Cuba was founded and King of France. afterward became, by removal, the present city of Havana. 1515. Copper was mined in Cuba for casting cannon, but the mines were not worked long, because of the burdensome restrictions put upon them by government. 1516. Jan. 1. Juan Diaz de Solis discovered a river which he named Rio Janeiro, or River of January. He after- ward entered the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, and having landed with a portion of his crew, was captured, killed and eaten, within sight of his vessels. 1516. Enlarged Slave Trade. Charles V. granted the Flemings a 1516-1556. Charles v.King- monopoly of the slave trade of Spain and th* w ith- New Spain, under a Netherlands. patent which allowed the importation of four thousand Africans each year. Under Ferdinand, Cardinal Ximenes had been instrumental in restrict - BALBOA AND CORTES. 117 ing this traffic, because of his own moral opposition to it, or as some affirm, because of mere political and financial reasons. Whatever the reason, he at any rate set himself against it very decidedly. FIRST VESSELS ON THE PACIFIC. 1516. Balboa's remarkable energy and skill as a leader came out in the trans- portation of lumber and rigging across the Isthmus, for the building of several brigantines upon the great South Sea, now the Pacific Ocean. This wonderful deed was accomplished only after great pains. Indians, negroes and Spaniards were set to the work, under the personal supervision of Balboa. The timber which had been cut on the Atlantic coast, was dragged with almost infinite toil through the forests which covered the mountain sides. The Indians could not stand the severe labor, and many of them died. The timber, which was first trans- ported, proved to be worthless, because worm-eaten. Balboa speedily set about getting more. Rains began to flood the country, and almost destroyed all the un- dertaking. But Balboa would not desist, and at last he had the privilege of seeing a European sail spread upon the sea he had discovered. This deed was consid- ered one of the most eminent in the list of great accomplishments in those days. It was even said that " no leader save Balboa could have conducted such an en- terprise to a successful issue." Such was the man who was doomed soon to meet an unworthy end. He cruised beyond the Gulf of St. Michael, and heard fuller reports of the great kingdom of Peru. 1517. Feb. 8. Francisco Fernan- dez de Cordova sailed from Santiago, 118 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. Cuba, with three vessels and one hun- dred and ten men, on a voyage of exploration. He was driven about by tempests, and at last landed on an un- known shore. He named it Yucatan, and explored it as far as Campeachy. He was struck by signs of a higher civil- ization than had been seen among the Indians, found in stone houses, cloth gar- ments, and cultivated soil. After conflicts with the warlike natives, he returned to Cuba, where he died in a short time in consequence of the ills suffered upon the voyage home, or of a wound received in battle with the Indians. EXECUTION OF BALBOA. 1517. Davila, governor of Darien, having again grown jealous of Balboa, contrived to secure his arrest, and after a 1517. Outbreak force( l trial beheaded him of Rejormaiion. and several others. In Bal- boa the Spanish crown lost one of its best leaders. Although of noble birth, he knew how to deal with followers of all ranks. By valor and 1517. Copernicus discovered the general popularity he won true system of a great influence over most the universe. v of those with whom he as- sociated. He was born at Estremadura, Spain, and had gone to Hayti to escape the pressure of his debts. At the Isthmus he soon gained power by his real help to the colony, and began to revolve schemes of exploration. He manifested remarka- ble ability and energy in following up the report of a great sea to the south, and by his perseverance has linked his name for- ever with the Pacific. This discovery seemed to work a change in the entire feelings and bearing of the man, and demonstrated thereby the innate worth of his character. He rose to the rank of the great explorers of his day. Very few of them have a record as free as his is, from what is dishonorable and impure. Cut off in the prime of life, in the fortv-sec- ond year of his age, he illustrates the un- certainty of even great achievements. He fell a victim to the meanest jealousv and the most unscrupulous enmity, when he was just ready to enter upon the greatest efforts of his life. The pathos attached to his death is not lessened by any dark stains of ill desert, which blotted the fame of so many of the Spanish conquerors and explorers. 1518. Francisco Garay, governor of Jamaica, fitted out an expedition which explored the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, from the Tortugas at the southern ex- tremity of Florida, to the province of Panuco in Mexico. 1518. Sable Island, near Nova Scotia, was colonized by Baron de Lery, but the settlement was soon broken up. Cattle were left upon the island, and their off- spring proved of great use to the expedi- tion of Marquis de la Roche, eighty years afterward. 1518. May 1. Juan de Grijalva sailed from Santiago in command of an expedition fitted out by his uncle, Don Diego Velasquez, governor of Cuba, to- explore the lands discovered by Cordova. ' He visited the Mexican coast, landed at several points, named the country New Spain, and obtained from the natives a large quantity of gold and jewels. He learned that the country was ruled by a great emperor named Montezuma. The value of cochineal as a dyeing material was discovered by the Spaniards in Mex- ico at this time, or a little later. The na- tives took great pains to rear the insect upon cactus plants. Grijalva's men were one night frightened by the large Mexi- ISLE OF SERPENTS, RIO DE JANEIRO. RIVER GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR. 119 1507-1522.] can fireflies, which give a very brilliant light. They imagined that an army with matchlocks was advancing upon them. Grijalva discovered and named the island of San Juan de Uloa, near Vera Cruz. 1518. Oct. 26. Grijalva arrived at Cuba to find himself condemned by his uncle for not attempting to found a col- ony, a work for which the expedition was not intended. At this very time, Velas- quez having become suspicious of Grijal- va, was fitting up a large expedition for the conquest and settlement of New Spain. He chose Hernando Cortes to command it. HERX&XDO CORTES. This great general was born in Spain in 1485, of a good family, and during his youth acquired a fair education. He became a resident of Hayti at some time during the administration of Ovando. Upon his arrival at the island, he entered into private life, but frequently engaged in military expeditions, being naturally possessed of a war-like temperament. He intended to embark for the Darien colony in company with Nicuesa, but was severely ill at the time the expedition sailed. He took part in the conquest of Cuba under Don Diego Velasquez, and began to exhibit the popular qualities which afterward gave him such a strong hold upon his soldiers. He had, at times, some contention with Velasquez, but finally settled down upon a place near Santiago, and acquired considerable prop- erty. When the governor had fitted out his expedition for the conquest of Mex- ico, he was persuaded after much solicita- tion, to appoint Cortes captain-general of it. The latter at once began to give his entire mind to the project, and aided in the preparation of the armament by all BALBOA AND CORTES. the money which he could raise. His heart took fire at the prospect, and he now felt that he had an undertaking worthy of his highest ambition. 1518. Nov. 18. Cortes, having heard that Velasquez proposed to remove him from the command through jealousy, sailed away secretly from Santiago, Cuba, and proceeded to Macaca, Trinidad and Havana, where he completed his outfit, and raised volunteers. Orders for his arrest were sent to these places after him, but he baffled all attempts. 1519. Feb. 18. The expedition of Cortes sailed from Cape San Antonio, at the extreme western end of Cuba, in eleven vessels, the largest being of one hundred tons, with one hundred and ten sailors, five hundred and thirty-three sol- diers, and a few Indian women. There were ten heavy guns, four light ones, and sixteen horses. 1519. March 4. Jeronimo de*Agui- lar, who had been shipwrecked and had lived among the Indians for eight years, was received at the island Cozumel by Cortes, who then set sail for the main- land. 1519. March 25. A severe battle took place near the river Tabasco, where Grijalva had landed in 1518, and traded with the natives, in which the Indians, though in large numbers, were totally routed. The Spanish horsemen especially inspired great terror. The town of Santa Maria de la Vittoria, the capital of the province for many years, was built upon the place of battle. 1519. March 26. Dona Marina. In- dian chiefs visited Cortes and presented him gifts of gold, cotton and food. They also brought twenty Indian female 122 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. slaves, among whom was Dona Marina, who became so much attached to Cortes, and did him such great service as an in- terpreter during the conquest. 1519. April. An embassy from Mon- tezuma arrived, attended by one hun- dred natives bringing gold, ornaments and pearls, together with feather and thread work, and cotton cloth in great profusion. A Spanish helmet which had been sent by the previous embassy for Montezuma to see, was brought back full of gold. Two plates of gold and silver of immense size, were among the "gifts. Montezuma sent word that he could not see the Span- iards, and that they must return home. In a few days he sent a stricter message. 1519. April. Power of Cortes. Cortes instituted the government of a colony, which he named Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, and was himself elected captain- general and chief-justice of it. He gained the adhesion of some of the neighboring provinces, to which Montezuma's power had been offensive, and caused the de- struction of all the vessels but one, thus cutting off immediate return to Cuba. When his followers learned that the ves- sels had been destroyed, they became enraged, and almost broke out into open rebellion. But Cortes plied them with ingenious arguments and heroic appeals. If any wished to desert him, they had full permission to take the remaining vessel, and return at once to Cuba. At last the reaction was complete, and they cried out to a man, "To Mexico! To Mexico!" 1519. Sept. 5. A great battle was fought between the Spanish, now on their way to the City of Mexico, and the Tlascalans, in which a vast army of the latter was wholly cut to pieces. 1519. Nov. 8. Cortes entered the City of Mexico, the seat of Montezuma. He had come through the city of Cho- lula, in which he had massacred a large number of the natives because he had de- tected a conspiracy to destroy his follow- ers. His journey had led him across the side of the great volcano, Popocatapetl, which was very active at the time. He sent some one to find out about the column of smoke which he saw in the distance, but no one could ascend the mountain because of the snow. Montezuma received the Spaniards into his great and prosperous capital with apparent cordiality. Here the eyes of the invaders were astonished by a civilization which they had no where else seen in the New World. Streets,. dwellings, temples, gardens and bridges were all laid out and built with skill and beauty. A palace built by Montezuma's father, became the shelter of the Span- iards. In the palace they discovered a room which had been walled up, full of treasures of every kind. Cortes resolved upon the seizure of the emperor. He ac- complished his design by craft, securing the monarch while on a visit to the garri- son, and henceforth Montezuma abode a prisoner in the Spanish quarters. Cortes also, charging them with having mur- dered several Spaniards who fell into their hands, tried and executed the gover- nor of one of Montezuma's provinces,, together with several of his officers. They were burned upon a pile of Mexi- can weapons in the great square of the palace. 1519. Havana, Cuba, was founded by the removal of the village of San Cristobal to the present site. 1519. Panama was founded by the removal of Santa Maria to the west side of the Isthmus. 1520. Jan. 12. Fernando Magal- haens, known as 'Magellan, arrived on 1507-1522.] BALBOA AND CORTES. 125 the coast of Brazil with a fleet in which was soon brought that the Mexicans had he had sailed from Spain in the attempt to reach the Spice Islands by a westerly course. He entered the La Plata, but soon recognizing it as a river, he took the coast again and sailed further south. In his voyage along the Brazilian coast he found the natives using vegetable down, probably cotton, for several purposes. 1520. March 31. He discovered Patagonia, and found shelter during the winter in one of its harbors. He resumed his search for a strait in the spring, which corresponds to autumn in the northern hemisphere. 1520. Montezuma was induced to ac- knowledge the authority of the kingdom of Spain, and confessed himself subject to it, before his nobles. He ordered his officers to collect tribute, and a large amount of treasure was accordingly brought to Cortes. The whole is reck- oned by Prescott, the historian, as amount- ing to $6,300,000. - 1520. March. Pamphilo de Narvaez was sent by Velasquez, governor of Cuba, with an expedition of eighteen vessels and nine hundred men, to assert the su- premacy of the governor over Cortes. 1520. May. Cortes left a garrison of one hundred and forty men in the City of Mexico under Pedro de Alvarado, 1445-1520. Leon- his lieutenant, and marched a i^3.i520 V ' nCf ' ra P ic % to the coast with Raphael, seventy soldiers, to resist Narvaez, of whose approach he had heard. He was reenforced by one hun- dred and twenty soldiers at Cholula. Having arrived near Cempoalla, where Narvaez was encamped, Cortes entered the city by night in a violent rain storm, and captured the entire force of three times the number of his own. The loss was very slight on either side. Word taken arms against Alvarado, and Cortes at once started upon his return with a re- cruited force. 1520. June 24. He arrived at the City of Mexico, and found the garrison in a state of blockade. Soon after his reentry into the city, the inhabitants at- tacked the Spanish quarters with great fury. The battle raged with great vio- lence, and hundreds were mown down in the streets by the artillery. At last Cortes induced Montezuma to address his sub- jects from the roof of the palace, and de- mand peace. Montezuma while doing so was struck and severely wounded by weapons thrown at him by Mexicans. DEATH OF MOXTEZUMti. 1520. June 30. Montezuma sank away and died, refusing to take food or medicine. Thus passed away one of the greatest native monarchs of the western continent. He was about twenty-three years old when he became emperor, and gave promise of great success as a ruler. The empire reached its greatest height under him, but when the Spaniards en- tered the country the inhabitants were complaining of the severity of his reign. He was forty-one years old at his death, and left children. Some of his daughters married Spanish cavaliers, and from them are descended noble Spanish houses. 1520. July 1. The Sorrowful Night. The Spaniards evacuated the City of Mexico. Soon after their departure in silence from their quarters, they were fearfully beset upon all hands by the na- tives, who had found out their intentions. They had to fight for every inch of their way, and only reached the outskirts of 126 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. the city at last with the greatest exertions, and the loss of many men. They were nearly overborne by the immense mass of infuriated Mexicans who crowded the narrow streets and attempted to blockade the moats of the city. Cortes probably lost several hundred men, besides all ar- tillery, muskets and ammunition. The natives lost several thousands. 1520. July 8. A great battle was fought on the plain of Otumba, in which a large native force was routed by the remnant of the Spanish army. The bat- tle was saved to Cortes by the death of an Indian general who had very great influence. The city of Tempeaca was afterward taken and made the head- quarters of the army. A civil govern- ment was established within it. 1520. Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon and others fitted out an expedition to what is now South Carolina, where they en- trapped a large number of unsuspecting natives on board their two ships, and sailed for . San Domingo to make them slaves. One ship was lost on the return voyage, and many of the natives in the other vessel died. 1520. Oct. 20. Magellan's Straits. Magellan having resumed his voyage along the coast of Patagonia, discovered the passage which has since been known by his name. This narrow channel is so crooked and full of unexpected rocks and strong currents, that one of Magellan's vessels was lost, and another deserted and returned to Spain. For several weeks this bold navigator struggled on his way. He named the land upon the south Terra del Fuego, or Land of Fire, from the large number of fires lighted by the natives at night along the shores. 1520. Nov. 28. Pacific Ocean Named. The three remaining vessels cleared the strait, and Magellan named the great ocean which met his view, Pacific. They sailed in an almost direct course nearly one hundred days, with great lack of food and drink. 1520. Dec. 28. Cortes set out with his army from Tempeaca to march upon the City of Mexico. At Montezuma's death his brother, Cuitlahua, had assumed the government, but had died of the smallpox, which in the latter part of this year had swept away thousands of the natives through the provinces of Mexico, and down the Pacific coast. A negro who came with the expedition of Narvaez is said to have introduced it into New Spain. At the death of Cuitlahua, his nephew Guatemozin was chosen mon- arch, and was inspiring the Mexicans with a war-like spirit in view of the return of the Spaniards. DEATH OF MAGELLAN. 1521. March 16. In an attempt to subdue the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands, Magellan was killed upon the island of Mactan. The only vessel now left of his fleet, named Vitoria, sailed on under the command of Juan Sebastian Cano. Magellan was a Portuguese by birth, but had entered the service of Spain. He was on the water from an early age. The eminence of Portugal in navigation confirmed his tastes and developed his qualities. He became one of the boldest and most persevering navigators whom the little kingdom had sent out. DEATH OF DE LEON. 1521. Juan Ponce de Leon embarked upon an expedition for the conquest of Florida. He landed on the coast, and in a battle with the natives, was wounded and carried aboard his ship. He returned 1507-1522.] to Cuba and died, a broken old man. Possessing an eager, visionary tempera- ment, he could ill bear disappointment in any undertaking. He came to the New World on the second voyage of Colum- bus, and did good service in much of the fighting with the natives. He was a true soldier, without the genius of a great explorer. 1521. Aug. 13. Cortes took the City of Mexico after a siege of seventy- seven days. He succeeded only after many repulses, by destroying everything as fast as he could gain access to it, thus narrowing constantly the limits within which the doomed inhabitants could exist. Guatemozin, the emperor, was captured during the final assault, while attempting to escape in a boat. Cortes had achieved a terrible victory, from the effects of which it took days to cleanse the city. 1521. Nicaragua was explored by Gil Gonzales de Avila, who marched into its interior, but was at last convinced that he could not go further with his present force, and prudently retraced his steps. 1522. Fascual de Andagoya at- tempted to explore the Pacific coast from Panama toward the south, but did not get beyond the limits of Balboa's voyage. 1522. Juan Bermudez on his way from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs, was wrecked upon the Bermuda Islands, thus discovering that group. 1522. Sept. 6. First Voyage Round BALBOA AND CORTES. 127 the World. The Vitoria of Magellan's expedition arrived in Spain, having sailed on after Magellan's death by way of the Spice Islands and the Cape of Good Hope, thus completing the first circuit of the globe. She was commanded by Juan Sebastian Cano. 1522. Oct. 15. A royal commission constituted Cortes governor, captain-gen- eral, and chief-justice of Mexico. He rebuilt the city in a substantial and beau- tiful manner, devised meth- 152 2. Xavterin ods of drawing thither a 7 <# a - Spanish and Indian population, estab- lished settlements in the whole region of New Spain, and arranged for an enlarged and steady cultivation of the soil. He sent a force under Christoval de Olid to settle Honduras, and began to think of searching for the desired strait from the Gulf of Mexico into the Pacific Ocean. FIRST NEGRO INSURRECTION. 1522. Dec. 27. The negro slaves In Hayti rose in an insurrection for the first time. They committed murders and dep- redations, but were soon overcome by the prompt action of the Spaniards. The long New World tragedy of results from negro bondage began at this date. 1522. The crater of Popocatapetl was descended by Francisco Mantano, who was one of the number sent by Cortes to ascend the volcano. He was let down into the crater by ropes, to a depth of seventy or eighty fathoms. There is no other recorded ascent for three hundred years. SECTION VI. MHE fingers of Spanish power were gradually stretching themselves out over the New World. The second great national subjugation now began. The crushing of Peru was an enterprise of much longer date than that of Mexico. The empire was a theater for the exhibition of the most disgusting bickerings, personal envies and retaliations between the Spanish leaders. But at last the Spanish govern- ment was as well established as it has ever been on the continent. By 1550 the fetters which the native races of America wore till the first part of the present cen- tury, were clasped upon them. We see, however, prophetic gleams of the light of liberty, as in Nicaragua in 1549. Meantime, restless Spaniards had been seeking Florida with great expeditions which came to sad ends in those untrod- den malarial forests. The brave, humane De Soto, was the greatest sacrifice. The march to the Amazon from Quito was a similar gigantic undertaking in South America. Other nations were behind Spain in finding their opportunity for colonizing America. Portugal was slowly establishing herself in Brazil. England was making only the slightest attempts, . 1523 -1550. now somewhat obscure. France began to look with longing eyes across the Atlantic. Verrazzano made his care- ful examination of the Atlantic coast. Jacques Cartier entered the great St. Lawrence, and first of white men, saw the heights of Cape Diamond and the beautiful Isle Royale. The strife of ex- ploration had not yet come. 1523. Central America. Cortes sent a strong force under Pedro Alvarado to subdue Central America, a work which this energetic leader accomplished during this and the next year. Alvarado led to the conquest three hundred infantry, thir- ty-five cavalry, two hundred Tlascalans and Cholulans, and one hundred Mexi- cans. 1523. Granada and Leon, cities situ- ated, the former on the shore of Lake Nicaragua and the latter on the shore of Lake Managua, were founded by per- sons sent out from the Isthmus by the Spanish governor. 1523. Cumana, capital of one of the states of Venezuela, was founded by Diego Castellon. 1524. May 14. A great victory in Central America gave Alvarado posses- sion of the first province, the empire of 128 1523-1550.] GREAT EXPEDITIONS. Utatlan. Thousands of natives were de- feated and swept away by the Spaniards. Multitudes had attempted to block the narrow defiles jn the mountains, but Alvarado's men had hewn their way through. This defeat broke the spirit of the Indians. Two other provinces were readily secured. 1524. July 25. Santiago, in Central America, was founded by Alvarado, be- cause the site was so fine as to attract many of his men to make it a permanent residence. A city was inaugurated, and eighty-seven citizens were enrolled. It is known now as Old Guatemala. 1524. North American Coast. John Verrazzano, a Florentine navigator, in the service of Francis I. of France, ex- plored the coast of North America very carefully from North Carolina to Nova Scotia, entering the harbors of New York and Newport. He gave the first detailed and accurate description of the coast, and is said to have prepared a map of it. He made his voyage with one small vessel named the Dolphin. His expedition lay at the foundation of the French claim to North America. 1524. Oct. 12. A remarkable march was begun by Cortes across the country from the City of Mexico to Honduras. He had heard that Christoval de Olid having subdued Honduras, was setting up a government of his own. Guatemozin and the Indian nobles were taken upon this journey to prevent them from having a chance to rebel in the absence of their conqueror. FRANCISCO PIZARRO. The minds of the colonists upon the Isthmus had been frequently aroused by reports of that wealthy and powerful kingdom which was said to lie at the south. After a time, three men named 9 129 Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Fernando de Luque, made an agree- ment to explore and subdue it. The last named, who was an ecclesiastic, was to furnish the greater part of the funds. Almagro was to oversee the preparations and the supplies of the vessels, while Pizarro was to command the expedition. The latter, who was afterward the chief spirit in the conquest of Peru, was born at Truxillo, Spain, about the year 147! 5 and was the son of a soldier who had gained a reputation for valor. He grew up in a neglected condition, without edu- cation, and when fortune favored, came to the New World. He accompanied Alon- zo de Ojeda to Darien in 1509, and was one of the few who, with Balboa, crossed the mountains and discovered the Pacific. The reports of the kingdom of Peru ex- cited his adventurous spirit, and at last he entered upon that long conquest which will always be most intimately connected with his name. The romantic story of his energy and sufferings is full of fasci- nation. 1524. Nov. 14. Pizarro left Panama with one vessel and about one hundred men. Almagro remained behind to fit out and follow in a second vessel as soon as possible. GUATEMOZIN. 1525. Feb. 15. Cortes was told at one point on the march to Honduras that the Indian nobles were conspiring to slay the Spaniards in some difficult part of the journey. He immediately arrested Guatemozin and his lords, and finally executed them. He seemed to have felt driven to thrs cruel deed in order to make himself secure ever after. It is said that Cortes since the capture of the City of Mexico, had not gone the least distance 130 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. without taking Guatemozin with him, so confident did he feel that the fallen but unconquered monarch would cause a.n uprising. After severe trials throughout his long and exhausting journey, Cortes arrived at Honduras, found that Olid had died, and that his own authority was re- established. He began to plan for the conquest of Nicaragua, but determined at last to return to Mexico, because of certain ill-reports from that province. onize South Carolina under a patent obtained for that purpose. He landed his followers, but the natives remember- ing the terrible cruelty he had been guilty of a few years before in kidnapping a large number of their race, allured the colonists to a feast by friendly treatment, and then falling upon them, killed nearly the entire force. The leader escaped and made no further exploration. 1525. Pizarro continued his explora- CAPE HORN. 1525. Estavan Gomez, of Corunna, under the patronage of Charles V., ex- plored the Atlantic coast of North Amer- ica quite extensively, but the limits of his trip are unknown. He carried back a cargo of Indians, who were sold as slaves. 1525. Cape Horn. It is claimed that Garcia Jofre de Loaya, a Spanish com- mander, was the first to see Cape Horn, though he did not double it. 1525. Indian Revenge. Lucas Vas- quez de Ayllon made an attempt to coi- tion of the coast south of Panama, was several times terribly distressed for lack of supplies, for which the vessel once returned to the Isle of Pearls, and finally, after having had conflicts iszs. Peasant with the natives and having t"'*** >" (jermany tinaer obtained a slight quantity Thomas Mumer. of gold ornaments, sailed back to Chicama near Panama. Almagro had sailed south with another vessel and seventy men, but had at last concluded that Pizarro was lost. During his return he heard that 1523-1550.] GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 131 Pizarro was at Chicama, where the two soon after met. 1525. December. The conquest of the Central American provinces was now complete. Here again a small force of trained soldiers was superior to hordes of natives. 1526. March 10. A great contract between Pizarro, Almagro and De Luque was drawn up in the most solemn form, dividing the country which should be conquered by them, with all it products and resources, into three equal parts. Two vessels were fitted up in which Pizarro and Almagro sailed. They ex- plored the coast and found gold in the Indian villages, some of which Almagro took back to Panama in order to secure recruits. Pizarro explored the land still more, while the pilot of the expedition sailed further south in the remaining ves- sel, and was the first to cross the equinoc- tial line on the western coast of South America. He found evidences of a higher civilization, and sailed back to Pizarro, whom he found in considerable distress. Almagro returned with new adventurers from Panama, and all pro- ceeded south. 1526. July. Luis Ponce de Leon having been sent out as a commissioner to inquire into the condition of New Spain and investigate the acts of Cortes, arrived in Mexico. He died soon after his arrival, and left the trust to another who also died soon, and bequeathed the duties to Estrada, who added to the diffi- culty of the situation by his hostility to Cortes. The power was afterward with- drawn and conferred upon a new com- mission called the Royal Audience of New Spain. 1526. Arizona was explored by Don Jose de Vasconcellos. 1526. Nov. 22. A great uprising occurred in Central America. A severe battle took place between Alvarado and the natives. The severity of Gonzalo Alvarado who had ruled in the absence of his brother Pedro for some months, had. enraged the Indians. The latter were wholly routed. Two kings were taken and held in close captivity for fif- teen years. This defeat served to fix the Spanish power upon the broken-spirited Americans. 1527. Sebastian Cabot now in the service of Spain, and commander of an expedition sent out in search of a south- western passage, entered the river La Plata and sailed up the stream one hun- dred and twenty leagues. 1469.1537. He explored the region for Machiaveiu. several years, and discovered Paraguay. This is the last connection of this accom- plished navigator with the New World. He was in the employ of Spain for some time and subsequently in that of England, and made several voyages. He was liv- ing in the year 1557, but where or when he died or where he was buried, no one knows. His qualities were of the high- est order, and rightfully made him a man of great eminence in his day. No dis- honor is attached to his name. 1527. Pizarro's Persistence. Pizarro and Almagro continued their journey under great difficulty. At one time when almost all wished to give up and go back to Panama, Pizarro drew a line on the sand, and pointing with his sword said, "There lies Peru with its riches; here lies Panama with its poverty. Choose, each man, what best becomes a brave Castilian. For my part I go to the south." Stepping across the line he was followed by a small number, who thus became the nucleus of the force which 132 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. finally subdued the great kingdom. The timid ones sailed for home. The rest sailed south to the city of Tumbez in the Gulf of Guayaquil, which was found full of riches. The cultivation of the soil and the government of the country were of a higher order than further at the north, save in Mexico. Pizarro sailed to latitude 9 S. and then returned in order to report at Panama the success of his trip. The derision with which their efforts had been followed by many was now turned into wonder. Pizarro brought back with him several natives and llamas, cotton fabrics of different kinds, and gold and silver works of art. 1527. A ship-canal from the Atlan- tic to the Pacific to run through Lake Nicaragua, was first proposed this year. 1528. May. Cortes arrived in Spain from Mexico to free himself from false accusation, and to lay his achievements before the government for approval. He was paid distinguished honor and restored to the confidence of the emperor. 1528. Pizarro went to Spain to lay the project of conquering Peru before the emperor, and to gain if possible the royal encouragement and support. He was thrown into prison upon his arrival, but was released as soon as the nature of his mission was known. Pizarro exhibited the treasures he had brought with him, and gave a full account of the two jour- neys he had already made, and of the sufferings experienced upon each. He met Cortes in Spain, and received trom the Conqueror of Mexico material assist- ance in presenting his petitions. 1528. Disaster in Florida. Pamphilo de Narvaez, having received authority to invade and conquer Florida, landed there with three hundred men, eighty of them upon horse. They struck into the for- ests, and after eight hundred miles of wandering they came out near the Bay of Pensacola. The leader and most of his followers were ship-wrecked in boats they had made, and were 1471-1528. lost. Others perished of Aibert Durer. hunger. Four persons reached Mexico in 1536, after eight years of travel across the country. The expedition was a com- plete disaster. 1528. San Salvador, capital of the republic of the same name, was founded by Jorge de Alvarado, brother of the con- queror, in a beautiful and elevated valley on the site of an old Indian town. 1529. July 6. Cortes was created Marquess of the Valley of the Oaxaca, and received a grant of land in that province, together with grants in other parts of New Spain. He was made by another royal ordinance captain-general of New Spain and the South Sea. But the government refused to send him back in- vested with the civil authority of Mexico. 1529. July 26. Pizarro was granted by a royal instrument the right to con- quer Peru for two hundred leagues south of Santiago, and was made captain-gen- eral and governor of the region for life. Almagro was to command at Tumbez. The salaries of the three were appointed from the spoils of conquest. 1530. January. Pizarro sailed in haste from San Lucar, Spain, to avoid government officers, who 1 4 71 .i 530 . car- were to inspect his vessels, dinal Wohey. c u- ^Ci. 153 - Spinning- and see if his outfit was whee i for flax in . complete. He was accom- vented by jor- i i i i gens. panied by his three broth- ers, Hernando, Gonzalo, and Juan. They reached N ombre de Dios in safety, and with the other associates began to prepare for an expedition. 1530. Cortes sailed for Mexico in the 1523-1550.] spring and landed at Hayti, where he was tried on several charges by the Roy- al Audience. No action on the part of the government ever came of the trial. 1530. July 15. Cortes landed in Mexico. He proceeded to Tlascala and Tezcuco, and was received with affection by the people, much to the disgust of some of the magistrates. After awhile he took up his residence at Cuernavaca. 1531. January. Pizarro sailed from Panama with three vessels and one hun- dred and eighty men. He took twenty- seven horses. A part of the force was landed at the Bay of St. Matthew, and marched along the coast, while the rest proceeded in the vessels. They captured and plundered settlements in the province of Coaque, where they found great booty of precious stuffs and metals. Pizarro sent back a large amount of it to Panama, and at once excited many to join his ex- pedition. A re-enforcement under Her- nando de Soto soon reached him. 1531. The dyewoods of Brazil had become such a source of traffic with nav- igators that John III. of Portugal began to colonize the country in order to prevent what he considered a violation of his rights. 1531. The first settlement in Guiana, named St. Thomas, was made by Diego de Ordaz. 1532. The silver mines of Zacatecas, in Mexico, were discovered, and for many years stood at the head of the mining districts of that country. 1532. Civil War in Peru. During the spring of this year, Huascar and Atahuallpa Capac, between whom the kingdom of Peru had been divided at the death of their father, Huayna Capac, were at war. The latter, to whom the province of Quito had been given, took <;REAT EXPEDITIONS. 133 his elder brother captive, and is said to have murdered many Inca nobles. 1532. May 16. San Miguel. Pizarro, having marched to Ttimbez and found it almost wholly destroyed, proceeded some leagues south, where he founded a city which he named San Miguel. It was afterward removed to the river Piura. Pizarro melted down the gold and silver which had been collected, and forwarded it to Panama to remove the burden of debt from the expedition. 1532. Sept. 24. Pizarro left San Miguel on a march for the camp of Atahuallpa, which was said to be near. He led his little force through a beautiful country, and at last sent out De Soto to reconnoiter. In a week De Soto returned, accompanied by an ambassador from Ata- huallpa, who brought valuable presents and a cordial invitation to visit the Peru- vian camp. Pizarro sent presents in re- turn, and resumed his march. With con- siderable difficulty the troops climbed the Cordilleras, but finally descended into the lovely plain where Caxamalca lay. The camp of Atahuallpa was upon the side of the hill, just outside the city. 1532. Nov. 15. Pizarro entered the city of Caxamalca, which had been de- serted by its inhabitants for his use. An embassy sent to the camp, saw great riches and perfect discipline. That night the Spanish officers in council determined to seize the person of the Inca. 1532. Nov. 16. Atahuallpa visited the Spanish camp in the area of Caxa- malca. Friar Vincente de Valverde at- tempted to secure from Atahuallpa an acceptance of the Catholic faith, and an acknowledgement of submission to the Spanish government. At the refusal of the Peruvian monarch, he and his attend- ants were assailed at a given signal, and 134 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. after a great massacre, Atahuallpa was taken captive. No Spaniard was killed. Much gold and silver were found, and large numbers of llamas were in the val- ley. The people seemed weak as soon as their leader was taken. Atahuallpa offered to fill the room in which he was confined, twenty-two feet long, and sev- enteen feet wide, full of gold, to a height of nine feet, as a ransom. He also prom- ised to fill another room twice full of sil- ver. Pizarro accepted his offer, and messengers were at once sent forth to collect gold and silver from all parts of the realm. Atahuallpa, fearing that his brother, Huascar, would escape from prison through the reported offer of a ransom larger than his own, secured his death. It is related that Atahuallpa, while in prison, got some Spaniard to write the name of God upon his thumb nail, and presented it to every one who visited him. When each, upon looking at it, gave him the same explanation, his wonder increased at the silent writing. Once when Francisco Pizarro came to his cell, the Inca held up the same to him, and noticing the confusion in the look of the conqueror, who could neither read nor write, he ever after esteemed the Spanish leader an inferior man. 1533. February. Much gold had now been brought in for the ransom of Atahuallpa. At last the Spanish soldiers clamored for a division of the spoil, though it lacked something of being the full amount. The royal fifth was selected, and Hernando Pizarro was sent with it to Spain. The rest was melted down and amounted to about $15,500,000 gold, besides a large quantity of silver. It was divided according to rank and service. Atahuallpa now demanded his release, but rumors of an uprising of the people reached the ears of Pizarro. It was de- cided to try the captive monarch upon this charge of having secretly instigated a rebellion. It was done, and at last, in spite of the remonstrance of a few, he was sentenced to death. 1533. Aug. 29. Atahuallpa was ex- ecuted by the garrote instead of by burning, as had been first decreed, the former method being adopted upon his professed acceptance of the Catholic re- ligion in his last hours. Pizarro conferred the crown upon Toparca, a brother of Atahuallpa, and invested him with the civil power of the realm, according to the regal customs. 1533. September. Pizarro set out for Cuzco. Their journey lay for a part of the way over the great road of the realm, which had been built at some time with great labor, along the sides of mountains and across deep chasms. Upon this journey the newly appointed Inca died, and Pizarro received negotiations from Manco Capac, brother of Huascar, asking for recognition as ruler of the kingdom. He was met plausibly, and was promised support. 1533. Nov. 15. Cuzco was entered by the Spanish army. It was found to be a city of great regularity, and of substan- tial architecture. Considerable wealth was found in it and divided among the soldiers. It is said by some to have been even greater than the ransom of Atahuallpa. 1533. Lower California was explored by two expeditions sent out by Cortes in this and the previous year. 1533. Cartagena, a city of Colombia, South America, was founded and after- ward fortified at a cost of $29,000,000. Its situation upon a small island makes it the chief naval port on the northern coast of South America. 1523-1550.J GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 135 1533. The first recorded eruption of \ Cotopaxi, a volcano situated in Ecuador, S. A., the highest active volcano in the world, took place. Its summit is about 19,000 feet above the sea. 1534. January. Hernando Pizarro arrived in Spain upon his mission, and presented all his treasures before the gov- ernment. Previous contracts were all confirmed, and the territory extended. Almagro was granted the right to con- quer the country two hundred leagues south of Pizarro's territory. Hernando Pizarro was created a Knight of Santi- ago and ordered to fit up an expedition to sail to Peru for assistance in the con- quest. This expedition was almost en- tirely annihilated at its start by a terrible storm, only a few of the adventurers reaching Peru at last. 1534. Quito was captured by Sebas- tian Benalcazar, whom Pizarro had placed in charge of San Miguel. He was dis- appointed in not finding any wealth in the city. 1534. March 24. Pizarro invested Manco Capac with the government of the realm, and received his submission to the Spanish crown. He organized a municipal corporation for Cuzco. Father Valverde was appointed bishop. 1534. April 20. Jacques Cartier, an eminent French sailor, left St. Malo, Fi'ance, with two vessels of sixty tons each, and one hundred and twenty-two men, for a voyage of exploration to the New World. He had in all probability been upon the Newfoundland banks in previous years. 1534. May 10. After a quick pas- sage of twenty days, he reached New- foundland, where he was obliged to re- 1494-1534. main for a time on account Corregffio. o f the ice. He subsequently sailed around the island through the Straits of Belle Isle. He visited and named the Baye de Chaleur. 1534. July. He erected a cross bear- ing the French arms upon the shore of Gasp6 as a sign of the French dominion. He then sailed up the St. Lawrence as JACQUES CARTIER. far as the island of Anticosti, at which point he turned back to France. 1534. The city of Quito, S. A., was founded upon the remains of the old In- dian town, ten thousand feet above the sea. 1535. Jan. 6. Lima. Pizarro selected and laid out the site of a capital city of Peru, and named it " City of the Kings." The name was afterward changed to Lima. A large number were set to work at once upon the buildings and streets, and many of the foundations then laid, have remained till this day. 1535. May 19. Cartier's Second Voy- age. Jacques Cartier sailed on his sec- ond voyage from St. Malo, France, with three vessels, the largest one being of one hundred and ten tons burden. He reached the Gulf of St. Lawrence and sailed up the river of the same name. 1535. June 12. Pizarro and Alma- gro executed another agreement at Cuzco, by which they pledged lasting friendship. This was caused by the assumption of 136 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. supreme power at Cuzco by Almagro, .who contended that the city lay within the limit of his grant from the crown. Almagro now undertook an expedition to Chili, and succeeded in raising five hundred and seventy men, who were dis- patched at different times. Pizarro en- couraged adventurers to other parts of his realm, and established cities at differ- ent points. 1535. Oct. 2. Site of Montreal. Car- tier having stopped for a time at the present site of Quebec in intercourse with Donnacona and his Indian subjects, and having passed up through beautiful Lake St. Peter, arrived at the Indian village of Hochelaga, situated upon an island. He ascended the mountain back of the village, and named it Mont Roy- ale, which has passed into the name of the island, and of the great city now upon it, as Montreal. The French then re-embarked and went down to the mouth of the St. Croix, now the St. Charles, and there remained for the winter. 1535. Buenos Ayres was founded by a Spanish expedition under Don Jorge de Mendoza. It was abandoned in 1538, and did not become permanent till 1580, when colonies had already begun to flourish in the interior. 1535. New Spain, now Mexico, was erected into a vice-royalty, and Don Antonio de Mendoza was appointed viceroy. FIRST PRINTING. 1535. Under the direction of the vice- roy, printing was established in the city of Mexico. " The Spiritual Ladder," a school manual, was printed there one hundred and four years before a printing press was set up in the United States, being the first book, or very nearly the first book printed on the American conti- nent. Mexico gave birth to ninety-three other books, and Peru to seven, before the close of the century. Nineteen of them were written in Latin. FIRST MINT. 1535. A mint was established in the City of Mexico, and began the coinage of silver, thus preceding all similar work on the continent. FIRST HISTORY. 1535. A history of America by Gon- zalo Hernandez, governor of San Do- mingo, was published at Seville, Spain. It contains the first known mention of the pine-apple. 1536. February. Manco Capac, hav- ing escaped from Cuzco, in which city a strict watch was kept over him, and having appeared among the people, the natives rose and besieged Cuzco with twa hundred thousand men. A large portion of the city was burned. Lima was be- sieged at the same time, and all commu- nications were cut off. Pizarro sent for Almagro to return from Chili, to aid in putting down the rebellion. 1536. February. Juan Pizarro lost his life in attempting to take a strong- hold held by the Peruvians. He was the first of the four brothers to fall, and was in most respects the most worthy of the number. He was a valiant soldier, and was free from most of the harsh characteristics of his times. 1536. March 6. Jacques Cartier, having spent the winter with his men on the St. Lawrence, and having lost twen- ty-five of the little company by scurvy, at last sailed for France, taking with him the Indian chief, Donnacona, and nine of his inferioi chiefs, of whom he gained possession by deceit. 1523-15oO GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 137 1536. An expedition under Master Hore sailed from London to plant a col- ony on Newfoundland, but the attempt came to an end after much suffering. 1536. Asuncion, the capital of Par- aguay, S. A., was founded by Juan de Ayolas. It served as the capital of the La Plata provinces till 1620. 1536. Almagro returned from Chili, having effected nothing to advance his fortunes. His troops had suffered much from cold and fatigue. When he reached the vicinity of Cuzco and found it be- sieged, he held communications with Man- co Capac, but without result, through misunderstanding. FROM FLORIDA TO MEXICO. 1536. July 22. Cabaga de Vaca, one of the survivors of the expedition of Narvaez into Florida, arrived with two or three companions in Mexico, after a fearful journey of eight years across the continent. It is uncertain whether they 1483-1536. crossed the Mississippi, thus Martin Luther, becoming its discoverers, or passed its mouth in boats which they used for a little time along shore. They were 1467-1536. kept in a severe captivity Erasmus. f or a long time by the In- dians, and suffered much. At last they escaped and began their long march across the continent through Texas and New Mexico. They finally reached their countrymen and were sent to Spain, where they were received with great honor. They gave the first account of the Pueblo Indians, and brought about by their statements, the subsequent explora- tion of New Mexico and California. 1537. April 8. Cuzco was seized by Almagro, who had been refused an en- trance into the city till the rival claims of himself and Pizarro could be decided. He seized the place by night and put Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro into con- finement. The former had just before returned from Spain. 1537. July 12. Almagro captured Alonzo de Alvarado, one of Pizarro's officers, with a force of five hundred men, who had been sent to relieve Cuzco. 1537. The siege of Cuzco was now wholly broken up by Almagro. Pizarro, upon hearing of the seizure of Cuzco, sent a messenger to negotiate terms of peace. This effort was broken off by the death of the messenger. Almagro now descended to the seashore and attempted to found a city which should rival Lima. Here he soon heard of the escape of sev- eral of his prisoners, among them Gon- zalo Pizarro. 1537. Nov. 13. An interview took place between Almagro and Pizarro, which, after some altercation, resulted in the agreement that Cuzco should remain in Almagro's hands till the claims to it could be adjusted in Spain; and that Hernando Pizarro should be set at lib- erty on condition that he would leave the country in six weeks. This was done, and Hernando Pizarro was sent to his brother's quarters. Francisco at once released Hernando from all oblisra- o tion to obey the agreement to leave the country, and announced to the army his intention of making war upon Almagro. He then returned to Lima and intrusted the prosecution of the war to Hernando. INDIANS DECLARED HUMAN. 1537. A decree was issued by Pope Paul III., declaring the native Americans to be rational creatures, and entitled to the privileges of Christians. 138 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1538. April 26. Almagro was cap- tured in a great battle, which was fought at Las Salinas, near Cuzco. 1538. July 8. Almagro was exe- cuted for levying war upon the Spanish crown. 1538. Havana, Cuba, was burned by French privateers. 1538. Santa Fe de Bogota in the United States of Colombia, S. A., was 1538. Diving bell founded by Gonzalo Xim- imientea. enes de Quesada, who start- better educated than his brother Francis- co, and was a man of great self-possession and vigor in the midst of critical circum- stances. But he had a revengeful spirit, and was not troubled by the sight of blood, nor the reflection that it was due to his own injustice. When he came out of prison he was an aged and infirm man. 1539. May 30. Hernando de Soto having returned from Peru on account of the feuds which were raging there, and DE SOTO'S MARCH. ed the city with twelve houses in honor of the twelve apostles. 1539. Hernando Pizarro sailed to Spain because he learned that Almagro's friends were trying to secure redress. He arrived safely, and at first successfully resisted the imputations cast upon him. But he was finally arrested, thrown into prison, and confined for twenty years, being released in 1560. Hernando Pizarro disappeared from the scene of. action in Peru, leaving upon his name a reputation for harshness, even to cruelty. He was having determined while governor of Cuba upon making an expedition into Florida, arrived at Tampa Bay with nine vessels, six hundred men, and a herd of swine, besides all manner of supplies. Then began a long and toilsome march across the country to the west. During this year they reached as far as the head of the Bay of Ap- palachee, where they stopped for the winter. 1539. Pins first used by Cathar- ine Howard, queen of Eng- land. 1539. Universi- ty of Geneva founded by Cal- vin. 1523-1550.] JUAN ORTIZ. 1539. When De Soto had marched with his men a short distance from Tam- pa Bay, Juan Ortiz, a man who had come to Florida in the expedition of Narvaez in 1528, met them and proved of great value to the expedition. He related to De Soto a romantic story of his capture and experience among the Indians. He was at first doomed by King Ucita to death by burning, for which purpose they placed him upon a scaffold, and kindled a blazing fire be- neath it. Before the flames had reached him his life was besought by the daugh- ter of the chief from her father, who seemed not to have yielded out of com- passion, but because of the arguments of his child, among which was one that it would be a great honor to keep a white man in captivity. Ortiz was retained as a slave, but was again in danger of death a few years afterward, when the Indian princess aided him in escaping beforehand. He lived with other Indians till De Soto's entrance into the country, when he served as guide and interpreter for that explorer. He died a short time before De Soto. GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 139 1539. An expedition sent out by Cortes, under Francisco de Ulloa, ex- plored the coast of California to the far north. Ulloa sent home a vessel, but never returned himself. This ended the explorations of Cortes. 1540. De Soto and his followers re- sumed their march into the region lying northwest of the present State of Florida. They met at one point with resistance from the natives, and burned an Indian ISM. Order oj town with great destruc- "Vesniis founded . r i*c TM o i f ,. tion of life. The Spaniards bv Ignatius t? Ign ioyola. lost eighteen men, besides all their baggage. Many men were wounded. They stopped for the winter in Northern Mississippi. 1540. April 22. The Seven Cities. An expedition under Coronado, was sent by Mendoza, viceroy of New Spain, to search for the seven cities of Cibola, concerning which vague reports had reached them. He explored the Pueblo cities of Arizona and New Mexico, and died, his followers returning to Mexico. AMAZON EXPEDITION. 1540. Gonzalo Pizarro upon assum- ing the government of Quito to which he had been appointed by his brother, fitted up an expedition to the east. He raised three hundred and forty Spaniards and four thousand Indians, and furnished them with all necessary supplies. The men experienced great suffering in pass- ing the cold heights of the Cordilleras and descending into the heat and rains of the region beyond. They reached the region of cinnamon, where the bark could be gathered in great quantities, but it was of no avail to them. They pushed on, having been told by natives that a land of gold lay a few days be- yond. After much difficulty in break- ing through the tropical undergrowth, they reached the river Napo, a great tributary of the Amazon. They hoped to find a more practicable way along its banks. Here they built a boat to carry their baggage and the persons who had grown weak. They cut tim- ber, made nails out of old horse-shoes, pitched the bottom with gum from the forest, and used old, worn-out garments as oakum. They were two months in building it, but at last had a boat both strong and large. Pizarro put a large portion of the company aboard under 140 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. Francisco de Orellana, and sent them along the river. The boat was finally sent ahead for provisions with orders to return and meet the rest as soon as possible. Pizarro waited for weeks, then deter- mined to proceed along the river, and in two months came to the Amazon. No sign of the boat met him. It was now 1541. But at last he found Sanchez de Vargas who had been put out of the boat because he opposed the desertion of the land company. He stated that the rest had sailed on down the river with the design of going to Spain. It may be as is claimed by one record, that Orellana was led to this by finding no provisions, and that his return to the land party would be very slow on ac- count of the swift current. At any rate, with him belongs the glory of the real discovery of the Amazon. He kept on down the stream, now near starvation for lack of food which could be seldom obtained, now fighting with his worn-out company the Indians who beset them in some places by thousands. They were seven months in reaching the Atlantic. At one place they stopped to strengthen or rebuild their weakened vessel. At one time "there was nothing to eat but the skins which formed their girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled with a few herbs." Finally they reached the Atlantic and turned north along the coast, reaching Cubagua in due time. From here Orellana sailed to Spain and obtained a grant of the lands along the Amazon, but his plans were cut short by his death, which took place before he could reach the land of his great adven- ture. In June, 1542, Gonzalo Pizarro reached Quito upon his return from the great wilderness. He had been a full year in making his way back. Only eighty Spaniards remained, and they were worn out and broken down. Hun- dreds of the Indians had perished. This- expedition must ever rank as one of the most remarkable adventures in the New World. 1540. Vaca de Castro, an ambassador, was appointed by the Spanish govern- ment to visit Peru, inquire into its dis- turbances, and use his authority in re- storing order. 1540. Cortes again returned to Spain in order to present further requests to the government. 1540. Gold was discovered in the coast range of Venezuela, S. A. 1541. Feb. 24. Santiago, Chili, was founded by Pedro de Valvidia. 1541. May. The Mississippi. De Soto after numerous trials in penetrating the wilderness, arrived at the Mississippi River, thus connecting his name forever with that great stream. 1541. May 23. Cartier's Third Voy- age. Jacques Cartier sailed on his third voyage, to be followed by Lord Roberval,. who was to bring further supplies with which to found a colony. Lord Rober- val had received a commission, granting him the government of New France, and had made Cartier captain-general of the expedition. PIZARRffS DEATH. 1541. June 26. Francisco Pizarro was assassinated in his own home in Lima, by a party who had attached themselves to Almagro, whose father, Diego de Almagro, had been executed some time before. The attack was made in the daytime, and Pizarro was killed only after a severe resistance by himself and his attendants, many of whom were 1523-1550.] also slain. The conqueror was at his death about seventy years of age, but was still in the full vigor of life. The exposure and suffering which he had been through seem to have been borne with wonderful physical endurance. When his followers gave out by the score, he only redoubled his exertions. Francisco Pizarro was a man of great energy of spirit, which was at times ex- hibited in deeds strongly marked by cruelty and self-interest. His treatment of Atahuallpa has always been a reason for his condemnation. But at the time it seemed, without doubt, as if the whole cause would be the better prosecuted, and the natives of Peru would more readily receive a new government if their old leader were dead. Nor can we truly estimate the deed until we have the his- torical discernment of other circumstan- ces, such as the light value placed by any one upon the life of an enemy, and the feeling of the Spanish that the na- tives of America were an inferior race. Pizarro, compared with other explorers of his time, was evidently much less moved by moral considerations, and was possessed of a coarse, more cruel and unscrupulous nature. But even he should be judged by the light of his own time and nation. Everything in Pizarro's life was bent to his ambition, which was a purely secular and avaricious one. He was not, like Columbus and Cortes, pos- sessed of a religious ambition. He could deny himself any minor pleasure if his great aim could be met. He was ready for any labor, and was always devising ways to secure greater power over his followers. He did not give way to eat- ing, drinking, or sleeping. Not having learned to read or write in his youth, he was not patient enough to do so in the GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 141 roving public life he afterward lived. He was eminently a soldier, and knew nothing except a soldier's life. In this he was thoroughly at home. Yet by his plans for public improvements in Peru, his founding of Lima and other citie,s, it is evident that he wished to build up a nation. In all his plans he was persistent in the highest degree. His long life was one of undeviating energy. He halted not, save for death, which came at last. By his hand Spain had acquired a vast empire, which afterward poured tons of silver into her treasury. Buried at first in secrecy and terror, his remains now repose in honor in the cathedral at Lima. He left a son and a daughter by an Indian princess. The former died in youth. The latter went to Spain, and her descendants are said to be found at Truxillo. 1541. Aug. 23. Cartier reached the St. Croix, and soon passed up to the river of Cap Rouge. Here he built two forts and remained for the winter, waiting for Lord Roberval, who did not come when expected. 1541. Vaca de Castro arrived in Quito and displayed his royal letters of author- ity, gaining adherents to himself as a rep- resentative of the crown. At Lima the young Almagro had entered at once upon military preparations for the support of his new power as governor of Peru, which he had assumed upon the death of Pizarro. 1541. A flood of water from a volca- no destroyed the city of Guatemala in Central America. A new city was built further down in the valley. 1542. April 16. Lord Roberval sailed from Rochelle with two hundred colonists, for New France. 142 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. DE SOTO. 1542. May 21. De Soto having wan- dered through the region of the Arkansas River, and having selected a site on the Mississippi for a colony, died, and was buried by his followers in the waters of the stream he had discovered. The sur- vivors continued their wanderings. Her- nando de Soto was born about 1496, in Estremadura, Spain, and was of noble blood. He received something of an ed- ucation, and came to America in 1519. He was always a supporter of the best qualities in his companions, and in the confused moral conditions attending the exploration of the New World he seems never to have lost his better impulses. He joined Pizarro in Peru soon after that leader's entrance upon the conquest, and while a member of the army, became prominent for his intrepid spirit and un- wavering energy. Upon Pizarro's march to Caxamalca, De Soto, with a few men, penetrated the country as an advance guard, and discovered the great road to Cuzco. At the capture of the latter city he exhibited bravery beyond that of his companions in arms. He became a friend of the Inca, Atahuallpa, in his captivity, and was greatly shocked upon his return to Caxamalca from an expedition, to find that the royal prisoner had been falsely tried and executed. De Soto subsequently returned to Spain and fitted up the expe- dition which resulted so disastrously. He was a man of uncommon perseverance and enjoyed better the work of explora- tion than he did the more bloody work of conquest. He impresses us as being a hero possessed of much manliness, one whose valor in fight resulted from the strength of his character, rather than from the sway which passion had over his spir't. 1542. June 8. Lord Roberval reached Newfoundland and found Cartier, who had grown weary of waiting, and had broken up the colony, on his way to France. Lord Roberval tried to force him back, but Cartier departed secretly and returned to France. The new-comer passed up the river and settled on the spot abandoned by the others. A dreary win- ter was spent, and the colony was at last broken up and carried back to France. 1542. Sept. 16. The young Almagro was met and conquered by Vaca de Cas- tro on the plains of Chupas. Almagro fled to Cuzco and was arrested. De Cas- tro also proceeded to Cuzco, where Al- magro was tried and executed. Some of his chief adherents were executed, and others banished. De Castro at once be- gan to settle the province in true peace and order. He founded schools for Indi- ans, and prevented oppression as far as possible. 1542. The government of the prov- inces of Spain in the New World was brought to the attention of Charles V. by Las Casas, who was very anxious about it. A new code was drawn up, making Peru a viceroyalty, and specifying certain improvements in the methods of treating the Indian population. Certain restric- tions were put about slavery, both Indian and negro, virtually abolishing it. The viceroy was to have a Royal Court of Audience of four persons. Lima was to take precedence of Panama as capital of the Pacific coast. Blasco Nunez de Vela was appointed to the government. 1542. Nov. 20. A Royal Audience was established for Central America, on account of the death of Alvarado. It was first seated at Valladolid de Coma- yagua. There was very little peace in the province after the conqueror died. 1533-1550.] 1543. The first vessels ever built on the Mississippi were seven frail brigan- tines, in which the followers of De Soto floated down the river to the Gulf of Mexico. Their members were very much reduced, and their sufferings before they reached the Gulf of Mexico, were very great. 1543. Cartier's Last Voyage. Car- tier is said to have been sent to New France this year, to bring home Lord Roberval and his companions. This voyage, if made, was Cartier's fourth and last one to Canada. He wintered there, and returned the next year. From this time he is not heard of in explora- tions, and is supposed to have lived at St. Malo until he died, about 1555. Scarcely anything is 'known of him beyond his voyages to Canada, which cover a period of ten years. He is supposed to have been about forty years of age at his first expedition. He appears as a man of en- durance and good character. His name will always be intimately associated with the great St. Lawrence, although France was not ready to avail herself of his en- terprise in building up at once upon his explorations. 1543. Nov. 3. Blasco Nunez de Vela, the new viceroy of Peru, sailed from San Lucar for his province. In the meantime his appointment, and the new code of regulations for the province, caused great agitation among all the in- habitants. The property of many would be severely reduced, if they were no longer allowed to have a gang of Indi- ans to do their bidding. 1544. January. The Viceroy's Fail- ure. Blasco Nunez de Vela reached Nombre de Dios on the Isthmus, and caused hostility at once upon his arrival by freeing certain Indians who had been ORE A T EXPEDITIONS. 143 brought from Peru as slaves. He arrived at Tumbez, and entered upon his admin- istration by the execution of the laws of the new code just as decreed, without fear or favor. Great excitement resulted. Gonzalo Pizarro was proclaimed at Cuzco procurator general of Peru, and was empowered by the municipal author- ities to present their remonstrances to the viceroy, and solicit redress. He also in- sisted upon having the power to raise an army. Nunez proceeded to Lima, and arresting De Castro after awhile as being concerned in the rebellion of Pizarro, threw him into confinement. Pizarro was marching toward Lima. The ex- citement of the people grew more violent. At last the Royal Audience arrested Nunez because they differed from him in carrying out the decrees. He was de- posed from office and confined on an island near by, in waiting to be sent to Spain. Pizarro drew near the city, and demanded to be acknowledged governor. The judges asked him to disband his force, inasmuch as the ordinance objected to, had been suspended. He refused, and declared he would pillage the city unless his authority was recognized. 1544. Oct. 28. Pizarro entered Lima at the head of his force, and was proclaimed governor of Peru till the emperor could be heard from. This was followed by acclamations and days of feasting. Vaca de Castro escaped to Spain, was confined twelve years, but was at last fully ac- quitted upon trial. 1544. October. The Viceroy's Ee- lease. The captain who was to take Nunez to Spain released him soon after sailing. Nunez returned to Tumbez and raised an army by a. public call. He went to Quito and then to San Miguel. He secured five hundred men. 144 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1544. Cartagena, S. A., was taken by the French. 1544. Manco Capac, the Inca of Peru, was shot by Spaniards who had been received into his camp. Since the siege of Cuzco failed, he had lived in the mountains, and had been a great ter- ror to the Spaniards. Efforts had been made to gain his submission, but without success. He was deadly opposed to Spanish rule, and would by no means help it in the least. The Spaniards who killed him were immediately killed by the Indians. This unfortunate Peruvian monarch seems to have had great deter- mination, and much power over his subjects. 1545. March 4. Gonzalo Pizarro, having garrisoned Lima, set out for Truxillo in order to proceed against the viceroy. He found that the latter had left San Miguel, and immediately set out in pursuit through the mountains. For two hundred leagues the pursuit was kept up at great suffering on both sides, until Pizarro stopped at Quito, Nunez having gone further north to Popayan. POTOSI SILVER MINES. 1545. An Indian named Hualpa, climbing the mountains in pursuit of wild goats, accidentally discovered the silver mines of Potosi, Bolivia, by pull- ing a bush from the earth by the roots, in his efforts to save himself from falling. 1545. NeedUs His eye fell at once upon first made. the ore beneath. For a time he kept it secret, but his possession of silver was at last noticed, and he told a friend where he obtained it. They soon quarreled over it, and thus the secret was given to the world. The mines are in a mountain which rises at its summit above the surrounding mountains in a perfect cone-like form, to a height of 16,000 feet above the sea. In this cone over five thousand mines have been opened, running in all directions, and completely honeycombing the top of the mountain. During the next two hun- dred and forty-four years the yield was $ i ',000,000,000. There is still a great amount of silver and other minerals in the mountain lower down. Indians have always been the chief workers in these mines. HIGHEST CITY Otf THE GLOBE. 1545. A little settlement began to be formed about the -silver mines of Potosi, and a city grew up at an elevation of 1 3,300 feet above the sea. There are other higher mountain points inhabited, but no higher city in the world. It had a population of 150,000 inhabitants two hundred years ago, but has now sunk to less than 30,000. Much of the place is in ruins, although only three places in Bolivia exceed it in size. The mint coins $2,000,000 every year from the sil- ver of the region. There is considerable life and enterprise still left in the city. 1545. The yellow fever made its first appearance in Mexico. 1546. Jan. 12. The Viceroy's Death. A great battle was fought just north of Quito, between Nunez, who had been reenforced by Benalcazar, and Pizarro, who had gained many adherents in Quito. The viceroy was defeated and slain. The people hailed Gonzalo Pi- zarro as deliverer. 1546. Gonzalo Pizarro's Power. Car- bajal pursued and entirely scattered the forces of Diego Centeno, who had re- belled against Pizarro. The power of Pizarro was now felt throughout Peru. THE FALLEN MONARCH. MOSQUITO COAST. 145 1523-1550.] GREAT EXPEDITIONS 147 He made a triumphant entry into Lima with great pomp. He obtained posses- sion of Panama and Nombi'e de DIGS upon the Isthmus, and could command the communications with Spain. He was urged by some to throw off the authority of the crown and erect an independent kingdom. But he did not consent to take this step. He prepared to send a mission to Spain. 1546. Pedro de la Gasca, who had been appointed to visit Peru and assume the presidency of the Royal Audience, arrived at Nombre de Dios, which was held by Pizarro's men. Gasca was a very able, wise, and persevering priest. He gained the respect of the officers of the Isthmus, and when Pizarro's ambas- sador to Spain arrived at Panama, Gasca led him to give up his mission and confess allegiance to the crown. 1546. Nov. 19. Gasca received the peaceful surrender of the Isthmus and the fleet stationed there, thus gaining a great victory by his wisdom in approach- ing and winning men. 1546. A map was published in Ven- ice, representing Asia and America as joined in latitude 38. 1547. Gasca began to raise troops, because attempts to open negotiations with Pizarro himself had been rejected. He sent public letters into. Peru with great effect upon the people. 1547. Centeno now again rebelled, marched on Cuzco, took it, and soon had an army of one thousand men in the field, 1547-1559. Henry ready to oppose Pizarro. //. Kin* of The latter also raised one France. Cath- erine de Medici, thousand men. A process Queen. was i ssuec l against Gasca, 1547-1553. Ed- . ward vi. Kjrtg a t Lima, and condemned oj England. hj m to death for treason. This manifesto was laughed at by some who said if Gasca could be caught they would execute him without a process, and if he could not be caught, it would do no good. 1547. April 10. The fleet of Gasca sailed from Panama, and after a severe storm, arrived at Tumbez. He found a change favorable to himself among the people, wrought by his manifestoes. He gathered his forces after a while at Xauxa. 1547. Oct. 26. Pizarro defeated the rebel Centeno, who had a force at this time twice his own, and succeeded in totally overthrowing him. Pizarro in- stantly executed many of the captives. Centeno escaped. Pizarro entered Cuzco, where his victory was celebrated. DEATH OF CORTES. 1547. Dec. 2. Hernando Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, died near Seville in Spain in the sixty-third year of his age. This great soldier lived through all the dangers of war to die peaceably in his bed in his native land. He had outlived all the great explorers of his country whose names are connected with Florida, Mexico, Central America and South America. A new realm was con- quered by him for the satisfaction of the avai'ice of Spain, and for the relief of her treasury in the wars she was waging at home. He was preeminently the representative soldier among the explor- ers of his time. The Pizarros were brave and persistent soldiers, but there is so much of personal ambition and cruel, selfish policy in their history, that we cannot claim for them the position of true military heroes. But the harshness, the coolness at the sight of blood, the readiness to fight, which we find in Cortes, seem to be connected closely with 148 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. the military character of the time rather than with personal defects in the man himself. We do not think of Cortes as being intensely selfish like Francisco Pizarro. His whole soul was in the con- quest, and he prided himself upon his own achievements. He always felt keen- ly the criticisms made upon his conduct. But he cannot be called an utterly selfish man. There is much that is unlovely and disagreeable in his character. He was cunning and bigoted. But we can- not deny him the praise of being one of the best soldiers whom Spain had in the New World. His power over his men seems to have been gained by the hearty, wholesome, generous bearing which he had toward them, rather than by any assumed favor for them. Yet they all knew that he would have them for fol- lowers, not for leaders. In this way he made a victorious army out of men of different ranks in life, and of different moral characters running through all grades. Cortes was a really great gen- eral. His victories were not gained by dash and superior force, but by judgment and military perception. He was also a man of great general knowledge and practical sense. He began at once to notice the resources of Mexico, and when the conquest was complete he immedi- ately set about the erection of a nation upon the old ruins. After he, like Co- lumbus, had been denied by the Spanish government the full reward which he had anticipated and desired, he eagerly sought some other quarter where his adventurous spirit could find delight in action. For this reason he set on foot the expeditions to California. But nothing appeared equal to his former field. The conquest of Mexico was the great work of his life. In that the remarkable na- ture, abilities and character of the man were very fully shown. His ashes now rest in the land which his valor added to the Spanish domain. 1548. March. Gasca, after having waited for reinforcements at different points, at last led forward nearly two thousand men, the largest single force that had ever been known in Peru. GONZALO PIZARRO. 1548. April 8. The battle of Xaqui- xaguana took place near Cuzco, in which Pizarro's forces were easily routed. Many of Pizarro's officers and privates took flight to the other army and surren- dered themselves to the new president. This proved the downfall of their com- mander. The battle had scarcely begun when desertions rapidly multiplied, and Pizarro, when he saw that 1548. Orange his cause was hopeless be- trees brought' cause of the dissolution of into Europe - his army, gave himself up. Francisco de Carbajal, an officer eighty years of age, who was true to Pizarro, coolly watched the course of events, and was heard to hum the words of a comic Spanish bal- lad which was a favorite with him : "The wind blows Ihe hairs off my head, mother, Two at a time it blows them away." When nearly all his fellow soldiers had fled, he attempted to make his es- cape, but was taken and afterward exe- cuted. He was one of the most remark- able characters of the conquest. Gasca's army acquired a large amount of booty. Gonzalo Pizarro was beheaded, and some of his officers were executed in dif- ferent ways. Thus perished the last of the four Pizarros, at about forty-two years of age. He had been only second to his brother Francisco throughout the con- 1523-1550.] GREAT EXPEDITIONS. 149 quest, in the energy and ability with which he had striven to subjugate Peru. His expedition across the Cordilleras into the region of the Amazon was un- equaled in that time, and almost in any time, for boldness and romance. He loved show, and was less insensible to allurements of all kinds than his brother Francisco was. After the Litter's death, Gonzalo felt that the honor of the name rested upon him to perpetuate. His gigantic efforts to retain a hold upon Peru were well nigh successful, but utter disaster came upon him at last. His ed- ucation was like Francisco's, an educa- tion of the camp. His moral nature was much the same. His head was set up at Lima and marked as that of a traitor. His property was confiscated, and his home in Lima utterly destroyed. His body was laid in Cuzco, with the bodies of Almaero and his son. 1548. La Paz, the chief commercial city of Bolivia, was founded by Alonzo de Mendoza. It is situated near Lake Titicaca, and is 13,000 feet above the sea. It has 85,000 inhabitants. 1549. Settled Administration. After the death of Pizarro, Gasca entered upon the administration of affairs, and endeav- ored to meet the needs of all by a wise distribution of rewards and favors. He took measures to investigate the condition of the Indian population. He introduced many reforms, and settled the govern- ment upon a new and firm basis. He did it all without charge, save for his necessary expenses, and saved a large sum for the royal treasury. He even re- fused to receive presents from the people. 1549. First Jesuits. Thome de Souza was appointed governor of Brazil by the Portuguese crown, and made San Salva- dor the capital of that province under the name of Bahia. Jesuits for the first time came to America with De Souza. 1549. The independence of Spanish America was proclaimed by two brothers, Hernando and Pedro de Contreras, of Nicaragua. Panama submitted to them, but before a long time their cause de- clined, and ended with their deaths in 1550. This abortive attempt dimly fore- told the revolutionary movements two and a half centuries later. 1550. January. Gasca embarked at Lima for Spain, leaving the Royal Audi- ence to govern the province of Peru till a new viceroy could be sent. He took to Spain 1,500,000 ducats, and after a favorable voyage reached home in safety. His mission had been a complete success, and was worth an inestimable amount to Spain. He lived till 1567, and left the reputation of having been a wise, great and good man. After his departure the regulations of 1542 were broken down, so far as slavery was concerned. Negroes and Indians were reduced to bondage again. 1550. Two millions of Indians had been worked to death in Hayti by the Spaniards in fifty years. SECTION VII. . 1551-1602. *HE last half of the sixteenth cen- tury presents a new element in the growing life of the New World. i The most prominent feature of the period is the large number of English explorers who emerge into view. The achievements of the Cabots had not been closely followed up fifty years before. But now English sailors began to cruise all waters. Some sailed simply for gain and were not scrupulous about getting it with plunder and bloodshed if necessary. The greed of Hawkins and the vindictive spirit of Drake spread blots on American history which can never be erased. They aided the development of the buccaneer life which began before their day, but reached its most frightful extent in the seventeenth century. These men made no attempt to colonize. The designs of others were wholly commendable. Men like Gilbert could not have too much to do with the study of a new continent. The zeal of Raleigh deserved a better result than to be forever puzzled with the lost Roanoke colony. All the Eng- lish efforts were futile. France made few and feeble attempts. The mournful story of Huguenot failure in Brazil, and the blood-red page of Huguenot exter- mination in Florida are mere incidents in the suffering of that distressed people. The weak movements toward New France at the close of the period were without promise. Holland had not yet reached out strongly into the western continent. Meantime comparative quiet reigned throughout Spanish America, which was growing as far as the condi-. tions would permit. Mining was attain- ing considerable dimensions. Education was increasing. Towns were multiply- ing. St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States, was founded. 1551. A band of pirates under Jacob Sores pillaged the wealthier portions of Havana, Cuba, seizing or destroying everything, and took possession of the forty but soon left, as booty was their only object. 1551. Four lines for a ship -canal across Central America were indicated by the historian Gomara. A work of this kind was warmly and earnestly ad- vocated by him because it would bring Spain much nearer to the wealth of the Indies. 1551. Two universities, the oldest in America, were founded, one in the City of Mexico, and one in Lima. 150 1490-1553. Ra- belais, the great French author. 1553 1558. -'Bloody Mjry" Queen of Eng- land. 1551-1602.] 1554. French buccaneers again de- stroyed Havana, Cuba. A short time before they had seized the city of Santiago on the same island, and received $80,000 for its ransom. They swarmed through the West India waters, and hardly any town \vas safe from them. 1555. November. Huguenots in Brazil. Nicholas Durand de Villegagnon with a colony of Huguenots or French Protestants, arrived in the harbor of Rio Janeiro and began a settlement upon an island. He had sailed from France upon his undertaking, with the favor of Coligny Admiral of France, who was himself a Protestant. Villegagnon* began to rule his colony with such strictness that he speedily caused much trouble and created many enemies for himself. Thus the settlement which had some principle in- volved in its organization came to grief because of the unfortunate dispositions of the ones engaged in it, and especially of its leader. Villegagnon was a man who had been exceedingly brave in war, and was accomplished in scholarship. He was evidently unfitted for the compara- tively limited work of building up a col- ony in a foreign land. Least of all could he bear opposition. Professing to be a Protestant, he was .readily joined in his Brazilian enterprise by many who thought they would be free from danger in the exercise of their faith across the ocean. They flew to ills they knew not of. The -sufFerings endwred in Fort Coligny as the little fortification was called, were very i556-ir,9a. Philip great. The harshness of Villegagnon irritated his followers almost to mad- ness. They formed a plan to overthrow, perhaps to kill THE GREAT ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 151 //. King of Spain. 1491-1556. Ig- natius Loyola, jounder of the 'Jesuits. him, but it was revealed, and therefore failed. Famine- began to stare the col- onists in the face. The difficulty of the situation grew every day more extreme. The future was not long in deciding the issue. 1557. March 9. A second body of colonists reached the Huguenot settlement at Rio Janeiro, Brazil. Villegagnon, be- cause increasingly despotic, drove off the Calvinist ministers into the woods until they could take a vessel for France, and threw some of the colonists who were of like faith into the sea. He soon after sailed for France, tired out with his experi- ment at colonization, and was henceforth a zealous Catholic. 1558. The Huguenot colony in Bra- zil was broken up and de- ^ ^.^ stroyed by the Portuguese, wax brought into Thus did one American ***'"* settlement, made on religious principle, fail because of lack of genuine leadership. 1558. A great expedition for the ex- ploration and colonization of Florida was fitted up at Vera Cruz, i558-wo3. Eiiz- Mexico, and sailed under **"* *'"'* England. Rise Tristan de Luna. There of Puritanism. were fifteen hundred soldiers, some of them with families. They reached the coast of Florida but after they had landed a great storm broke up their ships so that they had no means of communication with Mexico, or of returning thither." They were soon distressed by a lack of supplies and lingered for a year or two in a starving condition, till the survivors were relieved by a vessel from Mexico and carried home. 1559. Reverses in Chili, divia who had been con- ducting the conquest of Chili, was captured by the Indians and put to death. The war Pedro Val- 1559-1560. Fran- cis II. King of France. 1560-1574. Charles IX. King of France. 152 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. had been very fearful thus far, and the natives now rallied more fiercely than ever. They destroyed Concepcion, and assailed other places, including Santiago, more or less severely. 1561. The Amazon was again visited by a company of Spaniards including Lope de Aguirre, who obtained the com- iseo. Knives maiul after some fearful first made in En- mur Jers had been com- f? land - .. , rn, nutted. 1 he company were 1497 1560. Me- ' i h,ncthon, friend nearly a year going down of Lut/ier. ti ie Amazon and crossing over to the Orinoco. The journey was marked by wrangling and bloodshed at almost every step. THE SLAVE TRtiDE. 1562. Sir John Hawkins inaugurated the English slave trade in the New World by securing three hundred ne- groes on the coast of Guinea, Africa, and selling them on the island of Hayti at great profit. He obtained part of the number by promising them free transpor- tation to a new and better clime. The rest he took in battle. Queen Elizabeth consented to his voyage upon condition that he would not take any away from their homes, save with their own consent, a condition which he grossly violated so far as a portion of his captives were con- cerned, and violated in spirit, in obtaining the rest. 1562. Feb. 18. A company of Hu- guenots sailed from Havre for the New World in two vessels commanded by Jean Ribaut of Dieppe. 1562. May 1. They reached the St. John's River, Florida, and named it River of May. They erected a stone pillar bearing the arms of France upon the bank, and then sailed north along the O shore. 1562. May 27. They reached and named Port Royal, South Carolina, at which point the colony landed and began a settlement. A number of the com- pany were chosen to. remain and hold the position. 1562. June 11. Ribaut sailed from Port Royal for France. The colony fin- ished the fort which had been begun, and then wandered around among the Indians. 1563. The colonists at Port Royal having become sick of their life, because they did not set themselves at work to build up the colony, built a brigantine and sailed for France. This was the first vessel built upon the Atlantic coast of the present United States. The colonists were taken prisoners by an English vessel and part of them were carried cap- tive to England. 1564. A French colony in three ves- sels under Rene de Laudonniere, landed on the River of May, in Florida, where they selected a spot and i509-i:>r,4. began a fort, which they 7 0/ "> VaMn. named Fort Caroline. Troubles soon arose in the colony, and lack of food led some to turn pirates. They set out for the West Indies where they were taken into custody, and revealed the facts con- cerning the colony in Florida. Others afterward departed as. buccaneers. 1564. The quicksilver mines of Hu- ancavelica, Peru, were discovered, and in a year or two began to be worked. The production was very large up to nearly the beginning of the present century. 1565. Aug. 3. The vessels of Sir John Hawkins, on the return from a sec- ond voyage with slaves to the West In- dies, touched at the River of May to obtain water. The colony, well nigr. dead with hunger, were offered a passage DELTA OK THE ORINOCO. DENIZENS SWAMP IN CENTRAL AMERICA. 1551-1602.] to France. Laudonniere finally bought one of the vessels, and Hawkins de- parted. 1565. Aug. 24. Before the colonists had abandoned the fort and started for France, Jean Ribaut arrived with three hundred men and ample supplies. 1565. Sept. 4. Pedro Menendez de Aviles, a Spanish commander, arrived on the coast of Florida, and discovered the French colony, to overthrow which he had fitted out his expedition. ST. AUGUSTINE. 1565. Sept. 8. Menendez, having sailed south from the place where he ob- served the French colony to be located, founded St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States. THE GREAT ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 155 1565. Sept. 20. Massacre at Fort Caroline. Menendez, having marched across the country while Ribaut had gone to attack St. Augustine, fell upon Fort Caroline and massacred the inmates. He afterward captured the expedition under Ribaut, which had been shipwrecked on the coast, and put all except a very few to the sword, in the most horrid and de- liberate manner. 1565. A mint, which is still in opera- tion, was established at Lima, Peru. 1566. The quicksilver mines of Santa Barbara, Peru, began to be worked. They have been known as the " Great Mine," but have seldom been worked energetically. At one time two hundred workmen were killed by the falling in of the mine. Native Peruvians worked these mines for paint before Spaniards came. 1566. The first Jesuit mission in Florida was established for the conver- sion of the natives. The province was afterward abandoned. 1566. An eruption of Pichincha, " The Boiling Mountain," hurled ashes and stones upon Quito, five miles away, to a depth of three feet. Boiling water and bitumen were emitted in floods. This volcano is 16,000 feet high, and has a crater 2,500 feet deep, the deepest crater on the globe. 1567. Rio de Janeiro was founded by the Portuguese, upon the bay of the same name. 1567. Sir John Hawkins made a third voyage to Guinea, for which Queen Elizabeth helped him to prepare, and ob- taining five hundred negroes, he at- tempted to sell them in the colonies of Spain, in the New World. Being un- successful at first, he repaired to Carta- gena, and there disposed of them. But he lost part of his vessels in a battle with the Spanish fleet on the coast of Mexico, and returned to England somewhat dis- appointed. He afterward served the English navy in different capacities, until 1595, when he took part in an expedition against the West Indies. 1567. The city of Caraccas, the seat of government in Venezuela, was founded by Diego Lasada. The revolution of South America, at the beginning of the present century, was "cradled in this city." 1568. April. De Gourges' Revenge. Dominique de Gourges arrived on the coast of Florida from France, and having attacked Fort San Mateo, which the Spaniards had built out of , Fort Caroline, put the Spanish garrison to death. He also captured and slew a garrison on the other side of the river. 1570. The Inquisition was estab- lished in America by Philip II., but the Indians were exempted from its juris- diction. 156 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1570. An earthquake almost totally destroyed the city of Conception, Chili. Two thousand persons lost their lives. 1570. Six Jesuits who had been sent out by Menendez to found a colony upon the Potomac in Virginia, were slain by the Indians, and the mission broken up. SIR FRdXCIS DRAKE. Sir Francis Drake was born in the south of England about the year 1545, and began his life upon the sea at a very early age, his father having been chaplain in the navy. He is said to have owned and commanded a small vessel at eight- een years of age, and to have sold it in order to participate in Sir John Hawkins' third voyage for slaves in 1567. Sir John being a relative, the young Drake was given the command of a vessel in the fleet. He returned home poor, hav- 1572. Massacre in g lost nis gains in the bat- of st. Bart/wio- t le on the coast of Mexico, ^ which so injured Sir John's 1505-1072. jfo/in J -' Knop, the Scotch fleet. Being refused re- Jteformer. eminent he vowed to take it into his own hands. This was the origin of his pirat- ical career afterward. 1572. He sailed with two small ves- sels under a commission from the queen, and after having been joined by a third vessel near South America, he attacked and pillaged the towns upon the coast of New Granada, destroyed Spanish vessels, and greatly injured the entire line of set- tlements. He returned to England very rich, and was treated by the queen and the people with great consideration. 1573. A great cathedral was begun in the City of Mexico which was not fin- ished till 1667, nearly one hundred years after. SIX MARTIN FROBISHER. Sir Martin Frobisher was born at Yorkshire, England, about 1530, and was a sailor from his youth like most of the other great navigators of his day. The idea of finding a great northwest passage to India took possession of his mind till he declared the accomplishment of it to be the only thing left by which " a nota- ble mind might be made famous and for- tunate." For fifteen years J 1574-1589. Henry he endeavored to secure ///. King- of patronage for an expedi- France - tion. Finally he was aided in fitting out three vessels of thirty, twenty and ten tons, respectively. 1576. June 8. He sailed down the Thames and was greeted by the hand of Queen Eliz- Titian, thegreat abeth at Greenwich. In a Iialian painier ' severe storm the smallest vessel went down with all on board. The second went back to England. Frobisher kept on, reached the coast of Labrador, ex- plored the strait which bears his name,, and sailed to England with some small stones as a sign of possession. Gold was apparently found in one of the stones and immediate preparations were begun for another expedition. 1577. May. Frobisher sailed on a second voyage with three ships, and reaching the New World, loaded them with two hundred tons of the supposed ore. This does not seem to have been assayed till after the third expedition had sailed. 1577. Dec. 13. Sir Francis Drake sailed from England with an expedition of several vessels in an attempt to reach the west coast of South America for the sake of plunder. 1578. May. He passed through Ma- 1551-1602.] gellan's Straits and entered the Pacific O with only one vessel. The others had deserted and returned to England, or been turned adrift because unseaworthy. Drake was driven down the west coast of Terra del Fuego by a storm until he saw Cape Horn. He then sailed north, THE GREAT ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 157 1578. A Bubble Burst. Frobisher sailed with fifteen vessels for another cargo of earth. A colony was intended, but not attempted. Upon the return of the fleet the so-called ore was found to be worthless, and thus a golden dream of the queen and others was dissolved. SIR MARTIN FROBISHER. committed depredations upon the Spanish provinces and explored the coast ot Cali- fornia. Failing to find a passage back to the Atlantic at the north, he named the country New Albion and decided to sail back to England by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, in order' to escape Spanish vessels which had been fitted out against him at the south. 1578. June 11. Sir Humphrey Gil- bert obtained a patent for territory in North America, and entertained the first true plans for successful colonization. 1578. Brazil passed under the domin- ion of Spain till 1637. 1579. Gilbert, having collected a miscellaneous company, sailed for the New World. This voyage was entirely 158 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. unsuccessful, and is but little known. One vessel was lost. It is supposed that the attempt was made to colonize Newfound- land. 1579. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa was sent out from Peru to resist and cap- ture Drake, but had failed. He, however, gave the first good account of the south- west portion of the South American coast. He advocated the placing of a colony in Magellan's Straits, to prevent the passage of hostile vessels. A colony was planted there, but was destroyed in a few years. 1580. Tanned hides began to be shipped from Brazil to Castile. 1580. Nov. 3. Sir Francis Drake arrived in England from his voyage round the world. Queen Elizabeth made him a knight, and refused to give him up to Spain, who claimed him as a buccaneer. 1580. Guiana, in South America, be- gan to be settled by the Dutch. 1581. Mogens Heineson, a famous Danish sailor, was sent out by Frederick II. of Denmark, to see if Northmen could be found in Greenland. There were reports that the old colonies had not i58i. Aicdioiin- been entirely destroyed. He trodhced among reached the vicin i ty of English soldiers J as a cordial. Southeastern Greenland,but was deceived by the transparency of the air, by which the far-off mountains of the coast looked close at hand. Being super- stitious, he thought his vessel to be under the power of evil spirits, and sailed for home. 1581. New Mexico. Augustin Ruyz, with two fellow priests and eight soldiers, started from Northern Mexico for an ex- ploration of the region of the " seven cities of Cibola." One priest was soon killed by the Indians, and the soldiers set out on their return, leaving the two re- maining priests unprotected. They went on, and nothing was afterward known of them. 1582. Antonio de Espejo fitted up an expedition to go in search of Ruyz and his companion. They went north into New Mexico, after passing up the Rio del Norte, and came upon the famous cliff cities which still exist in that region,, though not so dense as then in their pop- ulation. Espejo and a portion of his followers wandered for months through the wonderful country, and found rich silver veins in some places. They did not find Ruyz, but returned with fuller reports of the curious cities about which they had heard so many rumors. The occupation of Santa Fe, New Mexico, by the Spaniards, is usually dated from this time, a part of Espejo's men having stationed themselves there. It had been a populous Indian pueblo for a long time. It is counted the second oldest city in the United States. 1582. March 25. Sir Walter Ealeigh obtained a patent from the queen, similar to the one conferred upon his step-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He aimed to colonize further to the south than Gilbert had attempted to do. 1582. April 27. Raleigh sent out two vessels under Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow. They sailed the usual route, by way of the Canaries and the West Indies. 1582. July 13. Having arrived off the coast of Carolina, they landed and took possession. They explored Albe- marle Sound and Roanoke Island, and then returned to England. As a result of this expedition the country visited was named Virginia, in honor of the virgin Queen Elizabeth. 1583. Gilbert's Second Voyage. Sir 1051-1002.] THE GREAT ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 159 Humphrey Gilbert sailed again in five vessels, with two hundred and sixty men. He landed on Newfoundland and read his royal commission in the presence of all the shipmasters he could get to- gether. The royal arms were erected, and government proclaimed. He then undertook a search for the precious metals, but finally became discouraged. The decision was at last taken in favor of re- turning to England. Gilbert himself took passage in the Squirrel, a small ves- sel of ten tons. During some severe weather he was asked to come into a larger vessel, but replied, " We are as near heaven by sea as by land." In the morning the Squirrel was nowhere to be seen. She and her freight had gone to the bottom. 1585. April 9. The Roanoke Colony. A fleet of seven vessels with one hun- dred and eight colonists, sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, sailed under Sir Richard Grenville. Ralph Lane was to command the colony. 1585. June 26. They arrived at Wocoken and proceeded to Roanoke Island. After some exploration the col- ony was left, and Grenville sailed back to England. Maize and tobacco were noticed by the colonists in their uses by the Indians. 1585. June 7. Davis' Straits. John Davis in two vessels named the Sunshine and Moonshine, fitted out by London merchants, set sail in search of a north- west passage. He reached the coast of Greenland, and spent the summer in ex- ploring Cumberland Sound and other waters in the region. He named the coast of Greenland the " Land of Desola- tion," held some interviews with the natives, entered the strait which bears his name, and afterward returned to England. 1585. Sir Francis Drake made another descent upon the Spanish American colonies and destroyed much property. He made an unsuccessful attack upon Havana, besieged San Domingo, obtained a ransom of twenty-five thousand ducats for it, seized Cartagena, S. A., and after other depredations, sailed for England. Sir Martin Frobisher accompanied Drake in this expedition and henceforth had no connection with American soil. Frobisher was knighted for bravery in the naval battle with the Spanish Armada in 1588, and afterward died of a wound received in 1594. His character is one of the brightest in early English naval history. 1585. A history of New Spain was written by Father Duran, a native of Tezcuco in Mexico, who advocated very strongly the theory that the Mexican aborigines were descendants of the so- called ten lost tribes of Israel. 1586. June 8. Return of Roanoke Colony. Sir Francis Drake on his way home from his plundering attack upon the West Indies, touched at Roanoke Island to visit the colony sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh. After some debate the entire colony took passage in Drake's vessels for England. The use of tobacco began in England with these returned colonists. Raleigh was among the ones who learned to love it. His servant found him smoking one morning as he entered to bring his master a mug of ale. The smoke which issued from Sir Walter's mouth terrified the servant, and he dashed the ale in the great man's face to put out the fire which he supposed was consum- ing him. He then plunged down the stairs, crying for help. It was not yet a common thing at that day to make a fire- place of the mouth. 1586. June. Soon after the depar 160 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. ture of the Roanoke colonists with Drake, Sir Richard Grenvilie came with three vessels and an abundance of supplies. Not finding any one he placed fifteen men on Roanoke Island to hold the spot for a colony, and sailed away.. 1586. John Davis made a second Voyage to Greenland. He found the natives whom he had met on his former trip, explored a part of the Lab- rador shore, and after a consider- able time, re- turned to Eng- land. 1586. An earthquake de- stroyed the Port of Call ao in Peru. A sea wave about nine- ty feet high ac- companied the shock. 1587. Jan. 6. Another Free- booter. Thomas Cayendish, in command of an expedition of three vessels fitted out to prey upon the 1587. Mary, Spanish American settle- Queen of scots, me nts, entered the Straits beheaded after nineteen years' of Magellan and reached imprisonment. t i ie p ac ifi c a f te r thirty-three days. Here he burned several Spanish towns on the Pacific coast, and took one Spanish vessel with one hundred and twenty-two thousand Spanish dollars on board, besides other cargo. He then went to England by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth upon his arrival. SIR WALTER RALEIGH SMOKING 1587. April 26. City of Raleigh, Virginia. A colony of men and women sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh to found a city in the New World named the City of Raleigh, sailed from England to Vir- ginia. John White was appointed gov- ernor. 1587. July 23. They arrived at Roanoke Island and found that the men left by Grenvilie had been entirely destroyed by In- dians. They in- augurated their city on the spot abandoned by Lane. 1587. Aug. 13. Manteo, an In- dian chief, was baptized at Ra- leigh and made u Lord of Roan- oke," the first and only peerage created by Eng- land upon this continent. Manteo was also the first Indian ever baptized by an English minister. 1587. Aug. 18. The first Amer- ican child of English parentage was born in this colony, and named Virginia Dare. She was a grand-daughter of Gov. White who returned at this time to Eng- land to secure colonists and supplies. 1587. John Davis made a third and more extensive voyage, in which he sailed through the strait which bears his name, far up into Baffin's Bay. Opposed effectually by the ice he sailed down the coast and home to England, thus failing like all others in discovering a northwest passage. He had however gone beyond any other navigator, and firmly believed 1551-1602.] that a passage could be found. He tried to secure a fourth expedition but could not, because of his former unavailing voyages. He was an intrepid navigator, and was finally killed in the East Indies in 1605. 1588. April 22. Two vessels under 1588, First ne^s- G V ' Whlte Sailed with paper in Eng- supplies for Raleigh's colo- ny, but after adventures with Spanish ships they were taken back to England. 1589. March 7. Sir Walter Ra- f lack f THE GREAT ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 161 K89-16W. Henry iv. King of means, conceded a large part of his proprietary rights in Virginia under his patent to a com- pany of merchant adventurers in London. LOST ROttXOKE COLONY. 1590. Gov. White sailed with sup- plies for Virginia, but found 1590. Telescopes - invented by jan- that the colony had been totally destroyed. The fate of the Roanoke colony has been one of the enigmas of American history. Ra- leigh is said to have sent five times across the water in attempts to get some trace of the lost ones. 1592. The Falkland Islands, three 1533-1592. Man- hundred mile f east of Ma- taigm, t ke great gellan's Straits, were dis- FrencI, essayist. CQvered by J ohn Dayis who was on a voyage with Cavendish. 1594. Saved by Fireflies. An ex- pedition for plunder was fitted out by Sir Robert Dudley at his own expense 7594. Jesuits a g ain st S P anish America. banished from He sailed into West India waters and took Spanish vessels. It was on this trip or on one of Cavendish's just previous that the Eng- lish, having landed at night upon a West India island for booty, saw an innumer- able body of tropical fireflies, and fancy- ing that a large Spanish force with matchlocks was advancing upon them, fled to their boats in great fright. These fireflies therefore saved the place or places against which the trip was planned. Ladies are said to wear them for their brilliancy in the ball-room. They in- close them in nets of gauze and adjust them in the hair. Some of these flies emit a light of great intensity. 1595. Death of Drake and Hawkins. Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Haw- kins sailed with twenty-six 1544-1595. Tasso, Vessels to attack the Spanish the great Italian colonies in the West Indies. * et ' The commanders did not agree, and the fleet failed to accomplish much till after Sir John Hawkins died at Porto Rico. Drake then committed his usual depreda- tions until he was taken sick and died of a fever. Thus ended the lives of these two skillful navigators, but unfeeling men. Their faults, to some extent the faults of the times, compare unfavorably with the defects in many men of the same age. There is very little in their achievements to be emulated by any one. Their deeds were no blessing to humanity. 1595. Sir Walter Raleigh in an ex- pedition fitted up by his own friends sailed to South America in search of gold, landed in Guiana, and went up the Orinoco four hundred miles. 1598. A Forlorn Colony. Marquis de la Roche was granted the right to colonize and command New France. He gathered a lot of criminals 1598-1621. Philip and having crossed the At- IH - Kin fff Spain. lantic, landed forty of them 1593. Edict of on Sable Island, off Nova Nantes > grant ' ing toleration to Scotia, till he could visit the Protestants. mainland. He was driven over the ocean 162 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. by a storm and finally returned to France. For five years the poor deserted crimi- nals subsisted like wild men upon fish and the cattle left eighty years before by De Lery. They gathered furs on the island, and at the end of five years were taken off, only twelve in number. By the help of the king they entered upon the Canadian fur trade. 1599. Tadousac. Pontgrave, a French trader, obtained a patent for the coloniza- tion of New France, and left sixteen men at the mouth of the Saguenay River on 1553-1599. Ed- the St. Lawrence to obtain nundSpenser, furs> g ome d j ed j n th the great Eng- liskpoet. winter, and the rest were scattered among the Indians. 1600. The New Shetland Islands i54e-i6oi. Tycho were discovered by Dirck Brake the great Q heritz h m attempting Danish astrono- mer, to pass through the seas to the south of Cape Horn, was driven off into the ocean. 1602. March 26. Gosnold's New England Colony. Bartholomew Gos- nold,who had been connected with Sir Waiter Raleigh in supporting the Vir- ginia colonies, sailed from Fahnouth, England, with one vessel named " Con- cord," and thirty -two persons, of whom twenty were to remain as colonists in the New World. Gosnold sailed directly across the Atlantic instead of taking the general route by way of the Canary N Islands, and the West Indies. He thus shortened the distance about one thousand miles. He arrived in seven weeks on the New England coast near Nahant, Mass., and sailing thence to the south passed and named Cape Cod, because he took some codfish off its coast, entered Buzzard's Bay, and began to found a col- ony upon one of the Elizabeth Islands, now known as Cuttyhunk. Having laded the vessel with sassafras root, and being fearful that the intended colony could not be maintained in that spot, they all sailed for England. These were the first Englishmen to tread New England soil. 1602. The California coast was ex- plored by an expedition under Viscaino. 1602. About two millions of grape vines were under cultivation by the Span- ish near Asuncion, Paraguay. SECTION VIII. COMING MHE work of the historical student at this point is to study with ex- treme care the colonies which were \ now planted in rapid succession upon the shore of North America. The influences which are finally to shape the civilization of the whole continent now rooted themselves and began to flourish. The germinal points of English, French and Dutch power appeared within less than thirty years at the beginning of this cen- tury. Jamestown, Quebec, New Amster- dam, Plymouth, Salem, Boston and its associated towns, pass before us in quick review, each with a distinctive character. The men who framed the first rough dwellings in these different settlements were widely contrasted in many of their social, commercial, political and religious qualities. Outward circumstances shaped, and in some cases limited, the growth of the young life. Old World features were impressed upon a part of the colo- nies. Plymouth sprang into being with a democratic government and an inde- pendent church, and thus introduced a unique factor into the problem of Ameri- can civilization. Slight traces of feudal principles are visible in the early days of almost all the colonies. Crude attempts . 1603-1630. to inaugurate manufactures were imme- diately made, and before long a start was obtained which led the English govern- ment afterward into the passage of laws which exasperated the colonists. The " tobacco fever " at Jamestown is the first of those excitements in many lines of cul- ture or labor, which have marked the history of our country every few years. The great Indian massacres had their beginning in the early days, and imper- illed the existence of the infant colonies. SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAItf. A new element now appeared in New France in the person of one who was to exercise a leading part in its fortunes for nearly twoscore years. Champlainwas born in 1567 at a little town on the Bay of Biscay named Brouage. He became accustomed to the sea, and when he reached manhood he rose to the rank of captain in the royal navy. He also fought in the army of Brittany, thus receiving a double fitness for the work of exploration and settlement awaiting him, that of navigator and soldier. He sailed upon an expedition to Mexico, of which he has left a very exact and vivid account, with all the flavor of romance about it. 163 164 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1603-1625. He could not be himself save when en- gaged in some adventure. His eager spirit would not let him stop. When he returned to France he was therefore before long pining for some outlet for his energy. In this condition the proposition which looked toward his taking part in an expedition to New France, was not unwelcome. Here he found his life- mission. He stands at the beginning of successful French colonization in the New World. 1603. Champlain in Canada. Aymar de Chastes, Governor of Dieppe, France, obtained a patent for the colonization of Canada, and having formed a company of merchants, sent out two vessels of fifteen and twelve tons respectively, to make preliminary explora- tion. Pontgrave was com- of England. mander and at the so li c i ta . tion of De Chastes Champlain embarked in the expedition. They crossed the Atlantic safely, ascended the St. Law- rence to the Island of Montreal, but found no trace of the Indian town which Cartier had visited there in 1534. Champlain tried to pass the rapids in a skiff, but failed. The expedition soon returned to France. 1603. Martin Pring sailed from Eng- land with two vessels, the Speedwell of fifty tons, and the Discoverer of twenty- six tons, with forty-three men, the expe- dition being fitted out by Bristol mer- chants to follow up Gosnold's discoveries. Pring reached what is now the coast of Maine, passed the Penobscot, Kennebec, Piscataqua Rivers, searched along the coast of Massachusetts for sassafras root, and finally arrived at the island of Martha's Vineyard, whence he returned to England. ACADIA. 1604. After the death of De Chastes, Pierre du Guast, Sieur de Monts, obtained a grant for the colonization of a region in the New World called Acadie, extend- ing from the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude, embracing the country now between Philadelphia and Lake St. Peter, in the St. Lawrence River. Champlain and Baron de Pou- trincourt entered the expedition. Hugue- nots as well as Catholics were found in the number. 1604. April 7. De Monts sailed with one vessel from Havre de Grace, leaving Pontgrave to follow in another. With the design of escaping the cold St. Lawrence region he sailed further to the south and reached the coast of Nova Scotia. Here he waited till Pontgrave arrived, when he entered the Bay of Fundy and discovered the beautiful An- napolis Harbor, a grant of which Pou- trincourt begged for himself, naming the place Port Royal. Pontgrave in the meantime sailed to the St. Lawrence to trade, and thence returned to France. De Monts sailed around the Bay of Fundy and out into Passamaquoddy Bay. Here an island was chosen for the site of the colony, and named St. Croix. Build- ings were at once erected and everything done to prepare for winter. Poutrincourt sailed for France, leaving seventy-nine men in the colony. The winter set in with unusual severity; the cold was in- tense; their cider and wine had to be cut up by the pound, and worst of all, the scurvy broke out. It killed thirty- five. 1604. September. Champlain made a short trip from St. Croix along the coast of Maine. He named Mt. Desert, and visited the Penobscot. 1603-1630.] 1604. Guiana, S. A., was by the French. 1605. March. An expedition to the New England coast under George Wey- mouth reached Cape Cod, and sailing north along the coast, explored the Penobscot River. Weymouth entrapped five natives and carried them to England. 1605. June 16. Pontgrave arrived at St. Croix with supplies from France. 1605. June 18. Champlain set off again, accompanied by De Monts, to explore the coast to the south. They examined the shore very closely; Cham- plain took particular notice of the horse- 1605 shoe crab, and afterward Gunpowder Plot, described it in detail. They went as far as Cape Cod. De Monts upon his return removed his colony to Port Royal in the Bay of Fundy, and sailed for France to prevent enemies from overthrowing his patent. Pontgrave was left in command at Port Royal. 1605. Barbadoes, W. I., was first visited by the English who took posses- sion, but did not colonize till 1625. 1605. Wheat was sown on Long Island by a ship's company from London. 1605. The lost Norse settlements in Greenland were searched for by three ships under Godske Lindenow,and James Hall an English pilot. The expedition was sent out by Christian IV. of Den- mark. Several other efforts were made about this time, but nothing came of them. West Greenland was explored, but the eastern coast could not be reached because of ice. It came to be believed that the old accounts were fictitious. FIRST ENGLISH CHARTER. 1606. April 10. James I. King of England, granted a charter giving the London company the right to colonize THE COMING POWER. colonized 165 in America between the thirty-first and the thirty-eighth degrees of north latitude, and the Plymouth company between the fortieth and the forty-fifth. The region between the thirty-eighth leoe. Pmver of and the fortieth was open <**<**%** covered by Dr. to either under certain limi- Gilbert. tations. This charter, in common with most which were given in America by any nation, extended its grants westward to the Pacific Ocean. No power of self- government was conveyed to any colony which might be formed. The Church of England was to be the only form of religion. 1606. John Knight's expedition sailed in a vessel of forty tons and reached the Labrador coast. Here the vessel was repaired. The savages made fierce attacks upon the crew. Capt. Knight and some of his men were lost. The rest reached Newfoundland and finally England. 1606. July 27. Port Royal. Pou- trincourt having been sent out by De Monts in one vessel for the aid of Port Royal, arrived at Annapolis Harbor and found but two Frenchmen, the rest having built boats and gone off" for sup- plies of game and fruits. They were soon found and brought back. Pont- grave sailed for France. Poutrincourt and Champlain explored the coast to the south in search of a good site for a colony, but returned without having made a selection. During their absence Lescar- bot, the historian, commanded at Port Royal. The succeeding winter was very mild and the colony flourished, only four men dying with the scurvy. 1606. Oct. 15. First Indian Fight in New England. Some of the men who accompanied Pontgrave and Cham- 166 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. plain upon the trip mentioned above, slept on shore one night and were attacked just at daylight very fiercely by Indians. Two Frenchmen were imme- diately killed and the rest wounded. An alarm was given to those on board the boat, and Champlain with others imme- diately came to their relief. After the savages were driven off the bodies of the dead were buried at the foot of a pillar bearing the arms of France. When the party had retired to their vessel again, the Indians came back, dug up the bodies and maltreated them in the sight of their friends. The French afterward buried them again and departed. 1607. May 1. Hudson's First Voy- age. Henry Hudson, of whom nothing is known previous to this year, sailed from Gravesend, on the Thames, England, in lew-mo. King the employ of London James 1 -version merchants, in a little vessel of the Bible. , , manned by ten men and a boy, for the discovery of a Polar Sea passage, by sailing across the North Pole. He went up the east coast of Greenland, and discovered Spitzbergen, but could not get beyond the northern extremity of those islands, because of the solid walls of ice. He soon sailed back to England. FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 1607. May 13. A colony of one hundred and five persons sent out by the London company, landed on the James River and founded Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in Amer- ica. The river and the new town were named in honor of the king, the headlands at the ocean were named Cape Charles and Cape Henry in honor of the king's sons, and the deep water for anchorages, " which put the emigrants in good com- fort," was named Point Comfort. Capt. John Smith and Bartholomew Gosnold were members of the colony. There were very few laborers, and no families. Christopher Newport, who commanded the three vessels which brought the com- pany, sailed for England again in a month. The comtpany entered upon a period of disunion, suffering and death. Fifty persons, including Gosnold, died through the summer. 1607. Aug. 19. Popham's Kennebec Colony. A colony sent out by the Ply- mouth company landed near the mouth of the Kennebec River, Maine, built a fort and a little town. George Popham commanded the colony. Forty-nine per- sons were left when the vessels returned to England. A winter of great severity was experienced. The snow covered their huts to the very chimneys, and food could be procured with great difficulty. 1607. Port Royal Abandoned. The patent of De Monts was annulled, and the settlement at Port Royal, Nova Sco- tia, was abandoned after three years of hardship. The members all returned to France. 1607. December. Capt. Smith and Pocahontas. Capt. John Smith set out to explore the region around James- town. Having been captured by Indians and condemned to death, his life was saved by Pocahontas, the daughter of the chieftain Powhatan. It lias become quite common to discredit this circum- stance, but in order to do it Capt. Smith must be made out a deceiver in the narra- tive which he prepared some time after the event. The principal argument is r that had the affair been real, he would have told of it before Pocahontas became famous. On the other hand, it might 1603-1630.] THE COMING POWER. 167 only occur to a man who had been through many adventures, to tell such a thing after the participants in it had be- come widely known. Smith, upon his return in January, found the colony num- bering only thirty-eight persons. He at once began to exert his personal influence to suppress the discontent. 1608. Feb. 5. Popham Colony Aban- doned. George Popham, governor of the Kennebec colony, died. Raleigh Gilbert was left in command, but soon learned by the arrival of vessels from England, that his brother, Sir John Gilbert, had died, leaving an estate to him. The col- ony also learned that Sir John Popham had died, and having be- come discouraged by the death of their chief sup- porters, as well as by finding no mines, as they had hoped to do, they abandoned the place and sailed to England. Thus ended the first real attempt at a settle- ment in what was called Northern Vir- ginia. These colonists, during their stay, built the Virginia, a pinnace of about thirty tons, the first vessel built by Eng- lishmen in the New World, or by Euro- peans in New England. This vessel af- terward traded across the Atlantic, and back and forth upon the coast. 1608. April 21. Hudson's Second Voyage. Henry Hudson sailed again for the same English merchants to find a passage between Spitzbergen and Nova I'OCAHONTAS. Zembla, but was again turned back by the unbroken ice. GERMS OF MANUFACTURE. 1608. One hundred and twenty per- sons arrived this year at Jamestown. Like the first colonists they consisted of adventurers and gentlemen, with a few laborers. There were " eight Poles and Germans" to make "pitch, tar, glass, mills, and soap-ashes." A glass-house was erected a mile from Jamestown in the woods, and was probably "the first man- ufactory ever erected on this continent." The people also began to cut clapboard- ing and wains- coting for expor- tation to Eng- land. Such was the humble beginning of the present immense American industries. Many of the colonists soon ran wild over a few grains of supposed gold found near Jamestown. Capt. Newport carried a load of earth to England. Capt. Smith made another exploring expedition and mapped Chesapeake Bay, with its trib- utaries, in an essentially correct manner. Capt. Smith was very ingenious in deal- ing with Indians. At one time he saved himself by showing his captors a com- pass which he carried on his person. 1608. July 13. Quebec Founded,, Champlain, sent out by De Monts, who had renewed his right to trade in Can- ada for one year, landed at the present site of Quebec and began to erect build- ings for the colony. This proved the first permanent French settlement in North America. 1608. Sept. 10. First Woman at 168 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. Jamestown. Capt. John Smith having returned from his explorations, was chosen president of the council at Jamestown, and by his vigorous efforts to promote real labor, brought the colony into better condition. Seventy colonists soon arrived, among whom were two women, the first ones who came to the colony. Smith wrote home that he would rather have thirty working men than one thousand such as had come. 1609. April 4. Hudson's Third Voyage. Henry Hudson having found employ in the Dutch East India Com- pany, sailed from Amsterdam on his third voyage, and having been turned back at Spitzbergen as on previous voyages, he was induced by the discontent of his crew to, sail south. He coasted the shore of New England and beyond as far as Chesapeake Bay, and then turned back upon his course. 1609. May 23. Second Jamestown Charter. The London company having been enlarged, a new charter was ob- tained, abolishing the council at James- town, instituting another in England whose members were elected by the stockholders instead of being appointed by the king as under the previous char- ter, and providing for a governor who should have almost absolute power over the persons of the colonists. Lord Dela- ware was chosen governor and captain- general for life. A fleet of nine vessels with five hundred colonists, was soon sent out. A ship containing three commis- sioners who were to rule the colony till Lord Delaware arrived, was wrecked upon the Bermudas and the commission- ers did not reach Jamestown till the next year. One of them was Sir George Somers, who by this circumstance has partially given his name to the islands, they being known as the Bermuda or Somers Islands. The other ships arrived safely and Capt. Smith commanded the colony till by an explosion which injured his hand, he was forced to visit England for surgical aid. Sheep and swine were imported into Jamestown this year. 1609. July. Lake Champlain. Cham- plain having joined a war-party against the Iroquois who lived in Central New York discovered the lake which bears his name, in his journey from Quebec with his Indian allies; and after a battle with the Iroquois near Crown Point, returned to his settlement. The arms of Cham- plain and the other Frenchman who ac- companied him were a great terror to the Iroquois. This was the first step in the long course of trouble between the French and the warlike Five Nations. 1609. Sept. 12. Hudson Hiver. Hudson passed the Narrows below where New York now stands, and discov- ered the great North or Hudson River. He sailed up the river in the "Half Moon," his vessel, to where Albany is now situated, and afterward returned to Europe. It is said that at one point on his river trip near Haverstraw some Indians were induced to drink liquor, which made at least one of them so intox- icated that he could not stand. He was undoubtedly the first Indian toper in all America. As a result of Hudson's voy- age trade sprang up with the Indians and led finally to Dutch settlements. Holland was then rising to the front rank in com- mercial importance, and laid claim to New Netherland from South or Delaware Bay to the coast of Maine. 1609. The missions of the Jesuits in Paraguay were inaugurated, where their work afterward became so powerful. 1610. Feb. 26. Poutrincourt sailed 1603-1630.] from Dieppe with men and supplies to reestablish a colony at Port Royal, Nova Scotia. He found the buildings and fur- niture as they had been left. He sent back his son Biencourt during the sum- mer to France. 1610. April 22. Hudson's Fourth Voyage. Henry Hudson having passed again into the employ of the Muscovy Company of England, sailed again upon THE COMING POWER. 1610. June 8. 169 The colonists decided to abandon Jamestown, and sailed down the river in order to reach Newfoundland and find English fishermen with whom they could get passage to England. 1610. June 9. At the mouth of the river to which they had come down the night before, they met ieio. Henry iv. Lord Delaware who had arrived with supplies. They /*>*, assassinated by 1610, Telescopes invented by Galileo. his fourth and last voyage in search of a northwest passage. He discovered Hudson's Bay, which he at first took to be the long-sought passage. By the time he had coasted around it and found it a bay, he was shut in by the winter. His crew was in a dissatisfied, mutinous condition. 161O. May 24. "Starving Time" at Jamestown. The three commissioners of Lord Delaware arrived at James- town from the Bermudas and found the colony reduced by famine from five hundred which it numbered when Capt. Smith left It, to sixty. The colonists had brought this distress upon themselves by not exercising ordinary foresight. CAPT. SMITH AND THE COMPASS., were all glad to return to uio-ms. Louts XIII. King- oj their homes once more, France, nine which they had fortunately y"> ld - Mary . . TO j-j de Medici lett uninjured. So near did regent. Jamestown come to abandonment. 1610. June 10. The colony was reinstated in its former quarters. The commission of the governor was read, divine service was held according to the Church of England, and the government was reorganized with hopefulness. Vines were imported into Jamestown at this time, and the culture of grapes began. All colonists were to be obliged to at- tend church twice every Sunday, " upon pain for the first fault to lose their pro- vision and allowance for the whole week 170 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. following; for the second, to lose said allowance, and also to be whipped ; and for the third, to suffer death." 1610. June 19. A hundred Iro- quois warriors on the St. Lawrence were destroyed by the French and Indians under Champlain. 1610. Aug. 8. Champlain sailed from Quebec for France, in order to arrange with the French government about the fur trade. 16 1O. First Trip to Lake Huron. A young man from Quebec went into the Huron country and wintered with the Indians, returning when the Indians went down to trade the next year. 1610. A colony under John Guy, a Bristol merchant, settled at Mosquito Cove, Conception Bay, Newfoundland, and maintained an existence for two years. The effort was at last given up. There were thirty-nine persons who came in three vessels. Lord Bacon was a partner in this attempt. 1611. Jan. 26. First Jesuits in New France. Pierre Biard and Ennemond Masse, Jesuit priests, having bought an interest in the colony at Port Royal, through their desire to obtain a foothold in the^New World, sailed from France. They were the first Jesuits to land in New France, and were very unwelcome addi- tions in the view of Poutrincourt. 1611. Lord Delaware failed in health and returned to England, leaving one Percy in charge at Jamestown. 1611. May 10. Severe Rule. Sir Thomas Dale arrived with supplies, and assumed the charge of the colony at Jamestown, administering the young church and state by martial law. 1611, May 13, Champlain arrived from France at Tadousac, below Quebec. He went at once to the Island of Mon- treal to establish a trading post. He se- lected a site for it, and after a trading assembly had been held with the Hurons, he again returned to France. The young man who had spent the winter with the Hurons, and had come down with them to this trading assembly, was the first white man to shoot the rapids in the St. Lawrence, above Montreal. A second man tried it, but was drowned. Cham- plain was carried down in an Indian canoe before his departure for France. SAD DEATH OF HUDSON. 1611. June 21. Henry Hudson, his son and seven men were thrust into a small boat by the rest of the crew in Hudson's Bay after spending the winter there, and were left to perish. Hudson had had trouble with his crew on each voyage, and does not seem to have been born to command. Yet he was an emi- nent navigator, and shared in the sadness attaching to the end of many other ex- plorers. When turned adrift, a fowling piece, with a little ammunition, and an iron kettle, with a bag of meal, were thrown to them. John King, carpenter of the ship, having refused to share in the deed, was one of the seven. The other six were invalids. The leader of the mutiny was Henry Green, who was deeply indebted to Hudson for past favors of great value. Green and some of the other mutineers were killed by the Es- quimaux shortly after. The others after great distress, reached England. Hud- son and his companions were never heard from, having probably soon perished. But Hudson's Bay and Hudson's River immortalize his name. 1611. August. Private Property in Jamestown. Additional supplies and col- 1003-1 630.] THE COMING POWER. 171 onists arrived at Jamestown under Sir Thomas Gates, who succeeded Dale in the charge of the colony. He founded other points of settlement and established private property for the first time in the colony, by granting to each man a few acres for private cultivation. A large number of domestic animals, including cows, were brought over in this expedi- tion. There were now seven hundred people in the colony. was also sent to England from the col- onies for the first time this year. TOBACCO FIRST CULTIVATED. 1612. John Rolfe began in Virginia this year the first successful cultivation of tobacco. The sale of tobacco was in- creasing in England and elsewhere, and it soon proved that it .could be very profit- ably raised in the New World. There- fore a great many seized upon it as a THE FIRST IN'DIAN TOPER. 1612. March 12. A third charter was issued for the Virginia colony, giv- ing the stockholders the management of affairs, which had previously been held by the council. The limits of the colony were extended so as to include the Ber- mudas, by making them run three hun- dred leagues from the mainland. The raising of money by lotteries was author- ized, and as a result of this process, which was employed for several years, .29,000 were raised for the colony. The first bricks made in the English colonies were produced in Virginia this year. Wine means of wealth, and the first excitement in that long list which has grown up in subsequent years over cotton, sugar cane,, silk, and other productions, began with this elate. Very soon every inch of ground at command was planted to tobacco. Even the streets of Jamestown were afterward filled with it. This was in spite of the opposition of the English government, which at a later day took measures to discourage the growth of tobacco. King James was so opposed to it that he wrote a Counterblast to the Use of Tobacco." But that in which 172 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. great profit was found, could not be easily suppressed. It finally became the staple product, and the currency of the colony. 1612. A grant of all North America, from the St. Lawrence to Florida, was obtained by Madame de Guercheville and her Jesuit friends. This was the result of months of scheming, and left Poutrin- court's colony at Port Royal hemmed in on all sides by influences disagreeable to him. 1612. An expedition of search for Henry Hudson was sent out, consisting of two vessels, the Resolution and the Discovery, under Sir Thomas Button. He followed on Hudson's track, explored Hudson's Bay, and wintered in the vici- nity. His crew suffered much during the winter, and some of them died. The next year he returned to England and was knighted. He felt sure a northwest O passage could be found. 1613. April 13. Pocahontas having been entrapped and carried to Jamestown by Capt. Argall, was taken in marriage by John Rolfe, a young Englishman. She had been baptized by the name of Rebecca. 1613. May 13. Mt. Desert Colony. A vessel sent out by the Jesuits arrived at Nova Scotia, and having taken Biard and Masse on board at Port Royal, pro- ceeded to Mt. Desert on the coast of Maine, where the colonists began to found a settlement. 1613. May 27. Champlain having spent the year 1612 in France in endeav- oring to promote the interests of coloni- zation in New France, and having re- turned to Canada, set out from near the Island of Montreal to follow up a report made to him by a man named Vignan, who professed to have passed up the Ottawa and to have found a river which could be descended to the shores of the great ocean at the west. Champlain fol- lowed up the Ottawa with great trouble till he learned that his informant was a deceiver, and having wintered in an In- dian camp, gave up the journey in great disappointment. 1613. First Settlement at New York. The Dutch began to build houses on Manhattan Island where New York now stands. It was at the first a mere trading post. Houses began to be built near this time also at Albany. 1613. English Hostility to French. Capt. Samuel Argall sailed north from Jamestown for a supply of codfish, and having learned of the new French col- ony at Mt. Desert from the Indians, went thither and broke it up entirely. Some of the colonists were left to find their way to France. Others were taken pris- oners to Jamestown. By order of Sir Thomas Dale, governor of Jamestown, an expedition under Capt. Argall pro- ceeded at once to Nova Scotia in behalf of the English crown, destroyed the re- mains of the settlement at St. Croix, and reaching Port Royal in the absence of the colonists, burned the buildings and crops and butchered the cattle. The set- tlers were left to wander among the In- dians during the winter following. This was the first hostile act in the long con- test between France and England in the New World. Capt. Argall is said to have entered New York harbor upon his return and received the submission of the few Dutch traders at Manhattan. 1614. The northwest passage was sought for this year by an expedition sent out under Capt. Gibbons. 1614. March. New England Named. 1603-1630.] Capt. John Smith and Capt. Thomas Hunt sailing in two vessels from England, explored the coast from Nova Scotia to Cape Cod. Capt. Smith made a map of it and named it New England. The map was sent by him to Prince Charles, and the name grew into use. Capt. Hunt kidnapped twenty-seven natives, carried them to Spain, and sold them as slaves. Among them was Squanto who afterward went to England and found his way back to America. He was in the service of the Pilgrims at the time of his death. 1614. Adriaen Block explored Long Island Sound and visited Narragansett Bay and the island which bears his name. It lies off Montauk Point at the east end of Long Island: He was the first Euro- pean to sail through the rocky channel in East River known as Hellgate. The vessel in which he made his trip was built by him at Manhattan Island, and was the first built by the Dutch in Amer- ica. It was*forty-four and one half feet long by eleven and one-half feet wide, and was of sixteen tons burden. Capt. Block named it the "Unrest." Capt. Hendricksen afterward used it in explor- ing the Atlantic coast. The brigantine built by the Huguenots at Fort Caroline, Florida, fifty years before, and the thirty ton pinnace built by the Popham colo- nists in Maine in 1607, preceded the "Unrest" as examples of larger boat- building by Europeans upon the Atlantic coast of North America. Small boats had been built by the French in Nova Scotia. The brigantines built by the Spanish upon the Mississippi at the death of De Soto, and the staunch vessel in which Orellana made his trip down the Amazon, are examples of boat-building under difficulties. THE COMING POWER. 173 1614. Capt. Cornelis Jacobsen Mey in a vessel fitted out by Amsterdam mer- chants, explored the coast from Cape Cod to Delaware Bay, and mapped it as he went along. He named Cape Henlopen. 1614. The Trench reestablished them- selves in Acadia, and increased to some extent in numbers and trade, but the Jesuits made no more direct efforts to colonize the region. 1614. Oct. 11. After the return of Capt. Mey the " New Netherland Com- pany " received a charter by which the exclusive privileges of trade for three years from Jan. i, 1615, between the fortieth and the forty-fifth degrees of north latitude in America, were conferred upon it. 1614. The Bermuda Islands were settled by the English under a charter from James I. 1614. A theater was built in Lima, Peru, and must have been the first or among the first on the continent. 1615. A northwest passage expedi- tion under Capt. Bylot accompanied by William Baffin, one of the most learned navigators of the day, sailed from Eng- land and entered Hudson's Strait in order to search the bay for a passage. At the approach of winter the expedi- tion turned back and returned to Eng- land. Capt. Bylot made an unfavorable report on the prospects of success by the way of Hudson's Bay. Baffin had twice before been in Greenland seas. 1615. May. First Mass in Canada. Four Franciscan friars of the Recollet branch reached Quebec from France to propagate the Catholic faith and convert New France. They came at the solici- tation of Champlain and the first mas? ever celebrated in Canada was upon their arrival. 10 174 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1615. Forms of law were first in- troduced into Newfoundland by Capt. Richard Whitbourne, who undertook to correct abuses among the fishermen. 1615. San Luis de Maranhao, Brazil, was taken by the Portuguese from the French, who had founded it in the attempt to get a hold on the country. 1615. Lake Huron and the Iroquois. Champlain, Joseph le Caron, one of the priests, and twelve other men went into the upper country at the return of the Hurons from their annual sale at the Island of Montreal, and discovered Lake Huron, unless the young man who had wintered with the Hurons in a previous year discovered it. At the request of the Hurons the French agreed to march .against their enemies, the Iroquois. After much delay the Iroquois towns were reached but the allies expected by the Hurons failed to appear, and the conquest was given up after some skirmishing. 1616. Pocahontas, her husband and a few friends went to England with Sir Thomas Dale, and were received with great favor. 1616. A sever o pestilence raged 1564-1616. among the Indians of New Shcikespeare. TT> i i j j ,1 1547-1616 England and during the Cer-vantes. next two or three years carried off many hundreds of them. The infancy of the colony at Plymouth was safer from harm because of this severe affliction upon the natives. 1616. Richard Vines, sent out at the expense of Sir Fernando Gorges, spent the winter at Saco Bay, Maine. During the sickness of the Indians this year Vines gained their greatest regard by tending them carefully and curing many through his knowledge of medicine. 1616. Baffin's Bay was discovered this year by William Baffin, the eminent navigator who had accompanied Capt. Bylot on a previous voyage. Bylot seems to have been with Baffin upon this voyage. They were sent out by the same men each time upon the long search after a northwest passage. Baffin entered and named several sounds, including Lan- caster, but seems never to have suspected that they led through to other regions. He therefore upon his return reported that the sheet of water he had examined was probably entirely inclosed by land, and that no passage could be found in that direction. It was therefore named Baffin's Bay, and so thoroughly did he convince the world of his opinion that for two hundred years no effort was made in that quarter. Many efforts were sill made in Hudson's Bay. But Baffin had contributed very much to a knowledge of northern waters. 1616. The Amazon was descended in a canoe by two monks who had been persecuted and driven from their missions in Peru by the Indians. After great ter- ror they finally reached Para. 1616. Cape Horn was this year seen by two Dutch navigators named Schouten and Le Maire. 1617. Richard Vines followed up Saco River and entered Crawford Notch, being the first white man to describe the White Mountains. POCAHONTAS. 1617. June. Pocahontas died in Eng- land at the age of twenty-two years. The change in climate and life had great- ly affected her. Her chai'acter is among the interesting ones of early American history. She was the daughter of Pow- hatan, the powerful chief of the Indians who occupied the territory to the west of 1603-1630.] Chesapeake Bay. The most notable thing in her history, though some histor- ical critics cast discredit upon it, was her successful intervention in behalf of Capt. John Smith during his captivity among her father's subjects. She afterward saved the lives of Richard Wyffin and Henry Spillman. She performed the same kind service for Capt. Smith again by revealing to him a plot for the de- struction of himself and men. She was often sent by her father with messages to Jamestown and became exceedingly well known to the settlers. Upon a visit to Japazaws, the chief of the Potomac In- dians and a great friend of the English, Pocahontas was enticed on board a vessel under Capt. Argall, taken to Jamestown as a prisoner, and held as a hostage. Powhatan was informed of the imprison- ment of his daughter, and requested to restore certain English prisoners and arms. The old chief evaded the demand, and Pocahontas was still held a prisoner. During this time she became acquainted with a worthy young Englishman named John Rolfe with whom a mutual attach- ment was formed, which resulted in an engagement of marriage. Her father very willingly gave his approval and sent her uncle Opachisco and two of her brothers to be present when the ceremony was performed. The marriage resulted in the lasting friendship of Powhatan for the English. In England Pocahontas was received with much attention, and entered the society of the most distin- guished people of the nation, always pre- serving her native modesty and grace. She was about to embark for America when she was taken sick and died at Gravesend. She left an infant son named Thomas Rolfe, who lived in London and was educated by his uncle, Henry Rolfe. THE COMING POWER. 175 He afterward came to America and be- came a wealthy and influential citizen. The Randolphs and others of Virginia claim descent from the Indian princess. POWHATAN. 1618. April. Powhatan, the father of Pocahontas, died at an advanced age. His original name was Wahinsonacock. He was one of the most powerful sachems connected with the early history of the United States. His rule covered most of the territory now embraced within the States of Maryland and Virginia. He had residences in different parts of his country and changed his abode at differ- ent seasons of the year. In his council house at Werowocomoco he had a throne erected upon which, on important occa- sions, he would sit dressed in his robe of skins, with a crown of feathers upon his head and a bodyguard of fifty warriors about his person. At the time of his first acquaintance with the English in 1607, he was about sixty years of age. He was tall and well-proportioned, with a body capable of enduring great fatigue. His hair was beginning to turn gray, and gave him a venerable and majestic appearance. In all his dealings with the English he pre- served a dignity of bearing arising from his royal office, even while displaying a great deal of shrewdness. Powhatan showed his friendliness to the English by sending them articles of food, of which the settlers were greatly in need. If the English had used good judgment they could have kept on good terms with this powerful king and received much assist-, ance from him as well as prevented the horrible massacre which followed in later years. Their conduct was so ill-advised and often so unjust, that they were con- 176 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. tinually in trouble with him. Two or three times Powhatan planned war against the English, but without result. At one time an accident occurred which had a great effect upon him. Some of his men had obtained powder from the English and were experimenting with it when a powerful explosion suddenly took place and killed several. This so greatly increased Powhatan's reverence for the English or fear of them, that he sought peace and sent to the colony nearly half his crop of corn. On the death of Powhatan, his brother Opechancanough succeeded to the throne in accordance with the custom by which a brother takes precedence over a son as heir of the kingdom. SIR WALTER RdLEIGH. 1618. Oct. 29. Sir Walter Raleigh having been arrested by the English government, was beheaded, and thus closed his long series of efforts to promote the colonization of the world. His death is one of the dark spots in English his- tory. No student of American history ought to pass without stopping to vener- ate the man who did so much to make colonization upon a surer basis in the New World possible. He was one of those broad-minded men whose interest in the settlement of America was of a higher sort than that which characterized the adventurers of the period. His life which exhibited remarka- 1618. Circulation of the blood dis- ble scholarship and qualities covered by Q f c h arac f er j s ygj- a record Harvey. J 1618-1649. Thirty of the apparent defeat years' war be- ^^ j j ttveen Protest- ants and Catko- some of the best men in lies of Germany. the world< He was at dif- ferent times banished from the English court, and wrote his celebrated History of the World during an imprisonment of twelve years in the Tower. He visited the coast of South America twice. His connection with the Roanoke colony is an entirely honorable one, and the nature of his plans is visible in his undertakings. He deserves to be written among the founders of America. 1618. Garcia de Nodales was the first navigator to sail completely round the island of Terra del Fuego, and thus proved that this land was at the southern end of the American continent. 1619. A northwest passage expedi- tion was sent out by Christian IV. of Denmark, under Jens Munk, an emi- nent sailor, with two vessels and fifty- three men. Hudson's Bay was explored,, and the winter was spent there. Famine and sickness left at last only three men alive. These found a plant which could be eaten with good effect, and finally they reached home in the smaller vessel, 1619. July 30. The first colonial assembly ever called in America assem- bled at Jamestown. It consisted of the governor, a newly appointed council, and twenty-two representatives from eleven boroughs, into which the colony wa& divided. This was the beginning of leg- islative liberty on this continent, and in- troduced a long period of constitution forming. The assembly proceeded to" business after a very solemn inauguration. 1619. A "hundred jail-birds" were transported from England to Jamestown at the command of the king, and were sold to the planters for service. This is the first recorded transportation of con- victs from England. SALE OF JOUXG WOMEN. 1619. On account of the great in- crease in the number of emigrants to 1603-1630.] THE COMING POWER. 177 Jamestown and in the capability of self- support through private property, the London company secured ninety young women suitable for wives, and sent them out to the colony, where they were bought by the planters at one hundred pounds of tobacco apiece, to pay the cost of passage. They were speedily settled in a satisfac- tory manner, and rendered homes a pos- sibility. The price afterward went up to one hundred and fifty pounds of tobacco apiece. Within a year or two the com- pany sent out others and disposed of them in the same way, much to the happiness of the colony. This transaction changed many an adventurer into a citizen. Vir- ginia now began to be a genuine colony. A similar event will be found a little later, in the history of Canada. HEXRICO COLLEGE. 1620. The London company set apart one thousand acres on the James River, Virginia, for the endowment of a college for the Indians and settlers, to be known as Henrico College. Money was raised in England and invested in iron works, the first on this continent, which were established near Jamestown. Forty famed workmen were sent out from England to carry them on. More workmen were afterward sent. The works began cleansing the bog-iron ore of the region by the use of charcoal. 1620. August. Twenty negroes were brought into Jamestown and sold for slaves, by a Dutch captain. The intro- duction of slavery within the English colonies almost coincides with the landing of the Pilgrims in their attempt to gain civil and religious liberty. 1620. Nov. 3. "Council of Ply- mouth." The Plymouth company gained 12 their "great patent" entirely im Tk ^ mome . distinct from the charter of ters invented by xu -\r- ' Drebel. the Virginia company, giv- ing them exclusive powers of all kinds over the territory from the forty -first to the forty-eighth degree of latitude. Un- der the original charter the London and Plymouth companies had been substan- tially two portions of one company, separately organized, that two distinct settlements might be made, one in the northern, the other in the southern part of the territory named therein. The London or Virginia company obtained a separation in its second charter in 1609. The Plymouth company now obtained the same in spite of objections made by the London company, whose members wished to retain a hold upon the fishing along the New England coast. A sepa- rate charter was given, and no rights left in common for the two companies to quarrel about. The Plymouth company now became known as the " Council of Plymouth for New England." THE PILGRIMS. The second permanent English colony in the New World was to be of a pecu- liar sort. It was composed not of people sent out by England for the sake of ex- tending her empire or bringing riches into her treasury, but of people driven out from her because of their religious principles. The troubles of English Protestantism had been . growing up for many years. A large body of people in the Church of England came to think that her purity and spiritual life were of a very low order. The spirit and forms of public worship, the widespread disregard for the Sabbath, led them in many cases to earnest remonstrance. Agitation began, and these people soon 178 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. came to be called Puritans. They did not wish to separate from the Church of England, because they believed that the State had supreme authority in matters of religion. But they wished to cleanse the service of religion. Persecu- tions arose and many of them suffered because they would not conform to the ritualistic and other demands made upon them. A few Puritans at last, because of their persecutions, began to question the right of government to limit worship in any way. It seems to have set them to thinking deeply. They soon began to hold that any body of Christians can constitute themselves a church without the authority of government. Thus an inner circle grew up in the great body of Puritans. The members of it began to be known as Separatists, and upon them fell the heaviest persecutions. They were searched out and imprisoned. Small companies worshiped in different places, but at last many escaped to Hol- land, where they were permitted to worship in peace. The Pilgrims, who believed thoroughly in separation before they came to America, must be carefully distinguished from the Puritans of Massa- chusetts Bay who were not led by the logic of events to such a plain assertion, until by the work of founding a new state, they were made to see the true course for them to take, and dropped naturally into an independent church government. In Holland the Separatists did not feel at home. They were sur- rounded by a strange world, and longed to get away from it. Hence they under- took to come to America. After consid- erable effort they obtained a grant from the London, now known as the Virginia, company taken out in the name of Mr. John Wincob, " a religious gentleman belonging to the Countess of Lincoln." He intended to accompany them. They also made a contract with the men who were to bear the expense of the voyage for a return of the profits of the colony for a certain time and proportion. They also obtained the verbal promise of the king that if they conducted themselves peaceably, they should not be molested. The grant was however of no use to them in the New World, because they did not land within the limits of the company which gave it. They were in the terri- tory of the Plymouth, not the Virginia company. A portion of John Robinson's church in Leyden, Holland, sailed from Delft-Haven for America in the May- flower and the Speedwell. The latter was afterward sent back. The May- flower of one hundred and eighty tons kept on, and after a time reached, the shores of Cape Cod. 1620. Nov. 21. The Mayflower arrived in Cape Cod harbor, where the Pilgrims went ashore. Some of them explored the country around, while the women busied themselves in washing the clothes of the company, and in kindred duties. A child named Oceanus Hopkins had been born at sea and another named Peregrine White was born during the stay at Cape Cod. Before any landed- the celebrated compact of civil liberty was drawn up and signed in the cabin of the Mayflower by the forty-one male adults. It reads as follows: "In the name of God, amen. We, whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign lord King James by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and Ireland, King, De- fender of the Faith, etc., having under- taken for the glory of God and the advancement of the Christian faith and 1603-1630.] THE COMING POWER. 179 honor of our King and country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents solemnly and mutually in the presence of God and of one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic for our better ordering and preservation, and furtherance of the ends the year of the reign of our sovereign lord, King James of England, France and Ireland, the eighteenth, and of Scot- land the fifty-fourth Anno Domini 1620." Under this compact John Carver was chosen governor for one year. Miles Standish was chosen military captain. 1620. Dec. 21. The Pilgrims landed LANDING OF TUB PILGRIMS. aforesaid ; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices from time to time as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony; unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed ouV names at Cape Cod this eleventh day of November in on Plymouth Rock, and at once began a settlement. The first foot which touched the rock is said to have been that of Mary Chilton, a young woman. They did not all land the first day. The work of putting up some shelter from the cold and stormy weather, began at once. Nineteen plots of land were laid out near together, and hasty dwellings erected. They were soon living in their new homes. A new state was born. Town meetings were held from the very first to decide mutual affairs under their compact. Sickness began to multiply. The first year of their abode in the wilderness was to be made dark by the death of half their number. 180 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1621. March 16. First Indian at Plymouth. An Indian named Samoset appeared at Plymouth and entered the little settlement saying, " Welcome, Eng- lishmen." His coming caused terror at 1561-1621. first, but this was dissipated Fronds Paeon, by hi s friendly bearing. He had been acquainted with English fishermen upon the coast of Maine, and gave the Pilgrims much information. 1621. March. First Offence at Ply- mouth. John Billington spoke with dis- respect of the lawful authority of the captain, and was adjudged by the whole company in town meeting " to have his neck and heels tied together." 1621. April 1. Indian Fidelity. A league was formed by the Plymouth settlers with Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, and was not broken for more than fifty years. DEATH OF GOF. CARVER. 1621. April 6. John Carver, gov- ernor of Plymouth, having been taken sick in the field during planting, died after a short illness, less than four months from the landing of the Pilgrims. He was a man upon whom the Pilgrims had learned to lean with a great confidence in his skill and prudence. He was born in England, and spent an uneventful life in his younger years. He was one of the number who, for the sake of religious opinions fled to Holland, and had much to do in making the arrangements by which the colonists were enabled to cross the water. Upon arrival at Cape Cod he was elected governor of the little state which was born in the cabin of the May- flower at the signing of the compact. Dying so soon, he saw nothing of its growth. Hardships were pinching the settlers, and sickness depleting their num- ber. They could ill afford to lose a man like John Carver. Great unselfishness and childlike piety marked his everyday life. He was always ready to do any- thing to help the members of the colony,, laboring with his own hands for their good, as he was needed. His property had been freely spent for the colonv. His wife died about six weeks later. William Bradford was chosen governor of the colony. 1621. May 12. The first wedding in Plymouth took place between Edward Winslow and Mrs. Susanna White. 1621. Courtship of Miles Standish. It was in the spring of this year that the courtship made famous by the poet Long- fellow, took place. Mrs. Rose Standish had died soon after the arrival of the little colony. The impetuous Capt. Miles had been dreary and lonesome all winter. So one day he sent the young John Alden, his friend, to make an offer of marriage for him to Priscilla Mullens,. a comely Pilgrim maiden. When she had heard the request of the Plymouth captain presented and enforced by the lips of the trusty messenger, she looked the bashful young man archly in the face and said, " Prithee, John, why do you not speak for yourself ?" The messen- ger blushed and retired, because he. would not even seem to be untrue to the one who had sent him, but before long an understanding was arrived at between the young people, and in course of time a happy wedding took place. 1621. June 18. The First Duel in New England. Prince, in his chro- nology of Plymouth says, " The second offence is the first duel fought in New England upon a challenge of single combat with sword and dagger between Edward Doty and Edward Leister, ser- 1603-1630.] THE COMING PO WER. 181 vants of Mr. Hopkins; both being wounded, the one in the hand, and the other in the thigh, they are adjudged by the whole company to have their head and feet tied together, and so to lie for twenty-four hours without meat or drink, which is begun to be inflicted, but within an hour, because of their great pains, at their own and their master's humble request, upon promise of better carnage, they are released by the gov- ernor." Edward Leister, at the close of his apprenticeship to Mr. Hopkins, re- moved to Virginia. 1621. July 24. A written consti- tution, the first in America, was pre- pared for the Jamestown colony, provid- ing for a legislative body and for trial by jury, as in England. This led the way in the development of political constitu- tions in this country. Cotton seeds were first planted this year as an experiment, and succeeded so well that the culture rapidly increased. The heavy duties on the tobacco imported into England, which had been laid to discourage to- bacco cultivation led the Virginia compa- ny to send their cargoes of it to Holland. The English government decreed at once that " no tobacco or other productions of the colonies should henceforth be carried into any foreign port until they were first landed in England and the customs paid." Hemp -rope making had been enjoined upon the colonists a short time before, and in Jamestown the rope-making of the country originated. 1621. George Calvert, Lord Balti- more, an English Roman Catholic no- bleman, was made proprietor by King James of a portion of Newfoundland. He sent out a colony which erected build- ings for him at a cost of 25,000. He - held. This went on for a couple of years when in the autumn of 1628 John Encli- cott visited the place from Salem, cut down the pole, and named the place Mt. Dagon. Morton had also introduced guns and powder among the Indians, con- trary to the advice of the other settle- ments. He was subsequently arrested 1603-1630.] and sent to England for trial, but was acquitted. He was ever after a dissolute man. He came to Boston and was im- prisoned, and finally died at New Hamp- shire. 1627. The Pilgrims purchased the interest of London merchant adventurers in their colony. 1627. Richelieu, of France, annulled the rights of the Caens in the Canada trade and foi'med a company of one hun- dred associates, himself at the head. They received full power over all the ter- ritory from Florida to the Arctic circle, and from the Atlantic to the headwaters of the St. Lawrence. They also received the monopoly of the fur trade forever, and of all other trade for fifteen years. The company became a sort of feudal proprietor. Huguenots were forbidden to touch the shores of New France. 1628. Mills were built at New Am- sterdam, and bricks and lime were manu- factured for building purposes. 1628. The Reformed Dutch Church. Rev. Jonas Michaelis was the first minis- ter of the Reformed Dutch Church in America. He came to New Amsterdam and began to administer the sacraments in the exercise of his office. 1628. April. A fleet sailed from Dieppe, France, with supplies for Quebec, but it was met and destroyed in the St. Lawrence by an English fleet under the command of three French refugee Hu- guenot brothers named Kirk, who were Scotch on their father's side. SALEM FOUNDED. 1628. Sept. 14. The first Puritan colony in America consisting of seventy persons under John Endicott, settled on the present site of Salem, Mass. The Puritan exodus from England to the New THE COMING POWER. 185 World began with these settlers, and in a few years filled up the coast of Massa- chusetts Bay with prosperous colonies. The Puritans, who, desiring reformation within the Church of England, yet be- lieved in and clung to her, are to be care- fully distinguished from the Pilgrims of Plymouth, who were thorough Separa- tists in renouncing all obedience to and affiliation with, the established church. There were a few settlers already upon the site of Salem, chief among whom was Roger Conant, who had served as governor of a little Cape Ann settlement until it broke up a short time before. 1629. March 29. First Massachu- setts Charter. A charter was granted by the Council for New England to the "Governor and Company of Massachu- setts Bay in New England." This was obtained through the efforts of Rev. John White of the Dorchester Adven- turers, and was intended to put everything on a secure basis. John Endicott was appointed local governor for the colony in New England. 1629. June 7. Patroons. The Dutch West India Company issued a decree called the " Charter of Liberties " giving any one the right to purchase large tracts of land in New Netherland, and, upon forming a colony of fifty persons within the same, to govern it. This was the introduction of the feudal tenui-e which endured so long in New York in the order of wealthy patroons. 1629. June 29. A large number of emigrants arrived at Salem, Mass., with cattle, goats, tools and other sup- plies for the Puritan colony. A brick kiln was soon set up. The name Salem was conferred upon the place this year. 186 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. 1629. July 4. Charlestown, Mass., was founded bv a company of Puritans from Salem. 1629. July 20. Quebec in English Power. English ships commanded by the Kirk brothers appeared before Que- bec which they had not dared to attack the previous year, and demanded its sur- render. J3eing incapable of defence, the city was given up. Upon Champlain's arrival in London, he gained from King Charles through the French ambassador an assurance that New France should be returned to its rightful owners in accord- ance with a treaty of the same year. 1629. Aug. 6. A church was organ- ized by the members of the Salem colony with the counsel and fellowship of dele- gates from Plymouth. Gov. Bradford, who was one of the delegates, and his companions, were detained in their voyage from Plymouth and arrived in the midst of the exercises of organization. Samuel Skelton was appointed pastor, and Mr. Higginson teacher. Thus was Congregationalism fully established in America by the organization of this church, which was the second of that order in the New World. Its two prin- ciples were now affirmed. The inde- pendent self-governing of each church and the proper fellowship of neighboring churches,were now fully illustrated. Just at this time' the first religious difference in Massachusetts Bay occurred. Two brothers named John and Samuel Browne, who with considerable discon- tent at the organization of the Salem church had instituted a Church of Eng- land service according to the prayer book, were brought before the governor, and upon maintaining their intentions, were both sent back to England in ships about returning. This may seem harsh, but to the Puritans, founding a state, it- seemed that if these brothers were allowed to go on, priest, bishop and full religious authority would soon creep into their midst. They did not object to the single service which the Brownes insti- tuted so much as they feared that it would defeat the very end of their coming thither. So they stopped it at the beginning, in spite of the fact that they loved and many of them revered the Church of England. 1629. Aug. 29. Self-government. The government of the Massachusetts Bay colony was transferred to the people of the same, so that the colony became the company and had power to elect their governor, deputy-governor and eighteen assistants, who constituted a general court for the province. This transfer was brought about in England by electing as officers of the company men of great character who agreed to emigrate if the charter could be carried with them, and administered on the ground. John Winthrop was elected governor. The English government did not fully know of or comprehend the step until it had been taken. The efforts in after years to regain the charter were in vain until it was annulled outright, and happily events transpired which made even this ineffectual after a short time. The transfer of the charter to the New World was of vast import. 1629. The Recollet priests were driven out of Canada by the hostility of the Jesuits, who wished to have exclu- sive control of the province. 1629. The Bahama Islands were settled by the English in New Provi- dence. In the next century and a half the Bahamas changed hands from the English to the Spanish, and back again, 1603-1630.] THE COMING POWER. 187 until the sixth transfer was reached in 1 783, in the final annexation of them to England. 1630. January. A patent for Plym- outh colony was issued by the Council for New England to William Bradford and others. It was the first one held by the colony itself, the previous grants to John Pierce being chiefly for his individ- ual benefit. The present patent defined the limits of the territory of the colony for the first time, and gave a right to the soil. Up to this time the colonists had hardly felt secure in their attempts to hold individual property. 1630. About one thousand Puritans came to Salem this year and dispersing, founded Roxbury, Dorchester, Newtown, 1571-1630. now Cambridge, Saugus, Kepler. now Lynn, Watertown and 1630. Venice Gazette frst is- Boston. John Wmthrop, sued - the first governor under the transferred charter, came and helped to found Boston. Each settlement became at once a complete body in itself. The town governments of New England developed naturally from this condition of affairs. 1630. July. The first house in Bos- ton was built. 1630. Guiana, S. A., began to be settled by the English. 1630. Sept. 17. Boston was founded, the organization of the town being for the first time completed. 1630. Oct. 19. The first general court or legislature of the settlements around Massachusetts Bay was held in Boston. This came into existence under the transferred charter. 1630. October. First Execution in New England. John Billington, a profane and dissolute man was, after trial, executed at Plymouth for having shot John New- comen, who died of his wound. The matter was referred to the leading men in Massachusetts Bay for advice, and it was the opinion of all that the criminal should be subjected to capital punishment. 1630. The buccaneers of the West Indies fortified themselves on the island of Tortugas, and made a large colony apart from their other resorts. This bloody business had been growing up from nearly the time of the Spanish con- quest. They were English and French roving characters, who had acquired a hatred of everything Spanish. The ships and island settlements of the latter were never safe unless strongly armed. The buccaneers at this time increased their or- ganization,and became more dreaded than ever. Bands of them in open row boats attacked any unwary Spanish merchant- man. They took much booty on all hands. Later in the century they took a wider scope and plundered some of the best South American settlements. Their history is fearful with misdeeds. They pursued the Spanish with an implacable hatred. AMERICAN COLONIZATION. The strange story of the settlement of the American continent presents some features worthy of being studied very thoroughly. The reservation of the con- tinent from all foreign tread in spite of its discovery by the Norsemen, can be un- derstood very greatly by looking at the national conditions which preceded the fifteenth century. The results of that reservation are very important. A land embracing every climate, every topo- graphical feature, every mineral resource; wonderfully open and accessible to navi- gation on every side by gulfs, bays, great rivers, or vast lakes ; a land full of vege- table richness, both living and decayed, was left as a sphere for the exercise of 188 DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT, human endeavor, hardihood, ingenuity, and wisdom. A broad place was thrown open in which the world was to be al- lowed to build according to pet theories, or hasty notions, or consecrated effort, as the case might be. The field was free, and the trial fair. Different passions, aims, religions, were to enter the land and either "have their day and cease to be," or gain the ascendancy in the inev- itable conflict. The variety of national- ities in the field is noticeable. Still more so is the variety of elements proceeding from the same nationality. This is most marked in the case of England. It is also seen to some extent in French colo- nization. Upon our shores these ele- ments began to get a place to live. At first it was a sufficient task to keep a colony alive. Some colonies rooted them- selves in silence for years before the inev- itable contest for domination appeared. The southern half of the continent, well conquered and settled with the older and more organized system of the Roman Catholic church, was to allow a fair trial for the same in a new land, and upon the minds of a new people. The greater part of North America, with different religious creeds and individual convic- tions, was to give a broad sphere for the growth of the ones which had most vigor and spiritual power. The charac- ters of nationalities and principles were to be seen in new and untried situations, in places freed from old-time associations, and in needs which would test Old World conceptions of humanity. The work of building new institutions in a new land, was to give those who had lived among old institutions a peculiar privilege and responsibility. It would be their work to blindly tread the path of the Old World, or to eliminate the elements which there hindered advance. The broad, rich continent was before them. PART III. LIFE. 1631-1760. 189 u Ah ! I do think, as I do tread Thease paeth, W elems auverhead. That all thease roads that we do bruise WT bosses* shoes, or heavy Iwoads; And hedges'' bands, 'where trees in row Do rise an* grow arourf the lands, Be works that we've a-v' greace vrom week to week; An 1 built wi" 1 stwone, upon the hill, A tow*r we still do call our own; With bells to use, an 1 meake rejaice, Wi" 1 giant vaice, at our good news ; An ' lifted stwones an ' beams to keep The rain an ' cwold vrom us asleep. " Zoo now mid nwone ov us vor get The pattern our for ef aethers zet But each be fain to underteake Some work to meake vor others'* gain, That we mid leave mwore good to sheare^ Less ills to bear, less souls to grieve, An ' when our hands do vail to rest, It mid be vrom a-work a-blest" "POEMS IN THE DORSET DIALECT." WILLIAM BARNES. 190 SECTION IX. OF SEZI 7 - G O *\y N the study of the following period, I the first political interest in American I history is developed. We see the first \^ faint expression of principles which have become household words to later generations, and have, to a very great extent, influenced the entire continent. The coming power of Englishmen is foreshadowed in the origin and rapid de- velopment of their colonies. The pecu- liar features attending the life of Ply- mouth, left alone as it was by the Eng- lish crown; the more expansive life of the Puritans at Massachusetts Bay, with the, at first, unobserved transfer of the government to the colony itself, so fruit- ful of results; the indications of friction with royal power in the cases of the settlers in the Old Dominion, were all of them prophecies of self-government and wide supremacy. Town meetings, rep- resentative assemblies, codified laws, written constitutions, began within the limits of the English colonies. The weaknesses of French colonization pre- sented it from getting any such foothold, and from retaining perpetually what it did get. Dutch power could not long endure in the midst of the more vigor- ously self-asserting conditions on each side. The full intent of all these slight beginnings has not yet been clearly seen. The continent still awaits a brighter reign of liberty. 1631. March 16. The first conflagra- tion in Boston destroyed two dwelling houses. The fire caught in a wooden chimney. The building of such chim- neys, or of thatched roofs, was thereafter forbidden. 1631. Roger Williams and John Eliot, both of them young ministers who became prominent in New England affairs, arrived at Massachusetts Bay this year. John Winthrop, Jr., son of Gov. Winthrop, also came. 1631. July 4. " The Blessing of the Bay." A vessel of thirty tons, built in New England by Gov. Winthrop, was launched at Medford, Mass. It was named " The Blessing of the Bay," and is usually called the first vessel built in New England, but the pinnace built by the Popham colony, preceded it. 1631. The Franchise. At the sec- ond general court of Massachusetts Bay, it was voted that nobody should from that time become a citizen and a voter, unless he were a member of some church in the settlements. 191 192 COLONIAL LIFE. 1631. New Hampshire. Laconia was divided by Mason and Gorges between themselves, the former taking the present territory of New Hampshire, which he named from Hampshire county, Eng- land, and the latter taking all the land eastward of Mason's tract. 1631. A terrible earthquake oc- curred at Lima, Peru, and left the marks of its ravages in the destruction of much property. 1632. June 20. Maryland. Cecil Cal- vert, Lord Baltimore, received the grant asked for by his father before the latter's death, and named it Maryland in honor of the Queen Henrietta Maria. Under this patent he held lands west of the Delaware River, which were a source of controversy for over a century. 1632. July 5. Quebec was returned to the French according to the stipulation with the English crown in the Treaty of St. Germain's. All Canada and Nova Scotia passed into French control again. Two Jesuit priests landed at Quebec with Emery de Caen, who received the sur- render and took command of the town. 1632. The first church building in Boston was erected this year. It was, it is said, built of mud walls with a thatched roof, near the present corner of State .ind Devonshire streets. 1632. The germ of a second house in the general court of Massachusetts ma. Gustavus Ba 7 appeared this year in ims died at the election of sixteen dele- i ,,1 i L r gates by the eight towns of the province, to confer with the governor and his assistants about the raising of a tax. This precluded the necessity of holding a general assembly of the free- men of the colony. 1632. A Queer Penalty. An act was passed in Plymouth colony, subject- battle of Lutzen, ing a person who should refuse the office of governor to a fine of .20, and a per- son who should refuse the office of councillor or magistrate to a fine of .10. 1633. May 23. Champlain resumed command at Quebec under commission from Richelieu. The Jesuits silently began to regain control. 1633. Wouter Van Twiller, who had been appointed governor of New Neth- erland in place of Peter Minuit, arrived at New Amsterdam. The first school- master named Adam Roelandsen came with him. Rev. Everardus Bogardus this year succeeded Rev. Jonas Michaelis as minister of the Reformed Dutch Church in America, and had the first church building erected on what is now Broad Street. Dominie Bogardus mar- ried the widow Annetje Jansen whose large farm was known as the Bowerie. and now forms the valuable property held by the corporation of Trinity Church. A brewery, the first in the province, was erected. 1633. The election of selectmen ap- parently began in one or two towns of Massachusetts Bay, and originated the well known town office through the greater convenience in the transaction of much of the town business. 1633. Sheep were first imported into Massachusetts Bay colony this year. 1633. Hartford, Conn. A trading post was established near the present site of Hartford, Conn., by the Dutch, in order to hold the territory to which they laid claim. They also reoccupied Fort Nassau on the Delaware River. 1633. Sept. 16. The first frame house in Connecticut was set up near Windsor, above the Dutch post on the river, by William Holmes, of Plymouth, who with a few companions brought the 1031-1661.] GERMS OF SELF-GO VERNMENT. 193 frame ready to be put together in order to take " immediate possession. The Dutch planned to drive them out, but did not attempt it by force. 1633. October. Devoted Service. Father Le Jeune, of Quebec, spent the winter with a wandering party of Algon- quin Indians in order to teach them the Christian faith. It was a great exposure for him to live five months in wigwams built in the snow, and endure the hard- ships of cold and fatigue, but he did it cheerfully for the sake of his mission. 1634. March 27. Maryland Colo- nized. Leonard Calvert, sent out with a colony by his brother, Lord Baltimore, arrived in Maryland and founded the first settlement, named St. Mary's, upon the site of an Indian village which was pur- chased of its occupants. Good relations were established with the Indians. The charter granted Lord Baltimore guar- anteed representative government to the colony, and deprived the English crown of any power to tax or superintend the colony. Perfect religious toleration was also declared. The* colony began to nourish, and never suffered the depriva- tions endured by all the other plantations. 1634. April 10. Spirit of Liberty. Archbishop Laud of Canterbury and others were made a commission to exer- cise supreme authority over the English colonies, and if necessary to revoke char- ters. When news of this reached Boston, measures were at once taken for defense. An order was passed for fortifications at Castle Island, Charlestown, and Dor- chester ; also for the training of unskillful men. A royal request was sent for the charter, but the magistrates refused to surrender it. This prophecy of inde- pendence possesses a very remarkable character for that early day. 13 .1634. May 19. Representative Gov- ernment. Twenty-four delegates from the towns of Massachusetts colony ap- peared before the governor and magis- trates at their annual meeting unexpect- edly, and claimed seats with them in the general court of the province. Their request was granted. This was the second representative body on the Amer- ican continent. The House of Burgesses in Virginia in 1619 was the first. The freemen of the colony were now becom- ing so scattered as the number of towns around Boston increased, that they could not be safely or conveniently called to- gether at once in a colonial general assembly. Thus was democratic gov- ernment of necessity given up, except as it remained visible in the management of town affairs. The Freeman's Oath was established at this time, by which every freeman of the colony was obliged to pledge his allegiance to Massachusetts instead of to King Charles. 1634. A mission among the Huron Indians was established by three Jesuits who went from Quebec into the Huron country and took up their residence in an Indian village near the lake of that name. A house was built and the natives were taught with considerable success. 1634. All British colonies were put under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of London. 1634. A Roman Catholic mission was established among the Indians of Mary- land, by Andrew White, but was broken up at the close of twelve years. 1636. A representative assembly was held in Maryland and laws were enacted which Lord Baltimore declared void, because he claimed that with himself rested the right to initiate legislation. He two years afterward withdrew this claim. 194 COLONIAL LIFE. 1635. April 23. Trouble in Mary- land. William Clayborne having resisted the authority of Lord Baltimore on Kent Island, an attempt was made to arrest him. A fight between two vessels sent out by Maryland and one under Clay- borne's authority, took place. Clayborne fled to Virginia and his estates on Kent Island were confiscated. 1635. April. The Plymouth Com- pany resigned their patent to the king and assigned the territory of New Eng- land to the members by particular por- tions. Gorges retained the land between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec which he now for the first time named Maine. He was vested with large powers over this province. A small plantation at Agamenticus was erected into a munici- pal corporation and became the first real city in New England. It is now the town of York, Me. Mason retained New Hampshire. A writ of quo war- ranto was now issued against Massa- chusetts Bay colony to dispossess them of their charter in order that the other patentees might take possession of the lands which they had so gladly divided among themselves. The prospect was dark for Massachusetts Bay, and if Eng- land had been thoroughly at peace, the colony would have been annihilated. 1635. May. The First Ballot. Voting by slips of paper seems to have been first used at the general election in Massachu- setts Bay this year, and to have been ordered to be used thereafter. 1635. A Heavy Currency. Musket bullets were made a legal tender in place of farthings in Massachusetts Bay, but not more than twelve could be paid at once. This step was taken in order to retain the bullets then in the colony, in view of the anticipated trouble over the charter of the colony. It was at this time that the famous old beacon-pole was ordered to be set on what has since been known as Beacon Hill, Boston. A barrel of tar could be raised to its top and set aflame to warn the surrounding country. 1635. Trouble in Virginia. Sir John Harvey, governor of Virginia, was bitterly complained of by the col- onists, and resisted in office. He went to England by mutual agreement to be tried upon the accusations made against him. The trouble arose from the repres- sion of popular power in the province since 1624, when it had become a royal colony. 1635. Sept. 1. The first grand jury on the American continent met in Boston and prepared a list of one hundred offences which they presented to the magistrates for trial. 1635. October. Sentence of banish- ment was passed against Roger Williams by Massachusetts Bay, because of his constant opposition to magistrates and church. 1635. November. Saybrook, Conn. A colony was founded at the mouth of the Connecticut River and named Say- brook, in honor of Lord Say-and-Seal and Lord Brooke, who had obtained a grant of the territory in 1631. 1635. John Steel with a few persons went from Massachusetts Bay to the region of Wethersfield and Windsor. CH&MPLtilX. 1635. Dec. 25. Samuel de Cham- plain died on Christmas day at Quebec, at the age of sixty-eight years. For over thirty years he had been closely connected with the fortunes of New France, and had been the leading spirit in founding its institutions. His character 1631-1661.] and aims are apparent in the course of the events which have been recorded of him in previous pages. He was religious and connected all his schemes for coloni- zation very closely with his faith. But the settlement he planned embraced ele- ments of permanency in his diligent founding of a civil state. His patience was unsurpassed, and reminds one of that of Columbus. Very little is found to stain his character, and none of that loose- ness in morals appeared in him which marked the roving spirits of that day. The struggle of his life in the New World was long continued and severe. The little beginnings at Quebec under- taken by him inaugurated a fierce effort for the supremacy of the great St. Law- rence over cold and hunger, internal dis- cord, and outward foes in the shape of the deadly Iroquois. Though the growth was slow, it was sure, and a state grew up beside the noble river, which to-day owes her existence to the untiring hand of Samuel de Champlain. GERMS OF SELF-GO VERNMENT. 195 1636. March 3. Town Govern- ments. The general court of Massa- chusetts passed measures recognizing the towns of the province as they had grown up, and defined their powers for the reg- ulation of town meetings. This action simply made legal and permanent the conditions which had arisen naturally in the infancy of the colony. 1636. June. The Hartford Colony. Hooker and Stone emigrated from New- town, Mass., and founded Hartford, Conn. They went across the country with their families and took one hundred and sixty head of cattle with them. The journey was accomplished in two weeks. Mrs. Hooker, who was an invalid, was carried upon a litter. 1636. June. Quebec Schools. Charles Hualt de Montmagny arrived in Quebec to assume the office of governor, left vacant by the death of Champlain. Colonists came with him. There was this year the beginning of a school at Quebec for Huron children. A college was established for French boys. 1636. Governor Harvey. Charles II. of England would not hear the charges made against Sir John Harvey, governor of Virginia, but sent him back to rule the province, " if but for a day." 1636. July 4. Providence, B. I., was founded by Roger Williams, who fled secretly from Boston after hisbanjsh- ment, in order to avoid transportation to England. A compact was entered into by those who settled at Providence " to submit themselves in active and passive obedience to all such orders and agree- ments as should be made for the public good of the body in an orderly way, by major consent of the present inhabitants, masters of families, incorporated together into a township, and such others whom they shall admit into the same, only in civil things." 1636. First West India Trade. A vessel of thirty tons made the first voyage between Massachusetts Bay and the West Indies. 1636. Right of Taxation. The Ply- mouth colony declared that no taxes should be imposed but by the consent of the freemen of the colony in public assembly. 1636. August. Pequod War. An expedition from Boston under John Endi- cott proceeded against the Indians of Block Island and the Connecticut coast, because of the murder of Oldham, an Indian trader. The Indians fled, but their towns and provisions were burned. 196 COLONIAL LIFE. This aroused the Pequods, and the towns in the Connecticut colony suffered from their attacks, and general terror began to reign. The Narragansetts were kept peaceful. 1636. Harvard College. The gen- eral court of Massachusetts Bay voted four hundred pounds for a school or col- lege. This was the first step in the his- tory of Harvard College. 1636. Oct. 4. Earliest Colonial Code of Laws. Plymouth colony chose a com- mittee to codify the statutes which had grown up naturally in the early adminis- tration of the colony. Fifty or sixty laws were thus laid down. 1636. December. Local Elections Prefigured. The general court of Massa- chusetts decreed that as all freemen could not safely leave their homes at the same time they could send their votes to the magistrates by proxy thereafter. A mil- itary organization of three regiments was also ordered for the colony. 1637. The Pequods were extermi- nated by the English settlers and Narra- gansett Indians. The few who remained at the close of the summer were given to the Narragansetts for adoption. 1637. August. The first ecclesias- tical council ever held in the New World came together at Newtown, now Cam- bridge, Mass., to consider questions of faith and heresy. 1637. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson was banished from Massachusetts Bay for the opposition to the religious and civil life of the colony into which her peculiar views brought her. She held that out- ward purity of life was no evidence of in- ward sanctification, to attest which an internal revelation of the Holy Spirit alone was sufficient. She derided and opposed the ordinary views of the col- onists. For a time she received a number of supporters, among them John Cotton and Henry Vane, but some of them after- ward saw how she had misled them. Doubtless the opposition to her and her companions was illiberal and mistaken^ but it was also greatly provoked. 1637. Nov. 17. The general court of Massachusetts Bay ordered the college to be established to be put at Newtown (Cambridge). 1637. Navigation Acts. The order of 1621 for the exclusive importation of tobacco into England having been evaded by the Virginia company, a fresh injunc- tion was issued to the governor to bond each vessel for the sure transportation of its cargo to Great Britain. 1637. The Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Boston was organ- ized by Robert Keayne, who became its. first captain. It was organized upon the plan of a similar company in London, It was known at first as the 1573-1637. Military Company of Mass- Ben Jonson^ achusetts, and is the oldest militia organi- zation on the continent. It was armed at first with pikes, " hand-gounes " and " snap-hances." The present name was taken about the year 1700. The com- pany still has an annual training day. 1637. Train-bands and Wards. As. early as this year, if not earlier, train- bands began to be organized in Boston. Separate portions of the town were set apart for these bands to keep watch and ward over. Thus the name ward has passed into general use in America. These train-bands originated the training days which were formerly so well known in New England. 1637. An expedition up the Amazon was led from Maranhao to Quito by Pedro de Texeira, a Portuguese. H& 1631-1661.] had with him seventy Portuguese sol- diers and about twelve hundred Indians, and was accompanied by the two monks who had come down the river from Peru in 1616. They passed up the Amazon and its branch the Napo, and at last after a haixl journey, reached Quito. In a year or two he returned, accompanied by a chronicler who recorded minute observa- tions of everything on the way. Full reports of both trips were sent to Madrid, and constitute the first real account of this \vonderful stream down which Orcllana passed nearly one hundred years before. 1638. March. Rhode Island Col- ony. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and her friends having been ordered to leave Massachusetts Bay, formed a settlement on Rhode Island which they had pur- chased from the Indians. Eighteen persons signed the following agreement, viz.: "We whose names are under- written do hereby solemnly in the pres- ence of Jehovah incorporate ourselves into a body politic, and as he shall help, "will submit our persons, lives and estates unto our Lord Jesus Christ the King of kings and Lord of lords, and to all those perfect and absolute laws of His Holy Word of truth, to be judged and guided thereby." A governor, deputy- governor and five assistants were entrusted with the government of the colony. 1638. April 15. New Haven Col. ony. New Haven was founded by a company just arrived from England under John Davenport, a clergyman, and 1638. Jansenism Theophilus Eaton, a mer- foundedby jan- chant. The land was senius, of Tpres. i Uj. .r .1.1 TV r bought of the Indians for *' twelve coats, twelve hoes, twelve al- chemy spoons, twelve hatchets, twenty- four knives, twelve porringers, four cases French knives and scissors." Later in the GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 197 season a government was organized, and Theophilus Eaton was chosen the first governor. 1638. Harvard CoUege Named. The general court of Massachusetts Bay ordered that Newtown be named Cam- bridge in honor of Cambridge, England. John Harvard, a minister of Charlestown, died and left the new college about eight hundred pounds and all his library. It was therefore named Harvard College. O Regular instruction began this year by Nathaniel Eaton. 1638. Exeter, N. H., was founded by Rev. Mr. Wheelwright, who had been banished from Massachusetts Bay col- ony on account of differences between himself and other preachers, which arose from his adoption of the views of his sister-in-law, Mrs. Hutchinson. 1638. The first negro slaves in New England were brought by a vessel which had made a trading voyage to the West Indies. 1638. A severe earthquake was ex- perienced in New England. Slight quak- ings were felt for twenty days afterward. 1638. The Massachusetts charter was again demanded by the commis- sioners, but a long letter refusing it was sent by Gov. Winthrop. There was so much trouble in England that the demand was not pressed at present. 1638. First Cloth-making. A com- pany of Yorkshire clothiers settled at Rowley, Mass., and began the work of their trade. "They were the first people that set upon making of cloth in the Western world, for which end they built a fulling mill and caused their little ones to be very diligent in spinning cotton, many of them having been clothiers in England." The business grew upon their hands very rapidly. 198 COLONIAL LIFE. 1639. Jan. 14. A written constitu- tion was adopted in the Connecticut col- ony by the agreement of the towns. The colony became independent of Massa- chusetts Bay, and elected John Haynes governor. This has been called " the first example in history of a written con- stitution framed by the people, a distinct organic law constituting a government, and defining its powers." The legis- lative power was vested in an assembly composed of the governor, six magistrates and representatives elected by each town. 1639. February. The statutes of Maryland were completed at the third session of the assembly. Civil enact- ments were passed, and penalties provided for criminal offences. A house of bur- gesses was provided for, of which repre- sentatives elected by the people should be members. The voters of the colony had at first made their laws in a public meeting called for that purpose. Any planter who cultivated tobacco was re- quired to raise two acres of corn. Steps were taken to provide for the building of a grist-mill. 1639. March. The first printing press in the English colonies was set up at" Cambridge, Mass., by Stephen Daye, who issued this year an edition of the Freeman's Oath as his first work, and an almanac for New England by William Pierce, Mariner, as his second. Rev. Jesse Glover acted as agent in getting the press, which was bought by subscription, and was obtained at Amsterdam. A font of type worth .49 was given to the college with the press. Mr. Daye received from Massachusetts a grant of three hundred acres of land because he was the first printer in the North American colonies. 1639. June 4. An. assembly of the people of the New Haven colony was held in a barn belonging to Mi\ Robert Newman, in order to complete their polit- ical organization. The governor and magistrates who were elected by the church members of the colony adminis- tered the government. 1639. July 22. Pejepscot, now Brunswick, Me., where a few settlers under Thomas Purchas had planted them- selves on the edge of the territory of Gorges, put itself formally under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts Bay. 1639. Aug. 1. The First Hospital. Madame de la Peltrie, Marie de 1'Incarna- tion and other nuns arrived in Quebec and founded the Ursuline Convent. Three nuns came to found the hospital called the. Hotel Dieu under the patronage of the Duchess d'Aiguillon, niece of Richelieu. This was the first hospital in America. 1639. Representative government was adopted in Plymouth colony after nineteen years of pure democracy. It was rendered necessary by the increase of numbers in the colony. 1639. The Painted House. Rev. Thomas Allen of Charlestown, Mass., is said to have been brought before the magistrates on the charge of having paint upon his dwelling house. He showed that it was put on before he owned the house, and that he disapproved^ of such a thing, and was thereby dis- charged. Paint and paper hangings were scarcely known in the colonies. 1639. A house, which is still standing and is probably the oldest in the United States, was built in Guilford, Conn., for the minister, Rev. Henry Whitfield. 1639. Newport, R. I., was founded by William Coddington and his associ- ates who had separated from the settle- ment of Mrs. Hutchinson at the northern end of the island. 1631-1661.] GERMS OF SELF-GO VERNMENT. 199 1639. The first Baptist church in America was organized in Providence, R. I., by Roger Williams. 1639. The first apple trees in Amer- ica were on Governor's Island, Boston Harbor, and bore this year "ten fair pippins." 1639. Jean Nicollet crossed from the Huron country to Green Bay, Wisconsin, and it is thought by some, to the Missis- sippi River. 1640. A powder mill was established in Massachusetts, but it was afterward suppressed by English laws. NEW ENGLAND. 1640. About twenty-one thousand emigrants among whom were one hun- dred ministers, had up to this time been received into New England, at a cost to the companies of over one million dollars. There were twelve settlements east of the Hudson, embracing fifty towns and vil- lages. Wampum began to be freely used as currency among the colonists. Beaver skins were used in trade as they were also in New Netherland, where the Dutch minister of Albany received a salary of one hundred and fifty skins a year. New industries appeared on many hands. Linen, cotton and woolen cloths were made by the colony of Yorkshire clothiers, at Rowley, Mass. Commerce with the West Indies sprang up. 1640. The Bay Psalm Book was is- sued at Cambridge, Mass., and for years was thought to be the first real book printed an the American continent, but books were printed at Mexico over a cen- tury before. A copy of the Bay Psalm Book was "sold at auction in 1876 for one thousand and twenty-five dollars." 1640. First Nursery. Gov. Endi- cott started an apple tree nursery on his farm in Danvers, Mass., i64o. The Long di ,1 IT c Parliament, began the selling of 1577 , 1640 young trees in large num- Rubens. bers. This was probably the first nursery on the continent. There was scarcely another one till within the last forty years. 164O. An ordination by laymen took place at Taunton, Mass., at which, though one or two ministers were present, the candidate was ushered into the ministerial office by lay members of the church. 1640. The first brandy made in the American colonies was produced at Man- hattan, now New York. 164O. Brazil was erected into a princi- pality and the Portuguese heir apparent was made Prince of Brazil. 1640. The Bermuda Islands were put under a regular government by the English crown. 1641. March 2. The charter of Ply- mouth colony was surrendered by William Bradford to the freemen of the whole colony, and the interest held by members of the Council for New Eng- land was bought for twelve hundred pounds. 1641. April. A Sunday liquor law was issued by the authorities of New Amsterdam on account of the increasing prevalence of drunkenness. It forbade the " tapping of beer during divine service or after ten o'clock at night, under a pen- alty of twenty -five guilders, i64i. coffee in- or ten dollars for each <***'** England. offense, besides the for- i64i. star feiture of the beer for the c ^ a ^ rand High Commts- USe of the Schout Fiscaal, sion abolished. or Attorney General." This law was adopted because they said "complaints are made that some of our inhabitants have commenced to tap beer during divine service, and use a small kind of 200 COLONIAL LIFE. measure which is in contempt of our re- ligion, and must ruin the state." 1641. Curious Financial Peril. Wampum, or Indian money, formed a great part of the currency of New Neth- erland. It consisted of parts of sea shells strung together, and was sometimes known as seawant. During this year the New Amsterdam city council com- plained " that a great deal of bad sea- want, nasty, rough things, imported from other places, was in circulation, while the good, splendid Manhattan seawant was out of sight or exported, which must cause the ruin of the country." 1641. A Singular Marriage. Richard Bellingham, Governor of Massachusetts, made proposals of matrimony to a young lady about to be married to a young man, was accepted, and without complying with the rules of the colony in regard to publishing the bans, performed his own marriage ceremony, by virtue of his office as a magistrate. This direct viola- tion of law was afterward brought up before the courts, but was finally care- lessly dropped. 1641. Indian Missions. Mr. Richard Bourne and Mr. Thomas Tupper began to labor among the Indians of Sandwich and Cape Cod, within the Plymouth patent, and had great success for several years. They were not ministers, but wealthy laymen, and began their work very quietly. They studied the Indian language, and soon conducted worship for the natives. Mr. Bourne was finally or- dained pastor of an Indian church at Marsh- pee. Both were men of great energy. 1641. Two Catholic missionaries named Jogues and Raymbault,penetrated to the outlet of Lake Superior, and preached to the Indians. 1641. December. The " Body of Lib- erties," prepared by Rev. Nathaniel Ward, of Ipswich, was adopted, and be- came the first real constitution of Massa- chusetts Bay. Previous to this time there had been no code of laws. It was claimed that English law could only have a restrictive force upon acts contrary to it, but that beyond this the people of the colony could make such laws as they chose. The enactments of the new con- stitution were one hundred in number, forbade husbands to chastise their wives, a privilege which the common law of England allowed, forbade cruelty to ani- mals, and decreed capital punishment for certain offenses, among them witchcraft. It also provided that " there should be no monopolies but of such new inventions as were profitable to the country, and that for a short time only." Applications for patents were soon made under this code. It was also provided "that there shall never be any bond slavery, villeinage or captivity among us, unless it be lawful captives taken in just war, such as will- ingly sell themselves or are sold to us, and such shall have the liberties and Christian usage which the law of God established in Israel concerning such per- sons, doth morally require." 1642. Sir William Berkeley arrived in Virginia to succeed Sir Francis Wyatt as governor. He brought orders from the king for the restoration to the people of the right of representation by the formation of a general assembly com- posed of the governor and council, together with burgesses elected by the different plantations or towns. 1642. May 18. Montreal was founded by a company which had been commis- sioned to establish Catholic institutions upon the island. A seminary, college, and Hotel Dieu were to be inaugurated at once. 1631-1661.] GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 201 1642. Beligious difficulties and re- bellion in Maryland for two or three years, prevented the full progress of that colony. 1642. Aug. 2. Iroquois Barbarity. A Huron trading party and four Jesuits were captured on the St. Lawrence River 1564-1643. by the Iroquois, and carried Galileo. into Centra l New York. -Z5oO- Ibxa. Richelieu. The captives, among whom was Father Isaac Jogues, were horribly mutilated by Indian torments after they had reached the Five Nations. 1642. The White Mountains. An Irishman named Darby Field was prob- ably the first white man to ascend the White Mountains, N. H. He was ac- companied by two Indians, and named these now well-known hills the Crystal Mountains. 1642. Powder Houses in New Eng- land. A law was passed by the general court of Massachusetts, obliging every town to keep a supply of powder on hand, and thus the little powder houses once seen throughout New England, began to be built. 1642. Fines in Maryland. A full code of laws was provided for Maryland. Drunkenness was to be punished by a fine of one hundred pounds of tobacco, and swearing by a fine of five pounds. 1642. First Home Missionaries. More than seventy Puritan settlers of Virginia sent a letter to Massachusetts Bay, requesting that a number of min- isters be sent to them. Three were sent and commended to the governor and council of Virginia. Their services were afterward cut off by lack of toleration. 1642. Oct. 9. The first class grad- uated at Harvard College. 1642. The Swedes built a fort on Tinicum Island in the Delaware River, and established a mission among the Indians. 1642. The first tavern for strangers on Manhattan Island was built this year near the head of Cowenties' slip. 1643. March. Religious Intolerance. The assembly of Virginia passed a re- solve to enforce conformity with the Church of England. Non-conformists were ordered " to depart the colony with all conveniency." This broke up the labors of the Puritan ministers from Massachusetts Bay. The same code abolished servitude as a punishment. 1643. Samuel Gorton's settlement at what is now Warwick, Rhode Island, was broken up by Massachusetts author- ities because of his decided heretical views, and his troublesome bearing toward those among whom he lived. Even Roger Williams could not bear him. 1643. May. The House of Com- mons ordered that a.11 exports from and imports into New England should be without duty. FIRST COLONIAL LEAGUE. 1643. May 19. Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut colonies formed a league under the name of " The United Colonies of New Eng- land," for mutual protection against the Dutch and Indians. An assembly com- posed of two commissioners from each colony was to be held. Runaway slaves and criminals were to be 1643-1715. Louts given up. This was the xiv. King of first colonial coalition, and rctnce - presented the sight of colonists taking their affairs into their own hands. 1643. The Jesuit priest. Isaac Jogues, escaped from the Iroquois while they were trading with the Dutch at Albany, 202 COLONIAL went down the Hudson and to France, where his mutilations gained him great honor. 1643. First Iron-works in New Eng- land. A charter was granted and a company was formed for the manufacture of iron in New England. John Win- throp, Jr. and others raised money in England for the establishment of the works. A beginning was made this year at Saugus, now Lynn, Mass. The name Hammersmith was bestowed upon the place, because several of the workmen had come from that town in England. Among these workmen was Joseph Jenks, who has been called " the first founder who worked in brass and iron on the Western continent." A small quart pot was the first article turned out, and has been preserved in the family of Thomas Hudson, upon whose lands the iron-works stood. A similar forge was established a very little later by the same company at Brainttee, Mass. These works began to meet the demand for iron-ware and tools. Their material was bog iron ore, found in the lowlands of the vicinity. Both works employed men of great skill. 1643. A massacre of the Indians around New Amsterdam was insti- gated by William Kieft, Governor of New Netherland. It brought great trouble upon the Dutch colonies after- ward. In one of the attacks by the Indians Mrs. Hutchinson, who had re- moved into New Netherland, was killed. 1643. Representatives from the towns of New Haven colony were for the first time associated with the governor and magistrates in the general assembly. 1643. Sugar was made iff the West Indies by the English for the first time, upon the island of St. Christopher. NIAXTOXOMOH. 1643. September. This chief, the nephew of Canonicus the powerful sa- chem of the Narragansetts, was murdered by a Mohegan Indian in Connecticut. For many years Miantonomoh and Ca- nonicus had held the rule over their pow- erful nation. Upon the first coming of the whites, the former, then a young man, thought of making war upon them, but having become acquainted with them, he decided that it would be better to pre- serve peace. At the time of the murder of Oldham, Miantonomoh made every effort to find the guilty parties, and gave great assistance in arresting them. In the Pequod war he rendered much service- Nevertheless the English authorities were always suspicious of him. There seems to have long been an ani- mosity between himself and Uncas, the sachem of the Mohegans. In 1638 a treaty was drawn up between the chiefs in which among other things they agreed to settle their difficulties by an appeal to the English. It having been afterward reported that Miantonomoh was plotting against the English, he was sent for to appear at Boston in 1642. He came, and for two days the court was employed upon his case. He manifested much wisdom and good judgment in all his answers". Having proved his innocence he asked for his accusers, saying that they ought to suffer the same punishment as was in- tended for himself. But they did not choose to show themselves. The difficulties between Miantonomoh and Uncas finally led to a war in 1643,. in which the former was taken prisoner. He was taken by Uncas to Boston, that his fate might be decided by the English. The latter declared that the case was not 1631-1661.] GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 203 within their jurisdiction, and handed him over to the Mohegans for punish- ment. Uncas received the commission very willingly. While going with his prisoner between Hartford and Windsor his brother came up behind Miantono- moh and with a single blow of the toma- hawk split open the skull of the unfortu- nate chief. Thus perished on account of the prejudice of the English, one who had always been peaceable and well-disposed toward them. Miantonomoh could not have been past middle age. 1644. March 14. A charter was granted Roger Williams for his settle- ments which were to be known as " Providence Plantations." He obtained the charter by a visit to England. The Providence and Rhode Island colonies which had been separate up to this time, were united. The government was to be a pure democracy. 1644. April 18. A second great massacre of the settlers in Virginia was attempted by the Indians with such success that nearly five hundred whites were slain. This was the last great organized attack. The veteran chief, Opechancanaugh, was taken captive and having been mortally wounded by a shot from a soldier, soon died. The Indians were left without head and without energy. 1644. This chief, styled the King of the Pamunkeys, was. a brother of the once powerful chief Powhatan. He was born about the year 1545 and consequently was nearly one hundred years old when he died. In the winter of 1608 the English, O ' having used up their food, were at the point of starvation, and were 'unable to get anything from the Indians by trade. Capt. Smith proceeded to Pamunkey, determined to secure some corn. Find- ing all his efforts to trade with the Indians in vain, he suddenly seized Opechanca- naugh by the hair and with a pistol at his breast, dragged him half dead with fright out among the whites. The chief was then held as a prisoner until his people brought enough provisions to fill the boats. The English then released him and returned to Jamestown. We do not hear much more of Opechancanaugh except in the two massacres of 1622 and 1644, in which he led. In the latter his feebleness was so great that he was carried upon a litter. While a prisoner he had not strength enough to raise his eyelids. Just before his death, when he Was sur- rounded by a crowd anxious to see the venerable warrior, he asked that Gov. Berkeley be brought into his presence^ and thus addressed him : " Had it been my fortune to have taken Sir William Berkeley prisoner, I would not meanly have exposed him as a show to my people." He left no one to fill his place in the leadership of the people. Their venerated king had been the complete leader of all their movements. ELDER BREWSTER. 1644. April 16. William Brewster, one of the Pilgrims who came over in the Mayflower, died at the age of eighty- four years. He was born at Scrooby, England, in 1560, and received his edu- cation at . Cambridge University. He suffered imprisonment for his religious views, but finally reached Holland, where he taught school, and set up a printing press. When the colony came to America, the principal religious care of it fell upon him, because it was deemed 204 COLONIAL LIFE. necessary for the pastor, John Robinson, to remain in Holland with the rest, and come to America at some later day. But Mr. Robinson never came, and Elder William Brewster continued the full pas- toral care of the colony until 1629, though he could never be induced to administer the sacraments. His influ- ence grew to be very great, and deser- vedly so. When he died he was an object of great veneration. He left a library of two hundred and seventy-five volumes, sixty-four being in the learned languages. The library was valued at 1644. April 29. Joseph Bressani, an Italian Jesuit, was captured by the Iroquois as he was going to the Huron mission. He was subjected to torment, and afterward sold to the Dutch, who sent him to France. 1644. June. The first internal tax on liquor in America was laid by the Dutch West India Company, at Man- hattan, and resulted in much trouble. 1644. Two Legislative Houses in Massachusetts. A case of difficulty in regard to swine, which originated in 1636, and had never been fully settled, was brought up again before the magis- trates. The sympathies of the people, and of most of their representatives, were opposed to those of the magistrates. The animal which caused the difficulty by running at large, had belonged to an ordinary person. On account of the division of sentiment, the case led this year to the establishment of two branches of the general court, in order that each one might possess a negative vote on the other. The humble swine was a means of originating in Massachusetts this great security of all constitutional gov- ernment. The assistants of the governor had, however, at several previous times, claimed the power to negative the votes of the members elected by the freemen of the colony. 1644. Nov. 13. Baptists. A law was passed in Massachusetts Bay, pronoun- cing sentence of banishment upon all Baptists. 1644. The second Baptist church in America was founded at Newport, R. I., by John Clarke, who served as' its pas- tor for many years. 1644. Nov. 19. First Protestant Missionary Society. The Massachu- setts general court became the first Prot- estant missionary society of the world by passing an order for the county courts to care for the Indians within their jurisdiction, both to civilize and Chris- tianize them. At a little later day .it ordered that two ministers be chosen and sent among the Indians to teach them the gospel. There is no earlier modern missionary undertaking among the Prot- estants, unless it be the establishment of a Dutch mission in Ceylon. Ministers had been sent by Massachusetts Bay two years before into Virginia, at the request of Puritan settlers there. But this work was the real inauguration of missionary effort. 1645. The "One Hundred Asso- ciates" who had held the power of trade over New France, transferred their monopolies to the inhabitants of Canada, but retained their seignorial rights. 1645. July. A great peace council was held at Sillery, Quebec, between the Iroquois and the French and Hurons. Isaac Jogues and Couture went into the Iroquois country at its conclusion. 1645. Aug. 3O. A treaty was made between the Dutch and the Indians, 1631-1661.] bringing a long and cruel war close. 1645. Support of Harvard College. The commissioners of the New England league recommended that every family in the four provinces give a peck of corn or a shilling to Harvard College. This was very generally complied with, and afforded considerable aid to the insti- tution. 1645. Four persons were executed for witchcraft in Massachusetts. This was the remote beginning of the trouble which in 1692 became so serious. 1645. Negro Slaves. A lawsuit was held in Boston over the kidnapping of some slaves on the coast of Guinea, which were brought to New England by James Keyser and James Smith. They were held to have been taken un- lawfully, because without their own con- sent, and were ordered to be sent back. 1645. William Clayborne incited a rebellion in Maryland, and seized the government of the province from L'eon- ard Calvert, who was driven away. 1645. The territory of Brazil north of Pernambuco had been entirely seized during the last two or three years by the Dutch. Para was the only spot not captured. 1646. Jan. 31. Father De Noue was frozen to death in an attempt to reach the French fort on the Richelieu River. This was the first Jesuit death in Canada. 1646. A law against man-stealing was passed in Massachusetts, making it a capital crime. Similar laws were soon formed in all the New England colonies. 1646. Certain persons were arrested and fined in Massachusetts because they petitioned for the admission of those who were not church members to political GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. to a 205 rights. An appeal to the commissioners in England gave them no redress. 1646. The first poll-tax in this coun- try was levied in Massachusetts this year. Up to this time a certain tax had been laid upon the entire province, and the total amount divided among the towns, to be raised as might seem best. At this time a tax of i s. 8 d., and a little later 2 s. 6 d. was laid upon every male over sixteen years of age. A penny a was laid on personal property and income. 1646. Leonard Calvert returned with a large force and was re- 164a . Air guns instated in his position as invented. governor of Maryland, from which he had been expelled by Clayborne in 1645. 1646. Aug. 29. Father Gabriel Druilletes set out on a mission among the Abenaqui Indians of Maine along the Kennebec, some of whom had been to Canada and now requested that a mis- sionary might be sent to their people. Druilletes visited and taught among them, descended the river, went to the Penob- scot along the coast, stopped at the Eng- lish stations, and the next year returned to Quebec. 1646. Oct. 28. John Eliot preached to the Indians for the first time in their own language, in what is now the city of Newton, Mass. Meetings were soon held in other places. Converts began to multiply under his influence, and a great work soon grew up. 1646. Thomas May hew, Jr. began preaching among the Indians of Martha's Vineyard, and had great success for the next score of years. He had labored in teaching them since 1643. He afterward perished at sea on board a ship which foundered on its way to England. After the death of the son his father continued the work with Hiacoomes, who was the 206 COLONIAL LIFE. best Indian preacher of whom we have any account. 1646. December. Edward Winslow was sent to England to answer charges against the Massachusetts colony made by disaffected persons. His mission was successful. 1646. The first license law in Mas- sachusetts was passed. 1646. First Scythes. Joseph Jenks received a patent for fourteen years " for the making of engines for mills to go by water for the more speedy dispatch of work than formerly, and for the making of scythes and other edged tools." These scythes were the first made in the country, and were made like the old English scythe, in the form of the one at present used for bush-cutting. 1647. May. First Complete Belig- ious Liberty in the World. The Provi- dence colony was organized under the 1608-1647. charter, and the first general Torriceiii. asse mbly held. A code of laws was adopted, declaring the colony democratic, and giving equal religious privileges to all, of whatsoever name they might be. 1647. An epidemic influenza raged through the colonies, attacking Indians, French, Dutch and English. 1647. A famous escape of an Al- gonquin squaw named Marie Baptiste, from the Iroquois towns took place. She wandered two months through the woods, and at last made her way to Montreal. 1647. An earthquake destroyed San- tiago, Chili, killing one thousand persons and sixty thousand cattle. CANOXICUS. 1647. June 4. This powerful chief who ruled the great Narragansett tribe, died at the age of eighty-four years. Canonicus was the grandson of Tash- tassuck, whom fame reports as having been the most powerful sachem of his time. At the time of the advent of the white settlers in New England, Canon- icus was loud in his threats against them. He sent one of his men to Plymouth with a bundle of arrows wrapped in a rattlesnake skin as a challenge to engage in war. On receiving this, Gov. Brad- ford defiantly accepted the challenge by returning the skin filled with powder and shot. The savage chief was so filled with superstitious dread upon the recep- tion of these things, that he refused to touch the skin, and it was carried about to the different villages of the tribe, until it was finally brought again to Plymouth. Canonicus concluded to remain at peace with the English, and throughout his life we never hear of his taking up arms against them. This is partly due to the in- timacy which he had with Roger Wil- liams at Providence. Canonicus came to hold Mr. Williams in great esteem, and is said to have loved him as his own son till the day of his death. The Pcquods, before beginning the war of 1637, tried very hard to induce the Narragansetts to join them against the English. A council of the Narragansett chiefs was held, and they were nearly on the point of yielding to the persuasions of the Pequods, when Mr. Williams came to the wigwam of Canonicus, even while the delegates sent by the hostile tribe were there, and by a great effort persuaded the old sachem to consent to remain at peace with the English. Canonicus died, hav- ing seen more than fourscore years, greatly respected for his wisdom and the moderation of his disposition. He had a large share of the virtues of the red man. 1631-1661.] 1648. The first known mention of Niagara Falls was made in the Jesuit Relation for this year by Ragueneau. 1648. Margaret Jones, of Charles- town, Mass., was hung in Boston for witchcraft. 1648. August. The Cambridge Plat- form. A council convened at Cambridge which established a New England plat- form of religious belief, known since as the Cambridge Platform. The Westminster Confession was also adopted by the body. 1648. The first temperance meeting on this continent was held at Sillery, near Quebec. The chief address was made by a converted Algonquin chief, who 1648. Thirty exhorted his people to total rears' War end- abstinence an( J declared tO fd by Peace of GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 207 FREE SCHOOLS. 1649. A law was passed in Massa- requiring every Westphalia. Or- igin of "balance of power" in Europe. them the penalties enacted against drunkenness. This was a part of the effort made by the priests to prevent the use of liquors among the settlers and Indians, especially the latter. The habit of drink- ing was producing great harm in the province. 1648. Smelting works for copper were set up by Gov. Endicott at Salem, Mass., because he had discovered that ore on his farm. Men were imported from Germany and Sweden to do the work. 1648. Behring's Straits. A Russian expedition under the Cossack, Semoen Deshniew, sailed through Behring's Straits on a trip from the Kolyma River, on the northern coast of Siberia, to the mouth of the Anadir, just south of the straits. Deshniew thus discovered the passage which Behring did not see till nearly a century afterward, and then did not sail through, as Deshniew did. This was a voyage not made before or since, until the recent expedition of Nordenskjold in 1879. chusetts requiring every township to maintain a free school, and every town of one hundred families to maintain a grammar school capable of "fitting youths for the university." Connecticut, Plymouth and New Haven afterward took steps in the same direction. JOHN WINTHROP. 1649. March 26. John Winthrop, for many years governor of Massachusetts Bay colony, died at Boston at the age of eighty-two years. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge University, and afterward studied law. He was prominent among the supporters of the company which was attempting to plant the colony of Massachusetts Bay, being thoroughly in sympathy with the reform aimed at by the Puritans. He came to America in the large body of colonists who arrived June 12, 1630. Soon after his arrival at Salem, he moved to Charles- town, and chose the site of Boston as that of the capital of the colony. He was instrumental in securing friendly relations with the Pilgrims at Plymouth. For several different terms he served the col- ony as governor, and was defeated at several other times, because of particular issues. He was governor at the time of his death. John Winthrop, Jr., after- ward governor of Connecticut, was his only son by a first marriage. By a third marriage he left four sons. He was less harsh and uncompromising than Endicott, but as thoroughly loyal to principle. He was a broader man mentally, though none the truer of heart. He had a de- cidedly literary turn, which has contrib- uted to the original historical records of New England much valuable matter. 208 COLONIAL LIFE. Of such strong stuff as was in Govs. Endi- cott and Winthrop, was Massachusetts made. 1649. Intolerance in Virginia. A Puritan church in Virginia which had escaped the action of 1643 was obliged to leave the colony. Its members, which numbered one hundred and eighteen, went mostly to Maryland. 1649. The Pate of the Hurons. The Huron towns were destroyed by the Iro- 1649. Charles i. quois, and many killed, of England exe- together with a part of cuted, and com- , T . r^. TT momveaithestab- the Jesuits. The Hurons lisked. abandoned their territory and were scattered abroad, ceasing to exist from this time as a nation. The remaining Jesuits reestablished their mis- sion among the refugees, on an island in Lake Huron. 1649. Upon the execution of Charles I. in England and the proclamation of Charles II. as king, Maryland, Virginia, and the English colonies in the West Indies also proclaimed the latter. 1649. Virginia had at this time fifteen thousand white inhabitants and three hundred negroes. There were also '' twenty thousand cattle, two hundred horses, fifty asses, three thousand sheep, five thousand goats," besides swine and all kinds of fowl. There were " six public brew houses, four windmills, and five water mills for grinding corn." There were twenty churches. 1649. Maryland Act of Toleration. The assembly of Maryland passed the "Act of Toleration" giving the rights of liberty to all Christian sects. The provisions .of the Rhode Island Act of 1643 were broader in granting toler- ation to all religious forms of faith and worship. 1649. Jesuits were forbidden by law to enter Massachusetts. If any came a second time, they were to be punished by death. 1649. July 27. A " society for prop- agating the gospel in New England n was formed in Great Britain by Act of Parliament, with special reference to the conversion of the Indians. Gov. Wins- low and fifteen others composed the cor- poration. 1650. June 10. The Jesuit mission among the Hurons was abandoned, and the few who were left set out for Quebec, where they lived as a mere remnant, and are to be found to-day in Indian Lorette, west of the city. This ended the chief glory of Jesuit missions among the Indians. The annihilation of a nation robbed these patient men of success. 1650. The boundary line between New Netherland and New Haven was decided by commissioners, and thus a long dispute was settled. 1650. The House of Commons pro- hibited trade with Virginia and with island colonies which had refused to acknowledge the commonwealth, de- claring them to be in a state of rebellion, and sending an armed force against them. 1650. Slavery was made lawful in Connecticut under certain restrictions. 1650. Sept. 1. Druilletes again set out into the Kennebec region to arrange for trade and military aid between the French and English colonists of New England. He visited Boston, and was received hospitably in spite of the law against Jesuits, then returned to Quebec hopeful of good results, though nothing could be done till the next meeting of the Federal com- missioners. Descartes. founded by George Fox. witk -wooden rails near New- castle. 1631-1661.] 1650. Colonists from Virginia settled 1650. "Friends" on the Chowan River in the present State of North Carolina. 1650. Dutch Guiana, S. A., was 1650. Railroads taken by the English. 1650. Chocolate was first exported from Mexico to Europe. 1650. The General Assembly of Maryland was divided into two houses. A declaration was made that no taxes should be placed upon the colony except with the consent thereof 'to the same. 1651. A patent was given to Gov. John Winthrop to enable him to work mines in the vicinity of Middletown, Conn. 1651. Father Druilletes and Jean Paul Godefroy were sent to New Haven from Canada to enlist the English colo- nists against the Iroquois, but the attempt was unsuccessful. The Federal commis- sioners refused all proposals. 1651. Wampum. An order was passed in Massachusetts preventing wam- pum from being longer received in the colony in payment of taxes. It was cur- rent in New Netherland for a long while after. 1651. July 26. Raphael Lambert Closse, a great Indian fighter of Canada, with sixteen men, fought a band of In- dians who were attacking Montreal, and after a day's hard contest drove off the entire number. 1651. Navigation Act. It was or- dered by the House of Commons that all exports from the colonies and imports into them must be shipped in English vessels, and that no sugar, cotton, tobacco and other articles should be exported from the colonies, save to English domin- ions. This order was issued because the 14 GERMS Of SELF-GOVERNMENT. 209 laws of 1621 and 1637 requiring all com- modities to be shipped from the colonies to England, were evaded by allowing Hollanders to do the carrying trade in their own vessels. The Navigation Act gave great enterprise to the colonial ship- yards, because it brought a great deal of the carrying trade into the hands of the colonists. 1651. Taxation in Barbadoes. Sir George Ayscue was sent out with a force to reduce Barbadoes to the authority of Parliament, but was unsuccessful until reenforced. There was, however, in the terms of surrender an express stipulation that no taxes should be laid on the islanders, save by themselves, thus an- ticipating the principle of the American Revolution. 1651. Difficulties with the Baptists. John Clarke, Obadiah Holmes and a Mr. Crandall were arrested in Massachusetts for disseminating Baptist doctrines in op- positipn to the injunctions of the magis- trates. They were visiting a Baptist brother who had been permitted to live for several years in Lynn in perfect peace because he did not violently intrude his ideas upon the notice of those around him. Clarke and Holmes were Baptist ministers. The three visitors were tried and fined. The fines of Clarke and Crandall were paid, but Holmes refused to have his paid, and was whipped with thirty lashes. Two men who expressed sympathy with him were fined forty shillings and committed to prison. 1651. Fort Casimir. Gov. Stuyve- sant of New Netherland, went to the Delaware River, and having secured an Indian title to the west side of the river, erected Fort Casimir near the Swedish Fort Christiana. 1651. The first Seventh Day Baptist 210 COLONIAL LIFE. church In America was established at Newport, R. I. 1651. The manufacture of wines and the cultivation of hemp were encouraged in Virginia by premiums. 1651. Grenada, one of the Wind- ward Islands, was settled by the French under Gov. Du Parquet, of Martinique. The French soon gained the hatred of the Caribs by their cruelty to them. The Caribs began to retaliate by murdering unprotected settlers. Troops were sent against them and destroyed large num- bers of them. A small number who were left, upon being closely pursued mounted a steep rock, and rather than surrender to the foe, plunged oF headlong to destruction. This cliff has since been known as the Hill of the Leapers. 1652. March 12. The Common, wealth in Virginia. The English fleet under Capt. Edward Curtis, received the submission of the Virginia colony to Parliament after some delay on the part of Sir William Berkeley. The terms provided for non-taxation, save by the provincial assembly; for the use of the Book of Common Prayer one year, and for one year in which any one could remove who did not wish to submit to the Commonwealth. Gov. Berkeley's commission was declared void, and Ben- nett was elected governor. 1652. Commissioners having been appointed "to reduce and govern the colonies within the bay of Chesapeake," proceeded to act upon Maryland, and by so doing brought about difficulties be- tween William Stone, the representative of Lord Baltimore, and the parliamen- tary authority, which lasted several years. 1652. The first regular bookseller in the English colonies was Hezekiah Usher, of Boston. 1652. Some of the towns in the province of Maine submitted to the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. In a couple of years the authority of Massachusetts extended to the Kennebec River. 1652. May 13. Prohibition of Slavery in Rhode Island. The following act to prevent negro slavery, was passed by the Rhode Island and Providence Planta- tions : " Whereas there is a common course practiced among Englishmen to buy negroes, to that end they may have them for service or sla'ves forever; for the pre- venting of such practices among us, let it be ordered, that no black mankind or white being shall be forced by covenant, bond or otherwise, to serve any man or his assignees longer than ten years, or until they come to be twenty -four years of age, if they be taken in under four- teen, from the time of their coming within the liberties of this colony ; at the end or term of ten years to set them free as the manner is with the English servants. And that man who will not let them go free, or shall sell them away elsewhere to that end they may be enslaved to others for a longer time, he shall forfeit to the colony 40." In spite of this strict prohibition, slav- ery existed in Rhode Island for many years, and the city of Newport gained a large amount of wealth as a result of profit in the slave trade. The greed of business would not permit the abolition of so hopeful a source of riches. 1652. June 10. First Mint in the English Colonies. The general court of Massachusetts established a mint at Bos- ton, under the charge of John Hull, goldsmith. Silver pieces were issued of the value of twelve pence, six pence, and three pence. The largest piece became 1631-1661.] known as the pine-tree shilling, from a pine tree stamped upon one side. The whole issue became known as pine-tree money. This mint operated for thirty years, in spite of the fact that in Eng- land it was regarded as an insult to royal power. The master of the mint was allowed fifteen pence out of every twenty shillings. The mint largely increased the circulation of coin in place of wampum, bullets, and articles of barter. The only other colony which issued silver coins be- fore the Revolution, was Maryland. Several others, however, minted copper coins. The dies for the Boston mint were made by Joseph Jenks at the iron- works at Lynn. 1652. Slavery in New York. The New Netherland Company granted per- mission for the direct importation of slaves from Africa into New Amsterdam. There was no immediate result, but in a couple of years the trade enlarged and negroes were brought there from Cura- coa, W. I. 1652. An iron bloomery and forge was erected at Taunton, Mass., by Henry and James Leonard. Other works were soon established in other colonies, and the manufacture of iron besran. o 1653. An elective municipal gov- ernment was established at New Am- sterdam. 1654. January. Cromwell having dispersed the Parliament in England, Stone issued a came Lord Pro- proclamation in Maryland, tector of Eng- , , . ,. T J ' -B j an d. declaring him Lord Pro- tector. 1654. Bennett and Clayborne of Vir- ginia deposed the Maryland officials, and appointed commissioners to govern the province. Roman Catholics were de- prived of their civil rights. GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 211 1653. Oliver Cromivell be- 1654. Troops were sent to New England by Cromwell, to engage in war with New Netherland, but before the New England auxiliaries could be raised, peace was declared between England and Holland. The same troops under Major Sedgwick were turned against Acadia, procuring its surrender to English au- thority. 1654. A minister must be supported by each town in Massachusetts, according to a law passed this year. 1654. Lands were set apart for a col- lege in the New Haven colony, according to a suggestion of Mr Dav- 1654 , Airpum p s enport, who claimed that invented. the settlement needed better educational privileges. Nothing resulted from it, however. 1654. Syracuse Salt Springs. Father LeMoyne visited the Onondaga Indians, making a French settlement among them, and while there discovered the famous salt springs of Onondaga, now the city of Syracuse, N. Y. 1654. The Mississippi River. Col. Wood, of Virginia, is said to have crossed the mountains and reached a branch of the Mississippi River, but the evidence is slight. 1654. First American Fire-engine. Mr. Joseph Jenks of the Lynn iron- works, agreed to build for the city of Boston " an engine to carry water in case of fire." Very few attempts had been made in the world before this to construct such a machine. Paris had none for fifty years after this time. 1654. Cayenne, S. A., was abandoned by the French. 1654. The Dutch were entirely ex- pelled from* Brazil by the Portuguese, wr\p regained the territory by the most persistent efforts. By 1660 the Dutch 212 COLONIAL LIFE. had given up their attempts to hold the province. 1655. Mrs. Ann Hibbins was hung in Massachusetts for witchcraft. 1655. Conflict in Maryland. Wil- liam Stone made an armed attempt to restore the proprietary government in Maryland, resulting in a severe defeat of the Catholics, and the establishment of Protestant power. 1655. May. First Modern Scythe. The modern scythe originated with Mr. Joseph Jenks, who obtained a patent upon it for seven years. The blade was made longer and thinner than in the old scythe, and a strap of iron running along the back gave it the necessary strength. Up to this time Mr. Jenks had made at the foundry in Lynn the old English scythe. His improved form of it has remained essentially unchanged. 1655. May 10. Jamaica was captured by an English fleet sent out by Cromwell against the Spanish West Indies. Some of the inhabitants persisted in maintaining their independence in one part of the island. An attempt was made to colo- nize the island, but without much imme- diate result. Most of the slaves on the island fled into the mountains and com- mitted lawless depredations for years. The yellow fever at this time killed five hundred British soldiers. San Domingo was unsuccessfully attacked by this same expedition, which consisted of nine thous- and seven hundred men under Admiral Penn and Gen. Venables. 1655. The Dutch settlements around the Hudson were attacked by the Indians who made desperate raids upon Hoboken, Pavonia and Staten Island, in revenge for William Kieft's assault upon the Indians a few years before. For several days great terror reigned, but was at last dissi- pated by conciliatory measures which secured peace. The settlements had suffered greatly. 1655. Sept. 25. End of Swedish Power. Gov. Stuyvesant of New Neth- erland captured the Swedish forts on the Delaware, and thus ended Swedish power in North America, though other Swedish colonists came at a later day. 1656. July. First Quakers in Amer- ica. Two Quaker women, named Anne Austin and Mary Fisher, arrived in Boston, were imprisoned immediately, and sent back to Barbadoes whence they had come. The same summer eight more landed in Boston from England, but were immediately tried and sent back. The Quakers were at that time exciting the religious world by their fanaticism, and the first effort of all the colonists was to keep them away. Nothing else was- contemplated at the beginning. 1656. The Caribs massacred all of the French colonists of St. Barthol- omew, W. I. 1656. The Palmarese Nation. Run- away armed negroes formed a colony in Brazil and set up a government of their own, with a full list of laws. They have since been known as the Palmarese nation. MILES STANDISH. 1656. Oct. 3. Miles Standish who came over with the Pilgrims in the May- flower, though he had not been a mem- ber of their church or congregation, died at Duxbury, Mass., at the age of seventy- two years. He had served in the army in Netherland and was elected military captain of Plymouth, where John Carver was elected governor. He was a natural warrior of quick, impetuous disposition. He was always the leader of the colony in their military affairs, and was ever 1631-1661.] ready to undertake an expedition of peace or war. His wife, Rose Standish, died soon after they came to America, and in trying to secure the hand of Pris- cilla Mullens through John Alden, he unwittingly served as the instrument of a happy marriage. Hobomok, a friendly Indian, lived with Standish for awhile, and became much attached to him. Capt. Standish left several children by a second wife. He was an heir to large property in England which had been kept from him. He was very faithful to Plymouth colony in all its interests. His body was laid at Duxbury, near Plymouth, where a monument has since been erected to his memory. 1657. The support of ministers and grammar schools was made compulsory in the towns of Plymouth colony by an act of the general court passed this year. 1657. March. Legacy for Educa- tion. Edward Hopkins, Ex-governor of Connecticut, died in London and left ,1,000 for grammar schools in Hartford and New Haven, and .500 for a college, which sum was given to Harvard, as there was no college in Connecticut. 1657. More Quakers. Mary Dyer and Anne Burden, Quakers, arrived in Boston, and were imprisoned. Anne Burden was sent back to England, but Mary Dyer was taken by her husband to Rhode Island. Soon afterward a num- ber arrived in Rhode Island by way of New Amsterdam. Mary Clarke went to Boston, was arrested, and whipped. Others came to the colonies with various results. GOVERNOR BRADFORD. 1657. May 9. William Bradford, one of the Pilgrims who came over in the Mayflower, died at Plymouth, Mass., GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 213 at the age of sixty-nine years. He was born in Yorkshire, England, in 1588, and received a good, though not a learned education. At the death of Gov. Carver in 1621, he was elected in his room and held the place for thirty-one years, serv- ing in that office till he died, save for five periods of one year each, when he de- clined a re-election. He was an earnest, faithful man, a fine scholar, and had much native ability of the finer sort. He wrote a history of Plymouth colony, from 1602 to 1647, which is considered one of the authorities on that subject. His personal contribution to the success of Plymouth colony in its internal administration, in its dealings with the Indians and in its contact with the Massachusetts colony, was very great. His strength and wis- dom were largely laid into the foundations of the colony. He wore long and well in the New World, and his reputation is unblemished. His death was lamented far and wide. 1657. July. Increase of Quakers. Two Quakers arrived in Salem and began their efforts to extend their faith by very questionable methods. Others appeared elsewhere and began to make converts. Some were arrested, impris- oned, and whipped. Some in New Am- sterdam " testified " in defiance of all law and order, were arrested, and sent on to Rhode Island. To the authorities of all the colonies it seemed as if the coming of this new sect brought only religious ruin. The fear of them was very great among all classes and faiths. 1658. The French colony upon Lake Onondaga in the Iroquois country, find- ing that their destruction was intended, escaped from the region and made their way to Quebec. 214 COLONIAL LIFE. 1658. Oct. 20. Death was threat- ened in Massachusetts against the Quak- ers, who, having been once expelled from the country, should return. The mere announcement of this penalty was ex- pected to be effectual in keeping away these zealous sectarians. 1658. A massive Concordance of the less. Oliver Bible was issued by Rev. Cromwell died. Samuel Newman, of Reho- His son Richard , , -. , T . , became Prouc- both, Mass. It was printed tor > in England, and for a long time was the most complete thing of the kind in existence. 1658. The Lake Superior region was visited by two traders who spent the winter and returned to Canada the next summer. These men were among the very first white visitors of that country. 1659. Francis Xavier de Laval Montmorency was appointed grand vicar apostolic of Canada, and sailed for his new home at the age of thirty-six. 1659. Oct. 27. Two Quakers named William Robinson and Marmaduke Stephenson, were hung in Boston. The terrible tragedy was increasing in vio- lence. 1659, Campeachy was taken by the English. 1659. The first Indian church in America was gathered on Martha's Vineyard by Mr. Mayhew. 1660. Navigation Acts. At the restoration of Charles II. Sir William Berkeley was re-elected governor of Vir- ginia, and Philip Calvert was commis- sioned governor of Maryland by Lord Baltimore, who had been restored to his proprietary rights. Parliament this year added to the force of the Navigation Acts against the colonies, and all foreign ships were excluded from Anglo Ameri- can harbors in the New World. It was provided that a list of certain " enumer- ated articles " should not be shipped from the colonies, except to English ports. 1660. The Regicides. Edward Whalley, William Goffe, and John Dix- well, three of the judges who condemned Charles I., fled to New England, where they escaped vengeance by being con- cealed. 1660. March. Mary Dyer, Quaker, was hung in Boston. . 1660. Praying Indians. The second Indian church in America was founded at Natick, Mass., by John Eliot. Mr. Eliot's success now increased very greatly, and in a few years, leeo-icss. with the assistance of other Qharhs n. King , , , , , , of England. laborers, he had secured Restoration of eleven hundred praying In- the stuarts. dians. Several churches were organized. The results of his labor were diminished very much in King -Phillip's War in 1676. ADAM DAULAC' S HEROISM. 1660. May. One of the most note- worthy exploits and heroic self-sacrifices in early American history, occurred in the daring adventure of Adam Daulac and his sixteen companions, who threw their lives into the scale to save Montreal from an overwhelming attack by Iro- quois warriors. It was known that a large number of Iroquois Indians and their allies had passed the winter on the upper Ottawa, and it was suspected that in the opening spring an attack upon. Quebec and Montreal would be carried out. Daulac conceived the bold idea of anticipating their design, and striking them a terrible blow upon their way down the river. From the governor he begged permission, which was finally granted him. Arrangements were soon completed, and sixteen young men as 1631-1661.] brave as himself gave in their adherence to the undertaking. After the most sol- emn farewell ceremonies were performed, the " forlorn hope " departed up the river in their canoes, with plenty of ammuni- tion and supplies. The threatened de- struction of Canada was pending, and they were to strike the first blow for safety. After surmounting several obstacles along the way, they at last came to Long Saut, a difficult place to pass, on the Ottawa. Here was an old Indian battle ground with a somewhat dilapidated palisade built of small logs. The forest sloped gently upward from either bank of the stream. Daulac and his companions pitched their tents, and the next day were joined by a party of forty Christian Hu- rons and four Algonquins from Montreal, eager for a fray. Within a day or two a couple of canoes containing five Iro- quois appeared up the river. A volley greeted them and killed three or four, while one escaped to warn the two hun- dred warriors who were making their way down the river. The Frenchmen had scarcely time in which to secure themselves within the palisade, before the foe were about them. The Iroquois were quickly repulsed by the leaden storm that poured forth from the twenty loopholes with such disastrous effect. A second and a third attack brought like results to the irritated and confused savages who, being so effectually checked, dispatched a canoe for five hundred allies, whom they were to meet at Richelieu. The aid arrived after five days, which time the French spent in strengthening the palisade. Deafening yells arose when the reinforcements appeared upon the field. Among the latter were several Hurons who implored their kindred war- riors within the palisade to desert the GERMS OF SELF-GO VERNMENT. 215 French and come as friends among the Iroquois. All but their gallant chief, Annahotaha, and the four Algonquins, deserted. The whole party had gone without water or sleep for five days. A final attack was made and as quickly repulsed by the thirsty, worn-out French- men. All was now confusion and disa- greement outside. To give up the attempt would be a keen disgrace to In- dian sensibility, much more to such an army in the circumstances. After much hesitation a number of volunteers made an attack. An attempt was made to throw over the palisade into the Indian ranks a musketoon which had been filled with 'powder, in order that it might do the work of a grenade. It caught on a timber, and falling back within, burst, killing and wounding almost all of the heroic defenders. At this moment the Iroquois effected an entrance, and Daulac was killed. The Frenchmen fought so long as they had strength to lift an arm, until they were all shot down in their places. Four of them were found to be still breathing, and three of them were burned at once. The fourth was reserved for further torture. The Huron deserters, only five of whom remained alive, were treated likewise. The Iroquois, amazed and disheartened by such a reception from a few men behind a feeble defense, decided at last to go home without making further attacks on the cities below. Daulac had had a somewhat extended military experience in France, whence he came to Canada in the French army. A trifling affair caused a slight blemish on his character, and created a resolve in him to obliterate it from the memory of others. The heroic deed now chronicled, places his name high among the early protectors of Canada. 216 COLONIAL LIFE. 1660. The last eruption of Pichin- cha, the Boiling Mountain, took place. 1660. A Lake Superior mission was attempted upon the south shore of that lake by an old Jesuit named Menard, who soon perished in some way un- known. 1660. The Brandy Quarrel. Vicar Gen. Laval of Canada issued an excommuni- cation against those engaged in the liquor traffic, because of the effect intoxicating drinks had upon the Indians. One man was afterward shot and one whipped for selling brandy to the Indians. The citi- zens, many of whom had their trade at stake, were arrayed against the prelates, and busy opposition was made to the ecclesiastical measures. Prohibition could not be carried through. The agitation continued for the next few years with considerable violence at times. 1661. Indian New Testament. John Eliot published his translation of the New Testament into the Indian language. The word Savior on the title page is written Nuppoquohwussuaeneumun. Pie also issued the " Christian Common- wealth," which was condemned by the Massachusetts general court as " too full of the v seditious doctrines of clefnocratic liberty." The author soon suppressed it. A bookbinder named John Ratcliffe came from England for the purpose of binding the Indian Bible. He could turn out one copy a day. 1661. The Regicides. An order from Charles II. commanded the arrest of the fugitive regicides in New England. They were sought for with great perse- verance and fled from place to place in advance of their pursuers. At one time they lived in a cave and were finally lost from view at Hadley, Mass. They were never arrested by the royal officers, and lived in obscurity for the remainder of their days. 1661. Intolerance in Virginia. The Church of England was reestablished in Virginia, and non-conformity was sub- ject to penalty. Quakers were closely followed up, and many of them went into North Carolina. Separatist meet- ings were not allowed. LAST QUAKER EXECUTION. 1661. William Leddra, Quaker, was hung on Boston common. This was the last execution of the kind. Quakers were afterward whipped from town to town for several years, until royal com- mands were issued forbidding it. Much of the hostility to the Quakers must be accounted for by the spirit of the age, and by the eccentricities of the sect. It is no wonder, when their remonstrances were made during divine services, causing great, interruptions, and when young Quaker women marched naked through the streets of Salem as a sign against the sin of the place, and when they persisted in returning to do the same things having been once sent away, that strict Puritan feelings were outraged, and easily went to unjustified cruelties. 1661. William and Mary College. Funds were appropriated in Virginia for the college which afterward became the College of William and Mary. By the same act schools were to be established. 1661. Taxation in Massachusetts. The general court of Massachusetts de- clared that no taxes should be laid on the colony, except with its own consent. MASSASOIT. 1661. This powerful sachem of the Wampanoag Indians died at about eighty years of age. At the landing of 1631-1661.] GERMS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 217 the Pilgrims he held sway over all the country between Narragansett and Mas- sachusetts Bays. He made his home chiefly at a place called Pokanoket by the Indians, and Mt. Hope by the whites, near the present site of Bristol, R. I. The above large territory was occupied by numerous tribes, all of whom ac- knowledged allegiance to him. That he was able to hold together so many tribes under his one rule, shows that he possessed more than ordinary governing powers. He was of a mild nature, pos- sessing much kindness of heart, and desiring the welfare of his people. In his intercourse with the English he was always peaceable. We know nothing certainly of his history previous to the landing of the Pilgrims. In 1623 Mas- sasoit became sick, and hoping to receive some benefit from the English, sent for one of them to come and see him. They sent Mr. Edward Winslow, and through his ministration the chief recovered. Out of gratitude for this kindness, he revealed a plot on the part of some of his subor- dinate tribes for the extermination of the whites. In 1632 Massasoit commenced a war against the Narragansetts, which, owing to the assistance given him by the Eng- lish, lasted but a short time. During this war, according to an Indian custom, he changed his name, and was ever after known as Ousamiquin. In 1635 he gave to Roger Williams a tract of land con- sisting of the island of Rhode Island, which had been for some time in dispute between himself and the Narragansetts. He afterward sold to Miles Standish and some others a tract of land seven miles square, on which Bridgewater now stands, for seven coats, nine hatchets, eight hoes, twenty knives, four moose skins, and ten and a half yards of cotton cloth. Massasoit died very much re- spected by the whites for his excellent qualities. He left two sons, who were called Alexander and Philip, by the English. [NOTE. For twenty years later than this, the suffering's of Quakers in England were terrible. Thousands were im- prisoned in the foulest cells, scores died in jail, their churches and dwelling- houses were torn down, women and children dragged through the streets by the hair, their property destroyed to the amount of 1,000,000, their fines made enormous, and their persons insulted everywhere. In Massachusetts four were executed, others whipped and imprisoned, but with- out the indignities used in England. The persecution in America nearly-ceased years before it had spent its force in England.] SECTION X. X CTIVITY in exploring the Mis- /jl sissippi Valley and the country [\ around the Great Lakes, is one of j^J^ the marked features of the present section. Marquette and LaSalle threw open a region which had been full of un- certainty. In the meantime the strength which was finally to dominate those vast areas was slowly maturing along the At- lantic sea-board. The friction between royal power and colonial independence became more and more pronounced, and the slender shoots of self-government were toughening in the exposure to which theyv were subjected. The overthrow of Dutch power in New Netherland took place, by which event the English crown gained a rich territory, and a site for a great metropolis. Pennsylvania was born through the efforts and wisdom of its great founder. The outlines of colo- nial life were becoming more clearly de- fined. Intelligence was doing its work in elevating all political and business en- terprises. Dark features appear in the per- secution of the Quakers and in the witch- craft delusion, but a comprehensive study of the world at that time will show that in spite of these abnormal actions the life of the colonies was of a higher order 1662-1692. than life elsewhere in the world. Stagna- tion marked the whole southern sections of the continent, which were to await the day when the spirit of the English col- onies had asserted itself, before they woke from their slumber. 1662. January. A severe earth- quake shock was felt in New England. 1662o April 23. First Connecticut Charter. A royal charter was granted for the first time to the Connecticut col- ony. Its limits embraced the New Haven colony, which was at first hostile to the union, but afterward waived its objections. The charter was in many respects a lib- eral one, and was secured by John Win- throp,Jr. 1662. Three persons were executed for witchcraft in Connecticut. 1662. The king demanded that mem- bers of the Church of England should have the right to vote in Massachusetts. The difference between this iszs-ieez. colony and the royal gov- Pascal. eminent was slowly creeping on to a condition which would make reconcilia- tion impossible. 1662. Children were made free or slave in Virginia, according to the con- 1662-1692.] dition of the mother, by an act passed this year. 1662. A premium of ten pounds of tobacco for every dozen pairs of woolen or worsted stockings made in Virginia was offered by the assembly of that province, and an equal premium was offered for every woolen or fur hat made in the province. Six pounds of linen thread must also be annually raised and manufactured by each taxable person in Virginia. Each pound of silk raised was to receive a premium of fifty pounds of tobacco, and the best specimens of linen and woolen cloth were also to receive premiums. Tan-houses were also erected. 1662. A Doubtful Support. The following record is found for the New England seaport towns of this year. The court proposeth it as a thing they judge would be very commendable and beneficial to the towns where God's prov- idence shall cast any whales, if they should agree to sett apart some p'te of every such fish or oyle for the incourage- ment of an able and godly minister amongst them." 1662. The English first began to cut logwood on the coast of Yucatan. Set- tlements were made in Yucatan by New England people, for cutting and exporting this tree. ALEXANDER. 1662. Alexander, the eldest son of the Wampanoag sachem Massasoit, and brother of the celebrated warrior, King Philip, died one year after his father's death. The two brothers were desirous of having English names, and the set- tlers to flatter them bestowed upon them the names of the two Macedonian kings, Alexander and Philip. The former name of Alexander was Wamsutta. He mar- ried an energetic, strong-minded female THE WIDENING FIELD. sachem, Namumpum by name, who owned extensive lands in her own right. In 1662 she made complaint to the court at Plymouth that her husband had sold her lands without her consent. It is not known whether this was before or after his death. Upon the death of Massasoit the chieftainship of the tribe fell to Alexander. In 1662 it was rumored that he was plotting against the English, and trying' to draw the Narragansetts into war with them. He was accordingly summoned to appear at Plymouth, and explain the matter. This he readily promised to do, but as he delayed for a time, Major Win- s-low was sent to bring him by force. This so wounded the feelings of the high- spirited young chief that he was thrown into a fever. Although he was well cared for by the English, he died in a few days after being taken back to his people. 1663. Feb. 5. An earthquake oc- curred in Canada, with frequently recur- ring shocks for six months. 1663. March 24. Carolina. The region south of Virginia was granted by patent to Lord Clarendon and seven as- sociates. The government provided for full liberty of conscience, and for a pop- ular election of governor and assembly. A little settlement had been made by dis- senters from Virginia upon the Chowan River near Albemarle Sound, and was called the Albemarle County colony. A few people from New England had also undertaken to settle near Cape Fear, but the attempt was afterward given up. 1663. March 26. A seminary of learning was founded at Quebec by Laval, to which Laval University has since been added. 220 COLONIAL LIFE. 1663. The persecution of Quakers in New Netherland ceased. 1663. A law defining slavery was for the first time passed in Maryland. It provided that the condition of the child should follow that of the father, because English women married negro slaves. 1633. A property qualification for voters was established in Connecticut. Each voter must have an estate worth Xzo, about sixty-six dollars, besides cer- tain personal property. 1663. Navigation Acts. Parliament decreed that no articles grown or manu- factured in Europe could be shipped to the English colonies except from England, and in English shipping. Exceptions were made of salt, wines, and provisions from Scotland. The government de- clared that it aimed by these navigation acts at a " firmer dependence of the col- onies on the home country, the increase of English shipping, and a sale for Eng- lish manufacturers." Such things as this were rapid steps in the alienation of the colonies. 1663. Eliot's Indian Bible. John Eliot published his translation of the Old Testament into the Indian language. This, with the New Testament published in 1 66 1, makes up Eliot's Indian Bible,, which has been sold in recent years for one thousand dollars. Col. J. Hammond Trumbull, of Connecticut, is said to be the only man living who can read it. This Bible was printed on the Cambridge printing press, and was entirely set up by an Indian compositor. 1664. May 24. Company of the West. Louis XIV. of France, created the " Company of the West," which was to have a monopoly of trade for forty years in South America, between the Amazon and Orinoco, and in all New France. The managers of it were under obligation to settle and Christianize the regions under their control. This affected Canada adversely until certain changes for the better were made in the agree- ment. 1664. May 28. First Baptist Church in Boston. A Baptist church was se- cretly organized in Boston by Thomas Gouldaud and eight associates. When known to the authorities, the leaders were fined and banished, but still the church lived and grew. 1664. May 29. Clarendon County Colony. Sir John Yeamans landed with a colony at Cape Fear River, Carolina. This was the first really successful settle- ment, although colonists had gone from other provinces into the region before. The colonists of Sir John Yeamans brought negro slaves with them. A government was established, and Wil- liam Drummond elected governor. This was called the Clarendon County colony, to distinguish it from the Albemarle County colony upon the Chowan River. 1664. The whole of New Nether- land, together with territory east of the Kennebec River in Maine, was granted by Charles II. of England, to his brother James, Duke of York. This grant was based upon the English claim to the soil founded on the original exploration of the Cabots. 1664. June. New Jersey. The Duke of York granted the region from the Hudson to the Delaware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. It was named New Jersey in honor of Loixl Berkeley's former governorship in the Isle of Jersey. 1664. Sept. 8. Surrender of New Amsterdam. An expedition fitted out by the Duke of York appeared before 1662-1692.] New Amsterdam and received its surren- der to English authority. The name was now changed to New York, and Fort Orange became Albany. Col. Richard Nichollswas appointed governor. Gov. Stuyvesant in his headstrong way wished to resist the English, but the peo- ple did not agree with him. Therefore the transfer was made peaceably, and Dutch power in North America fell with- out a blow. 1664. The royal commissioners ar- rived in Massachusetts to assert the power of the crown over that somewhat refrac- tory province. 1664. Taxation. The assembly of Rhode Island declared that " no aid, tax, tallage or custom, loan, benevolence, gift, excise, duty, or imposition whatever, shall be laid, assessed, imposed, levied or required of or on any of His Majesty's subjects within this colony, or upon their estates upon any manner of pretense or color, but by the assent of the general as- sembly of this province." 1664. French Guiana was retaken from the English by a French force. JOHN ENDICOTT. 1665. March 15. John Endicott, first governor of Massachusetts, died at Bos- ton at the age of seventy-six years. He was born in Dorchester, England, in 1589, and came to the New World in charge of the company which settled at Salem in 1628. When the charter was brought across the water, he was chosen governor. He was reflected to that office at different times subsequently, and served with great fidelity and exactness. He was a thorough Puritan in all his sympathies, being naturally intolerant of opposition, and energetic in his procedures against it. He cut out the red cross from THE WIDENING FIELD. 221 the military standard at Salem with a dash of his sword, because it reminded him so strongly of popery, which he hated with a zealous hatred. In man- ners and morals he could bear nothing which bordered upon the general laxness then prevalent in England and on the continent. The strength of his charac- ter was very rugged, and yet he was possessed of a native nobility which made him a great influence in the early days of the Bay colony. 1665. A free school was supported by each town in New England. 1665. May. The political contro- versy between the royal commissioners and Massachusetts resulted after a long time, to the discomfiture of the former, who found that they must needs be very careful if they would deal, successfully with the Massachusetts colonial officers. They had visited the other New Eng- land colonies with some degree of success. 1665. The Indian named Cheeshah- teaumuck graduated at Harvard College. 1665. June 12. New York City was incorpora- ted by Gov. Nicholls under a mayor, five aldermen, and a sheriff. Thomas Willett was the first mayor. 1665. The wild mountain tribes of Chili, after a century of hard fighting, forced the Spaniards in that province to sign a treaty setting apart certain terri- tory for the former. 1666. January. Gov. Courcelles of Canada, with five hundred men, marched into the Mohawk country from the north, but turned back at Schenectady, N. Y., without attacking the Indian 1665- 1701. Charles II. King of Spain. 1665. Great plague in Lon- don. Sixty thousand per- sons died. 222 COLONIAL LIFE. towns. Quite a portion of his men were lost upon the retreat, by Indians and the severe cold. Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, was born at Rouen, France, in 1643, of a family which had considera- ble wealth, and was well-known for its integrity. Different members of it had at times been in the employ of govern- 'ment, and acquitted themselves with honor. The young boy had the best privileges of study which were to be had at that day, and soon proved himself a fine scholar. His mind most readily grasped whatever involved mathemati- cal principles. He early ^displayed those strong qualities of character which ex- hibited themselves in his after life when he was thrown upon his own resources, and was excited by the hints of great unexplored regions, and of mighty rivers in the western wilderness. The coming man was clearly foreshadowed in the growing youth. During his early years he had some connection with the Jesuits, but while it resulted in no complete subjec- tion of his will to this great organization, neither did it bring to pass any violent alienation. LaSalle was too good a Catholic, and had himself from the very beginning under too thorough control to be unduly exercised, even in a scheme of life to which his innate qualities of mind and will made it impossible that he should submit. He was always most truly himself, and would never surrender himself to be the bare instrument of any other human authority. Therefore he separated from the Jesuits, and began to look about for some path in life. The French law at the time made it impossi- ble for the one who had been associated with Jesuits to inherit property from parents. Hence LaSalle was left to his own support, save the slight matter of three or four hundred livres a year. The energetic young minds of the period were easily turned toward the New World. An elder brother of LaSalle was already in Canada, and it was there- fore not strange that a journey thither should be among the first enterprises thought of. His powerful mind reached forth over that mass of unknown terri- tory lying behind the tiny settlements scattered along the Atlantic coast of North America. He did not yet know that he was to link his name with the great Mississippi Valley, and that within it he was to meet his death before his work was half done, by one of those un- accountable circumstances which show that the temporal destiny of the great and wise is often held at the disposal of the reckless, the revengeful and the de- structive spirits of the world. Without knowledge of aught save that a power- ful ambition for activity could there find scope, LaSalle set forth for New France. 1666. LaSalle arrived in Canada and received a grant of land above Montreal, at LaChine. He began a seignory, and soon was aroused in mind by the reports of great rivers hi the interior w*hich he felt sure must form a passage to the Pacific. MtiRQUETTE. 1666. Jacques Marquette was sent to the missions of Canada. He formed an important addition to the number of Catholic leaders in the New World. He was born at Laon, France, in 1637, and became a member of the Jesuit order at seventeen years of age. His character was from the first singularly sincere and devout. The remarkable elevation of spirit 1663-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 223 which showed itself in him a few years later, just before his deatn, grew upon him from his boyhood. His endowments wei'e very great in all respects. Ta- dousac, upon the St. Lawrence, below Quebec, the spot where the fur-trade originated before there was any settle- ment in Canada, was the place of his first appointment. For it he began his preparations by a study of the Mon- tagnais language. 1666. Against the Mohawks. Lieut- General Tracy, of Canada, marched with thirteen hundred men by way of Lakes Champlain and George into the country of the Mohawks, and with more perseverance than that displayed by Courcelles, he destroyed the Indian towns and winter supplies. Peace was kept after this severe lesson, for twenty years. Gov. Nicholls of New York sent to the New England colonies a re- quest that they should join him in resist- ing the French, but the desired aid was refused. 1666. First Naturalization Act. An 1666. Greatfire act for the naturalization in London. Five- f i- ii_ the firSt f ltS burned. kind in the colonies, was passed by the assembly of Maryland. 1666. Tortola, the most important Virgin island in the West Indies, was taken possession of by England, and she has held the most of that group since. 1667. Feb. 4. First Ball in Canada. A record in the "Jesuit Journal" men- tions the first ball ever given in Canada, followed by the wish, " God grant that nothing more may come of it." The priests were at this time greatly troubled by the passion for dress among the Cana- dian ladies, and by the theatrical enter- tainments which began to appear. 1667. Business in Canada. Intend- ant Talon of Canada, built the first brewery in New France, in order to keep money in the country. He isis-iee?. established trade with the J^emy Taylor. West Indies, and encouraged manufac- tures. He also arranged a more regular emigration to Canada from France. Soldiers were induced by large bounties to settle in the province. 1667. Wives for Canada Settlers. For some years maidens had been sent over to become the wives of the settlers in Canada. A large class of young men, retired soldiers and others, was growing up, and the usual privileges of courtship and marriage were as few as in the Eng- lish colony of Jamestown at an earlier date. This year a better class were sent, and during the next few years large numbers came. One thousand were sent by the year 1673. Sometimes thirty settlers were married at a time. It was once in a while found that some young woman had come and left a law- ful husband at home. We do not learn that these French girls were ever sold as were the English women at James- town. 1667. July 31. The Treaty of Breda between England, Holland, France and Denmark, confirmed New Netherland to the former power in return for Suri- nam in Guiana, S. A., which was to be given up to Holland. Nova Scotia was to be returned to France. 1667. The Cathedral of Mexico, be- gun in 1 573, was finished. It cost $2,000,- ooo, and is full of great wealth in ornaments and altars. Its length is five hundred feet, and its breadth four hun- dred and twenty. The site of the cathe- dral is the spot on which Montezuma's temple stood. FRONT OF CATHEDRAL OF MEXICO. 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 1668. Jacques Marquette was sent into the upper lake region to preach to the Indians. He visited the outlet of Lake Superior whither the Indians came in large numbers to fish, and then went on to the western end of the lake, where he established the mission of St. Esprit. He here fii'st learned of the Mississippi River from the Illinois Indians who came to the lake to fish, and formed the desire to explore its course. 1669. First Survey of Magellan's Straits. Sir John Narborough was sent out by Charles II. to explore the region of Magellan's Straits, and to make plans of the coast and anchorages. 1669. May. The Old South Church was organized in Boston by a minority of the Boston church. The separation originated in the trouble which arose from the " Half Way Covenant," by which those who were not church mem- bers were admitted to the sacraments as a means of grace. 1669. The Grand Model. John Locke finished drawing up the " Grand Model," or "Fundamental Constitutions" for Carolina. It was a very elaborate piece of work, and though adopted by the proprietaries, was never made the basis of legislation. 1669. July 6. LaSalle and his companions set out on an exploration. They reached Lake Erie, but the course of their journey is not known with cer- tainty. It is, however, asserted that in- vestigations prove that on this and a sub- sequent trip La Salle discovered the Ohio and the Mississippi, before Marquette reached the last named river. 1669. Recollet priests were allowed to return to Canada from which they were driven in 1629 at the English con- quest. 15 225 1669. Green Bay Mission. Father Claude Allouez was sent to Green Bay, Wisconsin, to found a mission at that place among the Indians. He entered the region with considerable difficulty, and commenced preaching. 1670. Thankfulness for Ignorance. Sir William Berkeley, Governor of Vir- ginia, in a report of the condition of the colony to the commissioners in London, wrote as follows : " I thank God there are no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have these hundred years, for learning has brought disobedi- ences into the world, and printing has divulged them and libels against the best governments. God keep us from both." 1670. The Mississippi River is said to have been reached through the wilder- ness from the east by Capt. Bolton, but the proof is not sufficient. 1670. The Carteret County Colony. William Sayle and Joseph West landed a colony at Port Royal, S. C., proceeded to what is now Charleston Harbor, and established their settlement above the mouth of the Ashley River, naming it Charlestown. 1670. Allouez was joined at Green Bay, Wis., by Dablon, and together they visited some of the Indian 1670. Bayonets towns in the vicinity of invented at Bay- Lake Winnebago. They onne - were told much by the Indians about the great river at the west. 1670. Bees were introduced into America at Boston by the English. 1670. Slavery was defined for the first time in Virginia by a law passed this year. 1670. The Hudson Bay Company, an English corporation composed of adven- turers and merchants, was organized under the patronage of Prince Rupert, with ex- 226 COLONIAL LIFE. elusive rights of trade in all the country which drains its waters into Hudson's Bay. It was to hold the lands forever. This posts." Great energy marked its opera- tions, and great wealth flowed into its treasury. The fur trade of French Can- A tWv CANADIAN TRAPPER. very soon became a large company and extended itself over its territory in every direction by means of little "trading ad a at this time was carried on by means- of the Indians and of roving French hunters known as coureurs des bois or 1662-1692.] wood-rangers, who gathered up the furs as an individual enterprise, and took them to the merchants of the colony. 1670. December. Panama was sacked and burned by Henry Morgan, the English buccaneer. It was afterward rebuilt on its present site, three miles from the old one. He had upon this same trip captured Porto Bello and the booty, he seized in both places made him a very wealthy man. He was really for some years the leader of all the West India pirates, and made his name remem- bered as a terrible scourge. He was a Welshman by birth. The active part of his life was spent in the nefarious pursuit indicated above. He was knighted by Charles II. during his residence in Ja- maica, where he lived after the close of his expeditions. 1670. Balize, British Honduras, was first settled by the English. Trouble with the Spaniards continued a long time, because the latter claimed that the English had no right in those regions. Wood-cutters had been attracted to the place for years. 1671. A great council of Indians was called by the French at Sault Ste. Marie at the foot of Lake Superior, and possession of the lake region was taken in the name of the French crown. The name Chicago appears for the first time in the account of this council. 1671. Early Abolitionism. George Fox, while laboring in Barbadoes, pub- licly besought the " Friends " to let their slaves go free after a while, and not to let them depart unbenefited. 1672. An anti-rent insurrection oc- curred in New Jersey. It arose from the demand of the proprietors of the prov- ince for a half-penny an acre as a quit- lent from the householders who had THE WIDENING FIELD. 227 bought their lands of the Indians. The injustice of this caused great trouble. The people deposed Philip Carteret and elected James Carteret governor in his stead. THE FIRST MAIL. 1672. A mail was established between Boston and New York through Hart- ford. The round trip was to be made once a month. Postage was fourpence for each letter carried less than sixty miles, and twopence for each additional one hundred miles. 1672. The first copyright law in America was passed by the general court of Massachusetts, granting John Usher the privilege of issuing on his own ac- count a revised edition of the laws of the colony. 1672. George Fox, the founder of the Quaker sect, made a missionary tour through the English colonies in North America, but did riot enter Massachusetts or Connecticut. 1672. The White Mountains were mentioned for the first time in print in John Josselyn's " New England's Rari- ties Discovered," an account of an ex- ploration made by the writer, and devoted very largely to the flora of the region. The same writer afterward issued an ac- count of the mythology of the hills. Mr. Josselyn spent several years in New England, and probably visited the moun- tains themselves. 1672. Bunaway slaves could be law- fully killed in Virginia, according to a decree of the assembly. 1672. St. Thomas, one of the Virgin Islands, was settled by the Danes, who soon after also settled St. John. These two islands have remained in the posses- sion of Denmark till the present time. COLONIAL LIFE. 1672. The Bahama Islands were colonized by the English. 1672. All English vessels carrying logwood from Yucatan were captured by the Spanish. 1672. Kingston, Canada. Count Frontenac, Governor of Canada, and La Salle, made an expedition to Lake On- tario and built Fort Cataraqui on the northern shore. It afterward became known as Fort Frontenac, and was granted to LaSalle as a seignory. It is now the city of Kingston. the New World from the home sov- o eminent. 1673. Virginia was unjustly granted by Charles II. to the Earl 162S . 1673 of Arlington and Lord Cul- Moiiere. pepper for a term of thirty-one years. It caused great trouble among the citizens. 1673. Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet started in search of the Mississippi River, passing up Green 1615 . m3 . Bay and the Fox River, Saivator Rosa. and crossing over into the Wisconsin MARCJUETTE DESCENDING THE MISSISSIPPI. 1673. February. First Internal Colonial Taxation. The British minis- try passed an act levying duties on sugars, tobacco, indigo, cotton, wool, etc., which should be carried from one American colony to another. This was the very first tax laid on the internal trade of the colonies. Royal custom-houses were for the first time established in the colonies to collect these duties. This step was pronounced unconstitutional by some of the colonies, and was quite a marked step in the process of alienating the settlers of River, to which they were guided by Indians. 1673. June 17. They reached the Mississippi and floated out into it from the Wisconsin. They were greatly re- joiced at the sight of that stream of which they had heard so much. They com- mitted themselves to its strong current, to be carried they knew not whither. 1673. June 25. Marquette and Joliet having pursued their way down the Mis- sissippi without finding any signs of in- habitants for a long time, at last saw foot- 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 229 steps on the bank of the river, and fol- lowed a path in the neighboring woods till they came upon several Indian vil- lages. Advancing they made themselves known, and were received with great honor. The Indians were found to be the Illinois. The Frenchmen smoked the pipe of peace with the -chiefs, and were feasted upon Indian meal boiled in grease, boiled fish, a dish of cooked dog's meat, and another of buffalo meat. The leader of the feast fed the visitors with his own hands. The Frenchmen re- mained in the villages till the next morn- ing, and having been conducted back to their canoes by several hundred attend- ants, set out once more upon their voyage of discovery. 1673. July 17. They reached the mouth of the Arkansas River, and after some intercourse with Indian tribes in that region, they decided to set out upon their return for fear that something might occur if they went further, to make the knowledge they had gained unavailable to their country. 1673. July 30. New York was re- taken by a Dutch fleet through the weak- ness of the garrison. 1673. September. Marquette and Joliet reached Green Bay upon their re- turn, the former being in very poor health. Joliet went at once to Quebec to report. 1673. A short-lived insurrection oc- curred in Brazil under Beckman, whose watchword was " Down with the Jesuits and all monopoly." 1674. Feb. 19. The Treaty of Westminster was concluded between England and Holland by the terms of which New York and all associated ter- ritory were restored to the English. 1674. Laval was appointed the first bishop of Quebec. 1674. Aug. 10. An awful hurricane occurred in Barbadoes, and did great damage. Scarcely a house or tree was left, save as it might have been sheltered by the hills. Ruin was visible every- where, and many lives were lost. 1674. Oct. 25. Father Marquette set out on a trip down the Mississippi to found a mission at Kaskaskia, among the Illinois Indians. He was accompa- nied by two Frenchmen, and was joined on the way by parties of Indians. They passed down the shore of Lake Michi- gan, and entered the river Chicago. At a short distance up this stream the health of Marquette became so enfeebled that the party was obliged to stop and make preparations for spending the winter. They remained till the following March, living upon game, and visited by wan- dering tribes of Indians. 1674. Oct. 31. Edmund Andros hav- ing been appointed governor of the lands belonging to the Duke of York, arrived in New York and received the city from the Dutch. 1674. An Indian mission was es- tablished near Easthampton, Mass., by Rev. Samuel Treat, who began his ar- duous labors among them with great enthusiasm, and accomplished a gigantic work. He visited and preached in dif- ferent villages. The Indians became very much attached to him. The ap- proaching King Philip's war was very disastrous to the " praying " Indians scattered through Massachusetts. It did not affect those of Plymouth colony so greatly. At the close of this century there were about three thousand " pray- ing " Indians in New England. Only two hundred and five of them were in Massachusetts. The rest were in Ply- mouth colony, and on the islands of 230 COLONIAL LIFE. Southern Massachusetts. These praying Indians have since wasted away. A remnant, of impure blood, still remain. 1674. The first Sunday School in America was started at Roxbury, Mass. 1675. An Effectual Rebuff. Edmund Andros, governor of New York, visited the Connecticut River with the design of claiming this territory as being within the grant of the Duke of York. But he was not allowed to read the patent of the Duke to the people at Fort Saybrook. He was prevented from doing so by Capt. Bull, of that place, who would not listen to any assumption of authority by Gov. Andros. So the disappointed officeholder returned to New York. 1675. Father Marquette, being stronger, set out for his destination, the Indian village of Kaskaskia, near the Mississippi. Finding before long that his strength was again failing, he set out upon his return to the northern missions. He reached Lake Michigan and began his trip up the eastern shore toward Michillimackinac. DEATH OF MARQUETTE. 1675. May 19. Father Marquette died upon the shore of Lake Michigan, at a spot where his followers were obliged to stop on account of his extreme weakness. He sank rapidly away, and died calmly at last. His was one of the noblest spirits of early Canadian history. His talents were remarkable, and his character pure and holy. The interest in his work is destined to increase. The man has never been fully known in America. 1675. The Seneca Indians gave trouble in Virginia. The planters were aroused, and many were killed on both sides, by an irregular warfare. 1675. June 24. King Philip's war broke out in New England by an attack upon Swansea, in which some of the in- habitants were killed as they returned from meeting. The town was afterward burned. This was the opening of that bloody struggle which filled so many of the growing villages with sorrow and ashes. It swept from one to another with frightful rapidity. The colonists speedily-took up arms, and there was con- stant bloodshed till Philip's death in 1676. 1676. Bacon's Rebellion. Nathaniel Bacon of Virginia, originated a rebellion against Berkeley's government, because prompt measures were not taken to sup- press Indian outrages. The difficulty passed through several stages, during one of which Jamestown was burned by the conspirators, and was never rebuilt. Ba- con finally died, and the rebellion sank away. Berkeley inflicted many punish- ments during this year and the next. Twenty-two of Bacon's followers were hanged. KING PHILIP. 1676. Aug. 12. King Philip was slain, and his war brought to a speedy close. King Philip was the second son of Massasoit, the Wampanoag sachem. His former Indian name was Metacomet. Upon the death of his elder brother, Alexander, in 1662, after a short rule of about one year, Philip succeeded to the chieftainship of the tribe. From the very first the English seem to have sus- pected him of plotting against them. One of his first acts was to proceed to Plymouth with some of his principal chiefs and there sign a treaty, setting forth his desire to remain on the same terms of friendship with the English, which had been maintained by his father and brother. For the first nine years of 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 231 his rule nothing of importance is men- tioned as having taken place. In 1671 signs of a plot against the English seemed more apparent. A council was held as soon as possible at Taunton, in which Philip confessed his guilt and signed a treaty, the conditions of which he failed to fulfil. At another hearing in Boston he made the same pledges. But at the same time he was making preparations for a general war. The neighboring tribes had been secretly enlisted for the work. The powerful Narragansetts had promised to have four thousand warriors ready for the war by 1676. Several Christian Indians had hinted to the English that war was med- itated. John Sassamon, a converted In- dian, formerly a subject of Philip, was sent to preach among the Namasket Indians. He had not been among them long before he became convinced that war would be begun at no distant day. As soon as possible he communicated with the governor at Plymouth, at the same time enjoining upon him the strict- est secrecy. Philip soon learned in some way that Sassamon had revealed the plot, and the life of the latter soon paid the penalty. The trial and execution of three Indians for this murder, hastened the outbreak planned by Philip. The full tide of horrid Indian warfare was soon rolling over Massachusetts. For a time terror reigned complete. But after awhile reverses began to dampen the ardor of Philip's allies. The Deerfield Indians, then the Nip- mucks and Narragansetts retired from the contest. Another series of reverses followed. From July nth to Aug. ist he lost many of his people by death and capture. Upon the last date his wife and his son, then nine years old, were taken. Such was his affection for these that he is said to have declared that his heart was ready to break, and that he was now willing to die. The pursuit was kept up until the Indians took refuge in a swamp near Pokanoket. This last re- treat was surrounded by the whites early on the morning of Aug. 12 th, the situation having been made known by an Indian deserter. A force under Capt. Golding was sent into the swamp. Philip, just aroused from sleep, started to flee with only a portion of his clothing. He was soon confronted by an Englishman named Caleb Cook, with the Indian who had betrayed the place, and was named Alderman. Cook took deliberate aim, but his gun missed fire. The Indian, whose gun was loaded with two balls, then fired, and Philip fell, shot through the heart. His head was cut off, taken to Plymouth, and exposed upon a gibbet for twenty years afterward. The body was denied burial. Philip, like his father, Massasoit, was always opposed to the Christian religion. The conduct of the English, often as barbarous as that of the savages themselves, was not such as to favorably incline the minds of these war- riors toward the faith of the white man. Philip was a man of many good traits, but his impatient spirit rebelled at the injustice practiced toward his people ; an injustice which has been the part of the red man from his first contact with the whites down to the present time. 1676. Indian Slaves. Major Wal- dron seized by a stratagem a large num- ber of Indians, including some of King Philip's men who had fled thither, at Dover, N. H. He sent three hundred of them into slavery. This occasioned fresh Indian outbreaks for years. 232 COLONIAL LIFE. 1676. Right of Taxation. Virginia declared it to be the " right of Virgin- ians as well as of all other Englishmen, not to be taxed but by their own consent, expressed by their representatives." 1376. Edward Randolph came to Massachusetts as a royal commissioner, but he could effect nothing with that colony. There was too much wit and knowledge in the sturdy colonial magis- trates. He soon returned to England. The trade of Massachusetts was now reaching such an extent as to cause serious opposition in England. 1677. February. A great naval bat- tle was fought between a French fleet and a Dutch fleet near the island of Tobago. The former were attempting to get possession of the island, but failed. The battle was very severe. Twelve vessels were burned, and all the rest dis- mantled. The result was almost com- plete destruction. 1677. The Province of Maine was bought from the heirs of Gorges, by Massachusetts, for 1,250. Mr. Usher of Boston made the transaction, and passed the right over to the colony sub- sequently. The colony thus outwitted the king, who was planning to buy the right for the government, and get the settlements out from the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. 1677. December. Tobago was finally taken by the commander of the French fleet, who landed, and utterly destroyed the property of the island. He trans- ported the inhabitants. The French did not repeople the island. The island has changed hands several times since, but is now English. 1679. A synod was held in New England to deliberate upon the subject of public calamities, and to promote reformation of manners throughout the O colonies. 1679. New Hampshire was made a royal province, the authority of Massa- chusetts over it having been annulled. John Cutts was made governor. This was the first royal province in New England. 1679. The English residents in Yu- catan were seized by the Spanish and sent to Havana as prisoners. Their property, to the amount of 100,000, was confiscated. 1679. First CoUectors. Edward Randolph landed in Boston to assume the duties of royal collector, to which he had been appointed. He was made col- lector, surveyor of all New England, and was to appoint deputies for the other New England colonies. He attempted his work, but was constantly opposed and could get no redress from the colonial courts. The ship-owners treated him with constant aversion. He was at one time imprisoned. In other colonies the collectors did not fare much better. Conflicts took place for a time, but ceased at last, because the collectors ceased to carry out their orders exactly. Thus the laws fell into disuse very greatly until the necessity of raising money at the close of the French and Indian war in the next century, caused the restrictions which precipitated the Revolution. 1679. The first vessel ever built on the upper lakes was constructed on the United States shore just above Niagara Falls by LaSalle, and was named the " Griffin." It was of forty-five tons bur- den, and sailed through Lake Erie, the Straits of Detroit, Lake St. Clair, up to Michillimackinac. LaSalle proceeded down the shores of Wisconsin in canoes and sent back the Griffin to Fort Fron- 1663-1692.] tenac with a load of furs, and directions to return as soon as possible with aid. With fourteen men, among them several priests, LaSalle pushed on in four heavily laden canoes. They were soon near the Wisconsin shore, but were put in great danger of destruction by gales which came on with great severity, and lasted several days. They sustained themselves as best they could, and at last pushed on to the southern end of Lake Michigan. Here LaSalle decided to wait for the ex- pected reinforcements from Michillimack- inac. They began building a fort, and remained until a man named Tonty reached the camp with a small company. The Griffin was never heard from. It is probable that she sank in a gale while on her way to Fort Frontenac. 1680. January. LaSalle in Illinois. After much difficulty LaSalle and his com- panions reached the vicinity of the present city of Peoria, Illinois. Here they built a fort which was named Fort Crevecoeur, and was the first spot at which white men attempted to make a permanent habitation in Illinois. It was here that LaSalle became convinced of the loss of the Griffin, upon which he had relied to return and bring an outfit for a second vessel to be built for the descent of the Mississippi. 1680. Feb. 29. A party set out from Fort Crevecoeur to explore the river Illinois to its mouth. 1680. March 2. LaSalle and five companions set out from Fort Crevecoeur r or Fort Frontenac, in order to obtain sup- plies necessary for the further voyage down the Mississippi. 1680. May 6. A Great Journey. LaSalle arrived after surmounting almost incredible difficulties, at Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario. He had marched THE WIDENING FIELD. 233 about one thousand miles in sixty-five days, and had accomplished " the most arduous journey ever made by French- men in America." Here he found that his property had been seized, and yet he gained at Montreal new supplies for another trip. But news soon reached him that almost the entire garrison he had left at Fort Crevecoeur had destroyed what they could at that place and had deserted, going north to Michillimackinac, and committing depredations at several places. These were the difficulties over which LaSalle constantly and cour- ageously triumphed. 1680. Aug. 10. LaSaUe with twejity- five men set out from Fort Frontenac to attempt once more the exploration of the Mississippi. He desired to relieve Tonty who remained faithful to his leader through all changes, and to whom a large place should be given in any full account of this great enterprise. Tonty was now waiting at Fort Crevecoeur to know the further plans of LaSalle. 1680. December. LaSalle reached the ruins of Fort Crevecoeur, but found no traces of Tonty and the few men who had remained faithful. He descended the river, found that the Illinois Indians had been terribly slaughtered by the Iroquois, and finally turned back to the St. Joseph's River, where the larger part of his last force were awaiting his com- mands. In the meantime, Tonty and his companions, after severe experiences in the war between the Illinois and the Iro- quois, had turned north, and at last reached Green Bay. 1680. Charleston, S. C. Old Charlestown in Carolina was abandoned, and the present city of Charleston was founded, and soon became the capital of the southern province. 234 COLONIAL LIFE. 1680. Indian Slaves. An Indian war broke out in Carolina, but was vigor- ously suppressed. A bounty was offered for every Indian, and many were sold to the West Indies for slaves. This con- tinued till the proprietors learned of it, and stopped it. 1680. Bight of Taxation. The New Jersey assembly this year declared that duties laid on goods without its consent, were "illegal and unconstitutional." Re- sistance to the collection of them was offered in one case. 1680. A Sunday school was opened in Plymouth colony. 1^80. The Rogerenes, a kind of Seventh Day Baptists, were established in Connecticut. 1680. The Savoy Confession was adopted by a synod of New England churches. 1681. March 4. William Penn re- ceived from Charles II. a grant of Pennsylvania in full for a claim of six- teen thousand pounds against the Eng- lish government, transmitted to him by his father, Admiral Sir William Penn, of the navy. He addressed a letter to the inhabitants of the province, which he sent by Capt. William Markham, whom he directed to take charge of the province, and act as governor. 1681. Roman Catholics were dis- franchised in Maryland, and public offices were to be given only to Protestants. 1681. The " Old Ship " in Hingham, Mass., was built, and is still used by the Unitarian Society of that town as a place of worship. It is probably the oldest church in New England. 1681. A printing press was set up in Virginia, and a volume of colonial laws was being printed, when orders came from England to "allow no person to use a press on any occasion whatever." This shut off all printing in the province till 1729. 1681. Plant-cutters " in Virginia. The difficulties from over production of tobacco became so great that some impatient leaders, with a band of men, went frorn plantation to plantation cut- ting up the young tobacco plants. But this method did the situation no good. Lord Culpepper hanged some of the men who started this movement, and un- dertook to remedy the difficulty by inflat- ing the currency. His efforts were attended with very poor results. 1681. LaSalle having spent the win- ter at Port Miami, on Lake Michigan, formed an alliance among the remnants of Indian tribes which dwelt in the re- gion, with a view to the aid which this alliance would bring to his plan for the exploration of the Mississippi. He then set out for Canada in order to get further help and supplies. At Michillimackinac he found his old friend Tonty, the Italian. /Having reached Montreal he made his plans to start once more, in hope of a complete success. Late in the autumn he arrived with his followers at Fort Miami, at the southern end of Lake Michigan. 1681. Dec. 21. The first portion of LaSalle's company set out into the wil- derness by way of the river Chicago, and were soon followed by all the rest. In spite of snow and ice they pushed their way onward past the scenes of LaSalle's former experiences. 1682. East Jersey was sold to pay the debts of Sir George Carteret, the proprietor, who had died in 1679. Twelve persons bought it, one of whom was William Penn, who thus became associated with the entire province of 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 235 New Jersey. Both East and West Jer- sey were now owned by Quakers. 1682. Feb. 2. LaSalle and his com- pany reached the Mississippi and found it so full of floating ice that they were obliged to wait a week. They soon set out upon the bosom of the stream whose course had been such a mystery. They swept on past the mouth of the great Missouri, down through the freshly springing verdure of warmer latitudes. 1682. April 9. Louisiana Named. They reached the Gulf of Mexico and took formal possession in the name of the French crown, conferring the name of Louisiana upon the whole region. A column was erected, with the arms of France upon it. A cross was placed be- side it, and a leaden plate bearing the French arms, was buried in the soil beneath. 1682. May. Philadelphia. The site of the great town which was to be the capital of Pennsylvania, was determined upon, and streets were laid out by survey. The name Philadelphia is found in a deed dated the loth of 5th mo. 1682. The ground upon which it was built was bought of the Swedes. 1682. Ten Scotch families settled at Port Royal, S. C., under Henry Erskine, second Lord Cardross, who came to this country to escape the tyranny of Lauder- dale, High Commissioner of Scotland. Lord Cardross soon returned to Great Britain. 1682. August. Delaware. The Duke of York gave the counties of Delaware by deed to William Penn, at the latter's solicitation, in order that the province of Pennsylvania might have better access to the Atlantic Ocean. Delaware was thus separated from New York. It was un- der the authority of Pennsylvania until the Revolution, although for a long time it held a separate assembly. 1682. August. Peter Stuyvesant the last governor of New Netherland, died on his farm near East River, in what is now the city of New York. He was born in Friesland in 1602, and as his parents intended him for the ministry, his early education was quite extended. His own choice, however, led him later to enter the army. He served in the West Indies, where he lost a leg, which disabled him for future service. In 1647 he ar- rived in New Amsterdam as the governor appointed by the Dutch government. His first measure was to conciliate the Indians who had been growing unfriendly. He then adjusted the dispute between his province and the English, concerning boundary lines. When the fleet sent by James, Duke of York, to take possession of the grant given him by his brother Charles II. appeared in the Harbor, the stern old governor refused to surrender. For twenty years he had ruled with an iron hand, believing his authority to be absolute, and not until he saw that the people would not resist, did he give up the city. After this he lived quietly on his farm till his death. He and his wife were buried in St. Mark's church on Tenth St., New York. 1682. Oct. 27. William Penn ar- rived in America and landed at New Castle on the Delaware, receiving pos- session of that territory from the magis- trates. He at once visited Upland which he named Chester, also Philadelphia, where there were already many settlers. 1682. The English prisoners who had been sent from Campeachy to Ha- vana by the Spaniards, went to Jamaica. 1682. November. A great treaty was arranged between William Penn 236 COLONIAL LIFE. and the Indians of Pennsylvania under the old " treaty tree " at Shakaniaxon. It is now asserted that no evidence exists of the conclusion of such a treaty, but some relations of good will were without doubt formed about this time. A monu- ment stands upon the spot to commemo- rate the Treaty Ground." the great accession of territory to the French crown. But having heard that the Iroquois were about to wage another war on the western Indians, isoo-iesz. he deferred his departure, Claude Lor aim. and with a company of men went into the territory of the Illinois and fortified a camp upon the summit of a high rock PETER STUYVESANT. 1682. Dec. 4. The first general assembly ever held in Pennsylvania was called at Chester by William Penn. A body of laws was passed for the province. Roman Catholics were tolerated. 1682. Fort St. Louis. LaSalle and his companions having worked their way up the Mississippi reached Michillimack- inac whence the former was about sailing for France to report in person concerning which rises above the river. Here they prepared to spend the winter. Around their camp the Indians gathered in large numbers to gain protection. This place was called Fort St. Louis by LaSalle. Col. Dongan, Governor of New York, was behind the movements of the Iro- quois and tried to instigate them to at- tacks upon the western Indians in order to get control of the fur trade in that 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 237 region. The poor Indians in many in- stances were made the instruments of the white man's policy. The jealousy of government or trade has been sufficient in its power to rouse whole tribes to wars of extermination. IflCQAS. 1682. Uncas, the first chief of the Mohegan Indians, died. He had formerly been a minor chief of the Pequod tribe. A short time before the Pequod war he became dissatisfied with Sassacus, the head sachem, and revolted, drawing away with him the people in the southern part of the Pequod territory known as Moheag. He was called by the whites the King of the Mohegans. He is said to have been a strong, courageous man, but crafty, subtle and treacherous. For a long time he was in the greatest favor with the whites. In the Pequod war he fought with his Mohegans on the side of the English against his own countrymen and relatives. The long enmity which existed between Uncas and Miantonomoh, sa- chem of the Narragansetts, is well known. The death of the latter caused his rela- tives and followers to pursue the war further, with the hope of avenging their leader. Through aid given by the Eng- lish the Mohegans escaped annihilation. In August, 1675, when the English were just entering upon their war with King Philip, Uncas was compelled in order to insure his neutrality, to deliver up all the arms of the tribe, and to leave two of his sons, then about thirty years of age, at Boston as hostages for his good behavior. He lived to be quite old, as dissolute, wicked and vicious in his old age as he had been in his younger days. His life nowhere presents at any point evidence that he possessed a single noble trait of character to relieve the gloom of his history. His grave is in a beautiful and romantic spot in the town of Norwich, Conn., close by the falls of the Yantic River. ROGER WILLIAMS. 1683. April. Roger Williams died at Providence, R. I., at the age of eighty- four years. It is difficult to give an esti- mate of this wonderful and yet singular man. He was a type of a class of men scattered around the world, and through all time, who have some remarkable gifts which put them in a sense in advance of their times, who are, however, deficient in those other qualities as eminent as the first when possessed, which would enable them to be at peace with their own times without the compromise of principle; which would in fact enable the possessor to serve as a true leader of the times to better things. The life of Roger Wil- liams was a stormy one, not because of his principle, but because of the abuse of his principle, which so set him in antago- nism to communities in which he lived, that there could be no harmony till he should go. Doubtless mistaken judg- ments were pronounced upon him, and evil words were spoken of him, for which there is no excuse. He and his opponents were alike liable to err. He had the faculty of magnifying differences, which is so disastrous to any cause we try to help. Most of his long life was spent in America. He was born in Wales, England, in 1599, studied at Cambridge, and sailed to America in 1630. He laid the foundations of Rhode Island, and is justly honored for the things he held ac- cording to the truth. It was after his removal to Rhode Island that he be- came a Baptist. 238 COLONIAL LIFE. 1683. The first Jesuit mission in Old or Lower California was founded by Father Eusebius Kino, and was speedily followed by fifteen other missions which were operated until the Jesuits were ex- pelled from Spain and its provinces in I 759- 1683. The first school in Pennsyl- vania was a tuition school taught by Enoch Flower, who taught " reading, writing, and casting accounts," for eight shillings a year. 1683. July. The first " yearly meet- ing" of the Friends was held in Phil- adelphia. 1683. The first representative as- sembly was called in New York by the governor, and a " Charter of Liberties " was adopted. It provided for trial by jury and the right of suf- 1683. Penny post J J established in frage, together with other privileges. This charter was never really approved by the Duke of York, and was subsequently declared void by the throne. 1683. A notice of Chicago appears on a map dated at " Quebec, Canada, 1683." The spot is laid down as " Fort Cheqagou." 1683. LaSalle alter having remained at Fort St. Louis most of the year in a vain attempt to get supplies from Canada, where-his property had been seized and his enemies increased in power, at las{ went to Quebec and sailed for France, in order to establish the usefulness of his ex- plorations. 1683. . A buccaneer expedition was organized against Vera Cruz by Van Horn, of Ostend. A force of twelve hundred .men sailed in six vessels and seized the city by surprise in the night. The city was ravaged for booty, and an offer of $2,000,000, which the inhabitants agreed to pay as a ransom, was accepted. A Spanish fleet having appeared, the buccaneers sailed away with $1,000,000, which had been paid, and fifteen hundred prisoners. 1684. Piracy in Spanish waters was encouraged by the governors of Carolina. There was at this time a rapid change in the governors of the province. 1684. The grant of Virginia made to the Earl of Arlington and Lord Cul- pepper, was revoked by the king. Vir- ginia became once more a royal province. Culpepper's government had been an entire failure. Lord Howard succeeded him as royal governor and increased all the old diffi- culties by his selfishness and greed. Pop- ular liberty was undergoing discipline for a time to come. 1684. The Charter of Massachusetts was revoked by the king. The great blow had at last fallen, and the colony was to suffer a period of greater disci- pline than had yet come upon it. But relief would come at last. 1684. A woman charged with witch- craft in Pennsylvania was acquitted. 1684. June 12. William Penn sailed for England, to care for the interests of his province. 1684. Expedition to Gulf of Mexico. LaSalle having arrived in France peti- tioned the crown for the further support of his enterprises, and obtained the royal favor. A messenger was sent to Canada with orders for the restoration of all La Salle's property. Four vessels were as- signed for the expedition to the Gulf of Mexico for the purpose of founding a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. LaSalle strongly urged this as a means of securing command of the whole region of the Gulf of Mexico, and forming the 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 239 best guard against the enlargement of the English colonies. 1684. Aug. 1. LaSalle sailed with about two hundred and eighty persons for the foundation of the proposed colony in Louisiana. But the passage was ren- dered disagreeable by grave differences between himself and the other officers of the fleet. At last one vessel was taken by the Spaniards, and LaSalle became seriously ill. 1684. Dec. 28. They sighted land on the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico, and coasted to the west toward the mouth of the Mississippi. 1684. The buccaneers, under Van Horn, made an attack upon some of the settlements of Peru. Four thousand men joined in the raid, and left destruc- tion behind them along the coast. Great plunder was taken, and when a ransom was exacted, it was forced to be of gold, pearls, or jewels. Many people were murdered. 1685. A Novel Currency. Intend - 1618-1685. an t Meules of Quebec, is- Muriiio. suec i a currency made of 1685. Edict of J Nantes revoked common playing-cards cut by Louis xiv. of i nto f our pieces, stamped France. Prol- c estants persecu- with the French royal ted - stamp, and signed by the 16S5-1689. 5' James II. King officials. It Was SOOn 1S- f England. sued by others, and was de- clared convertible into bills of exchange at certain times only. It grew in amount until it killed trade. In 1714 it amounted to two million livres. 1685. The Faithful Soldier. Gram- mont, a buccaneer, seized Campeachy and raided upon the country around for several weeks. At the first assault the town was captured, and the force set for its defense totally overcome. An attack was made upon the citadel, and in a short time it was abandoned by all save one, who affirmed that he would remain at his post though all the others fled. He did so, and when the buccaneers entered the stronghold their commander was so struck with this singular fidelity to duty, that he forbade the man or his posses- sions to be injured, and gave him a re- ward besides. Because the governor of the province would not ransom the city, Grammont blew up the citadel, burned the place, and then withdrew with his force and plunder to San Domingo. 1685. February. The expedition of LaSalle having passed the mouth of the Mississippi without knowing it, at last was disembarked at what is now Mata- gorda Bay, Texas. Troubles arose con- stantly among the members of the com- pany, and the vessels were injured by being carelessly run aground. Every- thing seemed to be adverse to the desires of LaSalle. The Indians disturbed them, and sickness prostrated many. 1685. Nov. 1. LaSalle set out from the temporary colony in order to explore the region to the east, and find the Mis- sissippi. He took with him about thirty men. 1686. The English trading posts upon Hudson's Bay, except one at Port Nelson, were all seized by the French. 1686. The Scotch settlement* at Port Royal, S. C., was entirely broken up by Spaniards from St. Augustine, in revenge for the piracy which had been committed upon their commerce in West India waters by English ships. The same force also penetrated the North Edisto River and destroyed several plantations. A number of persons were killed during the raid. 1686. Huguenot settlers arrived in New England. 240 COLONIAL LIFE. 1686. Feb. 13. Tonty having heard that LaSalle had sailed from France for the Gulf of Mexico, set out from Fort St. Louis, on the Illinois River, and de- scended the Mississippi to meet him. He went to the mouth of the river and failed to find any trace of his beloved leader. He wrote a letter and committed it to an Indian chief by whom it was given four- teen years later to d'Iberville, who was then successfully colonizing Louisiana. Tonty then left a few men near the mouth of the Arkansas, and returned to the Illinois. 1686. March. LaSalle and a portion of his companions returned to the tempo- rary settlement at Matagorda Bay, after having wandered about with many mis- fortunes. LaSalle now determined to make his way through the wilderness to Canada. 1686. April 22. The company se- lected for the march set out upon their undertaking. 1686. Oct. 17. LaSalle and a rem- nant of those who had set out with him, came back again to the old place. He had been severely ill, and some of his men had deserted, so that it was useless to proceed. Difficulties thickened about this persistent explorer, and almost any other man would have given up in despair. 1686. All the charters of the New England colonies were annulled by King James, and Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of the whole territory. 1686. Dec. 19. Andros reached Boston to serve as governor of New England. He laid taxes, and excited trouble at once. He ordered that no marriage be solemnized save by a 'Church of England minister, and that no print- ing press be operated. He also declared that Episcopacy should be established, and that the popular power should be humbled. 1686. Printing in Pennsylvania. The first printing press outside of Massachu- setts, was set up at Shakamaxon, Penn., by William Bradford, who had come to America through the influence of Wil- liam Penn. Mr. Bradford's first issue was an " Almanac for the Year of the Christian's Account." 1687. Jan. 7. LaSalle set out once more upon an attempt to push through the forests of Canada. The entire col- ony was now much reduced by deaths, and the situation had become extremely sad. Their only hope lay in reaching friends in the way proposed. Their ves- sels were totally destroyed, and no other resoui'ce was afforded them save a trip through the woods to the St. Lawrence. DEATH OF LdSdLLE. 1687. March 19. LaSalle was shot by some of those who accompanied him, and who were reckless, dangerous spirits. Thus ended a life of great purpose, at the early age of forty-three years. It was a life of constant struggle with difficulty. The mind of LaSalle was bent upon opening the Mississippi to the stream of colonization. But he was cut off before his great project was realized, and left the name of one of the greatest Ameri- can explorers. 1687. October. A number of the men who had set out with LaSalle ar- rived at the Illinois River. Other mur- ders were committed after the death of LaSalle. All knowledge of 1687 . Telegraph the great leader's end was invented. carefully kept by deceit from the Indians upon the way, and from the men at Fort St. Louis, including Tonty. The wander- 1662-1692.] ers finally went to France, where they told their story. 1687. The Hidden Charter. Sir Edmund Andros went from Boston to Hartford, Conn., to secure the Connecti- cut charter, but was defeated by the ab- straction of it from its box, after the de- mand had been laid before the assembly. The lights were suddenly blown out, the charter hurried off and hidden in Char- ter Oak, Hartford, where it remained till the deposition of Andros occurred. An- dros, however, took the government of Connecticut into his hands. 1687. A treasure of 300,000 was raised from a sunken vessel on the coast of Hayti by William Phips of New England. He had already made one un- successful attempt. The Duke of Albe- marle aided him in fitting up his present expedition. He received 16,000 as his share of this recovered treasure, and a gold cup worth 1,000 was presented to his wife. He was afterward knighted by the king. 1687. An earthquake destroyed Cal- lao, S. A. 1688. Sir Edmund Andros was ap- pointed governor of New York and New Jersey, as well as of New England. 1628-16S8. The whole territory was John Bunyan. ma( j e the Dominion of New England, much to the dissatisfaction of the citizens of New York. The boundary line between New York and Connecticut was now fixed in its present location. This ended a great dispute. 1688. A popular insurrection took less. Revolution place in Virginia because of the difficulties of the government and the finan- cial depression, but was soon quelled. 1688. A popular insurrection in North Carolina deposed Seth Sothell 16 THE WIDENING FIELD. 241 in England. James II. abdi- cated. from the governorship of that province, because of his greed for gain and power. 1688. New France had a population of about eleven thousand, and the Eng- lish American colonies about two hun- dred thousand. 1688. Slavery in Canada. A request was made to the French crown that negro slaves be allowed to be imported into Canada. The request was granted, but the system never flourished in that dominion. 1688. Feb. 18. First Remonstrance against Slavery. The German Friends were the first to publicly remonstrate against slavery, which they did this year by adopting in their meeting at Ger- mantown, Penn., a paper setting forth the unlawfulness of "traffic in men- body," and claiming that there was no more liberty to do it in the case of negroes than in the case of white people. 1688. Witchcraft. An Irishwoman was executed in Boston for witchcraft after a solemn examination, in which the accused stated nothing clearly. The affair .made a great impression, and an account was issued consisting of a dis- course by Cotton Mather who was de- ceived by the case. The account was afterward issued in England by Richard Baxter, who declared that the evidence would convince all except a very obdu- rate Sadducee." 1688. December. Tonty having heard of LaSalle's death and of the wretched colony in Texas, set out from Fort St. Louis to see if he could succor it. He traveled southward and pushed his way onward through swamps and forests, but finally, by the desertion of his men and the failure to obtain Indian guides, was obliged to turn back. 242 COLONIAL LIFE. 1689. The colony established tempo- rarily at Matagorda Bay, Texas, by La Salle's expedition, was almost completely destroyed by the Indians. The survivors lived a wretched life among the tribes, and some of them in course of time got free, but only after very severe experiences. 1689. King William's War began between England and France, and ar- rayed New France and the English col- onies against each other. New agita- tions and horrors now began, and Indian depredations broke out. 1689. April 18. Sir Edmund Andros was arrested in Boston by the excited cit- izens, before the news of William's acces- sion to the English throne 1689-1702. Wil- Ham and Mary, reached them. The an- Entrikk mon- nouncement of James' over- WS9-172S. Peter throw came shortly, and the Great, Czar caused great joy. The peo- ple of Boston had been greatly tried by the authority of Andros. He was sent to England as a prisoner in the following July, and accusations were presented against him, but he was never formally tried. 1689. June. Leisler Revolution in New York. Capt. Jacob Leisler, a mili- tia captain in New York, seeing the weakness of the officials, seized the gov- ernment of that city, proclaimed the new king, and received the subjection of a large number of the troops. The mem- bers of the former council soon fled, and Leisler was in power for one and a half years. The population of New York at this time was not quite three thousand. 1689. An Indian war began in East- ern Maine, and many of the smaller set- tlements were abandoned. 1689. Major Waldron was killed at one of the garrison houses in Dover, N. H., by the Indians for his deceit in seizing some of them as prisoners in 1676. They gained access to him by friendly pretensions, and then hewed him to pieces in a most terrible manner. 1689. Aug. 25. Montreal was taken by the Iroquois. 1689. A public school was estab- lished by the Quakers in Philadelphia. 1689. A colony of Huguenots settled at New Rochelle, N. Y. 1689. A "news placard" was issued in Boston for the first time, and was the forerunner of the newspaper. 1689. King's Chapel was established in Boston, and the first edifice was erected. 1689. Buccaneers on the New Eng- land Coast. Thomas Hawkins and Thomas Pound, buccaneers, did consid- erable damage along the coast. Massa- chusetts Bay sent out Capt. Samuel Pease in the sloop Mary to capture their vessel. Capt. Pease found the pirates near Wood's Holl, and took them after a fierce conflict in which he was so severely wounded that he afterward died of it. Piracy was common along the coast and on the Newfoundland banks. 1690. Feb. 8. Schenectady, N. Y., was burned, and the inhabitants massa- cred during a violent snow- isso. White storm by a force of French PP^ f^t^u in England. and Indians from Canada. 1690. stereotyp- The French Jesuits were i Z r , f *'2 by , J Jo/m Muller at now instrumental in insti- Leyden. gating the Indians to a series of horrible deeds, because of the accession of the Protestant William to the English throne. 1690. March 27. Salmon Falls, N. H., was burned by the Indians. 1690. May. The settlement at Casco Bay was destroyed by the Indians. The object was to kindle a blaze along the entire New York and New England frontier. 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD. 248 1690. May. An American congress, the first ever summoned, was called by Gov. Leisler, and met at New York to consider the question of a united defence of the colonies. It was decided to at- tempt the conquest of Acadia and Can- ada. A force was to go by land to threaten Montreal, and a second force by sea against Quebec. 1690. Sir William Phips was sent in the meantime with a fleet and a force of eight hundred men against Acadia. Port Royal and other towns were taken, and plundered. 1690. August. Failure of the Two Expeditions. Sir William Phips sailed from Boston with thirty-two vessels and twenty-two hundred men. He reached INDIAN ATTACK. 1690. Hiacoomes, the first Indian convert to Christianity in New England, and a faithful minister, died at about eighty years of age. He is said to have been the best Indian preacher of whom we have any account. He began preach- ing in Martha's Vineyard, and finally became pastor of an Indian church there. "He was a faithful and successful min- ister, slow of speech, grave in manners, of blameless life, and sound in doc- trine." Quebec, but was obliged to return after a series of misfortunes, with nothing accomplished. His fleet was greatly damaged by a storm, and a large number of men were lost. The land force against Mon- treal had no better success. 1690. A colony of French refugees settled in Carolina. 1690. Francis Nicholson was ap- pointed governor of Virginia, and effected a great change in the condition of the province. He was active in improving production and trade, and took measures to promote the morals of the community. The people were much pleased with his administration. 1690. The first Presbyterian church 244 COLONIAL LIFE. in America was founded at Snow Hill, Maryland, by Francis Mackemie, the father of the Presbyterian church in the New World. FIRST NEWSPAPER. 1690. A newspaper, the first in America, was issued in Boston, Mass., under the editorship of Benjamin Harris. It was called " Public Occurrences both Foreign and Domestic." The publisher promised that the country " should be furnished once a month (or if a glut of occurrences happen, oftener) with an ac- count of such considerable things as have occurred under our notice," and " to en- lighten the public as to the occurrents of Divine Providence." On account of cer- tain political utterances it was suppressed after the first issue. FIRST PAPER MILL. 1690. The first paper mill in the New World was set up at Roxborough, near Philadelphia, by William Rittenhouse, William Bradford the printer, and Thomas Tresse. Paper was made for writing, printing, and wrapping purposes. The mill was afterward carried off by a freshet, and others were established at the beginning of the next century. 1690. Whale-fishing was for the first time begun on a large scale in America, by the Nantucket sailors. 1690. December. First Paper Money. B.lls of Credit were issued by Massa- chusetts to pay for the expedition against Quebec, to the amount of .40,000. This was the first paper money issued in the English colonies, and probably upon the continent. 1691. March 19. Trouble in New York. Col. Henry Sloughter who had been appointed governor of New York, arrived in that city. Trouble arose over the delivery of the authority to him by Leisler, who was arrested and tried. 1691. May 16. Execution of Leis- ler. Leisler, and his son-in-law Mil- borne, were executed in New York on a charge of rebellion and treason. They sympathized with popular power, and were not very wise men. It is said that Gov. Sloughter signed their death war- rants while he was intoxicated. Gov. Sloughter died very suddenly in the July following. The Leisler and the anti-Leisler factions vexed the political life of the province for years. 1691. Major Schuyler of Albany, with an English force and three hundred Mohawk Indians, went down Lake Champlain and defeated a French force of eight hundred men. 1691. Nov. 26. Port Royal, in Aca- dia, was retaken by a French ship. 1691. Maryland was taken from Lord Baltimore, and became a royal province. The Catholics were disfran- chised, and the Church of England was made the church of the province. 1691. The yellow fever visited Bar- badoes, W. I., with great severity. 1691. The volcano Imbabura, in South America, poured forth vast quan- tities of mud, and thousands of little fishes. 1692. June 7. An earthquake des- olated the island of Jamaica. Port Royal, which stood upon a point jutting into the sea, was sunk in three minutes. Two thousand houses were destroyed. The ruin extended over the whole island. 1692. Episcopalians, Baptists, and Quakers in Massachusetts, were released from the obligation to help support Con- gregational churches. 1662-1692.] THE WIDENING FIELD, 245 1692. William Penn was deprived of his rights as governor of Pennsylvania? on account of charges of treason made against him. 1692. " Mast Trees." The new char- ter of New England provided that through the immense pine forests all trees which were more than two feet in diameter at a foot above the ground, should be the property of the king for the royal navy. A "surveyor-general of the king's woods " was appointed, whose duty it was to see that such trees were marked by stamping the " broad arrow " upon them. The fine for cutting one of these marked trees was 100. Innumerable 1692. First Of era conflicts arose. Lumber- in London. men in the woods and at the mills became mad very frequently because they found their best trees stamped with the arrow, especially since they had been gaining a trade in spars with the French and Spanish islands. A vessel loaded with spars for these islands was likely to have the arrow of confis- cation placed upon her by the royal officer. Wrangles of all sorts occurred. Many of the stamped trees rotted in the forests, which made the trouble all the worse. These forest laws excited a great deal of thought over the king's prerogative. It was a cruel policy to en- force them, because the fishermen and lumbermen were dependent on the lum- ber trade. WITCHCRAFT DELUSION. 1692. September. The flame of this fearful excitement in Massachusetts burned at its height during this month. It had slowly risen from the first kind- lings until it threatened to sweep every- thing before it. At the present day we do not see how it could have attained such a heat. But at that time nearly the whole world believed in witchcraft, sor- cery, and kindred things. A few isolated " cases, attributed to such influences, had occurred in the history of the different colonies during the previous fifty years. But it was reserved for Salem, the home of peace, 'to witness the grim tragedy in all its horror. The origin of the delusion seems to lie with widely contrasted par- ties, two Indian slaves from South America, who lived in the family of Rev. Mr. Parris, pastor at Salem village, and a band of children about ten years of age, who met during the winter of 1691-2 for the purpose of practicing tricks and magic of different sorts. It was not long before their antics began to attract the attention of older persons. John Indian and his wife Tituba helped on the children. What was at first a matter of play and curiosity became at last a part to carry out before people, and a deception to maintain. Older persons gradually became involved in the delu- sion. At first the fallings and queer mo- tions and interruptions in church, prac- ticed by the " afflicted children " were not laid to any one except the evil spirits. But at last in some way it became sug- gested that certain persons in the vicin- ity were causing the trouble by a mali- cious power. Then the evil began to have more dread consequences. The accusations at first fell upon three per- sons. Sarah Good, a destitute, sickly woman, Sarah Osburn, " a melancholy, distracted old woman," and Tituba, the Indian woman, were arrested Feb. 29 of this year. A crowd attended the examination. The " children " went through various exercises, alleged to have been caused by looking at the ac- cused. Martha Corey and Rebecca 246 . COLONIAL LIFE. Nourse were soon assailed, and commit- ted. The recklessness of the accusers was rapidly fixing its terrible peril to some of the best persons in Salem vil- lage. The movement of the circum- stances was constantly becoming more and more intense. The whole region was aroused and distracted. Ministers preached upon the trouble in awful tones. Worthy Christian lives did not now pre- vent accusation and commitment. Dur- ing April several were imprisoned. The month of May saw the visitation spread- ing into other towns, including Andover. The life and the business of the country around were filled with dread. During June executions began upon the gallows on Witch Hill, Salem. Rebecca Nourse, a saintly woman, was one of five hanged July 19. Rev. Geo. Burroughs was one of five executed Aug. 19. Several of these condemnations were only carried through by the constant exhibition of afflictions on the part of the accusers. Noble spirits suffered thus, but would not secure their acquittal by confessing witch- craft, which they knew to be false. In September others were executed, a-nd old Giles Corey was pressed to death. His fate deserves more than a passing me-n- tion. His wife had suffered before him, partially through his own testimony. He had at the first believed in witchcraft, and had thought that his holy wife might be possessed of some such power as was charged upon her. But now that his own misfortune had come, his mind was cleared, and he saw the atrocious imposition practiced. At last he made his determination. He would plead neither " guilty " nor " not guilty." If he should plead " not guilty," and be convicted, as would certainly be the rer suit, his property would be confiscated, and his children left without any. He therefore made his will in prison, giving his estate to two sons who had believed in the innocence of their mother in her day of trial. When called before the court he would not open his mouth. The end came. He suffered the English penalty for refusing to plead. The old man, eighty-one years of age, was laid upon his back, and weights of stone placed upon his chest until he expired. He suffered heroically. We hope that his terrible death had a part at least in causing the revulsion of public sentiment which soon followed. The excitement declined. An accusation against the wife of Rev. Mr. Hale of Beverly, was so eminently false that it pierced the bubble. Within a short time one hun- dred and fifty were let loose from prison. Twenty had been executed, and two lost their lives in prison. The delusion had wrought terrible ill. The year had been spoiled for all busi- ness, and piercing regrets entered the hearts of many. The region was sad- dened. Homes were desolated. The effect was awful to contemplate. As much as could be done in after years to remove the infamy, was done by churches,, jurors, and leading accusers. Judge Sewall was humiliated for life by the part he had taken in the affair. His con- fession of error was read to the congre- gation in the Old South Church, Boston, while he stood in his pew with bowed head. Witchcraft in any such form as- that of 1692, was forever gone in Amer- ica. It could not rise again to work ruin and misery. [NOTE. At this very time witches were being- executed in England. 30,000 in all were executed there. In Europe, executions continued long after they had ceased in America. Between 1580 and 1680, 100,000 witches were executed in Germany. In 15115, in three months, 500 were burned in Geneva. Fifty years after this, Blackstone argued the existence of witchcraft. Coke, Bacon, and other eminent and learned men believed in it. America was free from, belief in this delusion sooner than any other country.] SECTION XI. MATURING FOftCJZS. 1693-174.3. >ARTY warfare began at the first of the present period to be rrfore distinctly outlined in New England. The new charter was the occasion of this. Those who advocated the old charter which had been annulled, were called " Liberty men," and those who supported the new charter were called Prerogative men." Under the new charter more scope was given to the royal power which was striving to gain the supremacy through all the colonies. The parties of the Revolution had their rise in these days. The enmity of Eng- land to American manufactures became more manifest. A development had begun, however, which could not be re- pressed. In spite of the " Hat Act," " Sugar Act," etc., the colonies grew in intelligence and skill. Religious move- ments helped train the people in a strong faith and patience which would be tested in coming days. Good elements were emigrating from the Old World to try the life and freedom of the New World. The men were now being born who were to lead in the stormy times a little later. Benjamin Franklin was already showing his remarkable gifts. In the comparative quiet of this time many forces were maturing for the great strug- gle ahead. 1693. Episcopacy in New York. Through the influence of Gov. Fletcher, of New York, Church of England min- isters were settled in a portion of the parishes of that State. The act which was passed decreed that in the counties of Westchester, Queens, and Richmond, a certain number of vestrymen and wardens should be annually chosen by the people. The ministers were to be elected by these vestrymen. Although the act did not expressly state that only Episcopal ministers should be chosen, yet the affair was so managed that such was the result. In many towns, therefore, some people were obliged to help sup- port two ministers, their own and an Episcopal one. 1693. The first printing house in the province of New York was set up by William Bradford, of Philadelphia. He was induced to undertake this by a grant of .40 a year, and had the privi- lege of printing on his own account. His first issue was a proclamation. 1693. Connecticut Pluck. Gov. Fletcher of New York, having been 247 248 COLONIAL LIFE. ordered by the king to take command of the Connecticut militia, proceeded to Hartford, but was prevented from mak- ing his commission heard while being read, by Capt. William Wadsworth, who caused the drums to beat. Gov. Fletcher at first ordered silence, but afterward gave up the attempt, when Capt. Wads- worth had said to him, " If I am inter- rupted again, I will make the sun shine through you in a moment." 1693. William and Mary College was founded at Williamsburg, Va., ac- cording to a charter of the previous year. The first building was erected upon a plan made by Sir Christopher Wren, the great English architect. 1693. Kingston, Jamaica, was founded because of the destruction of Port Royal the previous year. 1694. First Rice Planted. A little package of rice from Madagascar was given by a sea captain who was forced to put into Charleston Harbor, to Gov. Smith of Carolina, who planted it, and thus originated the culture of that which has since been one of the great staple productions of the region. 1694. Maryland Schools and Libra- ries. Annapolis was made the capital of Maryland, in place of St. Mary's. It was arranged for each county to have a school. "King William's School" was opened at Annapolis this year. Each parish of the colony was also to have a library of fifty volumes. Annapolis library had a library of eleven hundred volumes. 1694. William Penn having proved the falsity of the charges against himself, was reinstated in the proprietary govern- ment of his province. 1694. A revolt of negroes occurred in Pernambuco, and was traced in its origin to the influence of the " Palmarese Nation." 1695. February. A colony of per- sons from Dorchester, Mass., composing a church with Joseph Lord for pastor, emigrated to South Carolina and founded a town on the Ashley River, twenty miles above Charleston. The influence of this colony grew to be very great, and has been felt in the history of the whole region. 1695. Feb. 18. Death of Gov. Phips. Gov. Phips of Massachusetts, who had gone to England to answer certain charges made against him, died in London at the age of forty-five years. He was born at Woolwich on the Kennebec River, Maine, in 1650. He tended sheep till he was eighteen years of age, and subse- quently displayed great energy in several directions. He became commander of a vessel which he had built, and undertook to search for sunken treasure in West India waters. His success in this en- riched him, and brought him a reputation as a successful man, besides gaining for him the honors of knighthood. His ex- pedition against Quebec was a failure, but his government of Massachusetts was in the main wise and beneficent. 1695. John Archdale, a Quaker, was appointed governor of Carolina, and me- diated successfully between the different political and religious elements in the colony. 1696. A " Board of Trade " was es- tablished in England, to have general oversight of colonial affairs. This board of seven was a constant source of annoy- ance to the colonists, and helped produce the Revolution. They were appointed to enforce the Laws of Trade and the Navigation Acts. 1696. Pemaquid was taken by a French force under Col. Iberville, who 1693-1743.] THE MATURING FORCES. 249 thus extended French power into the very center of Maine, and opened New England to Indian raids. He also took English posts upon Newfoundland. 1696. John Archdale, Governor of Carolina, resigned his government amid the blessings of the people. He was moral well-being of such as were owned as slaves. This action was due to the discussion of the matter in several " Quarterly Meetings." 1696. Piracy. Owing to the trouble between England and France, many privateers were cruising the ocean, and MRS. DUSTIN AND THE IN'DIANS. succeeded by Joseph Blake, who con- tinued the work of firmly establishing the colony. 1696. A fort was established at Pen- sacola, Florida, by the Spaniards. 1696. Slavery Among Quakers. The Society of Friends at its Yearly Meeting passed a resolve to discourage the buying of more negroes, and to provide for the capturing merchant vessels. Measures were taken in England to provide for the suppression of these, and Capt. William Kidd was put in command of the Ad- venture, which had been fitted up by the Earl of Bellomont and others. He sailed from New York with a commis- sion forbidding him to leave the Atlantic waters. Failing to find the objects of his 250 COLONIAL LIFE. search, however, he sailed to Madagas- car, which was at the time a noted resort of pirates. 1696. The Palmarese Nation of free blacks in Brazil was exterminated by the Portuguese, as it was thought that they had instigated trouble among the colonists at large. Lancaster, with six thousand men, overthrew the first negro kingdom planted in America. MRS. DUSTIN'S ESCAPE. 1697. March. Haverhill, Mass., was attacked and partially destroyed by the Indians. Mrs. Hannah Dustin, her nurse, named Mary Neff, and a boy named Samuel Leonardson, were carried away captive. During a night on the march through New Hampshire, the three persons rose silently while their In- dian captors had sunk away to sleep, and by the light of the fire in the center, tomahawked ten of the red men. The boy had found out the day before from one of the Indians how to strike a man so as to cause instant death. The question was answered because it was thought to have been asked from mere idle curiosity. Only a squaw and a child were left alive, and they fled for their lives. The cap- tives then made the best of their way back to the settlements, taking the scalps along with them to prove the truth of their story, which would hardly be cred- ited without some tangible evidence. The general court of Massachusetts paid the escaped captives ,50. A beautiful monument was erected in 1874 upon Dustin's Island in the Merrimac River, above Concord, N. H. It bears the names of the three, and devices to sym- bolize their heroism. 1697. The Huguenots were again enfranchised in Carolina, and more suc- cessfully than in 1691. Roman Catho- lics were disfranchised. 1697. Sept. 20. The treaty of Rys- wick ended King William's war. The French received the west portion of San Domingo. 1697. Buccaneers. Cartagena, S. A., was taken by a large force of buccaneers under Pointis. There were twelve hun- dred men in seven ships. No such stronghold as Cartagena had before been taken by the buccaneers. Out of $8,000,000 booty Pointis kept a large part for himself, and his men, disappointed, plundered the city again. The fleet was, however, very nearly destroyed by Dutch, English, and Spanish ships. After this time the power and organiza- tion of the buccaneers besran to decline. O Many former pirates passed into other pursuits. 1698. The Scotch Darien Colony. A colony of twelve hundred men under William Paterson, was founded by the Scotch on the Isthmus of Panama. Sev- eral hundred thousand pounds were raised for the expedition. The colony was es- tablished about thirty miles northwest of the Gulf of Darien. The settlers named the region New Caledonia. They had expected to obtain supplies from the Eng- lish colonies but this was prevented, and the members began to die from the effects of unusual diet and circumstances. In a few months the colony was abandoned, almost no one being left to hold it. 1699. Jan. 25. Sieur Lemoyne d'Iberville having been sent by the King of France with an expedition to attempt the colonization of the Mississippi Valley,, arrived" on the coast of the Gulf of Mex- ico, near Pensacola. 1699. March 2. Biloxi. He en- tered the Mississippi River and explored 1693-1743.] the vicinity. He afterward established a settlement on the Island of Biloxi in Mobile Bay, and then returned to France. 1699. July 6. Capt. William Kidd was arrested in Boston, whither he had been induced to come by a letter from Gov. Bellomont promising him security. Kidd had at this time been known to have seized a merchant vessel, and to have been otherwise piratical in the later part of his cruise, although he stoutly claimed to have been fulfilling his com- mission. After his arrest he was sent to England for trial. 1699. Too Late. Col. Campbell, with thirteen hundred men, arrived at the Scotch colony of Darien after its aban- donment. The Spaniards attacked and 1639-1699. captured the reenforcement, Radne. an( j very few of the colo- nists found their way home again. This was the end of the great Scotch project for colonizing the Isthmus. 1699. Gold mines were discovered in Brazil. 1699. An "emigration pamphlet," the first in America, was issued at Boston to induce Yankees to settle in Panama. 1699. The yellow fever was seen for the first time in Philadelphia. 1699. William Penn again arrived in America, after having had much trouble in England through the misrep- resentation of his conduct and motives. He found Pennsylvania greatly increased in all respects. 1700. The first distillation of liquor in America was at Boston in the making of New England rum from West India molasses. 170O. D'lberville came again from France and established a settlement on the Mississippi River nearly forty miles below New Orleans, at Poverty Point. THE MATURING FORCES. 251 1700. Natchez. The site of Natchez was selected for a settlement and named Rosalie by De Tonty, who had come down the river from Canada with a party. The place was soon abandoned,, and not occupied till 1716. 1700. The lead mines at Dubuque^ Iowa, were discovered by a Frenchman named Le Sueur. They were not worked,, however, till 1788, by Julien Dubuque > from whom the place was named. 1700. Origin of Yale CoUege. Ten Connecticut clergymen, feeling the need of higher education in the 1700. National province, came together, debt of England each bringing several books, be # un - and saying upon depositing them on the table, " I give these books for the found- ing, of a college in Connecticut." This gave a real start to the enterprise, which resulted in the establishment of Yale College. EXECUTION OF CAPT. KIDD. 1701. May 24. Capt. Kidd was ex- ecuted in London whither he had been sent after his arrest in Boston. He had had a trial only in name, being refused counsel and the privilege of sending for papers or witnesses. With such injustice as that was he tried and condemned. One charge which was made against him was the murder of William Moore r a sailor whom he was alleged to have killed in a wrangle by striking him over the head with a bucket. For this, and for piracy, he and nine companions were executed. Capt. Kidd asserted that he struck Moore for mutinous conduct, and that he was forced by his men to take the Quidah Merchant. This man who has had such a singular reputation was a native of Scotland, and was the son of John Kidd, a non-conformist minister. 252 COLONIAL LIFE. He early went to sea, and soon exhibited the qualities of an excellent navigator. He came to America and sailed hence upon numerous voyages, gaining a name for energy and skill. He became engaged in the attempts to suppress piracy, and in 1691 the colony of New York paid him .150 for his aid in protecting it against freebooters. The command of a vessel which was sent out by a company to cap- ture piratical vessels was given to him. In 1695 anc * 1696 he was granted two commissions giving him authority to en- gage in that service. He made one or two captures of French vessels, bringing them into New York, and then sailed to Madagascar, which had become a famous resort for pirates. This was in 1696 and 1697. It was asserted within a year that Capt. Kidd had himself become a pirate. Orders for his arrest were sent out to all English colonies. He came to the West Indies in the Quidah Merchant, for the capture of which vessel he was afterward condemned, and leaving it at a little island near Hayti, came north to the New England coast in a sloop. He here entered into correspondence with the Earl of Bellomont, at that time governor of the New England colonies, with the apparent desire of reinstating himself in the favor of government. Some treas- ure was buried by him on Gardiner's Island. He was then enticed to Boston where he was arrested in a few days, and from which place he was sent to Eng- land with the result above detailed. The Earl of Bellomont afterward secured the spoil which had been hidden on Gar- diner's Island, to the amount of .14,000. Many persons have in later years dug for other treasure reputed to have been hid- den by Capt. Kidd, the traditions of which were wholly without foundation. The ill which the man did, for he un- doubtedly during those last two years engaged in piracy, has grown until it completely overshadows the years of ser- vice which he rendered to commerce. When measured in the scales of exact and impartial justice, the character of Kidd does not seem to equal in ill-desert the characters of Drake and Hawkins and others who spent years in raiding upon the South American coast cities, and carrying off their ill-gotten booty. There is nothing to show that Kidd was as cruel, heartless, bloodthirsty, and greedy of gain as either of the men above men- tioned, whose cases appear different be- cause they sailed under the authority of the English government in conducting their infamous enterprises. 1701. Boston instructed its represen- tatives to " put a period to negroes being slaves." 17O1. Yale CoUege Charter. The ten clergymen who had agreed to found a college in Connecticut, obtained from the assembly a charter for their institu- tion, with a grant of one hundred and twenty pounds a year. The institution was located at Saybrook. 1701. A new constitution, called a " Charter of Liberties," was adopted for Pennsylvania. It made the noi-ime. Philip qualification of a voter to ^' King / n Spam and Port- be fifty acres of land free ugai. from mcumbrance, or personal property worth 50. A new charter was given the city of Philadelphia. 1701. " Jesuits and popish priests " were declared by acts passed in New York and Massachusetts to " be incen- diaries," and were threatened with " per- petual imprisonment." 1701. July 24. Detroit was founded 1693-1743.] by a company of settlers and soldiers under De la Motte Cadillac, who named the place Fort Pontchartrain, and be- came commander of the post. The set- tlement suffered great opposition, both from Indians and Canadians. 1702. May. Queen Anne's War be- gan by a declaration of war by England against France. The American colonists soon began to feel its influence. 1702. Lord Cornbury became gov- ernor of New York, and until his recall in 1708, conducted the affairs of the province solely for his own advantage. He was a profligate man, and sometimes appeared upon certain occasions in the dress of a woman. 1702. A pestilent fever which was brought to New York from St. Thomas, carried off six hundred persons, which at the time constituted one-tenth of the whole population. It was probably the yellow fever. 1702. A grammar free school was established in New York by an act passed this year. 1702. A Spanish expedition across the country from Florida to attack Charleston, S. C., was met and routed by some English traders and friendly Creek Indians. 1702. St. Augustine was blockaded with an expedition from South Carolina under Gov. Moore. There was no re- 1702-1714. Anne Sult ' The province issued Queen of Eng- its paper money to the ex- tent of $26,000 to pay for the undertaking. The Spaniards now began to arouse the Indians more com- pletely. 1702. The French fort at Biloxi was transferred to Mobile River, and became the first settlement in what is now Ala- bama. THE MATURING FORCES. 253 1702. Vincennes, Indiana, was set- tled by French soldiers from Canada, who soon became accustomed to Indian life, and were in the end greatly assimi- lated to those around them. 1702. St. Christopher, one of the Leeward Islands, became a scene of con- fusion this year, in the expulsion of the French settlers by the English. The island had formerly been neutral ground, though there had been more or less trouble for fifty years. Many of the English settlements in the West Indies originated in St. Christopher, or St. Kitts, as it is sometimes called. 1703. January. A great fire de- stroyed Port Royal, Jamaica. 1703. June 20. An Indian confer- ence was held by Gov. Dudley, of Massa- chusetts at Casco Bay, in the province of Maine, with apparently good results. But in a few weeks the eastern Indians were again burning the settlements, and murdering the inhabitants. 1703. An expedition against the In- dians friendly to Spain was made by the governor of South Carolina. Many villages were burned, and eight hundred captives taken. 1703. Indications of Independence. Quarry, in a memorial to the British government on colonial affairs, says, " Commonwealth notions 1703- First improve daily, and if it be Russian newsfa- ,.,.,. - per. Saint Pe- not checked m time, the (et . sburs . found . rights and privileges of ed - British subjects will be thought too nar- row." He advised interference with towns. This little thing speaks loudly of a coming struggle. 1704. March 1. Massacre at Deer- field, Mass. A party of French and Indians fell upon the town of Deerfield, Mass., murdering forty-seven of the in- 15 254 COLONIAL LIFE. habitants, and carrying one hundred and twelve away captive into Canada, through the deep snow and severe cold. The expedition was undertaken for the purpose of securing the bell which hung in Deerfield meeting house. The tell had been sent from France for a village church in Canada, but had been taken by a privateer and carried with other goods to Boston, where it was bought by the people of Deerfield. It was taken away at the time of the mas- sacre, and now hangs in the place which it was originally intended for. FIRST PERMANENT NEWSPAPER. 1704. April 24. " The Boston News- Letter," the first permanent newspaper in the New World, was published at Boston, Mass., by Bartholomew Green, for John Campbell, postmaster and book- seller. The first number consisted of three very small pages, and contained only one advertisement, that of Mr. Campbell. The " News-Letter " ex- isted forty years before it had three hun- dred subscribers. 1704. Printing was introduced into Louisiana by the French. 1704. A great agitation was caused 1632-1704. m Carolina by the attempt John Locke. t o bring the province under the authority of the Church of England. 17O4. A raid was made by Col. Ben- jamin Church with five hundred men upon the Indian settlements of Eastern Maine. Villages were burned, and many prisoners taken. The Indians had been harassing the colonists very se- verely. 17O4. July 20. Capt. Peregrine White, who was born on board the May- flower in Cape Cod Harbor, Nov. 20, 1620, died at Marshfield, Mass., at the age of eighty-three years, eight months. He was a strong, fine looking man, and had lived a useful life. 1704. September. Alexander Sel- kirk, a Scotchman, was left on the island of Juan Fernandez, four hundred and twenty miles west from the coast of Chili, and remained alone there for four years and four months. Selkirk sailed from England in charge of the Cinque Ports, a privateer, as pilot. Having quarreled with the captain, he asked to be put ashore as above stated. Supplies were furnished him, which were added to by the resources of the island. Capt. Woodes Rogers, of the privateer named The Duke, took Selkirk from the island. 1705. Gov. Nicholson was recalled from Virginia, and there was no royal governor in the province for five years. The assembly governed, and prepared the way for better times. This afforded a chance for a slight home training in the free management of affairs, which was very wholesome. 1705. The first Presbytery in Amer- ica was organized at Philadelphia by seven members of the Presbyterian church, four of them being from Ireland. 1706. " Petticoat Insurrection." The women of Mobile became very angry and threatened rebellion against the colony, because ~ , ,. they were forced to live on Indian corn. The supplies of the colony were very" low, and considerable trouble resulted. The above danger has become known in history as the " petticoat in- surrection." 17O6. The law in Carolina disfran- chising dissenters, was repealed. 1706. Nevis, one of the Leeward Islands, was ravaged by the French. 170 6-n46. John Portugal. 1693-1743.] THE MATURING FORCES. 255 17O7. June. An expedition against Acadia was sent out by the inhabitants of New England, who were exasperated by a long series of Indian warfares chiefly produced by French influence. The ex- pedition was entirely unsuccessful. Dur- ing this time bounties were offered for Indian scalps, as they were at other times in the history of the country. 1707. Nevis, which had been ravaged no7. England by the French, was this and Scotland year almost completely de- uniled under it- -. . tie of Great stroyed by one of the Britain. most violent hurricanes ever recorded." It had been prosperous before this time, but was now brought very low. 1707. Germs of Liberty. The as- sembly of New Jersey prepared a remonstrance to Lord Cornbury, setting forth grievances under which the prov- ince was laboring, and asking that they be redressed. The paper contained one significant sentence : " Liberty is too val- uable a thing to be easily parted with." Lord Cornbury answered the communi- cation with considerable insolence, and helped by it to pave the way for his recall the next year. 1708. Aug. 29. HaverhiU, Mass., was destroyed by French and Indians. 1708. Saybrook Platform. The churches of Connecticut held a conven- tion at which a platform of belief and organization was adopted, and has since been known as the Saybrook Platform, because the meeting took place at Say- brook. The Westminster and Savoy Confessions, and the Thirty-nine Articles, were in general the basis of belief. 1709. The first printing press in Connecticut was set up at New London by Thomas Short. 1709. The oldest mining charter in the English colonies was granted a com- pany to work the Granby copper mines in Connecticut. They have J 1709. Prussic sometimes been known as add discovered theSimsbury mines. Cop- by Diesbach - per was found about this time at a few other places. These mines were after- ward bought by the State and worked by convicts. 1710. German Immigration. Sev- eral thousand Germans left their homes in the Palatinate, Germany, because of poverty, and settled in New York, Penn- sylvania, Virginia, and Carolina. The transfer from their own country was carried out under the patronage of Queen Anne of England. 1710. The first government post- offices were established in America in accordance with an act of Parliament providing for a general postoffice for all English dominions. One central office was to be at New York, and other offices were to be at convenient places in each colony. 1710. Oct. 13. Acadia Captured. A combined English and colonial force having sailed for Acadia, captured Port Royal, and changed its name to Annapo- lis in honor of the queen. Acadia came under British control as Nova Scotia. This was the second time it had been taken by the English. The colonial officers deemed it of the greatest impor- tance to drive the French out of America. 1710. Dec. 11. Wreck of the Not- tingham. The Nottingham, a galley from London, went ashore in a northeast gale on Boon Island, one of the Isles of Shoals. For several days they had not been able to get an observation. The crew saved themselves upon the rocks as best they could during the short time in which the ship went to pieces. Not a 256 COLONIAL LIFE. mouthful of food was saved except two or three "small cheeses," which they picked out of the seaweed. Now began a struggle for life. The weakest ones began to die from starvation. A boat which the survivors roughly put together, was broken up by the sea. A raft was then built, and two men started upon it for the New Hampshire shore. Neither of them reached it alive. One was washed up on the sand and led some of the settlers to search the vicinity, when the others were found in a very low con- dition. They had subsisted for a few days upon ' the body of the carpenter. For twenty-four days they had faced death on this little island. The captain's name was John Deane. He afterward prepared an account of the calamity, and it was published the next year at the end of a sermon by Cotton Mather. 1710. Diamonds were discovered in Brazil, and have since been mined there in great quantities. 1711. Aug. 10. Invasion of Canada. A great English expedition under Sir Hovenden Walker sailed from Boston for the capture of Quebec, but was pre- vented from entering the St. Lawrence by storms and fogs. It returned with the loss of eight ships and one thousand men. The same day a force of four thousand men left Albany to attack Mon- treal, but turned back when the disaster to the fleet was learned. The province of New York issued its first paper money or bills of credit in aid of this expe- dition. 1711. October. The Tuscarora In- dians of North Carolina formed a plan to exterminate the whites, and massacred one hundred and thirty-seven in one night. The horrible work continued for three days. The natives were afterward successfully resisted, and driven from the country. 1711. A slave market was opened in New York City. 1711. A severe fire occurred in Boston, consuming one hundred buildings. 1711. Mobile, Alabama. The little French settlement on the Mobile River came near being entirely destroyed by a flood and hurricane, and was removed to the present site of Mobile, as being a safer place. 1712. Abolitionism. William Southe- by, of Maryland, a Roman Catholic, petitioned the assembly of Pennsylvania to abolish slavery within that province. The reply was that it was " neither just nor convenient to set them at liberty." Mr. Southeby had written upon the subject of slavery fifteen or twenty years before. 1713. March 20. The Six Nations. A large Indian fort was captured in North Carolina, and the troubles in this colony apparently ended. Eight hundred captives were taken, and given to friendly tribes. A few Tuscaroras fled to New York, and were admitted as a sixth na- tion to the Iroquois confederacy. The term "Five Nations " at this date changes to " Six Nations." 1713. April 11. The Treaty of Utrecht closed Queen Anne's War. Acadia was ceded to England, and one year was given the settlers in which to take the oath of allegiance, or leave the country. New Brunswick, which had previously been in dispute, was included in the cession. 1713. Forts at Crown Point and Ni- agara were erected by the ^14-1727. te George I. King French. of England. 1713. The entire province of Maine came under the jurisdiction of Massa- chusetts. 1693-1743.] THE MATURING FORCES, 257 1715. April 13. An uprising of the Yemassee Indians took place in the Car- olinas. A great league was formed, and a massacre occurred. Over four hundred persons were slain. But the trouble was speedily put down by the energy of Charles Craven, governor of the south- ern province. A great blow was warded off partially. 1715. A law was passed in Mary- land making a child follow the condition of its mother. The original law of 1663 making the child follow its father's condi- tion, had been repealed in 1683. 1715. The logwood tree was propa- gated in Jamaica, from seed brought 1715-1774. Louis from Central America. It xiv. King of grew rapidly, and soon cov- ered the island, which has since then furnished considerable of this wood to the trade of the world. ' It is only to be found there and in Spanish America. FIRST COFFEE CULTURE.. 1715. A single coffee-plant was in- troduced into. Martinique, W. I., by Capt. Descleux, a French officer, who attempted to bring several plants from Marly, but succeeded in getting only one to Marti- nique alive. Capt. Descleux himself en- dured thirst upon the voyage rather than have this plant perish for lack of water, which was getting low on shipboard. This plant is said to have been the parent stock of all the coffee culture in the West Indies and Brazil. It was speedily in- troduced into other islands, and raised with success. 1716. Two thousand slaves were owned in Massachusetts this year. 1716. Natchez was settled by the French under Lemoine de Bienville. 17 1716. Oct. 21. A dark day " oc- curred in New England. 1716 ^ First People Were obliged to USe standing army , i i- i , . ,, i in England. artificial lights in the day- time with which to do their ordinary work. 1717. February. " The Great Snow Storm" occurred in Boston and the re- gion, blocking up all travel. 1717. June 24. Port of Boston. For three years ending with this date, twelve hundred and forty -seven vessels had cleared at Boston. 1717. August. The Mississippi Scheme. An edict was issued in France giving the celebrated John Law permis- sion to form the "Western Company " for trade and colonization in the Missis- sippi Valley. This was the beginning of the great "Mississippi Scheme." 1717. A paper mill is said to have been erected in Massachusetts. 1717. Yale College was removed from Saybrook to New Haven, because the most money could be obtained upon condition that it should be at the latter place. It received its name from Elihu Yale, one of its early benefactors. He gave about .500 in all. 1717. The first hospital in the Eng- lish colonies was opened at Boston for persons sick with contagious diseases. 1717. A merchants' exchange was for the first time permitted at Montreal and Quebec. 1717. The "Margravate of Azilia." A colony on the 'Savannah River was planned by Sir Richard Montgomery, who purchased the site for the new town. The whole region was to be symmetri- cally divided as fast as the population in- creased. It was to be a model for regu- larity and beauty, and was to be called the " Margravate of Azilia." The 258 COLONIAL LIFE. scheme was a fine one upon paper, but was a complete failure practically, be- cause no emigrants appeared. The grant was from the proprietors of the Car- olinas, and lay between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers. 1717. Montevideo, Uruguay, was founded by families from the Canary Islands. 1718. New Orleans. The site of a city was selected at the mouth of the Mississippi by the French, and named New Orleans. This was a part of the great scheme of John Law. 1718. Silk and indigo were intro- duced into Louisiana by the great " Western Company " under John Law. 1718. The first copper-plate engrav- ing in America was a portrait of Increase Mather. 1718. The first Presbyterian church in New England was founded at Derry, N. H., by colonists from the North of Ireland. The manufacture of linen by the foot spinning wheel was also first introduced into this country by these settlers. 1718. Convicts 'were transported by England at this time at the rate of two thousand a year, and were sold to settlers for a term of years. Many at the end of their service became proprietors for them- selves. In this way the English Ameri- can colonies received quite a large num- ber of settlers. 1718. Black Beard. Pirates had grown so powerful upon the coast of Carolina that a determined effort was made to put them down. Two expedi- tions were made against them, the last one of which succeeded in capturing the notorious leader of them all, known as Black Beard, though he and most of his men were slain in the attempt. WILLIAM PENN. 1718. July 3O. William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, died at Rus- combe, England, at the age of seventy- four years. Few men concerned in the colonization of America have left in his- tory a distincter name than he. He lived an eventful life, almost from his childhood. He was expelled from Christ College, Oxford University, for having embraced Quakerism, to which he was converted by Thomas Loe. He could not be con- tent to hold his new views quietly, for they had taken a strong hold upon his mind, and he considered himself under obligation to work for the truth. Rup- tures occurred at different times between him and his father, Admiral Sir William Penn, who was greatly opposed to Quak- erism, but peace was always reached again after each of these, and the estates of the admiral were left to William at the former's death. After the abrupt close of his studies, the son was sent upon a trip to the continent, and afterward put in charge of the family property in Ire- land. Having been discovered in attend- ing a Quaker meeting, he was thrown into prison, but was soon set free, although he was obliged to leave Ireland. Now began greater and sterner troubles - through his devotion to the sect whose views he had adopted so heartily. He began to preach and to publish some writings in behalf of the Quaker doc- trines. Before a great while he was thrown into the Tower, where he wrote during his imprisonment. He was once more set free through the influence of the Duke of York. But his difficulties were not at an end. In 1671 he was thrown into prison and lay in Newgate six months because he would not take an oath at his trial. " The Great Cause of 1693-1743.] Liberty of Conscience " was written by him during this confinement. His pen was almost always busy, even when he could not speak for his principles. His mind was rapidly maturing those views upon peace and toleration which were so signally manifest in what he did in col- onizing America. He again visited the continent, and was married when he went oack to England. The government had owed his father an unpaid claim of 1 6,000, and now conferred upon the son a large tract of land in America, in payment of this sum. He was to be left entirely free in the establishment of laws for the management of the colonies which might be induced by him to settle upon his territory. This was the origin of his labors in Pennsylvania, which he at first named Sylvania, but to this his name was added in spite of his objections, making it Pennsylvania or Penn's Woods. The first settlement and growth of the province were somewhat remarkable. He still labored at the cost of difficulties, and was once or twice severely accused of treasonable designs in reference to the English government. He spent a series of years in America, and in general gained the confidence of the settlers upon his territory. His friendly contact with the Indians has been a famous part of his life in the New World. He went to England in 1701 to look after his estates which had been very poorly cared for by his agent. He never returned to Amer- ica. He failed in health, and was injured mentally by an apoplectic attack in 1712. He was the subject of numerous unjust imputations all through his life, but we may safely say that they were incorrect, and that William Penn was one of the leading men of his times in everything which goes to make up genuine charac- THE MATURING FORCES. 259 ter. His sense of justice was certainly highly developed. The influence of his life may be set down as having entered into American colonization, and as hav- ing perpetuated itself along the lines of toleration and humanity. 1719. The melodies of Mother Goose began to be used in the nurseries of Boston. Thomas Fleet, who married Elizabeth, the daughter of Mrs. Vergoose, is said to have written them down as he heard them sung to his little children by his mother-in-law. 1719. " The Reasons for a Market in Boston " was the subject of a sermon preached by Dr. Coleman. Such themes were taken into the pulpit, because the press was under a censorship, and be- cause no pamphlet even could be issued without a license. The pulpit was free. At a little later period than this, matter for newspapers must be examined by the colonial secretary. Almanacs were sub- ject to examination. This hindered the growth of letters in America, and yet at the same time it promoted the cause of freedom. 1719. Large numbers of slaves be- gan to be brought into the Mississippi Valley by the French. 1719. A sect called "New Born " was founded at Oley, Berks County, Penn., by Matthias Bourman, of Ger- many. Perfectionism without depend- ence on the sacraments or on the Word of God, was their chief tenet. 1719. Bunkers or Dunkards. The German Baptists, more generally known as, Dunkards, were first established in this country at Germantown and other places in Pennsylvania. They are some- times called Tumblers because they bap- tize themselves by kneeling down and 260 pushing the head and body under the water. " Brethren " is the term they apply to themselves. They were founded in Germany in 1 708, but within ten years from this date they all came to Amer- ica. They have about 50,000 communi- cants. They practice the brotherly washing of feet, the kiss of charity, threefold immersion, and the anointing of the sick with oil. 1719. Daniel Defoe, an English author, issued " The Life and strange surprising adventures of Robinson Cru- soe of York, Manner, who lived eight and twenty years all alone in an unin- habited island on the coast of America, near the mouth of the great river Ori- noco." 1719. Dec. 17. The Aurora Bore- alis was first noticed by the inhabitants of New England, who regarded the ap- pearance with some degree of terror. 1719. Dec. 21. The Boston Ga- zette, the second newspaper in the English colonies, was established and issued by James Franklin, an older brother of Benjamin. 1719. Dec. 22. The first newspaper in Pennsylvania called the American Weekly Mercury," was issued at Phila- delphia by Andrew Bradford and John Copson. 1719. Tobacco Pipes. The first ad- vertisement of home made tobacco pipes in the colonies appeared in the Mercury, published in Philadelphia. It offered " good long Taylern Tobacco-pipes, sold at 45. per gross by the single gross, and 35. for a larger quantity, by Richard Warden, tobacco pipe maker, living un- der the same roof with Philip Syng, goldsmith, near the market place ; where also any that have occasion may have their pipes burned at 8 d. per gross." LIFE. 1719. Whaling in Davis' Strait was begun by the Dutch, who found it safe and profitable. 1719. St. Vincent, one of the West Indies, was settled by the citizens of Martinique, many of whom took up their residence in the former island. It had been left by general consent to the Caribs, until the present time. At a time unknown, some Africans had taken ref- uge in the island, and mixing with the natives, had originated the race known as " Black Caribs." 1720. Tea began to be used in Boston. 1720. Witchcraft. An attempt was- made to revive the witchcraft delusion at Littleton, Mass. The fraud was followed up closely by some persons who sus- pected it, and one of the principal agents afterward confessed the falsity of the claim. 1720. Salt springs in Southern Illi- nois were known and used at this date by the French and Indians. 1720. Lead mines were discovered and worked in Missouri by two French- men named Renault and LaMotte. 172O. Failure of John Law. John Law's great scheme for the colonization of Louisiana was entirely annihilated by the loss of public confidence in the paper shares, stocks and bonds, which he had issued in the name of the " Company." During the excitement which attended this issue, thousands of persons had rushed to Paris for speculation, men had made fortunes in an hour, money had been loaned at. a quarter per cent, for fifteen minutes, and everything was be- witched. When the end came it was a terrible blow to the thousands who were ruined. John Law himself was left almost penniless, and wandered hence- forth from place to place as a gambler, THE MATURING FORCES. Louisiana became 1693-1743.] till his death in 1729. a royal province. 1721. First Inoculation for Small Pox. The small pox raged in Boston very extensively, and more than five thousand persons were attacked. The general court adjourned to Cambridge. Cotton Mather induced Dr. Zabdiel Boylston to try inoculation upon his own children, servants, and a few others 1721. Inoculation who Would Consent to it. produced into Th j createc j great e xcite- England by La- dy Montague. ment among the citizens, and much abuse was heaped upon those who favored the practice. Two hundred and eighty-six were inoculated, and only six of them died. Of the five thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine persons at- tacked by the disease, eight hundred and forty -four died, or a very much greater proportion than in the case of those who were inoculated. Half the population of Boston was taken down by the scourge. The efficacy of the new step was proved beyond a doubt. 1721. August. " The New England Courant" was established by James Franklin in Boston, the printing of the Gazette having been taken away from him by the owner. He undertook to make the new enterprise a vehicle for free criticism, but was imprisoned. The Courant lived about six years. Benjamin Franklin set type for it, and wrote some articles for it. Disagreement between the brothers finally led Benjamin to run away to Philadelphia. 1721. First Attempt at Marine In- surance. John Copson of Philadelphia, undertook to start an office for marine insurance, and advertised to that effect, but was entirely unsuccessful, because the ship merchants felt that they could get safer insurance in other countries. This 261 was the earliest attempt at insurance of any kind on this continent. 1721. The " Apostle of Greenland." Hans Egede, a Danish clergyman from Vaagen, Norway, sailed from Denmark in the barque Hope, with two hundred and forty settlers, besides his wife- and four children. His object was to find the lost Norse colony in Greenland, of which he had read in the old chronicles, and to convert the natives. He founded a set- tlement called Godthaab or Good Hope upon Baal's River, and soon began to teach. For a time the settlement suf- fered privations, and at one time it was ordered by the government to be given up. But the perseverance of the devoted leader at last secured the victory. This colony was the beginning of modern Greenland. Egede found some slight remains of former settlers, but no settle- ment. All had perished. 1721. First Masonic Lodge. The Albion Lodge, formerly No. 17, E. R., of the city of Quebec, is the oldest lodge of Free Masons upon the American con- tinent, having been instituted twelve years before the first United States lodge. 1722. Brunswick, Maine, was burned by the Abenaki Indians. These hostili- ties were for the sake of resisting the English occupation of the province, and were incited to a very great extent by the French. This was the outbreak of the third Indian war in New England. 1722. The first paper money in Pennsylvania was issued by vote of the assembly to the amount of 45,000. It was guarded with special care to prevent its depreciation. 1722. The Timber Controversy. The strife which had raged in New England for thirty years over the confiscation of the best timber from the forests for gov- 262 COLONIAL LIFE. ernment use, did not cease. The survey- ors still went through the forests and put the king's " broad arrow " upon any tree which pleased the eye. The colonists could never submit to have their best timber culled without compensation. Difficulties continued to arise, and royal power was even then threatened by the indignant freemen of New England. The colonists were also forbidden to sell timber to Spain and Portugal. 1722. Aug. 28. Port Royal, Jamaica, was overwhelmed by the sea. This was the result of a tremendous hurricane which swept over and desolated the whole island. 1722. The University of Havana was established by a bull of Pope Inno- cent XIIL, and was afterward approved by the Spanish government. 1723. Indian wars broke out in Chili and lasted for fifty years, to the great distress of the province. 1724. May 3. A pirate vessel was brought into Boston which had been taken by John Fillmore, Edward Cheese- man, and an Indian. The pirate Capt. Phillips had taken the fishing sloop Dolphin, of Cape Ann, on the banks. Fillmore and the other sailors were im- pressed on board the captor, but finally the above three laid their plans and suc- cessfully took control of the vessel, killing three, including Phillips. Fillmore was the great grandfather of Millard Fill- more. 1724. First Mutual Benefit Society. The Carpenter's Society was organized in Philadelphia, and led the way in the long list of union societies for all trades and lines of work. At the first of the present century a great many were or- ganized. 1724. Aug. 22. Father Rale Killed. Norridgewock, Maine, an Indian village, was attacked by English settlers because of Indian outrages. Father Sebastian Rale, the Jesuit who had established himself among the Indians and become very influential among them, was slain in the attack. His death ended French power over the eastern Indians, who now grew more peaceful. 1724. Uruguay was conquered from the Portuguese by the Spanish, and an- nexed to the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. 1725. May 8. A severe fight took place in what is now Fryeburg, Maine, between a company of whites under Capt. John Lovewell, and the Pequawkett or Pigwacket Indians under Paugus, their sachem. Both leaders were killed, and the Indian tribe went farther north to live. The whites lost a score or more of men. 1725. A repeating fire-arm is said to have been exhibited in Boston by a Mr. Pirn, who had constructed it. Penhal- low,in his account of the Indian wars,, states that it would fire eleven times without reloading. 1725. The first newspaper in New York, named "The New York Gazette," was established by William Bradford. 1726. Three pirates named William Fly, Samuel Cole, and Henry Greenville* were executed in Boston. Before the execution a sermon was preached to the doomed men in Old Brattle St. church by Dr. Coleman. Capt. Fly would not go into the church, and was smiling and careless to the very last. The bodies were buried on an island which was afterward worn away by the sea. 1727. The vast importation of slaves was bitterly complained of by South Carolina. 1693-1743.] 1727. Steel. A Connecticut black- 1642-1727. sir smith discovered the way Isaac Newton. o f changing common iron 1727-1760. George //. King mtO good Steel. of England. 1727. The first levee along the Mississippi at New Orleans, a mile in length, was erected by Perier to guard against the annual overflows of trie river, which had been quite trouble- some. 1727. Oct. 29. A severe earth- quake was experienced in the English colonies. It was alarming enough to cause many persons to suspend their oc- cupations in great terror. 1728. The first newspaper in Mary- land was established at Annapolis by William Parks. 1728. James Ogelthorpe besought Parliament to interfere for imprisoned English debtors. He secured the release of many, and sent them to America. 1728. Sir William Keith suggested extending by act of Parliament the duties upon parchments to America. The effort was prevented by Sir Robert Walpole. 1728. The Log College was founded at Neshaminy, Penn., by William Ten- nent from Ireland, the father of William and Gilbert Tennent, for the education of the Presbyterian ministry. 1728. Vitus Behring was sent out by the Russian government into the seas which border upon the northeast coast of Siberia. In this trip he discovered the strait which bears his name, though it is not known that he sailed through it. This was his second voyage of explora- tion, his first not being in those waters. 1728. The great Dismal Swamp was for the first time accurately surveyed by Col. William Byrd. It lies partly in Virginia, and partly in North Carolina. THE MATURING FORCES. 263 A great deal of lumber is taken from the swamp. A canal and roads run through it in several directions. 1728. Duel on Boston Common. A duel was fought under the " old elm " on Boston Common by two young men named Woodbridge and Phillips. They met alone in the night, and used swords in their deadly encounter. Woodbridge was killed, and Phillips immediately fled to France. The affair caused a great excitement, and led to a new law against duelling. 1728. The most active known vol- cano in the world is Sangay, lying south- east of Quito. It is about seventeen thousand feet high, and has been in al- most constant eruption since this date. Its roar has been heard three hundred and forty-eight geographical miles. Every fifteen minutes it sends out a vast amount of fiery scoriae. 1729. Jan. 23. Berkeley in Amer- ica. George Berkeley, Dean of Derry in Ireland, afterward Bishop of Cloyne, ar- rived from England at Newport, R. I., in pursuance of his plans for promoting education and Christian labor. He had the idea of founding a university in America for the general good of the Anglican church, and for the conversion of the natives by training teachers to go among them. He obtained a promise of 20,000 from Sir Robert Walpole, prime minister of George I. This money was diverted to other objects by the influence of other people. Berkeley labored as a pastor among the people at Newport, but kept the idea of his college steadily in view. Waiting against hope, he at last received advice from Walpole through a friend, which convinced him that he could no longer rely upon the old expec- tations. He therefore returned to Eng- 264 COLONIAL LIFE. land. He built a house which is still standing near Newport, and the rocks in whose retreat he is said to have composed " The Minute Philosopher," are now known as Berkeley's Rocks. He left his farm and a library of eight hundred and eighty volumes to Yale College. 1729. The proprietors of Carolina sold their right in the province to the English government for 8,000. North and South Carolina were now separated, and continued to be royal provinces till the Revolution. 1729. Independence Hall, in Phila- delphia, which served till the Revolution as a State House, was also begun this year. 1729. The Old South Church in Boston was built. It was preceded 'by a cedar wood church, which 1729. Balloons invented by Gus- was built in 1670. Thus it proved that two of the most important buildings in the Revolution were built the same year. 1729. The Natchez Indians rose and massacred the French at Rosalie, on the present site of Natchez. This created the hostility which resulted in the final extinction of the Natchez tribe. 1729. Six thousand Irish emigrants arrived this year, and dispersed through the colonies, principally Maryland and Virginia. During the next ten years a large number of Irish, Scotch and Quaker families entered the Shenandoah and Monongahela valleys. 1729. The yellow fever made its first appearance in New Granada, S. A., at Cartagena. 1730. The Natchez Indians were destroyed by the French in retaliation for the massacre of the colony at Rosalie a few months before. 1730. A great earthquake in Chili destroyed all the cities and villages be- tween Concepcion and Coquimbo. 1730. April. Rum Among Indians. The Chieffs of ye Delaware at Alle- gaening on the main road " sent a com- munication to Gov. Thomas at Philadel- phia, stating that two or three recent bar- barities upon white men had been caused by rum which had been brought to the Indians, and praying that the business might be suppressed. 1731. A rebellion took place in Par- aguay under Antiquera, but it was soon crushed by the government. It ended in the flight, capture and death of Anti- quera. Another unsuccessful attempt was made in 1734. 1731. " Dr. Bray's Associates " were organized in England to promote the in- struction of negro children in the South- ern colonies of North America. 1731. The Reflecting Quadrant, in- vented by Thomas Godfrey of Pennsyl- vania, began to be used this year. It was issued in England under Hadley, by whose name it is wrongly known. 1731. First Subscription Library. A public library scheme was set on foot by Benjamin Franklin at Philadelphia. He obtained fifty subscribers at forty shillings each, to the original stock. They also agreed to pay ten shillings annually for fifty years. 1731. Fear of American Manufac- turers. The House of Commons directed the Board of Trade to make report with respect to the trade and manufactures carried on in the colonies " detrimental to the trade, navigations and manufac- tures of- Great Britain." In the report subsequently given, express mention was made of the paper mill in Massachusetts, which it was " feared would interfere with the profit made by the British mer- 1693-1743.] chants on foreign paper sent thither." The very general manufacture of shoes also frightened the English. A great number of itinerant shoemakers went from house to house and made such boots and shoes as were needed by a family for a long time. This was a custom which in some sections has continued nearly down to the present day. By such things did English merchants fear that their handsome pi'ofits would be cut off. 1731. The first newspaper in any of the present English American colonies, was issued at Barbadoes by Samuel Keimer, and was named " The Barba- does Gazette." 1732. The first newspaper in Caro- lina, named "The South Carolina Ga- zette," was issued at Charleston. 1732. The first newspaper in Rhode Island, named " The Rhode Island Ga- zette," was issued at Newport by James Franklin. His was the first printing press in Newport. 1732. " Poor Richard's Almanac " was issued for the first time by Benjamin Franklin under the name of Richard Saunders. It obtained a wide circulation through its well known wise sayings and good advice. Its maxims were copied and translated in other languages. 1732. June 9. Georgia. James Ed- ward Ogelthorpe and twenty other trustees received a charter for the terri- tory between the Savannah and Alta- maha Rivers, to be called Georgia. The charter was to run twenty-one years. The object of the colony was to provide a place for poor debtors in English prisons, many of whom were very worthy men, and willing to work. The plan met with considerable favor. The trustees were forbidden by their patent to take any land or compensation for themselves, THE MATURING FORCES. 265 whatever. The enterprise was to be sustained at first by charity in providing passage for those who were willing to go. It was also intended to make Georgia chiefly a silk and vine growing colony. 1732. The yellow fever visited some portion of the West Indies almost every year after this. 1732. Hat Act. Parliament decreed that no hat should be exported from the English American colonies, which had already begun to send these goods in large quantities to foreign countries. The same act forbade them to be carried from one province to another. This and sim- ilar laws were steps in the process of alienation. 1732. Early Modern Missionaries. Two men named Dober and Nitschman, set out from Denmark for St. Thomas, in the West Indies, having been told by a negro that a sister of his and others upon that island were longing to have religious instruction. The two missionaries had but six dollars each in their pockets when they started. They reached St. Thomas, began labor, and their mission was en- tirely successful. 1733. Feb. 12. First Colony Ever Founded by Philanthropists. Ogel- thorpe and thirty-five families founded Savannah, Ga. This colony had been selected with great care from debtors who were honest and moral. They had arrived in Carolina in Januai'y, and had received much attention from the people of that province. Ogelthorpe in the meantime went into the new region, and selected a proper site for' the colony. The men of South Car- olina helped in erecting the first buildings. Mulberry trees were planted at once. 1733. Negro Slavery in Georgia. 266 COLONIAL LIFE. The trustees passed an act excluding slavery from Georgia, because it would endanger a border province. Another reason was found in the fact that the in- habitants being poor must start upon a small scale, and therefore could not sup- port slaves. These reasons were annulled in the after history of the colony. The presence of a slave-holding province on the north made it impossible to exclude slavery perpetually. 1733. Bum in Georgia. The trus- tees also excluded ardent spirits. They however established ale-houses and pro- vided for wines and for brewing beer, because these drinks would be more wholesome and refreshing to the people. It was intended to make a temperance colony of Georgia. But violations of this occurred even among the officers of the colony. There were constant eva- sions of the law till its repeal took place in 1742. 1733. First Jewish Synagogue. Forty Jews soon arrived in Georgia and erected a synagogue, the first on this continent. These Jews were sent out by three commissioners who had been ap- pointed to collect money. This action caused great excitement among the trus- tees, who wrote to Ogelthorpe to have the Jews removed from the colony at once. Benefactions in England had ceased, and prejudice had been aroused against the colony by the presence of the Jews in Savannah. But Ogelthorpe wrote back excellent accounts of their behavior, and saw at once that they were a great addition to the working force of the province. They were therefore not molested. 1733. A complaint of Massachusetts against encroachments upon popular power, was " rebuked as a high insult tending to shake off the dependence of the colony upon the kingdom." 1733. A treaty was held at Phila- delphia with the " Six Nations," to induce them to resist the operations of the French on the upper Ohio and Alle- gheny. 1733. May 21. A treaty with the Creek Indians was concluded by Ogel- thorpe, by the terms of which mutual trade was to be carried on. The rela- tions of Ogelthorpe to the Indians were commendable, and rank with those sus- tained to the natives by William Penn and Roger Williams. The treaty was held under four pine trees on the banks of the Yamacraw. 1733. July 30. First Masonic Grand Lodge. The first grand lodge in the United States was constituted at Boston for New England, and was named St. John's Grand Lodge. Henry Price of Boston had been commissioned to do this by Anthony, Lord Viscount Montague* grand master of England. 1733. A play-house was in existence in New York, though it is not known that performances were given in it. 1733. The first paper money in Maryland was issued, and proved a great injury to the province. 1733. St. Croix, one of the Leeward Islands, was sold to the Danes by the French. It has been twice taken by the English, and twice returned. With St. Thomas and St. John it constitutes the only Danish possessions in America. 1734. March. Salzburgers. An " evangelical community " of Lutheran Salzburgers settled the village of Eben- ezer, Ga. They had fled from the long persecution which they had experienced in their own country, and were true re- ligious pilgrims. The first step toward 1693-1743.] their coming had been taken by the " London Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge" in finding out whether they would be willing to emi- grate to America. Ogelthorpe received them gladly, and aided them in preparing their settlement. Other Salzburgers came at a later date. 1734. Eight pounds of silk cocoons raised in Georgia were taken to England by Gov. Ogelthorpe. A trunk full was afterward carried. The silk was woven and shown to Queen Caroline, who was so much pleased with it that she selected a pattern from which a court dress was made. She appeared in this dress at a levee upon her next birthday. Silk cul- ture, however, was not a complete success in the colony. 1734. A colony of Schwenckfelders came to Pennsylvania. They denied the efficacy of the Bible. 1734. The old State House, after- ward Independence Hall in Philadelphia, begun in 1729, was completed. 1734. Sugar Act. Parliament passed an act for thirty years " for the better se- curing the trade of His Majesty's sugar colonies in America." Duties were laid so high as to practically exclude sugar and molasses from entering English American ports. 1734. Nov. 17. Free Press in New York. John Peter Zenger, printer of the New York Weekly Journal, which defended popular rights against the demands of the crown, was acquitted after imprisonment and trial, amid the rejoicing of the colonies. The case grew out of the demand made by the new governor of the province for salary before he arrived in America. Zenger resisted the demand with the above result. The spirit of liberty was moving through THE MATURING FORCES. 267 all the colonies in opposition to the at- tempted restrictions of Parliament. The trial was long and able. Andrew Ham- ilton, an eminent lawyer from Philadel- phia, was counsel for Zenger. 1735. First Moravian Colony. Tea Moravian families settled upon the Ogee- chee, in Georgia. This colony, the first in America, grew out of the efforts of Count Zinzendorf to promote their in- terests. They hoped to find a place in which they could freely carry out their ideas. Moravian missions were also- founded in Greenland this year. 1736. January. A colony of Scotch Highlanders settled at New Inverness, Ga. These people were among the best and hardiest of the section from which they came. 1736. The first newspaper in Vir- ginia, named "The Virginia Gazette,'* was issued at Williamsburg, where the first printing press in the colony had been set up by William Parks 1736. February. John Wesley and his brother Charles came to Georgia in a company of colonists. The former be- came the parish minister of Savannaru Charles was secretary of Indian affairs,, and chaplain to the governor. An alien- ation soon occurred between the two, but they were afterward reconciled. Charles- went to England soon, and never came back, on account of poor health. More Moravians and Salzburgers came upon this voyage. It is related that a fearful storm came upon the vessel and nearly carried it to the bottom. All were in great terror, except the Moravians. The storm broke upon them on Sunday, just at the time of service. A sudden burst of the tempest made the rest cry out in anguish. But the Moravians continued to sing the hymn which they had begun, and con- 268 COLONIAL LIFE. ducted their worship to the end very calmly. After the storm was over, John Wesley said to one of the Moravians: " Were you not afraid ? " "I thank God, no," was the reply. But were not your women and children afraid ?" ' Our women and children are not afraid to die," was the sublime response. 1736. John Wesley's Sunday School. John Wesley established a school of about forty children in the parish of Christ Church, Savannah. He put it in charge of a Mr. Delamotte, but met the school himself every Sunday evening, heard the catechism, questioned them upon the sermon, and taught them the Bible. This preceded all modern Sun- day schools, by more than half a century. 1736. The first steam engine built in America was made this year after the Newcomen type, for the copper mines of Mr. Schuyler, in New Jersey. 1736. The first bell foundry in America was established at New Haven, Conn., by Abel Parmalee, who petitioned the colony in vain for the monopoly of the business for twenty years. 1737. Paper hangings were for the first time advertised and sold in America. 1737. Sept. 19. Great Indian Walk. By a treaty arranged with the Delaware Indians, the proprietary government of Pennsylvania was to have as much land from them in the settlement of a dispute as should be determined by a walk of a day and a half. Edward Marshall, James Yeates and Solomon Jennings, were selected for the. walk. Jennings gave out upon the way, and was in poor health till his death in a few years. Yeates fell the second morning in a faint- ing spell, and died in three days. Mar- shall kept on, and at noon of the second day had walked about eighty-six miles. A line was run obliquely to the Delaware and gave great offence to the Indians, who contended that it should be run in the most direct way from the end of the walk. The affair gave rise to much trouble, and in after years, to bloodshed. The Indians always claimed that they had been cheated by the way in which the walk had been conducted. Marshall lived to be ninety years of age. 1738. May 7. George Whitefield arrived at Savannah in order to under- take religious labor in the new settle- ments. He had already caused great wonder in England by his oratorical gifts. 1738. An insurrection took place among the slaves near Charleston, S. C. Arms were procured, and a number of whites were killed. They were finally overcome by the citizens. This trouble was instigated by the Spanish of St. Augustine, who had been planning to destroy the Southern colonies. The slaves marched toward Charleston, de- stroying property and killing those who opposed them. At last they stopped to drink, and sing and dance, and while at their revelry were surrounded by the aroused planters, and subdued. 1738. Benjamin Franklin advertised the following clothes as having been stolen from him, viz: "Broadcloth breeches lined with leather, sagathee coat lined with silk, and fine homespun linen shirts." 1738. Removal of Moravians. A part of the Moravians of Georgia on ac- count of the troubles with the Spanish, which put them under the necessity of bearing arms, a thing excluded by the conditions of their settlement in Georgia, left, and went to Pennsylvania. The rest followed in a year or two. 1693-1743.] 1740. The first type foundry in America was established at Germantown, Penn., by Christopher Sower, who cast the type of the German Bible which he issued a few years later. 1740. A great fire raged i the city of Charleston, S. C., and 20,000 were appropriated by Parliament for its relief. 1740. The yellow fever made its first recorded appearance in Ecuador at Guayaquil. 1740. A law defining slavery was passed for the first time in South Caro- lina, though negroes were brought into the province by Sir John Yeamans in 1670. 1740. George Whitefield labored through Georgia, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and New England. 1740. Whitefield's Bethesda Orphan- age. A house for orphans was opened by George Whitefield in Georgia. At 1740. The Gen- first he hired a building, but afterward moved into a house built for his purpose. s ^rted tnEng- 'p^jg j an was something land by Ed-ward Cave. upon which Whitefield set his heart very strongly. He had raised some money for it in England, and pro- vided for a certain revenue in America. In about a year he had sixty-eight orphans under the care of his institution. The work went on for a while, but did not become a permanent establishment. 1740. "Great Awakening." The labors of Whitefield in New England be- gan the "great awakening" which swept through large sections with great power. His preaching was attended by crowds over which he had a most wonderful influence. 1740. A Sunday school was estab- lished among the Seventh Day Dunkers at Ephrata, Penh., by Ludwig Hoecker. tlematfs Maga- zine, the oldest in the -world, THE MATURING FORCES. 269 The school was in existence about thirty years. 1740. St. Augustine was blockaded by a force under Gov. Ogelthorpe of Georgia. He had a land force of two thousand men, but was obliged to retire at last because his ships could not get near enough to join in the siege. 1741. The Braganza, a diamond weighing 1680 carats, was found in Brazil and is now in the possession of the royal house of Portugal. 1741. A brilliant Aurora was visible in the New England colonies. The earth was completely illuminated by the apparent flame in the heavens. Rain fell in the night and looked while falling like drops of blood. This phenomenon caused great fear while it lasted. 1741. The first schism in the Pres- byterian church in America took place in the form of a " Protestation" in regard to the licensure of candidates imperfectly educated. It occurred in the synod of Philadelphia. 1741. Universalism was preached in America for the first time by Dr. George de Benneville. 1741. The first literary magazine in the country was published by Ben- jamin Franklin, and named the " General Magazine and Historical Chronicle." It died in six months. 1741. Bethlehem, Penn., was settled by Moravians. 1741. Copper money was for the first time coined in Cuba. 1741. Vitus Behring made his third and last voyage to explore the waters be- tween America and Kamschatka, and determine the separation between them. The expedition had been ten years in preparation, with great labor to the Siberians. Behring was sick most of the 270 COLONIAL LIFE. time during the trip, and was too much broken down to enter upon it. It was therefore a failure for the most part, al- though the American coast was reached, and a few landed. No investigations were made. Behring finally died on one of the Aleutian Islands, on which they were obliged to stop for the winter. He -was a Dane of certain very excellent qualities. His last voyage established the nearness of the two continents. He named Mt. St. Elias which rose before the sight crowned with snow. THE XEGRO PLOT. 1741. New York City was convulsed this year by an excitement which in its results was as fearful as the witchcraft excitement of Massachusetts. A num- ber of circumstances caused a few per- sons to suspect that a plot nad been laid by some negroes to rise and kill the whites. The matter -originated in the robbery of a shop by negroes. The governor's house and barracks were burned. A week afterward another fire was discovered, and on the following week another one. Several fires broke out within two days of the next week. Suddenly suspicion fell upon some Span- ish negroes lately brought to the colony. The fear of an insurrection at once spread like wild fire. Many negroes were ar- rested and brought forward for trial. The excitement grew by the testimony of several witnesses, among them a girl named Mary Burton, fifteen years of age. The accused were allowed no counsel, and their bearing beneath the increasing weight of false evidence, added to the popular tumult. One hundred and fifty negroes were imprisoned; one hundred were convicted of being conspir- ators; twelve were burned; eighteen were hanged. Four white persons were hanged. Twelve negroes were transported to be sold as slaves. The commotion at one time was awful. At last a reaction set in, and in a few months the revulsion was complete. It has been judged since, that if several negroes did at the time commit some misdeeds, no evi- dence of a conspiracy was really found to exist. 1742. Faneuil Hall, Boston, the " Cradle of American Liberty," was built and given to the town by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant. It was built as a market, but contained the hall, which, after rebuilding as a consequence of the fire in 1760, became so famous. This, and the Old South Church, were the two sacred spots of Revolutionary days in Boston. 1742. Franklin Stoves. An open iron fireplace was invented by Benjamin Franklin, and has since been known by his name. Its use has been very exten- sive down to the present time. At th? first a great argument for its use wai the saving of fuel and the better warm- ing of the room, than by the old brick fireplace. Franklin issued a little pamph- let explaining the principles of the stove. A friend of his began making" the castings, and the trade in them grew daily. Franklin refused an offered pat- ent upon it, affirming that as we are bene- fited by the inventions of others, we ought to dedicate ours to the general good. A man patented it in England, and made considerable money upon it. 1742. First Cotton Gin. A cotton gin was invented by M. Debreuil, a French planter of Louisiana, and entered into use. Cotton was previously separated from the seed by hand, which was a very 1693-1743.] slow process. The new gin did not prove very efficient. 1742. July. The Bloody Marsh. A Spanish force of thirty -six vessels and three thousand men arrived at St. Simons, Ga., for the invasion of the country. They were vigorously resisted, but suc- ceeded in forcing their way upon shore at last, and set out into the interior. A severe battle occurred at what has since been known as the " Bloody Marsh," but the Spaniards were almost immedi- ately deceived by a stratagem in regard to the number of troops around them, and becoming frightened, took to their ships and sailed away. 1743. Gov. Ogelthorpe, of Georgia, retired from his office this year, and re- turned to England, after a wise and effective administration in establishing that province. Great honor is due him for having founded a philanthropic colony, and for having sustained it as well as he did. Between the entanglements with South Carolina on the one hand, and with the Spaniards of Florida on the other, he needed all skill in civil and mil- itary affairs. He died after the Revolu- tion, at the age of ninety years. No THE MATURING FORCES. 271 colonial governor excelled him in rare qualities of mind and heart. 1743. Codrington College, in Barba- does, W. I., was established. 1743. The first Bible printed in America for any European population, was a copy of Luther's German Bible which was printed at Germantown,Penn., by Christopher Sower, who had estab- lished the type foundry located at that place. 1743. David Brainerd, the mission- ary, began labor among the Indians at a village between Stockbridge, Mass., and Albany, N. Y. He worked afterward among the Delawares, and among the Indians of New Jersey. His labors were very effective, and he has been cel- ebrated for his untiring devotion to his object. He died in 1747. 1743. The American Philosophical Society was founded largely through the efforts of Dr. Franklin, who was greatly troubled because the means for diffusing knowledge were no more highly devel- oped in Philadelphia. He was constantly devising ways for benefiting the commu- nity, and of stirring the people up to a sense of their own needs. SECTION XII. TJETJE7 *\A IFFERENCES between the two I V S rea t j ea l ou s nations busy col- I f onizing North America, now began ^/y to multiply. The strength of each in the new settlements was increasing steadily. Rival projects for securing the territory along the Ohio and its tributa- ries, were put into operation. The strife for the supremacy in North America was at hand. It was speedily decided, and England remained the sole power to sway the destinies of these great unde- veloped regions. She little knew that the effort of acquiring the sovereignty brought into play new forces which were to take the rule from her hands into their own. But so it 'was. The training in warfare with the Indians, the constant burdens of raising troops and money, toughened the muscle of the colonies to an endurance which was exhibited in the long and trying Revolution. The pres- ent difficulties also presented the occasion for. the agitation of the principles which had been insisted upon in minor ways, since the settlement of the country. They gave the training, and brought the crisis. 1744. King George's war began be- tween England and France,' and once 272 more set the American colonies into com- motion. 1744. A convention was held at Lancaster, Penn., between the English and the Iroquois, in order to strengthen the existing alliance, and prevent the French from gaining influence with the latter. Two hundred and fifty Iroquois chiefs and warriors were present. The result was apparently good. CAPTURE OF LOV1SBVRQ. 1745. June 17. Louisburg, the " Gibraltar of America " in its time, fell before the combined English and colo- nial forces, after a siege of about two months. The fortifications of this place were twenty-five years in construction, and cost 30,000,000 livres. It was the strongest place on the continent. The colonial troops were raised entirely by New England. Massachusetts furnished 3,200 men, Rhode Island 300, New Hampshire 350, and Connecticut 500. New Jersey and Pennsylvania reluct- antly sent some supplies, and the assem- bly of New York voted .3,000 after considerable hesitation. When Gov. Clinton of New York, who wished his province to furnish men also, found that 1744-1760.] it would not be done, he sent off some cannon at his own expense to aid in the siege. The plan for the capture of this stronghold originated with Gov. Shirley of Massachusetts, who naturally did all he could to make it a complete success. The New England colonies responded freely, because they felt that such a forti- fication near their eastern border would be a constant menace. Col. William Pepperell of Kittery, N. H., was appoint- ed to command the colonial forces. It was arranged for the land troops to be aided by the English fleet under Com- modore Warren, from the West Indies. The best possible preparation was made, and the forces were sent during March and the first of April to Canso, as a ren- dezvous. April 29 the whole fleet sailed for Cape Breton. The object of the ex- pedition had been kept entirely secret from the French, and their first knowl- edge of hostile intent against Louisburg, was upon seeing the English fleet in the offing on the morning of the last day of April. Everything thus far had served to encourage the expedition, though the possibility of beating down the strong walls seemed to some, very small. A landing was almost immediately accom- plished by a part of the troops, and store- houses were fired near the shore. The French abandoned the water battery in terror, and possession was taken of it the next morning by Col. Vaughan, with a small force. The rest of the troops were now landed, and within seventeen days three batteries were erected within seven hundred yards of the city, and one within two hundred and fifty. The courage of the volunteers of the fleet was strength- ened by the capture of the Vigilant, with six hundred prisoners, sixty-four guns, and numerous military stores. An attack 18 THE PREPARATORY DISCIPLINE. was now made upon the island battery, which it was very desirable to take. The English were repulsed with a loss of 172 men killed, wounded, and prisoners. Nearly half of Pepperell's men were now taken sick, and the ammunition was getting low. Every measure was taken to make the supplies do their best serrice. The New York assembly, when it saw that the movement was likely to be suc- cessful, voted an additional 5,000. Gov. Shirley did all he could to enlarge the effective supplies of the expedition. The fleet at last got possession of the harbor, and the besieged were becoming worn out. Communications were completely cut off, and the English forces greatly outnumbered the garrison. Gov. Du- chambou, foreseeing the inevitable result, asked for a capitulation, which was granted. The surrender was finally made upon the day afterward rendered famous by the Battle of Bunker Hill. Over four thousand regular troops, mili- tiamen and inhabitants, returned to France. A large amount of munitions of war and provisions, fell into the hands of the English. The English had lost 130 men; the French 300. The result "filled Europe with amazement, and America with joy." Gov. Shirley was transported with delight at the success of his scheme. Col. Pepperell was after- ward knighted for his achievement in this enterprise, and was presented with a silver table from London. Men fought at Louisburg who thirty years afterward served in the American army around Boston, at the opening of the Revolution. 1745. A negro conspiracy was dis- covered in Jamaica, W. I., and the lead- ers were severely punished. 1746. The Moravians were expelled 274 COLONIAL LIFE. from New York and made their way to 1746-1759. Nazareth and Bethlehem^ oj Spain ana Portugal. began his labor among the Indians, and continued it for sixty -two years with great devotion. He prepared an Onandaga Grammar and Dictionary. 1746. The College of New Jersey was founded at Elizabethtown by the "new side" of the Presbyterian church. It was afterward removed to Newark, thence to Princeton, and is now known as Princeton College. 1746. An earthquake destroyed the city of Lima and its harbor Callao, in Peru. The shocks were very violent and frequent. 1747. Silk in Connecticut. The first coat and stockings made from silk raised in New England, were worn by Gov. Law of Connecticut. The culture of silk in New England increased for many years. 1747. The first cook-book issued in America was published at Boston, and was entitled, " Directions how to dress any Common Dish." 1747. November. The Boston Mob. Commodore Knowles of the English squadron in Boston Harbor, impressed several men from the town, and caused great excitement among the people. A mob of several thousand persons gathered and demanded redress from the governor and general court. The tide of feeling rose so high through two or three days, that the men were finally released, for fear of the consequences if it were not done. The agitation was at once quieted, and the town seemed as usual. The cause of the people had triumphed in a little, and yet a significant affair. 1747. Agricultural questions were written upon by Jared Eliot, a Connecti- cut minister. His essays were very valu- able, and were the .first contributions made to this department in America. But no spread of interest took place in agricultural pursuits till after the Revo- lution. 1748. October. A conflict which had been impending for some time be- tween Gov. Clinton of New York and the assembly of that province in regard to the royal revenues, was precipitated by English influence in order to enforce the royal supremacy. It was intended to make this a test case. The struggle was continued for a time, and never came to any clear result. 1748. The treaty of Aix la Chapelle ended King George's war, and stipulated for the return to either party, of prisoners and property taken from the other. By this arrangement Cape Breton and Louis- burg came into French hands again. FIRST TELEGRAPHIC ATTEMPT. 1748. Dr. Benjamin Franklin trans- mitted shocks across the Schuylkill River, Penn., by means of electrical currents forced through wire. The fact that earth and water would complete an electrical circuit, had then only been observed for a year or two. This is a great point there- fore, in the struggle to obtain the modern telegraph. 1748. Seven bags of cotton, the first exported from America, were shipped from Charleston, S. C. 1748. The first muskets made m America were manufactured by Hugh Orr, the celebrated machinist, at Bridge- water, Mass., for the Massachusetts Bay colony. When the British evacuated Boston in the Revolution, they carried off these muskets from Castle William, Mr. 1744-1760.] Orr also made cannon at the foundry in Bridgewater. 1748. Peter Kalm, an eminent Swed- ish botanist, arrived at Philadelphia to make a tour of North America under the auspices of the Swedish government. He remained three years and made large collections of plants. After his return he published an account of his trip. 1749. The Ohio Land Company was organized and received a grant of five hundred thousand acres of land beyond the Alleghenies between the Kanawha and Monongahela Rivers, south of the Ohio. One hundred families were to be settled and a fort maintained, as the con- ditions of the grant. The company was originated by Thomas Lee, a Virginia councillor, and was formed of himself, Mr. Hanbury, a London merchant, and twelve persons in Maryland and Virginia. Lawrence and Augustine Washington were concerned in the movement. Before the company could take any active steps a French officer visited the region and buried plates of lead on the banks of the Ohio River, claiming all the land from the water-shed of the Alle- ghenies to the west indefinitely, on the ground of the explorations of Cham- plain, Marquette, LaSalle and others. 1749. June. Halifax Founded. The first permanent English colony east of the Penobscot was formed at Chebucto Harbor, Nova Scotia, and was named Halifax. This settlement was designed for the purpose of breaking up French influence, and holding the region for England. It was part of the plan for filling up Acadia with English families. Twenty-five hundred persons came in under the special inducements held out by the < ; Lords of Trade and Plantations." 1749. " A stamp duty on all instru- THE PREPARATORT DISCIPLINE. 275 ments used in legal affairs," was sug- gested by William Douglas of Boston, as a source of revenue to the English crown. 1749. First Girl's School. The Mo- ravians opened a school for girls at Beth- lehem, Penn. This was the first such school of higher character on the conti- nent. 1749. The University of Philadel- phia was founded as an academy for the instruction of youth, through the solicita- tion of Dr. Franklin. 1749. The Queen of the Creeks. An attempt was made by a half-breed Indian woman, whose original name was Mary Musgrove, and who had obtained the acknowledgement by the Creek Indians of her pretended rights as their queen, to secure for herself the province of Geor- gia. She was at the time the wife of Thomas Bosomworth, who had come to this country as a minister of the Church of England, but had turned his attention to trading among the Indians. Mary Musgrove had previously been married to a man named Matthews. She and her husband, by their machinations, caused great fear in the province. At one time they advanced with a large number of Indian followers, with the secret intention of accomplishing their design by force. But the suspicions of the whites put them upon the alert, and the vigorous steps of a few determined people warded off the danger. Great excitement existed for a while. Mary Musgrove was arrested, and finally measures were taken to convince the Creeks that their pretended queen was a fraud. The tribe finally lost their favor for her. 1750. January. A Free Pulpit. John- athan Mayhew of Boston, preached 276 COLONIAL LIFE. against the doctrine of the "divine right of kings, and non-resistance." 1750. April. The peninsula of Nova Scotia was occupied by the French in opposition to an English force. 1750. August. An engagement oc- curred in which the English gained pos- session of Chiegnecto, Nova Scotia. The first blood drawn since the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, was shed in this engagement. 1750. Steam navigation was un- successfully attempted by a farmer in Reading, Penn. SCOLD GAGGED. 1750. A theatrical company under Thomas Kean and a Mr. Murray, ex- hibited stage plays in New York. 1750. The first theatrical perform- ance in Boston took place, the piece exhibited being Otway's " Orphan." 1750. The first anatomical dissection in America was made in New York by Drs. John Bard and Peter Middleton. 1750. " The Public Whipper being dead, 20 a year is offered to a successor at the mayor's office." This appeared as an advertisement in the New York Ga- zette. This illustrates the public nature of some of the punishments of that day. In some cases through New England and elsewhere, certain things were made the subject of discipline, which do not now come within the range of legal action. The gagging of a scold in the cut gives a specimen of this. 1750. Opposition to American Man- ufactures. On account of the rapid in- crease of iron industries in America, a bill was introduced into Parliament for- bidding the erection of any rolling mill, plating forge, or furnace for making steel. After considerable remonstrance the bill failed by a slight majority, but it was at last decided that the number already in use must never be increased, under a penalty of a thousand dollars for each offence. Each mill of the kind was de- clared a " common nuisance." 1751. The Pennsylvania Hospital, the first general hospital in the English colonies, was chartered. No other was established until twenty years later, in New York. 1751. April. First Sugar Cane in North America. The Jesuit fathers of Port au Prince, W. I., sent some slips of sugar cane to their brethren at New Orleans. They were started in large gar- dens above the town near Canal Street, but the culture was not very successful, owing to lack of knowledge concerning it. Since then this has slowly risen to be the great sugar region of North America. 1752. Georgia became a royal prov- ince through the surrender of their charge to the crown by the trustees. The re- strictions upon rum and slaves now ceased entirely. 1752. The first English Bible printed in America was issued in Boston by Kneeland and Green. 1752. The first city directory in 1744-1760.] THE PREPARATORT DISCIPLINE. 277 America was issued in Baltimore, Mary- land. 1752. During a thunder storm this year, Dr. Franklin successfully established the identity of electricity and lightning. He made his experiment with a kite. It is claimed that the same discovery was made at the same time on the continent of Europe. 1752. King's Chapel, Boston, was 1752. "New erected, and was the first style," or Greg- building known to have orian Calendar A introduced into been built of American England. stone. Granite from Brain- tree near Boston, was used in its con- struction. 1752. Sept. 5. A theatrical com- pany, the first real company in America, under the leadership of one Hallam, began to exhibit stage plays at Williams- burg, Va. The company continued to give exhibitions in the larger cities till the Revolution. 1752. Hopedale, in Labrador, was settled by Moravian missionaries, who afterward obtained a grant of a tract of land. Other points were afterward oc- cupied, and the missions, though carried on under great difficulties, have continued till the present time. 1752. First Fire Insurance Com- pany. A company was organized in Philadelphia with Dr. Franklin as president, for the insurance of buildings in case of loss by fire. It took the rather lengthy name of " The Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire." It is known as the old " Contributionship," or, Hand- in-Hand Society. Its symbol was a pair of clasped hands. It still does business in Philadelphia. No other fire-insurance company was organized till thirty-two years afterward, in 1784. 1752. "Liberty Bell" was imported from England and became known by the above name after it had rung forth the joyful news of the declaration of independence in 1776. It was cracked soon after it reached this country, and was recast at Philadelphia. It was at this time undoubtedly that the prophetic inscription was placed upon it: "Pro- claim liberty throughout all the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof." LEV. xxv. 10. The crack which exists in it at present was produced by violent ring- ing in honor of a visit of Henry Clay to Philadelphia. 1753. The " Society for Promoting Industry among the Poor " at its anni- versary in Boston set three hundred young women at work publicly on Boston Com- mon, each at a spinning wheel. Other industries were represented during the day in a public procession, and domestic manufactures were much stimulated. 1753. A lottery was established in Baltimore for raising money with which to build a public wharf. 1753. The Post- Office in America. Benjamin Franklin ha*d been an assistant of Col. Spotswood, the postmaster gen- eral of America, since 1737. At the death of the latter Franklin 1753 British and Mr. William Hunter Museum founded. were appointed to succeed him. Their joint salary was to be 600 a year, pro-, vided they could get it from the business of the office. In 1757 Franklin records the fact that the office was .900 in debt to them. They afterward succeeded in making it pay them a profit for their services. 1753. French Aggression. The French seized English surveyors and traders, with one or two storehouses, in the Ohio Valley. They erected a chain 278 COLONIAL LIFE. of forts between Lake Erie and the forks of the Ohio, where Pittshurg now stands. 1753. Oct. 31. George Washington, twenty-one years old, under the com- mand of Lieut.-Gov. Dinwiddie of Vir- ginia, set out on a trip to the French posts west of the Alleghenies. He crossed the mountains with his escort in a journey of forty-one days, and found St. Pierre, the French commander. He re- ceived a sealed letter for Gov. Dinwiddie and started upon his return, after having carefully scrutinized everything. A part of the journey home was accomplished on foot through the snow with Christopher Gist, the veteran explorer. Once while crossing the Allegheny upon a raft, Washington was jerked into the stream by the ice which he was attempting to push away with his pole. With diffi- culty he swam to a small island, and es- caped the next morning by the freezing over of the river. Washington and his companion were also shot at by Indians, but escaped uninjured, and finally reached Williamsburg in safety. The result of the mission was entirely unsatisfactory so far as the French commander was con- cerned. 1754. Jan. 16. The report of Washington concerning his western journey was made to the assembly of Virginia, and 10,000 were voted for an expedition into that part of the country. The present site of Pittsburg, Penn., was chosen as the place for the first Eng- lish fort west of the Alleghenies, and a small force was sent forward to secure the spot. Works of fortification were begun. Col. Joshua Frye and Lieut. George Washington were sent on with reinforcements. 1754. March. Midway, Ga. The colony of New England people who had founded Dorchester, S. C., removed once more and settled Midway, Ga. They then entered into a mutual compact. The civil and religious government of the colony was pure and simple, and was preserved by safeguards of various kinds. The influence of the old Midway church has been worth a great deal to Georgia. 1754. April 17. Fort Du Quesne. Before Frye and Washington could reach their destination the French ap- peared, took the fort, finished it for themselves, and c'alled it Fort Du Quesne. This has been named the " date of the beginning of the hostility which was finally to decide supremacy in America.'* 1754. May 28. Washington attacked a French party under M. de Jumonville, and fired the first gun himself. The French were defeated, and their com- mander was slain. Washington, having pushed on, built a stockade at Great Meadows, and called it Fort Necessity. 1754. June 19. An American Con- gress. A convention of delegates from the colonial assemblies met at Albany,, N. Y., to strengthen the ties with the Iroquois, and take steps for a closer alli- ance of the colonies. Benjamin Franklin was a member of the convention, and was appointed upon a committee to draw up a plan for colonial confederation. A plan drawn by Franklin on his way to the meeting, was recommended by the committee, and adopted by the convention. Subsequently the English Lords of Trade refused to approve it because it seemed to promote colonial liberty, and the pro- vincial assemblies rejected it because it seemed to promote royal power. 1754. July 4. Washington was at- tacked in Fort Necessity by a large force of French and Indians, and forced to 1744-1760.] surrender after nine fighting. 1754. Columbia College, in New York city, was founded under the name of King's College. Funds amounting to $17,000 had been raised for it by lottery. 1754. Philadelphia and Boston Mail. Benjamin Franklin gave notice that the mail for New England which used to start from Philadelphia "once a fort- night in winter, would start once a week all the year, whereby answers might be obtained to letters between Philadelphia and Boston in three weeks, which used to require six." 1754. September. Edward Brad- dock was commissioned " commander- in-chief of all English forces in America." 1755. April 14. The Campaign. Gen. Braddock, who had arrived from Eng- land with two regiments, conferred with the royal governors at Alexandria, Va. Four expeditions were planned; one against Fort Du Quesne; a second against Fort Niagara and Fort Fronte- nac; a third against Crown Point, and a fourth against Nova Scotia. 1755. June. Nova Scotia was taken possession of by the English American force. 1755. June 7. The expedition against Fort Du Quesne started from Fort Cumberland on Will's Creek. It con- sisted of one thousand regulars under Gen. Braddock, and twelve hundred provincials under the subordinate com- mand of Washington. Thirty sailors were in the force. A supply of artillery was taken. 1755. July 9. Braddock's Defeat. The army under Gen. Braddock fell into a fearful ambush while nearing Fort Du Quesne, and the British regulars, unac- customed to the horrors of an Indian THE PREPARATORY DISCIPLINE. hours of severe 279 warfare, fled at last for their lives. The provincials under Washington did most of the fighting, and guarded the retreat. Gen. Braddock was killed, together with half his force. Washington received several balls through his clothing. This terrible disaster happened because Gen. Braddock persistently and haughtily re- fused to take advice concerning the march of his troops into the wilderness, being vain in the assurance that a British regu- lar could anywhere disperse a crowd of Indians. Hence he pushed on without due precautions, and entered the fatal trap without heed. The Indians gained great confidence by their success, and the pro- vincial troops learned that regulars were not invincible. Washington, Gates, Gage, Morgan and Mercer were all there, and treasured up the experience. 1755. Aug. 21. The expedition against Forts Niagara and Frontenac arrived at Oswego, on Lake Ontario. Gen. Shirley, who was in command here, built a fort and a number of boats, but did not undertake to accomplish anything further. He heard of Baron Dieskau's intended movement against Oswego from the north, and having left seven hundred men in the fort, returned to Albany. 1755. Sept. 3. The Exiled Aca- dians. The Acadians were assembled by proclamation of the English authori- ties for a purpose kept secret till they were gathered together. They were then forced to remove from Nova Scotia in vessels to other English colonies. Their property was confiscated, their houses were burned, and in the removal families were broken up, and scattered abroad. Longfellow's Evangeline pre- serves the pathos of this sad event which took place, according to Edmund .Burke 280 COLONIAL LIFE. " upon pretences that in the eye of an honest man are not worth a farthing." It is claimed now that the transaction was perfectly justifiable, but it may be doubted whether a true defence can be made. 1755. Sept. 8. Dieskau's Defeat. A French force under Baron Dieskau, who had come down from Canada, was, defeated near Lake George by, an Eng- lish force under Gen. William Johnson. Dieskau was killed. The English lost two or three hundred men; the French about five hundred. This victory very essentially changed the position of affairs and prevented the defeat of Braddock from having such an adverse influence as it would otherwise have had. The cam- paign of 1755, however, closed without any advantage to English arms. Gen. Shirley now stood at the head of the forces in America, and planned expe- ditions for the next year against Forts Du Quesne, Niagara, Frontenac, and Crown Point. HENDRICK. 1755. Hendrick was one of the most celebrated of the Mohawk chiefs. His father had been a Mohegan chief, but his mother belonged to the Mohawks. Hendrick was an intimate acquaintance of Gen. William Johnson, the superin- tendent of Indian affairs, whose residence was near the Mohawk tribe. He hap- pened to be at Johnson's house when the latter received some suits of very fine clothing from England. The Indian's love of display was aroused, and he went back to his wigwam very greatly desir- ing one of the suits. In a few days he returned and told Johnson that he had dreamed that a fine suit had been given him as a present. Gen. Johnson knew it would not do to violate Indian super- stition in regard to dreams, and accord- ingly handed over the 1 clothing. Soon after he told Hendrick that he also had had a dream to the effect that the Indian chief had given him a tract of land com- prising over five hundred acres in the best part of the Mohawk Valley. Hen- drick gave the land, but did not wish to dream any more with the Englishman. When the French and Indian war broke out Hendrick and his warriors, under the influence of Johnson, aided the English. He fell in the battle of Lake George, O ' together with about forty of his followers. Hendrick's death caused great sorrow among the Mohawks, and it was with difficulty that they could be prevented from taking their revenge upon the French prisoners. This chief was nearly seventy years of age at the time of his death. The English had regarded him with respect, and had often sought his advice. 1755. Nov. 18. A severe earthquake was felt in New England, which twisted and threw down chimneys, and some brick buildings. No severer shock has ever been felt in New England. 1755. Nov. 24. Twelve Moravian missionaries were slain at Mahoney, Penn., in an attack of the Indians upon that place. 1755. A German printing press was set up at Philadelphia by the London Society of Religious Knowledge. 1755. The first permanent settlement in Eastern Maine was made on Penob- .scot Bay by Gov. Pownall, of Massa- chusetts. 1756. May 17. War was formally declared by England against France. 1756. June 9. War was formally de- 1744-1760.] THE PREPARATORT DISCIPLINE. 281 clared by France against England. The French now sent Louis Joseph, Marquis de Montcalm, to command all their forces in Canada. He was a man of great " experience and ability." 1756. June 25. Gen. Abercrombie arrived in America to command the English forces till the Earl of Loudoun, who was to serve as commander-in-chief, could come. 1756. July 3. An engagement oc- curred between an English force under Col. Bradstreet and a force of French and Indians, near Oswego. The advan- tage remained with the former. 1756. July 29. The Earl of Loudoun arrived in New York as commander-in- chief. He was described by a wit on account of his slowness, as being " like St. George on the signs, who is always on horseback, and yet never rides on." 1756. Aug. 14. Fort Oswego was taken by a French force under Mont- calm. Sixteen hundred men, one hun- dred and twenty cannon, six vessels, and three hundred boats, besides large stores, fell into the hands of the French. Eng- land had thus carelessly lost its farthest out- post, besides valuable supplies. The forces under Gen. Webb, which had started for Oswego, turned back when they heard of the capture. Montcalm destroyed the post. The campaign of 1756 closed, with little attempted, and less accom- plished. Actual loss had befallen the English arms. The English expeditions against Fort Du Quesne and Ticonder- oga were abandoned. 1756. Oct. 7. The Indian village of Kittanning in Western Pennsylvania, was destroyed by three hundred whites in re- venge for the injuries inflicted upon the border settlements by the Delawares. 1756. The population of New York city numbered at this time about twelve thousand. 1757. February. Pennsylvania's Dis- content. Owing to the constant effort of England to reduce popular power in America, Benjamin Franklin was chosen agent by Pennsylvania, in which prov- ince the discontent had been severe, " to represent in England the unhappy state of that province, that all occasion of dispute hereafter might be removed by an act of the British legislature." 1757. The House of Commons adopted the resolve " that the claim of right in a colonial assembly to raise and apply public money by its own act alone, is derogatory to the crown, and to the rights of the people of Great Britain." This was circulated at once throughout America. 1757. June 20. The Earl of Loudoun sailed from New York for the capture of Louisburg, but went no further than Halifax. Here he delayed with a splen- did army of ten thousand men, till he heard that the French fleet at Louisburg exceeded his own fleet by one or two vessels, upon which he sailed back to New York. 1757. Aug. 9. Fort William Henry was captured by the French under Mont- calm. At the surrender a guard was guaranteed to the survivors as far as Fort Edward, but the Indian allies of the French fell upon and slew large num- bers of the departing garrison. The French officers tried very hard to stop the massacre, but the savages would not stay till they had had their fill of blood. Montcalm especially was almost frantic, and besought the Indians to kill him rather than his prisoners. A terrible scene was enacted. The fort was destroyed and abandoned. Gen. Webb was at Fort 282 COLONIAL LIFE. Edward, fifteen miles distant, and did not offer to reinforce the doomed post. The campaign of 1757 was a spectacle of inef- ficiency on the part of the English, who were now driven from the entire St. Lawrence and Mississippi valleys, and hemmed in to a narrow range of Atlan- tic settlements. The colonies began to notice the defects in the management, and to claim certain rights, if they were to vote taxes and raise men. But Wil- liam Pitt now became Prime Minister of England, and by his wonderful power reconstructed affairs in America. 1758. February. Destitution of Can- ada. The French in Canada suffered extremely for lack of supplies. The province had been in arms so constantly that the cultivation of the soil had been neglected. One half pound of bread was given daily to each soldier, and two ounces of bread daily to each citizen of Quebec. The people were much weak- ened by hunger. Yet Montcalm had a wonderful influence in keeping the spirits of all cheerful. 1758. The English Army. Gen. Abercrombie, temporarily in command, had x an army of fifty thousand men, composed of twenty -two thousand Brit- ish and twenty-eight thousand provincial troops. The whole male population of New France was less than fifty thousand. 1758. March. Two hundred Amer- icans were destroyed near Fort Ticon- deroga by a force of Iroquois Indians. JONATHAN EDWARDS 1758. March 22. Jonathan Edwards, the greatest American metaphysician, died at Princeton, N. J., at the age of fifty-four years. He had been installed President of Princeton College February 1 8, only thirty-four days before his death. He was inoculated because of the exist- ence of small-pox in the vicinity of Princeton, and died through the severe form which it took in his system. He was one of eleven children, himself the only boy among them. He exhibited signs of mental ability at a very early age. He entered Yale College in his fourteenth year, and so.on fell in with philosophical works, particularly with Locke's " Essay on the Human Under- standing," which revealed in his enthu- siasm over it, the metaphysical tendency of his thought. When not more than fifteen he began to think very steadily upon philosophical themes. Before he graduated from college he formed a theory of the will, and of virtue, in con- nection with which subjects he has es- pecially been known. At the close of his collegiate course he began his studies for the ministry, and after serving as tutor in Yale for a time, he was settled as col- league of his grandfather, Solomon Stod- dard in Northampton, Mass., 1727. By Mr. Stoddard's death two years later he became sole minister of the church. In 1 734 he began a line of preaching which was followed by a great revival, which spread before a long time to other places,, and deeply influenced the whole country. His chief topic was justification by faith alone. Traditions concerning the preach- ing of some of his sermons still linger in the region where he was settled. He used very little gesture in preaching, but gave many signs of his entire surrender to the thought in mind. He afterward had a conflict with the church over the " Half Way Covenant," in which many held that upright persons should be ad- mitted to the communion, because they were thereby more likely to be converted. Edwards held that conversion should 1744-1760.] THE PREPARATORY DISCIPLINE. 283 precede communion. The former view prevailed, and Edwards was forced to resign in 1 750. In a short time he began labor among the Housatonnuck Indians at Stockbridge, Mass., where his wife and daughter helped increase a small salary by their own skill in work. From this time he studied more intensely, and thought more profoundly. He wrote a " History of Redemption," and several essays, one of which upon the Will, has influenced the thought of the world quite widely. At the present his conceptions have very largely passed by. No Amer- ican theologian has ever taken hold of his own time and the next few genera, tions more powerfully. No greater mind has appeared in this country. Such a mind marks an epoch. The wonder- ful power of human thought seems well nigh amazing in the development of such a spirit. We may well say this, while we also say that his thought was one-sided, and therefore injurious. But he helped preserve the reverence of New England for God. 1758. The money raised by Massa- chusetts for the war was kept under the control of its own commissioners, much to the annoyance of the royalists. 1758. July 6. Lord Howe, a young English officer serving under Abercrom- bie, was killed in a skirmish with the French during the advance on Fort Ticon- deroga. Massachusetts erected a monu- ment to him in Westminster Abbey. 1758. July 8. Fort Ticonderoga was unsuccessfully attacked by Gen. Abercrombie with a force of sixteen thousand men, of whom he lost two thousand. Gen. Amherst was appointed in Abercrombie's place. 1758. July 27. Louisburg was taken from the French by the English under Gen Amherst and Admiral Bos- cawen. The entire region of the Gulf of St. Lawrence passed into English control. James Wolfe and Richard Montgomery served in the army against Louisburg. The inhabitants of Cape Breton were sent to France, but the sol- diers and sailors, to the number of nearly six thousand men, were sent to England. Two hundred and twenty-one cannon, eighteen mortars, and a large supply of ammunition were taken in this victory. This stronghold which had now changed hands for the last time, was abandoned^ and the English centered at Halifax. 1758. Aug. 27. Fort Frontenac was taken by a small force under Brad- street. This gave the control of Lake Ontario to the English. Military stores > thirty cannon, sixteen mortars, and nine vessels were taken. The fort, seven ves- sels and such stores as could not be car- ried off, were destroyed. 1758. Israel Putnam was captured by an Indian force, but his life was saved by a French officer. 1758. Sept. 14. A battle was fought near Fort Du Quesne, between a British detachment under Major Grant and a force of French troops, in which the former was wholly defeated, most of the number being taken prisoners, or slain. 1758. Nov. 25. Fort Du Quesne was entered by Washington with a de- tachment of British troops from the army of Gen. Forbes. The French evacuated and destroyed the fort during the previous night. A new fort was erected, and named Fort Pitt, in honor of William Pitt. The city which grew up around it has become known as Pittsburg, one of the most important centers of iron man- ufacture on the continent. 284 COLONIAL LIFE. 1758. Peace was concluded at a council held at Easton, Penn., with the Iroquois, Delawares and other Indians living between the Ohio and the great lakes. The campaign of *75^ ^ad changed the condition of affairs in Amer- ica very decidedly. 1758. Taxes on real estate during this war were at times two-thirds of per- sonal incomes. 1758. Seventy thousand hogsheads of tobacco were exported from Virginia this year. 1758. The first sugar mill within the limits of the present United States, was set up near New Orleans by M. Debreu- ieul, who began to work on a larger scale than the Jesuits had done a few years before. But sugar was not made successfully till 1764, and not even then did the culture become thoroughly estab- lished. 1759. May. Guadeloupe, W. I., was taken from the French by an English fleet, which thus gained possession of one of the best harbors in the world. The capture was only accomplished after a siege of three months. 1759. July 25. Fort Niagara was taken from the French by an English force under Gen. Prideaux, who was killed in the action. 1759. July 29. Fort Ticonderoga was evacuated by the French while Gen. Amherst -was advancing upon it with eleven thousand men. 1759. July 81. Crown Point was evacuated by the French, who retired to Isle aux Noir. Gen. Amherst did not pursue them beyond Crown Point, at which place'he went into winter quarters, and occupied himself with building up extensive fortifications. 1759. July 31. An unsuccessful attack was made by an English army which had been lying before Quebec, upon the French outside of the city. This siege of Quebec was the greatest attempt the English had yet made in French America. 1759. Sept. 3. The Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, and 1684-1759. all Portuguese dominions, Handel. by a royal edict. This was on account of the great power with which the Jes- uits were building up their missions in- Paraguay and elsewhere. CAPTURE OF QUEBEC. 1759. Sept. 13. A great battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham out- side of Quebec, between the English forces under Gen. James Wolfe, and the French forces under Gen. Montcalm. The English troops had lain before the city for two months, and at last Wolfe and a part of his army climbed the cliffs of the St. Lawrence which had been deemed inaccessible, and at daybreak gave battle to the astonished foe. The ascent was accomplished in the night, and had been planned for with consider- able care. It was found impossible to take the city, except by a surprise. Gen. Wolfe rose from a sick bed to lead the effort. As he neared the place of land- ing he repeated to those in the boat with him a verse from Gray's " Elegy : " "The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour; The paths of glory lead but to the grave." He also remarked : " I would rather be the author of that poem than to have the glory of beating the French to-mor- row." The cliffs were climbed, the amazed French strove to drive back the now desperate foe. Wolfe fell, and shortly 1744-1760.] died, living just long enough to learn that the French were giving way. Montcalm was also mortally wounded. To-day a monument stands in the " Gov- ernor's Garden," which slopes toward the river in Quebec, and equally commemo- rates the bravery of these two represen- tative soldiers. 1759. Sept. 28. Jorullo, a volcano on the Pacific slope of Mexico, was sud- denly created in the night during an earthquake agitation in that region, which had been entirely free from such disturbances previously. Sugar and in- digo fields abounded in the vicinity. Rumblings were heard and felt for sev- eral months before this great outbreak. A half dozen eminences were raised at the time from the plateau. Jorullo at- tained a height of sixteen hundred feet above the plain, or four thousand two hundred and sixty-five feet above the level of the sea. Flames burst forth, and lava flowed for months. Vegetation was entirely destroyed, and the face of the country changed. Within the past fifty years cultivation has been begun in the vicinity. No agitation of the volcano is now apparent. 1759. Trouble with, the Cherokees, who had never been involved in feuds with the whites, was brought on by Gov. Littleton, of South Carolina. 1759. The first marine insurance office in America was opened in New York. The business was carried on by obtain- ing individual underwriters among rich men who would become responsible for a certain amount of the ship or cargo. Another competing office was opened during this year. 1759. The first horn combs made in America were produced in West New- THE PREPARATORT DISCIPLINE. bury, Mass. Horn-smiths 285 were soon doing a fine business. 1759. Dominica, one of the Leeward Islands, was assumed by Great Britain, having previously been neutral ground. It was confirmed to England at the treatv of 1763. 1760. Cherokee War. A large force sent out by Gen. Amherst, invaded the country of the Cherokees, burning their villages, and killing the natives. The troops were driven back from the Ten- nessee valley by the enraged Indians. Fort Loudoun, on the Tennessee River, was taken by the Indians, a portion of the garrison being killed, and the rest kept as captives. 1760. March 20. A great fire oc- curred in Boston, consuming three hun- dred and forty-nine buildings, and $500,- ooo worth of property. 176O. April 28. The French, with a force of seven thousand men under De Levi, fought a great battle with the English force under Murray at Sillery, near Quebec. The contest was desper- ate, because the French felt that power in America was passing out of .their hands. The English lost a thousand men, but the French were finally re- pulsed. The chief agency in defeating the French was the sight of an English fleet, which arrived unexpectedly, having defeated a French fleet in the Bay of Chaleur. 1760. May 17. The siege of Quebec was raised by the French, who aban- doned their camp with forty cannon. 1760. May. Fresh royal orders were issued by the English government for the enforcing of the neo-mo. oppressive navigation acts, G r e IIf - ' King of Eng- in order to gain a revenue land. for the payment of the expenses of the 286 COLONIAL LIFE. war in America. It was declared that crown officers would be empowered to search anywhere for smuggled goods under cover of writs of assistance issued by the court. Benjamin Franklin now appeared before the Board of Trade to defend American liberty, and to show that the prosperity of the colonies was greatly interfered with. 1760. The appointment of Thomas Hutchinson to the supreme bench as chief justice of Massachusetts, occasioned a. great outburst of patriotic indignation, because of his loyalist sympathies. 1760. Sept. 8. Downfall of Canada. Montreal surrendered to the combined English forces, and all Canada passed under English dominion. 1760. Nov. 29. A party of rangers penetrated into Pontiac's country and took possession of Detroit. It was at this time that Pontiac began to lay his plans for the extermination of the whites. 1760. A whale fishery which the French had never known, was discovered at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. 1760. Castine, Maine, was settled by the English. 1760. The first printing in Texas was done by the Spaniards. 1760. The New York and Philadel- phia mail was arranged to be sent each way every week by a line of coaches. 1760. The United Brethren in Christ were established among the Germans in Lancaster Co., Penn., by Philip William Otterbein, who had come to this country as a missionary of the German Reformed church, but came to believe that he had experienced a new change in his spiritual life. The church is evangelical in its characteristics, and has steadily in- creased in numbers and strength. 287 PART IV. 1761-1824. "Point to the summits TV here the brave have bled, Where every village claims its glorious dead; Say, when their bosoms met the bayonefs shock, Their only corselet was the rustic frock; Say, when they mustered to the gathering horn, The titled chieftain curled his lip in scorn, Yet, when their leader bade his lines advance? No musket wavered in the lion's glance; Say, when they fainted in the forced retreat, They tracked the snow-drifts with their bleeding feet, Yet still their banners, tossing in the blast, Bore EVER RE. AW, faithful to the last? HOLMES. SECTION XIII. OI 7 E it remembered," said Daniel Webster, "it was a thinking community that achieved our Revolution before a battle .had been fought." When the French and Indian war closed, the need of enforcing the navigation and other acts was freshly considered in England. This caused an immediate agitation in America. The minds of the people had been trained for a long time in thinking about taxation and similar questions. The executive influence had been weakened by the war, and transferred from the colonial gov- ernors to the colonial assemblies, which had been places of debate over many a problem. Caucus, club, and town meet- ings began to multiply for political dis- cussions. The "tea meetings" in the different cities were indications that the people intended ever after to freely con- sider enactments relating to themselves, and to freely condemn those they thought unjust. In this way parties began to be more distinctly outlined. Opinion as to the rights of freemen or the power of Parliament, was sharper cut and more positive. The names " whig " and " tory " were first used simply as in England to denote those who opposed the adminis- tration, and those who favored it. They came only later to designate those who favored separation from the mother coun- try, and those who opposed it. BIRTH OF INDEPENDENCE. 1761. February. A burning speech was made before the supreme bench of Massachusetts against the enforcement of the Acts of Trade and Writs of Assist- ance, by James Otis, who had resigned his office of advocate-general, in order to appear in behalf of the people. The special question at issue was the legality of the Writs of Assistance, which were warrants issued by the supreme court, authorizing deputy collectors to search any place or building for the discovery of smuggled goods. It was granted that government had the power to issue a writ for the searching of a special build- ing designated in the writ, but it was denied that writs could lawfully be issued to enable a deputy to search wherever he pleased. Mr. Otis used all his eloquence, which was very wonderful, to prevent the granting of such writs. Upon the large crowd gathered to witness it, the speech of Mr. Otis had a most powerful effect. " To my dying day," he said, " I 291 292 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. will oppose with all the powers and fac- ulties God has given me, all such instru- ments of slavery on the one hand, and villainy on the other." " Then and there," said John Adams, " was the first scene of the first act of opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great Britain. Then and there the child Independence was born." Writs of assistance were after- ward issued by the court, but never used, except slightly, if at all. 1761. A prohibitory duty upon im- ported slaves was voted 1761. Potatoes f first planted in by the Virginia assembly, France. largely through the in- fluence of Richard Henry Lee. South Carolina took similar steps. 1761. Dec. 9. Judicial Commis- sions. The colonial governors were in- structed to issue no judicial commissions except at the pleasure of the king, instead of as formerly during good behavior. This aroused great hostility, as serving to make judges subservient to the will of the king. 1762. The island of Martinique in the West Indies was captured from the French by an English force under Monckton and Rodney. 1762. The yellow fever raged at Philadelphia with terrible severity. 1762. Aug. 11. Havana was cap- tured from the Spanish by an English fleet under Lord Albemarle. This put the most advantageous port in the West Indies into English hands. They held it till the peace of Paris which occurred in 1763. 1762. Anthony Benezet of Philadel- phia, a Quaker, issued a book in oppo- sition to the slave trade. 1762. A fur company was founded at New Orleans. The trade of this company led to settlements along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. 1762. A negro insurrection took place lasting but a brief time, in British Guiana, S. A. 1762. Oct. 19. A dark day oc- curred at Detroit, Mich. Rain fell, which is said to have been " of a dirty sulphu- rous smell." 1762. First Canal Route. A canal route was surveyed between the Swatara and Tulpehocken Creeks in Pennsylvania,, by Drs. Rittenhouse and Smith. 1762. The longest drouth ever known in America occurred in the sum- mer of this year, when no rain fell for 123 days in succession. 1762. Trade was allowed for the first time in Cuba by the Spanish gov- ernment. The country had previously lived by smuggling, which began after the English took Jamaica in 1655. 1762. Yellow fever made its first re- corded visitation in Cuba. . 1763. Feb. 10. The Peace of Paris. A treaty was made between England and Portugal on one side, and France and Spain on the other. England re- ceived certain West India islands, Flor- ida, Louisiana as far as the Mississippi River, except the island of New Orleans, Acadia and Canada. The English were to destroy fortifications which they had erected in Honduras and Campeachy, and be protected by Spain in the cutting of logwood. France retained two small islands as a resort for fishermen on the banks of Newfoundland, and received Guadaloupe and Martinique in the West Indies. Spain received New Orleans, all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, and Havana, Cuba. 1763. Pontiac's War. A plot was formed among the western Indians to 1761-1774.] THE DAWN exterminate the English. Pontiac was the leading spirit. The plot was discov- ered in March by Ensign Holmes, who commanded at Miami, but it was deemed of no great importance. 1763. April 27. Pontiac held a great council in which he made a long speech opposing the supremacy of the English. A unanimous agreement was reached to begin the war by an attack on Detroit. 1763. May 6. Major Gladwyn, the commander at Detroit, received informa- tion either from an Ojibwa maiden or Canadian settlers, that an Indian attack was intended on the morrow. 1763. May 7. Pontiac, with three hundred followers, entered the fort at Detroit, but saw the instant he passed the gate, that his plan was known to the garrison. The soldiers and hunters were all in arms, and when Pontiac, in spite of this sight, seemed about to give the signal, the roll of a drum overawed him, and he desisted. 1763. May 9. Pontiac, thwarted in his first purpose of massacring the gar- rison, besieged the fort. 1763. May 16. The fort at San- dusky, on Lake Erie, under Ensign Paull, was taken by the Indians. 1763. May 25. The English gar- rison at the mouth of the St. Joseph, un- der Ensign Schlosser, was destroyed. 1763. May 27. Tort Miami, near Fort Wayne, under Ensign Holmes, was taken. 1763. June 2. Miehillimackinac was taken by a massacre at a given signal during an Indian game of ball. 1763. June 22. Presque Isle, now Erie, Penn., under Ensign Christie, was taken. About the same time Fort Le Boeuf and Fort Venango were taken. OF STRIFE. 293 1763. July 31. Bloody Bridge. An attempted attack on Pontiac's camp near Detroit was betrayed, and the party was almost entirely destroyed by an ambush. 1763. Aug. 5. Bushy Run. An English expedition under Bouquet for the relief of Fort Pitt, fought a severe battle with the Indians. The action went against the English until Bouquet feigned a retreat and drew the savages into a close body, when a renewed attack was made, with the utter defeat of the Indians. This victory recovered the Ohio valley from Indian power, and had a great influence in discouraging all the western tribes, who now began to learn that they could expect no aid from France. The French in Illinois were active in trying to persuade the Indians to lay down their hostility. Gen. Am- herst offered a reward of .100 for killing Pontiac. Steps were soon taken toward peace. 1763. Oct. 12. Most of the Indians sued for peace, and expressed their sub- mission to English authority. 1763. Oct. 30. The Ottawas, find- ing the hopelessness of their cause, also sued for peace. The siege of Detroit, however, was still continued until the summer of the next year. 1763. The site of St. Louis was selected by the two brothers August and Pierre Chouteau, as a post for trade with the Indians. The present name was conferred upon it. 1763. The first newspaper in Ha- vana, Cuba, was established. A postoffice department was also founded on the island. 1763. Paper hangings made in Amer- ica were presented to the Society of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, at New York, and were approved . by that body. 294 RE VOL UTIONART S TR UGGLES. This was the beginning of the manufac- ture and use of wall paper in this country. The sheets were thirty inches long, and were stamped by means of blocks of wood. 1763. The capital of Brazil was re- moved from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. 1763. Dec. 14. The Conestoga Mas- sacre. A remnant of Indians living at Conestoga, Penn., were murdered by a party of men from Paxton, near the Susquehanna, on account of frontier depredations" laid to their charge. 1763. Dec. 27. Some of the Indians who had not been at the village at the time of the massacre, and who had been collected and lodged in the jail for safety, were murdered by the Paxton men, who broke open the building, and killed them all. 1763. Postmaster General's Trip. Dr. Franklin, postmaster general of the English colonies in America, rode through the country in a chaise to ex- amine the office, and perfect all the ar-^ rangements of the department. His daughter Sally went along for company, sometimes riding in the chaise with her father, and sometimes riding horseback upon a steed taken with them for her convenience. The trip which they made took them five months, and can now be made in five days. 1764. Feb. 4. Paxton Boys at Philadelphia. A remnant of the Mora- vian converts of Pennsylvania had been removed to Philadelphia for safety about' the time of the Conestoga massacre. The Paxton boys undertook an expe- dition to Philadelphia in order to seize the Indians. The latter were at one time sent off for New York, but a mes- sage was received upon the way saying that they would not be allowed to come into that province. The authorities ordered them out of New Jersey, and the only thing to be done was to return to Philadelphia. Finally at this date the " Paxton Boys " appeared near Philadel- phia. Preparations were made to receive them severely, and they, learning the ex- tent of the feeling against them, were induced to return home without attempt- ing violence. 1764. March. The Right of Taxation. The right of Parliament to tax America was discussed in the House of Commons with considerable heat. The Sugar Act of 1734 was expiring, and Grenville wished to repass it in an amended form, providing that a revenue be raised in America by a tax virtually direct. This raised the storm. The decision was in favor of taxation, though with great op- position. It was made legal for any vessel of the English navy to seize and examine a merchant ship coming to America. England was far from wise in all these attempts. The largest part of her commerce was with America. Property in England had increased one- half its value because of American trade. 1764. The first medical college in the English colonies was organized in Pennsylvania University 1697-1764. through the labors of Drs. Hogarth. Shippen and Morgan. It became the Medical School of Philadelphia." Only one other was founded before the Revo- lution, at New York, in 1767. 1764. New Hampshire Grants. The English crown decided upon appeal that the Connecticut River was the line be- tween New Hampshire and New York. A great dispute had existed over the land now embraced by Vermont. New Hampshire had made land grants at Bennington as early as 1 749. New York 1761-1774.] THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 295 had undertaken to regrant the land. The Green Mountain boys had combined to resist the latter. The dispute existed down to the Revolution. 1764. The Connecticut Courant was established at Hartford, Conn., by Thomas Green. It is the oldest news- paper of continuous publication in the country. 1764. Brown University was char- tered in Rhode Island under the auspices of the Baptist denomination. It was opened at Warren, and afterward removed to Providence. 1764. The first printing press in the valley of the St. Lawrence was set up at Quebec. No printing press or village school had been allowed in Can- ada or Louisiana during French occu- pation. 1764. The Sandemanians. Rev. Robert Sandeman came to Danbury, Conn., and established a colony of relig- ious people who had previously been known as Glassites, from Rev. John Glass of Dundee, Scotland. This sect originated by a separation from the Scotch Presbyterian church. 1765. March 22. The famous Stamp Act which had passed Parliament the previous month, was signed by the king. It provided that legal documents of all kinds must be written on paper bearing a stamp costing from three cents to six pounds; that every newspaper and pamphlet should bear a stamp costing from one half penny to four pence ; and that each advertisement should pay a duty of two shillings. The paper for legal documents was to be bought only of tax collectors. 1765. May 29. The famous reso- lutions of Patrick Henry were offered to the Virginia assembly. They op- posed taxation by anybody save a gen- eral assembly of the colony. The im- mediate cause of the resolutions was the announcement by the Speaker of the passage of the Stamp Act. Many patri- otic souls were roused, and Patrick Henry, twenty-nine years old, and full of the enthusiasm of liberty, at once wrote his five resolutions upon a blank leaf torn from a law book lying at hand. He declared in them that the American colonists ought to possess all the charac- . teristics of English freedom, prominent among which was the right to levy taxes, a right possessed by no body save one which represented the people who were to pay the taxes. The offering of these resolutions produced great excitement. The idea of violently opposing the ob- noxious measure was repulsive to many. Others were not ready for the position which they afterward took. The whole movement was sudden and surprising. Mr. Henry defended his resolutions against all odds, and displayed his most fiery eloquence. At one point in his powerful harangue he exclaimed, "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third when the Speaker, Mr. Robinson, sprang up and shouted, "Treason! Treason!" In an instant many members were on their feet, and the cry of" Treason!" was heard from all parts of the house. Mr. Henry maintained his fearless attitude, and in a hush of the disturbance, con- tinued, " may profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." The resolutions were adopted, the last, however, by a majority of one only. After Mr. Henry's departure on business the next day, the last one was reconsid- ered and rejected. But they were pub- lished in their first form, and in other 296 RE VOL UT I ON ART STR UGGLES. equally decisive forms, and their effect was tremendous in uniting the colonies for the coming 1 struggle. 1765. A colonial congress was pro- posed by Massachusetts in a circular sent out this month, suggesting that such a body meet at New York in October. 1765. Aug. 14. Boston Biots. The effigy of Andrew Oliver, who had been appointed stamp distributor, was hung on Liberty Tree, in the edge of Boston. It was taken down at evening by the Sons of Liberty, and was borne in procession. The mob increased in violence, and Oli- ver's house and office were assaulted and injured very much. 1765. Aug. 26. The residence of Chief Justice Hutchinson of Massachu- setts, was torn open and ravaged by another mob, because of his sympathy with the project of taxation. The records of the admiralty court were also burned. Mobs took place in other colonies, and the stamp distributors, unable to bear the public scorn, began to resign. 1765. Oct. 7. An American con- gress of twenty-seven delegates from nine of the thirteen colonies, met at New York and drew up a Declaration of Rights, a Petition to the King, and a Memorial to both Houses of Parliament. Timothy Ruggles of Massachusetts was president, and John Cotton, secretary. The president and Robert Ogden, of New Jersey, would not sign the papers. Ruggles was reprimanded in the Massa- chusetts assembly, and Ogden was de- posed from the position of Speaker of the New Jersey assembly. 1765. Oct. 31. Non-importation Agreements. New York merchants met and agreed that certain articles should not be brought into the country from England after the next first day of Jan- uary. The merchants of Philadelphia and Boston followed with similar action. 1765. Nov. 1. The Stamp Act be- came a law. Business ceased, and a general gloom overspread all the colo- nies. The day was a day of intense feeling. The people soon undertook to supply their own needs with articles which had hitherto been imported. Do- mestic manufactures began everywhere. The " Daughters of Liberty " were or- ganized in Boston for the purpose of spinning, knitting and weaving. The manufacture of maple sugar and molas- ses began in New England. A number of people in New York formed a society, agreeing not to wear foreign cloths, and en- gaging to encourage home manufactures. 1766. The Stamp Act was repealed, but was accompanied by the claim on the part of Parliament to exercise power over the colonies in any way whatsoever. For nearly three months the discussion had gone on in Parliament. The resolu- tion to repeal was introduced by Conway. Edmund Burke made his first speech in this debate. The Mutiny Act had been applied to America, in order to quarter troops in American cities. 1766. Pontiac, after having tried with a fearful desperation to rouse the western tribes and save his cause, at last gave in his formal submission to Sir. William Johnson, and ended all his efforts to thwart the power of the English. 1766. The New York Society of Arts offered a prize of ten pounds for the first three iron stocking looms set up, five pounds for the second three, and fifteen pounds for the first one which should be made in the province. 1766. The first Methodist preacher in America was Philip Embury, who had labored in the Irish Methodist con- 1761-1774.] ference before coming to this country. He found a company of Irish Methodists in New York City, and gathered them into a little congregation in his own house. A little later they met in a rig- ging loft. In this work he was aided by a Capt. Webb, who had been ordained by Wesley as a local preacher. A woman named Barbara Heck was also prominent in the movement. 1766. Oct. 31. A terrific earth- quake destroyed Cumana on the coast of Venezuela in a few minutes, and con- tinued to disturb the region for fourteen months. 1767. April 2. The Jesuits of Spain and all Spanish colonies were arrested at the same time by preconcerted action, and expelled from the countries. The work was not done with entire success in Cali- fornia, Mexico, or Western South America. 1767. June 29. Townsend's bill, placing a duty on glass, paper, painters' colors, and tea imported into America, passed both houses of Parliament and received the signature of the king. The news of this aroused the feelings of the colonists, which had been quieted by the repeal of the Stamp Act. 1767. Swamp Law. Numerous quarrels were arising between the loggers 2767. spinning- of New Hampshire and je^ny invented by ^ k j , officers> J n Barnes Har- greaves. many cases the summary whipping and driving away of the officers had resulted. This became known as Swamp Law. 1767. First White Man at Saratoga Springs. Sir William Johnson was car- ried on a litter to the spring known by the Indians to exist, to avail himself of it for a remedy. This was the " Round Rock," or High Rock Spring. THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 297 1767. First Visit to Kentucky. John Finley and others visited the pres- ent State of Kentucky, their trip being the earliest recorded exploration of that region. 1768. April. A terrible eruption of Cotopaxi, S. A., occurred. Ashes were carried one hundred and thirty miles. 1768. June 8. British troops were ordered to Boston. Boston patriots began to be filled with a deep spirit of antagonism. This was a wild year in Boston. The governor had dissolved the legislature, and would not call another. 1768. June 10. The ship-of-war, Romney, came to Boston and at the sug- gestion of the commissioners 1768. Royal of customs seized the sloop A< ?1[?? f . Art * * established in Liberty for an alleged vio- England. lation of the revenue law. The Liberty was owned by John Hancock. Great excitement followed for several days. The patriots claimed that a legal process ought first to have been filed. The commissioners at last went on board the Romney for fear of personal violence. A great mass meeting was held at Faneuil Hall and then at the Old South church, where James Otis and others spoke eloquently for liberty. The im- pressment of men for sailors, an offence which the officers of the Romney had committed, and the rumored bringing of soldiers to Boston, were added to the seizure of the Liberty as causes of agita- tion. A committee was sent to Gov. Bernard who afterward promised to re- dress their grievances in respect to im- pressments, but said that he could not control the Board of Customs. 1768. June. The New York as- sembly refused to vote supplies for troops which were on their way to that city, though requested to do so by the governor. 298 RE VOL UTIONA R T S TR UGGLES . 1768. September. A mass meeting was held in Faneuil Hall to discuss pub- lic affairs. James Otis was chosen mod- erator. It was resolved that " the inhab- itants of the town of Boston will at the utmost peril of their lives and fortunes maintain and defend their rights, liberties, privileges, and immunities." 1768. Sept. 22. A Massachusetts convention met and remained in session for six days. Ninety-six towns were represented. By this and the Boston town meeting the provincial rights were drawn out more clearly. Local self- government was now the great basic principle of the patriot cause. The right of Parliament to make any laws what- ever for the colonies, began to be denied by some. The equality of the provincial assembly with Parliament itself was an idea fast gaining ground. The sentiment of union was also growing up. These things only exasperated the English gov- ernment. Lord North said, " Whatever prudence or policy might hereafter in- duce us to repeal the late paper and glass act, I hope we shall never think of it till we see America prostrate at our feet." 1768. Oct. 1. Seven hundred British soldiers under Lieut.-Col. Dalrymple, were brought up from Castle William, Boston harbor, and marched to the common, where they encamped. Within a month or two, parts of other regiments were also lodged in the city. These troops staid till after the Boston massa- cre. A long contest ensued in obtaining quarters for the troops. The town per- sistently refused to furnish them, and the officers were obliged to fit them up at the expense of the government. The bad character of the soldiery and the sight of military drills had a demoralizing influ- ence upon the life of Boston. The effort to obtain the removal of these troops is the key to the politics of Boston until the blood of her citizens was shed, nearly two years later. 1768. Jonathan Carver returned to Boston from an exploration of several years in the interior of the North Amer- ican continent. He reached the Minne- sota River in his travels, and made numerous charts and journals, some of which were subsequently published. Great doubt has been thrown upon his publications by some, and it is affirmed that Mr. Carver never made the trip, but compiled his account from the reports of others. He received something from the English government, which he soon spent. He afterward spent a long time in trying to secure further remuneration, but was denied it. 1768. The New York Chamber of Commerce was founded, and received a charter two years later. 1768. The manufacture of carriages o was begun in New York by two Irish- men named Elkanahand William Deane r who came from Dublin, bringing their workmen with them at great expense. " They were prepared to make coaches^ chariots, landaus, phaetons, post-chaises, curricle-chairs, sedans, and sleighs, five per cent, below the importation prices." Very few carriages of any kind had been made or used in the English colonies be- fore this time. 1768. Anthracite coal began to be used by two blacksmiths named Gore, in Pennsylvania. They made it burn in their forges, but it did not come into use in other ways, because of the difficulty of kindling it. 1768. The Aleutian Archipelago, and a portion of the coast of Russian Amer- ica were explored and surveyed by a 1761-1774.] THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 299 Russian expedition under Captain Kre- nitzin. 1768. The celebrated "Farmers' Letters to the inhabitants of the British colonies " were issued, and had a wide circulation in America. They dealt clearly with the infringement of colonial rights by royal power, and set forth in strong terms the need of redress. They were published in London, with a pref- ace by Benjamin Franklin. These let- ters were written by John Dickinson of Maryland, whose pen afterward prepared some of the most important papers of the first Continental Congress. He was, how- ever, subjected to great criticism because he opposed the adoption of the Declara- tion of Independence, which he honestly thought to be premature. He was clearly a true patriot, and fought at one time as a private soldier in the American army. 1769. Earliest Church Discipline for Slave-holding. The Congregational church of Newport, R. I., had members involved in slave-trade and slave-holding. Dr. Samuel Hopkins, who this year be- came their pastor, at once fearlessly took stand against it, and as a result the church soon voted, " Resolved, that the slave trade and the slavery of the Africans as it has existed among us is a gross viola- tion of the righteousness and benevolence which are so much inculcated in the gos- pel, and therefore we will not tolerate it in this church." This action, and the issue of a pamphlet by Dr. Hopkins, had a speedy influence in New England. 1769. First House in Kentucky. Daniel Boone and five companions visited Kentucky. They explored that beautiful "Middle Ground" and hunted along its valleys, till at last Boone was left in autumn with one brother, the rest having returned to the settlements, save one who was slain by the Indians. The two brothers remained for the winter, and built a temporary hut, the first house in the present State of Kentucky. 1769. Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., was chartered and began instruc- tion the next year under Eleazar Whee- lock, D. D. It grew out of a school which had been established by Dr. Wheelock at Lebanon, Conn., for the education of Indian children. 1769. The first life insurance com- pany in America was chartered in the State of Pennsylvania, to insure the lives of Episcopal clergymen. It was known as the Protestant Episcopal Association for the Benefit of Widows and Children of Clergymen of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Dr. Richard Price and Dr. Franklin were highly interested in it, and prepared rates and rules for it. 1769. Samuel Hearne, an English explorer under the order of the Hudson Bay company, left the Prince of Wales' fort in the company's territory on a trip of exploration to discover copper mines and a Northwest passage. He spent nearly four years in the work, and during the time passed down the Coppermine River to the Arctic Ocean, at the north o'f the British possessions. The journals of Mr. Hearne lay for years unappre- ciated. They were finally brought to light, and published. PONTMC. 1769. This chief was a member of the Ottawa tribe of Indians which had formed a confederacy with the Ojibways and Pottawattamies. The authority of Pontiac in the confederacy was very great. Major Rogers, who led a party through the territory of this chief in 1760, was much struck with Pontiac's kingly 300 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. air, and with the respect shown him by his followers, and could not refrain from admiring the strength of mind, good judgment, together with the desire for knowledge displayed by him. Pontiac had for a long time been the firm friend of the French. On the accession of the English to power he found himself nearly unnoticed, and his people oftentimes treated with contempt. He saw his peo- ple diminishing, and their hunting grounds growing small. He therefore began to meditate the overthrow of the English. His speeches to the Indian councils, and his great efforts to achieve success, all showed him to be a man of remarkable native gifts and strength of character. No other Indian history has so much of lengthened unflagging efforts. Many tribes had at last become tired of the long war, and in spite of all he could do, Pontiac saw many of his followers leav- ing him. In September, 1765, he held a grand council with George Croghan at Detroit, at which a treaty of lasting peace was made. He afterward lived peaceably on the banks of the Maumee, and although there was some discontent manifested by some of the tribes in the region, it is not known that Pontiac had anything to do with it. In April, 1769, he paid a visit to St. Louis. He was dressed in a full French uniform which had been presented to him by the Mar- quis de Montcalm. He crossed the river one day to a place where some Illinois Indians were holding a council. Here he was killed unawares by an Indian who had been bribed with a barrel of whiskey to commit the deed. His body was buried with the honors of war by St. Ange, the commander of St. Louis. Immediately upon the announcement of his death a war sprung up which resulted in almost the total extinction of the tribe among which he had been killed. 177O. Jan. 17. Liberty Pole Ex- citement. A great gathering of citizens took place in New York around the liberty pole which had been cut down the night before by British soldiers. Speeches were made and resolutions passed, affirming the rights of the people. Quarrels took place on the streets for several days. Another liberty pole was soon erected in another place. 1770. Feb. 22. A young man named Snider was murdered in a quarrel between soldiers and citizens in Boston. 1770. March 2. A fight occurred at Gray's rope-walk in Boston, between a soldier and a workman. The former, together with several other soldiers who interfered for him, were beaten off. 1770. March 5. Boston Massacre. A quarrel arose gradually in the evening on the streets of Boston near the old State House, between the soldiers and the citizens. A portion of the main guard were called out to quiet the dis- turbance, and a fray took place. The soldiers fired, killing three and wounding eight, two of them mortally. Crispus Attucks, a mulatto, was the first to fall. Capt. Preston and several soldiers were committed to jail, and afterward tried, but all were acquitted save two soldiers who were convicted of manslaughter. 177O. March 6. Removal of the Troops. A mass meeting was held in the morning in Faneuil Hall, and later in the day in the Old South church, and a committee was sent to Gov. Hutchinson to demand the removal of the troops from Boston to Castle William, in the harbor. Gov. Hutchinson at first refused to order it, but, convinced finally of the 1761-1774.] stern disposition of the citizens, consented to do so. The day was one of great ex- citement throughout the city. 1770. March 8. The funeral of the three persons who were killed in the Boston massacre, and the one who had died of his wounds, was observed with great parade. Business was closed, and bells were tolled. 1770. March 10. The troops were removed from Boston to Castle William, and not again brought to the city till 1774. 1770. April 12. The Tea Tax. The tax on imports to the colonies under the " paper and glass acts " was repealed by Parliament, except a three per cent, tax on tea. 1770. July 6. Boston harbor was made a rendezvous for all British war vessels on the American coast. Castle William was ordered to be strengthened. These measures freshly excited the people. 1770. August. A leaden statue of George III. ordered four years previously by New York at the request of the cit- izens because of their joy over the repeal of the Stamp Act, was set up in Bowling Green. A marble statue of William Pitt was also set up in another part of the city. 1770. The right to hold slaves in the State of Massachusetts was denied by the superior court in the case of James vs. Lechmere, which was brought by a negro to recover his freedom. Slaves were, however, held afterward, and the most decisive conclusion in the matter was reached in the constitution of 1780. 177O. A law defining slavery was for the first time passed in Georgia. 1770. Homespun clothes were worn by the graduating class at Harvard College, in taking their degrees. 1770. Rutger's jCollege, formerly THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 303 called Queen's College, was founded at New Brunswick, N. J., by the Reformed Dutch church. WHITEFIELD. 1770. Sept. 30. George Whitefield, the famous preacher, died at Exeter, N. H., upon a tour through that State. He had preached steadily at Boston and Portsmouth for nearly the entire month, and was upon his return from the latter place. He spoke at length on Saturday the 29th, at Exeter, but complained after- ward of a compression of the lungs. He was stopping with a Rev. Mr. Parsons, and when he was ready to retire he spoke at length from the top of the stairs to people who had gathered in the lower hall. The candle in his hand burned out, and the great preacher^ retired to his room. He died the next morning in a fit of asthma. His remains lie in Newbury- port, Mass., beneath the pulpit of White - field church. Mr. Whitefield was born at Gloucester, England, Dec. 16, 1714, and was therefore not quite fifty-six years of age. He had crossed the waters sev- eral times, and had labored with "great results in many of the American colonies. His preaching was of that kind which is peculiarly persuasive and effective when it falls from human lips. One loses its force when transferred to print. He was eminently an orator in his power over a vast crowd of human beings. He caused men to weep who had hardly ever wept before. He played upon the emotions of his hearers at his will. In both England and America his preaching was attended by crowds. His strong, clear voice en- abled him to speak in the open air with great power. He was instrumental in changing the character of many pul- pits in both lands where his labors were 304 RE VOL UTLONAR T STR UG GL ES. known. His work was one of the phenomena of the eighteenth century, and tradition of his wonderful dramatic gifts will long remain. Many a crowd has been thrilled by a single tone of his voice. His work will always remain. 1771. North Carolina Regulators. In some of the poorer countries of North Carolina, a rebellion had been in exist- ence for one or two years against the extortions and severity of the provincial tax collectors. The people had resisted all authority, and assumed the name of Regulators. 1771. May 16. A battle was fought on Alamance Creek, between the "Reg- ulators" and a force of militia under Gov. Tryon. Several were killed upon both sides, and many of the " Regula- tors " were taken prisoners, six of whom were soon hung by Tryon. A feeling of hatred still existed, although the open rebellion had ceased. Many of the " Regulators " afterward became patriot soldiers, although some of them also be- came royalists. . 1771. Boys of Plymouth. Elkanah Watson in his " Men and Times of the Revolution," describes a school of which he was a member till he was fourteen years of age. " This school was kept by Alexander Scammel and Peleg Wads- worth; both afterward distinguished offi- cers of the army. In common with the other patriotic spirits of the age, they evidently saw the approach of the com- ing tempest. I remember them intently studying military tactics; and I have often seen them engaged in a garden ad- joining my father's, drilling each other. They formed the boys into a military company, and our school soon had the air of a miniature arsenal, with our wooden guns and tin bayonets suspended round the walls. At twelve o'clock the word was given 'To arms!' and each boy seized his gun ; then, led by either Scammel or Wads worth, we were taught military evolutions, and marched over hills, through swamps, often in the rain, in the performance of these embryo mil- itary duties. A sad and impressive com- mentary upon the effect of these early influences is afforded by the fact that half this company perished in the conflict of the Revolution." 1772. June 1O. Burning of the Gaspee. The Gaspee, a British schooner of eight guns under Lieut. William Ducl- ingston, which had been sent into Nar- ragansett Bay to prevent smuggling, and had caused much angry feeling by its de- mands on the shipping of Rhode Island, was boarded at night by sixty-four men from Providence, and destroyed by fire after the crew had been removed. One shot was fired, which wounded Lieut. Dudingston. Mr. John Brown, a Prov- idence merchant, seems to have inspired the plan. A reward of JCi,ooo was offered by the British government for the leader, but, though the actors were known to the citizens of Providence, no evidence could be obtained against them. In 1775 Sir James Wallace, then block- ading Narragansett Bay, wrote to Abra- ham Whipple, who, it was now known, was the leader of the company which burned the Gaspee, as follows: " You, Abraham Whipple, on the loth of June, 1772, burned his majesty's ves- sel, the Gaspee, and I will hang you at the yard-arm. JAMES WALLACE." The following reply was received " Sir: Always catch a man before you hang him. ABRAHAM WHIPPLE." 1772. Nov. 2. First Committee of 1761-1774.] Correspondence. A town meeting in Boston at Faneuil Hall appointed what seems to have been the first committee of correspondence in the colonies. Samuel 1772. somerset Adams was the originator decision deciar- o f the movement. It con- ing slavery *..>. i England uncon- sisted of twenty members, stitutionai. one o f whom was Dr. Jo- 1689-1772. i-ixT- T^U E,nanei s- seph Warren. The com- denborg. mittec met at once, and issued a letter to all the towns of the State. Other towns soon appointed sim- ilar committees, and thus the first real organization of whig patriotism began to take place. This method of commu- nication was subsequently in use between the States. 1772. "The Flying Machine," a stage for passengers, was advertised to run from New York to Philadelphia, making each trip "in the remarkably short time of two days." 1772. Effectual Penalty for Intoxi- cation. An intoxicated negro who re- ceived the punishment in vogue in New York for drunkenness, viz : "Three quarts of warm water, and salt enough to operate as an emetic, with a portion of lamp oil to act as a purge," died from the infliction of it. 1773. March. The Virginia assem- bly elected the first inter-state committee of correspondence to represent the prov- ince in communication with the other provinces. 1773. A Shrewd Attempt. The British government decreed that the East India Company which had seventeen million pounds of tea shut up in ware- houses because the Americans would not buy it, could send tea to the colonies with- out paying an export duty, and thus be able to sell it at a lower price than any other nation. It was hoped that this THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 305 would entice the Americans to pay the import duty, and thus surrender the prin- ciple they had been pleading for. Dur- ing the summer cargoes of tea were laded for America. 1773. Oct. 15. A tea meeting was held in New York to consider the ques- tion of receiving tea from England. Patriotic resolutions were adopted. 1773. Oct. 16. A tea meeting was held in Philadelphia. Resolutions were passed declaring the sending of the tea to be " an attack on the liberties of America." 1773. Nov. 3. A tea meeting was held under the "Liberty Tree" in Bos- ton. A committee waited upon the con- signees of the tea and requested them not to sell the cargo when it should arrive. The request was denied. Other meet- ings were held repeatedly. There was constant solicitation, private and other- wise, brought to bear upon the authorities to secure the rejection of the tea. 1773. Dec. 16. Boston Tea Party. A mass meeting was held in the Old South church, at which it was voted to allow none of the tea to be landed from the ships which had now arrived at the harbor. The ships were ordered back to England, but the authorities refused to allow them to depart. Before the ad- journment of the meeting, about fifty men disguised as Indians proceeded to the three ships and threw the tea, three hun- dred and forty-two chests in all, into the water. It was done in perfect order, and at the close the whole gathering dispersed. The persons who committed the deed have never been certainly known. They seem to have been bound by an oath of concealment which was apparently never broken. During the breaking up of the chests a Capt. O'Connor filled his pockets 306 RE VOL UTIONAR 1 STR UGGLES. with tea, and attempted to jump into a boat to go ashore, but a person who had noticed his operation grabbed him by the skirts of the coat, which were torn off in the struggle. The next day the skirts were nailed to the whipping-post of Charlestown, and attracted a great deal of attention. 1773. Dec. 26. A mass meeting was held in Philadelphia, at which it was voted that the tea ship now in the river should depart as soon as possible. The command was obeyed. A meeting was held in New York with similar results. The tea which had been landed in Charleston, S. C., perished in the cellars where it had been stored. 1773. The Mendon Convention. A convention which must have been the first, or nearly the first of its kind, was held in the town of Mendon, Worcester County, Mass., for the discussion of the situation. It is of interest, as having pro- duced a paper which prophesies the Dec- laration of Independence. It is quite lengthy, but among the resolutions it con- tains, are statements " that all men have an equal right to life, liberty, and prop- erty ; that all just and lawful government must originate in the free consent of the people; that a right to liberty and prop- erty, which are natural means of self- preservation, is absolutely inalienable, and can never lawfully be given up by our- selves, or taken from us by others." 1773. The first asylum for the insane in this country was opened at Williams- burg, Va. 1773. The first hut erected on the site of Saratoga Springs was built this year by Derick Scowton. 1773. Earthquake. Guatemala, the capital of the province bearing the same name in Central America, was destroyed completely by an earthquake. It was not rebuilt at all till 1799. 1774. Jan. 29. Benjamin Franklin appeared before the Privy Council of England in support of a petition of Mas- sachusetts sent the year before for the removal of Gov. Hutchinson and Lieut.- Gov. Oliver from that province. This petition, was caused by the publication of certain letters written by them to the English government, advising the with- drawal of colonial liberties from the province. These letters had been ob- tained by a Dr. Williamson, who gave them to Franklin. By him they were sent to Boston,where they were published. The petition was dismissed by the king " as groundless, vexatious, and scan- dalous." During the hearing Solicitor Wedderburn in a long speech on the col- onies, abused Franklin with the coarsest invective, to which the philosopher lis- tened calmly. It is said that when he undressed in his lodgings he vowed he would not wear that suit of clothes again till he signed the papers for the separa- tion of the two countries, and that he wore the suit for the first time afterward in 1783, when he served as commissioner for the United States in signing a treaty of peace with Great Britain. 1774. Jan. 30. Franklin received a notice deposing him from the position of deputy postmaster general, which he had held with benefit to the colonies by the appointment of the English government in 1 753- 1774. March 31. The Boston Port Bill, having passed Parliament, was signed by the king. By this act all commerce was to be shut out from Bos- ton, and the government offices were ordered to be removed immediately to Salem. 1761-1774.] 1774. May 12. A meeting of dele- gates from nine towns around Boston 1774. Drawing was held at Faneuil Hall, frame for cotton to consider the oppressive /;/ ^ 'ented b v Rob- c ,, -r-, , , ert ArJmrifki measures of the English 1728-1774. Oliver government, and to urge Goldsmith . THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 307 stricter adherence to the non-importation agreement. Meetings were subsequently held in other towns. A circular letter was drawn up to be transmitted to other colonies. 1774. May 13. An appeal for aid was added to this letter, in view of the severity of the effect which must be felt by Boston through the operation of the Port Bill and other measures. The cir- cular letter prepared during these two days was carried to the other colonies by Paul Revere. 1774. May 17. Gen. Gage, who had been appointed governor of Massachu- setts in place of Hutchinson, landed at Long Wharf, Boston. Troops were to follow him to the city. He was instruct- ed to arrest the leaders of the patriots, and send them abroad. 1774. May 20. The Massachusetts Government Bill. A bill for the better regulating the government of the prov- ince of Massachusetts Bay, having been passed by Parliament, was signed by the king. It provided for the appointment of the governor's council and supreme court by the crown, forbade the holding of town meetings without the consent of the governor, and provided for the sum- moning of juries by the sheriff, who, with other minor officers, were appointees of the governor. These changes were all in violation of the charter. 1774. May 20. " The Murder Act." Another bill was signed by the king this day, which became known as " the mur- der act," because it provided for the re- moval from the province for trial of all such persons as were charged with mur- der in upholding the authority of the crown. It was entitled "An Act for the more impartial administration of justice in said province." These two bills, to- gether with the Mutiny Act, which had already been extended to America, and provided for the quartering of troops upon rebellious provinces, and the Quebec Act which sanctioned the free exercise of the Roman Catholic religion in Canada, in order to secure its loyalty, were all ap- proved, and became laws in spite of the protests of Edmund Burke and others. 1774. May 25. The Virginia Pro- vincial Assembly. Gov. Dunmore, be- cause of his loyalist sympathies, dissolved the House of Burgesses on account of their patriotic action. The members went to the Raleigh tavern in Williams- burg, and originated the Virginia Pro- vincial Assembly. They voted to recom- mend a general congress according to the suggestion of New York. 1774. June 1. The Boston Port Bill went into effect, and the day was very generally observed as a day of fast- ing and great solemnity. This bill was thoroughly executed by Gen. Gage, and almost all business was immediately suspended. 1774. June 7. The last colonial as- sembly of Massachusetts met at Salem. Patriotic resolutions were introduced. The time and place for a continental congress were decided; delegates were elected thereto, and resolutions passed, concerning non-importation. Gov. Gage, hearing of their action, sent his secretary to dissolve them, but members of the as- sembly locked the doors, preventing the entrance of the official until they had 308 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. done their business and adjourned in reg- ular order. 1774. June 14. Troops were brought from Castle William into the city of Boston in view of the enforcement of the Port Bill. At later times other compa- nies were added to the force. 1774. -June. Aid for Boston. South Carolina sent two hundred barrels of rice to Boston; Windham, Conn., two hun- dred and fifty sheep; Schoharie, N. Y., five hundred and fifty bushels of wheat; Georgia seven hundred and twenty dol- lars in specie, and sixty-three barrels of rice. These were specimens of the gifts which came pouring in. A " Donation Committee " had the distribution of these materials in charge. 1774. July 6. The great " Meeting in the Fields," as it was called, was held by the citizens of New York to consider the situation of affairs. Among others Alexander Hamilton, then a young man at Columbia College, addressed the people. It was his first speech in public, and was made after great persuasion, but by its thrilling eloquence in pleading for the great principles at stake, it proved that an eminent career was before its author. 1774. July 11. Sir William John- son, who had had a powerful influence over the Six Nations, and had been prominent in previous wars as Indian agent, died. He is known for the natural alliance with Mary, the sister of the great Mohawk sachem, Joseph Brandt. His nephew, Guy Johnson, and his son Sir John Johnson, succeeded to his power, and were both of them hot tories. 1774. Aug. 6. Shakers. " Mother Ann " and nine other prominent Shakers arrived in New York from England, and the most of them settled at what is now Watervliet, near Albany. These emi- grants had originally been members of the Quakers, but separated through a divergence of opinion. The full idea of the Shaker family was not entertained by Mother Ann Lee till a few years after coming to America. Finally, con- verts to her doctrines increased in num- bers, and in a score of years about a dozen Shaker societies had been or- ganized. 1774. Sept. 1. Powder Alarm." Gen. Gage seized some provincial stores including two field pieces, at Cambridge, and two hundred and fifty half barrels- of powder at Charlestown powder house. He then began to fortify Boston Neck. ' This caused an excitement in Boston, and in some way the report spread through New England that war had begun- Boston was full of great agitation. The selectmen remonstrated with Gen. Gage against the fortifications, and a long con- test of words ensued. The city was for a time full of club, caucus and committee meetings. From some hasty message the word went forth that bloodshed had already occurred. Immediately the patriots of New England began to pour toward Boston, and before the report could be contradicted thirty thousand men were on their way to take a part in the great contest which was thought to have been begun. This uprising of the New England yeomanry showed the growth of the feeling of resistance. Meantime the people were attaining a skill in de- liberation, which the more speedy out- break of hostilities would have prevented. Town meetings multiplied, and people everywhere were thinking deeply. 1774. Sept. 5. First Continental Congress. Delegates from twelve col- onies met at Carpenter's Hall, Philadel- phia, and organized themselves into a con- 17(51-1774.] THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 309 tinental congress by the choice of Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, as president, and Charles Thomson, of Philadelphia, as secretary. The latter was not a member of the body, but because of his fitness for the position, continued to be secretary of the continental congress till its final disso- lution fifteen years afterward. Patrick Henry made the first speech at the open- ing of the session, when there was a slight hesitation in proposing business, and gave by his eloquence a patriotic inspiration to the whole subsequent delib- 1774-1793. erations. Mr. Randolph Louis xvi. presided again at the open- King of France. j ng . gession Q f May j O , 1 775. 1774. Sept. 22. The merchants of the colonies were requested by a vote of congress " not to send any order to Great Britain, and to delay the execution of any order already sent." 1774. Sept. 26. All the carpenters who were at work on soldiers' barracks quit, and refused to have anything more to do with them. Gov. Gage could find none in Boston, and not for a long time, in New York. Merchants would not sell goods to the soldiers. 1774. Oct. 5. First Massachusetts Provincial Congress. The general court of Massachusetts had been called by Gen. Gage the first of September, but when he learned what they would try to do, he issued a proclamation revoking the call. They met and waited a day for the gov- ernor, and then organized as a provincial assembly. 1774. Oct. 8. Commendation of Massachusetts. It was voted at Phila- delphia that congress approves " the opposition of the inhabitants of Massa- chusetts Bay to the execution of the late acts of Parliament, and if the same shall be attempted to be carried into execution by force, in such a case all Americans ought to support them in their oppo- sition." 1774. Oct. 10. A great battle was fought on the Ohio River between eleven hundred Virginians under Col. Andrew Lewis and nearly one thousand Indians. Bancroft says it was the most bloody and best contested in the annals of forest warfare. 1774. Oct. 14. A declaration of colonial rights was drawn up and passed by congress. 1774. Oct. 15. Burning of Tea. An attempt was made to import some tea in a cargo of goods which came to Annapolis, Md., in the ship Peggy Stewart from London. But the anger of the people, who resolved that no tea should be landed, induced the owner to burn the ship and its contents. 1774. Oct. 20. The American As- sociation. A series of articles drawn up under the above heading was adopted by congress for the sake of maintaining the rights of the colonies. The second arti- cle was " that we will neither import nor purchase any slave imported after the first day of December next, after which time we will wholly discontinue the slave trade, and will neither be concerned in it ourselves, nor will we hire our vessels nor sell our commodities or manufactures to those who are engaged in it." Arti- cles like this had been adopted at meet- ings for the election of delegates in Vir- ginia, North Carolina, and other colonies. Jefferson said in the exposition of British rights which he laid before the Virginia o convention : " The abolition of domestic slavery is the greatest object of desire in these colonies, where it was unhappily fixed in their infant state." This senti- ment was generally diffused through the 310 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. colonies. The above articles of associa- tion were adopted everywhere, in the southern colonies as well as in the north- ern. The union agreed upon, virtually rested on the introductory compact to carry out the above and several other things. Subsequently most of the States took measures to abolish the slave traffic, which was not renewed till 1803, by South Carolina. Some of the colonies had at this time laws for the gradual abolition of slaveholding itself. Most persons, however, condemned the slave trade before there was any strong oppo- sition to slaveholding. 1774. Oct. 22. Henry Middleton of South Carolina, was temporarily elected president of the continental con- gress to succeed Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, who was unable to serve longer on account of ill-health. 1774. Oct. 26. The first " commit, tee of safety " was created by the Mas- sachusetts provincial assembly to take charge of the province, to organize the militia, to provide stores, and direct all subordinate matters. This committee was really the leading power in the colony. 1774. Oct. 26. The first congress adjourned to meet May 10, 1775. They adopted a few days before an " Address to the people of Great Britain," and a "Petition to the King," besides several less important papers. They also had voted to discountenance gaming, cock- fighting, exhibitions of plays, shows, and other expensive diversions and enter- tainments. 1774. November. " Minute Men." The Massachusetts provincial assembly ordered the enlistment and drilling of twelve thousand " minute men." It also took steps to provide for military stores and the manufacture of ammunition. It also elected general officers for governing the province. 1774. Nov. 1O. A proclamation denouncing these acts, was issued by Gen. Gage. 1 774. November. The war with the western Indians which had been raging through the summer, was closed by a treaty of peace. 1774. December. Seizure of Can. non. News came that the king had forbidden military stores to be exported from the ' kingdom to America. The citizens of Providence, R. I., at once seized forty cannon from a fort near Newport. 1774. Dec. 14. Seizure of Powder. The citizens of Portsmouth, N. H.,, seized one hundred barrels of powder at a fort in the harbor. 1774. Dec. 15. Another party dis- mantled the fort, and carried off small arms and a few cannon. 1774. Dr. Adams, a tory, of Arling- ton, N. Y., was tied up and exposed upon " Landlord Fay's sign post where was fixed a dead catamount," for some offence given to the patriotic sentiment of the place. 1774. Removal of Plymouth Rock. An attempt was made to remove Ply- mouth Rock from its bed to a place in town where it would command general attention. But while it was being raised to the carriage, it broke apart and fell. One portion only was removed. The other was again embedded in its original home, and over it a beautiful granite canopy has been erected in recent years.. The piece removed has been in 1880 re- turned to its position with the other. 1774. Slavery Among Quakers. The society of Friends in Philadelphia, at its- 1761-1774.] THE DAWN OF STRIFE. 311 yearly meeting took action withdrawing fellowship from all members who con- tinued to buy negroes. The matter was brought up in other yearly meetings a -little later. William Burling, of Long Island, Ralph Sandiford of Philadelphia, Benjamin Lay, John Woolman and An- thony Benezet, were largely instrumental in securing the cessation of slavery ambng Quakers. Their testimony was con- stantly borne against the inhumanities of the custom. Benjamin Lay was especially earnest in his testimony everywhere. " Calling on a friend in the city, he was asked to sit down to breakfast. He first inquired, ' Dost thou keep slaves in thy house?' On being answered in the affirmative, he said, 'Then I will not par- take with thee of the fruits of thy unright- eousness.' After an ineffectual attempt to convince a farmer and his wife in Chester county of the iniquity of keeping slaves, he seized their only child, a little girl of three years of age, under pretense of carrying her away, and when the cries of the child and his singular expe- dient alarmed them, he said, * You see and feel now a little of the distress which you occasion by the inhuman practice of slave-keeping.' On one occasion he seated himself in a meeting of Friends among slaveholders with a bladder of bullock's blood secreted under his mantle, and at length broke the quiet stillness of the worship by deliberately rising in full view of the whole audience, piercing the bladder, spilling the blood on the floor and seats, thus sprinkling some of it on the raiment of those near him, and ex- claiming with all the solemn authority of an ancient prophet, ' Thus shall the Lord spill the blood of those that traffic in the blood of their fellow men.' A scene of great confusion followed. Some fainted, some shrieked, and the meeting broke up in disorder." SECTION XIV. T OF TftlAZ. /775-1783. MHE first great conflict of arms for self-government in America now began. The darkness of the strug- gle was made deeper through the opinions and efforts of large numbers of royalists or tories scattered up and down the colonies. At times they furnished many recruits to the British army. In company with Indians, they often com- mitted some of the worst outrages. The patriots had to guard against those of their own communities. There were times also when it seemed as if the patriots themselves would be rent asunder by differences of opinion. But finally victory brought rejoicing. Peace was declared. The whole continent had an undiscerned interest in the result. Slowly were the effects of it to be manifest through the entire length of North and South America. The example of pa- triotism was powerful in setting a spirit of liberty at work everywhere. The first developments were slight and feeble, but the final achievements will be glorious. 1775. Jan. 23. Gen. Gage's Policy. Gen. Gage sent one hundred men under Capt. Balfour, known as the " Queen's Guards," to Marshfield, Mass., at the call 312 of a " Loyal Association," to protect them from threatened action of patriots. The company remained there till April 1 8. While at Marshfield Capt. Balfour visited Plymouth, having the future oc- cupation of that town in mind. But the patriotic feeling " was so great he saw that it would be useless to attempt the movement. It was upon a later day that a British officer visited Plymouth, and in some way aroused the indignation of the citizens. He was chased, and disarmed in the shop of a tory into which he had fled for safety. His sword was cut into pieces, which were given away to the whigs. Gen. Gage thought that the only way of procedure was to disarm the colonies by taking possession of their munitions of war and supplies. 1775. Feb. 26. The First Blood. A party of British soldiers under Leslie went from Boston to Salem and Danvers, after provincial supplies. At Salem they did not find what they were hunting for. As they started off for Danvers they found that the draw of the North Bridge, Salem, had been raised. The citizens would not lower it. The soldiers then undertook to seize two large gondolas which lay upon the Salem side, and a 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 313 scuffle took place, in which a soldier pressed one of the boatmen with his bayonet, drawing the first -blood of the Revolution. A compromise was now proposed by Rev. Thomas Barnard, and was accepted. By its terms the draw was lowered, the British soldiers marched across it a distance of thirty rods into Danvers, and turning about, started for Boston. The spirit of the people was ominous. 1775. February. A remarkable charge was delivered by Judge William Henry Crawford, of South Carolina, to grand jurors in that province enjoining the strict maintenance of the constitu- tional rights, at the hazard of life and fortune. 1775. April 14. "The Pennsylva- nia Society for the Abolition of Slavery " was organized in a meeting of gentlemen at the Sun Tavern on Second Street, Phil- adelphia. The society seems to have held four meetings in 1775, and no other till 1784, because of the war. In 1787 the abolition of slavery was taken up as an object of steadfast labor. Dr. Franklin was president, and Dr. Benjamin Rush secretary. LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. 1775. April 19. A force of eight hundred British troops under Lieut.-Col. Smith was sent out from Boston before light to destroy the provincial stores at Lexington and Concord. Paul Revere, who was warned by a signal light hung in the steeple of the North church, Bos- ton, mounted his horse and roused the inhabitants along the way. Major Pit- cairn pushed on hastily with about three hundred infantry troops, and arrived at Lexington at four o'clock in the morning. He was there met on the green by about seventy militia men under Capt. Isaac Parker. Major Pitcairn rode up to them and cried out, "Disperse, ye rebels! ' at the same time discharging his pistol. In some way or other firing began by a volley from the British troops. Eight Americans lay dead, and ten wounded. The Americans scattered in confusion, and the British hurried on their way to Concord, where they began to destroy the militia stores of the town. The " minute men " gathered at the bridge, and there the British fired upon them, killing Capt. Isaac Davis. The Ameri- cans fired in return, killing one and wounding several. Then the British began their disastrous retreat to Boston, a distance of sixteen miles. Every minute the number of patriots increased, and from the fields, the stone walls, and buildings, a constant fire was kept up on the invaders. At Lexington Lord Percy met the exhausted British soldiers with a reinforcement of one thousand men, and the slaughter ceased for a time. The British finally reached Cambridge, and succeeded in getting back to their quar- ters in Boston. They had lost two hun- dred and eighty men; the Americans ninety-five. This day is reckoned as the real opening of the Revolution. 1775. April 20. Siege of Boston. The patriots who had followed the re- treating foe did not scatter again to their families, but at once invested the city. On this day the lines around Boston were really formed by the " minute men " who came pouring in. As the news swept on through New England like wild fire, men left their work at once to shoulder their muskets and file along the roads on their holy errand. Twenty thousand men were soon thronging the 314 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES . entrenchments around the city. Israel Putnam of Connecticut, left his plow in the field and rode one hundred miles in eighteen hours. John Stark of New Hampshire, was sawing pine logs, and shutting down the gate, started for Bos- ton in his shirt-sleeves. 1775. April 2O. Powder Seizure. Gov. Dunmore, of Virginia, seized the powder at Williamsburg. The people, led by Patrick Henry, appealed to him for remuneration. He promised to pay for it, and afterward kept his word. Gov. Dunmore subsequently wrote letters reflecting upon the colonists. These let- ters were intercepted, and to escape the storm of indignation he was obliged to conceal himself on board a royal vessel. 1775. May 10. Capture of Fort Ti- conderoga. A party of eighty-three men under Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold, entered Fort Ticonderoga before light in the morning, and rousing the commander demanded its surrender, " in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress." No resistance was made. Over one hundred cannon were thus secured, some of which were afterward hauled on sleds by oxen across the mountains to Boston, to aid in the siege of that place. 1775. May 10. The second con- tinental congress met at Philadelphia and voted to raise twenty thousand men. A petition to the king was ordered to be prepared. The formation of a federal union was initiated, and steps were taken to organize an army and navy. 1775. May 10. Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was elected president of the continental congress upon the meeting of its second session. In a few days he went to Virginia to serve in the House of Burgesses. 1775. May 12. Crown Point was- taken by a small force of men under Seth Warner. Skenesborough, now Whitehall, was taken about the same time. 1775. May 18. A British sloop-of- war at the northern end of Lake Cham- plain, was captured by a small vessel fitted up by Benedict Arnold. 1775. May. First Victory on the Atlantic. A small vessel was fitted out at New Bedford and Dartmouth, Mass., in which a bold company sailed and retook a vessel which had been taken by the British sloop Falcon, on the coast. Fifteen prisoners were taken. 1775. May 23. Seventeen settlers met in convention at Boonesborough, Ky., to take measures for their own pro- tection. They organized an infant state. 1775. May 24. John Hancock, of Massachusetts, was elected president of the continental congress, to succeed Pey- ton Randolph, of Virginia. 1775. May 27. The Island Eaid, The Americans carried off sheep and other supplies from Hog and Noddle Islands in Boston harbor. A fight was. kept up all day, in which about seventy British soldiers were killed and wounded. The Americans had only four slightly wounded. Among the supplies captured by the patriots were twelve swivels, and four four-pound cannon. 1775. May 31. The Mecklenburg Declaration. The inhabitants of Meck- lenburg county, N. C., chiefly Presby- terians of Scotch-Irish descent, met in a convention at Charlotte, and issued their famous " declaration of independence," asserting that their loyalty to the king was ended. 1775. June 6. An exchange of prisoners, the first one in the Revolution, 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 315 took place at Charlestown Ferry, near Boston. Major Moncrieff, a British officer, brought the patriots who had been captured on the i9th of April. He and others dined with Gen. Putnam in Cambridge before returning to their vessel with their released fellow-soldiers. 1775. June 11. Capture of the Margaretta. Some young loggers and sawyers of Mechisses, now Machias, Maine, led by Jeremiah O'Brien, captured the " Margaretta," an English armed schooner, and another vessel which was loaded with lumber at that point. There was a total loss of twenty, killed and wounded. 1775. June 12. The well-known proclamation of Gen. Gage was issued, offering in insolent terms pardon to all rebels who would lay down their arms except Samuel Adams and John Han- cock, " whose offences," he said, " are of too flagitious a nature to admit of any other consideration than that of condign punishment." 1775. June 15. George Washing- ton, of Virginia, was elected by the con- tinental congress to be commander-in- chief of the American forces. BATTLE OF BVXKER HILL. 1775. June 17. One of the best contested struggles of the whole Revo- lution came thus early, to teach each party that there was grave determination on the other side. An expedition of one thousand men was committed tc the charge of Col. William Prescott, of Pepperell, for the work of throwing up entrenchments upon one of the Charles- town heights during the night of June 1 6th. After prayer had been offered on Cambridge common at the head of the troops by Pres. Langdon of Harvard College, the patriots set out upon their silent and dangerous march. They fixed upon Breed's Hill as the proper point for fortification, because it commanded the city and shipping more extensively. By hard -work a strong redoubt eight rods square was thrown up before daylight,, together with an earthwork running to a swamp at the north. The guns of the English fleet were soon raining their shot upon it. About two thousand regulars were landed at the foot of Breed's Hill at one o'clock. Here they remained for an hour and a half for refreshments, and for the completion of the arrangements- for the assault. At half past two o'clock the advance was made simultaneously against the redoubt, and a double line of rail fence filled with new-mown hay, which had been thrown together at the left of the American position. Thous- ands of spectators filled every available spot in Boston for witnessing the contest. There was the utmost silence in the redoubt for a long time, although the British fired during their advance. But when the regulars had reached a distance of about eight rods from the redoubt, a living line of flame shot forth and almost the whole foremost rank of officers and men fell dead. The British forces were soon rushing precipitately to the foot of the hill. The force led by Gen. Howe against the rail fence, met with the same reception and defeat. The British guns now threw shells into Charlestown village and soon added .the terrors of a confla- gration to those of a battle. It was hoped that the volumes of smoke would roll across the redoubt and force its evac- uation. But a breeze bore it in another direction. A second advance was now made, and no shot was fired till the enemy had come to a distance of six rods from. 316 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. the redoubt, when the same horrible exe- cution took place, and the same disas- trous retreat followed. The officers almost beat their men forward. The Americans now found that their ammu- nition was nearly gone, some having only one round left. The British made their third assault, and the front rank fell as before. But the fire could not be con- tinued for lack of ammunition, and the British pressed on into the redoubt, with fixed bayonets. The patriots did not retreat till almost entirely surrounded, and then fought their way out with clubbed muskets, and even with stones. They retreated slowly to Bunker Hill, where Gen. Putnam attempted to stay them, but they marched to Prospect Hill instead, and encamped for the night. The British did not pursue very far, but rested upon their very doubtful victory. The result amazed every one, and con- vinced the world that the work of sub- duing the young and vigorous nation was no easy task. Vergennes said, " Two more such victories, and England will have no army left in America." The British lost over one thousand men, among whom were eighty-three commis- sioned officers, killed and wounded. The Americans lost less than five hundred in killed and wounded. DR. JOSEPH WARREN. 1775. June 17. Dr. Joseph Warren was shot through the head during the retreat from the redoubt on Breed's Hill, and when only a few steps from it. He came into the entrenchments, but refused to take command, and fought through the battle as a private. He had been elected one of the major-generals of the American army only a few days before. He was born at Roxbury, Mass., June n, 1741, and became known as a pure, fearless, and generous boy. The same traits, were visible through his brief but influential life. He wrote for the press at times, and his patriotic utterances gave strength and clearness to the views of his inferiors. His letters contain some striking announcements of political prin- ciples. He graduated at Harvard Col- lege in 1759, at the age of eighteen years, and decided to enter the medical profes- sion. He established himself soon after in practice in Boston. Politics, however, took a strong hold upon his mind. Sam- uel Adams became his intimate friend, and together they meditated upon the situation, and endeavored to forecast com- ing events. The political struggle in- creased in violence, and the faith and zeal of these men increased in intensity. Orations were several times pronounced by Dr. Warren, which gave the keynote to the coming struggle. He was presi- dent of the Massachusetts provincial con- gress, and was chairman of the " com- mittee of safety " in 1 7.74. He was be- coming the most prominent man in New England. His death was for several days uncertain, but his body was after- ward identified. The blow was felt everywhere. At the age of thirty-four one of the country's most valuable lives was closed. Everett says, " The friends of liberty from all countries and through- out all time, as they kneel upon the spot that was moistened by the blood of War- ren, will find their better feelings strength- ened by the influence of the place, and will gather from it a virtue in some degree allied to his own." Daniel Web- ster, in his great oration at the laving of the corner-stone of Bunker Hill monu- ment in 1825, exclaimed, with great power, "But, ah! Him! the first g-^at 1775-1783. J THE DAT martyr in this great cause. Him! the premature victim of his own self-devoting heart. Him ! the head of our civil coun- cils, and the destined leader of our mili- tary bands, whom nothing brought hither but the unquenchable fire of his own spirit! Him! cut off by Providence in the hour of overwhelming anxiety and thick gloom; falling ere he saw the star of his country rise; pouring out his gen- OF TRIAL. 317 beats to the transports of patriotism and liberty, its aspirations shall be to claim kindred with thy spirit!" Mrs. Adams said in a letter, "Not all the havoc and devastation they have made, has moved me like the death of Warren. We want him in the senate; we want him in the profession; we want him in the field. We mourn for the citizen, the physician, the senator, the warrior." REMOVING CANNON FROM THE BATTERY. erous blood like water, before he knew whether it would fertilize a land of free- dom, or of bondage! How shall I strug- gle with the emotions that stifle the utter- ance of thy name! Our poor work may perish, but thine shall endure! This monument may moulder away, the solid ground it rests upon may sink down to a level with the sea; but thy memory shall not fail. Wheresoever among men a heart shall be found that 1775. June 17. The first army hospital in America was established at Cambridge after the battle of Bunker Hill, under the charge of Dr. John War- ren, a brother of Joseph Warren. 1775. The cannon at the battery in New York, being desired for the defence of the Hudson, were successfully removed by a military company under Capt. Lamb and a crowd of individuals led on by Isaac Sears. A band of sailors came 318 RE VOL UTIONART S TR UGGLES . ashore from the English line-of-battle ship, Asia, which was lying near by, and offered some resistance, but they were quickly disposed of by the deter- mined citizens. The battery was fired upon by the Asia, and in the skirmish one sailor was killed, and others wounded. 1775. The office of " Rivington's New York Gazetteer," a tory paper of New York city, was completely de- stroyed by a band of patriots under Isaac Sears, who came from New Haven with .a hundred men to do it. 1775. June 21. Washington left Philadelphia for Cambridge to take com- mand of the army, without visiting his home at Mount Vernon. 1775. June 22. First Continental Currency. Congress voted to issue paper money not to exceed two millions of dollars, in bills of credit. Paul Revere, of Boston, afterward engraved the first continental notes on copper. 1775. July 3. Washington assumed command of the army underneath a large elm still standing on Cambridge common at the north end, and known as the " Washington Elm." The entire American force at this time numbered a little less than fourteen thousand men. There was a great lack of military sup- plies, notably of powder. Within a month from this time less than ten thou- sand pounds were in camp. Some of the powder houses were filled with barrels of sand in order to deceive any. spying roy- alist who might come around. The condition of the army was one of entire lack of discipline. Elkanah Watson, Esq., who made a visit to the camp, nar- rates a dialogue which he overheard be- tween a soldier and his captain: " Bill," said the captain, " go and bring a pail of water for the mess." " I shan't," was Bill's reply, " it is your turn now, cap- tain. I got the last." Washington at once began to introduce military order. 1775. July 20. A public fast was held throughout New England in refer- ence to the impending struggle with Great Britain. 1775. July 26. A postoffice de- partment was established by the conti- nental congress. Benjamin Franklin was chosen postmaster general at a salary of one thousand dollars per year. Two treasurers were also appointed over the public finances. 1775. Sept. 2. The first naval commission given by Washington was in the form of a captain's commission in " the army of the united colonies," to Nicholas Broughton, of Marblehead, Mass., ordering him to take his men on board the schooner Hannah at Beverly, and cruise upon the high seas. 1775. Sept. 13. March to Canada. Benedict Arnold was detached by Wash- ington to lead an expedition across the wilderness of Maine, against Canada. The expedition consisted of eleven hun- dred men. When they reached the Maine forests they began to experience great toil, privation and suffering. They were forced to struggle through deep snows, tangled woods, and flooded rivers. 1775. Oct. 3. Arnold's force left the last white family at Norridgewock, and plunged into the uninhabited wilder- ness. They were nearly six weeks in reaching the St. Lawrence, and were several times in danger of starvation. The fierce persistency of Arnold was the great power in the expedition. 1775. Oct. 10. Gen. Gage was re- called to England. Gen. Howe was appointed commander-in-chief of the British army in the colonies. 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 319 1775. Oct. 13. Origin of United States Navy. The continental congress voted to fit out two vessels, one of them to carry ten guns, and the other, as was afterward voted, fourteen guns, for the purpose of taking British supply vessels. Before the month closed it authorized two more vessels, and appointed a " ma- rine committee " to take charge of the ex- ecution of the order. 1775. Oct. 16. Falmouth, Maine, now Portland, was burned by an English force ynder Capt. Mowatt. The trouble began in the importation of some sails and rigging by a man named Thomas Coulson, who was a tory. This was contrary to a law of the " merchants' as- sociation " of Portland, and the whigs accordingly decreed that the above ma- terials must be sent back. Coulson re- fused to have this done, and for a few weeks there was great contention. At last Capt. Mowatt came to the rescue of Coulson, and burned the town. 1775. Oct. 27. First Traitor. Dr. Benjamin Church, who had been thought to be a genuine patriot, having been found to have held communications with the enemy, was tried at this date and ex- pelled from the provincial congress, as well as sentenced to imprisonment. He was released from confinement upon parole in the following May, and sailed for the West Indies in a vessel which was never afterward heard from. 1775. October. Ethan Allen and a small American force were captured near Montreal. Allen was sent to England in chains, and kept in close confinement for nearly three years. He was finally exchanged. 1775. Nov. 2. St. Johns, Canada, was captured by a force of one thousand men under Gen. Richard Montgomery. This place lay at the northern end of Lake Champlain, and was held by a force under Major Preston. Valuable stores, weapons and ammunition, besides five hundred regular soldiers, and one hundred Canadian volunteers, were sur- rendered. 1775. Nov. 13. Montreal was taken by Gen. Richard Montgomery, who had captured Col. Robert Prescott and the garrison in an attempt to escape from the city down the river to Quebec. A large amount of supplies was captured at this time. 1775. Nov. 13. Benedict Arnold and his followers at last, after great desti- tution and suffering, reached the St. Law- rence, crossed the river, and climbed to the Plains of Abraham. In vain, how- ever, did Arnold summon Quebec to sur- render. 1775. November. An Encouraging Capture. One of the vessels commis- sioned by Washington, under Capt. Man- ley, carrying four guns, took a British vessel loaded with supplies of all kinds. All the horses and carts near the coast were set at work drawing the supplies to the camp around Boston. There were "two thousand muskets, one hundred thousand flints, thirty thousand round shot, over thirty tons of musket shot, eleven mortar beds, and a thirteen inch brass mortar weighing 2,700 pounds," besides other stores. 1775. Dec. 3. Montgomery joined Arnold near Quebec, with the few men who would follow him. There were now less than a thousand men in all, be- fore Quebec. 1775. Dec. 9. A fight took place at Great Bridge near Norfolk, Va., be- tween a tory force under Gov. Dunmore, and a body of patriots. The former fled 3*0 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. with some loss. The Americans met with no loss. 1775. Dec. 22. Esek Hopkins of Rhode Island,was appointed commander- in-chief of the continental navy. 1775. Dec. 81. Assault upon Que- bec. An assault having been decided upon, Montgomery and Arnold moved upon Quebec at two o'clock in the morn- ing, in a blinding snow-storm. The troops were divided into two portions, which were to approach Prescott Gate through the lower town from opposite directions, and there make a combined at- tack upon the upper town. The force under Montgomery was pressing for- ward over blocks of ice and barricades of timber, when they were fired upon from a guard house. The brave leader and twelve others instantly fell dead. The rest disheartened, retreated, and did not again join the attack. Arnold was wounded while approaching from the other direction, and Morgan took com- mand. After fighting bravely for several hours, he was forced to surrender with four hundred men. The active siege of Quebec was over, and the conquest of Canada was now reversed. The rem- nant of troops lingered near for some months, but with no result. RICHARD MONTGOMERY. 1775. Dec. 31. This American gen- eral who bade fair to be very useful to his adopted country, was born near Raphoe, Ireland, Dec. 2, 1736, and was but a few days more than thirty-nine years of age. He was in the army before Louisburg, and fought at Martinique and Havana in the West Indies. He subse- quently married a daughter of Judge Robert R. Livingston, of New York, and settled at Rhinebeck. He received an appointment as brigadier-general from .congress, and took charge of the force which went into Canada by way of Lake Champlain. He was rapidly successful in capturing the points that lay in his path. His death at Quebec was the cause of the disaster that followed. His men could do nothing without him. His remains rest beneath a monument in front of St. Paul's church in New York, which was erected by order of congress. Mont- gomery was of striking personal appear- ance, and possessed a character of equal eminence. He was a brave, pure, gen- erous spirit. 1775. The first canto of Trumbull's " McFingall " was issued in the English colonies, and was widely sold all over the land. It greatly helped the patriot cause. The whole poem was issued seven years later. 1775. The first joint stock manu- facturing company in the world was organized at Philadelphia for the pro- duction of " woolens, linens, and cottons.'* A building was hired, and the work was begun. It was the first cotton factory in America. 1775. The first piano forte made in America was produced by John Belmont of Philadelphia, who advertised that he " had just finished an extraordinary in- strument by the name of the Piano Forte, of mahogany, in the manner of a harpsichord, with hammers and several changes." 1775. The "Phi Beta Kappa," the great college society of the United States for the recognition of scholarship, was founded at William and Mary College, Virginia. 1775. " Yankee Doodle " is supposed to have been introduced into America, or 1775-1783.] composed in America about this time. Its origin is very obscure. Some say that a British sergeant in Boston com- posed the words. The tune is an old one used in England as early as the time of Charles I., and was often played by British bands in the colonies. The verses sung to it in the Revolution origi- nated probably in derision of the Ameri- can troops. 1776. Jan. 1. The position of af- fairs at the opening of this year was much the same as it had been for some months. The entrenchments and bat- teries around Boston had been gradually strengthened, and furnished with forts, barracks, and breastworks. Fuel had been extremely scarce at times. The camp had been on the whole well-pro- visioned. At times it had been visited by a throng of people from the surround- ing country. The colonies were waiting to hear of an attack on Boston. The great difficulty which Washington had to contend with was in respect to enlist- ments from the different provinces. Terms of service expired, and it was dif- ficult to arrange them again upon a satis- factory basis. Still, the army kept the British completely shut up in the town which they had chosen to subjugate. 'On the seas numerous privateers began to make captures. 1776. Jan. 1. Norfolk, the richest town in Virginia, was burned by troops sent ashore for the purpose by Gov. Dun- more, who soon sailed for the West Indies. 1776. Jan. 2. First Union Flag. A flag was hoisted over the American camp at Boston, composed of thirteen stripes with the British " union " in the corner. This was the first true union flag. The new continental army came 21 THE DAT OP TRIAL. 321 into existence this day under the votes of congress and the arrangements of Gen. Washington. 1776. Jan. 8. The British Theater in Boston. During their occupation of Boston the British officers and soldiers supported a theater. The piece entitled " The Blockade of Boston " was being performed on the evening of this date. The point was just reached at which an actor entered in the character of Wash- ington, " with a large wig, and a long rusty sword, attended by a country ser- vant with a rusty gun." An interruption suddenly occurred by the entrance of a sergeant who cried out, " The Yankees are attacking our works on Bunker Hill." The spectators supposed that this was included in the scene, until Gen. Howe ordered the officers to their duty, when the people began to shriek and faint. The alarm was caused by the burning of some houses at Charlestown by a com- pany of Americans. 1776. Jan. 9. Thomas Paine's pamphlet entitled " Common Sense," advocating the founding of a republic in America, reached congress, and made a profound impression, greatly strengthen- ing the patriot cause. Pennsylvania gave Paine .500 for this production. 1776. Feb. 27. North Carolina Royalists. A force of fifteen hundred royalists who had been gathered by Don- ald McDonald, a Scotch tory under com- mission from Gov. Martin, of North Carolina, was totally routed at Moore's Creek by a patriot force of one thousand men. The tory loss was seventy, killed and wounded. The American loss was two wounded. This broke up the Eng- lish authority in the province. 1776. March 4. Dorchester Heights, near Boston, were taken possession of by 322 RE VOL UTIONART S TR UGGLES. Washington. The occupation was made 17H-1776. a t the dead of night. Two David Hume. sma n forts were partially constructed by morning. Gen. Howe at once planned to attack the new position and embarked his troops, but a severe storm broke up the attempt. 1776. March 17. Evacuation of Boston. Gen. Howe evacuated Boston with the whole British army, and sailed for Halifax, accompanied by eleven hun- dred loyalists. Much property was de- stroyed by the British before their depart- ure, but supplies were left,worth 30,000. Several vessels and stores were captured by ^ American privateers. The " Old South " church had been used by the British soldiers as a riding school. Gen. Washington entered the city in triumph on the day of the evacuation. A vote of thanks and a gold medal were given him by congress. This medal was the first one in the history of America. Many of the troops were at once ordered to New York, because it was not known at what point the British would now make their effort. 1776. April. The first Hessian troops sailed from England to Quebec. England had applied for aid to Holland, Russia and Prussia, but had been refused by each. The small provinces of Ger- many agreed to sell some troops for American service, and these were the ones known as Hessians through the Revolution. Seventeen thousand were obtained at $36 per head. The Hessians became greatly feared in America, be- cause of their cruelty. 1776. April 13. Washington arrived at New York. The British had already determined to make it the base of their operations for the summer of this year. 1776. April 11. A Long March. Col. St. Clair having marched with siy companies from Pennsylvania to Can- ada, joined the remnant of the American force which still lay near Quebec. 1776. May 1. The siege of Que- bec was raised because of the approach of a British fleet, and the little army of Americans departed. Upon their way they attempted to take Three Rivers, but lost two hundred men as prisoners, and twenty-five killed and wounded. They then made a very hasty retreat with a British force at their heels, till they arrived at Crown Point, which took place in June. 1776. May 4. Provincial Declara- tion of Independence. The assembly of Rhode Island passed an act declaring the province free from all dependence on the crown of Great Britain. 1776. May. The provincial assem- bly of Virginia unanimously voted that their delegates to the continental congress present to that body a proposition affirm- ing the independence of the colonies from Great Britain. 1776. May. A vessel loaded with gunpowder was captured off Boston harbor by Capt. Samuel Mugford, of Marblehead. This was a great boon to the- colonial forces. 1776. June. Silas Deane, of Con- necticut, who had been sent as a commis- sioner to negotiate for aid with the French government, arrived in Paris. His mis- sion was of no benefit, and he afterward could give no satisfactory account to congress of his doings while abroad. LEE'S FAMOUS RESOLUTIONS. 1776. June 7. Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, proposed his famous resolu- tions in congress. They were as follows : " That these united colonies are, and of 1775-1783.] right ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.. That it is expe- dient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances. That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective colonies for their consideration and approbation." John Adams, of Massachusetts, seconded these resolutions, and they were the sub- ject of earnest discussion. 1776. June 8. A committee was appointed by congress, consisting of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sher- man of Connecticut, and Robert R. Liv- ingston of New York, to draw up a declaration of independence which should embody 'the sense of Lee's resolutions. In close connection with the appointment of this committee a " Board of War " was created for the management of mil- itary affairs. This board seems to have t>een composed wholly of congressmen. A committee was appointed upon rela- tions with foreign powers. THE DAT OF TRIAL. 323 1776. June 28. Battle in Charles- ton Harbor. Two British fleets under Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Sir Peter Parker, attacked the fort on Sulli- van's Island in Charleston harbor, S. C. Col. Moultiie defended it gallantly with four hundred men, and shattered the British fleet so that it sailed away with the loss of more than two hundred killed and wounded. The American loss was ten killed, and twenty-nine wounded. It was during the hottest part of the action that the flagstaff of the fort was broken by a ball, and the flag fell over the ram- part. Sergeant William Jasper leaped over the wall in the midst of the falling shot, seized the flag, and fastening it to a sponge staff, stuck it up in its place again. The next day a sword and lieutenant's commission were offered Jasper, but he would not take the commission, saying, "lam not fit for the company of officers. I am content to be a sergeant." This fort has since been known as Fort Moultrie. 1776. July 1. Gen. Howe arrived from Halifax at Sandy Hook, off the harbor of New York, and was soon joined by Admiral Howe from England. The total British force amounted to thirty- two thousand men, in over four hundred vessels of all kinds. 1776. July 2. The resolutions of- fered in congress by Richard Henry Lee. June 7, were passed by the vote of twelve colonies. New York delegates had no instructions from their province, and therefore refrained from voting. The stand was now taken, and nothing re- mained but to issue a public declaration. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 1776. July 4. The Declaration of Independence which had been presented by the committee appointed to draft it, was adopted by congress. It was written by Thomas Jefferson, and chiefly de- fended at its presentation by John Adams. The old bell-ringer in the belfry of the State House waited anxiously to hear the announcement of the passage of the dec- laration. At last his little boy standing below shouted up to him, " Ring ! Ring !" Then he rang with all his might, and soon the whole city was alive with joy, which continued to overflow during the whole night which followed. 324 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assem- bled: When, in the course of human events, it be- comes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind re- quires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident : That all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pur- suit of happiness ; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- erned ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, in- deed, will dictate that governments long estab- lished should not be changed for light and tran- sient causes, and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind arc more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing inva- riably the same object, evinces a design to re- duce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such govern- ment, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of the colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be sub- mitted to a candid world : He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless sus- pended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the ac- commodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of rep- resentation in the legislature; a right inestima- ble to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeat- edly for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dis- solutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation,, have returned to the people at large, for their exercise; the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the danger of invasions from with- out, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refus- ing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appro- priations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of jus- tice by refusing his assent to laws for establish- ing judiciary powers.. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass our peo- ple, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace,, standing armies, without the consent of our legislature. He has affected to render the military inde- pendent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to- a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and un- acknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; For imposing taxes on us without our con- sent; For depriving us, in many cases, of the bene- fits of trial by jury; For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an ex- ample and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into the colonies ; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments ; For suspending our own legislatures, and de- claring themselves invested with power to legis- late for us in all cases whatsoever; He has abdicated government here, by declar- ing us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages,. 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 325 and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. " He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhab- itants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian sav- ages, whose known rule of warfare is an undis- tinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tvrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts made by their legisla- ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the cir- cumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would ineyitablv inter- rupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war; in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare: That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, Free and Independent States; that they are absolved from all allegi- ance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as Free and Independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the pro- tection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. JOHN HANCOCK. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. RHODE ISLAND, ETC. Stephen Hopkins, Will- iam Ellery. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Philip Living- ston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John With- erspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abra- ham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward Rutledge, Thom- as Hayward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. 1776. July 4. The United States Na- tional Seal Projected. Congress adopted a resolution on the afternoon of indepen- dence day, " That Dr. Franklin, Mr. John Adams and Mr. Jefferson be a commit- tee to prepare a device for a seal for the United States of America." This com- mittee made a report in August, without any device. Nothing was done for sev- eral years, on account of the heat of the struggle. In 1779 and 1782 new committees were appointed, but their reports gave nothing satisfactory. The final design was adopted June 20, 1782. 1776. July 9. The statue of George III., set up in New York in 1770 be- cause of the repeal of the Stamp Act, was pulled down by the excited citizens. The statue, which was of lead, was sent to Litchfield, Conn., to the family of Gen. Wolcott, for safe keeping, on ac- count of the great value of lead. The lead was run into forty-two thousand bullets, by the daughters and friends of Gen. Wolcott. It is said that there were many jokes over the transmutation of a king into solid appeals for liberty. 1776. July 14. George Washington, Esq. Lord Howe sent a letter up New 326 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. York harbor directed to Georgfe Wash- O ington, Esq., but Joseph Reed and Sam- uel B. Webb, who went out to meet the messenger, refused to receive it. Wash- ington could not of course enter into correspondence with the enemy as a pri- vate person. 1776. Aug. 2. The Declaration of Independence, having been engrossed on parchment, was signed by the fifty- four delegates present. President John Hancock affixed his name first, and turn- ing, said to the rest, " We must be unani- mous; there must be no pulling different ways; we must all hang together." At which Franklin jocosely replied : " Yes, we must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately." 1776. Aug. 26. The first pension act was passed by the continental con- gress. Since this date there have been several hundred acts of congress relat- ing to pensions for military and naval service. 1776. Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island. The British forces having landed on Long Island, at last began an advance before daylight upon the American posi- tion. Gen. Clinton was in command. The fighting, which began as soon as the American lines were reached, was long and severe. The patriot army was driven at every point. They lost many men by the merciless Hessians under De Heister. The British loss was about four hundred, and the American two thousand, half of whom were prisoners. Generals Sullivan and Stirling were both among the last. Many of the captives were confined in the prison ships. 1776. Aug. 29. Evacuation of Long Island. Gen. Washington having de- cided with the advice of his officers to evacuate Long Island, made the attempt a little before midnight in a heavy fog. While the Americans were making their passage across East River, a negro ser- vant was sent by a tory woman who learned what was being done, to inform the British of it. The black fellow was taken by the Hessians, who could not understand a word he said, and the in- tended warning amounted to nothing. 1776. Sept. 11. A conference ar- ranged by Gen. Sullivan, who had been paroled for that purpose, was held on Staten Island at the Billop House, be- tween Lord Howe with his brother, Gen. Howe, 'and a committee appointed by congress consisting of Dr. Franklin, John Adams and Edward Rutledge. Lord Howe received them courteously, but told them that he could not recognize them in an official capacity. He would, how- ever, confer with them as private citizens. The members of the committee said that they were nothing except the represen- tatives of a great and independent people,, and that they must be recognized as such before any arrangement could be reached. It was further learned that Lord Howe's discretionary powers did not extend so- far as to enable him to promise any re- dress for unjust laws. This ended the conference. 1776. Sept. 15. A portion of the British army crossed to New York at Kip's Bay, and the Americans evacuated the city, retiring to Harlem Heights. When the enemy were landing, Gen. Putnam was hurrying out of New York along the North River, and succeeded in escaping with all his force. Gen. Howe stopped to lunch with Mrs. Murray, on Murray Hill, and so delightfully did this lady and her daughters serve their guests that the British force was not pushed on to the discovery it must have made had 1775-1783.] THE DAY OF TRIAL. not the shrewd methods of these Ameri- can women covered the retreat of their countrymen, who were marching hastily by at that very moment, within a very short distance. When the officers were allowed to depart, the city was empty of American soldiers. 1776. Sept. 16. Battle of Harlem Plains. A battle took place on Harlem Plains between the advance guard of the British under Gen. Leslie, and an Amer- ican force composed of a company of Virginians under Major Leitch, and a company of Connecticut rangers under Col. Knowlton. The Americans being reinforced, drove the British back after a severe contest. The American loss was about sixty, killed and wounded. Knowl- ton and Leitch were both slain. 1776. Sept. 16. Homestead Act. Grants of land were promised by the United States congress to those who en- tered the army and continued in it till the close of the war. 1776. Sept. 21. A great fire occurred in New York city, burning Trinity church and five hundred dwellings on and near Broadway. Some lives were lost in the fire. It was charged by the British upon patriot sympathizers. 1776. Sept. 22. Execution of Hale. Capt. Nathan Hale, who had gone into the British camp in the disguise of a young farmer, to obtain information, was discovered and executed by Gen. Howe. He was successful in the object of his mission, and was about leaving the camp when a tory recognized him and betrayed him. The circumstances of his death caused great sorrow among those who knew of it. He met death bravely, ex- claiming, " I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country." 1776. September. An Indian bor- der warfare raged in the Carolinas by the instigation of British agents, who convinced the natives that it was a good time for them to take possession of their old hunting grounds. But within a short time the activity of the patriots was so great that terror was spread among the tribes. 1776. Oct. 11. A severe naval battle took place on Lake Champlain between Benedict Arnold and Gen. Carleton, of ' Canada. Arnold stationed his vessels at first where they could be easily surround- ed by the British fleet. The fight was desperate for the afternoon, and Arnold's force was greatly injured. In the night he silently ran his vessels through the line of the enemy's ships and sailed up the lake. In the morning the pursuit began, and Arnold was finally overtaken. His vessels were destroyed, and some of his crews captured. Arnold and his own crew fought as long as they could fight, then ran their vessel ashore, and escaping to land, marched off in triumph. 1776. Oct. 14. Crown Point was occupied by Gen. Carleton, who after- ward returned to Canada. 1776. Oct. 28. Battle of White Plains. The British, in an attempt to surround the American camp near New York city, fought the battle of White Plains with some slight advantage. The American loss was one hundred, killed and wounded; the British two hundred and twenty-nine. 1776. Nov. 16. Capture of Fort Washington. The British captured Fort Washington, on Harlem Heights, after a battle of several hours, and a loss of one thousand men. The American loss was one hundred, killed and wounded and twenty-five hundred prisoners, who were put, many of them, into the loath- 328 RE VOL UTIONART STR UGGLES. some prison ships. The British were aided in taking Fort Washington by a letter from William Demont of the American army, who thus proved traitor to the patriot cause. It was during this battle that Margaret Corbin was aiding her husband serve a gun against the Hes- sians, when he was shot dead at her feet. She instantly took his place without a word, and redoubled her exertions. She received for this example of heroism, half-pay, and the value of a suit of clothes annually, thereafter. 1776. Nov. 20. Fort Lee was hastily evacuated by Gen. Greene, because the British began to cross to the west shore of the Hudson. The garrison were nearly all saved, but the baggage was abandoned. Now began that famous re- treat through New Jersey, during which the British were constantly upon the heels of the Americans. It caused the general opinion that the war was nearly at an end. Washington, however, said that "the darkest part of the night is just be- fore the dawn of day." 1776. Nov. 30. A proclamation of pardon was issued by Gen. Howe to all who would lay down their arms. Many came into his camp, especially from New Jersey, and took the oath of allegiance to Great Britain. 1776. Dec. 8. Rhode Island was held at the British control by the forces of Gen. Clinton and Sir Peter Parker, which had been landed at Newport. 1776. Dec. 12. Congress adjourned to Baltimore in view of the approach of the two armies across New Jersey. 1776. Dec. 13. Gen. Charles Lee was captured at Baskingridge by a small British party. Lee had followed dilato- rily in the rear of Washington in spite of the latter's repeated commands to bring up his troops. Lee's motives are obscure. At any rate, he ceased to be an aid to the patriots. 1776. Dec. 26. Battle of Trenton. Washington crossed the Delaware, re- moving as he did so all the boats he could find along the river to the other side. He now determined to strike a blow which should be felt. He therefore on a cold stormy night recrossed the Del- aware in boats and on rafts, and fell upon the enemy's camp. The surprise was complete. The foe had surrendered him- self to rest more unguardedly than usual, and some were spending the night in revelry. A little short, sharp fighting took place, and a thousand Hessians sur- rendered themselves to the American army. Twelve hundred small arms, six cannon, and all the standards, were cap- tured. Howe had returned to New York before this attack, leaving Trenton to be held by his German mercenaries under Donop and Rail. The Americans had two slightly injured in this great at- tack, one of whom was James Monroe, afterward president of the United States. 1776. Dec. 27. The reorganization of the army was committed by congress to Washington with great discretionary power. There was almost no money for the pay of the soldiers or purchase of supplies. Robert Morris, of Philadel- phia, sent Washington a bag of specie containing four hundred and ten Spanish dollars. 1776. A lottery was authorized by congress for the raising of money for the campaign of 1777. The scheme worked slowly, and was finally abandoned. 1776. A tory parson of old York, Penn., was ducked in the river by his in- dignant townspeople, because he per- sisted in praying for George III. He 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 329 was summarily ejected from his charge by the angry patriots. 1776. Dr. Franklin and Arthur Lee were sent this year to join Silas Deane in negotiating with France for aid. A treaty was drawn up by congress as a proposal to France. 1776. The first decided action against slavery by the Society of Friends "was taken. No slaveholders could longer Argentine Republic. These were called the provinces of the La Plata. 1776. Guatemala la nueva or the new city of Guatemala, was founded at a distance from the site of the old city which had been destroyed three years before. This city is said to be "the finest in Central America." 1777. Jan. 1. The situation of af- fairs at the close of 1776, was, on the THE STOLEN MARCH. remain members of the body. This ac- tion was only reached after almost a cen- tury of agitation. 1776. First Stocking Factory. Mr. Coxenfinder, of Maryland, received an appropriation of .300 from the " com- mittee of safety," for the establishment of a stocking factory. 1776. The viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres was erected out of what is now Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the whole, dark for the patriots. The money which had been available at the begin- ning of the year for the American army was now exhausted, and it was difficult to see from what quarter more could be obtained. Robert Morris, without whose aid the Revolution could not have been continued, spent this New Year's morning in going from neighbor to neighbor among his Quaker friends to solicit funds upon his own credit. He raised and 330 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGL ES. forwarded $50,000, and thus gave cheer to Washington's heart. 1777. Jan. 2. Esek Hopkins was dismissed from the command of the navy of the United States on account of charges of inefficiency made by his ene- mies. He was an elderly and not very forcible man. No other commander-in- chief of the navy has ever been ap- pointed. 1777. Jan. 3. The Stolen March. Cornwallis had advanced with fresh troops in order to hem in and destroy the American army near Trenton. He now felt sure of punishing Washington for the severe stroke he had inflicted at the battle of Trenton a few days before. Accordingly the British general drew up his fine army of seven thousand men before the patriot army, with the Assan- pink Creek between. Washington's force was now in a most critical position, as behind it was the Delaware, and in front of it a strong army. It was almost impossible to think of escaping by flight, for the ground was deep with mud. But before the night was far gone a wind sprang up which dried and froze it to a solid pavement. Washington, therefore, leaving his pickets at work building fires and raising bi'eastworks along the Assan- pink, silently mustered his army and marched along the deserted Quaker road toward Princeton. The British pickets did not suspect that the little army they were pretending to watch were not in deep repose. Two or three British reg- iments which had been delayed in the advance were just leaving Princeton in their march toward the main body, when they were met by the Americans, who fell upon them with great power. The British had a loss of more than three hundred killed, wounded, and captured. The American loss was quite small, Cornwallis gained the knowledge of the Q C5 escape of his supposed victim by the sound of cannon at Princeton. At first he thought it thunder, but one of his officers assured him that he had been outgeneraled. Cornwallis therefore hast- ened back to Piinceton, but Washington had done his work and pushed on to Morristown Heights. The exploits of the American army in New Jersey caused the fame of Washington to go far and near. Frederick the Great of Prussia, declared that these strategies had never been excelled. The effect on the spirits of the American people was very great. Patriots began to multiply. Armed bands were organized for the pur- pose of harassing the enemy. The British forces were now constantly as- sailed and worn by these little companies, who would dash upon them, seize a few prisoners, and be ofK 1777. Jan. 6. Winter Quarters. Washington went into winter quarters at Morristown, N. J. Cornwallis went into quarters at Brunswick. 1777. Jan. 15. Independence of Vermont. The inhabitants of Vermont, who had steadily refused to be under the authority of New York, met in conven- tion and solemnly declared their inde- pendence of any other power or govern- ment. They also excluded slavery by the bill of rights they adopted. This was the very first State declaration abol- ishing slavery. 1777. Jan. 20. A foraging party of British was totally routed near Somerset Court House by a body of militia under Gen. Dickinson, of Trenton. 1777. January. French Aid. The French government refused to acknowl- edge the independence of the United 1775-1783.] States, but assured the commissioners that it had "ordered two millions of livres to be paid to America in quarterly in- stallments, which should be augmented as the state of the finances would per- mit." Permission to buy stores and mer- chandise was also given. 1777. January. Spain paid Amer- ica one million livres secretly. 1777. February. Bounty Jumpers. An order was issued by Gen. Washing- ton against such as " having enlisted in one regiment and received the bounty allowed by congress, had deserted, en- listed in others, and received new bounties." They were warned that " whoever are convicted thereof and sentenced to die, may consider their exe- cution certain and inevitable." 1777. The continental congress re- turned from Baltimore to Philadelphia. 1777. April 25. Tryon's Connecti- cut Raid. A force of two thousand British and tories under Ex-Gov. Tryon of New York, proceeded to Danbury, Conn., where they destroyed a large quantity of stores, including sixteen hundred tents. They did not depart without difficulty, for the patriots at- tacked them at many points. Sullivan, Arnold and Wooster all displayed great daring. Wooster was killed, and was a great loss. Arnold was wounded. The Americans lost in all about one hundred men, and the British three hundred. 1777. April. Exchange of Prisoners. An interesting correspondence took place between Gen. Howe, who had released early in this year nearly three thousand prisoners from confinement in New York and sent them to the American lines, and Gen. Washington, who now refused to deliver up according to the terms of the exchange an equal number of British THE DAY OF TRIAL. 331 prisoners, claiming that the Americans were so injured and disabled by their treatment in the prison ships and crowded buildings where they had been maltreated,, as to infringe all laws of exchange, there- by making the return of an equal num- ber of able-bodied men unjust. The Americans who were released, in many cases died of their troubles upon their way home. Washington wrote at length upon the matter, and finally refused ta make any change in his position. The equity of the question has been consid- ered to have been correctly maintained by him. The "Jersey," which served as a prison-ship in New York harbor, became an object of horror through the slow death which befell those who en- tered it. 1777. May 23. Sagg Harbor Raid. Col. R. J. Meigs, with a force of one hundred and seventy men, crossed from Guilford, Conn., to Sagg Harbor, Long Island, burned the shipping, destroyed the British supplies, and captured ninety persons, mostly tories, without the loss of a man. They had been gone twenty- five hours, and traveled about ninety miles. They had lugged their boats across a sandy point in order to come upon the town secretly. 1777. May 27. Button Gwinnett of Georgia, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was killed in a duel by Gen. Lackland Mclntosh, a Revolution- ary officer. The duel was fought with pistols at a distance of twelve feet, and both were wounded, Gwinnett fatally. The challenge arose in personal enmity and rivalry for the office of brigadier- general. 1777. June 1. Capture of the Han- cock. The Hancock, of thirty-two guns under Capt. Manley, was chased and cap- 332 RE VOL UTIONAR T STRUGGLES. tured by the British frigate Rainbow, of forty-four guns. The Hancock was ac- companied before the action by the Bos- ton, of twenty-four guns under Capt. Hector McNeil, but while the action was preparing, McNeil sailed off. Capt. Manley then tried to escape, but in vain. He was imprisoned at Halifax, afterward exchanged, and given the command of the Hague. He was court-martialed for the loss of the Hancock, but honora- bly acquitted, while McNeil was dis- missed from the service. 1777. June 14. The Stars and Stripes. Congress resolved that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white on a blue field, representing a new constellation." The design was taken by a committee to Mrs. Ross, who lived on Arch Street, Phila- delphia, in a house still standing, and followed the business of upholstering. The committee asked her to make a flag with thirteen alternate red and white stripes, and thirteen six-pointed stars. She immediately took the scissors and cut out a five-pointed star, suggesting that it was more pleasing and symmetrical. The change was accepted. She began the manufacture of flags, and her descend- ants have followed it since her day. Paul Jones first unfurled this flag upon the Ranger. The stars formed a circle, an arrangement which has had to be dropped in the great increase of states in later years. 1777. June 20. Burgoyne's Inva- sion. Gen. Burgoyne, who had been appointed to the command of the north- ern British army in place of Gen. Carle- ton, set out from Canada on an invasion of New York by way of Lake Cham- plain, intending to unite with Gen. Howe along the Hudson River. Burgoyne had a splendid army of eight thousand men, with forty pieces of artillery. Upon his way up the lake he held a council with the Indians to stir them up to war. 1777. June 30. Evacuation of New Jersey. Gen. Howe, after having in vain tried to entrap Washington by strat- egy, evacuated New Jersey, and crossed to Staten Island. 1777. July 4. The first anniversary of the Declaration of Independence was celebrated at Philadelphia, with great joy. It is said by Bancroft, that during a part of the day " the landgrave of Hesse's band, captured at Trenton, played excellent music." 1777. July 6. Fort Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain, was evacuated by Gen. St. Clair. 1777. July 7. Battle of Hubbardton. Gen. Fraser, with a detachment of Bur- goyne's army, pushed on and fought the retreating Americans at Hubbardton, Vt. The Americans gave way with a loss of three hundred killed, wounded and captured. 1777. July 12. Gen. St. Clair, with the rest of his force, amounting to two thousand men, reached Fort Edward. 1777. July 20. Gen. Prescott, in command of the British forces in Rhode Island, was taken prisoner one night at his headquarters, by Lieut.-Col. William Barton of Providence, who silently en- tered the house with a few men, and carried off the general from his bedroom after the door had been broken through suddenly by the head of a strong negro. Gen. Prescott was sent to Washington and exchanged afterward for Gen. Charles Lee. Barton received a sword and a colonel's commission, together with a errant of land in Vermont. It was 1775-1783.] while Gen. Prescott was being conveyed from Rhode Island that the American dish of succotash, a compound of boiled green corn and beans, was presented to him by Mrs. Alden at her hus- band's tavern at Lebanon, Conn. Gen. Prescott threw it upon the floor, saying, " What! do you treat me to the food of hogs?" Capt. Alden afterward came in and horsewhipped Gen. Prescott for his insolence to Mrs. Alden. 1777. July 22. Fort Edward was abandoned by Gen. Schuyler upon the approach of Burgoyne. 1777. July 23. Cornwallis sailed from New York for the south, with eighteen thousand men. His point of attack was unknown to the Americans. It afterward proved to be the beginning of the approach on Philadelphia by way of the Delaware River. 1777. July 27. Jane McCrea, a beautiful young woman who was being conducted by two Indians to the British camp where her lover was an officer, was murdered on the way. Her death made a great excitement at the time, as exhib- iting savage treachery, but it is claimed by some that she was shot by a party who fired upon the Indians. 1777. July 31. Lafayette, a young French officer, having arrived in the col- onies and offered his services to the American cause without pay, was com- missioned a major-general by congress. He had found great difficulty in getting away from France, but finally eluded all efforts to detain him, and reached the shores of the United States in a vessel of his own purchase. He had been aroused on the subject of American liberty by hearing the Declaration of Independence read. His acquaintance with Washing- ton was formed immediately upon re- THE DAT OF TRIAL. 333 ceiving his commission, and became very intimate in later years. Baron John de Kalb and other officers came with La- fayette and entered the American army. 1777. Aug. 3. Fort Stanwix, or Fort Schuyler in Central New York, was besieged by a force of British and Indians. 1777. Aug. 6. Battle of Oriskany. Gen. Herkimer, marching to the relief of Fort Stanwix, was surprised and defeated by a part of St. Leger's army. Gen. Herkimer continued to direct the battle after he was mortally wounded. The tories and Indians fled at a sortie from the fort. 1777. Aug. 13. The siege of Fort Stanwix was raised by St. Leger, because of the approach of Gen. Benedict Ar- nold with a force of eight hundred men. This reverse disappointed Burgoyne. 1777. Aug. 16. Battle of Benning- ton. A large force of Germans and British regulars under Lieut.-Col. Baume had been sent into Vermont by Burgoyne to secure tory support, and capture Amer- ican supplies. But Gen. John Stark met and conquered them at Bennington, taking seven hundred prisoners. The Americans lost less than one hundred. As Gen. Stark caught sight of the British line of battle he exclaimed, " There are the red coats. We beat them to-day, or Molly Stark is a widow." One old man had five sons in the American force. He was told after the battle that one of them had been unfortunate. " Has he proved a coward or a traitor?" eagerly inquired the man. " O, no ! he fought bravely, but he has fallen," was the answer. "Ah, then I am satisfied," was the father's response. 1777. Aug. 19. Gen. Horatio Gates was appointed to the command of the 334 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. northern army of the Americans, in place of Gen. Schuyler. 1777. Sept. 11. Battle of Brandy- wine. Lord Howe, in his march toward Philadelphia along the Delaware with a large force, was met by Gen. Washing- ton, who attempted to stay the progress of the British. The result was a total defeat of the Americans, who lost nearly a thousand men. The British lost about five hundred. 1777. Sept. 19. Battle of Bemis' Heights, sometimes called the first battle of Saratoga. Burgoyne attacked the American army at Bemis' Heights, near Stillwater. But for the nervelessness of Gates, the British army could have been destroyed. The day was only saved by a few brave officers like Arnold and Morgan. The American loss was about three hundred, and the British six hundred. 1777. Sept. 20. Paoli Massacre. Gen. Wayne, in attempting to surprise Gen. Howe, was himself surprised by a British force. He lost three hundred men, killed, wounded and captured. The enemy lost only seven. The disaster was brought upon Wayne by information which tories conveyed to Gen. Howe. 1777. Sept. 26. Gen. Howe entered Philadelphia at the head of his troops. Many of the citizens left the city in great terror. 1777. Sept. 30. Congress met at York, Penn., after the entrance of Howe into Philadelphia. It had first met at Lancaster, to which place it had adjourned from Philadelphia. It continued to meet at York while Howe held the city. 1777. Oct. 4. Battle of German- town. Washington attacked the enemy's camp at Germantown, the result of which, though not a complete victory, served to strengthen the American cause. The loss was one of several hundred on each side. 1777. Oct. 6. Gen. Clinton, with a British force, captured Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery, on the Hudson. Kingston, Rhinebeck and other places were destroyed. 1777. Oct. 7. Battle of Stillwater, sometimes called the second battle of Saratoga. The situation of the British was now critical. They fought with desperation, but were driven at all points. Gen. Arnold fought in this battle in diso- bedience to Gen. Gates, who sent an officer to recall him as he entered the field. Gen. Arnold dashed from point to point so rapidly that the messenger could not reach him till the battle was over. Major John D. Acland, one of Burgoyne's officers, was wounded and taken prisoner. His wife, who had accompanied him to America, sought him out in the American camp and was graciously accorded the privilege of caring for her disabled hus- band. In a short time Major Acland re- gained his strength, and finally returned with his wife to Great Britain. They had both gained a great respect for American motives and character. At a dinner in England a Lieut. Lloyd, during a discussion of the character of the Amer- ican cause and of those engaged in it, made some remarks which reflected upon the colonists. Major Acland gave him the lie, stoutly defending the Americans. Lieut. Lloyd challenged him, and in the duel which followed, Major Acland was shot through the head. His wife was insane for two years. BURGOWE'S SURRENDER. 1777. Oct. 17. Finding that the hope of breaking through the American 1775-1783.] army to join Howe, and of safely re- treating by the way he came, had now disappeared, Burgoyne at last surren- dered to Gen. Gates. He gave up five thousand seven hundred and ninety-one men, besides one thousand eight hundred and fifty-six prisoners of war. The Americans also obtained forty -two brass cannon, and forty-six hundred muskets, with other supplies. At the surrender Burgoyne, in an ele- gant uniform, met Gates in a "plain blue frock coat," and handed his sword to the latter, who re- turned it at once. The British troops were to be allowed to leave the country on condition of not again entering the army against the Americans. Bur- goyne now realized what Jonathan Ma- son of New Hamp- shire said to him when taken prison- er, and brought be- fore the general. " Well, my fine fel- low," said Burgoyne, " what do you think of yourself now?" "Same as I always did," was the reply. " But what do you think of being a prisoner of war?" "Why, that it'll be your turn next." "Bah!" was Burgoyne's exclamation, " all the Yankees in America can't do it." Gen. Burgoyne was humorously known during the Revolution as " Elbow- room," a designation which arose from a remark he made when entering Boston harbor in 1775, with Howe and Clinton. THE DAT OF TRIAL. 335 GEN. BURGOYNE. The saying was published in the news- papers as follows : " When the three generals lately arrived, were going into Boston, they met a packet coming out, bound to this place (Newport), when, we hear, Gen. Burgoyne asked the skipper of the packet, ' What news there was.' And being told that Boston was surrounded by 10,000 country people, asked, ' How many regulars there were in Boston?' and being answered about 5,000, cried out, with astonish- ment, 'What, ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king's troops shut up ! Well, let us get in, and we'll soon find elbow room ! ' After his surrender the general was con- veyed to Boston, where quite a crowd was gathered to see him as he stepped on shore. Just as he was making his way off the Charlestown ferry-boat, an old lady perched on a shed above the crowd, cried out at the top of her shrill voice, ' Make way ! make way ! the gen- eral's coming! Give him elbow room!" 1 " 1777. October. A board of war was created by congress with Gen. Gates as president He had obtained a great popularity \>y Burgoyne's surrender. Still the hopes of the more thoughtful clung to Washington, who wrote to Pat- rick Henry, " If the cause be advanced, it is indifferent to me when or in what 336 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGLES. quarter it happens." Military affairs had formerly been under the charge of a com- mittee of congress. 1777. Oct. 22. Attack on Fort Mercer. Count Donop, with twelve hundred Hessians and artillery, attacked Fort Mercer on the Delaware River, in which Col. Greene, of Rhode Island, held command of four hundred men. Col. Greene refused to surrender, and the foe were met with such energy that at last they were glad to give up the at- tempt with the loss of four hundred men, including Count Donop. 1777. Oct. 23. An unsuccessful attack was made on Fort Mifflin, near Fort Mercer, by British vessels. 1777. Nov. 1. Henry Laurens, of South Carolina, was elected president of the continental congress, to succeed John Hancock. 1777. Nov. 15. Articles of Con. federation. Congress agreed on " Arti- cles of Confederation " for a closer union between the colonies. This matter had been discussed a year before, and since the spring of this year, very considerably. The conflicts between different colonial interests came out ia this discussion. A national union of some kind was seen to be necessary, but the separate states were very cautious in entrusting any power to a central government. These " articles " established a mere league of states, with- out power of any essential kind. No taxes could be raised by congress. The national credit at once began to decline. The provincial assemblies ratified the " articles," though some of them were slow to do so. 1777. Nov. 16. Fort Mifflin was evacuated. The garrison escaped to Fort Mercer. 1777. Nov. 20. Fort Mercer was evacuated. Its fall left the Delaware River open to the British. 1777. Dec. 4. Howe's Strategy. Gen. Howe left Philadelphia in order to draw Washington into a battle. The American general was warned by Lydia Darrah, who had overheard the plan as it had been arranged by the British offi- cers in council at her house. She at once prepared to go to mill, and thus passed the British lines in safety. 1777. Dec. 7. Battle of Edge Hill. A fight took place at Edge Hill, between a small number of troops on each side. The British loss was eighty-nine, and the American twenty-seven. Howe re- turned to Philadelphia with an entire failure to accomplish his purpose. 1777. Dec. 11. Valley Forge. Washington marched for Valley Forge, where he put his army into winter quar- ters. Many of the soldiers were almost or wholly barefoot, and there was little straw which could be obtained to put upon the ground inside their huts. Howe remained in Philadelphia, and the saying of Franklin became true of the pleasure- loving general. " Howe did not take Philadelphia, so much as Philadelphia took Howe." 1777. Wool-card Teeth. Oliver Evans invented a machine for making the teeth for wool-cards at the rate of three hundred a minute. They had previously been made by hand. 1778. January. "Battle of the Kegs." An attempt was made to de- stroy the British fleet at Philadelphia by floating kegs of powder down stream upon a raft, with attachments for explod- ing them when they struck any object. The design was invented by David Bushnell, of Saybrook, Conn. The ves- sels had been moved just before, and so 1775-1783.] escaped injury, but the device caused great alarm in the city, through an explo- sion which occurred in hitting a block of ice or some other floating object. There was a great deal of firing at strange ob- jects floating on the water during the next few days. A comic ballad was written upon the affair by Judge Francis Hopkinson. 1778. Jan. 16. A great fire raged in Charleston, S. C., with great rapidity, for twenty-four hours. The inhabitants fled without being able to protect their property. The shipping and boats in the harbor were filled with distressed families. 1778. Jan. 20. " Light Horse Har- ry." A party of two hundred British cavalrymen made an unsuccessful at- tempt to capture Capt. Henry Lee at his post six miles from Valley Forge. Capt. Lee with seven men barricaded the house and drove off the enemy, preventing them also from taking away the horses out of the barn near by. The British fled with a loss of four killed, and three wounded. Lee's loss was two wounded, besides the capture of his patrols. Capt. Lee was made a major and authorized to raise a corps of his own, which became known as "Lee's Legion," while their leader was commonly called " Light Horse Harry." He was the father of Gen. Robert E. Lee, commander-in-chief of the Confederate army, in the late civil war. 1778. Feb. 6. A treaty of alliance and commerce was concluded between France and the United States, and was the first one which the latter had ar- ranged with any nation. France thereby acknowledged the independence of the United States. 1778. February. Baron Steuben, a Prussian who had served seven years 22 THE DAT OF TRIAL. 337 under Frederick the Great, arrived at Valley Forge to enter the American army. He was soon appointed inspector- general, and began to drill the troops with great good results. The effects of his discipline were visible throughout the rest of the war. 1778. March 7. A naval action took place between the Randolph, an American vessel, and the Yarmouth, an English vessel. All of the Randolph's crew of three hundred and fifteen men, except four, perished by the explosion of the ship's magazine. 1778. March. Lord North's Plan. Lord North offered certain conciliatory bills to Parliament, which mi . irj8 were passed by that body. Voltaire. The capture of Burgoyne 17 ^" 78 - J William Pitt. and the position of France 1712-1778. led to these measures. But Rous***** there was a total misconception in Eng- land of the spirit of the American leaders, and all the bills were based upon the former relations between the two coun- tries. It was now impossible to come to an agreement upon old terms. 1778. May 18. The Meschianza. Just before Gen. Howe's departure for England a great pageant was held in his honor in Philadelphia. It was under the management of Major Andre", and consisted of a regatta, a tournament, and a ball at which a rich banquet was spread. This untimely display and rev- elry in the midst of war caused much ridicule and criticism to be heaped upon those who participated in the affair. 1778. May 21. An attempt to cap- ture Lafayette, whom Washington had stationed at an outpost between Valley Forge and Philadelphia, was made by Gen. Howe. But Lafayette out-generaled him, and escaped from the net. 338 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES . 1778. May 24. Gen. Sir Henry Clinton arrived in Philadelphia to as- sume command of the British army in America, upon the recall of Gen. Howe. 1778. June 4. Three commission- ers who had been appointed by the Eng- lish government in accordance with Lord North's plan of conciliation, arrived in Philadelphia to treat for peace. Their mission was a failure, because they had no authority to stipulate for the removal of the British army from America, or to acknowledge the independence of the United States, both of which things were claimed by the United States as a pre- liminary to all conference. Congress refused abruptly to hold any intercourse till these things were agreed upon. It was one of these commissioners who sent an offer of 10,000 to Gen. Joseph Reed if he would exert himself for a reconciliation, eliciting the famous reply, " I am not worth purchasing, but such as I am, the King of Great Britain is not rich enough to buy me." Of a similar sort was the reply of Nathan Coffin upon another occasion, when asked to enter the royal naval service. "Hang me if you will to the yard-arm of your ship, but do not ask me to become a traitor to my country." 1778. June 18. The British evac- uated Philadelphia under orders from England. The whole force to the num- O ber of fourteen thousand troops, set out across New Jersey. Washington at once made preparations to follow in pursuit. 1778. June 28. Battle of Mon- mouth. A severe battle was fought at Monmouth, N. J., one hot Sunday when the mercury stood ninety-six degrees above zero in the shade. At the first attack the American van under Gen. Charles Lee, gave way. Washington came up, and by almost superhuman efforts, stopped the flight. The battle continued till dark, when the patrols were left on the field, and the weary soldiers lay down to sleep. The Ameri- cans lost three hundred and sixty-two killed, wounded, and missing. The Brit- ish lost in the battle three hundred and fifty-five. Gen. Charles Lee was court- martialed for his lack of bravery, and for his insolent replies to Washington. He was suspended for one year, and at a later date upon additional proof of treachery to his country, was dismissed from service. It was in this battle that the brave Mollie Pitcher assisted in load- ing the cannon at which her husband had been stationed till he was shot down. On the following day she received from Washington a sergeant's commission, with half-pay for life. The British con- tinued their march toward New York, and lost nearly one thousand men upon the way, by desertion. 1778. July 3. A great massacre of the inhabitants of Wyoming Valley, Penn., took place at the hands of more than a thousand tories and Indians, headed by Col. John Butler. The ab- sence of able bodied men to serve in the continental army left the Valley almost defenceless. 1778. July 4. Forty Fort, in Wyo- ming Valley was taken, and more cruel- ties committed. The whole region was burned and desolated in the most scathing manner. 1778. July 4. A duel was fougnt between Generals Cadwallader and Con- way, because of the latter's opposition' to Washington. Conway was wounded, and thinking death near at hand, he wrote Washington a letter full of repentance for all his dishonorable efforts. .PS VALE OF WYOMING. [339 340 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. 1778. Another duel was fought this year between Maj.-Gen. Charles Lee and Col. John Laurens, an aide of Wash- ington, who challenged Lee because of slighting remarks made by the latter con- cerning Washington in defending his own conduct at Monmouth. Gen. Lee was wounded, but the affair terminated with- out any very decisive character. 1778. July 8. The Trench fleet under Count D'Estaing, arrived off the mouth of the Delaware a few days after the British fleet had sailed out of that river, on its way from Philadelphia to New York. The first minister from France to the United States, a Mr. Gerard, came in this fleet. 1778. July 29. The Trench fleet arrived at Narragansett Bay in obedi- ence to an order to unite with a land force under Gen. Sullivan, in driving the British from Rhode Island. 1778. Aug. 6. M. Gerard, first min- ister from France to the United States, was received by congress with imposing ceremonies. 1778. Aug. 10. A severe storm pre- vented an impending battle between the French fleet and Lord Howe's fleet off Newport, and did great damage to the American camp. After a short time D'Estaing sailed to Boston to refit his ships. 1778. Aug. 18. Capt. Cook, the great English navigator, having ex- plored Behring's Strait and determined its width, reached and named Icy Cape, on the northwest coast of Alaska. From there he sailed to the Sandwich Islands, where he was killed. He had hoped on this northern trip to settle the question of a northwest passage, but the ice-fields prevented. The chief value of Cook's voyages was in making the world ac- quainted with the Tahitian sugar cane, which contains a larger proportion of sugar, and ripens more quickly. It is- now cultivated in a large part of the sugar-growing districts of the world. 1778. Aug. 29. A battle took place between the American land forces which had begun to retreat from their position near Newport, R. I., and the British, who were in pursuit. Gen. Greene, who com- manded the right of Gen. Sullivan's force, drove back the British with a loss- of two hundred and sixty men. The American loss was two hundred. At other points the Americans were driven back. 1778. Aug. 30. Gen. Sullivan's army withdrew from Rhode Island. Within a few days the British ravaged the coast to the east, including New Bedford, Fair- haven and Martha's Vineyard. 1778. Sept. 28. Baylor's American " Light-horse " were surprised and mas- sacred one night while sleeping in barns in New Jersey, by a small British force under Gen. Grey. They were bayoneted while begging for quarter. 1778. Oct. 15. Pulaski's infantry were surprised and massacred where they were quartered for the night, by Capt. Patrick Ferguson and a British force. 1778. Nov. 10. Cherry VaUey Mas- sacre. A band of tories and Indians under Walter N. Butler, a tory, and Brant, an Indian, fell upon the inhabi- tants of Cherry Valley, N. Y., in a storm of rain, and desolated the region with the scalping knife, and with fire. 1778. Dec. 10. John Jay, LL. D., was elected president of the continental congress to succeed Henry Laurens, who had resigned. 1778. Dec. 29. Savannah, Ga., was seized by a British force under Lieut.-Col. 1775-1783.] THE DAY OF TRIAL. 341 Campbell, who lost twenty-four men in the attack. The American loss was quite heavy, comprising nearly one-half the troops, baggage, and guns which they possessed. 1778. "Nancy's Rock." A young girl, working in a family in Jefferson, N. H., was engaged to be married to a young man in the same family. The young man left the region on a trip to Ports- mouth with the man he worked for, while his affianced was away for a few days. He left her no word. Having returned .and found that he had gone, she packed up a bundle and started to follow him on foot. A snow-storm was driving, and night was setting in. It was at least thirty miles to Crawford Notch, in the White Mountains, where any one lived. There was only a path to be followed by blazed trees. In the midst of the storm she pushed on. Finally she reached a camp where her lover had been, shortly before. She tried to kindle a fire in the warm ashes again. She pushed on into the Notch, and climbed along her rough way, fording the Saco River. At last she gave out, and. was found by a party who had set out in pursuit of her. But she was cold and dead. Her lover is said to have gone insane and died a madman, after he had learned of this devotion of a loving heart. 1779. Jan. 1. Federal money had depreciated to such an extent that one Collar in gold would buy seven or eight dollars in the bills of credit. 1779. Jan. 9. The fort at Sunbury, Ga., was taken by the British under Gen. P revest. Augusta was taken a few days later. 1779. Feb. 14. Battle of Kettle Creek. A tory force which was plun- dering the region, was defeated at Kettle Creek, Ga., by Col. Andrew Pickens, with a company of citizens from Ninety- Six. CLARK'S FAMOUS EXPEDITIONS. 1779. Feb. 25. The British post at Vincennes, Ind., was taken by Col. George Rogers Clark, after a difficult march across the country from Kaskaskia. In order to understand the situation it is necessary to look at his previous efforts. Col. Clark had in 1775 undertaken to bring the settlements scattered through Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky, under the rule of Virginia. Difficulties hindered the accomplishment of this step, but he persevered, and finally in 1778 raised an expedition with which he marched against the French settlements of Illinois. He first secured possession of Kaskaskia without bloodshed, and by his treatment of the inhabitants won their good will to such an extent that the French priest en- gaged to secure the allegiance of the inhabitants at Vincennes to the United States. The British governor of that post had gone to Detroit, and the citizens, attracted by the new show of freedom, readily consented to the change. Capt. Helm was sent from Kaskaskia by Col. Clark, to take charge of Vincennes. This was in August, 1778. By an act of the Virginia assembly, that whole re- gion was raised to the name of Illinois County. Near the end of this year, however, the British governor of Detroit raised an army of about five hundred, including Indians, and descended upon Vincennes. The English had reached the vicinity of the fort and were in full march toward the gate, when a sturdy voice shouted, " Halt! " It was the voice of Capt. Helm, who stood at a cannon in the open gate, ready to dis- charge it in an instant. Gov. Hamilton 342 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. stopped his force and demanded the sur- render of the garrison. " No man shall enter here until I know the terms," was the reply of Capt. Helm. Hamilton in a few moments agreed to grant the hon- ors of war, and drew up his force to re- ceive the garrison as they should march out. What was the amazement of Indi- ans and regulars to see Capt. Helm, with a solitary private named Henry, march out of the gate, and down the lines. These two Americans were the only gar- rison in the place. This recapture, tak- ing place in December, 1778, separated Col. Clark from the east. He therefore began the raising of a force to march against Vincennes and attempt its seizure. It must be done at once, for the British would be reinforced in the spring. On Feb. 5 he set out across the country, having sent a vessel around by the rivers. The whole region was flooded, and the men were obliged to march through water a great part of the way. At times a large part of the force were in danger of drowning through exhaustion. After many difficulties the distance was accom- plished, and the siege began. It continued several days with the usual incidents, and at last, after considerable parley, the post surrendered. Col. Clark had saved the western territory to the United States. His expeditions were very important in gaining these posts and impressing the western Indians with a sense of the power of the United States. Col. Clark's energy was of a remarkable sort. His efforts rank very high in the list of Revolutionary adventures. 1779. March 3. Battle of Brier Creek, Ga. A large detachment of Gen. Lincoln's army under Ashe was defeated at Brier Creek, Ga., with great loss, by the British who were commanded by Gen. P revest. 1779. April 26. Putnam's Escape. A company of patriots under Gen. Put- nam tried to resist a raid made by Ex- Gov. Tryon of North Carolina, with fifteen hundred British and Hessians, into the territory of Connecticut, near Green- wich. The American force was so small that it fled at once. Gen. Putnam rode swiftly toward Stamford meeting-house^ pursued by dragoons. On reaching the brow of the hill on which the meeting- house stood, Gen. Putnam dashed down at headlong speed, crossing in his course some stone steps which led down the de- clivity. The British did not dare to fol- low, and the general escaped. After having destroyed some property, Tryon marched back to Kingbridge followed by Gen. Putnam, who gathered his men to- gether and took thirty-eight of the enemy prisoners, besides recovering some of the stolen property. Putnam lost twenty men. 1779. May 9. A British expedition of twenty-five hundred men overran Suffolk Co., Va., burning property, and wasting the whole region. Three thous- and hogsheads of tobacco were car- ried back to New York. The damage to the property of the region was esti- mated at $2,000,000. Over one hundred vessels were destroyed. 1779. May 11. Gen. Prevost ap- peared before Charleston, S. C., and demanded its surrender. His request was refused, and upon the rumored approach of Gen. Lincoln, Prevost abandoned the attempt. 1779. May 31. Stony Point, N. Y.,. was captured by the British under Clin- ton. The entire garrison escaped by flight. 1775-1783.] 1779. June 1. Verplanck's Point, opposite Stony Point, was also captured by Clinton, together with its garrison. 1779. June 20. A severe battle occurred at Stono Ferry, S. C., between a part of Gen. Lincoln's force and a British garrison left to guard the ferry. Each side lost about three hundred men. 1779. July 5. Another raid upon Connecticut was made by Tryon. For a week his force pursued their work, de- stroying New Haven, East Haven, Fair- field, and Norwalk. Tryon was delighted with the task, and sat in a rocking chair upon a hill during the burning of Norwaik. 1779. July 16. Stony Point was stormed a little past midnight in the morning by an American detachment under Gen. Anthony Wayne, commonly called " Mad Anthony." The surprise was complete, and the contest very sharp for a few moments. But the garrison soon surrendered, having lost sixty-three men, killed. Five hundred forty-three prisoners were taken. The American loss was fifteen killed, and eighty-three wounded. The cannon and stores were removed from Stony Point, and the post was abandoned. But it was soon re- occupied by the British. 1779. Aug. 19. Major Henry Lee with an American force, got inside the fort at Paulus Hook, N. J., now Jersey City, being mistaken by the sentinel for a returning foraging party, and captured one hundred and fifty-nine of the British garrison, whom he carried off prisoners. 1779. Aug. 29. Expedition against the Indians. Generals Sullivan and Clinton having organized an expedition against the Indians of Western New York in retaliation for Wyoming and Cherry Valley outrages, fought them at THE DAT OF TRIAL. 343 Chemung, now Elmira, N. Y. Eight hundred Indians and tories were routed. Within the next five weeks many Indian villages and stores were burned, and the inhabitants scattered abroad. It was a terrible lesson to them. The Indians gave Washington the name of " The Town Destroyer." 1779. Sept. 23. Paul Jones' Vic- tory. A great naval victory was gained by John Paul Jones off the coast of Eng- land over the Serapis and Scarborough, two English vessels-of-war in charge of a fleet of merchantmen. Com. Jones had five vessels, and commanded the Bon Horn me Richard himself, with which he fought at close quarters, the Serapis, the most powerful of the enemy's ships. The Richard had forty-two guns, and the Serapis fifty. After the fight opened the two vessels were lashed together, side to side. When everything seemed going to ruin, Com. Pearson cried out to Jones through the smoke, " Has your ship struck?" to which the reply at once flashed back, " I haven't begun to fight yet." For most of the night did the fearful conflict rage, until at last Com. Pearson surrendered. During the battle, the Al- liance, one of Jones' vessels under Capt. Landais, came up and fired a broadside into the stern of the Bon Horn me Rich- ard, thereby intending, it is thought, to kill Jones, and take the Serapis in her disabled condition, in order to gain the glory. The Scarborough was captured after an hour's battle by the Pallas under Capt. Cottineau. Com, Pearson, of the Serapis, was knighted by the queen for his bravery. Com. Jones, when he heard of it said, " Well, he deserved it, and if I meet him again, I will make a lord of him." The news of this wonderful vic- tory excited the world, and respect for 314 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. American bravery increased. Reuben Chase, of Nantucket, midshipman of the Bon Homme Richard in this battle, be- came the Long Tom Coffin of Cooper's " Pilot." Paul Jones himself was the unknown pilot of the story. 1779. Sept. 28. Samuel Hunting- ton of Connecticut, was elected president of the continental congress, to succeed John Jay, who had been appointed to the Spanish mission. 1779. Oct. 1. Col. White's Strata- gem. During the siege of Savannah five British vessels lay about twenty-five miles below the city on the Ogeechee, under the charge of Capt. French and some regulars. Col. White of Georgia, with a captain and three soldiers, five of them in all, kindled a great number of fires in the woods around, and rode back and forth, giving orders to imaginary sol- diers. He then demanded the surrender of the British, which Capt. French hast- ened to comply with, in the conviction that he was surrounded by a large force. White sent the prisoners off under three men, saying that he must keep his army in camp for fear of a slaughter. He then raised a force of militia and over- took the captives before they had gone far. This was one of the most successful stratagems of the war. 1779. Oct. 9. The siege of Savan- nah, Ga., by an American force in con- junction with the French fleet under Count D'Estaing, which had been going on for some weeks, closed with a bloody assault which was entirely unsuccessful. The Americans lost four hundred, the French six hundred. Count Pulaski was killed during the attack. Gen. Lincoln retired to Charleston. 1779. October. Board of Admiralty. The committee of congress upon the navy was erected into a " Board of Ad- miralty " with three members added, who were not members of congress. O 1779. Morristown Winter Quarters. Washington made his new winter quarters for this season at Morristown, N. J., and the army endured greater misery than at Valley Forge. It was one of the sever- est winters of the eighteenth century. Before the close of the year the British had withdrawn from the Hudson and from Rhode Island, and held no place in New England west of the Penobscot. Early in the year Lafayette had returned to France, where he was received with great honor, and obtained from the king at the. close of the year, the promise of an army for American service. 1779. December. The Federal cur- rency had depreciated so rapidly during this year that at its close one dollar in gold or silver would buy thirty dollars in paper money. 1779. Antonio de Ulloa, a Spanish scientist and naval commander, was put in charge of a fleet, which, after some attacks upon English commerce, was to sail against the English settlements in Florida. But Ulloa, the commander, became engaged in some peculiar astro- nomical investigations, and forgot to open his sealed orders. At a subsequent date he was court-martialed, but was ac- quitted, and retired from naval service. 1780. Feb. 5. State Quotas. Con- gress called upon the states to fill up their quotas so far as to make an army of thirty-five thousand men. The whole number at that time did not exceed ten thousand. 1780. March* 1. The first bank in the United States, and probably in Amer- ica, " The Bank of Pennsylvania," was chartered. 1775-1783.] 1780. March 1. The gradual eman- cipation of slaves in Pennsylvania was provided for by an act of the assembly. All persons born after this date were to be free at the age of twenty-eight. 1780. April 14. Defeat of Huger. Two regiments of Americans under Gen. Huger were destroyed at Monk's Cor- ner, about thirty miles from Charleston, by Tarleton, the British cavalryman, who acquired such a reputation for fierceness . and cruelty. 1780. May 4. The American Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences was founded. 1780. May 6. Tarleton routed a remnant of American horse troops under Lieut.-Col. White, on the Santee River. 1780. May 11. Lafayette rejoined the American army from France, bring- ing the promise of material aid, together with a commission for Washington " as lieutenant-general of the French army, and vice-admiral of its navy. 1780. May 19. A dark day occurred in New England, and to some extent in other parts of the country. The phe- nomenon began about ten o'clock in the forenoon, and the darkness increased rap- idly until it was impossible in many places to read ordinary print. Great fear was caused to man and beast. The whole scene was an extremely unnatural one. During the first of the night following the darkness was utter, although the full moon rose at about nine o'clock. It is supposed that the vapors of the atmos- phere settled in a heavy load upon the earth, an explanation which has some reason in view of the testimony to the smoky smell and vaporous feeling of the air. The legislature of Connecticut was in session at Hartford. Dr. Dwieht o relates that some of the members wished to adjourn, thinking that the " Day of THE DAT OF TRIAL. 345 Judgment" was at hand. Col. Abra- ham Davenport was asked his opinion, and replied, " I am against adjournment. The day of judgment is approaching, or it is not. If it is not, there is no cause for adjournment; if it is, I choose to be found doing my duty. I wish, therefore, that candles be brought." A lady who lived near Dr. Matthew Byles, of Boston, sent her little son to him to seek an ex- planation of the phenomenon. " My dear," said he, "you will give my com- pliments to your mamma and tell her that I am as much in the dark as she is." 1780. May 12. Capture of Charles- ton. Charleston, S. C., was surrendered by Gen. Lincoln after a siege of forty days, to a combined British land and naval force under Generals Clinton and Cornwallis. The place was given up to plunder. Plate and other valuables were seized, and slaves were sent to the West Indies to be sold. Patriot citizens were persecuted. The share of the spoil for a major-general amounted to five thousand guineas. The prisoners of war num- bered five thousand. 1780. May 29. " Tarleton's Quar- ter." . Tarleton's British cavalry de- stroyed a regiment of Virginians under Col. Buford, on Waxhaw Creek, S. C. Andrew Jackson, then thirteen years old, was taken prisoner. Little mercy was shown, and "Tarleton's quarter " became a war cry of the American army ever afterward. 178O. June. Destitution of Amer- ican Army. The American army be- came very destitute of supplies, and were almost starving. It nearly broke up the whole force in the field. Three million rations were sent to camp by Robert Morris, of Philadelphia. Soldiers " relict associations " were formed. 346 REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES. 1780. June 23. British Repulse in New Jersey. A British force of five thousand men which had started out from Staten Island into New Jersey on a tour of conquest under Gen. Knyphausen, was repulsed at the Rahway River near Springfield, by Gen. Greene. It was here that Rev. James Caldwell, whose wife had been brutally shot a fortnight before by British soldiers, brought hymn books out of the Presbyterian church for wadding when everything else had failed, and exclaimed, "Now, boys, put Watts into them." The British retired to Staten Island, harassed along their march by the patriot force in a severe manner. 1780. July 10. A French fleet arrived at Newport, R. I., with an army of six thousand men under Count de Rochambeau. 178O. July 25. Gen. Gates having been appointed commander-in-chief of the army of the south, a position made vacant by the capture of Lincoln, joined the army at Deep River. 1780. July 30. Battle of Rocky Mount. Gen. Sumter was repulsed by a British force at Rocky Mount on the Catawba River, S. C. 1780. Aug. 6. Battle of Hanging Rock. A battle was fought at Hanging Rock, S. C., a place where a huge rock thirty feet in diameter overhangs the side of the hill. A precipice one hundred feet high makes one side of the hill. Gen. Sumter charged the Prince of Wales' regiment of American loyalists on the summit of this hill. The British force was nearly destroyed. 1780. Aug. 16. Battle of Camden. Gen. Gates was totally defeated at San- der's Creek, near Camden, S. C., by Cornwallis. Gates had about three thousand raw men, many of whom were sick from marching through a region of scanty supplies. Gen. Gates retired from this battle, almost alone, two hundred miles in three and a half days. Baron John De Kalb, who fell mortally wounded in this battle, was one of the brave for- eign officers who gave up their lives in the service of American liberty. . He was born in Alsace, June 29, 1721, and died three days after the battle of Cam- den. He fell while fighting with great valor to resist the charge of the British troops. He had been for years connected with the French army, and received upon his arrival in America, a major-general's commission. 1780. Aug. 18. Defeat of Sumter. Gen. Sumter, who had captured some British stores a few days before, was sur- prised and defeated at Fishing Creek, S. C., by Tarleton's cavalry. 1780. Aug. 18. The British gar- rison of five hundred men, at Musgrove'e Mills, was routed by Col. Williams, of Ninety Six. 1780. Aug. 20. Gen. Marion re- captured one hundred and fifty prisoners taken in the fight at Camden, by sur- prising and defeating their guard at Nel- son's Ferry on the Santee River. 1780. Sept. 23. The treason of Benedict Arnold to his country, one of the darkest features of the Revolutionary war, was discovered by the capture of Major Andre, the British officer who had been within the American lines to confer with Arnold about the surrender of West Point to the English. Major Andre load a pass as John Anderson. But he was stopped by three militia men named John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart, on his way back along the Hudson, he having decided to go back by land rather than by water. 1775-1783.] Suspicions were aroused by his replies to their questions, and he was searched. The fatal proofs were found in his boots in the shape of papers detailing the con- dition of West Point, and other import- ant matters for the English. Gen. Arnold learned of the capture in time to escape from West Point before the arrival of Washington, who was to breakfast with him. He fled to the British ship-of-waf, Vulture, in the Hudson. His plot failed, and his future career was not one of hap- piness or honor, even from those whom he intended to benefit. He was regarded with contempt by the higher-minded British officers. His life proved a tre- mendous failure at this point. 1780. Oct. 2. Execution of Andre. Major Andre, having been tried as a spy, was sentenced to death. Great efforts were made for the release of this brilliant young officer, and Washington was at this time severely condemned in England for the execution of the sentence, but the decree was unchangeable, and the event ordered took place by hanging. His character drew forth the regard of the American officers with whom he came into contact after his capture. The senti- ment regarding his execution changed after the first excitement swept away. 1780. Oct. 7. Battle of King's Mountain. A British and tory force under Gen. Ferguson, was defeated and captured at King's Mountain, S. C., by a patriot force of about nine hundred farm- ers and backwoodsmen. The British lost one thousand one hundred and eight, killed and prisoners, besides one thousand five hundred stands of arms. Gen. Fer- guson was slain. The American loss was eighty-eight, killed and wounded. Ten tories were hung by the exasperated mountaineers. This victory revived the THE DAT OF TRIAL. 347 hopes of the colonists. Cornwallis was now making a great attempt to subdue the Carolinas. This great battle was a crisis, and Cornwallis had to retreat be- fore the rising patriots. 1780. Oct. 10. An awful hurricane devastated Barbadoes for forty-eight hours, and destroyed almost every build- ing on the island. About four thousand persons lost their lives. 1780. Oct. 25. A new constitution! which had been adopted a few months before, went into effect in Massachusetts. It declared all men " free and equal." A case soon arose before the supreme court which decided that this declaration pre- cluded slavery. 1780. October. Henry Laurens, ex- president of congress, was captured at sea by a British cruiser, and shown to have been negotiating with Holland. He was imprisoned in the tower at London, till peace was secured. 1780. Nov. 20. Battle of Blackstock. Tarleton attacked Sumter at Blackstock, S. C., but was repulsed with severe loss. Sumter was wounded during this en- gagement. 1780. November. Marion's Patriot- ism. Marion was at this time gaining many victories over small British and tory forces, retiring when pursued, to Snow's Island, in the Pedee River. There a British officer who had come to treat for an exchange of prisoners, was asked by Marion to dine with him. At dinner nothing was served up except roasted sweet potatoes. " Surely this cannot be your ordinary fare," was the officer's exclamation. " Indeed it is,'* said Marion, " and it is fortunate that we have more than usual to-day." It is re- ported that the officer at his return re- fused to serve in the army longer, saying 348 REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES. that " such a people cannot, and ought not to, be subdued." 1780. December. Gen. Greene took command of the southern army in place of Gen. Gates, who was removed on ac- count of the defeat at Camden. 1780. Dec. 2O. England declared war against Holland, because the latter had begun negotiations with the United States. 1780. Nancy Hart, of Georgia, be- came widely known for her aid to the patriot cause. Six tories ordered her to set them a dinner, and she obeyed, but when they drew up to it, she seized one of the guns which they had stacked, and told them she would shoot the first one that moved. Her little boy ran for help, and the six were taken prisoners. 1780. Sewing Women. Over twenty- two hundred sewing women were em- ployed by Mrs. Sara Bache, daughter of Dr. Franklin, to work for the American troops. She was very efficient in organ- izing this kind of aid, and acted nobly in devoting herself to it. Women who could give no money, gave their work. 1780. The first Universalist church in America was organized at Gloucester, Mass., by Rev. John Murray, who had adopted Universalism in England some years before. 1780. The first Free Baptist church in the world was organized at New Dur- ham, N. H., by Rev. Benjamin Randall, who had been in the Baptist ministry. This branch of the church is evangelical, and maintains " free salvation " and open communion. 1780. A great revolution broke out in Peru among the native inhabitants, led by Tupac Amaru, who was of royal Peruvian blood. He was proclaimed Inca of Peru, and so strong did the re- volt become that it was three years before it could be suppressed, and then only with great bloodshed. Amaru and others were put to death. LOGAN. 1780. Logan, the Mingo chief, was a member of a branch of the Iroquois nation. His father, Shikallimus, was a Cayuga chief, and was very much at- tached to a man named James Logan, for whom he is supposed to have named his son. On arriving at manhood Logan made his way to the tribes in Ohio, and his natural abilities soon caused him to rise into power among them. He was especially noted for his kindness of heart and peaceable disposition. During the long French and Indian war Logan re- mained quietly in his home, and after- ward, in spite of the fact that some of his relations were murdered in the horri- ble massacre of the Conestoga Indians in 1763, at Lancaster, he still retained a friendly feeling for the whites. In 1774 Capt. Michael Cressap at the head of a party of whites, undertook to avenge the loss of some horses which had been stolen, by an attack upon a band of inno- cent Indians encamped a few miles below Wheeling, Va. In this attack several members of Logan's family were killed. Soon after this quite a number of Indians were killed, and among them were a brother and sister of Logan, almost the last of his relations. No wonder that a spirit of revenge was enkindled in his breast against a people who could com- mit such wrongs. Logan, although intent upon revenging the blood of his relatives upon the whites, manifested the humanity of his disposition by often saving cap- tives from torture and death, and having them adopted into the tribe. A hard 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 349 fought battle took place at the mouth of the Great Kanawha River, between the Indians and a force of two thousand men. The former were forced to retreat. They were followed to their settlements on the Scioto River, where a conference was held, and a treaty of peace made. Logan was not present at this conference, and a messenger was sent to see if he was in favor of making the treaty. To the messenger he expressed himself as in favor of peace, and with great emotion delivered himself of the eloquent and impressive language which so fully re- vealed the spirit of this son of the forest. " I appeal to any white man to say if ever he entered Logan's cabin hungry, and he gave him not meat; if ever he came cold and naked, and he clothed him not. During the course. of the last long and bloody war Logan remained idle in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such was my love for the whites that my countrymen pointed as they passed, and said, ' Logan is the friend of the white men.' I had even thought to have lived with you, but for the injuries of one man. Col. Cressap the last spring, in cold blood and unprovoked, murdered all the rela- tions of Logan, not even sparing my women and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in any living creature. This called on me for revenge. I have sought it; I have killed many. I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my country I rejoice at the beams of peace. But do not harbor a thought that mine is the joy of fear; Logan never felt fear. He will not turn on his heel to save his life. Who is there to mourn for Logan? Not one." Habits of intemperance had grown on Logan for several years. He is said to have nearly lost his reason. In a fit of drunkenness he assailed his wife and fled, and was soon killed near De- troit by Indians, who were obliged to take his life in self defence, because he attacked them through fear that they were his enemies. 1781. Jan. 1. The situation of af- fairs at the beginning of this year, when looked at in all its aspects, was very crit- ical. It was seen by many that the union of States must have some more fully recognized central authority, instead of remaining a mere league as it had been. The separate states would not submit to the authority of congress in any essential point. The prevalence of a patriotic spirit concealed for a time the inherent weakness of the colonial posi- tion, a weakness which appeared as soon as the pressure of the war was withdrawn. During the year 1780, one dollar in specie became worth forty dollars in paper money. The following bill for merchandise was rendered this month, and shows vividly this depreciation, viz : " I pr. boots, $600; 6 yds. chintz, at $150 a yd., $900; i skein thread, $10." 1781. Jan. 1. Pennsylvania Re- volt. Thirteen hundred Pennsylvania troops revolted at Morristown, N. J., and because of suffering and lack of pay, proceeded to Princeton, accompanied by Gen. Wayne, after he had attempted to prevent the step. There they laid their demands before congress, and part of the troops disbanded for the winter. New Jersey troops were influenced by this action, but were afterward won over. 1781. Jan. 2. Raid in Virginia. Benedict Arnold, with a force of British troops, made a raid into Virginia, and destroyed property, in conjunction with Cornwallis, to the amount of fifteen mil- lion dollars. Thirty thousand slaves were 350 carried off. Large rewards were offered for the arrest of Arnold. 1781. Jan. 17. Battle of Cowpens. Gen. Morgan defeated Tarleton, who was pressing him with a superior force, at Cowpens, S. C., taking more than five hundred prisoners, eight hundred mus- kets, two standards, besides cannon and horses. The British were totally routed, and the American loss was only seventy- two, killed and wounded. After this bat- tle Gen. Greene joined Morgan, and Cornwallis set out in pursuit of them. They were followed rapidly into Vir- ginia for two hundred miles. At last Cornwallis gave up the pursuit, when the patriot forces at once turned upon him and began to annoy his army. 1781. January, The " Pine-log Can- non." Lieut.-Col. Washington, with a few light-horse and a pine-log on wheels, made to imitate a cannon, captured one hundred and twelve tories under Col. Rudgeley, in a barn where they had sta- tioned themselves. 1781. Feb. 3. The Dutch West In- dia island St. Eustatius, was seized by the British West India fleet, with a great amount of property. The Dutch settle- ments in South America were all taken this year. 1781. March 1. Maryland ratified the Articles of Confederation, and com- pleted the number required, so that the Federal Union became a fact. Up to this time the government had been ad- ministered by committees of congress. 1781. March 2. A tory force of three hundred men was defeated at Alla- mance Creek by Col. Henry Lee. 1781. March 15. Battle of Guilford Court House. A severe battle took place at Guilford Court House between Cornwallis and Greene. The Americans REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. retreated, but the contest was about equally disastrous to both sides. Greene had three thousand six hundred men, a portion of them being raw militia. Cornwallis did not have as many. The American loss was four hundred and nineteen; the British five hundred and seventy. Cornwallis marched into Vir- ginia. British influence in North Caro- lina was greatly broken by this battle. 1781. April 26. Fort Watson, at Wright's Bluff, S. C., was taken from the British by Generals Marion and Lee. This led to the evacuation of Camden. 1781. April 28. Gen. Greene was defeated at Hobkirk Hill near Camden, S. C., by a British force under Lord Rawdon. 1781. May 9. Pensacola, Florida, was taken from the British by a Spanish force from Havana and Mobile. 1781. May 10. Camden was evacu- ated by the British. Within a few days Nelson's Ferry, Fort Motte, Orangeburg and other small places, were taken by American troops. 1781. May 21. Fort Galphin, Ga., was taken by the Americans. 1781. June 5. Augusta, Ga., was surrendered to the Americans under Lee and Pickens. 1781. July 4. A fight took place at - Jamestown Ford, between Cornwallis and Wayne. The latter was entrapped by a stratagem, but escaped by a bold charge, with the assistance of a force under Lafayette. 1781. Robert Morris gave his own notes for one million four hundred thou- sand dollars for the aid of the army, and thus helped it through the summer campaign. 1781. July 10. Thomas McKean,LL.D., of Delaware, was elected president of the 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 351 continental congress, to succeed Samuel Huntington. 1781. French Loan. Col. John Lau- rens was sent by congress to negotiate a loan with France. A subsidy of one million two hundred thousand dollars was obtained, and a loan in addition. 1781. July 19. Greene fled from before Ninety-Six, which he had been besieging, and retreated before Lord Rawdon, but afterward turned upon Rawdon, and offered battle. The British general declined it. Greene captured forty-eight dragoons. Emily Geiger was sent as a messenger from Greene to Marion, but upon being arrested by tories, she swallowed her letter and was allowed to proceed upon her way, since nothing was found concealed about her person. 1781. Aug. 4. Execution of Hayne. Col. Isaac Hayne of South Carolina, a patriot, was hung without trial, for an alleged breaking of his patrol. Col. Hayne had taken the oath of allegiance to England with the assurance that he would never be required to fight against his country. He was afterward sum- moned to do so, and considered his pledge annulled by the breaking of the contract on the part of Lord Rawdon. He then raised a patriot force, was captured, and hung without mercy. Lord Rawdon has been universally condemned for this act of violence. It excited perfect hatred of him throughout the province. 1781. Sept. 5. Count de Grasse, having arrived in Chesapeake Bay with a French fleet of twenty-five vessels, had a contest with the English fleet, and drove it off. 1781. Sept. 6. Burning of New London. Benedict Arnold, with a British force, burned New London, Conn. Fort Griswold was taken, and the garrison was massacred in the most cold-blooded manner. Arnold does not appear again in history. 1781. Sept. 8. Greene defeated the British under Col. Stewart, at Eutaw Springs, S. C., and then was driven back, but on the next day the British retreated to Charleston. It was in this battle that a soldier in the command of " Light Horse Harry " Lee, named Manning, of great repute for courage and strength, dashed off in pursuit of the vanishing British, and in his haste found that he had broken into a crowd of the enemy, and was left to contend with them single- handed. He speedily took in the situa- tion, and at once made his decision. Grabbing an officer near him by the collar and snatching away his sword, he began to retreat, at the same time hold- ing the officer between himself and the enemy. The frightened British officer, when thus summarily captured, began immediately to enumerate his titles. " I am Sir Henry Barry, deputy adjutant- general, captain in the 52d regiment, etc., etc." " Enough," said Manning, " you are just the man I was looking for." 1781. Sept. 30. The siege of York- town, Va., began by the combined French and American forces. Washing- ton had collected the bulk of the Ameri- can army to aid in this siege. 1781. Oct. 19. Cornwallis surren- dered Yorktown, with twelve thousand prisoners, including sailors, tories, and negroes. There were eight thousand muskets, two hundred and thirty-five cannon, twenty-eight standards, besides munitions and stores. The news was received at Philadelphia at two o'clock the next morning. People wept with delight, and the old door-keeper of congress died with joy. Religious ser- 352 RE VOL UTIONART STRUGGLES. vice was held by congress in the Luth- eran church, and the next day at the head of the regiments. This defeat vir- tually closed the war. The House of Commons voted that whosoever advised a continuance of the war, was a public en- emy. The news was received by Lord North with great agitation. He opened his arms as if " he had received a ball in his breast, exclaiming wildly as he paced up and down the apartment, ' O, God, it is all over.' 1 ' The city of London now remonstrated against the war as unnatural and unfortunate. 1781. Nov. 5. John Hanson, of Maryland, was elected president of the continental congress, to succeed Thomas McKean. 1781. Dec. 31. The Bank of North America was chartered, with a capital of four hundred thousand dollars. The bills of this bank were the first ones on this side of the water payable at presentation, and were made legal tender for all taxes and dues of the United States. Robert Mor- ris, who was at the time superintendent of finance of the United States, had drawn up a scheme for the business of the bank, which had been approved by congress in the previous May. Other eminent men had heartily encouraged it by subscribing to its stock. It was the intention of its supporters that this bank should aid the government in its arrange- ments for the pay of the army. It began business Jan. 7, 1782* and was a very great assistance until the end of the war. Its first president was Thomas Willing. This bank is now in existence as a na- tional bank. 1781. A secretary of the marine was appointed in the United States. Gen. Alexander McDougall was the first in- cumbent of the office. 1781. Horrors of Slave Trade. Caph Collingwood, of the slave ship Zong, from Africa to Jamaica, threw a large number of sick slaves overboard, that if possible the loss might fall upon the in- surers. The case was afterward tried in English courts, and the loss was placed on the owners. 1781. A Nicaragua canal route was explored for the Spanish government by Don Manuel Galisteo. 1781. An uprising in New Grenada, took place, in opposition to the tax regu- lations of the province. Terms were ar- ranged with the rebels, and severe meas- ures were taken by the Spanish crown in the government of the province. This was the beginning of revolutionary com- motion in the province. 1781. Felix de Azara, an eminent Spanish naturalist, came to South Amer- ica to assist in settling the boundary be- tween the Portuguese and Spanish prov- inces. He made diligent investigations into the natural and political history of the whole La Plata region. He pursued his work here until 1801, and the pub- lished results of his labors are among the chief authorities upon that country. 1782. April 12. A great naval battle took place in the West Indies near Guad- aloupe, between a French fleet under Count de Grasse, and an English fleet under Rodney. The latter was victori- ous, with a loss of one thousand men. The French loss was three thousand. 1782. April 19. Holland acknowl- edged the independence of the United States, and was the second power in the world to do so. 1782. May. Col. Louis Nicola, a foreigner who had served in the Penn- sylvania troops, wrote a letter to Wash- ington suggesting that he, with the assist- 1775-1783.] THE DA T OF TRIAL. 35o ance of the army, establish a monarchy in the United States, and become its head. The idea originated in the conviction that the weakness of the country was due to its republican government. Many offi- cers were led to favor the plan, through the doubt which hung over the question of their pay for military ser.vices. The whole project was at once effectually crushed by a strong and clear refusal from Washington. 1782. June 20. The great seal of the United States was adopted. After it had been found that a satisfactory result was not likely to be reached through con- gressional committees, the whole matter had been put into the hands of Mr. Thomson, the secretary of congress, with power. He requested William Barton of Philadelphia, to make a design, but a device was sent to Mr. Thomson about this time by Mr. John Adams, who was in London, and had received it from Sir John Prestwitch, a well-known English antiquary. , This was the design adopted. The dies were cut in Paris under the 1782. Pant char g e of Dr - Franklin. marshes in Italy The design consists of " a ^.Punishment s P read ca g le bearing on its of death in Ger- breast our national shield ; many abolished. ., -, , i, .,, .u in its beak a scroll, with the words E Pluribus Unum; in its right talon an olive branch, a symbol of peace, and in its left a bundle of thirteen arrows, a symbol of the United States, and of War ; the crest, a glory breaking through a cloud, and surrounding a cluster of stars, forming a constellation." A design for the reverse side was included, but has never been used. 1782. July. The British Parliament passed a bill to enable the king to ac- knowledge the independence of the United States. 23 1782. July 11. Savannah, Ga., was evacuated by the British. 1782. August. A fight at Combahee Ferry, S. C., took place, in which an American force drove off a foraging party of British from Charleston. Col- John Laurens was killed. 1782. September. The Last Blood- shed. Capt. Wilmot was killed in a fight at Somes Ferry, and is supposed to have shed the last blood in the Revolution. 1782. September. Congress appointed John Adams, John Jay, Dr. Franklin, and Henry Laurens who was now freed from the Tower, as commissioners of peace. The British government gave Mr. Os- wald full power to treat with them. CHARLES LEE. 1782. Oct. 2. Charles Lee, who had served as a major-general in the Ameri- can army, died at Philadelphia at the age of fifty-one years. He was the son of Gen. John Lee, of the British army, and was born in England in 1731. - He was educated partly in England, and partly in Switzerland. He mastered several of the continental languages while yet very young ; and being with his father a great deal, he developed a taste for military science. In this he became so proficient that he was commissioned an officer in the army of Great Britain when only eleven years of age. As he grew older he exhibited more and more the fiery, changeable qualities which afterward dis- abled his life. His first experience was in the French and Indian war. In Cen- tral New York he came into contact with the Mohawks, whose wild customs just suited his romantic and adventurous spirit. They adopted him into their tribe, and made him a chief, by the name of Oune- waterika, or Boiling Water. He was 354 RE VOL UTIONART S TR UGGLES. wounded in an attack upon Ticonderoga, and was placed at Albany with other officers for recovery. Here he met and flogged soundly a surgeon who had writ- ten a libel on him. The surgeon unsuc- cessfully attempted to shoot Lee in a re- tired spot, as they met upon horseback. After the war was over, Lee returned to England and received the commission of lieutenant-colonel. He was under Bur- goyne while assisting Portugal to resist the invasions of Spain. Afterward re- turning to England, he entered into pol- itics with as much violence as he had shown in war. His military character and skill made him a great favorite at courts. After resigning his commission and roving over all Europe about three years on difficult tours, his love of ad- venture brought him back to America in 1773. He was induced by Col. Gates to buy a homestead in Virginia, and settle upon it. His dash and energy were ap- parently just what were needed by a people "who had thrown off the bonds of allegiance, and when the continental army was organized in 1775, he was ap- pointed major-general. It is thought by some that he wished to be commander- in-chief. He accepted the commission given him, thereby forfeiting his estates in England, the income of which was about seven thousand dollars a year. He received a pledge from congress that he should be remunerated for all losses in entering the American service. He was placed at Cambridge and worked ener- getically in bringing the army into good condition, until he was sent to Newport and then to New York, at the beginning of 1776. It was threatened that British ships in the harbor would fire upon the latter city if Lee and his troops entered it. " The first house set in flames by their guns," said he, "shall be the funeral pile of some of their best friends." Lee was af- terward sent to the South, where he was present at the repulse of the British from Sullivan's Island, in Charleston harbor. He subsequently went to Philadelphia, and thence joined Washington, during the latter's occupancy of New York. His capture during the retreat across New Jersey, and his conduct at the battle of Monmouth, have already been de- tailed. A paper has been brought to light which seems to show that while a captive he held some communication with English authorities, with traitorous intent. It detailed a plan for the successful re-conquest of America. Lee was a good scholar, an eminent and able writer, an enemy to oppression, and a shrewd poli- tician. His last years were spent on his farm in Virginia where he^ grew poorer and poorer, and lived in his house with only chalk-marks for partitions. He went to Philadelphia in the attempt to sell his place, was taken sick, and died. As his last breath was expiring, he said, " Stand by me, my brave- grenadiers," and passed from life. The so-called " Palladium of American Liberty " was no more. 1782. Oct. 8. Holland concluded a treaty of amity and commerce with the- United States. 1782. Nov. 3. Elias Boudinot, LL. D., of New Jersey, was elected president of the continental congress to succeed John Hanson. 1782. Nov. 30. A preliminary treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain was signed at Paris. 1782. Dec. 5. The independence of the United States was acknowledged in England in a speech of George III. 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 355 to the House of Commons. The state- ment was made quite heartily, and yet with some evident hesitation. 1782. Dec. 14. Charleston, S. C., was evacuated by the British. 1782. The last naval exploit of the Revolution was the escape of the Amer- ican frigate Hague, Capt. Manley, from four British ships of the line, after lying on a shoal near Gaudaloupe, West Indies, for three days, under fire from them. 1783. Feb. 25. Denmark acknowl- edged the independence of the United States. 1783. March. 24. Spain acknowl- edged the independence of the United States. 1783. April 19. The cessation of hostilities was proclaimed by Washing- ton at the head of the army. It was the eighth anniversary day of the battles of Lexington and Concord. WASHINGTON S ARMY CHEST. 1782. Washington and Lee Univer- sity, Lexington, Va., was chartered this year. It took Washington's name in 1796, because he gave it one hundred shares of James River canal stock. It took Gen. Robert E. Lee's name at his death in 1870. Gen. Lee served as pres- ident from 1865 to 1870. 1782. A pestilence in Greenland car- ried off many of the inhabitants. 1783. Feb. 5. Sweden acknowl- edged the independence of the United States. 1783. June 19. The " Society of the Cincinnati " which is still in exist- ence, was oi'ganized at Newburg on the Hudson, by some of the army officers. Its objects were to cement by frequent re-unions the friendship they had formed in scenes of war, to commemorate the experiences through which they had passed, and to aid in the extension of liberty, and of good feeling between the states. 1783. June 21. Mutinous soldiers besieged the doors of the State House in 356 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES . Philadelphia, where congress was in ses- sion, demanding immediate pay for ser- vice. The difficulties of the situation' had a delay in the issue of notes for the last three months. The city militia re- fused aid, and congress finally adjourned to Princeton, where the members were received with hospitality by the college. This forced removal brought up for vig- orous discussion the question of a perma- nent abode for the government. 1783. An anti-slavery barbacue presided over by Dr. Bloomfield, was held at Woodbridge, N. J. An ox was roasted whole for the public dinner, and a great deal of interest attended the gathering. 1783. July. Russia acknowledged the independence of the United States. 1783. Sept. 3. A definite treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain was signed at Paris. The Mississippi River was the western boun- dary, Canada and Nova Scotia the northern and eastern boundaries. There was a long discussion over the western boundary, because the English commis- sioners insisted upon making it the Ohio River. Dr. Franklin was inclined to grant it, but Adams and Jay refused to do so, because the land northwest of that river had been conquered by Clark, and was then occupied by United States troops. Adams and Jay preferred to return home and continue the war, rather than yield the territory. 1783. Oct. 16. A dark day oc- curred in Canada. The phenomenon was about one hour long, but extreme while it lasted. The first approach was at two o'clock in the afternoon, when the darkness came on suddenly, then relaxed, and came again. 1783. Oct. 18. The discharge of the soldiers who enlisted for the war, was proclaimed by congress. 1783. Nov. 2. Farewell orders to the army were issued by Washington. 1783. Nov. 3. The disbanding of the army took place. The entire num- ber of troops sent by the different states to serve in the continental army was 231,791. A large number of militia troops engaged ia the struggle in a more or less private and irresponsible way. The cost of the war was $130,000,000, exclusive of the amounts lost by private individuals and the different states. 1783. Nov. 3. Thomas Miffiin, of Pennsylvania, was elected president of the continental congress, to succeed Elias Boudinot. 1783. Nov. 25. " Evacuation Day." The British army evacuated New York, their last foothold in the United States. 1783. Dec. 4. Washington bade farewell to the army officers in Fraunce's tavern, at the corner of Broadway and Pearl Streets, New York. The scene was one of great tenderness, and both Washington and his companions were melted to tears. 1783. Dec. 23. Washington re- signed his commission to congress, and proceeded to Mount Vernon. His jour- ney was a triumphal march. All com- pensation save for his actual expense was refused. 1783. Slavery was excluded from New Hampshire by a constitutional dec- laration of rights, which was adopted to go into effect in June, 1784. 1783. Noah Webster began his lex- icographical work on the English lan- guage this year by issuing the " First Part of a Grammatical Institute of the English Language." 1783. "Webster's Spelling Book" 1775-1783.] THE DAT OF TRIAL. 357 was issued for the first time, and has sold since by hundreds of thousands of copies. 1783. Improved machinery for flour mills was invented by Oliver Evans, and has been the basis of all the changes since his time. His improvements con- sisted of the endless chain, the conveyor, the hopper boy, the drill, and the kiln- drier. 1783. Improved cattle were first imported into the United States, and were bought by Matthew Patton, of Virginia, for breeding purposes. Mr. Patton became widely known for his fine stock. 1783. The Northwest company of Canada was formed, to compete with the Hudson Bay company in the fur trade. There were often serious diffi- culties between the two companies, al- most amounting to war at times. But the new company gained great power, extending its operations, and soon had two thousand men in its employ through Canada. 1783. Dominica was restored to England, having been in the possession of the French from 1778, at which time it was captured by a French squadron under the Marquis de Bouille. Grenada and St. Vincent, Windward Islands, were also restored to England, together with the Bahama Islands. A great many royalists had gone to the latter at the close of the Revolution. British Hon- duras was confirmed to England, which made great efforts to extend its limits, but unsuccessfully. A REVOLUTIONARY FLAG. SECTION XV. OF A NATION. HE close of the war left the States very weak, and with no strength of union. Congress had no power to carry out any measures, save as the State legislatures confirmed them. Different rules were adopted by different States, thus creating confusion. Preju- dices and unkind feelings existed, and great peril threatened the young republic. There was an indifference on the subject of raising taxes, and in some sections a positive opposition to it. Incipient re- bellions appeared here and there. The financial distress was very great, and bore heavily upon thousands of people. In the midst of this agitation the consti- tution was formed. The wfedom of the great leaders secured it, and the elevation of Washington to the chief magistracy, established its operation. Now began that wonderful career in invention and kindred lines of progress which to-day puts the United States into the forefront of the world. Manufactures began to multiply. The western territory began to be sprinkled with settlements which started into existence. Intelligence and manliness spread abroad rapidly. A new power was in active operation in the land. [3 . s 1784. March. All persons were de- clared free who should be born in the State of Rhode Island after this date. 1784. July 5. The first bank under the State Constitution of Massachusetts began business, and was for some years the only banking house in the State. It was the second in the United States. The Bank of North America in Phila- delphia, was the first. The capital was limited to $300,000. Up to 1876 thi& bank had passed but two dividends, one about 1815, and one in 1836. 1784. Nov. 14. First American Episcopal Bishop. The Rev. Samuel Seabury, D. D., was ordained bishop, having been elected to that office by the Episcopalians of Connecticut. Political obstacles pi'evented his ordination in England, and the service was performed at Aberdeen, Scotland, by three Scottish bishops. Hitherto the church in America had been under the care of the London bishop, and American candidates for the ministry were obliged to go to London to be ordained. The first organization of the American Episcopal church fol- lowed in less than a year, and other bish- oprics were soon erected. 1784. Nov. 30. Richard Henry 1784-1799.] Lee, of Virginia, was elected president of the continental congress at Trenton, N. J., to succeed Thomas Mifflin. 1784. Dec. 24. Organization of Methodist Church. A convention of sixty ministers was held in Baltimore upon the arrival of Rev. Thomas Coke, LL. D., who had been ordained in Eng- land by Wesley, as superintendent of American societies. The convention at once adopted the Episcopal form of gov- ernment, instituted some minor arrange- ments, and elected Coke and Asbury to serve as superintendents. This was the first formal organization of the Methodist Episcopal church in America. . 1784. The gradual abolition of sla- very was provided for in Connecticut by an act passed this year. 1784. The first agricultural society in America was organized in South Car- olina. It was named the " South Caro- lina Agricultural Society," and is in ex- istence at the present time. 1784. The first law school in Amer- ica was established aj Litchfield, Conn., by the Hon. Tapping Reeve. 1784. The first frame house on the site of Saratoga Springs was erected by Gen. Philip Schuyler. 1784. Morse's Geography. The first geography published in the United States was printed at New Haven. It was a single small iSmo., and was pre- pared by Jedediuh Morse, who followed it with larger works. For thirty years Mr. Morse remained the principal occu- pant of this line of work. His books sold by hundreds of thousands. He was the father of Prof. S. F. B. Morse. 1784. Eight bales, or about seventy- one bags of cotton, which had been shipped from America to England, were seized, " on the ground that so much THE RISE OF A NATION. 359 cotton could not be produced in the United States." 1784. The exportation of a stocking frame from England into the States was made subject to a penalty of .40. 1784. A model for a boat to move against wind and tide by the force of the current acting upon setting poles, was shown Gen. Washington this year by James Rumsey, its inventor, who pat- ented it in several States. The model was operated upon the Potomac. 1784. The first lecturer on Natural History in any American college was Benjamin Waterhouse, M. D., of Brown University and Harvard College, who led the way in the study of Mineralogy. 1784. The American flag was dis- played for the first time in a Chinese port, by the ship Empress of China, commanded by Capt. Green, of New York. 1784. The American fur company, of which John Jacob Astor was the chief proprietor, began operations this year. 1784. The first daily paper in Amer- ica, named Poulson's Daily General Ad- vertiser, was established in Philadelphia. It had been running since 1771 as a weekly, called " The Pennsylvania Packet." 1784. New Brunswick, hitherto a part of Nova Scotia, was made a sepa- rate colony, and Sir Guy Carleton was soon after appointed governor. At the close of the American Revolution a great many royalists settled in the province. 1784. Cape Breton was this year separated from Nova Scotia. 1784. St. Bartholomew, one of the Leeward Islands, was ceded by France to Sweden, and is the only one of the West India Islands possessed by the latter power. 360 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. 1785. Jan. 25. An anti-slavery society for " promoting the manumission of slaves, and protecting such of them as have been, or may be liberated," was formed in New York, and chose for its first president John Jay. Alexander Hamilton was the second president of this society. 1785. February. First Minister to England. John Adams was sent as the first minister plenipotentiary from the United States to England, with special instructions to try to adjust the standing difficulties in connection with the fulfill- ment of the treaty of 1783. But the mission resulted in no advantage. "BROTHER JONATHAN." 1785. Aug. 17. Jonathan Trumbull, LL. D., of Connecticut, died at Lebanon in that State, at the age of 75 years. He was born in Lebanon, June 10, 1710, and was educated for the ministry, but finally studied law, and entered political life. From 1733, when he was elected to the colonial assembly, to 1783, when he re- signed the governorship, a period of fifty years, he was constantly in the public service. His judgment was highly es- teemed by Washington, who often went to him for advice. After the latter had taken command of the American army, he found a great destitution of military stores existed. In his consideration of the matter, he said to some one, " Let us see what Brother Jonathan says about it," referring to Mr. Trumbull, who was at that time governor of Connecti- cut. Mr. Trumbull was consulted upon the matter, and aided very much by his wisdom in providing for the army. From this the term " Brother Jona- than " grew into use as a name for the U. S. government. 1785. Weakness of the Confedera- tion. Maryland and Virginia appointed commissioners to arrange the navigation of Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac and Roanoke Rivers. After discussion, the commissioners found that their author- ity was too weak to complete a settlement. James Madison, of Virginia, drew up some resolutions based upon their exper- iences, and presented them. From the nature of these suggestions he has been called the " Father of the Constitution." The commissioners did not agree, and the legislature of Virginia invited the other States to a gathering at Annapolis, to consider the defects existing in the government. 1785. The first Universalist Con- vention in the United States was held, and was the beginning of their denom- inational work in America. The dis- tinguishing tenet of this body is 'a belief in the final salvation of all men. 1785. " The great American piano- forte, of his own invention," was adver- tised by James Juliann, of Philadelphia. 1785. Improvements in stoves began to be devised by Count Rumford, an American who became eminent for his practical scientific knowledge. He in- vented a cooking range, which was for some years the model of manufactures in that line. Stoves had not yet, however, come into general use, and were the sub- ject of a great deal of prejudice. 1785. Algiers declared war upon the United States, and congress advised building five men-of-war of forty guns each, but lack of power in that body made the recommendation of no effect, consequently there was no interference with Algerine depredations. 1786. June 6. Nathaniel Gorham, of Massachusetts, was elected president 1784-1799.] of tne continental congress. John Han- cock, who was again sent from Massa- chusetts, had been elected to succeed Richard Henry Lee, but had not be'en present, because of sickness. Daniel Ramsey, of South Carolina, presided temporarily until Mr. Gorham was elected in place of Mr. Hancock. GEN. NATHANIEL GREENE. 1786. June 19. This eminent Amer- ican soldier died at Mulberry Grove, near Savannah, Ga., at the age of forty-four years. He was born at Warwick, R. I., May 27, 1742. His father was a Qua- ker preacher, and the son was early in- structed in the principles of liberty and piety. He was a great lover of athletic sports, and was especially fond of danc- ing. His father was deadly opposed to the latter, and upon hearing that his boy had attended dances, planned to horse- whip him. Nathaniel, suspecting his father's intentions, slipped some stout shingles down his back, and in this way "bore the blows of the weapon with ease. But his strong mind could not long find its satisfaction in frivolity. Upon being set to work at a forge which his father owned, he began the collection of a small library with all his surplus money. He became enslaved to books, and would stop to study while the iron was heating. In this way he disciplined his mind to a very excellent degree. In 1770 he was elected to the general assembly of the colony, and took great interest in the dif- ferences with the mother country, having thoroughly studied the nature of the quarrel. He was soon convinced that the battle-field must decide the contest, and resolved to enter the conflict when it came. He therefore carefully studied every book upon military science which he could THE RISE OF A NATION. 361 obtain. For this the Quakers called him to account, and refusing to make amends, he was banished from their society. He was married in 1774, but the attractions of his new home could not hinder his purpose. Hence, when the first blood had been spilled at Lexington and Con- cord he hastened to Boston and enlisted in the army. He was appointed briga- dier-general by congress, and did good service in drilling the Rhode Island troops. He soon won the esteem and confidence of Washington, who sent him in the spring to occupy Long Island. Gen. Greene never entered a battle with- out studying the situation thoroughly, and making approximate calculations upon the result. After examining the ground and making extensive prepara- tions upon Long Island, he was taken sick with bilious fever, and Putnam was put in command. Being ignorant of Greene's plans, the latter would have suffered a defeat fatal to the American army, had not Washington saved it. Greene was soon in active service again. At Brandywine, Germantown and other places, his boldness and skill prevented final disaster. His men, under his will, behaved like veterans. He was now ap- pointed to the command of the southern army, which was left by Gates in a cha- otic, destitute condition. His conduct of the campaign, in thwarting the English troops, in retreating before Cornwallis and then turning upon him, until at last, reinforced, he was able to follow up his efforts and see the enemy gradually give way before him, was masterly. At the close of the war he removed to a plantation near Savannah, Ga., and died there from the effects of a sunstroke. His integrity, heroism, and patriotism, com- mend him as an example of the purest sort. 363 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGLES. 1786. July. A skiff propelled by a steam engine which turned a crank, to which paddles were attached at the stern of the boat, was exhibited upon the Del- aware. The engine was constructed by John Fitch and Henry Voight, and had a three inch cylinder. They had previ- ously made a smaller engine, but this was their first application of the power to the moving of boats. 1786. August. A decimal coinage of gold and silver was decided upon by congress, who adopted names and de- signs for the same. 1786. September. The Annapolis Convention, consisting of delegates from the States, was held at Annapolis, Md., in accordance with the suggestion of Virginia to consider the commercial re- lations of the States, and to decide how far they could be made uniform. Five States, New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Delaware and Virginia, were represented, and the body voted to advise congress to call a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. 1786. A Sunday school was started in Hanover Co., Va., by Bishop Francis Asbury, of the Methodist church. 1786. A Roman Catholic hierarchy was for the first time established in the United States by the appointment of John Carroll as vicar-general. 1786. The first machines for roving, carding and spinning cotton, ever made in America, were constructed by two Scotchmen named Alexander and Robert Barr, for Mr. Hugh Orr. Massachusetts appropriated 200 to encourage the set- ting up of such machinery at East Bridgewater. 1786. A tack and nail machine was invented this year by Ezekiel Reed, of Bridgewater, Mass. 1786. The first printing press west of the Alleghenies, was set up this year in Kentucky. 1786. Extent of Slave Trade. The total number of negro slaves imported into all the English colonies since 1680, was 2,130,000. Into the island of Jamaica alone since 1 700, there had been brought 610,000, according to the importing lists. Thousands also had died on the way. The entire number of those who had been shipped for the colonies, was un- doubtedly much larger than the above. 1786. The first Sea Island cotton raised in the United States was cultivated on Sapelo Island, on the coast of Georgia. It was of the Pernambuco variety, and the seed had been sent to Frank Levett by a Mr. Patrick Walsh, of Jamaica. Before many years its superior quality caused it to bring higher prices than other cotton. The cultivation of it has brought wealth to very many. 1786. The first American play ever put upon the stage was " The Contrast," written by Royal Tyler, who afterward became chief-justice of Vermont. The piece remained upon the stage but a little while. Other plays were brought out after this, but no American productions had much merit. 1786. A law forbidding theatrical exhibitions was passed by Pennsylvania. Massachusetts had just before re-enacted her old law to the same effect. 1786. An excited mob surrounded the legislature of New Hampshire at Exeter, in an unsuccessful attempt to frighten the members into the issue of paper money for the relief of the financial distress of the times. SHAYS REBELLION. 1786. December. The restlessness of the people of Massachusetts because 1784-1799.] of the poverty of the country, and the prevalent inability to pay taxes, broke out into an armed rebellion under the leadership of Daniel Shay, who had been an officer in the continental army. The province had been drained of money to pay the army. Taxes were high. A flood of suits for debt 'broke out in the courts. The people were distressed, and urged very strenuously that the State officers were receiving too much salary, and that fees were too high. Conventions had been held, and the delegates to the general court had been instructed to ad- just the difficulties by legal measures, but no result occurred. Men began to band themselves together, and to call themselves " Regulators." The first armed attempt had been made in Sep- tember of this year, in preventing the court at Worcester from sitting. The success of this movement, which caused the court to adjourn till December, en- couraged the ill-feeling. During No- vember the court of sessions attempted to meet at Worcester, but were pre- vented from entering the court house by a solid guard of armed men. The sheriff, Col. William Greenleaf of Lancaster, was undertaking to open a way through the crowd for the judges, when one of the insurgents said they wished redress for their grievances, and that one of the greatest of these grievances was the sheriff himself, and next were his fees, which were exorbitant, especially for criminal executions. The irritated sheriff at once replied, " If you consider fees for executions oppressive, you need not wait long for redress; for I will hang you all, gentlemen, for nothing, with the great- est pleasure." With this retort he was forced to turn away. The government of Massachusetts was slow in adopting THE RISE OF A NATION. 363 severe measures, although the attempt had been made to get out the militia without success, for numbers of them sympathized with the rebellion. During December a body of a thousand men suspended the session of the supreme court at Worcester, and held the city at their control. A portion of them marched to Springfield. 1787. January. The militia called out by Gen. Lincoln to suppress the in- surrection in Massachusetts, marched from Boston to Springfield, where about two thousand of the insurgents were collected,, under Daniel Shay, Luke Day, and Eli Parsons, in an attempt to secure posses- sion of the United States arsenal. Gen Lincoln left a force at Worcester to keep the surrounding towns in awe, and the courts began to proceed with their busi- ness. Blood had already been shed at Springfield, but by Gen. Lincoln's en- ergy the rebellion was soon broken up, and those engaged in it captured or scat- tered. Many of them were afterward punished. Some of them were brought to the gallows for the sake of the exam- ple, and reprieved just before execution,, in order that no harsh feeling might be left. The sentiments which led to this rebellion continued to prevail, but turned their force into the elections, since the more considerate of the people began to see the danger of trying to adjust their difficulties by force. The insurgents around Worcester had in the meantime suffered much from the severities of the season, and had been practically disabled. At one time an attack upon Boston was meditated, but finally given up. The sentiment of large numbers began to go against the insurgents, before this month was over. The difficulties were righted gradually, as the country began to prosper. 364 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGL ES. 1787. Feb. 2. Arthur St. Glair was elected president of the continental con- gress, to succeed Nathaniel Gorham. 1787. Feb. 12. The revision of the ' Articles of Confederation " was deter- mined upon by congress, and a conven- tion was called for that purpose. 1787. May 14. The constitutional convention called by congress for the revision of the " Articles of Confedera- tion" met at Independence Hall, Phila- delphia. Each State was represented, except Rhode Island. George Wash- ington was elected president, and William Jackson secretary. There was an in- definite idea of what would be necessary to be done. All knew that the country had no standing abroad in credit, and that the situation was daily growing worse instead of better. The States could unite upon nothing, for separate interests were continually clashing. The members of the convention proceeded to consider the " Articles," and take up various methods of revision. It began very soon to dawn upon some that an entirely new constitution must soon be prepared. 1787. July 11. The "Ordinance of 1787 " for the government of the " Northwest Territory " was passed by congress. This act forbade any " slavery or involuntary servitude except for crime," within the limits of the Territory. Pro- visions were also made for schools, by the cession of tracts of land for that purpose. This celebrated ordinance became the basis of all subsequent constitutions in the States since cut out of that great Territory. 1787. The first practical American steamboat was exhibited on the Dela- ware River before the authorities of Philadelphia, by John Fitch, who had made a similar exhibition on a much smaller scale the year before.- This boat was not successful as a packet, on account of the smallness of the machinery. The engine had only a cylinder of twelve inches. The propelling power of steam was fully shown. A speed of eight miles an hour in dead water was attained by this steamboat. 1787. Sept. 10. AU plans for the revision of the Articles of Confederation were placed by the convention in the hands of a committee composed of Mad- ison, Hamilton, King, Johnson, and Gov. Morris. 1787. Sept. 17. The constitution of the United States as drawn up by the committee, was presented to the conven- tion, and after discussion it was adopted and signed by all the members except sixteen. The convention voted to give congress the power to abolish slavery in the United States twenty years after the adoption of the constitution. It was agreed in estimating the basis of repre- sentation to count five hundred slaves equal to three hundred whites. This is the famous three-fifths rule. 1787. Sept. 28. The new constitu- tion having been laid before congress, was sent out for the ratifications of the States. Now arose a great struggle during which the two great parties, the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists, or Democrat-Republicansitook the full shape which they retained till other questions came in to modify them. 1787. Oct. 5. Arthur St. Glair was elected by congress first governor of the " Northwest Territory." He was in- structed to hold a general treaty with the Indians of the Territory, to adjust the relations between them and the gov- ernment. 1784-1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 365 1787. October. The slave trade was prohibited in Rhode Island by the passage of an act forbidding any citizen to engage in it. 1787. Dec. 7. Delaware was the first State to ratify the new constitution, and thus took the lead in the formation of a real nation out of the original thir- teen confederated States. It has an area of 2,120 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 146,654. Its motto is "Lib- erty and Independence," and it is called The Blue Hen." 1787. Dec. 12. Pennsylvania was the second State to ratify the new consti- tution. It has an area of 46,000 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 4,283,786 inhabitants. Its motto is " Vir- tue, Liberty and Independence," and it is called " The Keystone State," as, in an arch of the old thirteen beginning with New Hampshire, it is the keystone. 1787. Dec. 18. New Jersey was the third State to ratify the new constitu- tion. It has an area of 8,320 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 1*130,892 inhabitants. The motto of the state is "Liberty and Independence." 1787. December. A steamboat was exhibited upon the Potomac by James Rumsey, who had experimented with steam for some months. A stream of water was pumped in at the bow of the boat, and expelled forcibly at the stern directly into the water of the river, thus pushing the boat ahead. Rumsey seems to have tried the same plan on a smaller scale the year before. A Dr. Allen, of England, was experimenting upon it also. Rumsey became involved in a controversy with John Fitch as to the priority of their respective exper- iments. He afterward went to England and was progressing quite well in his endeavors, when he died in the midst of them. 1787. The first cotton-mill really built in New England, was started at Beverly, Mass. The machinery was so rude that in fifteen years the mill ceased to run because no one could be found to build improved machinery. The principal cloths made were corduroys and bed- tickings. 1787. The first high pressure engine was made this year by Oliver Evans of Philadelphia. A steam land carriage was also conceived by Mr. Evans at this time. 1787. The salt works at Syracuse, N. Y., began with the manufacture of about ten bushels a day. These were the first springs worked by English peo- ple in America. 1787. Stage-players were classed as " vagrants subject to 'arrest," by an act passed in South Carolina. 1787. Robert Metlin, a Scotchman, died at Wakefield, Mass., at the age of 115 years. He had been a baker in Portsmouth, N. H., and used to walk to Boston, a distance of sixty miles, in a single day, for the purchase 1719.1737. of flour. This he did as late Mozart. as his eightieth year. When he had put his goods on board a coaster, he would walk home the next day. He was one of the well-known pedestrians of his time. 1787. The oldest incorporated mis- sionary society in the United States was the Society for propagating the Gospel among the Indians and others in North America." A few men of Boston and vicinity founded it. 1787. A model for an iron bridge of four hundred feet span to be built across the Schuylkill, was exhibited by Thomas 366 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. Paine, the author of the famous Revolu- tionary pamphlet, " Common Sense." He got his idea from the spider's web. But it was regarded as a hazardous exper- iment. A similar judgment was ex- pressed concerning a plan offered by a Mr. Weston, for an iron bridge upon stone piers. A covered wooden bridge was built, instead of either. Mr. Paine's idea was afterward experimented upon in France or England. 1788. Jan. 2. Georgia was the fourth State to ratify the constitution. It has an area of 52,009 square miles, and a popu- lation in 1880 of 1,538,988 persons. The motto of the State is " Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation." 1788. Jan. 9. Connecticut was the fifth State to ratify the constitution. The area of the State comprises 4,674 square miles. The population numbei'ed in 1880, 622,683 persons. The motto of the State is " Qui transtulit sustinet." " He who brought us over sustains us." It is known as the " Nutmeg State." 1788. Jan. 22. Cyrus Griffin of Virginia, was elected president of the continental congress, to succeed Arthur St. Clair. 1788. Feb. 7. Massachusetts was the sixth State to ratify the constitution. It has an area of 7,800 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 1,783,086 persons. The motto of the State is " Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem." " By the sword he seeks placid rest in liberty." Massachusetts is known through the country as the "Bay State." 1788. April 7. Marietta, Ohio, at the mouth of the Muskingum River, was founded by a company of sixty per- sons, the greater part of whom were ex- soldiers and officers of the Revolution, who came from New England under Gen. Rufus Putnam. They left New England in 1787, crossed the mountains, but encamped during the winter, and reached their destination in the spring. They were to occupy a grant of 2,000,- ooo acres ceded to Sargent, Cutler, and company, the leaders of the enterprise. No regular settlement had yet been made in the State, though separate settlers had in some instances come in. The present settlers soon made arrangements for all the New England privileges, in the way of churches and schools. Improvements were vigorously begun. 1788. April 28. Maryland was the seventh State to ratify the constitution. It has an area of 11,124 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 935,139 persons. The motto of the State is " Crescite et multiplicamini." " Increase and multiply." 1788. May 23. South Carolina was the eighth State to ratify the constitution. It has 34,000 square miles, and a popula- tion in 1880 of 995,706 persons. Its motto is " Animis opibusque parati." " Ready in will and deed." It is known as the Palmetto State. 1788. May. Messenger, a thorough- bred English horse, was imported into the United States and became the ancestor of many of the fast horses of the present century. He died at Oyster Bay, Long Island, in 1808. A volley of muskets was fired at his burial, because of his long popularity. 1788. May. Impromptu Courts. The courts not having been set up yet under the ordinance for the government of the " Northwest Territory," the emi- grants were left open to violations of law. The emigrants in the Miami region, in order to protect themselves, met and or- ganized a court, appointed a judge, and 1784-1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 367 'began to try the cases which came up, inflicting punishment if so decreed. The military officer interfered, and the United States court was set up in August. The self-acting code was therefore superseded. 1788. June 21. New Hampshire was the ninth State to ratify the consti- tution, and thus made the proposed gov- ernment a fact. It has an area of 9,280 square miles,- and in 1880, 346,784 inhab- itants. New Hampshire is known as the Granite State." 1788. June 26. Virginia was the tenth State to ratify the constitution. It has an area of 38,352 square miles, and in 1880, 1,512,203 inhabitants. Its motto is " Sic semper tyrannis." " So always with tyrants," and it is known as the " Old Dominion." 1788. June. John Ledyard, an Amer- ican traveler of repute in his day, left England upon an attempt to cross Africa in a westerly direction from Sennaar. He was, however, taken sick at Cairo, in Egypt, and died the following January. He had shown great perseverance and endurance in other undertakings. He sailed with Capt. Cook on his third voy- age round the world. He afterward crossed Northern Europe with the inten- sion of going overland to explore Beh- ring's Strait and the adjacent coast. He attempted to cross the Gulf of Bothnia on the ice, but came to open water, and only reached St. Petersburg after a long walk around the coast of the gulf. He had gone 1,400 miles in seven weeks. He went into Siberia, but after long wanderings he was obliged to return to his friends and patrons in London. It being suggested that he go to the interior of Africa, the question was asked of him when he would be ready. "To-morrow morning," was the quick reply. Mr. Ledyard was born at Groton, Conn., in 1751, and entered Dartmouth College, but left before his term was completed. His life was one of constant wandering and adventure. 1788. July 4. A great celebration was held at Philadelphia in honor of the newly adopted constitution. The trades and industries were prominently repre- sented in procession. At Providence, R. I., an intended celebration of the same event, although the State had not yet joined the union, was prevented by a mob of a thousand men from the neighboring towns, who opposed the adoption of the new constitution. A great excitement came near bursting forth. 1788. July 14. The question of carrying the new government into effect over the nine consenting States, was re- ferred by the continental congress to a committee. The time for the new con- gress to open its session was to be March 4, 1789, and the place was to be New York. The choice of electors was to be on the first Wednesday in January, 1789, and the voting of the electors was to be on the first Wednesday in February, 1789. The first steps in national gov- ernment were now to be taken. The country was to gradually make its way out of the condition of separation into one of consolidation and power. The wisdom of very earnest, prophetic minds was put into the constitution, which now took its place among the charters of the world. CONSTITUTION OF' THE UNITED STATES. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the com- mon defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Con- stitution for the United States of North America: 368 RE VOL UTIONA RT STR UGGLES. ARTICLE I. SECTION i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SEC. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifica- tions requisite for electors of .the most numerous branch of the State legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be deter- mined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such man- ner as they shall by law direct. The -num- ber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand ; but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi- dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SEC. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats pf the Senatocs of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expira- tion of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the exec- utive thereof .may make tempprary appoint- ments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no- vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers,, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office as President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that pur- pose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is. tried, the chief-justice shall preside; and no per- son shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit, under the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SEC. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representa- tives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations,, except as to the places of choosing senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year ; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SEC. 5. Each' house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members ; and a majority of each shall consti- tute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such pen- alties as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its. proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its pro- ceedings, and from time to time publish the same,, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Con- gress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. SEC. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance on the session of their respective 1784-1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 369 houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and, for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- creased, during such time ; and no person hold- ing any office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during his continu- ance in office. SEC. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- ments, as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it with his ob- jections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider "it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But, in all such cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays ; and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house, respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by its adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the United States; and, before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be re- passed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SEC. 8. The Congress shall have power: To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for com- mon defense and general welfare, of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uniform throughout the United States. To borrow money on the credit of the United States. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes: To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankrupt- cies throughout the United States : To coin money, regulate the value thereof, 24 and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures : To provide for the punishment of counter- feiting the securities and current coin of the United States: To establish post-offices and post-roads : To promote the progress of science and the useful arts, by securing for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries : To constitute tribunals interior to the Su- preme Court: To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations : To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water: To raise and support armies ; but no appropri- ation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : To provide and maintain a navy : To make rules for the government and regu- lation of the land and naval forces : To provide for calling forth the militia to exe- cute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrec- tions and repel invasions : To provide for organizing, arming, and dis- ciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia accord- ing to the discipline prescribed by Congress: To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particu- lar States, and the acceptance of Congress, be- come the seat of government of the United States ; and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legisla- ture of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock- yards, and other needful buildings : And To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the fore- going powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SEC. 9. The migration or importation of such persons, as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion,- the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder of ex fast facto law, shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census, or enumera- tion, hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles ex- 370 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGLES. ported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or reve- nue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. SEC. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque or reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely nec- essary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, with- out the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such im- minent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. SECTION i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice- President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or rep- resentative, or person holding any office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be ap- pointed an elector. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of* whom one, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of all the votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Sen- ate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates; and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a ma- jority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who has such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representath ~ shall imme- diately choose, by ballot, one of th :n for Presi- dent; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States ; the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this pur- pose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States; and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors, shall be Vice-President. But, if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person, except a natural born citizen or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any per- son be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers or duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-Pres- ident; and the Congress may by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or in- ability, both of the President and Vice-Presi- dent, declaring what officer shall then act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased or diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected ; and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my abil- ity, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitu- tion of the United States." SEC. 2. The President shall be commander- in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the 1784-1799.] duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present con- cur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- suls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose ap- pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. SEC. 3. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and, in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public min- isters ; he shall take care that the laws be faith- fully executed; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SEC. 4. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be re- moved from office on impeachment for and con- viction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. SECTION i. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in a Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. SEC. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Con- stitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassa- dors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands tinder grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens theceof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. THE RISE OF A NATION. 371 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other pub- lic ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of im- peachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but, when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SEC. 3. Treason against the United Stales shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two wit- nesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of trea- son shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. SECTION i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every' other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, pre- scribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SEC. 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citi- zens in the several States. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from jus- tice, and be found in another State, shall, on the demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be re- moved to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service $rc labor in one State under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such ser- vice or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SEC. 3. New States may be admitted by Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- tion of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States or parts of States, without the consent of the legislature of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations re- specting the territory or other property be- longing to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 372 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. SEC. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this U nion a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on application of the leg- islature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the appli- cation of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for propos- ing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conven- tions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. All debts contracted and engagements en- tered into, before the adoption of this Constitu- tion, shall be lis valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confed- eration. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States, which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. The senators and representatives before men- tioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shll be bound by oath or affirma- tion to support this Constitution ; but no reli- gious test shall ever be required as a qualifica- tion to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati- fying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous con- sent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America, the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names: GEORGE WASHINGTON, PRESIDENT, AND DEPUTY FROM VIRGINIA. NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon, Nicholas f~, ., > & Gilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. , CONNECTICUT. William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton. NEW JERSEY. William Livingston, David Bearly, William Patterson, Jonathan Dayton. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thom- as Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer,. Thomas Fitzsimmons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. DELAWARE. George Read, Gunning Bed- ford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount, Rich- ard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. William Few, Abraham Baldwin^ [ATTEST.] WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION* ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an es- tablishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the peo- ple peaceably to assemble, and to petition the. government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the- security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in a manner prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, paper, and effects, against un- reasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capi- tal or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, ex- cept in cases arising in the land or naval forces, * The first ten amendments were declared in force De- cember 15th, 1791. 1784-1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 373 or in the militia when in actual service, in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject, for the same offence, to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be com- pelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district where- in the crime sha'll have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained bylaw; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. ARTICLE VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-exam- ined in any court of the United States, than ac- cording to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor ex- cessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in the Constitution of cer- tain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XL* The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subj ects of any foreign State. ARTICLE Xll.f The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President and Vice- President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the per- son voted for as Vice President; and they shall * Declared in force Jan. 8, 1798. t Declared in force Sept. 25, 1804. make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not ex- ceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the vote shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this pur- pose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disa- bility of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President, shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII.* SECTION i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. SEC. 2. Congress shall have power to en- force this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV .f SECTION i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdic- tion thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State de- prive any person of life, liberty, or property, * Declared in force Dec. 18, 1865. t Declared in force July 28, 1868. 374 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGL ES. without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protec- tion of the laws. SEC. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any elec- tion for choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, represen- tatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legis- lature thereof, is denied to the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty -one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.. SEC. 3. No person shall be a senator, or rep- resentative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State leg- islature, or an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or re- bellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. SEC. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions, and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States, nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims, shall be held illegal and void. SEC. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this Article. ARTICLE XV.* SECTION i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. SEC. 2. The Congress shall have power to entorce this Article by appropriate legislation. 1788. July 26. New York was the eleventh State to ratify the constitution. It has an area of 47,000 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 5,082,982 * Declared in force March 30, 1870. persons. Its motto is Excelsior, and it is known as the " Empire State." 1788. July 27. A mob attacked the office of" Greenfield's Political Register," a newspaper in New York which opposed the constitution. 1788. Dec. 22. The county of Washington, containing sixty-four square miles, was ceded by Maryland to the United States, to become part of the capital. 1788. Dec. 24. Queen City of the West. The first settlers arrived upon the present site of Cincinnati, which had been bought by Matthias Denman, of Springfield, N. J., at the rate of fifteen pence an acre in specie. The payment was in continental currency at the rate of five shillings an acre. The next year the city was surveyed and laid out in lots, even then giving promise of what it has since become. 1788. A law prohibiting the slave trade, was passed in Massachusetts. The kidnapping of three colored persons in Boston, and the selling of them in the West Indies, led to this act. Connecticut and Pennsylvania soon passed similar laws. 1788. The abolition of slavery was advised in a pastoral letter sent out by the Presbyterian church in New York and Philadelphia. The Methodist church soon disqualified slave-holders from being communicants, but the law effecting it was soon repealed. 1788. Mining for lead was attempted in Iowa by Julien Dubuque, a French- Canadian who settled upon the site of the town which has since taken his name. 1788. The Doctors' Mob. Several physicians of New York city were found to have robbed the graveyards, in order to obtain bodies for dissection. So great 1784-1799.] did the popular excitement become, that they were lodged in prison to protect them from the fury of the people. An assault on the prison was at one time attempted, but was successfully resisted. Some of the physicians had already fled the city. 1788. The first native American dentist was John Greenwood, of New York. The profession was introduced into the United States a few years before by Le Mair, a Frenchman, who was connected with the forces which had joined the American army during the Revolution. An Englishman named Whitlock also began business after Le Mair. Mr. Greenwood made a complete set of teeth carved from ivory, for Gen. Washington. They were called very fine work. The profession increased slowly for years. In 1820 there were not more than one hundred dentists in the United States. 1788. The Federalist. In defending the new constitution and explaining it for the people, a series of papers was prepared by Hamilton, Jay and Mad- ison, and issued over the signature Publius. They have since been published as a volume with the above title, and consti- tute one of the most valuable of all pub- lications relating to the American gov- ernment. 1788. A cotton company was or- ganized by Brown and Alrny, of Prov- idence, R. I., and a small factory was started, but for a number of years they worked under many disadvantages. 1788. A steamboat was built by Fitch, and provided with the machinery he had used the year before. It made a few trips from Burlington to Philadel- phia and back, at the rate of four miles an hour. THE RISE OF A NATION. 375 FIRST PRESIDENTIAL 1789. January. All thoughts turned toward George Washington as the desire of the nation for its first president. The electors were chosen this month by the legislatures of the several States. 1789. February. The electoral col- lege met and chose George Washington president, and John Adams vice-president, of the United States. According to the first provisions of the constitution, no votes were cast for president and vice- president distinctively, but each elector voted for two persons, and in the final count the person who had received the highest vote of all was pronounced pres- ident, and the one who had received the next highest vote, vice-president. In the present election ten States only voted, as New York had not yet any law which provided for the choice of electors, and two States of the old thirteen, North Carolina and Rhode Island, had not yet ratified the new constitution. Each elector cast one vote for George Wash- ington, giving him 69 in all, a unanimous election as president. Of the other votes of the electors John Adams received 34, the next highest number, and was elected vice-president. The remaining 35 votes were cast for John Jay, John Hancock, and others. ETHAN ALLEN. 1789. Feb. 13. Ethan Allen, the Green Mountain champion of liberty, died Feb. 13, 1789, at the age of 60 years. "He was born in Connecticut, and at an early age removed to the " Hampshire Grants," now Vermont. At a later period he took an active part in the polit- ical strife between that section and New York, which laid claim to the Territory of the " grants." When the noise of Lexington and Concord swept across 376 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGL ES. the country, Ethan Allen was among the first to answer the summons. His first effort was at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and is the one for which he is re- membered most popularly. The sleepy British commander was surprised to see this energetic Vermonter at his door so early in the morning, but gave up the garrison at the peremptory demand. It was an auspicious opening for the patriot cause in that region, through which there was afterward to be such an at- tempt to invade the States. Allen was afterward ordered to assist Montgomery in an invasion of Canada, and in an at- tack, upon Montreal was captured, and taken to England. When he arrived there a great crowd gathered to see this rustic with worsted stockings, a deer-skin coat, and a red worsted cap. During a somewhat prolonged stay in England he was offered a tract of land in the Eng- lish American colonies, if he would be- come a British officer. To this he re- plied : " That reminds me of Satan's offer to Jesus Christ of all the kingdoms in the world if he would fall down and worship him, when at the same time the poor devil had not a foot of land on the earth." He was afterward shipped to Halifax, and, having suffered a dreary and injurious imprisonment, he was ex- changed in 1778 for Campbell. He was promoted to brigadier-general, and sta- tioned at the North, but did no military service, as the war was thereafter at the South. Ethan Allen deserves more* credit for his suffering than for his mil- itary career, which was brief, but roman- tic. He was a self-made American soldier. 1789. March 4. The new govern- ment of the United States was to have gone into operation at this time, but there was not a sufficient number of members of congress who arrived at New York to form a quorum. 1789. April 6. The new congress at last opened its session, the continental congress having ceased to exist. Fred- erick A. Muhlenburg, of New York, was chosen speaker. The electoral votes were counted, and the result affirmed. 1789. April. The first petition pre- sented to congress was from the mechan- ics and tradesmen of Baltimore, who called attention to the de- cline in manufactures and French Revoiu- trade, and asked that the tioH - government make them " independent in fact, as well as in name," by imposing duties on foreign articles, which would create a demand for home labor. This was followed by memorials from nearly all the principal cities. 1789. April 30. George Washing- ton, " The Father of his Country," was inaugurated president of the United States in Federal Hall, New York. The oath of office was administered by Rob- ert R. Livingston. On the way from his home at Mt. Vernon, he had passed through a succession of ovations, and was everywhere received with acclama- tions. John Adams had already taken his place as presiding officer of the senate. The day of inauguration was a day of great jubilee. 1789. May 12. The Tammany So- ciety was organized in New York for charitable purposes only. An Irishman, named William Mooney, was the leader in its formation. The society took its name from a recent Delaware chief of great age and virtue, who was made patron saint of the order. The society was organized in imitation of the Jacobin 1784-1799.] Clubs of Paris, then recently established. In the course of years it has become identified with the Democratic party, and very lately with a peculiar section of the party, having been made an engine of political effort. William M. Tweed's connection with it somewhat discredited the club, but it has since been put upon a firmer basis, and is still flourishing. The titles of sachems, sagamores,warriors, are applied to the officers and members. 1789. June. The professional train- ing of school teachers was first publicly suggested in the Massachusetts Magazine, by Elisha Ticknor. 1789. July 4. First Revenue Bill. A bill which congress had been discussing since April, and which laid duties upon a list of imported articles " for the en- couragement and protection of manufac- tures," was signed by the president, and became a law. There were many dif- ferent ideas as to what articles should be taxed. The basis of this bill has been called the Protective System, and has been followed by the government till the present time, with a variation in the amount of duties laid. It has sometimes been called the American system. 1789. July 27. The Department of State in the United States government was organized under the name of the Department of Foreign Affairs. Thomas Jefferson was appointed first secretary. 1789. Aug. 7. The Department of War in the United States government was established by act of congress, and Gen. Henry Knox, of Massachusetts, was appointed first secretary. He had previously held the same office under the Confederation. The department covered the army, the navy, and Indian affairs. 1789. Sept. 2. The Department of the Treasury in the United States gov- THE RISE OF A NATION. 377 ernment was established by act of congress. Alexander Hamilton was appointed secretary. 1789. Sept. 22. The Postoffice De- partment of the United States was created by act of congress. Samuel Os- good, of Massachusetts, was the first postmaster-general. The head of the department was not a member of the presidential cabinet till 1829. 1789. Sept. 24. The judicial system of the United States was established by congress, who appointed John Jay chief- justice, and Edmund Randolph, attorney- general. 1789. The first presidential cabinet was now complete, and was composed of Alexander Hamilton, of New York, a Federalist, Secretary of the Treasury; Gen. Henry Knox, of Massachusetts, a Federalist, Secretary of War; Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, an Anti-Federalist, Secretary of State. 1789. Nov. 8. A tour through New England was made by the presi- dent of the United States, in his own carriage. He was nine days in riding from New York to Boston, and was everywhere received with great attention and enthusiasm, especially by the veterans of the Revolution. 1789. Nov. 21. North Carolina was the twelfth State to ratify the new constitution. It was the northern por- tion of the great tract known as Carolina, and has an area of 50,704 square miles, with a population in 1880 of 1,400,000 persons. It is sometimes known as the Old North State, or Turpentine State. 1789. Dec. 3. The county of Al- exandria, containing thirty-six square miles, was ceded by the State of Virginia to the United States, to become part of the capital. 378 RE VOL UTIONART S TR UGGLES. 1789. First Roman Catholic Bishop. John Carroll, who in 1786 had been ap- pointed vicar-general of the Roman Catholic church for the United States, was this year appointed bishop, under the title of Bishop of Baltimore. This was the foundation of the organization of the Roman Catholic church in the United States. Mr. Carroll was consecrated in England. 1789. Georgetown College, the first Roman Catholic college erected in the United States, was founded at George- town, D. C. 1789. Theatrical exhibitions were made free in Pennsylvania by the repeal of the act which had been passed con- demning them. 1789. First Temperance Move- ment. The first public movement in the United States in behalf of temperance, was made in Litchfield, Conn., where two hundred farmers agreed together " not to use any distilled liquor in doing their farm work the ensuing season." 1789. A conspiracy in Brazil, in the district of Minas, was formed for the purpose of throwing off the Portuguese authority, but the outbreak was at once suppressed. 1789. Mackenzie River. Alexander Mackenzie, an agent of the Northwest Fur Company, of Canada, explored the country north of Lake Athabasca in the British Possessions, and after some weeks reached the Arctic Ocean at the mouth of the great river which bears his name, he having descended it from Slave Lake. Mr. Mackenzie was one of the most energetic of the explorers of the great company in whose service he labored. 1790. Jan. 14. American Fund- ing System. Alexander Hamilton, sec- retary of the treasury, reported at great length in the second session of congress upon the condition of .the treasury as it had been left by the Confederation, and suggested plans for the improvement of the management of the finance of the Union, and for the increase of the public credit. A protracted discussion between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists con- sumed nearly the entire session. A cer- tain portion of the State debt was finally assumed, and a funding bill passed, pro- viding for both the foreign debt at its es- tablished methods, and the domestic debt,, with terms and rates of interest for the latter in a funded shape. The domestic debt and State debts alone were funded. The total amount of debt was $80,000,- ooo, or more, and when the measures were canned out, the public credit was benefited, and agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, stimulated. 1790. Feb. 12. The Abolition of slavery was the subject of a petition sent to the first national congress by the Penn- sylvania Abolition Society. The peti- tion received favorable attention on the part of many, and the matter was re- ferred to the States for the promotion of the objects embraced in the memorial. All decided congressional action was de- ferred because of the twenty year law passed in 1788. It is thought to have been one of the last public acts of Dr. Franklin, to sign this petition. 179O. March 23. Importation of Slaves. Congress, after a prolonged dis- cussion, voted that it could not prohibit the ' importation of slaves before 1808, and could not emancipate them at any time, the power to do this remaining with the individual States. It decided, however, that Americans could be for- bidden to supply foreigners with slaves,, and that the fitting out of a slave vessel 1784-1799.] by a foreigner in any American port, could be prohibited. 1790. March 24. A naturalization law was passed by congress. 1790. April 15. The first patent right law of the United States was passed by congress. For 46 years, how- ever, the bureau of patents was in the charge of the president and cabinet, who could not organize the business because of the press of their other duties. The work was there- fore done in a very unsystematic way. BENJ. FRANKLIN. 1790. April 17. This eminent American sage, statesman, and philosopher, died after an illness of twelve months, in the 85th year of his age. He was born in Boston, Jan. 17, 1706, and was the youngest son in a family of seventeen chil- dren. There were two daughters younger than him- self. His parents THE RISE OF A NATION. 379 iff? BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. came to America from Northampton, England, in 1682, to find greater freedom of religious opinion. His father, Josiah Franklin, was a dyer by trade, but in the new home he took up the business of a tallow chandler, and by his excellent qualities became a much respected citizen of Boston. Benjamin was at first designed for the ministry, but he was, after a little schooling, taken into the shop with his father. Here he re- mained discontentedly two years, till he was twelve years of age. He was then bound an apprentice to his brother James, a printer. His spare time was occupied in reading. A volume of the Spectator fell into his hands, and made a great im- pression upon him by its style. He read the book several times, and then tried to reproduce it in prose and poetry. In this way he acquired facility of composi- tion. When he was about fourteen years old he com- posed a story for his brother's pa- per, The New England Courant, and slipped it un- der the office door one night. In the morning it was found, and seem- ing to posse ss great merit, was published, and met with universal fa- vor. More articles foil ow ed , and every effort was made to find the unknown author. Benjamin at last disclosed the mat- ter to his brother, but met with poor treatment for his pains. After still further unpleasantness between himself and brother, he took secret passage to New York. There he could get no work, and went on to Philadelphia, where he arrived in a destitute condition. Within a few days he obtained employ- ment of Mr. Keimer. His intelligence and good conduct soon attracted the at- tention of prominent men, among whom was Gov. Keith. He formed the ac- 380 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. quaintance of the reading classes of the city, and was highly esteemed in society. In undertaking to start business for him- self, at the suggestion of Gov. Keith, he went to London to buy type. Here he found that the promises made to him would not be fulfilled, and he was obliged to go to work for a living. Finally, in two years an opportunity opened for his return to Philadelphia, and he gladly ac- cepted it. He soon after started in bus- iness for himself, and began the publica- tion of " Poor Richard's Almanac." With a few of his friends he organized a O secret debating club, called the Junto. The work of this club necessitated ref- erence to books, ancL he thus conceived the idea of forming a company for a public library, which is now the Phila- delphia Library Company. Franklin soon purchased Keimer's newspaper, which he greatly improved, and pub- lished under the name of The Pennsyl- vania Gazette. He soon began to be put forward into places of trust, and was appointed deputy postmaster-general by the British government. He assisted in establishing newspapers in other colonies. An interest in the heating of dwellings led him to the invention of the Franklin stove, which is still a standard. He was the means of organizing a fire company in 1737, and a militia company in 1743. In 1749 he was the main worker in starting the Academy of Science, which has grown into the present University of Philadelphia. He was now put into the assembly of the province, and gave up his private business, that he might attend wholly to public affairs. His reputation was en- larging rapidly, and his advice deemed essential in all important concerns. Sev- eral conventions had the benefit of his experience and wisdom. During a visit to Boston he met a man who had brought o some electrical apparatus from England. This led to experiments which have made his name famous in that line alone. The service of Dr. Franklin during the Revolution already brought out in our previous record, can hardly be over esti- mated. He was a great honor, and a vast aid to his country in her peril. Loyally did he serve her. His life is an example of the widest individual useful- ness along any merely human lines which it is possible to attain. The ver- satility of his mind was unequaled in his own day, and almost in any day of the world. His gifts were remarkable. But working through all his capabilities and acquirements, was the wonderful dil- igence of the man. He occupied his gifts thoroughly. The record of what he was, and of his unintermitting applica- tion to his mission is woven through and O through the story of the vicissitudes of his native land, which will never cease to express in her institutions and work, the grandeur of the endowments of Benja- min Franklin. GEJf. ISRAEL PUTNAM. 1790. May 19. Gen. Putnam, the " Iron Man," as he has been called, died at his farm in Brooklyn, Conn., at the age of 72 years. He was born in Salem, Mass., Jan. 7, 1718, and grew up without many opportunities for getting arrcduca- tion. It was his intention to become a farmer. When the French and Indian war broke out he received command of a company of rangers in the English army. His adventures in the field marked him as a man of fearless courage. At the opening of the Revolution he was ap- pointed one of four major-generals by 1784-1799.] congress. His service during the war showed that no man was his superior in striking a fearful blow with a small force. He did not have the discipline of mind which would have enabled him to han- dle large armies. The British tried to gain him to their side by bribes, but he could not be tempted. The adventures of his life make up a rare list. His per- sonal courage became widely known, when at 25 years of age he shot a she wolf in her den. He was captured once or twice and threatened with torture by Indians, but was saved by intervention. At Fort Edward he saved a magazine of three hundred barrels of powder, by standing between it and the leaping flames, upon which he threw water handed him by his men. Portions of his body were severely burned, and por- tions of his skin came off after the dan- ger was over. His escape from pursuit by riding down the steps at Stamford, Conn., is a household word. Gen. Putnam had two challenges to fight a duel. The first was from an American officer whom he unintentionally offended at table. Putnam agreed to meet him the next morning without seconds. The officer came, armed with sword and pistols, but before taking his place he received a shot from Putnam's gun at thirty rods distance. The general began to reload, and the officer approached quickly, and asked, " What are you about to do? Is this the conduct of an American officer, and a man of honor?" "What am I about to do ? " said the general ; " a pretty question to put to a man whom you in- tended to murder. I'm about to kill you, and if you don't beat a retreat in less time than it takes old Heath to hang a tory, you are a gone dog." The officer waited no longer, but fled the field. THE RISE OF A NATION. 381 The second challenge was from a British officer who was a prisoner on parole. Gen. Putnam, being the chal- lenged party, agreed to select the weapon and appear at the place named, with arms for both. The officer found him at the time appointed, calmly smoking his pipe, and seated near a cask with powder grains scattered over the top of it. Gen. Putnam asked the officer to take a seat on the other side, and remark- ing " that there was an equal chance for both of them," set fire to a match which communicated with the contents of the cask. The officer looked at the match a few moments, and as the fire approached the powder, he left hastily. As he was going, " Old Put " exclaimed, " You are just as brave a man as I took you to be. This is nothing but a barrel of onions with a few grains of powder on top, to try you by. But you don't like the smell." The rough, hardy nature of Gen. Put- nam was true, but did not appreciate the delicacies of life. He filled a large place in the contest for freedom. At last his frame, which had been subjected to great strains, gave out, and he was stricken with paralysis in the left side. This laid him aside from active service till he died. 1790. May 29. Rhode Island was the thirteenth State, the last of the old thirteen," to ratify the constitution, and enter the Union. It has an area of 1,306 square miles, being the smallest of our States, and a population in 1880 of 276,- 528 persons. Its motto is " Hope," and it is known as " Little Rhody." 1790. June 5. A steamboat was put upon the Delaware River by John Fitch, and ran during the season between Philadelphia and Burlington as a passen- 382 REVOLUTIONART STRUGGLES. ger steamer, an aggregate distance of over two thousand miles, at an average rate of seven and one-half miles an hour. Its paddle-wheel was at the stern. This was the first steamer in the world which carried passengers regularly. The parts of the machinery were greatly improved over what Mr. Fitch had previously employed. 1790. July 10. The Capital of the United States. Philadelphia was made the capital of the United States till 1800, by a bill passed by congress. After that date some place situated upon the Poto- mac was to be selected by the president. This measure was a compromise be- tween the friends of several different cities. 1790. July 16, District of Colum- bia. Congress accepted the cessions made by Maryland and Virginia, one or two years before, for a capital of the United States. 179O. July 17. Maple Sugar Manu- facture. A half ton of maple sugar was brought to Philadelphia from Stock- port, on the Delaware. At a later day forty hogsheads came in a , sloop from Albany. Estimates were made, showing that the domestic supply of maple sugar could be made sufficient for the Union. % The matter was recommended in public print by Dr. Rush and others. 179O. Oct. 17. Harmar's Defeat. The Indians of the Northwest Territory having become troublesome, Gen. Har- mar was sent out against them, and a battle was fought near Chillicothe, Ohio, where the American force was defeated. The troops were very poorly equipped and were undisciplined, some of the militia running at the first fire. Many also were old and feeble. The Indian villages were, however, destroyed in the absence of the occupants, and the great object of crippling the enemy was thus accomplished. 1790. December. The first Ark- wright machinery for spinning cotton in America, was set up in Providence, R. I., for Messrs. Almy and Brown, by Samuel Slater, a young man who had been thoroughly educated in English mills, and was a practical mechanic. He is known as the "father of American cotton manufactures." The Arkwright machinery could not be imported from England, and Slater made it from mem- ory. The weaving was done in private families. This mill was the first success- ful water-power cotton-mill in America 1790. The first jewelry manufactured in the United States was by Epaphras Hinsdale, of Newark, N. J., this year, or a little later. 1790. The first American voyage around the world was completed by Capt. Gray of Boston, who, in the ship Columbia, sailed to the Pacific coast of North America, having left Boston Sept. 30, 1787, and from there with furs to China, and then home by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. 1790. " John Sears' Folly " at Den- nis, Barnstable County, Mass., caused ex- citement in the region. It consisted of a pump and windmill which Sears had erected to raise the sea -water for the manufacture of salt. He tried the ex- periment of solar evaporation, although only the process of artificial heat was used along the Atlantic coast. Until this year he had raised the water in buckets, but having found the pump in the wreck of a British ship, he set it working, and was so successful that numerous companies were formed to follow his example. 1784-1799.] 1790. Yankee Enterprise. The well- known Elkanah Watson, after having taken up his residence in Albany, N. Y.5 began to agitate the question of improv- ing the city in various ways, and finally secured the undertaking of some changes. In his journal he narrates the following personal danger into which his attempts brought him: "Just after State Street had been paved at a heavy expense, I sauntered into it, immediately after a heavy thun- der storm, and whilst regretting the dis- turbance in the sidewalk, and observing the cellars filling with water, for in that section, which was in the present locality of the State Bank, the street in grading had been elevated about two feet, I heard two women in the act of clearing their invaded premises from the accumulation of mud and water, cry out, ' Here comes that infei'nal paving Yankee.' They approached me in a menacing attitude, broomsticks erect. Prudence dictated a retreat, to avoid being broomsticked by the infuriated Amazons, although I did not run, as some of my friends insisted, but walked off at a quick pace." 1790. A steamboat, which went five miles an hour up stream, was exhibited upon the Savannah River by William Longstreet, an inventor who then lived in Georgia. He obtained money to aid him in his project from several who became interested in it. Longstreet also devised a new way of ginning cotton, and affirmed that steam would finally become the dominating motive power of the world. 179O. Postal Service. The whole number of postoffices in the United States was seventy-five, and the postal service covered only 7,375 miles. In five years it had increased to 1,799,720 miles, THE RISE OF A NATION. 383 while in 1845 tne numDer of miles was 35,634,269. 1790. The first census of the United States enrolled 3,929,827 persons, exclud- ing Indians. It was taken at a cost of $44,377.18. There were found to be nearly 700,000 slaves. This was the first systematic census ever taken by order of any government in the world. 1791. February. Bank of the United States. Congress passed an act to estab- lish a United States Bank, with a capital of $10,000,000, of which one-fifth was to be subscribed by the United States, and four-fifths by individuals. Its charter was to run twenty years. This act was in accordance with the recommendation of Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury. 1791. March 4. Vermont was the fourteenth State to take its place in the Union. It is the northwestern New England State, with an area of 10,212 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 332,286 persons. Its motto is " Free- dom and Unity." It is called "The Green Mountain State." 1791. March 30. The United States Capital. President Washington issued a proclamation ordering the running of the lines of the new capital of the United States upon the Potomac, according to his selection. 1791. April 15. The first corner- stone of the District of Columbia was set at Jones' Point by Hon. David Car- roll and Dr. David Stewart, with Ma- sonic ceremonies. 1791. May 15. Black Voters in San Domingo. The French Convention de- clared that all free persons of color in its colonies could vote. This was drawn out in explanation of a decree of 1790, declaring that all free persons could vote. 384 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES . The planters of San Domingo affirmed that free blacks were not included. There had been great agitation on the island over the matter, and now it in- creased still more. The affair grew so stormy that in the following autumn a decree was issued reversing the one of this date.. San Domingo had a popula- tion of 686,000 persons, of whom 42,000 were white, 44,000 free blacks, and 600,- ooo slaves. 1791. July. United States Bank Stock. In less than a day after the stock of the United States Bank was opened to the public, it was all taken. Branches were soon established in other cities of the Union. 1791. Aug. 23. A slave insurrection broke out in Hayti, and caused the whites, through fear of destruction, to grant the rights of the decree of May 1 5 to the mulattoes. 1791. August. The first minister from Great Britain to the United States, was appointed in the person of George Hammond. 1791. August. The first patent for a nail cutting machine given in America, 1749-1791. was to Samuel Briggs of Miraieau. Philadelphia. Many were trying at this time to accomplish the same thing, and patents soon followed rapidly. 1791. Sept. 9. Washington, D. C., was named in a letter from the commis- sioners appointed for the selection of a site for the capital of the United States, to Major L'Enfant, who was designing maps for it. They directed him to call the whole district the Territory of Columbia, and the city within it, the city of Washington. 1791. Sept. 15. Advocate of Eman- cipation. Rev. Dr. Jonathan Edwards, afterward president of Union College, preached a very able sermon before the " Connecticut Society for the Promotion of Freedom," which, in a solid and con- vincing wayj set forth the argument for emancipation. This was printed and sent far and wide, doing a great work at the time. Dr. Samuel Hopkins' Dia- logue on Slavery was also influential. 1791. Sept. 24. A civil war of great severity arose in San Domingo because the French assembly this day repealed the decree of May 15, which gave the rights of citizens to the free blacks. 1791. Nov. 4. St. Glair's Defeat. Gen. St. Clair, who had been appointed to suc- ceed Harmar in the Indian war, having- marched into the Northwest Territory with a force of 2,300 men, was, in spite of warnings given him beforehand not to allow his troops to be surprised, taken off his guard where he had encamped near the Wabash, by a large force of Indians under " Little Turtle," and severely beaten, with a loss of half his army. The rout continued 27 miles to Fort Jefferson. This defeat is said to have excited Washington almost beyond his control when he heard of it, a surprise being contrary to all his ideas of military vigilance. There were, however, many palliating circumstances. The Indians afterward resisted offers of peace, and murdered the ambassadors. 1791. Dec. 15. The first ten amendments to the constitution, which had been proposed to congress the pre- vious year, were declared in force. They were passed in order to satisfy Anti- Federalists, and had something to do with bringing into the government the States of North Carolina and Rhode Island, which had refused to ratify the constitution as it first stood. 17&H799.] 1791. The University of Vermont was established at Burlington, and re- ceived a generous gift from Ira Allen, a brother of Ethan Allen. 1791. A law classing stage-players as vagrants, was repealed by South Carolina. 1791. First Internal Taxation. Con- gress laid a tax on domestic distilled spirits, which was the first instance of internal taxation in the shape of an excise duty, in the States. This tax was estab- lished to aid in paying the government debt, and was the origin of the Whisky Rebellion in Pennsylvania, in 1794. Opposition to the tax manifested itself almost at once in certain sections of that State. 1791. The yellow fever visited New York with great mortality. 1791. The first mail wagon west of Albany, N. Y., was started by a Mr. Beal, who had been carrying the mail on horseback from Albany to Canajoharie, once a week. At the suggestion of a traveler he started a mail wagon and carried passengers between those two places. An unsuccessful enterprise of the kind had been undertaken before. Mr. Beal's experiment was entirely suc- cessful, and soon grew into the great stage lines of Central New York. 1791. The first carpet manufactory in America was established at Philadel- phia, by William P. Sprague. 1791. Anthracite coal was discovered in the mountains of Carbon Co., Penn., by Philip Ginter, as he was returning home from a hunting expedition. 1791. The Province of Canada was divided by act of Parliament into two parts, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, because of the difference in the popula- tion, which made the question of repre- 25 THE RISE OF A NATION. 385 sentation in the assembly difficult to settle. The provinces have also been known as Canada West, and Canada East. 1792. April 1. American manu- factures were for the first time allowed in Great Britain, by order of that gov- ernment. 1792. April. Gen. Anthony Wayne was appointed in command of the army against the western Indians, and imme- diately began preparations m2 France to take the field, but being declared a Rt- warned by the defeats of fublic - Harmar and St. Clair, declared that he would not do it until he had a disciplined army. 1792. May 8. A uniform militia system for the United States, which has continued to the present day, with little variation, was provided for by an act of congress. 1792. May 11. Columbia Biver. Capt. Robert Gray discovered the Co- lumbia River on the Pacific coast of the United States, and entered it in the " Co- lumbia Rediviva," a Boston vessel. 1792. June 1. Kentucky was the fifteenth State to be received into the Union. It has an area of 37,680 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 1,648,- 599 persons. Its motto is " United we stand, divided we fall." It is called The Blue Grass State." 1792. June. The first turnpike road in the United States was begun, from Philadelphia to Lancaster. Two thou- sand two hundred and sixty-seven shares of stock in it were sold in twelve hours. PAUL JONES. 1792. July 18. Paul Jones, the brilliant naval commander, died in Paris at the age of forty-five years. John Paul, for this was his real name, was 386 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. born in Scotland in 1747, and was the son of a gardener. A life on the beach subjected him to the fascination of the sea, and when he was twelve years old he was received as a sailor on board the " Friendship," bound for Rappahannock, Va. By his fidelity and intelligence he was promoted through the several grades of duty, until he was captain. He was upon the sea most of the time until he was twenty- six years of age, when he took charge of his deceased broth- er's farm in Vir- ginia, where he remained two years. In 1775 he was ap- pointed by con- gress first lieu- tenant of the Alfred, and un- folded a nation- al ensign for the first time on shipboard. The design of this flag is only traditionally known. At a PAUL later day he received the first salute ever paid by a foreign nation to the Stars and Stripes, which was given by France. On his first cruise in the Provi- dence, to which he had been transferred, he took one hundred cannon from six- teen different prizes. He was an ener- getic sailor and hard fighter. His edu- cation was small, but he presented plans to congress for the improvement of the navy. They were favorably received and acted upon. His ambition and courage were limitless. His very reck- lessness seemed his protection. The brave are the longest lived. Having been put in charge of the Ranger, he cruised in British waters, and about mid- night of April 22, 1778, he en- tered the port at W hitehaven, where there were about three hundred ships, well guarded by a strong battery. After leaving orders for the shi PP m g to be |^ fired, he ad- vanced in a row boat with only one man, under the very muzzle of the guns, to take the fort. He entered the battery after having made way with the sentinel, spiked the cannon, and at daybreak was surprised not to see the vessels on fire. Indignant at the neglect or inefficiency of his lieutenant, he refused to depart, and entering a large ship, kindled a fire in the steerage. The inhabitants rushed from their homes, but he posted himself at the entrance to the wharves with a loaded pistol, and declared he would shoot the first man who came toward him. They JONES. 1784-1799.] turned and fled, when he sailed leisurely away, returning pistol shots for the dis- charges of the two cannon, which were the only ones capable of being worked in the battery. This was an example of his whole career. He planned to abduct the Earl of Selkirk from his home on the river Dee, in order to force exchanges with England, but was not able to carry out his purpose, because of the absence of his intended captive. His greatest naval contest, and the one on which his popu- lar fame rests, was the one between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis, an English vessel. He was apparently beaten two or three times, but refused to surrender. He exhibited the greatest daring until the British gave up the fight. His presence in the little American navy was worth an incalculable amount. He was the great hero of the day. The king of France gave him a gold mounted sword. Congress gave him a gold medal. After peace was declared he entered the Russian service on a cruise, in the Black Sea, but could not agree with his supe- rior officer, and withdrew, receiving the promise of a pension from the Empress Catharine, without fulfillment. He re- tired to Paris. His last days were spent in obscurity. But notice of his death was taken by the French court, and a eulogium pronounced upon him. His moral character has been condemned by some. He was undoubtedly full of pride. Yet the name of Paul Jones will brighten the page of American history as long as an American vessel floats. THE RISE OF A NATION. 387 1792. July. Samson Occom, a Mo- hegan Indian, who graduated at Mr. Wheelock's school at Lebanon, N. H., and became a preacher, died at sixty-nine years of age. He visited England at one time, and was received with great favor. His gifts were very excellent. 1792. July 22. Alexander Macken- zie, who had previously been down the Mackenzie River to the Arctic Ocean, arrived at the mouth of the Fraser River opposite Vancouver's Island, having fol- lowed it from its source in a trip across the continent. 1792. Oct. 13. The White House. The corner stone of the president's house at Washington, D. C., was laid. The building was designed by James Hoban, after the country house of the Duke of Leinster, England, and was built of porous Virginia freestone. 1792. Canal Enterprise. The South Hadley, and the Montague Canals, the oldest in the United States, were begun by a company chartered this year. They were dug around the rapids of the Con- necticut River, the former being two miles long, and the latter three miles. There were also two canal companies chartered at this time by New York, one for " opening a lock navigation from the navigable waters of the Hudson, to be extended to Lake Ontario and Seneca Lake," and another from the Hudson to Lake Champlain. Gen. Philip Schuyler was largely instrumental in getting the charter. Work was done and navigation opened by taking advantage of water- courses, but the undertaking was after- ward swallowed up by the Erie Canal. Many other canal projects were proposed, but few of them came to anything, be- cause of lack of capital and other rea- sons. It was thought it would be, how- ever, the great coming method of trans- portation. 1792. The first clock in the world with wooden wheels, was made by Eli Terry of Connecticut. He entered into 388 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. the manufacture of them, at first shaping the wheels with a knife. He went about the country twice a year to sell them. 1792. The first piece of dress silk in the United States, of purely domestic production, was made in the family of Rev. Mr. Atwater of Beauford, Conn., who raised the silk himself. 1792. A small theater was opened in Boston, notwithstanding the law against it. During the exhibition one night, the company were arrested on the stage, but soon released through some legal defect in the papers. A second arrest, however, broke up the company. 1792. Vancouver Island. The Span- ish commander, Quadra, surrendered Vancouver Island to Capt. Geo. Van- couver, who gave it the name of Quadra and Vancouver Island, and took posses- sion for the British government. 1792. Postal Bates. In the further organization of the postofHce depart- ment, rates were fixed at six cents on each letter carried thirty miles or less, and twenty-five on each letter carried 450 miles or more. On newspapers the rate was one cent for 100 miles or less, and one cent and a half for a longer dis- tance. Members of congress had the liberty to employ the franking privilege during the sessions of that body, and for twenty days thereafter. 1792. The investigation of Hamilton was carried on by the Anti-Federalists, who used the greater part of the last session of congress this year in this way. The lines between the parties were be- coming more distinct, and the An ti- Fed- eralists opposed the growth of a national government, which could issue currency and collect money for imposts, lay taxes, raise an army and navy, and legislate with power in various ways, over the several States. The investigation finally resulted in showing the ability and integ- rity of Hamilton. SECOND PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1792. In the second presidential cam- paign it was again universally thought that George Washington must be reelect- ed. He therefore received one vote cast by each elector. John Adams was again elected vice-president by receiving sev- enty-seven votes out of one hundred and thirty-two. George Clinton, Thomas Jefferson, and Aaron Burr, were the chief opposing candidates, supported by the Anti-Federalists. In this campaign the two parties became more distinctly out- lined, though both sides united in sup- porting Washington. 1793. Jan. 24. A great celebration took place in Boston, in honor of the proclamation of the French Republic. A banquet was held in Faneuil Hall, at which Samuel Adams presided. The school children paraded the streets. Other cities had similar rejoicings. 1793. Feb. 12. The surrender of fugitives and criminals in whatever State they might be taken, was required accord- ing to an act of congress. This was made to apply to fugitive slaves, though there was trouble afterward in exe- cuting it. 1793. Feb. 22. The celebration of Washington's birthday became the sub- ject of much criticism among those who feared that there would be an attempt to set up a monarchy, with him at the head of it. 1793. March 4. George Washington was inaugurated president, and John Adams vice-president, each for a second term. 1784-1799.] 1793. Aprils. Citizen Genet arrived in the United States as the minister of the French Republic, and began at once to fit out privateers to prey on English commerce, and attempted the raising of supplies and men for the French. He caused great excitement, and even inti- mated, after he found it likely that the United States government would inter- fere with his plans, that he would appeal to the American people. Several occur- rences showed the excitability of a large portion of the citizens of the States. But Genet pursued such an extreme course, and violated so recklessly the laws of America, that he at last alienated the best of his friends, and thus ruined his pros- pects. At a later day he was recalled, at the suggestion of the United States. 1793. Democratic Clubs. A large number of clubs in imitation of the Jaco- bin clubs of Paris were organized in the United States. They even went so far as to advocate the abolition of the title Mr., and the use of the title Citizen, instead. They were violently opposed to the administration. These clubs ex- isted till after the Whisky Rebellion of 1794, and then died, partly because Wash- ington publicly declared them to be the instigators of that evil. This withdrew much sympathy from them, and they disappeared. The French Jacobin clubs died out previously, at the overthrow of Robespierre. 1793. April 22. The famous proc- lamation of neutrality was issued by 1793. Muratas- President Washington, in sassinateJ by i i i rr* 1.1 i charlotte Cor- which he affirmed that the <*y- United States would take 1793. Coalition of . ,1 , , c Europe against P art m the troubles of France. European powers. The French sympathizers at once denounced the government in the grossest terms, THE RISE OF A NATION. 389 claiming that it was unfriendly to repub- lican institutions. The Anti-Federalists were just ready to espouse the cause of France against England. 1793. June 8. American com. merce was crippled by an order from England that all vessels loaded with corn for France, should be stopped, and compelled to go into English ports. 1793. July 23. Roger Sherman, of Connecticut, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died at New Haven, at the age of 72 years. He was born at Newton, Mass., April 19, 1721, and be- came a shoemaker until he was 22 years of age. At that time he and a brother opened a store in New Milford, Conn. He used his private moments for study, and became a fine mathematician. He afterward read law, and was admitted to the bar in 1754. He soon began to rise in influence, and passed from one station to another, till he had been assistant gov- ernor of Connecticut 19 years, judge of common pleas, and of the superior court, 23 years, treasurer of Yale College 10 years. He was a member of the conti- nental congress from 1774 till its expira- tion in 1789, and a member of the na- tional congress from that time till his death. He was mayor of New Haven for 9 years, and served his State and country at several times on important commissions. He was unexcelled for practical wisdom and Christian integrity. 1793. August. English hostility was shown by the failure of the Amei'- ican commissioners to conclude a treaty with the western Indians, which was thought to be owing, to some extent, to the influence of British agents upon them. This was but one of the many difficulties of the time. The impress- ment of seamen was becoming more 390 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES . common. The refusal to surrender west- ern posts, and to pay for slaves taken during the Revolution, was persisted in. In reply England pleaded that the United States had violated the treaty by not paying the debts due British subjects, and acted every way as if the United States were in alliance with France. 1793. Sept. 18. The corner-stone of the old capitol at Washington, D. C., which is now the center of the new capitol, was laid by Washington with a grand Masonic ceremonial, amid a great concourse of people. The plan for the building was drawn by Dr. Thornton. JOHX HANCOCK. 1793. Oct. 8. John Hancock, well known as President Hancock of the con- tinental congress, at the passage of the Declaration of Independence, died at the age of 56 years. "The British ministry can read that without their spectacles ; let them double their reward," was his ex- clamation as he affixed his bold signature to the Declaration, at the head of the list. He was born at Quincy, Mass., Jan. 12, J 737' an< ^ when quite young was given to the care of an affectionate uncle. He graduated from Harvard College in 1754, and took a position in the counting house of his uncle. Such was his evident busi- ness capacity that he was sent to London at the age of 24 years, on a commercial mission. At twenty-six he received by inheritance the property of his uncle, who died one of the most wealthy men of New England. Mr. Hancock became an eminent merchant, and a well known leader in society. In 1766 he was the representative of Boston in the State as- sembly. He delivered the annual oration in 1 7 74, in commemoration of the Boston Massacre, and the same year was elected president of the provincial congress, and a delegate to the continental congress. The following year he was chosen pres- ident of the latter body, in place of Pey- ton Randolph, who had resigned. Mr. Hancock's health began to decline, and in 1777 he resigned his seat in congress. After assisting in framing a new consti- tution for Massachusetts, he was rewarded with the office of chief magistrate, to which he was re-elected, save at one time when he refused it, till his death, John Hancock was a zealous patriot, and greatly assisted public affairs with his large fortune. He was deservedly pop- ular, and discharged all his public duties with ability and accuracy. He and Sam- uel Adams, because of their bold, patriotic sentiments and wide influence, were called " arch rebels " by the British min- istry, who set a price upon their heads. He was thoroughly a strong New Eng- land gentleman, able to obey or preside r with equal ease and dignity, as the case might be. 1793. Nov. 9. " The Centinel of the Northwest Territory" was issued in its first number by William Maxwell, at Cincinnati. It was the first paper north of the Ohio River, and third west of the mountains. 1793. Williams College was founded at Williamstown, Mass. 1793. The law prohibiting stage playing in Massachusetts was repealed. 1793. The yellow fever visited Phil- adelphia during the summer and autumn of this year, and soon spread into other parts of the United States. This was the first malignant disease with which that city had been visited on so extensive a scale. Business was suspended, fam- ilies fled from the city, and by Oct. 20 over 4,000 persons had died. 1784-1799.] 1793. Whitney's Cotton Gin. A cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney, which was patented this year, and passed into successful use. When the matter was first suggested to Mr. Whitney, he had never seen cotton, or cotton seed, but his ingenious mind grasped the problem, and he soon provided a machine which added greatly to the value of the cotton crop, and what was before comparatively worthless, because it could not be readily cleansed, became one of the great staples of America. The production of cotton went up from 487,600^5, in 1793, to 6,276,300 Ibs. in 1796, and increased rap- idly afterward, causing a great increase of slave labor. Mr. Whitney ranks among the great benefactors of the world. The story of Mr. Whitney's success and subsequent trials is like that of many another great inventor. He had graduated from college, and had gone South to teach at Savannah, Ga., where he boarded in the family of Mrs. Gen. Greene. Some one was complaining in her house one day of the difficulty of separating the cotton seeds from the fiber, and wishing for some machine which would do it. Mrs. Greene told him to speak to her young friend, for he could make any- thing. The question was explained to Mr. Whitney, and he soon had solved it in his mind, and hastened in secret to put it into shape. This he did, but without permanent ben- efit to himself. His patents were hin- dered and infringed; his rights in the matter disregarded, and he was left unrewarded. 1793. A mold board for plows, which would turn a furrow without breaking it, was invented by Thomas Jefferson, who had been experimenting THE RISE OF A NATION. 1793. Louis XV I. and Marie An- toinette executed in France. Reign of Terror. 391 on his farm in Virginia. His interest in the subject was great, and he was one of the first in the country to investigate the matter. 1793. First Spanish Merinoes. Three full-blooded Spanish Merino sheep were imported from Cadiz by William Foster, of Boston. He gave them to a friend of his, named Andrew Cragie, who killed and ate them. The same kind of sheep were bought by Mr. Cragie afterward at $1,000 a head. Within ten years others were imported, and they soon became highly esteemed. 1794. Jan. 1. A national abolition convention was held at Philadelphia, composed of delegates from all the abo- lition societies in the country. It pre- sented a memorial to congress praying for the suppression of the slave trade. 1794. March 26. Congress voted an embargo on American ports for thirty days, and afterward added thirty more, in order to stop the British in the West Indies from securing provisions. This was in return for a British " Order in Council" authorizing the seizure of any vessel laden with supplies for the French colonies. 1794. March 27. The United States Navy. A vote of congress authorized the construction of six frigates. This was the immediate outcome of the Alge- rine troubles. No one of them was to carry less than thirty-two guns, and the building of them was not to proceed, if peace should be proclaimed. 1794. April 16. Mission to England. Chief-Justice Jay was nominated by Washington as Envoy Extraordinary to England, to arrange the difficulties be- tween the two nations. In spite of the opposition of the Democrats, the appoint- ment was confirmed, and he sailed foi 392 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. England. This was one of the great party contests in congress. 1794. May 9. United States Coast Defenses. Congress established a corps of artillerists and engineers, to have charge of the work of constructing coast defenses. Gentlemen of foreign birth, skilled in engineering, were to be ap- pointed in charge. By the year 1812 our coast fortifications were very strong. 1794. June 17. The anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill was celebrated for the first time, and by the Charles- town artillery. The day was observed with parades by military organizations, and an oration was pronounced. RICHARD HEXRY LEE. 1794. June 19. Richard Henry Lee, one of the most illustrious of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, died at Chantilly, Westmoreland Co., Va., at the age of sixty-two years. He was born at Stratford, in the same county, Jan. 20, 1732, being just one month older than Washington, who was a native of the same county. Mr. Lee became one of the foremost statesmen, orators, pa- triots, of the revolutionary period. He was finely educated, both in this country and in England. His attainments as a scholar were very extensive and accurate. Lee, when young, formed an aversion for the British cause, from the manner in which Braddock refused the aid of a vol- unteer company which he had raised and offered for service during the campaign. The young men remembered their disap- pointment. The governor of Virginia appointed Mr. Lee a justice of the peace in 1757, and when he was only twenty-five years of age he was elected to the House of Burgesses, where his thoughtfulness and eloquence anointed him a leader in the affairs of state. When the Stamp Act was passed, he, without due consid- eration, applied for the post of collector, but before he was appointed he saw, upon reflection, the inconsistency of his act, and came out boldly against the measure. He always cherished the idea of independence, and was one of the fore- most patriots in his patriotic State. Lee first conceived the idea of a general con- vention, in which all the colonies should be represented, as a means of protection and harmony. This grew into the con- tinental congress, to which he was elected in 1774. He sei'ved on most of the im- portant committees, usually as chairman. His literary acquirements and parliamen- tary knowledge, fitted him for that place. In June, 1776, he offered the resolu- tions which have made his name to be indissolubly connected with American independence. He was, however, called home by sickness, and could not serve on the committee which drafted the Decla- ration. In 1783 he was elected president of the continental congress. In the con- test over the constitution he sympathized deeply with the rights of the individual States, and feared centralized power. But he afterward supported it with all his might, and was the first senator from Virginia under the new government. This office he held till age compelled him to retire from public life. He was greatly beloved by all that knew him, even his enemies, and his death was deeply felt by the nation he had done so much to found, and had served so faithfully. 1794. July 10. Amnesty. President Washington issued a proclamation grant- ing full pardon to persons engaged in the Whisky Insurrection, which was now causing great agitation, with the excep- 1784-1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 393 tion of those who had committed certain offenses. 1794. July 16. Whisky Insurrection. The opposition which had existed in the valley of the Monongahela, Penn.,to the tax laid by congress upon distilled spirits in 1 79 1, now took the form of an armed rebellion. The officers of the law were fired upon, and a vast force of men be- gan to talk of marching on Pittsburg to take the U. S. arsenal and fort. The numbers at last rose to nearly 16,000, and "all western Pennsylvania was in a blaze." The president had already issued a proclamation for the preservation of peace. But collectors of taxes had been maltreated in many ways, and their lives endangered. The trouble grew worse. The insurgents insisted that it was not just for a very small part of the country to pay a tax on something not produced elsewhere. Their excessive crops of grain could not be disposed of, save to the distillers, hence the trouble. At last Washington issued a call for troops, and raised a large force from several states. When the leaders of the rebellion found that an army was coming against them, they made terms of peace, and the mat- ter was settled without bloodshed. A great deal of political excitement attended the growth and culmination of this affair. The management of it served as a test of the new constitution, and the result was every way favorable. 1794. Aug. 20. Wayne's Victory. A great battle was fought between Gen. Anthony Wayne, " Mad Anthony," who had pushed into the Indian country with a force of about 2,000 men, and ' Little Turtle " at the head of his Indian follow- ers, on the Maumee River, Ohio. The Indians were completely routed by the energy of Gen. Wayne, and never re- covered from this defeat. Their loss was never known. The American loss was 139, killed and wounded. Canadian auxiliaries assisted the savages, and the action was fought near a British fortified post in the Northwest Territory. A sharp correspondence ensued between Gen. Wayne and the commander of the post. Gen. Wayne destroyed Indian villages and supplies in the neighborhood. 1794. Nov. 19. Jay's Treaty. A treaty of commerce and navigation with Great Britain, was signed by John Jay, for the United States. This treaty was rendered necessary by the complaints of the British concerning the loss of the property of loyalists in the American Revolution, and by Americans concern- ing the loss of slaves at the close of the same w ; ar, and other alleged violations of the treaty of 1783. The treaty did not reach America until March, when it was secretly discussed in the senate until one of the members gave it to the public, by whom it was received with indignation, because it did not provide for stopping impressments. So much excitement pre- vailed among the anti-federalists, that the president was assailed, and even threatened, if he signed it, but he did sign it, however, believing it to be better than no treaty. The final effects showed the wisdom of his course. BARON STEUBEN. 1794. Nov. 28. Frederick William Augustus Steuben, baron, eminent in service to the American cause at a time when it needed help from such as he, died near Utica, N. Y., at the age of sixty-four years. Deep a-ffection from every true American is his due, for the order and skill to which he brought the American forces in their great exigency. 394 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. Like many other foreigners, he left home, wealth, honor, for the privilege of fight- ing for the Ameriean cause. He was born at Magdeburg, Prussia, Nov. 15, 1730, and received a good education. He entered the military service, and soon rose to a position near the person of the king, the great Frederic William. He ranked high in the military and court circles of Europe, because of the reputa- tion he had gathered in the seven years' war. He was not obliged to leave his country, but came voluntarily, and upon arrival offered his service to congress. He was placed with the army at Valley Forge, and at once began to introduce the Prussian drill, by adapting it to the American troops. In the brilliant cam- paigns which followed, his influence was marked. He wrote a book on military science in French, at the solicitation of Washington and congress. He could not use the English language. It was translated, and was the only book of the kind accessible to American officers dur- ing the Revolution. He ultimately be- came a major-general. His service can never be over-estimated. He was a fer- vent Christian, but was possessed of a quick temper, which would manifest itself when he undertook to deal with raw troops. He, however, gained the affection of the soldiers, and would often reward the apt scholars out of his own pocket. His life was full of noble and gen- erous acts. His fortune dwindled away through his kindness. He was voted, in 1790, by congress, an annuity of $2,500 a year, for life. He received land from several States, among the rest 16,000 acres from New York. He retired to a log house upon the latter, and freely settled some of his old army companions upon portions of it, which he presented to them. His last years were spent in com- parative quiet. 1794. Dec. 2. The first monument in commemoration of the " Battle of Bunker Hill," was dedicated by the King Solomon Lodge of Free Masons, who had erected it. It was a plain wooden pillar on a brick pedestal, twenty-eight feet high, and stood upon the spot where Warren fell. Its cost was $1,000. In 1825 it was presented to the Bunker Hill Monument Association. 1794. Bowdoin College was char- tered at Brunswick, Maine, and named in honor of Gov. James Bowdoin, of Massachusetts, who befriended it, and at his death gave it a gallery of paintings, which, until quite recently, has been the finest in the country. 1794. An alleged fugitive slave was arrested in Boston, and brought before the court. Josiah Quincy was defending him, when a bustle took place, and the colored man passed out in the confusion, and escaped. The master of the slave threatened to sue Mr. Quincy for ob- structing his agent, but failed to do so. 1794. Swedenborgian churches were first formed in America by the Rev. Wil- liam Hill, from England. 1794. First Cotton Sewing Thread. Cotton was first used in the manufacture of sewing thread at Pawtucket, R. L, by Samuel Slater. Flax had always been used everywhere, but as Mrs. Slater was spinning cotton, she noticed the fineness of the fiber, and at once conceived that it would make smooth thread. The idea was immediately put into successful use.. 1794. A steamboat with a stern wheel was built by Samuel Morey, of Connecticut, who navigated it from Hart- ford to New York city. 1784-1799.] 1794. Wood engraving was intro- duced into the United States by Alexander Anderson, who, until his death in 1870, was known as an engraver. He made the first pictures with which Webster's Spelling Book was embellished. 1794. The Stars and Stripes. It was voted by congress that the United States flag should consist of fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and fifteen stars, white on a blue field. A star and a stripe were to be added for each new State. It remained thus until 1818, when the present arrangement was finally adopted. FRANCIS MARIOX. 1795. Feb. 28. Gen. Francis Marion, a well-known revolutionary leader of the South, died near Eutaw, S. C., at the age of 63 years. He was born near George- town, S. C., in 1732, the year that gave birth to Washington and R. H. Lee. Partisan warfare was an essential feature of the Revolution, and to it was due the fact that the British could get no enduring foothold south of the Potomac River. Francis Marion was one of the select partisan leaders. His boyhood, except a few months when he was at sea, was spent on a farm. He had little educa- tion, but an abundant supply of common sense. In the French and Indian war he served as a private soldier in his brother's command. When the Revolu- tion broke out he was appointed captain of a company. At Fort Moultrie he fired the last cannon, killing two young officers and three sailors on one of the departing ships. At Savannah he ex- hibited his bravery, but at Charleston an accident befell him, and he returned home. After his recovery he raised a company of volunteers, and joined Gates. He afterward began his celebrated for- THE RISE OF A NATION. 395 ages, and unexpected assaults, which con- tinued in rapid succession, when and where the enemy least expected them. He formed his famous brigade, each member of which was to provide his horse, and armed them with swords made out of saw blades from the saw- mills. His secret,sudden, dashing attacks came to be dreaded by the British. At Butler's Neck he struck a large band of tories like a thunderbolt. This was his way, and usually his men carried greater numbers than their own before them. In his brigade were five brothers named James, the eldest of whom chased Major Gainey, a tory leader, over half a mile, and then found himself alone in the midst of a company of the Major's friends gathering to his aid. But James dashed upon them, shouting, " Come on, boys, here they are !" and the whole com- pany broke and fled, thinking themselves surrounded' by patriots. Everywhere Marion went he left his mark upon the exasperated British and tories, who were not free from his attack at any time of day or night. Tarleton, with a superior force, was ordered by Cornwallis to de- stroy " Mr. Marion's band at all hazards," but after having chased them a long dis- tance, and having received several blows in retaliation, he ordered his men to return, saying that they could find the "game cock," Gen. Sumter but that the evil one himself could not catch the " swamp fox," Gen. Marion. When peace was made he was offered, but did not accept, the command of Fort Johnson in Charles- ton harbor. He was now fifty years old, and was at last conquered by a rich Huguenot lady, whom he married. They lived happily upon his desolated farm at Pond Bluff. He occasionally took part in legislative affairs. His life was com- 396 RE VOL UTIONART STRUGGLES. paratively quiet until he died, leaving no children to bear his name. 1795. July 22. Spanish Hay ti was ceded to France according to the terms of the treaty of Basel. 1795. Aug. 3. Wayne's Treaty. A treaty was arranged with the western Indians by Gen. Wayne, at Greenville, 1795. Litiwg- Ohio, which closed the In- rapky in-vented. di an war, and opened the 1795. Extinction _ T _ of Poland as a great Northwest Territory kingdom. to the incoming settlers. The council lasted several weeks. About 1,130 Indians from different tribes were present, and gave up British influence, professing to wish for peace. This hast- ened the execution of the treaty of 1793 by England. Wayne told the Indians that if they ever violated the treaty, he would rise from his grave to fight them. " Big Wind," as they called him, to- gether with his threat, was long remem- bered by them. 1795. August. The famous intrigue between Randolph, Secretary of State, and the French minister Fauchet, became known to the president. It was entirely political, and came out during the. at- tempt to secure the ratifications of Jay's treaty. 1795. Sept. 5. Treaty with Algiers. A treaty was concluded with the Dey of Algiers, by which the United States were made to pay $800,000 for captives then alive, give the Dey a frigate worth $100,000, and an annual tribute of $23,000 in maritime stores, all of which was to insure peace in the future. Under this treaty the building of the six frigates was at once suspended, until con- gress provided for the completion of them, when the work went on. The historic trio which formed the first really effective American navy was the United States, Constitution, and Constellation. 1795. Oct. 20. A treaty with Spain was concluded, which fixed the boundaries between the United States and Florida, and opened the Mississippi to the navigation of either party. 1795. October. A malignant attack was made through the press upon Pres- ident Washington, stating that he had overdrawn his salary, etc., but the Secre- tary of the Treasury, and Alexander Hamilton, proved the falsity of the charge. 1795. The "establishment of com- mon schools throughout the State " was recommended by Gov. Clinton, of New York, in his message to the legislature. $50,000 were accordingly set aside, and for a time the matter was earnestly car- ried out, but in a few years it practically failed. 1795. Union College was founded at Schenectady, N. Y. 1795. The earliest scientific school in the United States was " The Agricul- tural and Mechanical College of the University of North Carolina," which was opened for instruction in mining, civil engineering, and kindred lines of study. 1795. Yazoo Fraud. A great ex- citement was produced in Georgia over the sale, by the legislature, of the west- ern lands belonging to that State. After much political controversy the sales were obliterated from the State records. But in the United Sta^s courts the claims of the buyers were afterward declared good. The matter ran through several years, and is known in history as the Yazoo Fraud. 1795. The first manufactory of mus- kets in the United States was established at Springfield, Mass. WASHINGTON'S GRAVE. 397 1784-1799.] THE RISE 1795. The "Maxwell Code." The first job printing done in the Northwest Territory was the Maxwell code, a body of laws adopted for the government of the province, by the governor and judges of the Territory. They were printed by William Maxwell, who had set up a printing office at Cincinnati, the first one northwest of the Ohio. Maxwell had established a newspaper in 1793- 1795. A revolt of the Maroons in Jamaica, W. I., took place, but was sup- pressed in a shoi't time. The Maroons were fugitive slaves, who had congre- gated in the northern part of the island. The English government sent to Cuba for " chasseurs," who made it a business to hunt fugitives with trained dogs. Each chasseur led three dogs, trained to stop a fugitive by barking at him and crouching by him until he could be seized. These men would sometimes follow fu- gitives for weeks. No one could escape them. The Maroons of Jamaica grad- ually surrendered in small numbers. Within a year quite a large number were transported to Halifax, where they helped fortify the city, and built the Maroon bastion. Others at a later day were sent to Africa. 1795. Revolutionary efforts were made in Colombia, S. A., without much success. 1796. June 1. Tennessee was the sixteenth State to be admitted to the Union. It has an area of 45,600 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 1,242,- 463 persons. Its motto is "Agriculture, Commerce." It is called the " Big Bend State." 1796. Sept. 17. Farewell Address. Washington issued his "Farewell Ad- dress " to the American people. It was his last direct utterance to his fellow- OF A NATION. 399 countrymen, and was full of practical wisdom, and rich with patriotism. It reviewed his own labors, and warned against the dangers to which the country was liable. It showed that he was an eminent lover of his country, and truly entitled to the name " Father of His Country." 1796. Dec. 7. Washington made his closing address to congress, briefly reviewing the situation of the country. ANTHONY W&JNE. 1796. Dec. 14. Gen. Anthony Wayne, known as " Mad Anthony," died at Presque Isle, now Erie, Penn., at the age of fifty-one years. He was born in Chester Co., Penn., Jan. i, 1745. He was sent to school at home, and then to* the Philadelphia academy, where he be- came specially proficient in mathematics. When he was twenty years old he opened a surveyor's office, and was sent to Nova Scotia to locate some land for the crown. The business was discharged so faithfully that he was made superin- tendent of the settlement, and remained there about two years. He then returned home, and began business again. In 1773 he was elected to the Assembly. When he saw the storm brewing in 1775, he left the general discussion to politicians, and raising a volunteer corps, began to drill them. At the beginning of the war he was appointed a colonel, and sent to Canada. After the failure of the attack on Three Rivers, he was with the army in its retreat to Ticonderoga. He saw that the peril and glory of the war were to be with Washington, and thirsting for these, at his own request he was joined to Washington's army, and was made brigadier. At the battles of Germantown, Brandywine and Mon- 400 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. mouth, he showed that headlong spirit and presence of mind which never for- sook him. When asked by Washington if he would storm the almost impregna- ble Stony Point, on the Hudson, his reply, though profane, indicated a fearless heart, and a touching reverence for his commander. When peace was declared, Georgia gave him a handsome farm, but he returned to his old home. In 1793, after two unsuccessful attempts by Har- mar and St. Clair to subdue western Indians, Washington appointed Gen. Wayne commander-in-chief. The Indi- ans said " The white men have a leader who never sleeps." In battle he routed them completely, and then made peace with them. Upon his return he was re- ceived with great honor at Philadelphia. He died while returning from the North- west Territory. He was an eminently useful man to his country. 1796. French Depredations. During this year French cruisei's began to prey upon American commerce, under a secret order from the French Directory, which was embittered because of the neutral position assumed by the United States in the war between France and England. The " Mount Vernon," owned by an American citizen, was seized at the capes of the Delaware by the " Flying Fish," a French privateer which had been lying at Philadelphia. The French minister refused to give any explanation of the affair. 1796. Western Military Posts. The British surrendered their posts at Detroit, Niagara, Michillimackinac, and other 1796-1815. Wars places, including the rapids t^ a ^ n L of the Maumee. This was 275y-2 tab* Robert Bums, in accordance with Mr. Jay's treaty in 1 793, but their action was hurried by the great victory of Wayne over the Indians the previous year. 1796. Indian Slavery. When Detroit and other places occupied by the Cana- dian French were turned over to the United States, numbers of Pawnee slaves were found in use as domestic servants and laborers. It seems that the Pawnees, who were thought by other tribes to be inferior, had been sold to the French when taken captives in war, and not only remained enslaved, but their children after them also. At the time of the sur- render of Detroit, the inhabitants boasted of the efficiency of their servants. The Pawnees had become superior household servants. . 1796. The first machine for cutting a nail and making a head upon it at the same time, was patented this year by Isaac Garrettson, of Pennsylvania. Form- erly the head had been made by hand with a hammer, while the nail, after being cut, was grasped in a vise. 1796. The First Propeller. A little steamboat was run by a wheel under the water at the stern of the boat, on Collect Pond, in New York city. It was made by John Fitch, and had for a boiler a twelve gallon pot with a plank top, fastened down by an iron bar and clamps. This was John Fitch's last attempt. He was discouraged in trying to make a complete success of steam navigation, and was involved in numerous lawsuits over lands which he held in Kentucky. During a fit of depression he took some opium pills and ended his life. 1796. Dutch Guiana, S. A., was oc- cupied by the English. THIRD PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1796. The third presidential campaign was the first well-defined party contest 1784^1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 401 in the United States. Near the close of this year electors were chosen by the several legislatures. There was, as yet, no popular presidential election by the people. Nominations were not as yet made by any party assemblies. The federalists supported by common con- sent, John Adams of Massachusetts, for president, and < Thomas Pinckney of Maryland, for vice-president. The dem- ocrat-republicans supported Thomas Jef- ferson of Virginia, for president, and Col. Aaron Burr of New York, for vice-pres- ident. The French minister to the United States attempted to influence the election by issuing an " Address to the American People," in which he inti- mated that if the result should be adverse to the democrat-republicans the French government would break off their con- nection with the United States. The election was comparatively close, and the result was divided. Of the electoral votes John Adams had 71, and Thomas Pinckney 59. Thomas Jefferson had 68, and Aaron Burr 30. A few scattering votes were thrown. The votes, accord- ing to the constitution, made John Adams, federalist, president, and Thomas Jeffer- son, democrat-republican, vice-president, as having the next highest number. 1797. February. French Indignities. C. C. Pinckney of South Carolina, who had been appointed minister to France, and who, upon his arrival late in 1796, had been refused recognition, was or- dered to leave France, and withdrew to Holland. The French government was greatly offended by the treaty of Jay. 1797. March 4. John Adams was inaugurated president, and Thomas Jef- ferson vice-president. 1797. May. The French government, n excited by the election of Adams, au- thorized the capture of American vessels, and declared that an American sailor found on a hostile ship, even if placed there unwillingly, should be hung. American sailors were subject to impress- ment by England, and execution by France. 1797. October. The X. Y. Z. Mission. An American mission was appointed to go to France and negotiate for peace. It was composed of Charles C. Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry. They proceeded to France, but were re- fused reception by the government, unless large sums of money were first paid to the French officers. It was then that Pinckney made his famous reply, " Mil- lions for defence, but not one cent for tribute." The envoys were badly treated, and finally returned home without effect- ing any result. The name of the mis- sion in history has come from the fact that the suggestions concerning bribes to be paid to the French, were made in letters written over the signature X. Y. Z. These letters were afterward ob- tained by England, and published through Europe. 1797. War preparations were un- dertaken by congress, who provided for 80,000 militia, ordered a small naval force to be prepared, and passed strict acts against privateering, under a threat- ened penalty of $10,000, and ten years' imprisonment. 1797. Middlebury College was found- ed at Middlebury, Vermont. 1797. Frederick College was founded at Frederick, Maryland. 1797. The first medical journal in the United States, was issued in New York. Dr. Rush and others had written much through the press before. 402 RE VOL UTION-AR T STR UGGLES. 1797. The first steam locomotive in America, and probably in the world, was invented this year by A. Kinsley, and ran upon the streets of Hartford, Conn. 1797. A cast-iron plow was invented by Charles Newbold of Burlington, N. J., who laid out about $30,000 in perfect- ing it. The report spread among the farmers, however, that the cast-iron plow i729-ny7. "poisoned the soil, ruined Edmund Burke, fae crops, and promoted the growth of rocks." Hence the manu- facture of them ceased. There were other patents on different plans within a few years, but of no great importance, until 1819. 1797. The yellow fever raged along the Atlantic coast of the United States. 1797. The island of Trinidad, which had been taken from the Spanish by the French in 1676, and shortly restored, was taken by the English, in whose posses- sion it has since remained. 1797. A conspiracy for revolutioniz- ing the province of Caraccas, S. A., was discovered among the Creoles, and thwarted for a time. One of the leaders was executed two years afterward, and became one of the first martyrs of liberty in Colombia. Caraccas has been called the " cradle of South American liberty." 1798. Jan. 8. The Eleventh Amend- ment to the constitution was declared in force, making it impossible for a suit to be brought against a state in the United States court, and enabling states to re- pudiate debts. 1798. April 30. The Department of the Navy in the United States was created by act of congress, and Benjamin Stoddert of Maryland, was appointed to fill the office of Secretary. The navy had been previously in the War De- partment. 1798. May 28. A provisional army was voted to be raised by congress. This act enabled the president to enlist ten thousand men for three years, in case of war. 1798. July 2. Commander-in- chief. The president nominated Wash- ington Lieut.-General in command of all the armies of the United States, and he was unanimously confirmed the next day. By Washington's request, Alexander Hamilton was appointed major-general. 1798. July 10. The inhabitants of British Honduras, a colony in Central America, successfully repulsed the attack of a Spanish fleet and land force of 2,000 men, since which it has remained undisturbed in the possession of England. 1798. July. " Alien and Sedition " laws were passed by congress, the former making it possible for the president to arrest any foreigner, and send him out of the country; and the latter subjecting to a heavy fine and imprisonment any who might be found aiding or abetting any resistance to the government of the United States. These were at once, and for a long time, extremely unpopular with the anti-federalists, and much scorn was heaped upon the administration. These two laws were the .secret of the after defeat of the federalists, and in fact, the death of the party; for the democrat- republicans thought that they violated the first amendment, which prohibited any abridgement of the freedom of speech or press. 1798. " Hail Columbia," the national ode of the American people, was written during the summer by Joseph Hopkinson of Philadelphia. A young actor named Fox, was to have a benefit in that city. Two days before its occurrence he was in company with Mr. Hopkinson, whom 1784-1799.] he had known in his school days, and said that if he could have a patriotic ode adapted to the tune of the " President's March " he would sing it on his benefit night. Mr. Hopkinson asked him to call the next day, and when he came, gave him the ode, which has since become so truly national in its reputation. 1798. Nov. 10. The celebrated Kentucky Resolutions were drawn up by Jefferson, declaring that the States and the Federal government were two parties to a contract, either of which might judge of infractions. 1798. Nov. 20. French privateers took the American frigate Retaliation, under Lieut. Bainbridge, and carried her to Guadeloupe, W. I. 1798. Dec. 24. The Virginia Res- olutions were a series drawn up by 1798. Battu of Madison, and adopted by the Nile. Nei- the Virginia legislature, de- interpose to prevent unconstitutional United States authority, and that the " Alien and Sedition " laws were usur- pations. Copies were sent to the other states, but were not favorably received. The next year, however, Virginia passed similar resolutions. 1798. Impressment. Some Amer- ican sailors were impressed by a British squadron off Havana, Cuba. The affair caused much excitement, and began that long agitation which finally resulted in the war of 1812, between Great Britain and the United States. 1798. The first regular mining shaft in Missouri was sunk by Moses Austin of Virginia. A furnace and shot tower were also built. 1798. The first effective steam en- gine, after those made by Fitch, was constructed by Nicholas Rooseveldt, who THE RISE OF A NATION. 403 made experiments in steam navigation near New York. 1798. A bonnet of oat straw was made by Betsey Metcalf, of Dedham, Mass., a girl twelve years old. It ac- quired such a reputation through the re- gion that many ladies came to see and learn the art of. making. She smoothed the straw with scissors, split it with her thumb nail, and bleached it by holding in the fumes of burning sulphur. The bonnet was made of seven open-work braids, and proved the foundation of a business in that vicinity. 1798. The volcano of Izalco, thirty- six miles from San Salvador, originated by the bursting of lava through a fissure in the earth, and the rapid accumulation of stones and debris of all kinds. There has since been an almost constant erup- tion at that point, and^the cone has been built up till it is 6,000 feet above sea level. This and Jorullo in Mexico are the only volcanoes known to have been opened within the memory of man. 1798. A plan to revolutionize the Spanish American provinces, was ar- ranged by Francis Miranda, a native of Venezuela, S. A., who hoped and tried to obtain aid from England and the United States. The scheme was frus- trated by the renewal of friendly relations between Spain and America. 1799. Feb. 4. The first general assembly of the Northwest Territory met at Cincinnati. W. H. Harrison was elected the first Representative to con- gress. A bill was passed forbidding the sale of whisky to the Indian villages of the territory, because of the great harm it was doing. The measure originated with the missionaries of the United Brethren. 1799. Feb. 9. Naval Victory. The 24 404 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES . French frigate, L'Insurgente, with 44 guns and 409 men, was captured among the West Indies by the American frigate Constellation, with 36 guns, under Com- modore Truxton. The French loss was 66, killed and wounded ; the American, i killed, and 3 wounded. Silver plate worth $3,000 was given to Truxton as a reward for this achievement. 1799. April. The gradual abolition of slavery within New York was pro- vided for in a bill passed by the legisla- ture of that State. Male children were to be free at twenty-eight years of age, females at twenty-five. PATRICK HENRY. 1799. June 6. Patrick Henry, whose eloquence when he was aroused, burned like a flame, died at Red Hill, Charlotte Co., Va., at the age of 63 years. He was the son of a Scotchman who settled in Virginia, where Patrick was born May 29, 1736. His boyhood was passed in varied ways, but he finally grew to be so fond of hunting and fishing that he would break away at any moment to go upon an expedition. He seems to have been somewhat shiftless in his young manhood. But at last, when twenty-four years old, he began to see that something must be done, or his family would starve to death. After six weeks' diligent study of the law he was admitted to the bar, on condition that he would pursue the study further before attempting to prac- tice. But no one would employ him. He was nothing but a lazy pettifogger. In 1763 he was employed in the case of the parsons against the state, in the ques- tion of the state tax on tobacco. The case had virtually gone against him, when he arose. He began in a faltering and apparently broken manner. The persons who sympathized with his side were giv- ing up in dismay, when a sudden trans- formation took place in the speaker, who now began to throw his masterly power over the whole assembly. Silence waited upon his words. The people were breathless with intense passion. He won his cause. He now was the celebrated man of the region. In 1765 he was elected to the Virginia House of Bur- gesses, where he spoke with overpower- ing effect on the great questions at issue between Parliament and the colonies. He foretold that the differences would have to be settled with the sword, and in 1775 he ended his greatest speech in the assembly with the fiery words, "As for me, give me liberty, or give me death!" He was elected the first republican gov- ernor of Virginia, and was again put in the same place, after peace had been de- clared. Washington appointed him sec- retary of state in 1795, but he refused to accept. A short time before his death he was appointed envoy to France by Pres- ident Adams, but his feeble health would not permit him to make the journey. He was bitterly opposed to the federal consti- tution, being an earnest advocate of state rights. He was ungainly in his personal appearance to a casual observer, but when aroused, his whole form changed its bear- ing, and he seemed to dilate with a spirit of power. He is to be remembered as the most remarkable orator of his time. 1799. July 16. Alexander von Humboldt, the great European scientist, arrived at Cumana, Venezuela, for the purpose of exploring the Spanish posses- sions in America. Everything in the New World which would aid him in his undertaking had been put at his dis- posal by the Spanish government. 1784-1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 405 1799. November. An embassy to arrange the impending difficulties with France, was appointed by John Adams, president of the United States. Oliver Ellsworth and William R. Davis sailed under orders to join William Vance Murray, American minister at the Hague, for this service. This commission was in opposition to the federalist wishes, and 1799. Travels in cost John Adams, who sent Africa by Mun- -^ Q ^ wit hout CVCn COllSUlt- go Park, pub- lished, ing his cabinet, the sup- port of his party. The trouble was further increased by an alienation be- tween Adams and Hamilton. 1799. Nov. 14. Nullification. Ken- tucky passed, resolutions declaring that a state may nullify and declare void any act of congress which it thinks unconsti- tutional. This, with the resolutions of 1798, were quoted in 1832 and 1860. GEORGE WASHINGTON. 1799. Dec. 14. George Washington, Commander-in-chief of the American forces during the Revolutionary War, and first president of the United States, died at Mt. Vernon, after a very brief illness. He was born Feb. 22, 1732, upon his father's estate on the bank of the Poto- mac, in Westmoreland Co., Va. His father died when George was but eleven years old, leaving him to the care of his mother, who was a wise, capable woman. As there was no advanced school near the estate in Stafford County, to which his father had gone soon after George's birth, and as he was deprived of his father's help, he was sent to his birthplace to live with his half-brother, Augustine, where there was a good school. He gave the most of his attention to such studies as would fit him for business, and was not at all acquainted with the languages, nor with rhetoric and belles-lettres. Many of his vacations were spent at Mt. Ver- non with his older half-brother Lawrence, between whom and himself had sprung up a strong attachment, and who seemed in part to supply a father's place. On these visits he became acquainted with Hon. William Fairfax, the father of Lawrence's wife, whose estate joined Mt. Vernon. When George was fourteen years old, his brother and Mr. Fairfax procured for him a place in the navy, but at the last moment this was given up on account of the final unwillingness of his mother. He therefore continued in school two years longer, making mathe- matics a specialty, and became thor- oughly acquainted with the principles of geometry, trigonometry, and practical surveying. At the end of this time, while on a visit to his brother at Mt. Vernon, Lord Fairfax, cousin of William, learning his knowledge of surveying, and his interest in it, procured his services in surveying a large tract of lanjd which he had purchased beyond the Blue Ridge. This was undertaken and carried through by Washington with so much acceptance, that he was made public surveyor, in which office he continued three years. It was about this time that French and Indian hostilities began to break out on the frontier. Washington was put in command of a company of militia; but was interrupted in his labors by the ill health of his brother, which made it necessary for him to seek a warmer cli- mate. Washington accompanied him and remained until midwinter. Law- rence remained six months longer, but not finding his health improved, at length hastened home, as he said, to die. He died July 26, 1752, leaving a wife and 406 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. infant daughter, to whom was left Mt. Vernon, which, in case of her death, fell to Washington. In October of the next year, Wash- ington set out on the perilous undertaking of carrying a message to the French commandant on the Ohio. In the exe- cution of this he showed so much pru- dence, especially in dealing with the crafty French and Indians, that he re- ceived the high- est commenda- tions from the Virginia legisla- ture. On the journey he noted the fine position for a fort at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers, and hav- ing collected forces, set out in the following spring to, put plans in opera- tion for con- structing it, but learned that the French had an- ticipated him, and had erected Fort DuQuesne. ing the months that followed, Wash- ington was learning valuable lessons in frontier warfare, and, though finally obliged to surrender his forces to the French, obtained honorable terms, and did not lose his reputation for prudence. In the latter part of the year he resigned his position, and after a short visit to his mother, returned to Mt. Vernon. He did not remain long, however; when Gen. Braddock was sent out the next GEORGE WASHINGTON. Dur- year from England to reduce Fort DuQuesne, Washington went with him as aid-de-camp. Had Braddock not been too proud to listen to the advice of his aid-de-camp, his expedition might not have ended so disastrously. In the ter- rible battle which terminated the unfort- unate expedition, Washington conducted himself with great coolness and courage. Two horses were shot under him, and four bullets passed through his coat. An In- dian sharpshoot- er .said that he was not born to be killed by a bullet, for he had taken direct aim at him seventeen times, and failed to hit him. After Brad- dock's defeat the command of the forces on the frontier was again placed in Washington's hands. During the next foul years, until neat the close of the French and Indian wai; he had a chance to become acquainted with all the horrors of frontier life and Indian warfare. Washington was married Jan. 6, i759> to Mi-s. Martha Custis, whom he had met the previous year; and spent the next fifteen years, for the most part, at Mt. Vernon, while occupying at the same time a seat in the Virginia House of Burgesses. The passage of the Stamp Act occa- 1784-1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 407 sioned him great concern, and he consid- ered all instrumental in its repeal " entitled to the thanks of every British subject." Later he approved discontinu- ing the use of taxed articles, and brought forward in the House of Burgesses, reso- lutions to that effect. He took an active part in the calling together of the first General Congress, and in the proceedings of that body. On the actual breaking out of hostil- ities, Washington was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the Continental forces, and his conduct of the war demonstrated the wisdom of the choice. Great Britain was not the most formidable foe with which he had to contend; his greatest victories, we may say, were in his own camp. It required a more than ordinary will to keep together an army situated as were the men who composed that army, sufficiently large to repel attacks from the foe. It required more than ordinary patience to see troops leaving him as soon as their terms of enlistment had expii'ed, whatever might be the cir- cumstances of the army. It required more than ordinary watchfulness to keep the real condition of the army from the enemy, making it necessary that it should also be kept from friends. It required more than ordinary courage to bear pa- tiently the censures arising from this course, and to follow the policy which he knew to be the only safe one for his country. It required more than ordinary wisdom to allow just enough skirmishing to keep the troops contented, and to select that which would be most effective. He was obliged also to make repeated ap- peals to congress for the food and cloth- ing necessary to alleviate the real distress of the army, and for new methods of enlistment, by which, with better pros- pects in respect to pay, men might be induced to enlist for longer periods. Perhaps Washington's sound judg- ment is in no way better shown than in his method of quelling rebellions in camp. He looked at both sides of these as of other things; could see reasons for the apprehensions of the troops in regard to their pay, and their real need of supplies, and endeavored to get their wrongs righted; while at the same time he was prompt to quell the disturbance before it should become a general mutiny. But Washington's care for the troops ex- tended further than simply to bodily needs. He well knew the tendency of an army to looseness of morals, and exercised an almost paternal care over the soldiers in this respect. He discouraged foraging, allowing it only when supplies could be obtained in no other way, much regretting the necessity. He enjoined upon the troops a careful observance of the Sabbath, and checked profanity and every vice, so far as lay in his power. While retaining the confidence of the troops and of the mass of the people, he was not altogether free from plots against his character and reputation. The^e he heeded as little as possible, and when an opportunity presented itself to do the well-known instigators a kindness, did not fail to do it in the kindest possible manner. In his treatment of prisoners of war he was ever disposed to be humane, resorted to severity only as a measure of 1 retaliation, and was glad to change the treatment, when the need no longer existed. No one hailed the return of peace and the prospect of rest from public labors, with greater joy than Washington; yet it was not without much sorrow that he took his final leave of the soldiers and 408 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGL ES. those officers who had for so long a time been his companions and advisers in mil- itary affairs. The same regularity which had char- acterized his military life, followed him to his home; rising early, he partook of a simple breakfast, and then mounting his horse, rode to different parts of his estate ; dinner was served at two, and tea early in the evening, after which he wrote, or spent his time socially until nine, which was his time for retiring. During the years just preceding the adoption of the constitution, Washington became very much interested in the opening of water communication be- tween the Potomac and Ohio Rivers, feeling that it was necessary in order to the continuance of unity of feeling be- tween the territory bordering on the Mississippi and the Atlantic States. In his presidential career Washington was subject to the peculiar trials incident- al to a new government ; trials from lack of confidence on the part of other gov- ernments; trials from lack of harmony between the different sections of our own government; trials from the impoverished state of the country, owing to the war, and want of credit; trials from the be- ginnings of party strife. He, himself, was no partisan. His clear judgment could discern the golden mean; and while perhaps this alone kept our govern- ment from sinking at its very outset, it left him exposed to attacks from both sides, which were often bitter, and ex- tremely annoying. In his choice of cabinet officers he looked about for those men who, in his judgment, knew most about the duties and needs of their re- spective departments, and in whose integrity he had perfect confidence. It was a source of much trouble to him that Jefferson and Hamilton, the two in whom he perhaps had the greatest con- fidence, should from the beginning have been at such variance; Jefferson an ex- treme democrat, while Hamilton, at least in Jefferson's opinion, was almost a royalist. The election of Washington for a second term was, like the first, unani- mous. At the end of the second term many were anxious that he continue the office; but it was only because he had been made to feel it unquestionably his duty that he had accepted a second nom- ination, and a third he absolutely refused. Thankfully leaving the burdens and honors of office after the fourth of March, 1797, he again turned to his home, hoping to pass there his few re- maining years free from the annoyances of public life. The prospect of a war with France, and the desire on the part of his country- men that in such an event he would again take command of the armies, seemed likely, in 1797? to interrupt his repose. He chose his subordinate offi- cers, and left to them the care of matters in the field, which he superintended from his home, only once going to Philadel- phia, as in accepting the command he made the reservation that he was not to be in the field until necessary. In the midst of these preparations, Washington's life was suddenly brought to a close. On the twelfth of December, from a ride in the rain, he took a severe cold, which, settling in his throat, produced inflamma- tion, and terminated fatally on the night of the fourteenth. On the eighteenth his body was borne with military honors to its final resting place, and interred ir> the family vault at Mt. Vernon. The news of his death caused deep 1784-1799.] THE RISE OF A NATION. 409 sorrow throughout the nation. Judge Marshall moved an adjournment of con- gress, saying that after receiving intelli- gence of such a national calamity, that body could not be fitted for the transac- tion of business. Nor was the grief occasioned by his death confined to his own country. In France, and Great Britain, too, high tribute was paid to one whose character could not fail to com- mand the highest admiration and respect. Not brilliant in its manifestations, that character seems to be more fitly com- pared to a great cathedral, massive in all its appointments, yet each part harmo- nizing perfectly with every other, and with the whole. We call the completed structure grand. Washington was grand ; perfectly developed in every part; the clearly discerning soul within corres- ponding to the finely developed phys- ical structure which contained it. He is rightly named with the wisest of the earth. 1799. Dec. 26. A funeral oration upon Washington was pronounced before congress by Henry Lee, who had been one of the most intimate personal friends of the deceased. 1799. The Russian American Fur Company was founded under the Em- peror Paul, and carried on the fur trade of Alaska until the sale of that territory to the United States in 1867. Its prin- cipal American depot has been Sitka. 1799. The first teachers' association in America was formed this year at Middletown, Conn., under the name of " The Middlesex County Association for the improvement of Common Schools." 1799. The University of North Car- olina was founded at Chapel Hill, N. C. 1799. The first vaccination in Amer- ica was performed by Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse of Boston, upon four of his children. The process encountered great opposition at first. 1799. House Tax Insurrection. An insurrection occurred in some of the counties of Pennsylvania, against the levying of the direct tax upon houses. In the village of Bethlehem the troubles took the form of an armed resistance to the assessors, by about fifty men, led by a man named Fries. A large number of them were afterward arrested, and Fries was found guilty of treason. For some technical reason a new trial was granted him, and he was again found guilty, but President Adams soon pardoned him. 1799. Prince Edward's Island. The name of the island in the St. Lawrence gulf, hitherto known as St. John, was this year changed to Prince Edward's Island, in honor of the Duke of Kent. WASHINGTON'S SWORD AND CANE. SECTION XVI. A CONTINENT. 1800-f82. T last the effects of the Revolution were visible in all North and South America. After many years of burden-bearing the Spanish prov- inces began to make greater efforts to ob- tain freedom, and in 1824 the work was completed, save in poor Cuba, which has never thrown off the yoke. During the same time the United States were forced to fight the mother country once more, to gain the full blessings of the Revolu- tion. Between the war for Independence and the war of 1812, there was a con- stant military agitation over violations of international rights. Several thousands of American citizens were impressed into the British service about the first of the present century. Not a case has oc- curred since 1815. The North African pirates were also effectually crushed by American courage. The West India pirates were also annihilated by the same agency. These things fill the present period. Liberty was becoming a greater power in the world. A great step was taken in many a direction. The early promise of the continent was beginning to be realized. ' 1800. Feb. 1. A naval battle took place near Guadeloupe, W. I., between the American frigate Constellation under Commodore Thomas Truxton, and the French frigate La Vengeance. The latter, with fifty-four guns and five hun- dred men, was wholly disabled after five hours' conflict in the night, but escaped through the falling of the Constellation's mainmast. The Constellation lost thirty- nine men, killed and wounded; the La Vengeance one hundred and fifty. 1800. Feb. 22. Washington's Birth- day. The first anniversary of Washing- ton's birthday, which had occurred since his death, was observed throughout the country, in accordance with the recom- mendation of congress. 1800. April 24. Congressional Li- brary. An appropriation of $5,000, to be expended upon a room and books for a congressional library, was voted by congress at its last session in Philadelphia. 1800. May 1O. The provisional army which had been raised, because of impending hostilities with France, was now disbanded by act of congress, be- cause of the favorable reception of the American envoys in Europe. 180O. May 21. Amnesty for all who had taken part in the " house tax 410 1800-1824.] insurrection " in Pennsylvania was de- clared by President Adams. 1800. June. Washington, D. C., was officially occupied as the capital of the United States. The furniture of the governmental departments is said to have been conveyed from Philadelphia to Washington in one packet sloop. 180O. Sept. 3O. A temporary treaty with France was arranged by the United States commissioners. 180O. Oct. 4. Improved Telegraph. A description of an improved telegraph which had been put into use between Boston and Martha's Vineyard, a distance of ninety miles, was filed in the patent department by Jonathan Grant, Jr., of Belchertown, Mass. A question had been sent over the line and answered, in less than ten minutes. 1800. The second census of the United States gave a population of 5,308,- 483 persons. It was taken at a cost of $66,609.04. There had been an increase in the population since 1790 of 35.10 per cent. 1800. The first college paper in the United States was issued by the students of Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., and was named " The Gazette." 1800. The first United States land office was opened at Chillicothe, Ohio, 1800. Union of according to an act of con- Engiand and gress, which provided for this one and three others at Marietta, Cincinnati, and Steubenville, respectively. The population of the Northwest Territory was now 45,365 persons, who had come in since 1788. Many of these men were ruined finan- cially by the war, or were young advent- urers without means. The ex-soldiers especially were in a suffering condition, for they had only government certificates THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 411 which sold for almost nothing. At first the land had been sold in tracts of one and two million acres. Then quarter townships were offered, and in 1796 sec- tions could be bought. This year half sections could be bought. Men of small means could now invest. Finally, it was possible to buy small amounts of land at two dollars an acre on five years' credit. 1800. Humboldt explored the prov- ince of Venezuela, acquiring the first real knowledge of the Orinoco River. 1800. An improved piano was pat- ented by John J. Hawkins of Philadel- phia, who advertised it from No. 15 South Second Street, under the name of Patent Pdrtable Grand Piano. He claimed that he could sell it at one-half the pi'ice of imported instruments. 18OO. The first total abstinence pledge written in America, was dra,wn up by Micajah Pendleton of Nelson Co., Va., for his own family. By his influence other families were induced to adopt it also. FOURTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1800. In the fourth presidential cam- paign at the close of this year, the fed- eralists put in nomination by a congres- sional caucus, John Adams of Massa- chusetts, for president, and C. C. Pinckney of South Carolina, for vice-president. The democrat-republicans in a similar way nominated Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, for president, and Aaron Burr of New York, for vice-president. These were the first nominations of the kind. The federalists showed their partial alienation from President Adams, chiefly because of his favor to the Alien and Sedition laws. The consequence was, that the democrat-republican ticket tri- umphed in the vote of the electors, but 412 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. the two candidates had each the same number of votes, thus making it impos- sible to tell under the methods then in use, which should be president, and which should be vice-president, except by the choice of the house of representatives. Jefferson and Burr each had 73 votes. Adams had 65, and Pinckney 64, and John Jay i. 1801. Feb. 1. Balloting for president began in the house of representatives. The federalists had a majority in the house, but were re- stricted in voting to the two highest candidates, who were democrat-re- publicans. 1801. Feb. 17. Upon the 36th bal- x lot Thomas Jeffer- son was elected president, and Aaron Burr, vice- president. 1801. March 4. Jefferson and Burr were inaugurated. The federalists foreboded much ill from the loose po- BENEDK litical ideas of those who had now been put in charge of the government. The chief idea of the democrat-republicans was the diffusion of power among the people. The federalists still had the head of the judiciary, John Jay. President Jefferson soon took occasion to pardon some who had been committed under the " alien and sedition " laws. 1801. June. Office- Holding. The first removal from office for political rea- sons was that of Elizur Goodrich, feder- alist, from the post of collector of the port of New Haven, Conn. Samuel Bishop, democrat-republican, was ap- pointed to the position. Mr. Jefferson, in referring to the matter, suggested the doctrine which has since become so pop- ular, and is so tersely expressed in the words of Gov. William L. Marcy, " To the victors belong the spoils." The removal, however, seems not to have been made for simply holding federalist opinions, but for using office as a means of en- forcing party power. 1801. June 10. Tripoli declared war upon the United States. ARNOLD. 1801. June 14. Benedict Arnold, at one time a ma- jor-general in the continental army, died in obscurity in London, at the age of sixty-one years. He was born in Norwich, Conn., Jan. 3, 1740. He had good training, and was sent to the best schools in the vicinity. But he grew up a reckless, cruel boy. He would rob birds' nests to hear the old birds cry, and would torment his schoolmates, who feared and despised him. When sent with grist to the mill, he would often catch hold of the mill-wheel and go round with it, just to frighten his companions. At a later day 1800-1824.] he was established in the apothecary bus- iness, which he had learned, and enlarged his trade very much. At the dawn of the Revolution he joined Washington at Cambridge, with a volunteer company which he had raised. He had already been at Ticonderoga with Ethan Allen, and now undertook the celebrated march into Canada, with all its disaster and final retreat. His conduct on Lake Champlain, and in the action at Saratoga, mark him as a man who was rash rather than brave. He certainly feared nothing- Little by little his alienation from the patriot cause increased, till he was ready to enter into the attempt to betray his country. Others had similar slights to bear, but his impatient spirit could not remain inactive. After his escape to the British vessels at the time of the capture of Andre, he became prominent in raids for the destruction of patriot property, and lives,with a fierceness seldom equaled. After the war he removed to England, where the " treason was accepted, but the traitor despised." The rest of his years were spent in increasing separation from everybody, until at last he died, the vic- tim of the indulgence which he had given to his own sensitiveness. One of his sons has served with credit and high rank in the British army. THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 413 1801. July 1. San Domingo was declared an independent state under a constitution which was submitted to a convention by Toussaint L'Ouverture. 1801. July. An American squadron, under Commodore Dale, was ordered to the Mediterranean to protect United States merchantmen from the depreda- tions of North African cruisers. 1801. Aug. 6. The U. S. schooner 44 Experiment " captured a Tripolitan cruiser of fourteen guns after a severe battle of three hours, in which the Ex- periment did not lose a man. The Tri- politan lost twenty killed, and thirty wounded. 1801. December. The first written presidential message was communicated to congress by President 1801 Ironrail . Jefferson. Washington and Adams had delivered their addresses in person. Jefferson's course has since been pursued. 1801. The Sedition law of the United States expired by limitation, and could not be reenacted. The Alien law was . modified. 1801. The first suspension bridge in the world was built across Jacob's Creek, and the idea was afterward patented by James Finley, in 1808. Within nine years several others were built. 1801. The oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe was invented by Prof. Robert Hare of Philadelphia, and by its intense heat, what was before impossible became easy. Prof. Hare was very young at the time. He afterward invented the hydro- static blow-pipe. 1801. The first fuU-blooded Merino buck imported into America, was brought to New York state, where his progeny became well-known. He was afterward sold into Delaware for sixty dollars. This was the first practical importation of the kind. 1801. Orono, an Indian chief of the Penobscot tribe in Maine, who had been converted, and had labored to extend Christianity among his fellows, died at the age of one hundred and thirteen years. 1801. Capture of Toussaint. Na- poleon sent an expedition to San Do- mingo, W. I., to restore slavery to the island. Toussaint L'Ouverture, the col- 414 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. ored leader, was ensnared, and sent to France, where he soon died. Dessalines assumed command of the negro forces. 1802. March 16. The United States Military Academy at West Point, on the Hudson, was founded by the estab- lishment of a body of cadets, under the instruction of a corps of engineers, which was freshly organized by being separated from the artillery, and made to constitute a military academy. A private school had been in operation at the place for a year, but had failed of success. 1802. June 23. Humboldt ascended to a point within two thousand- feet of the summit of Mt. Chimborazo, S. A., reaching an altitude of 19,286 feet, a higher point than had ever before been reached. 1802. June. The first trade sale for books ever held in America, was conducted at New York by the Amer- ican Company of Booksellers, of which Mr. Carey, of Philadelphia, was a lead- ing member. 1802. July 6. An improvement in steamboats was patented by Edward West. It is claimed by some that he was the inventor of the first working steamboat in model. QEtf. DANIEL MORGAN. 1802. July 6. Gen. Morgan, best known for the service which he rendered in the Revolution with his unerring riflemen, died at Winchester, Va., at the age of sixty-six years. He drove one of the teams connected with Braddock's expedition, and during the trip was whipped with five hundred lashes be- cause it was thought he had insulted a British officer. When the Revolution began he raised a company of riflemen, and with them marched six hundred miles in three weeks, to reach the camp at Boston. He was one of the hardy troop which pushed its way across the snows of Maine to the region of Quebec. At the assault he was captured by the English. He was afterward released, and again did good service with riflemen in New York, and later in the South, against Cornwallis. His health com- pelled him to leave the army before peace was made. He was a very bold, energetic fighter, and a great aid to the patriot cause. He was in the national congress for four years, at the close of the last century. 1802. Oct. 16. Navigation of the Mississippi. The Spanish commander at New Orleans issued an order that citizens of the United States could no longer deposit goods at that place, and that the navigation of the Mississippi River would be no longer open to them. This was done in view of the prospect of the cession of Louisiana to France. News soon came that the cession had been accomplished, and James Monroe was sent to France to negotiate for the old privileges. 1802. Nov. 29. Ohio was the sev- enteenth state to be admitted into the union. It has an area of 39,964 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 3,199,- 794 persons. Its motto is "Imperium in imperio." " An empire in an empire." It is known as the Buckeye State. 1802. The citizens of the new Indiana territory petitioned congress to tempora- rily suspend the prohibition of slavery in the territories which came under the Ordinance of 1787, until the labor of the region could be built up. The request was not granted. 1802. Another squadron under Com- 1800-1824.] modore Richard V. Morris, was ordered to the Mediterranean for the protection of American shipping. 1802. The first Academy of Fine Arts in the United States, was established in New York. It was incorporated in 1808, but died in 1825, at the organiza- tion of another society. 1802. The process of making starch from potatoes, was invented by John Biddis of Pennsylvania, who patented it at this time. 1802. A proposal to light Central Square in Philadelphia, by gas obtained from coal, was made by Benjamin Hen- frey, who received a patent " for a cheap mode of obtaining light from fuel." The year before he had lighted Richmond with gas from wood. 1802. Gigantic bird tracks were found in the quarries at Portland, Conn. They were found at quite a depth, were sixteen inches long, ten inches wide, and four or five feet apart. 1802. The largest importation of Spanish Merino sheep was made this year for Hon. David Humphreys, min- ister to Spain. The flock, when shipped, numbered one hundred. Nine died on the passage. Nearly at this same time Hon. R. R. Livingston, minister to France, imported some of the Ram- bouillet stock. These important addi- tions had a great influence on the future sheep-keeping of the country. 1802. Dutch Guiana, S. A., was re- stored to Holland by England. 1803. April 30. The first Arlington sheep-shearing took place on the estate of George Washington Parke Custis, at a spring which was known as Arling- ton Spring. Mr. Custis had built a fine house on Arlington Heights, overlooking Washington, D. C., across the Potomac. THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 415 He wished to promote the interests of the region. The Arlington sheep-shearing was held for a number of years on April 3oth, and became widely known. A banquet was usually spread by Mr. Custis, and prizes given for specimens of fine woolen, and other domestic manu- factures. 1803. April 30. Louisiana was pur- chased from Napoleon I. for $15,000,000, by the United States. It comprised 900,000 square miles, running from the Gulf of Mexico to the British Posses- sions, and from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. The purchase of this great tract was negoti- 1803 , ated in secret. Napoleon Bank of France. is said to .have exclaimed upon com- pleting the bargain, " This accession of territory strengthens forever the power of the United States. I have just given England a maritime rival that will, sooner or later, humble her pride." By obtaining this territory the United States had a mountain barrier at the west, and could hold the gulf ports. The area of the original thirteen states 'was 820,680 square miles. By the addition of Louisiana, containing 899,579 square miles, the area of the United States was more than doubled, becoming 1,720,259 square miles. Louisiana had her first printing press immediately after this time. SAMUEL 1803. Oct. 2. Samuel Adams, the in- corruptible patriot, died at the age of eighty-one years. He was born in Bos- ton, Sept. 27, 1722, and was a distant rela- tive of John Adams. In 1 740 he was graduated at Harvard, and at once began to take a great interest in political matters. He was an ardent patriot, and was ere long engaged in writing for the press. 416 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. His father had had wealth, but lost it. The son had nothing save his own powers with which to aid his country. But well did he do it. In caucuses and clubs, and public meetings, he was of great influence. He served ten years in the assembly. The royalist Gov. Hutchinson said of him, " Such is the obstinacy and inflexible disposition of the man, that he can never be conciliated by any gift or office what- ever." Mr. Adams was a strong advo- cate of a continental congress, served in it for years, affixed his bold signature to the Declaration of Independence, was chosen lieutenant-governor, and after- ward governor of Massachusetts, and finally retired from service through in- creasing infirmities. He never entered military life, but wielded all his powers for his country's good, to such a degree that the British hated him more than they did almost any man in the Amer- ican army. 1803. Nov. 30. The French army in San Domingo surrendered to an Eng- lish fleet, and left the blacks once more at liberty. 1803. North African Difficulties. Commodore Preble took command of the American squadron in the Mediter- ranean. He first settled some difficulties with the emperor of Morocco, and then appeared at Tripoli. During a cruise in the harbor of that place, the frigate Philadelphia struck on a rock, and was captured with her entire crew, by the Tripolitans. 1803. Jerome Bonaparte, a brother of Napoleon I., while on a visit to the United States, married Miss Patterson, a Baltimore belle. The marriage was af- terward annulled by Napoleon. 1803. The manufacture of pianos was begun at Boston by Adam and William Brent. 1803. The first reaping machine in America was patented by Richard French and John J. Hawkins. It was not very successful. One wheel ran in the grain, and the cutting was done by a number of scythes which revolved on a pivot. 1803. The Miami Exporting Com- pany was organized to provide better transportation for the produce of the great Northwest Territory. The farm- ers had no market for their crops. It was customary for several to load a flat boat, and descend with it to New Or- leans by floating down the Ohio and Mississippi. Having sold their cargo, they would abandon their boats, and re- turn on foot nearly a thousand miles. Others would go down in large canoes,, which could be brought back by oars. It took about six months to make a trip, and was, therefore, little help to a farmer. There was no demand for corn and wheat, except in one's own family, and the new families coming in during the season. Corn and oats were ten and twelve cents a bushel, wheat thirty or forty cents. Yet many of the farmers, while not making money, lived very com- fortably. In a short time they began to use boats with sails, which enabled them to return in them from market. The boats could also carry more freight, and thus reduce the cost. The Miami Com- pany, which now undertook to improve these things, was not a success, although it declared dividends for a number of years. Many difficulties beset it, and a change for the better was due to other things. 1803. Proposed Mississippi Steam, boat. Capt. James McKeever, of the 1800-1824.] United States Navy, and M. Louis Val- cour, built a large boat with eighty feet keel, and eighteen feet beam, in Ken- tucky, and floated it to New Orleans on"' the current, in order that Oliver Evans might at the latter place put a steam engine into it. They intended to run it as a steamer between New Orleans and Natchez. The engine was ready, but the money of the owners was gone. So, while waiting to get more, they let the engine be set up in a sawmill, by Wil- liam Donaldson, where it cut 3,000 feet of boards every twelve hours, and did not get out of repair for a year. It was afterward used in pressing cotton. The owners of it lost all their means, and could not go on with the steamboat. 1803. Slavery was abolished this year in Canada. 1803. Dutch Guiana was recaptured by the English. 1803. St. Lucia, one of the Wind- ward Islands, was taken by the English after having been alternately held by France and England. It has since re- mained in the possession of the latter nation. 1804. Jan. 1. An independent re- public was formed in San Domingo, and Dessalines was made governor for life. 1804. Feb. 15. The gradual aboli- tion of slavery was provided for in New Jersey by an act of the legislature. 1804. Feb. 15. Decatur's Achieve- ment. The frigate Philadelphia was destroyed in the hai'borof Tripoli, where she had struck upon a rock and been seized by the Tripolitans, by Lieut. De- catur and seventy-five men, from the American squadron. They approached the Philadelphia in the evening, unde- tected, and springing on board, soon con- quered the enemy, who lost twenty or 2" THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 417 more men. After setting fire to the frigate, Lieut. Decatur returned without losing a man, thus putting on record one of the most brilliant deeds of his time. 1804. March 7. Humboldt sailed for Havana, Cuba, after having explored Mexico, visited its volcanoes and pre- historic mounds, and made a profile of the country from sea to sea, which had never been done for any other whole country. In Cuba he spent two months in preparing an essay upon the island, which was afterward published in Paris. 1804. March. The Lewis and Clarke Expedition. Lieut. William Clarke and Capt. Meriwether Lewis, set out from St. Louis under the order of President Jefferson, to explore the Louisiana Pur- chase. They were accompanied by twenty-seven officers and soldiers, and some Indian interpreters. They spent the first season in ascending the Missouri River, and wintered . among the Mandin Indians. Between this time and the autumn of 1806, they made their famous journey complete from St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean and return, one of the most remarkable journeys on record. It was a pioneer enterprise. Much inesti- mable information was collected. 1804. July 11. The duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr occurred at Weehawken, N. Y. Burr, who was at the time vice-president of the United States, challenged Hamilton be- cause of some disrespectful remarks which the latter is said to have made concerning him. Hamilton fired into the air, and fell, mortally wounded. ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 1804. July 12. Alexander Hamil- ton, the great statesman and able finan- cier, died of the wound received in the 418 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGLES. duel with Burr the day before, at the age of forty-seven years. He was born Jan. IT, 1757, on the island of Nevis, in the West Indies, and was of French and Scotch descent. He was educated as far as was possible, and showed a great taste for reading. At twelve years of age he was employed as a clerk in a mercantile establishment. He occupied all his spare time in eagerly devouring every book he could find. At sixteen he came to the United States because of his earnest wish to secure a higher education, and entered King's, now Columbia, Col- lege. While an undergraduate he made, after considerable persuasion, a speech at the great " meeting in the fields " at New York, July 6, 1774, and there first displayed his wonderful gifts of thought and tongue, to the astonishment of those who heard him. He soon be- gan to write for the press, and afterward entered active service with Washington. He became confidential secretary and aid-de-camp of Washington till after the fall of Yorktown. In 1780 he married the daughter of Gen. Schuyler. At the close of the war he began the study and practice of law in New York, after hav- ing served in the continental congress. In law he rapidly rose to distinction. He was a member of the convention that framed the federal constitution. When the constitution was before the states for ratifi- cation he wrote a large part of that series of papers which have since been such an authority in the interpretation of it, and known as " The Federalist." In 1789 he was made secretary of the treasury at the organization of the national govern- ment, and for several years gave great labor to the development of a financial policy for the country. Daniel Webster says of him, " He smote the rock of public resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang 'upon its feet." In 1798 he was appointed under Washington to command the army raised for the expected war with France. Ultimately a political difference arose between him and Aaron Burr, because the latter thought that Hamilton had not given him proper support for the presi- dency, and had depreciated his character. He was slight in personal appearance, but of goodly form. He was one of the very few ablest men this country has ever had in its service. His death was a sad sacrifice to the dueling code. 1804. Aug. 3. The bombardment of Tripoli began under the orders of Commodore Preble, and continued at times for a month, with great effect. 1804. Aug. 3. Humboldt arrived in France from his American tour. Upon leaving Cuba, he visited Philadelphia and Washington. He brought back to Europe from his five years' labor on the American continent, remarkable additions to the scientific knowledge of the times. His journey remains a permanent posses- sion of American explora- 1804. Napoleon tion, the value of which cron ' n f "L Em ^ ror of France. nothing can lessen. Hum- 1804. First lo- boldt saw a great part of comotive s ' eam engine used in the world during his long Wales. life, for he was not quite thirty years of age when he arrived in Amei'ica, and he lived to be ninety, dying at Berlin, May 6, 1859. The " Cosmos" remains as his greatest work. 1804. Sept. 2. A fire-ship laden with powder and iron, was sent into the harbor of Tripoli in the night, under the charge of two boats' crews from the American squadron, who were to light THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. After awhile the 1800-1834.] the fuse and escape, fire-ship exploded with terrific power, and no one of the men accompanying it, was ever heard from. A monument td their memory stands in Washington, D. C., west of the capitol. 1804. Sept. 25. The twelfth amend- ment to the constitution of the United States was declared in force. Its object is to arrange the pYesidential election so that votes should be cast for president and vice-president, as such. It was sug- gested by the undecided presidential election of 1800. 1804. Oct. 8. Dessalines, through false ambition, assumed the title " Em- peror of Hayti," thus proving untrue to his trust, and breaking the constitution of the new republic. The island at once became a scene of discord and war. FIFTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1804. In the fifth presidential cam- paign during the autumn of this year, the democrat-republicans supported Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, for a sec- ond term as president, and George Clin- ton of New York, as vice-president. The federalists supported C. C. Pinck- ney of South Carolina, for president, and Rufus King of New York, for vice- president. The method by which these persons were nominated is unknown. The result was an overwhelming defeat for the federalists. Jefferson and Clin- ton received 162 electoral votes; Pinckney and King 14 votes. 1804. The first theological seminary in America was established by the As- sociate Reformed church. 1804. The first agricultural fair in America was held at Washington, D. C. The city authorities established and man- 419 aged it. At subsequent exhibitions the farmers were stimulated by the offering of premiums. 1804. A steam dredge named the Oructor Amphibolis, was put on the Delaware by Oliver Evans, who em- ployed in it the first high-pressure engine ever used. The machinery was built in such a way as to run a land carriage with equal facility. The dredge was run to the river by steam, upon wheels which were put under it temporarily. 18O4. A steamboat with a screw propeller was exhibited on the Hudson River by John C. Stevens, who crossed with it from Hoboken to New York. He" made use of a Watts engine, with a tubular boiler of his own make. The model of this propeller is still at the In- stitute for Engineers, Hoboken, N. J. 1804. The Middlesex canal which connected Boston harbor with the Con- cord River, was completed. It was twenty-seven miles long, and was fur- nished with twenty-two locks. It was the first work of the kind of much im- portance in America. 1804. The first fine broadcloth made in America was produced at Pittsfield, Mass., by Arthur Scholfield, who had come to the United States in 1 789, with Samuel Slater, and had made his own machinery, as Mr. Slater did at Prov- idence for cotton machinery. 18O4. " The Harmony Society." About twenty families from Wirtemberg settled in the village of Harmony, Butler Co., Penn., to live as a business commu- nity. They rapidly increased in num- bers, began the extensive cultivation of the soil, and undertook manufactures of different kinds, among which was the making of broadcloth. Mr. George Rapp was the leader of the enterprise. 420 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES . 1804. Fort Dearborn was built by the United States government upon the present site of Chicago. 1804. The first artificial propagation of fish in the United States was attempted in South Carolina. 1805. March 4. Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, was inaugurated president of the United States, and George Clin- ton of New York, vice-president. 1805. ' April 7. Lewis and Clarke set out from their winter camp upon the Missouri, and started up the river. They crossed the mountain ridge on horseback, and pursued their way through many obstacles. 1805. June 3. A treaty of peace was concluded with Tripoli, which ar- ranged for an exchange of prisoners, man for man, and the payment of $60,000 for two hundred whom the Dey held in excess of the captures by the Americans. But it was stipulated that no further money should ever be paid as ransom money. WILLIAM MOULTRIE. 1805. Sept. 27. Gen. William Moul- trie, a patriot of incorruptible integrity, died at Charleston, S. C., at the age of seventy-four years. He was born in South Carolina, in 1731. He distin- guished himself during the Revolution by defending Fort Moultrie, contrary to the advice of his best military friends, against the violent attack of the enemy, with nearly two hundred cannon, while he had but thirty -one, and a force of men, some of whom had never seen a cannon. He was made of heroic stuff. During an imprisonment among the British, he was offered a command of a Jamaica regiment, together with some money, if he would become a British officer. " Not the fee simple to all Jamaica," the incor- ruptible man said, " should induce me to part \vith my integrity." 1805. Nov. 15. Lewis and Clarke reached the mouth of the Columbia River on the Pacific coast, at a distance of four thousand miles from St. Louis. They passed the winter in camp. 1805. England seized and condemned several American me'rchant vessels with their cargoes, for alleged violations of the neutral regulations. 1805. A torpedo was devised by Robert Fulton, which was considered to be very effective for purposes of warfare. 1805. Detroit was destroyed by an extensive fire. The place had been an important post of the fur trade, and the traders, subject to many privations while away upon their trips, lived luxuriously when at home. Wine suppers prevailed in rapid succession, and the 1759-1305. host of the evening would Schiller. use every method to see how many in- toxicated guests he could have, without becoming intoxicated himself. At one supper, a person who was present says that the bottom of every wine glass was broken off to prevent "heel-taps." Each one was obliged to drain his glass before he could lay it down upon the table. 1806. March 23. Lewis and Clarke began their homeward journey up the Columbia River. HORATIO GATES. 1806. April 10. Gen. Horatio Gates, familiarly known as the conqueror of Burgoyne, died at New York at the age of seventy-eight years. He was born in England in 1728, and came to America in the French and Indian war. He was present at Braddock's defeat, and was severely wounded. After the war he 1800-1834.] settled in Berkeley Co., Va., and at the beginning of the Revolution he received from congress the appointment of briga- dier-general. In 1776 he was placed over the northern army. He then went into New Jersey with Washington, and in 1777 was again placed in command at the north to supersede Schuyler. He was himself superseded in May, but was af- terward put in command there again when Burgoyne was making his way down through New York. Gen. Gates gained his extensive reputation by the surrender of Burgoyne, but it is doubtful whether he was not an obstacle to that event, rather than a help. The victory added force to a pride already excessive, and made him unfit to obey. He felt, and others flattered him in feeling, that he ought to be commander-in-chief, hence " Conway's Cabal," which was a conspiracy to undermine the position of Washington, and place Gates in his stead. The plan came to nothing, through the loyal adherence of Lafayette and others to their noble leader, who was misunder- stood by the would-be brilliant military geniuses. Gates was afterward sent south, but partially destroyed his reputa- tion by the mismanagement of the army in that quarter. The battle of Camden was an utter defeat for him. Gen. Greene was appointed in command to supersede Gates, who did little more service. He retired to his Virginia es- tate where he remained till 1790, and then moved to his estate on Manhattan Island. In 1792 he served one term in the New York legislature. It is said of him, " Gen. Gates possessed many excel- lent qualities, but he was deficient in the necessary qualifications for a successful commander, and his vanity generally misled his judgment." He was a gentle- THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 421 man in his manners, humane and benev- olent, but he lacked intellectual cultiva- tion and true magnanimity. 1806. April 18. A retaliation upon England for her numerous insults, was effected by the United States in the shape of a prohibition to take effect Nov. 15, forbidding the importation of any British manufactures. 1806. Sept. 23. Lewis and Clarke reached St. Louis, having been gone upon their trip twenty-eight months. The men engaged in this expedition re- ceived grants of land from mi-isoe. the United States govern- MungoPark. ment. Notes of the entire trip were kept by Lieut. Clarke, and were after- ward published, and sold widely. This was our first great United States explor- ing trip. 1806. Oct. 17. Dessalines, "em- peror of Hayti," was assassinated in San Domingo, and half the island again came under Spanish authority. The western part remained under the control of several chiefs. GEN. HENRY KNOX. 1806. Oct. 25. Gen. Henry Knox died at Thomaston, Me., aged fifty-six years. He was born in Boston, July 25, 1750, and began life for himself as a clerk in a bookstore. He was a great student, especially of military matters. In 1774 he married Miss Lucy Fluker, the daughter of the secretary of the prov- ince, who was a devoted royalist. In 1775, on the anniversary of their mar- riage, June 1 6, the young people escaped from Boston to the patriot camp. Mrs. Knox carried out her husband's " gren- adier" sword, by quilting it into her pet- ticoat. During the Revolution Gen. Knox was an intimate friend of Wash- 422 RE VOL UT1ONAR T STR UGGL ES. ington, who relied upon him in all mat- ters relating to artillery. After the war he served as Secretary of war, and was a leader in founding the U. S. navy. He finally retired to Thomaston, and died from the effects of a chicken bone which he swallowed, and which produced mor- tification. His physical appearance was fine. He was a great soldier, and an intelligent statesman. 1806. December. A Rejected Treaty. A treaty was made with England, but was rejected by President Jefferson, be- cause it gave England the right of search and seizure. This led to angry feelings in Great Britain, and helped to hasten the war of 1812. 18O6. A lodge of Odd Fellows was established in New York city, under the name of the Shakespeare Lodge, but it did not exist for a long time. 1806. Law Against Dueling. The congress of the United States enacted a law that " no officer or soldier shall send a challenge to another officer or soldier to fight a duel, or accept a challenge, if sent, upon pain, if a commissioned officer, of beingf cashiered, if a non-commissioned o ' officer, of suffering corporal punishment, at the discretion of a court-martial." The practice of dueling was obtaining a pow- erful hold upon the army, and the false notions of honor made it impossible for one to decline a challenge without ruining his character, and outlawing him from high society. 1806. The "Burr War." It was during this year that Col. Aaron Burr made the western tour which excited sus- 1749-iaoe. F OX , P icions of treasonable de- the great Eng- signs. Public notice was Ksh statesman. taken Qf }t by thg governor of Ohio in a communication to the legis- lature, and by the president of the United States in a proclamation, and in orders for Burr's arrest. Military preparations began to be made. 1806. Party strife ran high, and a young man named Austin was shot in Boston by Selfridge, a lawyer, because of difference of opinion. Austin was a democrat-republican, and had first at- tempted to chastise Selfridge, who was a federalist. 1806. The first cargo of ice exported from the United States, was a load of 130 tons, shipped from Gray's wharf, Charlestown, Mass., on the brig Favorite^ and sent to Martinique, W. L, by Mr. Frederick Tudor of Boston. The ice was obtained from a pond in Saugus, now Lynn. Mr. Tudor lost money upon this enterprise, and not much more was sent abroad before the war of 1812. 1806. Mexican Cotton. A quantity of the seed of Mexican cotton was in- troduced into the United States, by Wal- ter Burling of Natchez. The seed was stuffed into a lot of Mexican dolls, be- cause a decree of the Spanish govern- ment forbade the exportation of it. The arrangement of the dolls was suggested, to Mr. Burling by the viceroy, with a tacit understanding that they should be employed for that special purpose. 1806. The National Road. Con- gress provided for a road from Cumber- land, Md., to the State of Ohio. In 1834 the construction of it was given over to the states through which it passed, and more recently the building of railroads has destroyed the need of it. Portions of it still remain in use as a roadway. It was the first great internal improve- ment made at the public expense. 1806. First Trade Union Contest. A trial of eight persons was had before 1800-1824] the courts on the charge of combining to increase wages, to keep others from working, and to establish arbitrary rules over workmen. For twenty years or more it seems that this had been prac- ticed, and one or two remarkable cases of the pursuit of those who would not com- bine, came out upon the trial. The pris- oners were sentenced to pay eight dol- lars each, with costs of suits. Not much more is heard of trade-union in America for fifty years. 1806. Buenos Ayres and Montevideo surrendered to English "forces, but were speedily retaken by the Spanish citizens, who bravely drove off the invaders. 1806. A plot to revolutionize Vene- zuela was laid by Francis Miranda, who had, in 1798, tried the same thing on a larger scale. An expedition was fitted out and sailed from New York, but met with no success after landing in South America. It soon disbanded. * 1807. Feb. 1O. An accurate survey of the Atlantic coast was voted by con- gress at the suggestion of President Jef- ferson. An appropriation of $50,000 was made for it, but work did not begin till 1817. . 1807. February. Aaron Burr's Trial. Aaron Burr was arrested for supposed treasonable designs upon the government of the United States, and was tried upon several charges. The matter was made intensely partisan. The administration tried to convict, and the federalists to acquit. The trial ran through several months. An indictment was found by the grand jury in May, but the case was dismissed in August by the court, for want of jurisdiction. The prosecution broke down in the production of proof, and as Burr's plans seemed to relate more to Mexico than to the United States, he THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 42'3 1807. Abolition of slave trade through all British domin- ions, few was acquitted. Gen. William Eaton of Massachusetts, presented proofs that Burr intended to form a great southwestern empire, but this was all excluded by the court. Burr was tried simply for the course pursued on Blennerhassett Island. 1807. March 2. The importation of slaves into the United States was forbidden by an act of con- gress, which was to become a law upon the first day of January, 1808. The British parliament passed a similar law a days later. 1807. June 22. The Leopard Affair. The British ship Leopard, under Capt. Humphries, attacked the United States frigate Chesapeake, under Commodore Barren, in an attempt to search the latter for alleged British deserters. The Ches- apeake was not prepared for action, and pnly one gun could be fired. Several broadsides were fired by the Leopard, killing and wounding a score of the Chesapeake's crew. Four men were afterward taken from the Chesapeake by an officer of the Leopard. The affair caused intense excitement. Commodore Barren was tried, and suspended for five years, without pay. The trouble arising from this greatly contributed to the war of 1812. 1807. July 2. All English vessels were ordered to leave the ports and waters of the United States until satis- faction should be given for the Leopard's firing upon the Chesapeake. FULTON S TRIUMPH. 1807. Aug. 7. The Clermont, a steamboat built by Robert Fulton, left New York city for Albany, making the trip to that place and return safely, in seventy-two hours. This was the six- 424 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. teenth steamboat in the order of construc- tion, but the first to be used permanently. The day of the trial was long to be re- membered. Crowds stood ready to sneer at the project, if failure settled down upon it. A few were praying for success. The charge for the round trip was $14. At last the moment came. The wheels were started. At first a little delay oc- curred, but after a while the boat moved out into the river, and went resolutely against wind and tide. The end which poor John Fitch and others had done so much to make possible, was at last reached. Steam navigation was an ac- complished fact. The Clermont excited varying emotions along the route. Many people feared her. Thousands viewed her course, and many rejoiced in her suc- cess. Other boats were speedily built. In these later years what may well be called " floating palaces " are increasing* in number, beauty, and comfort. 1807. Nov. 26. Oliver Ellsworth, LL. D., an American jurist, and chief- justice of the supreme court of the United States from 1796 to 1800, died at the age of sixty-two years. He served in the United States senate previous to his appointment as chief-justice, and in all the positions to which he was called was characterized by great ability and earnestness of purpose. 1807. Dec. 27. Embargo Bill. The United States government laid an em- bargo upon all its own ports and vessels. This bill bore very heavily upon certain parts of the countiy, especially New England, which was increasing its ship- ping very rapidly. Congress gave the president power to suspend the bill when he thought it expedient. The commerce of all nations was interrupted by the succession of adverse decrees by France and England. 1807. Buenos Ayres was unsuccess- fully assailed by an English force of 10,000 men. Gen. Whitelocke was cashiered for incapacity, upon his return to England.' 1807. John VI. of Portugal, with his court, fled to Brazil to escape the hos- tility of Napoleon. This step led the way in opening Brazil to commerce, and in improving the government of that province. 1807. The first newspaper in New- foundland was issued under the name of " The Royal Gazette and Newfoundland Advertiser." 1808. Jan. 1. The prohibition of the slave trade under the act of congress of March 2, 1807, went into effect. 1808. The first temperance society in America was organized in Moreau, Saratoga Co., N. Y., by Dr. Billy J. Clarke, and Rev. Lebbeus Armstrong. Forty-seven male members signed the pledge under the name of " The Moreau and Northumberland Temperance So- ciety." A fine of twenty-five cents was imposed for every violation of the pledge. The pledge prohibited rum, gin, whisky,' wine, or any distilled liquors whatever. It did not therefore go as far as a total abstinence pledge of the present day. 1808. April 8. A report on public turnpikes was made by Mr. Gallatin,who stated that the cost varied from $1,000 to $14,000 a mile. Many turnpike com- panies had been chartered in the eastern and middle states, especially in Connec- ticut, where fifty had been incorporated since 1803. 1808. Stone coal was first used as fuel in a fireplace by Judge Fell of Wilkesbarre, Penn. At about the same 1800-1824-] THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 425 time Obadiah Gore of Wyoming Valley, Perm., who had used it for forty years in a blacksmith's forge, made a similar suc- cessful attempt. 1808. The first printing press be- yond the Mississippi River was set up at St. Louis, by Jacob Hinkle. 1808. "The Columbiad," by Joel Barlow, was issued, and received as a fine production. Robert Fulton designed a part of the engravings. The high price reduced the sale until it was put on the market in a cheaper form. 1808. The first Bible society in America was organized at Philadelphia. 1808. An aerolite weighing 1635 pounds fell in Texas, and is now owned by Yale College. 1808. A duel between Henry Clay and Humphrey Marshall was fought, and both were wounded. They were at the time members of the legislature of Kentucky. 1808. Prison-Ship Victims. The remains of the ten thousand soldiers who had died on board the British prison- ships in New York harbor during the Revolution, and had been buried in the sand on the shore, were taken up and placed in a vault near the end of Front St., Hudson Avenue, Brooklyn. 1808. The first ocean steam naviga- tion in the world was by the steamboat Phoenix, built by John Stevens, and nav- igated from Hoboken, N. Y., to Phila- delphia, by Robert L. Stevens. SIXTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1808. In the sixth presidential cam- paign the democrat-republicans supported James Madison of Virginia, for president, and George Clinton of New York, for vice-president. Their nomination had been made by a congressional caucus early in the year. The federalists sup- ' ported C. C. Pinckney of South Car- olina, for president, and Rufus King of New York, for vice-president. The lat- ter had been supported in the previous campaign. Of the 176 electoral votes Madison received 122, and Clinton 113,' and they were therefore triumphantly elected. Pinckney and King received 47 votes, a great gain over the 14 votes which they had received in the fifth cam- paign. George Clinton received 6 votes for president, and there were 15 scatter- ing votes for vice-president. 1808. Liberal Movements in Mexico. The deposition of Ferdinand VII. from the throne of Spain, and the establish- ment of Joseph Bonaparte on it by his brother, Napoleon I., agitated all Spanish colonies, and caused in Mexico and South America a great many liberal move- ments looking towafd independence. The clergy generally adhered to the house of Bourbon. The viceroy of Mexico, named Don Jose de Iturrigaray, having caused suspicions that he was about to make an attempt to seize the government of Mexico, and make it an empire of his own, was arrested, and thrown into prison. A desire for free- dom was very sensibly growing among the people. 1809. March 4. James Madison of Virginia, was inaugurated president of the United States, and George Clinton of New York, vice-president, the latter upon his second term. Mr. Madison at his inauguration wore a suit of American broadcloth, the first which was ever worn by a president. 1809. March 4. The embargo bill was repealed, so far as all countries, ex- cept France and England, were con- 426 REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES, i ' cerned. No intercourse was to be per- mitted with the latter till their obnoxious decrees were repealed. 1809. Nov. 28. An agricultural society was organized at Georgetown, D. C., under the name of the " Colum- bian Society, for the promotion of Rural and Domestic Economy." It was the first one in America which was composed of practical farmers banded together to encourage home manufactures, and the rearing of domestic animals. 1809. The Sisters of Charity were first founded in the United States at Emmettsburg, Md., by Mrs. Eliza Seton, who became their first Mother Superior. 1809. "Disciples." An attempt to unite different Christian denominations and bring about greater outward union, was made by Thomas Campbell, with the assistance of his son, Alexander, and resulted in the organization of a sect since known as " Disciples," " Chris- tians," and " Church of Christ," or more commonly as " Campbellites." The Campbells were originally Presbyte- rians, and after their first societies were organized upon the new basis, they took steps to unite with a Baptist association, through the belief that immersion was o the only baptism. They, however, in- sisted that they were to retain their fundamental tenet that the Bible was the only creed. 1809. First Modern Sunday Schools. During this year the great change be- gan to take place which transferred Sunday Schools from the charge of paid teachers to those who volunteered to work without pay. The change in England took place at a much later day. A new idea also crept in with this altera- tion. It had been thought, before this date, under the reign of paid teachers, that Sunday Schools were chiefly for the low and ignorant children. Under the voluntary system it has come to be the main effort to enlist all for continued Bible study.' 1809. The first printing press in Mississippi was set up. 1809. The revolutionary struggle began in Ecuador,and lasted till 1822, be- fore independence was achieved. 1809. French Guiana, S. A., was seized by the English. 1810. March 23. The Rambouillet Decree was issued by Napoleon I., de- claring all American vessels in French ports confiscated, and ordering the sale of a large number, with cargoes worth sev- eral million dollars* 1810. April 19. The revolution in Venezuela, S. A., broke out at Caraccas on the anniversary of the battles of Lex- ington and Concord. 1810. On account of the insolence of the British minister to the United States government, congress voted that the president be requested not to recog- nize him any longer. FIRST MEXICAN UPRISING. 1810. Sept. 15. A great revolt against Spanish authority burst forth violently in Mexico, under Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a native Indian of learning and character, belonging to the priesthood. He had meditated upon the wrongs of his country, and was freshly incited to an attempt for freedom because his vine- yards, which he had cultivated very as- siduously, had been destroyed, on the ground that no agricultural or manufact- uring interests were to be permitted to take precedence of those of Spain. He had large and prosperous vineyards, and is said to have introduced the silkworm 1800-1824.] THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. into Mexico. A striking resemblance to the principle of the revolution in the 427 English colonies, betrays itself at once. Hidalgo had been serving as the curate of the village of Dolores. He is said to have been remarkable for his priestly fidelity. He was kin to the delicate minds which everywhere note oppression keenly, and fight against it devotedly. He was led to form a plan of revolt, and had set Nov. i, 1810, as the day of out- break. But his intentions became known, and some of his assistants were seized by the 'government. He therefore hastened his deed, and publicly declared his revolt this day. The natives began to rally around him, under the power of his burning appeals. 1810. Sept. 29. Hidalgo captured Guanajuato, with twenty thousand fol- lowers, who received the victory wildly, and plundered the city ravenously, to the extent of $5,000,000. This victory was followed by others quite speedily, which caused his numbers to increase till he is said to have had a hundred thousand under his command, a number sufficient, had they been severely trained, to have swept away Spanish power forever. But an excommunication was launched against him by the Catholic authorities, and his followers, weakly superstitious, were frightened by this harmless opposi- tion. They began to leave him, or to give themselves up to disorder, and thus made the sky dark once more. Military supplies were entirely gone. 1810. Nov. 7. Hidalgo was defeated at Aculco by Gen. Calleja. But still he kept his forces in the field. The devo- tion of some of them has never been excelled. Even the Mexican women went with the camp to cook for the soldiers, and zealously stimulate them to bravery. The Spanish forces soon took Guanajuato, with great loss to Hidalgo's force, and at the close of the year his power was rapidly waning. 1810. Bolivar visited England to ob- tain aid for the struggling patriots of Venezuela. 1810. The revolution in the Argen- tine Republic began and increased stead- ily in power, in the attempt to throw off the burden of ^Spanish tyranny. 1810. A revolution in Chili began in the attempt to achieve independence by the deposition of the royal governor. 1810. The ports of Brazil were opened to the commerce of the world, free from all restrictions. 1810. The "Penn treaty tree" was blown down by a severe gale of wind. 1810. The first printing of cotton goods by engraved rollers and water power was done by Thorp, Siddall & Co., near Philadelphia. All this work had previously been done by the slow block printing. 1810. The first silk manufactured by machinery was made by Rodney and Horatio Hanks at Mansfield, Conn., in a little mill twelve feet square. Before this, silk had been made in families upon the same looms as were used in making other cloth. 1810. A card making machine, the invention of Elizur Smith of Walpole, Mass., was patented by Thomas Whitte- more. It would insert the 1810. First wire into the cards in such steamboat built a life-like way as to amaze inEur f e - the beholder. Daniel Webster said it was more nearly endowed with intelli- gence than any other machine ever in- vented. John Randolph exclaimed upon seeing it work, " All but the immortal 428 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGL ES. soul." More complicated machines have since been made. 1810. The first printing presses in Missouri and Michigan were set up this year. ftJlO. Nail machines invented in America were patented in England by Joseph C. Dyer of Boston, then living in London. In 1811 he also patented the ' American card making machine which had been so successful. The American nail machines were now* making the finest nails in the world. 1810. The Celebrated Sheep- Shear- ing. Chancellor Robert R. Livingston having taken much pains to improve the sheep stock of the country, and having been one of the first two or three to in- troduce Merinoes, held a sheep-shearing at his place on the Hudson, which brought together a large number of prominent men from all parts of the country. It was a most elegant entertainment, and caused newspaper reports far and wide. He sold some of his stock at from $50 to $ 1,000 per head. These prices were afterward reduced when fine stock became more common. A sort of sheep mania arose for a few years. A buck was bought at this sale for $175, and was re- peatedly sought for by purchasers within a short time at $1,000, but was afterward, when the excitement passed, sold for $12. 1810. The third census of the United States gave a population of 7,239,881 persons. It was taken at a cost of $ 1 78,- 444.67. Statistics of manufactures were for the first time taken in these returns, and were valuable, although impei-fect. There had been an increase in the popu- lation since 1800 of 36.38 per cent. 1811. Jan. 17. Hidalgo in Mexico was wholly overthrown by the Spanish authorities in a battle at the bridge of Calderon. His prospects were now en- tirely darkened, except so far as he could hope to get assistance from the outside. 1811. March 21. Hidalgo was be- trayed by Elizonclo, who had been asso- ciated with him in his efforts. The former was on his way to the United States to seek encouragement and mate- rial aid. His plans were now ended. In a short time he was subjected to ecclesi- astical deposition, and afterward shot, July 27. Thus perished Mexico's early leader, the first martyr to Mexican liberty. His name has been cherished by the people of that country, and his example had a wide influence. He gave himself for his native land. 1811. March. The Berlin and Milan decrees were proclaimed by Napoleon to be a part of the fundamental law of the realm. He declared that no payment would be made for American vessels which had been seized. 1811. March. The first steamboat ever run upon western waters was launched at Pittsburg, Penn., and named "New Orleans." It was 138 feet long, 30 feet wide, was of 300 tons burden, and cost $40,000. The boat was intended for the carrying trade between New Orleans and Natchez. An epoch in western navigation was created by this addition to the forces. The net profits on the trade done the first season by the boat, were $20,000. Livingston, Fulton and Roose veldt were the chief owners. This steamer was lost on a snag near Baton Rouge in 1814. 1811. April. The first blood was shed in Chili in the attempt to secure in- dependence. The patriot forces which had gathered, attacked the royal troops at Santiago, and defeated them. The former were successful nearly every time 1800-1824.] in the little conflicts, at first. Don Juan Jose Carrera was appointed president and general-in-chief. 1811. May 16. The Little Belt Affair. A naval action took place off the coast of Virginia between the British sloop Little Belt, under Capt. Bingham, and the U. S. frigate President, under Capt. Ludlow. The former replied to the hail of the latter by a cannon shot, and received a broadside in return. The Little Belt lost 32, killed and wounded, before finally making answer, and then sailed to Halifax. Great excitement was caused in both countries. 1811. July 5. Colombia, S. A., then known as New Grenada, was declared independent. 1811. Oct. 10. Slavery was abol- ished in Chili by declaring freedom to every child born after this date. 1811. Nov. 7. The battle of Tippe- canoe was fought with the Indians by Gen. Harrison. The Indians under the lead of the Prophet attacked the camp of Gen. Harrison early in the morning, and a fierce contest lasted for an hour or two. The savages were finally driven off by repeated bayonet charges. The Ameri- can loss was 1 88 men. This defeat dis- couraged the Indians who had been form- ing a confederacy at the earnest solicitation of Tecumseh and his brother. 1811. Dec. 16. A memorable series of earthquake shocks began in Missouri. The effects of them were especially felt in New Madrid upon the Mississippi. Boats were destroyed upon the water, and houses upon the land. The ground rose and fell in undulations. Great terror pre- vailed during some of these scenes. Several lakes and swamps were formed in Tennessee. The ground quaked in- cessantly over large regions for months. THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 429 1811. Dec. 24. A theater was burned in Richmond, Va., and the governor of the state, together with several prominent families, perished in the conflagration. 1811. National Bank. The United States Bank established in 1791 for twenty years was not re-chartered, and ex- pired by limitation. A great effort was made in its favor, but it was finally de- feated by one vote in the House, and by the casting vote of the vice-president in the Senate. 1811. Change of Policy. The dem- ocrat-republicans who had been a peace party up to this time, now experienced a change of sentiments, and under the lead- ership of William H. Crawford of Geor- gia, and John C. Calhoun of South Car- olina, inaugurated a war movement. England and France continued the seizure of American vessels with their cargoes, and the impressment of seamen. Over 900 American vessels had been taken since 1803. 1811. The British government at last disavowed the act of the Leopard in firing upon and taking the U. S. frigate Chesapeake in 1807. 1811. A school, for deaf-mutes was attempted unsuccessfully in New York, and afterward in Virginia. 1811. A breech-loading rifle was invented by John Hall of the United States, who inaugurated the whole sys- tem of breech instead of muzzle loading. He also . suggested the idea of making the parts of a rifle interchangeable by machinery. The U. S. government or- dered some rifles made at Harper's Ferry under the direction of Mr. Hall. The idea of a breech-loader was not successfully put into practice for years. 1811. Iron plates, for the protection of vessels, were first conceived by Rob- 430 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. ert L. Stevens of Hoboken, N. J., though he did not bring out his idea till much later. 1811. Astoria, near the mouth of the Columbia River, Oregon, was founded by the Pacific Fur Company, and was named for John Jacob Astor, the chief proprietor. This place was for many years the depot of all the fur trade west of the Rocky Mountains. 1811. Political troubles in Canada appeared. The legislative assembly was considered by royal authorities to have been too independent in some of its bus- iness. A newspaper called " The Cana- dian," advocated the cause of the assem- bly, and was seized by government, its owner put into prison, and its stock destroyed. This was the beginning of dissensions which lasted thirty years or more. 1811. The Red River Settlement was established by Thomas Douglass, the Earl of Selkirk, in what is now Manitoba, which had been sold by the Hudson Bay Company. Two or three bodies of colonists came from the High- lands of Scotland. 1811. Uruguay was attacked by the Portuguese. 1811. The independence of Par- aguay was secured under a revolutionary council, of which Dr. Francia, afterward sole dictator, was a member. 1812. March. The Henry Docu- ments. President Madison transmitted to congress a list of documents for which he had paid $50,000 to John Henry, who claimed to have been sent from Canada to induce leading New Englanders to re- nounce the U. S. government. Congress declared Henry's papers to be worthy of credence, in spite of the disclaimers of the British minister. A great indigrfation* prevailed throughout New England. 1812. April 4. An embargo for ninety days was laid on American ship- ping, as a war measure. 1812. April 20. George Clinton of New York, vice-president of the United States, died at Washington, D. C., at the age of seventy-three years. He was born July 26, 1739, and was fully edu- cated. He rendered eminent services during the revolutionary war, both for New York and the country at large. 1812. April 30. Louisiana was the eighteenth state to be received into the union. This state constitutes the lower portion of the great Louisiana purchase, and has a present area of 41,346 square miles, with a population in 1880 of 940,263 persons, of whom one-half are negroes. Its motto is " Union and Con- fidence." It is known as " The Creole State." 1812. June 18. War was declared against England by the United States. Hundreds of American citizens, and others claiming to be such, were seized by the English government, and com- mitted to Dartmoor prison. 1812. July 12. Gen. Hull, who was stationed at Detroit with 1,800 men, in obedience to orders, passed into Canada with the intention of capturing Fort Maiden, but owing to insufficient meas- ures, nothing was accomplished. 1812. July 17. A small garrison at Mackinaw, being ignorant of the decla- ration of war, was surprised by the Brit- ish, and forced to surrender. 1812. July 19. The U. S. frigate Constitution, under Capt. Isaac Hull, fell in with the British squadron under Com- modore Brooks, and was chased for sixty- four hours, but managed to 1812 _ Burning escape through the prodig- of MOSCOW. ious efforts of the American sailors, who, 1800-1824.] THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 431 when the wind died away, got out the small boats and towed the Constitution away from her pursuers in triumph. 1812. July. The U. S. brig Nau- tilus fell in with the same squadron, and was captured. The Nautilus was the first vessel taken on either side, after the declaration of war. 1812. July 29. The British fleet on Lake Ontario was repulsed from Sackett's Harbor by the Oneida, and an old 32 pounder stationed on shore. In one or two instances a cannon ball from the fleet striking on shore, was sent back by the American gunners with effect. 1812. July 31. A fight occurred among the " Thousand Islands " in the night, between two British vessels and two American boats. The latter accom- plished their object of getting to Ogdens- burg and taking away from that place six British merchant schooners to be converted into ships-of-war for American use. 1812. Aug. 5. Major Van Home, who was sent out by Hull from Detroit River to meet a supply party, was sur- prised and defeated by a combined force of British and Indians. 1812. Aug. 8. Col. Miller was sent out to the relief of the supply party, and having defeated a party of British and Indians, was pressing forward in pursuit, when recalled by Hull. 1812. Aug. 13. The U. S. frigate Essex captured the British brig " Alert," off the grand banks of Newfoundland, after a contest of only eight minutes. This was the first British national war vessel that was captured. 1812. Aug. 15. The evacuation of Fort Dearborn, which stood on the pres- ent site of Chicago took place, and was followed by a general massacre of the garrison upon their departure, by a body of Indians who had agreed to escort Capt. Heald and his followers in safety to Fort Wayne. The fort was destroyed. 1812. Aug. 16. The surrender of Detroit by Gen. Hull to Gen. Brock, in charge of the British force, was made while the American forces stood expect- ing the command to fire upon the enemy. Both sides were equally surprised at the white flag which Gen. Hull ordered dis- played. The surrender included the whole territory of Michigan. Gen. Hull was afterward tried for cowardice and treason. He was acquitted on the last charge, but convicted upon the first, and sentenced to be shot. He was, however, recommended for mercy by the court, and was afterward pardoned by Pres- ident Madison. 1812. Aug. 19. The U. S. frigate Constitution under Capt. Isaac Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere, under Capt. Dacres. Capt. Hull sent an officer to take possession of the Guerriere. When he arrived alongside, he demanded of the commander of the English frigate if he had struck. Dacres was extremely reluctant to make this concession in plain terms, but, with a shrewdness which would have done honor to a Yankee, endeavored to evade the question. 'I do not know that it would be prudent to continue the engage- ment any longer,' said he. 'Do I un- derstand you to say that you have struck ?' inquired the American lieutenant. ' Not precisely,' returned Dacres, ' but I don't know that it will be worth while to fight any longer.' ' If you cannot decide, I will return aboard,' replied the Yankee, aV j,. oners, remuneration for all property- taken, and renunciation of all tribute for the future. 1815. June 30. A treaty was signed by the Dey of Algiers, granting the demands of Decatur, who then sailed to Tunis and Tripoli, and secured similar humiliating conditions. The United States did what European powers had never dared to undertake, entirely abol- ished these piratical enterprises. 1815. June 30. The last shot in the war with England was fired by the U. S. vessel Peacock, under Capt. Warrington, who captured the British vessel Nautilus in the Straits of Sunda. The next day he heard of the conclusion of peace, and gave up his prize. Sixteen hundred mer- chant vessels belonging to Great Britain were taken in the three years* The American navy had gained a high repu- tation, and England admitted that a new power had appeared on the seas.< The American government expended for the war $180,000,000. RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. 1815. Sept. 23. A tremendous gale swept along the New England coast. The streets of Providence, R. I., and other coast cities were whirling torrents of water. Houses were utterly wrecked, shipping was destroyed, cattle killed, fruit trees rooted up, lives lost, and gen- eral havoc made. About eight inches of rain fell in thirty-five hours. 1815. An anti-slavery organization called the "Union Humane " society, was formed at St. Clairsville, Va., by Ben- jamin Lundy. 1815. American manufactures were fought by English traders who sent over to America large stocks of goods to be sold at auction, for any price. Lord Brougham declared in Parliament that it was worth the while to incur a loss upon the first exportations in order to stifle the rising manufactures in the Unit- ed States, which the war had forced into existence, contrary to the usual order of things." The Americans fell into the trap, and for a time large sales of Eng- lish auction goods were made in some of the large cities. The men who entered into this business were soon met by re- verses. One purchaser lost $80,000 by a single speculation. 1815. Brazil was raised by Portugal to the rank of a kingdom. John VI. be- came King of Portugal, Algarve, and Brazil. 1815. Dec. 22. Gen. Morelos, the Mexican patriot, was executed in the City of Mexico. He had been taken in battle after almost all his followers had fallen or deserted. For a time the Spaniards did not dare to advance upon him to cap- ture him, such was his personal bravery. He had been defeated in several battles, but clung to his country's cause. His piety was marked, and entered strongly into his patriotism. At his execution he offered this short prayer, " Lord, if I have done well, thou knowest it; if ill, to thy infinite mercy I commend my soul." He had great executive ability, and there was now no one to take his place. For the next few years the cause of Mexican in- dependence did not prosper much. A mere partisan warfare was the only out- ward sign. Victoria, Guerrero, Bravo, Rayon, Teran, were disposed of by de- feat which drove them into seclusion, or by execution. The cruel Gen. Calleja was a great instrument in the work of subjection. His butcheries were very many. He was greatly honored by the Spanish government. By 1820 the coun- try was comparatively quiet, and yet in- dependence was nearer than any one dreamed. 1816. April. A second United States Bank was chartered. Its capital was to be $35,000,000, of which the government was to take $7,000,000. The charter was to run twenty-five years. 1816. July 9. The United Prov- inces of La Plata, S. A., were declared independent. 1816. November. The first savings bank in America, called " The Philadel- phia Savings Fund Society," was organ- ized. Andrew Bayard was chosen pres- ident of it. It opened for business Dec. 2d. Another was founded in Boston also, which was incorporated Dec. 13, under the name " The Provident Institution for Savings." The latter received any sum amounting to $ i .00 or more, and paid in- terest on $5.00 or more. Another was soon established in New York, and in 1818 one was founded in Baltimore. 1816. Dec. 11. Indiana was the nineteenth state to be received into the union. It has an area of 33,809 square 1800-1824.] miles, and a population in 1880 of 1,978,- 358 persons. It is known as the " Hoo- sier State." 1816. December. The American Colonization Society was organized at Washington, D. C., by southern gentle- men. Its object was to colonize the free persons of color residing in the United States, in some country deemed expedient by congress. The society was favored by all pro-slavery men, and at first by anti-slavery men. But the latter soon found that the question of the moral character of slavery was not to be brought up for consideration at any time. Therefore, they fell off. The churches largely supported it. It was afterward greatly condemned by abolitionists. Libe- ria was founded on the west coast of Africa, but not very successfully at first. EIGHTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1816. In the eighth presidential cam- paign during the autumn of this year, the democrat-republicans nominated by a con- gressional caucus, James Monroe of Vir- ginia, for president, and Daniel D. Tomp- kins of New York, for vice-president. The federalists nominated Rufus King of New York, for president, and John E. Howard, for vice-president. Out of 221 electoral votes, Monroe and Tomp- kins received 183. Of the opposition, King received 34 votes, and Howard 22. The remaining votes for vice-president were scattering. The Federal party had almost ceased to exist. THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 445 1816. A lodge of Odd Fellows was instituted in New York city, under the name of Prince Regent Lodge, but this, like the attempt in 1806, soon failed. 1816. The first U. S. Ship-of-the- line ever launched, was buiit at Ports- mouth, N. H., and was named " The Washington." It was of 2,000 tons bur- den, and carried 74 guns. 1816. First Remington Rifle. Mr. Eliphalet Remington, who lived on Steel's Creek, near Rochester, N. Y., made a rifle barrel in an ordinary black- smith's shop, for his own use. A gun- maker in Utica was engaged to finish it, and he was so pleased with Mr. Reming- ton's skill and success, that he induced him to forge more. Very soon the blacksmith shops in the vicinity were busy making rifle barrels. From this a business grew up. In 1829 Mr. Rem- ington erected a factory at Ilion, and since then he and his sons have greatly improved the firearms of the country. The Remington Breechloader is one of the leading rifles of the world. 1816. Gas was introduced into several places as a means of illumination. A method of obtaining it from stone coal had been patented. A company was chartered in Baltimore, which was the first to put the new method into practice. An introduction of it in New York was made, and toward the close of the year the new theater at Philadelphia was lighted with it. It was proposed to light the streets of Cincinnati with it. This was not, however, the beginning of suc- cessful use of gas. The great start in it was a few years later. 1816. An electric telegraph was proposed by Dr. John Rodman Coxe, professor of chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, who suggested that signals be transmitted " by the decompo- sition of water and metallic salts, where- by a change of color would be produced." 1816. The Red River colonists who had settled in Manitoba under the Hud- son Bay Company, were broken up and 446 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. driven out, by the Northwest Company. Gov. Semple was murdered. The hos- tility between the two companies was very great. This was only one quarrel out of many. The Northwest Company ruled the entire Rocky Mountain region. 1816. A negro insurrection occurred in Barbadoes. 1816. Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, was captured by the Portu- guese. 1816. Simon Bolivar was publicly proclaimed commander-in-chief of the republics of Venezuela, and also New Grenada. 1816. Guadeloupe, the most impor- tant of the French islands in the Leeward group, was finally restored to that nation. 1817. Feb. 12. Struggle in Chili. Gen. San Martin, governor of a province of Buenos Ayres, having marched into Chili with an army which had been raised in La Plata, defeated at Chacabuco, the royalists who had governed the country since 1813. An elective govern- ment was organized, and Don Bernardo O'Higgins was made president. The patriots were afterward severely defeated. 1817. Feb. 16. A severe battle was fought at Barcelona, in which Bolivar, with eleven hundred men, defeated the Spanish forces under Gen. Morillo, after three days' fighting. 1817. March 4. James Monroe of Virginia, was inaugurated president of the United States, and Daniel D. Tomp- kins of New York, vice-president. Monroe soon made a tour through the country, and what has since been known as the " era of good feeling " began. 1817. March 26. A provisional constitution was promulgated in the United Provinces of La Plata, by a con- gress. Gen. Puyerredon was named dictator. Buenos Ayres was made the seat of government. 1817. April 15. The first asylum for deaf mutes in America was opened at Hartford, Conn., under the direction of Rev. T. H. Gallandet, who had traveled in Europe to obtain the necessary infor- mation. There were seven pupils at first, but the number soon increased. A charter for a school in New York was given on this same day of the opening of the Hartford school. Other institutions were started in several states before many years. 1817. April 15. Erie Canal. The legislature of New York passed an act making an appropriation for the Erie canal. On July 4 work was begun at Rome. The estimated cost was $5,752,- 738. The actual cost was $8,401,394. 1817. Nov. 11. Don Xavier Mina, a famous Spanish guerilla chief, was executed in Mexico at the age of twenty- eight years. He had landed in^Mexico, and with about two hundred men had sev- eral times defeated the Spanish troops sent against him. Once he overcame a force of two thousand men. Pushing on into the interior, he reached Guanajuato and took it by storm, but at a critical moment his troops refused to go beyond. In a few days Mina was taken, and executed. 1817. Dec. 10. Mississippi was the twentieth state to be received into the union. It has an area of 47,156 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 1,145,- 899 persons, of whom about fifty-six per cent, are negroes. 1817. First Seminole War. Indian troubles began upon the Florida frontiers, with the Creeks and Seminoles of Geor- gia and Alabama. Generals Gaines and Jackson led troops into those regions. The Seminoles made a practice of raid- 1800-1824.] ing on U. S. property, and then retreating to their hiding places in Florida. They had killed many victims, and once a force of U. S. troops was massacred. It was a delicate matter, because Florida then belonged to Spain. At last the matter became so serious that the government deemed it necessary to pursue them. 1817. United States Coast Survey. Mr. F. R. Hassler having been appointed to superintend the coast survey which had been ordered by congress ten years before, began his work by measuring a base line on the Hudson River, near New York city, for use in triangulating New York harbor. The work was soon discontinued for various reasons, and nothing more was done until 1832. 1817. Slavery was to be abolished in New York state after July 4, 1827, ac- cording to an act which was passed by the legislature. 1817. The Columbian Press, the first great improvement in printing presses, Ian. Public was invented by George schools estab- Clymer of Philadelphia. 2ts/ied in Russia. T , i_ j It was a hand press upon the combination lever principle, and would print two hundred and fifty im- pressions an hour. 1817. A body of patriots, under Piar, a man of colored blood, drove the Span- iards from Guiana. The Spaniards also evacuated New Grenada and Venezuela, but the provinces were not yet secure. 1818. March. Gen. Jackson invaded Florida because it was thought that the Spanish had furnished the Indians with supplies. He took possession of St. Mark's and Pensacola. This was the only way the hostile Indians could be reached. Gen. Jackson seized and exe- cuted two Englishmen, named Arbuth- not and Ambrister, as being leaders of THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 447 The the Indians in their depredations. Indians now sued for peace. 1818. April 4. The United States Flag. A bill passed congress providing that the stripes upon the U. S. flag should be permanently reduced to thirteen, and that a new star should be added to the field at the admission of every state. 1818. April 5. Independence of Chili. The battle of Maypu, in Chili, was fought, and the Spaniards were over- thrown by the patriots, with great loss. The independence of the province was obtained by this contest, after several years' severe struggle. This battle virtu- ally decided the independence of Buenos Ayres and Peru likewise. 1818. Dec. 3. Illinois was the twen- ty-first state to be received into the union. It has an area of 55,410 square miles. In 1880 it had a population of 3,078,736 persons. Its motto is, "State Sover- eignty and National Union." It is known as the Sucker State. 1818. Slavery was finally and fully abolished in Connecticut. 1818. The slave trade was declared to be piracy, by congress. 1818. The instruction of idiot chil- dren was attempted at the American asylum for the deaf and dumb at Hart- ford, Conn. 1818. The first newspaper for the promotion of agriculture, named " The American Farmer," was established by John S. Skinner of Baltimore. 1818. The first steamer for trade on the great lakes, was " The Walk in the Water," of 360 tons, built at Black Rock, N. Y. It was lost in a gale in 1822. It was the first steamer to enter Lake Michigan. 1818. Arctic Voyage. Two vessels were sent out by the English govern- 448 REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES. ment to search for the Northwest passage. The Isabella was commanded by Capt. John Ross, and the Alexander by Lieut. William E. Parry. They were ordered to go up Davis' Straits, and sail west in the hope of reaching Behring's Strait. The proposed course was followed, but at a certain point on Lancaster Sound, Capt. Ross was deceived by an appar- ent range of mountains closing up the passage in the far off distance ahead, and ordered a return, much to the displeasure of some of his officers, who felt sure that it was what it has since been proved to have been, an atmospheric delusion. They were upon the right track, and if they had gone on, they might perhaps have solved the problem, even at that early day. 1818. The shoe peg was invented by Joseph Walker of Hopkinton, Mass. Its IBIS. Percussion use na d not been known be- lock invented. f ore this date, and the intro- duction of it gave a great impulse to the manufacture of boots and shoes. Noth- ing but sewed work had been previously made. The price and quantity were both much affected by this little thing. Pegs were at first made by hand, and after- ward by machinery, except in the case of country shoemakers, who followed up the former practice till within recent years. It may be that some still do it. There is a tradition in New England that designing speculators tried to sell pegs to the farmers as a new kind of oats for seed. This will do to put with the story about the fortunes which peddlers have made from the sale of the Connecticut wooden nutmeg. The invention of the peg has been followed by the invention of the " P e gg m g machine." 1818. An improved organ was pat- ented by A. M. Peasley. This is the foundation of American invention in that direction. It did not at first make the in- strument popular. It was about a third of a century before the art of voicing reeds was discovered by Mr. Emmons Hamlin, who was at work in the organ factory of Prince & Co., Buffalo, N. Y. Mr. Ham- lin afterward formed a partnership with Henry Mason, son of Dr. Lowell Mason, and founded the house of Mason & Hamlin. 1818. The first public horse-race in America was trotted as the result of an assertion in New York that there was no horse which could trot a mile in three minutes. The opposite was maintained by Major William Jones of Long Island, and Col. Bond of Maryland, and they brought forward a horse which did it, and became widely known as " Boston Blue." Races and trotting courses soon multi- plied. Most of the horses put forward were those which had been noted in their ordinary work for superior qualities. The practice of breeding for speed is of more recent date. 1818. Foreign trade was for the first time allowed to Cuba, and opened to her a new prosperity. 1819. Feb. 15. Simon Bolivar called a congress at Angostura, and soon found himself at the head of an army of 14,000 men, with aid and soldiers from England, France, Germany, and Poland. FLORIDA PURCHASE. 1819. Feb. 22. Florida and the ad- jacent islands were ceded by Spain to the United States for the sum of $5,000,000. The United States agreed to abandon all territory beyond the Sabine River, now the state of Texas, and Spain agreed to relinquish all territory north of latitude 42, from the source of the Arkansas to 1800-1824] the Pacific. This purchase added nom- inally 66,900 square miles to the 1,720,- 259 already secured, making 1,787,159 square miles in all. The abandonment of Texas, which had been in the Louisiana Purchase from France, diminished the total somewhat. 1819. Feb. 24. Bolivar began his great march across the Andes, after which he gained the supremacy in New Gre- nada, and secured the independence of that province. 1819. April 26. The first perma- nent lodge of Odd Fellows in the United States was formed at Baltimore, Mel., by Thomas Wildey and four friends, who had been members in England. The organization was called Washington Lodge, No. i. 1819. June 26. A velocipede was patented by William K. Clarkson, Jr., of New York. It was propelled by push- ing the feet against the ground. 1819. July. The first lithographic printing in America was exhibited in the Analectic Magazine, and was the work of a Mr. Otis of Philadelphia. The stone used was from Munich, where the art originated. 1819. Aug. 30. A great land trip was undertaken through the northern por- tions of the American continent, by Lieut. Franklin and Dr. Richardson, accom- panied by some Canadians and Indians. The object was to explore the shores of the Polar Sea. The first winter was spent at Fort Cumberland, and the next at Fort Enterprise, seven hundred miles beyond. In the summer of 1821 the party reached the mouth of the Copper- mine River, and in boats explored several hundred miles of the coast to the east. Their provisions and canoes at last failed, THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 449 and they were obliged to return over- land. During the horrors of this journey they ate the bones of animals which had been left by the wolves, and even old shoes. From the Coppermine they pushed on to Fort Enterprise, where they ex- pected to meet some supplies. In this they were disappointed, and it was not till after several weeks of suffering and famine, during which some of the party died, that they obtained relief at last. The next year they returned to England. 1819. Dec. 17. The republic of Colombia, S. A., was formed by the union of Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Grenada. Bolivar, who had secured the independence of these provinces, was now made president. 1819. Dec. 14. Alabama was the twenty-second state to be admitted into the union. It lies on the Gulf of Mexi- co with a territory of 50,722 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 1,262,344 per- sons. The name signifies " Here we rest." 1819. A polar expedition, composed of the Hecla, under the command of William E. Parry, and the Griper, under Lieut. Matthew Liddon, was directed to explore Lancaster Sound. They passed along where Ross thought the mountains were, discovered Wellington channel, and by reaching 110 west longitude, were entitled to the royal bounty of 5,000, offered to any one who would penetrate that distance. They settled down for cold weather at Winter Harbor, and housed themselves so that they lived very comfortably. They suffered some- what, however, from the intense cold during the ten months while they were imprisoned. They held a school, and Parry established a "North Georgian theater" and 'a "North Georgian Ga- 450 RE VOL UTIONAR T S TR UGGLES . zette," each of which gave much life to their efforts at entertainment, and helped everybody to retain healthful spirits. In the spring, their attempts to go west were prevented by the ice, and they therefore sailed for England, where they arrived in November, 1820. They were highly honored in England, for this was the first really brilliant voyage in Arctic discovery. Parry afterward made two voyages to the same region, but without finding the long-sought passage. 1819. The first foot-path to the sum- mit of Mt. Washington, was cut through by Abel Crawford and his son Ethan. The latter was the first to build after- ward a little hut on the summit, in which visitors could be sheltered. It was made of stones, and was supplied with moss and hemlock boughs upon which to sleep, a small stove to warm the place, and a sheet of lead on which visitors could inscribe their names. These were all swept away in the terrible Willey storm of 1826. 1819. First Steam Voyage Across the Atlantic. The Savannah, an Amer- ican vessel built at Corlear's Hook, N. Y., by Crocker and Fickitt, of 380 tons burden, with side wheels, made the first trip by steam across the Atlantic, sailing from the United States to Eng- land, and thence to St. Petersburgh. She started from New York, and went to Savannah, Ga. At Liverpool she made a great sensation, being mistaken at one time for a vessel on fire. Canvas was used during the last part of the voyage, because the engine had consumed all the coal which could be carried, in about twelve days out. There was no room for cargo when she was stored with coal. She was sent across to be sold to the Czar of Russia, but it was not accom- plished. $50,000 were lost on this voy- age. Capt. Moses Rogers, who had commanded the Clermont, was in charge of her. Lord Lyndock gave Capt. Rogers an inscribed silver tea-kettle. The Savannah was afterward turned into a sailing vessel. 1819. The first apprentice's library in America was founded in Philadelphia by voluntary contribution. 1819. An improved plow was pat- ented by Jethro Wood, whose invention was so valuable that it rapidly came into use, and has served as the basis of mod- ern plows. Mr. Wood had patented an improvement five years before, and is in fact the one to whom the world is in- debted for modern plows. 1819. A duel was fought on an island in Boston harbor, between Lieut. Fran- cis B. White of the marine corps, and Lieut. William B. Finch of the U. S. navy. Lieut. White was killed, and Lieut. Finch afterward assumed the name of Bolton. 1819. A duel was fought near Wash- ington, D. C., between Gen. Armistead T. Mason, U. S. senator from Virginia, and John M. McCarty. The dispute was a political one. Muskets were used in the encounter. Gen. Mason was killed, and Mr. McCarty's arm was broken. 1819. Com. Perry was sent into West India waters to break, up the expe- ditions of pirates. The death of Perry prevented success. 1819. The island of Cape Breton was re-annexed to the government of Nova Scotia. 1819. The financial distress of the country was now very great. It resulted from various causes. Money was taken out of the country by the excess of im- 1800-1824.] portations over exportations. The paper currency had depreciated in value fifty- nine per cent. American staples began to decline in foreign markets. Cot- ton and breadstuff's declined fifty per cent. A general business stagnation followed, bearing very heavily upon man- ufactures in Rhode Island, New York, and Pennsylvania. Rents and real es- tate suffered enormously. Persons were thrown out of employment, and had little to live upon. Congress began to be pe- titioned and memorialized very exten- sively in regard to tariffand trade matters. 1820. Jan. 20. Irregular Form Lathe. Thomas Blanchard patented his celebrated lathe for turning irregular forms of any kind, such as shoe-lasts, spokes, and mould blocks of all kinds. This is one of the great inventions of the century. MISSOURI COMPROMISE. 1820. The slavery question of recent years had been brought up in congress by the application of Missouri during 1818 to be made a state. The petition was then refused by the vote of the free states against the slave states, on an amendment forbidding slavery within it. During this year the application was re- newed, and was at once connected with a similar application made by Maine, in order that both might stand or fall to- gether. This was especially so in the senate. The house had voted to admit Maine and Missouri, with a prohibition of slavery. The house rejected the senate bill which admitted Maine and Missouri with slavery. Then came the famous tug of war in which Henry Clay and others used all their power to secure the compromise which was adopted. It was determined that Maine and Mis- THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. ' 451 souri should be voted on separately; also that slavery should be permitted in Mis- souri, but forever prohibited in all U. S. territory north of latitude 36, 30'. Both states were then admitted. This was the first great legislative struggle over slavery. 1820. Doughfaces. This name was ap- plied by Edmund Randolph of Virginia, to those slavery supporters who voted for the Missouri Compromise. Thirty-five southerners voted against it, claiming that congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories. The term has since been applied to northern men with southern principles. 1820. March 15. Maine was the twenty-third state to be admitted to the union. It has an area of 31,766 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 648,- 945 persons. It is known as the Pine Tree State, and its motto is " Dirigo," " I direct." 1820. March 22. Stephen Decatur, Jr., an American naval officer of great repute, because of his gallantry in the operations against the North African states, was killed in a duel at Bladens- burg, Md., by Com. James Barren. He was born Jan. 5, 1779, and was conse- quently forty-one years of age. The terrible crime of dueling, upheld by a false sense of honor, received in him another shining victim. Decatur had a splendid mansion in Washington, within whose walls he had begun to live in great happiness since his naval life closed. The swords which had been bestowed upon him by congress, by the states of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and by the city of Philadelphia ; the services of plate from the citizens of Baltimore and Philadelphia; the medal received 452 REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES. from congress; the box containing the freedom of the city of New York, and the medal of the Order of the Cincin- nati, were all there to attest his bravery. Yet he must fall in a duel, else that bravery would be forever doubted by many. The night before the duel a brilliant gathering took place at his home, in which Mrs. Decatur, all uncon- scious of her coming woe, delighted the guests by her playing on the harp. De- catur himself joined in the festivities with great apparent joy. The next morning he was brought back to his devoted wife mortally wounded, and died at night. Com. Barren was severely, but not fatally wounded. The duel had its ori- gin in a discussion about the Chesapeake and Leopard affair, Barron having been commander of the former at the time when she was fired upon by the Leopard. DtiXIEL BOONS. 1820. Sept. 26. Daniel Boone, the noted explorer, hunter and pioneer, died at Charette, Mo., at the age of eighty- five years. He was born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, Feb. 1 1, 1735, and lived a life full of romantic adventure. His parents came from England and settled in Pennsylvania, where Daniel received only the skeleton of an educa- tion. They then removed to the province of North Carolina, where they settled near the Yadkin. Little was then known of the " Dark and Bloody Ground." Some years afterward Boone, with his comrades, penetrated the eastern part of Kentucky, and in 1 769 he made a three years' adventure into the western wilder- ness. It was indeed an adventure, as he and his companions, among whom was his brother, were captured several times by the Indians. At one time Boone was left in the forest with only his rifle as a means of support. But his rifle was his delight. In 1773 he attempted a settle- ment on the Kentucky River, but was compelled to abandon it, on account of the hostility of the Indians. In 1775, just at the outbreak of the Revolution, he took his family and a few friends, and went forward to found Boonesboroughu the first settlement in Kentucky. He had been engaged by the Transylvania company to lay out lands in Kentucky. In a mission for the settlement he was captured by the Indians, and carried to Detroit. Thence he escaped after a time, and by a rapid journey reached Boones- borough in time to warn them of an in- tended Indian attack. During this cap- tivity he was given up for dead by his family. Within twenty years from the founding of Boonesborough, Kentucky was admitted to the union as a state. His neglect to conform to the laws concerning titles in some sections of the new common- wealth, caused him to forfeit his beautiful estate. With some of his old followers he again started out for the west, and removed beyond the Mississippi. In Missouri he failed also to make his title good to the land he had been appointed. He ex- plored the Arkansas, and in 1814, at about eighty years of age, trapped beavers on the Great Osage. Congress now con- firmed his claim to a tract of land, because of his great value as an explorer. His remains now lie at Frankfort, Ky., whither they were publicly removed in 1845. His name is that of the represent- ative pioneer of his time. 1820. Nov. 13. The whaleship Essex of Nantucket was lost by a collision with an immense whale. A young whale had been killed by the boats of the ship, and 1800-1824] a large one, apparently its dam, soon made an entrance on the scene. At first it dashed for the ship and rushed against it, breaking off a portion of the false keel. After endeavoring to grip the ship in its jaws it swam off a great distance, and then turning, dashed with wonderful power and velocity against the bows of the Essex. Every man on board was knocked down, the ship was pushed astern, the bows was stove in, and the vessel soon filled and keeled over. NINTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1820. In the ninth presidential cam- paign, during the autumn of this year, there were nq nominations made. No opposition was made to the election of Monroe and Tompkins, except in a very mo-mo. slight way. They carried every state. The readjust- tnent or parties was now on the point of taking place. Out of 235 electoral votes Monroe received 231. One elector refused to vote for him, but threw his ballot for John Q. Adams, and three electors had died. Tompkins re- ceived for vice-president 218 votes. The other fourteen were scattering. THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 453 King of Eng- 1820. The fourth census of the United States gave a population of 9,633,- 822 persons, and was taken at a cost of $208,525.99. There was an attempt to obtain some industrial statistics, but with- out much success. There had been an increase in the population since 1810 of 33.06 per cent. 182O. William Bennett was hung in Illinois for having shot Alphonso Stewart in a duel in Belleville, St. Clair county. " The seconds agreed to make it up as a sham affair, and leave balls out of the weapons to be used. They did so. Stewart was supposed to be in -the secret, but Bennett thought it to be a reality. When Bennett took his gun he rolled a real ball into it, and when he fired Stewart fell, mortally wounded. Bennett was convicted of murder. Great effort was made to procure a pardon, but Gov. Bond would not listen to it. This case made dueling forever discreditable in Illinois." It is the only case in the coun- try where a man has been hung for kill- ing another in a duel. 182O. Frances Wright, a Scotch woman, visited the U nited States and lec- tured extensively upon political questions, slavery, and woman. 1820. Petroleum was discovered by men who were boring for salt in Ohio. They made no use of it except in a small way, although it was known to burn well. 1820. Improved Eotary Sawing Machine. A patent for a circular saw which would cut clapboards out of the log, was given to Robert Eastman and J. Jaquith of Brunswick, Me. The in- vention soon came into general use. "It was the first application of the circular saw to the dressing of large sized timber, and the cutting of clapboards, shingles, etc." 1820. Ice began to be sent to New Orleans by Frederick Tudor of Boston, and it is said that the inhabitants were so alarmed by the strange material that a mob collected and threw one entire cargo into the water. Yellow fever was raging at the time. 1820. The Chilians defeated the Spaniards in a naval battle in the harbor of Callao. 1820. The port of Valdivia, Chili, was surrendered by the Spaniards. 1821. Feb. 24. Second Mexican 454 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES. Revolution. Under the influence of af- fairs in Spain, Don Augustin Iturbide, a native Mexican officer, having made efforts to begin a revolution, proclaimed Mexico independent, with a plan of gov- ernment which would make it a constitu- tional monarchy. His work was success- ful in arousing the people, and he shortly had the whole country at his command. The plan contemplated the offer of the throne to a Spaniard, and has been known as the " Plan of Iguala." 1821. Feb. 26. A constitution for Brazil was proclaimed by John VI. 1821. March 4. James Monroe of Virginia, was inaugurated president of the United States, and Daniel D. Tomp- kins of New York, vice-president. 1821. April. A revolution in Brazil began after the departure of the King of Portugal for Europe. 1821. May. Troy Female Institute. Mrs. Emma Willard removed the school which she had opened two years before for girls, at Waterford, N. Y., to Troy, where she could have the free use of a building. The institution afterward be- came very successful. 1821. July 19. All slaves bearing arms in the war for the freedom of the province, were emancipated by Colom- bia, S. A., and steps were taken to pro- vide for the liberation of the others, amounting to 280,000. 1821. July 21. Peru was declared independent, as the result of an invasion by Gen. San Martin, with a force from Chili and the Argentine Republic. He had liberated Chili, and was now made dictator of Peru. 1821. Aug. 10. Missouri was the twenty-fourth state to be received into the union. It has an area of 65,350 square miles, and a population in 1 880, of 2,169,091 inhabitants. The motto of the state is " Salus populi suprema lex esto." "Let the safety of the people be the supreme law." 1821. Aug. 24. Treaty of Cordova. A treaty was concluded by Iturbide with the new Spanish viceroy, by which the indepenJence of Mexico was to be ac- knowledged by Spain. 1821. Sept. 27. The City of Mexico was received by Iturbide from the Span- ish viceroy in accordance with the treaty, and a regency was established with Itur- bide at its head, and the viceroy, Don Juan O'Donoju, a member of it. Itur- bide had gained considerable power, but without really harmonizing the different elements. He was elected generalissimo,, with a salary of $120,000. 1821. Nov. 30. Spanish authority was again thrown off by the eastern half of Hayti. 1821. November. The provinces of Central America threw off the authority of Spain, and were annexed to Mexico, except San Salvador and a part of Nica- ragua, which resisted Mexican authority. In a great part of Central America the revolution was effected without much bloodshed. The greatest convulsion was in Nicaragua. Leon was nearly de- stroyed. 1821. Uruguay was seized by the Portuguese this year, and annexed to Brazil. 1821. A democratic form of govern- ment was instituted in Buenos Ayres, upon the ruins of the directory, which had been overthrown. 1821. An anti-slavery periodical called the " Genius of Universal Eman- cipation," was issued as a monthly at Mt. Pleasant, Ohio, by Benjamin Lundy, who, about this time, began his long 1800-1824.] course of Opposition to slave-holding. 1821. Napoleon He isSUed his P a P er at /. died at st. Jonesboro, Tenn., and at Baltimore, Md., at different times. At one time he edited it as he traveled through the north to lecture, and hired printers in the towns where he happened to be stopping, to strike off his edition. He was one of the pioneers in issuing anti-slavery periodicals, and in lecturing against slavery. The doctrine of immediate and unconditional emanci- pation began now to be proclaimed far and wide. The prevalent idea among all thinkers previous to this, was that emancipation must be gradual. 1821. The remains of Major Andre were removed from the United States to Westminster Abbey, and an elegant monument was erected to his memory. 1821. A duel occurred between Geo. L. Wetmore and George F. Street, in New Brunswick, near Fredericton, the capital. Both were lawyers, and had had some difficulty in court. Wetmore was killed, and Street was afterward tried for murder, but was acquitted. 1821. Union of Rival Fur Compa- nies. After much competition and a great many quarrels, the Hudson Bay Company and the Northwest Company of Canada, were united under the former name. They had been unable to pay dividends for several years, and therefore were obliged to give up their warfare. In a few years they now began payments again. 1821. A grass which grew in the Connecticut valley was first used for hats and bonnets by Miss Sophia Woodhouse of Wethersfield, Conn. She sent speci- mens of the grass to the Society of Arts at London, where it was received with great favor on account of its similarity to THE AWAKENED CONTINENT. 455 leghorn. The society advised the cul- ture of the grass. 1821. Morgan Horses. Justin Mor- gan, the ancestor of the celebrated breed of Morgan horses in America, died from a kick received from another horse in a barnyard. He was twenty-nine years old. 1821. An improvement in railways was patented by Charles Williams of Boston. This was the first of the kind. Mr. Williams published an article in 1845, claiming that in J 8i7 he had in- vented a railway for removing dirt, and about the same time had "planned a small engine in Boston to use steam, and there- fore to have been the first to apply steam to railroads, the first locomotive of Stephenson having been copied from his invention." 1821. The great financial distress prevailed very severely, west of the Alle- gheny Mountains. Banks had suspended or failed, and all kinds of business were suffering. Farmers were unable to pay their debts. They were mostly indebted to the U. S. government under the land laws of 1800. The farmers had been unable to make ready money beyond their family expenses, to secure their title. The debts from these men and from spec- ulators who had bought large tracts of land and been unable to pay for them, had been increasing for twenty years. Money was not to be had, even by sale. The debt due the government at western land offices in 1820 was over $2 2, 000,000. Relief was granted by an action on the part of congress allowing portions of land to be given up, and the money paid over to be applied on the remainder to save it. The price of land was also re- duced to $1.25, and lots of eighty acres were offered, which still further brought 456 RE VOL UTIONAR T STR UGGLES . relief. The whole season was one of great distress, and threatened bankruptcy. 1822. February. A Mexican con- gress assembled in the City "of Mexico to consider the national affairs. But differ- ences were at once apparent, and trouble resulted, especially because the plan of Iguala had not met with favor in Spain. JOHN STARK. 1822. May 8. John Stark, who is most popularly known as the hero of the battle of Bennington, which set a very stern limit to Burgoyne's invasion, died at Manchester, N. H., aged ninety- three years. He was born at London- derry, N. H., Aug. 28, 1728. His younger years were spent in pursuits which toughened him to hardships. Hunting and Indian warfare were his educators. In 1756 he was made captain of a band of rangers, under Maj. Rogers. In this capacity his great physical strength and untiring spirit made him a great bur- den to the Indians. He walked one hun- dred and twenty miles with messages which he would not trust to his men. He fought two battles within thirty-six hours, in snow four feet deep. Within ten minutes after he heard of the battle of Lexington and Concord, he was starting off from his New Hamp- shire saw-mill, on horseback, for Boston. In 1776 and 1777 he did good service with his regiment around New York, and in the New Jersey campaign. He then returned to New Hampshire to raise a new regiment, but in the meantime congress made some promotions with seeming neglect of him, and he withdrew from the continental service. But he had a nobler heart than Arnold, and sent all his sons off to battle for the right. At Benninston he took the field himself. Men fought that day with a desperation seldom seen. Gen. Stark was subse- quently put in command of the northern department, and afterward served in Rhode Island and New Jersey. He did not have a particle of cowardice in his heart, or of impurity in his character. 1822. May 19. Empire of Mexico. On account of the reaction from the idea of a foreign sovereign to that of a native on the throne, the adherents of Iturbide proclaimed him emperor, with great ex- citement, under the title of Augustin I. He soon began the exercise of arbitrary power, and excited great opposition. 1822. May 22. The province of Ecuador, S. A., after years of appar- ently useless effort, obtained indepen- dence by the decisive battle of Pichincha. The territory became a part of the re- public of Colombia till 1831. 1822. Oct. 12. Brazil was declared an independent empire. 1822. Dec. 1. Dom Pedro, son of King John of Portugal, was crowned Emperor of Brazil. 1822. Dec. 2. Republic of Mexico. On account of the usurpa- f T i i tion of Iturbide, the patriots who had been in retirement 1832 - Greek Rev- , olution. gathered together and pro- claimed the Republic of Mexico at Vera Cruz, under the leadership of Santa Anna. Bravo, Guerrero and others, came forward to renew the struggle. The followers of Iturbide began to grow dis- affected. 1822. Dec. 2. The congress of San Salvador, one of the provinces of Central America, formally decreed that province annexed to the United States. But Itur- bide, the Mexican emperor, fell before the U. S. congress could act on it, and al- William 1800-1824.] most immediately the Central American confederation was formed, with the city of San Salvador as capital. Hence the other plan came to nothing. 1822. The independence of Mexico and the South American republics was formally recognized by the United States. 1822. The whole of Hayti, W. I., was now united under one government by Boyer, a chieftain of the western portion. 1822. A destructive earthquake visited Chili, permanently elevating a hundred thousand square miles of land from two to seven feet above its old level. 1822. A public library was founded in Lima, Peru, under the independent government. 1822. The process of lithography was for the first time carried on as a busi- ness in the United States by Barnet and Doolittle, in New York. They did not accomplish much for several years, owing to the lack of competent artists. 1822. The introduction of gas which was first permanently successful for light- ing purposes, was made at Boston. 1822. The Champlain canal was finished, and connected the Hudson at Albany with Lake Champlain. 1822. The east coast of Greenland was examined quite thoroughly by Scoresby. The rugged surface seemed to him to be majestic, and he named the mountains Roscoe. He found a few species of small plants among the rocks. Insects were also discovered, but no birds on the land. 1823. Feb. 1. Act of Casa Mata. Iturbide signed an agreement to call to- gether the old Mexican national repre- sentative congress which he had dispersed since his assumption of extreme power. 1823. March 19. Iturbide abdicated THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 457 the position of emperor of Mesico be- cause he saw that unless he did so, there would be a terrible civil war. The old congress was now in session, and would not allow him to have any right in the government. They intimated, however, that he would be allowed to depart from the country, and he soon left for Europe. Congress appointed an executive power of four generals. 1823. June 7. The Bunker Hill Monument Association was established by an act of the Massachusetts legislature. It was composed of celebrated citizens of Boston, and other places, who thought that some enduring memorial should be erected. The idea originated chiefly with William Tudor. Twenty-six per- sons composed the society at its organiza- tion. 1823. October. A mahogany tree was cut in British Honduras, weighing over seven tons. It was sent to Liverpool and had cost when landed, -375. It sold for .525, and cost for sawing, 750 more. Its total cost to last owner was 1,275. MONROE DOCTRINE. 1823. December. President Monroe enunciated the famous doctrine since known by his name. The United States had now recognized the independence of South American states, and did not wish to have European powers longer attempt- ing to subdue portions of the American continent. The doctrine is as follows: " That we should consider any attempt on the pari of European powers to extend their system to any portion of this hemi- sphere as dangerous to our peace and safety," and " that we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppress- ing or controlling American governments or provinces in any other light than as a 458 REVOLUTION ART STRUGGLES. manifestation by European powers of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." This doctrine immediately af- fected the course of foreign governments, and has become the approved sentiment of the United States. 1823. A federal union was formed by the provinces of Central America. The confederation was not completed for some months, during which a consti- tution very similar to that of the United States, was adopted. The title taken was " The United Provinces of Central lass. First man- America." But two parties ^factory in speedily appeared, as in the ' experience of the United States, the one in favor of a centralized government, and the other in favor of delegating no power to the central gov- ernment. Difficulties, collisions, and even bloodshed, began to appear. The five Central American states, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, San Salvador and .Costa Rica, have never yet been able to form any permanently united government. 1823. The independence of Colom- bia, S. A., was recognized by Spain. 1823. Gen. O'Higgins, dictator of Chili, resigned because of popular move- ments which seemed to threaten the peace of the country. 1823. Great Conspiracy in Cuba. An attempt was made to organize an uprising in Cuba, under the name Soles de Bolivar, from the fact that Bolivar had agreed to engage in it. It failed through the treachery of a leader. Arrests were speedily made, and many banishments and imprisonments took place. 1823. The West India pirates were successfully overwhelmed by a fleet under Com. Perry. This was a work which was done once for all. The United States added greatly by it to their naval renown. 1823. The first teachers' seminary in the United States was opened at Con- cord, Vt., by Rev. S. R. Hill. 1823. The " Society for the Refor- mation of Juvenile Delinquents," the first of the kind in America, was incorporated by the state of New York. 1824. Jan. 8. Mrs. Adams' Ball " was given in Washington, D. C., by Mrs. John Q. Adams, whose husband was secretary of state, in commemoration of Gen. Jackson's victory at New Orleans, The occasion is said to have had a bear- ing on the political fortunes of candidates for the presidency. It was long remem- bered in Washington. 1824. Feb. 10. Bolivar was made dictator of Peru in place of Gen. San Martin, who had resigned. 1824. July 13. The importation of slaves was forbidden by the Mexican congress, and all who should land in the republic were declared free. 1824. July 19. Execution of Itur- bide. Iturbide, having returned to Mex- ico in disguise, was detected, arrested, and shot this day at Padilla. His end was speedier than he had ventured to think. His widow resided for a long time in Philadelphia, and one of his sons was adopted as heir to the throne by Max- imilian during the latter's sad and foolish attempt to establish a monarchy in Mexico. 1824. Aug. 6. The Spaniards were defeated at Junin, in Peru, by Generals, Bolivar and Sucre. 1824. Aug. 15. Marquis de Lafay- ette arrived in New York on a visit to the United States, at the request of con- gress. He spent about one year in the 1800-1824.] country, and was everywhere received with great demonstrations of respect and affection. He visited and entered the tomb of Washington, where he was overcome with emotion. He passed hastily through all the states of the union, and visited the largest cities. 1824. Aug. 16. Charles Thomson, LL. D., of Philadelphia, who served as secretary of the continental congress from its organization in 1774 till its expi- ration in 1 789, died at Lower Merion at the age of ninety-five years. He came to America from Ireland when a mere 1824-1830 boy, and acquired a good Charles x. King education. His heart beat *f France. . j .,, ,, , in accord with the resist- ance to parliamentary power, and by his influential efforts in behalf of liberty, he has been called the " Samuel Adams of Philadelphia." He was an efficient sec- retary, and was the only one which the continental congress appointed during its fifteen years of existence. He also had literary tendencies and ability, being widely known as the author of several works. 1824. Oct. 4. First Real Mexican Constitution. The Mexican congress promulgated a constitution very similar to that of the United States, establishing the republic of Mexico, which was to consist of nineteen states and five terri- tories. This was the first constitution adopted by the whole country. The constitution of Morelos, in 1814, was re- ceived by only a part. The constitution of 1824 was in substance re-adopted in 1857. The eminent patriot, Guadeloupe Victoria, was chosen president, and Gen. Bravo vice-president. 1824. Nov. 18. The fortress of San Juan de Ulloa, in the harbor of Vera Cruz, Mexico, surrendered to the repub- THE A WAKENED CONTINENT. 459 lie. It was the last spot in Mexico where the Spanish flag waved. SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 1824. Dec. 9. The battle of Aya- cucho was fought in Peru, between a Spanish force of 9,310, under Gen. La~ serna, and a patriot force of 5,780, under Gen. Sucre. The former were totally routed, and lost 2,600 men. The Ameri- can loss was 1,000. This was the deci- sive battle in all the contest of South American republics with Spain, and vir- tually secured them in their independence. 1824. December. Gift to Lafayette. Congress voted Lafayette $200,000 and a township of land as some slight return for his efforts in behalf of American liberty. 1824. The first manufacture of pins by machinery was begun in England under a patent obtained by Wellman Wright of the United States. TENTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1824. The famous scrub race for the presidency has made the tenth presiden- tial campaign of the United States a marked event in political history. Divis- ions appeared among the people, and the unity of the last election was no longer apparent. A congressional caucus was called by the friends of William H. Crawford of Georgia. Out of the 216 democrat-republicans in congress, only 66 attended, and all but two voted for Mr. Crawford. The other members of congress refused to abide by this nomina- tion, or by any other that could be pre- sented. It became a personal contest. Four candidates for president were in the field : William H. Crawford of Georgia, John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, 460 REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLES. Henry Clay of Kentucky, and Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. These were all democrat-republicans. The result was that no choice was made. We have in this campaign our first recorded popular vote, which, with the electoral vote, stood as follows: Andrew Jackson, 155,872 popular votes, and 99 electoral; John Q. Adams, 105,321 popular votes, and 84 electoral; William H. Crawford, 44,282 popular votes, and 41 electoral; Henry Clay, 46,587 popular votes, and 37 electoral. The House of Representatives, in ac- cordance with the constitution, elected John Q. Adams president upon the first ballot. He received the vote of 13 states, Andrew Jackson, of 7 states, and William H. Crawford, of 4 states. John C. Calhoun was elected vice-presi- dent by the electors, he having received 182 votes. There were 78 scattering votes for the vice-president. The method of nomination by congressional caucus was forever dead. 1824. A constitution was adopted in Brazil. 1824. The United Provinces of the La Plata were organized as a republic under Las Heras. 1824. Russia made an agreement with the United States by which she gave up all claim to land south of lat. 54 40', and afterward made the same treaty with England, leaving the United States and England to quarrel over the settle- ment of the question. PART V. DEVELOPMENT. 1825-1859. 461 ' Tis as easy to be heroes as 'to sit the idle slaves Of a legendary virtue carved upon our fathers'* graves, Worshippers of light ancestral make the present light a crime; Was the Mayflower launched by cowards, steered by men behind their time? Turn those tracks toward Past or Future, that make Plymouth Rock sublime ? u JVew occasions teach new duties; Time makes ancient good uncouth ; They must upward still, and onward, who would keep abreast of Truth; Lo, before us gleam her camp-Jires ! we ourselves must Pilgrims be, Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through the desperate winter sea, Nor attempt the Future's portal with the Pasfs blood- rusted key?' -LOWELL. 462 SECTION XVII. GftO WTff OF TAftTItfS. CENES of war give place to scenes of legislative combat. In the United YV States the " Era of Good Feeling " JV was fll we d by the rise of ques- tions which have been arbitrated in more recent years by the sword. Great debates between the giants of congress, revealed the character of opposing ideas of national government. In the meantime several experimental parties were formed, the forerunners of the great Republican party of later times. The tariff was an issue which caused great agitation. In- ventions were multiplying. Some of our great recent improvements originated in this period. In the other parts of Amer- ica the lessons of self-government had not yet been learned, and there was more of military operation. What the English colonists had learned in their town-meet- ings, the colonists of Spanish America were totally ignorant of. Hence their ascent was slower. Great obstacles yet remained within the body politic of the southern provinces of the continent. Parties resorted to arms more freely, be- cause there were forces opposed to them which seemed incapable of being met in any other way. One day the life of those sections will be far higher. 1825. January. The first " Reform School " in the United States was opened in New York by the " Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents," upon what is now Madison Square. It is now situated upon Randall's Island. 1825. March 4. John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, was inaugurated presi- dent of the United States, and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, became vice- president. 1825. April 27. Owenism. Robert Owen instituted a provisional government over his new community at New Har- mony, Ind., where he had bought the village with its buildings and 30,000 acres of land from the Rappites, in order- to try his social experiment. Many changes were made in the regulations of the community, all failing to secure success. Nine hundred persons started out in the attempt. Mr. Owen had come from England. In a few years the community broke up, and relapsed into individual property. The reaction was very great. Mr. Owen afterward tried other experiments at other places, but none of them resulted in anything. 1825. June 17. The corner stone of Bunker Hill monument was laid with 463 464 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT, imposing ceremonies in the presence of a large concourse of people to whom Dan- iel Webster delivered a remarkable ora- tion. Lafayette added honor to the occasion. The grand tent covered 38,400 square feet. The tables were set with 4,000 plates. 1825. Aug. 11. Bolivia was formed from the upper provinces of Peru, and made an independent state. It was named in honor of Simon Bolivar, who, more than any other man, secured South American liberty. Gen. Sucre was made president under a republican form of government. Bolivia has an area of 677,288 square miles, and about 2,081,- 585 inhabitants. 1825. Sept. 7. The independence of the Empire of Brazil from Portugal was recognized by the Portuguese crown. Brazil is the largest country in South America, and the only empire in the New World. It has an area of 3,200,000 square miles, and a population of 9,913,- ooo inhabitants. 1825. Sept. 7. Lafayette sailed from Washington, D. C., for France. All business was suspended, and the United States authorities bade Lafayette an affecting farewell in the president's house. A vast multitude watched the embarka- tion, and lingered to catch a last glimpse of the now aged hero. 1825. Dec. ~12. War was declared upon the Argentine Republic by the emperor of Brazil, who immediately proclaimed the port of Buenos Ayres to be in a state of blockade. 1825. A canal association was formed in London, for the object of constructing a ship canal across the isthmus between North and South America. 1825. The Erie Canal, the largest in America, being 363 miles long, was completed after several years of labor, and an expense of about J825 . Maapostg $8,OOO,OOO. It Was Opened in Prussia. ,i . Steam on the with imposing ceremonies, Rlline Finan . during which Gov. Clinton, cial panic in who had been conveyed England. over the route by the first boat, poured a keg of water which was brought from Lake Erie, into the ocean at New York city. 1825. The first railway charter in America was given to the Mohawk and Hudson Company, New York. 1825. The first iron boat in Amer- ica was built at York, Penn., ana was named " The Codorus." It had a wooden frame, and drew twelve inches of water, but not being able to ply on the Susquehanna, it was taken south, and used a long time. 1825. " Babbit Metal." The manu- facture of Brittania, or white metal, which has since been extensively used as a base for silver plated goods, was begun by Isaac Babbit at Taunton, Mass. He introduced it as a substance for shaft boxes, in which use it has had a great run. 1825. "The WeU-Conducted Farm," an essay issued by Dr. Justin Edwards, detailed the experiment of a large farm in Worcester Co., Mass., and the great superiority of labor without stimu- lants in the shape of intoxicating drink. It made a profound impression. 1826. January. Callao, the last foot- hold of the Spaniards in Peru, was sur- rendered. 1826. April 8. A duel was fought on the bank of the Potomac, near Little Falls bridge, between Henry Clay of Kentucky, Secretary of State in the United States, and John Randolph of Virginia, United States senator. The latter, in a speech upon the floor of the 1825-1844. j, senate, had grossly insulted Mr. Clay, who, after demanding satisfaction and obtaining none, challenged Mr. Ran- dolph. The parties met and exchanged fire, without any effect. At a second call Mr. Clay fired without hitting Mr. Ran- dolph, who fired into the air. A recon- ciliation immediately took place between them. "NEW HAVEN BLUE LAWS." 1826. April 19. Samuel A. Peters, "the author of a " History of Connecti- cut," and an Episcopalian clergyman, died in New York, at the age of ninety years. He was a tory at the breaking out of the Revolution, and published his history in England, whither he had fled in 1774 to protect himself. His work has been called " the most unscrupulous and malicious of lying narratives." He gives a series of enactments which he says were made in the "Dominion of New Haven." These so-called laws have been thought by many to have been genuine, but they were very largely fab- ricated. They, in some respects, resem- ble enactments actually made in New England, but by their wording are full of misrepresentations. Among them are the following: " No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep house, cut hair, or shave, on the Sabbath day." " No woman shall kiss her children on the Sabbath, or fasting day." Mr. Peters was very poor during his last days. Trumbull in his "McFingall" makes him stand for "Parson Peter." THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 4(55 1826. June 22. A convention of delegates from the South American states was held at Panama, to which the United States sent commissioners. No impor- tant results followed. THOMAS JEFFERSON. 1826. July 4. The fiftieth anniver- sary of the independence of the United States was hailed with joy throughout the nation; yet, before the close of that day two of the most illustrious men of the Revolution had passed away. Thomas Jefferson, author of the Decla- ration of Independence, and third presi- dent of the United States, died not long after noon. He was born April 2, 1 743, on the slope of the Blue Ridge, in Shadwell, Albemarle Co., Va. When he was four- teen years of age his father died. He entered an advanced class in William and Mary College at the age of seventeen, and remained two years, then commenced the study of law in the office of Mr. Wythe, one of the most distinguished lawyers in the state. For five years he spent fifteen hours each day in study, in- cluding three hours of practice on the violin, upon which he became a skillful player. In 1769 he was chosen a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, where he took a prominent stand against parlia- mentary encroachments. The next year he removed his residence from Shadwell to a new home which he had built and named Monticello, where, two years later, he brought his bride, formerly a Mrs. Martha Skelton. In 1775 he was sent to the continental congress, where, though a silent man, his abilities as a writer and reasoner soon became known, and he was placed on a number of important committees, being made chairman of that for drawing up the Declaration of Independence. This, with but few verbal changes, was the work of his pen. Jefferson next addressed himself to the reform of the organic laws of his own 466 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. state, in order for which he declined the appointment of commissioner to negotiate treaties of commerce with France. In 1779 he was made governor of Virginia. While occupying this position he gave his hearty support to Washington in supplying his army, though it left his own state in very poor condition to meet the encroachments of the British, who had about this time commenced their ravages in the south. His own estates were not exempt from these depredations, and him- self barely escaped falling into their hands. His wife's health, never very good, was much injured by this excitement, and in the summer of 1782 she died. During the four months preceding her death Mr. Jefferson was her constant and tender nurse, scarcely ever out of calling. His grief at her death was painful to witness, and he was to the end of his life faithful to her memory, treasuring as his most sacred relics, locks of her hair and other mementoes. By her death the dream of his life was broken ; having intended to live in retirement, engaged in literary pursuits, he was now easily persuaded again to enter the public service. Elected to congress in 1783, Mr. Jeffer- son secured the adoption by that body of the present system of currency. Two' years later he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to France, to succeed Dr. Franklin, who had resigned on account of his age. Mr. Jefferson's affability and polish of manner soon won him a high position in the esteem of the French people, whose unvarying politeness was a constant source of pleasure to him. Returning to the United States in Sep- tember of 1789, he became secretary of state in Washington's cabinet. Wash- ington was not mistaken in Jefferson's fit- ness for that position. He discharged the duties of the office with great credit; yet on account of difference of opinion in re- gard to several important political and financial measures with Mr. Hamilton, Washington's able secretary of the treas- ury, he determined to resign. He accord- ingly sent in his resignation at the com- mencement of Washington's second term, but at his urgent solicitation was induced to remain until Jan. I, 1794, when his final resignation was accepted, and he re- tired to Monticello. During his retire- ment, while spending the greater part of his time in setting in order his private af- fairs which had become greatly deranged, his occasional communications to the papers, and political leaders, swayed the party whose sentiments he represented, so that in the election of 1797 he was chosen vice-president, John Adams hav- ing received a small majority of the votes, being president. At the next elec- tion, in 1 80 1, Jefferson was chosen presi- dent. His two terms passed smoothly, very unlike the stormy terms of his pred- ecessors. Popular at the beginning, by his simple republican dress and manners he became daily more popular, while in more important matters his administra- tion was " among the wisest and purest the world has ever seen." On retiring from the presidency he spent the remainder of his days at Monti- cello, his house open to all who desired to visit him; it is said that his home for years resembled a fashionable watering place. Such hospitality would in a short time consume a much larger estate than Mr. Jefferson's, and the last years of his life were rendered very unhappy by debts, increased by an indorsement of twenty thousand dollars for a friend. In 1826 he applied to the legislature for permission to dispose of his estates by 1825-1844.] lottery. His petition was granted, and the plan commenced, but, interrupted by his death, was never carried out. When his embarrassments became known, testi- monials of esteem and gratitude were sent him, amounting in all to about eighteen thousand dollars. This relieved his immediate need, and brightened his closing days. After his death, his estates were sold; and the whole amount re- ceived from them did not cover his indebtedness. Mr. Jefferson was a democrat from principle, and heartily believed in a gov- ernment by the people. Believing also that all men are created equal, he, like Washington, although the owner of many slaves, could not countenance the institu- tion of slavery. While belonging to the most wealthy class of Virginia landhold- ers, he never, even in his youth, was ad- dicted to the vices so common to young men of this class ; his language was pure, and free from oaths; he did not use to- bacco ; he was opposed to gambling ; and, though fond of horses, and a fine horse- man himself, he never but once put one on the course. In college and in his after studies Mr. Jefferson became both a good mathematician and a fine classical scholar. He was not a public speaker, but was a clear thinker, a fine conversa- tionalist, and a ready and careful writer. His disposition was kind and affectionate, easily winning the love, not only of his relatives and personal friends, but of all with whom he came in contact. His domestic affections, shown in his tender care of his wife during her last illness, were bestowed after her death upon his daughters, over whom he exercised a mother's care and watchfulness. "His moral character," says his nephew, T. J. Randolph, "was. of the highest order, THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 467 founded upon the purest and sternest models of antiquity, softened, chastened, and developed by the influence of the all- pervading benevolence of the doctrines of Christ, which he had earnestly and ad- miringly studied." Yet he never avowed any religious faith, and was unwilling that any should be taught in the univer- sity which he founded. We see, then, in Mr. Jefferson an original thinker and reformer, an accom- plished scholar and gentleman, a tender husband and father, and a warm friend, with the added charm of a thoroughly pure life governed by Christian principles. JOHN ADAMS. 1826. July 4. John Adams, the sec- ond president of the United States, died near sunset, a few hours later than Thomas Jefferson. He was born at Braintree that part now called Quincy Massachusetts, Oct. 19, 1735. He was fitted for college in his native town, and graduated at Harvard, in 1755. His parents had hoped that he might study for the ministry, but not being able to agree with the orthodox views of the time, he decided for the law instead, and commenced the study of it at Worcester, teaching at the same time. The latter occupation w^s somewhat irksome to him, and he was glad to enter for the final year of his course, the office of Jer- emy Gridley. He was admitted to the bar in 1759, and commenced practice in his native town. Mr. Adams was mar- ried, in 1 764, to Abigail Smith, a lady of fine "natural endowments, and well edu- cated. Four years later he removed to Boston, hoping to find there a wider field of labor. In 177 ne was chosen repre- sentative to the general court, being at the same time engaged in the defense of 468 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. the British soldiers under Capt. Preston, who were on trial for the disturbance known as the Boston Massacre. In this suit, though Mr. Adams was engaged on the unpopular side, he was successful. Mr. Adams was elected one of the five delegates from Massachusetts to the first General Congress at Philadelphia, and was recognized as one of the ablest in that able assembly. In the important business of congress for 1776, Mr. Adams took an active part. For the work of reorganizing state governments, he was, by his early reading and thinking, better fitted than any other man in con- gress, and to him the leaders of move- ments for reorganization applied for advice, and plans of constitutions. It is noticeable that those which followed his plans, most nearly, have been the most satisfactory, and least changed. Mr. Adams was also one of the prime movers in the Declaration of Independence. He is called by Mr. Jefferson, the " colossus of independence." As Jefferson wrote the paper, so Adams, in the three days' debate which followed its presentation to congress, "fought fearlessly for every word of it." After serving his country and his own state, he was sent by congress to Europe, commissioned with authority to make a treaty of peace and commerce with Great Britain, when the opportunity should present itself. With his two sons he arrived at Paris after a perilous voyage, on the 5th of February, 1780. During the interval between this time and the treaty in January, 1783, Mr. Adams' oc- cupied himself with disseminating in France and Holland, information con- cerning the United States, and in the very important business of negotiating the loans with Holland, which in all probability saved our nation from bank- ruptcy. The latter, accompanied as it was by the recognition of the indepen- dence of the United States, and followed by a treaty of amity and commerce, being exclusively the result of his own labor, Mr. Adams regarded as the great- est triumph of his life. Not long after the treaty of peace with Great Britain was signed, Mr. Adams was advised by his physician on his partial recovery from a very severe illness, to go to England and try the waters of Bath. While in London he had the gratification of hearing George the Third announce to Parliament and the people that he had made a treaty of peace with the States of North America. He had been in Bath but a few days when he received very urgent dispatches from home, announcing that the previous loans had been exhausted, and new bills presented, which made it of the greatest importance that he make attempts for new loans. Though a journey to Hol- land in the winter seemed likely to prove disastrous to him in his feeble state of health, and though he thought it doubt- ful if he should succeed in procuring the loan, yet he determined to make the attempt; and after a very rough journey by boat, on foot, in ice boats, and boors' wagons, he finally reached Amsterdam, and succeeded beyond his hopes. Finding that, by a new commission, he was likely to remain some time longer from home, Mr. Adams, in 1 784, sent for his wife and daughter. On their arrival he engaged a house at Auteuil, near Paris, where, for a year, they enjoyed all the benefits of the most refined, brilliant, and intellectual society in the world. In May, 1 785, having been appointed envoy to the court of St. James, he removed 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 469 with his family to England. He was re- ceived coldly by George the Third and his court, and was unable to accomplish the object of his mission; he therefore asked to be recalled, and Jetters of recall being sent, on the 2d of April, 1788, after an active service of nearly nine years abroad, Mr. Adams bade farewell to Europe. The next year Mr. Adams was chosen vice-president, the first under the new constitution, and was re-elected in 1793- At the third election Mr. Adams was chosen president by a majority of but three votes. His trials in this position were very great. Entering upon the office immediately after Washington, who himself, though so popular, did not escape the calumny of the party leaders; taking up the business at so critical a time in our history, with party feeling never more bitter, a powerful faction of his own party under Mr. Hamilton op- posing him, the members of his cabinet hostile or indifferent, the war with France pending, it is not strange that his presi- dential career should have been under a. ban, until more careful investigations have brought it out in its .true light. It is beginning to be considered that he did indeed redeem the pledge with which he entered upon the administration, to " act a fearless, intrepid, undaunted part," not forgetting " likewise to act a prudent, cautious, and considerate part." At the expiration of his term of office he retired at once to his farm at Quincy, spending there the remaining years of his life in pursuits which, according to Cicero, are the most agreeable to old age. During these years he wrote much, both letters to his friends, and articles for pub- lication. As a writer Mr. Adams always paid more attention to the sentiment than to the style, and disliked that finishing labor whjch makes an article readable when the sentiment is no longer felt. He was much greater as a thinker, and reasoner, and talker, than as a writer. During these years his former friendly relations with Thomas Jefferson, inter- rupted for a time by politics, were re- newed through the interposition of a mutual friend, and a correspondence commenced, which was kept up through- out the remainder of their lives. In 1818 Mr. Adams lost his wife, who had been a sympathizer, comforter, and counsellor, in all vicissitudes. His last years were passed serenely. Once a year he was visited by his son, John Quincy, daily becoming more pop- ular. In 1825, as if to recompense him for his previous trials, he was permitted to be congratulated on the election of his son to the highest seat of honor in the nation. It was his to witness the dawn of the fiftieth anniversary of American Inde- pendence, and his spirit, with its passing, also passed away. Having lived into his ninety-first year, he could not be mourned as those who pass in the ma- turity of their powers. The nation could but say: How fitting that he, who had done so much to secure national inde- pendence, should depart on the day com- memorating the event, giving with almost his last words, that sentiment to which he had devoted his life, " Inde- pendence Forever." THE WILLED DISASTER. 1826. Aug. 28. Samuel Willey, Jr., had moved into the recesses of Crawford Notch, in the White Mountains, to keep a little inn for teamsters. The road through the Notch was beginning to be 470 POLITICAL DE VEL OPMENT, used considerably by Vermont and New Hampshire men in making their way to the coast. Mr. Willey's family had one or two frights from falling avalanches, but had so far escaped harm. On this occasion a fearful storm came on. The earth was dry as powder. By evening the tempest was raging in power. The whole region was black and terrible. The Saco rose to a rushing torrent. The earth shook. The mountains seemed to tremble. There was great destruction in every blast. The Notch was torn and rent in every direction. The Willey family apparently heard the sound of an avalanche far up in the rear of the house, and left in haste, to escape destruction. The house was found safe with open doors, a few days afterward, and a Bible open at the eighteenth Psalm was found lying on the table. The avalanche had been split by a large outstanding ledge or boulder in the rear of the house, one portion going one side, and the other the other side, of the frail dwelling. The remains of the family were found be- neath the sand and debris on the bank of the Saco, where they were suddenly overwhelmed. In the house they would have been safe from harm. The spot is now visited by hundreds of tourists. 1826. Temperance Reformation. The American Temperance Union was or- ganized at Boston, on the principles of Micajah Pendleton's Pledge. It per- mitted the use of cider, wines, and malt liquors in moderation, but required total abstinence from distilled liquors. In six years over 4,000 societies were organized, and distillation ceased to a great extent, for merchants gave up the trade. Twenty thousand families became con- nected with the society. This was the beginning of the modern movements in favor of temperance. 1826. Eclectic Medical School. Dr. Wooster Beach of New York, founded a college for teaching the principles of the American Eclectic, or New School of Medicine. Institutions have since grown up in other parts of the country, and the Eclectic School is now thoroughly or- ganized, and numbers thousands of members. POLITICAL ANTI-MASONRJ. 1826. Abduction of William Mor- gan. A great excitement arose this fall over the supposed abduction of William Morgan, a Freemason who was preparing a book revealing the secrets of the order. Morgan lived in Batavia, N. Y. An in- vestigation was held which established in the minds of those who had conducted it, the conviction that Morgan had been taken out into Lake Ontario, and drowned. Long trials were held, but no one was ever condemned. The excite- ment gave rise to the Anti-Mason party which controlled over 30,000 votes in New York, and obtained the electoral votes of Vermont in 1832. The party subse- quently faded away. It may be interest- ing to give the reminiscences of Thurlow Weed, who served upon the committee of investigation, and who wrote the follow- ing in the N. Y. Herald, Aug. 6, 1875 : "I did not personally know Wm. Morgan, who was for more than two months writing his book in a house ad- joining my residence, in Rochester, N. Y. When applied to by Mr. Dyer my next door neighbor, where Morgan boarded to print the book, purporting to disclose the secrets of Masonry, I de- clined to do so, believing that a man who had taken an oath to keep a secret, had no risfht to disclose it. Although not a 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 471 Freemason I had favorable opinions of an institution to which Washington, Franklin, and Lafayette, belonged. On my refusal to print the book Morgan re- moved to Batavia, where he made the acquaintance of David C. Miller, 'editor of the Advocate, also a Mason, who be- came his publisher. I pass briefly over a series of facts which were judicially es- tablished, embracing the arrest of Mor- gan, his conveyance to and confinement in the county jail at Canandaigua, from which he was released and conveyed by night, in close carriages, through Roches- ter, Clarkson, and along the Ridge Road to Fort Niagara, in the magazine of which he was confined. While thus con- fined a Knight Templar Encampment was installed at Lewiston; when at sup- per, the zeal and enthusiasm of the Templars having been aroused by the speeches and wine, Col. Wm. King of Lockport, invited four men (Whitney, Howard, Chubbuck and Garside) from the seats at the banqueting table, into an adjoining room, where he informed them that he had an order from the Grand Master, De Witt Clinton, the execution of which required their assistance. This party was then driven to Niagara, reach- ing the fart a little before 12 o'clock. Upon entering the magazine, Col. King informed Morgan that his friends had completed their arrangements for his re- moval to, and residence upon, a farm in Canada. Morgan walked with them to the wharf where a boat was held in readi- ness for them by Elisha Adams, an inva- lid soldier, into which the party passed, and rowed away, Adams remaining to warn the boat off by signal, if on its re- turn, any alarm had been given. It was nearly two o'clock in the morning when the boat returned, having, as Adams ex- pressed it, lost one man, only five of the six being on board when the boat re- turned. When the boat reached the point where the Niagara River empties into Lake Ontario, a rope being wound around Morgan's body, to either end of which a sinker was attached, he was thrown overboard. It is due to the mem- ory of Gov. Clinton to say that Col. King had no such order, and no authori- ty to make use of his name. It is proper, also, to add, that none of these men sur- vive. John Whitney of Rochester, whom I knew so well, related all the circum- stances connected with the last act in the tragedy, to me at Albany, in 1831, in the presence of Simeon B. Jewett of Clarkson, and Samuel Barton of Lewiston. " A body was found a year later, but, though it was identified at one time as Morgan, at another it was identified as the body of Timothy Monroe. 1826. An improved Paris fire-proof safe was patented by Jesse Deland of New York. This was the first safe in the country intended to withstand fire. Previous strong boxes were strapped with iron. This safe was also plated with iron. 1826. The manufacture of axes and other edge tools was begun in America by Samuel W. and D. C. Collins, at Collinsville, Conn. They turned out at first eight broad axes a day. The Collins company is now one of the largest in the world, and uses 600 tons of grindstones every year. This was the first company organized for the purpose, although pre- viously axes had been made by black- smiths from before the Revolution. 1826. Dom Pedro, Emperor of Bra- zil, became King of Portugal by the 472 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. death of his father, but bestowed the Por- tuguese crown upon his infant daughter. 1826. Uruguay was declared an inde- pendent republic, and in a couple of years was recognized as such, with a guaran- tee from Great Britain, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic. It has a popula- tion of 454,478 persons, and an area of 63,300 square miles. 1827. July 30. The "protection- ists " of the country held a national con- vention at Harrisburg, Penn., which was filled with discussions. A tariff not only for revenue, but for protection, was strongly urged by this assembly. 1827. Slavery was finally abolished in New York, under the statute of 1817. Nearly 10,000 slaves were freed without compensation to their owners. 1827. First Railway in America. A railway was completed at Quincy, Mass., 1745-1827. by Gridley Bryant and T. for th Volta, discoverer of Voltaic bat- portation of the granite of '1770-1327 which Bunker Hil1 Monu - Beethoven. ment was to be built. This was the first in the United States, and was operated by horse power. The switch was invented by Mr. Bryant; also the first eight-wheeled car. The wooden rails of the track were plated with iron to make them more durable. 1827. A daring expedition to reach the North Pole over the ice was under- taken by Parry, in boats which had a runner on each side of the keel, so as to be suited for either mode of traveling. The ice-fields north of Spitzbergen were rough and jagged, with pools of water, so that they were obliged to constantly un- load and load the boats. After thirty-five days of travel, sometimes through deep, half-melted snow, and sometimes over sharp ice, they found that the whole field was floating south, and their toil was in vain. They had reached a higher lati- tude than any previous expedition, 82 40^'. This was the last Arctic voyage that Parry made. He was a daring navigator, and when twenty-eight years old, discovered Melville's Island. He was born in 1790, and died in 1855 at Erns. 1827. A telegraph two miles in length was operated on the race course on Long Island, N. Y., by Harrison Dyar, and transmitted signals by means of the chemical action of electricity on litmus paper. 1827. Peru adopted a new constitu- tion similar to the constitution of the United States. Its area is computed at 500,000 square miles, and the population is about 3,000,000 persons. 1828. July 4. The corner stone of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was set by Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the last surviving signer of the Declaration of In- dependence, at more than ninety years of age. This road at the beginning was planned for horse cars only. The steam engine made by Peter Cooper in 1830, was run upon this road. 1828. Nov. 1. The ruins of Uxmal were discovered by Don Pancho Yegros, a Yucatan planter, and Dr. Lewis Mitchell, a Scotch surgeon, who had been off hunting together and were forced by a rainstorm to take shelter for the night in an old ruin to which their Indian guide took them. He told them of other and greater ruins, and afterward took them where the extensive and amazing ruins of Uxmal were revealed to their view, hidden already for generations and but for this accident, still longer. 1828. Dec. 10. The first patent for a locomotive steam engine, recorded in 1825-1844.] the United States, was to William Howard of Baltimore. 1828. Webster's Dictionary was first issued in two quarto volumes. 1828. The first advertising agency in America, was established by Mr. Orlando Bourne, and for a number of years it was the only one in the United States. 1828. The first successful planing machine was invented and patented by William Woodworth of New York. 1828. The first locomotive trip made in America was upon the Carbondale and Honesdale R. R., by Mr. Horatio Allen of New York, engineer, in an engine brought from England. It was named " Lion," and was built by Foster, Rastick & Co., England. The road ran from the Lackawaxen Canal to the Lacka- wanna River, thus affording transporta- tion for the coal from Luzerne County, Penn. The engine was afterward found to be heavier than the road needed. 1828. " Bill of Abominations." A tariff bill which was quite strongly pro- tective, passed congress, and pleased i the manufacturing, but displeased the agri- cultural interests of the country. Some called it the " Bill of Abominations." It helped bring nullification to the front a few years later. ELEVENTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1828. In the eleventh presidential campaign Andrew Jackson, who had been nominated by the legislature of Tennessee soon after the last election, was supported by the democrat-republi- cans, or democrats as they now began to be called, for president, and John C. Cal- houn of South Carolina, for vice-presi- dent. This party was also known at times as "Jackson men," because, since THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 473 the election of 1824, the Clay and Adams factions had separated from the old party, and now took public stand as the national republicans. They were in some sense the successors of the federalists, and after- ward became the great Whig party. They are known by their advocacy of a protective tariff, and internal improve- ments at national expense. In this elec- tion they supported John Q. Adams of Massachusetts, for president, and Richard Rush of Pennsylvania, for vice-president. Out of 261 electoral votes, Gen. Jackson received 178 for president, and Calhoun 171 for vice-president. Adams and Rush received each 83 votes. Seven votes were cast for William Smith for vice- president. The popular vote for Gen. Jackson was 647,231. That for Adams was 509,097. 1828. The "Prohibition of Peru" shut out of that country all articles which paid ninety per cent, duties, such as American cottons, hats, shoes, soaps, to- bacco, etc. The next year, however, it was annulled. 1828. A constitution was adopted in Chili. 1828. Gen. Sucre was driven from Bolivia by Gamarra, and was afterward assassinated. 1829. Jan. 4. Gen. Pedraza, who had been elected president of Mexico to succeed Victoria, was overthrown, and compelled to flee the country. Guerrero was placed in power by the congress. 1829. March 4. Gen. Andrew Jack- son of Tennessee, was inaugurated pres- ident of the United States, with John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, as vice-pres- ident. It was a stormy administration in foreign and home relations. The diffi- culties with England over the line be- POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. tween Maine and British America were settled, as were also the spoliation claims of France. 1829. May 17. John Jay, LL. D., of New York, an eminent jurist, and the first chief-justice of the supreme court of the United States, died at Bedford, West- chester Co., N. Y., in his eighty-fourth year. He was born in New York, of Huguenot parentage, Dec. 12, 1745, and graduated at Columbia College in 1764. He was admitted to the bar and entered into practice *as a partner of Robert R. Livingston. When the agitation over colonial affairs increased, the mind of Jay became deeply interested, and he was prominent at the very first in the organizations of effort in his native state. Though thoroughly patriotic in senti- ment, he yet ranked with the conserva- tive element in the colonies, which dep- recated any undue haste, and especially any precipitation of the question of inde- pendence. He drew up the address to the people of Great Britain, which was adopted by the first Continental Con- gress, and the address to the people of Canada, adopted by the second Congress. He became president of congress, Dec. 10, 1778, and in 1780 became minister to Spain. With Franklin and Adams he negotiated peace with Great Britain, in 1782, and became secretary for foreign affairs in the United States government. He contributed largely to the " Federal- ist," with Hamilton and Madison, in de- fence of the Constitution. In 1789, under the new constitution, he was appointed chief-justice, and held the position till 1795. In 1800 he was re-appointed chief-justice, but declined the position, and retired from public life. In 1794 he negotiated what is known as "Jay's treaty " with Great Britain, which warded off war. The eastern boundary of Maine was fixed, and $10,000,000 were paid American citizens because of illegal cap- tures by British cruisers. He served six years as governor of New York. He was deeply interested in the abolition of slavery, and in the support of all humane movements. His mind was one of great ability, and his life one of great purity and integrity. The record of his deeds and service to the country, is one of which any land might be proud. His nature was deeply religious. The Bible was a constant study with him. Among secu- lar authors Cicero was his favorite. 1829. July. Four thousand Span- ish troops, under Gen. Barradas, landed in Mexico near Tampico, in an attempt to regain the government of that country for Spain. 1829. Sept. 11. Barradas surren- dered, and his troops were sent to Cuba, His surrender was brought about by Santa Anna. 1829. Sept. 15. Mexico proclaimed the complete and immediate abolition of slavery by emancipation. 1829. The Postmaster- General of the United States became a member of the president's cabinet for the first time. William T. Barry of Kentucky, was ap- pointed to that position by President Jackson, and invited to a seat in the cabinet. Each Postmaster-General has since retained the seat. 1829. Eotation in Office. Gen. Jack- son was the first to remove office-holders for political reasons, to any great extent. William L. Marcy's statement now came into extensive application. Nearly five hundred postmasters were removed in Jackson's first year of service. 1829. The first Horticultural Society in the United States was founded. 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 475 1829. Chicago was laid out, and the first building lots were sold. 1829. Silk Mania. The " Mansfield Silk Company " was formed in Mans- field, Conn., and an excitement in silk culture began. Reports were published to show that the silkworms were more profitable in America than in any other country, and that suitable machinery was the only thing needed to produce silk fabrics of the first quality. Many ex- periments were tried, and for the next ten or twelve years, speculation was rife. 1829. The first tin found in America was a crystal of the oxide of tin found in granite at Goshen, Conn., by Prof. Hitchcock, of Amherst College. 1829. The first institution for the blind arranged for in America, was the Perkins Institute, of Boston. It was in- corporated as the " New England Asy- lum for the Blind." For certain reasons it was not opened till 1832. In 1831 an institution was founded in New York. These are the oldest in the country. 1829. The first power looms in the world for the manufacture of diaper linen were made and run at Canterbury, Conn., by William Mason, since of Taunton, the great inventor and manu- facturer. 1829. A boating expedition by Capt. W. A. Graah, of the Danish Royal Navy, proved that the eastern side of Greenland had never been colonized. Attempts had been made before to learn about it, in the hope that the eastern set- tlements, if made, had survived the calamities of the western. 1829. Arctic Expedition. Capt. John Ross, with his nephew, Commander James Ross, set out in the small steamer u Victory," on an Arctic expedition, which was protracted through five years. In August they reached the place where Parry had abandoned the " Fury." All the stores and provisions which were left on land were found in good condition after the four years. The tin cases pre- served them. The second spring Ross planted the flag of his nation on the Northern Magnetic Pole. In the sum- mer of 1832 the " Victory " was aban- doned, it being impossible to extricate her from the ice. It was the first vessel in forty-two years of sea-life that Ross had been obliged to leave. At Fury Beach they found some boats, and by using every effort to advance a little in the summers, and bravely enduring the hardships of the long, dreary winters, in August, 1833, they entered Navy Broad Inlet, and the next day were taken on board the " Isabella," the same in which Ross had made his first Arctic voyage. Here the officers of the " Isabella " told him that he was dead, and could scarcely believe his assertions to the contrary. After finishing her fishing, the " Isa- bella" took them to England, where they were received with joy and surprise. 1829. The Welland Ship Canal was opened, it being five years since work upon it was commenced. Two schooners ascended the entire length of it, from Lake Ontario to the Welland River. Subsequently the distance was increased. 1829. "The Loyal Orange Institu- tion " of Irishmen, which is exclusively and tenaciously Protestant, was intro* duced into British America. 1829. Venezuela, S. A., withdrew from the republic of Colombia, and adopted a constitution. . Its area is about 400,000 square miles, and its population 1,784,194 persons. 1829. The independence of Mexico was recognized by the United States. 476 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENJ\ 1830. Jan. 11. Gen. Bustamente having deposed Guerrero, was himself elected president of Mexico. The coun- try was now deeply agitated over politi- cal matters. 1830. Jan. 26. Great Debate in the Senate. Daniel Webster made his great reply to Robert Y. Hayne of South Caro- lina, who, during two days in the senate, had been supporting the doctrine that the states had power to suspend the United States constitution, and had in his speech directed his eloquence chiefly against Mr. Webster. The crowds which gathered during these days in the senate chamber were immense, and on the morning when it was expected that Mr. Webster would reply, scarcely room for breathing could be found. The great contest has never been equalled in brilliance and power upon this side of the Atlantic. Two rep- resentative ideas of government met in solid collision, and the shock was terrible. The traditions of it will linger in the na- tion for many years. Two extracts are given from Mr. Webster's oration, the first from near the beginning, the last . from the very close of it. "Matches and over-matches! Those terms are more applicable elsewhere than here, and fitter for other assemblies than this. Sir, the gentleman seems to forget where and what we are. This is a Senate, a Senate of equals, of men of in- dividual honor and personal character, and of absolute independence. We know no masters, we acknowledge no dictators. This is a hall for mutual consultation and discussion; not an arena forthe exhibition of champions. I offer myself, sir, as a match for no man; I throw the challenge of debate at no man's feet. But then, sir, since the honorable member has put the question in a manner that calls for an answer, I will give him an answer; and I tell him, that, holding myself to be the humblest of the members here, I yet know nothing in the arm of his friend from Missouri, either alone, or when aided by the arm of his friend from South Caro- lina, that need deter even me frorri espous- ing whatever opinions I may choose to espouse, from debating whatever I may choose to debate, or from speaking what- ever I may see fit to say, on the floor of the Senate. Sir, when uttered as matter of commendation or compliment, I should dissent from nothing which the honor- able member might say of his friend. Still less do I put forth any pretensions of my own. But when put to me as matter of taunt, I throw it back, and say to the gentleman that he could possibly say nothing less likely than such a com- parison to wound my pride of personal character. The anger of its tone rescued the remark from intentional irony, which otherwise probably would have been its general acceptation. But, sir, if it be imagined that by this mutual quotation and commendation ; if it be supposed that, by casting the characters of the drama, assigning to each his part, to one the at- tack ; to another the cry of onset ; or if it be thought that by a loud and empty vaunt of anticipated victory, any laurels are to be won here; if it be imagined, especially, that any or all these things will shake any purpose of mine, I can tell the honorable member, once for all, that he is greatly mistaken, and that he is dealing with one of whose temper and character he has much yet to learn. Sir, I shall not allow myself, on this occasion, I hope on no occasion, to be betrayed into any loss of temper; but if provoked, as I trust I never shall be, into crimination and recrimina- tion, the honorable member may perhaps find that in that contest, there will be blows to take as well as blows to give; that others can state comparisons as signif- icant at least as his own, and that his im- punity may possibly demand of him whatever powers of taunt and sarcasm he may possess. I commend him to a pru- dent husbandry of his resources." * * "I have not allowed myself, sir, to look beyond the Union, to see what might lie hidden in the dark recess behind. I have not coolly weighed the chances of pre- 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 477 serving liberty when the bonds that unite us together shall be broken asunder. I have not accustomed myself to hang over the precipice of disunion to see whether, with my short sight, I can fathom the depth of the abyss below ; nor could I re- gard him as a safe counsellor in the af- fairs of this government, whose thoughts should be mainly bent on considering not how the Union may be best preserved, but how tolerable might be the condition of the people when it should be broken up and destroyed. While the Union lasts we have high, exciting, gratifying, prospects spread out before us, for us and for our children. Beyond that I seek not to penetrate the veil. God grant that, in my day at least, that curtain may not afterwards'; but everywhere, spread all over in characters of living light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float over the sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that other sentiment, dear to every true American heart, Liberty and Union, now and for- ever, one and inseparable !" 183O. April 6. The first regular Mormon church was organized at Man- chester, N. Y. Joseph Smith became the leading spirit in this new and terrible evil which has blotted the United States so long. He claimed to have found the Book of Mormon, an appendix to the New Testament, in a place described to c L MORMON CHARACTERS. rise. God grant that on my vision never may be opened what lies behind ! When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dis- honored fragments of a once glorious Union; on States dissevered, discordant, belligerent; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood! Let their last feeble and linger- ing glance rather behold the gorgeous ensign of the republic, now known and honored throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies streaming in their original luster, not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star obscured, bearing for its motto, no such miserable interrogatory as, ' What is all this worth ?' nor those other words of de- lusion and folly, ' Liberty first, and Union him by an angel who appeared one night when he was religiously exercised. Upon searching the place he found a stone box containing a series of gold plates, eight inches long and seven inches wide, fastened to one another by three gold rings. He also found the " Urim and Thummim " by looking through which he was enabled to read the un-. known tongues upon the plates in Eng- lish. In order that this book might be O published, he sat behind a curtain and dictated the translation to Oliver Cow- dery, because no other human eye was to be permitted to gaze upon the gold plates. It has since been proved that the Book of Mormon is a plagiarism from an un- 478 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. published manuscript written by Solomon Spalding, and lost in a printing house in Pittsburg, in which Sidney Rigdon was an apprentice. When the Mormon church was founded, Rigdon was a friend of Smith, and upon the publication of the Book of Mormon, the true origin of it was recognized by Mrs. Spalding and others. It contained a pretended history of America from the dispersion of the nations at the tower of Babel. With such a foundation did the impostor Smith originate the great movement which is such a problem at the present time. Im- moral and low, he soon gained followers, and began that career which afterward ended in a violent death. 1830. May 31. Pocket Veto. Sev- eral bills were passed by congress and sent to President Jackson, and as he could keep them ten days legally, he did so. The time of adjournment came within ten days, and the bills were practically vetoed. It made some politicians angry, but it was a new and real' method, which they could not dispute. 1830. September. The first political national convention in the country, with the exception of the one held by the federalists in New York in 1812 for the nomination of DeWitt Clinton, was held in Philadelphia, and was styled the United States Anti-Masonic Convention. Ninety-six delegates were present, and Francis Granger of New York, was presiding officer. The 'convention ad- journed after having decided to hold another, one year from that time, for the purpose of nominating presidential can-' didates. 1830. Dec. 9. The first steam loco- motive made in America was success- fully tried on the South Carolina Rail- road, which was the first road in the country built for exclusive use with loco- motives. The engine was designed by E. L. Miller, Esq. of Charleston, and was built at the West Point foundry, on the Hudson. It was named at first " The Best Friend," but afterward became known as the " Phoenix." It ran suc- cessfully until, within a couple of years, an explosion was caused by the closing of the safety valve by the fireman. At nearly this same time a locomotive was constructed by Peter Cooper, the eminent philanthropist of New York, at his iron works at Canton, Md. It was tried successfully on the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. It was now only a few years be- fore Mr. M. W. Baldwin and other makers attained considerable success in their efforts at developing the steam locomotive. 1830. Dec. 17. Simon Bolivar, the South American patriot, died at San Pedro, at the age of forty-seven years. He was a native of Caraccas, where he was born July 24, 1783. His family was among the better class, and therefore his education was provided for by sending him to Madrid. His whole active life was spent in the effort to free his country. To him is to be ascribed much of the success of the attempt. He was fol- lowed by enemies all his life, but he sac- rificed himself and his property willingly. He had defects which were noticeable, but he stands high in the list of Ameri- can worthies. 1830. The fifth census of the United- States gave a population of 12,866,020. It was taken at a cost of $378,543.13. The fruit crop of the country was for the first time taken notice of in this census. The increase in population from 1820 had been 32.51 per cent. 1830. Geological Surveys. Mas- revolution in France. Charles X. abdicated. 1830-1848. Louis Philippe 1. King of France. 1830-1837. William IV. Hand. 1830. Liverpool and Manchester Railroad opened. 1825-1844.] sachusetts was the first state in the union isso. Three days' to appoint a complete sur- vey of its territory. Dr. Edward Hitchcock was put in charge of the work, and made his first report in 1831. Since then numerous similar sur- veys have been instituted to make known the mineral, forest, and zoological re- sources of different states. Measures were introduced into congress within a few years, looking forward to the United States surveys for a geological and mineralogical map of the United States. 1830. Hand Labor against Machin- ery. The fancied opposition between inventions and hand labor .. , , , was illustrated by the at- tempt of the hand weavei's of Manayunk, Penn., to destroy a power loom for weaving checks, invented this year by Mr. Alfred Jenks. ' The meditated as- sault was prevented by an armed force. 1830. The first omnibus in America was built and used in New York. Car- riage manufacture had not previously extended to this branch. 1830. The first cylinder printing press in America was made by Richard M. Hoe. 1830. " Baffin's Fair." A great dis- aster occurred to a whaling fleet in Mel- ville Bay. A number of ships were broken to pieces, and cast away. Some were ground to atoms. The crews only had time to leap out of some of them while they were being crushed. The -wind drove the ice very powerfully against them. Afterward a thousand men were left on the ice in tents. In spite of all the difficulties, it was a jolly scene. 1830. Ecuador withdrew from the re- THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 479 public of Colombia, and became a state by itself. It has a population of about 2,000,000 inhabitants, and an area of 250,000 square miles. 1831. January. The provinces of Buenos Ayres, Corrientes, Entre Rios, and Santa Fe, formed a confederation or voluntary alliance for government. But it did not last long, as the elements of weakness were too many. 1831. January. The Mormons, un- der Joseph Smith, settled in Kirtland, Ohio, where they lived about seven years. At the same time some of them began to settle in Missouri, but difficulties and bloodshed occurred in both states before very long, between the Mormons and the citizens. 1831. January. The "Liberator," devoted to the interests of the slave, was established in Boston by William Lloyd Garrison. 1831. Feb. 14. Gen. Guerrero, one of the patriot leaders of Mexico, was ex- ecuted *by his opponents. 1831. April 7. Dom Pedro I., em- peror of Brazil, abdicated in favor of his son, five years old, who became Dom Pedro II. A regency was instituted till 1841. 1831. April 11. Waterproof. The first patent for fluid caoutchouc to render articles waterproof, was given to Geo. H. Richards, Washington, D. C. 1831. April 31. " Scourge of the Ocean." Charles Gibbs, the pirate, to- gether with Wansley, one of his associ- ates, was executed by the United States government. For about 18 years he had been a terror to the world, and had com- mitted many of the most cruel seizures and murders ever known in ocean annals. He was truly represented as the " Scourge of the Ocean." 480 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1831. June 13. Fairbanks' Scales. E. and T. Fairbanks of St. Johnsbury, Vermont, patented their scales for weigh- ing heavy bodies. This was the origin of their vast works at the present day. These scales have sold in all parts of the world. Thaddeus Fairbanks was the inventor by whom the manner of weigh- ing was revolutionized. J&ME8 MONROE. 1831. July 4. James Monroe, the fifth president of the United States, died in New York, whither he had gone to live with a daughter since the death of his wife, the previous year. He was born in Westmoreland county, Va., April 28, 1758, and was therefore seventy-three years of age. His ancestors, who emi- grated to America in the preceding cen- tury, were people of influence in Eng- land, and from them he inherited the integrity and honesty of purpose which caused Thomas Jefferson to say years later, "James Monroe is so honest that if his soul were turned inside out, not a spot would be found upon it." His early education was cut short by the Revolution, for when but eighteen years old he left William and Mary College, and enlisted among the patriots. He was noticeable in the battles along the Hud- son, and for his bravery at Trenton was raised to the rank of captain. In the campaigns of 1777 and 1778 he was prominent, serving as aid to Lord Stirling. But the acceptance of this position caused the forfeiture of his rank in the regular army, and at the close of 1778, failing in his attempts to regain his commission, he returned to his native state and entered the law office of Thomas Jefferson. At twenty-three years of age he was elected to the Virginia assembly, and the next year was sent to the continental congress, where he remained till 1786. He soon desired a change in the Articles of Con- federation, and was a delegate to the national convention in 1787. Here his influence was thrown against the Federal party, and being unwilling to adopt the new constitution without amendment, his vote was "nay." In 1790 Mr. Monroe was elected to the U. S. senate, of which he was a member for four years. From this time till his election to the presidency, he filled many important places. As envoy extraordinary to France he partici- pated in the negotiations for the purchase of Louisiana. He was afterward sent to England to attempt the adjustment of the increasing unfriendliness of that na- tion. We find him again in Madrid' under orders from his government to settle with Spain the boundaries of the recently acquired territory of Louisiana. After his return he filled various positions in his own country, and in 1811 was ap- pointed secretary of state by President Madison. Two years later the war de- partment was also given him, and by his patriotism and energy he helped largely to overcome the financial difficulties of the time. He even pledged his own credit for the supplies needed at New Orleans in 1814. In 1817 Mr. Monroe was elected president, and four years later was re-elected for a second term. His admin- istration is known as the " era of good feeling." The old federal party was dead, and the new parties which grew out of the national issues had not yet taken shape. Among the important measures of his presidency were the cession of Florida to the United States; the Mis- souri Compromise, and the " Monroe doctrine." He made a tour of the states, and bestowed personal attention upon the 1825-1844.] defences of the country. Enthusiasm everywhere attended his journey. At the end of his second term he retired fo his home in. Virginia, where he lived till 1830. His wife, whom he married early in his career, was a Miss Kortwright of New York, a lady of great attractions. Mr. Monroe was a tall man, but well proportioned. His complexion was light, and his eyes blue. He was thoroughly genuine in all his characteristics, and able in all his judgments. His service to the country has been equaled by few presidents. 1831. Aug. 11. A fearful hurricane in Barbadoes destroyed several thousand lives, and 1,602,800 property. The island was completely desolated. 1831. Aug. 21. A slave insurrection numbering about sixty persons, broke out in Southampton, Va., under Nat. Turner, who had served as a Baptist preacher. It was soon quelled by United States troops, although not before con- siderable blood had been shed. The blacks finally were subdued, or fled. They started on their work of destruction in the night. Nat. Turner had arranged with only five other slaves to meet him and begin their depredations. But find- ing at the place of waiting a sixth, he asked with surprise what he was there for. The man said, " My life is worth no more than that of others, and my liberty is dear to me." By morning a regular massacre was in progress. This affair frightened the South, and agitated the whole slave question. 1831. Sept. 8. Color Prejudice. A mass meeting was held in New Haven, Conn., to resist the establishment of a school for the education of colored peo- ple, which a convention of colored people 31 THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 481 at Philadelphia a short time before had decided to establish, and for which they had appealed for funds. Great excite- ment prevailed. Rev. S. S. Jocelyn was the only one who protested against a re- fusal to allow the school to be established. The meeting was summoned by the mayor of the city. 1831. The National Anti- Masonic Convention was held at Baltimore, as had been decided at the convention the pre- vious year. William Wirt of Maryland, was nominated for president, and Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania, for vice-pres- ident. This party had arisen since the abduction of Morgan in 1826. Its prin- cipal tenet was to oppose every man who was a Mason. It was strong for a time in a few sections, but never spread over the country. 1831. Nov. 21. The Republic of New Grenada, S. A., was formally or- ganized after the withdrawal of Vene- zuela and Ecuador. In later years it has adopted the title, United States of Colom- bia. It has an area of about 500,000 square miles, and a population of 2,880,- 633 inhabitants. 1831. Dec. 12. The national re- publicans held a nominating convention at Baltimore, at which 1831 . First ney>s . Henry Clay of Kentucky, paper in Con- i , j stantinople. was unanimously presented to the country as candidate for president. John Sergeant of Pennsylvania, was nominated for vice-president. 1831. Dec. 26. Rewards for Seiz- izres of Abolitionists. Five thousand dollars were offered by Gov. Lumpkin of Georgia, to any one who could arrest and bring to trial under the laws of Georgia, William L. Garrison, editor of the Boston Liberator. This was one of the earliest attempts to secure the abduc- 482 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. tion of prominent northern abolitionists,, The example was followed at a later day when Arthur Tappan was put up at a reward of $20,000 ; and Rev. Amos A. Phelps of $10,000. The offering of these sums became at one time quite a common matter. 1831. Dec. 27. Charles Darwin saMed from England in the ship Beagle, to ac- company Capt. Fitzroy in his trip around the world, as naturalist. The voyage extended over five years. Among the explorations of the expedition was that of the South American coast, which was very extensively examined. The records of this trip have been a great source of scientific knowledge. 1831. December. Mt. Chimborazo was ascended by J. B. Boussingault to an elevation of 19,695 feet, a higher point than Humboldt had reached. 1831. ' Kitchen Cabinet." There had arisen a division of feeling in the cabinet of President Jackson, who, through his distrust of Calhoun, had come to confer with Van Buren, Secretary of State, and several private fiiends. The cabinet soon after broke up by the resignation of Van Buren and others. It has been said that the families of mem- bers were in trouble with one another, and thus precipitated the dissolution. 1831. Duel. Mr. Thomas Biddle and Mr. Spencer Pettis fought a duel in Missouri, in which both were killed. They fought with pistols at a distance of five feet, which was chosen by Mr. Bid- die on account of near-sightedness. Their pistols, when in position, overlapped one another. The quarrel was political. Pettis lived one day, and Biddle three days. 1831. Friction matches were first introduced into America. 1831. The only successful type- casting machine ever invented was patented by David Bruce, Jr. It hag since been improved in speed, and has gone into very general use. It was the result of much thought on the part of Mr. Bruce. 1831. The slave trade was prohibited by a law passed in Brazil. 1831. The Dutch colonies in Guiana, S. A., which had been retained by the English at the peace of 1814, were erected into one province as British Guiana. Its area is 99,925 square miles, and its popu- lation is 193,491 persons. 1831. A treaty with Prance was ef- fected by the United States minister, Wm. C. Rives, by which 25,000,000 francs were to be paid the American gov- ernment in installments for spoliation oa American commerce while Napoleon I. was reigning. There were some diffi- culties over this treaty afterward, but they were adjusted amicably, though at one time President Jackson seemed inclined to push the country into war. 1831. The Neapolitan government agreed to pay the United States $1,720,- ooo for sequestration of American prop- erty during the reign of Joachim Murat. The result which that government had the year before refused to consider, was brought about by the presence of United States war vessels. 1831. Morazan was elected president of Central America, and during his two terms of four years each, great quiet pre- vailed ; but after a while at the end of his second term, factions appeared. 1832. Jan. 30. The New England Anti-slavery Society was organized in Boston, but did not have great resources. William L. Garrison, Arnold Buffum, the Quaker, and others, joined in it. It VIEW OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. PLAZA OF GUADALAJARA. 483 18*5-1844.] was the first society in America organized on the basis of immediate emancipation. 1832, Feb. 6. Quallah Batoo, a town in Sumatra, was destroyed by Com- modore John Downes in the United States frigate Potomac. He landed nearly 300 men and reduced the Malayan forts with considerable slaughter. The reason for this severity was that the natives had seized the ship Friendship, of Salem, Mass., massacred her crew and appropriated her property to themselves, and denied all knowledge of the transac- tion. The Friendship was accustomed to trade on the coast. 1832. May. A Democratic conven- tion met at Baltimore to nominate a candidate for vice-president. There was a unanimous desire among the democrats to have Gen. Jackson serve a second term as president, hence no vote was taken in convention upon that office. There was dissatisfaction with Mr. Calhoun, how- ever, and Mr. Van Buren was nominated in his place. 1832. June 27. The Asiatic cholera made its first appearance in New York city, where there were nearly 3,500 deaths in two months. It attacked Albany, Phila- delphia, Baltimore, Wash- ington, Cincinnati, the cities along the great lakes, and the great southern cities, where it worked with awful power. Business was pros- trated, and universal gloom covered the land. Days of fasting were appointed through the country. It was a terrible scourge. The expedition under Gen. Scott against Black Hawk was broken up. The soldiers died in great numbers. The disease was brought to Quebec in the first of the month by some emigrants, and spread with great rapidity. THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 1771-1832. Sir Waller Scott. 1832. Insurrec- tion in Poland crushed. Five thousand Jamilies exiled to Siberia. 485 1832. June. A new protective tariff upon imported cloths was voted by con- gress and greatly enraged the cotton - growers of the South, who said it was hostile to their interests. The excitement took the most violent form in South Carolina. 1832. Sept. 9. Mrs. Marcia Van Ness, wife of D. P. Van Ness mayor of Washington, and daughter of David Burns, the proprietor of most of the land upon which Washington stands, at the time the government selected it as the site of the National Capital, died in that city at the age of fifty years. Born and brought up in the little " Burns " cottage till she was nearly fifteen years of age, she was then sent to Baltimore, where, in the family of the distinguished Luther Martin, she was educated in the best methods of the time. Returning to the home of her father, who was now the millionaire of Washington, she met under his roof all the most noted men of the day, and was sought in marriage by many senators. She married Mr. Van Ness, and well did she show her worth in the position of wife and mother. She lost a young married daughter in November, 1822. Her heart, which had always been full of love for the poor, now overflowed still more with works of benevolence. She founded the City Orphan Asylum of Washington, and sought out many of the children who were placed within it. No other American woman had been at that time buried with public honors. The costly mausoleum which the wealth of her husband had reared, received her re- mains. She was one of the noblest women of her time. 1832. November. Nullification. A state convention was held in South Carolina which pronounced the tariffs of 486 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1828 and 1832 null and void, and declared that no duties could be collected in the port of Charleston. The state legislature soon afterward took the same steps, and proclaimed that the law would be re- sisted forcibly, if necessaiy. The Ordi- nance of Nullification was to take effect Feb. i, !8 33 . 1832. Nov. 14. Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Md., the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, died at the age of ninety-five years. He was born at Annapolis, Md., Sept. 20, 1737, was educated abroad from 1745 until 1764, when he returned to America. He became very rich by inher- 1832. Suffrage J J t* tended in Eng- itance, and was thought at land under Re- th breaking out of the form Bill. & 1852. Kingdom Revolution to be worth of Greece found- $2,OOO,OOO. He became td under Otho I. , i r prominent in provincial at- fairs in Maryland, and was afterward elected to the colonial congress. He remained in public affairs till 1810, after which time he devoted himself to his estate. In signing the Declaration of Independence he affixed " of Carrollton " to his name, to remedy the jocose suggest- ion of some member near him that * there were many Charles Carrolls, and that the British would not know which one it was." His last years were passed in quiet pursuits. 1832. Dec. 16. Nullification Crushed. A proclamation, declaring that military power would be used by the United States in enforcing the laws, and that no state could make any law null, was issued by President Jackson. He also wrote to the collector of the port at Charleston to use the revenue cutters and other means in enforcing the tariff. These energetic measures crushed what is known in his- tory as the " Nullification Scheme," in advocating which, John C. Calhoun took the prominent part. TWELFTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1832. In the twelfth presidential cam- paign the democrats supported Andrevr Jackson of Tennessee, and Martin Van Buren of New York. A small demo- cratic element, chiefly in South Carolina, supported John Floyd of Virginia, and Henry Lee of Massachusetts. The na- tional republicans supported Henry Clay of Kentucky, and John Sergeant of Pennsylvania. The Anti-Masons sup- ported William Wirt of Maryland, and Amos Ellmaker of ^Pennsylvania. The result of the election was as follows: Out of 288 electoral votes, Jackson had 219, and Van Buren 189. Their popular vote was 687,502. Clay and Sergeant had 49 electoral votes each, and a popu- lar vote of 530,189. The anti-masonic vote was 1 1 electoral votes for Floyd and Lee, and 7 for Wirt and Ellmaker, with a combined popular vote of 33,108. Vermont was the only state choosing regular anti-masonic electors. William Wilkins received 30 electoral votes for vice-president. 1832. The discovery of chloroform as an anaesthetic agent was first announced by Dr. Samuel Guthrie of Sackett's Harbor, N. Y. 1832. The idea of the electric re- cording telegraph was originated accord- ing to the claim of Prof. S. F. B. Morse, upon a voyage home from Europe in the steamer Sully, during conversations with some of the passengers upon electro- magnetic experiments. 1832. The Locomotive Advertise- ment. A queer notice appeared in a Philadelphia paper about the steam loco- 1825-1844.] motive " Ironsides," built by Mr. Bald- win, which was running on the German- town road. The advertisement said : "The locomotive-engine will leave the station daily with passenger cars attached, when it is pleasant. When the day is rainy, horses will be attached." It shows the uncertainty attaching to their use. 1832. A flood did great damage at Pittsburg, Penn. 1832. Brigham Young was converted, and joined the Mormons. 1832. The great silver mines of Charnacillo, a northern province of Chili, S. A., were discovered by a shepherd named Juan Godoy. 1832. New Grenada, S. A., adopted and proclaimed a constitution, which served it a long time. The country was chiefly quiet till 1860. 1832. A great slave insurrection oc- curred in Jamaica, with a destruction of 1,154,583 worth of property'. 1832. The cholera destroyed one- fourth of the population in Mexican cities, and $100,000,000 worth of slaves in Cuba, within ninety days. The coffee planters were the most free from the scourge. 1832. The revolution in Texas against the Mexican government began to be organized. 1833. March 4. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, was inaugurated President of the United States for a second term, with Martin Van Buren of New York, vice-president. 1833. March. Compromise Tariff. Henry Clay's bill for the gradual reduc- tion of the tariff duties till 1842, after which, duties were to be 20 per cent., became a law, and served as a compro- mise measure. The anti-tariff excite- ment has never since been great. THE GRO WTH OF PARTIES. 487 1833. April 1. Santa Anna was elected president of Mexico. He had deposed Pedraza, who had been recalled by Bustamente and elevated to the presi- dency. Pedraza had occupied that office three months. 1833. May 25. A revised constitu- tion was adopted in Chili, by a conven- tion, and is still in force. The area of Chili is 133,000 square miles, and the pop- ulation 1,972,438 persons. 1833. May. A national temperance convention of the United States was held at Philadelphia. Four hundred delegates were present, from twenty-one states. After long discussion a resolution was passed declaring the trade in ardent spirits to be morally wrong, and that it ought to be universally abandoned. 1833. The American congressional temperance society was formed at Washington with Lewis Cass, then sec- retary of war, as president. Ardent spirits were about this time prohibited in the army. 1833. July 2. The first public trial was given to a reaping machine, patented by Mr. Obed Hussey of Cincinnati. It grew immediately into favor, superseding the other comparatively unsuccessful ma- chines, and seems to have been the first successful American reaper. 1833. Aug. 28. The emancipation of slaves in the British West Indies and British Guiana, was decreed by parlia- ment. The act was to take effect on Aug. i, 1834. 1833. Sept. 3. " The Sun," the pio- neer penny newspaper of America, was issued in New York by Benjamin H. Day, and the first newsboys ever seen in America were employed in selling it. The paper was ten inches square, and soon had 60,000 circulation. 488 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1833. Oct. 2. The New York City Anti- Slavery Society was organized in Chatham St. Chapel, New York, where the meeting was suddenly convened be- cause of the calling of an opposition ms-1870. /- southern meeting at Clinton belia, Queen of , Sfatn. Hall, at which place the Anti-Slavery Society was first to meet. The opposers found out where they were and rushed into the chapel at the close, but were not able to do any personal violence. 1833. October. The funds of the government were withdrawn from the U. S. Bank by the order of President Jackson, in opposition to a large number of statesmen. Thomas H. Benton of Missouri, and John Forsyth of Georgia, were Mr. Jackson's chief supporters in the senate. Webster, Clay and Calhoun were opposed to the administration. The life of the president was twice attempted. This affair led to the existence of the Whig party, by which the opposition came to be designated, and which played an important part in the politics of the United States till 1854. One reason al- leged was that the funds ought not to be in a bank whose charter would so soon expire. The deposits of the United States began to be made in certain State Banks which became known as " Pet Banks." The Bank of the United States afterward expired by limitation in 1836. It was subsequently chartered by Penn- sylvania as a state bank. 1833. Nov. 13. A grand shower of meteors, or " shooting stars," occurred in America for several hours before day. It 1759-1833. caused great fear, especially Wiiberforce. among the negroes in the southern states, who thought the world was burning up, and cried out in extreme terror. It was the greatest display of meteors on record, no other such having ever been known. 1833. Dec. 4. A National Anti-Sla- very Convention was held at Philadel- phia. There were sixty or more dele- gates from ten states. John G. Whittier and Lewis Tappan were secretaries, and Beziah Green was president. It was at this convention that immediate and un- conditional emancipation seems to have first been publicly and freely declared safe. The American Anti-Slavery Soci- ety was formed, with Arthur Tappan as president. Auxiliary state societies were organized, tracts circulated, and lecturers employed over the country. Great agi- tation now began, and anti-slavery writ- ings were pronounced treasonable by the pro-slavery element. 1833. The Connecticut Black Act. A school for colored children having been opened at Canterbury, Conn., a law was passed by the state legislature against such schools, and Miss Prudence Cran- dall, who had opened it, was thrown into prison. In the following year the school was entirely broken up by the opposition of the citizens. 1833. The "Bloody Bill." A bill for enforcing the tariff was passed, and signed the first of this year. Southern members, except John Tyler of Virginia, refused to vote against it. It drew out much angry discussion. 1833. The principle of " total absti- nence from all that may intoxicate " was voted down at the annual meeting of the American Temperance Union. The original tenets of the society allowed the moderate use of wines, cider, and malt liquors. 1833. The Yellow Fever raged in New York with still greater mortality than in 1822. 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 489 1833. A constitutional convention was held in Texas. 1833. An explosion of the steamboat *< Lioness " on the Mississippi, occurred near the mouth of the Red River. Sena- tor Johnson of Louisiana, and fourteen others were killed. It was due to the careless disposition of gunpowder on board the boat. 1833. The first steam plow in the United States was patented by E. C. Bellinger of South Carolina. 1833. The hot-air blast which had been put into operation in England a few years before in iron furnaces with a great saving of fuel, was for the first time in the world applied to the burning of an- thracite coal in iron furnaces by Dr. Geissenheimer of New York. His oper- ation was patented. 1833. The first water-proof clothing company was chartered at Roxbury, Mass., and a good deal of excitement was created, the shares going up to two and three hundred dollars. Competition fol- lowed, and six companies were in a short time formed in Massachusetts. 1833. A land expedition led by Capt. Back, started from Montreal in search of Ross. When the news of his arrival in England reached them they still kept on, with the intention of explor- ing the Great Fish River. They were successful after many hardships, in reach- ing its estuary on the shores of the Polar Sea. The return voyage was more tedi- ous, if possible, than the descent of the river, and with all other discomforts, they found that the" wolves had destroyed their provisions, deposited on the way down. Finally, however, they arrived at Fort Reliance. Fish River was after- ward changed to Back's River. 1834. March 28. The senate of the United States passed a resolution censur- ing the act of President Jackson in re- moving the government funds from the United States Bank, as unconstitutional and illegal. 1834. April. Election Mob. At an election in New York city a great mob formed, seized all the weapons they could get from gunshops, and tried to take the Arsenal. The streets wei'e scenes of bloodshed, and the place was nearly at the mercy of the rioters. 1834. June 21. McCormick's Reaper. Mr. Cyrus H. McCormick of Rockbridge County, Va., took out the first patent on his reaper, though he had been experi- menting on it since 1831. This reaper at once showed great superiority, and would cut very rapidly. It took the great medal at the World's Fair in 1851. The patentee received from the machine between one and two million dollars. It is one of the great triumphs of American skill. 1834. July 4. The great Anti- Abolition Mob in New York. The ex- citement which had been steadily grow- ing in hatred of the abolitionists, at last broke out in New York, 1834 - '?**- 11-1, _ _ tion abolished in and ruled the city for a few spain. days, in spite of law and order. The houses of well-known abolitionists were broken into and injured. Churches were also broken into. The violence at times was severe, and the rioters seemed to have put all opposition under foot. They were apparently countenanced by men of wealth and family. Mobs followed in other cities, and in some cases lives were taken. Especially were colored people put in danger. These were among the first anti-slavery mobs. 1834. Aug. 1. -Emancipation in British West Indies. This liberated 490 POLITICAL DE VEL OPMENT. something over 800,000 slaves where there were about 131 ,000 whites. The negroes, especially in Jamaica, who were now for the first time obliged to pay rent for their cabins and little pieces of land, were alienated from the planters, and revolts began to make their appearance. The trouble, which lasted with more or less constancy till the great revolt of 1865, originated in the act of this year. Over a thousand sugar and coffee estates in Jamaica were abandoned during the next few years. In other islands the results were very excellent. 1834. August. Stone-masons' Mob. The convicts who had been employed as stone-masons in New York city, were attacked by an excited mob of marble- cutters and others, who vented them- selves in deeds of violence upon the houses of men interested in the, labor. For four days the troops were on duty constantly. 1834. Teetotalism. Teetotalism first arose in England from the remark of a member of a Lancashire society which advocated the old pledge against distilled liquors, permitting the use of wine, cider, and malt liquors. " Tee " is a provincial- ism for " going the whole figure." He said, "We must have a teetotal absti- nence from every kind of drink that will produce drunkenness, if we wish to get rid of drunkenness itself." This saying gave the temperance cause a new watch- word. The idea was adopted this year by many American societies which changed the words, "ardent spirits" in their former pledges, to " intoxicating 1772-1834. liquors." Much opposition cohridge. at ^ &i arrayed itself against this principle. But it was adopted in 1835 by the American .Temperance Society, and in 1836 the American Temperance Union was organized on this basis. Since then " total abstinence " has become the great temperance basis of all such efforts. 1834. The lottery enterprises of the United States had become so numerous that an effort was made in many states to break them up. Popular sympathy in New York and Pennsylvania was aroused in favor of the business, and there was considerable agitation. Wholesome laws were passed against it, however, in several quarters. 1834. A canal riot broke out in New Orleans, La., on account of some differ- ence between different parties of Irish laborers. Troops were called out and quelled the mob, but only with consider- able bloodshed. 1834. The Ursuline Convent, near Boston, was destroyed by a mob gathered from Boston and neighboring places. The buildings were burned to the ground. A nun, named Sister Mary St. Henry, did not get the alarm until the work had begun, and she fled hastily with insufficient clothing, through low lands near by. She at last, after severe exposure, found a cottage, and was then removed with the other nuns to Rox- bury to Gen. Dearborn's mansion, where she died in a few weeks as a result. She was very beautiful and finely educated, and her death excited the sympathy of all. More than 5,000 persons formed the line of her funeral procession. The Lady Abbess was thrown into hysterics during the destruction and confusion of the scene. 1834. The first gun ever rifled in America was turned out at the South Boston Iron Works of Mr. Cyrus Alger, who had been a leading inventor in the ordnance line. 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. FIEST SEWIXG MACHINE. 1834. A sewing machine with an 491 eye-pointed needle at the end of a vibra- ting arm, and a shuttle for making a lock-stitch, was invented by Walter Hunt of New York, but he did not patent it or push its claims at all. Mr. Hunt applied for a patent in 1854, when sewing machines began to be made in large numbers, but it was too late. His claim was covered by the patent of Elias Howe. It was afterward found to be doubtful if he had ever got it to sew suc- cessfully. The parts were found in an old garret, but would not work. Still, it was a genuine attempt to solve the problem. 1834. " Hovey's Seedling," a famous strawberry, was produced by Mr. Hovey of Boston. It was the first of the recent successful attempts to improve strawberry culture, which had not been much devel- oped previous to this time. A rapid growth has taken place since, until now it is a very great part of the fruit culture of the United States. 1834. A famous pear tree near Vin- cennes, 111., bore 184 bushels of fruit. In 1840 it bore 140. The trunk was 10 feet in circumference. 1834. "Moras Multicaulis" Mania. During the ten years from 1830 to 1840, while the culture of the silkworm was increasing, a great excitement grew up over the Morus Multicaulis mulberry. The first specimen of it was brought to the United States from near Marseilles, France, where it had been introduced a few years before, by a Mr. Perottet. It was planted in the Linnaean Botanic Gardens at Flushing, L. I., but it was not until two or three years later that its qualities became well known through the writings of Mr. Gideon B. Smith of Baltimore, and Dr. Pascalis of New York. It was supposed to be a much more profitable mulberry than any other* for the feeding of silkworms. It was claimed to be hardy, very prolific in foli- age, and very easy of propagation. The young plants at once began to be bought at advanced prices, and by this year a great speculation was raging. Large mulberry tree plantations were set out in various states. Mr. Whitmarsh of North- ampton, sold for $12,000 a lot which cost him only $1,000. The plants were sold in some instances as high as $500 a hundred. Everybody was crazy over the matter, and speculators took special pains to force up the prices. But by 1839 the mania began to subside. A man who sent $80,000 to F ranee to buy young plants was ruined by the depression in prices when he had received them. Silk com- panies began to fail, and the plants were sold by the quantity at three cents or less apiece. A great deal of capital was sunk, and a series of difficulties in the silk culture put back this branch of en- terprise very far. The growth since this mania has been more stable, and every- where more promising. 1834. Dr. Charles T. Jackson of Boston, claimed to have made and shown to some friends a telegraph which worked successfully on a small scale. He claimed that Morse got the idea of the recording telegraph from him on board the Sully, in 1832. He also claimed to have dis- covered the use of anaesthetics for the re- lief of pain. He had a long controversy with S. F. B. Morse over the first, and with Dr. W. T. G. Morton over the second. The French Academy of Sci- ences bestowed prizes of 2,500 francs each upon Dr. Jackson and Dr. Morton. 492 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1834. Hon. Mr. Bouldin of Virginia, dropped dead in the U. S. House of Rep- resentatives while speaking in memory of Randolph, his predecessor. 1834. Hon. J. Blair of South Caro- lina, committed suicide at Washington, in insanity. 1834-35. An extremely severe win- ter prevailed throughout the United States. The streams and bays of the southern states were frozen over, and snow, one foot deep, fell there. The severe cold killed orange trees at St. Augustine, and fig trees over one hundred years old in Georgia. 1835. Jan. 30. The assassination of President Jackson was attempted at the U. S. Capitol in Washington, by Rich- ard Lawrence, who was afterward found to be insane. 1835. Jan. 30. A frightful volcanic eruption occurred in Nicaragua from Mt. Coseguina, the ashes of which floated to Jamaica, W. I., seven hundred miles away to the northeast, and to a ship twelve hundred miles west, in the Pacific. Sand and ashes fell in Mexico and Bo- gota. The explosions were heard 800 miles. The eruption continued four days, and then ceased. No eruption of this volcano has since occurred. 1835. Feb. 20. An earthquake de- stroyed the city of Concepcion, Chili, for the fourth time in its history. A volcano broke out at the same time near the island of Juan Fernandez, in 400 feet of water. 1835. May. A democratic national convention was held at Baltimore, and unanimously nominated Martin Van Bu- ren for president. Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky was put in the field as can- didate for vice-president. The two-thirds rule was for the first time adopted in this convention, requiring that two-thirds of the whole number of votes should be necessary for a nomination. 1835. O'Connell Guard Mob. A mob attacked some Irishmen in New York city, who had organized a militia company, fought with them repeatedly through Sunday and Monday, killed a prominent physician, injured others, de- stroyed some property, and closed their labors on Tuesday, because the " Guards" broke up their organization. 1835. July 6. John Marshall, chief- justice 'of the United States supreme court since 1801, died in Philadelphia, at the age of eighty years. His father was a Revolutionary soldier, and young John himself served with honor in the same strife. He entered upon the practice of law at the close of the war, and at once began to rise in influence. In the forma- tion of the Federal Government his in- fluence was a leading one. He served in places of trust before his appointment as chief-justice, and was thereafter the lead- ing judicial mind in the country. He wrote a " Life of Washington," and did other literary work. His personal ap- pearance was plain, but his disposition very winning. The last days of his life were days of suffering, but Christian character shone conspicuous through it all. 1835. July 29. Censorship of the Press. A mob at Charleston, S. C., broke into the postoffice and seized some pamphlets which the New York Anti- Slavery Society had sent to prominent Southern gentlemen, and burned them publicly. An attempt was 1S3 ^ Plague in made through congress, to Bgyp*- establish a censorship of the press, to rule out of the mails what the South consid- ered insurrectionary, but in the end it failed. Nothing touching the subject of 1825-1844.] slavery could have been delivered from any Southern postoffice under this bill. 1835. Aug. 10. An academy at Canaan, N. H., was torn down and pulled away from its foundations because negroes were received for education. 1835. Oct. 2. The first fighting in Texas for independence occurred at Gonzales, resulting in the defeat of Santa Anna, with a Mexican force. 1835. Oct. 21. The Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society was broken up by a mob of 5,000 persons. Mr. Garrison was seized, a rope tied around him, and he was pulled through the streets by it. He was severely abused, but was taken by the mayor and lodged in jail, to save him. He was the next day released upon examination, but left Boston for a time, at the request of the city officers. A mob took place at Utica, N. Y., the same day. The meeting of the New York Anti-Slavery Society was broken up. It adjourned to the residence of Gerritt Smith at Petersboro, and was assailed on the way thither. 1835. Nov. 12. Texas organized a provisional government, and chose Henry Smith provisional governor. 1835. Dec. 16. A great fire broke out in New York, and raged fourteen hours. It burned over forty-five acres, and destroyed $20,000,000 worth of property. The cold was intense, the thermometer being at zero, which made it difficult to work the engines. Gun- powder was used in blowing up the build- ings, to arrest the flames. A single fire- proof building was left at No. 83 Water Street. This fire destroyed twenty-three fire insurance companies in New York. It was a great blow to insurance, and tended to shake faith in the joint stock system. Mutual companies began to THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 493 arise. Much attention was drawn by this fire to the means of combating con- flagrations. There had been no organ- ized fire force up to this time. The companies were composed of volunteers. 1835. Dec. 28. The Seminole Indians massacred Major Dade and more than 100 men who had been sent into the in- terior of Florida to the relief of Gen. Clinch. Gen. Thompson and five friends were murdered the same day by Osceola, at Fort King, while they were at dinner. This was the breaking out of the Semi- nole war under the lead of Osceola, which lasted seven years, because of the proposed removal of this tribe from Florida. 1835. Harriot K. Hunt, M. D., opened a medical office in Boston, un- doubtedly the first opened by a female physician in the United States. She had studied with Dr. Mott, and afterward re- ceived the degree of M. D. from the Woman's Medical College of Philadel- phia. She died Jan. 2, 1875. 1835. The public debt of the United States was practically extinguished. It stood on the books at about $35,000, which was covered by cash in the treas- ury. Some surplus funds were distrib- uted among the states. 1835. A Maryland slaveholder ar- rested a young woman named Mary Gilmore, in Philadelphia, as his fugitive slave. It was conclusively proved on trial that she was a child of poor Irish parents, and did not have a drop of negro blood in her veins. 1835. The manufacture of gold pens was attempted for the first time in America by Levi Brown of Detroit, Mich., who made them by hand under a right purchased by Rev. Mr. Cleveland, an American clergyman, of Mr. John 494 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. Isaac Hawkins, an American living in England, who had accidentally used an alloy of iridium and osmium, for pointing such pens. 1835. Morse's Telegraph. Prof. S. F. B. Morse first exhibited a telegraph in a room in New York, upon the sides of which he hung a half mile of wire* 1835. The making of horse-shoes was for the first time carried on by machinery, through an invention of Henry Burden of Troy, N. Y. The machine would bend and crease the metal, make the holes, and countersink them, leaving the shoe complete. 1835. Plan of Tuluco. Under Santa Anna's government, a plan contrary to the constitution of 1824 was proclaimed, making all the states of Mexico one cen- tralized republic, and abolishing state authority. All consented to it except what is now Texas, and therefore the Texan invasion occurred under Santa Anna, who was taken prisoner. 1835. Rosas was made dictator of. Buenos Ayres, and held power over what is now the Argentine Republic, till 1852. His rule has been called tyranni- cal, but the country prospered under his administration of affairs. 1836. Feb. 25. Colt's revolving firearms received their first patent. The idea of these weapons occurred to Mr. Colt before he was fifteen years of age, and he worked it out " with a chisel on a spun-yarn with a common jackknife and a little iron rod " in a model which he made on -a voyage to India at the latter age. A company was formed at Pater- son, N. J., under this patent, ^ith a capital of $300,000, but became bank- rupt. The weapons seem first to have become widely used in and after the Mexican war. The first contract of Mr. Colt's sxiccessful business was made by him during that war, to furnish the United States government 1,000 revolv- ers for $24,000. This contract was made at the suggestion of Gen. Taylor, who had proved the value of the weapon in previous warfare. 1836. March 2. Texas declared itself independent. 1836. March 4. Abolitionism. The Massachusetts legislature was the first body of the kind in America, to give the abolitionists a hearing before a committee. It was held under many difficulties, and resulted in nothing by report. An agita- tion was also going on in congress during the early part of this year over the dis- tribution of abolition documents at the South, through the mail. President Jackson called the attention of congress at the close of 1835, to the necessity of passing a law to suppress such documents in southern mails, because of the trouble at Charleston. But congress refused, bj a committee of which John C. Calhoun was a member, to pass such a law, and the postoffice department was so injured in credit by the Charleston affair, that very soon the president signed a bill passed by congress to prevent discrimi- nation in mail matters. The right of the abolitionists to the mails was therefore established. But various steps were taken by southern legislatures to induce north- ern states and congress to suppress the abolition agitation. The great plea was that such agitation excited the slaves to insurrection. This was afterward shown to be false. The great effort was to make the agitation a penal offense. But Mr. Calhoun admitted in congress at this time that the methods of the abo- litionists were moral and suasive, not revolutionary. 1825-1844] 1836. March 6. Fort Alamo Mas- sacre. Santa Anna, with 4000 men, took Fort Alamo, Texas, by storm, and mas- sacred the garrison of 172 persons, except a servant, a child, and a woman. Such a heroic defence was made that the loss of the Mexican force was over 1600 men. DAVID CROCKETT. 1836. David Crockett, an American hunter, and member of congress, was killed with five companions after their sur- render to the Mexicans at Fort Alamo, Texas. He was born Aug. 17, 1786, at Limestone, Tenn., of Irish parentage, and during his youth did little except wander about with drovers and backwoodsmen. He learned his letters when seventeen years old, and soon took up his resi- dence after marriage far away from settlements. The pleasures of a hunter's life drew him into the remote parts of the state. He was in the Creek war of 1813 with Gen. Jackson, and was sent several times to the legislature from a community of hunters and drovers, with whom he electioneered by his popular gifts in story telling, and his skill in shooting. In 1827 he was sent to congress, and was twice re-elected. When the troubles of Texas began he entered the field in behalf of Texan in- dependence, and exhibited his bravery on many occasions. The defence of Fort Alamo was heroic, but in vain. Santa Anna ordered the six survivors to be killed, and the brave hunter came to his death. The popular saying, " First, be sure you're right, and then go ahead," is ascribed to him. He was undoubtedly a man of great native force of character. THE GRO WTII OF PARTIES. 495 1836. March 17. A convention of Texans elected David G. Burnett first president of the Republic of Texas, and adopted a constitution establishing slavery. 1836. March 27. Santa Anna mas- sacred Col. Farmin and 357 Texans who, after a hard fought battle, had surren- dered to him. 1836. March. Roger Brook Taney of Maryland, having been appointed by the president as chief-justice 1836 Decreeex- of the supreme court of the /w*V British TT . , o . . and other foreign United States, a position merchants from made vacant by the death China. of John Marshall in 1835, was confirmed by the senate, and continued to hold the place till his death, in 1864. 1836. April 9. A murder of Heleu Jewett, a noted New York character, was committed by Richard P. Robinson, through jealousy. Young Robinson was tried but was not condemned, through the failure of the jury to agree. 1836. April 21. "Remember the Alamo." The battle of San Jacinto was fought in Texas by a force of volunteers under Gen. Sam Houston, and a Mexican force of 1600 regular troops under Santa Anna, president of Mexico. The former with one wild, desperate charge utterly routed the Mexican army, which lost 630 killed and many more by capture. The cry of the Texans upon the charge was, " Remember the Alamo." 1836. April 22. The independence of Texas was secured by a treaty made with Santa Anna, who was this day taken in disguise and protected by Gen. Hous- ton from the fury of the Texans, who re- membered his massacre. SIMOJf KEXTOJf. 1836. April 29. Simon Kenton, the pioneer, died in Logan County, Ohio, at the age of eighty-one years. He was born in Fauquier County, Va., April 3, 496 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. I755* While yet in his teens he left home secretly for the great western wil- derness, because of a quarrel which he had had with a companion over a love affair, and in which he supposed that he had killed his antagonist. He was with Boone for a time, and subsequently be- came associated with the hostilities west of the Alleghanies. He learned in 1782 that his early quarrel was not fatal, as he had supposed. He acquired a great knowledge of Indian life and warfare, and was constantly in great peril in border warfare. His personal courage and en- durance were very remarkable. Having taken up his home in Kentucky, he was subjected to the same losses which befell Boone, through imperfect titles to his lands. At last he was left without a cent. He lived in comparative obscurity, but at one time made his entry into Frankfort in rags, upon a message to the legislature concerning his lands. He was at first followed by ridicule as being a vagabond, but through the recognition of some one his reception was changed to one of honor, because of the reputation he had in all the region. His petition was granted, and congress soon gave him, at the solicitation of his friends, an annuity of $240 a year. Many stories are told of his hair-breadth escapes and remarkable feats. The most notable of the former was in being lashed to a horse without saddle or bridle, by his Indian captors, and left to plunge through the forests for several days, behind the party. He was bruised and bleeding, and some of his limbs were broken when they reached their destination, but being vigorous, he survived. In spite of all he had suffered at their hands he never allowed himself to treat an Indian unkindly out of battle. He had a heart as tender and true as that of a child, and was the soul of honor. His life in its height of native moral character would shame many an educated one. When in poverty, he said, " I am blessed with health, I have a quiet con- science, I can sleep calmly, and am con- tented." 1836. May 26. Gag Rule. The House of Representatives of the United States adopted Pinckney's gag rule for all petitions relating in whatever way to slavery, resolving that such should be laid on the table without printing or ref- erence, and never be acted upon. Others were adopted in 1837, '3^ '40, and '41, and began the long contest which cul- minated John Q. Adams' great effort to secure the right of petition. At one time the rule was made to operate against all petitions, and thus effectually put an end to the presentation of all future memorials. 1836. June 15. Arkansas was the twenty-fifth state to be admitted to the union. Its motto is " Regnant populi." " The people rule." It is known as the "Bear State." It has an area of 52,198 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 802,564 persons. JAXES MADISON. 1836. June 28. James Madison, the "father of the constitution" and fourth president of the United States, died at his home in Virginia, aged eighty-five years. Mr. Madison was born March 1 6, 1757, at King George, Orange Co., Va., where his ancestors had settled as early as 1653. His boyhood was passed amid the refinements of his home, for until he was eighteen years old his stud- ies were pursued under the direction of a tutor. In 1771 he was graduated from 1825-1844.] Princeton College, N. J., in the posses- sion of fine scholarly attainments, but with his health permanently impaired by his zealous application during the course. After a year of post-graduate study with Dr. Witherspoon, president of the col- lege, he returned to Virginia, and began a course of reading in law, but his atten- tion was soon turned to theology, and he gave to that subject a considerable amount of careful study. During the struggle which followed shortly after in Virginia, against the intolerance of the established church, Madison and Jefferson were fore- most, and their efforts aided largely the founding of religious freedom in that state. Our first glimpse of him in public life is in 177^? "when he was elected to the Virginia convention. The next year he failed to be reelected because he refused to treat the voters. It is not until 1 780 that we see him in a position of promi- nence, he having been chosen a member of the continental congress. Upon the expiration of his term in 1784, he was elected to the Virginia assembly, and it was through him that that body invited In 1786 the other states to a convention to discuss the revision of the Articles of Confederation. This was the forerunner of the convention of 1787 at Philadel- phia, when the views of Mr. Madison were adopted as the framework of the new constitution. He represented Vir- ginia in the National Cong^ss from 1 789 to 1797, and found that his republican principles arrayed him against many of his old friends. He soon became the head of this party, and after serving ac- ceptably as secretary of state during Jef- ferson's administration, he was elected president in 1809. During the war with Great Britain, his wisdom and prudence were severely tried, but the close of his THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 497 administration was peaceful. Upon the close of his second term Madison re- tired to his estate, named Montpelier, in Virginia. Here he lived for nineteen years a quiet, unassuming life, his last and only appearance in public being in 1829, when he met with the Virginia conven- tion to discuss the revision of the state constitution. Mr. Madison was the last survivor of the founders of the national constitution, and he sustained to the end the character for purity of purpose which he had always borne. His wife, a Mrs. Todd, whom he had married in Phila- delphia, lived several years after his death. Mr. Madison was a close reasoner in all his public speeches, and possessed a fine command of language. His manners were retiring and unobtrusive, "an exact index of the inner man. 1836. July 1. The bequest of James Smithson of England, to the United States government for the "diffusion of knowledge " was accepted by vote of congress. The amount first paid was $575,169. With this money and others since added, the Smithsonian Institution was founded afterward at Washington, o * D. C. 1836. July 10. Heavy Grades. M. W. Baldwin, one of the first successful locomotive builders, run the engine George Washington, which he had just constructed, up a heavy grade on the Pennsylvania R. R., with a rise of one foot in fourteen for a distance of 2,800 feet, drawing 9,000 Ibs. more than the engine, at the rate of 15 miles an hour. Thus for the first time the needlessness of stationary engines and ropes was demon- strated. It made a great change in rail- road building. 1836. July 12. A midnight assault 498 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. was made upon Bailey's anti-slavery press at Cincinnati. 1836. July. A new Patent Right law was passed by the congress of the United States, and the office of commis- sioner created for the first time. An ex- tensive building has been erected, and the American system is now the best in the world. AAROJf BURR. 1836. Sept. 14. This man of ability, and in his younger years, of great prom- use, at one time vice-president of the United States, died on Staten Island, N. Y., aged eighty years. His father had been 'at one time president of Princeton College, and his grandfather, Rev. Dr. ' Jonathan Edwards, was installed in that position upon the close of his father's service. Quite an amount of property was left to the little Aaron when three years old, at which age he lost both father and mother. The boy was b'orn Feb. 6, 1 756, and grew up to be a very bright scholar. In 1772, at the age of sixteen, he was graduated from Princeton. The army held out immediate attractions for him, and his name was soon in the list of private soldiers at the outbreak of the war, three or four years later. The famous march to Quebec found him im- petuous for the attack on Canada. He did all that could be done to aid in that disastrous attempt, and carried himself with such good service that he was ap- pointed major at the close of the cam- paign. Burr seems at this point to have had some rupture with Washington, and never to have regained a place in the heart of the commander-in-chief. Through 1777, 1778, 1779, he was in active service. At Monmouth he did excellent work for the American army. In the intrigues against Washington, Burr used his influence for the supporters of Gates. He left the army in the spring of 1779. After the study of law he settled down for its practice in New York city, in 1783. He served in several polit- ical stations, finally being elected U. S. senator in 1791. Thus far he had been identified with the democrat-republicans, and in 1800 took a very active part in the canvass for president. His influence was reaching forth widely, and his efforts se- cured the choice of democrat-republican electors in New York. Mr. Burr was now held forward prominently for the vice-presidency. The vote of the elec- tors, being a tie between himself and Mr. Jefferson, threw the choice into the House of Representatives, and here the federalists united upon Mr. Burr, in order to defeat Jefferson for the presidency. This alienated his own party from Mr.. Burr, and deprived him of much of his power. It was not long before he took the life of Alexander Hamilton in the duel for which his name will be longest remembered. At the close of his term as vice-president he visited the west, and his designs, real or apparent, resulted in his arrest and trial, but without convic- tion. He now went abroad, but finally returned to the practice of law in New York city. The circumstances of his life, however, went against him, and the bar did not prove to be a place of power. His last years, were saddened by the loss at sea in 1813, of his only legitimate child, a daughter, named Theodosia, who had married Gov. Allston of South Carolina. Failure is written upon the course of Aaron Burr. 1836. Oct. 22. Gen. Sam Houston was inaugurated president of the inde- pendent republic of Texas. 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 499 1836. Nov. 20. The Bristol, of Liverpool, was lost on Long Island, with ^5 lives. 1836. Nov. 25. A severe battle was fought in Florida, between Gen. Call of Georgia, with 500 men, and the Semi- nole Indians, but without decisive results. A running warfare continued for the winter. 1836. Dec. 15. A great fire at Washington, D. C M consumed the United States Patent Office and general post- office, with the valuable records and models which had been gathering in the former. 1836. Daniel Webster's Great Plow. A plow for working to the depth of one foot or more, was invented by Daniel Webster. It was put into operation upon his own farm at Marshfield, Mass., in a field filled with roots, and turned a furrow twenty-four inches wide. The plow was twelve feet long. It is still in existence. Mr. Webster said, " When I have hold of the handles of my big plow in such a field, with four pair of cattle to pull it through, and hear the roots crack, and see the stumps all go under the fur- row out of sight, and observe the clear, mellowed surface of the plowed land, I feel more enthusiasm over my achieve- ment than comes from my encounters in public life at Washington." 1836. Dutchman and Awful were two horses who became noted in the trotting history of this period. Dutch- man made three miles in seven minutes, thirty and one-half seconds, which was his best record. Awful was a large, vicious animal. 1836. The Creek Indians committed depredations through Georgia and Ala- bama during the spring of this year, but were soon subdued by Gen. Winfield Scott. Many of these Indians were at once removed to new lands beyond the Mississippi. 1836. Specie Circular. The secretary of the treasury ordered the United States land agents to take only specie, instead of state bank bills, thereafter, for lands. This action helped cause the panic of 1837. The reason of the action was in the fact that bank bills were accumula- ting in the treasury. THIRTEENTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1836. In the thirteenth presidential campaign, at the close of this year, the democrats supported Martin Van Buren of New York, for president, and Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky, for vice-presi- dent. The national republicans who now became known as whigs, supported Gen. William H. Harrison of Ohio, for president, and Francis Granger of New York, for vice-president, both of whom had been nominated by a whig state con- vention in Pennsylvania, in 1835. Gen. Harrison had also been nominated in some other states, but no national conven- " tion had been held. Whig votes were also cast for Hugh L. White of Tennes- see, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, and W. P. Mangum of North Carolina, for president, and for John Tyler and William Smith, for vice-president. Out of 294 electoral votes Mr. Van Buren had 170, and Mr. Johnson 147, with a popular vote of 761,549. Gen. Harrison had 73 electoral votes, and Mr. Granger 77. Mr. White 26, and Mr. Tyler 47. Mr. Webster 14, and Mr. Smith 23, and Mr. Mangum n. The combined popular vote of the whigs for the latter candidates was 736,656. Mr. Van Buren was there- fore elected, but no candidate for vice- president had enough electoral votes, and 500 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT, the choice was thrown into the senate, which elected Mr. Johnson. 1836. Popular movements in Canada had increased in volume. The " Sons of Liberty" had been formed in many places, including Montreal. Regiments were ordered by government into Canada from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Arrests began to be made, and two popu- lar leaders were afterward rescued from the hands of the government. 1836. Santa Cruz, president of Bolivia, entered Peru with an army, and annexed it to Bolivia as a part of a confederation formed. 1837. Jan. 3. The Mexico of Liver- pool was wrecked on Long Island, and a hundred and eight lives lost. 1837. Jan. 16. The resolution of censure passed against President Jackson in 1834, f r ^ e remova l f United States money from the national bank, was ex- punged from the records of the senate of the United States, very largely through the efforts of Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri. 1837. Jan. 26. Michigan was the twenty-sixth state to be admitted to the Union. It has an area of 56,451 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 1,636,- 396 persons. Its motto is " Tuebor," and " Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circum- spice." " I will defend." " If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look around you." It is often called the " Wolverine State." 1837. February. Flour Mob. The crop in New York had been poor, and flour was high. A mob of 6,000 persons in New York city emptied several flour stores into the street, and defied all au- thority for a time. 1837. March 4. Martin Van Buren of New York was inaugurated president of the United States, with Richard M, Johnson of Kentucky, as vice-president. 1837. April 19. Gen. Bustamente was elected president of Mexico, but Santa Anna returned from issr. Shieen the United States this year v * ct \, asce nd ' J ea tlie throne of in a United States ship of England. war, and regained power as a revolution- ary president. The country entered upon a scene of tumult. 1837. May 9. The Ben Sherrod of New Orleans, was lost on the Missis- sippi at Natchez, and 175 persons were destroyed. PANIC OF '37. 1837. May 10. The New York banks suspended, and thus precipitated the crash which had been impending for months. Other failures now followed in rapid succession. Many corporations closed their works, hundreds of business houses found themselves ruined, and even states became bankrupt. The govern- ment was forced to an irredeemable paper currency. Farm products declined enor- mously in value. Credit was nearly annihilated. At last the president of the United States could not always get his salary when due, from the United States treasury. This panic was immediately due to a fever of speculation which had been running at great height for two years. There had also been large impor- tations of foreign goods under the com- promise tariff act, and much American capital had been driven out of business. The country had got easy because its government debt had been practically abolished, and speculation had speedily crept in. 1837. October. Morse's Telegraph. The first caveat for a patent upon the American electro-magnetic telegraph was 1825-1844.] entered by S. F. B. Morse. This had been hastened by the circular of the secre- tary of the U. S. Treasury, issued on March 10 of this year, requesting infor- mation upon the subject of telegraphs, and the question of establishing such lines in America. 1837. Oct. 9. The steamship Home of New York was wrecked in Pamlico Sound, N. C., and a hundred lives lost. The vessel went to pieces in an hour, al- though it was new. 1837. Oct. 29. The Monmouth was lost on the Mississippi River, with two hundred and thirty-four lives. MURDER OF LOVE JOT. 1837. Nov. 7. An anti-slavery mob took place at Alton, 111., which originated in the fact that Rev. Elijah P. Love- joy had established at that place an abo- lition newspaper called the Alton Ob- server. A new press had been brought to town to put in the place of one al- ready destroyed. It was lodged in a building, and guarded by Mr. Lovejoy and a few others. During the assault upon the building, Mr. Lovejoy ran out to prevent the building being set afire, and fell dead, with four balls in his breast. Nobody was brought to justice for this deed. Mr. Lovejoy was a native of Maine, and graduated in 1828 from Wa- terville College. He entered on the practice of the law in St. Louis, and af- terward studied for the ministry at Prince- ton, N. J. He soon began to oppose the persecution of those who opposed the cruelties of slavery. For this he was obliged to leave Missouri. He went to Alton, 111., and there established the Ob- server. His press was destroyed three times. The press he was defending was his fourth. He left a widow and children THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 5Q1 to mourn his sad end. One of Wendell Phillips' burning speeches was made up- on this event. 1837. Nov. 14. A brilliant auroral display was witnessed throughout almost the entire United States. The air was filled with the diffusion of a wonderful light, and in the heavens brilliant stream- ers played toward the zenith. The re- markable exhibition was noted by many scientific observers as one of the most striking auroras ever witnessed. 1837. November. A riot occurred in Montreal, and several severe engage- ments took place at different places. There was considerable loss of life. 1837. Dec. 25. The Seminole Indi- ans were defeated in a severe battle on the Okechobee River by Col. Zachary Taylor. 1837. December. Canadian Strug- gle for Independence. An attempt, by William Mackenzie, to make an inde- pendent nation of Upper Canada, was defeated. He had arranged his plans, and seemed to have the prospect of making quite a stir. But his effort broke down after a short struggle, and his fel- lows were scattered or arrested. The civil authorities speedily secured their power in the province. 1837. Burning of Steamer Carolina. Some malcontents encamped on Navy Island about Niagara Falls, and issued a proclamation asking for volunteers from Canada and the United States. The Carolina was put on to run between Navy Island and Schlosser Landing. But in a night or two the steamer was boarded, the crew overpowered, the steamer set on fire, and left to drift over Niagara. It was the occasion of some cross words at one or two times between 30 502 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. the English and the United States governments. 1837. Metal wheeled clocks were first made by Chauncey Jerome. They soon attained great popularity, and were sent nearly over the whole world. Brass was the metal at first used. This stopped the sale of wooden wheeled clocks. 1837. The ships Bristol and Mexico were wrecked on Far Rockaway and Hempstead Beach. One hundred and thirty-nine lives were lost, though the vessels were not over a cable's length from land. When the Mexico went ashore the weather was so cold that the passengers froze to death before drop- ping from the rigging. 1837. An Arctic expedition by land was sent out by the Hudson Bay Co., under Peter Warren Dease and Thomas Simpson. The first season they explored the north coast of North America from the mouth of the Mackenzie to Cape Barron, and the two succeeding seasons were equally successful in examining that part of the coast left unexplored by Franklin. Simpson was an able leader for such an undertaking. After his re- turn, while descending the Mississippi to embark for England, one of his Indian guides assassinated him. 1837. The first railroad in any Span- ish speaking country was opened in Cuba from Havana to Guines. 1837. The Republic of Texas applied for admission to the United States, but was deferred. 1837. The insurrectionary efforts in Upper Canada continued to some ex- tent, and made their appearance at cer- tain points in Lower Canada, also. But they were without permanent result, ex- cept to teach the government some lessons of administration. OSCEOLA. 1838. Jan. 30. This half-breed In- dian, the leader in the second Seminole war, died at Fort Moultrie, at the age of thirty-four years. His father was an Englishman who traded among the In- dians, and his mother was the daughter of an Indian chief. In 1835 O SC ola be- came angry because his wife was car- ried off from him as" a slave. He was put in confinement, but after a while was set at liberty. He then plotted bloodshed, and at last succeeded in killing Gen. Thompson and four companions. He raised a force and massacred Major Dade and no men. He struggled powerfully against the greater forces now sent upon him, and was only captured by strategy, in 1837. He was a bold, wild leader, and roused the Indians successfully so long as he was with them. 1838. January. Prof. Morse made another exhibition of a telegraph in the University of New York. He used ten miles of wire. 1838. Teb. 24. A duel was fought near Washington, between Jonathan Cilley, congressman from Maine, and William J. Graves, congressman from Kentucky. The affair originated in the fact that Mr. Cilley would not receive a note from J. Watson Webb, which was brought him by Mr. Graves, whereupon the latter felt insulted, and isss. The da- challenged Mr. Cilley. ***"**{* >'; J Tented at Pans They met, and fired three by Daffuerre. times, twice without effect. At the close of each firing an effort was made to satisfy Mr. Graves, but in vain. The third time Mr. Cilley fell, mortally wounded, and expired in a few moments. It came out afterward that Webb was determined to have the life of Mr. Cilley 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 503 in some way. A committee of congress was appointed to investigate the matter. A detailed report was made at great length, bringing out the sadness of such ridiculous affairs. This duel gave a great shock to the country. 1838. March 29. The great defal- cation of Samuel Swartout, collector of New York, was discovered by the pass- ing of his books over to his successor. He had been in office for ten years, and no suspicion had attached to him. The deficit was $1,225,705, and small returns were ever got for it. It was lost in spec- ulation on Wall Street. He possessed little land, or anything which could be seized. The defalcation had been grad- ual, having begun with a few hundred dollars. 1838. April 6. Bonifacio Joze d'An- drada e Sylva, an eminent Brazilian, died near Rio de Janeiro, at the age of seventy-three years. He was carefully educated in Europe, and took a great part in developing the science and scien- tific enterprises of his country. He also was an able statesman, and was banished on account of liberal views. 1838. April 23. The Sirius and the Great Western, first of regular steamer lines across the Atlantic, entered New York harbor. 1838. April 25. The burning of the steamer Moselle, near the wharf at Cin- cinnati, destroyed 131 lives. 1838. April 27. A great fire in Charleston, S. C., consumed one-half the city, destroying 1158 buildings, and $3,000,000 worth of property. 1838. April. Fifteen Gallon Law. A law was passed by the Massachusetts legislature by more than a majority of two-thirds, that the retailing of spirituous liquors should be by apothecaries and physicians, and not in less quantity than fifteen gallons. A comical 1754-1538. evasion took place at a Talleyrand. militia muster, where a man pitched a tent and exhibited a " striped pig " at ten cents admission. The persons who entered found a pig with stripes painted around his body, and also found a free drink. Nobody could prevent a man from giving away liquor, if he chose. 1838. May 17. Pennsylvania Hall, Philadelphia, was burned by a mob, after it had been opened to the public only four days, because an anti-slavery meeting had been held in it. The four days were days of great mob violence. 1838. May 29. The Earl of Dur- ham, who had been appointed governor- general of Canada, arrived at Quebec, and met with warm expressions of confi- dence through the provinces. But he soon returned home, because the Eng- lish government would not indorse his acts toward the imprisoned popular leaders. The government afterward pursued conciliatory courses under other men, and the troubles slumbered for awhile. 1838. May 30. Buccaneer of the Lakes. A new steamer named Robert Peel, was seized and robbed and burned upon Lake Ontario. It plied between Kingston and Ogdensburg. The act was done by a noted " Bill Johnson," who claimed the above title in opposing British power. 183d. June 14. The explosion of the steam packet Pulaski of Savannah, off the North Carolina coast, killed one hundred persons. 1838. Sept. 3. Frederick Douglass, the celebrated negro orator and journal- ist, escaped from slavery at Baltimore, and made his way to New Bedford, 504 POLITICAL DB VELOPMENT. where he lived for several years, until he began to enter his public career. BLACK HAWK. 1838. Oct. 3. This celebrated Indi- an chieftain died at his home in Iowa, aged about seventy-one years. He was by birth a Pottawattamie. From his own account he was born at the Sac village at the mouth of the Rock River. His father through his bravery had be- come one of the chiefs of the Sac tribe, and among these Indians Black Hawk was born and brought up. The Sacs had for some time been united with the Fox tribe, and with them at the time of the Black Hawk war numbered about 3,000 persons, of whom one-fifth were warriors. Their home was in Illinois between the Illinois and the Mississippi Rivers, including the fertile valley of the Rock River. Their principal village was on the point of land formed by the confluence of the Rock River with the Mississippi. According to the traditions of the tribe a village had existed there for one hundred and fifty years. Black Hawk, on the death of his father, took the position of chief, then made vacant. At this time he was about twenty years of age. He was full six feet in height, possessed of a splendid physique, and a face which under the influence of civiliza- tion and education, would have been handsome. Being of a brave and daring disposition he was already a noted war- rior, and soon came to be held in high esteem also for his wisdom. He was characterized by kindness of heart to an unwonted degree. In the war of 1812 he fought on the side of the British. Bv 59- The whig party had swept the country. 1840. The first commercial college in America, named " Comer's Commer- cial College," was established at Boston. 184O. The Roman Catholics of New York entered a claim for a part of the public school money, but were refused. This was one of the small beginnings of the recent controversy over the Bible in common schools. 1840. The first horse which climbed Mt. Washington was ridden by Abel Crawford, the famous pioneer of the region, who was at this time seventy -five years old, and died 10 years later. 1840. "Landscape Gardening," by Andrew J. Downing, a work which greatly stimulated the study of horticul- ture in this country, was first issued. 1840. The model of a steam fire en- gine, constructed by Capt. John Ericsson, received from the Mechanics' Institute of New York a gold medal. 1840. The fall of a drawbridge in Albany, N. Y., caused the drowning of twenty persons. 510 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1840. The two provinces of Canada were reunited in their government. 1840. Guano was first sent from the Chincha Islands off the coast of Peru to England, where it was found to be very valuable as a fertilizer, and the trade in it began to develop. 1840. A penal colony at Port Fam- ine, Magellan's Strait, was established by Chili, but a mutiny soon destroyed it. 1840. Peace was made between the confederation of Buenos Ayres and Montevideo. Troubles had been in ex- istence, and Rosas had attempted to secure the latter. 1840. The Imaum of Muscat sent costly presents to President Van Buren, which were sold, and the price put into the United States treasury. Congress appropriated $15,000 for return presents. 1841. Jan. 14. Imprisonment as a penalty for unpaid debts due to the United States, was abolished. 1841. Feb. 21. The Governor Fen- ner of Liverpool was lost in the Atlantic, with 122 lives. 1841. March 4. Gen. "William Henry Harrison of OhiOj was inaugurated pres- ident of the United States, with John Tyler of Virginia, for vice-president. 1841. March 13. The steamer Pres- ident from New York to England, was never afterward heard from; 109 lives were lost. It is supposed to have been sunk by an iceberg. 1841. March 31. Yucatan had at different times tried to be free of Mexico, and at this date adopted a state constitu- tion, but it is still Mexican. WILLIAM HEXRY HARRIS OX. 1841. April 4. William Henry Harrison, the ninth president of the United States, died at Washington four weeks after his inauguration, at the age of sixty-eight years. He was the son of Benjamin Harrison, a signer of the Decla- ration of Independence, and was born in Berkeley, Va., Feb. 9, 1773. His early education was thorough, and after his graduation at Hampden Sidney College, he began a course of medical study. Upon the outbreak of the Indian troubles, however, much against the wishes of his friends, he entei'ed the ranks of Gen. St. Clair, with a commission of ensign. He was then but nineteen years old. From this time he passed gradually upward in rank until he became aide to Gen. Wayne, after whose death he resigned his commission. Until 1811 he led a citizen's life as governor of Indiana, which had been recently formed from the Northwest Territory. Meantime the Indians, led by Tecumseh, had been growing troublesome, and after several attempts at a peace the differences cul- minated at Tippecanoe, where the bra- very and skill of Harrison, who com- manded the forces, were clearly displayed. During the war with Great Britain he was made major-general, but he resigned in 1814 because of. some misunderstand- ing with his brother officers. In 1816 he was representative in congress, and in 1825 was made senator. In 1828 he was made minister to the Republic of Colombia, S. A., but on the accession of Jackson he was recalled. From this time until 1841, Gen. Harrison led a comparatively quiet life on his Ohio farm. Hardly had he formed his cabinet after the inauguration, before the nation was called to mourn for the first time, a dead president. His past life had evidently worn upon his frame, and he was taken away after an illness of eight days. He was a popular man, and it was expected 1825-1844.J that his administration, would be a suc- cessful one. 1841. April 6. John Tyler was in- augurated president of the United States, according to the constitution. 1841. April 10. The New York Tribune was established by Horace Greeley. It started with 500 subscribers. 1841. July 18. Dom Pedro II. hav- ing attained his majority, was crowned emperor of Brazil. An insurrection of slaves, and a war with Buenos Ayres, took place in the first part of his reign. 1841. July. False Imprisonment. Alanson Work, James E. Burr, and Geo. Thompson, were arrested upon crossing the river from Quincy, 111., into Missouri, and imprisoned upon the charge of assisting slaves to escape. They were sentenced for twelve years. But their conduct under their misfortune was so winning that their oppressors thought best in four or five years to pardon and release them. 1841. Aug. 9. The Sub-Treasury Bill was repealed. 1841. Aug. 9. The steamer Erie of Buffalo, was burned upon Lake Erie, twenty miles from land. Out of 200 lives, 175 were lost. The fire originated in a barrel of turpentine. 1841. Sept. 2. An earthquake de- stroyed the city of Cartago in Costa Rica, and left only 100 houses out of 3,000. Six of the seven churches were ruined. 1841. September. The murder of Samuel Adams, a New York printer, was committed by John C. Colt, a brother of Samuel Colt, the inventor of the revolver. Colt afterward killed him- self in prison on the day set for his execution. THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 511 1841. Oct. 19. Col. John C. Fre- mont and Jessie Benton, daughter of Senator Benton, were secretly married. 1841. December. Gen. Sam Hous- ton again became president of the Re- public of Texas. 1841. Fiscal Bank of the United States. President Tyler twice vetoed a bill for a United States Bank, which was passed by congress. After the second veto every Cabinet officer except Daniel Webster, resigned his position. It seems that the resignation was because he had been asked what kind of a bill he would sign, suggested one, which was passed by both houses, and then vetoed it. 1841. Whig Addresses. The whigs renounced all political connection with President Tyler, henceforth. A few men in congress supported him, and be- came known as ''The CorporaVs Guard" 1841. The Bank of Pennsylvania suspended. It had $35,000,000 capital, nearly one-half of which was taken in Europe, and some of it was held by the United States government. The funds had been used in speculation by the old directors. Little could be done to restore credit. This was the old United States bank of Jackson's time. 1841. A thousand reformed drunk- ards marched in procession at the first anniversary of the Washingtonian So- ciety. A great excitement was produced by this display. 1841. An " English and Continental Express " was established by William F. Harnden, with the particular object of systematizing emigration from Europe to America. Within three years he had brought into the United States over 100,000 laborers. 1841. Revolving Turret Model. 512 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. Theodore R. Timby of Duchess County, N. Y., completed a model for a metallic revolving turret to be used in "warfare, either on land or sea. This model was the fulfillment of an idea which had been in Mr. Timby's mind from childhood. This was the first step in the world to- ward the now famous " Monitor " iron clads. Mr. Timby afterward improved, as well as patented it, and at the outbreak of the Civil war was paid for the use of his idea in the monitors which were con- structed. 1841. The first steam fire engine in America was constructed in New York by a Mr. Hughes after a model made by Capt. John Ericsson which he had in- vented. It was used several times with success, but was found to be too heavy. The same year Capt. Ericsson fitted the first screw propellor in this country to the United States steamer Princeton. 1841. An explosion of twenty-eight kegs of gunpowder during a conflagra- tion, in Syracuse, N. Y., killed thirty per- sons and wounded fifty. 1841. An excitement occurred in western New York, over Alexander McLeod, who, a Canadian, reported that he was one of the destroyers of the Caro- lina. He was arrested, and held for trial. A demand was made by the English government for his release. It was re- fused by the United States government on the claim that the affair was within the jurisdiction of New York. The charge was tried, and not proved. 1841. Santa Anna became military dictator of Mexico, and retained power for a few years. During this period the constitution was suspended. 1841. Paraguay elected two consuls named Lopez and Alonzo. 1842. Jan. 22. Charles Dickens and his wife arrived in Boston. This was their first visit to America, and the peo- ple received them with every attention. After -a few months they returned to England. 1842. Feb. 9. A Total Abstinence Temperance Society was formed in con- gress, partly through the exhibition of the anniversary of the Washingtonians in procession. 1842. Feb. 21. First Sewing Ma- chine Patent. John J. Greenough of Washington, D. C., patented a sewing machine which would make the " shoe- maker's stitch." The eye was in the center of the needle, which was pointed at both ends, and was pushed through the material, and then drawn back agrain. * O Several other patents were taken out be- fore Howe took out his, in 1846. But they were none of them practicable. 1842. March 3O. First Use of Ether. Dr. C. W. Long of Jefferson, Ga., ether- ized a patient in order to perform an operation. This case is said to be the first instance of such use of ether, on record. 1842. May 2. An exploration of a part of the Rocky Mountains was un- dertaken by John C. Fremont, by order of the United States government. He examined the South Pass, planted a flag upon the summit of what has since been known as Fremont's Peak, 13,570 feet high, and returned in four months with a mass of valuable information, which was received with great favor at home and abroad. This was Fremont's first ex- pedition to these regions. 1842. Aug. 1. Great Philadelphia Mob. The colored people of Philadel- phia were mobbed for two days, and many of their houses destroyed. One church and one hall were also destroyed. 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 513 Many negroes were seized and beaten. This mob was the worst of a number. The negroes had undertaken to celebrate the anniversary of emancipation in the West Indies, by a public procession. City authorities did not interfere. Mobs prevailed during these years in many quarters. It was the era of violence. But reaction took place, and some began to turn their attention more to legal steps for the suppression of anti-slavery socie- ties. In a few instances they secured a statement by grand juries, saying that those who formed an abolition society were guilty of sedition. Reviews and periodicals took the same position. 1842. Aug. 9. The Ashburton Treaty was signed at Washington, and established the northeastern boundary of the United States between Maine and New Brunswick, which had caused con- siderable trouble with Great Britain. Daniel Webster acted for the United States, and Lord Ashburton for England. 1842. Aug. 30. A new tariff bill was passed by congress. It greatly re- duced the number of free importations, and put a duty of .33 average on those things dutiable. It originated in the ter- rible financial stress of the last five years. The tariff was followed by a return of prosperity. WILLIAM E. CHAINING. 1842. Oct. 2. William E. Channing, D. D., an eminent Unitarian clergyman, died at Bennington, Vt., at the age of sixty-two years. He was born at New- port, R. I., April 7, 1 780. The record of the life of Dr. Channing is of more than usual interest, for he attained a po- sition which put him among the leaders of his generation. His early life was one > with the years of his later life in all that 33 pertains to religious emotion and char- acter. He was taught when very young to think upon questions of doctrine, and being of a quieter disposition than many, he was more ready to occupy his time in quite serious reflection. He was not strong in body, though capable of sus- taining considerable fatigue. It was very soon noticed that a keenness of spirit to the injustices of life which he could dis- cern, or which fell in his way, marked this somewhat precocious lad. The in- fluence of a devout mother was visible in all the experiences and development of the 3 7 outh. W hen twelve years old he began study at New London, Conn., in fitting for college. A shadow fell upon his life at this point in the death of his father. It was not long before a defi- nite religious experience took hold upon him, and marked his future days with its purposes. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1798. While a member of that institution his preeminent qualities, both of a scholarly and -moral character, made him noticeable among his class- mates. His mind had a moral tone to it, and labored to perfect its own moral apprehensions. The studies of his college life broadened out into the reading of Shakspeare, and of writers upon moral and social themes, from whence a stimu- lus was gained, never afterward to be lost. He served as private tutor in a family at Richmond, Va., for a year and a half after graduation. During this pe- riod he began to mature some of his religious views, perhaps almost uncon- sciously to himself. A period of theo- logical study then ensued, partly at New- port, where he went for health, and partly at Cambridge. In 1802 he began preaching under license. In 1803, J une i , he was ordained pastor of the Federal 514 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. Street Society, Boston, and at once began that unremitting zeal in preaching and in pastoral labor, which threatened to con- sume him before the natural limit of his days. Attention was soon widely at- tracted to the young pastor, and it was not many years before the house of worship had to be enlarged. The great controversy within the Orthodox church now began to appear, and Dr. Channing took sides at once in the liberal party, and became a leader for it. Not thoroughly and logically systematized in his own views, yet by his eloquence he proved a valuable defender, one who could take hold on the hearts of men by his own qualities of heart. He early became as- sociated with humanitarian efforts, and was a strenuous thinker upon questions of social and moral reform, to the end of his days. An English and continental tour in 1822, brought him into dontact with valuable minds abroad. Literary labors now increased upon him. Dr. E. S. Gannett became his associate pastor in 1824. The whole country was begin- ning to feel his power. Published arti- cles upon Milton, Bonaparte, Fenelon, and other themes, created a great reputa- tion for him. At a later day he wrote against slavery, and brought his influence to bear upon it, by lectures and otherwise. His interest in humanity was perennial, and his ardor of thought unabated. But typhus fever took him for its victim, and carried him off in the midst of his labors. His is a record of love and wisdom toward men and God. His mind was poetical, and his spirit one of gentleness, rather than of war. 1842. Oct. 18. A sub-marine cable was laid by Prof. S. F. B. Morse, from Governor's Island to the Batterv at New York, and transmitted signals, until on the 19th the anchor of a vessel tore it up. It was made with a copper wire surrounded by a covering of hemp filled with tar, pitch, and India rubber. 1842. Nov. 24. The gradual aboli- tion of slavery was provided for in Para- guay by a law passed this year. 1842. A great forest journey in South America, was made by Count Bis- marck, since Prince Bismarck, with Prince Adalbert, of Prussia. They as- cended one or more tributaries of the Amazon, and had a wild experience. 1842. The "Quebec Journal" was founded by Joseph Canchon. 1842. A great contest came off in the U. S. House of Representatives over the presentations of petitions by John Q. Adams. For a series of years there had been an attempt to exclude all petitions which related to slavery. For eleven days Mr. Adams contended almost alone for the right of petition. All kinds of threats were bestowed upon him, but he shrunk not, and persevered till the attack was lain down at last by his opposers, who were unable to overwhelm the old man eloquent. 1842. Dorr's Rebellion occurred in Rhode Island in opposition to the charter government of the state. It was the effort of a large party who wished to abolish the former property qualification for voters, and to get possession of the state government under a popular consti- tution. Thomas W. Dorr was elected governor by this party, and made some show of force in seizing the government, but it disappeared when energetic meas- ures were adopted by Gov. King. No violence occurred. The ideas advocated have since passed into the state constitu- tion. The amusing incident is told that 1825-1844.] Mr. Dorr, when he saw the. state troops advancing toward the hill upon which his men were stationed, told his men to fight as long as they could hold out, and if obliged to give way, to preserve order and retreat with their faces to the foe, adding in a low voice, as he now saw the troops within a short distance, " As I am a little lame, I guess I will go now." Dorr was afterward tried and sentenced to imprisonment for life, but was par- doned in 1847. 1842. An impending mutiny, the first regularly organized one in the United States navy, was discovered on board the brig of war Somers, Capt. Alexander S. Mackenzie. Philip H. Spencer headed the revolt. By the energy of Capt. Mackenzie it was re- pressed, but finding insubordination appearing constantly, he ordered the three principal leaders hung. This event was fully investigated upon Capt. Mac- kenzie's arrival in the United States, by a court martial and a naval court of inquiry, and his conduct thoroughly ap- proved. Young Spencer's father, John C, Spencer, was at this time secretary of war. 1842. The Seminole war, which had lasted seven years, was ended by the almost complete capture and removal, or death of the tribe. A few remained in Florida. Fifteen hundred whites had been killed, and $10,000,000 had been expended. 1842. First Corn Starch. Thomas Kingsford, an Englishman who had come to America to live, after experimenting for some months upon Indian corn, ob- tained a fine specimen of pure white starch, the first ever made from maize. The business has since grown, till now at Oswego, N. Y., millions of pounds are THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 515 It is the largest annually produced manufactory in the world. 1842. Percussion locks were intro- duced for the first time upon the firearms of the United States infantry. 1842. A proposal for the construc- tion of iron clad steam vessels to serve as batteries in coast ports, was made to the United States government by Mr. Robert L. Stevens of Hoboken, N. J. The gov- ernment decided to build one as an ex- periment, but it was not begun till 1856. The vessel was to be built altogether of O iron. It has never been finished, but was sold for old iron in the fall of 1880. 1842. Croton water was introduced into New York. The aqueduct had been five years in building, and stands at the head of modern constructions of the kind. Its length is 40^ miles, with a capacity of 175,000,000 gallons daily. The whole cost was $12,500,000. 1842. The rapids between Kingston and Montreal on the St. Lawrence, were for the first time navigated by steam- boats. 1842. The United States South Sea Exploring Expedition returned home, having been gone four years. Capt. Wilkes, in his vessel Vincennes, had sailed 7 1 ,000 miles, and had had no special accident. The brig Porpoise had sailed 95,000 miles. Other vessels made similar distances. Their work had been great in visiting ports, correcting charts, etc. The discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean were made before the English and French expeditions to the same waters. Experiments in the Sandwich Islands were made, and explorations of craters conducted. The Oregon Territory was examined. About a score of men were lost during the expedition, fourteen at Cape Horn. 516 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1842. The famous Santa Fe Expedi- tion was set on foot by Texas. This ex- pedition was for the capture of Santa Fe from Mexico. It started very poorly fitted out for their march. The members were reduced to the last extremity for food. There were 300 or more men under Gen. McLeod. They finally sur- rendered to Mexican authorities, and were most inhumanly treated, stripped of everything, and made to march 2,000 miles barefooted, to the City of Mexico; 35 died on the way, 4 were shot by the guard, and the rest were delivered. A correspondence took- place between the United States and Mexico over one or two Americans who had accompanied the expedition, and had been ill-treated like the rest. They were liberated after a while, and finally Santa Anna liberated all the rest on his birthday. 1842. Queen Victoria sent six gold medals for six American captains, each of whom during 1840 had been instrumental in saving a British vessel. They were, Captains Depeyster, Wotton, Cropper, Thompson, Palmer, and Stoddart, all of vessels belonging in New York. 1842. The brig Creole sailed from Richmond, Va., for New Orleans, with tobacco and 135 slaves, who rose and got possession of the brig, and took her into Nassau in the Bahamas. An investiga- tion proved 19 to have had a part in the murder. They were held for trial, but the English authorities refused to send them to America for trial, and pronounced the rest, numbering 114, free, because they had landed on English soil. 1842. Boyer, the chieftain-president of Hayti since 1822, was forced to flee from the island, by a rebellion. The eastern part of the island rose against the western. 1842. The university of Havana be- came a Literary University of the gov- ernment, instead of a Royal and Pontifi- cal University. The sciences were now first introduced. 1842. The explosion of the Medora, at Baltimore, killed 26, and wounded 38 persons. 1842. Civil wars began in Peru, and raged several years. 1842. A convention was called to re- construct the confederation of Central America, but failed through the absence of delegates from Guatamala and Costa Rica. A similar experience was had in 1847. 1843. March 3. Morse's Telegraph. An appropriation of $30,000 was voted by congress to Samuel F. B. Morse, for the purpose of establishing an experi- mental telegraph line. After weary waiting and working, the appropriation was made on the last night of session. Morse had gone away to his bed disap- pointed and sore. But fresh faith was given by the news of the morning. 1843. March. The " Great Comet " made its sudden appearance, and was for weeks observed by scientists throughout this country and in Europe. It could be seen by day as well as by night a portion of the time, and was of a remarkable order. 1843. May. A second expedition into the Rocky Mountains was under- taken by John C. Fremont. With 39 men he crossed to the Great Salt Lake of Utah, concerning which he gained the first real information. He then passed north to the Columbia River, and fol- lowed it to its mouth. The 1755-1S43. ,, Haknemann, the party upon their return founderof were obliged to cross the homeopathy. Sierra Nevadas, into the Sacramento- 1825-1844.] THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 517 valley of California, which they did through the deep snows, with extreme difficulty and suffering. Passing south- erly they returned into Kansas in July, 1844, having added much to the knowl- edge of the Great West. 1843. June 17. Bunker HiU Monu- ment was dedicated, and Daniel Webster 3 gain delivered an oration, being selected hy common consent as the only fit Amer- ican to serve in such a capacity, at the founding and completion of this memo- rable shaft. After much delay, and often- times discouragement, in raising money, the great memorial was completed, and stands an ever-enduring symbol of the purpose of the patriots of 1775. At one time in the work $30,035.93 were raised by the ladies of Boston in a fair. This virtually insured the completion. The obelisk stands 220 feet high, and cost $120,000. Solomon Willard, who drew the plans, was superintendent through the whole work. The task of raising the stones to their places was very great. The cap or apex stone at the summit of all weighed 2\ tons. Daniel Webster, in his address, thus spoke of this memorial : " It is a plain shaft. It bears no inscrip- tions fronting to the rising sun, from which the future antiquarian shall wipe the dust. Nor does the rising sun cause tones of music to issue from its summit. But at the rising of the sun and at the setting of the sun, in the blaze of noon- day, and beneath the milder effulgence of lunar light it looks, it speaks, it acts, to the full comprehension of every Amer- ican mind, and the awakening of enthu- siasm in every American heart. Its silent, but awful utterance ; its deep pathos as it brings to our contemplation the iyth of June, i775 an d the consequences which have resulted to us, to our country, and to the world, from the events of that day ; and which we know must continue to rain influence on the destinies of mankind, to the end of time; the elevation with which it raises us high above the ordinary feelings of life, surpass all that the study of the closet, or even the inspiration of genius, can produce. To-day it speaks to us. Its future auditories will be the suc- cessive generations of men, as they rise up before it and gather around it. Its . speech will be of patriotism and courage ; of civil and religious liberty ; of free gov- ernment; of the moral improvement and elevation of mankind; and of the im- mortal memory of those who, with heroic devotion, have sacrificed their lives for their country." 1843. Aug. 30. The "Liberty Party," in a convention at Buffalo, N. Y., nominated James G. Birney of Michigan, for president, and Thomas Morris of Ohio, for vice-president. 1843. November. Mr. Alexander Dallas Bache was appointed superin- tendent of the coast survey of the United States, in place of Mr. Hassler, who had died. Mr. Bache enlarged the work very much, and gave it great scientific value. He held the position till his death in 1867. 1843. Patent Lock. Mr. Linus Yale of Philadelphia, patented a lock which was never picked till it was done years after by his son, Linus Yale, Jr., who is connected by name with the celebrated Yale locks of the present day. 1843. Samuel Colt, the manufacturer of firearms, laid a submarine cable of his own invention, from Coney and Fire Islands to New York city. It was worked with good success in the trans- mission of signals. 1843. Pleuro-pneumonia, the cattle 518 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. disease, was introduced into the United States by a cow from Germany. It ap- peared slightly in New York and New Jersey, but did no great harm for ten years. Since then it has carried off many cattle. 1843. A special embassy to the Chinese empire was voted by congress, and an appropriation of $40,000 made for it. The object was to improve trade and better all our relations with that em- pire, in respects to which there had been carelessness heretofore. 1843. Millerism. During this year a form of religionism which has since been known by the name of the plain, uneducated farmer who preached it, came to its head in the awaiting of the de- struction of the earth at the second coming of Christ, by a. large number of persons who adopted the views given. For ten years Mr. Miller had advocated his "opinions until nearly 50,000 disciples were ready to believe his word. A great deal of excitement attended the diffusion of these views. From 1842 the expec- tations of the Millerites reached in many cases almost fever height. The passing of the year 1843 without the end of the world shook the faith of some, but drove others back to a belief in some error of reckoning. But other dates were speedily set, and the hopes of the faithful endured repeated failures. At times, excesses at- tended the spread of these views, and sometimes almost insane rites were entered upon. But large numbers of the believers in these views were very sin- cerely affected, and waited for their Lord in great simplicity of faith. Mr. Miller died in 1849, and divisions took place among his followers very widely. Some still clung to the notion of setting a time for Christ's coming, while others aban- doned that idea, and merely emphasized the necessity of expecting the Lord speedily. A large number have adopted the seventh day of the week as sabbath, and hence are called Seventh Day Ad- ventists. 1844. Feb. 28. " The Peacemaker," a large cannon which was being tried on board the United States steamship Princeton, lying in the Potomac River, exploded, killing the Secretary of State, Abel P. Upshur, and the Secretary of the Navy, Thomas W. Gilmer, besides doing injury to others. Twenty persons in all were harmed. 1844. February. Eastern Hayti formed itself into a government called the Dominican Republic. 1844. May 1. The whig party in a convention at Baltimore, nominated Henry Clay of Kentucky, for president, and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New Jersey, for vice-president. 1844. May 27. The democratic party in a convention at Baltimore, nom- inated James K. Polk of Tennessee, for president, and Silas Wright of Ne-vr York, for vice-president, but as Mr. Wright declined, George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania was put in his place. SUCCESS WITH THE TELEGRAPH. 1844. May 27. In accordance with the appropriation made by congress, a lin& of telegraph was erected by Prof. Morse between Washington and Baltimore. At the dictation of Miss Anna Ellsworth, the first message sent over the silent wire was, " What hath God wrought?'* The announcement of the nomination of James K. Polk for president by the democratic convention, was the next, and the first general, message sent. The attempt was first made to lay the wire in 1825-1844.] the earth in pipes. This was Morse's original idea. Ezra Cornell invented a machine which would dig the trench, lay and cover the pipe, at one operation. It was set at work, and quite an amount of wire was laid. But upon trial the line would not operate, and Mr. Cornell, to save the reputation of Mr. Morse, ran the team upon a stone and smashed it up. Mr. Cornell then erected the wire on poles, which was his own idea, and has proved the successful method. THE GROWTH OF PARTIES. 519 1844. May. " Know Nothing Riot." A political meeting was held by the " Know Nothings," or Native Ameri- cans, who began to greatly oppose for- eign immigration, in Kensington, a dis- trict of Philadelphia, in the open air. It was obliged to adjourn because of a shower, to a market directly opposite a large house filled with foreigners. From this house a gun was fired into the crowd, which became excited, and for several days the two elements raged in conflict. A Romanist female seminary was de- stroyed. The city was overawed. Peo- ple were hung. The authorities could do nothing. Thirty buildings were demolished, including two elegant churches. Fourteen persons were killed, and thirty -nine wounded. A great deal of property was destroyed. Martial law was proclaimed, and the United States troops had to aid in restoring order to the city. 1844. June 27. Joseph Smith, the Mormon leader, having been arrested because of the numerous charges against him, was shot at Carthage, 111., where he was to be put into jail, by a mob. The people of Illinois had become almost exasperated with the Mormons, and actual conflict was threatened. Brisf- ham Young was chosen in place of Smith, by the Mormons. 1844. Sept. 20. Canalizo was made president of Mexico at the banishment of Santa Anna. 1844. November. A small schooner named Midas, propelled by a double screw, left New York, and was the first American steam vessel to pass the Cape of Good Hope. It became a passenger vessel on the internal waters of China. 1844. December. Laughing Gas. Dr. Horace Wells of Hartford, Conn., was the first to use laughing gas success- fully in the extraction of teeth. He ex- perimented slightly with ether at the suggestion of Dr. Marcy of Hartford, but did not like the effects. 1844. December. Anson Jones was the last president of the Republic of Texas before its annexation to the United States. 1844. December. Herera was made president of Mexico, to succeed the de- posed Canalizo. 1844. The first treaty concluded be- tween the United States and China, was negotiated by Caleb Gushing. It was the first negotiated with that government by any Christian nation. 1844. The American Anti-Slavery Society took its famous position of oppo- sition to the Federal Constitution, which it affirmed was pro-slavery, " a covenant with death, and an agreement with hell." It pronounced voting or the holding of office under such a constitution incon- sistent. The motto now was, " No union with slaveholders." Mr. Garrison and others led in this movement, which had been preparing some time. Many mem- bers withdrew from the society, which now was in antagonism to many of the best workers in the country. 520 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1844. The first " water-cure " estab- lishment in America was opened at No. 64 Barclay Street, New York city, under David Campbell and Dr. Joel Shew. Others were soon founded. 1844. A yacht club, the first in the United States, was formed in New York. There were nine members at the origin, each one owning a yacht. It soon in- creased its membership largely. 1844. An agricultural department was opened in connection with Oberlin College, Ohio, and continued till 1855, when the funds were transferred to a separate college opened at Cleveland. FIFTEENTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1844. In the fifteenth presidential campaign the all-exciting question was the annexation of Texas to the United States. The northwestern boundary was also introduced into the canvass. The democratic party supported James K. Polk and George M. Dallas. The whigs supported Henry Clay and Theodore Freelinghuysen. The " liberty party " supported James G. Birney and Thomas Morris. Out of 275 electoral votes, Polk and Dallas received 170, with a popular vote of 1,337,243. Clay and Freelinghuysen received 105 electoral votes, and a popular vote of 1,299/368. The "liberty party"" threw a popular vote of 62,300. The democratic candi- dates were therefore victorious. 1844. An insurrection took place in Cuba among the negroes, but was sup- pressed with some effort. 1844. Lopez became dictator of Paraguay. 1844. Fourierism. A new form of socialism began to be extended very widely in the United States. It takes its name from Fourier, the Frenchman, who thought that his views would remodel society and property. After these ideas were first stated in the United States, many people were attracted to them, and advocates sprang up for them in several different quarters. Horace Greeley be- came prominent in the diffusion of infor- mation concerning Fourier's views, and in the making of appeals for the adoption of them experimentally. "Brook Farm," the enterprise of the literary and social reformers of Massachusetts, was con- verted to Fourierism. c; Phalanxes" were now established in a large number of states, and for a time the growth was very rapid. But disintegration took place, and the efforts began to lose in power. Cohesion finally ceased, and communities began to go to pieces. The chief measures offered by Fourierism were for the housing and feeding of the members of the associations upon the co-operative plan, by the erection of large edifices, one in each " phalanx," in which the families were to live and board, and by the raising of large crops in common, for the support of the whole. The mania for Fourierism was the widest social mania this country has experienced, but in spite of the fact that many of its supporters were of excellent character and ability, it finally passed by, into silence. SECTION XVIII. OF . 18&5-1859. MIDES of party life in the United States during this period rise higher. The interests of different sections clash more vigorously, and all arrangements for harmonizing them are made with increasing difficulty. The shadow of the future is deepening. War "between the United States and Mexico gives' a military character once more to the life of Noith America. In South America factions still appear and disap- pear. Personal motives enter into the solution of all questions in that half of the continent, and a resort to arms closes all disputes. The whole continent is yet in a crude condition, except that Amer- ican inventions now begin to lead the world. 1845. March 1. The biU for the an- nexation of Texas to the United States was signed by the president. 1845. March 3. Florida was the twenty-seventh state to be received into the Union. It has an area of 59,268 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 266,566 persons. Its motto is " In God we trust." 1845. March 4. James K. Polk of Tennessee was inaugurated president of the United States, and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania, vice-president. 1845. March 6. General Almonte, Mexican minister at Washington, closed his diplomatic relations with the United States government, and left the city. The Mexican government was vexed be- cause of the proposed annexation of Texas to the United States. 1845. March 16. Lopez was made president of Paraguay. 1845. April. The first newspaper in Paraguay was issued. 1845. April 10. A great conflagra- tion destroyed about 1800 buildings, or one-third of the city of Pittsburg, Penn., burning over 56 acres. The loss was $6,000,000. $30,000 were received from the state in aid, and much from other places. FMJfKLItf'S LtiST VOYAGE. 1845. May 26. Sir John Franklin sailed from England with Capt. Crozier, in the " Erebus " and " Terror." His last dispatch was from Whalefish Islands, Baffin's Bay. 1845. May 28. A great conflagra- tion at Quebec burned 1050 houses, and 522 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. made 1 200 people homeless. Many per- sons were killed. ANDREW JACKSON. 1845. June 8. Andrew Jackson, the seventh president of the United States, died at " The Hermitage," his residence, a few miles from Nashville, Tenn., at the simplest rudiments. The impetuosity and fearlessness of the man were early apparent in the boy, and when only thir- teen years old he joined the volunteers of Carolina against the British invasion. In 1781 he and his brother Robert were captured, and imprisoned for a time at Camden. Upon one occasion the officer ANDREW JACKSON. age of seventy-eight years. His parents were poor emigrants from Ireland, who took up their abode in the Waxhaw set- tlement, N. C., where they lived in the deepest poverty. Here Andrew was born March 15,1 767, a few days after his father's death. His early education was very limited, consisting only of the in charge insolently ordered the Jackson brothers to clean his boots, but the in- trepid boys refused, and were seriously wounded by the sword-cuts of the wi'ath- ful tory. They suffered much from ill- treatment, and were finally stricken with small-pox. Their mother was successful in obtaining their exchange, and took her 1845-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 523 sick boys home, when Robert soon died. After a long illness Andrew recovered, and the death of his mother soon left him entirely friendless. He supported himself in various ways, until in 1784 he entered a law office in Salisbury, N. C. He, however, gave more attention to the wild amusements of the times than to his studies. In 1788 he was appointed solici- tor for the western district of North Carolina, of which Tennessee was then a part. This involved many long tedious journeys amid dangers of every kind, but Andrew Jackson never knew fear, and the Indians had no desire to repeat a skirmish with the Sharp Knife. In 1791 Mr. Jackson was married to a woman who supposed herself divorced from her former husband. Great was the surprise of both parties two years later, to find that the conditions of the divorce had just been definitely settled by the first husband. The marriage ceremony was performed a second time, but the occur- rence was often used by his enemies to bring Mr. Jackson into disfavor. During these years he worked hard at his profes- sion, was involved in many quarrels, and frequently had one or more duels on hand. In 1797 he was elected United States senator, but soon resigned the position, and returned home. 'As the trouble with England came on the old war spirit of the boy showed itself, and he led an expedition against the Creek Indians, whom he conquered effectually. In 1814 he received a commission in the army, and the command of the south- western forces passed into his hands. His customary energy and hardihood were displayed, and the victory at New Orleans crowned his military course. His name now began to be mentioned in connection with the presidency, but in 1824 he was defeated by Mr. Adams. He was, however, successful in the elec- tion of 1828, and was re-elected for a second term in 1832. Although he was neither diplomat nor statesman, his ad- ministration was successful in many ways, and his hold upon the hearts of the peo- ple was deep and strong. Much excite- ment was aroused by his attitude in regard to the United States bank, but at the close of his administration he was freed from censure by vote of the senate. He lived quietly at " The Her- mitage," until an attack of dropsy ended his days. He was quick-tempered, but kindly and benevolent. He had a simple nature, and was always honest in hi& intentions. He was a vigorous and val- uable character of the cruder sort. 1845. Jane 28. Another great con- flagration at Quebec burned 1*365 houses, covering two-thirds of the city. 1845. July 4. The legislature of Texas ratified the " Annexation Bill " passed by the United States congress. 1845. July 17. The first regular regatta in America was held in New York harbor. Seven sloops and three schooners contested. The winner's name was Cygnet. 1845. July 19. A great fire in New York destroyed property to the value of $6,000,000. Four hundred and fifty buildings were destroyed. 1845. August. Anti-Rent Disturb- ance. A disturbance occurred on the Van Rensselaer estates in the interior of New York, near Albany. It spread to other counties. Tenants be- 1945 j^,^ gan .to resist the collection Rosses telescope. of rents. They were led by a few mis- chief-makers. Armed companies assem- bled at certain places. The sheriff was 524 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT, murdered in one instance. In Dela- ware county strictness took the place of lenity, and many arrests were made. Some were sentenced for life, and so peace was restored. 1845. August. Gen. Taylor marched with about four thousand men to Corpus Christi, Texas, in order to occupy the soil of that province against Mexico. 1845. September. First Base Ball Club. The Knickerbocker Base Ball Club of New York was the first club to sustain a permanent existence in America. Many of its former active members are now the leading business men of New York. The club is still in existence. 1845. Oct. 10. The naval school of the United States was opened at Annapolis, Md., under the direction of Hon. George Bancroft, secretary of the navy. 1845. Dec. 4. Paraguay and Corri- entes declared war upon Buenos Ayres. 1845. December. Monarchical Effort, Gen. Paredes succeeded Herera as presi- dent of Mexico. Gen. Paredes had been 1845. completion P ut into command of the of the Thames army by Herera, and now pronounced against him. The attempt was now made to crush republican principles and government. Paredes assumed sovereignty, and sub- verted the constitution of 1824. 1845. Dec. 29. Texas was the twenty- eighth state to be received into the Union. It has an area of 247,356 square miles, and a population in 1880 of i,597 5 59P er " sons. It is known as " The Lone Star State." It brought a debt of $7,500,000, and made the territory of the United States contain upward of 2,000,000 square miles. 1845. Ole Bull, the noted Norwegian violinist, came to the United States for the first time. He attempted to found a colony of his countrymen in Penn- sylvania, but was unsuccessful. At dif- ferent times he visited Europe, but re- turned to the United States for a great portion of the time, to delight the people with his skill upon the violin. 1845. Copper Fever. The Lake Su- perior copper mines, which had been known for over a century, now began to be worked with some energy and success. The small mines of the country, chiefly in New Jersey and Connec- n98-is45. ticut, had been worked in Thomas Hood. the previous century. As the extent of the Lake Superior copper country now became known, a great excitement sprang up, land was sold at great prices, leases were taken at enormous rates, fictitious companies sprang into being, and the whole land was alive with the agitation. For two years this continued, until in 1847 the bubble burst, and the excite- ment died out. Then the intelligent mining of that rich region began, and has increased steadily. 1845. A Panama canal was the sub- ject of a learned report to the French government by M. Napoleon Gavella, chief of the royal corps of mining engineers. It was made up from actual examination, and was accompanied by maps and details. It was published the following year. 1845. Mr. E. B. Bigelow of Boston, patented his methods of matching figures in the weaving of carpets, and applied them to the automatic power loom, so that the production of carpets began to be greatly increased. The factories at ned-ms. Lowell, Mass., and at sev- Sydney Smith. eral places in Connecticut, adopted this and other improvements invented by Mr. Bigelow. English inventors had been 1845-1859.] dismayed at this problem. Mr. Bigelow's machine did it better than it could be done by hand. 1845. Petroleum. In boring for salt above Pittsburg, Penn., on the Allegheny River, a spring of oil was struck, and for the first time revealed the presence of that substance in the earth in large quan- tities. It had been known to the Indians as floating on the streams, and had been used by them upon wounds and bruises. It had been known as " Seneca oil," or Genesee oil." Efforts were now made to purify it, but not much was done until the direct labors of Bowditch and Drake in 1 857^9, in boring for it. It had before this time been col- lected on Oil Creek, Venango Co., Penn., which showed so much of oil that the first settlers gave it its name. It had been used to some extent in workshops, and for illumination. This was the re- mote beginning of the oil fever which has added materially to our sources of illumination. 1845. The first number of the " True American," a weekly anti-slavery paper, was issued at Lexington, Ky., by Cassius M. Clay. A mob afterward seized the press and sent it to Cincinnati, where Mr. Clay for some time afterward did the printing of his paper, though he published it in Lexington. 1845. The brig " Swallow " was lost on the Hudson River, and fourteen lives were lost. 1845. By the explosion of "Big Hatchee," on the Mississippi River, twenty or thirty persons were killed and scalded. 1845. Great Britain and France blockaded Buenos Ayres in agreement with Brazil, which wished to gain con- trol of Uruguay. The combined fleets THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 525 opened the Parana River, and overcame the Argentine forces in all their attempts to resist. 1845. Gen. Castilla was elected pres- ident of Peru, after having overthrown the previous dictator. 1845. Ecuador adopted its present constitution, with a republican form of government. 1845. The slave trade was nearly suppressed in Cuba during the next two years by Capt.-Gen. Valdez. 1846. January. Canale Napoleone de Nicaragua. Full power to organize a company in Europe for the cutting of a ship canal across the Isthmus, was con- ferred by the government of Nicaragua upon Louis Napoleon, afterward Napo- leon III., Emperor of France. Napoleon had his attention turned to it while he was a prisoner at Ham, and made such a thorough study of the situation as to enable him to prepare a work, which was the fullest and most scientific up to that time in the world, upon that subject. He was visited by representatives of the Cen- tral American governments, 'and after- ward in England endeavored to secure the support of capitalists for his project. He advocated the route by the river San Juan and Lake Nicaragua. 1846. March 28. First Blood in Mexican War. Gen. Taylor arrived at the Rio Grande under orders from the United States, and constructed Fort Brown, opposite Matamoras. He was ordered by Gen. Ampudia, in command of the Mexican forces, " to retire within twenty-four hours, or arms and men alone must decide the question." This was re- garded with indifference by Gen. Taylor. Col. Cross, an American officer, riding beyond the lines, was shortly afterward murdered by Mexican cavalrymen, who 526 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. caught him alone and beat out his brains with a pistol. 1846. April 24. Sixty-three men under Capt. Thornton, sent out to recon- noiter, were likewise killed, or seized as prisoners by the Mexicans. 1846. May 8. The battle of Palo Alto, on the Rio Grande, was fought be- tween two thousand American troops under Gen. Taylor, and six thousand Mexicans under Gen. Arista. The latter were driven back after a severe conflict of five hours. The American loss was 9 killed and 47 wounded. The Mexican loss was about 100. 1846. May 9, The battle of Resaca de la Palma was fought at a ravine near Fort Brown. The Mexicans outnum- bered the Americans, three to one. Gen. Taylor wishing to decide the battle by capturing the Mexican guns, said to Capt. 1846. Planet Ma y> of the dragoons, Neptune, pre- Capt. May, you must %"2j% take that battery." I will by Dr. Gaiie of do it, sir ! " he shouted in re- ply, and off his men dashed upon a resistless charge over the guns, in the face of a deadly fire. The Mexicans fled across the Rio Grande with a loss of 600. Gen. Taylor's loss was 60. 1846. May 11. War was declared against Mexico by the United States. 1846. May 13. Volunteers. Con- gress provided for the raising of not more than 50,000 men " who may offer their services either as cavalry, artillery, infantry, or riflemen." This was the first i84e. 300,000 systematic action of the U. emigrants to . . United states. S. government m regard to volunteering, and is very greatly the idea of William L. Marcy of New York, then secretary of war. It has since been proved to be the strength of this free government. Volunteers have been rapidly raised, and accurately trained. In this case the excitement was so great that the president had offers from 300,000 men. He was authorized to use $10,- 000,000. 1846. May 17. Matamoras was evacuated by the Mexicans under Gen. Arista, who fell back toward Monterey. 1846. May 18. The American flag was first waved over Mexican soil by Gen. Taylor and his force, who had crossed the Rio Grande. 1846. May 23. War was declared upon the United States by the Mexican government. 1846. June 12. A great fire burned nearly the whole of St. John's, New- foundland, and turned out 6,000 people. 1846. June 15. The northwestern boundary of the United States between Oregon and the British Possessions was determined by a treaty signed at London. The final agreement was upon latitude 49, the United States withdrawing their claim to 54, 40' " fifty-four forty, or fight." This confirmed 308,052 square miles to the United States, making in all 2,413,211 square miles. 1846. Sonoma Pass, Cal., with a Mexican garrison, was captured by Col. John C. Fremont. 1846. July 7. Monterey in Cali- fornia, upon the coast, was taken by the U. S. navy under Com. John D. Sloat, who announced himself governor of the territory, which he declared to be a part of the United States. 1846. July 9. San Francisco was occupied by Com. Montgomery of the U. S. navy. 1846. July 9. The portion of the District of Columbia originally ceded to the United States by Virginia, was re- ceded to that state. 1845-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 527 1846. Aug. 4. A " republican mani- festo " was made in the City of Mexico by Gens. Morales and Salas. The people and army for the most part supported it. President Paredes fled. Santa Anna late. Pope Pius was invited to return, which ix. elected. he did. He was made com- mander-in-chief of the national army. 1846. Aug. 8. An appropriation of $3,000,000 was asked for by President Polk, to enable the United States to ne- gotiate a treaty with Mexico. 1846. Aug. 17. Los Angelos, Cal., was taken possession of by Com. R. F. Stockton, who had succeeded Com. Sloat. Col. Fremont was with him. He renewed the proclamation issued by Com. Sloat. 1846. Aug. 18. Santa Fe was taken by Gen. Stephen W. K*earney, who ar- rived with i, 600 men after a march of 900 miles through the wilderness. The Mexican force of four thousand men fled at his approach. The government of the United States was proclaimed in New Mexico. 1846. August. The " Wilmot Pro- viso," taking its name from Mr. Wilmot, a democratic member from Pennsylvania, who offered it, was introduced into con- gress, providing that there should be no 1846. insurrec- slavery in territory there- tion at Cracow n _ T . in Poland. after annexed to the United States. The " proviso " was based on the celebrated ordinance of 1787. It passed the house, but did not reach the senate before the close of the session. The whigs and many northern demo- crats united in supporting it. The pro- viso was afterward attached to some bills, but failed to pass with them. . 1846. Sept. 10. First Practical Sewing Machine. Elias Howe, Jr., of Cambridge, Mass., patented the sewing machine, the model of which he had completed in 1842, and which has since been known by his name. The sewing machine is an American invention. For years Mr. Howe had legal controversies, but died with a vast property accumu- lated by a royalty paid him on the manu- facture of each machine. 1846. Sept. 19. A memorable gale swept along the New England coast, and destroyed much shipping and many lives. From Marblehead alone forty-five hus- bands were lost, leaving 155 children fatherless. 1846. Sept. 21. A portion of Gen. Taylor's army which had now advanced upon Monterey, captured the heights in the rear of that city, and cut off all further supplies. 1846. Sept. 24. Monterey surren- dered after a severe assault lasting through portions of two days. About ten thou- sand Mexican troops had defended the city, and nearly seven thousand American troops had assailed it. The loss of the latter was about five hundred, of the former twice that number. 1846. Oct. 16. First Public Suc- cess with Ether. The first successful public exhibition of the use of ether in surgical operations, was given in the Massachusetts General Hospital by Dr. W. G. T. Morton and Dr. * <** /~iu i T> T l Tu Napoleon es- Charles T.Jackson. The caJ>e(1 f romHam , introduction of ether as an anaesthetic dates from this time. The preparation was patented by the two men under the name of Letheon. 1846. Oct. 30. Gen. John E. Wool, who had been appointed inspector-general of the American army, arrived at Mont- clova, seventy miles from Monterey, with 3,000 volunteers whom he had rapidly disciplined in military drill upon the 528 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT march through the mountains into Mexico. 1846. October. Tabasco, on the coast of Mexico, was bombarded by Com. Perry, and the shipping in the harbor was destroyed. 1846. Nov. 14. Tampico, upon the coast of Mexico, was taken by Com. Conner. 1846. Nov. 15. Saltillo was occu- pied by Gen. Taylor, an armistice which had been in existence for a time, having been declared at an end. 1846. Dec. 6. The Mexicans were defeated by Gen. Kearney, at San Pas- qual. 1846. Dec. 25. Battle of Braceti. Col. Doniphan, who was sent back with the main part of Kearney's men, and had marched to join Gen. Wool, defeated a large Mexican force at Braceti on the Rio del Norte. The latter fled with a loss of two hundred men. The Ameri- cans lost seven wounded, and none killed. 1846. Dec. 28. Iowa was the twenty- ninth state to be admitted into the Union. It has an area of 55,045 square miles, and a population in 1880 of 1,624,463 persons, Its motto is, " Our liberties we prize, our rights we will maintain." It is familiarly known as the " Hawkeye State." 1846. December. A popular rev- olution in Mexico restored Santa Anna, who had secretly returned to the country from Havana, to power, and he was elected " provisional president." 1846. A Universal and Critical Dic- tionary of the English language was issued by Joseph E. Worcester. 1846. The Palmer Leg. A patent for artificial legs and feet was issued to Benj. F. Palmer of Meredith, N. H., and has since become of world-wide notoriety. Mr. Palmer having lost a leg, undertook to supply the deficiency, and succeeded so well that he devoted himself to the manufacture of limbs. He patented an arm and hand in 1857. 1846. Niagara Suspension Bridge was erected by John A. Roebling, an American engineer, who was chosen from the competitors because of the ability shown in his plans. 1846. Quicksilver mines began to be worked in Santa Clara County, Cali- fornia, by Mexicans who had learned of them through Indians. The latter had used the ore in making vermillion paint. 1846. The name " Kerosene " was first used by Abraham Gesner, who con- ferred it upon oil which he made from coal on Prince Edward's Island. 1846. A great fire burned a large portion of Louisville, Kentucky. Several hundred buildings were consumed. 1847. Jan. 8. The Mexican con- gress voted to assess the property of the church for $15,000,000 for the support of the war. 1847. Jan. 8. Com. Stockton de- feated the Mexicans under Gen. Flores, at Rio San Gabriel, Cal. 1847. Jan. 9. Another victory was obtained by Com. Stockton at the plains of Mesa, Cal., and the Mexicans fled the country, 1847. Jan. 14. A conspiracy against the U. S. government appeared in New Mexico, and Col. Bent, who had been appointed governor by Gen. Kearney, was murdered. The trouble was soon quelled. 1847. Jan. 24. The New Mexico insurgents were defeated at Canada in that territory by an American force under Col. Price. 1847. January. Gen. Winfield Scott arrived on the coast of Mexico and as- 1845-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 529 sumed command of all the forces of the United States in the field against Mexico. He drew upon Gen. Taylor for large re- inforcements for the siege of Vera Cruz. 1847. January. John C. Fremont was appointed governor of California by Com. Stockton, an appointment which afterward gave trouble, because of Gen. Kearney's senior authority. 1847. Feb. 23. Eight hundred Mexicans were defeated at Saltillo by a company of American troops under Capt. Webster. 1847. Feb. 23. The battle of Buena Vista was fought between Gen. Taylor's force of five thousand men, and the Mexican army of twenty thousand men, under Santa Anna. The contest lasted all day, with fearful struggles at times. At last the entire Mexican force gave way and fled in the night, after having lost about two thousand men. Gen. Taylor lost seven hundred and forty-six men. 1847. Feb. 28. Battle of Sacra- mento. Col, Doniphan defeated four thousand Mexicans in the battle of Sacra- mento, with a loss of eighteen men, and entered the city of Chihuahua. The Mexican loss was six hundred. Col. Doniphan remained here six weeks, and then proceeded to join Gen. Wool. 1847. March 1. Gen. Kearney is- sued a proclamation assuming the gov- ernment of California. Col. Fremont refused to obey him, and thus the trouble originated which resulted in the court- martial of Col. Fremont at Washington. 1847. March 3. First Isthmus Steam- ers. Congress passed an act establishing a line of steamers from New York to Aspinwall, and from Panama to Califor- nia. The first steamers left the next year, just at the time when the gold fever 34 broke out, and were in season to make a great success. 1847. March 3. The life-saving ser- vice of the United States on the coast, was originated by an appropriation from congress to provide the light-houses with means of assisting at times of ship- wrecks. 1847. March 7. A body of Mexi- cans was defeated at Ceralvo by Major Giddings. 1847. March 29. Vera Cruz was taken by Gen. Scott and Com. Perry, after a successful siege of one week. The city was considered very strong. Five thousand troops, five hundred can- non, and other military supplies, were taken in the city. The Mexicans lost 1,000; the Americans 80. 1847. March. Col. Stephenson's Cal- ifornia volunteer regiment, raised in New York, arrived in San Francisco. It was sent to occupy Monterey and Santa Barbara. 1847. March. The United States war vessel Jamestown was sent to Ire- land with a cargo of provisions for the starving population of that island. 1847. April 18. The battle of Cerro Gordo was fought between Santa Anna, with his army of 12,000 men strongly entrenched upon the heights, and Gen. Scott's army of 8,500 men, who were obliged to gain the battle by storming the enemy's position, which they did most fearlessly. A complete victory was won. Gen. Scott captured three thousand prisoners, forty-three cannon, five thou- sand stands of arms, and large military supplies. The American loss was 431. 1847. April 22. The town and castle of Perote were occupied by Gen. Worth. 1847. May 15. Pueblo de los Angelos, the " city of the angels," was occupied 530 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. by the American army. During a rest in this city, peace overtures were made to the Mexican government, and were haughtily rejected. The army were now within a short distance of the " City of Mexico," and the last brilliant victories of the war soon took place. 1847. May 19. The Canadian brig Carrick was wrecked in the St Law- rence, with a loss of 1 70 lives. 1847. June. The Liberty League, a branch of the " liberty party," met in convention at Macedon Locke, N. Y., and nominated Gerritt Smith for presi- dent. At a later convention at Rochester, C. C. Foote was nominated for vice- president. This secession was on the ground that abolition of slavery was not the only reform which the "liberty party " ought to propose to carry out. Still another band of the liberty party who did not like the nominations made at Buffalo, met in convention and nominated the liberty league candidates. This or- ganization was afterward merged in other organizations which followed it. 1847. Aug. 20. Contreras was taken by a fierce assault at sunrise by the Americans, and 7,000 Mexicans were routed or captured. Thirty-three cannon were taken. The battle lasted seventeen minutes. In a short time Santa Anna's army, which had been held as a reserve, was in motion, and the battle of Churu- busco began. A series of heavy attacks broke the Mexican army into pieces, and utterly routed it. The storming of Churubusco was a violent assault under Gen. Worth. 1847. Sept. 8 The citadel of Molino del Bey was stormed and carried by Gen. Worth, with about 4,000 troops. 1845-1847. Fam- The Mexican loss was ine in Ireland. i,ooo; the American 8oo. The immediate defences of the City of Mexico began to fall. 1847. Sept. 13. The citadel of Cha- pultepec, which was on the site of the Hall of the Montezumas, was stormed and taken with great slaughter. This was the last step in the advance, and bravely did the Mexicans resist the in- vaders, but all in vain. Santa Anna's troops finally fled in panic, and afterward he and the remnant of his army fled from the city. 1847. Sept. 14. Gen. Scott entered the City of Mexico at the head of his escort, and formally proclaimed the over- throw of the Mexican power. The war had been one constant succession of vic- tories over superior numbers. 1847. Oct. 9. The Mexicans were defeated at Huarnantla, by Gen. Lane, who marched to Pueblo to relieve Col. Childs, who had been besieged in that city forty days, by a portion of Santa Anna's army. 1847. Oct. 18. Gen. Lane defeated a Mexican force at Atlixco. 1847. Oct. 20. Guaymas, a port in the Gulf of Mexico, was taken by a part of the American squadron. 1847. Nov. 19. The Talisman of Pittsburg, was lost on the Ohio River, with 100 lives. 1847. Nov. 21. The Phoenix was lost on Lake Michigan, with 240 lives. 1847. Dec. 12. Gen. Scott issued a pi-oclamation against guer- j 78 o-i847. illas, who now began to Thomas chai- , , , mers. rove through the borders of Mexico and New Mexico. 1847. December. The British seized the only Nicaraguan port lying on the Atlantic, named San Juan del Norte. The excuse was that it belonged to the Mosquito King. 1845-1859.] 1847. Prof. Agassiz received an invi- tation from Prof. Bache, Supt. of the U. S. Coast Survey, to avail himself of the vessels of the Coast Survey Department for making scientific exploration. The liberty to do this was the chief reason for his decision to remain in America the rest of his life. . 1847. The American Association for the Advancement of Science was organ- ized. It has held annual meetings with great regularity, and is now a strong, honored body of scientists. Its annual reports contain a full statement of the progress of science since the organization of the Association. It has about 700 members. 1847. The Order of the Good Sa- maritans was organized in New York city. Persons of color and ladies were admitted to full membership, a procedure at that time not known in any other temperance society. 1847. The Mormons, 16,000 strong, having spent about two years in crossing the Rocky Mountains under Brigham Young, their new leader, settled Salt Lake City, on Great Salt Lake, Utah. 1847. A constitution was adopted in Costa Rica. It has been modified at times since, but not completely changed. Civil wars have abounded. 1847. The Oneida Community, near Syracuse, N. Y., was founded by John H. Noyes, as an outcome of "perfec- tionism." 1847. The Cuba coolie trade began, o / and has attained great proportions since. 1848. January. A Nicaraguan force recaptured San Juan. But two British ships of war were at once sent, and the place re-occupied. A battle afterward took place inland, and the Nicaraguan force was defeated. Finally the British THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 531 commander obtained an agreement that the Nicaraguan government would not touch San Juan. 1848. Feb. 2. Treaty of Hidalgo. A treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico was signed at Guada- loupe, Hidalgo. The United States received New Mexico and California for a sum of $15,000,000, and the Rio Grande River was made the western boundary of Texas. About 25,000 men were lost in this war, which cost the United States $160,000,000. New Mex- ico and California -added 522,955 square miles to the United States, making 2,936,166 square miles in all. THE CALIFORNIA GOLD FEVER. 1848. Feb. 9. A piece of gold was picked up in a mill race on a branch of the Sacramento River, by a little girl named Marshall, daughter of the over- seer of the mill, which belonged to John A. Sutter. The men were at work re- pairing the race. The lump was known by part of them to be gold, and they tried to keep it secret, but in some way it spread, until the whole country was excited, and thousands were pouring toward California. For the next few years the immigration to California was very great, and gold was washed out of the streams in large quantities. That day has passed by, and deep mining is now the main business of the great region of gold and silver. Gold was noticed in California by persons with Drake i'n his expedition of 1577, and different Spanish writers subsequently affirmed the richness of the region in minerals. As late as 1847 a statement of it was made in the Merchant's Magazine, but the outburst did not take place till the little girl found her piece at Suiter's Mill. 532 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. JOffJV QUIXCY ADAMS. 1848. Feb. 23. John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, and sixth president of the United States, died in Washington, aged eighty-one years. He was born July n, 1767, at Quincy, Mass., and as a mere child was a witness of many of the Revolutionary scenes around Boston. When only eleven years old he was taken to Paris by his father, who had been ap- pointed minister from the United States to France. Here he remained at school for a year and a half, and then returned home, only to again embark for France after a few months. He now went to Amsterdam to study, and after a time entered the University of Leyden. He pursued his course until 1781, when, although he was but fourteen years old, he was taken to Russia by Francis Dana as his private secretary. At the end of fourteen months, as the appointment of Mr. Dana failed to be recognized, the young secretary left for Holland, and once again began his regular studies. He remained abroad until 1 785, when he returned to America, and the next year entered Harvard College in advance, so that he completed the course in two years. The next three years were spent in the law office of Theophilus Parsons, and in 1791 Mr. Adams opened his own office in Boston. His writings upon the political questions of the times now be- 1848. Feb. 22. g an to attract the public French Revolu- attention, and gained for Philippe "abdica- him such confidence that in ted. Louis Na- 1704 he was appointed by poleon elected *. . president, Dec. Washington minister to 10 - the Netherlands. After two years in this position he was transferred to Lisbon, but before his arrival in that place the order was changed, and he was sent to Berlin instead. As this appoint- ment was made by President John Adams, the son felt some hesitancy in accepting it r and 1 his scruples were only overcome by the assurance that Gen. Washington had strongly advised the measure. During his residence at the Prussian court, Mr. Adams wrote ex- tensively, and one series of his letters was translated into French and German. In 1 801, at his solicitation, his recall was effected, and the next year he again opened a law office in Boston. Mr. Adams was a supporter of the federal party, and in 1803 took his seat in the United States senate as their representa- tive. His views on the embargo act of President Jefferson caused an alienation, however, and in 1808, finding that he would fail of a re-nomination, he re- signed before the close of his term, and returning to his home, gave undivided attention to the duties of professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres, which position he held in Harvard College. Soon after President Madison's inauguration he was appointed minister to Russia, there having been no ambassador to that country since the return of Mr. Dana. Mr. Adams became the personal friend of the Emperor Alexander, and it was through his influence that Russia felt an interest in helping to adjust the unpleas- ant relations of England and the United States. In 1815 Mr. Adams was trans- ferred to the English court, where he remained until 1817. He then returned to the United States to accept the position of secretary of state under Mr. Monroe. He honorably filled this place for the eight years that President Monroe re- mained in office, and then passed to the more arduous duties of chief magistrate. In the presidential campaign of 1825, party spirit ran high, and no choice was 1845 -1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 53S ertected by the electors. The house, therefore, elected Mr. Adams. Although the duties of his office were conscien- tiously discharged, his opponents com- bined against him in such numbers that he failed of a re-election, and at the close of his term he returned to his home in Quincy, Mass. In 1831 he was sent to the House of Representatives, where he remained until his death. During all these years he occupied a commanding position, and once quelled a riot in the House which had lasted for three days. From his readiness and great facility in debate, he was called " The Old Man Eloquent." He died in the midst of his duties, being stricken by paralysis while occupying his seat in the House. He was taken to an adjoining room, and died in a few hours. The last whisper was, " This is the last of earth. I am content." Mr. Adams' personal bearing was very reserved and dignified, and perhaps to this may be attributed the fact that his opponents sometimes outnumbered his friends. 1848. March. Spirit-rappings. The modern phenomena of spirit-rappings began in the family of John D. Fox, Hydeville, Wayne Co., N. Y. Mr. and Mrs. Fox and two daughters composed the family at the time when the rappings were first heard in one of the bedrooms at night. After considerable experiment- ing, the Fox girls appeared in 1849 in public, and exhibited the phenomena to a curious audience. Other so-called me- diums became known, and the excitement spread through the country. Many private families would experiment in the matter. Gradually a great many things besides raps were added to the list of phenomena. 1848. May 22. The democratic na- tional convention met in Baltimore, and 9 ' nominated Lewis Cass for president. William O. Butler was supported for vice-president. To this convention New York sent one delegation known as " Hunkers," who did not wish to touch the slavery question, and another known as " Barnburners," or Free-Soil demo- crats, who opposed further extension of slavery. The latter afterward withdrew from the party. The parties began now to take a more distinct pro and anti- slavery character. 1848. May 29. Wisconsin was the thirtieth state to be received into the union. It has 53,924 square miles, and 1,315,480 inhabitants in 1880. Its motto is " Civilitas successit barbarum." " The civilized man succeeds the barbarous," and it is called the " Badger State." 1848. May. Astor Library. The trustees of the library to be founded ac- cording to the will of John Jacob Astor, met for the first time and took measures to proceed rapidly in fulfilling the be- quest. Dr. Joseph B. Cogswell was ap- pointed superintendent, and was sent to Europe with $20,000 with which to purchase books. He obtained 20,000 volumes in four months, which were in- creased to 70,000 when the building was opened in 1854. This magnificent be- quest is proving a blessing to New York. 1848. June 7. The whig national convention met at Philadelphia, and nominated Gen. Zachary Taylor of Louisiana, for president, and Millard Fill- more of New York, for vice-president. The business of the session was done amid considerable agitation. 1848. June. The American army left Vera Cruz, Mexico, and arrived at. New Orleans. 534 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1848. July 19. The first " Woman's Bights " Convention was called at Seneca Falls, N. Y., by Lucretia Mott, Eliza- beth Cady Stanton, Martha C. Wright, and Mary Ann McClintock. An inter- esting and earnest discussion was held for two days, issuing in a declaration of rights which was adopted and signed by one hundred members. The convention drew a great deal of criticism and ridicule upon itself, which made many of its sup- porters shrink from the stand they had taken. But similar assemblies were soon held in other states, and the movement has since that time acquired considerable momentum. 1848. July. The first school in America for idiot children, was opened at Barre, Mass., by Dr. Hervey B. Williams. 1848. July. England removed her forces from the Argentine waters, and left France to carry on the hostilities of Brazil, which she did six months longer. 1848. Aug. 9. The Free Soil party was organized in a convention held at Buffalo, N. Y., and swallowed up the Liberty party. It was made up of the Free Soil democracy, or " Barnburners," who were opposed to the extension of slavery, and the Liberty party, whose principal force was spent in opposition to slavery. The motto of this new party was a " free soil for a free people." The convention nominated Martin Van Buren of New York, for president, and Charles Francis Adams of Massachusetts, for vice-president. 1848. Aug. 17. A great fire con- sumed one-third of Albany, N. Y. Six hundred houses were burned, and $3,000,- ooo worth of property. 1848. Sept. 12. An improved breech-loading rifle was patented at Cin- cinnati, by Christian Sharps. It was the first patent of the kind that was perfectly successful. 1848. Oct. 10. The American Po- mological Society was established under the name of " The American Congress of Fruit Growers," by a im a^ii^ar convention held at New *' Ireland. York, under a call from several horti- cultural societies. The North American Pomological Convention was organized about the same time at Buffalo, N. Y., by the New York State Agricultural So- ciety, but was united with the former at the annual meeting of 1849. The name was changed at a later day to the present form. At the first session, in 1848, fifty- four varieties of fruits were recommended for culture. This list has now grown to several hundreds. The reports of the society constitute the most valuable porno- logical literature in the world. 1848. October. Trustee's Twenty Mile Race. A course of twenty miles was trotted by a horse named Trustee, son of a thoroughbred imported horse. The time of the whole race was fifty-nine minutes, thirty-five seconds and a half. Trustee did not show any sign of injury ever after by this great strain. 1848. October. An experimental school for idiots was opened in the Perkins' Institution for the blind, at Boston. Dr. Seguin, an in- ^ 49 - Kossmh C -J- i. -D appointed dicta - StrUCtOr Of idlOtS in Paris, tor of Hungary. visited the United States this year, and began to assist in the formation of schools for such persons. 1848. The first school in Canada for deaf mutes, was founded at Montreal, by the Roman Catholics. 1848. The automatic regulation of time by the electro-magnetic telegraph, was first accomplished by Dr. John Locke of Cincinnati. He received from con- 1845-1859.] gress $10,000 as a gift for the achieve- ment. 1848. The Wheeling Suspension Bridge over the Ohio, was built by C. Ellet. It had a span of 1,010 feet. It stood only six years, being blown down in 1854. SIXTEENTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1848. In the sixteenth presidential campaign the democratic party supported Lewis Cass of Michigan, for president, and William O. Butler of Kentucky, for vice-president. The whig party sup- ported Gen. Zachary Taylor of Louisi- ana, for president, and Millard Fillmore of New York, for vice-president. The " free soil party " supported Martin Van Buren of New York, for president, and Charles Francis Adams of Massachusetts, for vice-president. The whig candidates were elected. Out of 290 electoral votes Gen. Taylor, or " old Rough and Ready " and Fillmore received 163, with a popu- lar vote of 1,360,101. Cass and Butler received 127 electoral votes, with a popu- lar vote of 1,220,544. Van Buren and Adams had no electoral vote, but had a popular vote of 291,263. THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 535 1848. Expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin began, and were very numerous for many years, both from England and America. 1848. A great uprising of Indian tribes occurred through Yucatan. Certain provinces were desolated, and towns taken, but the trouble afterward faded away. 1848. A great insurrection took place in Cuba, and more than 10,000 negroes perished in the suppression of it. 1848. Slavery was abolished in the French West Indies. 1848. Yellow fever depopulated the district of Bahia, in Brazil, and ran along the coast frightfully. 1848. Gen. Monagas became dictator of Venezuela for twelve years, but was overthrown by a revolution in 1859. 1849. Jan. 1. Bloomerism. Mrs. Amelia Bloomer of Seneca Falls, N. Y., established " The Lily," the first paper in the country devoted to the interests of women. Through this paper the peculiar female costume known as the " Bloomer dress" was first presented to the women of America. It had been devised and worn by a daughter of Gerritt Smith first of all, and was adopted from her use of it, by Mrs. Bloomer and others. 1849. January. Elizabeth Blackwell, a native of Bristol, England, graduated from the medical school at Geneva, N. Y., having been refused admittance to other schools, because she was a woman. She had studied medicine considerably with physicians. 1849. March 3. The Department of the Interior in the United States govern- ment was organized by act of congress. Thomas Ewing of Ohio was the first secretary. Indian affairs were transferred to this department by order of the gov- ernment. 1849. March 4. Zachary Taylor of Louisiana was inaugurated president, and Millard Fillmore of New York, vice-president. 1849. April 19. British American League. An association formed in the Canadas to promote popular interests, met at Montreal for organization. They issued an address to the people of Can- ada, expressing their dissatisfaction over the distresses of the country. 1849. April 25. The Rebellion Losses' Bill was signed in Canada by 536 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. the governor-general, indemnifying those who had suffered loss of property through the insurrection of the provinces pre- viously. Among these were some popular leaders. An excitement bi'oke out at once. All Montreal was in commotion. Bells were rung. Gov. Lord Elgin in leaving the council chamber in his car- riage, was pelted with stones. The mob grew. The assembly was in session. Thousands were around the building. An assault was made. Members of the assembly fled. Armed men seized the hall. The building was on fire. Every- thing was consumed, including bills, records, etc. It was an irreparable loss to the community. The next day four leaders of the mob were ai'rested, and there was danger of another outbreak, but by an effort the populace was kept quiet. The issue, however, was a great one, and the situation critical. Order was restored in May. 1849. April. The Dominican Re- public of Hayti, W. I., successfully de- feated an attempt to subjugate it by the western government of the island. 1849. May. The Astor Place Opera House riots occurred in New York upon the evenings of the yth and loth of this month. They were excited by the friends of Edwin Forrest, the American tragedi- an, against W. C. Macready, the eminent English actor, then on a visit to this country. The reason was an alleged opposition on the part of Macready to Forrest when the latter visited the old world. At the first riot no harm was done, though the play was given up be- cause of the great confusion. At the second the military were called out and could not disperse the immense mob which was stoning the Opera House, save by firing into them. Twenty-two persons were killed, and many others wounded. The riot was finally broken up. JAMES K. POLK. 1849. June 15. James Knox Polk, the eleventh president of the United States, died at Nashville, Tenn., after an illness of a few days. He was born in Mecklenburg Co., North Carolina, Nov. 2, 1795. His father was a farmer, the family was large, and the future president obtained his education under difficulties. He, however, graduated in 1818 from the University of North Carolina, and in 1820 opened a law office. At the end of five years he was elected to congress by the democratic party. This position remained his for fourteen years, when he refused a re-election, and returned to his home, where he was made governor of Tennessee. In 1844 Mr. Polk was elected president of the United States, over Mr. Clay. During his administra- tion Texas was annexed. This caused the war with Mexico, to settle the question of boundary lines. At the close of his term Mr. Polk declined being re-riominated, and immediately left for Nashville, Tenn., where in three months he died. 1849. The Asiatic cholera raged through the United States and Mexico this summer, almost depopulating some western cities. An enormous number of victims fell befoi'e it. There were six thousand deaths in St. Louis, and the same number in Cincinnati. 1849. Aug. 3. A day of fasting and prayer was appointed by the president of the United States, in view of the visita- tion of the cholera. 1849. Aug. 26. Gen, Faustin So- lougue, president of western Hayti, as- 1845-1859.] sumed by the aid of the negroes, the title of Emperor Faustin I. 1849. August. A submarine tele- graph was laid across the Hudson at Fort Lee. The order for this was the first ever given for wire coated with gutta perch a. 1849. Sept. 1. A convention met at Monterey, Cal., to prepare a constitution. 1849. Nov. 13. A constitution pro- hibiting slavery was finally adopted for California, by the convention at Monterey. 1849. The Woman's Medical Col- lege of Pennsylvania, was founded. 1849. A great fire destroyed a third of the city of St. Louis, and did great damage to the shipping on the river. . 1849. The first railroad land grant from the United States was to the Mobile and Ohio company, of 1,000,000 acres lying along the route from Mobile to the mouth of the Ohio River. 1849. Squatter Sovereignty. It was now urged by pro-slavery men in con- gress that the occupants of the territories should decide for themselves whether they would have slavery or not. Cali- fornia was the first application of this principle, and voted against slavery, to the great surprise of its advocates. 1849. The American Nautical Al- manac was authorized, and Admiral Charles Henry Davis was appointed its first superintendent. There was no issue till 1853. 1849. Nov. 23. Dr. George Park- man of Boston, was murdered by Prof. John W. Webster, of the Cambridge Medical College, in a heat of passion over some financial engagements between them. Prof. Webster had a long trial, and on being pronounced guilty, he con- fessed the deed, and suffered the full penalty of the law. THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 537 1849. The life car for use in saving persons from wrecks upon the coast, was introduced into the United States. Capt. Ottinger of the United States revenue marine invented it. Passengers can be landed through the surf with perfect safety, and with entire freedom from water, even. The car is slid back and forth upon a rope which has previously been thrown across the wreck by a rocket or mortar. 1849. Minot's Ledge light-house was completed, off the coast of Massa- chusetts. It was in one of the most diffi- cult spots of the world to build upon. 1849. An artesian well was begun at St. Louis, which was completed in 1854, at a depth of 2,199 ^ eet - ^ discharges at the rate of 75 gallons per minute. The cost was more than $10,000. 1849. Narciso Lopez, a Cuban rev- olutionist, led his first expedition, called the " Round Island Expedition," from the United States, to attempt the libera- tion of Cuba from the Spanish authority. Lopez was born in Venezuela, S. A., but had lived in Cuba for many years, where he had been prominent in office. He finally became dissatisfied because of the illiberal policy of Spain toward the colonies, and resolved upon overthrowing Spanish power in Cuba. His expedition of this year was a complete failure. 1849. A representative assembly was held at Leon by Honduras, San Salvador, and Nicaragua, and a union formed -under title of National Repre- sentation of Central America. It was afterward ratified by these states. "APOSTLE OF TEMPERANCE." 1849. Father Matthew, the great Irish temperance reformer, visited America, and traveled extensively in the states, 538 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. speaking everywhere in his simple way to great crowds, and administering the pledge to thousands. He was received in all places with great enthusiasm, and gave the pledge in America to 600,000 persons. His welcome in Washington, Philadelphia, and Boston, was universal. In his own country his work had been very great. Directness and earnestness marked all his procedures. The tem- perance cause owes very much to this advocate of it. JOHN 0. CALHOUN. 1850. March 31. This eminent Amer- ican scholar and statesman died at Wash- ington, at the age of sixty-eight years. A remarkable life closed when John C. Calhoun passed away. He was one of the giants of the political period in our history. In 1733 an Irish Presbyterian, named James Calhoun, camfe to America, and after having lived in Pennsylvania a while, moved to Virginia and took up his abode on the Kanawha River. But peace was not possible here, inas- much as the Indians of the region were excited over the English attempts to es- tablish a fort in western Pennsylvania. The family found a refuge in South Carolina, and formed a Calhoun settle- ment in Abbeville county. Indian troubles still occurred here, and the members of the family became disciplined in Indian warfare. James Calhoun had a son named Patrick, who became an energetic citizen, and who married in 1770 a young woman named Martha Caldwell, whose parents were likewise Irish Presbyterian emigrants. On March 18, 1782, there was born to this young couple a son, the third since their marriage, whom they named John Caldwell Calhoun. The predominance of mental traits showed itself in the boy, from his earliest years. At the same time a strong character showed itself to be unfolding. Religious training of a careful and distinct sort was given the future politician by his earnest parents. The property of the household was not very large, and when Patrick Calhoun died, his wife and chil- dren inherited not much beside the need of self-support. John worked on the farm in a diligent and thoughtful way, lest in attempting to secure the great desire of his heart, a good education, he should embarrass his mother financially. He had already begun to read with great ardor in both history and metaphysics. But finally an agreement was made with the household that he should be assisted for seven years in fitting himself for the practice of law. With this arrangement he began systematic study at the age of nineteen years. In 1804 he was gradu- ated from Yale College, and was pro- nounced at the close of his course a young man of extreme promise. Having studied law for a time at Litchfield, Conn., he once more went to his old home and commenced the practice of law, after having been admitted to the bar. The agitation of the country over French and English encroachments upon American shipping and commerce, took hold of his earnest spirit, and it was not long before the attention of the people began to turn toward him as a strong and able helper in discussion and legislative enactments. He was soon chosen to the state legisla- ture, where he remained until he was promoted to congress in 1811. Marriage and the establishment of a new home now took his attention for a time. By his wife, Floride Calhoun, a second cousin, he came into property sufficient 1845-1859.] for all ordinary purposes. They settled at Bath, on the Savannah River, a few miles from Abbeville where the home- stead was. War with Great Britain was now the decisive question in the politics of the day. The opponents of war were losing power. The fresh indignities committed by English shipping at last told upon large numbers of those who at first had been inclined to peace. John C. Calhoun be- longed decidedly to the war party. His energy and ability helped very largely to shape the war legislation which ensued upon his entrance into con- gress in Novem- ber, 1811. Cal- houn was a mem- ber of the com- mittee 011 For- eign Relations, and with his f r i e nd s fro m South Carolina, Cheves and Lowndes, took an important place in the dis- cussion of naval and commercial affairs of all kinds. During the war he was the champion of a specie-paying national bank, and fought with great power and success the opposing schemes of Mr. Dallas and others, who regarded Mr. Calhoun's bill as inadequate. After a long period of debate and of tentative efforts, a bill involving many of Mr. Calhoun's ideas was drawn up and passed, but vetoed by President Madison. THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 539 JOHN C. CALHOUN At the occurrence of peace, which came almost immediately, the necessity les- sened, and the bill was not renewed. But before long* the financial distress of the country revived the project in another form, and through the efforts of Mr. Calhoun a United States Bank was chartered. At the beginning of Presi- dent Monroe's term of service, Mr. Cal- houn was made secretary of war. In this position he made a great im- provement in all the existing ar- rangements and financial condi- tion of the de- partment. In the presidential elec- tion at the close of Monroe's sec- ond term, Mr. Calhoun was chosen vice-pres- ident. In 1828, through the opposition to Adams, Gen. Jackson was elec- te'd president, with Mr. Cal- houn chosen to a second term as vice-president. The tariff" question now came to the front, and in this connection Mr. Calhoun erected his famous structure of nullification through wishing to abolish the protective duty upon imports. This brought on the famous debate in congress between Hayne and Webster, which has had such renown in legislative annals. Difficulties between Jackson and Calhoun led to still further agitation, and before 1832 was over the crisis had come, and 540 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT, the need was met only by the energy and decision of Jackson. South Carolina could not go out of the Union while such a man was at the head of affairs. Mr. Calhoun was now in the United States senate, where he remained for years a strong debater, an eloquent reasoner, a clear speaker, in all which makes up forensic excellence. He was always ac- tive and prominent during his term of service. He attempted to take no narrow view of national questions, and did what he did simply to preserve the position of the South in a position of peace and content. The development of the slavery question found him anxious about the Union, and constantly devising some- thing to add to the general course of thought upon it. He labored in the senate till pulmonary disease laid its hand so severely upon him that he sank back at last from a speech in such a feeble con- dition, as to take his bed and die. His life was one of great vigor. A remark- able power in conversation added a charm to his private life, which was of great worth. He lived, after his service as secretary of war, in Pickens Co., South Carolina, where his estate, known as Fort Hill, testified to his interest and ability in agriculture. Honor marked all his actions and bearing toward others. The striking characteristic in his personal appearance was found in his eyes, although his whole countenance was ex- pressive. The life of John C. Calhoun presents features which are worthy of study. The career he pursued is a marked one in the annals of our nation. 1850. May 3. A great fire in San Francisco burned $10,000,000 worth of property, including custom house, hotels, nnd some of the finest buildings in the city. The fire broke out in a paint-shop- Destructive fires occurred this year at Stockton and Nevada City. 1850. May 19. Lopez landed at Cardenas, Cuba, with his second expedi- tion which he had fitted out in the United States. He had about six hundred men, who had sailed from New Orleans as emigrants for the Isthmus of Panama. They captured Cardenas, but were shortly after broken up. Some were captured and executed, but Lopez escaped. 1850. June 17. The Griffith was lost on Lake Erie, with 300 lives. ZdCH&RY TAYLOR. 1850. July 9. Zachary Taylor, the twelfth president of the United States, died in Washington after having served in his office but a little over a year. He was born in Virginia Sept. 24, 1 784, but when a small boy his father moved to Kentucky, where he lived until he was twenty-four years old. At that time he was given a commission in the army, made vacant by the death of his brother. He soon rose in rank, and after the be- ginning of hostilities with Great Britain, the command of Fort Har- 1770-1350. rison was put into his hands. Words-tuorth. In September, 1812, this post was attacked by the Indians, and it was only after a most desperate struggle that the little band of fifty repulsed the assailants. For his courage on this occasion Capt. Taylor was promoted to the rank of brevet-major. From this time he was prominent in the command against the Indians, either on the Northwestern bor- der or in Florida, until 1846, when he was sent to guard the land between the Neuces and Rio Grande, the latter river being the boundary for Texas claimed by the United States. His bril- 1845-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 541 liant victories against the Mexicans caused his name to be widely known, and when in 1847 "Old Rough and Ready " was nominated for the presi- dency, he was so enthusiastically sup- ported that he was elected. He was not destined, however, long to fill this posi- tion, and the nation was soon called to mourn a conscientious, just, and cou- rageous, although unstatesmanlike pres- ident. He died at the executive mansion after an illness of five days. 1850. July 10. Millard Fillmore was inaugurated president of the United States, according to the provisions of the Constitution. 1850. September. The Fugitive Slave Law was passed as one of the parts into which Henry Clay's ' " Omni- bus Bill " had been divided. This bill was introduced as a compromise, and the whole matter became known as the " Compromise of 1850." By this law an escaped slave could be taken wher- ever found, and no one could aid in the escape of such a fugitive except upon pain of severe penalties. This law, obnoxious to large numbers in the northern states, led to the famous " Underground Rail- road " for running fugitives into Canada. It became a law through the signature of President Millard Fillmore. The other measures of the " Omnibus Bill " were the admission of California as a free state, the erection of New Mexico and Utah into territories, leaving the question of slavery to be decided by their inhabitants ; and the abolition of the slave- trade within the District of Columbia. 1850. Sept. 9. California was ad- mitted to the union as the thirty-first state. A bitter struggle occurred over its admission as a free state, but it was finally accomplished by means of Henry . Clay's " Omnibus Bill." California has 397,994 square miles, and 789,617 inhabi- tants in 1880. Its motto is "Eureka;" " I have found it." 1850. September. Jenny Lind ar- rived in the United States. She had engaged with P. T. Barnum to give 150 concerts. A great excitement was aroused during the sale of the first tickets in New York. The first choice of seats for her first concert was bought at a premium of several hundred dollars. She received t $ 10,000 for this concert alone, but gave it all away. Her reception through the country was very enthusiastic. 185O. Oct. 10. Three hundred lead- ing men of Montreal within five hours signed a memorial in favor of annexing Canada to the United States. 1850. October. An alleged fugitive slave was captured in Detroit. Such an excitement arose that the military had to be called out. The citizens finally raised $500, and bought him of his claimant. 1850. October. William and Ellen Crafts, living in Boston, were claimed as fugitive slaves by agents from Georgia, who were in turn arrested for kidnapping, and put under bonds. They finally left the place. The two alleged fugitives were sent to England. 1850. Dec. 23. A fugitive slave named Henry Long was arrested in New York, and returned to his claimant by United States Judge Judson. 1850. The seventh census of the United States gave a population of 23,- 191,876 persons. It was taken at a cost of $1,329,027.53. The increase since 1840 had been 35.83 per cent. 1850. The Clayton-Bulwer treaty was concluded between the United States and England, according to which all in- 542 ter-oceanic communications across Nica- ragua or the Isthmus should be mutual in their character, and should be encouraged by both nations. 1850. The Donation Law was passed by congress, giving to every settler in Oregon three hundred and twenty acres of land, and an equal amount to his wife, upon condition that the same should be occupied before Dec. ist, and that they -would live upon it four years. This law stimulated the marriage of settlers, and very few unmarried daughters could be found for a while in that region. Girls of fourteen years of age in many instances became wives. 1850. A Society of Painters in water colors, the first in the United States, was organized, but was not a success. A long interval ensued till 1866. 1850. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Harriet Beecher Stowe, first appeared as a serial in the " National Era," at Wash- ington, D. C. This novel began at once to excite an interest, and has sold steadily from that time to this. It has been trans- lated into many different languages, and been spread broadcast over the world. Much of the anti-slavery sentiment of re- cent years has been moulded or strength- ened by it. The moment of its issue was propitious in the extreme. Hundreds of thousands of its volumes have been sold, in this and other lands. It hasfleen criti- cised by a very few writers, among them Mary Russell Mitford, as grossly untrue and sensational. 1850. Boston Watch Company. The manufacture of American watches began at Roxbury, Mass., by Aaron Dennison, Edward Howard, and Samuel Curtis. Mr. Dennison traveled abroad and studied that line of work. He and Mr. Howard invented the process of making the parts of a watch by machinery. These men erected the first building in the world for such a purpose. The business was continued at Roxbury till 1854, when it was moved to Waltham. 1850. An Arctic expedition undei Lieut. E. J. DeHaven, fitted up by Henry Grinnell of New York, sailed in search of Sir John Franklin. Dr. Elisha Kent Kane was naturalist and surgeon to the expedition. This was the first United States expedition of search. NORTHWEST PASSAGE. 1850. The long-sought passage was discovered by Capt. McClure, who, in the " Investigator," had passed through Behring's Strait, and spent two years on the north shore of America, returning home through Davis' Straits. In 1855 Capt. McClure received .5,000 which had been offered for this discovery, and was knighted. 1850. Gen. Solouque was crowned Emperor of Hayti, and at once by his oppressive government began to cause agitation among his subjects. 1850. All slave traffic was finally abolished in Brazil. 1850. The first railroad ever built in South America was opened between the seaport Caldera and the mining districts of Copiapo. It was one hundred and one miles long. 1851. Feb. 15. The Shadrach Case. A popular tumult was caused in Boston by the arrest of Shadrach, a fugitive slave. He was rescued by a mob from the officers in the court room, after he had been held over for trial. 1851. March. The steamer Oregon exploded and burned upon the Mississippi River, with a loss of sixty lives. 1845-1859.] 1851. April 2. A severe earthquake visited the region of Chili, MSI. Caffrein- aroun( i Santiago. A large surrsction in So. Afnca. amount of property was destroyed. 1851. April 3. The Sims Case. The fugitive Sims was arrested, and the law was successfully enforced in his return to his claimant. 1851. April 16. Minot's Ledge light-house was carried away in a ter- rible storm which raged along the At- lantic coast. Sixty iron piles, each ten inches in diameter, were twisted off by the winds and the waves. The piles were covered with ice, and made the de- struction more certain. 1851. May 3-5. A great fire raged in San Francisco, destroying 2,500 build- ings and many lives. It burned $3,500,- ooo worth of property. 1851. May 4. A great fire in St. Louis destroyed three-fourths of the city. The loss was estimated at $11,000,000. 1851. May 23. Charles L. Brace, an American, was arrested in Hungary on the charge of promoting revolutionary movements. 1851. May 26. A riot occurred in Hoboken, N. J., between Germans and " short-boy " roughs from New York. Several parties were killed. 1851. June 22. Another great fire burned 500 buildings in San Francisco, at a loss of $3,000,000. 1851. July 1. The reform postage bill went into effect, making postage very nearly what it is at present. 1851. Aug. 11. Lopez lauded at Morillo, Cuba, with nearly 500 men, whom he had enlisted in the United States, but his force, which he had divided into two detachments, was speed- ily overcome, the expected aid from THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 543 Cuba not being realized. Lopez himself took refuge in the mountains, but was captured, and executed by garrote. Fili- bustering efforts upon Cuba caused great agitation in the United States this year. A great riot occurred in New Orleans in August, and Spanish citizens were as- sailed. The governor of Mississippi was arrested in February for aiding an expedition. 1851. Aug. 22. The yacht America, of one hundred and seventy tons, built in the United States by George Steers of Brooklyn, N. Y., and com- J 1851. Large gold manded by Com. John C. fields discovered Stevens, carried off the inA ^ alia - prize, the " cup of all nations," in a race at Cowes, England, to which all the world had been invited. The America was the first yacht to cross the ocean, and excited much attention on the Thames. She was built after the cele- brated Baltimore clipper style. This victory greatly changed yacht-building abroad. American yachts have made as much as eighteen miles an hour. 1851. August. A volcano burst forth in Martinique, after a long period of inactivity. 1851. Sept. 11. A fugitive slave was attacked in Christiana, Penn., by an armed force under a deputy marshal. A conflict occurred in which the Mary lander, who professed to own the slave, was shot dead. A crowd had collected, and many of them refused to aid in 1851 . Submarine the capture. The fugitive telegraph be- j T steps to have the whites indicted. Seventy-eight indictments were issued against thirty-nine persons. The first one, Castner Hanway, was brought up for trial on the charge " of wickedly and 544 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. traitorously levying war against the United States." He was simply proved to have fceen near the scene on horseback, and to have refused to aid in the capture, and was released without punishment. After one or two more prosecutions the government dropped their task, having spent about $70,000 on it. 1851. September. A formidable in- surrection occurred in Chili, and well- nigh overthrew the government. The mi. World's country suffered much in Fair opened at society and trade. The re- London. ,. c ,, , volt was finally put down with great loss of life. Don Manuel Montt was president during these trying times. He was a very able man, and his administration was full of progress. No revolution has since taken place in Chili. 1851. Oct. 19. A constitution was adopted in Guatamala, which bears some resemblance to the United States consti- tution. 1851. October. A line of soundings across the Atlantic for a submarine tele- graph was begun by the United States brig Dolphin. 1851. Nov. 20. A frightful catas- trophe occurred in ward school-house No. 26, New York city, containing over i, 800 children. An alarm spread from a call for water for a fainting teacher, and in a few minutes the whole mass of children was struggling through the halls. About fifty were killed by falling or by suffocation, and many others were injured. 1851. Dec. 5. Louis Kossuth, the great Hungarian patriot, arrived in the United States upon the war steamer Mississippi, which had been sent to Europe for him by the United States government. He came as a guest of the American people, and was received with such honor as is given to very few. The 1851 _ ^^ Na . claims of Austria and Rus- poieon seizes the , . ,. , . government of sia upon him after his es- France by coup cape from Hungary to ^ dominions. like that of the United States. Urquiza was made president for six years, 1853. May 6. An accident occurred on the New York and New Haven Railroad, by the running of a train into an open drawbridge. Many were killed and drowned. Accidents at this time were very numerous. Modern safeguards were not known. 1853. June 6-9. Great riots occurred in Montreal and Quebec, occasioned by the lectures of Gavazzi against the church and pope of Rome. They were suppressed by the military. 1853. July 14. A great World's Fair was opened in New York in a Crystal Palace built specially for it, The building was of glass and iron in the form of a Greek cross, 365 feet long each way, and 150 feet 1853 _ N a p ieon wide. The exhibition was HL ckn -" jl - edged by Russia, Open abOUt lOUr months. Austria, and Nearly 3,000 exhibitors frusta. 1845-1859.] came from abroad. A great effect was produced on American industries. Pres- ident Pierce was present at the opening. 1853. July 14. Com. Perry having arrived at Japan with his expedition, landed, and eommitted the letter sent by the president of the United States to the charge of the Imperial commissioners. 1853. July 15. An earthquake de- stroyed 600 persons at Cumana, Ven- ezuela. 1853. Aug. 8. John Fletcher Boot, a Cherokee warrior who had been con- verted and had become a powerful preacher in his own tongue, died at the age of sixty years. He was licensed and ordained by the Methodist church. 1853. Aug. 11-14. Great heat pre- vailed through the United States. In New York 400 deaths occurred in four days. 1853. Oct. 4. The largest merchant- man in the world, named the " Great Republic," was launched at East Bos- ton, Mass. It was of 4,000 tons burden. 1853. Oct. 26. A massacre of Capt. Gunnison and his party, was committed by the Indians in Utah. 1853. Dec. 9. A mob destroyed the 2853. War be- railroad track near Erie, tween Russia and Penn. Both men and Turkey. - -, ., women joined in the as- sault, which they again carried out on Dec. 27. 1853. Dec. 30. The Staffordshire, from Liverpool for Boston, was lost near Cape Sable, with iyy lives. 1853. Dec. 30. A treaty with Mex- ico secured to the United States an additional part of Arizona, adding about 30,000 square miles to the public territory. 1853. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. This bill was introduced into congress, and provided for two new territories, declar- THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 553 ing that the old compromise of 1820 was rendered void by the 1S53 Libertyof Compromise of 1850, and press curtailed by . . . . , . f . stringent law. that the inhabitants of the territories must decide the question of slavery. This bill split the whig party forever. The northern whigs became known as anti-Nebraska men. The passage of the bill brought on the famous Kansas struggle. 1853. Successful Whaling. The re- ceipts of two whaling vessels from New Bedford, and one from Fair Haven, were over $400,000. This pur- 1853 Great suit had passed into the strikes in Eng- hands of the United States, till the whalers of New England com- manded the seas. Since 1861, however, the discovery of petroleum and the war, with other causes, have reduced the profits and extent of this line of shipping. 1853. Dr. Kane sailed from Boston in the " Advance," with a company of seventeen men, among whom was Dr. Hayes. After many hardships and dangers they anchored for the winter in Rensselaer Bay, and were frozen in. The energy of Dr. Kane kept the men in comparatively comfortable condition for two seasons. In the third they escaped in open boats, and returned to Boston, where they arrived Oct. n, 1855. 1853. Kit Carson successfully drove 6,500 sheep across the Rocky Mountains into California. 1853. Paper collars for men's wear, appeared for the first time in New York. Their use spread very rapidly. 1853. The present fire service of the United States was first put on an efficient basis at Cincinnati. A 1853 _ cholera in steam fire engine was built Europe. by A. B. Latta, and was the origin of further success in that direction. This 554 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1853. Severe earthquakes in Persia. first one weighed twelve tons, and was partly propelled by its own steam. 1853. The yellow fever broke out at New Orleans, and destroyed nearly 1 5,000 lives along the coast cities. 1853. The insurance company swin- dle was at its height, and the fruits be- gan to appear in the numerous failures. Scores of mutual companies went down, and by 1860 the worst of it was over. But it had a great run until people learned wisdom. The business was done in a wild manner, without any secure basis whatever. 1853. Santa Anna was recalled to Mexico, and made president once more, in spite of the fact that he had shown himself to be an unwise man. Enthusiasm every- where marked his recep- tion. But he soon showed signs of es- tablishing himself as dictator, and thus alienated the sympathies of the true republican citizens from himself. 1853. The Spanish government pledged itself to suppress the slave trade in Cuba. 1853. Paraguay was recognized as independent by Great Britain, France, Sardinia, and the United States. 1853. An exploration of Honduras was made by an expedition from the United States, with reference to an inter- oceanic railway. 1854. Jan. 5. The steamer San 1854. Great fires Francisco, with a force of in Turkey. United States troops on board, foundered at sea. Two hundred and forty perished. Seven hundred were rescued. 1854. Jan. 9. The Astor Library in New York city was opened, with 70,000 volumes. 1854. Jan. 20. The steamer Tayleure, .of the White Star Line, was wrecked on the Irish coast with the loss of 370 lives. 1854. January. Mobs of women at different times this month renewed the riots along the Erie railroad. 1854. Feb. 1. A great fire at Quebec destroyed the Parliament House, which contained the library and the philosophi- cal apparatus of the government. 1854. Feb. 5. The lowest tempera- ture ever recorded by man 1854 _ Thegreat was felt by Dr. Kane while Ganges canal /. ... ., , , , India opened. wintering in Smith s Sound. His best spirit thermometer showed 100 below the freezing point of water. He was then in latitude 78 37' N. BIRTH OF REPUBLICAN PtfXTY. 1854. Feb. 28. The first movement for the organization of the Republican party in the United States took place in the edifice owned and occupied by the Congregational Church of Ripon, Wis., on the evening of this day. The whig party had been broken up by its defeat in 1852. The Nebraska bill was about being passed, and the convictions of whigs, free-soilers, and democrats, who were opposed to the extension of slavery, were rapidly increasing in clearness and power. Still there was no movement. In this state of affairs Major Alvan E. Bovay, of Ripon, Wis., anticipated the passage of the Nebraska bill by a can- , vass of his neighbors and friends to secure, if possible, some concert of action among men of all parties in the formation of a new party based upon the non-extension of slavery. It can be proved that Major Bovay had as early as the spring of 1852 predicted the organization of such a party, and proposed the name of " Re- publican " for it, as having associations which would universally attract men to- 1843-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 555 it. But it was not till this date that a meeting was held to bring this result to pass. Deacon William Dunham of the Congregational Church, was made mod- erator. There was a very free expression of sympathy with the intended move- ment, and a unanimous adoption of the following historic resolutions: WHEREAS, The Senate of the United States is entertaining, and from present indications is likely to pass, bills organizing governments for the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, in which is embodied a clause repealing the Missouri Compromise Act, and so admit into these terri- tories the slave system with all its evils, and WHEREAS, We deem that compact irrepeala- ble as the Constitution itself: Therefore, Resolved, That of all outrages hitherto per- petrated or attempted upon the North and freedom by the slaveholders and their natural allies, not one compares in bold and impudent audacity, treachery and meanness, with this, the Nebraska bill, as, to the sum of all its other vil- lainies it adds the repudiation of a solemn com- pact held as sacred as the Constitution itself for a period of thirty-four years; Resolved, That the Northern njan who can aid and abet in the commission of so stupendous a crime, is none too good to become an accom- plice in renewing the African slave trade, the service which, doubtless, will next be required of him by his Southern masters, should the Nebraska treason succeed ; Resolved, That the attempt to overthrow the Missouri Compromise, whether successful or not, admonishes the North to adopt the maxim for all time to come, ' ' No more compromise with slavery ; " Resolved, That the passage of this bill, if pass it should, will be the call to arms of a great Northern party, such an one as the country has not hitherto seen, composed of Whigs, Demo- crats and Free-Soilers ; every man with a heart in him united under the single banner cry of "Repeal ! Repeal !" Resolved, That the small but compact pha- lanx of true men, who oppose the mad scheme upon the broadest principle of humanity, as well as their unflinching efforts to uphold "pub- lic faith, deserve not only our applause, but our profound esteem ; Resolved, That the heroic attitude of Gen. Houston, amidst a host of degenerate men in the United States Senate, is worthy of honor and applause. The building in which this meeting was held is now occupied by a German society, the Congregational church hav- ing erected by its side, a larger and costlier stone structure. After the Ne- braska bill had passed the Senate, but before it had passed the House, another meeting was held in the school-house at Ripon, under a call signed by fifty -four citizens. The whig and free-soil town committees were dissolved at this meet- ing, and a new committee of five chosen for the new party. They were A. E. Bovay, J. Bowen, Amos Loper, Abra- ham Thomas, and Jacob Woodruff. Politically three had been whigs, one a free-soiler, and one a democrat. This movement within a very few months spread in the surrounding region and state. In June of this year the name Republican was adopted in Michigan by the state convention, and soon the country was alive with it. The course of affairs in Ripon is given at some length in the " Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America," by the late Hon. Henry Wilson of Massachu- setts, who says, " Thus early did the men of that frontier town inaugurate a move- ment which was destined to sweep and control the nation, and which did sweep the country, and change entirely the policy of the government." (Vol. II. pps. 409-410.) Major Bovay, Mr. J. Bowen, and others, who attended and carried through the above meetings, are present residents of Ripon, still in the vigor of life. 1854. March 1. The City of Glas- gow, from Liverpool to Philadelphia, was lost at sea, with 480 lives. 1854. March 23. A commercial treaty between the United States and Japan was concluded. 1854. April 15. The Powhs-ton, from Havre to the United States, was lost in the Atlantic, with 311 lives. 1854. April 16. An earthquake en- 556 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. tirely destroyed the city of San Salvador, in Central America. Two hundred lives were lost, and $4,000,000 of property, in less than a minute. The city has been rebuilt on the same site. 1854. April 25. Slaves were emanci- pated in Venezuela. 1854. April 30. The first railroad in Brazil was opened. Great ceremonies were held, both the emperor and empress being present. 1854. May 1. The Mercedes, a Peruvian war ship, was lost off Callao, with 700 lives. 1854. May 26. A riot took place in Boston at the attempt to arrest a fugitive slave. Other riots occurred through the country at different times this year, for different reasons. 1854. June 5. A reciprocity treaty 1354. Eastern between Canada and the affairs grow ,, . . -, . , Lrse. Crimean United States was signed. mar opened. It opened the markets of poff ' the states to Canadian farm- ers, and gave agriculture and its associ- ated trades a new impetus. 1854. June 12. The U. S. ship Cyane bombarded Greytowri, Central America, because the authorities of the place refused to make reparation for United States property which had been destroyed. 1854. June. The first kerosene oil company in this country began operations at Newtown Creek, L. I. The manu- facture increased rapidly. Bituminous coal was used. 1854. July 13. The U. S. war-sloop Cyane bombarded and burned the town of San Juan, Nicaragua. 1854. July 13. The battle of Guay- mas was fought between the Mexicans and a body of Frenchmen under Count Raousset de Boulbon. The latter was taken prisonef, and in a few days was shot. 1854. Sept. 17. The City of Phila- delphia, from Liverpool, was lost off Cape Race, with an unknown loss of life. 1854. Sept. 27. The U. S. mail steamer Arctic was run down by the French steamer Vesta, with a loss of 360 lives. It occurred off Newfoundland. 1854. Nov. 24. The Ocean, of Boston, was burned in Boston harbor, with a loss of 35 lives. 1854. Dec. 20. A treaty was signed between the Argentine Republic and Buenos Ayres, by which the latter re- mained separate, but allied. 1854. An American exploring party under Lieut. Isaac C. Strain, crossed the Isthmus of Darien. They i854> Snccesl , ful took but ten days' food be- insurrection against the royal cause 01 to* reported ease ministry in of the journey. But their Spain. trip was attended by the most terrible suffering. The route was found imprac- ticable. 1854. Traces of Franklin were dis- covered not far from Great Fish River. Bodies were found, and 1S54 - " immacu- . '-111 l tf Conception some articles which had ,,/ ike virgin," Sir John Franklin's name proclaimed as a dogma by Pope upon them. 1 he report of pi us ix. these things was obtained from the Es- quimaux by Dr. Rae. 1854. The cholera visited the United States and carried off 2500 persons in New York alone. 1854. Ostend Manifesto. A paper was. published by the American ministers to England, France, and Spain, who met at Ostend in Belgium, and declared that there could be no peace for the United States till Cuba was acquired. 1854. Filibusters under Costa in- vaded the province of Buenos Ayrec. 1845-1859.] 1854. An act providing a government for the British Virgin Islands, W. I., passed parliament. There are 50 of these British islands, having 95 square miles in all. 1854. The Newfoundland colonial government chartered the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company. 1855. Jan. 28. The first train passed over the Panama Railroad. An Amer- ican company built this road at a cost of $7,500,000. Its length is 47^ miles. 1855. The Waterwitch, a United States vessel sent out to make explora- tions upon the Parana River, was fired upon by a Paraguayan fort, and one man lass. Sebastopol was killed. A return fire taken. took place. The United States sent out a large fleet and demanded reparation. Paraguay finally agreed to pay according to the arbitration of Urquiza, of the Argentine Confederation. The surveys of Capt. Page were com- pleted in 1860. 1855. Feb. 3. The Fugitive Slave Law was pronounced unconstitutional by the U. S. District Court of Wisconsin. 1855. February. A financial panic spread throughout California. 1855. March 14. The first train passed over the Suspension Bridge at Niagara. This bridge has a span of 821 feet, and its track is 245 feet above the water. Its capacity is 12,000 tons. 1855. April 7. The largest steam- ship in the world, named the Adriatic, was launched at New York. 1855. Aug. 6. A riot occurred in Louisville, Ky., between the Americans and some foreigners upon election ques- tions. 1855. August. Plan of Ayutla. The liberal party in Mexico, under the leader- THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. ship of Alvarez and Comonfort, pro- claimed a new government, including several radical reforms. Reactionary movements at once took place against Santa Anna, who had re- 1855 . Kars taken turned to the country and & '*' Russians. been made dictator through his alliance with the church party. He seemed to be trying to establish himself in the govern- ment for life, and make himself an em- peror. For a year or two the struggle had been going on, and finally triumphed completely. Santa Anna fled, and steps were at once taken to put the govern- ment on a firmer democratic basis. A republican assembly chose Alvarez for president. 1855. Bleeding Kansas." Through the spring and summer of this year the soil of Kansas was the field of a great ex- citement. As soon as the action of con- gress was apparent, it was seen that the side which wished to hold it must settle it with emigrants who could control it at coming elections. Hence a stream of settlers began pouring in from the North, and another from Missouri and other Southern states. The conflict began at once. Depredations were of frequent oc- currence, and bands which became known as "border-ruffians," raided upon the towns and villages which were rapidly growing up. Murders were committed, and property destroyed during this year, but still the free state men would not de- part from the field. It was a fearful struggle, marked by blood all along its trail. It was only decided as it was be- cause the South had fewer real settlers to send into the new state than the North had, hence while the former could for a time cause great terror, it must in process of time be necessarily out voted whenever a fair expression by ballot came. It was 558 PO LI TIC A L DE VE L OPMENT. one of those fearful struggles in the his- tory of the United States which have been caused by the opposite feelings of different sections toward slavery, feelings which have been the strongest in their hold of any known to our government. On Nov. 29, 1854, the bands of Missouri voters who came across the border just to deposit their ballots, carried the first election of a delegate to congress in favor of the pro- slavery candidate. They likewise took the same effectual measures for the elec- tion of a territorial legislature in the spring of this year. Not many free state settlers were yet in the field. This legis- lature adopted in July, 1855, the laws of Missouri for a State Constitution, adding a series of penalties for any one who at- tempted to interfere with slavery. The heat of the struggle now came on. In September a convention was held at Topeka, and renounced the previous elec- tions and their results. A new delegate- was sent to Washington, but congress admitted the pro-slavery delegate. In the following January state officers were elected by the Free State settlers under a constitution adopted at Topeka. Appli- cation was made for admission as a state under this free constitution, but was not granted. The U. S. government fully committed itself now to the maintenance of the pro-slavery laws of Kansas, the pi'esident issuing a proclamation to that effect. For about four years the struggle continued over the formation of a constitu- tion and the admission of Kansas as a state, and it was not till 1861 that the latter result was effected. 1855. Oct. 11. Dr. E. K. Kane reached New York on his return from his Ai'ctic exploration. He had now been gone two and one-half years, and had experienced all the difficulties of Arctic navigation. An enthusias- 1S55 - Nicholas i. ... Czar of Russia, tic reception was given mm diedi wherever he went. He was recognized on both sides of the Atlantic as an emi- nent explorer. His voyages will ever re- main a treasured possession of the country from which he sailed. The long expos- ure had weakened his system, and his health began to fail. The climate of Cuba was tried, but in vain. In less than two years from this time he was in his grave. He died Feb. 16, 1857, a g e d thirty-six years. FILIBUSTERISM. 1855. Oct. 15. The filibuster, Wil- liam Walker, who had been led to enter Nicaragua for purposes of power, took the city of Grenada. Only sixty-two followers were with him when he landed in June, but natives had joined his force. His attempts continued for a little less than two years, during which time he put himself into the presidency, but at once excited great commotion by his exercise of arbitrary power. In 1857 he was taken into custody by the United States. A proclamation against filibustering was issued by President Pierce in December, 1855. Walker had ini853 made an at- tempt to conquer Sonora, but had failed. The United States government put him on trial on the charge of breaking the laws of neutrality, but he was acquitted. His efforts in Nicaragua were brought on o o through the solicitation of some wander- ing Americans, who had private ends to serve in that province. At first he was accepted as an efficient aid to the support of democratic principles. He was after- ward joined by adventurers from the United States, until he had a force of 1,200 men. Then came the steps which A VILLAGE IN GRKKNLAND. WMil^^SSSIiwiMUiM WINTER QJJARTERS. 559 1845-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 561 secured his downfall. But the end had not yet come. With seeming rashness he again, after his release, made his way to Nicaragua, and was arrested by United States authorities within a month. But he was not held, and set out from Mobile for a new attempt. An arrest now took place at the mouth of the Mis- sissippi, but without any other result than an acquittal. In 1860 he managed to start out into Honduras with similar de- signs, but came to an end by arrest and execution. The career of this filibuster is an instance of the many which have marked our history in South American states, and in Cuba. They were espe- cially numerous after the war between Mexico and the United States had closed. The term filibuster comes into our lan- guage from the Spanish filibusteros, a term by which pirates were known. In English, however, it came to be applied only to such adventurers as tried to secure power in the former Spanish American provinces of the continent. Of all these, William Walker was by far the most famous. 1855. Nov. 22. Law of Juarez. President Alvarez of Mexico proclaimed this statute, and for the first time in Mex- ico established the equality of all citizens before the law. Class legislation was abolished. The great mass of people were pleased with the new enactment. A great step was taken in the renewal of Mexico. 1855. Dec. 23. The Resolute," a British vessel which had been sent out in search of Sir John Franklin, and had been . , abandoned in Arctic seas, 1855. Industrial exhibition at was brought to New Lon- Paris opened. dorij Conn., by a whaling vessel. The United States refitted her and sent her across the ocean to the Eng- lish government. Now comes a pleasant part of the story. In November, 1880, there was received at the White House, * Washington, as a present to President Hayes, an elaborate and beautiful writing table made from the wood of which the Resolute had been composed. 1855. Dec. 24. The province of Buenos Ayres was invaded by Gen. Flores and a band of Argentine refugees. They were driven off by Gen. Mitre, who pushed on into the province of Santa Fe. This complicated troubles between the two governments, and led to the annulling of all the former treaties made. 1855. December. President Alva- rez of Mexico, who had succeeded Santa Anna in August, himself resigned, and was succeeded by Comonfort. 1855. American Reapers. A trial between reaping machines of all nations was instituted at Paris, France. Ma- chines were present from England, the United States, and Algiers. The Amer- ican showed entire superiority, cutting an acre of oats in twenty-two minutes, while it took the English sixty-six minutes, and the Algerine seventy-two. Enthusiasm on the part of witnesses was unbounded. A trial between threshers was held soon after in England, and again in France, with similar results. The American ma- chine, to those looking on, seemed to de- vour the sheaves. 1855. The Associated Press was formed in New York by the daily papers, in order to distribute the telegraphic news most expeditiously. 1855. Castella overthrew the presi- dency of Echenique in Peru, and seized the government, in which he served by reelection until 1862. He abolished 562 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. slavery, and instituted other needed reforms. 1855. Cholera morbus raged through- out Brazil, and destroyed thousands of lives. 1856. Jan. 23. The Pacific sailed from Liverpool for New York, and was never heard from. There was a loss of 1 86 persons. 1856. Jan. 30. The Chilian war steamer Cazador was lost, with 318 lives. 1856. Feb. 2. A great contest oc- curred in the House of Representatives over the speakership. After a close battle for nine weeks, N. P. Banks was elected this day, by the plurality of three votes. 1856. Feb. 19. The John Rutledge, from Liverpool for New York, was sunk by an iceberg, with an unknown loss of life. 1856. Feb. 22. "Know Nothing" Convention. A new party had arisen in the United States with a secret organiza- tion, and pledged to oppose foreigners. It had been growing up for a long series of years, and called itself the American or Native American party. It advocated naturalization only after a residence of 21 years in the country, as in the case of children, and advocated the election to office of native born citizens. Its dele- gates were elected in secret conventions. isse. July 12. For a long time it held in The Crimea . . , - evacuated. many sections a balance of power. A convention was held at this date, from which one-fourth of the dele- gates withdrew upon an anti-slavery issue. The remainder nominated Millard Fillmore of New York, for president, and Andrew J. Donelson, of Tennessee, for vice-president. This was the only presi- dential campaign in which the party pre- sented candidates. 1856. February. Mormon Troubles. An armed body of Mormons forced Judge Drummond, of the U. S. district court, in Utah, to adjourn his session without date. The officers appointed by the United States all fled the territory be- cause Brigham Young so excited the people against them, and declared that he alone would be governor. For five years these troubles had been growing up, and Brigham Young had openly defied the laws of the United States. 1856. March 15. The Camden ferry- boat from New York, was wrecked, and 30 lives lost. 1856. March 20. The invasion of Costa Rica, headed by Schlessinger and William Walker, was defeated. At a later day the latter gained some slight advantage. 1856. April 15. A riot occurred on the Panama railroad, and thirty passen- gers were killed. ASSAULT ON SUMXER. 1856. May 22. Charles Sumner, U. S. senator from Massachusetts, while writing at his desk in the senate chamber, after the adjournment of that body, was approached by Preston S. Brooks, United States representative from South Caro- lina, and beaten with a cane before he could extricate himself from his seat, until he fell senseless upon the floor. Permanent injuries were inflicted in this fearful assault. Although Senator Sum- ner was abroad for some years, and had the treatment of skillful physicians in the Old and New World, he never fully re- covered from the effect upon his system. The reason of the outrage was in a criti- cism which Senator Sumner had offered upon Senator Butler of South Carolina, in referring to Kansas affairs. Brooks was a relative of Butler. The House of 1845-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 565 Representatives censured Brooks, who resigned his seat, and was unanimously reelected by his constituents. Anson Burlingame, a member of the House, from Massachusetts, made the severest criticisms of any upon Brooks, and was challenged therefor, at once by the latter. Burlingame immediately accepted, and named Navy Island, above Niagara Falls, as the place of meeting, and rifles as the weapon. Brooks would not go thither because of having to pass through an ex- cited North. The meeting, therefore, never occurred. Brooks, upon returning to Columbia, S. C., Aug. 29, was granted a public reception and presented with a cane. On the third of November Sena- tor Sumaer was received with great public acclamation at Boston. 1856. June 2. The democratic con- vention met at Cincinnati and nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, for president, and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, for vice-president. The con- vention condemned " Know-nothingism." 1856. June 17. The republican convention was held at Philadelphia. me. Alexander i t declared in favor of in- II. croivned em- peror of Russia, ternal improvements, and of the right of congress to prohibit sla- very and polygamy in the territories; also of admitting Kansas as a free state. John C. Fremont of California, was nominated for president, and William L. Dayton, of New Jersey, for vice-president. 1856. July 12. A submarine cable was laid between Cape Breton and New- foundland. 1856. July. A safe belonging to the American Express Co., and lost on the steamer Atlantic in 1852, was raised by a Buffalo diver, with comparatively un- injured contents. 1857. Aug. 10. A violent storm completely engulfed Lost Island, a sum- mer resort on the coast of Louisiana, for three days, with a loss of 1 73 persons. 1856. Aug. 21. The Charter Oak, Hartford, Conn., was blown down during a heavy gale. 1856. Oct. 8. An election riot oc- curred in Baltimore, and nine persons were killed. 1856. Oct. 10. The ''sewing-machine war," in which numerous suits had arisen between Singer on the one side, and Wheeler and Wilson with Grover and Baker on the other, was settled by these parties agreeing to use each other's points and make common cause against all other infringers thereafter. This is sometimes known as the Albany Agree- ment. 1856. Nov. 2. The Lyonnais, from New York, was lost in the Atlantic, with 134 lives. EIGHTEENTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1856. Nov. 4. In the election of this year Buchanan and Breckinridge, the democratic candidates, had 174 elec- toral votes and 1,838,169 popular votes; Fremont and Dayton, the republican candidates, had 114 electoral votes, and 1,341,264 popular votes. Fill more and Donelson, the Know-Nothing candidates, had 8 electoral votes, and 874,534 popu- lar votes. The latter carried Maryland alone. The republican party was now growing up very rapidly, and absorbing the elements which were opposed to slavery. Neither candidate had a major- ity of the popular vote at this election. 1856. Nov. 10. The New York and Newfoundland Telegraph line was opened to St. John's, a distance of 1715 566 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. miles. A submarine cable had been laid during the summer between Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, and one from Cape Breton to Newfoundland. These are now a part of the international line. 1856. Dec. 6. A United States squadron fired on and destroyed Barrier Forts, near Canton, China, because of an attack upon an American boat. 1856. Dec. 24. The only snow that was ever known in Cuba, fell in the in- terior of the island. The weather was the coldest ever experienced. 1856. Kansas War. A terrible war raged in Kansas this year, between the slave state and the free state settlers. There were frequent raids made by the former. Lawrence and Ossawattomie were nearly destroyed. It was in this year that John Brown acquired a reputa- tion for fearless partisan warfare. With small bands of men he often held large numbers at bay. Especially did he prove successful with his little force of thirty men at the attack which was made by 500 upon Ossawattomie. He was always afterward known as " Ossawattomie i8se. Great Brown." At the first of earthquake in this year President Pierce had recognized the pro- slavery legislature of Kansas. United States troops were ordered to obey the governor in enforcing the laws of this legislature. A free state legislature was broken up by these troops on July 4, at Topeka. In September, Geary of Pennsylvania, assumed the office of governor, and quieted the affairs of the state somewhat. 1856. A type-setting machine was invented by Timothy Alden. 1856. A power-loom for weaving Axminster carpets, was patented by Alexander Smith and Halcyon Skinner. Their establishment was set up at Yon- kers, N. Y., and is the only one in the country. 1856. The Sorghum Mania. The sorghum plant, or Chinese sugar-cane, was introduced into America for the pro- duction of molasses. It was much called for during the next fevv years. Many claimed that it would displace sugar-cane, but it is now principally used for syrup. 1856. The California Vigilance Com- mittee again took the law into their own hands, because of increasing lawlessness. The number of the committee was en- larged to several thousands of the leadin^ Q citizens, and executions were a ancl tne Vessels WCllt Oil toria - their way for 300 miles, when another break occurred, and the enterprise was abandoned till the next year. PANIC OF 1857. 1857. Aug 24. A failure of the " Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Com- pany " took place, and proved to be the first act in the panic which swept through the commercial world so fiercely. Many 1857. Sept. u. banks were everywhere DeM in India SO on forced to suspend. The captured. cause ot the disaster was chiefly in the rage for land speculation, which had prevailed like a fever through the country. Paper cities abounded, and unproductive railroads were opened. At last the crisis came. The land was convulsed from one end to another. 1857. Sept. 8. The steamship Cen- tral America, from Aspinwall for New York, with five hundred and seventy-nine persons on board, foundered in a terrible gale off Cape Hattera.s. One hundred and fifty-two only were saved. Over $2,000,000 treasure was lost. 1857. Sept. 15. Brigham Young issued his proclamation against the United States troops which had been sent out to maintain order in the province, and urged the people of Utah to resist them. The troops were har assed after their entrance into the terri- tory of Utah, by Mormon raiders. Sup- ply trains were cut off, and cattle stolen. Winter quarters were prepared on Black's Fork, near Fort Bridger. Alfred Gumming, who had been appointed gov- ernor, and was with the army, declared the territory to be in rebellion. GREAT REVIVAL. 1857. Sept. 23. The first step in the great religious revival of 1857 and 1858 was taken in the establishment of a bus- iness men's prayer meeting in the third story lecture room of the old Fulton Street church, at twelve o'clock noon, by Mr. J. C. Lanphier, who was serving as city missionary for the church. For one half of the hour Mr. Lanphier was alone. Five persons came in during the last half. One week from that time twenty were present. Two weeks, nearly forty were there. At the close of this third meet- ing one was appointed for the next day, inaugurating the Fulton Street daily prayer meeting, which has never ceased to be held. It was not long before 570 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT, meetings were held in other churches, and the city began to be alive with them. About the same time with the Fulton Street meeting, one was established in Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. During the spring of 1858 the revival attained great power all over the land. Churches were everywhere aroused, and converts made by thousands. 1857. Sept. 25-26. The banks of Philadelphia suspended payment, and were followed in quick succession by banks through all the surrounding region. 1857. Oct. 13-14. The banks of New York suspended payment after a terrible run upon them by thousands of depositors. The banks of Massachusetts went down in the second day. 1857. Nov. 2. Unemployed work- men in New York held a large mass meeting. Their distresses during the panic were great. They held another Nov. 10. 1857. Dec. 12. The banks of New York resumed payment, and were soon followed by others, so that the blackest part of the crisis seemed past. During the year ending Dec. 25 there had been 5,123 commercial failures, with liabilities amounting to $291,750,000. 1857. Dec. 17. Gen. Zuloaga pro- nounced against the constitution of Mex- ico, and under the lead of the church party aided Comonfort, who had been inaugurated president of the republic on Dec. i, in trying to secure absolute power. 1857. Kansas Troubles. The free state legislature of Kansas tried to meet in January, but were broken up by United States troops again. Gov. Geary resigned because of difficulty with the pro- slaver v legislature. Robert T. Walker ^ O / of Mississippi, was made governor. The United States House declared the acts of the Kansas pro-slavery legislature " cruel, oppressive, illegal and void." The Senate refused to concur in this. 1857. The National Association of Base Ball Players was organized, and established a uniform system of rules for the whole country. The rules had for- merly varied in different states. This association has been divided within a few years into professional and amateur societies. 1857. A process for condensing milk was patented by Charles Alden, who has since invented processes for drying fruit by evaporation so as to retain every valuable element in them. FENIAXISM. 1857. The Fenian Organization was. founded for the first time in America at New York, by Michael Corcoran, Mi- chael Doheny, and James O'Mahoney, under the name of the Emmet Monu- ment Association. Similar societies al- ready existed in Ireland, where they were known as Phoenix societies. The name Fenian, afterward adopted, was taken from Fionn or Finn, who com- manded a kind of Irish militia in the third century. In 1858, ISM-ISS?. James Stephens, the chief Eugene Sue. promoter of the brotherhood, visited New York from Ireland, and helped the club then organize more fully, with John O'Mahoney as president. 1857. A great contest of mowers under the auspices of the United States Agricultural Society, was held at Syra- cuse, N. Y. Forty mowers were put into the trial. The Buckeye won the victory. 1845-1859.] 1857. Central Park, New York. The New York legislature set apart the land in the upper part of New York city, for a permanent free park. Frederic Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux provided plans for its improvement, and work has been constantly going on at great ex- pense to beautify the grounds and make them an attractive public resort. 1857. The seat of government for Canada was placed permanently at Ottawa. 1858. Jan. 19. Mexican Troubles. Gen. Zuloaga had just now forsaken President Comonfort, who was obliged to flee for his life. The former took the administration upon himself. But Benito Juarez, who had been made chief-justice under the new constitution, and who, ac- cording to the provisions of that docu- ment was legally president in the absence of the one chosen as such, removed to Guanajuato, and was there recognized as president of the republic. He, however, 1795-1858. had no safety against the Ary sdieffer. church party, and therefore had to shift for himself. He was at last made prisoner by his guard, who pronounced in favor of the old regime, but was afterward set at liberty. 1858. Jan. 24. Two United States vessels, named Lizzie Thompson and Georgiana, were seized by Peruvian ves- sels while loading guano on the coast of the province of Arequipa. It led to com- plications, but Peru has afforded redress. 1858. Feb. 22. A Washington Mon- ument at Richmond, Va., by Crawford, was inaugurated. 1858. April 30. Congress voted to ISM. Jan. 31. admit Kansas to the Union Great Eastern i , i T launched at Lon- under the Lecompton con- don. stitution, which was pro- slavery, with the condition that it should THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 571 have certain valuable public lands if it would adopt that constitution by a vote of the people. It had previously been rejected by a majority of 10,000 votes. 1858. May 1. Convention of Rivas. The states of Nicaragua and Costa Rica formed a treaty with a representative of the French government, agreeing on the formation of an interoceanic canal com- pany by the latter, and making the nec- essary stipulation for the construction of a transit of this kind. This was after- ward commended by the British gov- ernment. 1858. May 4. Three Years' War in Mexico. Chief-justice Juarez once more established himself in the govern- ment at Vera Cruz. The country was overrun by the forces of the opposing party, but Juarez began the effort which ended in January, i86i,in his triumphal entry into the City of Mexico, as the savior of the republic. 1858. May 11. Minnesota was ad- mitted to the Union as the isss. Great East thirty-second state. It has India Com P an y went out of ex- 83,531 square miles, and istence. 780,807 inhabitants in 1880. Its motto is, L'Etoile du Nord." " The star of the North." 1858. May. The college regatta association was formed by a convention of oarsmen from Harvard, Yale, Brown, and Trinity. Regattas were held annu- ally until 1870. 1858. June 10. A president's mes- sage announced the peaceable settlement of the Utah difficulties. 1858. June 13. The Pennsylvania was wrecked in the Mississippi River, and 100 lives lost. 1858. June 13. A treaty of friend- ship between the United States and China was signed at Tien-Tsin. 572 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1858. June 19. A severe earthquake occurred in the valley of Mexico, de- stroying the aqueduct which brought water into the city, and doing much other damage in other places. 1858. July 14. The Turkish admi- ral, Mehemet Pacha, and his suite, after an extensive tour throiagh portions of the United States, sailed from Boston. 1858. Aug. 2. British Columbia was separated from the Hudson's Bay 1858. Palmer- Company, and incorporated stones ministry ^ & distinct co l on ial govern- closed. Lord Derby succeeded, ment. Gold had been found within its limits, and a permanent colony planted. The previous centers had merely been trading stations. 1858. Aug. 3. The people of Kansas by a full vote, refused to accept the Le- compton constitution with its provisions for slavery, even with the inducement held out to them by congress in a free gift of valuable lands. 1858. Aug. 11. The first annual convention of the National Teachers' Association was held at Cincinnati. tiTLyLXTIC CABLE. 1858. Aug. 13. After another faith- ful attempt to lay a telegraphic cable across the Atlantic, success seemed to crown the labors to that end. A first trial was made and was broken up by a 1858. July 12. storm, but on Aug. 5 the First jeTvin R between Valentia, Ire- British Parlia- ment. Baron land, and Newfoundland, Rothschild en- ^^ completed. Communi- tered House of Commons. cation was at once held be- tween England and America. Upon Aug. 17, Queen Victoria sent a message of congratulation to President Buchanan, who replied with a similar sentiment. The success of the enterprise was a mat- ter of great rejoicing in both continents. But the communications afterward grew O more difficult, and finally ceased entirely about the first of September. It was eight years before another cable was laid, and permanent success reached. Sub- marine cables now run in all directions. 1858. Aug. 27. The slave vessel Echo was captured and carried into Charleston, S. C. The rescued negroes were taken to Liberia on the United States steamship Niagara. The grand jury of Columbia county, S. C., refused an indictment against the Echo. 1858. Sept. 1. The quarantine sta- tion on Staten Island, N. Y. harbor, was destroyed by the citizens, who regarded it as a nuisance. 1858. Sept. 13. The steamship Aus- tria, of the New York and Hamburg line, with five hundred and thirty-eight persons on board was burned 1S5S , j une 15% in mid-ocean while on a Forty-five Chris- -.-, - r , . tians massacred voyage to New York. A at JfMaht Tur . bucket of tar used in fumi- ke y- Jeddah afterward bom- gatmg the ship took fire barded by Eng . and communicated the lish steamer. flames to everything around. Only sixty- seven were rescued from the wreck by passing vessels, making this one of the most terrible disasters ever known in ocean navigation. 1858. Sept. 16. The first overland mail ever started for California from the East left St. Louis. 1858. Sept. 21. The steam frigate General Admiral, built for J858 Atlempt the Russian government, to kil1 Emperor i i_ i j. TVT -\r i Napoleon III. was launched at New York. 1858. Oct. 5. A great fire consumed the Crystal Palace, New York, while an annual fair was in operation. Its contents were entirely lost. The .fire began in a lumber room and spread with such amaz- 1858. wee court" opened in Lon- don. 1845-1859.] ing rapidity along the highly seasoned di- pitch pine floors, the cases an( j taW tha( . m half fln hour the whole building was in ruins. It was a so-called fire- proof building, but it went like magic. It was with difficulty that the visitors escaped from harm. 1858. Oct. 15. Parker Cleaveland, " the father of American mineralogy," died at Brunswick, Me., at the age of seventy-eight years. He was born at Rowley, Mass., Jan. 15, 1780, and was graduated at Harvard College, in 1799. In 1805, after having served foj two years as tutor at Harvard, he was elected professor in Bowdoin College, a position less. First rail- w hich he held for 53 years, road in Egypt, . . , ... the Suez. m Spite Of frequent SOUClta- tions to accept situations elsewhere. His main subject of study and instruction was natural science, and in 1816 the first edi- tion of his work on mineralogy was issued. He acquired a world-wide repu- tation, and was elected a member of six- teen different scientific and literary socie- ties in Europe. He only failed, for rea- sons in connection with himself, in attend- ing three recitations during his long term of service in Bowdoin. 1858. Oct. 20. A brutal prize fight took place at Long Point Island, Lake Erie, between John Morrissey, since member of congress, and John C. Heenan, tor a wager of $2,500. The former was declared the champion of America. 1858. Nov. 28. Three hundred Africans were landed from the yacht Wanderer at Brunswick, Ga. 1858. Dec. 21. Faustin was banished by the revolutionists of Hayti, and Gen. Jeffrard made president in his place. 1858. Vineland, N. J., was founded by Mr. Charles K. Landis. It was laid THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 573 out into fine streets, and the lots were sold subject to certain specified conditions which related not only to the building thereon, but to the general life of the community. The success has been great. Intoxication and poverty are unknown, and there is scarcely any need of a police or fire department. Taxes are very low. The soil was poor, but the place has been made a city of well-regulated homes and industrious people. 1858. Mount Vernon, the home of Washington, was sold to the " Ladies' Mt. Vernon Association," for $200,000, with the intention of making it a place of resort. Money has been laid out upon it, and two or three rooms in the house re- main as they were when Washington died. 1858. Paul C. Morphy, the American champion chess-player, twenty-one years of age, visited Europe, and obtained vic- tories over the best players in England, and on the continent. He became the champion of the world. Upon his return he received a magnificent ovation. He has since been a practising lawyer in New Orleans. 1858. The first sleeping-car seen on American railroads was run this year, but was not at all satisfactory. 1858. The American Bank Note Company was formed by a combination of the engraving companies of the United States. It has controlled a large share of the work in engraving bank notes. The work of counterfeiting is more difficult because of this combination. 1858. A record of Franklin's expedi- tion up to the time when the ships were abandoned, was found in a cairn at Point Victory. Sir John died June u, 1847. The ships were abandoned April 22, 1848, and 105 men started for Great Fish 574 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. River. They evidently died of starvation along the way, as appears by the dis- covery of skeletons at different points. 1858. Valuable gold diggings were found in western Kansas, and emigration ' O at once began to flow in. Many persons suffered great hardships. There was also a great gold excitement during the year in Washington and Oregon territories. 1858. Dr. Linares became dictator of Bolivia for two years, till overthrown and imprisoned. 1858. Guayaquil in Ecuador was blockaded by Peruvian vessels, but the difficulties between the two powers which had been of six years' standing, were soon terminated. 1858. Paraguay River was declared open to the mercantile marine of all countries. 1859. Jan. 1. Gen. Zuloaga abdi- cated in Mexico in favor of Gen. Miguel Miramon, who began his attempt to sub- due the constitutional party under Juarez. 1859. January. The independence of Uruguay w'as secured by a treaty with Brazil and the Argentine confederation. The province had been peaceful since the fall of Rosas in 1852. It was now on the verge of a fresh crisis in its affairs. 1859. Jan. 1O. Cuba. A bill pro- viding $30,000,000 for the work of secur- ing Cuba as a part of the United States, 1769-1859. was introduced into the IL Humboidt. S. congress by Mr. Slidell. This was a part of the long effort to get that island for the sake of adding to the slave territory of the United States. WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT. 1859. Jan. 28. William H. Pres- cott, one of our most eminent American historians, died in Boston, aged sixty-two years. He was born in Salem, Mass., May 4, 1796. -His early boyhood was spent in the place of his birth. In 1808 the family removed to Boston, and the young William was at once put into the best training school of the time, in that* city. Here he received the drill in classics which followed him all his life. He entered Harvard, a bright, hearty, young man, and pursued his studies with ordinary diligence. In his junior year an incident occurred which colored his whole subsequent life. As he was isoo-1859. going out from dinner one ^^ Afacauioy. day at Commons, with a crowd of laugh- ing students, he turned his head to look behind him, and at just this instant a crust of dry bread thrown by some one, struck him in the open eye. This accident caused the entire loss of the sight of this eye for his lifetime. It also caused severe attacks at times in the other eye. For the most of his career Mr. Prescott could manage with difficulty to use the remain- ing eye, and at best the help afforded by it was partial and unsatisfactory. It, however, drove him to a great discipline of memory, and in his best days it was possible for him to compose and revise about sixty pages of history in his mind, A writing machine became his constant companion after a time, although at all times during his work on his histories he employed a secretary. For well-nigh half of his life he received little aid from eyesight. A tour abroad occupied him after graduation from college. When in America again he was married, and be- gan the consideration of his lifework. Law was thrown out of the question, and before a great while he began to think of history. As a preparation he began the task of reviewing his studies, especially in grammar, and in the 1803-1359. _-.. Robert Stephen - modern languages. His son . 1845-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 575 reading- first turned towai'd a life of Moliere, but at a later day he selected the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, as his first field. He collected materials at great trouble, much of it in Spanish, and employed a secretary whom he taught to read the text without being able to under- stand it. For ten years he worked in the most painstaking way, and at last put his work before the public with much mis- giving. But the work was no sooner issued than his reputation began to spread. People who had thought that this man, almost blind, had been amusing himself with some studies for his own re- lief, found that he was doing a work few well men could do. In the same way his other works were prepared. Public honors flowed in upon him, and he was known widely at home and abroad. Mr. Prescott was a genial, conscientious, methodical man, and subjected himself to his own demands most untiringly. He was of a tall stature, and easy manner. A very fine private library was collected by him, especially in the lines of his study. His life is a lesson of untiring diligence in the midst of great suffering. 1859. Feb. 14. Oregon was the thirty-third state to be received into the Union, It has 95,274 square miles, and 174,767 inhabitants in 1880. The motto of the state is, "Alis volat propriis." " She flies with her own wings." 1859. Feb. 27. Philip Barton Key, District Attorney for the District of Columbia, was shot on the street in Washington by Hon. Daniel E. Sickles, on the charge of alleged intimacy with the latter's wife. The matter became known to Mr. Sickles through the con- fession of Mrs. Sickles. Great excite- ment was caused over the country by this terrible tragedy, and when the trial of, Mr. Sickles came on, little else was talked about anywhere. The jury re- turned a verdict of " Not guilty," and Mr. Sickles has since been prominent in the Civil War, where he 1786 . 1859 , obtained the rank of major- t>e%uinc< y . general, and has served as minister to Spain. The husband and wife were reunited, but Mrs. Sickles failed in health, and died before many years. 1859. March 18. Miramon besieged Vera Cruz in the attempt to overthrow Juarez and the constitutional party. But the effort was unsuccessful. The men now in charge of the republican forces were men of great wisdom and executive ability. 1859. March 29. An earthquake destroyed a large part of Quito, S. A. During this year Guayaquil was destroyed by fire. 1859. April 4. The Juarez govern- ment in Mexico was recognized by Mr. McLane, the United States commissioner, who negotiated a treaty therewith. It was now gaining in power every day. 1859. May 6. Rich gold deposits were found in the Pike's Peak region, and inaugurated the Pike's Peak fever. Settlers and miners poured in from all directions. 1859. May 11. The slave trade was discussed by a Southern convention held at Vicksburg, and was the subject of resolutions favorable to its re-opening. 1859. May 16. A great fire raged at Key West, destroying no dwellings, and $2,750,000 worth of property. 1859. July 1. An aerial trip from St. Louis to New York, a distance of 1,200 miles, was made by Wise, the bal- loonist. 1859. July 5. A new constitution, 576 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. prohibiting slavery, was framed in Kan- sas by a convention of delegates who as- sembled at Wyandotte. 1859. July 9. Vancouver's Island was taken possession of by Gen. Harney, in behalf of the United States. 1859. July 12. The confiscation of 1859. Franco- church property was de- A*tna*ar. ^ , Juarez, who-was Treaty of peace J " signed July ii. leader of the republic in Mexico. The church brought all its forces to bear in defeating the movement for the constitution of 1857. RUFUS CHOATE. 1859. July 13. This eminent Amer- ican lawyer and advocate died at Halifax, Nova Scotia, at the age of fifty-nine years. He was born in what is now the town of Essex, Mass., Oct. i, 1799. His boyhood was spent in the freedom of his home, where he became known for great sensitiveness, and a keen sense of humor. His memory showed itself even in his early days as being very remarkable, for while apparently glancing over a book, he would be gaining an excellent idea of its contents, and would retain it. This made him a bright student. But he was also faithful in work when it was his to do about the place owned by his father. For a few months he studied at Hampton Academy, and then entered Dartmouth College, where he was graduated in 1819, after a course of great application, and of high honor. He served as tutor one year, then studied law, and finally began practice in Salem, Mass. Political honors soon came to him, but after a term in the state house of representatives, one in the state senate, and one in the United States 1859. July 25. nouse f representatives, he strike in London declined further election. by builders. ^ Qf ^ j. in 1841, when he was sent to the United States senate, he continued the practice of his profession, and rose to eminence in it. His powers as an advocate were very great. During his entire life he main- tained his study of the classics, and was at home in such lines of study, as well as in English literature. His reputation rests upon a few eloquent speeches and addresses. His accomplishments were undoubtedly rather of the popular and transient, than the solid and enduring kind. 1859. July. A civil war raged in Venezuela, and Gen. Monagas, dictator for eleven years, was overthrown. 1859. July. Extreme heat during this and the previous month, made Cali- fornia almost unendurable. HORACE MANX. 1859. Aug. 2. This eminent Ameri- can educator died at Yellow Springs, Ohio, at the age of sixty-three years. He was born at Franklin, Mass., May 4, 1796, and grew up in the midst of cir- cumstances which developed and aided the finer characteristics which he pos- sessed. As a boy he was pure, and free from the vices of boyhood. His nature was religious from the start, and religious things took a deep hold upon him. At twelve yeai's of age he met isos-isso. with some decided experi- Tocqueviiie. ence which gave tone and color to all his after life. His peculiar views, partaking of those of the so-called liberal sects, first took shape at that time. Yet he was a true boy, full of fun, and fond of recreation. At last he was fitted for college, and entered Brown University, Providence, R. I., and graduated in the class of 1819. Close application to study 184.5-1859.] THE INCREASE OF SECTIONALISM. 577 during these periods nearly ruined his physical system. His life was a long struggle against the threatening results. After serving as tutor for a while, he studied law, and began practice in Ded- ham, Mass. But political life opened before him in 1827 in an election to the legislature of his state, and here he first began to show the full characteristics of his manhood. From this time on his activity in reform and education was constant. He would never lay down the work. For eleven years from 1837, ne was secretary of the state board of edu- cation. Many features of school life were subjected to his thorough super- vision. In the interests of this work he visited Europe to study school systems. His zeal was unflagging. For the eleven years he labored for the schools fifteen hours a day, winter and summer, with never a day's vacation. In 1848 he suc- ceeded John Quincy Adams in congress. Here he labored for freedom, and was returned till 1852, when he was nomi- nated for governor of Massachusetts by the free-soil party, but was defeated. An election as president of Antioch College, in Ohio, was given him at the same time, and he accepted it. Here unremitting labors began to wear upon him, but he knew no cessation in his effort to try the experiment of co-education, as he thought successfully. In his death hour he had the students and others called to him, that he might give them his last burning ad- vice. Then he died, or rather was con- sumed by his own arduous labors. He acted throughout all his life under the power of the words with which he closed a baccalaureate address to his students this very summer: "Be ashamed to die till you have won some victory for hu- manity." 37 1859. Aug. 14. A revolution occurred in Costa Rica, and President Mora was overthrown. 1859. Aug. 16. Flora Temple trotted two miles in harness in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 4 m. 50^ sec. 1859. Sept. 21. A duel was fought in California, between David C. Broderick. U. S. senator, and Hon. D. S. Terry, a California judge. The former was killed. The opposition of Mr. Broderick to sla- very, and remarks which he had made upon the subject, were the cause of the challenge from Mr. Terry. The latter fled from San Francisco, but returned in due time, and in 1880 was put upon the list of electors for Hancock and English in the presidential campaign. Strange to say he was the only democratic elector in that state who was defeated, and it is said that he owes his defeat largely to the remembrance of that duel. 1859. Sept. 29. A great auroral display took place, and was accompanied by an extensive magnetic disturbance through the United States. ^ Sp!><***< J minister of Sar- course he only presented dMa. himself at examination. He afterward studied divinity at Cambridge, all this time making his study of languages very extensive. His first settlement occurred at West Roxbury, in 1837, over a Uni- tarian church. His mind was very active, and his views began to be very indi- vidual. His life was now growing in intensity every minute. He was an omnivorous reader, without being a pro- found scholar. He could get the sub- stance of a page of print as rapidly as many readers can get the substance of a line. An alienation grew up between him and his Unitarian brethren, and Mr. Parker raised up a congregation of his own in Boston, when a society was or- ganized under him. Mr. Parker's great claim on the remembrance of men is be- cause of his stalwart service in advocat- ing the rights of humanity. He was closely connected with the life of Boston in its stormy period of agitation over the slavery question, and was a leader in in- fluence. In theology his views grew in the line of anti-supernaturalism, and in- curred the hostility of large numbers. His influence in this respect is not lasting. His health gradually failed, and he began 586 NATIONAL CRISES. to preach with difficulty. He sailed abroad, but without permanent relief, and at last died in the prime of life. 1860. May 16. The Republican nominating convention was held at Chicago in a great building erected for the purpose, and known as the " Wig- mi. Garibaldi wam -" Abraham Lincoln proclaims Mm- of Illinois, was nominated self dictator of c i i TT sicify. After. for president, and Hanni- ward enters bal Hamlin of Maine, for Naples, and then % \ left victor Em. vice-president. A protec- anuei to retain tive tariff, internal improve- the power. ments at national expense, the " Homestead Bill," and a Pacific railroad, were commended in the plat- form. 1860. May 19. The " Constitutional Union party" held its nominating con- vention at Baltimore. John Bell of Tennessee, was nominated for president, and Edward Everett of Massachusetts, for vice-president. This was the old " American " party. Its platform was " The Constitution of the country, the Union of the States, and the enforce- ment of the laws." I860. May 29. The first expedi- tion of Charles Francis Hall sailed from New London, Conn., consisting of one whaling vessel, named George Henry, under the command of Capt. Buddington. The aim was to search for Sir John Franklin. Mr. Hall found no trace of the lost explorer, but studied the Esqui- maux very thoroughly; and when he returned to the United' States in two years, he brought with him an Esqui- maux man and wife, who were very much attached to him. 1860. June 1. The manumission of slaves was forbidden by a law of Maryland, to take effect on and after this date. 1860. June 3. A great tornado swept across portions of Iowa and Illi- nois, damaging a large amount of prop- erty, and almost sweeping whole settle- ments out of existence. 1860. June 18. The Democratic convention met in Baltimore, and after an unsuccessful attempt on the part of the seceders at Charleston to re-enter the body, an attempt which con- iseo. Reformers sumed several days, Stephen " nd '.? itat ' s ' condemned by a A. Douglas of Illinois, was Papal bull. nominated for president, and Herschel V. Johnson of Georgia, for vice-president. The platform of this party threw the responsibility for the extension of slavery upon the territories, and upon the U. S. supreme court. 1860. June 28. The delegates from the slave-labor States, when they found they could not regain their lost foothold in the democratic convention, met at Baltimore and nominated John C. Breck- inridge of Kentucky, for president, and Joseph Lane of Oregon, for vice- president. " GREAT EASTERN" AT NEW YORK. 1860. June 28. At last the vessel which, during its construction, launching, and first ocean trials, occasioned more talk and wide-spread interest than any other vessel ever afloat, arrived in New York harbor from its trip across the Atlantic. As soon as she nearccl the city, people by thousands began to crowd all available space on vessels, wharves, and housetops. Befoi-e she passed the bar Mr. Murphy took command of her as pilot, and brought her safely across that dangerous point. The monster sailed up the harbor, and after having 1860-1862] THE RESORT TO ARMS. 587 gone up North River to Forty-fifth Street, turne'd, and came to her wharf. Here she lay for some weeks, occasionally making excursions to Cape May or else- where, in order to exhibit her working. The Great Eastern is 680 feet long, and is of 18,915 tons burden. J. Vine Hall was in command of her. In her ocean voyage she made from twelve to four- teen knots an hour. Four thousand passengers can be made comfortable within her. The greatest service of this great steamer was in laying the Atlantic cable in after years. 1860. July 1. Charles Goodyear, whose service in discovering the method of vulcanizing India rubber, has made him famous, died, aged fifty-nine years. The patents which he took out in different countries were very costly to him in the end, and he failed to acquire any prop- erty as a reward for his labor. Others have profited by his invention more than he did. He, however, received grand medals at London in 1851, and at Paris in 1855. Napoleon III. bestowed upon him the cross of the Legion of Honor. 1860. July 9. Dr. Isaac I. Hayes, who had been with Dr. Kane, sailed from Boston on an Arctic exploring trip in the schooner United States, of 133 tons, with fourteen persons accompanying him. He pushed north through Smith Sound, and by great exertions with sledges he reached land in lat. 81 37' N., from which they saw open water beyond. This trip stands very high in Arctic expeditions, and honors were con- ferred on Dr. Hayes by foreign societies. 1860. July 20. A great meteor was seen in many portions of the northern United States. PRINCE OF WALES IN AMERICA 1860. July 24. The Prince of Wales landed at St. John's for an American tour. He spent several weeks in Canada, and was everywhere received with great enthusiasm. In the United States he was met at Chicago, St. Louis, New York, Boston, and other cities, with vast crowds of people. He spent a time in the West, in hunting, at which he showed himself an adept. At Washing- ton he was met very warmly by Presi- dent Buchanan, and visited the different departments of government. An excur- sion was made to Mount Vernon, where the royal visitor stood silently before the tomb of Washington. During his stay in New York, the First Phoenix or Fenian regiment, the 69th National Guard, refused to parade. At Boston he held a pleasant interview with Ralph Farnham, the last survivor of the battle of Bunker Hill. The Prince sailed from Portland, Me., in the month of October, for England. 1860. Sept. 8. The Lady Elgin, a lake steamer, collided with a sailing- ' O vessel named Augusta, and sunk in Lake Michigan, with a loss of 297 persons, many of them being from Milwaukee. Only about one-fourth of her passengers were saved. I860. Oct. 12. A magnificent ball was given in New York at the Academy of Music, in honor of the Prince of Wales. Between three and four thou- sand persons were present, and the oc- casion was one of the finest ever seen in America. A similar ball was given in his honor, in Boston, with equal display and success. 588 NATIONAL CRISES NINETEENTH PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 1860. Nov. 6. This campaign ended in the election thlc day of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin. the re- publican candidates. The canvass had been very exciting, because of the num- ber of candidates, and the increasing bitterness over the question of slavery. Lincoln and Hamlin had an electoral vote of 1 80, comprising all the northern states except New Jersey, which cast three for Lincoln and four for Douglas, and a popular vote of 1,866,352. Breck- inridge and Lane had 72 electoral, and 845,763 popular votes. Bell and Everett had 39 electoral, and 589,581 popular votes. Douglas and Johnson had 12 electoral, and 1,375,157 popular votes. No one had a majority of the popular vote. The cry that a sectional president had been elected, at once spread through the southern states, and threats of seces- sion were uttered by leading southern men. REVOLUTIONARY MESSAGE. 1860. Dec. 3. The message of Pres- ident Buchanan to congress dealt largely with the slavery question, and declared that all the troubles which now culmi- nated in the antagonism of the North and the South were caused by anti-slavery agitators at the North ; that all which the South wanted was to manage its own institutions, in its own way. He declared against the right of voluntary withdrawal from the Union, but affirmed the right of revolutionary resistance, and forcible secession. He proposed cei'tain legislation to guard and perpetuate the rights of slave-holders. This message was like a firebrand in the midst of tinder. John P. Hale of New Hamp- shire, condensed the message into three propositions : First, " South Carolina has just cause for seceding from the Union ; second, She has no right to secede ; third, We have no right to prevent her from seceding." SOUTH CAROLINA SECEDES. 1860. Dec. 20. An ordinance of secession was passed by a state conven- tion of South Carolina,. which had been called after the election of Lincoln. The ordinance was in the form of a repeal of the act of May 23, 1788, ratifying the Constitution. South Carolina senators and other federal officers at once resigned. Some of the United States property in the state was immediately occupied and held. 1860. Dec. 21. The excited con- dition of the country, especially as de- tailed in the President's message, was referred as a subject of consideration to a House committee of thirty-three, and a Senate committee of thirteen. 1860. Dec. 26. Major Robert Ander- son, who was stationed at Fort Moultrie with a force of 1 1 1 Federal soldiers, re- moved his command because of the 'in- security of that fortification, to Fort Sumter, a much stronger position. He did it in the secrecy of night, and when the morning dawned he exhibited the stars and stripes to the wondering eyes of the inhabitants of Charleston. This step caused great rejoicing at the North, and great vexation at the South. 1860. The eighth census of the United States gave a population of 31,443,321 inhabitants. It was taken at a cost of $1,922,272.42. The rate of increase since 1850 had been 35.11 per cent. 1860. A second light-house was 1860-1862 ] THE RESORT TO ARMS. 591 completed on Minot's Ledge, off Boston harbor. It was built of stone, with great difficulty, but with great solidity. Several years had been occupied in the work. 1860. Ladies for the first time made the ascent of Pike's Peak, Colorado. There were two in company with several gentlemen, and they successfully accom- plished the task, although at great risk. One of the ladies was a Mrs. W. J. Williams, formerly Miss Addie Smith, of Milford, N. H. She was killed 1879, May 30, by the tornado which swept over Kansas. I860. The Spencer Repeating Rifle was patented by a young Boston me- chanic. A magazine exists in the butt of the gun, which contains seven car- tridges, capable of being discharged in twelve seconds. 1860. A mile register to be attached to the heel of a boot or shoe, to record the distance walked, was patented by B. S. Herring, of Portsmouth, "Va. 1860. The Parrott gun was first brought to notice by Mr. Parrott, who operated the foundry at Cold Spring on the Hudson. The first ones were small, but larger ones were afterward intro- duced. One of them which hurled a ball five miles into the city of Charleston, S. C., has been widely known as the " Swamp Angel." This gun has the breech strengthened by a band of iron. 1860. A revolution broke out in Colombia against President Ospina. It was supported by liberals under Gen. Mosquera, and proved to be the most important crisis in the history of that province. War continued through this year. I860. A treaty between Nicaragua and the United States made San Juan a free port under the sovereignty of Nica- ragua. 1860. An invasion of Ecuador was made by Castilla, president of Peru, who endeavored to put one of his own sub- ordinates, named Franco, into power in that country, but the latter soon fled from Ecuador. FIRST ACT OF WAR 1861. Jan. 9. The Star of the West, which had been secretly loaded with supplies and soldiers for Fort Sumter, was fired upon by a battery on Morris Island, two miles below Fort Sumter, on her way up Charleston harbor, and was prevented from reaching her desti- nation, which had already become known beforehand to the authorities of South Carolina. 1861. Jan. 9. Mississippi passed an ordinance of secession. 1861. Jan. 11. Florida passed an ordinance of secession. 1861. Jan. 11. Alabama passed an ordinance of secession. VICTORY OF JUAREZ. 1861. Jan. 11. After a campaign in which Miramon had been defeated in different engagements, Chief-Justice Juarez entered the City of Mexico in great triumph. This man J8M> February. of eminent wisdom began Victor Emanuei , , r r i declared Kinff of to realize the success of his Italv by It % ia J n endeavor to establish the parliament. constitution, and inaugurate popular re- forms. In March he was ejected presi- dent by a popular vote, against Tejada. His highest wisdom was given to the condition of the country. His first re- forms were the suppression of ecclesiasti- cal orders, and the confiscation of church property. 592 NATIONAL CRISES. 1861. Jan. 19. Georgia passed an ordinance of secession. 1861. Jan. 22. Thirty-eight cases of arms were seized in New York as they were being put on board a vessel for Savanah, Ga. They were afterward given up, as it could not be proved that the persons to whom they were being shipped, were disloyal. Five northern vessels seized in Georgia, in re- taliation, were also released. But it was now found that many arms had gone South this way. 1861. Jan. 26. Louisiana passed an ordi- nance of seces- sion. 1861. Jan. 28. John B. Floyd, secretary of war, was in- dicted by the grand jury of Washington for defrauding the U. S. govern- ment, in aiding the South to pro- cure arms. He fled to Virginia. JEFFERSON DAVIS. Howell Cobb, secretary of the treasury, had also injured U. S. government by his sympathies ^vith the secession movement. 1861. Jan. 29. Kansas was the thirty -fourth state to be received into the Union. It has 78,841 square miles, and 364,399 inhabitants in 1870. Its motto is " Ad astra per aspera." To the stars through difficulties." 1861. Feb. 1. Texas passed an or- dinance of secession. 1861. Feb. 4. A Peace Congress met in Washington at the invitation of Virginia, and had representatives from thirteen northern states, and seven border states. Resolutions intended to be con- ciliatory toward the South were passed, but congress would not adopt the recom- mendations. A constitutional amend ment, however, was passed instead, at the suggestion of Douglas, by which congress could never leg- islate upon sla- very in the states. This amend- ment was never ratified, how- ever. During these months congress was a scene of leave-taking on the part of mem- bers from South- ern States, who bade farewell as they went to their homes. CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. 1861. Feb. 4. A convention was held at Montgomery, Ala., composed of forty-two delegates from six states. After several days' consideration a provisional government was erected under the above title, with Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, as president, and Alexandej* H. Stephens 1860-1862.] THE RESORT TO ARMS of Georgia, as vice-president. Prelimi- nary steps were taken toward the estab- lishment of government departments. The constitution of the Confederacy re- sembled the U. S. constitution, save that it was arranged to expressly favor slavery, and discountenance tariffs. The provi- sional government was afterward made permanent. 1861. Feb. 18. Gen. Twiggs sur- rendered the entire United States prop- erty and munitions in Texas to the au- thorities of the state, because, as he said, " he wished to avoid even the possibility of a collision between federal and state troops." The surrendered property con- sisted of all supplies, and was valued at $1,209,500. In other parts of the South the state authorities had occupied federal property wherever possible. They thus gained great supplies, amounting in all to many millions of dollars. LINCOLN'S INAUGURATION. 1861. March 4. In spite of the fears of many, and the threats of some, Abra- ham Lincoln was inaugurated president of the United States, and Hannibal Hamlin, vice-president. Mr. Lincoln had left his home at Springfield, 111., on Feb. 1 1 , and had spent several days in accept- ing ovations at different cities along his route. His friends in Illinois had fore- boded ill for him. While passing through Pennsylvania he was advised to omit stopping at Baltimore, because of certain indications of mob violence there. Tak- ing a train in the night, with the knowl- edge of none save a very few confidential friends, he passed immediately on to Washington, where he arrived Feb. 23. There were fears of violence even now, but none occurred, and a peaceful inau- 88 593 guration took place. A small number of troops were in the city as a guard. The new president's message was wise and pacific. 1861. March. Stars and Bars. The Confederate States adopted a flag com- posed of three horizontal bars, the two outer ones being red, and the middle one white, with a blue union, upon which were nine stars in a circle. 1861. March. A disastrous earth- quake visited the Argentine Republic, destroying 12,600 persons. FORT SUMTER EVACUATED. 1861. AprU 14. The presence of Maj. Anderson in Fort Sumter had been a constant annoyance to the South. A demand for its surrender was made on the nth by Gen. G. T. Beauregard, in command of the southern forces, but was refused. On the I2th a fire wa?, opened upon it from batteries lying about it in different directions. The first gun was fired by an old man named Edmund Ruffin. The force in the fort was small, and the fittings of it were insufficient. The bombardment began to reduce it in security very much. But still the brave leader held out till the next day. Several thousand shot and shell were thrown into the fort, which was at times on fire. The magazine was endangered, and in- juries were inflicted by the explosion of an exposed service magazine. At last terms of evacuation were agreed upon, and the defenders prepared to leave. They marched out with their arms and saluted their flag, just before it was taken down to be carried with them, with a discharge of fifty guns. The shores and city were crowded with spectators during this bombardment. A United States 594 NATIONAL CRISES. fleet was then on its way by sea for the relief of Sumter. This event gave full vent to war. 1861. April 15. A proclamation calling for 75,000 troops from the militia of the several states, was issued by Presi- dent Lincoln, " to suppress combinations, and cause the laws to be duly executed." Men and money soon began to be offered very freely. Mass meetings were at once held through all the North. Sev- eral border states refused to furnish men under this call. 1861. April 17. A blockade procla- mation was issued by President Lincoln, declaring the southern ports to be in a state of blockade. 1861. April 17. Virginia passed an ordinance of secession in her state con- vention, by a vote of 88 to 55. United States property was at once seized, and men called forth. BLOODSHED IN BALTIMORE. 1861. April 19. A great crisis came. From many of the northern states troops were ready to start for the front. Sev- eral companies from Pennsylvania were the first to reach Washington. On their passage through Baltimore on the i8th, a mob threatened them somewhat, but made no serious attack, though they came near to it several times. But on the next day, when the 6th Massachusetts Regiment arrived on its way to Wash- ington, a mob of thousands was waiting for them, and during the transfer from one depot to the other, a severe fight oc- curred, in which three soldiers were killed, one was mortally wounded, and others injured. The troops abstained from returning fire as long as possible, but at last were forced to defend them- selves. Nine Baltimoreans were killed. Some Pennsylvania troops without arms did not get across the city, and were forced to return to Philadelphia. The other troops passed on, and were received at Washington with great delight through fear that the confederate forces were preparing to advance on the city. The troops were posted in the Capitol, which was prepared for defense. 1861. April 21. Gosport Navy Yard, at Norfolk, Va., with most of the shipping, was destroyed as far as it could be by Capt. McCauley, who withdrew the Union forces at the time, because of an intended seizure by Virginia forces. Much of the property, however, remained uninjured. The place was occupied and became very important to the South. 1861. April 26. The Maryland legislature at a special session refused to pass an ordinance of secession, but passed resolutions which were intended to put the state into a neutral position. 1861. May 3. Additional troops to the number of 42,000, were called for by the U. S. government for a period of three years. At the same time an in- crease of the regular army and navy was provided for. 1861. May 6. A convention of Ten- nessee passed an ordinance of secession to be submitted to the people in June, which was done. There was a majority in favor of secession, although East Ten- nessee cast a majority against it. 1861. May 6. Arkansas passed an ordinance of secession without waiting to submit it to the people, as had been at first agreed. 1861. May 13. Loyalty of West Virginia. A mass convention was held 1S61. May 13, Qieen Victoria proclaimed neu- trality in Ameri- can affairs. 1860-1862.] at Wheeling, Virginia, by the inhabi- tants of the western counties of the state. The secession of Virginia was strongly condemned, and another conven- tion provided for, which met June 1 1. It was agreed to erect a new state, and on June 20 state officers were elected, Francis H. Pierpont being chosen governor. Mr. Pierpont borrowed $12,000 on his own credit, with which to raise troops for the defense of the new state of Kanawha. 1861. May 14. George B. McClel- lan, who previously had command of the Ohio troops, was appointed major- general of the Ohio River volunteers, including those from West Virginia. He was ordered to drive out the opposing forces from West Virginia, and then ad- vance on Harper's Ferry. 1861. May 16. Benjamin F. Butler was appointed major- general of the department of East Virginia, and was ordered to Fortress Monroe, to take charge of the forces gathering there. He had been commanding the route through Maryland by way of Annapolis, had re- stored the railroad and protected it, and by a bold stroke had, two days before this appointment, occupied Baltimore, to the surprise of all parties. The Unionists of Baltimore hereafter held the sway. 1861. May 20. SewelPs Point Con- flict. The Potomac flotilla, consisting of four armed propellers, including the flag- ship Thomas Freeborn, was organized by Capt. J. H. Ward, a navy veteran of forty years' service. He was put in com- mand and sent to Hampton Roads to report to Commodore Stringham. On the route he was fh'ed upon by a rebel battery at Sewell's Point at the mouth of the Elizabeth. The attack was aided by THE RESORT TO ARMS. 595 2,000 Virginia troops, but the battery was silenced, and the men compelled to flee. 1861. May 21. North Carolina passed an ordinance of secession. 1861. May 23. The first rebel flag taken in the war was obtained by William McSpedon of New York, and Samuel Smith of Long Island, who had seen it flying at Alexandria, from their position at Washington across the Potomac. 1861. May 23. Joseph E. Johnston was appointed by Jefferson Davis to the command of the Confederate troops at Harper's Ferry, the key to the Shenan- doah Valley. 1861. May 24. Occupation of Ar- lington Heights, Va. The first great movement of Union troops in the war took place in the passage of about 13,000 men across from Washington to the soil of the Old Dominion at Alexandria. They moved in three columns, the first under General McDowell, crossing at Georgetown. As the men passed over the high aqueduct bridge, the moon struck full upon this array of arms, and a most beautiful spectacle was presented to the crowds of spectators who were eagerly watching the affair. The confederates were already advancing toward Wash- ington, but the pickets on the Virginia side gave way to a part of the forces which were pushed on toward Manassas Junction. The remaining troops were sent down the river to aid the second division which was crossing Long Bridge under Gen. Mansfield, in seizing and forti- fying Arlington Heights. The third division was sent down the river on two schooners under Col. E. E. Ellsworth, who advanced and took possession of the place after exchanging a shot with the Virginia skirmishers, who immediately 596 NATIONAL CRISES. fled. A large amount of rolling stock on the Alexandria and Orange Railroad was seized, and thirty-five cavalrymen were taken prisoners. Alexandria was now in sole possession of the national forces. The whole movement was made just in time, as the confederate troops would probably have seized Arlington Heights within a few hours. Col. Ellsworth seeing a con- federate flag still flying after the occupa- tion, from the roof of the Marshall House, entered the building, and hauled down the flag. As he was coming down the stairs on his return, he was shot dead by the landlord, named Jackson. In an instant Jackson fell dead by a shot from one of Ellsworth's companions, named Frank E. Brownell. Ellsworth's death thrilled the North, and a purse of money was made up by Virginians for Jackson's family. This event seemed to prophesy a long and bloody contest. 1861. May 24. "Contraband of War." Three negroes escaped from work on the fortifications of the confederate troops, and made their way over to the Union lines at Fortress Monroe. Gen. Butler, before whom they were brought, said, " These men are contraband of war; set them at work." This phrase was at once adopted as solving the question of receiving ne- groes into Union lines. 1861. May 25. General Sanford, in command at Arlington Heights, issued a proclamation to the confused inhabitants, stating that those who attended to their customary work should not be disturbed. He made Lee's fine residence his head- quartei's, and informed the owner that ereat care would be taken of his home. O 1861. May 27. Newport-Newce. Gen. Butler sent a detachment from Fortress Monroe, under Col. Phelps, to erect a battery on the promontory at Newport-Newce, which guarded the James River channel. The steamer Harriet Lane was there to protect them. 1861. May 27. General McDowell was appointed to succeed Gen. Sanford, and also to command all the forces in Virginia. 1861. May 28. Mount Vernon. It was ordered that the greatest care should be given to Washington's tomb, and the Mount Vernon Estate. This order was strictly observed through the war, by both South and North. 1861. May 29. Captain Ward, after reducing the battery placed at Sewell's Point to sweep Hampton Roads, reported to Stringham, and then moved up toward Washington, capturing two schooners on the way, with fifty rebel soldiers. 1861. May 31- June 1. At Acquia Creek the southern forces were attacked by Capt. Ward with the Potomac flotilla. Robert E. Lee had been placed in com- mand of all the confederate troops in Virginia. Hidden batteries had been erected at Acquia Creek, fifty-five miles below Washington, to guard the Potomac, and prohibit navigation; but they were discovered and silenced by Ward with the gunboats Anacosta, Freeborn and Reso- lute, till his long-range ammunition was exhausted, and then he withdrew. The next day he returned accompanied by the Pawnee, which was struck by nine balls in a hot contest of several hours. Not much damage was done on either side. Whenever Ward stopped firing, the bat- tery began again. 1861. June 1. Battle of Fairfax Court House. Seventy - five cavalry- men, under Lieutenant Tompkins, were ordered from Arlington Heights to re- connoiter the position of the enemy at Faii'fax Court House. A severe skir- 18GO-1862.] THE RESORT TO ARMS. 597 mish ensued. Tompkins lost six men one killed, five wounded and missing, and twelve horses. He captured five armed prisoners and two horses, and killed about twenty of the enemy, among whom was Capt. John Q. Marr, who was " the first soldier of the South to baptize the soil of the Old Dominion with patriotic blood." 1861. June 3. The confederate privateer Savannah, after having seized one or two defenceless prizes, attacked the Perry, off Charleston harbor, mis- taking her for a merchant vessel. But she was captured by the Perry. The Savannah was the first vessel bearing a confederate flag that was captured in the war. 1861. June 3. Battle of Philippi. On the evening of May 26th, Col. Kelley crossed the Ohio to Wheeling, with eleven hundred men, and moved toward Grafton. Col. Porterfield commanding fifteen hundred confederates here, re- treated to Philippi. Kelley arrived at Grafton on the 3oth, and forming a junction with some fresh forces, started in pursuit. The forces were arranged in two columns one under Dumont to move almost directly south to Philippi, a distance of twelve miles; and the other, under Kelley, to take a circuitous route toward the east. On the afternoon of June 2d they started, aiming to reach Philippi at the same time, and make the attack at four o'clock in the morning. A heavy rain rendered the night dark, and the march burdensome. Dumont arrived first and planted his cannon to command the bridge over the Tygart's Valley River. Fearing that Porterfield would escape, Col. Landers, representing Gen. McClellan, ordered the artillery to open on him. Dumont's infantry marched double quick down to the bridge where Porterfield had concen- trated his troops. They " drove in the pickets, dashed across the bridge, and carried a fatal panic into the ranks of their opponents."- Kelley had been mis- led by his guide, and having heard the booming of Landers' cannon, arrived just in time to flank the fugitives on the opposite side of the town. Three hun- dred and eighty stands of arms, a - regi- mental flag, some valuable papers, and a . large amount of baggage, were captured. The only injury to the Union troops was an almost fatal wound of the brave Col. Kelley, who recovered, and lived to fill the rank of brigadier, to which he had been appointed several days before. STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. 1861. June 3. Stephen Arnold Douglas, a prominent American states- man, died at Chicago, 111., aged forty -eight years. He was born at Brandon,Vt., April 23, 1813, and was left fatherless when two months old. He was obliged to work during his boyhood until his health failed. An academical education was obtained, and he began the study of law at Canan- daigua, N. Y. In 1833 he went west; after teaching and study he was admitted to the bar. That his success was re- markable can be measured from the fact that within a year from his admission he was elected attorney-general by the state legislature of Illinois. He continued in the service of the state and in private practice, for a series of years. In 1837 he was defeated for congress by five votes. In February, 1840, at the age of twenty- seven, he was made one of the supreme judges of Illinois. Several terms of ser- vice in congress gave him a prominence 598 NATIONAL CRISES. in many important measures. He de- fended the compromise measures of 1 850, both in congress and at home among his constituents. At a later day, however, he steadily opposed the pro-slavery Le- compton constitution of Kansas, because he saw it did not represent the will of the majority of the people of that state. Mr. Douglas had at this time a debate with Mr. Lincoln on the stump in Illi- nois, which has stood at the head of all such efforts in our country. In all his public life he aimed to promote the interests of his constituents. In 1860 the northern section of the democratic party gave him 1,300,000 popular votes for president. His last influence was thrown fully on the side of the Union. He said there was no other way for a patriotic man to act. Mr. Douglas was com- monly spoken of as " the little giant." 1861. June 5. Engagement at Pig Point. The Harriet Lane, Capt. John Faunce, was sent by Butler to ascertain the strength of Pig Point, a confederate battery nearly opposite Newport-Newce. The shallow water would not allow her to approach nearer than eighteen hun- dred yards. Many of the thirty shots that were fired in forty minutes, fell short, while she got the desired informa- tion at her own expense, being struck twice by the long range guns of the battery. Five of her men were wounded. Gen. Butler desired to seize the Weldon railroad from Suffolk to Norfolk and Petersburg, which was the great connec- tion between Virginia and the Carolinas. 1861. June 10. Battle of Little Bethel. Brigadier-General Pierce was ordered on Sunday, the 9th, to take two regiments from Camp Hamilton, near Fortress Monroe, and i&i. juneio. i i , 1.1 Napoleon III. march at night toward the proclaimed neu- Bethels, where he would be traiity. joined by a detachment from Newport- Newce. Butler ordered both detach- ments to arrive in time to make the attack at dawn on the loth. It was arranged for the column which might possibly make the attack first, to shout " Boston !" and they would be answered by the second column with the same. All the men were to have white ragfs o tied on their left arms. Colonels Town- send and Bendix advanced simultaneously with their respective forces toward Little Bethel. The meeting was in a thick wood, while it was yet dark. The watchword and badges had not been given to Bendix. Thinking Townsend's men to be the confederates, as the latter had worn white badges at times, he ordered his men to fire. Townsend re- turned the fire, supposing it was the enemy in ambush, and then retreated a short distance, when the mistake was discovered. Two of his men were killed, and several wounded. The fifty rebels that were posted there became alarmed, and fled to Big Bethel, five miles distant. 1861. June 10. Battle of Big Bethel. Gen. Pierce sent back to Fort- ress Monroe for reinforcements. The confederates were commanded by Cols. Hill and Magruder, and were reported to be four thousand in number, with twenty heavy cannon. Gen. Pierce pushed forward with his weary troops. He drew up his line of battle within a mile of the confederate entrenchments, at half-past nine o'clock. The enemy opened the contest with a fire from their battery, but it fell so wide of the mark that the Union troops returned a loud cheer, and advanced to the attack. The 1860-1862.] THE RESORT TO ARMS. 599 confederates were steadily driven back, when Townsend, on their left, made a fatal blunder, and retired a short distance. Greble, who had charge of the national artillery, had exhausted his ammunition, and thus the attacking army was weak- ened and forced to retreat. At this junc- ture the reinforcements from Fortress Monroe arrived, increasing Pierce's army to twenty-five hundred, while the enemy had only eighteen hundred. The fresh troops were ordered to the front to cover the retreat, which was conducted in good order. The rebel cavalry pursued for six miles, and then their whole army withdrew to Yorktown. Sixteen of the Union army were killed, among whom was the brave and beloved Lieutenant Greble, thirty-four wounded, and five missing. The enemy's loss was slight. Censure unjustly rested on Pierce, who proved a stable and efficient commander through the entire war, after rising again from a private soldier. Gen. Butler's brilliant career was also darkened. 1861. June 11. Skirmish at Rom- ney Bridge. The wrath of the northern people at the Big Bethel defeat, was somewhat appeased the next day by a victory at Romney Bridge. It was gained by the bold dash of Colonel Lew Wallace, and his eager and well-disci- plined regiment of Indiana Zouaves, who had a special grudge against Jefferson Davis, their old colonel in the Mexican war. The colonel slipped out from Grafton on the night of the loth, and by an unfrequented mountain route, came down on the rebels unexpectedly, com- pelling them to flee and abandon their batteries at Romney, twenty-three miles from Cumberland. All the inhabitants, except the negroes, fled with the troops. The effect was satisfactory, as the con- federate general, Johnston, thought that this movement was only a prelude to something greater, and abandoned Har- per's Ferry within three days. 1861. June 18. Battle of Boon- ville, Mo. While these stirring events were going on in Virginia an active part was being played by the confederates in Missouri. Gov. Jackson, by a misrepre- sentation of his purpose, called out fifty thousand state militia for aid to the con- federates, and placed Ex-Governor Price in command. National troops under Gen. Harney were ordered there. He was soon succeeded by Gen. Lyon, who ascertained that a confederate force was encamped at Boonville. He proceeded thence and put them to flight, taking two cannon, twenty prisoners, several horses, and a lot of military stpres. Jack- son, who had the command, continued the flight for fifty miles. 1861. June 27. The Baltimore secessionists tried to take possession of the city, in conjunction with the police force, and thus wrest Maryland from the Union. But the troops were mustered out under Ex-Governor Banks of Massa- chusetts, and the attempt was prevented. 1861. June 27. Engagement at Matthias Point. Having heard that the confederates had planted a strong bat- tery at Matthias Point, Capt. Ward pro- ceeded to that place from Acquia Creek, with his Potomac flotilla. He landed part of his forces, after reducing the place with his guns, and driving off the skir- mishers. While throwing up a strong redoubt he espied a large reinforcement coming over a hill. He then withdrew to the ships, and was preparing to leave, when, while sighting a cannon, he was mortally wounded by a shot from the shore. His forces sustained no damage. 600 NATIONAL CRISES. 1861. June 30. The privateer Sumter ran the blockade at New Or- leans, and very soon made havoc among U. S. merchantmen in the West Indies. She finally entered the port of Gibraltar where she was at once guarded by the U. S. gunboat Tuscarora, and afterward by the Kearsage. She was finally aban- doned by her crew, who entered the Ala- bama at Liverpool. 1861. July 2. Battle of Falling Waters. About the first of June Gen. Patterson took command of the Union forces at Chambersburg, with a view to making Hai-per's Ferry his headquarters, and driving away the confederates from Maryland Heights. Johnston, the con- federate commander, as has been seen, evacuated Harper's Ferry, and retired to Maryland Heights. But General-in-chief Scott called on Patterson for troops to defend the Capital, and his army was 1805-1861. reduced to ten thousand Mrs. Browning. raw troops, against greatly superior numbers of the enemy. After much delay and uneasiness Patterson fol- lowed up Johnston, who was on his way to Winchester. At Falling Waters the advance guard of the national troops, under Colonel J. J. Abercrombie, fell in with that of Johnston. Jackson had the direct leadership of Johnston's ad- vance guards, and opened fire with the artillery and infantry. The confederate cannon were soon silenced, and Jackson fled to Hainesville, five miles distant. The victors pursued, but when Johnston increased Jackson's already large detach- ment, the pursuit ceased. Reinforce- ments were then sent to Patterson, and he entered Martinsburg, where he re- mained several days. 1861. July 5. Battle of Carthage. A Union force of fifteen hundred was raised in Northern Missouri, and Colo.iel Sigel put in command. On the 2^d of June he moved southward to Springfield and thence to Sarcoxie, where he learned that Price was encamped with nine hun- dred confederates at Pool's Prairie. But Price moved on further south, and Sigel turned to engage Gov. Jackson's army, nine miles north of Carthage. He pushed on, and found Jackson's army of about five thousand with plenty of cavalry, but deficient in artillery, drawn up on a small knoll. Sigel advanced, broke his strong front by the artillery, and a gallant charge of infantry ; but he was compelled to retreat by the over- whelming opposing force, with a loss of thirteen killed, thirty - one wounded, ninety prisoners, four cannon, nine horses, and a baggage wagon. The con- federate loss was about thirty-five killed, one hundred and twenty-five wounded, forty-five prisoners, eighty horses, and a number of shot-guns, with which the soldiers were armed. Sigel continued his retreat to Springfield, where he joined Gen. Lyon. 1861. July 11. The U. S. Senate expelled ten of its members, and two days later the House expelled John B. Clark, of Missouri. 1861. July 11. Battle of Rich Mountain, Va. The confederates still kept up a kind of partisan warfare in Virginia, which was doomed to become the seat of war. They sent out troops in all directions from their large camp at Manassas Junction, intent upon getting possession of the Potomac and Washing- ton city; protecting Richmond from threatened invasion; and driving Mc- Clellan from West Virginia, and Patter- son from the Shenandoah. McClellan's force at Grafton, his headquarters, was 1860-1862.] twenty thousand. A detachment was sent out under General J. D. Cox, to check the Rebel general, Wise, in the Kanawha Valley ; and another under General Hill, to keep reinforcements from joining Johnston at Winchester. After a third detachment under Gen. Morris had been sent to Beverly, via Philippi, McClellan had but ten thousand men left. With these he advanced to Clarksburg, and then to Beverly. Morris was to reconnoiter and to meet the enemy in front, while McClellan should attack them in the rear. Garnett, the confeder- ate commander, was strongly entrenched, both naturally and artificially. There was also a detachment of fifteen hundred tinder Col. John Pegram, which was strongly fortified at Rich Mountain Gap, on a very important highway, four miles in Garnett's rear. McClellan ordered Col. W. S. Rosecrans to reduce Pegram's position. Rosecrans started from Bev- erly early in the morning of the nth. Just as he was coming up in Pegram's rear he was greeted by a terrible volley from a hidden source, the attack having been found out and prepared for, by Pegram's scouts. At two o'clock in the afternoon Rosecrans sent out a small force to the attack. A severe fight en- sued, and the confederates came bound- ing from their entrenchments upon the besiegei's, when three Indiana regiments arose from concealment in the grass, and as promptly drove them back at the point of the bayonet. The Union loss was eighteen killed, and forty wounded ; while the enemy lost about one hundred and forty killed, and many wounded and prisoners, about four hundred in all, in- cluding several officers. Rosecrans was then made brigadier-general. 1881. July 12. Battle of Carrick's THE RESORT TO ARMS. 601 Ford. McClellan pushed up in Pe- gram's front in the evening of the nth, purposing to attack him in the morning. He thereby relieved Rosecrans, who was in a most perilous position in the rear. But Pegram stole away during the night toward Beverly. This exposed Garnett's rear. His position thus weak- ened, Garnett left his heavy baggage and artillery, and fled toward St. George. McClellan increased Morris' force, and ordered a hot pursuit. The enemy were overtaken at Carrick's Ford, where they made a stand, but were defeated with a loss of thirty killed, among whom was Gen. Garnett, and a large number wounded and prisoners, besides a large amount of provisions. The Union loss was two killed, and ten wounded. This ended the war in West Virginia. 1861. July 14. Pegram's Surrender. After Garnett fled from Beverly, Pe- gram found that he could not escape, and on Sunday morning he surrendered his nine hundred weary, half-starved troops, to Gen. McClellan. 1861. July 17. Battle of Vienna. Gen. McDowell ordered a regiment from Alexandria to be stationed as pickets and guards along the railroad to Vienna, fifteen miles from the former place. On the i yth the regiment left on a train, and was scattered along the route. On entering the deep cut at Vienna, three hundred men that were left on the train were fired upon by masked cannon, just planted by the confederates, who had torn up the road. The troops left the train, and rallying in a wood near by, stood their ground. This alarmed the enemy, who fled, sustaining a considerable loss after a hot skirmish. Of the Union troops, five were killed, six wounded, and thirteen missing. 602 NATIONAL CRISES. 1861. July 19. Major- General Pat- terson was honorably discharged from the army of the Shenandoah, axid Gen. Banks put in command. 1861. July 21. Battle of Bull Run. " On to Richmond ! " became the cry of the people after the army had had a number of engagements in Virginia, and 1810-1861. several thousand troops had Count Cavmir. been sent to Washington. McDowell was at Alexandria, and John- ston's army was in the Shenandoah, guarded by Patterson's army. The main body of the confederates was at Manassas Junction, but they had forces stationed at Centreville and Fairfax Court House. The federal army ad- vanced in three divisions and encamped at Centreville, after the confederates had deserted it, on Saturday night, June 2oth. McDowell's army was about forty thou- sand, most of whom had enlisted for only three months, and their time had nearly expired, hence the cry " On to Rich- mond !" which became too strong for him. He was so positive that Gen. G. T. Beauregard's army at Manassas was much less than his own, that he did not ascertain its real strength. But Johnston avoided Patterson in the Shenandoah, and reinforced and took command of the army at Manassas, which was then about forty-five thousand. On Sunday morn- ing the federals moved to the attack, just as the confederates were preparing for the same act. The two armies came together at the Bull Run, four miles north of Manassas, and a most desperate conflict followed. The armies swayed like fields of grain before the wind, and the confederates were slowly driven back. But Jackson stopped and made a firm stand on a plateau in the rear, with Stanard's battery. It was here in a baptism of fire that he received his cele- brated sobriquet " Stonewall Jackson.'* It originated in the remark : There stands Jackson like a stone wall." The battle raged till noon, when Johnston ordered more troops, under Kirby Smith, from Manassas, They were delayed, but arrived just as the federals were gaining the victory. They poured in a cross fire, and the federals were swept from the field in utter route. Many of them did not stop till over the Long Bridge at Washington. The federals in action were about thirteen thousand ; the confederates about twice the number, they having received reinforcements all day. The federal loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was about thirty-five hundred. The confederate loss was about twenty-five hundred. This battle satisfied the cry of the Northerners, and assured them that the war would be long and bloody, and not " end in ninety days," as predicted. They were to fight a people as brave as themselves, and men afterward en- listed for " three years, or the war." Congress voted $500,000,000, and five hundred thousand men. 1861. July 22. A state convention met in Jefferson City, Mo., and declared all the prominent state offices vacant, as the occupants thereof were no longer promoters of the will of the people. A new election for governor, legislators, etc., was called. 1861. July 22. Gen. McDowell was. superseded by Gen. McClellan, as com- mander of the Potomac army, after the Bull Run disaster. Rosecrans succeeded McClellan as commander of the troops, in West Virginia. Gen. Lee took Gar- nett's place, and the commissions of Wise and Floyd were filled by competent men. 1860-1862.] THE RESORT TO ARMS. 603 1861. July 28. Capture of the Petrel. The Petrel, a federal vessel which had surrendered to the confeder- ates in December of the previous year, was captured in a very strategic manner by the St. Lawrence, off Charleston harbor. The Petrel had avoided the blockade squadron at the harbor, and sailed out for prizes. She espied the St. Lawrence lying behind an island, and gave chase. The latter vessel assumed the appearance of a merchant vessel, and took to flight ; but when the Petrel came within proper distance of her, she turned and hurled three shots, which struck and sunk the pursuer. Part of the crew survived, and were imprisoned at Philadelphia. 1861. July 29. Evacuation of the Kanawha Valley. Gen. Cox succeeded in forcing Wise from the Kanawha Val- ley. He retreated to Lewisburg. Here he was out-ranked by Brigadier-general J. B. Floyd. 1861. July 31. Invasion of Illinois Checked. Early in the summer John C. Fremont was appointed over the Army of the West. At the time of his appointment (May I4th) he was in Europe. He brought over twenty thou- sand stand of arms for his department, but they were appropriated for the Army of the Potomac. He then proceeded to St. Louis, and obtained by force enough money to arm the volunteers who were crowding into that place. A confeder- ate force of twelve thousand under Gen. Pillow, a major-general of the Army of West Tennessee, was preparing to cap- ture Cairo, and overrun Southern Illinois. Fremont mustered thirty-eight hundred men, and started down the river on eight steamers to reinforce Cairo. A rumor exaggerating the proportions of Fre- mont's army reached Pillow, and he retreated. Fremont arrived in safety, and strengthened the twelve hundred already there; and thus Cairo was saved. 1861. July 31. The Grand Army of the Potomac was fully organized, equipped, and disciplined by the last of July, and numbered one hundred and fifty-two thousand. Arms had been pur- chased in Europe, and this great army was now ready to avenge the Bull Run defeat. By March following, it was in- creased to two hundred and twenty thou- sand, but about thirty thousand were sick or absent. 1861. Aug. 2. The Cherokee In- dians, in a mass meeting, gave in their allegiance to the confederate cause, in spite of the appeals of John Ross, their head chief. The Choctaws and Chicka- saws had already done so, and were rais- ing men. 1861. Aug. 2. Battle of Dug Springs, Mo. Gen. Lyon, with about five thou- sand (nearly his entire army), moved out from Springfield to check the con- federates, who were advancing on that place. He halted in the valley of Dug Springs, nineteen miles southwest of Springfield. The line of battle was drawn up, and before long the foe ap- peared. A charge was made by the federal cavalry, under Stanley, which dashed the confederate infantry into fragments. The confederate cavalry ap- peared from the woods, but the federal artillery was brought to play upon them, and they were dispersed almost instantly. Everything was without hope now on the confederate side, and they fled with a loss of forty killed, and as many wounded. The federal loss was eio-ht o killed, and thirty wounded. After giving chase, Lyon returned to Springfield. 604 NATIONAL CRISES. ARMY RATIONS. 1861. Aug. 3. At the foundation of the United States Government under the Constitution, the army ration was one pound of beef, or three-quarters of a pound of pork ; one pound bread or flour, half a gill of rum, brandy, whiskey, or the value thereof, and at the rate of one quart salt, two quarts vinegar, two pounds soap, and one pound candles, to every one hundred rations. This was changed from time to time, by increasing the amounts; one great change being in 1802, to one gill of liquor instead of one half gill as before. In 1832 the liquor was displaced, and four pounds coffee with eight pounds sugar to every one hundred rations, substituted. This in- creased at a later day. At this date the ration was made to consist of one pound and a half of bread or flour, or one pound hard bread; fresh beef as often as may be possible, in place of salt beef; beans, rice,, hominy, twice a week; one pound of potatoes three times a week; tea to be substituted for coffee if desired, and other food provided for, to some extent. This ration was afterward found too large, and was diminished. The army was well fed through the war. 1861. Aug. 3. A proclamation was issued by the provisional governor of Missouri, which quieted the turbulence then existing, and restored comparative peace. Armed bands of secessionists carried on a partisan warfare in Northern Missouri; and groups of Union soldiers were trying to put them down when the proclamation was issued. 1861. Aug. 7. Burning of Hamp- ton. Gen. Butler at Fortress Monroe, was drawn upon for troops for the de- fense of the capital, and to furnish them he reduced the forces at Newport-Newce. and Hampton. Magruder took advan- tage of this to reduce Hampton, and moved with five thousand men from Yorktown on the 6th for that purpose. But the news reached Gen. Butler, and he sent out a force for its defense. The force was beaten, and driven back. Magruder then ordered the city to be fired. The next morning the town was in ashes, and the confederates had re- turned to Yorktown. This, with other things, blackened the cloud cast upon Gen. Butler at the Bethels, and he was formally deposed, and replaced by Gen. John E. Wool. 1861. Aug. 10. Battle of Wilson's Creek, Mo. The confederates collected at Wilson's Creek, southwest of Spring- field, for the purpose of advancing on the latter place, after their defeat at Dug Springs. With mutual consent Gen. McCulloch succeeded Gen. Price in the chief command of the army, which con- sisted of about twenty-three thousand. McCulloch ordered all the men who were fit for action to prepare for a march on Springfield at midnight of the 9th. The pickets were taken in, and prepara- tions made, but a rain storm prevented the march. General Lyon, with only five thousand at the same time, after much hesitation, had ordered a march on the enemy, in order to save Missouri to the Union. On the 9th the Union army marched away in two columns, under Generals Lyon and Sigel. On the morn- ing of the loth they appeared at Wilson's Creek. Sigel gained the rear, and Lyon attacked the enemy in front, after driving in the skirmishers. The fierce contest then began. First one side and then the other, was driven in confusion, but rallied 1860-1862.] again. The onset of the confederates was irresistible, but the federal artillery mowed them down like grass. By a feint the confederates destroyed Sigel's batteries, and almost routed his whole force. Finally both armies came to a solid stand within a few feet of each other. In a hardly-fought, nearly hand to hand struggle, the confederates were compelled to retire under a melting fire from the federals. But they held the field at a cost of three thousand men. The greatly reduced national troops then withdrew, and returned to Springfield. Their loss was between twelve and thir- teen hundred, among whom was the noble and gallant Gen. Lyon. 1861. Aug. 28-29. Blockade of Hatteras Inlet. English blockade run- ners were supplying the confederates with provisions, at Hatteras Inlet. After Butler had been relieved of his command at Fortress Monroe, he apprised the na- tional authorities of this, and offered his services to command an expedition. He was given charge of some forces and the squadron of ten vessels under Commo- dore Stringham. They arrived, and be- gan a siege which lasted two days, when the forts of Hatteras and Clark surren- dered, with 715 prisoners, 25 cannon, and 1,000 stands of arms. In the following September an attempt by the confeder- ates to regain the Inlet, was foiled. The national garrison was thus strengthened and made secure. 1861. Aug. 31. An anticipated Emancipation in Missouri. Fremont issued a proclamation declaring martial law in Missouri, and also declaring the confiscation of property and the freedom of slaves belonging to all citizens who joined the secessionists. While the mar- tial law put down civil strife, the other THE RESORT TO ARMS. 605 parts created great consternation among the citizens of the state. 1861. Sept. 4. Seizure of Columbus and Hickman. On the pretext of " an expectation that the national troops were about to invade the state " of Kentucky, Gen. Polk advanced with a confederate force, and seized and forti- fied Columbus and Hickman. Simon Buckner, a confederate brigadier-general, proceeded with two or three regiments to seize X