^l:.i'^.'fU\\-ii]i'':.:-i r. ■iuy]i-i:,"X{ :\_j - ■:,^J'''' ij!*:';'; ir!;%' ■• ^; 'j!c;i]!i;i:'-'';''.j;-i-;;:i;-'\.^':;:'^'' : ,:'■■ ^ui;im)na»u;!ui;oi;^;wi;vii)oOn<,(iij!iOffi»';';»»i;"i^w»^;i;tW;i^ivtii;.,',w;,'iV!,!jt;<;i.::ii.i '^^oxmm'^ "^(JAavaaii-i^ . \yt UNlVfRS/A. ^lOSANCElfJ^, o %a]AlN(l-3WV* r— 'III i-nr—f — AV^EUNIVERVa ^((/ojnvDjo'*^ %ojnvDjo^ "^/sajAiNii-attV ^lUBRARYQr vAtllBRARYGr, .^«EUNIVER% 5 %0JnV3JO'*^ ^OJITVDJO'f^ %513DNVS01=^ ^lOSANCElfjVx "^/iajAiNii-nw^ ^tllBRARYOr ^lllBRARYQc. ^.JOJIIVDJO'^ ^(!/0Jn\OJO'<~^' CO ^OFCA1IFO% ^0ABvaan-^v5^ ^OFCAllFORfc ^^WEUNIVER% ^lOSANCElfj^ ^. ^iJOJIlVJJO'^ ^TiigDNVSOl^ ^.OFCAIIFO/?^ ^^MEUNIVER!•/^ "^/sajAiNn-jwv** ^lOSANCflfr^ o ■-rjUDNVS01=^ "^/iajAINilWV^ A^^lllBRARYQc ^.!/03nVJ JO'^ -^tUBRARY^. d — \\\EUNIVER5/4 o ^lOSANCElfj>, ■^AajAINdJWV' ^tllBRARY^J^ . 3 .vJvtllBRARYQc. t-3 ^tfOJITVOJO'f^ ^OFCA1IFO% ^OF CA1IF0)?,)_ 5 ^NWEUNIVERi/^ vjclOSANCElfj,. . ., ^ . CO ''CAavaan-i^'* ^i^udnvsov^*" "^/xaaAiNiuvi^^ ^A^FCAllFORfc. ^ o A^IL1BRARV(?/- A«EUNIVfRr/A ■ ^OAHvaan-i^ ■^OAUvaani^'^ .^WEl)NIVER% <(?130NVS01^ ^^ME■UNIVER5•/4. ^lOSANCFlfT, CO %a3AiNn-3i\v^ v^VOSANCElfjv ■<(3l]DNVS01^ "^/iaJAINajftV' ^>MUBRARYGr ^^^ILIBRAR^ '^OJIIVDJO'^ '^TOJITVDJ ^OFCAllFOff^ ^^OFCAIIFO ^(?Aavaaii# '^&Aavaall•l"^'^ "^iPAavaan-^ vs ^^efttE-wetifi. XV^v (1/f^^ne Sfiis is ta (In^iliitliiit The Association r/^M'mii/m) //M///,/flon_t-r t>Aie mi w\ *' // n t-ra is /^ast approaching tuhen no writers if ill he read by the tnajor tty ^ save and except those tvho can effect X^^r Bales o/ manu- script u'hat the hydrostatii screiv per/orms /or bales o/ cotton — condense into a period ivhat be/ore occupied a pa^v." — COTTKR. DUGATOR - — ^- — ^^ OPEDm OF REFE^^ J^i5torieal, BiO(§rapt7ieal, Sei(?i)tifi(; ^ Stati5ti(;al. E . VI BRACING THE MOST APPROVED AND SIMPLE METHODS OF Self-Ii NSTRUCTION IN MLL 10EPARTMENTS OF lilSEFUL RNOWLEDGE R. S. PEALE, ABSisted bj- Eminent Specialists in each Department. Illustrated with Original Drawings, (colored QQaps v.^^ Diagrams. --*- CHICAGO: ^Txc llotuc gilivavij Association. m MDCCCLXXXVI. — tetjV e^ Copyright, 1883, -P ^^ * R, S, PEALE, * H Ttz3^ uS> ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. "Z2)i^szr x3 Copyright, 1884, by R. S. PeALE. Copyriglit, 1885, by R. S. Peale. Press of Cfjc ^ome S^ibrary ^Association, Ctjicago. kl / 7^1 ---^.r.-, :keb^^^k^i-^ JIIBBON has well said: "Every man has two educations: one which he receives from others, and one, more important, which he gives to himself." Sir Walter Scott emphasizes the sentiment when he says, using almost the same words: "The best part of every man's education is that which he gives to himself." The mind has been endowed with no more laudable or profitable ambition than that of self-improvem.ent. The educated man, in every walk of life, carries with him his own capital — a capital unaffected by monetary crises; an investment whose interest is not regu- lated by the success of speculation ; a treasure which none can dispute and of which none can deprive him. It is his greatest source of pleasure and profit, and it is the best legacy he can leave to his children. In preparing the present volume, it has been the endeavor of the publishers to omit no branch of study that may be useful in the busy life of these busy times, and a perusal of the book will convince the reader that every subject has been treated concisely and thoroughly, presenting in an attractive shape all those points that go to make a finished education. Practical application to the affairs of life has been constantly kept in view, and throughout has been maintained a systematic arrangement making reference easy, and a degree of artistic typography pleasing to the eye, making the search for knowledge doubly pleasurable. To the youth who has not had the advantages of an early education is here offered a means of thorough self-instraction — a complete commercial college bound in a book. The business man who consults these pages will find every variety of forms used in business life, and will not seek in vain for such legal information as may be needed. The profes- sional man will have in this work a vaife mecum of useful and practical information, saving both the expense of purchasing and the time of consulting a vast number of volumes. It is customary to burden the initial pages of a new publication with apologies. The publishers of this book have none to make. They have invested a large amount of diligent, painstaking labor and research, and no small amount of capital, and recognize the fact that they must depend upon merit and excellence for success. kL 91S502 ^ re !>. ^ ■>) ^, Gl \ y^ a t TABLE OF CONTENTS ^ V. | f i^ f'<-^^'i3OKS INTO CAL CONDENSATION OF FIFTY-TWO BC ONE ELEGANT VOLUME. [ For an Alphabetical Iiule.v of Princ ipal Subjects, see page 819.] " I , Page. 9- Pach Educational Department 9 Practical and Ornamental Penmanship . . .116 1 The Points which go to Make a Finished Education — The * Origin of Language — Classification of the Tongues of the The Work of the Pen Described and Illustrat'-.d, from the Plain- Eanh. est Letter to the Most Elaborate Design — How to Learn and Huw to Teach Writing — Faults to be Guarded Against— i 2. Study and Practice — Copies for a Course of Twenty Lessons — The English Language »J Alphabets and Specimens for All Purposes — Examples of Blackboard Writing and Drawing, Engrossing, Flourished Its Origin, Growth, Development and Present Form — English Cards, Designs for Albums and Ornamental Lettering. Grammar — Formation and Derivation of Words — Spelling: Simple but Comprehensive Rules — Reformed Spelling — The lO. Use of Capital Letters — Punctuation — The Parts of Speech and their Proper U^e — Errors in Speech, etc. Short-Hand and Typewriting 14S | 3- How to Acquire and How to Practice these Arts — A History of Stenography, and a Practical Exposition of the Various Sys- Composition and Rhetoric 32 tems. How to Write the English Language Correctly — Accuracy in the* II. Arrangement of Words and Correct Expression in Written Language-^ The Qualities Constituting a Good Style — Figures A Self-Instructor in Short-Hand Writing ... 156 of Rhetoric — Prosody and Versification — Poetic License. A Complete Course, in Twelve Practical Lessons, based on the + • Elocution Benn Pitman System of Phonography, 40 12. Vocal Culture and Gesture — How to Read and Speak Correctly and Elegantly — The Three Forms of Speech — Conversation, Reading, Public Speaking — Dramatic Action. The Art of Book-Keeoinc ...... 168 1 The Systems of Single and Double Entry Compared Side by Side 5- — The Principles Set Forth Clearly and Concisely — How to Prevent Errors .and How to Detect Them — Comprehensive Business and Social Correspondence .... 48 Rules, of Value to the Practical Accountant as well as to the Student — Complete Forms lUustr.iting the Two Systems, Pre- Letter-Writing in nil its Forms — Style, Arrangement and Com- senting, besides the Ordinar>' Forms of Single and Double position of Letters — The Proper Use of Titles — Models for all Entry, a Complete Set Illusir-iting the Combination of Day- Kinds of Epistolary Correspondence. Book and Juurn.nl, as well as the Six-Column Journal (combin- 6. ing in One Book the Day-Book, Journal, Cash-Book and Sales- Book), and the Combined Statement (showing, on one Sheet, A Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms . 64 Trial Balance, Losses and Gains, Assets and Liabilities) — How Containing over Twenty Thousand Words of both Similar and to Change Single Entry Books into Double Entry. Contrar>' Significance — A Ready Vocabulary from which to Select Words that will Clearly and Forcibly Convey the In- 13- tended Meaning. 7- A Compendium of Biography 209 Embracing the Names and Records of Eminent Personages of All A Self-Instructor in the German Language S2 Ages, Arranged in Alphabetical Ordcrand Selected with Special The New System of Object-Teaching, the Simplest Method Reference to the Literature of America, Great Britain and Ger- Known — Exercises for Self-Instruction, and a Comprehensive many. Collection of Words and Phrases Designed to Facilitate Con- 14. versation in German. 8. A Panorama of History 252 A Graphic Account of Every Nation on the Globe — Profusely i French Without a Master A Simple System of Self-Instruction in the French Language. 00 Illustrated, and with Maps of the World and of all Countries of Historic Interest. 1 ^ a / \ Is *7 •^ »~ -• 6 V*" ' Historical Charts ,2i A Simple Contemporaneous Exposition of Universal History from the Flood to the Present Year, with Special Charts Illus- trating the Civil, Political and Military History of the United States — A Chronological Record of the Important Historical Events of Ancient and Modern Times, Presented in a Novel and Original Manner— Sixteen FuU-page Plates, printed in Four Colors. i6. A Dictionary of Dates -•■>y The World's Progress as Shown in an Alphabetical Record of Notable Events and Discoveries. Scientific Department ,40 A Brief and Simple Introduction to AU the Sciences. 18. Natural Philosophy 342 The Forces of Nature and the Laws which Govern Them — The Elements of Natural Science — Physics and Chemistry — Hy- drostatics and Hydraulics — Optics and Acoustics— Magnetism and Electricity. 19. Astronomy ,rc The Wonders of the Heavens as Revealed by the Telescope — A History of the Progress ofAstronomic.il Science— Our Solar System and the Universe of Stars — A Dictionary of Astronom- ical Definitions. 20. How to Read the Sky 3y6 Half-Hours with the Stars — A Plain and Easy Guide to the Knowledge of the Constellations — With Twelve Maps of the Heavens, True for Every Year. 21. Physical Geography 3^0 Our Globe, as it Was, and as it Is —Weather and Climate — .Ani- mal and Vegetable Life — Geology, Meteorology, Climatology, Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology. 22. Commercial Law and Forms 403 Notes, Bills, Orders, Receipts, etc.. Properly Drawn for Every State — Negotiable Paper, and the Various Forms of Endorse- ment — The Endorser's Responsibility — Necessary Legal Points — Swindling Notes — Points of Business Law— Laws of the United States and Canada Relating to Interest — Laws Relating to Limitation of Actions. 23« Boards of Trade and Stock Exchanges .... A Realistic View of Commercial Gambling — Futures — Option Trading— Margins — Corners and Their Pernicious Effects- The Bucket-shops— A Brief Dictionary of Terms Used on 'Change. 411 24-' Page. Peale's Telegraphic Code 416 A Complete Business Cipher for the Use of the Merchant, the Banker, and the Broker — A Simple Method of Detecting Errors in Telegraphic Dispatches. 25. Insurance 424 A Brief, but Complete, Explanation of all Kinds of Insurance — Life, Fire, Marine, and Transit. 26. Banks and Banking 426 How the Business is Carried on- — Discount — Officers and Em- ployes — How to Do Business with a Bank — Deposits — How to Draw and Endorse a Check — Banking Frauds — Drafts and Bills of Exchange — Letters of Credit — Bills of Lading as Se- curity — The Clearing-House — Our National Banking System — Stocks and Bonds — Common and Preferred Storic — How Stock is '* Watered " — Government Securities. 27. Taxes and Duties 434 Direct and Indirect Taxation — An Explanation of Our Tariff and Internal Revenue System — A Complete Schedule of the Rates of Import Duty, as fixed by Law. 28. A Lightning Calculator 439 Valuable Computations and Calculations for the Use of the Farmer, Mechanic and Business Man — Complete Tables of Simple and Compound Interest — Short Insurance Rates — Practical Cal- culations — A Calendar for the Century — The Legal Bushel — Standard and Foreign Weights and Measures — The Metric System. 29. Legal Business Department 451 How to Avoid Litigation — All Kinds of Legal Forms, and How They are Drawn and Executed — Agreements and Contracts — Agency and Attorney — Affidavits — Apprentices — Arbitration — Assignments — Bills of Sale — Bonds — Corporations — Deeds • — Abstract of Title — Guaranty — Landlord and Tenant — RighLs of Married Women — Real Estate and Chattel Mort- gages — Mechanics' Liens — Wills — Executors and Adminis- trators — Partnership, etc., etc. 30- Patents, Pensions, Etc 483 A Complete Synopsis of the Rules and Regulations Governing the United States Patent Office— The Pension Laws — The Legal Fence. 31- German Legal Business Department 490 The Chapters Pertaining to Law, and Legal and Business Forms, Translated into the German Language— The Only Synopsis of the Kind ever Published. 32. Special Laws of the States and Territories Assignments, Attachmtjnts, Chattel Mortgages, Divorce, Exemp- tions, Rights of Married Women, Deeds and Their Acknowl- edgment, Wills, and Mechanics' Liens — A Complete Synopsis of State and Territorial Laws, Compiled from the Latest Sources. 502 -«.. ?' TABLE OF CONTENTS. 3 3 • P*<==- Causes of Success and Failure 524 How lo Avoid Failure — Choosing an Occupation — Health — Self-Reliance - of Character. ■Attention to Detail — Perseverance — Decision 34. Study of Character in its Relation to Business Suc- cess Physiognomy and Phrenology — The Two Paths of Life ; Effects of Training and Modes of Life on the Human Countenance — Face-Reading — The Temperaments Illustrated — How to Read Character — A Synopsis of the Organs of the Brain, 53' 35' A Dictionary of Facts and Figures 544 Statistical Department — Population, Religion, Education, Re- sources, Productions and Industries of the World — Morethan a Hundred Thousand Facts Presented in an Alphabetical Ar- rangement of Topics, with Twenty-three Illustrative and Com- parative Diagrams, Twenty of Which are Printed in Colors — The Only Dictionar)*of the Kind in any Language. 36. Department of Public Business A Complete Digest of Parliamentary Law and Rules — How to Call, Organize and Conduct Meetings and Conventions — Com- mittees and Their Work — A Comprehensive Table of Points of 587 Order. 37. Memorials and Petitions 592 The Right of Petition — Forms for Remonstrances, Petitions and Memorials. 38. Lyceums and Debating Clubs Forms of Constitution and By-Laws — Questions for Debate. 594 39' The Steps in the Growth of American Liberty . . 596 The Magna CharU — The Mecklenburg Declaration — The Dec- laration of Independence. 4.0. The Constitution of the United States .... 599 Full Text of the Charter of American Liberty, with all the Amendments. The Departments at Washington 604 A Complete Analysis of our Government — The Executive De- partment — Department of State — The Diplomatic Service — The Treasury Department — The War Department and the American Army — The Militia — The Navy Department — Our Naval History — The Post-ofhcc Department and its Workings — The Department of the Interior — The General Land Office — Homestead and Preemption — Indian Affairs — The Bureaus of Education and Agriculture — The Attorney-General — The Supreme Court — The Duties and Powers of Congress. K- 4" 2* Pace. Physiology and Medicine 624 The Mechanism of the Human Body — The Digestive, Circula- tory, Respiratory and Excrctorj' Organs — The Muscular Sys- tem and the Bones — The Nervoas System — The Eye and the Ear — Various Ailments, and How lo Treat Them — How to Proceed in Emergencies— Hygienic Suggestions. 43' Architecture for Modern Times 679 The Latest Designs, with Plans, Specifications, and Estimates — Beautiful Homes, and How to Build Them — Choosinga Site — How the Money is Applied — Water Supply — Cellar and Ice- House — Outhouses and Bams — Valuable Suggestions. 44. The Laws of Etiquette 712 A Compendium of the Rules and Habits of Polite Society — The True Spirit of Good Manners — Refinement and Good Breeding — Etiquette for All Occasions, at Home and Abroad. +5- Familiar Poems, and Those Who Wrote Them . 741 A Collection of the Brightest Gems of English Poetry, Those Which we All Wish to Preserve in some Enduring Form, Illus- trated with Portraits of the Poets. 46. A Dictionary of Prose and Poetical Quotations 768 Arranged both Topically and Alphabetically. +7- Heroes and Heroines of Prose and Poetry 786 A Compendium of the Celebrated Characters in the Literature of the World. 48. A Dictionary of Noms de Plume 791 A Comprehensive List of Assumed Names in English and Ameri- can Literature. 49. A Dictionary of Mythology 796 The Heathen Deities, and Other Fabulous Persons of Greek and Roman History. 50- A Dictionary of Familiar Allusions 800 Words and Phrases, Persons, Places, Pictures, Buildings, Streets and Monuments Frequently Alluded to In Literature and in Conversation. 51- A Lexicon of Foreign Phrases 808 Sentences and Quotations from both living and Dead Languages. 52. A Dictionary of Abbreviations . Sij A Comprehensive Glossary of Logogripbs in Good English Us.-igc. -^il T r^" EDUCATIONAL DrPARTMENT. 1 V li I ,ii«i I n, Kit. ^'"«.ii,«i"""' Educational Department. m % m mM^m mmmmsmmm mM^M^M B^mSr^iM^ I 1 m The Points Which Co to Make a Finished Education. LANGUAGE is a collection of certain articulate sounds used as the signs of our ideas, or of certain written characters which represent those sounds. ^ Language owes its ori- gin to the imitation and modifica- tion, aided by signs and gestures, of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals and man's own instinctive cries. Language con- sists in the oral utterances of sounds which usage has made the representatives of ideas. When two or more persons customarily annex the same sounds to the same ideas the expression of these sounds by one person com- municates his ideas to another. This is the primary sense of language, the use of which is to communicate the thoughts of one person to another through the organ of hearing. Articu- late sounds are represented by letters, marks or characters, which form words. Language is sometimes denoted by other terms ; as speech, tongue, idiom, dialect. Language is generic, denoting any mode of conveying ideas ; as the language of the deaf and dumb. Speech is the language of articulate sounds and contemplates language as broken or cut into words of different kinds ; as the parts of speech, the gift of speech. Tongue is the Anglo-Saxon term for the lan- guage of a particular people ; as the English tongue. Idiom denotes the form of the construction peculiar to a language. Dialects are varieties of expression which spring up in different parts of a country, or in different professions, etc. Origin of Language. There are various ways by which men can communicate with one another. They can make gestures, utter cries, speak zvonis, draw pictures, write characters or letters. Articulate language is peculiar to man ; but he uses, in common with the lower animals, inarticulate cries to express his meaning, aided by gestures and the move- ments of the muscles of his face. This especially holds good with the more simple and vivid feel- ings which are but little connected with our higher intelligence. Our cries of pain, fear, sur- prise, anger, together with their appropriate ^ \ EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. actions, and the murmur of a mother to her be- loved child, are more expressive than any words. It is not the mere power of articulation that distinguishes man from other animals, for, as every one knows, parrots can talk ; but it is his large power of connecting definite sounds with definite ideas; and this obviously depends on the development of his mental faculties. Gesture Language. When for any reason people cannot talk to- gether by word of mouth, they take to convers- ing by gestures, in what is called dumb show or pantomime. Imagine a simple case. A boy opens a parlor door; his brother sitting there beckons to him to be quiet, for his father is asleep; the boy now intimates by signs that he has come for the key of the box, to which his brother an- swers by signs that it is in the pocket of his coat hanging in the hall, concluding with a signifi- cant gesture to be off and shut the door quietly after him. This is the gesture language. Ges- ture language has little power of expressing abstract ideas. The next step in the origin of language is to show the workings of another sort of signs, namely, the sounds of the human voice. Sounds of voice may be spoken to express our feelings and thoughts on much the same principle that gestures are made, except that tliey are heard instead of seen. One kind of sounds used by men as signs consists of emotional cries or tones. Men show pain by uttering groans as well as by distortion of the face ; joy is expressed by shouts as well as by jumping; when we laugh aloud, the voice and features go perfectly together. Such sounds are gestures made with the voice — sound-gestures. The next class of sounds used as expressive signs are imitative. As a deaf and dumb child expresses the idea of a cat by imitating the creature's act of washing its face, so a speaking child will indicate it by imitating its miaou. Natural Language. Now, joining gesture-actions and gesture- sounds, they will form together what may be called a Natural Language. This natural lan- guage really exists, and in wild regions really has some practical value, as when a European traveller makes shift to converse in it with a party of Australians around their camp-fire or with a Mongol family in their felt tent. What he has to do is to act his most expressive mimic gestures, with a running accompaniment of ex- clamations and imitative noises. Here there is found a natural means of intercourse, much fuller than mere pantomime of gestures only. It is a common language of all mankind, springing so directly from the human mind that it must have belonged to our race from the most remote ages and most primitive conditions in which man existed. Language is one branch of the great art of sign-making or sign-choosing, and its busi- ness is to hit upon some sound as a suitable sign or symbol for each thought. It is maintained by the best philologists that emotional and imita- tive sounds are the very source of all language, and that, although most words now show no trace of such origin, this is because they have quite lost it in the long change of pronunciation and meaning they have gone through, so that they have now become mere symbols. Besides the emotional and imitative ways, there were several other devices by which man chooses sounds to express thoughts. That there was always some kind of fitness or connection which led to each particular sound being taken to ex- press a particular thought is more than likely, and in this seems to lie the most reasonable opinion to be held as to the famous problem of the origin of language. So far as language can be traced to its actual source, that source does not lie in some lost gifts or powers of man, but in a state of mind still acting, and not above the level of children and savages. The origin of language was not an event which took place long ago, once for all, and then ceased entirely. / \ \ =7f EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. On the contrary, man still possesses, and uses when he wants it, the faculty of making new, original words by choosing fit and proper terms. But he now seldom puts this faculty to serious use, for this good reason, that whatever language he speaks has its stock of words ready to furnish an expression for almost every fresh thought that crosses his mind. Articulate Language. A sentence being made up of its connected sounds as a limb is made up of its joints, we call language artiailate, or jointed, to distinguish it from the inarticulate, or "unjointed," sounds uttered by the lower animals. Conversation by gestures and exclamations, as was shown above to be a natural language common to mankind, is half-way between the communications of animals and full human speech. Every people, even the smallest and most savage tribe, has an articulate language carried on by a whole system of sounds and meanings which serves the speaker as a sort of catalogue of the contents of the world he lives in, taking in every subject he thinks about, and enabling him to say what he thinks about it. As in the course of ages man's knowledge became wider and his civilization more complex, his language had to keep up with them. Comparatively few and plain ex- pressions had sufficed for his early rude con- dition, but now more and more terms had to be added for the new notions, implements, arts, offices and relations of more highly organized society. New words were made by adding and combining old ones, carrying on old words from the old state of things to do duty to the new, shifting their meanings and finding in any new thought some resemblance to an old one that would serve to give it a name. As terms in- crease in every nation and the vast field of language is filled up, words, by a thousand fan- ciful and Irregular methods of derivation and composition, deviate widely from the primitive character of their roots and lose old resem- blance in sound of the things signified. Words as we now use them, taken ijf general, may be considered as symbols, not imitations ; as arbi- trary or instituted, not natural, signs of ideas. Classification of Languages. The classification of the different languages of the earth into a few great families is due to the science of comparative philology and is of recent origin. Till the latter end of the last cen- tury the preference as to the antiquity of lan- guage was usually given to the Hebrew, but a striking improvement of linguistic study is dated from the discovery of the Sanskrit, the ancient language of the northern parts of Hin- dustan, in the latter part of the last century. A belief in an affinity between languages and a separation of them into certain great groups or families then arose. The languages of the world are divided into four great branches, viz., the Aryan, or Indo- European, the most important ; ne.xt the Sem- itic, the Turanian and the Dravidian. The Turanian family, called also the Tataric, or Altaic, includes the numerous and widely dif- ferent languages of the Manchoos, the Mongols, the Turks (in Asia and Europe), the Magyars (in Hungary), the Finns (in Russia), and a multi- tude of other tribes. The Dravidian includes the Tamil and the dialects in Ceylon and the islands off Asia, etc. The Semitic includes the Hebrew, Syriac, Arctic and Ethiopia, Basque (in the Pyrenees), etc. The Indo-European, to which extensive family the English language belongs, is divided into six principal branches. I. The Indian branch, represented by the Sanskrit, which has now ceased to be spoken, but is the mother of the Hindustani, Bengali, Mahratti and the other numerous dialects of modern India. II. The Medo-Persic branch, at the head of which is the Zend, in which the Zend-Avesta is composed and the cuneiform inscriptions of v_ ^ V EDUCATIONAL DEPARTiMENT. Cyrus, Darius and Xerxes. Next folic w the Fehlevi, of the Sarsanian dynasty ; the Parsee, in which the national poem of Ferdusi is written (A. D. looo), and lastly the modern Persian. III. The Celtic branch, divided into two dia- lects, the Gaelic and the Cymric ; the former comprising the Irish or Erse, the Scottish Gaelic or Highland-Scotch, and the Manx of the Isle of Wan ; and the latter Welsh, the Cornish (now extinct) and the Armorican of Britanny. IV. The Graco-Latin branch, comprising the two ancient classical languages, and the so- called Romanic languages, derived from the Latin, which are six in number, namely; the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Walla- chian, and the Roumanish or Romanese spoken in the Grisons in Switzerland. V. The Teutonic branch, which comprises all the different German and Scandinavian dialects. VI. The Slavonic branch, divided into three principal classes: i. The Lettic, comprising the Lithuanian, the Old Prussian (now extinct) and the Lettish, the language of Kurland and Livonia. 2. The Western Slavonic, comprising the Polish ; the Bohemian or Tchechian, spoken in Bohemia; the Slovakian, spoken by the Slov- aks in Hungary, and the Wendian, spoken m Lusatia. 3. The Eastern Slavonic, comprising the Old Slavonic, preserved in the translations of the Bible made by Cyrillus in the ninth cent- ur}', and its derivate dialect, the Bulgarian; the Russian, Servian, Croatian and Slovinian. The Teutonic branch of the Indo-European family of languages is divided into two great branches, the German and Scandinavian. The German is divisible into three principal dialects, the Mceso-Gothic, the Low German and the High German, the two latter being so called because the Low German is spoken by the inhabitants of the low or flat country near the shores of the Gorman Ocean, while the High German belongs to the higher country in the interior. I. Tlie Moeso-Gothic, the most easterly of all the German dialects, has long ceased to be spoken, but is preserved in the translation of the gospels by Ulfilas. 2. The Liow German comprised the follow- ing dialects: (i) Anglo-Saxon, which was culti- vated with great success in England, and in which the second most ancient specimens of the Germanic language are preserved. (2) The Old Saxon, so called to distinguish it from the An- glo-Sa.xon in England, formerly spoken in Westphalia. (3) The Frisian, now confined to a small district in Holland. (4) The Dutch, the present language of Holland. (5) The Flemish, spoken in many parts of Belgium. 3. The High German comprises the Old High German, from the seventh to the eleventh centurj'; the Middle High German, from the twelfth century to the Reformation, and the New High German, which since Luther's time has been the literary language of Germany. The Scandinavian branch, of which the most ancient language is the Old Norse, the lan- guage of Norway, is represented by the Icelandic, which was carried into Iceland by the Norse colonists in the ninth century and which con- tinues to be spoken on that island with little alteration. On the Continent the Old Norse is represented by the Swedish, Danish and Nor- wegian, of which the last has now become a mere patois. The following table exhibits the relationship of the different Teutonic languages : ' I. Maso-Goth'u. 2. Low German. (i.) Anglo-Sa.xon. English, (ii.) Old Saxon. (iii.J Parisian, (iv.) Dutdi. (v.) Flemish. 3. Hi^li German. Teutonic \ ('•) OUl High German. (ii.) Middle High Ciernian. (iii.) New High German. Old Scandinavian. (i.) Icelandic, (ii.) Ferroic. II. Scandinavian \ 2. Modern Scandinavian. (i.) Danish. iii.) Swedish, iii.) Norwegian. I. German / \ r THE ENGI.ISH LANGUAGE. -■rai:- English Language. '^'W^^'^ 'W'W'W Its Origin, Growth, Development and Present Form. HE English Language is the descendant and repre- sentative of the Anglo- Saxon. It has lost very- much of the inflection and very many of the words which belong to the parent lan- guage; and on the other hand, it has borrowed words largely, to the extent even of half its vocabulary, from other lan- guages, especially the French and the Latin. Yet all the in- flections that remain in it, and most of its formative endings, the pronouns and particles, and in general the words which are in most frequent and familiar use, have come to it from the Anglo-Saxon. All the constituents of the English Language as it now exists are presented in a condensed form as follows : 1st. SaxonandDanishwords, of Teutonic and Gothicorigin. 2nd. British or Welsh, Cornish and Armoric, of Celtic origin. 3rd. Nurman, a mixture of French and Gothic. 4th. Latin. 5th. The French, chiefly Latin corrupted. 6th. Greek. 7th. A few words directly from the Italian, Spanish, German, .-.nd other Continental languages of F.uropc. 8th. A few foreign words introduced by commerce or liy ]K»Iitical and literary intercourse. "Suppose," says Dr. Trench {English Past and Present), "the English language to be di- vided into a hundred parts; of these, to make a rough distribution, sixty would be Saxon, thirty would be Latin (including of course the Latin which has come to us through the French), five would be Greek ; we should then have assigned ninety-five parts, leaving the other five, perhaps too large a residue, to be divided among all the other languages from which we have adopted isolated words." The English Language from the time of its first formation has been subject to continual changes. Old words have been from time to time falling away, and new ones have been formed and brought into use. The oldest Sa.xon manuscript dates about A.D. 700, and the Lord's Prayer then ran thus: "Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, sic gehalgud thin noma, to cymeth thin ric, sic thin willa sue is in heofnas, and in eorlho," etc The Modern Period of English commenced with the middle of the sixteenth centurj', and its present form was then assumed. Though it is impossible to assign any exact date to the change of Anglo-Saxon into English, the chief alterations in the language may be arranged approximately under the following epochs : \ 14 / THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. I. Anglo-Saxon, from A.D.4Soto iijo. n. Semi-Saxon, from A.D. 1 150 to 1250, so called because it par- takes strongly of the characteristics of both Anglo-Saxon and Old English, m. Old English, from A.D. 125010 1350. r\\ Middle English, from A.D. 1350 to about 1550. \. Modern English, from A.D. 1550 to the present day. ANGLO-SAXON. A.D. 700. From the Anglo-Saxon Version of Matthew, Eighth Chapter. S6dlice tha se Hselend of tham irninte nydher astah, tha fylig- donhim mycle manio. Thagenealzehteanhredflatohimandhine to him ge-eadhmedde, and thus cwadh: Drihten, gyf thu \v7It' thu miht me gecliensian. Tha astrehte se Haelend hys hand and hrepode hyme and thus cwadh: Ic wylle, b^o geclcensod And hys hr^ofla was hradhce gectensod. Tha cwadh se Hajlend to him : Warna the thai thu hyt na;negum men ne secge ; ac gang, ate6w the tham sacerde, and bring hym tha lac the Moy- ses bebead, on hyra gecydhnesse. Translation.— \\\ oxin, wanting in the original are introduced in italics; explanations or kindred words are inserted in brackets.) Shortly when the Savior from the mountain came - do ivn, there fol- lowed him a great multitude [mickle, many]. Then came-near a leper to him, and him[self] to him humblqd and thus said [quoth] : Lord, if thou wilt, thou maycst me cleanse. Then strctched-outthe Savior his hand and touched him and thus said : I will, be cleansed. And his leprosy was quickly cleansed. Then said the Savior to him : Beware [warn thee] th.at thou it to no man say; but go, show thee to-the priest [Latin, s.acerdos] and bring them the gift that Moses bade, for their information. A.D. 700. From Beowulf. Tha com of mqre under mist-hleodum Grendel gongan, godes yrre bar. Mynte se manscadha manna cynnes sumne besyrwan in sele tham hean, wad under wolcnum to thas the he winreced goldsele gumend gearwost wisse f^ttum fahne : ne was that forma sidh tliat he Hrodhgares ham gesOhte. Translation. — Then came from the moor under mist-hills Grendel to -go, God's ire /i« bare. He meant, the wicked destroyer [scather], of men's kin some o«,?t()-ensnare in the high hall, raging under wel- kin, seeing that /Ac friend-mansion, Mf gold-hall of men, he most- rcadily knew, with jewels bedecked ; nor w:is that the first [foremost] time that Hrothgar's home he visited [sought]. A.D. 800. Frotn King Alfred's Translation of Boethius. On thare tide the Gotan of Scidhdhiu-ma;gdhewidh Romana- rice gcwin upahofon, and mid heora cyningum, Ra:dgota and Eallerica wxron hatne, Rflmana-bwih abra;con and call Italia- rice, that is betwu.x tham muntuin and Sicilia tham ealondc, in anwald gerehton ; and thi after tham foresprecenan cyningum ThcOdric feng t6 tham ilcan rice. 1 Translation.— In the time that the Goths from Scythia-couiitry against //;.■ Uoman-cmpire commenced war [war upheaved], and with their kings, k'/(o Rhadagast and Alaric were called [hight], Mf Roman- city sacked [broke] and all Italy-realm, that is hetwi.vt the mountains and Sicily the island, into their dominion reduced; and when after the aforesaid [fore-spoken] kings Theodoric obtained [took to] the same kingdom. A.D. 1100. From the Latter Part of the Sa.xon Chroniele. Thissum thus gedone, se cyngWillem cearde ongean tS Nor- mandige. Re6wlic thing he dyde and refiwlicor him gelanip. Hii refiwlicor? Him geyfelade, odh that him stranglice eglade. Hwat mag ic teollan ? Se scearpa deadh, the ne forU-et ne rice menn ne heane, se hine genam. He swealt on Normandige on thone nehstan dag after nativitas See Marie ; and man be- byrgede hine on Cathum at See Stephanes mynstre ; asrer he hit arserde, and sidhdhan manifaldlice gegodade. Translation. — This being thus done, the king "William returned again to Normandy. A rueful thing he did and a ruefuUer befel him. How ruefullcr? He [literally, to him] grew-ill, till that it strongly ailed him. What may I tell? The sharp deatli, that does not let-pass neither rich men nor poor, thus took him. He died in Normandy on the next day after the nativity of St. Mary; and men [man] buried him in Caen at St. Stephen's minster ; earlier he up-reared it and af- terward [sithenoe] manifoldly enriclied [conferred-goods-on] //. SEMI-SAXON. A. D. M50. From Layamon' s Brut. — Earlier Text. An preost wes on leoden, Layamon wes ihoten; he wes Leouenadhes sone ; lidhe hein beo drihten ; he wonede at Emleye, at oedhelen are chirechen, uppen Scuarne stathe. Translation. — There was a priest on earth [or in the land] who was named Layamon; he w.as son of Leovenath — may the Lord be gracious to him ! — he dwelt at Ernley at a noble church upon Severn's bank. A.D. I250. From Layamon' s Brut. — Later Text, A priest was in londe Laweman was [i] hote : he was Leucais sone; lef him beo drihte: he wonede at Ernleie wid than gode cnithe, uppen Scuarne. Translation.' — There was a priest in the land who was named Laya- mon ; he was .a son of Lcuca — may the Lord be gracious to him I — he dwelt at Ernley with the good knight upon the Severn. A.D. I250. From the Ormtilum. Nu, brotherr Wallterr, brotherrmin affterr the plxshess kinde ; annd brotherr min i Crisstenndom thurrh fulluhht annd thurrh trowwthe ; annd brotherr min i Godess hus, yet o the thride wise, thurrh thatt witt hafenn takenn ba an reyhellboc to follyhenn, unnderr kanunnkess had annd lif, swa summ Sannt Awwstin sette. Translation. — Now, brother Walter, brother mine after the flesh's kindred; and brother mine in Christendom through baptism and -Nj / THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15 through truth ; and brother mine in God's house, j'ct on the third wise, seeing [tlirough] that we-t\vo have taken botli one rule-book to follow, under a canonic's hood and life, so as St. Austin set, OLD ENGLISH. A.D. I300. From the CAroniclc of Robert of Gloucester, Thus com lo ! Engelond into Normannes honde, and the Normans ne couthe speke tho bote her owe speche, and s[)eke French as dude atom, and here chyldren dude al so so that heymen of thys lond, that of her blod come, [teche : holdeth all theilke speche that hii of hem nome. vor bote a man couthe French, me tolth of hym wel lute. Translation. — Thus came, lo ! England into t!ir Normans' hand, and the Normans knew not how to speak then but their own speech, and spoke French as ///*')■ did at home, and their children did all so teach, so that the high-men of this land, that of their blood came, hold all the -same [the ilk] speech that they of them took: for unless [but] a man should-know F'rench, men reckon [tell] of him very [well] little. MIDDLE ENGLISH. A.D. I350. From the Travels of Sir John Mandeville. After for to speke of Jerusalem the holy cytee, yee schuU un- derstonde thatitstont* full faire betwene hilles, and there be no ryveres ne welles, but water cometh by condyte from Ebron. And yee schulle understonde that Jerusalem of old tyme, unto the tyme of Melchisedech, was cleped f Jebus ; and after it was clept Salem, unto the tyme of Kyng David, that put these two names to gider, and cleped it Jerosolomye. And after that men cleped it Jerusalem, and so it is clept yit. A.D. I350. From the Vision of Pier's Ploughman. In a somer seson when softe was the sonne, I shoop me into shroudes J as I a sheep \ weere. in habit as a heremite unholy of werkes, wente wide in this world wondres to here. A.D. 1375. From the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. ■When that Aprille with his schowres swoote || the drought of Marche hath perced to the roote, and bathud evrry veyne in swich licour, of which vertue engendred in the flour. A.D. I380. From Wycliffe's Translation of the Bible. Forsothe when Jhesus hadde comen doun fro the hill, many cumpanyes folewiden hym. And loo! a leprouse man cum- mynge worshipide hym, sayinge : Lord yif thou wolt, thou maist make me clene. And Jhesus holdynge forthe the bond, touchide hym, saying: I wole, be thou maad clene. And * Slant, standeth. % Stioop me into s/iraiiih-s, put me t Cleped, cleft, called. into clothes. §.$■//(•<•/, shepherd. || .Swoo/f, sweet. . anoon the lepre of hym was clcnsid. And Jtiesus saith to hym : See, say thou to no man : but go shcwe thee to prestis, and oftre that yifte that Moyses comaundide, into witnessing to hem. A.D. I400. Frojn Puneys Recension of Wycliffe's Translation. But whanne Jhesus was come doun fro the hil, mych puple suede hym. And loo ! a leprouse man cam and worschipide hym and seide: Lord if thou wolt thou maist make me clene. And Jhesus helde forth the hoond and touchide hym and seide : Y wole: be thou maad cleene. .\nd anoon the lepre of hym was clensid. A.D. I450. From Caxton's Prologue to Malory's Morte iT Arthur. For it is notoyrly knowen thorugh the unyversal rt-orld that there been IX worthy and the best that ever were, that is to wete, thre paynyms, thre jewes, and thre crysten men. As for the paynyms, they were tofore the incarnacyon of Cryst, whithe were named, the fyrst Hector of Troye, of whome thystorye is comen bothe in balade and prose ; the second Alysaunder the grete; and the thyrd Julyus Cezar, emperour of Rome, of whome thystoryes ben wel kno and had. A.D. I500. From Tyndale's New Testament. When he was come dawne from the mountayne, moch pecple folowed him. And lo ! ther came a lepre and wcrsheped him, sayinge : Master if thou wylt thou canst make me clene. And Jesus put forthe hys bond and touched hym; saying: I wyll, be thou clene, and immediately his leprosie was clensed. .\nd Jesus sayde vnto him : Se thou tell no man, but go and shewe hy selfe to the preste and offer the gyfte that Moses com- maunded, in witness to them. MODERN ENGLISH. A.D. I550. From a Letter of the Duke of Northumberland. Ilon^e Lord, and in this distress my especiall refuge, most wofuU was the newes I receyved this cvenynge by M'' Lieutenant that I must prepare myselfe against tomorrowe to receyve my deadly stroke. Alas, my good lord, is my cryme so heynous as noe redemcion but my blood can washe awaye the spottes thereof? An old proverb ther is, and tliat most true, that a lyving dogge is better than a dead lyon. A.D. I650. From a Letter of Queen Henrietta Maria. This day I received yours of the 21, to which, being streight- ened in tyme, I shall answer in English that it may be soonest put into cypher. In the first place you conclude right, that noth- ing but the abundance of my love could make me take upon me the harsher part of pressing things which are inacceptible to you. -N V i6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "71 A.D. I750. From a Letter of John Wesley. Always take advice or reproof as a favour : it is the surest mark of love. I advised you once and you took it as an affront : nevertheless I will do it once more. Scream no more at the p;ril of your soul. God now warns you by me, whom He has set over you. A.D. I850. From a Letter of IVm. M. Thackeray. My dear Reed — Though I am rather slow in paying the tailor, I always pay him: andas with tailors so with men; I pay my debts to my friends, only at rather a long day. Thank you for writing to me so kindly, you have so much to do. I have only begun work ten days since, and now, in consequence, have little leisure. ENGLISH ;™fcS'~*V""<» English Grammar is the art of speaking, reading and writing the Enghsh language cor- rectly. It is dividea into four parts : OrthograiJhy, Etymologry, Syntax and Prosody. OrtllOgl'iipll Y. treats of letters, syllables, separate words and spelling. Etymology treats of the different p.arts of speech with their classes and modifications. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government and arrangement of words in sentences. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures and versi- fication. LETTERS. A Lietter is an alphabetic mark or character commonly rep- resenting some elementary sound of a word. An elementary sound of a word is a simple or pri- mary sound of the human voice used in speaking. The sound of a letter is commonly called its power : when any letter of a word is not sounded it is said to be silent or mute. The letters in the English language are twenty-six ; the sim- ple or primaiy sounds in the language are forty-one. The letters are : A a ; B b ; C c ; D d ; E e ; F f ; G g ; 11 h ; I i ; J j ; K k ; L 1 ; M m ; N n ; O o ; P p ; Q q ; R r; S s ; T t ; U u ; V v i W w ; X X ; Y y ; Z 2. The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels and consonants. %\w^\\\w\, at. The semi-VOAVelS are/, //, /, /, in, n, r, s, v, in, x, y, s, and e and ^^ soft ; but w or y at the end of a syllable is a vowel. The mutes are eight : i, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard ; three of these — k, q, and c hard — sound exactly alike. The four semi-vowels, /, m, n and r, are also called liquids, because they readily unite with other consonants, flowing, as it were, into their sounds. The following consonants are styled dentals, viz.: d,j, s, t, z, and g soft, being pronounced chiefly by the aid of the teeth. D, g,j, k, I, n and q are called palatals, from the use made of the palate in pronouncing them. -^> /> f ^ ^nd m are called labials, being pronounced chiefly by the lips. \ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 M, n and the digrapli ng are called nasals, being sounded through llie nose. A', q and c and ff hard are called gutturals, being sound- ed by the throat. Peculiarities in Sounds of Consonants. B preceded by m in the same syllable is generally silent ; as, lamb, limb, comb; but succumb is an exception. It is silent before / in the same syllable ; as in cicl'l, doubt, etc. The letter c is hard and sounds like k before a, and u; it is soft and sounds like ^ before (■, ;' and j'; except in sceptic, scir- r/ius, and their derivatives, in which it is hard, like /■. In the words indut, iiidutalle, indictment, czar and victuals, c is silent. Wliere c comes after the accent and is followed by ea, ia, io or eons, it lakes, like s ax t under the same circumstances, the sound of sh; as, ocean, social, tenacious, cetaceous. In the words discern, sacrifice and suffice, c has the sound of 2. The regular sound of the digraph Clt is the same as that of /(// or tsli; as in chair, child, rich. In words from the French it has the sound ol sh; as in chagrin, chaise. In words derived from the ancient languages eh is generally hard, like k; as, chemistry, choler, echo, chorus, stomach. Exceptions, cherub, charity, chart, charter. Ch is hard in all words where it is fol- lowed by / or r; as. Christian, chlorosis. When arch, signify- ing chief, begins a word from the Greek language, followed by a vowel, it is pronounced arh; as, archangel, architect; but when arch is prefixed to an English word it is pronounced so as to rhyme with march; as, archbishop, archduke. In drachm, schism an&yacht, ch is silent. D is silent in Wednesday and handkerchief. iif like c, has two sounds, one hard and the other soft. It is hard before a, and u. The only exception is gaol, which is commonly written as well as pronounced /a (7. G followed by n at the beginning of a word is silent ; as, gnarl, gnash, gnat. It is also silent when followed by n at the end of a word ; as, ar- raign, design, impugn. G before e, i and j' is sometimes hard and sometimes soft. It is generally soft before words derived from the Greek, Latin and French, and hard before words from the Saxon. till. At the beginning of a word the // is silent; as ghost, ghastly. At the end of words both letters are commonly silent ; as, sigh, nigh, weigh. In some words it has the sound of f; as, rough, laugh; and in some the sound of k; as, hough, lough. The combination of letters oilgll at the end of words has no less than seven different sounds, which are exhibited in the following lines : 'Tts not an easy task to show How O'U-g-li sounds ; since, though An Irish loHgti and Englisli stoitgli And cotiglt and liiccottgh, all allow, Differ as much as tough and tltrou^h. There seems no reason why they do. Gilt. In this termination the letters gh are always silent ; ■a.%, fight, right; except in draught, which is pronounced, and in some of its senses usually written, draft. The letter li is a note of aspiration, and it is silent at the be- ginning of a number of words ; as, heir, heiress, honor, htncsty. honorable, honor, hour, hostler, etc. In hospital, humble, humor, herb, e{c., according to some authorities, it is silent; according to others it is sounded. It is always silent after r; as, rheum, rhetoric, rhapsody. J has the same sound as soft^'. Ml has the same sound as e hard. It is always silent before «; as, hnee, kno'u. It is also silent after c; as, barrack, back. \a is silent in many words ; as, calf, half, talk, balm, calm, would, should, etc. M always preserves its sound except in aicompt, accomptant, comptroller, jjionounced and more commonly written account, accountant, controller. M is silent when it precedes n ; as, mnemonics. m is mute when it ends a syllable and is preceded by / or m ; as in kiln, hymn, limn, solemn, column. P is silent before n, s and/ at the beginning of words ; as, psalm, psalter, ptisan, pneumonia. Pll has generally the sound of/,- :i%, physic, philosophy. In nephew and in Stephen it has the sound of v ; and in diph- thong, triphthong, naphtha, the /; is silent. Q IS always followed by ii, and qu has commonly the sound o[ kw; na, i/ucen, quart; but in many words, mostly from the French, it has the sound of k; as coquette, etiquette, liquor, mosque. S final has the sound of s when it immediately follows any consonant except the mutes /■,/, /, the semi-vowel/ and /// aspi- rated, as in ribs, heads, hens; also when it forms an additional syllable with 3 before it, in the plural of nouns and the third person singular of verbs, as churches, boxes, teaches; likewise in some verbs ending in se to distinguish them from nouns anil adjectives of the same form, as abuse, use close, diffuse, as dis- tinguished from the nouns abuse, use, and ,the adjectives close and diffuse. S takes the sound of sh in words ei*ding in sion preceded by a consonant; as diversion, passion, mi-^iitn; also in censure, sure, sugar, fissure, etc. S has the sound of zh in the termination sion ])receded by a vowel; as evasion, decision, explosion; also in a number of words in wliicli s is preceded by an accenteii vowel and followed by the termination tire, as in measure, pleasure, treasure, leisure; also in several words ending in sier, as crosier, osier, hosier; also in ambrosia, ambrosial, elysium, elysian ; also m the words abscission, scission, and rescission. S is silent in the words aisle, isle, island, demesne, puisne, viscount, and generally at the end of French words adopted into English, as chamois, corps, vis-a-vis, etc. T, when it comes immediately after the accent and is followed by the vowels ia, ie or io, takes the sound In these cases of sh; as, partial, patient, nation, militia. Til. The /( is silent in the words Thomas, thyme, phthisic, Thames. The //; is silent in asthma and isthmus. W IS always silent before ;■; as, write, wren, wrist. It is also silent in answer, sword, toward and tivo. X at the beginning of words has the sound of c; Ti.s,,.\'enophon. .xylography. Z is silent in rendezvous. \ fsT ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Combinations of Vowels. The poiver of a letter is its sound in a given word. Some letters stand for more tlian one sound ; as a in ale, are, awl. Some sounds have more than one letter to stand for them ; thus in her, si'-, fur, the same sound is represented by e, i and u. Our twenty-six letters represent forty-one sounds. A Diplltliong is two vowels formed in one syllable; as ea in beat, on in sound. A proper dipllthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, ci in voiic. An improper diphtllOUg is one in which only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. A Triptathong is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, eau in beau, ieiu in Z'iew. A proper triphthong: is one in which all the vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. An improper diphthong is one in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beauty, iou in anxious. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, ant. In every word there are as many syllables as there are dis- tinct sounds ; as, gram-nia-ri-an. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; as, home. A word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; as, he-ro. A word ofthree syllables, a trisyllable ; as, hc-ro-ie. And a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable; as, im-per-a-tive, dis-con-nect-ed-ly, se.x-a-ge-na-ri-an. In dividing words into syllables we are to be directed chiefly by the ear ; it may, however, be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following rules : Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diph- thongs which they modify in utterance; as, ap-os-tol-ic-al. Two vowels coming together, if they do not make a diphthong, must be parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al. Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they are added ; as, hann-lcss, great-ly, con-iiect-cd. Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-place, out- ride, up-lift; but if their own primitive meaning be disregard- ed, the case may be otherwise ; thus, re-create and rec-reate are words of different import. Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which compose them ; as, no-where. At the end of a line a word may be divided if necessary ; but a syllable must never be broken. ACCENT. Accent is stress of voice laid on a certain syllable when a word is uttered. The syllable that receives the stress is said to be accented. It may be denoted by a mark called the acute ac- cent ('), placed above it to the right ; as, lem'on, engrave'. Accent is of two kinds: primary, as in in-tend, where the full force of the voice is on the last syllable; and second- ary, as in su'per-in-tend , where the first syllable is distin- guished by a stress greater than that laid on the second and third syllables, though less than that laid on the last. In some words there are two secondaiy or subordinate accents ; as, in- com'pre-hen'si-bil'i-ty. There are about eighty dissyllables in which the same word Js used for a verb on the one hand and a noun or adjective on the other. To distinguish them we accent the nouns and the adjectives on \X\ft first syllable, and the verbs on the last; as, a con'vert, to convert' ; a contract, to contract'; an ob'ject, to object'; an o'verflow, to overfJo'iu; ^perfume, to perfume', etc. There are a few dissyllables which are at once nouns and ad- jectives. These are distinguished by accenting the nouns on \i.\& first syllable and the adjectives on the hut. NOUNS. Au'gust, the month. Compact, an engagement. Ex'ile, banishment. Instinct, an impulse. Min lite, of time. Su'pine, in grammar. ADJECTIVES. August', jiobie. Compact', close. Exile', small, slender. Instinct', animated. Minute', very small. Supine', indolent. The won\ gallant departs from the above rule. When it de- notes a suitor or "attentive to ladies,"' it is accented ^a/Aiw/'. and is changed into gal'lant when it means high-spirited or daring. Simple words of two syllables have-only one syllable accent- ed, except the word amen, which Walker says "is the only word in the language which has necessarily two consecutive accents." WORDS. A ^Vord is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or componud. The former division is called their specieS ; the latter, their fignre. A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great. A derivative word is one that is formed from some sim- pler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, disconnect, unconnected. A simple word is one that is not compounded, not com- posed of other words; as, watch, man, never, the, less. A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, bookseller, schoolmaster. Others, «hich may be called temporary com- ])Ounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass-house, negro-mer- chant. Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart When the simple words would only form a regular phrase of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood must be joined together or written separately as tlie sense and construction may happen to require. 1^ \ k. / ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 When two or more compounfls are connected in one sentence none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. When the parts of a compound do not cor.Icsce, as, to-mor- row, to-ni^Jit, to-day, or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is mova- ble, as, first-born, haiiger-oii, laiighlcr-loving, the hyphen should be inserted between them. When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronun- ciation, as, watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the pans are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. WORD-BUILDING. The primitive words of the English language are few com- pared with the derivatives. This is because many derivatives sometimes come from a single primitive. Thus from the prim- itive /a;-/ are formed counter/d/y, Acpart, imparl, party, farl- isan, /<7/7icle, im/ii;/ed, copartner, etc. A Prefi-t is a letter or letters placed before a primitive or compound to modify its meaning; as, de in depart, itn in un- gentlemanly. A Suffix is a letter or letters placed after a primitive or compound to modify its meaning; as, isan in partisan, ly in K ngcntlema n ly. Some derivatives come from roots not separately used as words. Thus avert, revert, convertible, etc., come from the root vert, meaning to turn. These roots are mostly from Latin words, and some of them enter into a great number of derivatives. The most important of these inseparable roois are: cede, ceed, cess, to go. ceive, eept, to take. elude, clus, to shut. cur, CHrs, to run. diet, to say or speak. duoe, duct, to lead. feet, fici, to do, make. fer, to bear, to carry, fuse, to pour. jeet, to cast. late, bear, carr^'. lect, to choose, gather. lude, lus, to play. iiiit, miss, to send. pel, puis, to drive. pend, pens, to hang. pone, pose, to place, port, to carry. scribe, script, to write sist, to stand. tain, tent, to hold. tend, tens, to shield. tract, to draw. vene, vent, to come. A derivative may be formed by uniting two or more prefi.\es or suffixes with a primitive or inseparable root ; as, «-i'.r-port, to cany-out-again ; just-ify-ing, continning-to-maie-jusl; re- col-lcct-ions, more-t/ian-one-act-o/-g3.lhenng-toget/ier-again. A derivative may be formed by uniting a prefix or suffix with a compound ; as, good-humor-«/. Compounds may be fomied by uniting two primitives ; as, moon-l'cam ; a primitive and derivative, as, />riglit-cyed ; two de- rivatives, as, brighlest-eycd ; an inseparable root and a primi- tive, as, multiform ; two inseparable roots, as, geography. The Prefixes. In the formation of words, the particles which are employed as prefixes generally have some peculiar import, which may be separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon ori- gin, and the greater part of these are still employed as separ- ate words in our language. The rest are Latin, Greek and French prepositions. The roots to whicli they are alTixed are not always proper English words. Those which are such are called separable radicals, and those which are not such, inseparable radicals. English or Anglo-Saxon Prefixes. A, as an English prefix, signifies on, in, at or to; as in a-broad, a-shore. a-slccp, a-far, a-ficld. The French d (to) is probaljly the same particle ; as in a-dicu. This prclix is some- times redundant; as in a-xuake, a-rise. Be signifies upon, to, by ov for; as in bespatter, be-limes, bc-tide, be-speak. It is sometimes redumlaiit ; as in be-gird, be-dech, be-loved. Counter means against or opposite; as in counter-poise. counter-r^idence, counter-natural. For, in composition, seems to signify from. It is found in the irregular \e\hs for-bcar, for-bid, for-get, for-give, forsake, forswear ; and mfor-do, for-pass, for-pine, forsay, for-think, for-wasle, which last are now seldom used. Fore, prefi.xed to verbs, signifies before; as, fore-know, fore-tell ; prefixed to nouns it is an adjective and signifies an- terior; ai, fore-side, fore-part. Half, signifying one of two cijual parts, is much used in composition, and often merely to denote imperfection ; as, half- sighted, seeing imperfectly. Itlis signifies wrong ; as, mis-do, mis-place. Out, prefixed to verbs, generally denotes excess ; as. out-do, out-leap; prefixed to nouns it is an adjective and signifies ex- terior; as, outside, out-parish. Over usually denotes superiority or excess ; as, over-power. over-strain, over-large, over-dose. Self signifies one's own person or belonging to one's own person. It is much used in composition ; as, self-love, self- -, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, burr, purr, yarr, butt, bttzz,fuzz, and some proper names. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after qn, double their final consonant before an ad- ditional syllable that begins with a vowel ; as, rob, robber; per- mit, permitting ; acquit, acquittal, acquitting. X, being equiv- alent to ks, is never doubled. .\ final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable; as, toil, toiling ; visit, visited ; general, generalize. Words ending with any double letter preserve it double be- fore any additional termination not beginning with the same letter; as in the following derivatives : seeing, blissful, oddly, hilly, stiffness, agreeable. The irregular words /led, sold, told, diuelt, spelt, spilt, shall, wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from the viord pontiff, are exceptions to this rule. The final d mute of a primitive word is generally omitted be- fore an additional termination beginning with a vowel; as, rate, ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving; eye, eying. Words end- ing in ce or ge retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the soft sound off and^; a.%, peace, peaceable ; change, changeable ; outrage, outrageous. The final tr of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant ; as, pale, paleness. When the e is jjreceded by a vowel it is sometimes omitted ; as, true, truly ; awe, awful; and sometimes retained ; as, rue, rueful ; shoe, shoeless. The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a conso- nant, is changed into i before an additional termination ; as, merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, pitiful. Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doub- ling of i; as, pity, pitying. Words ending in ie drop the e and change the i into y for the same reason ; as, die, dying. When a vowel precedes, y should not be changed; as, day, days, money, moneys. Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them; as, hereof, horseman, uphill. In permanent compounds the words full and a// drop one /; as, handful, careful, always, witlial ; in others they retain both; S.S, full-eyed, all-wise. I before e, except after c, is a rule worth rememljering in such words as bcliez'e, conceive, deceive. In derivatives formeil from words ending in c by adding a termination beginning with e, i or y, the letter k is inserted after the e ; as, zinc, zincky ; colic, colicky: traffic, traffic ky. Verbs of one syllable ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel (as, flan), and verbs of two or more syllables ending in the same manner and having the accent on the last syllable (as, regret), double the final consonant of the verb on assuming an additional syllable; m, plan, planned ; regret, re- gretted. But if a dipthong precedes the last consonant, or the last syllable is not accented, then the consonant is not doubled ; as f'in, joined ; suffer, suffered. REFORMED SPELLING. Many efforts have been made to secure a re- form in the mode of spelling, and many philo- logical associations have earnestly advocated a system of phonetic orthography, or spelling by sound. The English language contains over 100,000 words, although in ordinary conversation only from 3,000 to 5,000 are used. Few writers or speakers use more than 15,000. Shakspere is said to have only used 24,000, Milton 17,000, and in the Bible, exclusive of the proper names, there are said to be only 7,000 words. The mixed origin of the English language, with its constant modifications, will in some degree ac- count for the striking anomalies which appear in our spelling. Signs representing sounds were multiplied especially by the introduction of the printer's art, and thus letters or combina- tions of letters for a single sound occur fre- quently. Many plans have been devised at dif- /. -o 'V >>_. 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, / fcrent times, especially in late years, for reduc- ing the spelling of words to absolute uniformity and the greatest simplicity by a complete re- form in the method of representing the sounds of words by written characters, that is, by em- ploying a new alphabet in which each sign stands for one, and only one, definite sound, and each sound is represented by one and only one character. The American Philological Associa- tion took up the matter in 1875, and in the suc- ceeding year an international convention was held and a Spelling Reform Association organiz- ed. Meetings were held by several educational societies both in England and this country, urg- ing on the work of reform, but after all there has really been very little practical result. The Spelling Reform Association adopted a phonetic alphabet on the principles enumerated above. The association advocated the dropping of silent letters on the score of economy, etc., and form- ulated the following five rules : 1. Use e for ea when ecjuiv.ilent to short c. 2. Omit silent ^ after a diphthong or a short vowel, unless preceded by o or g. 3. Usey for///. 4. Omit one letter of .a double consonant, unless both are pronounced. 5. Use / instead of (v/when it represents the sound. Some of the newspapers then began advocat- ing reform in spelling, and in 1879 the Chicago TribiDie appeared in improved orthography, and was followed by the Home Journal of New York and other papers. The rules adopted by these journals for their amended spelhng were as fol- lows : 1. Drop lie at the end of words XxVadialogne, (atalogtu, etc., where the preceding vowel is short. Thus spell demagog, pcd- "SOS' 'pilog, etc. Change longiic for tung. When the preced- ing vowel is long, as \\\ prorogue, vogii,; rogue, retain final let- ters as at present. 2. Drop final e in such words as definite, indefinite, favorite, where the preceding vowel is short. Thus spell opposil, liypo- eril, preterit. When the jireceding vowel is long, as in /Us.— Thomson says, "Success makes villains honest.** But, Thomson says that success makes villains honest. 7. Every noun, adjective and verb in the title of books and headings of chapters. Examf/t-s. — Ilutler's "Treatise on the History of Ancient Philoso- phy ; " Cousins* "Lectures on the True, the Beautiful and the Good.*' 8. Words that denote the leading subjects of chapters, arti- cles or paragraphs. A word defined, for instance, may commence with a capital. Do not introduce capitals too freely under this rule. When in doubt use a small letter. 9. The pronoun / and the interjection t*. 10. Words denoting great events, eras of history, noted written instruments, extraordinary jihysical phenomena and the like. Examplfs. — The Creation; the Confusion of I-anjjuages ; the Kes- toration ; the Dark Ages; the Declaration of Independence; the Aurora Borealis. 11. Letters standing for words are generally written as capitals. Example. — A.D. for Anno Domini, the year of our Lord. 12. The months of the year, and the days of the week. The names of the seasons, however, should not generally be cap- italized, although it is customary with some authors. 13. The words North, South, East and West, and their com- pounds, as Northwest, when they signify a section of country. Also adjectives derived therefrom. This class of words should not be capitalized, however, when merely denoting direction. PUNCTUATION. ■'d- Punctuatiou is the art of dividing compo- sition by points or stops for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading. Although a knowledge of Punctuation is necessary to the clear expression of thought in writing, there are comparatively few who have mastered it, even among educated people. That it is important may be illustrated by the following sentence: The company consisted of Mr. Jones a lawyer his brother a soldier Mr. Black a New Yorker his sister and a boy. Without punctuation it is impossible to say how many were in the company, or what their relationship was. If commas are inserted it will appear that the company comprised eight people : The company consisted of Mr. Jones, a lawyer, his brother, a sol- dier, Mr. Black, a New Yorker, his sister and a boy. By inserting semicolons in the place of some of the commas the number of the company is reduced to five, as follows : The company consisted of Mr. J ones, a lawyer ; his brother, asoldier ; Mr. Black, a New Yorker ; his sister and a l>oy. By otherwise punctuating it various changes would be made. As an illustration of the ludicrous errors which might occur from incorrect punctuation the following will serve: Woman, without her man, would be a savage. The proper sense and punctuation is: Woman — without her, man would be a savage. Such instances could be multiplied indelliiitcly. Usage, which is really the foundation for all rules of punc- tuation as well as of grammar, authorizes the three following methods of punctuating the same sentence. In the present work the method indicated in the first sentence has been followed : Rank, fame and honor are often undeserved. Rank, fame, and honor arc often undeserved. Rank, fame, and honor, are often undeserved. Punctuation Points. The Punctuation Points are as follows : Period Paragraph IT Colon Semicolon Comniii : Hrace Acute Accent ! Intcrrojjation Point Exclamation Point Dash ? ! Grave Accent Circumflex Accent Tilde, nr C'ircumllex .. Parentheses Brackets [] The Loiijf, or Macron The Short, or IJrcve - Hyphen Quotation Marks Apostrophe Diwrcsis Cedill.i Asterisk DaKK^T. oi" Ohelisk 9 f Ellipsis j « » * ♦ Double Dagger t Caret A Section s Index *d- Parallel Rules for Punctuation. The Period must be placed after every declarative ami imperative sentence and every abbreviated word. ,E.ia.\c Bidwcll ; Sam Slirk. Tlie Interrogation Point must be placed after every interrogative sentence, member and clause ; also after the interjections eh and hey implying a question. /:.v,i«;/»/.-.— Has the air weight? Air has weight; do you not believe it? You thought it would rain, eh? Tiie Exclamation Point should be placed after every exclamatory sentence, member, cl.ause and expression. Exnmple.t.—llnw disgusting is vice ! Life is short ; how careful we should be to use it aright I l''or shame I An exclamation point must also be placed after every inter- / 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. jection except O, eh and hey, unless very closely connected with other words. Example. — .\h ! who could have foreseen it? Pshaw ! 3-ou are trifling. Tlie Colon must be placed between 'the great divisions of sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by semicolons. Example. — Man has effected wonders ; he is every day advancing^ in knowledge and power: yet, surpassed by nature in even her hum- blest efforts, lie can not so much as make a blade of grass. A colon must also be placed before a formal enumeration of particulars, or a direct quotation, referred to by the w^ords thus, following, as folloivs, this, these, etc. Example, — There is much justice in this warning of Lavater: "Be- ware of him who hates the laugh of a child." K formal enumeration is one in which the \\o\ring: of action. When a complete sentence or complete sentences are enclos- ed in marks of parenthesis, they should be punctuated the same as if not thus enclosed, and the last point of punctuation should come before the last mark of parenthesis. Brackets. Brackets are used principally in quoted pas- sages, to enclose words improperly omitted or added by way of correction, observation or explanation. ExampU. — She is weary with [of] life. In regard to the use of points before and after the brackets, and the punctuation of any sentence or clause within the brack- ets, the same rules apply that have been given in regard to the marks of parenthesis. The Apostroplie denotes the omission of a letter or letters, and the possessive case of nouns. Examples. — 'TV*.? for // is; e'en for even; don't for do not; o'clock for on [the] clock. So in the possessive: hero's^ Charles'^ men's^ heroes', children's. Pronouns never take the apostrophe in the possessive case. Tlie Hyplieu is used to connect the elements of a com- pound word, when each retains its own accent. Example. — Castle-builder, father-in-law. The hyphen is also used after a complete syllable at the end of a line, to connect the parts of a divided word ; also to de- note that the final vowel of a prefix does not form a diphthong with the first vowel of a primitive ; but in this latter case a mark of dicercsis is more appropriate. Example. — Pre -engagement, re-establish [preengagement, reestab- lish.] Quotation Points are used to enclose words quoted from an author or speaker, or represented in narrative as em- ployed in dialogue. Example. — "Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth." When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words, quotation points are unnecessary. Matter within quotation points is to be punctuated just as if it stood in any other position. When quotation points are needed at the end of a sentence, they come after whatever other point is required there if this point applies to the quotation alone, but before this point if it applies to the whole sentence and not exclusively to the quo- tation. Example. — Pilate asked, "What is truth?" Where now is the "man of destiny".^ When a quotation encloses within it another quotation, the external quotation has the double marks, and the one included has only the single marks. Example. — It has been well said, "The cnminand, 'Thou shall not kill,' forbids many crimes besides that of murder." If the enclosed or secondary quotation ends a sentence, three apostrophes will there come together, of which the first will be- long to the enclosed quotation, and the other two to the orig- inal. When an enclosed quotation itself contains words or phrases that are quoted, those words or phrases have the double marks. Example. — "French says, 'What a lesson the word "diligence" con- tains 1' " WHien the sentence becomes more involved than this, the ad- ditional marks of quotation would create confusion, and may therefore be omitted. • In some publications the order of single and double quota- tions is inverted, single quotation marks being used where cus- tom demands double marks, and quotations within quotations being indicated by double marks. The Pauses. The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech have in reality no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often told to pause at a comma while they count one; at a semi- colon, one, two ; at a colon, one, two, three ; at a period, one, two, three, four. This may be of some use, as teaching them to observe these stops that they may catch the sense; but the standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is im- measurable. The following general directions are as good as any that can be given : The comma denotes the shortest pause ; the semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause double that of the semi-colon ; and the period, or full-stop, a pause double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other marks vary according to the structure of the sentence and their place in it. Other Marks. The Ellipsis, or Suppression, denotes the omission of some letters or words. Examples.— K. g, for king ; G * • * * m, for Graham ; A .... s, for Adams; H— m— hr— y, for Humphrey. The Caret, used only in writing, shows where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted, would Example.— i^mcs said he ^..^be home to-night. The Index, or Hand [i(t®"]. points out something re- markable, or what the reader should particularly obser\'e. The Brace \_ — ' — .] serves to unite a triplet, or to coimect several temis to something to which they are all related. Examples. — ( Xnminative. Case ). Possessive. t Objective. ♦ Committee W. Brown. H. Jones. R. Smith. M. Mills. The Section [§] marks the smaller divisions of a book or chapter, and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge ref- erences. The Paragraph [H] denotes the commencement of a new subject. Tlie parts of discourse which are called paragraphs .ire in general sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line and carrying the first word a little backwards. Leaders [ ] are used in cont£-, and the impression conveyed is that another verb will follow. He only hires the store, he does not own it. If I say: " lie hires only the store," only modifies store, and the meaning is, he hires the store, but nothing else — not the rest of the house. 33. Do not use an adjective for an adverb. Do not say: " He writes elegant ; " but, " He writes elegantly." 34. After certain verbs I'y is used before a word denoting an agent or living object, 7uith before a word denoting an instrument or inani- mate object. We say, accompanied ly his friends, accompanied rvith illustrations; attended />y a servant, attended ivith evil consequences; illustrated />j' an artist, illustrated zvith engravings; killed ly an as- sassin, killed zvith a dagger. J^ollozvcd takes by only. * 35. Do not use if for zvhether — or but, but that or lest for that — after the verbs doubt, fear, deny, or their equivalents. " Do you know if [correct to whether] a train will start this evening." " Pope was ap- prehensive lest [say that] his meaning miglit be mistaken." " Nobody can deny but that [say that] experience is the best teacher." 36. Be careful to use nor, not or, as the correlative of neither. "Neither youth 7ior [r\ot or] innocence availed as a protection." 37. Be careful to use so., ..as, not as. ...as, aftera negative denying equality of degree. " Few cities were so [not as] magnificent as Bab- ylon." 3S. Do not add a pronoun to its antecedent when the antecedent alone would express its meaning. Do not sav, "James he said ; " but, "James said." , 39. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives. "The most hap- piest day of my life." Correct: " The happiest day." 40. Avoid tautology or the recurrence of the same word or expres- sion. " The man ///rt^ I met ///rt/ was lame." Say: "The man that I met xvho was lame, 41. Avoid the use of improper words. Do not say: "He is laying down;" but, " He is /j-.'W^ down." Not: "We set up;" but, "We sat up." Not: *'Lcarn me;" but, "Teach me." Not: "I knowcd it;" but, " I /'Wf^y it." Not: "The coat sets weH;" hut, " The coat sits well." Not: " Them that expect nothing;" but, " They that expect nothing." 42. Do not say, " The Volga is the longest of any river in Europe." Omit of any and correct: "The Volga is the longest river in Europe." 43- Apply zuho to persons, zvhich to things, and that to both. 44. Do not say: "Which did you say was the largest lake in the world?" S:iy is. Present facts and unchangeable truths must be ex- pressed in the present tense. r \ / ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 45. Avoid all improper modes of expressing comparison or the plural of nouns. Do not say: beauiif idlest ; hut^ most beaiitifnl. Not " I saw three tigers; ** but, *' I saw three deer.''* 46. Avoid clumsy use of participles. ** J/y being sick was the cause oi Mjf being absent." Correct thus: " My sickness was the cause of my absence." 47. Do not needlessly use the passive form in verbs. " He is come ; " say, '* lie //(/A- come." 4S. Do not use needless compound participles. "The theatres are now ^t-/w^open on Sundays;" say, " The theatres arc now open Sun- days." 49. An adverb should not be used where a preposition and a relative pronoun would better express the relation of the terms. *'A cause where [say itt -which] justice is so much concei^ied." 50. When verbs are connected by a conjunction they must either agree in mood, tense and form, or have separate nominatives expressed. " They would neither ^o in themselves, nor suffered [say, would suf- fer] others to enter." " If he understands his business, and uiteud [say attends] to it, wherein is he deficient?" FIGURES. A Figure in Grammar is an intentional deviation from tlie ordinary spelling, formation, construction or application of words. There are, accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of Etymology, figures of Sytttax Sindfigtires of Jihetorie. When figures are judiciously employed, tlicy both strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more frequently in poetry than in prose, and several of them are merely poetic licenses. Figures of Orthography. A Figure of Orthography is an intentional devia- tion from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. The principal figures of Orthography are two, namely: Mimesis, or Mimicry, a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling or the taking of one word for an- other. Exaiiiplc, — "Ay, lie was foni at Monmouth, Captain Gower." — Shalcspt-rc. " Maister, sa;-s he, have you any V)cry good vjcal in your vallet ? " — Cotitml'ian Orator. This figure includes all imitations of brogues and dialects. Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography. Examptt-s. — " Unpleosing sig^ht, I rvccti.^^ " Bow-bent with eld, liis beard of snowy hue." Figures of Etymology. A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation from the ordinary formation of a word. The principal figures of Etymology are eight. Aphaeresis is the elision of some of tlie initi.al letters of a word; as, Against, 'gan, 'neath, iov against, began, beneath. Prothesis is the prefixing of an Apletive syllable to a word; as, adown, «/p.~.id, fctruwn, ^ranished, jclad, iox etown, paid, strown, vanished, clad. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word ; as, med'cine for medicine ; e'en for even ; o'er for over ; iOiiifring for conquering; se'nnight for scvennight. Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of a word ; as, tho' for though ; th' for the; t'other for the other. Paragoge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word; as, ivithouten for without; deary for dear; Johnny for John, Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that might form a diphthong; as, cooperate, not cooperate; aeronaut, not aro- naut; orthoepy, not orthapy. Synajresis is the sinking of two syllables into one ; a:, secst for scht; tacked for tack-ed; drowned for dro-a'n-ed. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound; as, "On a);4jV/jsidew<:i'^/';" "Tows ward ;" "To God ward." Figures of Syntax. A Figure of Syntax is an intention.al deviation from the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of Syntax are seven. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the meaning. Such words are said to be understood, because they are received as belonging to the sentence though they are not uttered; as, "A man and [a] woman;" "The com- mon [/(zw] and the statute law;" "I love [///;;/] and [/] fear him ; " " The active commonly do more than they are bound to do; the indolent [commonly do'] less [Jhan they are bound to do]. ApOSCOpesis is the leaving of something unsaid; as, " Whom /—but first 'tis best the billows to restrain." Zeugma is the referring of a word to two different ones which in strict syntax can agree with only one of them ; as, "In him who is, or him who finds ^friend." Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words ; as, "/A- that hath cars to hear, let him hear ; " "I know thee who thou art : " "-Ml ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the earth." Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term ; it is therefore, in general, connected with some figure of Rhet- oric ; as, "The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld his glor)-." "Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria and preached Christ unto them." Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modi- fication, for another ; as, " You know that you are Bnitus that speak this ; " " Destruction's gates at once unlock." HyperlJaton is the transposition of words; as, "He wanders earth around." 32 COMPOSITION. y tlOMPOSITION. « ^'^ riow to Write \\)Q Qnnllsr) Dan^uaae ffiSi sr- ;orrecT 'y- |VERY educated person desires to write •3 well, and with some elegance of diction. *™^''^^ Accuracy in the arrangement of words '•W% '^^W and the ready and ccrrect expression of them in written language is not only a desirable but a needful attainment. This is taught by Conipositioii. Style is the particular manner in which a person expresses his conceptions by means of language. It is different from mere words, and is not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking, and, being that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume, sometimes partakes not only of what is characteristic of the man, but even of national peculiarity. The words which an author employs may be proper and so con- structed as to violate no rule of syntax, and yet his style may have great faults. To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as concise, diffuse — neat, negli- gent — nervous, feeble — simple, affected — easy, stiff — perspicuous, obscure — elegant, florid — are employed. A considerable diversity of style may be found in compositions all equally excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the different endowments by which genius is distinguished, require this divers- ity. But in forming his style the learner should remember that a negligent, feeble, affected, stiff or obscure style is always faulty, and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength and neat- ness are qualities always to be aimed at. In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing and writing something is indispensably necessary. Without exercise and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object will be of no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowl- edge of grammar as to be in some degree qual- ified for the undertaking, he should devote a stated portion of his time to composition. This exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. And if he has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best authors, acquire both language and taste, as well as sentiment; and these three are the essential qualifications of a good writer. In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here offer no more than a few brief hints. With respect to words and phrases, particular attention should be paid to purity, propriety and precision; and with respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity and streng^li. Under each of these heads we shall arrange, in the form of short precepts, a few of the most important directions for the forming of style. Of Pnritj. Purity of style consists in the use of only such words and phrases as belong to the language which we write or speak. 1. Avoid the unnecessaiy use of foreign words or idioms; as, fraichcur, hauteur, dclicatesse, politessc ; \s repented him- self ; it serves tc an excellent purpose. 2. Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquatcil words ; as, whilom, erewhiU, albeit, aforetime, tnetkinks, 3. Avoid strange or unauthorized words ; as, flutteratioii , unspcctator, judgematical, clecterized. / COMPOSITION. 33 4. Avoid bombast, or aflectation of fine writing. It is ridiculous, however serious the subject ; as, "Personifications, however rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude ; analysis, however imposing the objects of parallel and the media of comparison : can never expose the consequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demonstration." Of Propriety. Propriety of langu.age consists in the selection and right con- struction of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to express. 1. Avoid low and provincial expressions; such as, "says /," "thinks I to myself," "to gd into a scrape" "Stay here while I return." 2. In writing prose, avoid words or phrases that are nearly poetical; such as viorn, eve, plaint, lone, amiJ, eft, sleepy. 3. Avoid technical terms, except where they are necessary in treating of a particular art or science. In technology they are proper. 4. Avoid the recurrence of words in the different senses, or such rcpetitionof words as denotes paucity of language ; as, "His own reason might have suggested better reasons." " Gregory favored the undertaking for no other reason than this : the manager, in countenance, yijcoreV his friend." " I want to go and sec what he wants." 5. Supply words that are wanting. Thus, instead of saying, "This action increased his former success, " say, "This action increased the merit of his former success." 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His )nem- 01 y shall be lost on the earth." " I long since learned to like nothing but what you ifo." 7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, "I have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." " These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." 8. Observe the natural order of things and events and do not put the cart before the horse ; as, " The scribes taught and j/ki/jVo' the law of Moses." " They can neither ?-rf?<;-K to nor have their houses." "He tumbled, head over heels, into the water." Of Precision. Precision consists of avoiding all superfluous words and adapt- ing the expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than is intended by the author. 1. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or senti- ment; as, "return again; return back again; converse together ; rise up; is\\do7vn ; enter in ; a mutual likeness //one object, nut of many." 2. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and dis- tinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error: "Tlie two vol- umes are, indeed, intimately connected and constitute one uni- form system of English grammar." 3. In the process of a sentence, do not desert the principal subject in favor of adjuncts. Error: "To substantives belong gender, number and case ; and they are all of the third person juhen spoken of, and of the second when spoken to." 4. Do not introduce parentheses except where a lively re- mark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the principal subject. Of strength. Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a sentence such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage and present every idea in its due VL COMPOSITION. importance. A concise style is the most favorable to strength. 1. Pl.ace the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression. 2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding one. 3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their re- semblance or opposition will be rendered more striking if some resemblance in the langu.age and constraction be preser\-ed. 4. It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may either be omitted or introduced earlier. A Discourse and its Parts. A composition in which a proposition is laid down and an attempt made to persuade others that it is true is an argumen- tative discourse. If it is on religious subjects, it is a sermon; on other subjects, a speech or oration. Orations by the ancients were divided into six parts, to-wit : The Exordium, or introduction, in which the speaker strove to make his hearers attentive and disposed to receive his argu- ments. Tr.e Divisio)!, or plan the speaker intended to pursue in treat- ing the subject. The Statement, in which the subject and facts connected therewith were laid down. The Reasoning, in which the arguments were set forth. The Appeal to the feelings — a most important division of a discourse. The Peroration, in which the speaker summed up all he had said and concluded his discourse. An Essay. An Essay is a composition, generally on some abstract sub- ject, devoted rather to an investigation of causes, effects, etc., than to an examination of visible and material peculiarities. Brief descriptions and narrations may be introduced with ad- vantage. Figures of Rhetoric. A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinaiy application of words. Some figures of this kind are commonly called Tropes, i.e., turns. The principal figures of Rhetoric are twenty-two, namely : A Simile is a simple and express comparison and is generally introduced by Hie, as or so. Example.— "At first, //yiv thunder's distant tone. The rattling din came rollings on." — Hogg. " Man, tike ttic generous vine, supported lives. The strength he gains is from th' embrace he gives." —Pof'e. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance of two objects by applying either the name or some attribute, adjunct or action of the one directly to the other. Example. — " His eye w.is morning's brightest rajy." — Hogg. *' Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." — Long/etlozu. An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of a vine: "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egj-pt ; thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it," etc. Note. — The allegoi-y includes most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are c:).V^t& parables; it includes also the better sort o{ fables. Metonymy is a change of names^alling one object by the name of another that sustains some rel.ation to it. The principal relations on which this figure is founded are as fol- lows : 1. Cause and effect ; as, "Extravagance is the ruin of many" ■ — that is, the eauseofx\xm. 2. Ancestor and descendants ; as, " Then shall Judah triumph" — that is, the deseendants of Judch. 3. .-Vttribute and that to which it belongs ; as, " Fride shall be brought low" — that is, \he proud. 4. Container and the thing containcil ; as, "The hetlle boils " — that is, the water in the kettle. 5. Emblem and thing represented ; as, " This was offensive to the erown " — that is, the iing. 6. Material and thing made of it; as, "Gold is all-power- ful " — that is, money. Synecdoche is the meaning of the whole for a part, or of a part for the whole ; as, "This roof [ i.e., house] protects you. " " Now (he year \_i.e., summer] is beautiful." Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth. Example. — "The sky shrttnk upward wit It unusual dread, And trembling Tiber div' d beneath his bed." — Dryden. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination as actually before his eyes and present to his senses. Example. — "I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! I see the Moray's silver star Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon -war That up the lake comes winding far! " — ^cott. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the subject into an animated address. Example. — " Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death ! where is thy sting ? O grave ! where is thy victory ? " — /. Cor., Ij : S4-SS- Prosopopoeia, or Personitiratiou, is a figure by which in imagination we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities. Examples. — "The ii'orm, aware of his intent, Harangued himthus, right eloquent." — Cozvper. "Ln, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears ! " — Rogers. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, con- fidently to assert the reverse of what is asked. Example, — " Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him? " — ^Job, 40:g. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent emotion of the mind. Example. — " O liberty ! — O sound once delightful to everv Roman ear! — O sacred privilege of Itonian citizenship I — once sacred — now trampled upon." — Cicero. Antithesis is a placing of things in ojiposition to heighten their effect by contrast. ^ ^=4^ COMPOSITION. 35 Exampli-. — "Contrasted faults through all his manners reign : Thouj;h/i>ar- liamentary." Allusion is a figure by which some word or phrase in a sentence calls to mind, as if accidentally, another similar or analogous subject. Example. — "I was surrounded with difliculties, and possessed no clue by which I could effect my escape." Repetition seizes some emphatic word or phrase, and, to mark its importance, makes it occur fre<|uent!y in the same sentence. Example. — "He sang Darius, great and good, By too severe a fate, Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen, Fallen from his high estate and weltering in his blood." Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter at the be- ginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other. Example. — "The lordly lion leaves his lonely lair." Eupliemisin is a softened mode of speech for what would be disagreeable or oftensive if told in the plainest lan- guage. Example. — Cushi did not say to David, "Absalom is killed ; " but, ".ir«K all the enemies of the hingbe as thatj'oungnian.^' Ononiatopwia is the foi-mation of words in such a man- ner that their sound will suggest the sense; as, (5;/z2, hiss, roar. Example. — "On the ear Drops the light drip of the suspended oar." # I * 1 — *r- PROSODY §^ ^ 1 ^1 ~ T r Dr. Blair says that the best definition of Poetry is this : " Poetry is the language of pas- sion, or of enlivened imagination, formed most commonly into regular numbers." Poetry is older than prose. Poems and songs are the first objects that make their appearance in all nations. During the infancy of Poetry' all its different kinds were mingled in the same com- position; but in the progress of society poems assumed their different regular forms. Prosody is that part of Grammar which treats of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and the modes in which they are combined in verse. (f^" Versification. Versitication is the art of arranging words into lines of corresponding length so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity. Verse is therefore language so arranged in lines that syllables of certain length may occur at certain intervals. Verse is the form in which poetry generally appears. Poetry is distinguished from prose not only by this form, but by its V T y containing more figures, as well as peculiar words and ex- pressions. Tliere are two kinds of verse. Rhyme and Blank Verse. Illiyme is that kind of verse in which there is a corre- spondence of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines ; as : "True wit is nature to advantage dress\1. What oft was thought, but ne'er so well express^d.^^ Blank Verse is metrical language without rhyme; as: "Shall we serve Heaven With less respect than we do minister To our gross selvep? " Quantity. By the Quantity of a syllable is meant the time required for its utterance. According to this time, syllables are distin- guished as Long and Short. One long syllable is equivalent to tw o short ones. A long syllable may be denoted by a short horizontal line placed over its vowel; a short syllable, by a curve. In the case of monosyllables, nouns, adjectives, verbs, ad- verbs and inteijections are for the most part long ; articles are always short ; prepositions and conjunctions are generally short ; pronouns are long when emphasized ; when not, short. Poetic Feet. A Foot is two or more syllables constituting a portion of a line. A I.,ine of Poetry consists of successive combinations of feet. \ 3" -A COMPOSITION. The most important feet in English verse are as follows : The Iambus, a short syllable and a long . . . ' - severe. The Trochee, a long syllable and a short . . . " ' trembling. The Spondee, two long syllables .... - ■ cold winds. The PjTi-liic, two short syllables .... " ■ wil|d6rness. The Anapest, two short and a long . . . . '"" barricade. The Dactyl, a long and two short . . . . " " - tendfirly. The Amphibrach, a short, a long and a short . • " ' trSmendoDs. The Amphimacer, a long, a short and a long " ■ " saddle -bags. In addition to these there are the Molosse, of three long sylla- bles ; the Tribi-ach, of three short ; the Bacchy, a short syllable and two long ones; the Antibacchy, or Hypobacchy, two long syllables and a short one. The four principal kinds of verse or poetic measure are the Iambus, Trochee, Anapest and Dactyl. When a line is wholly composed of any of these four feet, it is called Pure. The remaining feet never form whole lines by themselves, but are sometimes interspersed with other feet. A line into which different feet enter is called Mixed. Metre. By 9Ietres are meant the different systems according to which verses or lines are formed. They are named from the feet employed and their number. Metres in which the iambus prevails are called Iambic; those in which the trochee prevails, Trochaic ; the anapest, Anapestic ; the dactyl, Dactylic. Distinguished by the number of feet in a line, the varieties of metre are as follows : Manometer, which consists of one foot ; Dimeter, of two feet; Trimeter, of three; Tetrameter, of four; Pentameter, of five ; Hexameter, of six ; Heptameter, of seven ; Odometer, of eight. Some metres, besides a certain number of complete feet, con- tain a syllable over at the end of the line. Such metres are called Hypercatalectic, or Hypermeter. When a syllable is want- ing the verse is said to be eatalectic ; when the measure is ex- act the line is acatalectic. Scanning, or Scansion, is the process of dividing a line into the feet of which it is composed. Stanza "Long, Short and Common Metre. A Stanza is the combination of several lines in poetry, forming a distinct division of the poem ; as : "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me." A Verse is but a single line of a stanza — a certain number of long and short syllables, metrically disposed. "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." Long Metre. The long, short and common metres are known by the num- ber of feet or syllables found in them. Long metre stanzas contain in each line four iambic feet ; as : "Through every age, eternal God, Thou art our rest, our safe abode: High was thy throne ere heaven was made. Or earth, thy humble footstool, laid." Short Meti'e. Short metre stanzas contain three lines of six syllables and one of eight syllables — the third line being the longest and con- taining four iambic feet ; as : "Sweet is the time of Spring, When nature's charms appear; The birds with ceaseless pleasure sing And hail the opening year." Coiiuuon Metre. Iambic verse of seven feet, divided into two lines, the first containing four and the latter three feet, makes what is known as common metre ; as : "When all thy mercies, O my God ! My rising soul surveys. Transported with the view, I'm lost In wonder, love and praise." Iambic Verse. In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, and the odd ones are short. It consists of the following measures : Measure 1st. Iambic of Eight Feet, or Octometer> **0 all I ye peo| -plfi, clap | y6ur hands, | 5nd with | triuni|phant voic| -es sing; No force [ th6 mlghtl-y pow'r | withstands | of God | the tl| -niversj - al King." Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or exchanged for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines ; thus : "The hour | is come | — the cher| -ish'd hour, When, from | the bus| -y world | set free, I seek I at length | my lone| -ly bower, And muse | in si| -lent thought | on thee." Measure 3nd. Iambic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. "The Lord | descend] -ed from 1 above | and b6w'd| the hfiavj -ens high." Modern poets have divided this kind of verse into alternate lines of four and of three feet ; thus : "O blind I t6 each | indull -gent aim Of pow'r I supremel -ly wise, Who fanl-cy haplpiness | in aught The hand | of Heav'n | denies ! " Measure 3rd. Iambic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. "Thy realm | f6revl-er lasts, 1 thy own | M6ssl|-ah reigns." This is the Alexandrine; it is seldom used except to com- plete a stanza in an ode, or to close a period in heroic rhyme. 3Ieasure 4th. lamLbic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. "F6r praise | too dear] -ly lOv'd | or warm| -ly sought Enfee|-bles all j inter| -nil strength | of thouglit." This is the regular English heroic. It is perhaps the only measure suitable for blank verse. The Elegiac stanza consists of four heroics rhyming alternately ; thus : "Enough I has Heav'n | indulg'd 1 of joy 1 below To tempt ! our tar| -riance in | this lov'd | retreat; Enough I has Heav'n | ordain'd | of use] -ful woe, To make | us lanl-guish for | a hap | -pier seat." Measure 5th. Iambic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. "The j3ys 1 above | arc Qn] -d5rst5od And rel|-ish'd on]-ly by [ the good." Measure 6th. Iambic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. "Blue light] -nings singe | the waves, And thunl -dCr rends 1 the rock." / \ -^ V •V « « p i- a \ A B 1 COMPOSITION. 37 1 » Measure 7th. Iambic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 9Iva8iire ^tli. Trochaic of Two Feet, or Dlmetor. *'Tlieir ]uve I and 5\ve "Fancy 1 viewing, Supply 1 thS liw." Joys en| -suing." Sleasure 8th. lanibic uf One Feet, or Monometer. SINGLE RHYME. "How bright "Tflmult 1 cEase, Th6 light." Sink to 1 puucc." In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied by introducing Alea«ure 8th. Trochaic of One Foot, or Monometer. a trochee ; as : "Changing, "Planets 1 and suns | run Ia\v|-less through | thS sky." Ranging." By a syn^eresis of the two short syllables, or perhaps by mere substitution, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iam- bus, or a dactyl for a trochee ; as : Anapestlc Verse. "OVr manl-^ a/z-fjl-en, nian| -y aji\-ery Aip." In Anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third syllable. Trochaic Verse. The first foot of an anapestic line may be an iambus, Pleasure 1st. Anapestic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and "At the close 1 6f the day, | when the ham [-let Is sUlI, the even ones are short, Singlc-rhyiued Trochaic omits the And mor-\X2\s. the sweet | of forgcl| -fulness prove." final short syllable, that it may end with a long one. This kind HYPERMETER WITH DOUBLE RHYME. of verse is the same as iambic would be without the initial short syllable. Iambics and ti-ochaics often occur in the same poem. "In aword, I so completel-Iy forestall'd | were the wish]- es. Even har|-mony struck | from the noise | of the dishl-es," Measure 1st. Trochaic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. HYPERMETER WITH TRIPLE RHYME. "Once up 1 -on & | midnight ] dreary, j while I | pondered, ) weak and | weary, Over [ m5ny a ['quaint and | cQriOus | volume | of for] -gotten ( lore, "Lean Tom, | when I saw ] him, last week, [ on his horse \ awry^ Threatened loud|-ly to turn | me to stone | with his sor\-ccry,'''* While 1 1 nodded, j nearly | napping, | sudden] -ly there | came a 1 Measure 2ncl. Anapestic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. tapping. "I ammonl-arch Of all | Isun-gy; As of 1 some one | gently | rapping, I rapping | at my [ chamber [ door." My right \ there is none | to dispute." Measure 3ntl. Trochaic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. Measure 3rd. Anapestic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. "Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and | set me | safe from | trouble; "When I look 1 6n my beys. Shame thou [ those who | seek my | soul, re | -ward their | mischief | They renew | all my joys." double." Measure 4th. Anapestic of One Foot, or Monometer. SINGLE RHYME. "On the land "Nightand | morning | were at ] meeting j over [ "\Vater|-]oo; Let mc stand." Cocks had [ sung their | earliest j greeting; j faint and | low they 1 crew.'* Dactylic Verse. Pleasure 3rd. Trochaic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. "On a 1 mountain | strctch'd be|-n5ath a | hoary ] will6w. In the pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first sylla- Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'd the [ rolling j billow." ble of each successive three; that is, on the first, the fourth, SINGLE RHYME. the seventh, the tenth syllable, etc. Full dactylic generally "Lonely j in the I forest, | subtle [ from his | birth, forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is Lived a | necro] -niancer, [ wondrous | son of | earth." omitted the rhyme is double ; when both, single. Dactylic Measure 4tli. Trochaic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. with single rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without its initial short syllables. Dactylic measure is rather uncom- "V'Irtue's 1 brlght'nlng ] ray shall | beam f(5r|Sver." mon, and, when employed, is seldom perfectly regular. SINGLE RHYME, "Idle 1 after 1 dinner, | In his | chair. Measure 1st. Dactylic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. Sat a 1 farmer, | ruddy, | fat and | fair." "NImr6d th5 | liQnt5r w.ls | miglity in | liQntIng, Snil | famed as tliS 1 ruler af 1 cities 6f j yOre; Measure 5th. Trochaic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. TJabel and | Ercch, and | Accad, and [ Calneh, from | Shinar*s "RoQnd a 1 holy | c^Im dIf|-fQsIng, fair 1 region his | name afar | bore." Love of 1 peace and | lonely | musing." Measure 3nd. Dactylic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. SINGLE RHYME, "Out of the 1 kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by | angels "ResUess 1 mortals 1 toll fur | naught, o'er I Satan vici -torious, Bliss in \ vain from | earth is | sought." All that of; -fendeth, th.at | lieth, that | faileth to | honor his ) Measure 6th> Trochaic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. name ever 1 glorious.** "When our | hearts arc [ mSurnlng." Measure 3rcl. Dactylic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. SINGLE RHYME. "Time, thou art I ever in I motion, on [ wheels of the I days, years and 1 ages; \ J "In the I daysOf I old Restless as ] waves of the | ocean, when | Eunis or | Boreas | 1 ' Stories | plainly | told." rages.'* , e' / ^ g , V to ^ -» O V*" \ r.s COMPOSITION. EXAMPLE WITHOUT RHYME. "This is the | forest pri| -mcval; but | where are the | hearts that be| -neath it I-eap'd lilie the | roe, when he | hears in the | woodland the | voice of the | liuntsman?" Measure 4th. Dactylic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. "Xow thou dost I welcome me, | welcome mc | from the d.Trk | sea. Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free." Measure 5th. Dactylic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. "Boys will an|-tlcipjte, | lavish, and | dissipate All that ytSur | busy pate | hoarded with | care ; And, in their | foolishness, | passion and | mulishness, Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your | pray'r.' Measure Gth. Dactylic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. "Ev5rsing ] merrily, | merrily." Bleasure "fh. Dactylic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. "Free frdm sa| -tiety, Care and anxj-iety. Charms in val-riety Fall to his I share." Dactylic of One Foot, or Monometer. "Fearfully, TearfuUv." 31ea«ure 8th. Caesural Pause. A slight pause should be made, in reading poetry, at the end of every line, though the sense may not require it. Often a pause is made in or near the middle of the line, especially when it is a long one. This brings out the meaning and improves the rhythm and effect. This pause is called the cissural pause (i.e., cutting). TXxt final pause is that occurring at the end of a line, and should not be distinctly marked when the sense does not require it. Varieties of Poetry. Poetry is of various kinds, such as Epic, Dramatic, Lyric, Elegiac, Pastoral and Didactic. £pic Poetry is the most dignified. An epic poem is the recital of some illustrious enterprise in a poetical form. The action or subject of an epic poem must have three proper- ties: it must be one; it must be great; it must be interesting. One action or enterprise must constitute its subject Homer's Iliad, Virgil's .Eneid and Milton's Paradise Lost are examples of epic poetiy. Didactic Poetry is written with the express intention to convey instruction and knowledge. It may be executed in different ways. The poet may treat some instructive subject in a regular form, or he may inveigh against particular vices or make some moral observations on human life and character. Descriptive Poetry is indicated by its name. In general, description is introduced as an embellishment, not as the subject of a regular work. Various Kinds of Poems. There are many kinds of poems, of which the following are the chief designations: A Song is a short poem to be sung or uttered with musical modulations. A Chant is a song or words suited to musical tones with- out musical measure. A Hyillll is a song of praise, generally of a religious char- acter. An Ode is similar to a song or hymn. There are four de- nominations of these. I. Odes addressed to God or composed on religious subjects. 2. Heroic odes, which concern the cele- bration of heroes and great actions. 3. Moral or philosophical odes, which refer chiefly to virtue, friendship and humanity. 4. Festive and amorous odes, which are calculated merely for amusement or pleasure. A Paean is a loud and joyous song, a song of triumph or rejoicing. A Ballad is a popular song, narrative or sentimental, in simple, homely verses. An Epithalamiuni is a nuptial song or poem in praise of the bride or bridegroom. The Song of Solomon in the Bible is a specimen. An Epigram is a short poem treating only of one thing and ending with some lively, ingenious and natural thought. A Sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, two stanzas of four verses each and two of three each, and so arranged that in the first part the first line is made to rhyme with the fourth, fifth and eighth, the second rhyming with the ^hird, sixth and seventh, while in the second part the first, third and fifth, and the second, fourth and sixth, also rhyme with each other. A Cantata is a poem set to music, comprising choruses and solos and recitations, arranged in a somewhat dramatic manner. A Canzonet is a short song in one, two or three parts. A Charade may be in prose as well as poetry. It is based upon a word, the parts of which taken separately are significant of their meaning and that of the whole word. An Epitaph is a brief descriptive sentence, in prose or verse, which is used on a tombstone. A Satire is a composition, generally poetical, holding up vice or folly to reprobation ; a keen or severe exposure of what in public or private morals deserves rebuke ; an invective poem. A Parody is a kind of poetical pleasantry in which what is written on a subject, generally serious, is altered and applied in a ludicrous vein. A Prologue is a poem introductory to a play or discourse, generally spoken before the play begins. An Epilogue is a short poem reviewing the main inci- dents of a play, spoken by the actor or actors at the termination of a performance. An Impromptu is a verse or poetical composition writ- ten oiT-hand without previous study. An Acrostic is a composition, usu.ally in verse, in which the first or last letters of the lines, in their order, or of words, one in each line, form a name or sentence. Poetical Peculiarities or License. The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in which poets indulge and are indulged, and which are termed poetic license, which is a deviation from the strict rules of gram- V COMPOSITION. 39 / 1. They very often omit the articles; as: " What dreadful pkasvirc ! there to stand sublime Like shipivreck'd mariner on desert -waste! " 2. They abbreviate many nouns ; as, amaze for amazement; corse for corpse ; fount iox fountain. 3. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose or are used but rarely; as, bcnison,fane, ken, welkin. 4. They introduce the noun self after another noun in the possessive case ; as : "Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom." 5. They often place adjectives after their nouns ; as : •* Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue.'^ 6. They place before the verb nouns or other words that usually come after it ; and after it, those that usually come be- fore it; as : " No jealousy their daxvn of love o*crcast, Nor blasted zvere their zuedded days with strife.** 7. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not liter- ally belong ; as : " Or drozusy tinklings lull the distant folds.'* 8. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities (;.<•., adjectives for nouns) ; as : *' Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or nezv. Sublime or dreadful, on earth, sea or sky.** 9. They substitute quality for manner {i.e., adjectives for ad- verbs) ; as : "Thither fo«//«Kn/ pilgrims crowded still.'* 10. They fonn new compound epithets ; as: '• In zvorld- rejoicing s\.:i\.c, it moves sublime." 11. They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as : '*Near and more near the billows rise." 12. They form many adjectives in _)' which are not in common use ; as, agleamy ray ; towcry height ; vasty deep. 13. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form ; as, drear for dreary ; scant for scanty ; ebon for ebony. 14. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, or are used but seldom ; as, azuie, darksome, rapt, sear. 15. They employ personal pronouns and introduce their nouns afterwards ; as : *'// curled not Tweed alone, that breeze.** 16. They sometimes omit the relative of the nominative case ; as : " For is there aught in sleep can charm tlie wise?" 17. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the rela- tive ; as : *' Wlto never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys," iS. They remove relative pronouns and other connections in- to the body of the clauses ; as : " Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." 19. They make intransitive verbs transitive ; as : " A while he stands, Gazin^the inverted landscape, half afraid To meditate the blue profound below." 20. They give to the imperative mood the first and the tliird person ; as : " Tiiru Ti/e a moment fancy's rapid flight." " Be man's peculiar v/ork his sole delight " 21. They employ ca«, (■!»«/h\ — There is one accomplishment, in particular, which I wouUl earnestly recommend to you. Cultivate assiduously the ability to read well. LiOUg^ Quantity is used in expressing that which is grand, sublime, gloomy or humble. Examptf. — O thou Eternal One ! whose presence bright AH space doth occupy, all motion j^^aide. SllOI't Quantity is used to express sentiment light, joyous, gay and brisk. It also expresses haste, fear, command, indignation, etc Example, — The year is goin^, let him go ; Ring out the false, ring in the true. Rate. Rate is the degree of rapid- ity or slowness with which sev- eral successive words are utter- ed. It may be Natural, Slow or Fast. Bi^atural Rate is that which a person naturally uses in reading or speaking. Example. — O j^ood painter, tell me true. Has yourhand the cunning to draw Sliapes of things that you never saw? SlO'W Rate may denote horror and awe ; it should be used in language serious, sub- lime and pathetic. ' Example. — Meanwhile the shapeless iron mass Came moving o'er the wave. As gloomy as a passing hearse, As silent as the grave. Fast Rate is used to ex- press sentiment lively, joyous, impassioned and vehement. Example. — Hurrah! the foes are moving! Of fife and steed, and trump and drum, and roaring culverin I Pause. Pause is the suspension of the voice. Poetic and Oratori- cal Pauses express emotion. Rhetorical Pauses are those de- manded by the sense and structure of a sentence. Grammatical Pauses are those indicated by the usual marks of punctuation, and Prosodical Pauses are those used only in verse. But in this connection it is best to make three divisions, \\i.: Nat- ural Pause, Long Pause and Short Pause. Natural Pause is used in unimpassioncd language and ordinary description. Example. — Have you heard the tale of the Aloe plant. Away in the sunny dime ? By humble growth of a hundred years It reaches its blooming time. I^ong Pause usually accompanies Slow Rate or a change of sentiment, and marks a suspension of the sense. Example. — Pause a moment. I heard a footstep. Listen now. I heard it again. But it is going from us. It sounds fainter — still fainter. It is gone. Short Pause accompanies Fast Rate, and is character- istic of haste, fear, etc. Example. — John, be quick I Get some water ! Throw the powder overboard! It cannot be reached ! Jump into the boat, then! Shove off ! There goes the powder — thank Heaven, we are safe ! THE AWKWARD SPEAKER. Hark to the mingled din STRESS. Stress has much to do with the power, beauty and general eflfcct of a sentence. It is that finishing, polishing touch which causes the thought to stand out in relief — throwing it vividly upon the background, with its profile well defined, its lights and shadows harmoniously blended — rendering it com- plete, beautiful and sym- metrical. There are six distinct kinds of Stress, viz.: Initial, Pinal, Median, Compound, Thorough and Tremulous. Initial Stress is an ex- plosive force on the first part of a syllable or word. It is char- acteristic of lively, joyous de- scription. Example. — I come from haimts of coot and hern ; I make a sudden sally. And sparkle out among the fern, To bicker down a valley. The Final Stress is an explosive force on the latter ]>art of a syllable or word. It is used in expressing defiance, de- termination, or intensity of feeling or purpose. Example.— .\ breath of submission we breathe not ; The sword we have drawn we will sheathe not. IMedJan Stress, or the Swell, characteristic of the Oro- tund (Quality and Effusive Form, is most marked in the sublime, but it is found in all classes of literature, sometimes occurring on a single word and again continually through an entire sen- tence. jE.ra«///.-.— Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! Conipountl Stress is a union of the Initial and Final in one word. It is indicative of surprise, irony and determi- nation. Example. — Gone to be marricdl Gone to swear a peacel Shall Lewis have Blanche, and Blanche these prozince.< T r \ fv 44 ~ ELOCUTION. Thorough Stress is an abrupt, heavy force, used in command, fearlessness and braggadocio. Example, — Blaze, with your serried columns ! I will not bend the knee ! The shackles ne'er again shall bind The arm which now is free. Tremulous or lutermitteut Stress is used in fear, joy and laughter, in the broken voice of sorrow, and in imitation of the feeble voice of age. Example. — Ho, why dost thou shiver and shake. Gaffer Gray, And why does thy nose look so blue.^ " 'Tis the weather is cold, 'tis I've grown very old. And my doublet is not very new, well-a-day." Emphasis. " Emphasis," it has been said, " is in speech what coloring is in painting. It admits of all possible degrees, and must, to in- dicate a particular degree of distinction, be more or less intense, according to the groundwork or current melody of the dis- course." It consists of any peculiarity of utterance which will call special attention to a particular word or words in a sentence. Thus it will be seen that emphasis may be of force, stress, qual- ity, pitch or rate. No definite rule can be given for the use of emphasis. It is so subtile, its shadings so delicate, that it can never be cabled to inflexible rules. But in general we should emphasize: 1. Words, phrases or clauses that are particularly significant. 2. Words, phrases or clauses that contrast. 3. Anything repeated for the sake of emphasis. 4. X succession of objects or ideas. Word Individuality. The "royal road" to success in reading lies in a true concep- tion of the spirit of the piece and a faithful delineation of the author's meaning. Endeavor to grasp the ideas, make them a part of yourself and clotlie your hearers with them. Another element of power lies in //a^ciH^ «//o» words and giving them their full individual expression. For instance, the word firm should usually be spoken in a firm tone of voice, strong in a strong tone, light in a light tone, grand in a manner conveying an idea of grandeur. Word Individuality. Expressive Intonation, Inii- tative Modulation and Sound to Sense are the terms used to express the act of Jikaying upon words, sounding the syllables or intoning the vowels in such a way as to more fully bring out the meaning of the word by its sound. Old, sweet, long, gay, cold, deep, roar, whisper, fierce, wild, growl, titter, gush, burst, dash — these and similar words may be rendered infinitely more expressive by giving each word its own peculiar individual character. The following table of derivatives indicates the peculiar char- acter of words : St denotes firmness or strength ; as, stand, stay, stout, stop, stamp, etc Sir indicates violent force or energy; as, strive, stress, strength, strife, etc. Thr indicates forcible motion; as, throw, throb, thrust, threaten, thrill, etc. Gl indicates smoothness or silent motion ; as, glib, glide, glow, etc. IVr denotes obliquit)' or distortion ; as, wry, wrest, wrestle, wring, wrath, wrangle, etc. Sw implies silent agitation or lateral motion ; a.%,sway, sweep, szverve, swing, etc. • SI denotes gentle fall or less observable motion ; as, sly, slide, slip, slit, slack, sling, etc. .S^ indicates dissipation or expansion ; as, spread, sprout, sprinkle, split, spoil, spring, etc. — ash indicates something actingnimbly or sharply ; as, crash, dash, rash, flash, lash, splash, etc. — ush denotes something acting more obtusely and dully ; as, crush, brush, hush, gush, blush, etc. Analysis and Grouping. In reading it is necessary first to analyze the thought, to de- cide in the mind what portions are most prominent, and these should receive greatest emphasis. The subordinate thoughts should be properly grouped together and expressed in such a manner as will clearly show them to be subordinate. To use a figure of speech, let the more important parts stand in the fore- ground, giving them intensest light ; the auxiliai-y thoughts may repose in the shadows of the background. In general the sub- ject, predicate, object and connectives of a sentence should re- ceive emphatic force. Give the same degree of force to words having a close grammatic connection, but separated from each other in the sentence. The intervening portions shoifld be read parenthetically. Transition. Transition is the art of changing easily, rapidly and completely from one modulation or form of voice to another. It should be carefully practiced. Climax. It has been previously stated that a succession of objects or ideas should receive emphasis ; that is, each of the series should be made more emphatic than the one immediately preceding. This gives a constantly increasing emphatic scale. The extreme point of the scale is called the Climax. There the vocal ef- forts should reach their culmination, giving great strength to the sentence. Repose. Repose is the sublime emblem of infinite power. It is reserve force that is immeasurable. He who by violent exertion shows that he has reached his limit loses that greater concep- tion that we may have formed regarding his powers. Where Climax is employed in speech, in order to convey the greatest possible idea of power it is necessary to make the concluding portion of the sentence with that repose which indicates unlim- ited reserve strength. It has been well said, "The highest power is mastery, and the highest master)- is self-mastery, and of self-mastery repose is the emblem." /■ Ai / ELOCUTION. 45 Impersonation. In Impersonation the reader or speaker puts himself in the place of another, using the tone and stj-le required by the assumed character. This, however, should not be resorted to when the beauty or sublimity of thought contained in a passage would be weakened thereby, as an assumed form always de- tracts from the ideas by directing our attention to the manner. But there are many times when person.ition really adds to the beauty and effectiveness of the rendering. The judgment of the reader must decide when it should be employed, and in what particular cases it may be omitted, ^^'hen impersonating the voice may be changed, as well as the general manner. A heavy or light voice, fast or slow rate, low or high pitch will often be a sufficient change. Old at^e requires a feeble or cracked voice, higher pitch, slower rate, gentler force, a greater use of the in- flections, and an apparent toothlessness easily secured by re- tracting the lower jaw and drawing the underlip as far as possi- ble over the teeth. Children's voices are imitated by light force, many rising and falling slides, using great expression. Let the throat be contracted that the voice may appear to be formed in the front part of the mouth. In imitating the voiets of women the reader should employ greater or lieavier force, as required. Dialogue Reading. In dialogue reading several impersonated voices may occur, varying one from another by changes of force, pitch, rate or quality. As 3. general rule, the direction of the eyes and head should change with each transition of character. When only two speakers are represented, the whole body may change position, but when several appear a slight change only is required. In representing two characters the gaze is alternated left and right, but the descriptive portions (those not spoken by either of the characters) should always be given front. Let changes of position and voice be sudden and decided, especially so when one speaker is inteiTupted by another. -^C K. -^jcQ E S T U R E.3|£^ vffiv "h. T Elocution may be divided into two parts : that which is heard, and that which is seen. The former is called Toice ; the latter. Gesture. Both are important and indispensable to its proper study. The manner may be so out of harmony that it entirely contradicts the words, and an idea is conveyed directly opposite to that intended. It is important, then, that we study manner as well as matter. A pleasing style of delivery adds much to the effectiveness of a production, and in this Gesture plays an important part. It is absolutely essential to the per- fect success of vocal delivery that it be accompanied by a man- ner that will not provoke criticism, nor in any way draw the hearer's attention from the thought uttered. It should rather aid that thought by conveying to the eye what the voice sends to the ear. Gesture should always be an assistant, never a hin- drance, as it certainly is when not properly used. Those who naturally employ many gestures should learn how to correctly use them ; those who use few should cultivate the use of more by making themselves familiar with the laws that govern intel- ligent gesticulation. Double Gestures have the same signifi- cance as single gestures. They are used for variety and greater effect and force. In speaking, do not employ one hand exclu- sively, but occasionally use the other to avoid sameness. Rules Governing Gesture. 4>esture is that part of elocution which appeals to the eye. It relates to Posi/ion and Movements. POSITION OF THE BODY. The position of the body should be in harmony with the character of the thought. Vigorous expression requires a firm posture ; beauty of sentiment, a graceful attitude. The position should be changed, not too often, as quietly and with as few- movements as possible. The arms, when not in use, should hang easily at the sides, and one foot should be slightly in ad- vance, the head being held naturally erect The speaker should always take his position near the front of the stage, to be better seen and heard. In reading, always stand or sit erect, with lungs well inflated. MOVEMEXTS. Movements of the body are necessary to give character to the delivery, but they must be natural, graceful and appropriate. The Head. The Head should maintain an easy position and allow the eyes to move deliberately over the audience. Do not stare into vacancy while before a company, but fix your gaze upon the in- dividuals composing the assemblage. Avoid an excessive use of the head, both in reading and speaking. In reading, the eyes should be raised from the book as much as possible. Prac- tice will give facility in reading long sentences with a single glance at the book. The expression of the face should reflect the character of the thought. v_ 46 ELOCUTION. The Hauds in gesture should be used easily and grace- fully. Frequent practice before a mirror will be advantageous in securing freedom and grace of movement. The hands may be Supine, Prone, Vertical, Pointing and Cloiched. The Supine Hand lies easily opened, with the palm upward. It is a common fonn of gesture. The Prone H.'iND is opened with the palm downward. It is used to denote negative as- sertion, superposition, etc. The Vertical Hand is opened, with the pa!m outward from the speaker. It is used in warding off and in de- noting a limit. The Pointing Hand, forefinger extended, is used in designating or pointing out any partic- ular thing or place. Or- dinarily, the hand is loosely opened, but, when t li e gesture i s emphatic, it is tightly closed. Tire Clenched Hand denotes intense action of the will or passions. T!ie accompanying il- lustration, with explan- ations appended, shows the principal forms of hand gestures. The Arms. The Arms should be used naturally and with decision. In forci- ble utterance they move in straight lines; in graceful expression they move in curves, but even in the curves they should show that they are servants sent to per- form certain duties, and that they are guided in every motion by a power beyond them- selves. .Sometimes, in familiar gesture, the forearm only is used, but ordinarily the arm moves freely from the shoulder. Hand and Arm Gestures. Hand and Arm iit'sturcs me made in four general directions, viz. : front, OHique, Lateral and Backboard. Each of these is subdivided into Horizontal, Descending and Ascending. POSITIONS OK THE II.\XDS. I. Simple :ifTirmation. 2. Emphatic dt-claratinn. 3. .Vpathy or prostration. 4. EiKT^ctic appeal. 5, Negation or denial. 6. Violent repulsion. 7. Indexing or cautioning. S. Determination or anger. 9, Supplication, lot Gentle en- treaty. II. Carelessness. 12. Argumentation. 13. Earnest entreaty. 14. Resig- nation. Front Gestures are used to designate or to illustrate that which is near to us, whether it be an object, a thought or a feeling. In addressing an object, real or ideal, we suppose it to be placed in the direction of tlte Front gesture. Oblique Gestures are less emphatic and more general in their application than the Front Gestures. They relate to things indefinitely. Lateral Gestures denote expansion, ex- treme distance, breadth, or the placing of per- sons, objects or ideas in contrast with one an- other. Backward Gestures indicate things remote, obscure or hidden. Horizontal G e s - tures are employed in general allusions ; they indicate a level or equality and belong to the realm of the Intel- lect. Descending Ges- tures denote inferior- ity or inequality, and, when emphatic, they s h o w determination and purpose. They belong to the Will. Ascending Ges- tures denote superior- ity, greatness, an un- folding or lifting up figuratively or literally. They belong to the Imagination. Make all gestures with decision. When the gesture is com- pleted, let the arm fall slowly to the si de. Ne7'er allow the arms to Sluing. T[lE THI(EE F0I(1V|^ OF ^pEEdH. ConTersation. This is the simplest form of speech, and it is the most natural. In conversation we are ourselves ; we use no forced, unnatural style of utterance. Always endeavor in \ l^ ELOCUTION. 47 / conversation to express the best thoughts in the best manner, avoiding those subjects not of general interest to the listeners, using the best language at command. Iteading^. In conversation our ideas are evolved from c ar own minds. In reading the thought may be the same and the manner the same, though the phraseology differ. In read- ing our own composition, we are too liable to fall into a read- ing tone — an finnatural mode of expression. This droning process causes the hearer to lose a large portion of the thought which he would receive were the reading intclligcitt instead of mechanical. In emotional reading, he receives all the thought, and it is intensified in its conveyance to him. Wicn you desire to read luell, be sure to previously familiariiie yourself with tlie words, arrangement of paragraphs and logical connection of all the thoughts contained in the piece of reading. Always hold your book or paper in such a way that you can readily take in a whole line at once. Allow the letters to be about fourteen inches from the eye, not directly below, nor horizontal with the eye, but half-way between these two positions. Look off the book as much as possible. PllTlIiC Speaking. This is conversation magnified. The same forms of voice are employed as in conversation ; the difference lies in a symmetrical enlargement of the sentences. In this, do not distort, but preserve the form in its simplicity and you will ha'i'e it in its greatest purity and power. Apply all rules of elocution and rhetoric to your conversation, and you will have the form best suited to public address. Always make a marked distinction between the conversational (or explana- tory) and the oratorical and dramatic portions. Studiously avoid anything like an oratorical style in simple descriptions or narratives. Never appear in public without thorough prepara- tion, and be sure that this is succeeded by a period of rest, that you may be in your best condition. Tone the voice just before beginning your vocal effort. In your approach, do not appear hurried ; but let your manner be graceful and your bearing dig- nified. This will insure respect. Put yourself at ease by a strong mental effort and begin deliberately, gradually warming up with your subject. Never acquire the useless habit of drinking water during a vocal performance. Water will not supply the nat- ural moisture of the vocal organs, and if they are properly used there is no necessity for artificial moistening. Pay special at- tention to the articulation, and let it always be distinct. Deliver the sounds sharply and correctly, and your audience will ap- preciate your efforts, though they may not themselves know wherein lies the charm of the voice to which, they listen. DRAMATIC ACTION. Dramatic action differs from oratory, though it employs the same vocal expression. The orator is always himself, in his be3t condition ; the actor acts an assumed character which would often not be consistent with the dignity of the orator. In oratory we may borrow certain gestures (termed Special Ges- tures) from the art of acting; hence it is necessary for us to be informed as to the significance and proper method of using these gestures. In acting, the moderate step may become a stride. Actors are permitted to move in a lateral direction, while the orator can only advance and recede from his audience. Theaclormay also stamp, start or kneel. These demonstrations are forbidden the orator. An erect position is the only one suitable to the dignity of the orator. In acting, grief depresses, and pride throws the body backward. The head is raised in arrogance, inclined in languor or indif- ference, and hung in shame. The head may take the following positions: Inclined, Erect, Assenting, Denying, Shaking, Tossing, Aside. Considered in reference to the direction of the eyes, it may be Averted, Downward, Upward, Around or on Vacancy. The countenance may take the expression of anger, shame, contempt, pride, despair, terror or any other violent passion. In oratory this is not admissible. The hand may take the following positions : HoUov), Hold- ing or Grasping (according to the degree of energy), Applied (palms together), Clasped, Crossed (upon the breast). Folded (fingers of right hand between the thumb and forefinger of the left). Enclosed (back of the one within the palm of the other), Touching (points of the thumb and fingers of each hand brought into contact), Wringing (clasped hand, lowered, and separated at wrists, but without fingers disengaged), Eliumer- ating (first finger of tlie right hand laid successively upon first and other fingers of the left). The arms may be Folded (crossed and enclosing each other). Akimbo (one or both hands on hips, elbows extended at one or both sides), Reposed (elbows nearly resting on the hips, one hand holding the wrist of the other— a female position). In designating the manner of motion. Gesture may be con- sidered as Noting (the hand being drawn back and raised, then advanced and by gentle stroke depressed), Projecting (arm thrust forward in the direction in which the hand may be point- ing), Retracting (the arm drawn back prcparator>- to projecting or to avoid an object). Waving (fingers pointing downward, the hand flung sm.artly upward), the Flourish (in which the hand describes a circle or part of a circle above the head), the Sweep (the hand making a curved movement, descending from the opposite shoulder and rising high above the head ; or the reverse, changing in the first case from the Supine to the Ver- tical, and in the second from Vertical to Supine ; sometimes a Double Sweep is used, combining both movements), Deckoning (wilh wliole hand or simply the forefinger). Repressing (the op- posite of Beckoning), Advancing (the hand moved slowly for- ward and upward to the horizontal, the whole body aiding the action, and a step in advance being taken), Springing (the hand, having nearly arrived at the limit of the gesture, springs suddenly up to it by a quick movement of the wrist). Striking (hand and arm). Bending (preparation for Strikmg), Recoiling (a return to position after Striking), Throwing (arm flung out- ward in Uie direction of a person addressed), Clinch ing (clench- ed hand raised threateningly), Collecting (arm sweeps inward toward the body). Shaking (ixt^m\x\ovi?, motion given to arm and hand). Pressing (the hand being laid upon any part, the elbow is raised and the fingers contracted), Rejecting (vertical hand pushed toward the object, head averted). / \ 48 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 3USINESSt>o oclt.'i'^lX) 30G1ALI» ^Correspondences e^ — <"^— srxk'; -*-^- — ■I Letter-Writing in All Its Korms. ^tft(§^G U ETTER-WRITING in its true ex- /Bw cellence can scarcely be I'egarded as an art. Instruction may, no doubt, be imparted through the medium of rules, but those appli- cable to the subject are few and, at the same time, of the simplest character. The following observations will, it is hoped, be found of some practical use to young persons, and assist them in avoiding errors and in acquiring a degree of proficiency in epistolary composition. It should always be borne in mind that letter- writing is but "speaking by the pen." The first endeavor of a writer should, therefore, be to express himself as easily and naturally as in conversation, though with more method and conciseness. STYLE. The style should be determined in some measure by the nature of the subject, but in a still greater degree by the relative positions of the writer and the person addressed. On important subjects, the composition is expected to be for- cible and impressive , on lighter subjects, easy and vivacious ; in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation, lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful; to inferiors, courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relations, affectionate. An old writer justly remarks: "Much has been said on the epistolary style, as if any one style could be appropriated to the great variety of subjects which are treated of in letters. Ease, it is true, should distinguish familiar letters, written on the common affairs of life, because the mind is usually at ease while they are composed. But even in these, topics incidentally arise which require elevated ex- pression and an inverted construction. Not to raise the style on these occasions is to write unnaturally ; for nature teaches us to express animated emotions of every kind in animated language. The dependent writes unnaturally to a superior in the style of familiarity ; the suppliant writes unnaturally if he rejects the figures dictated by distress. Conversation admits of every style but the poetic; and what are letters but written conversations ?" Arrangement of ideas. The purport of every letter should be well considered before its commencement — not only with a view to the attain- ment of a thorough clearness of expression, which is of pri- mary importance, but likewise that the principal points to be discussed m.ay be prominently brought forward, while those of a trivial nature are slightly mentioned. It requires, how- ever, not only a certain amount of tact, but some quickness of perception, to avoid the stiffness and formality which are incident to the arrangement of the subject, and which are great defects in letter-writing. Ornamentation. A redundancy of ideas and of language is a common fault with those capable of writing with facility. As a rule, there- fore, all striving after effect or attempt at ornamentation should be avoided ; and as the chief charm of a letter is its origin- ality, writers sliould not avail themselves either of hackneyed X \ \ BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 49 expressions or of ideas borrowed from others. An exhibition of epistolary talent is far less likely to gratify a correspondent than an easy, free and faithful expression of the sentiments of the writer; and by thus expressing himself he will also naturally avoid any excess of flattery or exaggerated profes- sions of regard, so peculiarly objectionable in a letter, and at variance with all delicicy of taste. At the same time, a strict adherence to the nAtur.il expression of the thoughts will grad- ually introduce a degree of ease, fluency and force which may be carried to a high degree of perfection. Long Sentences. Unpracticed persons will at first find it desirable to make tlieir sentences as short as possible, that they may have them completely under control. Long sentences, even when well constructed, frequently occasion some degree of obscurity, and are less forcible than short ones. Parentheses, though sometimes necessary, likewise tend to obscure the meanmg of a writer, besides weakening the effect of sentences ; they should therefore be avoided as much as possible. COMPOSITION OF LETTERS. As regards the composition of letters, it is generally desir- able to commence with some introductory remarks, not as a mere formality, but for the purpose of conciliating attention to the main subject of communication, which may otherwise strike too a'.>ruptly upon the mind of the reader. The intro- duction should be followed by the development of the topics for discussion, according to the importance attaching to each ; and the conclusion should, when occasion requires, be de- voted to the confirmation or summing up of what has been previously stated, and to expressions of regard or affection. Tautology. Tautology, or the repetition of the s.ame words, should be guarded against, as forming a blemish of a striking character. In this effort, the continual need of words of like meaning will soon render a writer familiar with a variety of synonyms ; and the possession of a copious vocabulary will conduce greatly to the general freedom of the composition. Postscripts. Postscripts are generally indicative of thoughtlessness, and should be avoided, except when necessary for the purpose of mentioning some circumstance that has occurred after a letter has been written. To convey any assurance of regard or alTeclion by means of a postscript is a great impropriety, as appearing to imply that the sentiments are so slightly im- pressed upon the mind of the writer as to be almost forgotten. There are special circumstances, however, which may render an expression of feeling in a postscript even more impressive than in the body of the letter; but such cases are exceptional, and must be left to the judgment of the practiced writer. Quotations. Quotations shoul" not be introduced too frequently, for, though a short and appropriate one, occasionally given, is both effective and elegant, yet to give them prominence in a letter appears pedantic and affected. The common use of French or proverbial phrases also offends against good taste. Underlinings. Underlinings and interlineations are objectionable. A well constructed sentence will seldom require the emphasis to be marked by underlining any of the words, and a frequent re- petition of the practice is not complimentary to the under- standing of a correspondent. Any occasion for interlineations may usually be superseded by the exercise of care in writing and by a little forethought. Grammatical Correctness. It is scarcely necessary to observe that correctness in grammar and spelling is of the highest importance, and that no elegance of diction compensates for imperfection in these respects, but rather serves to render more glaring errors so essentially indicative of a defective education. When the rules of grammar are understood, the constant attention to apply them will soon render them familiar, and, at the same time, tend to promote readiness of expression. Abbreviations in spelling, even though warranted by general practice, have a certain appearance of laxity, and detract much from a good style. Contractions and Abbreviations. Be careful and do not use tlie character ,j- except in the title of firms; as, Brown & Cox, A. T. Scott & Co. As a general thing, characters are to be avoided. The economy of time and space secured by their use hardly compensates for the mutilated appearance of the words and the liability to error involved. Don't, can't, isn't, and other contractions of the same class, are allowable in familiar letters, and where familiar conversation is quoted, but not in any graver style. Figures of Arithmetic. Numbers, except dates and sums of money, should be spelled in full, unless exceeding three words in length. Never write, " I saw 5 birds," " We have 8 cats." Capitals. Capitals should be cautiously used in letter-writing. We should certainly not confine the writer of a lett^ to the rigid rules observed in printed literature, because an impor- tant word may sometimes be graced with a capital which in a printed form would begin with a small letter. But an indis- criminate, or even frequent, use of capitals may be taken as a proof of the ignorance of the writer. v ~o V -A BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. Punctuation. \ Proper punctuation is essential to a correct and regular mode of expression. The best general rule to follow is to place tlie points where a pause would occur in speaking. Dashes should only be used to mark a sudden change in sentiment or in place of parentheses. Correct punctuation not only gives ele- gance to a composition, but it makes its meaning clear, enforces attention to those words or passages which most require it, and, to a great extent, prevents a mis- understanding or wilful misconstruction of the writer's meaning. [Dale.] c^Z^j./^, <^. (^.,^i^ ///4 /^^j. \Cotnptimeniary address.] [Baefy 0/ Letter.] C^^t^//- Repetition. Avoid repetitions. They always offend the judicious ear, and are seldom proper, except when they enforce any particular meaning or explain it more fully. Form of a Letter. A letter usually consists of six parts, viz.: the date, complimentary address, body of the letter, complimentary closing, signature, superscription. Position of the Parts of a Letter. The Date is written near the upper right-hand corner of the sheet. The Complimentary Address is be- gun on the line next beneath, one inch from the left side of the sheet. The Body of the Letter is com- menced nearly under the last letter of the complimentary address. The Complimentary Closing is begun on the line next beneath the body of the letter, one-half of the distance from the left to the right side of the page. The centre of the Sig.nature should be under the last letter of the complimentary closing. The Name and Address of the person written to should come on the line beneath the signature at the left of the sheet. Tiie Date. The date is a matter of great importance, particularly in business letters. You cannot be too careful, therefore, to state it in full and correctly. Unless you write from a large city like New York, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, New Orleans, Cin- cinnati, Boston, Chicago or St. Louis, you should always mention the State, and generally the county, as there are 'U'U-n^et^ fe. ■u^ytc fc- ^ui/H'i^n- <■( -Ce- n4/nt^ txoi^ un/i, -C'-e. &€<6 CiC ft'tM/- T' if/i^^^^n. [ Complimentary closing. ] ^% ^'. 64l'Li- /i-CH^. [Signature.] [^avteS] ^^^^e^ni^ ^&^-Ciztu-c^n. v^e-Ui^tiotf/, [Address^ many post-offices of the same name in the United States. If you write from a street, mention the name and number of the street, or the name of the hotel. With English writers, it is customary to put the day before the month in dating a letter ; as, l8th September, instead of September iSlh. Custom favors the latter in this country. Proper Modes of Address. The styles of address are varied to suit the occasion, and the terms of compliment at the close of a letter are always considered as mere courtesy or form ; they should not, there- fore, on any occasion be avoided. To a person with whom a writer is not well acquainted he should say "Sir," or "Madam," conchiding with "Your obedient servant," or "Yours respectfully;" to those with whom he is tolerably well acquainted, "Dear Sir," or "Dear Madam," with "Yours faithfully;" and to those with whom he is on familiar T BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. SI terms, "My dear Sir,'' or "My dear Madam," with "Yours truly," "Yours very truly," " Yours sincerely," or "Yours very sincerely." To two or more ladies, married or single, the form of address is "Ladies." To a young unmarried lady, the salutation is usually omitted to avoid the repetition of "Miss," the address alone being used as an introduction. The complimentary address is generally written .^t the top of a business letter. Model Headings. Mr. JVilliam C. Jones, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir : Your letter of the I2lh — Mrs. Maria Jansen, Philadelphia. Dear Madam : I send you herewith— Miss Edith Blaine, Chicago : You will receive by express- Messrs. Harpet^Bros., Broadway, New York. Dear Sirs: Yours of the 1st inst. — Messrs. Harper Bros., Broadway, New York . Dear Sirs: Yours of the 26th ult. was- Messrs. Smith, Beggs ^ Co., Chestnut St., Philadelphia. ("■entlemen : We have none of the goods — Messrs. Smith, Beggs ^ Co., Chestnut St., Philadelphia. Gentlemen : We have the- Miss I.uey Hooper, Paris, III. : We have received your — My dear James : Your note of the loth- My dear Cousin : I have been so busy — My dear .'>on : You have not written — Materials. The names of the different kinds of papers, and when used, are as follows : Legal-cap is used in writing all legal documents, articles of agreement, etc. The characteristic of legal-cap is a red line running from top to bottom of the sheet. Bill-paper is used for bills, etc., and is ruled expressly for the purpose, and usually bears the name and business of the person using it at the top. Foolscap is used in writing notes, orders, receipts, com- positions, petitions, subscription headings, etc. Letter-paper is used for the ordinary letter. Note and billet paper is used for notes of invitation, parents' excuses for children to teachers, and all brief com- munications. It is the smallest sheet-paper made. Commercial note is used for business letters, and is generally narrower than ordinary paper. Titles. Titles in America are either social, scholastic or official. Social titles are Mr. (Mister, formerly Master), Sir, Esq. (Esquire), Gentlemen (only in the plural), Master (for beys only), Mrs. (Mistress), M.-idam, Miss, and Ladies. Esq. is properly used only to persons of some prominence. Scholastic titles are those conferred by universities or other institutions of learning. They may follow or precede the name, as Prof. W. M. Jones; W. M. Jones, A.M.; Dr. W. M. Jones; W. M. Jones, M.D. Official titles include titles applied to persons in the civil, military or naval service. The following list illustrates the various titles used for the different ranks among individuals either in the complimentary address or superscription on the envelope : To Royalty— To the King's Most Excellent Majesty. To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty. To His R0y.1I Highness the Prince of Wales. To Her Royal Highness the Princess of Wales. To His Royal Highness the Duke of Connaught To Her Royal Highness the Princess Beatrice. To No6ilily—To His Grace the Duke of Devonshire. To Her Grace the Duchess of Devonshire. To the Most Noble the Marquis of Salisbury. To the Most Noble the M.irchioness of Salisbury. To the Right Honorable E;irl of Carlisle. To the Right Honorable the Countess of Carlisle. To the Right Honorable Lord Viscount Palmerston. To the Right Honorable the Viscountess Palmerston. To the Honorable Baron Crandall. To the Honorable the Baroness Crandall. The younger sons of noblemen in England are addressed as Honorable ; also members of Parliament and other persons .i V BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. A \ holding certain positions of honor and trust. The elder sons of noblemen take by courtesy the title next in rank below that of their fathers. Baronets are addressed thus : Sir Waiter Scott, Bart. ; and Knights thus : Sir Morton Peto, Kt. Clerical Titles. T/ie Pope—ii\s Holiness Pope Leo XIII. Cardinal — His Eminence, John, Cardinal McCloskey. Archbishop— '^os\. Rev. Peter R. Kenrick, D.D. Bishop— Ki. Rev. P. J. Ryan, D.D. Vicar-General — Very Rev. Henry Muehlsiepen. Priest or Clergyman — Rev. James Farquhar. Rev. Dr. Amos Foley. Titles Used In the United States. His Excellency — The President of the United States, Governor of any State, Ministers to foreign countries. Honorable — Vice-President of the United States, members of the Cabinet, members of Congress, heads of Departments, Assistant-Secretaries, Comptrollers and Auditors of the Treasury, Clerks of the Senate and House of Representatives, State Senators, Judges, Mayors of cities. Miscellaneous Titles. His Excellency and Mrs. R. B. Hayes. Governor and Mrs. Thos. T. Crittenden. Hon. and Mrs. James G. Blaine. Rev. Dr. and Mrs. T. De Witt Talmage. Professor and Mrs J. F. Crunden. Mr. and Mrs. Henry Ames. Drs. John M. and Chester H. Thorn. Drs. Walter C. and Mary C. Williams. Mr. W. T. and Mrs. Dr. E. C. James. Rev. H. E. and Mrs. Dr. E. C. Howe. Rev. Mrs. William Bass. Rev. Mrs. W. H. Crow. Rev. Jane H. Moon. Rev. Miss Jane H. Moon. The Envelope. The superscription on the envelope should be written very plainly. It is fashionable to write it as near the right-hand under angle or corner of the envelope as convenient The full name and title of the person addressed, with place of res- idence, written out fully, including town, county, State, and country, if it goes abroad. The number of the post-office box, or the door number and the name of the street, or the name of the county, may stand at tlie lower left-hand corner. P. O. Box . \ STAMP. \ ^^. ^A^ ^^0^, ^^it^ei€(e/n-Ad.€7,j 2J7S Chestnut St. 1 Or: < STAP In writing to the President of the United States, he is addressed on the envelope thus : ^4=^ 5. ,K- — BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. The Governor of a State is thus addressed: %> m-- When a person's official designation is given in full it forms the next line below the name. A letter of introduction should be addressed in this manner : $ SVAMP, < Q^l-i. ag/ua4A^ <^^au.AnJ, (^/^et^o: Introducing Mr. Edward Granger ^ 0/ Charleston, S. C. ^«^ (^ii^. When a letter is sent by a friend the name of the bearer is written on the lower left-hand corner. GENERAL HINTS. -*. tfr^i? ■^eri/-^ -k),. I'S ■DH Be sure you affix the proper stamp to every letter before you send it. A letter will not be forwarded unless it is prepaid at least one full rate. In >vriting a letter the answer to which is of more benefit to your- self than the person to whom you write, enclose a postage stamp for the reply. A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed, as the bearer to whom it is given ougrht to know the contents. As a rule, everv letter, unless insulting in its character, requires an answer. To neglect to answer a letter when written to is as uncivil a^ to neglect to reply when spolten to. In thereply, acknowledge first the receipt of the letter, mentioning its date, and afterwards consider all the points requiring attention. In business and ceremonious letters do not write on both sides. A person in mourning should never write a congratulatory letter on mourning paper. Either ruled or plain paper may be used, but unruled or plain paprr is more stj-lish, and is to be preferred. Avoid all erasures or blots, even if compelled to rewrite your letter. Letters of compliment should always be written in the third person. Avoid writing with a pencil. Never write other than business letters on a half sheet of paper. Owing to the almost universal use of gummed envelopes, the use of sealing-wax has become nearly obsolete, though it adds a much more refined appearance to a note than simply closing jt with adhesive gum. A neat little seal of red wax for a gentleman, and of gold, blue, or other fancy color, for a lady, is elegant and appropriate. The envelope should be adapted both in size and color to the paper. The stamp should be placed on the upper right-hand comer of the face of the envelope. The stamp should be right end up, and the edges of the stamp should be parallel with the edges of the envelope, as putting a stump upside down or awry indicates carelcssaessi imd is disrespectful to the person to whom it is sent. \ ^ 54 BUSINHSS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. '^Tp^HE characteristics ot the commercial style are concise- "1 JfT ness and perspicuity. AVith the exception of a few ^^ terms of compliment, scarcely a superfluous word should be used. It is, however, not at all necessary to sacrifice correctness of style or language. A careful simplicity and the clearness of expression necessary to convey the ideas to be imparted, combined with the rejection of all words not absolutely indispensable, while giving rise to a forcible style, form in themselves some of the chief essentials of true elegance. Persons unpracticed in correspondence, before writing a letter of any length, should note down the several heads of the matter forming the subject of communication, so that the various points may be brought forward in proper consecutive order. If several subjects are to be alluded to, they should be kept perfectly distinct, as the proper division of a letter into paragraphs is of the utmost importance. A confusion of sentences not only looks extremely ill, but is very likely to lead to a misapprehension of the writer's meaning, and to result in delay or injury, or, at all events, to necessitate further correspondence. In replying to a letter, each point should be taken up as it arises, and be discussed in a separate paragraph ; and each paragraph should be so clear and unambiguous that its pur- port may in no way be doubted. All business letters should be answered the same day they are received. In all letters of business, it is customary to write the name and address on the first page, as otherwise, if the superscription were lost, it would not appear to whom the letter had been written. Business letters should always be written upon plain paper. To use gilt-edged or any other fancy paper for this purpose is accounted the extreme of vulgarity. From a Yoang Man Commencing Business to a Whole- sale House, with Order. Greenville, III., July 2, 1SS3. AUisrs. Gray O' ll'ardwell. New York. Gentlemen. Having commenced business here on my own ac- count, w.th every prospect of success, 1 shull be glad to open an account with your house, doubting' not it will be to our mutual advantage. With tins view, I note below an order, which I shall thank you to execute with the least possible delay, and on your best terms as to goods and prices. I bt-g to refer you to my late employer, Henry Weatherby, of Chicago, who will satisfy you as to my integrity and trust^vorthIness; but, as this is a first transaction, on your for- warding me an invoice of the goods, deducting discount for cash, I shall remit a sight draft on a bank in your city for the amount per return mail. Requesting your usual prompt attention, I am, gentlemen, Yours respectfully, John Hardaway. Reply from "Wholesale House, with Inroice* New Yoxk, July Sth, 1SS3. Dear Sir : Agreeably to your esteemed order of the 2nd inst., we have the pleasure to enclose invoice of goods amounting to $ , subject to five per cent discount for prompt cash. We may mention that, from the opinion entertained of you by Mr. Weatherby, we have no hesitation in opening the account, and at once placTng you on our best terms. The parcels have been dis- patched this day per Adams Express, and we trust they will arrive safely and receive your approval. We believe the goods will bear a favorable comparison with those of any house in the trade, and desire that you should satisfy yourself as to value and quantities before remitting settlement. We are, dear Sir, Yours respectfully, Gray & Wardwell. To Mr. yohn Hardaway , Greenznl^e^ III. From Country Merchant Complaining of Quality of his Goods. Waukesha, Wis., Jan. 14, *S3. Dear Sir: Since I entered into business transactions with you, it has been my invariable course to act with integrity and honor, expect- ing the same conduct in return. Until lately, indeed, I had no cause to complain ; but the goods I had last week from you, as well as the parcel just delivered, are so inferior in quality that I hesitate to offer them to any of my customers. As I can have much better value else- where, and I do not sell job goods on any account, I am reluctantly obliged to advise you that, unless you can send me others in their stead, I must withdraw my correspondence altogether. Meantime, both parcels are laid aside awaiting your orders. An immediate answer will oblige Yours respectfully, To Mr. yames Sa7ttee^Neiv York. Abram Matthews. To a Publisher's Firm, Proposing to Open an Account. Cincinxati, Jan. 1st, 18S2. Gentlemen: As our business is rapidly on the increase, we are desirous of opening an account with your house, and shall feel obliged by your transmitting us a trade list of your publications, as well as some of vour general catalogues. Our UMial terms of settle- ment are as follows: (here state them). Should they be agreeable to your house, the favor of an early attention to our request will oblige, Gentlemen, Your obedit;nt servants, Benson &. Co. To Messrs, Scribner &^ Co., New York. K" BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. k~ 55 Letters of Recommendation. ^^^"W^W^W'^WW^^'^^^^^"^^^'"^ UR examples under this head will be useful as afford- ing specimens of an appropriate style to be adopted "^^-^^■^ in answering advertisements or in applying for situa- tions. On such occasions, while the proper deference due to an employer should be exhibited, it is desirable to preserve that tone of self-respect which, the employes should bear in mind, has a much better effect than any subservient expres- From a Youtli Applying for a Junior Clerkship. Albany, Jan. i6th, iSSo, Gentlemen. Understanding by your advertisement in the Herald of the 15th inst. that you are requiring the services of a junior clerk, I be^ respectfully to offer myself as a candidate for the appointment. I am fifteen years of age, and from my attainments in various branches of education, I believe myself qualitied for the duties required. I may mention that I am not altogether unacquainted with book- keeping and accounts, having for some months past assisted my father, Mr. Phineas Kincaid, lumber merchant, in the counting- house department of his business. Should you entertam my application, I beg to refer you to Mr. AVillis Bancker, of Walnut St., Philadelphia, and Mr. Paul Parker, of Chambers St., New York, who will have pleasure in testifying to my character and abilities. I am, gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, Philip Kincaid. To Messrs, Cole &^ Taylor, Trenton^ N. 1'. Keply of the Finn. Trenton. N. J., July 19th, 1SS2. Sir: Having made inquiries of Mr. Parker, one of the rcterences mentioned in your letter of the i6th inst., we are satisfied with his recommendation. Before making an arrangement, however, we should desire a personal interview, and should, therefore, be glad if you could make it convenient to call at our counting-house on Satur- day forenoon at eleven o'clock. Yours, Cole & Taylor. To, Mr. Fhilip Kincaid, Albany, N. Y. Application for Situation as Housekeeper. No. 20 Canal St., New York, Box 301, Post-Office : I beg respectfully to offer myself as a can- didate fcr the situation advertised as above in to-day's Hcra.d, I am at present, and have been for five years, housekeeper in the family of Mr Hamilton, 2314 Madison Avenue, to whom I can confidently refer ytiu as to my character and qualifications for the duties required. I am aUo permitted to refer you to John Houseman, Esq., Troy, N. Y., with whom I served two years in the same capacity previous to my enga-jement with Mr. Hamilton. My age is tliirty-two years, and I am unmarried. I am your most obedient servant, Elizaoeth Ellis. From a Nursery Goyerness in Answer to an Advertisement. Germantown, Pa., March 4th, 1SS3. Madam: Understanding that you have a vacancy for a nurserj- governess for your three daughters, I beg to state that I have occu- pied that position for three years in the house of Mr. Anthony, and only left in consequence of the family going to reside in the West. I am well acquainted with the usual routine of an English education, and have sufficient knowledge of French, drawing and music to teach the first rudiments, and attend to the practicing in the absence of the teacher, which, I presume, is all you would require. I enclose some testimonials which, I venture to hope, will satisfy you as to my character and competency for the office. Should you honor me with your confidence, I assure you that neither kindness nor exertion shall be wanting to do justice to your children, without exercising undue severity or unkindness. Awaiting the favor of your reply, I remain. Madam, Your obedient servant, Helen Uolmes. To Mrs. Jeremiah Borie, Pkilad^lpkia. Application to a Cler^mau for a Testimonial. Beeker St., Boston, May 4, •S2. Reverend Sir: Being a candidate for the appointment of matron in the New York Hospital, I beg to solicit tlie favor of a testimonial from you as to my general conduct, which you have had opportunities of observing in your capacity of director and visitor of the institution where I, at present, fill a responsible place. And should you deem me worthy of the more important situation referred to, anything you can do to forward my interests will be ever gratefully acknowledged by, reverend Sir, Your dutiful and humble servant, Eliza Hazleton. To the Rev. yohn Snozvden, Rittcnkouse Square, Boston. Application for a- Situation as Gardener. No. 231 Canal St., New York, June 3d, 'S3. Sir : Understanding that you want a gardener, I beg to offer myself as a candidate to fill the vacancy. I have had constant experience both in nursery grounds and private gardens, and am thoroughly acquainted with the management of the green-house and hot house. I inclose some testimonials from gentlemen with whom 1 have lived, which, I hope, will prove satisfactory. The last situation I filled was with Mr. Ogden, who will, I believe, speak favorably of my character and fitness for the office. I am a married man, with a family of three children, and my age is thirty-five. Should you entertain my appli- cation, a letter directed lo the above address will meet with prompt attention from. Sir, your most obedient servant, James O'Reilly. To Henry Houghton, Esq., Troy, N. Y. / \ \ 56 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. J/A^N old writer says: "We all delight to talk of our- selves; and it is only in letters, in writing to a friend, that we can enjoy that conversation, not only without reproach or interruption, but with the highest propriety and mutual satisfaction. In such letters, above all things, a natural and lucid expression of the sentiments of the writer is necessary. Friends expect our thoughts and feelings, not a letter filled with unmeaning verbosity ; and though, where excellence is aimed at, considerable attention must be paid to the disposition of the words and sentences, it must not be at the sacrifice of the energy resulting from a free expression of the sentiments. Let the thoughts first be mastered, and the words be suggested by the sentiments, without the slightest affectation of manner. The ease of diction, so essential, may, in a measure, be acquired by familiarity with the best English authors, and an approach thus made to that perfection which may be said to be attained only by the happy union of ease and freshness with the dignity of true friendship/* It is a common saying with young friends, as an excuse for remissness in their correspondence, that they have nothing to write about; but surely, between friends, there must be a similarity of taste on some subjects, and a discussion of their sentiments and opinions on any one of them, in a course of correspondence, would be acceptable and also valuable, as tending to their mutual improvement. But this division of our subject comprises also the letters passing between relatives and others united by ties of affection — excepting only the corraspondence of lovers, and of parents with their children, which form distinct chapters. In such letters, the heart speaks and the imagination is most eloquent. Letters of courtesy should be written on the best paper. For those to gentlemen the paper should be neither figured nor tinted. To a Lady Friend, with a Ring/ Cincinnati, October 4111, 1SS2. Mv Dear Miss Atkins: As a ring was adopted by the ancients as a symbol of eternity, I venture to request your acceptance of tlie accompanying little circlet as an emblem of esteem and affection on my part, which, I am sure, will be perpetual. Ple;ise receive it in the spirit in which it is tendered. Place it on your finger, and let me hope that as often as you look at it you will be pleasantly reminded of one who has experienced much happiness in your society, and who is now, as heretofore, Your uld and .sincere friend, IIenky Lewis. The Reply, Returning the Present. West Thirtieth St., New York, Oct. loth, iSSa. Dear Sir: I hope you will not be offended at the liberty I have taken in returning- your kind present, as I make it a rule never to receive anything in this way from gentlemen. I assure )"ou that, while my sentiments of respect and esteem are as cordial as ever, i cannot allow myself, even on the score of friendship, to infringe on a hitherto inviolate principle; and I, therefore, trust the rejection of your valuable and kindly-meant gift will not be thought unfeeling or impolite. True good-will and esteem, indeed, are superior to such external evidences, and I am satisfied your generous mind will not for a moment doubt the sincerity of those feelings I continue to cherish toward you. I am, dear Sir, your faithful well-wisher, Lizzie Atkins. To Mr. Henry Lewis ^ Cincinnati, Ohio. A Young Lady Congratulating an Aunt on Her Birthday. Rittexhol'se Square, Philadelphia, Januarv loth, 1SS2. My Dear Aunt: To-morrow will be the fiftieth anniversary of your natal day, and I should do injustice to my feelings were I to permit the occasion to pass without expressing my sincere congratu- lations and wishing you many happy returns of the day. Aside from the near tie of relationship which exists between us, I shall ever cherish with feelin^^s of gratitude and affection the remembrance of the very many favors and kindnesses I have received at your hands. Conse- quently it is only natural I should feel a grateful interest in each return of this happy anniversary. Fortunate, indeed, shall I esteem niysclf if, at your age, I can review my past life with equal satisfaction, for, after all, there is no happiness so complete as that afforded by looking back upDn a well-spent life. Birthdays are the milestones which mark the progress of the traveller along the difficult highway of life, and happy is the individual who can pass each one without a sigh of regret or a feeling- of mistrust in tlie future. With my best wishes for your future happiness, I remain, Your affectionate niece. To Mrs. Mary Page^ Fifth Avenue, N. Y. Kitty Pine. To a Friend, on Being Married. New York, Jan. 4th, 1SS2. My Dear Phil: I believe there are certain stereotyped phrases in which it is customary to congratulate newly-married folks; but, utterly disregarding all rules and regulations in such cases made and provided, I wish you joy in tlie familiar words which our friendship warrants and my feeling-s suggest. If your married life is half as happy as I desire it to be, you will have good cause to be satisfied with your lot. Present my kind regards and compliments to your bride. Wishing you many happy returns of the anniversary of your wedding-day, I remain. Your friend, To Mr. Fhilip Brandon^ Chicago^ III, Walter Coopek, K BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 57 ^ # # fi Letters of .^s- -^t 7! rd themes of the most interesting character, and examples of the most perfect confidence. In style, they have the widest range ; **from grave to gay, from lively to severe.'* Children away from home, in the excitement of new scenes and new acquaintances, may for a lime forget and neglect their parents; but moments must recur reminding them of their affectionate solicitude, and in trouble and affliction mak- ing them yearn for a sympathy they may then, only in its absence, thoroughly appreciate ; and it is at such times that a letter reveals the heart of the writer and moves that of the parent. Children should, however, accustom themselves to write regularly to their parents, and they should express them- selves in the same easy, cheerful way that they would do in speaking at home. The only rule we think it necessary to lay down is the propriety of preserving a due regard to the relationship in which the writers are placed to each other. A father, when writing to a son, should preserve his superior- ity by a gentle degree of authority, and a son should never lose sight of the manner in which he can best express his sense of filial authority. From a Father to Ms Son at School. Tremont St., Boston, SepL 23rd, 1SS3. Mv Dear Son: I am delighted to hear of your progress, and send you a iitllc rcmiUance of pocket money to prove to you that I am ever ready to give encouragement when it is deserved. You must always bear in mind that upon your career at school much of your future liie depends. To waste the precious hours of youth is to make prepara- tion for a useless and dishonorable aid age; whereas by steady industry, care of that health with which God has happily blessed you, and submission to those who have the best right, as well as the best inclination, to advise you for your good, you may hope to ripen into a respectable and useful member of society, and to render yourself fit to encounter those responsibilities which fall to every man's lot. Your mother unites in hearty wishes that you may go on as you have be^jun, and that your whole life may prove a credit t»> yourself and a CDinfort to us. Give our best respects to your excellent preceptor, and believe me Your affectionate father, James McHenry. Ta Master William McHenry, Nazareth Hall^ Nazareth^ Pa. I have made such satisfactory progress that I have not only been re* moved one class higher in the school, but have carried off the second prize for Latin verse. I sincerely hope that I may continue sufficiently industrious to keep up all the expectations you have formed of me, and which you have spared no pains or expense to realize. With mingled feelings of regret at leaving my kind preceptor and of delight at the prospect of our speedy meeting for the holidays, I remain, my dearest parents. With kindest love to all at home, Your affectionate son, William McHenry. To Mr, and Mrs, McHenry ^ Tremont St,, Boston. From a Young Ladj to her Mother. Boston, Mass., June Sth, 'Si. My Dear Mamma: From what you know of Boston, you will not be surprised to hear that I have enjoyed an incessant round of gaiety and pleasure. My health, too, is completely recruited, and my friends are so kind that I feel almost at home. But I have another serious matter to confess to vou, at which, I hope, you will not fetl angry. It seems almost ungrateful to think of loving any one but you; but oh, Mamma, if you saw Harry Leaning, you would forgive me, I am sure. He is so handsome, so gentle in his manners, and yet so sensible and so accomplished! We met at a party given by vour old friend, Mrs. Grayson, and he scarcely quitted my side the whole evening. Mrs. Grayson has so high an opinion of him tliat she repeatedly invited him to her house, until his visits have become of almost daily occurrence. He is most honorable and straightforward, and only waits permission to write to you, in order to give you full particulars as to his condition and prospects. Forgive me, dear mamma, when I tell you that my feelings are deeply enlisted in his favor, and that I feel as if much of my future happiness depended on our union. I wish vou \vere here to counsel and advise me, for never before did I so much feel my own heart master of my reason. I hope you will write directly or come immediately to your affectionate but anxious child, Minnie Howson. To Mrs. Gertrude Howson^ Fifth Av., N". V, From a Boy at School to Both Parents. Nazareth, Dec. 4th, 1883. My Dear Parents: It will doubtless givtyou much pleasure to learn that, owing to tlie unremitting attention of the Rev. Mr. KJuge, The Mother's Reply. Fifth Avenue, June 10th, 'Si. My Dear CiiiLn: Make yourself perfectly at ease as to my consent to anything that will promote your happiness. If Mr. Lenning prove to be what you represent, my fondest wishes, that you might meet a desirable partner in life, will be realized. At the same time, do not he too hasty to give an unqualified assent to his proposals, but take time to study his character and disposition through a longer acquaint- ance. I shall be in Boston on the 15th, and I shall be delighted, not only to meet my dear child again, but to be introduced to the man whom she has thought so worthy of her affections. Your ever loving mother, Gertrude Howson. To Miss Minnie Hovason^ Boston, Mass, FT BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 6l :iiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliMlttii Ill II Illlllllilllll.111 IIIMIMIMilllHllllJllllliMIMIMIIMIiiMlllim^^^^^ Iv'^S^vtKJ^ fHE form of the note is most frequently adopted by ladies, who in this way generally issue invitations to parties. It is, however, on many general occasions extremely useful, as in returning thanks for any courtesy shown, or when any misunderstanding has arisen between friends, in which case it tends to guard against personalities. It is a form useful, also, as being intermediate between the distant and the familiar styles, though it is not usually em- ployed *hen the communication is of any length. Notes must be written in the third person throughout, any departure from this rule, either in allusion to the writer or to his corre- spondents, being a fault of the most glaring kind. It is neces- sary, also, to avoid the too frequent use of the personal pronouns, which may be effected by occasionally repeating the names of writer aud correspondent when the length of the note requires this expedient. The date and the address of the writer should always be at the foot of the note. The established forms for notes of invitation to dinner, to evening parties, etc., are given under the division of Etiquette. A note of invitation from an intimate friend may be appropri- ately written in whatever style the degree of mutual under- standing between the parties may justify. The chief reason for introducing this class of letters is to point out that they should always be definite^ however brief, and however freely written. The best guide in these cases is to consider for a moment the time and circumstances under which the letter will be received. How often has unnecessary trouble and doubt been caused by a note without date or even the day of the week, inviting the recipient to come and dine with the family to-morrow ! Another infallible recipe for obscurity in this class of notes is to write on a Tuesday afternoon, for example, and write your friend to come next IVednesday. An Inyitation to a Bachelor Party, Sept. 2oth, 1SS3. My dear Alf: Mv festive self and half-a-dozun other good fellows are going to devote a few hours on Thursday evening to the enjoyment of a few glasses of wine, a game of euchre, and so on. I hope you will make one, as wc have not enjoyed " the feast of reason and flow of soul" in each other's company for some time past. Believe me, dear Alfred, Yours ever, Harry Hunter. To Alfred BellvitU, Esq.^ Ko, ig Madison Av., A', K". A Lady to Her Friend in the City, Inyitin^ Her to Spend a Month in the Countrj'- Eddington, Bucks Co., Pa., June 4th, 1SS3. My dear Friend: I need scarcely tell you that I always feel the greatest pleasure in your society, and am selfish enough on the present occasion to covet it for a month, or for a longer period, should it suit your convenience. If, therefore, you are not so wedded to the attractions of a city life as to he loth to leave them for a short time, I think you would gather some amusement, and also, perhaps, improve your health, by a sojourn in the country. Will you, then, do us the favor of making our rural retreat your temporary abode, assuring yourself that your presence will enliven our family circle, and be a source of real enjoyment to Your sincere friend, Eliza Hooper. To Mrs. Letty Davidson^ Fifth Av., N. K Answer to the Samet Afflnuatirely. Fifth Avexue, N. Y., June 5th, iSSj. My dear Eliza; I have just received your kind letter inviting me to spend a short time at your pleasant home. Though I live so much in New York, I assure you that there are few wlio feel more delighted with the country than myself, and I could be well contented to make il my residence during a larger part of every year, and should cer- tainly do so did the pursuits of Mr. Davidson allow us to live out of the city. However, my domestic duties are not at present of so press- ing a nature as to force me to decline your friendly invitation, and Mr. Davidson, so far from offering any obstacle to my absence from home for a short time, has urged me to send you an affirmative answer, as he thinks that, in addition to the enjoyment which I can - not fail to experience in the society of yourself and family, I shall benefit my health by a change of air and scene. I therefore accept your kind invitation most cheerfully, 1 may add gratefully. And I am. My dear Eliza, Your ever affectionate friend, Letty Davidson. To Mrs. Eliza Hooper^ Eddington^ Pa. An Inyitation to a Water-Party, August loth, 1SS3. Dear Charlie: Jack Halcoll, myself and four others are going down the bay in a six-oared boat next Wednesday. Now, you're a jully fellow and a good steersman, so I hope you will give us your company and your scr\'ices ; indeed, we will take no excuse. We shall set out from my rooms at 7:30 p.m. without fail. Donotdis* appoint us. Yours truly, ia haste, Edward Neville. To Charles Eilwood^ Esq.^ Pine St., Philadelphia. BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. Miscellaneous Letters. !jrX3C fHE reader will find arranged under this heading a variety of letters for a variety of circumstances and "^^^^^ occasions. With the examples given on the preceding pages, they make the department of "Business and Social Correspondence *' a complete and comprehensive guide for all classes of letter-writers. From One Youn^ Man to Another in Reference to an Attaehnieut. Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 4th, 18S3. Mv Dear Kenneth; You will laugh at me, and with suine reason, when I tell you that all my old skepticism about matrimonial happi- ness is at an end, I have met with a young lady who, I believe, would convert even you to a belief that marriage may be a very happy state and that bachelors are only miserable wretches after all. In brief, I am the engaged and accepted suitor of Miss Ford, whose visit to New York you remember. Words cannot suffice to express how great has been the enjoyment I have hitherto derived from her society, and the more I see of her amiable character and high accomplishments, the more certain do I feel that the day that first made known to me her consent to share my fortunes will prove one of the happiest in my whole existence. You may think this a very wild effusion and one strangely at variance with my former avowed callousness on the score of domestic life; but, believe me, you will soon be a convert when you see my dear Lettie. Wishing that you may prove as fortunate in the selection of a partner as 1 have been, I remain, My dear boy, Ever affectionately yours, John Norton. To 7amcs Caskill, IVall St., A'. Y. Invitation from a Familiar Friend. Dear Mk. Mitchell: We shall look fur you on Monday evening (the 14th, mind !) at seven o'clock, and if Mrs, Mitchell can leave her ha'iy and come with you, I need not say that we sliall be douhly glad to see her. In great haste, whicli 1 know you will excuse and rather admire than otherwise, I ain sincerely yours, Gertrude Gibson. Cambrii>gk, M:irch loth, 1S83. Recjnesting a Friend to Forward Letters. Nohkistown, April 9th, 1SS3. Dear Sir: May I trespass on your kindness to send me in the enclosed envelope any letter that may come through you to me up to W'cdn'jsday, 2isl inst.? By so doing you will add t<> tlie many kind ■ ncsses experienced by, Dear Sir, Your obliged friend, Harriet Haht. To }ienry Chase^ Esq., 20j Arch Si., Pkiia. To a Daughter on Her Birthday. My dearest Child: You father, brothers and sisters "U unite with me in sending you a thousand good wishes pn this your fifteenth anniversary. We could all have desired that circ%"*istances would have admitted of your spending it with us ; hut feeling in these matters must sometimes be sacrificed for our good, and ^'^r selfish delights must not be permitted to interfere with the prospects of those dear to us. The package which accompanies this letter contains not only some trifling tokens of affection from all of us, but the materials for a little entertainment which, I have no doubt, Mrs. B-^^nton will allow you to give to your school -fellows, as I have writiw^ to beg a half -holiday on the occasion. God bless you, my dea»" child! and that every succeeding year may see you increase in all i'^'W. is desir- able in body and mind, is the earnest prayer of your ^ *ir anxious parents. AVith best compliments to your mistress and teachers, Believe me, Your ever affectionate mother, Margaret *homas. To Miss Lettie T/ioitias, ^* Linden Hall" Sfininary, Lititz, Pa. A Oentleman to His Son, on the Latter's MaiT^*ige. Philadelphia, Jan. 30th, SS5. My dear Son: It is with no small pleasure, and a slight feeling of parental pride, that 1 now congratulate you upon your r^rent change of state. That you have my best and heartiest wishes foryour future happiness, you already know ; but I feel natural pleasure fir again giving them expression ; and here I have to add that no pare"* could ]oin in those wishes with more fervent sincerity than your dear and kind mother, who desires to unite with me in the most affection- ate regards to our new relation, our daughter-in-law. That your mariiage state may be blessed with the same domestic happiness that has fallen to my lot, is the sincere wish of Your ever affectionate father, John Paul Jones. To Henry Paul ^ones, Pollstown, Pa. ReqneStinff a Friend to Execute a Commission. Yonkers, June 3d, 1SS3. My dear Jennie: Will you kindly execute tlie following little commissions for mc as soon as you can make it convenient.' Purchase for me at Stewart & Co.'s the following articles (.here state muslin, lace, etc.) Will you also call at Appleton's and inquire when Bulwer's new novel will be out, as I am all anxiety to know? Please give them my address at Stewart's, and tell them to pack the parcel carefully and send it by express. The weather up here is delightful, but I wish 1 had the pleasure of your company to render it more so. Pray write a line, and let me know how soon you can make me a visit, and thus afford mc an opportunity to ihank you personally for your kindness. £lla Fokesthk. To Miss yennie Hale, No. 40 Sixth Avenue, N, V, ^ 'K~ BUSINESS AXn SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 63 Applicatiou of Servant for Testimonial • East Fourth St., N, Y., Jan. i, 'S2. Respected Madam: Bein^ desirous of again entering service in my former ciipacity of cook :intl laundress, 1 write to ask the favor of a testimonial from you as to my general character and ca^iability. I am sorry to have to trouble you, but 1 feel that you will do anything you can to further me in obtaining employment. With sincere thank-s for your past kindness, I am, respected Madam, Vour grateful servant, ^ Charlotte Fields. To Mrs, Louise Baimer^ No, 24 litest Ft/ty first St., New York, Aeknowledg:ln^ Receipt of Testimonial, with Thanks. Beaker St., Rostox, May 15, 'Sj. Reverend Sir; I have received your most obliging and con- siderate communication, and I beg that you.wlll accept my warmest thanks for tiie handsome, if not too llattering, testimonial you have been pleased to hand me. I sincerely trust that my future career may continue to be marked by conduct wortliy of your approbation, and assuring you of my deep sense of the obligation under which you have placed me, I am, reverend Sir, Your obedient and grateful servant, Eliza Hazleton. To the Rev. yohn Snowden^ Rittcnhouse Stjuare, Boston. Inquiry Regarding a Servant's Character. No. 1428 Pine St,, St. Locis, May 4, *S3, Madam: Susan Macy, who is applying for the place of cook in my house, refers me to you for her character and qualifications. I shall, therefore, feel obliged by your informing me if she is honest, cleanly, industrious and obliging; also if she is well acquainted with plain cookery, 1 am, Madam, yours respectfully, Mary Martin. To Mrs. Ann Cooper, 243 Arch St,^ Phila, A Merchant Ur^in^ Payment of Account. Warren St., New York, May 3, 'Sj. Sir ; I must solicit your prompt attention to the enclosed account, which has already been due over two months. On the lolh 1 have a heavy obligation to meet, which will require all the funds I can pro- cure ; and, as you have not remitted me any cash for some time past, I trust you will comply with my request, and forward a draft for the whole or a considerable part of the balance due me. Please reply by return mail, and let me know whether I may depend upon you. Your obedient servant, Jambs Parsons, To Henry P. yoneSf Brooklyn. A Letter of Introduction. New Orleans, June 3d, 'Si, Dear Sir ; The present will be handed you by Mr. Smith, partner of Mr. Stillwell, who was himself an associate of the house of Cross & Black, Men-.pbis. Mr, Smith intending to visit your city on business of his house, we take the liberty of recommending him to you, and of bcgL;ing you to render him all the services in your power, and lo furnish him all the information of which he may have need, or which may appear likely to you to insure the success of his trip. Should Mr. Smith have need of any money for his expenses, you will be good enough to let lum have what he may ask for, and charge the same to our account. Very respectfully, Yours, etc.. Lord A: Taylor, T.> yulius St'chei, F.Tf/., iraii Street, N. V. From a Lady to Another, an Invalid* • Spruce St., Philadelphia, May i, 1SS3. My Dear Miss Hartman; I am truly grieved to hear of your continued indisposition, but trust that you may speedily enjoy the return of your wonted health and energy. There is much consolation in the fact that your spirits are good, and that the illness does not affect any vital part. Considering which, I have every confidence that, with God's blessing, the careful attentions of your friends will soon make your complete recovery a matter of certain and cordial congratulation. With kindest wishes and sympathy, I am, dear Miss Hartman, Yours ever sincerely, Amanda Mkkrill. To Miss Ella Hartman^ Columbus, Ohio, An Invitation to a Picnic Tarty. Newark, June isth, 1SS3. My tear Sir : "We are endeavoring to get up a small excursion to visit High Bridge on tlie iSthof this month. Will you do us the favor of making one of our number? Mrs. Shaw and my family desire their compliments, and request me to mention that they have taken upon themselves the task of providing the '* creature comforts" for that occasion, and trust that their exertions will meet with unanimous approval. Should you have no previous engagement tor that day, and feel disposed lo join our party, a carnage will be at your door by seven o'clock on Wednesday moming. And believe me to be, My dear Sir, Vours most sincerely, Charles Shaw. /'. S. — The favor observation. ( clear-sighted j On the other hand there are cases when the reiteration of the same word gives strength and consistency to a sentence ; when the same word used again and again comes at last to be like the blows of a hammer, riveting attention to the subject. Of this character is Webster's celebrated sen- tence in his speech on "American Institutions.'* Webster's Celebrated Sentence. " Our Government can stand trial, it can stand assault, it can stand adversity, it can stand per- secution ; it can stand everything but the weak- ness of our own strength, it can stand everything but disorganization, disunion and nullification." Abandon, v. i. Leave, quit, forsake, drop, relinquish, evacuate, give over, cast oft. 2. Surrenclcr, cede, resign, waive, vacate. Anio., keep, hold, retain. Abandoned. aJj. u Deserted, forsaken. 2. Depraved, corrupt, proHi^ate, shameless, incnrri>rihle. Anio., i. Kept, cared for. 2. Virtuous, holy. Abase, v. i. Reduce, lower. 2. Degrade, humble, dtsgmce. Afi/o., i. Increase, raise. J. Honor, praise. Abash. 7'. Shame, confuse, humiliate. A>th>., embolden, reassure. Abate. 7>. I. Lessen, reduce, diminish. 2. Moderate, allay. 3. Suppress, remove, terminate. ^4«/t?.,"i. Augment. 2. Infuriate, 3. Kmpower, permit. Abbreviate, v. Curtail, shorten. Anio., enlarge, lengthen. Abduct. V. Kidnap. Anto.y rescue. Abet. V. Aid, assist, help. 2. Favor, sanction. 3. Instigate, incite. Auto., i. Re- sist. 2. Op'pose. 3. Forbid. Abhor, z love, admire. Abide depart, leave. Ability. / Conipetencv. Hate, loathe, detest. An/o., Sojourn, live, dwell. Anto.y I. Power, force, might. 2. 3. Capacity, genius, turn. Aftto'., Inability. J. Feebleness. 2. Insuffi- ciency. 3. Incapability. Abject. aifj. Base, vile, mean, low. Aiiio., loft}', good, noble. Able. ad/. 1. Clever, accomplished, tal- ented. 2. Qualified. 3. Gifted, strong, mighty. Auto., I. Stupid. 2. Unfit. 3. Weak, feeble. Abolish. V. I. Repeal, revoke, annul, cancel. 2. Overthrow, Anio.y 1. Enforce, hold. 2. Establish. Abominable, adj. i. Hateful, odious. 2. Loathsome, nauseous. 3. \'ile, wretched. Anto.y I. Lovable. 2. Pleasant. 3. Happy, good. Abridge, v. Contract, compress. Atito., expand. .SV^ Abhrei'iate. Abrupt, adj. I, Broken, rugged. 2. Steep, 3. Sudden, unexpected. 4, Short, curt. Afi/o., I. Smooth, 2. Level. 3. Slow. 4. Long, courteous. AbHolute. ad/, i. Real, nositrve. 2. Arbitrary, despotic. 3. Indepenaent. A/Uo., I, Shadowy. 2. Limited. 3. Dependent, Abstinence, n. Temperance, fast. Anio., feast, plenty, orgies. Abstru^fe. adj. Profound, recondite, hid- den. Anto., simple, clear. Absurd, ad/. Silly, foolish, laughable. Attto.t wise, solemn. Abundance, n. Plenty, profuseness, richness. Auto., famine, want, poverty. Abuse. V. I. Pervert, misuse. 2. Harm,^ injure. 3. Ilevik-, reproach, malign. Anto., 1. Use. 2, Protect. 3. Praise. Accept, V. Receive, take. Anto., refuse, reject. Acceptable. adj. Pleasing, welcome. Ajzto., displeasing. Casual. Anto., pre- t. Oblige, serve, assist. 3. Ruconcile. adjust, iinpede. 2. Spoil. 3. Complete, perform, Accidental, adj. concerted. Accommodate, jv 2. Fit, suit, adapt. Anto., I. Disoblige, Embitter. Accomplish. i<. execute. Anto., fail. Accomplished, adj. i. Educated, ex- perienced, practiced, adroit, talented. 2. Polished, refined, polite, Anto., :. Ignorant, awkward. 2. Boorish, ill-bred. Account, n. Narrative, recital, history. Anto., rebuttal, negation. Accrue, z'. Result, issue, ensue. Anto., stop, delay, bar. Accun»ulatc. v. i. Collect, gather. 2. Store, garnt-r, hoard. 3. Increase, grow. Anto., 1. Dissipate, scatter. 2. Spend. 3. Lessen, diminish. Accurate, ad/. Correct, exact, precise. Anto., wrong, loose, errotieous. Accuse, 7'. Charge, criminate, arraign. Anto., exonerate. Accustom. IK Habituate, familiarize, addict. Anto., unused, undrilled. Achieve, t. See Accomplish. Acknowledge, v. Admit, concede, avow. Anto., denv. Acquaint-, v. Tell, inform, notify. Anto., deceive. Acquire, v. Get, gain, secure, win, ob- tain. Anto.f lose. Acquit. %'. Clear, absolve, exonerate. Anto., convict, indict. Act. V. I. Work, move, execute. 2. Be- have, demean, 3. Operate. 4, Do, perform, t;. Personate, play, enact. Anto., 1. Idle, loaf. 2. Misbehave. 3. To be inert. 4. Re- fuse. 5. Verify. Act. w. I. Deed, performance. 2. Statute, law. 3. Part of a play. Active, adj. 1. Brisk, alert, _ nimble, smart, 2. Busv, diligent, enterprising. 3. Powerful, drastic. Anto., i. Lazy. 2. Lack- ing energy. 3. Weak. Acttially. adzK Really, truly, verily. Anto.f falsely, deceptively. Acute, adj. i. Keen, shrewd, sharp, discerning, knowing, quick, smart, brij^ht, intelligent, ingenious, subtle, penetrating, piercing, clear-sighted, sharp-witted, long- headed. 2 Severe, violent, intense, exn\iis- ite, pungent. Anto., i. Dull. 2. Stupid. Add. 7'. I. Join, annex, append, t.ag. 2. Sum. cast up. Anto.. 1. Disconnect, separate. 2. Subtract, take away. Address, n. i. Appeal, petition, en- treaty. 2. Speech, discourse, oration. 3. Skill, art. tact. 4. Siipei-scnption, direction. 5. M.anner. Anto., 3. Clumsiness, awkward- ness. Adhere, v. Cling, cleave, cohere. Anto., loosen. Adjacent, adj. Near, bordering, con- tiguous. Anto., far, asunder. Adjust. V. Arrange, trim, regulate, adnpt. accommodate. Anto., disarrange, disorder, confuse. Admirable, adj. Excellent, fine, praisc- worthv. Anto., blamable, execrable. Admire, v. Wonder, like, esteem, love. Anto., hate, despise, dislike. Admit. 7'. 1. Grant, concede, confess. 2. Let in. Anto., i. Deny, 2. Keep out, ex- clude. Admonish, r. Advise, warn, reprove. Anto., recommend. Adulation, n. Flattery. Anto., blame, scolding. Advancement, n. Preferment, progres- sion. Anto., displacement, retrogression, receding. ^ . . , , Adventure, w. i. Stake, risk, chance. 2. Accident, danger, event. Anto., i. Ccr- taintv. 2. Quiet, safety. Adversity. ;/. Trouble, misfortune, sor- row, distress. Anto., prosperity, wealth, joy. Advertise, z: Announce, publish, pro- claim. Anto., conceal. ^ Advice, u. i. Counsel, caution. 2. in- formation. Affable, adj. Civil, sociable, easy. ^I«/t?., surlv, discourteous. Affection. «. Partiality, fondness. Anlo.^ dislike. Amict. 7'. Trouble, annoy, torment, harass. Anto., please. Affront. V. Insult, abuse, condemn, yl/i/o., '^'^Agent. «. Factor, substitute. Anio., principal. , , , AKgrcRate. w. Total, whole, lump, sum, mass. Anto., part. Asrile. adj. See Active. Afcitation. n. i. Excitement, cornmo- tion, tumult. 2. Debate, discussion. Anto., tranquility. VL ■J' ,S~" -ojv r^ 66 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. Agree. 7'. I. Concur, acquiesce, unite. 2. Engage, contract. AiUo., i. Differ, disagree, .i. Kefuse. Air. nancy. Auto., liking, friendliness. ' " Annex, v. Attach, append, join. Auto., detach, separate. Announce, -v. See Advcrti.^e. .\unoy. 7-. Disturb, molest, trouble. Auto., convenience, please, .accommodate. AuniU. V. Kescind, abolish. Auto, af- firm. Answer. ;/. Reply, rejoinder, .-hito , question. Anterior. a,lj. Prior, before, previous Auto., posterior, subsequent. Antici|>.ate. v. Foresee, forestall, pre- vent. Auto., surprise. Antipathy. ,,. Aversion, dislike, hatred. S.e .'iutuio.'iitj'. Antique, adj. Old, ancient, obsolete. Auto., modern, new, fresh. Anxiety. «. Care, solicitude, worry Auto., certainty, repose. .\ny. adj. frou. J. Anyone. 2. Some. .■into., none. .\partment. n. Lodging, room, chamber. -Vpathy. «. Ccddness, torpor, unconcern. .luto., animation, -.ohich see. Ape. ;•. Imitate. Apologize. V, Excuse, exculpate. Auto. lu-lllt, justify, ' .Vppal. ;.. .Scare, shock, frighten. Auto. einliolden. encourage. See A/arm. .Vpparcl. „. Dress, clothing, attire Auto., nuditv. Apparent, adj. Visible, plain, obvious, evident. Auto., concealed, ambiguous, -.o/iic/, Apparition. spirit, phanttun. Appear, v. 1. I-;merge, come into view 2. Seem, look. Auto., disappear. Appearance. «. 1. Coming, arrival. 2. Air, figure. ,^. Semblcnce. Anto., 1 Dep,lrt- ure. -i. I'nlikeness Appease. V. Calm, pacify Auto., in- fiaine. An appearance, ghost. kL Appellation, n. Name, title. Applaiul. 7: Cheer, praise, extol. Auto., his-;, Mitnic, belittle. Api>li<':itioii. 71. Industry, persistency. Aula., idleness, ficklenuss. Apply. V. Use, appropriate, devote. A/i/o., misapply. Appoint, v. I, Fix, establish. 2. Name, constitute. Anto., 1. Chang-e. Appraise. ?■. Value, estimate, rate. Appreciate. 2'. Kstimate, value, nppraisc. Appreliend. v. l. Catch, capture, arrest. 2. Ll^nderstand, comprehend. 3. Kuar, dread, alarm. Anio.,i. Jiscape. 2. Misunderstand. 3. Knibolden. Apprise, v. SW Ath/tofiis//. Approach. 7-. Approximate, come near. Auto., depart. Ap|)robation. n. Approval, sanction, consent. Anto., dis:ippro\ al. Approximate, z; ^ce Approacli. Apt. ad/. I. Kit, meet, suitable, qualified. 2. Ready, quick, prompt. Anto., i.Vn^U 2. Slow. Arbitrary, adj. Irresponsible, tvrannous. Anto., noniiiil, reL^ular, constitutional. Arbitrator. //. Jud^e, umpire, referee. Areliives. ;/. Records, chronicles. Ardent, adj. Zealous, fervid, hot, in tense. Auto., calm, cool. Arduous, adj. Difficult, trying, labori- ous. Anto., easy, facile. Argue. 71. 1. Evince, prove. 2. Reason, discuss, debate. Atito.^ disprove. Arjfuiueiit. n. Reason, proof, discussion, dispute. Anto., folly, mistake. Arise, z'. Mount, ascend, get up. 2. Be- gin, originate. Anto., descend, go do\vn. Aristocratic, adj'. Haughty, proud, ar- ro^iint. Anto.y democratic, plebeian. Anns. «. Weiipons. Army, n. Force, troops. Afno., mob. Arraign, v. See Arc/tse. Anto., acqmt. Arrange, 7-. i. Distribute, rank, classifv. 2. I'ian, devise, organize. Afi/o., disarran;.,2. Incapacity, incompeten- cy, stupidity, inabilitv. Caprice. ;/. Whiin, freak, fancy, vagary. Auto., settled purpose, conviction. Captious, oiij. Peevish, petulant, fretful, cross. Auto., good-humureJ, facile, easv. Captivate. z\ Fascinate, charm, encbant. Auto.f disgust, displease. Carel'uT. adj. i. Heedful, attentive. 2. Watchful, cautious, circumsi>ect. Auto., heedless, careless, rash. Caress, «. Kiss, embrace. yln/tJ., buffet, spurn. Carousal. Auto., t;tbt. Cash, «. Money, coin, specie. Casualty, ti. Accident, mischance, con- tiiigency. Cause. 7". Produce, create, occasion. <'ause. «. Reason, motive, inducement, incitement. Auto., effect. Cavity, w. Aperture, opening, hollow. Cautious, otfj. Prudent, careful, watch- ful. See CarejuL Auto., rash, headlong, heedless. Celebrate, v. i. Commemorate, keep, obiierve, honor, solemnize. 2, Praise, extol, glorify. Auto., 1. Forget, ignore. 2. Execrate. Ceiisure. v. Blame, approve, chide, scold, berate. Auto., praise, honor, congratulate, ajijirove. Certain, adj. i. Sure, assured, confident. 2. Infallible, unfailing. 3. Plain, positive, absolute, indubitable. Auto., uncertain. 1. l>ubious, doubtful. 2. Fallacious, 3. Dark, disputed, challenged. Chance, n. i. Accident, fortune, foriuitv, casualty. 2. Hazard, risk, peril, jeopardv. Auto., r. Design. 2. Safety, cerlamty, security. Change, v. Alter, vary, turn. Character. «. Repute, reputation, stand- ing. Charm, u. Grace, attraction. Auto., re- j)ulsinn. Chastity, n. Purity, modesty, virtue, continence. Auto., impurity, lewdness, in- continence. Chattels. n.,pl. Goods, effects, personal property. Auto., real estate. Chatter, v. See Babble. Cheat. V. Deceive, trick, defraud, swindle. Cheer. %>. 1. Applaud. 2. Comfort, con- sole, gladden, encourage. Auto., i. Hiss. z. Distress, Feast, banquet, orgie. Cheerfnl, adj. Lively, merry, sprightly, gay. Auto., sad, \veary, downcast, mournful. Cherish, 7'. 1. Nourish, nur-^e. nurlure. 2. Kncourage. 3. Harbor, protect, love. Auto., J. St;^ve, famish. 2. Dishearten. 3. K\pose, detest. Chief, u. Leader, commander. Auto., subordinate, subaltern. C'hietly. ad;-. Principally, maiidy, mostly, eniinently. Auto., secondarily, sulisequently. Childlioonal. 2. Unusual. 3. Fresh. 4. Peculiar, extraor- dinary. Communication. «. Conference, con- versation, letter. Community, n. 1. Society, public, peo- ple. 2. Association, brotherhuoci. Companion, n. 1. Male, comrade. 2. Partaker, sharer. Company, u. i. Assembly, group, gather- ing. 2. Party. 3. Visitors.' 4. Fellowshi^i, society. 5. Corporation, firm. --Iw/tf., indi- vidual, personality. Compassion, u. Pity, tenderness, clem ency. Anto , severity, harshness, cruelty. Coinpatihle, adj. Consistent, consonant. Auto., incompatible, inconsistent.^ Compel, 7'. Force, coerce, drive. Anto.. cajole, coax, lead. Compendium. «. Compend, abridg ment. Auto., discourse, enlargement, aug- mentation. Compensation, n. Reward, recompense, satisfaction. Anto., loss, punishment, correc tion. Competent, adj. i. Able, qualified. 2. Adequate, fit. Anto.^ 1. Incompetent, feeble. 2. Inadequ::te. Competition. «. Rivalry, contest, emu- lation. Auto., monop()ly. combination. Complain. ;'. Murmur, grumble, lament. Anto., rejoice, lubilate. Complimeiit. u. Praise, commendation, encomium. Auto., insult, blame, detraction. Comply, V. Confirm, yield, submit. Anto., disobey, rebel. Compound, adj. Composite, complex. Auto., simple, uniform, plain. CompouiKl. 7'. Mix, combine, intermin- gle. Anto., simplify, analyze, separate. Comprehend, v. i. Comprise, include, embrace. 2. Grasp, see, understand, perceive. Auto., I. Exclude. 2. Mistake, misapprehend. C., 1. Reveal, un cover. "display. Concede, v. 1 Yield, surrender. 2. Grant, admit. Auto., i. Rebel, repel, a. Deny. C«mceit. n. V.inity, egotism. ATmo., hiuuilitv, meekness. Concert. «. i. Concord, harmot,/. 2 Musical entertainment. Anto., 1. Discord. \^ ^ 68 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. ^ /■ Concise, adj. Short, brief, curt, laconic, terse. Aitfo., verbose, discursive, lengthy. Conc-liKle. V. i. Deciile, determine. 2. End, finish, terminate. Auto., 1. Differ, dis- agree. 2. Begin, commence. Concur, v. Agree, coincide, join. Anio., disagree. Concussion. ?/. Clash, shock. Condemn, v. Blame, censure, reprove, disapprove. A}ito., acquit, exonerate, excul- pate, clear, justify. Conduct. 71. I. Management. 2. Behavior, deportment, demeanor. Confess, v. i. Admit, grant, concede. 2. Acknowledge, avow, Anio., deny, traverse. Confidence, n. i. Faith, tn;st, belief. 2. Assurance, courage. A/iio., 1. Distrust, in- credulity. 2. Timidit\'. Conflict. ri. Contest, struggle, fight, battle. Confound, t. Amaze, perplex, bewilder, stupefy, dumbfound. Confusion. «. i. Jumble, disarray, dis- order. 2. Tumult, commotion. 3. Shame, abashment. Afi/o., i. Order, arrav. 2. Quiet. 3. Pride, hauteur, self-possessioh. Congenial, tjdj. Suited, adapted, agree- able. Auto., unsuited. uncongenial. Conjecture. «. Guess, supposition, sur- mise. Anto., demonstration, proof. Conjugal, adj. Matrimonial, nuptial, bridal, connubial. Anio., celibate. Connoisseur. «. Critic, judge. Atito., ignoramus. Connubial, adj. See Conjugal. Conquer, v. Overcome, vanquish, sub- due, checkmate, master, subject, crush. Auio.y fail, yield, give up, surrender. Consanguinity, n. Kindred, relation- ship. Consideration, v. i. Cause, reason, ground, motive. 2. Attention, deliberation. Aiilo., 2. Inattention. Consistent, adj. Accordant, compatible. Anio., inconsistent, discordant. Conspicuous, ad/, i. Prominent, emi- nent. 2. Visible, apparent. Auto., 1. Un- known, lowly. 2. Obscure, hidden. Constrain, v, 1. Compel, coerce, force. 2. Curb, restrain. Anio.^ j. Cajole, coax. 2. Loosen, liberate. Construct, v, i. Fabricate, erect, build, raise. 2. Make, form, frame, institute. Anto., 1. Overturn. 2. Destroy. Consume, v. Devour, expend, waste, destroy. Auto., build up, save, keep. Contagious, adj. i. Catching, infectious. 2, Poisonous, deadly, pestilential. Anio., 2. Healthy, wholesome. Contaminate, v. Defile, sully, pollute. Aiilo., clean, whiten, clear. Contempt. ;/. Scorn, disregard, disdain. Anto., regard. liking, admiration. Contemptible, adj. Mean, base, despica- ble, abject. Anio., loftv, nohle, honorable. Contentment, n. ' Kase, satisfaction. Auto., discontent, sorrow, melancholy Contest. «. St-e Conflict. Contingent, odj. Uncertain, conditional. Anto., sure, certain, fixed. Continual. a. Direct, regulate, manage, govern. Convenient, adj. Suitable, appropriate, useful. Anio., unsuitable, wrong. Conversation, n. Talk, dialogue, collo- quv. Anto., silence. Convertible. ad/. Interch.angeable. Anio., unchangeable, immovable. Conveyance, w. i. Transfer, alienation, deed. 2, Carriage. Convict. 7'. Condemn, find guiltv. Anto acquit, exculpate, exonerate. Copyince. v. Satisfy, persuade. Anto., dissuade. i;onviviaI. adf. Jovial, jc Anto., gloomy, sad, thouglitful. Cool. adj. 1. Not warm. 2. Collected, calm, dispassionate. Anto., 1, Warm. 2. F-xcited, enthused. "* ^^py- ^'. 1. Transcribe. 2. Imitate. Anto., originate. Cordial, adj. Sincere, warm, hearty, heartfelt, ardent. Anto., heartless, cold, de- ceitful. Correct, adj. Right, true, accurate, fault- less. Anto., wrong, erroneous, faulty. Correspondent, adj. Answerable, suit- able. Anto.j unsuitable, unfit. Cost. 71. Expense, charge, price. Counsel. «. i. Counsellor, attorney, ad- vocate, barrister, lawyer. 2. Opinion, aHvicc, admonition, recommendation. Counterfeit, adj. i. Forged, spurious. 2. Sham, feigned, simulated. Anto., i. Gen- uine, real. 2. Sincere, actual. Couple. //. Pair, brace. Courage, n. Bravery, spirit, valor, hero- ism, fearlessness. Anio., cowardice, timidity, fear. Courtesy. «. Civility, urbanit>', polite- ness. Anio., rudeness, boorishness. Covenant, n. See Contract. Covert, adj. Secret, disguised, hidden, concealed. Anto., open, displayed, shown. Covetousness. ;/. Stinginess, avarice, parsimony, pcnuriousness. ^//o., generosity, liberalitv. Cowardice, n. Fear, timiditv, poltroon- en.', pusillanimity. Anto., courage, bravery, valor. Coy. adj. Shv, bashful, reserved, demure, modest. Anto., bold, brazen, shameless. Crack, k, i. Crevice, chink, cranny, opening, breach, fissure. 2. Explosion, re- port. Crafty, adj. Shrewd, cunning, artful, astute, subtle, tricky, Anio., simple, artless, ingenuous. Cravat, n. Necktie, neck-cloth, necker- chief. Crave, v. i. Beg, beseech, solicit, en- treat, implore. 2. Desire. Atiio., i. Give, of- fer, confep. 2, Disdain. Crazy, adj. 1. Insane, mad, lunatic. 2. Ricketty, tottering. Anto., i. Sane. 2. Strong, stalwart. Create, v. i. Cause, produce, originate. 2. Make, constitute. .4«/t».. destrov. Credit, 71. 1. Trust, belief, faith, confi- dence. 2. Esteem, reputableness, regard. 3. Ilonur, merit. Anto., discredit, incredulitv. Creditable, ad/. Reputable, honorable. Anto., dishonorable, shameful. Credulous, adj. Unsuspeclinij. super- stitious, gullible. Anto., knowing, disbeliev- ing, doubtful. Creed. n. Belief, doctrines, dogmas. Anto., skepticism, heterodoxy. Crestfallen, adj. Discouraged, dis- heartened, depressed, dejected. Anio., en- couraged, emboldened, determined. Crisis, n. i. Height, acme. 2, Emer- gency, exigency, strait, pinch. Criterion, 'w. Measure, test, standard. Croak, v. Murmur, grumble, complain. Anio., rejoice, congratulate. C^rooked. adj. i. Hent, curved, awrv, distorted. 2. Dishonest, knavish, unfair, un- scrupulous. Anio., I. Straight, 2. Honest, fair, honorable. <'ross. adj. Captir.us, peevish, petulant, fretful, snappish. Anio., agreeable, gocid- humored. Cruel, adj. Pitiless, unmerciful, inhuman, barbarous brutal, savage. Anto., kind, piti- ful, merciful, human. Cube. H, Die, a regular solid with six equal square sides. Cultivation, n. i. Culture, civilization, refinement. 2. Tillage. Anio., desolation, desert. Cure, «. I. Remedv, restorative, correc- tive. 2. Healing, restoration, Anto., i. Poison, 2. Relapse. <*urious. adj. i. Prying, inquisitive. ire, unique, queer. Anto., i. Uninterested, careless. 2. Common, ordinary, usual. Current, adj. i. Present, existing, 2. Coiniiinn, general, rife. Anio., 1. Past. 2. Rare, unique, singular. Curse, n. Imprecation, execration, male- diction. Anto., blessing, benison. Cursory, adj. Superficial, hasty, careless, desultory. Anto., thorough, careful, exact. Curtail. t<. Retrench, reduce, shorten, abridge, decrease. Anto., increase, augment, lengthen. Custody, n. Care, keeping, watch, pro- tection. Custom. 11. I. Usage, practice, habit. 2. Tax, ini]iost, dut\', tribute. Cynical, adj. Morose, carping, sarcastic, snarling, satirical. Anto., agreeable, jovial, companionable. Daily, adj. Diurnal, quotidian. Aftio., irregular, disordered. I>ainty. ad/, i. Nice, delicate, savor\', delicious. 2. Squeamish, fastidious. 3. Ele- gant, fine. Anto., 1. Nasty, tasteless, bitter. 2. Careless, slovenly. 3. Coarse. Dalliance. «. Fondling, caressing, en- dearment. Damage, v. Mar, harm, hurt, impair, injure. Anto., help, strengthen, defend. Dampness, n. Moisture, humidity, damp. Anto,, dryness, aridity. Damsel, ti. Lass, miss, maid, maiden, girl. Anto., lad, boy, youth, young man. Danger. «. Risk, venture, hazard, peril, jeopardy. Anto., safety, security. Daring, adj. Courage, bravery, valor, intrepidity. Anio., cowardice, fear, timidity. Dark. adj. i. Cloudy, rayless, murky, shady, unilluminated. 2. Glootnv, dismal. 3. AVicked, foul, atrocious. 4. Obscure, mys- tical, mysterious. Anto., brij^ht, light. " 3. Honest, fair. 4. Open, intelligible. Date. //. Time, period, age, era, epoch. Dead. adj. \. Inanimate, lifeless, breath- less, defunct. 2. Dull, frigid, obtuse, callous. 3. Useless, unprofitable. Ante., i. Live, breathing. 2. Attentive, active, sharp. i. Useful. ^ . , V i Deadly, adj. i. Deleterious, destructive, noxious, fatal, mortal. 2. Rancorous, im- placable. Anto., wholesome, healthy. Dear. adj. i. Beloved, darling, precious. 2. Costly, high-priced, expensive. Anto., 1. Hated, despised, loathed. 2. Cheap, low, common. Debase, v. See Abase. Debate, v. Discuss, canvass, argue, dis- pute, contest. I>eccitful, adj. Deceptive, illusive, de- lusive, fallacious. Anto., truthful, plain, open, honest. Correct. Deceive. ?■. Delude, over-reach, fool, trick, cheat, gull, dupe. Decide, v. Determine, conclude. Anto., differ, disagree. Declaration. ». Assertion, averment, avowal, affirmation, asseveration. Anio., de- nial, negative. ' l>ccorate. v. Deck, adorn, ornament, embellish, beautify, Anto., spoil, spot. I>ccorum. n. Propriety, decency. Anto., impropriety, irisbehavior, Dccroy. V. Tempt, allure, entice, inveigle, seduce. Anto., repel, warn, advise. Decrease, t. D i m i n ish . lessen. Anio, , increase, augment, replenish. l>€M'rcc. n. Order, mandate, fiat, edict. Deduct. f. Separate, subtract, take away. Anto., add, increase, augment. Defame. 71. Asperse, calumniate, slan- der, vilify. Anto., praise, glorify, celebrate, detend. l>cfcat, T. I. Beat, conquer, overcome, rout. 2. Balk, disappoint, bafile, foil, frus- trate. Defect, n. 1. Flaw, blemish, imperfec- tion. 2. Fault, failing. Anio., perfection, improvement, beautv. l>efcnefer, t. Adjourn, delay, postpone, ^«/()., l>ush, force, expedite. \ SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 69 / Deference, n. Rep^ard, respect, rcvcr- uncu, honiiigi:. A/ito., disrespect, irreverence, contumely. Definite. aeity. II. Divinity, Godhead, God, Anio., Devil. D«j<'rtefl. GiiJ. Depressed, disheartened, despondent. yl«/fl., joyous, mercurial, glad. Delay, zi. Linger, stop, procrastinate. Anto,, li;isten, expedite. Delectable, adj. Pleasant, agreeable, de- lightful. Anto.y abominable, despicable, nasty. Delegate. «. Commissioner, represen- tative, deputy. Delicious, adj. Delicate, palatable, lus- cious. Anlu., bitter, nauseous. Delightful, adj. Charming, enchanting, ravishing. Anio., displeasing. Delinquent. «. Offender, wrong-doer, culprit, criminal. Delirium. «. Wandering, hallucination, derangement. Delude, x*. See Deceive. Demand, t. Require, claim, exact. Anio.^ give, offer, relinquish. Deiuolisli. z'. Destroy, overthrow, level, ruin. Anio., build, construct, raise. Demonstrate. v. Show, establish, prove. Demonstration. «. Proof, manifesta- tion. Demoralize. t>. Corrupt, deprave, vitiate. >4«/o., reform, rescue. Denote, v. Imply, signify, indicate, mark, designate. Deny. v. 1. Contradict, gainsay. 2. Dis- own, disavow, abjure. 3. \\ ithhold. Anto,^ avow, admit, concede. Depai-t. V. I. Go, start, leave, set out. 2. Vani.sli, disappear. Auio.y i. Come, re- turn. 2. Emerge, ajjpcar. * Dependence, n. Keliance, trust, confi- dence. Anto.t independence. Depict. V. I. Describe, z. Delineate, portray, pencil, paint. Deplore, v. Lament, mourn, bewail, bemoan. Ari/o., rejoice, congratulate, cele- brate. Deportment. ». Demeanor, behavior, carriage, ctmduct. Deprecate, v. Regret. Art/o., desire, commend. J>eprcciate. v. i. Underrate, undervalue, lessen the price of. 2. Censure, degrade, tra- duce, malign. Auto., i. Overrate. 2. Praise, vindicate. Depress, z/. i. Lower, drop, sink. 2. Deject, dispirit, chill. 3. Debase, humiliate. Anio., I. lilevate, raise. 2. Encourage. 3. Exalt. Derange. 7/. Confuse, displace, unsettle, disorder. Anto.^ arrange. Descend, v. i. Fal", drop, smk, go down. 2, Dismount. Anto.^ ascend. Design, tt. 1. Sketch, outline, plan, draught. 2. Intent, aim, purpose, object, scheme. Designate, v. i. Name, call, style, de- nominate. 2. Denote, indicate, show, specify. 3. Appoint. Desire, v. i. Ask, request. 2. Wish, ■want, fancy, covet, crave. Dcsulntinn. h. i. Glnnm, sadness, wretchedness, misery. 2. Ruin, destruction. Anto,, joy, pleasure, happiness. Despair. «. Desperation, despondency, hopelessness. Anto.^ hope, cheerfulness. Despicable, adj. Mean, pitiful, con- temptible, abject. Anto., elevated, generous, praiseworthy. Despotif!. adj. Absolute, arbitrary, im- pericms, tyrannical. AfUo., free, democratic, constitutional. Destiny. «. 1. Fate, necessity. 2. Lot, doom, fortune, fate. Destroy, v. 1. Consume, waste, devour, desolate. 2. Demolish, overthrow, subvert. 3. Annihilate, extirpate, eradicate, kill. Anio., create, build, call together, construct. Detach. v. Separate, sever, disjoin. Anto., join. Detain, v. Restrain, confine, dcKiy, re- tain. Anto., hasten, expedite, send away. I>etcct. z'. Descry, discover, expose. Determine, t. i. Settle, end, decide, conclude. :;. Lead, influence, induce. 3. As- certain, verify. Anto.^ I. Begin, commence, unsettle, i. Follow. 3. Falsify, negative, ]>etraction. «. Censure, slantler, calumny, defamation. Anto., praise, commendation. Develop. 7-. Unfold, open, evolve, grow. Anto., close, end, wither, wilt, droop. Devil. M. 1. Satan, Belial, Lucifer, arch- enemy, the tempter, the adversary, the prince of darkness. 2. Demon. Anto., God, Deity. Devoid, adj. Empty, destitute, vacant, void. Anto., full, complete, overflowing. Dexterous. «iction. w. Expression, phraseology, lanjjuage, style. Dictionary. «. 1. Lexicon, glossar\*, vocabulary. 2. Encyclopedia. Die, 7'. Expire, decease, wither, perish. Anto., live, breathe, flourish, grow. I>ifferent. adj. i. Various, manifold, unlike, diverse. 2. Separate, distinct. Anto., similar, alike, homogeneous. Ditlieult. adj. Arduous, hard, herculean. Anto., easy, facile. ]>igest. «. Compend, abstract, brief, epi- tome. Dilemma, n. Strait, predicament, quan- darv. Diligence, m. Activity, industry, perse- verance, assiduity, Anto.^ idleness, laziness, lassitude, languor. Diminish, f. See Decreaxe. Direction. «. i. Order. 2. Address, su- perscription. 3. Course, bearing. Disaffection, n. Breach, disagreement, dissatisfaction, estrangement, alienation, I>isagTee, ii. i. Quarrel, wrangle, bicker. 2. Dissent, differ, vary. Anto.,i. Conciliate, pacifv. 2. Agree, equate. Disappear. 7'. Vanish, pass, fade, dis- solve. Anto., appear, emerge, come into view. Disapproval, n. Disapprobation, dis- like, displeiUiure. Anto., approbation, liking, pleasure. Disarrange. v. Unsettle, derange. Anto., order, marshal, fix. Di.sbelief. m. Incredulity, distrust, doubt, skepticism, infidelity. Anto.^ faith, belief, trust. Discomfort, v. Annoy, trouble, disturb, molest. Anto., comfort, ease, quiet, pacify, calm. Discontent, «. Uneasiness, disquietude, dissatisfaction. Anto.^ comfort, ease, quiet, peace, contentment. Discourtesy, «. Incivility, impoliteness, rudeness. Anto., courtesy, breeding, good manners, l>ehavior. Discredit, n. 1. Distrust. 2. Disrepute, obloquy. Anto., i. Credit. 2. Reputation, standing. Dis<^us8. V. Canvass, sift, argue, ventilate, debate. Disease. ;/. Ailment, complaint, illness, sickness, malady. Anto., health. Disgrace, v. Degrade, debnse, sully, stain, dishonor. Anto., ex(merate, exculpate, clear, release, justify, vindicate. Dishonest, adj. Unfair, false, knavish, fraudulent. Anto., honest, reputable, right, proper, trusty, sincere, candid. I>islike, w. Aversion, antipathy, repug- nance, disgust. Auto.,, liking, admiration, love, regard. Dismiss. V. Discharge, discard, turn off. Anto., receive, take back. Disoblige, v. Discommode, offend, dis- please. Anto., oblige, favor. Dispassionate, adj. Sober, calm, tem- perate, composed, imperturbable. Anto., pas- sionate, stormy, ciisturbcd. Display, v. 1. Exhibit, show. 3. Un- fold, open, spread. Anto., hide, conceal, Cover, close. Displease, t. i. Dissatisfv, offend, dis- gust. .:. Anger, irritate, affiont. Anto., l)lease, comfort, e;tse, quiet. Disregard. 7'. Overlook, slight, neglect, contemn. Anto., regard, favor, notice, watch, oversee. Dissembler, n. Feigner, hypocrite. Dissipate. 7-. i. Lavish, squander, waste. 2. Dispel, scatter. Anto., 1. Save, economize. 2. Gather. Dissolute, adj. See Abandoned. Distant, adj. i. Remote, far. 2. Re- served, coy, shy, cold. Anto., 1. Near, close. 2. Bold, shameless, impudent. Distress. «. i. Suffering, pain, anguish, agony. 2. Adversity, trouble. 3. Want, in- digence, poverty. Anto., i. Pleasure, ease, contentment. 2. Happiness. 3. Wealth, af- tluence. Distrust. «. Mistrust, suspicion, dis- credit, disbelief. Anto., trust, confidence, re- liance. Diversity. «. i. Variation, unlikeness, ditference. 2. Variety. Anto.^ sameness, likeness, homogeneity. Docile, adj. Apt, tractable, teachable. Anto., intractable, savage, untamable. Doleful, adj. i. Melancholy,, woeful, sad, sorrowful. 2. Dolorous, gloomy. Anto.^ jovous, bright, happy. Domestic, adj. Homely, tame. Anto., exoteric, extraneous, foreign, wild. Doubt. «. I. Suspense, irresolution, un- certainty. 2. Suspicion, mistrust. Anto., 1. Foreknowledge, resolution, certainty. 3. Confidence. Drag* V. Draw, pull, haul, tug. Dread, n. Fear, awe, apprehension. Anto., courage, boldness, valor. Dreadful, adj. Awful, frightful, fearful, direful, horrible, terrible. Droll, adj. 1. Odd, queer. 2. Comic, funny, farcical. Anio., 1. Usual, ordinary. 2, S(ilemn, funereal. Dr€>op. 7K I. Decline, fail, languish. 2. Fade, wilt, wither. Anto., i. Rise, succeed. 2. Bloom, blossom, grow, wax. Dull, adj. 1. Stupid, shallow. 2. Inert, sluggish. 3. Blunt, obtuse. 4. Gloomy. Anto., T. Knowing, deep. 2. Active. 3. Sharp, shrewd. 4. Bright. Dunce, n. Simpleton, fool, nmny, idiot, dolt, oaf, dullard. Anto., sage. Eager, adj. i. Zealous, ardent, impetuous. 2. Impatient, longing, yearning. Anio., i. Lukewarm. 2. Patient. Karn. Xf. i. Gain, obtain, get. acquire, win. 2. Merit, deserve. ^«/(>., squander. Easy. adj. Light, not difficult. 2. Quiet, comfortable. 3. Unconstrained. Anto., 1. Difficult. 2. Uneasy. 3. Confined. Eccentric, adj. Odd, peculiar, erratic, anomalous, aberrant. Anio., usual, ordinary, commonplace. Ecstacy, n. i. Delight, rapture, trans- port. 2. Enthusiasm. Anto., despair, sorrow, torture. Educate, v. Tram, discipline, instruct, school, teach. Anto., ignore. Efface. V. Cancel, blot, erase, expunge, obliterate. Anto., rewrite, strengthen. Effective, adj. i. Active, effectual. 2, SulHcient, cogent, energetic, forcible, potent. Anto.. ineffectual, idle. slow. weak. Effectual, adj. See Effecttve, ^ Egotistical, adj. Conceited, self-impor- tant, selfish. Anto., humble, lowly, gener- ous. . Elevate, v. i. Exalt, promote. 2. U.iisc, lift %. Improve, refine, ennoble. 4. Animate, cheer, elate. Auto., depress, lower, vulgarize, deaden. sadden. Embarrass, v. i. Disconcert, confuse, confound, 2. Distress, hamper, clog. 3. Perplex. Anto., assist^ help, explain. EniDolden. v. Inspirit, reassure, animate encourage. Anto., abash, confuse. VL 70 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. Emergency. «. Strait, difficulty, exi- gencv, necessity, crisis. Eminent. adj. Exalted, remarkable, prominent, conspicuous, distinguished. -^/i/t»., obscure, lowly, meek, humble. £motion. n. Feelint;, excitement, agita- tion, passion. Anto.-, calm, quiet, ease. Kmploynient. «. Engagement, occu- pation, pursuit, avocation, business. Auto., uileness, leisure. ICiicoura^e. See Kmbolden. £nilless. adj. i. Unlimited, boundless, illimitable, infinite. 3. Eternal. Anto., lim- itud, epliemcral. 2. Finite, mortal. Energetic, adj. Active, forcible, strong, vigorous, powerful. Anto.^ ieeble, weak, en- ervated. Enervate, v. Weaken, enfeeble, break, debilitate, paralyze. v4«/(7., invigorate, nerve, strengthen. Engagement, n, i. Emijlovment. 2. Encounter, battle. 3. Promise, pledge, assur- ance, contract. Engross, v. Occupy, absorb, engage, monopolize, forestall. Atiio., vacate, empty. Enhance, zf. 1. Raise, heighten, swell, advance. 2. Augment, increase. Auto., lower, recede, reduce. EnjojTnent. «. Gratification, delight, pleasure, happiness. Anto., sorrow, sadness, grief. Enlarge. See Augmeni. Enmity. 7i. Animosity, aversion, hostil- ity, hatred, malevolence. 'Anto., friendship, kindliness, love, admiration. Ennoble, -v. See E/t-vati'. Ennui. n. Listlcssness, irksomeness, tedium, languor, lassitude. Anto., liveliness, vigor, enjoyment, buoyancy. Enterprise, n. 1. AttJmpt, undertaking, endeavor, venture. 2. Energ\. Entertain. z<. Divert, amuse, please, Aiito.t sadden, make gloomv. Enthnsiasm. «. Earnestness, devotion, zeal, ardor. Anio,^ frivolity, ennui, luke- warmness. Entice, v. See A/lure. Entreat, t'. Petition, ask, beseech, im- plore, i>ray, supplicate. Ennmerate. z-. Number, count, reckon, numerate. Ephemeral, adj. Short-lived, transitory, living but a day. Anio., eternal, endless. Epicure. «. Gourmand, syliarite, sensu- alist, vohiptuary. Aitio., ascetic, stoic. Epitliet. «. Name, designation, appel- lation. Equable. adj. Even, regular, steady, equal, uniform. Anto.^ eccentric, unequal, rugged. Equestrian. ;/. i. Rider, horseman. 2. Chevalier, cliasse\ir, knight, cavalier. Anto., pedestrian, mfantrv, footm.an. Equitable, aiij. 1. Fair, reasonable, justifiable, right, 2. Just, honest, impartial. Anto., unjust, unreasonable, wrong, dis- honest. Equivocate. v. Lie, shuffle, dodge, quibbk-, prevaricate. Error. «, i. Oversight, mistake, blunder. 2. Transgression, fault, offence, sin. Erudition. u. Learning, knowledge, lore, science, scholarship. Anto., ignorance. Eschew. 7'. Avn, result, consequence. Ever. adj. t. Evermore, always, ave, perpetually, eternally. 2. At any time." Anto., never. Evident, adj. Apparent, obvious, clear, ' palpable, manifest. Anto., obscure, hidden. Exalt. T. I. Glorify, bless, praise, extol, magnify, 2. Raise, erect, elevate. 3. Dignify, ennoble, Auio.,i. Execrate. 2. Lower. 3. Abase. Exasperate, z'. Irritate, vex, offend, pro- voke, incense, anger, enrage. Auto., soothe, mollify, pacify, jiieasc. Excellent.' adj. i. Choice, prime, ster- ling, matchless, suiierior. 2. Good, virtuous, worthy. Anto., bad, low. 2. Villainous, worthless. Excel. 7'. Surpass, beat, outdo, exceed. Anto., fail, fall behind. Excerpt. «. Citation, extract, quotation. Exculpate, v. Excuse, justify, pardon, clear, exonerate. Anto., convict, indict, ar raign, blame. Excursion, n. Ramble, jaunt, trip, tour, journey. Excuse. M. I. Plea, justification, apology. 2. CJuise, color, pretext, pretence. Execute. See Accomplish. Exegesis. «. i. Exegetics, explanation, exposition, interpretation. Exercise, z-. Practice, pursue. 2. Drill, train, discipline. 3. Exert, use, apply. Auto., rust, decav, degenerate, become sluggish. Exhale. v. Breathe, evaporate, emit. Anto., inhale, inspire. Exhilarate, v. Animate, gladden, cheer, elate, inspirit. Anto., depress, discourage, deject, dampen, chill. Exigency. See Emergency • Exonerate. See Actjuit and Exculpate. Expectation, n. Prospect, anticipation, confidence, hope, trust, reliance. Anto., sud- denness, abruptness, fear, dismay. Expedite. 7'. Quicken, hurry, hasten, accelerate, speed. Anto., delay, retard, clog, bar. Expense, n. Outlay, charge, expenditure, cost. Experience, n. 1. Knowledge, wisdom. 2. Practice, Anto., i. Ignorance. 2. Inexper- ience. Experiment, -v. Proof, test, trial, ex- .amination, assay. Explain. 7'. Expound, illustrate, unfold, interpret, elucidate. Anto., confuse, muddle, darken. Expound. See Explain. Expression, n. i. Plirase, term, utter- ance, declaration. 2. Look, appearance, as- pect. Extend. 7'. r. Expand, augment, dilate, enlarge, protract, prolong,. 2. Yield, offer. Anto., I. Abridge, shorten, lessen. 2. Take, receive- Extraordinary. adj. Uncommon, sig nal, rare, unusual, remarkable. Anto., com- mon, usual, customary. Extravagant. Adj. i. "Wasteful, lavish, profuse, prodigal. 2. Wild, absurd. 3. Un- reasonable, inordinate, preposterous. Anto., I. Stingy, miserable, close. 2. Probable, credible. 3. Common, ordinary, custoniarv. Extricate, v. Relieve, clear, disentan- gle. Anto., involve, entangle. Exuberate, adj. Full, copious, liberal, lavish. Anto., empty, vacant, scarce. Eable. «. i. Talc, novel, romance, mvth. 2. Falsehood, fiction, labricatioii, lie. Anto., history. 2. Truth, veritv. fact. Facetious, adj. Sportive, waggish, I'o cose, jocular. Anto., serious, gloomy, sat- urnine. Fail. V. 1. Miss, miscarry. 2. Omit, neg- lect. 3. Decay, wane, decline. 4. Break, vlw^o., accomplish, succeed. 2. Perforin. 3. Grow, strengthin. 4. Mend. Faithful, adj. I. Constant, loyal, true. 2. Reliable, truthful. 3. Close, strict. Anto., faithless, deceitful. Faithless, ad^'. Perfidious, treacherous, false. Anto., faithful. False, adj. i. Untrue. 2. Deceptive, fallacious, spurious, counterfeit. 3. Incor- rect, Anto,, I. True. 2. Real, genuine, act- ual. 3. Correct. Family, k. i. Class, race, lineage, tribe. 2. Household. 3. Order. Auto., inaividual. Fascinate, v. Charm, catch, cajitivate, bewitch, enamor. Anto., alarm, dismay, dis- enchant, intimidate. Fast. 71. I, Abstinence, f:isting. Anto., feast, gorge. Fate. n. i. Fatality, destiny, lot, doom, Anto., chance. Feast, n. i. Festival, holiday. 2, Enter- tainment, banquet, carousal. Anto., fast, abstinence. Feeble, adj. i. Weak. 2. Languid, sickly, frail, debilitated. ^«^c., strong, ener- getic, stalwart. Feeling. 7i. i. Affectation, sensibility, emotion. 2. Sensation, touch. Anto., cal- lousness, hard-heartedness. Feminine. adj. 1. ' Delicate, soft, womanly. 2. Effeminate. Anto., 1. Coarse, hard. 2. Masculine. Fervor, n. i. Eagerness, ardor, zeal. 2. Warmth. Anto., laziness, apathy. Festival, n. See Feast. Feudal, adj. F'eodal, military (tenure.) Anto., allodial, democratic. Fickle, adj. Changeable, unstable, vari abk', capricious, inconstant. Anto., faithful, constant, immutalilu. Final, adj. i. Conclusive, decisive. 2. Ultimate, last. Anto., opening, beginning. Fine. adj. 1. Nice, refined. 2. Little, small, minute. 3. Excellent. 4. Handsome, beautiful, elegant. 5. Delicate. O. Light. Anto., coarse, large, mean, ugly. Finisb. 7-. 1. Conclude, end, terminate. 2. Perform, accomplish, complete. 3. Per- fect. Anto., I. Begin, open. 2 and 3. De- stroy, tear down. Firmness. ;/. i. Strength, stability. 2. Solidity, hardness. Anto., 1. Weakness. 2. Softness, penetrability. Flag. n. Standard, colors, ensign, ban- ner. Flashy, adj. Gay, airy, jaunty, showy, tawdry, ostentatious, Haunting, Anto., som- bre, solemn. Flattery, n. i. Adulation, fawning, ser- vility, sycophancy, obsequiousness. 2. Com- pliniL-nt'. Anto'., blame, objection, disap- proval, detraction. Flavor. «. i. Taste, smack, savor, 2. Stnull, odor, fragrance. Anto., tastelessness. Flaw. n. I. b'racture, crack. 2. Speck, spot, fault, imperfection, defect, blemish. Anto., I. Whole, solid. 2. Perfect, iininaeu- late, clear. Flimsy, adj. i. Thin, slight. 2. Trivial, feeble, weak, frivolous, shallow. Anto., 1. Strong, stalwart. 2. Worthy, good, earnest, deep. Fluctuate, v. i. Waver, vacillate. 2. Oscillate. Fluency, n. Flow , glibness, volubility. Anto., silence, taciturnity. Fondness, n. 1. Liking, partiality. 2. Love, tenderness. Anto., hate, dislike. Food. n. Victuals, viands, fare, subsist- ence, alimeilt, nutriment. Fool. See Dnme. Foppish, adj Dandified, coxcombical, dandyish, Anto., slovenly, untidy. Forcible, adj. i. Vigorous. 2. Strong, potent, cogent, jiowerfiil. 3. Violent. Anto., feeble, weak, i)unv. Foreg<». x\ Resign, yield, surrender, re- linquish, abandon. -4///(J., take, receive, de niand. Foresight. w. Prudence, precaution, anticipation, forecast, i)rescience. Anto., imprudence, rashness. Forethought, n. See Foresight. Forgivp. z: Excuse, absolve, pardon, acquit. Auto., avenge, charge, indict, impli- cate, accuse. Formidable. adj. Dreadful, tremen- dons, terrible, shockmg. Anto., small, ri- diculous, puny. Fiirsake. 7'. Abandon, quit, desert, re- nounce, forswear. Anto, cleave. Forswear, z>. i. Renounce, forsake, de- sert. 2, Recant, abjure. Anto., subscribe. / Fortita.lf. «. Resohilion.firmniss, in- duianci;. Aiilo., weakness. ^„;,,. "KoHnne. «: ■•. Chance, uck, fortrnty. 2. Propertv.cslato, riches, weallh. .V "•-* 1 „v lot fate, doom. Atilo., 2. l'<'r'--rty-, fragile. ".'/ Weak, feeble, fra.l, frag- ""fr„^;a;.;r";^- Aron,a pcrf„n,e, bahni- ness, incense. A«to., stench, efflnv.a. J;:;:;:u.%.-'SpS:t^"Ce-. artless, can. ■^ Fraul"' """ch..a,, deception, collusion. triiilo Auto., liom-stv. ^ l ^ ^ Freak. «. Fancy, humor, crotchet, va- gary, whim, caprice. AnIo., purpose, res- "'ri-ee. «.//. .. Unrestrained, un..bstn.ct. ed 2 Gnituitous, willing. ,V l",""''!,^'"- ce;e, artless. 4. (Jenerous .beral ^ /'>., | ..Slavish. 2. Costly. 3;,'^""';. f-,^^"ti: Free. v. i. Clear, nd. i. Kele.lse, no erate, emancipate. A,Uo., h'"-!. enslave. Freeze. 7'. '■ Congeal. 2. Chill, Dc ""Fretful""';.* "taptious, waspish, splen. cticrsnappish.-'petuUnt. Anlo.. equable, good-humored. Frivolous, o.y. •?<<• F/imsy. Frugality. «. Carefulness, economy, thrift. .'l«/o., exlravag.mce, wastefulness. Fruitful. «rfy. 1. 1-ecund, prolific, pro- ductive. 2. Plenteous. A>U0., sterile, fruit- less, unproductive. Frtiitless. u.V. Barren, sterile unpro. diK-tive. 2. Futile, useless A'"":- '";^\"\-, Frustrate. 7. Balk, baffle, defeat, fo.l, '"Fi;i^:"«<(A"'^Vl^i^'^^i->y.-"'">^'"^- ^'i^^riuure. „. 1. Effects, goods, mov- aides, chattels. 2. -Xpparatus. 3.Decorations. "'¥\S^- o^>i. .• Useless, frmtle^, vain, idle. 2. Frivol. HIS, trifling. .4«/o., i. iTuit- ful. 2. Earnest. Gage. n. I. Challenge. 2. Pawn, secur- 'Vln*!^";,. Advant.age, benefit, profit, emolument. yl«untiful, mag- j nif.cent, noble. '•■!«'"■.■•, S'i>7- .^- ^•^•.'"■, Gentle. adj. i. Bland, lenient, kiml, mild, humane. 2. Docile, tame, quiet, tract. able. Anto., rough. .;..■„ I Genuine, ad/, i. True, authentic, iin- •illoved. 2. Unaltected, sincere. yl«/<>., false. Ilirtdiness. «. Di/.zincss. vertigo. | Gid.ly. adj. I. Dizzy. 2. Fickle, uns a- ble. J,. Flighty, careless, heedless. Anlo., sedate,' balanced. , , r ,. <;ift. «. I. Endowment, talent, taculty. Kinius 2. Present, donation, offering, grat- S tv, contribution, subscription, douceur. Gigantic. adj , Huge, vast, colossal. yl«/.)., small, moan, little. (iingerly. «.^!'. Dainty, careful, cau- tious, fastidious. Anlo., rash, careless. (iirdle; ». Band, cincture, belt, cestus. zone. . .... ■ . 1 <;lad. adJ i. Pleased, gratified, rejoiced. 2. Clieerful, joyous. 3. Gratifying. Anlo., sad.stunbre. _ .. , ,• 1 4;loumv. adj. 1. Dull, obscure, disma , dusky, lowering. 2. Depressed, dejected. sad. Anlo., bright, joyful. Go. V. 1. Move, advance, proceed. 2. | De,".rt. \. Extend. 4. l''"^'=. 5- Lend, con- tribute. Anlo., come. Go. inttri. Av aunt, begone. God. «. Eord. Creator, Almighty, Omni- potence, Providence, Jeliovah. • ,u;,:... ^ Good Nature, n. Kindness, ^""-^'h' 'S benevolence, benignity. Anto., malevolence, '"^mSi. « , /A .. Wares, merchandise. 2. Chattels, furniture. i-„;,,. , Gran.leur. «. Greatness, ?>'';''""l>- ■=• Dignity, state, magnibcence, majesty. Anlo., humilitv. , , •* « f\\v,. Graiit. V. I. Concede, admit. 2. Give, bestow, vouchsafe. 3- Transfer, convej. "■'; Gruff. .(.//. Ulunt, harsh, rough, nule, churlish. Aiilo., polite. <;rumble. ,.. Croak, murmur, compl.nn, trrowl ^-Iw/f'., rejoice. . • , 1 *= i?liard. T. l-rotect.watcb,shelter,shield, defend Anto., attack, harass. . (itiarded. '„,/,•. Ca.eful, watchful, cau- tious wary. Anlo.. nngu.arded. 1 Gui.ianee. n. Lea8, conduct, direction, government. Anlo.. following iiuile. «. Artifice, duplicity, deceit, snn- tlety?cunning, craft, fraud. Ante, honesty, ^"Guiltless, adj. Innocent, blameless,spot- less pure, immaculate. ^K/0.., guilty.. . Guilty: adj. Culpable, sinful, criminal. Anlo.. guiltless. , Gyrate, v. Whirl, rotate, revolve. Heighten. :-. i. Raise, elevate, exalt. 3. Increase, enhance. 3- Intensify. Anlo., '"Hell^'^TTlades, purgatory Gehenna. ^'ri:^,i'f«T""«.y. Useful, bene-.:nt, con- ''^fie;^W^r;;;(/.W&eble,infirm.pow«. Irss, impotent, imbecile. yl»/.^., strong, help. '"Her.ulean. adj. .T« ■'^'•■"••>!-J''^^""\r Heroic. ...// i.-Ilold, vabant.brave, cour- ageous, noble, daunUess. 2. Epic. Anlo., ''HeTitation. ». Doubt, suspense "ncer- fiintv vacillation. Anlo., determinatiop. Hid.^us. «.// Dreadful, frightfiil, horrible. appalling, ghastly. ^'",-. h-"" Highwayman bandit, bri- H Hail. V. Greet, welcome, salute. Hale. adj. Sound,strong,healthy,hardy, beantifnl. 2. Ami/e, plentiful. 3. Uenerous, magnanimous, lu.lile. Anlo., ngl> ■ , ifaiipiness. «. Enjoyment, bliss. Peat ■ tilde felicitv. yl«/i'., sorrow. Harass.-;, i. Worrv, vex, plague, tease, troiiMeTdlstress. ^ 2. Fag, exhaust. ,ade. Anto nlease, comfort, protect. HarS. aA-. ■• Compact, solid, impene- trab" 2. Knotty, dilh^^ult. .1. Arcfuous. laborious. 4. Unfavorable. S- Callous, cruel. ^Hakteni V. Accelerate, dispatch, speed. Quicken, expedite. ^«/1;ib-?y,probHy..^»/.... dishonor Honor. V. D guifv, exalt. 2. tJoscrve, ce"bra?e 3- Respect,- reverence, venerate. "''Hoi.e':'',';: Believe, trust, desire, expect. -'iiii.fS":;;?/. .. Adverse, onnosite^con. trary, repugnant. 2. Unfriendly. Anto., amic.lble. friendly. 3:;t!";:^ r: i^te,^'2: pungent, bl.ng. -:^te^iic;biefi,n;:!^;,r^:^^»::-^. """Hue. n. Tint, tinge, shade, color. >^iiSiltyr";^Mo?sw:;neeness,,ow,i. "^^;.lr;!;;;;::n<(/''iJ^^y:":^ti;;; jocular, jocose, facetious. .4»/(.., serious. Surr?: «'; "i^m^e^'dispatch, prompti- tu"? cedent". 2. B.u.tle, flutter, precip.la- ''Hvooerisy':''"«".De*«i., dissimulation. Hypocrisy, n. ■ . • ■ „ sanctimo- I Ideal, adi. Fancied, unreal, shadowy, iui- "^H&sf "^' "^-ctivity, inertness, hi.i- j),iiorii" Anto., knowledge, "'^^n'hrea ' -.^"uneourtlV. uncouth, un- po"shed, impolite, rude, j,^ (f ••.|°' -.is. 2. ■"iuTcrious. adj ^^^-^lii;,^;^. pas. sioXv;o;:^t:-henSi"--. Amo., calm. r^ 72 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. liL Importance, ji. Moment, weight, con- cern, _ significance, consequence. Anto., frivolity. Impression, h. i. Stamp, impress. 2. Idea, notion. 3. Effect, sensation, in- fluence. Improve, v. i. Mend. 2. Progress. 3. Rise, increase. Auto., deteriorate, lessen. Imprudent, atij. Incautious, indiscreet, injudicious, careless, rash. Auto., cautious. Impure, adj. 1. Unclean.dirtv. foul, filthy. 2. Coarse, gross, immodest, indecent, ob- scene, vulvar, lewd. Auto., pure. Inability. «. i. Incompetency, inca- pacity, inefficiency, impotence. 2. ' Disabil- ity, disqualification. Auto., abilitv. Inaccurate, adj. Inexact, incorrect, erro- neous. Anto.^ accurate. Inapt, adj. Unfit, unsuitable, inappropri- ate, inapposite. Auto., suitable, meet. Incapacity. «. See Inabilitv. Incompatible, adj. Unadapted, incon- gruous, inconsistent, unsuitable. Auto., cojnpatibie. incompetent, adj. i. Unable, incapable. 2. Disqualified, incapacitated, unfit. 3. In- sufficient. Aitlo., able, fit, sufficient. Inconsistent, adj. i. Contrary. See In- compatibli-. Incontinence. «. Unchastity, wanton- ness, lechery, lewdness, lasciviousness. Anto.^ chastity. Inconvertible, adj. Unchangeable, un- alterable, not convertible. Afito., change- able. Incorrect, adj. i. Faulty. 2. Inaccurate, inexact, erroneous, false,' untrue. Anto., correct. Indefinite. adj. Undefined, indistinct, unsettled, doubtful, uncertain, loose. A/ito., definite. Independence. ». Libertv, freedom, self- direction. Ante, dependence. Individual, n. Being, person, character. Auto., band, community. Inefiectual. adj. i. Feeble, weak, po\vcr- less. 2. Inoperative, unavailing, useless, abortive. Afito., effectual. Inequitable, adj. Unfair, unjust, dis- honorable. Arito., equitable. Inexperience. ». Ignorance, greenness, rawness. Auto., experience. Ingenuous, adj. Honest, frank, candid, artless, guileless. Auto., craftv. Inharmony. ». Discord, harshness, dis- sonance, discordance. Auto., concert. Innocent, adj. i. Harmless, innocuous. 2. Clean, guiltless, spotless, immaculate. Auto., Guilty. Insanity. ». See Ltmacy. Inspire, v. 1. Inhale. 2. Infuse, instil. 3. Cheer, animate, inspirit. Anto., i. Respire. 3. Discourage. Instruction. ». r. Direction, mandate. 2. Discipline, teaching, training, education. 3, Counsel, precept. Insult, n. Aifront, indignity, offence, outrage. Anto., apolog^', favor. Integrity, n. Honestv, honor, rectitude, probity, virtue. 2. Completeness, entirety. Anto., dishonesty. Intellect. «.' Mind, sense, brains, reason, understanding. Anto., body. Intemperance. », Excess, dissipation. Anto., temijcrancc. Intense, adj. i. Extreme, excessive. 2. Severe, close, strained. 3. Ardent, earnest. u4«/()., slight, frivolous. Intercede, v. Mediate, plead, arbitrate, interpose. Anto., demand, require. Intermission. «. Pause, rest, suspcn- sion, slop, interruption. Anto., continuation. Intermit, v. Subside, abate, cease. Anto., continue, persist. Interpose, v. i. Remark. 2. Mediate, ari>itrate, intercede. Interpret. 7/. Construe, render. 2. De- fine, explain, elucidate, decipher. Interrogate, v. Ask, examine, question, catechize. Anto., answer. Interval. «. Season, term ipace, spell, period. Anto., continuation. Interveniing. adj. Interjacent, interme- diate, interposed. Intimidate, t. Daunt, frighten, alarm, scare, terrify. Anto., embolden, encourage. Intoxication, n. Drunkenness, inebriety, inebriation. Anto., temperance, sobriety. Intrepid, adj. Brave, daring, valorous, bold, dauntless. Anto., cowardly. Intrinsic, ad/. 1. True, genuine, essential, real. 2. Inherent, inborn, native. Auto. i. Counterfeit. 2. Alien, foreign. Introductory, adj. Preliminary, prefa- tory. Intrude, -v. i. Obtrude. 2. Trespass, infringe, encroach. Anto., eject, expel, pro- trude. Intrust. V. Consign, deliver, commit, confide. Anto., distrust. Invade, -v. i. Assault, attack, assail. 2. Infringe. Auto., repel. Invalid, adj. 1. Weak. 2. Null, void. Anto., valid. Invalid, n. Valetudinarian, sick person. Invective. «. i. Abuse, contumely. 2. Satire, sarcasm, lampoon. Anto., panegyric. Invent, v. i. Devise. 2. Fabricate. 3. Im- agine, originate, concoct. Anto., copy, fol- low. Invest: x>. I. Put at interest. 2. Array, clothe, dress. Investigation. «. Scrutiny, examination, inquisition, inquiry. Invigorate, z-. 'Animate, fortify, strength- en. Anto., weaken. Invincible, adj. Unconquerable. 2. In- surmountable, insuperable. Anto., vincible. Invite, z*. 1. Bid, summon, ask, request. 2. Attract, entice allure. Anto.y reject, delay, provoke Involve, -v. Include, embrace. 2. En- tangle, implicate. 3. Entwine, interweave. Auto., simplify, anahze. Irksome, adj. Weary, tiresome, tedious, wearisome. Au/o., pleasant. Irony, n. Banter, mocker}-, raillery, ridi- cule. Anto., praise. Irrational, adj. i. Brutish. 2. Unwise, silly, unreasonable, absurd. Anto., rational. li-refragible. adj. Undeniable, irrefut- able, indubitable, incontestable, Anto., dubious. Irritate, t. Fret, nettle, incense, pro- yoke, exasperate. Anto., soothe. Irruption. «. Inroad, foray, raid, in- cursion. Issue. «. 1. Offspring, children, prog- eny. 2. Conclusion, outcome, result. 3. Outlet, exit. Anto., return, inlet. Itinerant, adj. Wandering, nomadic, rov- ing, travelling. Anto., homely, settled. Jade* 7'. Fatig;ne, weary, tire, fag, ex- haust. Anto., invigorate. Jealousy, n. Suspicion, apprehension. Anto., confidence. Jest. n. Quip, crank, joke, sally, witti- cism. Jocose, adj. Droll, witty, comical, spor- tive, facetious. Anto., serious. Jocund, adj. Joyful, blithe, jolly, gay, buxom. Anto., sad, gloomy. Join. zf. I. Combine, unite, couple. 2. Annex, add, attach. ^;//o., separate. Joke. n. St-e Jest. Jollity. H. Merriment, gayety, fun, frolic, hilarity. Journey, n. Excursion, trip, expedition, travel, tour. Joy. n. Happiness, bliss. 2. Delight, gladness, glee, ecstacy, transport, Anto., sorrow. Joyous, adj. Glad, happy, gleeful, joyful, jolly. Auto., sad. Judgment. «. 1. Opinion, decision, esti- mate. 2. Sense, discernment, sagacity, wis- dom. Just. adj. I. Exact, correct, true. 2. Merited, descr\'ed. 3. Equitable. 4. Honest, fair, upright. Auto., Unjust, unfair, fraud- ulent. Justice, n. i. Right, fairness, equity. 2. Judge. Anto., injustice. Justify. 7'. Warrant, defend, exculpate, vindicate. Anto., criminate. Justness, n. 1. Fairness, right, equity. 2. Accuracy, propriety. Anto., i. Criminality. 2. Improprietv. Juvenile, adj. Childish, puerile, young, youthful. Anto., manly. , Keen. adj. i. Shrewd, sagacious, astute. 2. Earnest, zealous. 3. Severe, poignant, caustic. 4. Sharp. Auto., dull. Keep. V. I. Retain. 2. Fulfil, observe. 3. Support, maintain. 4. Preserve, con- tinue. 5. Celebrate. Auto., dispense^ dis- tribute. Kind. adj. Good, clement, humane, gentle, sympathetic, tender, affectionate. Anto., cruel, unkind. Kingly, adj. Royal, august, imperial, re- gal. Anto., plebeian. Knon'ledge. n. i. Learning, lore, scholarship, erudition. 2. Notice. 3. Per- ception, judgment. Anto., ignorance. I^abor. n. i. Toil, \vork, effort, drud- fery. 2. Child-birth, parturition. Anto. dleness. Lack. n. Need, deficiency, scarcitj', in- sufficiency. Auto., plenty. Lament, r. Mourn, grieve, weep. Anto., rejoice. Lancinate. v. Sever, mangle, tear, lacer- ati;. Auto., heal, join. Laud. fi. Soil, ground, earth, real prop erty. Landscape. «. Prospect, view, rural scene. Language, n. Speech, expression, ver- nacular, dialect, tongue. Languish, v. i. Faint, wither, fade, droop. 2. Look tender. Anto., invigorate, strengthen. Larceny, n. Theft, pilfering, thievery, stealing. Large, adj. i. Bulky, big, great. 2. Broad, extensive. 3. Full, abundant. Auto., small. Lascivious, a. Loose, unchaste, lustful, lewd, lecherous. Auto., chaste, pure. Last. adj. 1. Latest. 2. Ultimate, final. 3. Hindmost. 4. Extreme. Anto., first. Last. adv. The last time- Last, z: Remain, continue, endure. Anto., perish, dissolve. Latent, adj. Secret, unseen, veiled, con- cealed. Anto., patent. Laugb, M. Laughter, cachinnation, roar, guffaw. Anto., sigh. Laugliable. adj. Droll, ridiculous, farci- cal, comical. Anto., solemn. Lavish, adj Extravagant, wasteful, pro- fuse. Anto., niggardly. Lavish, f. Dissipate, waste, squander. Law, ft. I. Rule, regulation, statute, enact- ment, ordinance. 2. Formula. 3. Code. 4. Jurisprudence. Anto., lawlessness. Lan-ful. adj Legal, legitimate, constitu- tional. Anto., unlawful. La^vJ■er. n. Attorney, counsellor, advo- cate, counsel. Lazy. ndj. Idle, dronish, sluggish, inac- tive, slothful. Anto., active, nimble. Lead. n. Direction, guidance, leader- ship. Auto., following. League. «. Combination, alliance, con - federacy, union. Anto., disunion, separa- tion. Lean. v. Incline. 2. Bear, recline, rest. 3- Tend. . . Leave, n. Allowance. permission, license, liberty. Anto., prohibition. Lecture, n. Lesson, discourse, prelec- tion. Legacy, «. Gift, bequest, devise. Legal, adj. See Lazv/'n/. Legible, adj. Fair, readable, plain. Auto., illegible. kl n ..^ SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 73 I humble. Lose. V. I. Miss, forfeit. 2. Waste, squan- der. Anio.f I. Find. 2. Gain, earn. Loss. «. Deprivation, privation, for- feiture, waste, damage, detriment, destruction. yl«/(7.,gain, profit. Love. V. Like. Anto., h:ite. Love. w. Affection, attachment, fond- ness, liking. Anto., hate. Low, adj. 1. Depressed, 2. Mean, ab- ject, disreputable. 3. Cheap. Anto., i. High. 2. Proud, worthy. 3. Dear. Loyal, adj. Faithful, true. Anto., dis- loyal, traitorous. Lucid, adj. 1. Clear, transparent, pel- lucid, distinct, plain, bright, shining. Anto., ambiguous, opaque, sombre. Luck. «. Chance, hap, fortune, fate. Lunacy. «. Derangement, madness, in- sanity, craziness. Anto., sanity. Luxuriate, v. i. Revel, wanton. 2. Flour- ish. Anto., I. Chasten. 2. Wither. M Maceration, n. Soaking, softening, sti :ping. Anto., drying. Macliin:ition, «. Plot, stratagem, in- trigue, conspiracy. Ante., artlessness. Mud. adj. 1, Crazy, delirious, insane. 2. Enraged, frantic, violent. Anto., 1. Sane. 2. I'acihed. 31agic, n. Enchantment, sorcery, necro- mancy. Magnanimous, ad/. .SW Noble, Lofty. Magiiiticeiicc. ;/. (irandeur, splendor, eclat. Anto., squalor, poverty, 31ain. udj. Principal, leading, chief. Anto., subordinate, secondary. Majority, n. 1. Manhood, full age. 2. Greater number. Anto., minority. Malefactor, n. Culprit, criminal, felon, convict. Malice, n. Spite, rancor, hate, venom, malignity, Anto.,\o\^, benevolence, benig- nity. Mammoth, adj. SeeLar^e. Manly, adj. Manful, brave, stout, strong, bold, nol)le, heroic. Anto., effeminate. 3Ianife8t. adj. Clear, apparent, patient, obvious, plain, glaring. Anto., hidden, ob- scure, occult. Manners. «. Breeding, behavior, de- portment, habits, morals. Anto., misbe- havior, vulgarism. Marry, v. Espouse, wed, take for hus- band or wife. Anto., divorce. 3Iask. V. Disguise, slnoud, screen, veil, hide, cliak. Anto., display. Matchless, rtt//. Excellent, inimitable, un- rivaled, peerless, incomparable. ^;//y., com- mon, ordinary Matrimony. n. Wedlock, marriage, nuptial state. .4«/tf., spinsterhood, bachelor- hood. Mean, 7'. 1. Purpose, intend, design. 2. Denote, imply, signify. Mean. adj. 1. Average, middle, medium. 2. Miserly, stingy, base, surly, grumbling, poor, petty, wretched. Anto., 1. Extreme. 2. Noble, lofty. Meek. adj. Modest, humble, mild, gentle, submissive. Anto., bold. Meekness. «. Modesty, humility, gentle- ness, mildness, submissivcness. Anto., boldness, hardihood. Melancholy, n. Depression, gloom, sad- ness, dejection, despondency. Anto., joy, buoyancy. Memory. «. i. Remembrance, recol- lection. 2. Reputation, renown, fame. Anto., forgetfulness, oblivion. Mental, adj. Ideal, rational, intellect- ual, metaphysical. Anto., physical. Mercy, «. Mildness, compassion, clem- ency, lenity. Anto., harshness, implaca- bility. Meritorious, adj. Good, worthy, deserv- ing, excellent. Anto., unworthy. Slerry. adj. Gay, gleeful, mirthful, joyful, hilarious. Anto., sad, sorrowful. Mighty, mi/. 1. Able, strong, puissant, 2. Effective, forcible. 3. Immense, vast, stupendous. Anto., feeble, small. Mind. n. i. Reason, intellect, under- standing. 2. Inclination, desire. Minority, u. 1. Nonage, infancy, pupil- age, childhood. 2. Smaller number. Anto., majority. Misadventure. «. Misfortune, mishap, reverse, mischance. Anto., adventure. Mischief, n. 1. Trouble. 2. Detriment, harm, Iiurt, evil, injury. Anto., benefit, ad- vantage, utility. Miserable, adj. i. Depressed, unhappy, affected, forlorn. 2. Abject, mean, value- less. Anto., happy, lucky, lofty. Moderate, adj. 1. Mild, judicious, rea- sonable. 2. Frugal, sparing. Anto., im- moderate, extravagrant. Modern, adj. Late, new, novel, recent. Anto., ancient, old. Modest, adj. i. Humble, unpretend- ing. 2. Moderate. 3. Chaste, pure. Anto,, bold, lofty, immodest. Morality, rt. i. Goodness, virtue. 2. Ethics, Tiu}rals. Auto., immorality. Morbi«l. adj. Unsound, j-ickly, unhealthy, vitiated Anto., sf>und, healthv.' Mornuig. n. Daybreak, dawn, forenoon. Anto.. evening. Mortal, od/. Deadly, fatal. 2. Human, Anto., immortal. Mortal. Jt. Human, man. Anto., immor- t.il. Mundane, adj. Worldly, earthly, ter- restrial. Anto., heavenly. Murmur, n. i. Whisper, muttering. 2. complaint. Anto. i. Shout, j. Commen- dation. Muse. 7'. Think, contemplate, reflect, ponder, meditate, brood. Music. « Harmony, symphony, melody, science of harmonics, Mutual, adj. Interchangeil, reciprocal, correlative. Auto , sole, solitary. Mystify, v. Puzzle, perplex, baffle, be- wilder, pose. Anto., clear, explain. N Naked, adj. 1. Nude, bare, imdrcssed. 2. Defenceless^, unjirotecied. 3. Sheer, sim- |)le. Anto., clad, covered. Natural. 1. Regular normal. 2. Native, liriginal, characteristic. Anto., unnatural. Near, iidj Clo^^e nigh, adjacent 2. Familiar, allied, intimate. 3. Impending, imminent. Anto., far. Nerve. t. Brace, fortify, strengthen, invigorate. Anto., weaken, Never, adv. Not e\'er. >^;//., gener- ous, open. Nimhle. ad/. Quick, agile, alert, spright- ly. Anto.,sUn\f^ lazy. "Noble, odj. I. Dignified. worthy, superior, exalted. 3. Grand, magii ficent. Anto., ig- noble. Noise, M. Sound, din, clatter, uproar, clamor. Anto., silence. Nominate, a Name, propose, designate. Note. «. I. Minute, memorandum. 2. Com- ment, remark. 3. Celebrity, renown. 4. Bill, jiromissory note. Note, V. 1. Record. 2. Notice, obser\e, heed. 3. Denote, designate. Noted, adj. Stt' lllwitrioHS, Notion, w. See Id»a. Notorious, adj. i. Conspicuous. 2. Open, obvious, well-known. Anto., unknown. Novel, adj. See AViy. Novel, n. Tale, story, romance, fiction. Noxious, adj. Haniiful, hurtful, dele- lerious, baleful, deadly. Anto., wholesome. Number. ;/. 1. Numeral, figure, digit. 2. Multitude, many. Nuptials. K. \Vedding, marriage. Anto., divorce. Nurture, h. Discipline, training, breed- ing, schooling, education. Nutriment, w. Food, diet, provision, sustenance, nutrition, nourishment. An/o., poi'^on. Nutritious, adj. Sustaining. Nourishing:, ad;. \\'holesome, strengthen- ing. Anto., noxious. Obdurate, adj. Obstinate, stubborn, cal- lous, unfeeling. Anto., llexible. 0!>3eet. «. End, purpose, aim, design. 2. Mark. Anto., subject. Oblige, I. Please, favor, accommodate, serve. 2. Obligate. 3. Compel, coerce. ^«/t)., disoblige. Oblivion, ft. Forgetfulness, amnesty. Anto., remembr.ance. Obscure, adj. Dark, dim, vague, indis- tinct. 2. Humble, unknown. Anto., i. Light, plain, clear, 2. Noted. kl \ 74 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. y] Obscnre. t. Cloud, darken, shade, eclipse. .^«/(i., clear, illuminiittr. Obsequies, w. Funeral rites, exequies. Obsolete, adj. Disused, antiquated, neglected. Aiito.^ new, fashionable. Obvious, oiij. Plain, clear, manifest, visible, apparent. Auto., hidden. Occasional, adj. Casual, irregular, inci- dental. Auto., regular. Occupation, n. i. Calling, business, pursuit, profession. 2. Use, possession. Attto.t 1. Idleness. 2. Forfeiture. Occupy, -v. Hold, possess, use. Anto.y vacate. Occurrence, ft. Adventure, incident, con- tintjencv. Otlor. H. Scent, perfume, fragrance. Offend. V. Displease, annoy, vex. Anio.f please. Offence, ji. Crime, indignity, injury, in- sult, misdeed, transgression, trespass, out- rage. Atito., favor, obligation. Offensive, ad/. Abusive, impertinent, in- lurious, insulting, insolent, obnoxious, oppro- Drious, rude, scurrilous. Anio., pleasant. Offering;, m. i. Oblation, presentation, gift. 2. Sacrifice. Office. «. I. Charge, trust, duty, service. 2. Situation, bertli, station. Oiticious. adj. Active, busv, forward, in- trusive, obtrusive. A/ito., modest. Offspring. «. Children, issue, descend- ants, posterity. Auto.^ ancestry. Only. adj. Alone, adv. Uarely, merely, simply, jiingly, solely. Opaque, adj. i. Dark, obscure. 2. Not transparent, irapcr\'ious to light. Anio.f transparent. Open. a. i. Unclosed, extended. 2. Clear, public. 3- Fair, candid, inreserved. 4. Liberal. 5. Unsettled. Auto., closed. Opening. «. Apcrture,cavity, hole, fissure. Anto., solid. Operation. «. Action, agency, surgical act, process. Opinio II. n. Notion, view, judgment, belief. 2. Estimate. Opinionated. adj\ Conceited, egotistical, obstinate Anto., modest. Opponent, n. Adversary, antagonist, enemy, foe. Antn., friend, ally. Opposite, adj. Adverse, contrary', inimi- cal, repugnant. Anto,, alike, congenTal. Oppro)>rious. adj'. Abusive, insulting, in- solent, offensive, scurrilous, Anio., eulogis- tic. Opprobrium, n. Disgrace, ignominy, infamy. Anto., eminence. Option. «. Choice, election. Oration. «. Address, speech, discourse, harangue. Ordain, v. Appoint, order, prescribe, invest. Order. «. i. Class, degree, fraternity, method, rank, series, succession, 2. Com- mand, injunction, mandate, precept. Anto.y disorder. Orderly, ad;', i. Methodical, systematic, regular, quiet. 2. h. Soldier, ^w/o., irregu- lar. Ordinary, adj'. i. Usual, common, habit- ual. 2. Homely, plain, ugly. 3, Inferior, vulgar. Anto., extraordinary. Origin. «. i. Cause, occasion, 2, Spring, luginning, source. Anto., end. Orifoual. ad/'. First, primarj-, primitive, pri^tine. Anto., copied. Ornament, r. Adorn, embellish, beauti- fy, decorate. Anio., spoil, wreck, destroy. Ornate, adj. Adorned, bedecked, dec(^)rat- cd, embellished, garnished. Anto.. unadorn- ed, Ostenoible. ad/. Colorable, feasible, pro- fessed, plausible, specious, ajiparent, de- clared, manifest. Anio., real. Ostentation, rt. Show, display, flourish, pomposity. Auto., plainness. Outlive. V. See Survive, Outrage, v. Abuse, maltreat, offend, in- sult, shock. Anto., honor, praise. Ontrnpe. «. Affront, offence, abuse, in- dignity, insult. Anto., favor, obligation. OutTvard. aii/. Extraneous, exterior, ex- ternal, extrinsic, outer. Ante, inward. Oval. adj'. Egg-shaped, elliptical. Overbearing, adj. Haughty, arrogant, lordly, imperious, domineering, dictatorial. Auto., gentle. Overcome, v. Conquer, subdue, sur- mount, vanquish. Anto., surrender. Overflow. 7'. 1. F"Iow, deluge, inundate. 2. Overrun, overspread. Oversight, n. 1. Blunder, mistake, er- ror, inadvertency. 2. Management, super- vision, control. Anio., correction. Overthrow. 7'. i. Defeat, overcome, conquer, vanquish. 2. Upset, overturn, sub- vert. 3. Ruin, molest. Anto., surrender, yield. OverAvhelni. t. i. Overflow. 2, Defeat, conquer, vanquish, subdue. Owner, n. Holder, possessor, proprietor. Pacify. V. i. Appease, conciliate. 2. Calm, still, compose, tranquilize, quiet, quell. Anto., excite. Pain. n. 1. Ache, distress, suffering, pang, angiiish, agony. 2. Penalty. 3. Un- easiness, sorrow, grier, woe. Anto., pleasure. Paint. 7'. 1, Depict, delineate, portray, pencil, sketch. 2. Color. 3. Represent. Pair. n. Brace, couple. j4«^(7., single. Pale. adj'. 1. Colorless, wan, whitish, ashy, pallid. 2, Dim, sombre. Anto., florid. Palliate* v. Cover, extenuate, gloss, varnish. Anto., accuse, charge. Palpable, adj'. Obvious, evident, mani- fest, plain, glaring. 2. Tangible. --l«/(7., occult. Palpitate, v. Pulsate, throb, flutter, go pit-a-pat. Anto., quiet. Paltry, adj'. i. Little, small, unimportant, petty, miserable, trivial. 2. Abject, base, mean, jiitiful, contemptible. Anio., wojrthy, great, noble. Panegyric, n. Encomium, praise, eulogi,-. Anto., condemnation. Pang. n. See Pain. Parasite, n. Flatterer, sycophant, han- ger-on. Pardon, n. Grace, forgiveness, remis- sion, absolution, mercy, amnesty. Anto., im- placability. Parentage. «. Birth, lineage, pedigree, stock. Parody, n. Burlesque, travesty, carica- ture. Parsimonious, adj. Close, mean, stin- gy-, miserly, penurious, covetous, sordid. Anto., generous. Partial, adj. i. Incomplete, imperfect. 2. Unfair, warped, biased, prejudiced, un- just. Anto., complete, Pai"t. «. I. Piece, portion, fraction. 2. Element, ingredient. 3. Lot. 4. Charge, function. Particle, tt. Grain, jot, tittle, iota, bit, atom, molecule. Anio., mass. Particular, adj. Appropriate, circum- stantial, distinct, exact, exclusive, nice, pecu- liar, punctual, specific. Anio., careless, in- appropriate. Particularly, ad^. Chiefly, distinct! v, especially, specifically, principally. Anto., generally. Partisan. «. Supporter, adherent, fol- lower, disciple, champton, votary. Anto., op- ponent. Partly, adv. In part. Anto., wholly. Partner. «. 1. Colleague, associate, sharer, participator, partaker. 2. Member or a firm. Passion, w. 1. Ardor, emotion, fervor. Jical. 2. Love, affection, fondness, attach- ment, devotion. 3. Anger, wrath, furv*. 4. Patlios. Anio., quietude, placidity, languor. Passive, adj. Cairn, patient; resigned, submissive, unresisting. Anto., rebellious. Patent, adj. Open, plain, apparent, ob- vious, Anio., latent. Pathetic. adj. Touching, affecting, moving, tender, melting, plaintive. Anto., ludicrous. Patience. «. Resignation, endurance, fortitude, sufferance. Anto., impatience. Patient, aip'. Composed, calm, enduring, passive, n. An invalid. Anto., fretful. Patrician. n. Nobleman, aristocrat. Anto., plebeian. Patronize, -v. Aid, favor, support, help, befriend. Anto., abuse, condemn. Pause. V. I. Stop, cease, desist, delay, rest, stay. 2. Waver, hesitate. Anto., con- tinue. Pay. n. Compensation, reward, requital, wages, salary-, hire. Peaceable, adj. Calm, gentle, pacific, mild, quiet, serene, tranquil, undisturbed. Anto., turbulent. Peaceful, adj. i. Still, quiet, undisturb- ed, calm, placid, tranquil, serene. 2, Mild, friendly. Anto., disturbed. Peculiar, adj. Particular, singular, spe- cial, characteristic, rare, exceptional. Peevish, adj. Captious, cross, fretful, irritable, petulant. Anto., patient. Penalty. «. Chastisement, fine, forfeiture, mulct, punishment. Anto., reward. Penetrating, adj. Discerning, intelli- fent, sagacious, acute, keen, shrewd. Auto., ull. Penitence. «. Compunction, remorse, contrition, repentance, Anto., impenitence. Penniless, adj. Poor, destitute, needy, indigent, reduced, pinched, distressed. Anio., rich, moneyed. Penurious, adj. Beggarly, miserly, nig- gardly, parsimonious, sparing'. Anto., gener- ous. Penury. «. Indigence, need, poverty, want. Anto., affluence. Perceive, v. i. Notice, see, discover, discern. z. Feel. 3. Understand, know. Anto., miss. Perception, n. Conception, sensation, idea, notion, sentiment. Peremptory, adj. Absolute, arbitrary, despotic, dogmatical, positive. Anto., vacil- lating. Perfect. ad/, t. Finished, complete, elaborate, 2. Blameless, pure, holy. Anio., imperfect. Perfidious, adj. Faithless, treacherous. Anto., faithful. Perforate, v. Bore, An/o.,pl\.ig, fill, 'foi pierce, penetrate. Perform. 7-. Accomplish, achieve, ef- fect, execute, fulfil, produce. Anto., fail. Perfume. «. Aroma, fragrance, balmi- ncss, incense. Anto., stench. Peril, u. Venture, risk, danger, hazard, jeopardy. Anto., safety. Period, n. Circuit, date, age, epoch, era. Perjure, v. See For.'^vjear. Permanent, adj. Fixed, abiding, last- ing, stable, enduring, steadfast, immutable. Anio,, unstable. Permit, v. Allow, suffer, consent, ad- mit, toler.ite, yield. Anto,, refuse. Pernicious, adj. Destructive, hurtful, mischievous, noisome, noxious. Anto., healthful. Perpetual, adj. Continuous, constant, incessant, unceasing, uninterrupted. Anto., transient. Perplex. 7'. 1. Pu7,zle, embarrass, be- wilder, confound. 2. Involve, entangle, com- plicate. Anto., explain. Persevere, z'. Continue, insist, persist, prosecute, pursue. Anto., unstable. Perspicuity. «, Transparency, clear- ness, translucency. Anto., obscurity. Persuade, v'. i. Convince. 2. Influence, induce, lead, incite, impel. Anto., dissuade. Pertinent, adj. Apposite, appropriate. Anto., improper. Perverse, adj. Cross, crooked, forward, stubborn, iintractable. Anto., yielding. Pestilential, adj. Contagious, epidem- ical, infectious, mischievous. Anto., whole- some. Petition. «. Application, appeal, prayer, suit, entreaty, supplication. Picture. «. Eftigy, likeness, representa- tion. Pious. adj. Relieioiis, devout, holy, saintly, godly. Anto., impious. jy '? .^ Pique. «. Offence, resentment, umbrage, grudge, Anlo.y plcjisurc, friencUiiicss. Pique. V, i. Urge, spur, incite, instigate. 2. Displease, offend, irritate, nettle, ex;isper- ate. Atilo., please. Fitil^'MS. atij. Unmerciful, relentless, ruthless, cruel, unfeeling, inexorable. A»/o., merciful. Pity, ft. Sympathy, compassion, fellow- feeling. Anto'., cruelty. Place, I. «. Cirou'nd, post, position, seat, site, situation, space, i. adj. Dispose, lay, order, put, set. A/i/o.^ 2. Displace. Plariil. tuf/. 6V^ Peaceful. Plague. I'. Tease, vex, trouble, fret, bother. A»io., please. I'lensniit. aJj'. i. Agreeable, pleasing, delightful. 2. \\ itty, sportive, amusing. 3. Cheerful, lively, vivacious. Anio., disagree- able. Please, v. Delight, gratify, humor, sat- isfy. Auio., displease. Pleasure. «. i. Comfort, eniovment, gralitication, joy, 2. Luxury, volupluous- riess. 3. Choice, will, preference. Anto.t pain. Plebeian, adj. Mean, base, vulgar, ig- nohle. Auto,, patrician. Pleclffe. «. Deposit, earnest, hostage, security, pawn. Plentiful, adi. Abundant, ample, copi- ous, exuberant, jilenteous. Anto., scarcity. Pliable, adj. t. Limber, riexible, sujiple, lithe, z. Compliant, tractable. Anto.. inflex- ible. Pliant, adj. Rending, flexible, pliable, lilhej limber, supple, yieloing. Aftto,, stiff. Plight. V. C;Lse, condition, predicament, situation, state. Plot. V. Scheme, concoct, project, devise, brew, hatch. Plurk. «. Resolution, courage, spirit, mettle, nerve, fortitude. Anto., cowardice. I'<»lishe. Cherish, defend, foster, guard, patronize, shelter, shield. Auto., abandon. Protract, v. Defer, delay, postpone, prolong, rel.ird. Anto., contract. Protracted, adj. Continued, extended, prolonged, drawn out. Auto., shortened. Proud, adj. Arrogant, assuming, con- ceited, haughty, vain. .Anto.. unassuming. I*rfiverb. ;/. Adage, aphorism, maxim, apt>thegm, by-word, saw, saving. Provide, v. Furnish, prepare, procure, supply. Provident, adj. Careful, economical, c;iutious, frugal, far-sighted, prudent. Anto., prodigal. Pro\isions. w. Subsistence, food, vict- uals, viands, bread, provender. Proviso, n. Condition, stipulation. Provoke, i*. 1. Irritate, anger, offend, :iffr. Adapt, equip, furnish, fit, modify, prepare, temper. Quality. ;/. Rank, property, distinction, accomplisliment, attribute. Quandary. «. Puzzle, difhculty, per- plexity, strait, nonplus, dilemma. Quarrel. n. Disagreement, wrangle, squabble, cn. Quote, t'. Adduce, cite. Anto.., originate. Rabble. «. Mob, rout, herd. Race. «. Breed, course, family, genera- tion, lineage, progress. Anto., mongrel. Radiance, w. Brightness, brilliancy, lus- tre, splendor, effulgence. Afiio., gloom. Radical, adj. i. Entire, complete, thor- ough,* perfect. 2. Fundamental, original, organic. 3. Simple, primitive, underived. Aftto., superficial. Rage. II, Anger, cholcr, fury, violence. Anto., calm. Raise. z\ Advance, collect, elevate, heighten, erect, exalt, propagate. A?ito., lower. Rally. T. I. Eantcr, deride, mock, ridi- cule. 2. Collect. A/ito., 1. Praise. 2. Scatter. Random, adj. Casual, chance, fortui- tous. Afito., chosen, destined. Rank, n. Class, degree, position. Ransom. «. Free, redeem, manumit. Anto.f imprison. Rapacious, adj. Greedy, ravenous, vo- racious. A/ito., generous. Rapidity. ?i. Agility, celerity, fieetness, speed, swiftness, velocity. Af/to.^ sloth. Rapt. adj. Charmed, delighted, enrapt- ured, fascinated, entranced, transported, rav- ished. Aftto., dejected. Rapture. ». Ecstacy, transport. Anto., deiection. Rare, adj. t. Excellent, incomparable. 2. Raw. 3. Tnin. 4. Scarce, singular, uncom- mon. Anto., 1,4. Common. 3. Dense, Rash. adj. Impulsive, hasty, heedless, headlong, reckless, precipitate. .«4«^tf., cal- culating. Rate. n. Assessment, degree, proportion, jirice, quota, ratio, value. Rational, adj, 1. Sane. 2. Sensible, wise, jnlulligent. 3. Re.asonable. ^w^o., irrational. Ravenous, adj. Greedy, rapacious, vo- racious. Anto,, generous. Refer, v. i. Allude, suggest, hint, inti- mate. 2. Appeal. 3. Bear, bring. Refined, adj. 1. Accomplished, cultur- ed, polite, polished, elegant, courtly. 2. Puri- fied. 3. Pure, chaste, classic, exquisite,Attic. Anto., coarse. RttHect. V. Consider, censure, muse, pon- der, reproach, think. Reform, v. Amend, better, correct, im- jirovc, rectify. Anto., injure, mar. Refraetoi*y. adj. Contumacious, per- verse, ungovernable, unruly. Auto., obe- dient. Refrain, v. Abstain, forbear, snare. Refresh. 7: Cool, renew, invigorate, revive. Anto., tire. Disprove, oppugn, Anto., Refute. accept. Regale. fresh. Rei^ard. liking, affection Entertain, feast, gratify, re- I. Concern, esteem, respect, 2. Relation, reference. 3. Consideration, heed. Anto,, contempt. Regardless, adf. Heedless, indifferent, negligent, unconcerned, unobservant. Anto,^ Oliservant. Region. «. 1. District, clime, territory. 2. Portion, part. Regret, t. Complain, grieve, lament, re- pent. Anto., rejoice. Regiilate. zf. Adjust, direct, rule, dis- pose, govern, plan, Anto., disorder. Reiterate. 7-. Repeat again, quote, re- cite. ^«/o., retract. Rehearse, v. 1. Recapitulate. 2. Recite, repeat. Reject. V. Refuse, repel, decline. 2. Discard. Anto., accept. Rejoice, v. Triumph, exult, glory. Anto., lament. Rejoinder. ;;. Answer, reply, replica- tion, response. Relevant, adj. Apposite, fit, pertinent, prctper, suitable to the purpose. Anto., ir- relevant. Reliance, n. Confidence, dependence, repose, trust. ^«/o., suspicion. Relieve, zu Aid, alleviate, assist, help, mitigate, succor. Anio., injure, despoil. Religious, ad/. Devout, holy, pious. An- to., profane. Reluctant, adj. Disinclined, unwilling, indisposed, loth, averse, Anto., willing. Reiunin, v. Abide, await, continue, so- journ, stav, tarry. Anto., depart. Remainder, ji. Remnant, residue, rest. Remains. ;/. Leavings, relics, manes. Remark, n. Annotation, observation, note, comment. Reminiscence. «. Remembrance, recol- lection, memoir. Remiss, adj. i. Careless, negligent, in- attentive. 2. Slow, slack, dilatory, Anto., careful. Remit, v. i. Abate, relax. 2. Absolve, forgive, liberate, pardon. 3. Transmit. Remorse, n. Compunction, sorrow, penitence, conviction. Anto., callousness. Renegade. «. i. Turncoat, apostate. Renew, v. Refresh, renovate, revive. Anto., wear out. Renounce, v. Abandon, abdicate, fore- go, quit, relinquish, resign. Anto., keep. Renovate, v. Restore, renew, revive, resuscitate. Renown. ?/. Celebrity, fame, reputation, distinction. Anto., infamy. Renunciation, «. 1, Abandonment, surrender. 2. Abnegation, rejection, repu- diation. Repair, zi. Recover, restore, retrieve. Anto., destroy. Reparation, n. Amf nds, restoration, restitution. Anto., injury. Repartee, n. Reply, retort. Repeal, v. Abolish, abrogate, annul, cancel, destrov, revoke. Anto., reenact. Repel, 7'."RepuUe, drive b.ick. 2. With- stand, resist, confront, oppose, check. Anto., attract. Repetition, adj. Recital, tautology. Replenish, v. Fill, refill, supply, Anto., empty. Repose, n. Ease, quiet, rest, sleep. Anto. dis(|uiet. Reprehensible, adj. Blamablc, censur- able, culpable, reprovable, Anto., commend- able. Reproach, t. Blame, condemn, censure, reprove, upbraid. Anto., commend. Reproof, z'. Blaine, censure, reprehen- sion. Auto,, praise. Reprove, v. Chide, rebuke, reprimand. Anto., praise. Kepugnanre, w. Antipathy, aversion, dislike, haired. Anto.^ liking. Repugnant, adj. Adverse, contrarv, hostile, inimical, opposite, dist;u>teful. Anto., similar, homogeneous. Repulsion, n. Power of repelling, resist- ance. Anto., attraction. Reputation, n. Character, renown, cred- it, fame, honor, repute. Anto., notoriety. Request, f. Ask, beg, beseech, dematid, entreat, implore, solicit. Anto., grant. Requisite. adj. Essential, expedient, necessary. Anto., unnecessary. Requite, z-. i. Compensate, reward, re- cipi'ocate. 2. Avenge. liesearch. n. Examination, enquiry, in- vestigation, careful scrutinv. Resemblance. 7/, Likeness, similarity. Anto., unlikeness. Reservation. «, Reserve, retention. Anto., donation. Reside, v. Abide, inhabit, sojourn, dwell, live, Atlto., alienate. Residence. ?;. Abode, domicile, dwell- ing. Residue. ?i. Remainder, remnant. Resign, z'. Abdicate, forego, give up, relinquish, renounce. Anto., retain. Resignation. «. Acquiescence, endur- ance, patience, submission. Anto., rebellion, Resist, z'. Confront, oppose, witlistand. repel. Anto., assist, submit. Kesolute. adj. Courageous, determined, fixed, steadv. Anto,, irresolute. Resolution, jt. i. Intention, resolve. 2. Firmness, constancv, decision. Anto., 2. Irresolution, weakness, vacillation. Resort, zi. Frequent, haunt. Resource. «. Expedient, means, resort. Respect. 72. 1. Esteem, regard, rever- ence, veneration. 2, Favor, good will. 3. Reference. Anto., irreverence. Respect, v. Honor, esteem, regard, venerate. Anto., dishonor, disgrace. Respectful, adj. Civil, dutiful, obedient. Anto., uncivil. Respite, n. i. Interval. 2. Reprieve, suspension, delay. Anto., continuation. Response, n. Answer, reply, replication, reioinder. Anto., question. Responsible, adj. Accountable, amen- able, answerable. Anto., irresponsible. Rest, n. I. Cessation, ease, intermis- sion, quiet, repose, stop, pause. 2. Remain- der, others. Anto.. I. Motion, unrest. Restless, adj. Unsettled, unquiet, roving. Anto., quiet. Restore, z'. i. Heal, cure. 2. Give up, repay, return, render, replace. Anto., 2. Keep. Restoration. ;/. Amends, reparation, restitution. Anto., retention. Restrain, v. Coerce, constrain, limit, repress, restrict, curb. Anto., liberate. Restrict, v. Bound, restrain, limit, con- fine. yJ«/(7.,free. Result, n. Consequence, effect, event, issue. Resurrection, «. Rising again. Retain, z,-. Detain, hold, reserve, keep. Anto., vield. Retaliation, n. Reprisal, repayment. Anto., pardon. Retard, v. Hinder, obstruct, delay, cluck, impede. Anto., hasten. Retire, v. Recede, retreat, secede, with- draw. Auto., coix\Q for^vard, approach. Retract. z\ Abjure, recall, recant, re- voke. Anto., reiterate. Retrenchment, «, Diminution, reduc- tion, curtailment. Anto., increase. Retrieve. ;•. Regain, recover. A7ito.,\osc. Retrogression, n. Retrogradation, go- ingbackward. Attto., progression. Retrospect. «. Review, re-survey. Anto., forecast. Reveal. z\ Discover, disclose, divulge, communicate, impart, publish. Anto., con- ceal. Revenge, n. Requital, retaliation. Anto., forgiveness. Revenue. 7t. Income, receipts. Anto., expenditure. Revere, z). Honor, venerate, adore, rev- erence. Anto., execrate. Reverse, z\ Change, subvert, overturn, in\ert. Anto., establish. Review, z: Notice, revise, survey, recon- sider, inspect. Revi.sio'n. «. Review, reconsideration, revisal. Revive, v. i. Refresh, quicken, rouse, cheer, animate, 2. Revivify. Revoke, z: Abolish, abrogate, annul, cancel, repeal, retract. Aftto., reiterate. ^ \ SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 77 Reward, w. Cf»rnnensntion, recompense, rcimiiu-ration, requital, satit^fiiction. Anto.^ punishment. RirlK^H. w. Fortune, wealth, affluence, opulence. Anio., poverty. Ridioule. «. Mockery, derision, sneer, sarcasm, riiillery, satire. Anto.y sympathy. liidiculoiis. adj. Absurd, preposterous, diMll, ludicrous, ^n/o.v solemn, funereal. Ki^ht. aiij. True, straight, just, proper, Auto., wrong. Right. «. Privilege, claim, immunity. Auto., disadvantafje. Rigrhteous. aaj. Good, honest, virtuous, upright, just, devout, religious, pious, holy, suinuv. A/ito.t bad. Ri^id. ai/J. i. Strict, stern, severe, harsh, rigorous. 2. Stiff, unpliant, inflexible. Anto., pliable. Rigorous, aii/. i. Rigid, severe, harsh, austere. 2. Precise, accurate, exact. Auto., lax. Ripe. aiij. I. Mature. 2. Finished, con- summate. ^. Ready, tit, prepared. Ante, green, raw, immature. Ripeuess, ji. Maturity, perfection, growth. Anto., immaturity. Rise. n. Increase, ascent, origin, Anto.^ subsidence. Rite. ;/. Ceremony, form, observance. Rivalry, v. Contention, emulation, com- petition, Anto., friendliness. Road. ft. Course, path, way, route. Roam. V. Ramble, range, wander, rove, stroll. Robust. aport. 2. Katitication, conflrination. Anto., rejec- tion, prohibition. Sane. adj. Sober, lucid, sound. Anto., crazy. Sapient, adj. Sagacious, wise, discern- ing. Anto., foolish. Sarcasm. ;/. Irony, ridicule, satire. Satiate, z'. 1. Cloy. glut. 2. Satisfy, gratify. Anto., hunger, starve. Satisfaction. «. 1. Atonement. 2. Con- tent. 3. l^emuneration, reward. Anto., dis- satisfaction. Satisfy, v. Gratify, please. 2. Glut, satiate, cloy. Auto., displease. Saving, adj. Thrifty, economical, fru- gal, sparing. Anto., prodigal. Saying. h. i. Remark, observation, st.ateinent. 2. Maxim, proverb, aphorism, adage, saw. Scandal, n. Discredit, disgrace, infamy, reproach, detraction. Anto.,\ir:\\sc. Scarce, adj. Singular, rare, uncommon, Anto., common. Scarcity. «. Want, lack, deficiency, de-arth. ."Iw/o., abundance. Search, v. Examine, investigate, en- quire, pursue, scrutinize, seek. Secede. v. Recede, retire, withdraw. Anto., return. Seclusion, h. Loneliness, retirement, privacy, solitude. Secondary, adj. Inferior, subordinate, second. Ante, primary. Secret, adj. Clandestine, covered, hid- den, concealed, latent, mysterious. Auto., open. Secular- adj. Temporal, worldly. Anto., religious. Secure, v. 1. Be certain, guard, make sure. 2. Guarantee. Anto., lose. Sedate, adj. Calm, cmnpnsed, quiet, still, serene, unrufBed. Anto., lively. Seduce, v. Allure, attract, decoy. Anto., repel. See, V. Behold, eye, look, observe, per- ceive, view. Seek. V. i. Search for, ask for, 2. Strive, ti^-, endeavor. Anto., lose. "Sell. -v. Vend, barter, dispose of. Anto., buy. Senile, adj. Aged, old, infirm. Anto., juvenile. Sensation. ;/. Perception, sentiment, feeling. Sense. «. Feeling, judgment, import, meaning, reason. Sensil>ility. h. Delicacy, feeling, sus- ceptibility. Sensitive, adj. i. Impressible, easily af- fected. 2. Perceptive. Anto., callous. Sentence. «. Decision, judgment, period, phrase, proposition. Sentiment. «. Feeling, notion, opinion, sensation. Anto., insensibility. Sentimental. adj. Koniantic. Anto., prosaic. Separate, v. i. Disjoin, divide, detach, disunite, isolate. 2. Cleave, sever. Anto., join. Serious, adj. 1. Weighty, momentous. 2. Sober, grave, solemn, earnest. Anto., jo- cose. . Servile, adj* Fawning, mean, slavish. Anto., free. Settle. V. Adjust, arrange, determine, establish, regulate, fix. Anto., unsettle. Settled, adj. Conclusive, confirmed, de- cisive, definitive, established. Anto., unset- tled. Sever, -v. Detach, disjoin, divide, separ- ate. Anto., join. Several, adj. Different, distinct, diverse, sundrv, various. Severe, adj. Austere, cruel, harsh, rigid, rigorous, rough, sharp, strict, unyielding, stern. Anto., mild. Severity. «. i. Austerity, rigor, stern- ness. 2. Keenness, causticity, 3. \'iolence. Anto., mildness. Shake, v. Agit.-»tc, quake, quiver, shiver, shudder, totter, tremble. Anto., steady. Shallow, adj. 1. Shoal. 2. Frivolous, flimsy, trivial. 3. Superficial, ignorant. Anto., deeii. Sliiime. ;/. Disgrace, dishonor, ignominy, reproach. Anto.. honor. Sliameless. adj. Immodest, impudent, indecent, indelicate. Anto., modest. Shape, V. Fashion, form, mould. Share, v. Apportion, distribute, divide, part;di,e, participate. Share. ;/. Dividend, part. Anto., whole. Sharpness. n. Acrimony, acutencss, pinetration, shrewdness, sagacity. Anto., dulness. Shelter. ». Asvlum, refuge, retreat. Shelter, v. Cover, defend, harbor, lodge. protect, screen. Anto., cast forth. Shine. :-. Gleam, glare, glisten, glitter. Anto., darken. Shining. adj. i. Brilliant, glittering, radiant, sparkling. 2. Bright, splendid, re- splendent. Anto., dark, dim. Shock. V. I. Affright, terrify. 2. Appal, disturb, dism.ay. 3. Otfend, disgust. Anto., encourage, inspirit. Shocking, adj. Dreadful, disgusting, terrible. Auto., pleasant. .Short, adj. I. Defective, scanty, want- ing. 2. Brief, concise, compendious, laconic, succinct, summary. yl«/(>., long. Shorten, v. 1. Abridge, abbreviate, rei trench. 2. Diminish. Anto., extend. Show. «, I. Display, parade, pomp. 2. Exhibition, representation, sight, spectacle. Show. V. Display, exhibit, parade. Anlo., hide, cover. Showy. adj. Gay, gorgeous, gaudy, flaunting, garish. 2. Pompous, ostentatious, magnificent. Anto., simple, plain. Shrewd, odj. Acute, keen, penetrating, artful, siv, :>agaciou&. Anto., dull. .Shudder, v. Shrink, shake, quake, quiver. Shun. V. Avoid, elude, evade, eschew. Anto., seek. Sickly, adj. Disc.ased, ill, indisposed, morbid, sick, unwell. Anto., healthy. Sign. «. I. Mark, note, symptom, prng- nostic, presage, signal. 2. Omen, token, sym- bol. Signify, v. i. Betoken, declare, express, intimate, testify, utter. .;. Denote, imply. Significant, adj. i. Indicative, expres- sive, betokening. 2. Momentous. Anto., common, usual. Silence. ;/. Stilncss, taciturnity, mute- ness, oblivion. Anto., sound, noise. .Silence, v. Still. stt>p, appease. .Silent, adj. 1. Dumb, mute, speechless. 2. Still, quiet. Anto., noisv. Silly, adj. Absurd, foolish, simple, stupid, weak, dull. Anto., sedate. Similarity. «. Likeness, resemblance, similitude. Anto., unlikeness. Simil«% «. Comparison, similitude. Simple, adj. i. Klementary, single, not complex. 2. Open, artless, sincere. 3. Plain. 4. Silly. ^I«/(J., complex, artful. Simplicity, n. Artlessness, plainness, singleness. 2. Folly. Anto., artfulness. simply. adz>. i. Merely, only, solely. 2. Artlessly. Since, conj. As, because, for, as. Sincere, adj. 1. Frank, honest, plain, ?enuinc. 2. True, upright, incorrupt. Anto., alse. Sinewy, adj. See Robust. Single, adj. 1. Unmarried. 2. Alone, solitary. 3. Particular, individual. Anto., married, double, several. Singular, adj. 1. Odd, strange, uncom- mon, rare. 2. Peculiar, exceptional. Anto.^ customarv, usual. Situation. «. 1. Case, plight, predica- ment, condition. 2. Locality, place, position, site. , , Skilful. adj. Clever, skilled, knowing, intelligent, ready, adroit, quick. Anto., un- skilful. insomuch -^ \ \ 78 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. -»U Slander, t. Asperse, blacken, defame, traduce, libel. Anto., praise. Slavery, n. Bondage, captivity, servi- tude, drudgery. Anto., freedom. Slender, adj. i. Fragile, slight. 2. Slim, thin. 3. Limited. Anto.^ thick. Slight, adj. 1. Cursor}', desultory, super- ficial. 2. Slim, weak, Anto.^ 1. careful. 2. sulid. Slight, -v. Neglect, scorn. Anto., notice, commend. Slow. adj. I. Deliberate. 2. Heavy, dull, stupid. 3. Sluggish. Anto., quick. Small, adj. 1. Little, diminutive, stunted, tinv. 2. Minute, microscopic. 3, Narrow, illiberal. Anto., large, great. Smell, n. Fragrance, odor, perfume, scent, stench. Smooth, adj. i. Bland, mild, easy. 2. Even, level. Anto., rough. Smother, v. i. Stitle, suffocate. 2. Sup- press. • ^"^^^^°ff- "*(''• Cynical, snappish, wasp- Sober, adj. I. Abstemious, abstinent, temperate, moderate. 2, Grave. Anto., in temperate, gav. Sobriety, n. i. Abstinence, temperance. 2. Coolness, soberness, gravity. Anto.j in- temperance, intoxication. Social, -v. Companionable, conversable, familiar, sociable, convivial. Anto., unsocial. Society, adj. i. Companv, association, fellowship, corporation. 2. The public. Soft. adj. I. Compliant, ductile, flexible, tractable, pliant, yielding. 2. Mild, docile, gentle. Anto., hard. .Soiled, adj. Stained, spotted, tarnished, defiled, polluted. Anto., clean, pure. Solicit. 7-, I. Ask, request. 2. Beg, en- treat, implore. 3. Beseech, supplicate. Anto.^ Ki\e. . . ^ Solicitation, n. i. Importunit%', entreat}'. 2. Invitation. Anto., offering. Solicitude, n. Anxiety, carefulness, trou- ble. Anto., carelessness. Solid, adj. Firm, hard, stable, substan- tial. Anto., unstable. Solitary, adj. 1. Alone, retired, sole. 2. Desolate, deserted, remote. 3. Lonely, only Anto., crowded. Sombre, adf. 1. Dark, shadv, dusky sunless. 2. Sad, doleful, mournful". Ajtto gay, bright. * Soothe, -v. I, Allay, lessen, mitigate, ease. 2. Quiet, compose, pacify, appease, Anto., irritate. -'» ft- Sorrow. n. i. Grief, affliction, trouble, sadness. 2. Regret. Anto., joy. Sort, n. I. Kind, species. 2. Order rank. 3. Manner. Sound, adj. 1. Heart\-, healthy, sane. 2. Entire, perfect, unhurt. Anto.. ill.' Sound, n. i. Tone, noise, report, 2. Strait. Anto., silence. Sour, adj. Acid, acrimonious, acetose, acetous, sharp, tart. Anto., sweet. Source. «. Cause, fountain, origin, rea- son, spring. Spacious, adj. Ample, capacious. Anto.. small. * Sparkle, v. i. Twinkle, glitter, glisten, scintillate, corruscate. 2. Bubble, effervesce. Anto., darken. Speak. V. Articulate, converse, dis- course, pronounce, say, talk, tell, utter. Anto., silence. Speaking. «. i. Elocution, declamation orator>-. 2. Discourse, talk. Species, w. Class, kind, sort, race. Specific, adj Purticular,special,definite. Anto., indefinite. Specimen. «. Model, pattern, sample, example. ' * .Specious, adj. Colorable, feasible, ostens- ible, plausible, showv. Anto., real, genuine. Spectator. «. Beholder, bvslandcr. ob- server. Speculation. «. Conjecture, scheme, theory. ^ * * Speech, n. 1. Talk. 2. Language, dia- It-'Ct. 3. Address, discourse, haranerue. ora- Speechless, adj. Dumb, mute, silent. .Sjpeiid. z\ Dissipate, exhaust, lay out, expend, squander, waste, consume. Anto.^ save. Sphere. «. Circle, globe, orb. Anto., cube. Spill, -v. Pour, shed, waste. Anto., fill, gather. Spirit, n. i. Ardor, hreath, courage, temper. 2. Ghost, soul. ^-Iw/o., mortal. Spirited, adj. Activ?, animated, ardent, lively, vivacious. Anto., stupid. Spiritless, adj. 1. Dull, cold, apathetic, feeble, soulless. 2. Dejected, downcast. 3. Stupid, heavy, prosv, insipid. Anto., spirited. Spirits, n. Animation, courage, life, vi- vacity. Anto., dullness. Spiritual, adj. Ecclesiastical, imma- terial, incorporeal, unearthly, heavenly. Anto,, worldly, terrestrial. Spite. H. Grudge, malice, malignity, malevolence, pique, rancor. Anto., forgive- ness. Spite. V. Anger, vex, thwart. Anto., pardon, please. Splendid, adt. 1. Showy, sumptuous, gorgeous, magnificent, superb. 2. Beaming, radiant, flowing, effulgent, brilliant. 3. No- ble, heroic. 4. Glorious, eminent. Anto., mean, dull, low. Splendor, n. Brightness, brilliancy, lus- tre, magnificence, pomp, pageantry. Anto., dullness, poverty. Splenetic, adj. i. Fretful, peevish. 2. Gloomy, morose, sullen. Anto., amicable. Sport, «. I. Amusement, game, pastime, play. 2. Diversion, recreation. Anto.,\voT\i.. Spotless, adj. i. Blameless, faultless, stainless. 2. Unblemished, unspotted. 3. Innocent. Anto., stained. Spread. 2'. i. Circulate, disseminate, distribute, scatter. 2. Disperse, dispense. 3. Propag^ate, diffuse. Anto., collect. Spring. z\ 1. Emanate, flow, proceed, issue. 2. Arise, start, leap. Sprinkle, v. Bedew, scatter, besprinkle. Sprout, z-. Bud, germinate, shoot out. Squander, t/. Expend, spend, lose, lavish, dissipate, waste. Anto.,G^rr\, husband. Stability, //. Firmness, steadiness, fixed- ness. Anto., instability, unstablcness, incon- stancy, fickleness. Stain. 7'. I. Foul, soil, sully, tarnish, blot, spot. 2. Color, tinge. Anto., clean. Stain, n. i. Color, discolor. 2. Dye, tinge. 3. Flaw, speck, spot, blemish, blot. Stale, adj. i. Old, faded. 2. Common, trite. 3. Vapid, flat, musty, insipid, Anto., new, fresh. Stammer, v. Falter, hesitate, stutter. Stamp, w. Print, mark, impression. Standard. «. Criterion, rule, test. Standard, adj. i. Legal, usual, ap- proved. 2. Banner. Anto., unusual. State, n. Condition, position, situation, predicament, plight. Station, n. Post, place, position, situ- ation. Stay. v. I. Prop, support. 2. Abide, continue, remain, 3. Delay, hinder, stop. 4. Support. Steadfast, adj. Firm, constant, resolute. Aftto., shaky. Steal. 7'. I. Pilfer, purloin, poach, em- bezzle. 2. AVin, gain, alliirL-, Anto., los^e. Stench. n. Hud smtjll, stink. Anto., fragrance, perfume. Sterling, adj. Real, genuine, true, pure. Anto., false, coimterfeit. Sterility, n. Barrenness, unfruitfulness, ar'dity. Anto., fruilfulness. Stern, adj. Austere, rigid, rigorous, se- vere, strict. Anto., mild. Sticking, adj. Adherent, adhesive, ten- acious. StilS. «. I. Allay, appease, assuage, 2. Calm, lull, quiet, silence, pacify. Anto., en- rage, move, disturb. Stimulate, v. Animate, excite, incite, arouse, kindle, fire. Anto., depress. Stingj'. adj. Close, mean, miserly, nig- gardly, penurious, sordid. Anto., generous. .Stock. ;;. I. Accumulation, fund, hoard, provisions, store, supply. 2. Cattle. Stoic, n curean. Stoop. Anto., strai Stop. Follower of Zeno. Anto., epi- condescend, submit, intermission, rest. ". Bend, hten. Cessation, Anto., continuance. Stop. Z-. Check, hinder, impede. Anto., aid. Stormy, adj. 1. Gusty, squally, tem- pestuous, boisterous. 2, Rough, passionate. Anto., calm. Story, n. Anecdote, incident, memoir, tale. Stout, adj. See Strong, Robust. Strait, adj. 1. Close, narrow. 2. Strict. Anto., wide, loose. Strange, Adj. Curious, eccentric, odd, sin- gular, surprising, wonderful, foreign, unusu- al. Anto., usual. Stratagem. n. Device, artifice, ruse, dodge, trick. Anto., simplicity. Strength. «. i. Authority. 2. Force, might, power, potencv, ^-l«/o., weakness. Strenuously, adv. Ardently, zealously, earnestly, vigorously. ^«^u., weakly, feebly. Strict', adj. ^Vccurate, exact, nice, par- ticular, precise, rigorous, severe, stern. Anto., lenient. Stricture. w. Animadversion, censure, contraction, criticism. ^«/().,cominendaticm, Strife, n. Contention, contest, dissension, discord. Auto., peace. Strong, adj. i. Efficient, po\yerful, po- tent, mighty. 2. Athletic, stalwart, robust, stout. 3. F'orcible, cogent. 4. Tough, tena- cious. Anto., feeble, weak. Structure, n. i. Make, construction, texti»re. 2. Building, pile, edifice. Stubborn, adj. Wilful, obstinate, mulish, perverse, obdurate, cantankerous. Anto., docile. Stupid, adj. i. Sleepy, drowsy, torpid. 2, Flat, heavy, insipid, humdrum. 3. Dull, obtuse, foolish, witless, daft. Anto., shrev.d. Style, fi. Manner, mode, phraseology, diction. Style, z'. Characterize, designate, de- nominate, entitle, name. Subdue. z\ I. Defeat, conquer, van- quish, overwhelm. 2. Subject, control. Anto., submit. Subject, adj. Exposed, liable, subser- vient. .-Ih^u,, shielded, secured. Subject. «. Object, matter, material. Subject. V. Subdue, subjugate. Sublime, adj. Elevated, exalted, grand, great, lofty, majestic, high. Anto., me:in, low, base. SubmissiTC. adj. Compliant, obedient, humble, yielding. Anto., rebellious. Submission. «. i. Compliance, obedi- ence, meekness, humility. 2. Forbearance, endurance. Anto., revolt. Subordinate. «. Inferior, dependent. Anto., superior. Suborn, v. Forswear, perjure. Anto., verify. Subsequ*^nt. adj. i. After, following. 2. Posterior, consequent. Anto., preceding. Subservient, adj. i. Inferior, subordin- ate. 2. Subject. -'iM^tJ., superior. Subshle. -v. i. Abate, sink. 2. Intermit. Auto., rise. Subsistence, n. See Snstenanct-. Substantial, adj. i. Responsible. 2. Solid, stout, strong. Anto.. unstable. Substantiate. ;•. Prove, establish, cor- roborate, verify. Anto., disprove. Substitute.' v. Change, exchange. Anto., retain. Subterfuge, n. i. Evasion, shift. 2. Quirk, trick. Subtile, adj. i. Fine, delicate, nice. 2. Thin, rare, ethereal. Anto., coarse, rough. Subtle, adj. I. Keen, sa^iacious, pro- found. 2. Artful, sly, astute, crafty. Anto., 1. Dull. 2. Open. Subtract, v. Deduct, withdraw. Anto., add. Subvert, r. 1. Invert, reverse. 2, Over- turn, overthrow. Anto., maintain, build. Successful, adj. Fortunate, lucky, pros- perous. Anto., unsuccessful. SuccesNion. n. Order, scries. Anto., disorder. ^ T. Choke, smother, stifle. ti((/. I. Adequate, enough. Aiiio.t want. M. I. Aid, voice. 2. Vote. '. Alhide, hint, insinuate, in- Hint, allusion, intima- Sueoinct, adj. Brief, concise, terse, com- pact. Anlo., verbose. Succor. V. Aid, help, assist, relieve. Auto., injure, harry, mar. .Siiii. adj. Hasty, unanticipated, un- cxpi-cted, unlooked-for. ylM/«., slow. fSiiffer, V. 1. Allow, permit, tolerate, z. J-liuUire, hear. .Suffocate. Stitticicnt. i. Competent. .Siiffraj^c. «. SuBK«*st. z'. tiinalu. Mtif^^cKtioii. tion, insinuation. Suitable, adj'. i. Agreeable, becoming. 2. Apt, fit, expedient. Auto., unfit. Suitor. H. I. Lover, w^ocr. 2. Peti- ti<»ner. Summary, «. Abstract, compendium, digest, synopsis, epitome. SumuK-n. V, Bid, call, cite, invite. Anto., send. Sundry, adj. i. Different, diverse. 2. Several, various. Auto., single. Su|»€*rflcial. adj'. I'Hmsy, shallow, slight. Anto., thorough. Supersede, v. i. Supplant, displace. 2. Annul, suspend. Supplicate. z\ Ask, beg, beseech, en- treat, implore, solicit. Anto., command. Support. i>. Assist, cherish, defend, en- dure, encourage, favor, forward, maintain, nurture, patronize, protect, prop, sustain, stay, second, upliold. Anto., destroy, injure. Suppose. V. Consider, imagine, appre- hend, presume, think, believe. Supreme, adj. Paramount, first, prin- cipal, chief, highest, greatest. Anto.y sec- ondary. Sure. adj'. Certain, confident, infallible. Anto., uncertain. Surface. //. Outside, superficies. Anto.^ interior. Surly, adj. Morose, touchy, cross, fret- ful, peevish, cynical, rude. Anto., amiable. Surmise. z\ Believe, conjecture, pre- sume, suppose, suspect, think. Anto,, doubt. Surmount. x\ Conquer, overcome, rise above, subdue, vanquish. Anto., yield. Surpass, ;'. Kxcel, exceed, outdo, out- strip. Anto., fall short. Surprise, n. Admiration, amazement, ixs- tonishmcnt, wonder. Anto., habit, use. Surrender. %>. Cede, deliver, give up, resign, yield. Anto., take. Surround, v. Beset, encircle, encompass, environ, enclose, invest. Survey, n. Prospect, retrospect, review. Suspense, n. Doubt, indetermination, hesitation. Anto., certainty. Suspicion. «, Distrust, jealousy. Anto., trust. Sustain, v. Sre Support. Sustenance, n. Living, maintenance, livelihood, subsistence, support. Swarm, n. Crowd, throng, multitude, concourse. Anto., few. Sweetheart, n. Admirer, beau, lover, wooer. 2. Flame, lady-love. Sweetness. «. i. Beauty, loveliness. 2. Agreeableness. 3. Mildness, gentleness, amiability. Anto., bitterness, sourness. Swiftness. ». i. Celerity, rapidity, fleet- ness, speed, velocity. Anto., slowness. Swiftly, adv. Speedily, post-haste, quick- Iv, apace. Anto., slowlv. Sycophant, ft. Toady, fawner, parasite. Symbol. «. Token, sign, figure, emblem. Symmetry. //. Harmony, proportion. Anto., inharmimv. Sympathy, n. i. Pity, kindness, com- fiassion, condolence, commiseration, fellow- eeling. 2. Harmony, aflinity, correlation. 3. Agreement. Anto., apathy, mercilessness, cruelty. Symptom. «. Indication, mark, note, sign, token. Synopsis. 7i. See Summary. System, «. Method, order, scheme. Anto.^ confusion. Systematize, Arrange, order, regulate, methodize, Anto., disarrange. Table, n. 1. Hoard. 2. Repast, food, fare. x. List, index, catalogue, Tai'it, iidj. Implied, silent, inferred, un- derstood. Anto., spoken, expressed. Taciturnity, w. Ucserve, reticence, close- ness. Anto., loquacity. Tact. «. Adroitness, skill, quickness, judgment. Anto., awkwardness, gaucherie. Talent, w. Ability, capability, faculty, endowment, gift. Talk. n. Chat, communication, confer- ence, colloquy, conversation, dialogue, dis- course. Anto., silence. Talk, r-. Chat, converse, discourse, speak, state, tell. Anto., silence. Talkativeness, n. Loquacity, garrulity. Anto., taciturnity. Tally. 7'. Accord, agree, match, com- port, harmonize. Tantalize, v. i. Aggravate, irritate, pro- voke, tease, torment. 2. Taunt, j4«/tf., please, harmonize, gladden. Taste, n. i. Discernment, judgment, per- ception. 2. I-'Iavor. relish, savor. Tattler, n. Gossip, prattler, babbler, gadabout. Taunt. V. Deride, mock, ridicule, jeer, flout. Anto., praise, commend. Tax. ;/. I. Assessment, custom, duly, toll, rate. 2. Contribution, tribute. Teacher. ;/. See Schoolmaster. Tedious, odj'. Dilatory, slow, tiresome, tardy, wearisome. Anto., prompt. Tell. I'. Acquaint, communicate, dis- close, impart, inform, mention, make known, report, reveal, talk. Anto., listen. Temerity, n. Heedlessness, rashness, precipitancy. Anto., caution. Temper, n. Disposition, temperament. 2. Humor, mood. 3. Frame. Temperate, adj. Abstinent, abstemious, moderate, sober. Anto., immoderate. Tempest, n. i. Storm, gale, squall, hur- ricane, tornado. 2. Tumult, di'iturbance. Anto., calm. Tempt, z>. I. Allure, entice, induce, de- coy, seduce, inveigle. 2. Incline, provoke. 3. Test, try, prove. Temporal, adj. i. Secular, worldly. 2. Sublunary. ,] /;/(>.. spiritual, eternal. Temporary, adj. i. Transient, transi- torv. 2. Kleeling. .-l/z/o., permanent. Tendency, n. i. Inclination, propensity, proneness. 2. Drift, scope. 3. Aim. Anto., disinclination. Tender, adj. i. Kind, compassionate, mild, lenient, sympathetic. 2. Delicate, soft. 3. Womanly, effeminate. 4. Feeble, infantile. 5. Pathetic. 6. Sensitive, Anto., tough, cal- lous, brutal. Tenderness. n. Affection, benignity, fondness, humanity. Anto., roughness. Tenet, ;/. Doctrine, dogma, opinion, position, principle. Term. ;/. i. Boundary, limit. 2. Condi- tion, stipulation. 3. Expression, word. Terminate, t. Complete, finish, end, close. Anto., commence, begin. Terrible, adj. Dreadful, fearful, fright- ful, terrific, horrible, shocking. Anto., de- lightful. Territory. «. Country, domain, land. Terror. //. Alarm apprehension, conster- nation, dread, fear, fright. ^-Iw/o., confidence. Terse, adj. Compact, concise, jnthy, sententious. Anto., verbose. Test. n. Criterion, experiment, tri-al, ex- perience, proof, standard. Testify, v. Declare, prove, signify, wit- ness, affirm. Testimony, n. Evidence, proof. graph. 2. Topic, subject, theme. ^. Body. Thankful, adj. Grateful. Anto., un- grateful. Theory, n. Speculation. Anto., practice. Tlieref«>re. adv. Accordingly, hence, so, then, consequentlv, thence, wherefore. Thif-k. adj. Dense, close. Anto., thin. Think, z-. Cogitate, conceive, consider, contemplate, deliberate, imagine, opine, med- I itate, ponder, surmise. Thirsty, adj. 1. Dry, parched, a. Eager, longing, craving, greedv. Tlioii|;h. ronj. Although, while. ThouKlit. w. Cogitation, conception, conceit, contemplation, deliberation, fancy, idea, imairination, meditation, notion, re- flection, supposition. Thoughtful. adj. Anxious, attentive, careful, circumspect, considerate, conlcin- plative, deliberate, discreet, reflective, solici- tous, warv. Anto., thoughtless. Thoughtless, adj. Careless, gay. incon- siderate, foidish, hast>', indiscreet, iinrcflec- tive. Anto., thoughtful, Tlirive. V. 1. Succeed, prosper. 2. Im- prove, flourish, grow, advance. Anto., decay. Throng. «. Multitude, crowd, hiwdc, host. Through. Pri'P. By, with. Throw. V. Cast, fling, hurl, toss. Anto.. catch. Thwart, v. 1. Balk, defeat, oppose, ob- struct, frustrate. 2. Cross, traverse. Anto., aid. Time. n. Ago, date, duration, epoch, era, period, season. Timely, adi. Prompt, punctual, oppor- tune, seasonable. Anto., untimely. Timidity, n. i. Bashfulness. coyness, difiidence, sheenishness. 2. Timorousness, cowardice, pusillanimity. Anto., audacity. Tiny, adj. Small, little, puny, diminutive. Anto., great, large. Tired, adj. F.itigued, harassed, jaded, wearied. Anto., buoyant, eager. Tiresome. adj. Tedious, wearisome, Anto., interesting. Title, n. I, Name, appellation, designa- tion, cognomen. 2. Right. 3. Inscription. Toast, n. i. Toasted bread. 2. Pledge, liealth. 3. Sentiment. Token. ;/. Indication, mark, note, sign, s\ niptom. " Tolerate, 7-. Admit, allow, suffer, per- mit. Anto.. prohibit, decline. Tolerance, n. Toleration, sufferance, endurance. Anto., intolerance. Too. adz: 1. Over, more than enough. 2. Also, besides. Torment, v. i. Tease, plague, provoke, worry, harass, tantalize. 2. Distress, agon- ize, torture, rack. Anto., appease. Tort»ire. See Torment. Tortuous, adj. Tormenting, twisting, winding. Anto., easv, straight. Total. adj. Complete, entire, whole, gross. Anto., part. Touch. H. Contact, proof, test, feeling. Touching, adj. Tender, moving, p:i- thetic, melting, affecting. Anto., ridiculous, prosv. Tough, adj. I. Cohesive, tenacious. 2, Hardv, strong, firm. 3. Stubborn, obdurate, refractory. Anto., lender, brittle. Tour. «. Circuit, excursion, ramble, jaunt, roimd, trip. Toy. n. Bubble, trifle, bagatelle. 3. Play- thing, trinket, gimcrack. Trace, v. i. Deduce, derive. 2. Sketch, follow. Trace, w. Mark, track, vestige, footstep. Trade, n. Avocation, business, calling, dealing, employment, occupation, traflic. Traduce, v. i. Calumniate, vilify, de- fame, decry, degrade, depreciate, detract, disparage. 2. Censure, condemn, Anto,, eulogize. Tranquility, n. Calmness, quiet, re- pose, peace, placidity, sercneity. Anto., turmoil, tumult. Transact, v. Conduct, negotiate, man- age. Transcend. V, Pass, excel, exceed, sur- P. Fleeting, short, moment- ary. Anto., permanent. pass, out -do. Transient. Transparent, attj Clear, pellucid per- vious, translucent, transpicuous, AtUo.y opaque. Transpire. 7-. 1. Occur, happen. 2. ccunc out. be disclosed. 3. Exhale, evaporate, Transport, «. 1. Carriage, conveyance, transportation. 2. Ecstacy, rapture, 3. Rage. Anlo.t depression, melancholy. /• _\l ■y g — ->- I So J- . ~A SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. Traveller, h. Tourist, passenger, itiner- ant, vova(jcr, pilgrim. Treacherous, adj. Faithless, perfidious, insidious, false. ^«/(?., faithful. Treachery. «. Treason, perfidy, disloy- alty, perfididusness. Af:io., loyalty. Treasonable, adj. Traitorous, treach- erous. Atiio.y loyal. Treat, zk Kntertain, negotiate, feast. Tremendous. adj. Dreadful, terrible, horrible, frightful, alarming, awful, appal- ling. yl«^(7., small, mean. Trepidation. «. Agitation, emotion, tremor, trembling. Auto,, calm. Trespass. v. i. Offend, transgress, sin. 2. Intrude, infringe, encroach. Trial.. ;/. i. Attempt, effort, endeavor, ex- periment, examination, proof, test. 2. Temp - tation. Tribimal. /;. i. Court, bar, judicatory. 2. Bench. Trick. V. Ai^tifice, cheat, deception, fraud, finet^sr, imposture, sleight, stratagem. Trifling, adj. Futile, frivolous, incon- siderable, light, petty, unimportant. Anto.^ important. Triiu. V. 1. Lop, clip, shear. 2. Ar- range, adjust. 3. Deck, decorate, adorn, garnish, ornament, embellish. Anto.^ 1. Increase, add. 2. Disarrange. Trip. w. Excursion, jaunt, tour, ramble. Triumphant, adj. Victorious, success- ful, conquering, Anto.^ subdued. Troth. «. 1. I-'aith, fidelity, belief. 2. Truth. Auto.^ falsehood, lie. Trouble, n. Adversity, affliction, anx- iety, distress, sorrow, vexation. Anto,^ hap- piness. Trouble, v. Disturb, "rieve. Troublesome. odj. Annoving. disturb- ing, harassing, importunate, frksome, per- plexing, teasing. Aiito.^ pleasant. True. adj. Honest, plain, upright, sin- cere. Anlo., treacherous. Truee. n. i. Cessation, intermission. 2. Armistice. Auto., continuance. Trust, ti. Belief, credit, confidence, faith, hope. A/tto.y suspicion. Trustee, n. Agent, depositary, fiduciary. Truth, n. Faithfulness, fidelity, honesty, veracity. Anto., falsehood. Try. -v. Attempt, endeavor, essay, test, examine. Tug. v. Hale, haul, pluck, pull. Tuition, ;;. Schooling, instruction, teach- ing, education, Anto., ignorance. Tumble, v. Drop, fall, rumple, sink, turn over. Auto., rise. Tune. w. i. Air, strain, melody. 2. Con- cord, harmony. Tiu'bid. 'adj. Roily, unsettled, thick, muddv, foul. Atito., clear. Turbulent, adj. Mutinous, riotous, se- ditious, tumultuous, violent. Anto., quiet. Turmoil. «. Disturbance, uproar, com- motion, tumult. Auto., peace. Turn. ;/. Rent, cast, gyration, meander, Anto., disinclination. Turn. V. Bend, circulate, contort, dis- tort, gyrate, revolve, twist, wind, wheel, whirl. Anto., .straighten, slill, quiet. Turncoat. //. See Jii-m-gade. Turpitude. «. Wickedness, baseness, depravity, vikness. Auto., goodness. Tutor, ti. Instructor, governess, gover- nante. Twaddle, n. Stuff, nonsense, tattle, gos- sip, haldcrthi.sh. moonshine. Anto., sense, TwiliKlit. //. Dusk, i*!;//*)., daylight. Twine, n. Kncircic, embrace, entwine, Auto., untwine. Twinge. 7'. Pinch, pull, twitch, tweak. Twinge. «. Pang, grin, twitch, spasm. Twit. 7'. Taunt, biame', reproach. Attio., commend. Type. «. I. Printing character. 2. Kind, form, sort. 3. Kxemplar, original, model. 4. Mark, symbol, sign, token, emblem, TjTO. «. Beginner, learner, novice. Anto,, licentiate, u Vglinefs. «. Homeliness, plainness. 2. Hideousness, frightfulncss. Anto., beauty. \^ ^,= Ugly. adj. 1. Plain, homely, ordinary, unsightly. 2. Horrid, hideous, shucking. Auto., pretty. Ultimate, adj. Final, last, eventual, ex- treme, Anto., first. Umpii-e. «, Judge, referee, arbitrator, arbiter. Unacceptable, adj. Unwelcome, dis- pleasing, unpalatable. Auto., acceptable. Unadorned, adj. Undecorated, ungar- nished, not embellished, not bedecked. Anto., ornate. Unbecoming, adj. Improper, unsuita- ble, indecorous, unseemly. Auto., becoming. Unbelief, n. Disbelief, infidelity, skep- ticism, incredulity, distrust. Auto., belief. Unblemished', adj. Pure, clean, spot- less, sinless, guileless, immaculate. Auto., blemished. Unbounded, adj. Boundless, illimitable, infinite, interminable, unlimited. Anto., lim- ited. Unceasingly, adv. Always, constantly, continually, ever, perpetually, Anto., inter- mittently. Uncertain, adj. Doubtful, precarious, dubious, equivocal. Auto, y certain. Unchangeable, adj. Immutable, un- alterable. A?ito., fickle. Uncivil, n. Impolite, ungracious, un- courteous, rude. Anto., polite. Uncommon, adj. Choice , unfrequent , rare , scarce , singular , unique. Auto. , usual. Uncongenial, adj. i. Unsuited . disa- greeable. 2. Dissimilar. Auio. , congenial. Unconcerned, adj. Cool, unaffected, in- different, careless, apathetic, nonchalant. Auto., concerned, excited, vexed. Uncover, v. 1. Discover, reveal, dis- close. 2. Strip, lav bare. -4?//<7., conceal. Undaunted, adj. Fearless, brave, bold, manful, resolute, intrepid. Anto., weak. Undeniable, adj. Evident, obvious, in- disputable, incontrovertible, irrefragiblu. Auto., disputable. Under.' p^-ep. Below, beneath, inferior, lower, subjacent, subject. Understanding, h. i. Mind, intellect, reason, sense. 2. Notion, idea, judgment, knowledge. ,^. Agreement. Undeterminetf. adj. Doubtful, fluctu- ating, hesitating, irresolute, unsteady, vacil- lating, wavering. Anto., resolute. Unfaitliful. adj. False, treacherous, faithless, recreant, perfidious, dishonest, dis- loval. Auto., faithful. Unfit, adj. 1. Inapt, inappropriate, un- suitable. 2. Incapable, unqualified. Anto., competent, convenient. Unfold, 2: Develop, display, open, di- vulge, expand, reveal, unravel. Auto., hide. ifnguarded. adj. i. Thoughtless, care- less. 2. Undefended, naked, unprotected. Anto., guarded. Ungrateful, adj. Unpleasing, thankless. Auto., thankful. Unhandy, adj. 1. Inconvenient. 2. Clum- sy, bungling, awkward, maladroit. Anto., skilful. Unhappy, adj. 1. Afflicted, distressed, wretched, miseranle. 2. Disastrous, hard, severe. Auto., happv. Unhealthy, adj. 'Diseased, sickly, infirm, invalid. Anto., healthy. Uniform, adj. 1. Regular, unvan-ing, alike, undtviating. 2. Consonant. -4«/o., ir- regular. Unkind, adj. Harsh, unamiable, un« friendlv, cruel. Anto., kind. Unimportant, adj. Inconsiderable, im- material, insignificant, trifling, petty, trivial. Auto., weighty. Unison, w. Accordance, agreement, con- cord, harmony, melody. Anto., discord. Unlawful, adj. Illegal, unlicensed, illicit. Auto., legal, lawful. Unlearned, adj. Ignorant, illiterate, un- educated, unlettered. Auto., learned. Unlike, adj. Different, dissimilar, dis- tinct. Anto., similar. Unlimited, adj. Boundless, illimitahlu, infinite, unbounded. Auto., limited. Unmerciful, adj. Callous, cruel, hard- hearted, merciless, severe. Anto., merciful. Unquestionable, adj. Indisputable, un- deniable, certain, obvious, incontestable, in- dubitable, irrefragible. Auto., questionable. Unravel, v. Develop, disentangle, extri- cate, unfold. Auto., tangle. Unreal, adj. Shadowy, imaginary, in- substantial, visionarv, ghostly, spectral. Unrelenting, adj. Unpi'tying, relentless, rigorous, inexorable, harsh, cruel, merciless. Auto., tender. Unruly, adj. Ungovernable, mutinous, seditious, insubordinate, turbulent, Anto.^ obedient. Unseen. adj. Invisible, undiscovered, hidden. Auto., visible. Unsettled, adj. i. Vacillating, uncer- tain, unsteady, wavering, restless. 2. Turbid. 3. Undetermined. Anto., resolute. Unspeakable, adj. Unutterable, inex- pressible, ineffable. Unskilful, adj. Ignorant, wanting art or knowledge. Anto.,sk\Uu\. Unsocial, adj. Unsociable, unkind. An- to., sociable. Unstable, adj. 1. Fickle, inconstant, mut- able, vacillating. 2. Fluctuating. Untimely, adj. Premature, inopportune, unseasonable. Auto., timely. Unsuccessful. adj. Unfortunate, un- lucky. Auto., successful. Untwine, v. Untwist, unwind. Unwearied, adj. Indefatigable, restless, fresh. Auto., tired. , Unwilling, adj. Reluctant, loath, indis- posed, disinclined. Auto., willing. Upbraid, v. Blame, censure, reprove, condemn, stigmatize, taunt. Upright, adj. 1. Erect. 2. Honest, bold. Auto., prone. Uproar, n. Commotion, hubbub, disturb- ance, clamor, tumult. Anto., calm. Urbanity, ?/. Civility, courtesy, polite- ness, suavity. Auto., incivility. Urge. V. I. Instigate, incite, stimulate, spur. 2. Solicit, entreat. 3. Impel, push, drive. Auto., hinder. Urgent, adj. Importunate, pressmg, co- gent. Auto., unimportant. ' Usage, u. I. Habit, practice, custom. 2. Treatment. Use. V. I. Employ. 2. Consume, exhaust, expend. 3. Exercise,' practice. 4. Accustom, inure. Auto., abuse. Useful, adj. Helpful, serviceable, good, convenient, profitable. Auto., futile. Usually, adv. Regularly, ordinarily, gen- erally, habitually, Anto., seldom. Us'eless. adj. Fruitless, ineffectual, vain. Utility, n. Use, service, usefulness, avail, benefit, profit. Auto., worthlessness. Utterly, adv. Wholly, completely, fully, totally. Auto., partlv. Uttermost, adj. i. Utmost, greatest. 2. Extreme, farthest. Auto., nearest, next. Unusual, adj. Rare, uncommon. Unwelcome, adj. i. Unacceptable. 2. Displeasing. Auto., welcome. Vacant, adj. i. Empty, unfilled, void. 2. Thoughtless. ^Ih/o., ^Med, Vacancy, u. 1. Chasm. 2. Emptiness, vacuity. Anto., fulness, plethora. Vacate, v. 1. .Make empty, void, annul. 2. Leave. Auto., occupy. , Vague, adj. Indefinite, uncertain, dim, doubtful, obscure. Anto., definite. Vain. adj. i. Inflated, conceited, over- WL-ening, ostentatious. 2. Useless, fruitless. Auto., modest. , , ,, Valediction, n. Taking leave, farewell. Auto., welcome. , . , n; Valid, adj. Sound. ]ust, logical, suth- cient. grave. Anto., invalid. A'aluable, adj. Costly, precious, worthy, estimable, .'l?;^!*., worthless. A'alue. n. Account, appreciation, esti- mation, price, rate, worth. Value, V. Appraise, assess, calculate, appreciate, compute, esteem, estimate, rugaid, respect. . . , vanity, n. Arrogance, conceit, pride, haughtiness. Anto., modesty, humility. KT SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 8l / Yanqnish. v. Beat, overcome, quell, conquer, subdue, confuse, defeat, subjugate. Anio., yield. A'apld. adj. i. Insipid, flat, spiritless. 2. Dull, tame, prosy. Anlo., spirited. Variable, adj. Changeable, capricious, fickle, unsteady, versatile, wavering. Auto., unchangeable. Variance. «. Discord, strife, discussion. Anto., unison. Variation. «. i. Difference, deviation, diversity. 2. Change, mutation. Anto., per- manence. Variety. «. i. Difference, diversity. 2. Multiplicity. Auto., simplicity. Various, adj, i. Ditferent, several, sun- dry, many. 2. Diversified. Anto., simple. Veer. v. Turn, shift, change course. Vegetate, v. Spring, grow, shoot, ger- minate. Vehement, adj. i. Passionate, violent, furious. 2. Earnest, fervid. 3. Forcible, strong. Anto., gentle. Veroeity. n. Speed, rapidity, swiftness, fleetness. Anto., sloth. Venerate, v. Honor, respect, revere, adore. Anto., despise. Veracity, «. Candor, truthfulness, hon- esty, ingenuousness. Anto., mendacity. Verbal, adj. i. Literal. 2. Unwritten, oral, spoken, parole. Anto., written. Veroose, adj\ Diffuse, wordy, \vindy, prolix. Anto., succinct, terse, concise. Vestige, n. Mark, trace, track, footstep. Vexation. «. i. Annoyance, trouble, tor- ment. 2. Displeasure. Anto., pleasure. Vice, n. Wickedness, crime, sin, moral ill. Anto., virtue. Vicinity, n. 1. Neighborhood, z. Prox- imity, nearness. View, «. I. Scene, vista, prospect. 2. Picture, sketch. 3. Sight, inspection. 4, Opinion. Vigilant, adj. Watchful, circumspect. Anto., licedless. A'igorous. adj'. i. Strong, energetic. 2. Healthy, sound. 3. Racy, pointed. Anto.t weak. Violent, adj'. i. Fierce, hot. 2. Vehe- ment, boisterous, furious, impetuous, turbu- lent 3. Sharp, intense. Anto., gentle. Vile. adj. 1. Wicked, knavish. 2. Low, base, mean, foul. Anto., noble, lofty. Vindicate, v. Clear, defend, protect, justify. Anto., implicate, criminate. Virtue, n. 1. Goodness, integrity, worth. 2. Power, efficacy. Anto., vice. Virtuous, adj'. 1. Pure, chaste. 2. Good, righteous, exemplary. Anto., bad. V isible. adj. i . Patent, apparent, evi - dent, obvious. 2. Perceptible. Anto., unseen. Visionary, adj'. Enthusiastic, fantastic, fanatical, imaginary, Anto., cautious, sensible. Visitation, n. 1. AfHiction, trouble, dis- pensation, 2. Inspection, Vital, adj. Necessary, essential, indis- pensable. Anto., unnecessary. Vitiate. ?'. Contaminate, pollute, defile, infect, sophisticate, taint. Anto., cleanse. Vivid, adj'. Active, bright, clear, livelv, lucid, quick, sprightly, striking. Anto., dufl. Volatility, n. Kllghliness, giddiness, lev- ity, lightness, liveliness. Anto,, steadiness. Voluptuous, adj. Sensual, epicurean, luxurious, Anio., stoical, harsh. Voluptuary. //. Epicure, sensualist. Anto., ascetic. Vouch, v. I. Attest, warrant, avouch. 2. Back, support. Anto., deny. Vulgarity, v. Coarseness, grossness, meanness, rudeness, vilencss. Anto,, refine- ment. w Wag, n. Humorist, joker, jester, wit, Anto., dullard, butt. Wages, n.,pl. Pay, salary, hire, com- pensation, stipend, earnings. Wakeful, adj. Sleepless, vigilant, watch- ful, wary. Anto., drowsy. Walk. «. Carriage, gait, path. Walk. V, Perambulate. Wander, v. i. Stray, swerve, digress, deviate, 2. Stroll, ramble, roam, Anto.yXvxn. Want. w. I. Need. 2, Poverti,-, indigence, 3. Lack, dearth, scarcity, Anto., plenty. Wares, n. Commodities, goods, mer- chandise. Wariness. «. Care, caution, circumspec- tion, forethought, prudence. Anto., heed- lessness. Warlike, adj. 1. Hostile, mimical, 2. Military, bellicose, Anto., peaceful. Warm, adj, i. Genial, pleasant, sunny. 2. Not cold. 3. Fervent, 4. Excited. Anto., cool. Warmth, «. i. Glow. 2. Zeal, vehe- mence, ardor, fervor. --Iw/o., coolness. Warning, n. i. Monition, admonition, 2. Notice, 3. Caution. Wary. adj. Vigilant, cautious, discreet, guarded. Anto., heedless. AVaste. n. 1. Loss, consumption. 2. Refuse. 3. Pillage, ruin, destruction, devas- tation, Anto., replenishment, frugality. Wasteful, adj. i. Destructive. 2. Pro- fuse, lavish, extravagant. Anto., frugal. AVatchful. adj. Vigilant, careful, war>-, circumspect, alert. Anto., careless. Wave, «. Ripple, undulation, swell, surge, billow, breaker. Waver, i', i. Fluctuate, vacillate. 2. Flicker, wave. Anto., steadfast. Way. «. 1. Path, route, course, road. 2. Mode, method. Waj-^vard. adj. Forward, per\'erse, ob- stinate, willful, headstrong, stubborn. Anto., docile. . , , . Weak. adj. i. Feeble, languid, weakly. 2. Frail, sickly, ^w^tf., strong. Weaken, v. Debilitate, unnerve, enfee- ble. 2. Lower, reduce. Anto., invigorate. Weakness, n. Debility, effeminacy. An- to., strength. Wealth, H. Abundance, fortune, atflu- ence, riches, opulence. .-Iw/c, poverty. Weariness. //. Exhaustiim, languor, lassitude, fatigue. Anto., buoyancy, vigor. Weai-y. adj. Annoy, fatigue, harass, jade, subdue, tire, vex.' Anto., fresh, un- wearied. , Wedding. «. Bridal, espousal, mar- riage, nuptials. Anto., divorce. Wedlock, n. Marriage, matrimony. Wee. adj. Small, little, diminutive, pigmy, tinv, Anto., large. Weight, w, I. Gravity, ponderosity. 2. Burden, load, 3, Influence, importance. An- to., lightness. Weighty, adj. Momentous, important. Anto , unimportant, light, trifling. Welcome, adj. i. Pleasing, acceptable, agreeable, gratitying. 2. Admitted with pleasure. Anto., unwelcome. Welfare, n. Weal, well-being, success, prosperity. Anto., failure, poverty. Whet. V. I. Stimulate, quicken, excite, arouse, kindle. 2. Sharpen. Anto., dull. Wliimsical. adj. Capricious, fantastic, fanciful. Anto., commonplace. Whiten, v. Bleach, fade, blanch. Anto., blacken. Whole, adj. All, sum, total, ^«/o.,part. Wicked, adj. I. Had, ill, evil, inrquitous. 2. Sinful, vicious, impious. Anto., virtuous. Willingly, adj. Spontaneously, volun- tarily, readily. Anto., unwillingly. Wily. adj. Crafty, artful, sly, cunning, insidious, subtle, snaky. Anto., ingenuous. Win, V. I. Gain,' get, obtain, acquire, earn, achieve, 2. Gain over. Anto., lose. Wince, v. Shrink, flinch, startle. Winding, adj. Meandering, serpentine, flexuou.s. sinuous. Anto., straight. Windy, adj. Breezy, stormy, gusty, tem- pestuous, blustering, Anto., calm. Wisdom. H. I. Sagacity, sense, judg- ment. 2. Learning^, knowledge, 3. Reason- ableness. Anto., ignorance. Wise. adj. i. Sage, sensible, judicious. 2. Erudite. 3. Sly, subtle, knowing. Anto., ignorant. AVit. «. Burlesque, contrivance, humor, irony, ingenuity, stratagem. Anto,^ dulness. With, prep. By, through. Withdraw. 7'. i. Recant, disavow, 2, Remove, 3. Disengage, wean, go back, re- cede, retire, retreat, retrograde, take back, Anto., I. ICndorsc, come for\vard. Withhold. V. I. Retain, 2. Restrain. Anto., release. Withstand, t. Oppose, thwart, resist. Witness, «. Deponent, evidence, testi- mony. WiJnder. n. i. Marvel, prodigy, miracle. 2, Surprise, amazement. 3. Curiosity, Anto.^ commonplace. WonderfuL adf. Admirable, astonish- ing, curious, marvellous, strange, surprising. Anto., usual, customary. AViJOd. H, 1, Copse, grove, forest, 2. Timber. Word. n. Expression, promise, term. Worker, n. i. Performer. 2. Operative, laborer, workman, artificer. Anto., idler. Worship. «. Adore, honor, revere. Auto., execrate. Worth, n. Desert, excellence, merit, price, rate, value. Anto., wtirihlessness. Worthless, adj. Valueless, degraded. Anto., valuable. Worthy, adj. i. Good, excellent, estim- able, virtuous. 2, Desen-'ing. Anto.^ un- worthy. Wretched, adj. 1. Poor, bad, vile, piti- ful. 2. Cahimitous. 3. Forlorn, unhappy, miserable. Anto., happy. Written, adj. Penned, inscribed, tran- scribed. Auto., verbal. Writer, ;/. \. Author. 2, Scribe, clerk. Secretary, amanuensis. 3. Penman, Wroiig. 7'. Maltreat, injure, abuse, op- press, Anto., right. Wrong, adf. I'ntrue, faulty, not fit, un- suitable, unjust. .4;;/o., right. Wrong. ;/, Injustice, error, injur\*. Anto., rifjht, justice. Wrongly.' adv. Erroneously. Wrought. T. Done, performed, effected. AVry. adj. Crooked, askew, distorted, twisted. Ante, straight. Xeres, «. Sherry. Xiphoid, adj. Swordlike, ensiform. Xylography. «. Wood-engraving. Yearly, adj. Annually, per annum. Yeoman, n. Farmer,' freeholder, com- moner. Anto., gentleman. Yet. conj. or adv. But. however, never- theless, notwithstanding, still, hitherto, fur- ther, besides. Yield. 7'. Allow, cede, communicate, comply, conform, concede, give, produce, permit, resign, surrender. Avlo., lake. Yield, n. Crop, product. Yielding, adj. Compliant, su missive, facile, unresisting, accommodating. Anto., stubborn. Yoke. //. T, Link, chain, tic, bond. 2. Servitude, dependence, bondage, subjection, thraldom. Yoke. 7'. Associate, join, link, couple, conjoin. Anto., sever. Youth. «. I. Lad, boy, stripling. 2, Young men, young women. 3. juniority, minority, juvenility, adolescetice. Anto., age. Zany. adj. Clown, buffoon, harlequin. Punch, fool. Zeal. «. Earnestness, fervor, cordiality, ardor, passion. Zealot. «, Enthusiast, bigot, fanatic, vibionarv. Zealous, adj. Earnest, fen,id, glowing, burnini;. passionate, Anto., lukewarm. Zenith. //, Top. apex, summit, pinnacle, climax, Anto., nadir. . Zephyr. «. 1. Breeze. 2. West wind. Anto., calm. Zero. n. Cipher, naught, nothing. Zest. «. Flavor, taste, savor, relish. Zone. M. I. Girdle, belt. 2. Clime, re- gion. kL \ THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. ^^ A Self-Instructor-2^ IN THE ■German Language. BY THE NEW SYSTEM OF OBJECT-TEACHING, THE SIMPLEST METHOD KNOWN. !^ TUDENTS will readily con- cede that of all foreign lan- £ruanrt. B S 1' bay as in Engflish. C L5 c tsay as c in Trt/^ if before a, o, u oi a consonant, or when final. D CDi. (lay as in EnEflish. E (S e i as a in tame when long". i as (? in bf//when short. K r«f ef as in Kng-lish, (; (« 3 l1i I- err S ei\ L'R as .«■ in sif. -r z t tav as in ]Cng;lish, u U u oo as 00 in pooL V iiD fow us/in Jet-/, \v SBm vay as T' in Tary, X .t j: iks as X in Iwx. Y i "* ypsilon as_y in system. Y. tsct as is in sits. VOWELS. The simple vowels are a, e, I, o, u. Their sounds are cri/er above. COMPOITNO VOWKiS- a, e^y pronounced like a in hare. 0, *r, prniiniiiicit.1 like eu in the French word/tvi or ou 'in touch. u, «c, pronounced like *■<■//, or the u in the French word sttr. The ac- curate sound of this, as well as of the c, can only be learned from a German, as there are no similar sounds in. Kngiisri., au, eiUf is pronounced like ow in now. cu, etiy is like oy \njojf. \ 71=^^ •*v o — Ci j- G\ \ ^ )*'■ ( THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. ^ 83 1 CONSONANTS. ENGLISH. r.EKMAX. PRONUNCIATION. The ^,g, has never the soft sound as '\n gciihts^ but is cither hard as the morning ter "IRcTiioii dair morgen iwgave^ or has the guttural sound of dj, which letter is sounded like the a day CIII III;! ine tahg f// in the Scotch word ioch. In the pronouncing column, the ^and ch the midday tcr ^Jtittaji dair mittah^ will he printed in italics whenever they should have the guttural sound. the night bic 'Kadjt dee nacht Sch is pronounced like sk in ship. the moon tcr 'Koiit dair mond the sun tie 3oniic dee sonnai THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. a star cin 3tei:u ine shtaim Masculine. Femhiine. Neuter. the light tiiiS ?i*t das lif//t tcr tie taS, is the German Article. a year cin 3al)r ine yahr dair dec das THK HU5IAN BODY. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. The arm tcr 3[rin dair arm ^fascHIine. r eminiue. Xom. cin a«alcr, a father. Xom. fine 2tatt, a town. the heard tcr i'art dair hart Gen. cincS 9?atcr5, of a father. Gen. cincr >Etatt, of a town. the blood taj iMut das bloot Dat. cinem SSatcr, to a father. Dat. eincr Statt, to u town. the hosom tcr 'i^ujcii dair l\oosen Ace. einen 3Jater, a father. Ace. cine Stabt, a town. the hreast (chest) tic 4*ruft dee broost the eve taj JlUijc das owgay Neuter. the ear t,iS Clir das ore Xom. ein Sdjiff, a ship. a chin cin jlinn jnt* km Gen. cined £d)iffe'S, of a ship. the eyebrows tic '?(uc|cnbrauen dee owgenbrowcn Dat. eincm Sdiiffe, to a ship. the elbows tcr t^lbcgcn dair clhogen Ace. cin £d>tff, a ship. the fist tic Jvauft dee fowst COMBINATION OF ARTICLE AND NOUN. a finger cin Sinjct ine fing-er the fiesh tii8 Jlcifd) das flyshe DECLENSIONS. the foot tcr rtiifi dair fooss The German language h.as three genders: Masculine, tor; Feminine, the hair ta^ .C-'iiar das har tic; Neuter, ta6; which form the definite Article. the liand tic .f^iiit dee hahnd The definite article is declined as well as the suhstantive, and the right hand tic rc*tc fiant dee rechtay hahnd examples are here given : the left hand tic linlc ,N. the girl (maiden) ta8 TOat*cn das maidr//en The earth tic Cirte dee airdai the man bcr Ilicinn dair mahnn a fire ein ^cuer ine foyer the young man tcr jnngc OTanu dair 1, oongay mahnn the water tad ^HJa^fer das vasser the old man bet allc Mann dair altay mahnn the rainwater tad OiecjcinciafTcr das ragenvasser the wife (woman) ba8 ajieib das vybe the stream tcr Strom dair shtrome a bride cine 23r«iut ineay browt the sea tie SCC dee say the widow tic Sr-iltirc dee vitvay the weather tad SettcT das vetter the widower tcr 2SiltiPcr dair vitver the summer weather tad ©ommcncctter das summervetter the guest the neighbor tcr CVift dair gahst the winter weather tad SBintcrtPCttCt das vintervetter tcr 9iad'l)ar dair nar//bar the wind tCT 2Binb dairvinnd the friend terjteuno dair froint the rain tcr JHcgcn dair ragen the storm bct ©tutm dair shtoorm FOOD. the hail tcr §agel dair hahgel The beer ta« iMcr d.as beer the frost bcr ^rofl dairfrust the glass taS Pla« das glahs the summer ber £ontmer dair summer the flask (bottle) tic S'lilfdlC dee rtashay the winter tcr '©inter dair vinter the bread ta8 a?rok das brote the snow tcr Sconce dairshnay fresh bread frifdicS iProk frishes brote i the ice tad (Sid das ice the butter tie Suiter dee bootter 1 the thunder ber Tonncr dair duuner fresh butter frif*c iButtet frishay bootter Q / \ 5 -r" 'S ^ ^ «/ V ' the the the the the the the the old the the the the the the the the the the the the the ENGLISH. Cheese honey milk buttermilk oil fish flesh (meat) wine wine punch nnn water salt pepper salad soup beefsteak pudding^ coffee tea chocolate lemonade The house the garden the land the market the street the church the mail the bank the theater the hospital the coffee-house the palace the harbor the field the dale (valley) the wood (forest) the bush the heath the hill the mill the corn the straw GEllMAN. tie ^lildf lie 2?uttermil$ ta^ Cel ter 5ifc^ ta^ Jvlcifd) ter SSein alter 23cin tcr ^Jjuiifd) tcr 9ium ia% aSaffer tag Sali ter 'i*fe?fcr tcr 3alat tic i£uppe ia$ 25eef)'teaC ter I'utttnci tcr fiaffcc tcr Ihei tic (Sliclctatc tic S^imonate PROXL'NCIATION. dair caysay dair honi^ dee miich dee boottermilrA das eel dair fish das fly she dair vine alter vine dair poonch dair room das vasser das saltz dair pfeffer dair salaht dee sooppay das beefsteak dair poodding dair kaffay dair tay dee chocolahday dee limonahdav TOWN AND COUNTRY. fcaS ."gang ter Q^artcn tag I'anb ter^JIarft tie Strafte tie .Qirc^e tic ^oft tie 23ant taS a:hcater tag 5;cfpital tag fiaffeeljaug tcr i^ilaft ter ^?afcu tag ^elt tag^Ehal ter ©alt tcT 5Puid) tie .Sjaite • tet ^ugel fcieanuMe tag Stoxn tag Stvot) das house dair garten das lahnd dair markt dee strahssay dee kccrchay dee pust dee bank das tayahter das hospitahl das kaffayhouse dair palast dair hahfen das feld das tahl dair vald dair boosh dec hiday dair heeugel dee meeiiUay das korn das shtro TRADES AND PROFESSIONS. The baker the bookbinder the book the doctor the hat the hatter the shoe the shoemaker the razor a barber the glass the glazier the nail the saddle the saddler the mill the miller the master dancing the dancing-master the post tcr 9?ci[fer ter 23ucMHnber tag ^^uAi tct T^cftoi tcr §ut tcr .^lutmatbcr ter 3cl,mlj ter ©rijuhniat^cr tag 9iafirmc[fct cin SJarbiet tad ma» lit (SIdfer ter ^lagel tet Sattcl bet eattlcr ble OJtuftle fccr ffiuUcT bcr 3Jteifter taiijcn bet 2;anjmciftcr blcqjDfl dair backer dair boQf/;bindcr das hooch dair doktor dair hoot dair hootmac/ver dair shoe dair shoemac/zer das raseermesser ine barbeer das glahs dair glaiser dair nahgel dair sattel dair satller dee mecullay dair meeuller dair miccter tanzen dair tanzmicetcr dee pust ENGLISH. the postmaster to ride the riding-master the school the schoolmaster the smith the smithy the nailsmith the goldsmith tlie coppersmith the weaver the king the prince the baron the officer the soldier the pope the archbishop the bishop The jacket the shoe the hat the brush the hairbrush the frock (coat) the wool the cravat the purse the cap the rin:; The hound (dog) the cat the rat the mouse the swine Cpig) the hare the roe the ox the cow the calf the sheep the lamb the fox the wolf the bear the elephant the camel the swan the falcon the goose the stork the snipe the raven the lark the crow the nightingale the cuckoo the swallow the finch the sparrow the fish the carp the herring the eel the frog GERMAN. bcr T^ofimcifter tcitcn bet 9iittmci^cr tie iS-d^ule tcr Sduilincifiev tcr Sdiniicb tic Sdimicte ter S'lagclidimicb ter Q^cltfdiinicb bev il'upfcrj'djmicb bcr ffiebcv ber fionig tcr ^riiij ber 9?arcn bet Cfficit't bet Seltat ber l^abft ber (Sritifi^of ber m\d)o\ CLOTHING. tic 3arfe ter Sdiu^ tcr i^ut tic *PiJvfte tic ijaarburfle ter '^xad tic ^C'oUe tie Cratatte tie ^bx\e tie Sfappc ter Ohng PRONVNCIATION. dair postmiceter riten dair rittmiceter dee shoolay dair shoolmiceter dair shmit dee shmeeday dair nahgelshmit dair goldshmit dair koopfcrshmit dair vaybcr dair ka-nig dair prints dair bahrone dair offeetseer dair soldaht dair pahbst dair airtshishof dair bishofe dee yackay dair slioe dair hoot dee bc'Liirstay dee harbecurstay dair frak dee vol lay dee cravahtte dee b(Ersay dee kappay dair ring !:asts, birds, tcr ^iinb tie SlaljC tie 9iatte tieailaug tag Sdiivetn ber i^afe tag 3iefi ter rdi^e tic fiub tagflal& tag Sd^aaf tag ?amm ber J^udjS bcr Soil ter ^ax ter {^lepftant tag Slamcol ter 3duran bcT^alfe tie C^ang tcr Stert^ bic Sdinepfe ber 9? a be bic ycrdic tie Slralie tie Oladiligall ber SlurfuiJ bie SdiiDalbe bcr I^iiife bee i^perling ber ^ylid) tcr ilarpfc bcr A^aring tcr ?IaI tcr %xo\6) FISHES, ETC. dair hoond dee kahtsay dee rattay dee mouse das shvine dair hahzay das ray dair ocksay due koo das kalb das shahf das lam dair fooks dair volf dair ba-r dair clefahnt das cahmail dair shvan dair falkay dee gahns dair shtorrA dee shnepfay dair rahbay dee lairrAay dee krayav dee nar/ftigal dair kookook dee shvalbay dair finkay dair spairling dair fish dair carpfay dair hairing dair ahl dair frush THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. k. 85 ENGLISH. the worm the spider - the oyster the crab the flea the fly the bee the wasp the snu.il The gold the silver the copi>er the iron the tin the steel the zinc the bronze the diamond the pearl the coral the marble the gypsum the clay the chalk the coal the earth the sand the stone The ship the boat the ship-of-the-line the fisherboat the anchor the deck the flag- the mast the foremast the sail the strand the rudder the net the Jading (freight) the freight the coast the cliff the downs the ground the storm the fleet the frigate The century the year the month the week the day the hour half-an-hour the minute the second the seasons spring summer autumn GERMAN. bcr iBurm tie Sptniie tie ?Iuftcr tcr flrcfcS tcr 5b>^ tie Sliojie tic 2.Hcnc tic SBcfpe tie ©djnede PRONUNCIATION. dair voorm dee shpinnay dee ouster dair kreps dair flo dv.e fleegay dee beenuy dee vespay dee shneckay MlNJiRALS AND METALS. tai 0Dlb ta6 Silbct ta3 ilupfct taS (Sifcn baS 3inn bad i^ta^l baS3int tic ©ronjc tcr Xiamant tic ^pcrle tie ffoialle ta§ Diarmot tor O^ijvS tcr Sichm tcrflalf tie fictile tie Srte bet Sanb bet ©tcin das gnlt das silbcr das koopfer das eisen das tsin das shtahl das tsink dee hronsay dair deeainahnt dee pairlay dee cor:Ulay das marmor dair gyps dair lame dair calk dee coalay dee airday dair sahnd dair stine ' SHIPS AND SHIPPING. das shiff basednff bag 5Bpct ta3 ?inienf($iff tag ^if^erboot tcr Hnfer tag Xcct tic glaggc teraKaft tcr ^Sortermafl taS gegel tcr Stranb bag iWutcr tag 3?e^ tic Satung tic %xa6)t tie Sth^e tic Jllippe tic Xunen bcr ®runb bet ©turm tie ^lotte tic Sre^attc das boat das leenyenshiff das fisherboat dair anker das deck dee fla'ggay dair mast dair fordermast das saygel dair shtrand das rooder das netz dee lahdung dee frar/rt dee kistay dee klippay dee deeunen dair groond dair shtoorm dee flottay dee fregattay TIME AND SEASONS. bag ^alirfiuiitcrt das yarhoondert bag 3ar)r betajionat tie aSo(^e tcr 3:ag tie Stunbe cine ^albc Stunbe ticSDJinutc tic 3efuntc tic 3al*rcgjclten ^rOIiIing Scmmcr §crbfl das 3'ar dair monat dee voc//ay dairta^ dee shtoonday inav halbay shtoonday dee minoohtay dee secoonday dee y ares tsi ten f reeling summer hairbst ENGLISH. winter January February March April May June July August September October November December the days of the week Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday The holiday Christmas Easter Whitsuntide the morning noon the afternoon the evening the night midnight The bell the knocker to open tlie servant the staircase the room the drawing-room the sitting-room the dining-room the slccping-room the kitchen the cellar the window the stove the chimney the looking glass the table the chair the arm-chair the carpet the chest of drawers the sofa the candlestick the candle the lamp the wick the oil to light the bed the counterpane the sheets the pillow the basin the soap the towel GERMAN. fflSintet 3anuar gebruot Smdrj MptU 3Kat 3uni 3uU Qluguft ecptcmbct Octotct ^lovcmbcr Tcjembct tic ©odjcntage Sun 11 tag 9}iontag TiciiHag aJt it tired) 2^cnucrpag Srcttag I tSamfta.i { 3i.Minabcnb tcr gciettag S[Bei^nad}tcn Cfletn ^fingften bet aJiotgcn 3J;ittag tct giadiinittag tcr ?lbcnb tic 3iadjt Snittctnadjt THE HOME. tic GMocfe tcr fllopfer cffncn tie SDJagb tic Ircppc tag .Simmer tag I'uljjimmct tag ©cbiiiiiiinict tag (Sfijimmct tag Sdilafiimmct tic iludjc ter JlcUer tag ^-enficr bet £\c\\ ber Slomin bet epicgcl bet Xifc^ bet etuM bcr ?InnftuM bet -tcvpidi tic flommotc tag 2DV(m tct ?eu4itct tag Cidjt bte Campe bcr Xoc^t bag Ccl oujunbcii bag a^tt ticiVtttcrfc tic a?ctltuc^u'r tag flovfliHcn bag aSafdibecfcn bte Seife bag j^aubtiid} PRONUNCIATION. vintcr yanooar febrooar mayrts apreel my yoonce yoolec owgoost September October november daytsember dee vocAentahgay sunta^ monetiu;' deenstao- niittvor/i donnersta^'" ireitah^ sahmstahrf' sunnahbend dair firetOj^ vinaf/Hcn ohstem pfingp^ten dair morgen mitta^^ dair nar//mitta^ dair abend dee nac7/t mitternacAt dee gluckay dair klupfer cffnen dee ma^ dee treppay das tsimmer das pootstsimmer d;\s vohntsimmer das esstsimmer das shlahftsimmer dee keeuc/vay dair keller das fenster 'dair ohfen dair kameen dair shpeegel dair tish dair shtool dair arnishtool dair teppir/r dee commohday das sofa dair loy(r//ter das lir/tt dee lampay dair docAt das a-l antsinden d;is bet dec betdeckay dee betteecAcr das kupfklsscn' das vashbeckcn dee si fay das handtoof/i A ENGLISH. warm water cold water hot water to wash the comb to comb GERMAN. falte^ ©offer hcmS Saffer loafd^en tcr fiamm Cam me II The apple the apple-tree the pear the pear-tree the plum the plum-tree the cherry the chestnut the peach the apricot the orange the lemon the grape the nut the walnut the currant the goosehcrrv the r;ispberry the blackberry the strawberry the oak the beech the poplar the lime tlie ash the fir the willow tlie rose the pink the tulip the lily the violet the lilac the lily of the v alley The clothes the coat the trowsers tlie pocket the buttons the dressing-gdwn the slipj>crs the drawers tliu stockings the shirt the braces the waistcoat the boot the boot -jack the cap the gloves the handkerchief the watch the umbrella the ptirsu the brush the comb the npron the fan the dress FRUITS, TREES AND in Jlpfel bcr 3IvfeI&Qum tie 95irne tcr iMviibaum tie 'llflauiiie ter '!l>naumenbaum tie fiirfd'e tic iliiftaiiie tcr "lifirud; tie 3Iprtccfe tie Ulpfelfinc tie C^itrone tie aSeintraube tie 9iUB tie aSaUiuifj lie l^ciianiu^lieeve tie BtaclH'Ibeeve tie i'tiinbccre tie 'iPrombcere tic Prtbecrc tie (yidie tic ^i^udie tic l^vippel tic I'lnte tie 6i*e tie Jaime tic aSette tie Siofe tie gjclfe tie 2ulpe tie Silie fca5 9Jeil*cn ter Jlietcr ta^ 2)iaibliimdieH THE TOILET. ticiUcitcr tcr 'Hlod tic ^lofen . tie 2a^A}e ■ tieflnopfe tcr 5d)IafrDif tie 'iiaiitcffcln tie Uiitcibofcn tie Striimpfe ta^ .-pcinb tie^iofentroger ticaDcfie tcr (cticfcl tcr 2licfcl!ncd?t tie ajtijtc tie ^-^odtidiulic ta-5 2afdiciitud) tic Ubr tcr i)fc;icnf*irin tie 9?erfc tie a^urftc tcr fl a mm tic Sd^iirjc ter rt.idicr ta^fllcib PRONUNCIATION. varmes vasser kaltes vasser hyses vasser vashen dair kamin kemnien FLOWERS. dair apfel dair apfelbowm dee beernay dair beernbowm dee pflowmav dair pflowinenbowni dee kcershav de^' kastanyav dair pfeersif// dee apreecohsay dee apfelseenav dee tsitronav dee vinetrowbay dee nooss dee vallnooss dee yohanisbairay dee shtac/zelbairay dec himbairay dee brombairay dee airdbairay dee ir//ay dee boocAay dee pappel dee lindav dee csbay dee tannay dee viday dee rosay dee nelkay dec toolpay dee leeleay das filefAen dair fleeder das mybleumchen dee klider dair ruck dee hozen dee tashay dee kncepfay dair shlahfruck dee pantuffeln dee oonterhosen dee strceumpfay das hemt dee hosentrayger dec vestay dair shteefel dair shteefelknec/zt dee milsay dee bandshooay das tashentoor/; dee oor dair raygtnsheernj dee bcLTsay dee hirstay dair kainrn dee sheeurtsay dair fcc//er das klite ENGLISH. the petticoat the stays the veil the powder the soap the tooth-powder The voyage the traveller the road the railroad the station the train the engine the carriage the wagon the departure the arrival the pass -port the inn (hotel) the landlord the waiter the bill the interpreter the luggage the trunk the carpetbag The paper the writing-paper the writing the sheet the pen the steel-pen the penknife the inkstand the ink the pencil tlic scissors the date the direction the mail the seal the sealing-wax the wafer the ruler the letter tlie note The country the native land the state the empire the kingdom Kurope the European An; erica tlie American Asia Africa the Kast Indies the West Indies the I'nited States IJrazil K light nd the linglishman GERMAN. ter UntcniMf ba^ 3d)tiiiiieib bcr ©djlcier baS $utet tie Scife ba^ 3o^npuIyer TRAVEL; bie S)icife bet Oicifcntc tie ^antflra&e tic Gifenbabn bie >£tation ter 3ug tie SRaf^ine bie Jtutfdje ter aSagcn tie ?lbrctfe tie ?Infunft tcr %n% ter G^aftfiof tcr aSirt^ tcr Jiicllucr tie Oicdinung tcr Tolmetfdjer ta§ OVparf bcr Siofjex ter Oieifefarf AT THE WRITING- ta-S 'il>apier ta5 Sc^veibpapier tic Sd^rift ter 55ov3eii tie ivetcr bie Stablfcter bav^ Jyctcrmeffer ta^ 3:intenfafe tic 3:iiite tcr aneiftift tic Sdieere tcr Tatiim tic aitvcffe tie l*efl bad ^Ictf^aft ter SicgcUad bie Cblate ta5 i^incal bcr *5rief taSSiUet PRONUNCIATION. dair oonterruck der shneerlipe dair shiire das pooder dee sifav das tsahnpoolfer dee rizay dairrizendav dee lahndshtrahsay dee isenbahn dee stahtzione dair tsoo^ dee masheenay dee kootshay dair vahgen dee abrizay dee ankoonft dair pass dair gasthof dair veert dair kclner dee rer//noong dair duUmetsher das gepcck dair cuffer dair rizaysack DESK. das [japeer das shribupapeer dee shrift dair bngen dee fayder dee stahlfayder das faydermesser das tintenfass dee tintay dairblystift dee shayray der dahtoom dee ahdressay dec pust das petshaft dair seegellac dee ohlahtay das leenayahl dair hrcef das bilyet LANDS AND ba§ ?anb baei ajiatcTlanb bcr Staat ba-^ Sic id) bat^ .QomflTcid) C^urppa bcr Puropaer aimcnia bet aimcriEancr aifieii aifnra Ciftinbti'ii ^IGcftiiiticn bie vcrciiuvjtcn •i^vafilicu (5iifllaiib ter Pnglcintcr PEOPLES. das lahnd das fahterlahnd dair shtaht das rir//e d;is kruntgric/ie oiropa dair oiropayer amayricah dair amajTikahoer azien afrika ostindien vestindien Ztaatcn dee vcrini^ten stahtcn brahzcclien englahnd dair Englender i /• ^ ^ al' M\ ^a( _^ ^ ■ ^ {? \ / |0 1 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. f 87 » ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. Ireland Jtlanl) eerlahnd rich iei4 ric//e 1 the Irishmiin ter ^^lonCet der ecrlcnder cold talt kalt Scotland 8t^cltlanb shutlahnd warm icatm varm the Scotchman fcCT (E6cttC dair shuttay long long lahng France Jrontreiift frankrif/;e high fiod) hoacA the Frenchman bcr graniofe dair frantsosay full PcO foil Germany Tcutfdilanb doytslilahnd cool Iul>I keel the German let XfUtft^e dair doytshay near na^e nail Holland iTjoUanb hiilLilind hard (art hart the Dutchman tct i^oUantet dair hullender light leid)l lyc/it Austria Ocflettcit^ eceterriflid) hoeflicA gray grau grou obliging gefiUig gefelli/ green gtitn green kind gutig geeti^ yellow geli) gelb prudent Hug kloog- orange Ptangc orahn^ stupid tunim doomm purple puipur poorpoor ridiculous Lid^crltd) lefAerli^A violet Piolctl veeolet reasonabl . I'crnunflig fcrninfti^ old alt ahlt happy gltidlid) ghcklicA young Jung yoong unh:ippy ungliicllie^ oonglicklic-A new neu noi glad frol) fro 4 great grofe gross satisfied jufrieben tsoofreeden k good gut goot active tbatig taiti^ 1 -■J / \ - ■*" -■ -• a T*" \ *^ -5 ^ ^ <^ i_^ s \ / s> 1 88 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. ) ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. proud flolj shtults a million eine ^Jitllicn inay milleeone rude Sroli grope one thousand eight ein taufcnb adjt ^unbert ine towsend ac/it hoon- | bold (Qfin keen hundred and fifty- neununcfunfiig dert noyn oond finf- strong flart shtark nine. tsig weak t*rcad) shvach attentive aufracrtfara owfmerksahm THE ORDINAL NUlttBERS. clever sick gefdjictt geshickt the first ber erfie dair ayrstay [rant krahnk the second berjireite dair tsvitay pale blaj blahss the third ber britte dair drittay healthy gelunb gezoond the fourth ber Dicrte dair feertay poor arm arm the fifth bet fun^te dair finftay empty light dark dry ker lair the sixth bcT fed^gfie dair sextag flElI hell the seventh ber fiebentc dair seebentay buntel doonkel the eighth ber Qd)te dair ac/rtay troien trocken the ninth ber neunte dair noyntay wet dirty nag nahss the tenth ber je£)nte dair tsanetay fd^mu^ig shmootsi^ the eleventh ber elfte dair elftay cheap clean tired billig billi^^ the twelfth ter jtrclfte dair tsvelftay tein rine the thirteenth ber breijeftnte dair drj-tsanetay miibe meeday the fourteenth ber Pierje&nte dair fecrtsanetay angry tofe bees ay the fifteenth ber funfjelinte dair finftsanetay merry lutlig loosti^ the sixteenth ber fedj^jefintc dairscf/^tsanetay CARDINAL NUMBERS. the seventeenth ber Hebenje&nte dair scebentsanetay One two three four etn, einS ine, ines the eighteenth the nineteenth ber aditjefinte ber neuHjelinte dair arZ/tsanetay dair noyntsanetay trei Bier tsvi dri feer the twentieth the twenty-first ber jroanjigfte ber einunbjtpanjigfte dair tsvanzi^tay dair ineoondtsvantsig- five six seven eight finf fieten ttiit finf sex seeben ac/it twenty-second the twenty-third ter jroeiunbsicanjigfte ber breiunbjnjanjigpe stay dair tsvioondtsvantsi^- stay dair drioondtsvantsi^- stay nine tt-n eleven twelve thirteen fourteen lifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen neun jebn elf jreilf treijebn tter)el)n fiinfjefin fecbejebn fiebenjcl^n noyn the thirtieth ber brei^igite dair drysij^tay tsane elf Uvelf drytsane feertsane finftsane sextsane seebentsane the thirty-first ber cinunbtret&igfte dair ineoonddrysi^tay the thirty-second ber jtueiunbbrei&igfte dair tsvioonddrj-si^tay the fortieth the fiftieth the sixtieth the seventieth the eightieth the ninetieth ber cierjtgfte ber ^unf5igfic bet fediSjigiie ber fiebenjigfte bet acbtjtgfte bet neunuafte dair feertsi^tay dair finftsi^tay dairsecZ/tsi^tay dair secbcntsi^tay dair acitsi^tay dair noyntsi^tay dair hoonderstay adiljebn acZ/ttsane the one hundredth ter buntertjle nineteen twenty neunjetm noyntsane the one hundred and bet ljunbettunbetfte dair hoondertoondayr- jwanjig tsvantzi^ first stay twenty -one einuntjreanjij incoondtsvantzi^ the two hundredll ber sroeifiunbcrtfte dairtsvihoondertstay twenty-two jreeiuntjipaniig zvioondtsvantzi^ the three hundredth ter bvciliuntertfte dairdrihoondertstay twenty-three thirty treiuntjroanjig tretjiig dryoondtsvantzi^ drysi^ the one thousandth ter tauyentfte dair towsendstay forty tietjig feertzi^ COLLECTIVE NUMBERS. fifty funfaig finftzio- A pair ein ^aar ine pahr sixty fectiSjig sec/itz'i^ a dozen ein Tu^enb ine dootsend seventy eighty ninety fiebenjtg seebenzi^ a score Sitjanjig tsvantsi^ acbljig ac//tzi^ firstly erften^ ay rs tens ncuniig noyntzi^ secondly jweitenS tsvitens one hundred buntert hoondert thirdly btittenS driltens one hundred and one [)unlcrt unt ein8 hoondertoond ines the first time ba^ erftc 0)?al das ayrstay mal one hundred and two Ijuntcrt uiit jirei hoondert oond tsvi the second time ba^ jireite aJIal das tsvitay mal two hundred jrcei Ininbert tsvi hoondert once cinmal inemal three hundred tret bunCcrt dry hoondert twice jipeimal tsvimal four hundred wier luintect feer hoondert thrice btcimal drymal five hundred (iinf bunbtrt finf hoondert single cinfacft inefair^ six hundred fo*« fiuntctt sex hoondert double bcppelt duppelt seven hundred ficbcn hunbctt seeben hoondert threefold brcifa* dryfacA eight hundred adit I)unlcit ar//t hoondert fourfold ticrfadj feerfacrA nine hundred neun liunteit noyn hoondert one sort einetlet inerlye one thousand two thou,;iiul taiifenb towsend two sorts jroeictlei tsvierlyc jUH'i tauienb tsvi towsend three sorts bteterici drierlye J three thnusaml Irtt taufcnb dry towsend four sorts tieterlei feererlye \ ti-n tliousand 5tbn toufenl) tsane towsend ten sorts jefinetlci tsanerlye , / \ !£> •f" ti *~ -• o V*" - — s\J- . G 1 -- \ THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. , 89 ' 1 PRONOUNS. INDICATIVE. SUBJtNCTIVE. Second Future. \ \ I ii* mine mcin I shall have had. If I shall have had. thou 2)u thine Xeill 14 roeite geljabi Ijaben id) recttc gebabt ^aben he er his fein Xu itirit gcbabl baben Xu roettefl gebabl baben she fi? her l^t er reirb gebabl ^aben er reerte gct)abl I)aben we toit ours unfet irtr irerben gebabt I)aben irir rectten gebabt baben you 36t yours (Suer 3bt werbct gcbobl baben 3bt reerbel gebabl babcn they fie theirs i^t fie luerben gebabt ^aben fie reeiben ge^bt ^aben who, which weli^et FIKST CONDITIONAL. SECOND CONDITIONAL. this ttcfcr that jcneT who iver I should have. I should have had. such foltfjcr each, every one Jeter icb reiitte baben id) reutbe gebabl baben somebody jemanb nobody niemaiib Tu H'lirtefl babcn Xu reiitteft gel)abt baben er ipiirCe baben er reiirte gebabt baben The polite form of address in German is to use the pronoun 2ic, in- stead of Xu, in the second person singular. In that sense £ie is writ- ipir mOrten ^aben 3br reurbcl babcn , reir reurten gebabl ^aben 3bt iriirlet gebabl I)aben ten with a capital letter. fie loutben f)abcn fie reuttcn gebabt ^aben THE VERB. IMPF.RATIVE. 1 Before studying the regular verbs the student must learn by babe, have 1 babcn reir, let us have heart the auxiliary verbs, whose conjugations are as follows : ^abc ct, let him have ^labt (3f)r), have ye j baben fie, let them have 1 AUXILIARY VEKBS. §aben — to have. Eein — to be. INFINITIVE. INFINITIVE. Present, ^abcn, to have Present. ein, to be. Perfect. gel)abl liabcn, to have had. Perfect. 5 Future. \ ereefen fein, to have been. Future. I)abcn wcrben, to be about to have. ein rcerten, to be about to be. Participles: Prcseut. I)abcnt, having. Perfect, gefjabt, had. Participles : Present, feienb, being. Perfect, geracfen, been. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. i(^ ^^\)t, I have i(J) if^i^ii, I may have id) bin, I am Xu bift, thou art id) fei I may be Du I)a(i, thou hast Xu babeft, thou mayst have Xu feifi, thoumayestbe cr &at, he has er (tabe, he may have er ill, he is et fcl, he is tpir Ijaben, we have (Tit ^aben, we may have rcir finb, we are Bit feien, we may be 3^r ^abt, you have 3bt babet, you may have ^br feib, you are 3I)t feiet, you may be (ie ^aben, they have fie I)aben, they may have fie fmt, they are fie feien, they may be Imperfect. Imperfect. i« ^atte, I had id) bdtle, 1 might have icb rcar, I w*as id) rcdtc, I might be Xu battefi, thou hadst lu batleft, thou mightest have Xu rcarft, thou wert Xu redteft; thou mightest be et f)aite, he had er fiallc, he might have et rear, he was et redre, he might he trir Ijattcn, we had irit ballen, we might have mir niaten, we were reir redtcn, we might be 3br battel, you had 3br ballet, you might have 3br ttiaret, you were 3^t redtcl, you might be fie Ijalten, they had fie I;atten, they might have fie reaten, they were fie redten, they might be Perfect. Perfect. I have had. I may have had. I have been. I may have been. t(^ ^o.^i gebabt t(S Ijabe gebabt (^ bin geircfen iil fei gereefcn "Eu f)a(l gebabt ■Du babefl gel)obt Xu bift gercefen Xu feifi gereefcn et fiat gebabt er \^^^t gebabt et ifi gcreefen et fei gereefen tcit ^abcn gebabt lutr f^aben gebabt irir finb gereefen reit fcicn gereefcn 3f)t f)abt ge()abt 3Iir babet getjabt 3br feib gerecfcn 31)t feiet gereefcn fie ^aben gel^abt fie baben get)abt fie fmb geicefcn fie feien gereefcn Pluperfect. Pluperfect. 1 had had. I might have had. I had been. I might have been. i(i) ^attc gefiabt id) f)dlle gebabt id) rear geitefen id) redrc gereefcn Tu fjattcft gebabt Tu battefl gel)abl Xu reatft gereefen Xu redteft gereefen er batte gebabt er bdtle gebabt er rear gcreefen cr redrc gereefcn irtr tjatten gebabt iric l)dllen gebabt rcir ipatcn gereefcu reir redren gereefcn abr battel gebabt 3f)t f)allet gebabt 3bt rcarel geu'cfen 3bt redtcl gereefcn fie fallen gebabt fie fallen gebabt fie icaten gereefcn fic redten gereefen First Future. First Future. I shall have. If I shall have. I shall be. If I shall be. i(fe ipcrfcc ^aben id) irerte babcn id) rocrbe fein id) reerte fein Tu reitfl ^aben Xu tbctbefl baben Xu reirft fein Xu recrteit fein er icirb ^abcn er rcerte baben er reiib fein ct reette fein loir tocrbeii ^aben rctr irerten baben reir werben fein reit reetben fetn ) 35r wetbet babcn 3^1: reettet f)aben 3^r wcrbet fein 31)t reetCct fein 1 fie merbcn ^aben fie reetten l)aben fie reevten fein fic roctCen fein Q / \ q ^ c j V V ■o " •«y \ 90 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. Sfcor/d Future. I shall have bten. If I shall have been. i(^ reertc gcnjcfen fciii idi ircrte gcnjefen fciu Tn tririt gcitcfcn fein Tu iDcrfceft gcreefen fein ct icirb gciDCfcn fein cr ipcrte gercefcn fein irir ircrbcn gea'cfcn fein u*ir n*erten geroefcn fein 31)r irertet geircfen fcin !^i[)r reertet gcrcefcn fein fie racrfccn geiucien fcin fic rccrben gercefen fein FIRST CONDITIONAL. SECOND CONDITIONAL. I should be. I should have been. icfc irurtc fein i(^ iDurte geirefen fein Xu rourtcft fein Xn roiirtcft geiuefen fein er XQvxXt fein er ipiirte geirefen fein icir iriirtcu fein ILUV triirten geirefen fein 3br ffiurtet fein %\:)X rourtet geirefen fein fie ttJurten fein fie rcurtcn getcefen fein IMPERATIVE. fei be feieu luit let us be fci er lirt him be. feit 5^r be ye feicn fie let them be SBetten — to become. INFINITIVE. Present, irettcn, to become. Perfect, gcu'crteii, gcreotbcn fein, to have become. Future. U'Crten icertcn, to be about to become. Participles: Present, reertent, becoming. Perfect. geraotCeu, become. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. Present. i* werte Xu loirfl cr wirb ivir iperbcn ^l)t ircrbet fic ipcrben id) irurbc Xu irurtcfl cr iturte ivir ipurtcn yc)\ ipurtet {ie rourbcn I become thou bccomcst he becomes \vc become you become they become id) n^erfce I may become Xu n'^crteft thou mayest become er iverbe he may become loir werbcn we may become ^jlir njerfcet you may become fie IPerben they may become Imperfect. I became id) reurbe I might become thou bccamcst Xn un'ivbeft thoumightcstbecome he became cr iriirbe he might become we became rcir iriirben we might become you became %\sx irQrtet you miglit become they became fic njurbcn they might become Perfect. I have become, t^ bin geipprbcn Xu &ift gciporbcn er ift gemorben ipir fiiib geircrbcn 3f)r fcib genuTtcu fie finb geiporbcn I liad become, idi irat gciporben Xu u^arft giMPDrten er war geicorbcn n?ir trarcn gcirorben 3^riraret gcivortcn fie icaron gciporbcn I shall become, id) irertc wcrbcn Xu n?it^ wcrbcn cr loirb trerben Pluperfect. First Future, I may have become, id) fei geiDorten Xu feift getvorben er fei gcircrben v>\x feien geirorten 3fer fetet geircrbcn fie feicn geivorben I might have become, id) iparc iKivotbcn Xu wnrcft gciDotben et ware geirorben wtr iiMren geipcrben 3^t tuniet gcipcrtcn fie wciren geworben If I shall become, ic^ wcrbe wctben Xu werbeft rcerbcn cr roerbe werben wir njcrben lucrbcii 3[)r werbet tpcrben fie iPcrbcn tnerben I shall have become, id) recrte gctpcrben fein Xu irivft geicovbcn fein cr mirb gciuorben fein irir iperbcn geircrbcn fein 3I)r iDcrfcet geiuorben fein fic rcerbcn gemorben fein FIRST CONDITIONAL. I should become, id) roiirbe rcerbcn Xu iDurbcft rcerben cr rciivte irerben rcir rcurben rcerbcn 3fir rcurbet rccrben fie rcurben irerben Second Future. rcir rcexben rcerbcn 3^rrcetbet rccrben fie rccrben rcerbcn If I shall have become, i^ rcerbe gercorben fein Xu rccrbeft gercorben fein er rcerbe gerccvbcn fein rctr rcerbcn gercorben fciu 5I)r rccrbet gerccrbcn fein fic rcerbcn gercorben fein SECOND CONDITIONAL. I should have become, ii^ rciivbe gercorben fein Xu iriirbeft gercorben fein cr rciirte gercorben fein rcir rciirben gercorben fetn %\}X rciirbct gercorben fein fie rcurben gercorben ftin IMPERATIVE. rcerbe C — "J become thou rcerbe er let him become rccrben rcir rcerbet %\)x rcerbcn fie let us become become yc let them become DJtogen — to may, to like. INDICATIVE. Present. SUBJUNCTIVE. I may. id) mag Xu luagft er mag rcir niogcn 3t)r mogt fie mogen id) morfitc id) babe gcmorfit Pluperfect. i(^ fiattc geinod)t 1st Future, id) rcerbe mogen 2d Future, idi rcerbe gemod)t &abcn First Conditional. Second Conditional, id) ivurbe gcmodit ^a6en. 3J>oUen — to be willing. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect. Perfect. I mavt id) moge Xu mogeft er inoge rcir mogen 31ir moget fie mogen l(^ moditc \^ ^abe gemcc^it it^ r^attc gcmoc^t i(^ rcerbe mogen id) rcerbe geiuD(^t ^ubvK ii^ rcurbe mogen* INDICATIVE. Present. I am willing. id) rciU Xu rciUft er rciU rcir rcoUcn 3^r rcoUet fic rcoUen Imperfect, id) U' elite perfect. id) luibe gercoUt Pluperfect, idi hattc gercoUt jst Future, td) rcerbe rcoUcn zd Future, id) rcerbe gcrcoUt f)a6en First Conditional. I may be willing l(^ rcolle Xu rcoUcft er rcoUe rcir rccUen :jln" rccUet fie rcelleu ic^ loodtc id) babe gercoUt id) batte gcrcoUt id) rcerbe rcoUeii i* rcerbe gercoUt ^abea i£^ rcurbe rcoUcn. Second Conditional. i(^ rciirbe gcrcoUi babcu. ©oUcn— to be obliged: I shall, I ought. INDICATIVE. I sl.all. /' rest nt. SL'BJUNC1I>"1£ I shall. i* (3tt TufcUfl i(( fcUe Tu foUcfl A , ^ ^ Q' i- G \ y i3 ' THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. >» 9 1 i cr foU cr folic Saffcii— to let. Kir foffen tctr foQen INDICATIVE. Sf BTUNCTXVK. 3fir fcUct S^tJcHet /'resell!. fie fcUeii fic {oUen I let. 1 may be let. Impnffct. t* (ctrtc id) foDle id) laffe Kit laffe P.rjWt. idi ftabc iieft'flt id) habc jiofcllt Tu laffefl Tu laffeft Plup.rj\ct. i* hatte iicfoUt t* hallo jcioUl cr 1561 tx Ia6t 1st Future, let ipcrte foUen id) uhtCc fcUoii luir laffen tcir laffen 2ii Future, tc^ merfce gcfoUt fiaben id) wcrCc acioUt bateit 36t laffct 3«rlaffct fic laffen fie laffen //>.?/ Conditional. idi im'irte foQcn. 1 Second Conditional, i* luiirtc acfoUt liabcn. linper/ect. id) lief) Perfect. i4 Iiiibe gelaffcn i* Iie6c id) l)abe gelaffcn SlLMincn— tu he ublc. I'liifeifecl. id) batte gelaffcn tst Future, id) irerbe laffen id) ^dttc gelaffcn i4 wcrbc laffen INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. 2d Future, id) lyerbegclaffen ^alJciT id) ifcrbe gelaffen ?alien I am able, I can. I mav be able. /■(>.«< Conditional. id) toiirbe laffen. Second Conditional. '\if itiirbe gelaffcn iabcn. iii) lann id) (6nnc 'Tu faiinfl lu (ornicjl IMPERATIVE. er tann cr fonnc Ia6 Uu laffen ti>lt ipir Icnnen iDir tfnncn lagei laffet 3^t 3fit fcnnct 3I)r iDiinct laffen fie fie (unnert fie (enucn 1 Imperfect, icft fonntc ii^ lonnte THE REGULAR A'ERB. Perject. id? ^labc gctonnt i^ iliii geConnt The rule for the formation of the regular verb is verj- simple. It Pluperfect, tc^ Ijattc gclcnnt ic^ ^jltc getonnt runs : The present tense is formed by dropping the n of the intinitive ; 1st Future, id) ircrbc fenncn ic^ ircrbe Eonncn the imperfect by dropping the f.nal e of the present and adding te ; the ^(/ Future, i^ ipcrle gelonnl fia&cn tc^ irerbe gefonnl %iiit past participle by dropping the final C of the imperfect and prefixing /"/r.-.-/ Conditional. idj tfuttc Ecnnen. ge. For example; Infinitive, leben, to live; present, tt^ lebe, I live; Second Conditional, id) lourbc gcfonnt Ija&en. unperfect, id) Icbtc, I lived; past participle, gelcbt, lived. Active Voice. Turfcn— to be allowed, to dare. Scben — to live. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INFINITIVE. /'/'^St-W/. I am allowed. I mav be allowed. Present, lebcn, to live. Perfect, gelebt \j!xiz'a., to have lived. id) tatf id) turfe Future. leben werten, to be about to live. Tu barffi Tu tiirfi'il Participles: Present. lct)Cllb, living. cr barf cr tiirfe Perfect, gelebt, lived. tuir tutfcn IDir turicn 3hr turfct 3I)r turfct INDICATIVE. SIBJLNCTIVE. Present. fie burfen fie biirfcn . , id) Icbc I live Id) Icbc I may l)ve Imperfect. {^ turfiC id) biirfte T'u lebft thou livcst Tu lebcfl thou mayest live Perfect. id) ()abc ^cturft i^ I>abc geburft cr lett he lives er Icbc he may live Pluperfect. \6) Iiollc gcburft id) fiolte geburft uur leben we live U'ir leben we may live /.'.7 Future, ic^ irotte burden id) irerbc burfcn 3br lebt you live 3I)tlcbet you n)ay live zd Future, ic^ trerbc gcturft ftafccn id) tterbe gcturft fiatei fie lebeil they live fic leben they may live ^/V.?/ Conditional. ic^ iDurbc burfcn. Imperfect. Second Conditional, i&t »utbe geburft Ijabcn. i* Icbtc I lived td) ICbte I m)ght live aJiuffen— to be obliged. Tu Icbtefl thou livedst . ct Icbtc he lived Tu Icbtefi thou mightest live cr Icbtc he might live 1 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. trir Icbtcn we lived irir Icbtcn we might live /*/-«■.?(■«/. 3fir lebtct you lived 3br lobtct you might live I am obliged, I must. I may be obliged. (ic lebtcil tliey lived fie Icbtcn they might live i(B niu^ i* miiffe 11 u iiiufet lu muffcfl Perfect. cr iiuifi cr miiffe I have lived. I may have lived. ivit muffen ivir inuffeu id) babe gelebt Id) ^ix\!t gelebt 3bT muftt 31)r niiiffct Tu baft gelebt Tu babeft gelebt fie inuffeii fic miiffcn ct bat gelebt er babe gelebt Imperfect, i^ inu^e Perfect. % id) bate gemu^t Pluperfect, iiji I)atte geniuftt i* mUftc id) lialjc gemufet id) liStlc gcmuft irir baben gelebt 3bt l)abt gelebt fic l)aben gelebt Ivir babcn gelebt 3bt babet gelebt fic ^aben gelebt 1st Future, id) itcrte muffcit idi U'crbe iniiffen Pluperfect. ^t/ Future, i^ iperbe gcmupt ^abcn id) iperbc gcmuftt ^a&cn I had lived. I might have lived. ( /VW/ Conditional. i(^ luuvbe niiiffon. id) batte gelebt i(b batte gelebt 1 Second Conditional, i* ivurCc ijcmuiit babfn. Tu batteft gelebt Tu battcfi gelebt , ^ vl t i^ ^" -» 5. ^ ' ' , *, o , _ ^^ ^ yt 1 i 92 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. / T^ 1 t et ^attc gelftt er fiatte gclc&t to believe fllauben glcwben trir fatten jtlttt tinr ptteit gclebt to know iciffcn Vissea 3fir battel gclcH 3Br ^attet gelc&t to write fdireiben shriben fie (latten jclctt fie Batten gelebt to read lefen layzen J^/rs/ Future* to pronounce to translate au^fpredjen uberfc^en owsshprecAen eebersetsen I shall live. If I shall live. to recollect Xx&j erinnern ^\ch erinnern i* ircrtc Icl'cn ii^ roerte Ic&en to forget tergeffen fairgessen Xu nnvjilcben Tu irertcft Icbeu to pr'omise terfprecfien fairshprecAen et witb lebeu er ipcrte leben to expect eriparten airvarten uut loctben Icben irir lyerteii Icbeu to converse uuter^alten oonterhalten 3bt ii'ettctlcbfii 3^r icertet Ict'cn to express au^trucfcn owsdricken fie iretten lebcn fie loerteit teben to explain er flare IT airklayren Second Future. to tell fag en saagcn I shall ha\c lived. If I shall have lived. to call to weep to recommend Tufen ifeincn roofen vincn ic^ irettc gelcbt babcii ic^ irerte gelcbt iia&en einpfcMen empfaylen ®u IDitft jclcl't tuil'cn Tu u^ertcft gclett Iiabcn to receive cmpfaiigcn empfangen et luiit gclfl't Iiateii cc ii'crte i3clcbt ^atcn to send fdiitten shicken Irii ttetteii gtlcbt Iiaben ivir ivcvtcii gele&t fuibcn to buy faufeti kowfen 3bt weitet gclctt babeii 3f)r ivcrtct cjelebt I>aL>cu to pay bejaMen beftellen betsahlen fie Irciten gelebt ^abcii ' [ie reerfcen gclebt ^abcn to order beshtellen FIRST CONr»lTION.\L. SECOND CONDITIONAL, to furnish liefern leefern I should live. I should have lived. to sell tertaufen fairkowfen i(^ triitbe Icbcii i^ njurfce gele&t baten to reply ontn?orten anlvorten Xu itatbcft Icben Tu ivurteft gelebt I^abeu et ii'utte Icbcn er luurbe gelebt ho^izxi ADVERBS. ttit itQitcn U'ben trir ipurten gelebt ^abeti • 3fit itiirtet Icbcii 3hr ipurtet gelebt ^^xhi'o. Yes Ha yah pe irutten lebcii fie iDurten gelebt ^aben \ jairo^l yahvole indeed fnbera:^at in dair taht IMPER tcte (Tu) live (thou) ATIVE. leben luir let us live truly rcabrltc^ geuu§ fid)erlic^ vaarlicA lebe et let him live lebet (3I;r) live (ye) certainly surely gcviss sich^xWck leben fie let them live only nur noor VOCABULAK^ r OF VERBS. some nothing nic^tS etvas nic/fts To eat effcn essen much riel feel to drink ttinten trinken quite ganjlic^ gentzlic^ to dream trauincn troy 111 en very fe^t sare to wash iraiiben v ash en so fo so to comb laramen kcmiiien thus alfo also to go getjen gay en how xaXt vee to speak fpretben shprec/^ea no neitt nine to laugh lac^en la0 vo to give gcben gayben in herein herine to make Ktflt^cn mac/icn out ^erauS herows to do t^un toon then benn den to ride teiten riten now W- yetst to s;iy fogen sahgen soon (alb bald to send fenten senden till %\& bis to seek fudien soocAen seldom felten selten to breakfast ftiibftuieil freeshticken since fcit site iodine fpeifeti shpeyzen ever immet immer to sup ju Slbenb cffe « tsoo ahbend essen never nie nee to arrive onfcmmfii ankummcn oft oft uft to depart obteifeii abrizcn already f(^on schone to meet Iteifcn trcffen to-day ^eute hoytay lo be tired miibe fein niecude seyn yesterday gefiern gestern 10 be sleepy fdliftig fcin shlayfritfseyn late fp5t shpate i to excuse enlfi^ulbtgen trnlshooldigen why? itarum? varoom ? 1 lo understand rerfie^en fairshtayen because treil vile •t .: ^r~ ^ 'r ENGLISH. if perhaps Above about after ag-ainst before of over since for from in near under up with And but also even or nor yet because that therefore GERMAN. PRONl nenn vcn titUtiiit fcellyf//t PREPOSITIONS. u&ft eciiber um oom vai) nacA gtgcn gaygen cot fore t?DU fun ubet ecuber feit site fut fccur bon fun in in na{ie nahay untcr oonter auf owf mit mit CONJUNCTIONS unb oont abei ahber au(^ ouc/i (ogat sogar ctct oder noil nu c/i ici) orten Sic. nirAt. Fershtayen see? Hfcron see ! Kummcn see heerhair. Vas ist das? Antvorten see. JBarum antreorten etc Varoom antvorten see nicl)t ? nirAt? What do you mean by 2Ba8 mcincn Sie fcamtt ? Vas minen see damit? that? You speak German, I 3(^ eermut^e £ic fpte^ IrA fermootay see suppose? *eii O^eutfd). shprerAcn doytsh. Very little, sir. Scbc rocnig, mcin S^exx. Sair vani^, mine hair. Do vou know Mr. H.? flcnncn Sic §crrn S5. ? Kennen see haimha? I know him by sight. 3d) Icnnc ibn ron an= IrA kcnnay een fun an- fefien. sane. 3d) Icnnc ibn bci 5ia; IrA kennay cen by nah- men. men. Or ifl mir wcU bcfannt. Air ist meer vole bay- kant. What do you call that? 2Bic ncnncn Sic fcaS ? Vee ncnnen see das? What is that in Gcr- 3Bic ^ci&t ba8 a«f Vee histe das owf I know him by name. I know him well. man? a:cutfd) ? Wh.it does that mean? 23a3 ttci&t ta8 ? Why do you speak ? 2Banim fprcdjcn Why arc you silent? Why did you go? Is it ready? 3ftfMertig ? Have you heard? j^abcn £ic gcbert ? Do you hear? §6tcn Sic ? doytsh? Vas histe das? Varoom shprcrAen sec? aBarun fdjnjcigcn 2ie ? Varoom shvigen sec? aSaruni gingcn £ic ? Varoom gingen see? Ist es fairti:^/ Haabcn see gehtrrt? Hocren see? K- 94 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. k ENGLISH. GERMAN. Where is she? SBo {^ ^le ? Where are you? 23o fiitb £ie ? Where are you going? 2Bo geljen Sie ^in ? Where do you come 5!Bo fommcn ©ie her ? from? M'here were you? What? Wliat is that? What o'clock is it? What have you? What do you say? What do you want? What will you do? aSo waxen Sic ? a2a§? 3Saa ift fcaS ? ^vic ticl U^r ift e% ? aSag b^&cn 3ie ? 23ae; faficn £ic ? SSai^ iPoUen £ie ? ©aiS iPoUen Sie t^un ? PRONUNCIATION*. Vo ist see ? Vo sind see? Vo gayen see hin? Vo kummen see hair? Vo varen see? Vas? Vas ist das? Veefeel oor ist es? Vas haaben see? ^'as saagen see? Vas vuUen see? Vas vuUen see toon ? PHRASES OF COM3IAND. Come away! Come here! Go there! Come back I Go on ! Sit down ! Standstill! Wait! \Vait for me I ^Vait a little! Make haste ! Re quick! Follow me! Tell him! Call him! Speak! Eat! Drink! Hear! Hear me ! Look at met Begin ! Continue I Stop ! Tell me ! Tell it to him ! Speak to him ! Be quiet! Go! Go to him ! Go to bed I Fetch it! Bring it! Bring it to me! LL-titbe! flcmmen Sic fert ! Slcmmcn Sie bicrhcr. (>\elien 2ie tcrilnn! ^cmmen Sic jurucf! ©elicn Sic treitcr 1 Sc^en Sic fi* ! Stcbcn Sie ftiU! SSarten Sic! 2Barten Sie auf niidi ! 23artcn Sic ein lueni^! 3Jiadicn Sie fcbnell! Seeilen Sic fi* ! golden Sie mir! Sagen Sie iftm! iRuten Sie i^itl Sprcc^cn ©iel (Sffen Sie I Xriittcn Sie I jjcren Sie I Ss'cxen Sie mic^I Se&cn Sie intd) an! gangcn Sic an! gafiren Sie fort! Sa^cn Sie mir! Sagen Sie c3 ibm! Kummen see fort! Kummen see heerhair! Gayen see dort-hin I Kummen see tsoorick ! Gayen see viter! Setsen see sic/// Shtayen see shtill ! Varten see ! Varten see owf mic/t! Varten see ine vayni^/ MacAen see shnel ! Bay-ilen see sic/i! Fulgen see meer ! Saagen see cem ! Roofen see een ! ShprecAen see ! Essen see ! Trinken see! Hceren see ! H(Eren see mich! Sayen see mic// an ! Fangen see an ! Faaren see fort! Halt! Saa^n see meer! Saagen see es eem ! Sprec^en Sie mit tijm! Shprec//en seemiteem! Scion Sie ruhig! ©cljcn Sic! 0c^cn Sie ju ibm! (?e^cn Sie ju luetic! J^-'cIcn Sie c^I 5?ringcn Sic c3I a?Tingcn Sie eS mirl Slaffen Sie eS feinl Syen see rooi^^/ Gayen see ! Gayen see tsoo eem ! Gayen see tsoo bettay ! Holen see es! Bringen see es! Bringen see es meer! Lassen see es sine I E\Ti:RY-DAY UTTERANCES. Saagen see meer. Geeti^t— gay fell i^t. Haaben see dee geetav. Yah, mine hair. Yah, madam. Nine, mine hair. Nine, madam. Nine, mine frovUne. Tell me! Sagen ©Ic mir. H you please. ©utigfi— gcfdlligll. Have the goodness. Jgaben Sie tie ©ute. Yes, sir, 3a, mcin ^■'crr. Yes, madam. ^a, 3J(abam. No, sir. gjein, mcin y;tcrr. No, madam. yicin, 3Jiatam. No, miss. 92ein, mcin Jraulein. Do you speak German Sprcrfien Sie Tcutfcb ShprccAen see doytsh or French? ctcr Jranjon^t^ ? oder frantstesish? I do not speak Get- 3* fptec^ienit^t licutfc^. Ic// shprecAe nic//t man. doytsh. I understand it, but do ^dj ecrfictic c8, a&ct id) Ic// ferslUayayes, aaber not speak it. fprcctc eS nt*t. ic// shprecAe es nicAt. I speak English. ^rfi fprec^e CSnglif*. Ic// shprec//e english. I speak French a little. 3(^ fpredje ein roenig IcA shprec//c ine vayni^ ^Tanjofif^* frantscesish. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. Do you understand? 2Jerflel)en Sic ? Fershtayen see? Can you understand? Sonnen Sie ter^e^en ? Kcennen see ferstayen! Speak slower, Spredien Sic langlamer. Shprcc//en see lang- samer. You speak too fast." Sie fpTe(^en ju fc^neU. See shprecAen tsoo shnell. Give mc some bread, ©cbcn Sic mir 33rot. Gaybcn see meer brote. Give me something to ®eben Sie mil (Streak Gayben see meer etvas eat. jU cRen. tsoo essen. Something to drink. ©trcoS ju trinlen. Etvas tsoo trinken. Bring me some coffee, ©ringen Sie mit Saffee, Bringen see meerkaaf- fay. I thank you. ^i) banfe 36nen. Good morning. Outcn DKorgcn. Good day. ©uten lag. How do you do? ©ie gefjt'S ? How are you? SBie befinten Sic H* ? Very well. Se^t TOOOI. I am very well. ^i} befintc mitt VDohU Pretty well. 3*emlid) KchU Tolerably. So jiemltd). How is your father? 25ie bcfinbet fic^ §crr 23atet ? Ic// daankay eenen, Gooten morgen. Gooten taa,^. Vee gates? Vee ba'yfinden see sic//? Sair vole, fcbt Ic/t bayfinday mic// sair vole. Tseemlic// vole. So tseemlic//. 3I)r Vee bayfindet sic// eer hair faater? How is your mother? S5ie befintet fidj 3^^^ Vecbayfindctsic//eeray ^rau gOIutter ? 3c^ bin nit^t recbl. 3dj bin unwcM, ©te i[t Erant. 6r i^fe&r tranf. Sie ^at fii$ erfdltet. 3d) ftabc ^obnroe^. 3d? mu^ gcben. (S§ ift 3eit 3U gcbcn. Ccben Sic njofil. SIbieu. good 3^ TCunfdiC 3bnen cincn Ic// vinshay eenen inen gutcn 3Jiotgen. gooten morgen. @uten 9lbent. Gooten ahbend. @ute JNacbt. Gootay nac//t. I wish you good night. 3<^ roiinfdje 3^"^" gute Ic// vinshay eenen goo- 92a(f)t, tay nac/zt, at SKcinc (Smpfc^Iungen Minay empfayloongen ten 3brigen. den eerl^en. I am not well. I am unwell. She is ill. He is very ill. She has a cold. I have a toothache. I must go. It IS time to go. Farewell. Good-by. I wish you morning. Good evening, Good night My compliments home. frow mootter? Ic// bin nic/zt vole. Ic// bin oonvole. See ist krank. Air ist sair krank. See hat sic// airkeltet. ' Ic// haabay tsahnvay. Ic// mooss gayen. Es ist tsite tsoo gayen. Layben see vole. Adyce. There is a knock. It is Mr. A. It is Mrs. B. A 3IORNING CALL. e§ fiopft. es ifi §ert 31. Gd ifl JJrau 39. Es klupft. Es ist hair ah. Es ist frow bay. : am glad to see you. 3<^ freue mii^ Ste ju Ic/f froyay mic// see tsoo feben. 5Pittc ieljen Sie r>*. SaS gibfS 9?euc8 ? ©ute gtadjTit^Icn. ©laubcn Ste e>S ? [ein sayen. Bittay setsen see sic*. Vas geepts noyes? Gootay nac//ric//ten. Glowben see es? ^Bert Ic// glowbay kine vort bapcn. daafun. [so. 3c& tcnfe (glaube) ic. Ic/i dcnkay (glowbay) 3^ benfe nid»t. Ic// denkay nic/zt. 2Ber bo* «^ 3f»ncn 9C= Vair hat es eenen ge- fagt ? saa^t? ($3 ifl ttja^r. Es ist var. 3(^ bejwciffe c8. Ich baytsviflay es. Have you heard from .§abcn Sic »Dn ijaufc Haaben see fun how- home? gebcrt ? say gayhccrt? The postman brought Tcr iBricftragcr bratbte Dair breeftraygcr mc a letter to-day. mir ^cutc cinen ©Ticf. brar//tay meer hoytay inen brecf. Sad news. St%lcd)te 92ac^tid)tcn. Shlec//tay nacAric//ten. Pray be seated. What news is there? Good news. Do vou believe it? I don't believe a word 3^ glaube of it. I think so. I think not. ^^'ho told you? It is true. I doubt it. L^ THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 95 ENGLISH. GERMAN. Will you dinuwith us? aBoHen ©te mil »n3 fvcifen? Xo, thnnk. you. 3ictn, id) tanfe 31>nen. I cannot slay. 3* lann luclit blei&en. Vou are in a g^reat Sic fiiib in grcper tSilc. huiT)'. I li:ivc a great deal to Oflj babe tiel ju tbun. PRONUNCIATION. VuUen see mit cons shpisen? Ninc,ic/f daankeecncn. Ic/i kann xuc//i blybcn. See sind in grosser ilay. Ic/i haabay toon. feci t'lOO PLEASURE AND REGRET. What! SBaSI Vas 1 Is it possible ! 3ft cS mSglidi ! 1st es mceglif/r / Can it be ! jliinu eS fcln ! Kan es sine ! How can U be posst- 9Sie fann ed mcjUc^ fein ! Vee kan cs mceoWc/i ble! sine! Who would h lieved it I Indeed ! It is impossible ! That cannot be! I am astonished at it he- 33eT wurfcc ta^' geglaubt Vair veerday das ^e- Vou surprise me! It it incredible I I am very sorry. What a pity! It is a great pity. It is a sad thing. It is a great I am glad of it, ba&en! 2DirfUd5 ! C^5 ift unmpvilid) ! (55 Uv.xn iiidH fcin! 3(& rcuntere midj tar iibcr ! £ie ubcrrafd)€n niit^ ! C-3 ifi un^Iaublidj! G3 tijut mtr fchr leib. aSie fc^ate! es iflfefjr fcfcabc. m i(i eine Sai^e. sfortune. (y$ ift eiu gre^eS Un glud ! Sc^ Iteue mic^ tatu&er. I am glad. It givL'S me pleasure. It gives me great joy. I am happy. How happy I am ! I wish you joy. I congratulate you. m iflmirlieb. (58 madjt tnir apergnii gen. GS mad)t mir greutc. glowpt haaben ! VecrklicA.' Es ist otmma-iAic/t f Ks kan nicAt sine ! I c/t voonderay mir// daareeber. See eeberrashen mic//. Es ist oonglowblif// / Es toot meer sair lite. Vee shahday ! Es ist sair shahday. traurigc Es ist inay trowrigay sacAay. Es ist ine grosses oon- glick. Ic/i froyay inir/r dar- eeber. Es ist meer lecb. Es mac/ztmecrfergnce- gen. grofee Es mar//t meer grossay frovdav. I am angrv. lie is angry. Don't be angr%'. You are wrong. You are right. \\'hv don't you do it? Re quiet 1 What a shame ! How could you do it? I am ashamed of you 3rf? bin gtudlicft. Ic/i bin gleeklir//. Sic gludli^ ii$ bin ! Vee glceklic// ic/t bin ! 3c^ iPiinfdje 31>"cu IcA vinshay eenen ©lurf. glick. 3^ grotulire 3^"^"' I^^' gratooleeray cenen. ANGER AND BLAME. Ir/r bin air^rlir//. Air ist airgerlir//. Sven see nic/tt airgcr- lirA. See haaben oonrer/ft. 3di bin atgerlid). C?r ift avgcvlicij. ©etcn Sie nidjt argcT licfe. Sie \)aUn Unredjt. Sic ftabcn 3iccl)t. 9Earum tbun £ic nidit? Scicn Sie tubig ! ©cld)e e^aitbe! 2Sie Eonnteu Ste tbun? 3d) f(^>dme inidj '^f^xex See haaben rcf//t. C5 \'aroom toon sec es nic//t? Syen see roor^/ Velr//ay shanday ! e5 \'eekunten see es toon? Vou are very much to Sic r>nb fc^r jii tabeln. blame. Be patient! I will improve. Oebulbcn ©ie ©i^! 3c^ ipevbc mi^ benetii. AGE. 1 c h s h a m a V m i i>anjig ^a^xi Ic/r bin tsvaantsi^ yah- alt. ray alt. ENGLISH. GERMAN. I shall soon be thirty. 3<^ wetbc balb bret^ig fetn. He looks older. (St ftcbt alter auS. She is younger. SiC ift jiingcr. She cannot be so 3ie tami nicbt fo jiing young. fein. He must be older. CSt mu& alter fein. I did not think you ^^ glaubtc nid>t ta^ were so old. Zxc fo alt fetcn. He is at least sixty. t5r ift locnigftcnS fct^d; Jig- How old is your 2Gie alt ill 35t SSater ? father? He is nearly eighty. C^r ift beinabe aditjig. Is he so old? 3ft er fo all? A great age. (5in bcbcs Sllter. He begins to grow old. Gr fangt an alt ju irer: ben. How old isyoursister? 9Bic alt ifl 3^^^ Sd:n?e = ftcr? Shu is fifteen. 3ie ift fiinfjcbn. PRONUNCIATION. Ich vairday bald Urysi^ sine. Air seet cUer owse. Sec ist yingcr. Sec kann nic//tsoyoong sine. Air moos eltcr sine. Ich glowptay nir//t da-, see so alt syen. Air ist vani^tens ser/r- tsig. Vee alt ist cer fahtcr? Air istbynahay ar//t-si^^ Ist air so all? Ine hohes alter. Air fe'ngt an alt tsoo vairden. Vee alt ist teray slivt";- ter? See ist finftsain. ^\n e.arly morning. It is a fine morning. M'liat o'clock is it? It is nearly eight. Light the fire. A MORNING CHAT. (^iu fviibev SJicrgen. Ine freer morgen. t?S ift cin ft^CMier 3Jtor= Es ist ine shctncr mor- gen. gen- 'Ba^ ift tie lUn ? Vas ist dee oor? L^S ift beinabe ad^t Ubr. Ks ist bynahay ar//t oor. ^I'lnben Sic ba3 J^cucr Tsinden see das foyer I am going to get up. 3* null aufftel)en. Ic/i vill owfshtayen. Get me some hot iHingen Sic mir etira^ Bringen see meer etvas water. bci&cS 2Baffcr. hises vasser. Some dinking-water. (5tiva6 Ivinfivaffer. Etvas trinkv:isser. Make haste. 9Jiadicn 3ie fduiell. MacAcn see shncll. There is no towel. iS^ ift fcin Jg'anttud) ta. Es ist kine haandtoor// dah. Bring me some soap. iHingen Sic mir Scife. Bringen see mecrsifay. I want to wash myself. 3* iviinfdic midj jn Ir/i vinshay micA tsoo wnfd^en. vashen. How have you slept? SBic baben Sie gcfd)la. Vee haaben see gc- fcn ? shlaafen^ Did you sleep well? i^aben Sic gut gefd>la- Haaben see goot ge- fcn? shiaafcn? Very well, thank you. 8ebr gut, t* bante 3^= Sair goot, if// dankay nen. eenen. Not very well. 3!idit febr gut. NicAt sair goot. I could not sleep. 3di lonntc uidit fd^Iafen. Ic/t kuntay nicAt shlaa- fen. I was so tired from 3rf) war fo mube ton bet Ir// var so mceday fun travelling. 3ifife. dair risay. AT THE BREAKFAST TABLE. Breakfast is readv. ^q8 ^tu^flud ift fctttg. Das freeshtick ist fair Come to breakfast. floninien 2io jum grub- Kummen see tsoom fturf. freeshtick. Let us breakfast. ^affen Sie un§ frub: Lassen see cons free- fiuden. shticken. Does the water boil? flDdjt bacl Soffct? Kuicr ifl tie aBcintarle. Um reelrfie 3cit reunfi^cn ©ic ju fpcifcu ? 3Str trcrtcn um fcc^S Ufjr fpcifcn. Scicn Ste punfUt(^, iBctiencn Sic fidj. Gi tft tcrttcffli*. Xic teutfti^c Stu^e gcs fdUt mir. Tic ouolanbiftftc flfle^e ftfcmcrft mir ni($t. 5Kcftmcn Sic ^feffct ? 5Kcin, it^ tanlc. 3a, iif &ittc. &then Sie mir ben Scnf. Haaben see das essen baystellt? Ic/i vairday das deenay bayshtellen. Tsigen see meer dee shpisaykartay. Kelner. Vas feer sooppay vin- shen see? Ricesooppay. Haaben see rinder- braaten? Veer haaben sair goo- ten fish. Forellen. Gebraatenay hec//tay, Hammelbraaten. Vas feer vine vinshen see? Lassen see sayen. Heer ist dee vinekar- tay. Oom velfZ/ay tsite vin- shen sectsooshpisen? Veer vajrden oom sex Qor shpisen. Sycn see pinktlicA. Baydcenen see sic//. Es ist foretrefflicA. Dee doytshay keec/tay gefellt meer. Dee owslcndishay kee- c/iay shmcckt meer nif//t. Naymen see pfeffer? Nine, icA dankay. Yah, ic/t bittay, Gayben see meer dane senf. ENGLISH. Change the plates. I want a spoon. Are you hungry? Not very. I am hungry. Vou do not eat. I am very thirsty. I am dying of thirst. Take a glass of wine. Give me something to drink. I want some beer. GERMAN, SBci^feln Sie bie XcUcr, 3^ wiinft^e eincnSoftC Sinb Sie fmngtt^ " ^iiilt fcftr. 3* bin ^ungrtg. Sic effen ntdjt. 3c^ bin febr turf.ig. 3d? ftcrbc vox SJuril. SKe^men Sie ein @Ia8 y[!?ein. ©ebeit Sie mir etn?a5 JU trtnfen. 3c^ njunfc^e Sicr. PRONUNCIATION. Vecksein see dee teller. Ic/i vinshay inen ItEffel. Sind see hoongri^^ Nic/H sair. Ich bin hoongrj^^ See essen nir/;t. Ic/t bin sair doorsti^. Ic/i stairbay for doorst. Naymen see ine glaas vine. Gayben see meer etvas tsoo trinken. Ic/i vinshay beer. TALK AT THE TEA T.4_BLE, Tea is quite ready. They are waiting for you. I am coming. Bring a saucer. Pour out the tea. The tea is very strong. It is very weak. A slice of bread and butter. Hand the plate. Will you take some cake? A small piece. Make more toast. Make haste. This is good tea. The tea-tray. A set of tea-things. Have you finished? Take another cup. Brown bread. White bread. Stale bread. New bread. It is late. What o'clock is it? It is still early. Are you tired? Not at all. Not much. It is onlv ten. It is time to go to bed, It is a fine evening. It is moonlight. Is my room ready? Sheets. A blanket. Good -night. Are you sleepy? Xev Ifiec ifi ganj fertig. i^an rcartet auf Sie. 31$ lomme. SBringen Sie eine Unter: taffe, ©djenfen Sie ten Xbee ein. Xer 2bec ifl fcbr ftarf. Sr ift fefir f^rea^. gin Stucfc^en 33utter: brcb, ©eben Sie mirbenSel: ler. 3Bunf($en Sie ffu*en ? (5in Stiidd)eii. JKeficn Sie meftr ^rob. 3Kadien Sic fd)nea. ^icS ifi guter Xtice, Xcr iUafentirteller. 2^a3 Ibceferpice. Sinb Sie fertig ? Siebmen Sie not^ eine 3:affe. S(^trarie3 9?rcb. 3BciBc^ 2?rpb. writes Srcb, ^rifdjed fflrob. BED TI>IE, (5S ifl fpat, ^ci3 ifl bie Ufir ? 153 ifl no(^ fru^. Sinb Sie miibe f @ar nic^t. gjic^t fe^r. (5S ifl erfi jebn. m ifl 3t\t 3u 5Petl ju gebcn. (53 ifl einfd^onetSIbenb. (S§ ifl OTcnbf*ein. 3fl mcin ^inirnet fertig? iric ?«fcn. eine luoUene 5Settbc(Ic. ©utc "Slaift. Sinb Sic f*Iafrlg ? Dair tay ist gants fair- ti^. Man vaartet owf see. Ic/t kummay. Bringen sec inay oon- tertassay, Shcnken see dane tay ine. Dair tay ist sair shiark. Air ist sair shvac//. Ine shtickc/zen bootter- brote. Gayben see meer dane teller. Vinshen see koocAen ? Ine shtickcAen. Rcesten see mairbrote. Man. Intimately. (Vcnan. \ck kennay ccn. Gaynow. jicljcn. tsootseen. ^^y watch is too fast. 2)!cine U^t jcM vex. Minay oor gayt fore. It is too slow. eio (!CM lia*. Sec gayt nac//. It is five minutes too £ic ifl funf SIRtnutcn JU See ist finf minooten I am very intimate 3d) I'in rait ifiin fefir In: with him. tint. \ch bin mit eem sair intccm. He is my friend. (Sr ift mcin Jvteunt. Air ist mine frotnd. slow. f|)5t. tsooshpate. It goes right. Sic jcM ti^tig. See g.ayt ricratc fe*8 Ufir. c;ayraaday sex oor. In the morning. l^c8 9HcrgenS. Des morgens. Twenty minutes to ^rcaniij aiiinulen i-cr Tsvaantsia- minooten In the evening. tc8 SfbentS. Dcs abbcnds. seven. fic&cn, fore seeben. lie lives close by. Bt n'ctmt nahe tci. Air vohnt nahay by. It has just struck PS fiat cbfn acf't fiofiMas Es hat ayben ac/a ge- Is it far? , 3fi ti it>cit ? 1st es vitc? eight. gen. shlaagen. Can you direct me to ffionncn gic mir fcin Kcennen see meer *;ine >roon. SDiiltag. Mittaao-. his house? ,^au« jcigcn ? house tsigen? Midnight. aKittcrnad't. MitternacAt. I will show yon where 3* n>crte ^Iincn ?elgcn he lives. n'p cr irctmt. \ch vairday eenen tsi- jjen vo air vohnt. THE PROMENADE. That is the market. Xafl ifl tcr ajjattl. This is the street. Tic8 ift tie Strapc. Das ist dair markt. Decs ist dee shtraassay. Shall we take a walk? SBcIICn reit cincn StOs Vul I en' v e er inen The square. Tor ISIal}. Dair plats. Decs ist sine house. jicrgang macftcn ? shpaatseergang ma- c/;cn ? This is his house. Titi ifl fcin ,rjau«. Here he lives. JJict reotnit cr. Ilfcr volint air. Yes, let us walk. ^ ^ (Ti ^ 61 \ / e ( 98 THE GERMAN L.^NGUAGE. 1 ENGLISH. GERMAX. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. i Here is a Station. Joicr id eine Station. Hcer isinay shtatsione. It is the most useful 68 ift tie nu^li^fle unt Es ist dee nitslic/istay Do we stop here? Joaltcn irit Met ail ? Ilalten veer heer an? and interesting Ian- tnteteffantefle gptacbe oont interessantestay Thev stop at every sta- 2Kan bait auf Jeter 2ta= Man helt owf yaydair guage for an Ameri- tie cin Slmctifanet shpraar/jay dee ine t'on. lion an. shtatsione an. can to learn. ietnen tann. Amayrikahner lair- It is a long journey. (S* lit etne lange Metie. Es ist inay langay nen kann. risay. THE WEATHER AND THE SEASONS. Ves.fromtento tivelve 3a, ton jctn Bi3 510 6 If Yah, fun tsane bis lionrs. Stunten. tsvelf shtoonden. \'Lry prettv- country. £ehr fdjone ®Cgenb. Sair sh(Enay gaygend. Spring has come. let Jtu^ling ifi ta. Dair freeling ist dab. Spring begins well. 33ec gtiiljUng fangt gut Dairfreelingfengtgoot Arrived at Last. (9nMtc& angefommen. Endllr// angekummen. 1 The steamer. Xa^ Xampfboct. Das dampfboat. an. an. It is rather mild. 08 ifl jiemlici) gclinte. Es ist tseemlirf gelin- day. , "When do you start? 9Sann ttehcn 5ie ab ? Van gaven see ab? 1 With the tide. fflitt tet glutb. Mit dair floot. It is spring-r-eather. 08 ifi gtublinggwetter. Es ist freelingsvetter. The trees are begin- Tie 9?aume -fdngcn an Dee boymay fangen an Let us go down into Caffen 2ie unS Stnab in Lassen see oons hmab ningtohud. au8juf(blagen. owstsooshlaagen. the cabin. tie Sa jute gcben. in dee kahyeetay The season is very for- Tie SafetcSjett ifl fcfit Dee yahrestsite ist sair gayen. ward. totqetudt. forgayrickt. The tide is strong. 'Xic glulb ifi ftatf. Dee floot ist shtarlt. It is so pleasant. 08 ift fo angenebm. Es ist so angenaym. The sea is rough. Tie See ifi fturmifd*. Dee say ist shteermish. The sun is so warm. Tie Sonne ift fo U'arm. Deesunnay istsovarm. Thewind is against us, Ter 2Sinb ift geiien un^. Dair vind ist gaygen There are some flow- 08 giebt cinige SBIuinen. Es geebt inigay bloo- oons. ers. men. So much the worse. Um fo f*Iimmcr. Oom so shlimmer. Snowdrops. iSdjneeglcdcben. ShnayglcEckc//en. 1 AVe shall have a long 35ir Iterten cine lange Veer vairden inay lan- Tulips. 2ulpen. Toolpen. 1 passage. Ucberfa^tt baben. gay eeberfahrt haa- Hyacinths. §t)acintben. Heeahtsinten. ben. Gather some. fjliiden Sie trellbe. Pflicken see velr/zay. I feel sea-sick. Jd) fflble mi* feefrant. Ic/i feelay mic/i say- As many as you please. So Diet 3bnen beltebt. So feel eenen beleebt. krank. The season is very Tie 3al)te8ieit ift fc^t Dee yahrestsite ist sair The sea is getting ^o3 SKeet Wirt lubiijet. Das mair veertrooiger. backward. . jutiitf. tsoorick. calmer. Summer is coming. Tet Sommer fomnit. Dair summer kumt. I see land. gdi febe ?ant. Ir/; sayay lant. It is becoming warm. 08 tintb warm. Es vect varm. It is the harborof Ost- (53 i|l ter S^afen ncn Es ist dair haafen fun It is too warm. 03 ift 3U toarni. Es ist tsoo varm. end. Cflente. Ustenday. It is almost hot. 08 ift fafl bcig. Es ist fast bice. We have arrived. tIDir Tint ongefominen. Veer sind angckum- It is a splendid day. 08 ifi ein wunbetftbonct Es is ine voondershtE- * men. Xag. ner tao: The heat is great. Tie S}\%1 ifl gtcS. Dee hitsay ist gross. DISCUSSING THE GER5IAN LANGUAGE. The heat is unbeara- Tie^i^e ijiunertraglicb. Dee hitsay ist ooner- ble. tr.avi^ir//. Canyon read German?. ^ ifl aSintcr. The days are so short. Tie lage ftnb jo Tuvj. It is very cold. There is a cold wind. It is bad weatheff It is foggy. The skv is overcast. m ifi fctir fall. eg gc^it ein falter 2Binb, m ifi fdilecfcted abetter. t^§ ift ncbelig. Ter §immel ift betcrft. It will snow. (58 ipivb jd>neicn. It freezes very hard. (5d jrictt fiart. Can you skate? flcnncn ®ic <£d)Iittf((ju^ laufcn ? The ice does not bear. ITaS &i5 trngt ni*t. The ice is th i c k Tag (Sig ift bicf geniig. enough. It is healthy weather. (J8 if! gefuntcS ^Better. PRONUNCIATION, Veer haabcn shone Ine foyer gthaalit. Ks istbald dnonkcl. Ks ist inay shtcnay naf//t. Ist cs mohnL-ihine? Es ist fulmohnt. Novmohnt. Glowhcn see das ts raj^nien vctrt? Ic/i befeerc/ztay es. Es hahgelt. Es ray^et. Es ist sair vindi^''. Es ist vinter. Dee tahgay sind so koorts. Es ist sair knit. Es gayt inc kaltervind. Es ist shlec//tes vcttcr. Es is naybcli^;/. Dair hinimel ist hi.' deckt. Es vird shnyen. Es freert shtnrk. Kojnnen see shlitslmc) lowfen? Das ice tray^t nir/zt. Das ice ist dick genooi;-. Es ist gesoondes vet- ter. ENGLISH. It thaws. It is slippen,'. The ice is thawing. The streets are very wet and dirty. Christmas. Xew Year. New Year's day. A new year. GERMAN. (?8 tliaut. m i[t fcblupfrtg. Ta3 (Sta ge&t auf. PRONUNCIATION. Es towt. Es ist shlipfrii^. Das ice gayt nwf. Xie Strafjen finb fcftr Deeshtraassensindsair nag unb fcfimuljtg. ^ei^inad}ten. 3ccuia^r. ytcujalir^tag. (5in neue^ ^ahx. nass oont shmootsi^' Vynar//tcn. Noiyahr. Noiyahrstajj*". Ine noyes yahr. RELATING TO CORRKSPONDENCK. Ink. Pens, Have yo« any envel- opes? Postage stamps. I want a sheet of writ- ing paper. Blotting-paper. I have a letterto write. A pen-knife. Now I will write. What is the day of llie month? It is the sixteenth. Where is the post-of- fice? Close by. Take care of the letter. a:intc. gebcrn. ^taben 2ie lUMircrto ? ^cftmarfen. 3i^ braudje ciiicu Imogen Sdircibv^picr. ?cfd>va}:ior. ^di babe cincn ^'ticf ju fcbtcibcn. (fin Jetcrmeffer. 3c^t trill id) fdn-eibcu. Ten irietjielften I»abcn luir bcutc ? C^§ ift tor fecbSKbnte. aSoifi tic*;-cft ? Tintay. Faydern. Haaben sec coovairts? Postmark en. Ic/i browc//ay incn hn- gen shribcpapecr. Lfcshpahpecr. Ir/t haabay inen hrrvi tsoo shrvbcn. Ine faydermcsscr. Yetst vill ic/i shryhen. Den vecfeelsten haaben veer hoytay? Es ist dair sextsanetay. Vo ist dee pust? Olflbe bei. Xahay by. 3icbmcn 3ie ten SHiof Naynu-n see den brc(. f in 2ld)t. in ac/it. kL- / THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. -/K/Si. ^B^-H-^o-i-^^ CRENCH WITHOUT A ^,§-||..*o.||-^ A Simple System of Self-Instruction in the French Language. MATTER of vitalimpor- tance to all is the study of the French language. Not to mention the rich- ness of French literature and the vast pleasures which arise from an in- ttlhgent perusal of the pages of the grcit authors who have built it up, the practical advantages to be derived from a knowledge of " the language of diplomacy " are too patent to require explanation. No one can be a perfect master of the English language who does not possess a certain amount of familiarity with the French tongue, through which so many of our strongest expressions have been filtered after leaving the more ancient parent stock. The traveller making the tour of the conti- nent of Europe will find a knowledge of the French language indispensable. In all parts of that continent this language provides the com- mon ground upon which men of all tongues meet in conversation, and the traveller, having simply made himself sufficiently familiar with the language to ask for what he wants, will have done much towards making his trip thoroughly enjoyable and instructive. The following sys- tem of self-instruction has been formulated with a v'iew to providing a simple yet thorough means of studying French. The student who masters its details with care will, within the space of a very few days, find himself able to converse in that language, and begin to enjoy thoroughly the beauties of its literature. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. FRENCH ALPHABET. NAME. PRONUNCIATION. A ah like a in ihe English word arm. B bav as in English. C say before e and /, is pronounced like .t ■ before rt, 0, u and before a consonant c soimds like h; is soft before a, o, n in certain instances, when a mark beneath t called a cedilla is used, thus: ^. D day as in English. E ai e, e , ai\ er\ are pronounced like a English word care. in the F eff as in English. G jay before e and /sounds like/. H aash is generally silent. J ee like e in the English word 7ve. 7 jce like .? in the English word measure. A' kah as in English. L el as in English. M em as in English. N en as in English. O o 0, in stock; an, eau, are pron. like o in no. P pav like the English, but is often mute at of words. the end Q ku like i: Ji air like the English r in run. s CSS like the English s, sometimes like x. T tav like / in the English word /*■;//. U ecyu like K in the English word sia'ie. V vay like the English z-. X ccks .as in English. r cgrec like e in the English word w**. z zed like a soft .?. There are combinations of letters which are sometimes called compound vowels, viz. : an, in, on, en, ou, which are pro- nounced as follows : -M The compound vowel an as an in the wieu ENGLISH. (M.d the world tlic sky tlie sun the moon ;i star tlie air the earth the water the fire tlie sea an island a lake a stream a river the animals the metals the gold the silver tlie iron the steel the copper the tin Man the body the head tlie face the forehead the ej-e the eyes the nose the ears the chin the beard the mouth the lips the tooth the tongfue the neck le monde le del le soleil la I une une Hoile rair la ierre Veau lefeu la mer une lie un lac unjieuve une riviere les animaux les nUtaux for Var^rent lefer racier le cuivre Vvtain PRONUNCIATION. Decyu leh maund leh secycl leh sdhleyl lah lune une aitoahl I'air lah tayr I'o leh feuh lah mare une eel ung lahc ung fleuhv une rceveeare laiz aneemo lai maito Torr I'arjang leh fayr I'asseay leh cweevT I'aitang THE HUMAN BEING. I'omm leh cor lah tait leh vecsaje rhomme le corps la tUe le x'isage le front Peril le.'T^yeux le net les oreilles* le menton la bar he la bouche les lii'res la dent la langue le cou leh frong rile laiz eeyeu leh nay laiz ohraill leh maimtong lah barb lah boosh lai layvr lah dong lah laungh leh coo v 'r ^\ a ^ C) J- ^ 3 \ / p 1 I02 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. > ENGLISH. FRENCH. FRONL'NCIATION. ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. the shoulders h-s'^ipaules laiz aipole the umbrella le parupluie Ieh paraplwee Ieh parasol the arm le bras Ieh brah the parasol I e parasol the hand la main lah mang TH£ HOME. the fingers ies doigis lai douah the nails les^ angles laiz aungl The house la ma is on lah maysong the chest la poilrine lah pouahtreen the door la parte lah port the heart le coeur Ieh keuhr the key la clef lah clay the knee legenou Ieh jenoo the bell la sonnetie lah sonnet the leg lajambe lah jahmb the staircase V esc a Her Tescallyai the foot lepit'd Ieh peeay the drawing-room la snlle lah sal the bones les^os laiz the dining-room the room la salle- a ■ manger la chambre lah sal-ah-maunjai lah shaumbr FOOD. the bed-room la chambre-a.-coHcher lahshaumbr-ah-cushai Bread lepain Ieh pang the window la f entire lah fennaitr flour lafarine lah fareen the wall la parol lah pahrouah meat de la viande de la veeaund the kitchen la cuisine lahcwcezeen roast meat dii rbti du rotee the roof le toit Ieh touah beef du boeiif du beuhf the cellar la cave lahcaav veal du veau du vo the garden le jar din Ieh jardang mutton du mouton du mootong a table une table une tahbl 1 lamb de Pagneau deh I'anyo a chair une chaise une shayse pork du pore du pork an arm-chair unfautenil ung fotayle bacon du lard du lar a looking-glass un miroir i]ng meerouahr ham dujambon du jahmbonfT a clock une horloge tme orloje soup la soupe lah soup a trunk un c off re ung cofr rice du riz du ree a box une boite une bouaht eggs des^ceufs daiz cuh the bed le lit Ieh lee salad de la salaJe deh lah salade the counterpane la cotiverture lah coovairtyure mustard de la inoutarde deh lah mootard a pillow uu oreiller un oraylyai salt du sel du sel the sheets Ies drops de lit lai drah deh lee oil de Vhuile deh Tweel the mattress le mate las Ieh mail ah vinegar du vinaigre du veenaigr the plate fassiette I'assyct pepper dupoivre du pouahvr a candlestick un chandelier ungshaundelyai butter du beurre du bcuhr the lamp une lampe unelaump cheese dufromage du fromahje a spoon une cuiller une cu-eelyai breakfast le dejeuner Ieh diiyjeuhnai a fork unefourchette une foorshet dinner le diner Ieh deeiiai a knife un couteau ung cooto supper le souper Ieh soopai a cup tine tasse une tass hunger lafaim lah fahng the saucer la soucoupe lah sooccoop thirst la soif lah souaf the tablecloth la nappe lah nap water de Veau deh I'D the towel un essuie-main ung esswee-mang wine du vin du vang a glass un Tjerre ung vair beer de la biere deh lah beeair the tea-pot la theiere lah taiyare milk du la it dulay TRADES. tea du thi du tay An occupation un mdtier ung maytyai gin du genikvre du jenyavr a workman un artisan ung arteesong brandy de Veau de vie deh lo d(-h vee a baker un boulauger img boolonjai DRESS. a miller un meunier ung meuhnyai A coat a butcher un boucher ung booshai un surtont ungsyuretoo nngbrasseuhr a cloak a brewer un brasseur un manieau ung maunto ung jeelay lah kvulot a waistcoat Iho trowsers ungilei la culotte a tailor a shoemaker un tailleur un cordofinier ung lalyeur ung cordonyai the braces Ies brctelles lai bretell a smith un forgeron img forjchrong the cap le bonnet Ieh bonnay Ieh shapo a saddler un scllier img selyai the hat le chapeau a carpenter un menuisier ung menweesyai tlic comb gloves le p eigne des gants a mason un ma<^on un relieur ung massong Ieh paine dai gang a bookbinder ungrellyeuhr a ring une bague une baag THE TOWN. a watch une montre une mongtre The town la villi lah veel the stocking le bas Ieh bah the bridge le pout Ieh pong the boots Ies bottes lai bot the tower la tour lah toor the bootjack le tire-botte Ieh tecr-bot the gate laporte lah port the slippers Ies pantoujles lai pauntoofl the street la rue lah ru the shoes Ies souliers lai soolyai the market le marchi Ieh niarshay a shirt une chemise une sherneeze the building le bailment Ieh bahlecmong the necktie la era vale lah cravaht the town-house Vhdtel de rille I'otel deh veel 1 a pocket-handkerch ef un mouchoir ung mooshouah the theatre le thidtre Ieh layahtr L the clothcs-bru>h In brosse l.ih bn.ss the post-office la paste lah post 1 / \ 3 "*7 'b "^ ■- o ^T" ENGLISH. the church the cathedral the school the prison the exchange the palace the hotel the inn the public house the coffee-room FRENCH. Pt^glise la cathcdrale re cole la prison la bourse le palais I'hotel Vaiiherge le cabaret U cafi ' PRONUNCIATION. I'ayglceze lah cataydral Pay col lah preesong lali boorse luh pallay I'otel I'obayrje leh cabbaray Ich caffay An animal a horse a donkey the dog the cat the rat the mouse an ox a cow a calf a sheep a lamb a pig the hare a monkey a wolf a bear a lion an elephant a ti-cr a bird a cock a hen a chicken a swan a goose a duck a lark a nightingale the swallow the sparrow the raven the crow tlie parrot the eagle a fish a pike a salmon a carp an eel a trout a herring oysters a crab a whdle a serpent a frog a worm an insect a spider a moth a lly a gnat a bee the honey a wasp a butterfly BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, ETC. ung aneemal ung sheval ung ahn leh sheeang leh shah leh rah lah sooree ung beuh une vash iin anitnal un cheval un Ane h chieyt , le chat le rat la sour is ufi bceuf une vache un -veau une brebis utt agneau un cochon le lievre un singe uit loup un ours un lion un iUphant un tigre un oiseau un cog une poule un poule t un eigne une oie un canard une alouette un r OS signal Vhirondclle lemoineau le corbeau la corneille le perroquet Vaigle unpoisson un brocket un saumon une carpe une anguille une truite un hareng des huitres une icrevisse une balcine un serpent une grenouille un ver tin insecte line araiguee une teigne une vtouche un moucheroH une abeille le miel une guipe une papillon ung vo une brebbee un anyo un coshong leh leeayvr ungsangj ung loo ung oor ung leeong un aylayfong ung teegr un woiso un cock une pool ung poolay ung seen une ouah ungcanar une allooet ung rosseenyol I'eenrongdel leh mouano leh corbo lah cornayl leh perokay I'aygl ung pouassong ungbroshay ung somong une carp une ongghee une trweet ung harrong daiz weetr une aycreveece une ballayn ung sairpong une grenooecl un vair un angsect une arraynyai ung taine une moosh ung moosherong une abbail leh mccyel une gape ungpappillyong TREES, FRUITS, FLOWERS ANI> VEGETABLES ENGLISH. A tree a branch a leaf an apple a pear a plum a cherry a nut a currant a gooseberry a strawberry a chestnut the oak-tree the fir-tree the birch the willow a flower a rose a pink a tulip a lily a violet a bouquet beans peas cabbage cauliflower carrots asparagus spinach radishes celery a melon cucumber A school the teacher the book the paper a pen an inkstand the ink the pencil a letter an envelope FRENCH. un arbre une brancke unefeuille une pomme une poire une prune une cerise une noix de la groseille de la groseille v€*-te une f raise un marron le c/tSne le pin le bouleau le saule unejleur une rose un (xillet une tulipe un lis une violette un bouquet des f eves des pots des choux des choux-fleurs des betteraves des asperges des dpinards des radis du ccleri un melon des concombres SCHOOL. PRONUNCIATION. ung arbr une braungsh une file unepomm une pouar une pryun une serreezc line nouah de lah grozale deh lah grozale vertc line fraize ung marrong leh sliane leh pang leh boolo leh sole une fleuhr une rose un J ley a i une tyuleep ung Ice une veeolet ung bookay dai faive dai pouah dai shoo dai shoo-fleuhr dai betrahve daiz aspairj daiz aipecnar dai raddee du selree ung mellong dai congcongbr THE I'icole le malt re le livre le papier une plume un encrier Vencre le crayon une let t re une enveloppe TIME AND SEASONS raycol leh maytr leh leevr leh papyai une plyume un ongcreeai I'ongkr leh crayong une lettr une ongvellope The time a minute an hour a quarter of an hour half an hour the day the morning. noon the afternoon the CNCifing the night a year a month January February March April May June July le temps une minute une heure un quart-d'heure une demie-keure lejour le matin le midi Vapres-midi le soir la nuit un an un mo is Janvier Fivrier Mars Avril Mai yuin Juillet leh long une meenyute une eur ung kar d'eur une dcmi eur leh joor leh mattang leh meedee I'apray meedee leh souahr lah nwee un ong ungmouah Jongvecay fayvreeay marse avreel may jyuang jweelyai Al, ■v "V 104 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. lA August September October November December a week a fortnight Alonday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday spring summer autumn winter The country the village the hut the soil the meadow the barn the mill the cattle the herd the shepherd the mountain the hill the dale the wood the forest the road the high-road the railroad a mile the waterfall the fisherman the huntsman The family the husband the wife the father the mother the child the son the daughter the brother the sister the uncle the aunt the cousin the marriage An American a German Germany a Dutchman Holhind a Belgian Belgium a Swiss Switzerland a Hungarian AoiU Sfpiembre Ociobre Novembre Dicembre une scmaine quime jours Lundi Mardi Mircredi yeudi Vendredi- Samedi Dimanche le printemps Vautomne Vhiver THE COUNTRY. la campagne U -village la cabane h sol le pre la grange le motilin le bitail If troKpeau le berger la mo7itagiie la colline la valUe le bois laforlt le chemin le grand'Chemin le chemin defer une mi lie la Cascade le pSclieiir le chasseur THE EAAIILY. la famille le mari In fern me lepire la tncre Venfant lefils lafille lefrire la strur Voncle la tanle le cousin le mariai^e NATION^\XITIKS. UH Amiricain un Allemand r Alleniagne f. un Itollandais la Ifollaude uu Helge la Belgique un Suisse la Suisse un Hongrois oo septaumbr octobr novaumbr daysaumbr une semmane kanzc joor lungdee mardee mayrcredee jeuhdet vondredee samdee deemaunshe leh prangtong I'aytay I'otonn I'eevare lah caumpahne leh veelaj lah caban leh sol lah pray leh graunj leh moolang leh ba\'tale leh troopo leh bayrjay lah montaine lah colleen lah vallay leh bouah hill forray leh sliemmang leh grong shemnian|- leh shemmang deh fare une meel lah cascad leh paysheur leh shasseuhr lah fameel leh maree lah fani leh pare lah mare I'ongfong leh fccss lah feel leh frarc lah seuhr I'oncle lah launte leh coosang kh marceahjc un amayrcccang un almaung I'almaine ung hollaunday lah hoUaund une belj !ah bcljcek ung sweess lah sweess ung hongrwah Hungary an Englishman England an Irishman Ireland a Scotchman Scotland a Dane Denmark a Swede Sweden a Russian Russia a Spaniard Spain a Frenchman France an Italian Italy la Hongrie un Anglais V Angleterre f. itv Irlandais Virlande f. un Ecossais VEcosse f . un Danois le Danemarc nn Suedois la Suede un Russe la Russie un Espagnol VEspagne f. un FraJiqais la France itn Italien rilalie f. lah hongree un aunglay I'aungltare un eerlaunday I'eerlaund un aycossay I'aycoss ung danouah leh danmark ung swaydwah lah swayde ung russe lah russee un espanyol I'espaine ung fraungsay lah fraupgse un eetalyang I'eetalee THE NOUN. To form the plural of French nouns, add s to the singular; ^s pere, father, percs, fathers. Nouns ending in s, x or r, in the singular, do not vary in the plural ; VLSfJils, son ; Jlls, sons. Nouns ending in au or eu add .r to form the plural ; as, eau^ water ; eauA\ waters. Nouns in on form their plural regularly, by the addition of >■;. But the following nouns in ou take x to the plural, viz. : bljou^ caillou, chotifgenou, hibou, joujou^pou. Nouns ending in al change this termination into anx to form the plural ; as, chcval, horse ; chcz'aux, horses. But bal, carnaval, regain and a few others, form their plural reg- ularly, by the addition of *■ to the singular. Nouns in a// form their plural regularly, by adding s tothesingtilar. The following seven nouns in ail form their plural by changing ail into aux, viz.: bail, lease; intail, enamel ; C(7ra;7, coral; soupirail^ air-hole ; travail, work ; vantail, leaf of the folding-door ; ventaily the part of a helmet which admits air; vitrail^ glass-window. C/V/, heaven, has f/Vrtj: in the plural. tlE//, eye, has _)t"W4'. A'ieul, ancestor, has a'l'enx. THE ADJECTIVE. The French adjectives are placed either before or aftt-r the nouns; as: le bon pire^ the good father la bonne me re, the gooi\ mother un bon gart^on, a good boy ' unejennefille, a young girl une tabic ronde, a round table du latt chaud, warui milk. COMPARISON OF ADJECXn'ES. Grand, great petit, small bon, good mauvais, had petit, little plus grand, greater plus petit, smaller iiicilleur, btttcr pire, worse moindre, less " Than " following the comparative is always translated by " tr 97 quatre-vingt- dix- sept 9S quatre- vingt ■ dix - //«// 99 quatre- vingt - dix - neuf saung saunt-ung saung-decce g 100 ^e'w/ lOi ccnt-un I ro 120 f^«/ 7/i«^ saung-vahn 130 c^«/ trente 200 / c^«/^ 800 huit cents 900 neuf cents 1,000 TO/7/tf meel 2,000 rft'KX wi///^ 3,000 trois mille 10,000 (//V tniHe 20,000 Z'/V/o^ ;«///(? a million, un w;7//o/i, ungnicllyong The first, " second " third " fourth " Sth " 6th " 7th " Sth " 9th " loth " nth " 12th *' 13th " 14II1 " 15th " 16th " 17th " iSth " lyth " 20th *' 2ISt " 30ll\ " 4olh " 5olh " 6olh *• 70th " 80th •' yoth " I 00th " 1,000th the last ORDINAL NUaiBERS le premier le second letroisihne leh premyai I eh zeggong leh trouazzeeame le quatricme leh kattreeame le cinquikme k-h sahnkeeame h sixikme leh secceeame le scptikme leh scetteeame le huitikme leh wheeteeame le neuvikme leh ncuveeame le dixihne Ich deezeeame I'onzihne leh ongzeeame le douzicme leh doozecame le treizihne leh trayzccame le quatorzihne leh kattorzccatnc le quinziime leh kahngzeeame le veiziente leh sayzeeame le dix-septiinie leh deessettiame le dix-huitiime leh deez-wheeteeame le dix-neuvitme leh deez-neuveeame le vingtivme leh vahntccame le vingt' unii: me leh vahnt-uneeame le trentiinne leh traunteeame ie qnaranti'vme leh karauntceame le cinquanlivme leh sahnkaunteeame le soixantiiime leh souahssaunteeamc le soixante-dixiitme leh soualissaunt-dcezeeame le quatre- vingti'vme leh kattr- vahnteeaine le qtintre-vingt-dix- k-h kattr-vahnt-deezecame le centihne le mil lie me le dernier leh saunteeame kh millceame leh dareneeav VOCABULARY OF ADJECXn^S. I'oor rich Pamire riche pohvr rt-esh clever stupid sharp blunt clean dirty hard soft strong weak WL-Il ill lean thick fat thin polite impolite false deep wide narrow round square short long flat warm cold fresh ripe drv sour sweet bitter hungry thirsty heavy light Wet content happy gay sad useful strange pretty ugly dark open disagreeable prctud arrogant cowardly courageous faithless Innocent 105 prudent prudong stupide stupeed aigtt aygu obtus obtu propre propr sale saal dur dure mou moo fort fore faible fabl sain sang malade malahd maigre maygr gros gro gras gra mince mangcc poll polee malhonnite mallonnate faux fo prof and profong large larj itroit aytrouah rond rong carri carray court coor long long plat pi a ckaud sho froid frouah frais fray mur mure sec sec aigre aygr doux duo amer amaru affam& affammay altiri altayray Pesant pezong t^ger layjai humide umeed content congtong heureux eureu gat gay triste treest utile utcel it range aytraunj joli jolee laid lay sombre sombr ouvcrt GOV arc iivsagr^abU daysagrayabl fi'r fee are arrogant arrogong lac he lahsh courageux coorrajeu perfide patrfeed innocent innosoDg THE PRONOUN. The personal pronouns arc as foUo\ss ; J' lit I,- a tile mot lot (j.h) (I") (tch) (L..-1) (.•1) I tliou tliee he she (iiiouah) nic (touah) thee Xoits vous vous Us riles ttflttS hit (noo) (voo) (voo) (eel) (cl) (noo) (Iwee) we you you they they us him VL !ij , 4 \ ra .. ') ^ "F"*" G\ \ / 1 Io6 THE FRENXH LANGUAGE. » POSSESSIVK PRONOUNS. he had hud ilavait eu eel avait ew Mas. man (mone^) mv ) „, , . , _. , , , riural: mcs (may) my Fein. ma (muh) my t we had had nous avions eu you had had vous az-iez eu nooz aveeohngzew vooz aveeayz ew they liad had Us avaient cu eels avait ew M.TS. ton (long) thy , .. . , , ., Fern. /. (tahV thy i '" <'^-^'' "'>■ Mas. son (song^) i his i , . , . , Past Anterior. I had had feuseu jeus ew .- ; ,^ , f ses (sav) his, her. l-ein. sa (sah) \ her J v , / . thou hadst had tu eus eu tu eus ew noire (notr) our *' uos (no) our he had had U eut eu eel eut ew fo/^tf (voir) your •* vos (vo) your we had had nous cumes en nooz eums ew Uur (leur) their " ieurs (leur) their you had had vous eulcs eu they had had Us eurent eu vooz cuts ew eels eurt ew RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Future, ^ut (kee) who, which, that I shall have faurai jo ray quoi (couali) what, that thou shalt have tu auras tu orah quel (kcl), Uqnd? which? que (keh) what? he shall have U aura we shall have no-ts aurons eel orah nooz oi-ong THE VERB. you shall have vous aiirez they shall have Us auront vooz oruy eels orong Before proceeding to study the conjugations of the regular Future Anterior, verbs, the student must ground himself thoroughly in the irreg- I shall have had faurai eu joray ew ular verbs avoir, to have, and ^tre, to be, which are designated thou shalt have had tu auras eu tu orahs ew auxiliary verbs because they assist in the conjugation of the he shall have had U aura eu eel orah ew others. we shall have had nous aurons eu you shall have had vous aurez eu noos orongz ew vooz orayz ew THE AUXILIARY VERB "AVOIR'*— TO HAA*E. they shall have had Us auront eu eels oront ew INFINITIVE MOOD. Conditional Present, Present. Past, I should have faurais joray Avoir, to have. Avoir en, to have had. thou shouldst have tu aurais tu oray I-AKTICIPLES. he should have U aurait eel oray Ayant, having-. Eu, had we should have nous aitrions nooz oreeong Ayant en, liaving had. you should have vous auriez VOOZ orceay INDICATIVE MOOD. they should have Us auraient eels oray Present, I have jai jay thou hast iuas tu ah he h.is ila • eel ah she has ^//^ a cl ah we have nous avons nooz avong- you have vous avez vooz avai they have Us {elles) ont eels ong Conditional Past, I should have had faurais eu thou shouldst h.ave had tu aurais eu he should have had il aurait eu we should have had nous aurions eu you should have had vous auriez eu they should have had Us auraient eu jorays ew tu orays ew eel orait ew nooz areeongz ew vooz orecayz ew eels orait ew Imperfect. IMPERATIVE MOOD. ■ I ''nd j'ava/s javay Have aie ay thou hadst tu avais tu avay let us have ayons ayong Jie had it avail eel avay have (ye) ayez ayay we had nous avians vooz aveeong- you had vous aviex nooz aveeay SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD *hey had Us avaient eels avay Present, Past Definite, I had feus jew thouhadst iueus tu ew he had ileui eclcw we had jtous t&mes nooz eum you had vous eutes voozeut they had Us eurent eels eur That I may have que f aie that thou ninyest have que tu aies that he may have quit ait that we may have que nous ayons that you may have que vous ayez that they may have qu'ils aient keh Jul keh tu ai keel ai keh nooz ayong keh vooz ayay keels ai Perfect, Imperfect, I have had faieu jayew That I might have quefeusse keh jeuss thou hast had /« as eu tu ahz ew that thou mightesthave que tu eusses keh tu euss he has had il a cu ccl ah ew that he might have qu' il eut keeleu she has had eUe a eu el ah ew tliat we niiirht have que nous eussious keh nooz eussyong we have had nous avons eu nooz avongz ew that you niij:ht have jue vous tussiez keh vooz eussyay you have had vous avez eu vooz av.-iyz ew that they might have qu'Us eussent keels euss they have had Us ont eu eels ont ew Perfect, Tliat I may have had quefaieeu P/uferfect. keh jai ew J I had had f avais eu javayz ew thou hast had tu avais eu tu avuyz cw that thou niayest have que tu aies eu hud kth tu aiz ew 1 c / ^^ tg "T to ■^ 6 T* \ ^\ -5 «^ ,^ J- S\ \ • y a ( THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 107 1 that he may have had qu^ii ait eu keel ait ew we had been nous eiimes eti nooz eums ettay that we may have had que nous ayons eu keh nooz ayongz ew you had been vous riites Hi vooz cuts ettay that you may have had que vous ayex eu kch vooz ayayz ew they had been il eurent He eels curt ettay ^ that they may have liad qu'ils aient tu keels ait ew Future. Pluperfect. I shall be je serai je serr.iy That I iniyht have had quej'cusseeu keli jeuss cw thou shall be tu seras tu serrah that thou mightust have qtte tu eusses eu keh tu euss ew he shall be il sera eel serrah had we shall be nous serons noo serrong that he might have had quUl eut eu keel eut ew you shall be vous serez voo serray that we might \\2L.vti que nous eussions eu keh nooz eussyongs they shall be ils serout eel serong had ew Future Anterior. that } ou might have que vous eussiez eu keh vooz eussyaz ew had I shall have been faurai Hi joray ettay that they might have quails eusseut eu keels eusst ew thou shall have been tu auras Hi tu orahs ettay had he shall have been we shall have been il aura iti nous aurons iti eel orah ettay nooz orongz ettay THE AUXILIARY VERB <*ETRK"— TO BE. you shall have been vousaurez Hi vooz orayz ettay they shall have been ils auront Hi eels oront ettay INFINITIVE MOOD. 1 Present. Past. Conditional Present AVrtf(cttr), to be. Avoir dtd (avoahr etlay), to have been. I should be je serais je serray PARTICIPLES. thou shoiildsl be tu serais in serray £/aH/ (ettaung), being. ^/t* (ettay), been. he should be we should be il serait nous serious eel serray noo serreeong _ Aj'iiut etd (ayaunt cttav) havini: btcn. you should be vous seriez voo serreeay INDICATIVE MOOD. they should be ils seraient eel serray Present. Conditional Past. I am je suis jeh swce I should have been j'aurais iti jorays ettay thou art tu es tu ay thou shouldst have tu aurais iti tu orays ettay he is j/est eel ay been ^ she is e//e est el ay he should have been il aurait Hi eel orait ettay we are nous somrnes noo som we should have been nous aurious iti nooz oreeongz ettay you are vous etes vooz ait you should have been vous auriez iti vooz oreeayz ettay they are its {elles) sont eel song theyshould have been ils auraieut iti eels orait ettay Imperfect . IMPERATIVE MOOD I was fetais jcttay thou wert tu eta/s tu ettay Be sot sou ah h e was // etait il ettay let us be soyons swoiyong we were nous 4tions nooz ettyong be (ye) soyez swoiyay you were vous ^ticz vooz ettyay SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. they were ils itaient eels ettay Present. 1 Past Definite. That I may be queje sois keh jeh sou ah I was j^ftis je fu that thou mayeslbe que tu sois kch lu sonah thou wert tufus tu fu that he may be qu^il soit keel souah he was ilfut eel fu that we may be que nous soyons keh noo swoiyong we were nous fumes noo fume that you may be que vous soyez keh voo swoiyay you were vousfittes voo fute thai they maybe qiCils soient keel souah 1 they were ilsfurenl eel fure Imperfect. Perfect. That I might be quejefusse ■ kch jeh fiissc I have been fai ^te jai ettay that thou mightest be que tu fusses keh tufussc thou hast been tu as Hi tu ah ettay that he might be qu''iljiit keel fu he has been il a iti eel ah ettay that we might be que nous fussious keh noo fussyong she has been elle a H4. el ah ettay that you might be que vous fnssiez kch voo fussyay we have been nous az'ons ite nooz avongz ettay that they might be qu'ilsfusseut keel fusse you have been vous avex iH vooz avayz ettay Perfect, que fate Hi they have been ils (^elles) out iti eels ont ettay That I may have been keh jai ettay Pluperfect. that ihou mayest have que tu aies Hi keh tu aiz ettay I had been J'avais 4te j avayz ettay been thou hadst been tuavais4ti tu avayz ettay that he may have beer qu*ilait iti keel ait ettay he had been H avait it6 eel avail ettay that we may have been que nous ayons iti keh nooz ayongz ettay we liad been nous avians etc nooz avyons ettay that you may have que vous ayez iti keh vooz ayayz ettay 9a you had been vous aviez el^ vooz avyayz ettay been they had been /7a- avaient He eels avait ettay that they may have quails aient vtc keels ait ettay Past Anterior. been I had been feus (-ti jeuz etlav Pluperfect. < thou hadst been tu eus tii he had been il eut Hi tu enz ettay eel eut ettay That I might have been quej'eusse Hi kch jcuss ettay k , ^_^ 1 \ / f 1 I08 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. r that thou mightest ^ue tii cusses itr keh tu euss ettay Narrative. have been Past Definite. Past Anterior. that he might have gu^il eiit 4t4 keel eut ettay been I spoke. I had spoken. that we might have gue 7tous eussions ele keh nooz eussyongs fe pariai jeh parlay yens parU been ettay tu par las tu parla tu eus parii that you might have que rous eussiez ete keh vooz eussyaze et- ilparla eel parla il eut parU been tay nous parldmes noo parlahme nous eiimes parte tliat they might have qu^ilx eusst-nt ttk keels eusst ettay Z'Oiis parhites voo parlahte vous eutes parte been Us parlerent eel parlaire Us eurent parli REGULAR VERBS. Future. Future. Future Anterior. The infinitives of verbs in the French language have the four fol- lowing terminations : I shall speak. ] shall have spoken. t'r, as in parler^ to speak, fe parlcrai jeh parlerai f'aurai parU /r, in in Jim'r, to finish, tu parleras tuparlera tu auras parte oir, as in re^evoir, to receive, il parler a eel parlera il aura parli re, as in vendre^ to sell. nous parlerons noo parlerong nous auronsparli All that precedes this infinitive termination is called the ^'root " of vous parh-rez voo parleray vous aurez parli the verb. Us parleront eel parlerong Us auront parte Verbs which only change their terminations and not their roots are Conditional. called '■'Regular f-Vr^^t; " those which change their roots, "/^rf^tt/«r Present. Past. Verbs.'* I should speak. I should have spcjken. The verbs ending in*'o/V'* are all irregular, and the French Ian gu age fe parlerais ji:h parleray j'anrars parte therefore, has in reality only three regular conjugations. tu parler ais tu parleray tu aurais parld The First Conjugation ends in 'Vr." il Parlerait eel parleray il aurait par Id The Second Conjugation ends in "/r." nous parlerions noo parlereeong nous anrions parte The Third Conjugation ends in **(7/r.'* vous parlcrii-z voo parlcreeay vous auriez parli The Fourth Conjugation ends in'V^." Us parleraient eel parleray Us auraientparU The past participle is formed by adding to the root of the First Con • SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD jugation an "e," to that of the second an "/,'* to the fourth a "«;" Present. Past. as: That I may speak. That I may have spoken. Parl-er, to speak ; parU^ spoken FtJi-ir, to finish ; _/?«/, finished. Veud-re, to sell; vendu, sold. ^uejeparle keh jeh pari ^uefaieparU que tu parUs keh tu pari que tu ales parte. qil'il parte keel pari qu'ilait parti The student may now proceed to the mastery of que nous parlions keh noo parlyong que nous ayons parld que vous parltez keh voo parlyay que vous ayez parte THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS, quails parlcnt Imperfect. keel pari qu'ils aient parte Pluperfect . FIRST CONJUGATION. That I might speak That I might have spoken. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Past. ^u€ je parlasse keh jeh parlass ^uefetfsse parlii que tu parlasses keh tu parlass que tu eusses parte Parler (parlay), to speak. Avoir parU, to have spoken. qu^il par It'll keel pariah qui'l eut parld 1 rARTIClPLES. que nous parlassions keh noo parlassyong que nous eussions parti Parlani (parlong), spciking. ParU, spoken. que vous parlassiez keh voo parlassyay que vous eussiez parU Ayant parit, having spoken. quails parlassent keel parlass qu'ils eussent Parle INDICATIVE MOOD. IMPERATIVE MOOD Present. SIMPLE TENSES. * COMPOUND TENSES. Parle (pari), speak ti ou parlon s (parlong), Ut us speak qu'il parte (keel pari) let him speak parhz (pnrlav), speak ve qu'ils parlent (keel pari), let speak. Absoiu. Atiten'eur. them I speak. I have spoken. y^- parle jeh pari j'aiparU SECOND CONJUGATION. 1 tu paries tu purl tuasparle INFINITIVE MOOD. il pitrle eel pari it a parU Present. Past. 7I0US parionx noo parlong uous avotts parU ; vonsparh-z voo parlay vons avez paric Finir (feeneer), to finish. Az'oir ^ni(f „>cnee), to have finished. J - 1 lis parhnt eel pari Us out parU PARTICIPLES. i Descriptive, imperfect. Pluperfect . Finissant (feencesong), finishing. Fini, finisht-d. Ayant fini, having fin is.hcd. rilk I spoke. I h.id spoken. INDICATIVE MOOD jeparlais jdi parlay J'avais par/,' SIMPLE TENSES. Present. "OMPOL'ND TENSES. tu parlais tuparlay tuavaispi rli ilparlaie eel parlay il avail pari^. Absoiu, Antirieur. nous parlious noo parlyong nous az-ions pnrU I finish. 1 have finished. j I'onspar!' s voo parlyay i-oiis aviez par.'t fe finis jeh feenec y'aifi:ii I ilsparlaient vv\ i>arlay Us avaient parte tu finis tu feenec tu asfini o' /"* •• \ ci t' V ~ ^~ ■■m- p^, ^r rv THE FRENCH LANGUAGK -M^ / 109 ilfinit nousfinissons voHsJinisscz Us Jinissent Imperfect, I finished. 'jefinissais Uijinissais a Jin is sail noil sjjn is s ions Tousjinissitz i/s ^fiissaient Past Definite. I finishtrl. ye finis tn finis ilfinit noHsfininti-s •votis finites Us finirent Future. I shall finish. yefinirai tufiniras ilfinira nous finirons Tousfinirez ilsfiniront Present, I should finish. ye finirais tu finirais il fin i rait nous finirions votiS finiriez ils finiraient Present. That I may finish. ^nejefinisse que tufinisses qu'ilfinisse que nousfinissions que I'Ousfinissiez q'nilfinissent Imperfect. That I inifjjht finisli. ^ue j'e finis se que tufinisses t/uW/finit que nousfinissions que vous fifiissiez gu ' i/s fin is sent Finis (fccncc), finish eel feence noo feeiieessong- voo fccnecssay eel fecncess Descriptive. jch fccneessay tu fccnecssay eel fccneessay noo fccnecssyong voo fcenucssyay ccl feenccssay Narratix-g. jeh feenee tu feenee eel fcencc noo fecnecm voo fecnect eel feencer Future. jeh feeneeray tu fecneera celfeenecra noo fcencerong voo feeneeray eel feeneerong Conditional. jch feeneeray tu feeneeray eel feeneeray noo feeneereeong voo feencereeay eel feeneeray il afini nous ax'onsfini vous aviezfini ils ontfini Pluperfect. I had finished. y'etfaisfini tu avals fini il avail fiui nous (i2'ionsfini vous aviezfini ils avaientfini Past Anterior. I had finished. yens fin i tu eusfini il eutfini nous eiimesjlni Z'ous eiitesfini ^ ils eurentfini Future Anterior. I shall have finished. y'aurnifini tu auras fini il aura fini nous auronsfini vous aurezfini ils auront fini Past. I should have finished. y'auraisfini tu auraisfin i il auraitfini nous aurionsfini vous auriez fini ils auraient fini TlllUn CONJUGATION. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Past. That I may have finished. ^uefaiefini que tu aiesfini qu'il ait fini keh jeh feeneess kch tu feeneess keel feeneess keh noo feencessee-^wt- fious ayonsfini ong keh voo fecnecsseeav keel feeneess que vous ayezfini quails ayentfini kch jeh feeneess keh tu feeneess keel feenee kch noo feeneess Pluperfect. That I might have finished. ^uefeussefini que tu eussefini quUl eutfini que nous eussions fini yong keh voo feeneessyay keel feeneess que vous eussiezfini qu'ils eussent fini IMPERATIVE MOOD. qu'' il finisse (keel feeneess), let him finish finissons (feeneessong),let us finish finissez (feeneessay), finish yc quails finissent (keel feeneess), let them finish Present. Recevoir (rcssevouahr) INFINITIVE MOOD. Past. ■), to receive. Avoir ret^u, to have received. PARTICIPLES. liecevant (rcssevong), receiving. Re<^u (ressu), received. Aj'ant rei^Uy having received, INDICATIVE MOOD. SIMPLE TENSES. Absolu. I receive. ye retools tu reqois il reqoit nous recrvons vous recevez ils reqoivent Imperfect. I received. ye recevais tu recex'ais il recevait nous recez'ions vous recez-iez ils recevaient Past Definite. I received. ye requs tu reigns il recent nous re /m/-er/.'Ci. Pluperfect. Present. Conditional. Past. That I might receive That I might have received. ^ I should sell. I should have sold. ^nejt'r^i^nsstr keh jeh ressuce ^uejeusse re(^n qitg in reqiisses keh tu ressuce que tu eusses requ ye vendrais jeh vaundray yaurais vendu quil ri'i^ut keel ressu tju'il exit recu iu vendrais tu vaundray tu anrais vendu que nous m^ussiotts keh noo ressussvong que nous eussious re<^n il vendrait » eel vaundray il auratt vendu que votts reqnssii'Z keh voo ressussyay que vous eussiez requ nous vendrions noo vaundreeong nous aurions z>endu qii'ils reqttssent keel ressusse IMPERATIVE qu'ils eussent re<^u MOOD, vons vendriez i/s vendraient voo vaundreeay vous auricz z'eudn eel vaundray ils auraient vendu SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. j Rec^ois (ressouah), receive thou recex'07is (ressevong), let us receive Present. Past. recevez (ressevay), receive ye That I may sell. That I may have sold. yK'/7r(?^o/Vf (keel ressouahve), qu'iis reqoiverii (keel ressouahve), ^ueje x'ende keh jeh vaund ^uefaie vendu leth m receive let them receive que tu vendes qu^il vende que nous vendions keh tu vaund que tu aies vendu '■ keel vaund qu^il ait vendu keh noo vaundyong que nous ayons vendu que vous vendiez keh voo vaundyay que vous aycz vendu FOTTRTH CONJUGATION. quUls vendent keel vaund qu'ils aient vendu INFINITIVE MOOD. Imperfect. Pluperfect. P rest- fit. Past. That I might sell. That I might have sold Vendre (vaundr), to sell, Azwir vendn, to have sold. ^uej'e vendisse keh jeh vaundeess ^uej'eusse vendu que tu vendisses keh tu vaundeess que tu eusses vendu Participles. qii'il vendit keel vaundee qu'il eiit vendu. que nous vendissions keh noo vaundeess- que nous eussions ven- Vendtiut (vaundong) selling. Vendsi Ay ant (vaundu), sold. z-endu, having sold. que vous vendissiez yong du keh voo vaundeessyay que vojis eussiez vendu INDICATIVE MOOD. qu'ils 7'endissent keel vaundeess quUls eussent vendu Present. IMPERATIVE MOOD. SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. Vends (vong), sell th ou vendons (vaundong), let us sell Absoiu. Aniirieur. vendez (vaunday), sell ye quUl vende (keel vaundej, (?«'//* vendent (keel vaund), I sell. I have sold. let him sell let them sell ye vttids je vong yai vendu lu vends tu vong eel vong tu as vendu il vend 1 1 a vendu VOCABULARY OF AERBS. nous vendons noo vaundong nous ax'ons vendu To eat manger maunjav Tous ve7idez voo vaunday vous azH'z vendu to drink hoire boualir ifs t(JK/, j'e tous re- Tray beeang, jeh voo mercie. remmairsee. Pas trts-b/en. Pah tray beeang. y'ai dormit tout d'un Jay dormee too dung somme. som. ye u*ai pas pu dormir. Jeh nai pah pu dor- meer. ye n'aipasf-rm^ ra'il. Jeh nai pah fatrmay lilc. II y a un« heure que je Eel ee ah une eur keh me suis lex-c. jeh meh swee levai. ^ Vous ites matinal. Vooz ait malteenal. ye me live ordinaire- Jeh meh lave ordee- . nareinong deh bon eur. Leh daijeunay ai pray. Ledejeurierestilprdt? l^eh daijeunay ait eel pray? Venez dejeuner. Vennay daijeunay. Ce/a est assez. Sla ait assay. Vespetits pains. Day pcttee pang. Prenez-vous du tJU on Prennay-voo du tay oo ducafiT ducaffay? Cette crime s*estagrie. Set cramc sait agree. V'oulez • vous Manger Voolay - voo maunjay un auff un uf? CV^ ceufs son durs, Sazc cuf son dure. Passex-moi le beurre. Passay mouah ieh bcur. Le cafi est - il fl.«5fz Leh caff ay ait eel assay fort? fore? // nous manque des Eel noo maunk day tasses. tass. Prenez encore du mere. Prenaze auncorc Ju sucr. Une rotec. mcnt dc bonne heitre L e dejeuner est prit. (^ne rotie. De la viandefroide. L.a nappe. Le sucrier, Du cltocolat. Un couteau. De lah veciundfrouad. Lah nap. Leh sucreeay. Du shocolah. Ungcooto. Ce couteau ne row/^ Sch cooto neh coop pas. pas. Nous avonsjini de d^- Nooz avong feenee dch j'euuer, daijeunay. THK DINNER-TABLE, Montrex-moi la carte. Mongtray mouah lah carte. Quelle soupe vous set- Kel soup voo sairvcc- riraij: T raije. Ai A^ '^ ...^ i G) e la sottpe au tnaca- Deh lah soup mac- ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. 1 Have you any roast beef? 1 Xot to-day. We have vtrv fine fish What wines will you have? Let us see. Here is the list. We shall dine at six o'clock. roni. aroni. At'i-z - vous Jh hatuf Avav-voo du beuf ro- roti? tee? Pas auJourtThui. Paz ojoordwee. JVous arofts de trts-bon Nooz avong deh tray- Poisson. bongpouahssong. ^uels vins Monsi,'ur Kel vang mossieu day- dUsire-t-il f zeer-t-eel? It is late. II est tard. Eel ai tar. It is not late. // n' est pas tard. Eel nay pah tar. It is still early. li est encore de bonne 'E.eX ait auncore deh heure. bon eur. Are you tired? Etes-vous fatigue. Ait vnofateegay? Not at all. Point du tout. Pouang du too. Not much. Pas beaueoup. Pa bocoo. It is only ten. II n' est que dix heures. Eel nay keh deeze eur. Voyons, Vwoiyong. En void la liste. Ong \-vvoysee lah leest. N^otts dineroiis d. six Noo dcenerons ah keures^ scece e»ir. \t'\s\\xaQ.XQ^,QXQhG,A. II est Vheure de secou- Eel ai leur deh seh cker. cooshay. Is my room ready? Ma chambre est - elle 'Slz. shaumbr ait e prete? prate? 1 Go and see. Allez voir. Allay vouahr. I A blanket. Une c ouver t ure de Une coovaiiture d t: h I laine, lane. Goodnight. Bon soir. Bongsouahr. Be punctual. What shall I help you to? Will you take some Soyz exacte. Swoyaiz exact. ^ite vous strviraije ? Keh vos sairveeraijt.? Voulez-vous tin pt'u de Xoq\^\-\oo7. ung peu soup? No, thank you. Willingly. Help yourself. Do you take pepper? soHpe? deh soup? Merci bien. Mairsee beeang. Trts-z-oloTiiiers. Tray volontyai. Svrvez-vous. Sairvai voo. MaiigeZ'-voiisIe poivreT'Sl^\in]2.\ voo leh pou- ahvr. I wish you a good fe X'ous souhaile k«^ Jeh-voo sooate unehon night. bonne nuit, nwee. I am sleepy, fai sommeil. Jay sommail. Are you sleepy? Avez-vous sommeil? Avay-voo snmmail? THE TIME OF DAY. Potatoes. Des fommes de terre. Dav pom deh tare. What o'clock is it by Quelle heure est-il (i Kel eur ait-eel a voir The mustard pot. Le moutardier. Leh mootardyai. your watch ? votre montre ? mauntr? Give me a clean fork. Donnez-moi une four' Donnay mouah une chette propre. foorshetpropr. It has stopped. EUe s'est arrUie. El sait arraytai. I forgot to wind it up. fat oubiie de la mon- J ay oobleeay deh la Are you hungr\'? Avez'votisfaim? Avay-voo fang? ter. mauntay. 1 am hungry. y^aifaim. Jay fang. My watch is too fast. Ma montre est ^« M a mauntr ait an Vou don't eat. Vous ne mangez pas. Voo neh maunjay pah. avance. av.aunce. Are you thirsty? Avez-vous soif. Avay voo souaf? It gains. EUe avance. El avaunce. I am very thirsty. yaihien soif. Jay beeang souaf. It is too slow. EUe est en retard, EI ait ong retard. I am dying of thirst. fe meurs de soif. Je meur deh souaf. It is a quarter of an EUe retarde d'un guart El retard dung kar Take a glass of wine. Prenezunverredevin.'PrGnna.ze ung vair de vang. hour too slow. dltcure. deur. It goes right. EUe va bien. El va beeang. Give me something to Donrit-z-moi d boire. Don nay mouah ali A quarter to eight. Huit heures moins nn Wheel eur mouans ung drink. bouahr. quart, kar. A cork-screw. Un tire-bouchon. Ung teer booshong. Midnight. Minuit, Meenwee. Noon. Midi, Meedee. TAtK AT THE TEA-TABLK. A quarter past one. Une heure et quart, Une eur ai kar. Tea is quite ready. They are waiting for Le thi est fouiprU. Leh tay ai too pray. On vous attend, Ong vooz attong. Half past four. ^uatre heures et demie. Katr eur ai demmee. Twenty minutes to six. Six heures moins vingt.Seec e eur niouang vang. I am coming. Pour out the tea. Bring a saucer. Me void. Meh vwoysee. V'ersez ie tki. Vairsay leh tay. Apportez une soucoupe. Apportaze une soo- ■ It has just struck nine. AVk/ At-«r^^ riV««<-M/ Neuv cur veeyen deh de sonner. sonnay. Ten minutes past Sept heures dix mi- Set eur dee mcenute. seven. nutes. Ring, if you please. A little more milk. coop. Sonnez.s^ii vous plait. Sounay seel voo play. Encore un pen de lait. Auncore ung peu deh Exactly three o'clock. Trois heures juste. Trouaz eur juste. The clock is striking. V oi I d Vhorloge qui Vwoyla lorlojekee son. Sonne, What will you take? lay. ^u€ prendrcz-vous? Keh praundray voo? THE PROMENADE. A slice of bread anc Vne beurr^e — une tar- Une beurray — une tar- Shall we take a little Irons • nous faire un Eerong noo fare ung butter. tiue de heurre, teen deh beur. walk? petit tour ? pcttee toor? Hand the plate. Passiiz Vassietie. Passay hissyett. Willingly. De tout mon cceur, Deh too mong kcur. Will you take some I'ou/ez • vous du gn- Voolay voo du gahto? Where shall we go? Par oh irons-nous f Par 00 eerongncKi? cake? teau T On the highroad. Sur la grandc route. Sure la graundc root. A small piece. Un petit morceau. Ung pcttee morso. There is a good deal It y fait beaucoup de Eel ce fay bocoo dth Make some toast. Faites encore des ro- Fates auncore day ro- ties. tec. of dust. ■ poussiere, poossyare. Into the fields. Dans la campagne. Dong la caumpainc. Make haste. DepZchez-vous. Daypayshay voo. They arc reaping. On moissonne. ', Tlie sky is overcast. It snows. It freezes. Can you skate? It thaws. Christmas. New Year's day. Light the fire. I am looking for the ye cherche tongs. cetlt's. Are there any coals? T-a-til du charbon t Tell the servant to Ditt'S a la serzante bring some. d\n apjyrtar. dufeu. II fait bientot nuit. II fait WW bilh nuit. Une nuit obscure. Fait-il clair de lune f ill Croycx • vous gn^ il pivuve T y'vn ai pvur. Ilpleut. Il bruinc. II pleut h Ttrse. II fait lien du vent. jVous Z'Oild, dans riiiier. II fait excessiz'ement froid. II fait maUTois temps. fn temps gris, II fait du brouillard. Le cielest pris de tons cotes. II neige. Ilgt'le. Sa vez- 7'0/ts patiner. II d^gkle. Noel. Lejour de I'an, Allumcz lefeu. les pin- PRONUNCIATION. Eel fodrah keh nooz avong du feu soo peu. Nooz avong dayjah fay du feu. Eel fay beeangtonwcc. Eel fait une bel nwee. Une nwee obscure. Fatt-eel clare dehlunc. Cnvoiyai - voo keel pleuv? Jon ai peur. Eel pleu. Eel bnieenc. Eel pleut a vairse. Eel fay beeang du vong. Noo vwoila dong lee- vair. Eel fait excesscevmong frouah. Eel fay movay long. Ung tong gree. Eel fay du brooillar. Leh secyti ai pree deh too cotay. Eel naje. Kel jale. Savay voo pateenay? Eel daijalc. Noel. Le joor deh long. Allumay leh feu, Jeshairshe lay pangset. Ee at eel du sharbong. Deets ah lah sairvaun don opportay. GENERAL CONVERSATION. an vou read French? Pouvez-Tous lire leh Pouvez-Tous lire le Poovay voo francaisf fraunsay ? You read very well. Vous liscz tris-bien. Voo leesay tray beeang. Do you speak French? Parlezvous fran<^ais f Parlay voo fraunsay? I speak it a little. je le parle unpen. Jeh leKparl ung peu. I do not understand it. ye ne lecomprends pas. }eh neh leh comprong pah How long have you Depuis quand I'ap- Depwee kong lappre- learncd? prenez vousT nay voo? A short time only, Depuis peu de temps. Dcpwee peu deh tong. You pronounce very Vous prononcez tri'S Voo pronongsay tray bien. beeang. Vous avez I'accent Vooz avay Lacsong tray tri-s-ptir. pure. Comprenez-vous f Comprcnay voo? Ce tCest rien. Snay rccang, ye viens vous dire. Jeh veeang voo deer. ye nWnfais pas grand Jch nong fay pah grong rai. cah. Aussitut dit, aussitot Osseeto dec. osseeto fait. fay. ye n\n puis plus. Jch nong pwcc phi. She took it in bad part. Elle /'a pris en tnau- El lah prccz on movaze taise part. par, ye me plais ici. Jeh me plaze eessec. On m'a dit. Ong mah dee. Autantqu^ilestentnoi. Otong keel ait ong mouah. A plus forte raison. Ah plu fort raisong. yy tiens luaucoup, J cc tecang bocoo. well. Vou have a very good accent. Do you understand? It is no matter. I am come to tell you. I don't tliiiik much of it. No sooner said than done. I can bear it no longer. I like being here. I have been tt>ld. As much as I can. So much the more. I value it very much. sr ii6 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. I— eT ^. f <£.A -^-^ "^e— 2 >i*^ih' -«0«-il.^*^jI.4j»^l>-«< |F the importance to all classes of a legi- IPl\nl ble, easy and rapid handwriting, we scarcely need speak. No other one attainment assists an equal number of young ladies and gentlemen to positions of profit and advancement, or affords more satisfaction as an accomplishment ; and we believe it to be an acquirement within the reach of all persons having common sense and one good hand. It has been the determination of the publish- ers of this work to spare no pains or expense to place before the student the very best instruction and examples in every department of Penman- ship. They accordingly employed Prof D. T. Ames, of New York, the famed pen artist, and editor of the Penman's Art Jounial, to prepare, specially for this work, the following pages of in.struction and examples. It is their belief that the instruction embodies the best thought of the times, while the copies and specimens are certainly the product of the highest order of artistic skill. All the copies and specimens have been photo- engraved directly from the original pen-and-ink copy, and therefore may be said to be actual pen-work, and not the result of the engraver's skill, as is generally the case witii what has heretofore been presented to the jniblic as repro- ductions of penmanship. The learner will, therefore, know that the copies before him, having once been executed with a pen, may be exactly reproduced by the same simple process. If, in some instances, the forms are less rigidly correct, or the lines less delicate than are fine plate engravings, we are fully convinced that the more easy, flowing and natural lines of the actual pen-work will more than compensate for such lack, if so it maj' be termed. The publishers are confident that no equalK- practical and useful exposition of teaching and practicing the art of Penmanship has ever been presented to the public. / K" PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 117 -^POSITIOKS.#- iIRST in importance to the pupil in writing is a CORRECT yU Position. As in logic an error in the premises must lead to false conclusions, so a bad position while learn- ing to write must lead to failure. It is only when in a correct po>ition that the pen, even in the hand of its skillful master, is cap.ible of producing the smooth, graceful line, shade and curve so essential to good writing. If such is the fact when in a master's hand, how doubly so it is in the undiscijilined and struggling hand of the learner ! It is also important that a proper position be maintained at the table or desk, as well as the relative positions of the pen, hand, paper, desk and body. Each of three posi- tions at the desk has more or less advo- cates, and each, in our opinion, is com- mendable, according to the circumstances of the writer. We give each position, with the reasons urged in their favor. RicaiT Position. — Turn the right side near to the desk, but not in contact with it. Keep the body erect, the feet level on the ■floor. Place the right arm parallel to the edge of the desk, rest- ing on the muscles ju>t forward of the elbow, and rest the hand on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, not permitting the wrist to touch the paper. Let the hands be at right angles to each other, and rest on the book, keeping the book parallel to the side of the desk. This position is advocated as furnishing the best support for the hand and arm while writing, and we think not without jus- tice in school or cl.iss rooms, where the desk is often sloping and n.rrrow. Front Position. — In this, the same relative position of hand, pen and paper should be maintained as described in the former one. In commercial col- leges and writing academies, where more spacious desks, or tables, are used than in the common school room, this posi- tion is permissible and is fre- i[uently adopted. pkoni- hosihon. RIGHT POSITION. Left Position. — Without illustrating this position, we would say that the left side is presented to the desk, and the .same rela- tive positions maintained as in the right and front. This jiositiun is advocated on the ground of its relieving the right arm from being burdened with any support of the body while writing, and thus giving a more free, rapid and less tiresome action to the hand and arm. This argument has considerable force where the fore-ann or muscular movement is practiced. It is also the most convenient, if not a necessity, in the count- ing-room, where numerous and large books are refiuired to remain in a position at right angles with the desk, and also in the execution of large drawings or specimens of penmanship, which necessarily, or most conveniently, occupy positions directly in front of the artist. Right Ohlique Position. — Another position at the desk, sometimes advocated by authors and teachers, is the right oblique, which is a posiiinn between the front and side, as illustrated below. In our opinion, the question which of these positions is to be adopted is not of such vital importance as that the prop- er relative posi- tion of pen, hand and paper should be maintained, and thatthearm should be perfectly free from the weight of the body while writing. Position OF Pen AND Arm. — Take the /«■« between the first and second fingers and thumb, letting it cross the forefinger just forward of the knuckle, and the second finger at the root of the nail, three-fourths of an inch from the pen's point. liring the point squarely to the paper and let the tip of the holder point toward the right shoulder. The Ihiimh should lie bent outward at the first joint, ami touch the holder opposite the first joint of the forefinger. 'X\\!f;crs should touch each other as far as the first joint of the first finger; the f/iini and foiirlh must be slightly curved and separate from the others at the middle joint, and rest upon the paper at the tips of the nails. The wrist must always be elevated a little above the desk. This position of the pen is undoubtedly the best for all writers using the finger movement, as it admits of the greatest freedom and facil- ity of action of the fingers. Hut among writers using the muscular movement, where less depends upon the action of the lingei's, it is common, and we think well, to allow the holder to RIGHT OBLIQUE POSITION. / K ii8 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. fall back and below tlie knuckle joint. It is more easily helil, and, from its forming a more acute angle with the paper, moves more readily and smoothly over its surface. Finger Movement is the combined action of the lirst and second fingers and thumb. Fore- Arm ilovemciit is the action of the fore-arm sliding the hand on the nails of the third and fourth fingers. Combined Movement is that which is most used in business penmanship. It is a union of the fore-arm with the finger movement, and possesses great advantage over the other move- ments in the greater rapidity and ease with which it is employed. mole-Arm Mo^'enieni is the action of the whole arm from the shoulder, with the elbow slightly raised, and the hand sliding on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, and is used with facility in striking capital letters and in ofi"-hand flourishing. SCALE OF SLANT. Main SUint. — A straight line slanting to the right of the vertical, forming an angle of 52° with the horizontal, gives the main slant for all written letters. Connective Slant. — Curves which connect straight lines in small letters, in a medium style of writing, are usually made on an angle of 30°. This is called the connective slant. See dia- gram. Base Line. — The horizontal line on which the writing rests is called the l>ase line. Head Line. — The horizontal line to which the short letters extend is called the head line. Top Line. — The horizontal line to which the loop and capi- tal letters extend is called the top line. A Space in I/eiglit is the height of small /. .4 Space in JVidth is the width of small n. The distance between the small letters is \\^ spaces, measured at head line, except in the a, d, g and (/. The top o{ the pointed oz'al in these letters should be two spaces to the right of a pre- ceding letter. Upper and Lo7ver 'J'nrns. — In tlie analysis of small letters, short curves occur as connecting links between the principles. These curves we call turns. When one appears at the top of a letter, it is called an upper turn ; when at the base, it is called a lower turn. MOVEMENT EXERCISE. All instruction in penmanship .sliould be initiated with a liberal use of movement exercises, arranged and practiced with the view of facilitating upward and downward as well as lateral movement of the hand, and each and every lesson should be ])receiled by more or less practice upon movement exercises. POSITION OP PEN AND ARM CARE IN PRACTICE. In practicing upon movements and writing, it should be con- stantly borne in mind that it is not the amount of practice so much as the careful and thoughtful effort to acquire precision and certainty that determines the success of the writer. It is often said that " practice makes perfect." This is true, if the term practice implies thoughtful, patient and persistent eftbrt for improvement; otherwise it may be quite untrue. Thoughtless scribbling tends rather to retard than to enhance the acquisition of good writing. Each time a copy has been carelessly repeated, incorrect or bad habits have been confirmed rather than corrected — a move backward instead of forward. This is a fact not sufficiently appreciated by teachers or pupils. Better far not to practice than to do so carelessly ; one might as well seek to win a race by occasionally taking a turn in the opposite direction. Good or well-constructed writing is no more essential than that it should be executed with facility and ease ; yet we would have no learner fall into the mistaken idea that he is to give special attention to speed before having acquired by deliber.ate study and practice correct forms and proportions in writing. First accuracy, then speed. Rapid and thoughtless practice is worse than useless. The mind must be educated before the hand. The hand and pen are only the servants of the mind, and as such can never surpass the mind's conception and power to guide and direct in any jjerformance. If upon the tablets of the mind there is presented constantly to our mental vision a perfect copy of the letters and their varied combinations into grace- ful writing, the hand will strike for the single and definite pur- pose of reproducing the same, and will progress steadily to the attainment of .skill requisite for the reproduction of the most perfect conceptions of the mind. The hand of tlie greatest sculptor or artist has no cunning not imparted by a skillful brain. Michael Angelo was the chief of artists, because of his superior mental conception of art, and may we not suppose that the untouched canvas presented to his mental vision all the grandeur and beauty in design and finish that delighted the eye of the beholder when finished into the most exquisite painting? The hand can never excel the con- ception of the mind that educates and directs its action. If Spencer or Flickingcr excel others in the perfection and beauty of penmanship, is it not because of their .superior conception of that in which superior penmanship consists ? The student who would have success must see that his practice is preceded by and always attended with^Iioughtful study and criticism. .\rter having once written the copy, study and criticise your effort before the next trial. Your faults noted, and a thought as to how they may be best corrected will enaljle you to make an intelligent and successful effort for improvement. Rcmemljor that unknown faults can never be avoideil or corrected. First / -N T PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. study to discover, and then to mend. Short exercises or copies, if rightly practiced, are much more favorable for improvement than long ones, inasmuch as they are repeated at intervals so short as to keep faults and criticisms fresh in mind, while oft- repeated efforts for correction will be correspondingly effective. Faults observed by ourselves or pointed out by others at the beginning of a long copy are very likely to be out of mind before that portion of the copy in which they occur is repeated. WRITING NOT A SPECIAL GIFT. It is often said that good writing is a "special gift." This idea is not only fallacious, but is exceedingly pernicious as regards the acquisition of good writing, inasmuch as it tends to discourage pupils who write badly, by leading them to believe that, not having " the gift," they are debarred from becoming good writers. Good writing is no more a gift than is good reading, spelling, grammar, or any other attainment, and in the same way it is and can be acquired, vir., by patient and studious effort. The correct form and construction of writing must be learned by study, while practice must give the manual dexterity for its easy and graceful execution. Many persons fail to become good writers from not properly uniting study and practice. Careful study with too little practice will give writing conqjara- tively accurate in its form and manner of construction, but labored, stiff and awkward in its execution; whde, upon the other hand, much practice with little study imparts a more easy and flowing style, but with much less accuracy, as regards the forms of letters and general proportion and construction of the writing, which will commonly have a loose and spravvly appearance. * Example of w riting which has resulted more from study than practice : Example of writing in which there has been more practice Ihan study: /■'^ The result of .study jiroperly combined with practice: Undoubtedly, many of our readers will see forcibly illustrated in one of these examples their own experience. So manifest is the effect of these different modes of practice that we have only to glance at a piece of writing to discern the extent to which a writer has combined study with jiractice while learning to write. UNITY AND SIMPLICITY OF FORM. It is an old but true saying that " a jack of all trtides is master of none." This is so from the fact that, working at many things, neither the hand nor brain can attain to a high order of proficiency or skill. It is the .specialist that advances the standard of progress in all the directions of human discovery. Concentration of thought and action makes the great masters of the world, while by a diffusion of the same the greatest genius is dis.sipated and fails to attain to a marked degree of eminence. So, in learning to write, the pupil wlio vacillates between many systems and multitudinous forms of letters must inevitably fail of becoming an expert and skilful writer. It is a matter of fretjuent observation that persons learning or practicing writing vacillate between from two to six different forms of the capitals, and as many as are possible in the small letters, apparently in the belief that variety is the chief element of good writing, which is a double mistake, as it detracts from the good a])pearance of the writing at the same time that it enhances the difficulty of learning and of executing it. For exam]ilc, we have known wiiters who, in executing a short ]nece of writing, would for many of the letters make use of forms as varied and numerous as follows: and use more or less variety in all of the letter.'., llius rec|uiring study and practice upon about one hundi-t-d different and unnec- essarily complicated forms for the alphabet, in place of twenty- six. Thus the labor and uncertainty of becoming a skillful writer is magnified fourfold. A single and simple form for each letter, capital and small, should be adopted, and, with a few exceptions, which we shall hereafter explain, should be invaria- bly practiced. The frequent and uniform repetition will impart that accuracy of form, grace and facility of execution which constitute good writing. The simple forms are not only more easily ac<|uired and more rapidly executed, but they are more easily read than the more ornate styles; in fact, those forms that cost the most are worth (he least. It is as if a merchant should constantly pur- chase an inferior class of merchandise and pay the high price of the best ; his chances for success certainly would not be very promising. ECONOMY OF FORM. Labor, whether of the clerk or mechanic, is rewarded accord- ing to the results it can produce. The copyist or clerk who can write one hundred words equally as well in the same time that another writes fifiy will certainly, other things being equal, command twice as much pay. The rapidity with which writing can be executed depends largely upon the simplicity of the forms of letters used and the size of the writing. A medium or small hand is written with much more ease and rapidity than a large hand, from the fact that the ])en can be carried over short spaces in less time and with greater ease than over long ones, and can execute simple -^ Q 120 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. ra forms more easily aiul rapidly than complicated ones. To illus- trate : Suppose one writer were to habitually make the capital /•thus; ^Y/A \\'hich refiiiires ele\'cn motions of tlie hand to execute; and that another were tf) uniformly make it thus: Requiiing only four motions of the hand. It is apparent that the difl'erence of time required to make each cannot be less than the proportion of eleven to four. That is not all. The complicated form consists of many lines, some of which are required to run parallel to each other, and all made with reference to balancing or harmonizing with some other line, and requires to be made \\'ith much greater care and skill than the more simple form, so that the disadvantage is even greater than indicated by the simple proportion between eleven and four. The practice of these complex forms of the alphabet will be fatal to rapid and legible business writing. These remarks are intended to apply more especially to busi- ness and unprofessional writing. Where show and beauty are of greater consideration than dispatch, variety and complexity of forms are quite proper, and even necessary. We give here the entire alphabet of capitals such as we would recommend for all business purposes, as combining sim- plicity of form and ease of construction : cJ G' J> US <^ ^ of (? il We would add as not objectionable the following : CORRECT PROPORTION ESSENTIAL TO GOOD WRITING. One might be able to execute faultlessly each single letter of the alphabet, and yet be a most miserable writer. Writing, to be really good, must be harmonious in all its parts; letters must be projiortionate to each other, properly connected, spaced, have a uniform slope and degree of pen-pres.sure, etc., as well as an easy and graceful movement. The following example will illustrate the bad effect of disproportion of letters : It will be seen that each letter, taken by itself, is creditably accurate in form, and yet, when associated with each other in a word, they present an appearance as ungainly as would an ox yoked with an elephant. We have often seen writing in which the letters were really badly formed, yet so harmonious in their combinations, and easy in their construction, as to present an attractive, not to say an elegant, effect; while, upon the other hand, we have often seen writing in which the letters were well formed, and yet so awkward in their combinations, and labored in their execution, as to be really painful to the sight of persons having a refined and correct taste regarding writing. CORRECT AND INCORRECT SPACING. Another important factor of good writing is the proper spac- ing and connecting of letters and words. Upon these very much depends, as in many instances the connecting lines alone impart the distinctive character to letters. In determining the proper spacing of writing, the distance between the straight lines of the small tt may be taken as a space in width. The distance between the parts of letters hav- ing more than one downward stroke should be one space ; between the letters one and one-fourth spaces, measured at the head line, except a, v_ Rule Six. — Cross all I's with a single horizontal line at the top. A telegraph dispatch addressed as above was taken down and sent to Ha-Hi-E, who was not known at the street and number to which it was directed, and it was consequently returned ; and when the error was discovered, and traced to the operator who made it, he was asked how he came to make such a mistake, and whom he supposed Ha-Hi-E to be. The operator replied, "Some Indian Chief or Chinese" — a very natural supposition in such a city of all peoples as is New York. Rule Seveti. — The capital /should always be made above the line, while the J should extend below. Otherwise, when used as initials or in cipher-writing, they cannot be distinguished with certainty. Rule Eight. — The small s should never be made with the loop below the line, as it is liable to be mistaken for a/ or^,- as : forM^^ Rule Xitie. — Letters should be connected in their parts, and with other letters, by the proper and characteristic curv'ed or straight lines. It is a common and grievous fault in writing that a straight line or the wrong curve is employed in the contruc- tion and connection of letters, thus leaving them without dis- tinctive character, or imparting one which is false and misleading. For instance, a form made thus y^-^^ may be taken for an j/^^Ty" ' ^ -^^--^ • ^^^' possibly, for a ^C^ ■ I" cases where the context does not determine, its identity becomes a mere matter of guess, and when extended thus y^^^^^^ its significance, as will be seen, is still more vague and uncertain, as it might be intended for either of the following seven combinations : With a properly trained hand no more time or effort is required to impart the true and unmistakable characteristics to each letter than to make forms whose identity is open to doubt and conj'.-cture. PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 123 Rule Ten. — No letter should have a doubtful form, such as may be mistaken for one of several letters ; as : Rule Elnien. — All eccentric forms and conspicuous personal oddities, which so often render writing, and especially auto- graphs, illegible, should be av9ided; as: for 'Mefs:a^ for /? This example was used as an initial letter in (''^ a communication recently received. In address- ing the author we could only do as we are often obliged to do with doubtful initials — make a facsimile, and leave it to the postmaster to decipher at the office of delivery. Writers should remember that short names and initial letters, when carelessly written, are very liable to be misread, from the fact that no aid can be derived from the context. A large proportion of letters which miscarry through the mails do so from the careless manner in which they are super- scribed. As an example, let us suppose that a writer desires to address an important communic.ition to J.<^€L..^. «lt'n.-ei-*i , ■ei-t. but he hurriedly and carelessly superscribes it thus : The abbrevialion for the name of the State (ta/.) is so indefinite that the letter goes first to Colorado, but, there being no Herman or Sherman in that State, it is finally re-directed to Herman, Cat. The initial S and following letter // beini; of so indefinite and doubtful a character, they together were naturally mistaken for an H, but, there being no Herman post-office in Cali- fornia, the mistake is finally discovered by a di>tributing agent, and the letter is again re-directed to Sherman, Cal.; here the // in Howell is read SI, and accordingly the letter is placed in .V box for general delivery ; not being called for, it is at lengtli advertisi d in the list of undelivered letters, thus : /. A. Stmvetl. The J, having been made above the line, is mistaken for an /, while the initial // is so nearly closed at the top that it is mistaken for an A. After being duly advertised, the letter is sent to the Dead Letter Office at Washington, and from there returned, after several weeks, to the writer. J. H. Howell, in the mean- time, has enquired daily for lettere at the Sherman post-office, when the delivery clerk has looked in the // box and answered, " Nothing." Mr. Ilowell has also carefully scanned every list of advertised letters, but never could he have imagined that the letter advertised for I. A. Stowell was the one he had so long and anxiously looked for. It is just such errors as those above described that cause .i large percentage of the miscarriages of mail matter. VL \ 124 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. ^^«> fflOVEMENT GXEI^GISBS.®- 5*^ Much patience should be devoted by the learner tu practice upon movement exercises, for the purpose of disciphning and bringing undtr perfect control the motions of the hand and arm. The following will serve a good purpose, and, with the copies following, will be a guide to a course of twenty lessons, with or without the aid of a teacher : PRINCIPLES / Jc/fDO COPIES. / C/Cy4^ -n'l^^^ur^^ 'C^urm^pz^ny c^ ^CyGU^^^^^/^n^i^ \ *- o ^ o i- ^ PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. ^ 125 » 6 ^^ J^4a^^^/^na4y /^X iLfy^>U€m^ /rO' Gl^ f^im4Jy /^ Uiy Uu^^u^^n^TTz^ . /f 0/^fXQ^7^ /^cjo^^^^^^'^^^^ J^^^^/^ / (^ CyW92yy^A^^ycAyy/u4^€^ cj (0j^n^^2^t^u^^'Z^c^,^i^..am^/^^ (^7 J.y(U/^^?n^/ia^n^y^iz^.^cr?ns^ 1 1 "^ niy.Jm/i7td^ C^tzi^ ( AM/Z£^ /f '^^Jy, '^y? /yme^. ^y?U J^ '^y^y. ',^^^^ ^U / JV' K 128 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. ~A SCALE OF '"E*^^/ \,-' ^* W SLANT. PRINCIPLES. -1 a a i—/^ — ^ -6— y 7~ 2: SCALE OF PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS. -,^!:y.6 (^u.^j d r^cK^^^^w i/ ^ ^^^ y/yyy/r jj/^^/y y/yyy^y^ W- 7 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. ^ 129 STANDARD ALPHABETS. c/(^'(^Q 6<^Sa/^%ik^«s<5^^ U^n'fn.an<:iA^Ay IJ^-CifU-^y- i^A:ia^7^/i^CM^uc^/i^^ \ u^nu^?'p2/-u^ ( /^ij^um V- K" 132 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. A ^im-u^/^ LJ^4:yf, j//f. Y^^^n'/CT^t^^u/Gt^^^^/y^-^^ ^U^n^my/r^ ROUND WRITING FOR HEADINGS. un<^/t^/njA/^. V- \ 1 ^f ^ ''.u^C4-^^n C^u^pcd'^ /^, /c^fi3 ~)y€^yi^r?yf^ 'ya/n^.^i^/y- ^/^^y?^^ynJ^^.^U/-figJy ^^UA ' • ' / / / ' C • // / -^r^ • y/ ^ €>ffU (>^&^i;^^?^^0^«*^.5^7^^'2^^^ -133 ■V|o ^ J1 » ■* - V- j,_^ PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. Cyk^ur- \c/t^i^ cL^i^ r\ /;, -fZ^.'?9^-^. S^^^ii'^nu^ Cx f >*w^2^=^^*^ Is PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 135 flpti^tie V e)eQman^t7ip. \\IN embellishment is one of the oldest and most useful of the arts. In ancient times, before the discovery of the art of printing, the pen was not only the sole recording agent, save the chisel, but the chief implement of art. All manuscript books were the tedious productions of the pen. These were often elab- orately embellished with ornate lettering and various styles of ornament. The more ancient styles of ornamentation were of the scroll and grotesque order. Mythical figures of gods, dragons, genii and all manner of imaginary forms figured conspicuously in ornamentation. Later, beginning with about the sixteenth cen- tury, in nearly all of the F"rench, Englisli and American published works upon penmanship, off-hand flourishing was the predominant mode of pen embellishment, which appeared in all manner of forms, from a simple sweep of the pen to elaborate designs representing birds, beasts, dragons, fishes and all manner of fanciful designs. This order of embellishment, although greatly modified from the masters of a few centuries ago, is still a conspicuous element in the penman's as well as the engraver's art, and is, therefore, entitled to consideration in any work of the present time devoted to artistic penmanship. The art of flourishing is not only desirable as an accomplishment to the pen artist, but its practice tends to discipline the hand and eye, so as to impart greater case and de.x- terity in the execution of practical writing. Recently, through the introduction of the various photographic processes for transferring and printing pen drawings, new demands have been made upon the penman's art. The pen artist is now called upon to execute all manner of designs which ha\c hithci'to been strictly within the province of the engraver, and such designs must be produced not only witli a degree of care and perfection, but in a style to meet and rival the various classes of engraving with which they must compete. Through this exacting demand, the styles of lettering and ornamentation which were formerly known and recognized as essentially the pen- man's art require modification and adaptation to these new purposes. Flourishing is now less abundant and conspicuous; in its place are various other species of ornamentation, such as floral, scroll, panel and tint work. Examples of these several styles of ornamentation, illustra- tive of their propjr application in artistic pen work, will appear upon the following pages. It has been the earnest endeavor of the authoi to present the best forms for standard and ornate lettering, together with designs covering the entire range of the penman's art. THE DESIGN AND EXECUTION ^-1^^^ OF PEN-WORK. ■a:.cr^ 'd HATEVER the purpose of any work, much of its success depends upon the skill and artistic effect of the design ; hence extreme care and thought should be ex- ercised in this respect. No amount of work. \ ^^ "71 136 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. however carefully and skilfully performed, can produce a good or satisfactory result from a design awkward or inappropriate. After selecting the paper or material upon which the work is to be executed, fasten it with thumb-tacks or glue to a drawing-board ; draw with a pencil border and centre lines ; then sketch lightly with a pencil the design, having care to give due prominence to the several parts according to their importance in the work, with a proper intermingling of light and shade. When designs are to be copied, there are numerous methods for making transfers. The most common is by means of thin, transparent paper or cloth, which is placed over the design to be copied, and the outline traced over with a pencil, after which the opposite side of the tracing is penciled over with a soft, black pencil; then place the tracing upon the paper on which the copy is to be made, when the lines upon the tracing are retraced with a pencil or any smooth- pointed instrument which will give a distinct outline upon the paper underneath. Transfer or blackened paper is often placed under the tracing before retracing it, instead of pencilling its reverse side, w4iich is objectionable from the liability of blackening or soiling the paper upon which the drawing is to be made; and then the transfc-r lines thus made are not easily removed with a rubber. Of course this method of transfer can be used only where the desired reproduction is the same size as the original. If it is to be enlarged or diminished, other methods must be sought. This may be accomplished by marking the copy to be transferred into squares, and the paper upon which the reproduction is to be made into corresponding squares, enlarged or diminished according to the change desired from the size of the original copy. The same change is accom- plished very readily by the use of proportional dividers, with which every draftsman should be provided, or by the use of the pantograph. MATERIALS ADAPTED TO ARTISTIC PEN- WORK. Use a fine quality of Bristol board or What- man's hot-pressed drawing-paper, and a fine quality of black India-ink, freshly ground from a stick, in a tray containing rain-water. Ink of any desired shade may thus be made. If work is intended for reproduction by any of the pho- tographic processes, the ink must be ground until jet black, and then the pencil guide-lines must be removed with a soft gum or sponge rubber, so as to remove as little of the ink as possible. Hard rubber will not only remove much of the ink, but will tear up the fibre of the paper, and thus break or make ragged the deli- cate hair-lines, which will therefore fail of a good result when photo - engraved. It should be specially noted that all lines to reproduce must be clear, smooth, continuous and black ; if so, no matter how fine, they will answer the pur- pose. Copy should also be made at least twice the dimensions of the desired reproduction. PENS. For script writing, use Gillott's " 303 " or Spencerian Artistic No. 14. For fine drawing or tinting, use the "303" or Crow Quill. For flourishing, use Spencerian No. i or Ames' Penman's Favorite. For lettering, especially Old English, German and Church Text, the Sonnecken pen, both broad and double-pointed, may be used to advantage. A^ \ , PRACTICAL AND ORNA^^ENTAL PENMANSHIP. ^ '37 VL ^ PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 1°^ 141 VL T 142 7t 2w , 'w , .-e*--*''^ "„> (5 pji='» i iB'|i0ii fl(JriJpfijriiJ6rmna|iqrsfn L^ _NJ 146 ^i^M^w^^^ PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. -7\ / \ PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 147 "71 >^ ^^ ^t^^^^^^^^S^^^ff^ '^ J ^^ '^^■^f^'$Zl~, -^^^^ / K" 148 "Tf SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. Sy^.t)5^^^'^'^' * rSou) to Require anb fjom to practice tijese ^rts. ►i-i-f=^^=f-H^ ^1 HORT-HAND is the general term applied to ^^'' all- styles of brief or rapid writing, as dis- tinguished from the ordinary writing, or long-hand. Numerous systems of abbre- viated writing under various names, the principal of which were "Short-hand" and "Sten- ography," have been used and recommended by prominent men from the times of Socrates and Cicero down to the present day. It is commonly conceded that we are indebted for the first system of short-hand which has been preserved to the invention of Tiro, a freedman of Cicero, in the year 65 B.C., although it is recorded that Xenophon, the Greek philosopher and historian, used abbreviated charac- ters for noting down the sayings of Socrates, and that these characters were adopted by the Romans and reduced by Ennius to a methodical scheme, about 150 B.C. Herodotus also informs us that traces of abbreviated writing were found among the Persians 480 B.C., at the time of the expedition of Xerxes into Greece. The Tironian characters were used for the preservation of speeches as delivered in the Roman Senate. Plutarch says that the oration of young Cato of Utica, delivered in the Roman Senate on December 5th, 63 B.C., was reported at Cicero's request. In the year 52 B.C., professional short-hand writers in Rome are mentioned for the' first time. Besides the use of short-hand by TirO' and his pu[)ils in the Roman Senate, Cicero was accompanied by Tiro, as short-hand writer, in many of his travels, and many of his letters were written from dictation. Pliny is represented as never being abroad without a short-hand writer at his elbow; and St. Paul dic- tated to Tychicus, his amanuensis, some of his epistles. Under the Emperor Constantine, imperial or official reporters were among the court attaches. Mention is also made of them in other courts, and references to the quality of their work and the inci- dents connected with it, such as severe punishments for betrayal of professional secrets, and misreporting. All the facts collected from history clearly indicate the practical uses of short-hand as at the present time. From the verses of the Latin poet Ausonius, written about the year 380, we learn something of the manner of writing, in the following words: "Fly, young and famous reporter; prepare the tablets on which you express, with small dots, whole speeches as rapidly as others would trace one single word." These early characters were called nof'• O z " zon J J r r Sh zh 1 e read a-d, and represents the word aid. Make the same sign d and place the second-place vowel a on the opposite of right-hand side of the letter near the centre, and you have d-a, representing the word day. Write the horizontal consonant stroke ti, and make a short dash above the centre of it, thus representing o-n, and spelling the word own. Write // and put the dash for the vowel o be- neath it, and you spell the word know. This illustrates one of the principal features of phonographic writing or sound-writing, repre- senting only the sounds in words as spoken. By the use of the above alphabet any word in the English language, and, indeed, in almost any other language, may be written much more briefly than in ordinary long-hand. By the combination of letters, writing all the conso- nants of a word without lifting the pen, and by the use of abbreviating principles, such as hooks and circles on the consonants and the combining of words into phrases, a speed in writing sufficient to keep pace with a rapid speaker may be attained. This is termed the " reporting style " of short-hand, in which the appended letter is written. TYPE-WRITING. It is not probable that any system of short- hand writing will ever be brought into common use and supplant the ordinary handwriting. The attainment of this end has been the fond delusion of many authors of short-hand systems, but years of labor and thought have as yet failed to produce such a system. The opinion held by some, that no short-hand writer can read the writing of another, is not a correct one, as there are, at the present time, hundreds of short- hand writers who read each other's writing in correspondence and in actual work, so tliat it is altogether possible that short-hand may be so written by one person as to be read by ^ others. However, in the practical use of the art, this question is of little importance, as nearly all short-hand writing is transcribed, that is, written in ordinary long-hand, Ijy the writer, in order to adapt it to the various uses now made of it. This transcribing has, in past years, been done bv the tedious method of long-hand writing. \ ■K \ J- G ■- • ^ 1 SHORI-IIANl) ANL> TVI'E WKIIING, '5' • fTranscript of shorthand letter on opposite page.) Galveston, Texas, July 25,1883. Messrs* Brown £ Holland, 50 Dearborn St. , Chicago, 111. Gentlemen, Vfe -wish you. would Ise so kind as to send, at once, to R.B.Havley &. Co. , Calves ton, a first-class stenogra- pher and type-writer, as they have tried everywhere to get one, bxit-are unable to secure the man they want. They are will- ing to pay $100.00 per month, if lie is a perfect machine. Their "business is comniission, and of course their correspond- ence is very large, and it requires a fine operator to take the head of the house, as he talks about 200, and sometimes above that. "We have two letters written ty young men under your sug- gestion, but, from their own statements, we do not think they would suit this house. We also wish to get a good s t en ograpTter for the house of Chas. Heidenheiraer &. Co., this city. They will pay SSO.oo to start on, and if the party suits they will also pay $100. oo. They agree to pay one-half the fare out if the man is as rep- i resented. There is a demand for good material here, but inexperi- enced persons in either line of business will find nothing but disappointment in store for them. The latter party must be also an expert type-writer, able to write at least 70 words per minute. We have several here who do so, and as we have sold nearly every house in the trade a type-writer, the demand for first-class stenos and type-writers is increasing. Please wire at our expense v^hat you will do for us, as the parties are waiting on us. Hoping you "Will let us have a prompt reply»we are Yours truly i J. H. "Havley & Co. \ / \ ^ -f^ ,- •- -» i. r IV 152 SHORT-HAND AND TVPE-WRITING. -A at a speed averaging from twenty to thirty words per minute, and requiring five or six times as much time to be devoted to transcription as was occupied in the taking of a lecture, sermon or other report- ing. In the present day of rapid business trans- actions, this slow speed is not satisfactory, and necessity, the mother of invention, has urged un- tiring effort in the direction of improvement, re- sulting in the type-writer of the present day, which within the past ten years has come into extensive use for all writing purposes, and especially by the reporter in the transcription of his short-hand notes. On these machines expert operators have attained a speed of from fifty to seventy-five words a minute, thus trebling the capacity for work, and with really less fatiguing labor. The transcript of the short- hand letter, given on page 109, illustrates type- writing in one of its most common uses at the pres- ent day, that of letter-writing, hundreds of business houses, general offices, agencies, etc., having their letters written on the type-writer, and obtaining thereby a decided gain, in addition to that of the amount of work which can be done, in condensation of space, and in facility of reading. The hurry of business at the present day will not allow the promi- nent business man to spend hours over badly written letters, when he can read type-written letters with the facility of ordinary print. SHORT-HAND SYSTEMS. Every one whose interest has been awakened in short-hand, either in its literature or in the art as a study, becomes at once interested in short-hand sys- tems, and it is sometimes an apparently perplexing question to choose between the various systems claiming the attention of the student or embryo reporter. It would be difficult to give the number of short- hand systems which have been invented and pub- lished, to say nothing of the number which have been invented and not published. And it would require an extensive volume to give the titles and claims of the various systems. Some lately published re- searches into the history of the art contain very full information upon this subject, the extent of which is not of .so much interest to the person who is about to enter upon the study as is a choice between the different systems now in use. These may be referred to under two heads: the phonographic, or sound-writing, systems ; and the alphabetic, or ordi- nary spelling, systems. The latter, which we will denominate under the general head of "Stenogra- phy," can lay but little claim to the attention of the short-hand student of the present day. The choice is, therefore, among systems which have a phono- graphic basis. All of these trace their origin to the system of Isaac Pitman, to which reference has already been made. And among these we would mention as of equal merit the systems of Isaac Pit- man, Benn Pitman, A. J. Graham, Elias Longley and James Munson. A choice having been made of one of the above systems, and a given time devoted to study by any individual, the result in speed of writing attained will not vary ten words per minute ; but the ease of reading what has been written will vary more than ten per cent among the writers of these different systems. Having selected the Benn Pitman system as the basis of illustration, we will give a further description of the principles of that system, and show the similarity of the systems above named. By examination of the consonants as given in the alphabet, they will be found to be written in four directions, namely : first, sloping obliquely from left to right at an angle of forty-five degrees (letters sloping in this direction are all written downward, and are six: /, b, f, v, r, w); second, in an upright or vertical direction, written downward, six : t, d, th, the, s, z ; third, sloping from right to left at an angle of forty-five degrees, eight letters, five of which are written downward, ch, j, sh, zh ; and three written upward, /, upward r, and h ; fourth, in a horizontal direction, five letters written from left to right : k, g, m, n, fig. These letters, or consonants, when joined together, are written in the same direction as when standing alone, except /, which, when joined, may also be written downward. Observing this rule, write /-/i", and make the dot for a after the middle of the /, representing the word take ; and with the same consonant outline, t-k, write the first place heavy dash, aw, and you spell the work talk. In the alphabet given you will notice a small circle representing s and z. This circle may be made on the beginning or end of any of the consonant signs. It is made on the right-hand side of upright and VL _1J -A SHORT-HAND AND TVPE-WRITINO. 1^ 153 sloping straight consonants. Making it on the right- hand side of the letter /, you have represented sf, and by making the heavy dot for e before the beginning of the letter / you spell the word seat. This circle is joined on the inside of curved consonants either at the beginning or end. Writing the consonant stroke //, making the circle at the end, and writing be- neath the centre of n the dash vowel you spell the words knows or nose. This circle is made double its usual size, or large, to represent the syllable ses. Writing the letter n and making the circle large, and writing the vowel o in the same position, under the middle of the letter, you spell the word noses. In many words of the English language we have what is commonly termed a consonantal diphthong formed by the letter I ox r immediately following one of the other consonants, as in the words play, plea, place. This double consonant is represented by making a small initial / hook on the right-hand side of the letter ; and in such words as pray, pry, price, the double-consonant principle is represented by making the initial r hook on the left-hand side of the letter. When this double consonant of the pr series is preceded by s, the hook is made into a circle on the left-hand side of uj)right and sloping straight letters, and beneath horizontal straight let- ters, representing spr, sir, skr, etc. In all other cases the circle s preceding double consonants should be slightly flattened and made inside of the initial hook. A small final hook on any consonant represents the letter /;. By confining this hook to the left-hand side of upright and sloping straight let- ters, and beneath horizontal straight letters, we have the final hook on the right-hand side to represent / and v. By making the final hook large after any consonant we represent the ending tion. The circle s may be added after any one of these final hooks by writing the circle inside the hook, except with n hooks on straight letters, when the hook may be made into a comjilete circle, being on the opposite side from the circle s final. The small initial hook for / and r are not used on the letters /, upward r, m and ;/, on which letters a small initial hook represents the consonant w. Any consonant written half its usual length repre- sents the addition of / or d, called the halving prin- ciple, in connection with which all the -other abbreviating principles may be used. By elongating the circle representing s into a loop, and making it about half the length of the consonant to which it is attached, we represent the couplet st either at the beginning or end of a word. There are a few other abbreviating principles contained in the system, but those given are the principal ones, and by their application to twenty-one of the single consonants we obtain a total of over fifteen hundred available derivatives, giving, as a result, a speed in writing ranging from one hundred to two hundred words per minute, and sufficient for reporting the most rapid speakers. To illustrate the similarity of the systems named, in Isaac Pitman's the alphabet is like that of Benn Pitman's, as given, except the last three consonants, w, y and h, and the reversed position of four of the vowels, making the long dot vowels read ah, a, c, and the short vowels a, e, i. The abbreviating princi- ples are the same with the exception of the initial hooks on the letters/, v, ith, the. In Graham's sys- tem the alphabet is the same throughout as in Benn Pitman's; the abbreviating principles th» same ex- cept the large final hook, which is used on the right- hand side of sloping straight letters and above hori- zontal letters to represent tion, and on the left-hand side of upright and sloping straight letters, and be- low horizontal straight letters to represent live. Some of the initial and final hook principles are also applied by Mr. Graham to his vowel word signs which are not so used by Benn Pitman. In Mun- son's system the consonant alphabet is the same as in Benn Pitman's with the exception of the letter //, which is represented by a shaded m. The vowel scale is inverted the same as that of Isaac Pitman. The abbreviating principles are the same as Benn Pitman's with the exception of the initial hooks on the curved letters/, v, ith and the, and a large final hook on the right-hand side of straight letters repre- senting the syllable ter. In Longley's system the alphabet is the same as Benn Pitman's with the ex- ception of the consonants ■w,y, h, and an inversion of the vowels similar to Isaac Pitman. This comparison will serve to prove that very little advantage can be claimed by any one of these stand- ard phonographic .systems, in all of which we have in the United States many practical short-hand writers; and, in truth, there is but one system, that of Pitman's phonography, the others being but slight y^ -N X ,t '54 SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. variations, or different methods of writing that sys- tem. Among those who make practical use of short- hand in the United States, the writers of the above systems represent 99-100, and of these the proportion using Benn Pitman's phonography is 52 per cent, Graham 23 per cent, Munson 10 per cent, Isaac Pit- man 9 per cent and Longley 6 per cent. Some surprise may be expressed as to these pro- portions, but it will be found upon examination that the increased proportion is the result of longer use of the system, Benn Pitman's being the oldest in this country, and, being, in fact, Isaac Pitman's sys- tem at the time of its introduction here, has the ad- vantage of old adherents and practitioners. Next in order, and without radical changes, is that of Gra- ham ; next Munson. In order of age Longley would come next ; but the radical changes recently made by Mr. Longley in his system place it, as now used, among the younger systems. What conclusion will the student of phonography draw from the above statements, or in what way will they assist him in making a decision or choice of the systems to be learned? Our intention is, first, to fortify him in his choice against the much advertised, shorter and easier systems of phonog- raphy, to be learned, according to the advertise- ments, almost without effort, or, as one author says, " Short-hand written at sight." We believe that such an advertisement bears falsehood upon its face. One of the distinctive merits of short-hand writing is the difficulty of learning it. If it were as easily learned as some authors of systems would have us be- lieve, according to their representations, a knowl- edge of the art would be reduced in value more than 50 per cent. In the second place, we have endeavored to anticipate the e.xtravagant claims with which some of the practitioners of various systems mislead those who are about to enter upon the study ; one of them being that one system is much briefer in its reporting style than another, and therefore can be more rapidly written. As an offset to this claim, the result of brevity in writing is increased difficulty in reading, and the loss by this difficulty more than counterbalances the gain in speed of writing ; and the tendency of minute abbreviations is to put upon the head the work which is taken from the hand. We believe that in the above statement we have given due credit to the various systems in use. The further questions entering into the decision of sys- tem would be the opportunities of assistance in practical and long established schools, such as that of Brown & Holland, Chicago, or from persons using short-hand in a practical way. PRACTICAL SHORT-HAND. A few years ago, the use of short-hand was be- lieved to be confined to a favored few, who made reports of public speeches, lectures, sermons, etc. The reference which we have already made to the history of the art shows that its application to busi- ness is not new. In our own country short-hand has been practiced from the earliest times. Without referring more lengthily to the former uses of short- hand, we wish to call attention to its particular uses at the present time. The principal of these in the United States is reporting the proceedings of Con- gress. For many years, the speeches, both in the Senate and House of Representatives, have been re- ported by short-hand reporters employed for this pur- pose, and the daily record of the doings of Congress during its sessions is thus preserved complete. Each committee of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives is allowed the service of a short-hand re- porter, who is also paid by the Government. In nearly all of the State Legislatures during the time they are in session, short-hand reporters are em- ployed, and paid by State appropriation, to report the proceedings, which are afterward published in pamphlet form. "^ In the majority of the States of the Union, stenographic laws are enacted pr.oviding for the appointment of short-hand reporters in the various courts. The salaries earned in this way range from twelve hundred to three thousand dollars per year. The reporter is required to take in short-hand the oral testimony of witnesses and to give briefly all objections of counsel and rulings of the Court, in the transcript of his notes. In States where no steno- graphic law has been enacted, in many large cities and court districts, general reporters find a fair field and make good salaries; but the uncertainties in the collection of fees cause variations in the amount earned each year. In large cities like Chicago, inde- pendent or general reporters find plenty to do, court or legal work being the most remunerative. Besides the work done by official rejjorters, there are con- V- SHORT-HAND AND TVPE-WRITINO. 155 ventions, political and otherwise, that have their pro- ceedings reported and published. Short-hand re- porters used to be extensively employed on daily newspapers, but of late years there are very few papers that constantly employ experienced reporters; they prefer to depend upon general reporters in large cities when occasions require verbatim reports. Many lectures and sermons are thus reported and published. SHORT-HAND AMANUENSES. Not the least in their profession are the large army of short-hand amanuenses, whose number has increased so rapidly during the last five years, and is still growing. Formerly the doctor, the min- ister, the historian and the lecturer were the only persons making use of short-hand for composition ; but now, in addition to these, short-hand is utilized in the correspondence of business houses. Since the introduction of short-hand for this purpose, the office of the old-time corresponding- clerk has almost ceased to exist, and the member of a firm who has charge of the correspondence is now relieved from the drudgery which used to be en- tailed upon him by this work, and is able, by the de- votion of one or two hours daily, to read and answer a larger mail than he could formerly by giving the greater portion of the day to writing letters in the old way. The mode of procedure is usually as fol- lows : The mail, being received and opened, is read, and memorandum of reply made on each letter. All letters requiring an immediate answer are attended to first, and from fifty to one lumdred letters may be read and replies dictated in two or three hours. The business man, sitting at his desk, takes up a letter and talks to his correspondent, while his short- hand amanuensis takes down his words, indicating each letter on his note-book. The short-hand writer usually transcribes his short-hand notes rapidly upon the type-writer, and is able to write in this way many more letters in a day than any jjcrson could com- pose and at the same time write in long-hand. After the letters are written, they are usually examined and signed by one of the firm, and are then ready for mailing. It is scarcely necessary in these days to urge upon any business man the advantage to be de- rived from the use of short-hand in his business, for there is scarcely a man doing any extensive business who is not daily in receipt of letters marked " Short-hand Dictation," and observation will readily show him that the firms who employ short-hand writers to take letters from dictation are the most prosperous in their line of business. A person who does not employ a short-hand writer, on going into a store or office and hearing the dictation of letters, contracts, or other papers, may conclude that such dictation is a very easy thing to do. Now, while it is easy compared with the writing of letters, it has its difficulties. Very few men are as careful in the choice of words in conversation as they are in written compositions, and a man who has been accustomed to writing his own letters may, at first, find it difficult to satisfactorily dictate them to a short-hand writer, and indeed, were the letters al- ways transcribed e.vactly as dictated, they would often be found faulty in construction, with gram- matical errors and verbose expression. In many instances the short-hand writer is not only respon- sible for taking the words exactly as they are dictated, but also for the grammar and proper ar- rangement of the letters when transcribed. But business men soon become accustomed to writing letters in this way, and dictate systematically and correctly. The daily correspondence then becomes a pleasant duty. The qualifications required of a short-hand rejwrter are varied. Hardly any branch of knowledge could be mentioned which would not be of benefit to him. The amanuensis must have, besides a general knowledge of composition and the grammatical construction of language, a thorougli knowledge of the particular business in whicli he is employed a.s short-hand writer. A short-hand amanuensis in a railroad or other office soon becomes familiar with the particular duties of the department or office in which he works ; in the wholesale house he becomes familiar with the particular kind and importance of the business in which he is engaged, and obtains in a short time a knowledge of the business which could scarcely have been obtained by a clerk in any other capacity from years of experience. \ NT 156 A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. ISelMiiMoi in SWt-M WntiDg. — ^^^-^i^ if A COMPLETE COURSE, IN TWELVE PRACTICAL LESSONS, Based 01 llie Benn Pitman System ol FionoerapliT. f •0 — ^i— {<» — • Arianieil tiy Browi & Hollani, and nsed By tnem in tlelr during tie past eleyen years. LESSON I— THE ALPHABET. Name. Sign. Sound. Name. Sign. Sound. pe \as in up. es )or a.i in us. be \ ' ' boy. ze )or " zero. te 1 • ' it. esh J " ash. de 1 ' day. zhe J " azure che / ' ' eacli. el r " oil. jay / ' joy- ye r " yet. l:ay — ' ' oak. ar -^or/ " air. s^y — ' ' go. we > " way. cf V. ' ' if. em /->. " me. ve ^ ' vote. en w " no. cth ( ' oath. ing ^ " sing. the ( ' they. he ^ory " hat. ee •1 I 1 me. i •! " sit. ay * aim. e .i j " let. all ! car. a J " cat. aw 1 ' all. "I " not. oh -i ' ' old. u -1 " nut. ooh J ' ' boot. 00 1 _i " foot. eye "l ' pile. ow i .1 " now. 1 oi A ' toy. ew i Ml '' you. LEARN the names, by repeating them over several times, tracing the signs with a dry pen as you pro- nounce each name. Trace the short-hand signs several times, naming each as you trace it, according to the following directions: The signs pe, l>e, ef, iv, a>-, Wf, slope from left to right, and ai'e written downward ; the signs te, de, eth, the, es, ze (stroke form), are upright, and are always written downward; the signs che, jay, esh, the, ye, slope from right to left, and are written down- ward ; the signs e/, he, slope from right to left, and arc written upward, commencing at the line; tlie signs /'uj', gfy, em, en, ing, are horizontal, and are written from left to right, the lower part of the letter touching the line. WRITING EXERCISE 1. Write the consonant signs ten times on double- ruled paper, the lower part of each sign touching the line, according to the alphabetical arrangement — pe, be, te, de, I he, jay, gay, ef, ve, eth, the, es, ze, esh, zhe, el, ye, ar, -ue, em, en, ing, he. The shaded straight letters are made heavy throughout. The shaded curve letters are made lieavy in the center, tapering toward each end. The vowels and diphthongs are written in three posi- tions, beginning, middle and end of the consonant, and are called fust-place, second-place, third-place. When written on the left hand of upright or sloping consonants, they are read before the consonant. Write before the letter te the first-place vowels ee, i, aw, o, eye, oi ; also write them before pe, che. When vowels are written above a horizontal letter they are read first. Write the first-place vowels before the letter /;ay. Write before the letters /e', te,che and l;ayX\\e four second-])lace vowels, ay, e, oh, u. Write before these four consonants the si.s third-place vowels — all, a, ooh, 00, ow, e-,u. When the vowels are written on the righl-hand side of upright and sloping consonants, and below horizontal ones, they are read after the consonants. Write after the consonants pe, te, che and l;ay all the first, second and third place vowels. Tlie student nmst become thoroughly familial- with the names and forms of the short-hand signs. lie may then try how many words he can write containing one conso- nant witli a vowel either liefore or after. Spell words in short hand .as thuy are pronounced, that is, represent by the shorthand sign the sounds as heard by the ear. For example, the word though is not spelled t-h-o-u-g-h, but the sounds are represented by the sign the and the second place heavy dash, oh. The use of the second sign given in the .alphabet for es, ze, ar and he will be explained in future lessons. [Copyright, 18S4. by Hrown ft Holland. Ai A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. 157 LESSON II. -POSITION OF WORDS. TN short-hand, words are written in three positions — those ■'■containing first-place vowels in the first position, those containing second-place vowels in the second position, and those containing third-place vowels in the third position. At the beginning of the study, and until the hand is trained to an accurate and uniform style of writing, double-ruled paper should be used, that is, paper ruled with lines about one-eighth of an inch apart, and twice that distance between the lines. The lower hne of double-ruled paper corresponds to the one line of single-ruled paper, and is the one referred to when " the line " is spoken of. On double-ruled paper upright and sloping letters in the first position are written through the upper line, second position between the lines, and third position through the lower line. Horizontal letters in first position immediately below the upper line, second _^ position resting on the lower line, third position immediately below the lower line. When single-ruled paper is used, the ~^ first position is above the line, second position resting on the ~ line, third position througli the lower line, and horizontal let- _ ters under the line. The consonants form the basis or out- — line of a word, and must always be written first, and the vowels inserted afterward. When a vowel occurs before a n consonant, it must be written on the left-hand side of upright and sloping letters, and above horizontal letters. When it is - desired to represent a vowel after a consonant, it must be ~ placed on the right-hand side of upright and sloping letters, and below horizontal letters. All dash vowels are made at J] right angles with the direction of the consonant to which they are placed. ~[. When vowels are inserted in words, the writing is called "vocalized," or "corresponding style;" when the vowels are — omitted, it is called "unvocalized," or "reporting style." — In the short-hand lesson words are placed in three positions, _ according to the vowel used. Read aloud lines I to 8 in- _^ elusive, tracing each word with a dry pen as you read it. Consonants which are written upward — e/, ray, he — are ~J vocalized from the bottom, which is the beginning of the let- ter. The first word in line 9 is eel. Read aloud and trace _ hnes g, 10, 11 and 12. — The object of writing words in three positions, according to the accented vowel, is to indicate the vowels in unvocalized words. , Each of the letters in lines 13, 14 and 15 represents a word. Read these lines aloud, using one of the vowels indi- cated by tlie position of the letter, making a common word, and tracing each character as read. For examjile, the first word in line 13 may be read air, ore, or err. When words are grouped together in sentences, there is no difficulty in determining what word is intended to be represented by the consonant outlines, as the context will indicate the same. When vowels alone are used to represent words, they are called vowel word signs. The vowel word signs in line 16 represent the following words: The, of, all, or, already, on, aught, and, to, two, but, before, should, who, how, you, ah, oh, I. 1 I ' / - V V W •-", ') ^v "T — \ \ 1 1 -/ x i ) -j "„\ ^.\ ^. ^ -V T-V -Tf- ^ A- 3 -V -7^ -Tt -A -^ ^^;:?r :y3: -v. ILZC -^^r-^ ^)-v -TT^ -7^ ~r~r- -Tf=- v^~r /: /; Tf- y -^ ^ ,zi_ y -7^ :^ -7^- -7^ s; -^ -\ ix: -^ -f- \ 1 / - ^Ar -^ -V-f "TT -^ -^ -^ 1 WRITING EXERCISE 11. Copy lines i to 16 inclusive ten times, and transcribe the lines into long-hand. Write the following words in short-hand : Ate, at, awed, ape, Abe, ache, aid, add, are, am, an, all, air, aim, ale, age, ago, allow, alloy, allay, airj-, arrow, away, Annie, annoy, anew. Anno, aha. Be, by, boy, bough, bow, bay. Cow, cue, coy, chew, chaw. Die, do, due, day, dough, liat, each, eve, eel, ear, ebb, Edd, etch, edge, err, eyes, ell, echo, Eva, era, easy, Erie, Emma. Foe, fay, few, fee, fie. Go, gay, gnaw. High, hue, how, he, hay. It, itch, if, ill, ice, icy, in, issue. Jaw, jew, Joe. Key, knee. Lay, low, lee, law. lieu, lie. May, me, mew, mow. New, now, nay, no. Ought, oat, out, odd, off, of, or, oath, ope, ode, oak, ooze, oil, oily, owl, own, owes, obey, our. Pew, pea, paw, pie, pay, pshaw. Row, row, raw, rue, r)'c, ray. Say, so, show, see, sigh, shoe, she, sue, saw, shy. Tie, toe, toy, tea, to, the, they, though, thaw, thigh, thy, thou. Up, use, use. View, vow. Way, woe, we, woo, who. Yea, your, youth, ye, you. J^ .t. 158 A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. 2 1-^ -q ^ V A" /c\ LESSON III —WORDS CONTAINING ONE OR MORE CONSONANTS. the direction. When el begins a word followed Viy kay or em, use the upward el ; when a vowel precedes it, use tlie downward el ; when el is the last letter in a word, w-rite the tf/ downward, if it joins conveniently; when there is a final vowel after it, write el upward, if it joins conveniently. See lines 5 and 6. The curved sign ar is written downward, and should al- ways be used before em. The straight sign for ar (called ray) is always written upward, and should be used before ef, zie, ith, en, ing. In other cases, when preceded by a ^ vowel, use ar ; when followed by a vowel, use ray. When it is the last letter of a word, use ar ; when followed by a final vowel, use ray. See lines 8 and 9. When words contain more than one vowel, the primary or accented vowel determines the position. When any doubt exists, write the word in the second position, it being the most convenient. In the alphabet there is no shaded letter corresponding to em. This sign represents the double consonant mp or iitb, called emp. The reporting style of short-hand is writing consonant out- lines in three positions, without vowels (or "unvocalized"), and the use of word-signs and phrases. Eacli of the conso- nants in lines II, 12, 13, represents a common word. A word-sign is one or more letters written in other than the position of the leading vowel, or a contraction represent- ing the word. The single consonant word signs, lines 15 and 16, represent the following words: Party, dollar, do, had, be, to be, time, it, which, much, advantage, large, com- mon, come, give, together, for, ever, have, however, think, thank, them, was, shall, issue, usual, will, are, thing, language, your, important, improvement. Read and copy exercise 3 ten times, and transcribe it into long-hand, numbering each line of transcript. WRITING EXERCISE III. Write tlie following words lliree times vocalized, and tliree times unvocalized : Acute, arm, ask, alum, arrive, abode, abide, ambush, pie, advantage, are, army. ^^^=¥^ -^ TN combining consonants to form words, they are written in ^ ihe same direction as when standing alone, the second begin- ning where the first ends, the third where the second ends, etc. First-place vowels occurring between two stroke consonants must lie ])laced after the first consonant, and third-place vowels be/ore the second consonant. The first upright or sloping letter in a combination determines the position of the word. In first-place words this upright or sloping letter is written h.alfway tlirough the upper line (see line I ) ; second place words between the lines (see line 2) ; third-place words ihrough the lower line (see line 3). In combinations con- taining two upright or sloping letters the first one determines the ]iosiiion of a word, as in line 4. When the letter el\i joined to other letters, it may be written oil'icr upward or downward, convenience in joining determ'ning am- Beam, bought, babe, bell, I:)ale, bellow, body, bump, bit, bite, bait, boat, liet, body, boot, bat, beauty, be, book, bake, become. Cheek, coat, code, cage, cud, cash, copy, camp, common, come, chalk. Pate, dolly, dare, dish, dash, duly, decay, damp, dairy, dollar, do. Elm, error, earth, embark, embellish, ever, early. Fame, full, feed, foot, fill, folly, fully, fair, fairy, fish, fob, fire, far, fury, for. Genuine, give, hourly, have, however, half, had. Into, it, issue, improve- ment, important. Keep, kneel. Like, love, look, lamb, long, lamp, lump, large, language. Mouth, mule, male, meal, Maiy, many, money, manu.al, much. Nail, namely. Occupy. Peak, pick, peep, pope, ]iure, pale, page, pull, ]>urely, pump, party, pout, pile, pale, pier. Room, roam, roof, rainy, rebuke, revoke, redeem, repair, romp, ring, rosy. Shame, shade, shape, sheep, shore, sheer, share, shall. Talk, team, time, tame, take, look, t night, toad, tool, tide, to be, together, think, thank, them, tiling. Vowel, very. Usual. Which, was, will. Your. \ A SI;LI'"-1NS1KLC1i>K in ^UOK r-UANll. 159 LESSON IV.— THE HALVING PRINCIPLE. By the mastery of lessons i, 2 and 3 the student has al- ready learned short-hand sufficiently to write any word in the English language, and has made all the progress that is claimed for any of the " shortest, easiest-to-be-learned" systems which have ever been invented. A study and prac- tice in writing of what has already been, loarned etjual to tliat which is devoted to learning long-hind writing, would enable the pupil to write sixty words a minute, or three times as fast as ordinary long-hand writing. This, however, would not be sufficient for reporting speeches in which the speed varies from 100 to 200 words a minute. In order to attain this higher rate of speed in writing it is necessary to use abbreviating principles. The simplicity of the primary ])rinciplc-^ of short-hand, as already given, allows the applica- tion of a variety of abbreviating principles, by the employ- ment of which the highest possible rate of speed in writing may be attained. These principles will be introduced ac- cording to our own arrangement in this and subsequent lessons. The halving principle is used as frequently as any other, and is always difficult to learn. We, therefore, give it as the first principle of abbreviation. Each stroke consonant may be made half its usual length to add t or d. When a vowel is written after a half-length letter it is read between the consonant and the added t or 1/, as in "pet," first word line i. When a vowel is written before a half-length letter it is read first, as in " apt," first word line 2. The first position for half-length letters is im- mediately under the upper line, second position resting on the lower line, third position below the lower line. As either / or ^ U 4 4 L J ' 'i^ V^ ^ ^ ' - .w ^^ s \' A iV • ^ 1- ^^ / • ' T^ 1 -\ r ii /X ^ /r^ L 1 \ \ \' 1^^ — ■ ' ■ - ^r \ ^ ^^ V. -b -^ / 1'^ ' \ ^ \.-^ , ,— • ^^ V- '- , -^ \ 9 ^ VV ^ — \ ^^ (■ ^-v ^« ^ >" . \ ^ '■ ^ ^o " A /^ 1 Jl --H v., "11 kX ^ ' -— 1 ^V 1 '\ > 12 -^ -^ , ^ y- ^- .v^ -1 -> , ^ 13 -Z —1 r ^ <- r" ?- .) • |- 14 , 1=1 xl-i A'l ' "^ >i ll ^-1 ^. ll ■ ! ^ 1 15 .V . •<.' ^ 1 /C-l ^ '- 1 V II ' ' 1 -^—1 16 ^ ( r ' ^ - w — ^_ alphabet, assert, awaited, afl'ect, after, astonish. Bet, boat, bait, bad, boot, begged, belt, backed, better. Chat, cut, cat, coat, cot, caged, captivate, could. Date, dead, doubted, dated, deeded, dotted. East, end, ended, editor, evident, effect, evoked, estab- lish. Fight, foot, failed, filed, fold, fitted, faded, feature, future. Clet, got, gate, good. Hate, height, hat, hot, hated, hunted, habit. Invite, induct, indeed, individual, imitated, intellect, intend, intended, immediate. Knocked, kicked. Let, light, lot, lit, load, laid, loved, laughed, lived, lighted, legitimate, little, lately, locate, locked, looked. Met, meat, mode, moveil, mailed, mold, mild, mended, middle, model, mutual, meditated. Xot, night, note, noted, natyre. Oft. Pet, pad, paid, port, paged. Rout, robbed, relieved, removed, repeated, radiated, read. Shut, sheet, shot. That, talked, toiled. Used, un- packed, untold, under. \'ole, viewed. Wait, weighed, written, writing, without. Vaclil. i6o A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. A- IZL LESSON V 53^ THE CIRCLE -t- ^ Ih. -z^ Il_^ -^- -V ■^^ -N5^ UEZIZ \^-^ (a > -J" 12: -,f^-7r-^ ^ ,^ I^ ^v-rt z: -^ .i^ o '^ _z_ ^1. .9^ JB.^^ J^S ^r- "^ 2^ -^ IS 4- ^=0- X -^ iz -fe-^ -^^ ^ "'rxr '^ aJ_o" ^ T7 ^?^~T~^r-^ "f H -^ ':::o ^ 'ttV i > 7^" -^ »»3 V, £ /• ">' ^D 1 '^ -) .1* ^ > -J J- -v ^^^n_\- L^ 1-. 1^ ° o ^ \ \ p - ? ^ -.^s?- ^ y i=^^ -1?- -"=^-^^ 10 11 12 •J5 16 Copy exercise VI. ten times. Transcribe it into long- hand. Write the following words in short-hand : Atheist, assayist, arrest, amazed, amused, announced, antagonist, abstract, analyzed, as-good-as, as-much-as, as-large-as, adver- tisements, advantages, all-his, already-has, astonishes, answer. Beastly, before-his, best, boaster, boasts, but-has. Castor, castors, castle, caucuses, chaste, chests, chorister, coast, coaster, coasts, costly, comes, commons, commonest. Distinct, distinguish, does, dollars, dust, duster, dusters. Embarrass, embezzle, establishments, extraordinary. Faced, facts, fast, faster, feast, feasters, festers, first, for-his, foster, guest, gives. Hands, haste, has-not, have-his, his-has, historj', honest, honesty. Influenced, invest, investigate, is-ever, its, itself, is-not, is-to-be, imposter. Jest, jester, jesters, joist, justify, justified. Largest, last, lastly, lists, luster. Master, midst, most, mostly, muster, must, myself. Orchestra, ourselves, obstruct, of-his, on-his, or-his, ought-his. Parties, past, pester, posts, postal, postage. & "~T A— -F- /• 3: ^•' -^- "•2^7 T~[~ _dr>_ n^z 13 -f- A-^=^-^ "V. ^ -^ -=^- 14 -^- -l— t- T- ~c -t -/y -^^ TT -#- post-ofiice, poster. Raised, raciest, revised, received, rosiest, rooster. Stab, stack, stabbed, state, stage, stag, staff', stake, stare, starry, start, stamp, stain, stairway, stamina, step, stead, stem, steam, stealthy, steamed, stenographer, stenography, stamped, sting, stove, stole, story, stock, stoop, store, storm, stuff", stung, stitch, study, stuff'ed, songsters, sincere, selfish, selfsame, self- made, self-esteem, self-education, self-iwssessed, should-his, sometimes, style. Taste, tastes, testify, testified, times, this-is, thinks, thanks, thoughts, that-is, themselves, thyself, to-his. Vast, vaster, vastly, vest. Waste, west, westward, which-is, whose. Yesterday, yourself, yourselves. Zest. l62 ^ A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. LESSON VII.— "WE" AND "YE" DIPHTHONGS. A^_L ^ -\z-^ -^ -^- ^^^- jk r -k:^ — 3z;r 1Z' y^ -^^^- -^ ir b -^ ^^^ VA 111 T^ sents, _j'aw, j-o, _)'oo ,• an em curve in the position of the three short dash vowels represents yo, yu, yoo. Read line 2. These coalescent diphthongs in the first and third positions may be joined to the consonant when they will form a dis- tinct angle. Read lines 3 and 4. We Hooks. — A small initial hook on /, ray, m, em/>a.nd n represents the letter 7v, the hook is read first. Read lines 5 and 6. A large initial hook made above the letter /: also represents the letter w ; this hook is used in the class of words commencing with qu, pronounced kiv. This hook is read after the k. Read lines 7 and 8. He Signs. — In addition to the stroke form for /u-, given in the alphabet, it is also represented by a c/ie tick, that is, a small tick written downward in the direction of the letter c/ie. The stroke form for he should be used in all words where he is the only consonant, and in many others begin- ning with the letter he. Read line 9. The tick he is only used before those consonants with which it will form a dis- tinct angle, as k,gay, r, m, z and we. Read lines 10 and II. The last five words in line 11, when written in long- hand, commence with the letters wh ; but as the he in this combination is pronounced first, in short-hand it is written first. When a word beginning with hw can be most con- veniently written with the w hook on /, ray, m and K, the he may be omitted. Read hne 12, commencing each word with hiu. Double- Length Letters. — Any curved letter made ^ double its usual length, represents the addition of ther, ter or der. Double-length ing also represents an added ger, and double-length emp an added per or ber. Read lines 13 and 14. Line 15 contains the following word-signs: We, with, were, what, would, ye, yet, beyond, you, while, where, where- with, when, he, their. With and we may be represented by a we hook in phrases. Line 16 contains the following phrases : With-me, with-him, with-whom, with-him-you-will, we-will, we-are, we-may, we-may-be, we-might, we-met. WRITING EXERCISE VII. TN addition to the consonant signs for the coalescents we and ••■ ye, when these letters are used in connection with any of the vowels or diphthongs, they form what is called a coalescent diph- thong, which is represented as follows : A small the curve, that is tlie curved sign resembling the letter the, but only about one-fourth the length of the letter, placed in the position of the three long-dot vowels, represents we, wa, wah ; an eth curve, written in the position of the three short dot vowels, represents wi, we, wa ; a ze curve in the position of the three long dash vowels represents wau, wo, woo ; an es curve in the position of the three short' dash vowels represents wo, wu, woo ; a small right angle in the position of the diphthongs represents wi, wot, wow. Read line i. A small )'«^ curve in the position of the three long dot vowels represents _)•«,_)'«, yah ; an en curve in the position of the tliree short dot vowels represents yi, ye, ya ; an emp cur\e in the position of the three long dash vowels repre- Copy lines I to 16 ten times. Write the following words in short-hand : Aha, another. Betwixt, beyond. Curious. Due, dwell. Father. High, highly, hip, hay, hate, hat, height, hung, hang, hasten, house, harmony, horse, harm, liearsay, her, here, hug, hog, hack, hook, home, hazy, hymn, huzzy, liymental. Inquiry. Leather, letter, latter, longer. Mother. Neither. One, once. Quick, quote, quake, quaiTel, queer, quartz, "quo," quire, query, quack, quest, quilt, quit, qualify. Smoother, Sep- tember, Swede, sweat, swift, swiftest, swing, superior. Twice, twill, timber, twist. Use. Weave wound, wave, walk, waif, wag, wove, wit, wooed, woof, widow, weed, wide, walked, wife, want, war, wanted, warm, Wabash, wardrobe, washing, worship, wall, weary, wilt, worse, wealth, work, well, wool, wear, went, wigwam, Winchester, wampum, window, win, wine, whimper, while, when, wheel, whale, wjiim, whence, wharf, where, whine, whither, weather, wander, winter, wonder, Walter, we, what, wherewith, would, with, were, with-me, with-whom, with-hini-youwill, we-will, within, with-him, we-are, we-may be, we-may, we-miglit, we-met. Year, young, yoke, yet, yon, youth, Yankee, you, ye. A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. "A 03 LESSON VIM.- THE letter / occurs frequently in connection with all other consonants, forming in many words a consonantal diph- thong. It is conveniently represented by a small initial hook made on the right-hand side of upright and sloping, and above horizontal straight letters, as in line i. To distinguish the / hook series of letters from the single consonants, the latter are called fe-fl, bc-el, and the former pel, bel, etc. Although the / hook is made on the beginning of a conso- nant, it is read after it. A vowel after an / hook consonant is read last ; the first word in line I is plea. A vowel before an / hook conso- nant is read first; the second word in line 1 is idle. Read line I. The / hook on the esh and zhe cannot be made on the back of the letter, or on the right hand side, these letters are therefore struck upward, and are never used ex- cept when joined to other letters. The / hook on ray, m, nip, n, ing is made large to represent rel, mel, empl, nel, ingl, and to distinguish it from the we hook on those letters. The initial hook of lie is also made large to represent hel. Read line 2. In half-length consonants on the / hook series, the added ^ or o^ is read after both consonants. Read line 3. .V vowel may be represented between the double conso- nants by making a small circle in the position of the vowel before the double consonant for the long dot vowels ee, ay^ ah, and by a small circle after the double consonant for the short dot vowels i, e, a. The dash vowels are struck through the stem of the letter, except when they would interfere with a hook or circle, when they are written immediately before the consonant, if first-place; and immediately after it, if third-place. Read line 4. When a double consonant of the / hook series is preceded by the circle s, the circle is slightly flattened and made inside the hook, and is always read first. Read lines 5 and 6. Curved Consonants of this series may be made double length for adding tlu-i; to; der. Read line 7. In a few words, where the / hook is preceded by another consonant and a circle s, the hook cannot be made complete, but there is no ditificulty in reading those words. Read lines 8 to 12. The frequently recurring prefixes com and con are repre- sented by a dot made before the beginning of the letter. Read line 13. The aftix ing, when the consonant ing cannot be con- veniently joined, is represented iiy a dot made after the end of the letter. Read line 14. The word signs in lines 15 and 16 are: Comply, complete, people, belong, build, until, deliver, delight, children, child, angel,equal,difficult, collect, glory, follow, value, theology, only. The curved word signs may be made double length for the addition of their-there in phraseography. The last three signs in line 16 represent the phrases: FoUow-their, value-their, only- there. WRITING EXERCISE VIII. Transcribe exercise VIII. and copy lines I to 16 ten times. Write the following words in short-hand: Able, agile, angle. HOOK. ankle, applied, apple, April, awful. Beautiful, belong, Bible, blame, blot, build. Call, camel, calling, canal, casual, casual- ties, child, children, civil, clay, clot, clothed, clouded, close, chcle, connect, commencing, complacent, complete, compel, completing, complex, comply, conclude, concluding, conflict, consonant, context, cultivate. Dangle, delight, deliver, de- veloping, difliculty, double. Enable, enclose, equal, evil, ex- ample, "exclude, explicit, explode, explore, explosive. Fangle, family, female, final, flat, flight, flutter, fly, follow, follow-their, fulfill, funnel. Glad, girl, glory, glue. gold. Halifax, heahng, help, helping. Idle, imperial, initial, initialed, including, in- volved. Mclancholv, military. Oblige, ofticial, only, oral. Pearl, people, peopled, pickled, place, plat, plea, please, pleas- ing. Railway, reality, relent, reply, rule. Saddle, sable, serial, settle, school, shouldered, simplicit'v, skill, stable, supple, supply, supplying. Table, talc, tell, theology, till, titled, told, tolerable, tunnel. Unable, uncle, unhealthy, until. Value, value their, vocalize. Vale, yellow, yield. / .t. 164 A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. ^ ~7\ LESSON IX.-" R" HOOKS. T-V A^ ^1- — 5^^^ A SMALL initial hook on the left-hand side of upright and sloping and below horizontal straight consonants represents r. This is called the per series of double consonants. When speaking o f them we use the one-syllable name per to distinguish them from the single consonants pe-nr etc. Vowels are written either before or after double consonants of the /^>- series, or may be e.vprcssed between the two consonants, the same as in the/?/ series, as follows : For the long dot vowels make a small circle in the position of the vowel before the double consonant; for the short dot vowels a small circle in tlie position of the vowel after the double consonant. Write the first-place dash vowels just ofl the beginning of the consonant ; the second-place dash vowels through the consonant, and the third-place dash vowels ju.st off the end of the consonant. The student will soon become familiar witli the outlines of words, and full vocalization will not be necessary. It would not be convenient to make a hook on the back of the curved letters /, v, ith, the. These letters are therefore reversed to bring the hook on the left side and inside the curve. These forms will not be mis- taken for the similar letters r, -uie, s and z, as the initial r, hook is not used on these four letters. The stem of the letter is shaded in merawA nerio distinguish them from 7vem and -oen. Read lines I and 2. On eight straight consonants of the fer series the hook is made into a circle on the left side to represent the sir series of treble consonants. Read line 3. When the circle is used on the curved letters of the per series it is made inside the r hook, and is always read first. Read line 4. \Vhen s occurs before the double consonant in the middle of a word, both the circle and the hook must be made. Read line 5. When ker and ger follow ts and ds^ tlie circle only is used and is written on the right side of I and d and below the k and^rt)'. Read line 6. After p and b the circle and hook cannot be distinctly made, but there will be no difficulty in reading this class of words. Read line 7. The prefixes in and un before the spr series of conso- nants is represented by a small backward hook; also before ser, sel and sem. Read line 8. When double consonants of X\iQ per series are made half- length, the added t or d is read after both consonants. Observe that although the hook representing r is initial, it is always read after the consonant on which it is used. Read lines 9 to 13 inclusive. The word-signs in line 14 are : Principle, practice, ex- perience, surprise, express, suppress, particular, opportunity, hberty, remember, number, truth. Inline 15; Strength, external, instruct, doctor, during, consider, charity, danger, larger, according, accurate. Christian. In line 16: Correct, character, from, over, virtue, other, short, sure, pleasure, measure, Mr. or remark. WRITING EXERCISE IX. Copy exercise IX. ten times, and transcribe either in long- hand or on the type-writer. Write the following words in short-hand : Archer, azure. Brow. Cedar, charming, charity, cheerful, christian, character, color, court, comprise, consider, correct, criminal, cry, culture. Danger, destroy, descry, discried, disgrace, disagree, describer, disagreeable, discursive, dear, doctor, dray, during. Either, energy, every, everywhere, extra, extreme, examiner, expert, express, expressive. Farmer, figures, former, forgot, from, fraternal, free, further. Greet, grow. Honor, humor. Instruct, instructor, inscribe, insert, insult, inseparable, invulnerable. Labor, larger, learner, lover, liberty. Masterly, Mr. measure, more, maternal, minor, murder. Number. Obscure, occurs, opportunity, over, other, owner. Pray, present, prescribe, practice, particular, prosper, proscribe, principle pleasure. Remember, roller, rumor. Saber, sadder, seeker, surely, sober, spray, strew, striver screw, suitor, supper, suffer, swimmer, sooner, sever, sinner, sailor, seizure, safer, suffering, subscribe, subscriber, scribe, severed, secure, short-hand, spry, strong, strength, sure, strung, spring, separate, suppress, surprise. Tiy, treasure, true, there, truth, through, toward. Unscrupulous, un- seemly, unsalable, unsociable. Virtue. Wager, wager, westerly, writer, wrestler. k- M -=)«<■ A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. =4^ 16:; LESSON X.-"F,' A SMALL final hook on the right hand side of upright and sloping and above horizontal and straight letters 'V" AND TION" HOOKS. ■^ Fir 10 represents either /or v. On ray and he, which are written upward, this hook is made above. The / and v hook is only on straight letters. Read Une I. S may be added after the f at -j hook by making the circle inside the hook. Read line 2. The/and v hooks may be used in the midiUe of words. Read lines 3 and 4. A large final hook made on the right hand side of upright and sloping and above horizontal straight letters (the same side as the f and v hook) represents tion or sion. This hook is also used on the inside of curved letters. Read lines 5 and 6. To represent tions and sions make tlie small circle s inside the hook. Read line 7. The syllable tion is represented after the circle j and loops St and str by a small hook made on the opposite side of a consonant. This s-tion hook is vocalized by writing first place vowels before the end of the consonant, and second jilace vowels after it. Read line 8. When s follows this s-tion hook the circle is made inside the small hook. Read lines 9 and lo. The prefixes inter, intro, and enter, are represented by half- length « joined to the remainder of the word. Read line 11. The prefixes contra, contro, counter, are represented by a disjoined che tick; that is a short tick made downward in the direction of che at the beginning of a word. Read line 12. The prefixes Magni and Magna are represented by a dis- joined m, the remainder of the word being commenced under and near the center of the in. Read line 13. They and 1/ hook word signs in line 14 are: Perfect, whatever, divine, difference, advance, whichever, Jehovah, descriptive, careful, government, reverend. The tion hook word signs in line 15 are: Option, objec- tion, contribution, tuition, condition, generation, imagination, description. The word signs in line 16 are: Correction, glorification signification, revelation, revolution, information, justification, jurisdiction, investigation. Read lines 14, 15 and 16. WRITING EXERCISE X. Achieves, approves, adventure, advocate, advocacy, advent, addition, ambition, aversion, actions, acquisitions, arrestations, accusations, annexation, attestation, advance. Beef, braves, brevity, briefest, bravest. Cessation, cuff, craft, cover, contriv- ance, contrive, confusion, consummation, constitution, consecra- tion, conclusion, confessions, centralization, civilization, connec- tions, contradict, counterfeit, counterfeited, controversy, contra- distinction, contravention, counteraction, counter-irritation, counterpart, countersign, creative, construction, condition, cor- rection, chief Dive, drove, drives, derives, differ, descriptive. -:x- zs: \ ~r ^ ~cZ z. ::£: -^1:::^ ~ir ^/L 12 13 14 v -iFZr^ ■^^—^—^—\^% ^- V -^- r3:i: -77 2- ^h-- "^^ '71~~^~^ - ^-'^ i^: -<-^y ZK ^ -W "^rsr --f=5)- -^- zs X -V :^ "V -^-^ FT^ 3^^:^: ^ -t^ ^^ n O :^^=^3tdi x% -\. -1- -^=^ -^^WT- ^ _^_ t^ ^ 3-^_£32: vr 3ZE -.,*-^ -i^ i_ -V XIZ T ^^ \. \. -tr hZlZ=^ directions, description. Edition, exhibition, emulation, exception enterprise. Fashion. Gave, gifts, govern, generation, glorifica- tion. Hive, half, hallucination, heaven. Intervention, intro- duce, interline, introduction, intercept, interfered, intercourse, interview, intercede, interest, imagination, investigation, informa- tion, illustration. Jove, Jehovah, jurisdiction. Mission, mani- festations, molestations, moralization, magnify, Magna Charta, magnitude, magnetic, magnificent, magnanimous, magnetize, mention. Notions. Oration, obligation, omissions, occasions, oppositions. Pave, proves, prefix, profanity, prevent, position, possession, procession, persuxsion, physician. Reverend, reve- lation, revolutions. Strives, session, stations, suggestion, sym- bolization. Tough, tuition, twelve. Version, vision. What- ever, whichever. *y I Go A SELF-IXSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND - r LESSON Xl.-THE "N" HOOK. ^ \ \ , i y. . .--T-^^-T- C Y /^ U - ■^■''— 2 (. J ^, .y '- A C^ /' ■ 0. c. -■ •,„ J^ r -V n :^A :^ ""^ fcs ~^^ L^ ^^^ -^^^ -> .^ c^. (s> 3^-^ ^vy-^/ 4_. -V v-v -^ =r^^ "V" - ^- >^- 1 K -57- m • ?? s' V ■nj- :^ X- 3ZS: ^ ^ ^ iO ~T~^^ 4^ jnL " V '^ ^- U^^ ^X^ ^li /^ ^ 13 A_ A. XX 14 -^^ -.7^ -r± -j~ v^ "^Z~y" -^ (/ "IT" TT -V T" "2-^- -5l A SMALL final hook on the left-hand side of upright and ^ *• sloping and below horizontal straight letters and on the inside of curved letters, represents «. Read lines i and 2. When the n hook is used on half-length letters, the added / or d is read after the hook. The first word in line 3 is "point." Read line 3. The hook being on the opposite side from the circle s, it is made into a circle on the left-hand side of upright and sloping and below horizontal straight letters to represent ns. Read line 4. When the n hook is followed by the circle s on curved letters the s is made inside of the hook. In order to do this, do not enlarge the hook, but flatten the circle. Read line 5. The K hook is used to advantage in the middle of many words. Read line 6. On straight letters, the n hook may be followed by tlie st and the str loops by making the hook into a small or large loop. Read line 7. The ns circle on sti-aight letters may be followed by the back hook tion. Read line 6. A large final hook on the « side of straight letters repre- sents the termination n-tion. The first word in line 9 is "pension," Read lines 9, 10 and 11. The n hook and halving principle are conveniently used to represent not in phrases. The phrases in line 12 are: Will-not, was-not, did-not, do-not, had-not, have-not, are-nct, shall-not, may-not, am-not, cannot. The final n hook logographs in line 13 are : Upon, pun- ish, been, at-length, eternal, circumstance, denomination, providential, denominations, audience, providence. The logographs in line 14 are: Darken, darkens, religion, general, imagine, religionist, generalized, generalization, gentlemen, gentleman, imagined. Those in line 15 are: Question, signify, significance, begin, begun, began, organize, organization. Those in line 16 are: Often, phonography, philanthropy, herein, alone, men, man, human, women, woman, opinion. WRITING EXERCISE XI. Copy short-hand Exercise XL ten times and transcribe it once. Write the words in Exercise XI. in position, unvocal- — ized. — Write the following words in short-hand : Abandoned, ab- scond, adamant, against, alone, am-not, around, are-not, argument, apprehension, attends, attention, at-length, audi- — ence, assign, assigns, assistant. Balanced, been, beans, begin, begun, began, bound, bonds, bounced, brain, brown. Cone, 5~ canst, canister, carbon, cannot, chain, circumstance, circum- — stances, chant, chance, chanced, counts, conscience, com- pensation, condensation, conden.sations, combinations,- con- s'" sequence, consequential, comprehension, consternation, — Danced, darken, darkness, denomination, denominations, dine, dined, dispensation, dispensations, did-not, donations, dunce. Earn, eternal, event, extend, extension. Fan, find, finds, finish, finance, financial, furnish. Gained, general, generalization, gentlemen, gentleman, gone. Had-not, hence, have-not, hen, heathen, herein, liinls, Holland. Imagine, imagined, infant, infantry, irons. Joints, joined, June. Kind, known. Land, line. Man, may-not, men, mind, mine, minds, monument. Nouns. Often, one, ocean, opinion, organize, organization, ordination, outline. Pain, pens, paints, pension, phonography, pliilanthropy, point, pro\idence, providential, l)uiiish, punster, punsters, question. Rain, retufti, returned, runs, religion, religionist. Shall-not, shown, spinster, spinsters, suspicion, swoon. Then, thin, tent, tendency, thence, town, towns, torment, turn, transition, transitions, transitional. Upon. Vagrancy, vanish, veins, vine. Was-not, will-not, women. 1" -^ V ^ ' A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. 167 LESSON XIl.-CONTRACTIONS, ETC. 10 As in long-hand contractions are often used, so it is found tliat jjrinciples of contraction can lie employed in short- hand writing, which will materially increase the speed of writing, without sacrificing legibility. These principles need to be understood. -A.s a general rule, many derivatives may be represented by the short-hand form adopted fur the root of the word. As derivatives usually form different parts ot speech, there is no difficulty to the experienced phonog- rapher in readily deciphering them. A few special direc- tions in regard to abbreviations is all that will be found necessary in this connection. The letter or letters representing the portion of the prefix preceding con, com, cog, may be joined to the remaimler of the word. The words in lines I and 2 are: accommodate, accommodation, accompany, incomplete, incompatible, inconceivable, recommend ; recommendation, unconcern, unconditional, unconscious, magnanimous, magnificent. Re.ad lines I and 2. The letter /■ fallowing iiig may be omitted in many words. Tlie words in line 3 are : Anxious, anxiety, bank, bank- able, banking, bankrupt, sanction. Read line 3. The letter k may be omitted in many words commencing with ^jr. The words in line 4 are : Expression, expressive, explain, explicit, e.xplore, explode, explanation, expiration, extension. Read line 4. The prefixes con, com, are frequently omitted. The words in line 5 are : Condition, condensation, combine, combination, contend, comprehend, consideration, incon- sideration, construction, instruction, completion. Read line 5. The dot for the aft'ix ing is generally omitted. The words in line 6 are : Doing, trying, combining, compound- ing, craving, crossing, explaining, banking, recommending, buying. Read line 6. Many words which would make lengthy and difficult forms, if written in full, are represented by two or more consonants of the word. Word signs may iie joined either as prefixes or as affixes. The words in line 7 are: -•Vcknovvledgc, acknowledged, assemble, auspicious, become, to become, cabinet, captain. Tine S : Change, common-sense, dignity, downward, hereto- fore, hereafter, knowledge, legible, illegible. Line 9 : Peculiar, especially, examination, cross-examination, re-examination, direct-examination, mistake. Words and phrases in line 10 : Nevertheles.s, notwithstanding, temperance-society, humane-society, in-reply-to-yours, in-reply- to-your favor, in-reference. Line 11 : Inrefcrence-to your, inherit, inheritance, in-receipt, in-receipt of-your, I-am-in-receipt-of-your, short-hand, short- hand-writer. ^~7""T~^ zs: VZ -^1-^ X "^- -V ^ ~7 -Lr -i^ V /V / ■^ :c^ ^ -4- u ^ 11 ^,. M T-=^ ^ =^F^ --^ ^ ^ A^ T 13 z: '71 ? cXlA T \i -^- _C2_ "^T" \ P ^ ^ :xz i5 '21 IC -^- "C^ -^ ^ r^. ^ . \ v : Line 12: What is your name, age, and occupation? Where do you reside ? Line 13: Tnis finishes a course of 12 lessons in short-hand, giving the Line 14: Bcnn Pitman system at a glance, arranged by Brown & Holland, Line 15: Chicago, and successfully taught by them for more than ten years, with the result of Line 16: educating hundreds of short-hand writers, who are now occupying good, paying positions. Read lines 7 to 16. r\ i68 -7\ BOOK-KEEPING. i^ n ^T^-^ p-^m^m^m^^^mMP^m^pMmM P^ptp m n ^^Z ART op- < »-'iJ oo ''tall! -i-g) ] ^ ^^ AND DOUBUe ^^ PJgMrlM P^PMPM PMPliPMgM PMgMPMmlii The Two Systems Compared Side by Side. OOK- KEEPING is the art of recording business transactions in a system- atic manner, so that the results will be readily ap- parent.and so that the con- dition of the business, as to its resources and liabil- ities, losses and gains, may be ascertained with ease and exactness. A knowledge of the science of accounts is necessary to all men, no matter in what business they may be engaged. It is especially valuable as it is demanded in every position in life. There are two sys- tems of Book-keeping, Single Entiy and Double Entry. The former is mainly used where transactions are limited to the business of retail dealers, and where it is only necessary to record the details of purchases and sales for cash or credit. A single entry of the account in the Ledger is am- ple for the purpose of a record. But where business is done on a large scale, such as jier- tains to a wholesale house, it becomes necessary to have recourse to the more satisfactory though more intricate system of Double Entry. Instead of making only one entry of a transaction, as in the simpler method, two are made — first on the Dr. or Cr. side of one account, and again on the contrary side of some other account. The advantage of this double entry is that the mer- chant can always inform himself of the exact state of each account, and not alone of the goods sold, but of what he has on hand, without the inconvenience of often taking an account of stock. Then again it is a check by which errors may be easily detected. Books Used in Single Entry. In Single Entry only three books are neces- sary — Cash-Book, Day-Book and Ledger. All moneys received or paid out are entered in the Cash-Book. If goods are purchased for cash, the money being paid away, the entry is made on the Cr. side, " By Merchandise per Day- Book." The cash should be balanced as soon after the last day of the month as possible. A record of the transactions of each and every day in the order in which they take place should be entered in the Day-Book. The name /' ^ "S \ BOOK-KEEPING. 169 / of the customer is entered in full, with the term Dr. or Cr. annexed, according to the nature of the transaction — Dr. when goods are sold to him, and Cr. when goods are bought or received from him. The date of each entry must be in- serted, and the names and addresses of custom- ers written in full. Goods purchased or received on credit are entered under Cr., and the entry preceded by the word " By." When goods are sold on credit add "Dr." to the person's name and residence, and begin the entry with the word " To." When abatement for discount or short measure is allowed by you, enter the person Cr., and when similar allowance is made to you, enter the person Dr. Every transaction is entered in the Ledger from all other books, with certain references, indicating the sources from which the items are derived. Each customer's name has a certain space allotted to it, in which the goods sold ap- pear on the Dr. side and the cash received on the Cr. side. Books Used in Double Entry. In Double Entry the principal books used are the Day-Book, Cash-Book, Journal and Ledger. The first-named book should contain the prin- cipal transactions occurring in the various stages of business. Entries should be fully intelligible, from the fact that it contains the greater portion of the matter from which the other books are made. All transactions in which cash has any part must be entered in the Cash-Book at the time they occur, in the same manner as other entries are made in the Day-Book. In the Journal are entered and methodically arranged the scattered items of the Cash-Book and Day- Book. The Ledger is the most important of all the books in the series, and into it are transferred the entries from the Journal, under their separ- ate heads. To facilitate the finding of particu- lar accounts, an inde.x-book is used in connec- tion with the Ledger, in which the names are alphabetically arranged, with the number of the / page of the Ledger opposite each. The very important fact mu.st not be lost sight of that eveiy item is entered twice, once on the Dr. side of one account, and once on the Cr. side of another account. How Entries are Made. If a person buys merchandise to the amount of ^1,000, for which he pays cash, the entry would be made as follows : Merchandise, Dr. To Cash $i,cxx)!oo $i,ooo'oo The first entry shows what the merchandise has cost him, and the second shows that he has paid away cash amounting to ;^ 1,000. Accounts are opened with Cash, Merchandise, Bills Paya- ble, Bills Receivable, Interest, Commission, etc., in the same manner as personal accounts are treated in the Single Entry Ledger, all items received or disbursed being debited and credit- ed to their account. To make it still plainer, suppose George Smith sells a quantity of goods to Peter Aylmer, and charges him ^50 commis- sion; the entry would be made in this fashion : Peter Aylmer, Dr. To Commission $So'oo I $5000 If the same party owed Aylmer the same sum of money and gave him a note for the amount with ;^5.oo interest added, it would be entered thus: Sundries Peter Aylmer Interest To Bills Payable $5000 5I00 $SS|oo There are two styles of accounts, Real and Representative. The latter class embraces such as Commission, Interest, etc., and should be deb- ited and credited for what they cost or pro- duce. By doing this, when the books are bal- anced a person can tell at once exactly what these representative accounts have cost or pro- duced. How to Detect Errors. It is customary among merchants to have a set time for the adjustment of their account \ T BOOK-KEEPING. / books, and for this it is necessary, before tak- ing a general balance, to prove the posting of the Ledger by taking a trial balance. To do this the accountant adds all the Dr. sides into one sum, and all the Cr. sides into another. When the Ledger has been correctly posted these two sums will be equal ; but if they do not balance the cause of the difference must be looked up at once. Sometimes a sum is enter- ed to a different account than the one to which it belongs, but on the same side, and the sums will still agree. To find such an error as this, the Journal and Ledger should be compared by two persons, the one reading from the Journal, and the other scanning the accounts in the Ledger, and checking them when correct. When a Journal entry is omitted or twice en- tered in the Ledger, the summing up of the latter will not show the error. To find it, how- ever, it is necessary to foot up the Cash re- ceived. Cash paid, Bills Receivable, Bills Payable and Day-Book entries, and the sum will always agree with that side of the Ledger which is cor- rect, leading easily to the detection of the error. How Errors are Made. Very frequently errors are made in journal- izing the subsidiary books and in posting the Ledger, such as debiting or crediting one per- son or account in place of another; omitting entries ; making the sum too large or too small, etc. Immediate attention should be paid to er- rors of this kind, not by an erasure or interlin- eation, but an explanatory entry in the Day- Book. That is then to be journalized like a regular transaction and posted in the Ledger. For instance, in the Ledger of May loth, Rich- ard Klotz is debited to Bills Payable, but on the 30th of May it is found that this entry should have been posted to John Dobbins' account. John Dobbins is therefore debited to Richard Klotz in the Day-Book, and the mistake is thereby explained. If any account has been overposted, it must be either debited or credited for the excess ; and if it has been underposted. a new entry must be made upon the same side for the deficiency. When an entry has been entirely omitted, it must be made as soon as discovered, mentioning when omitted. When an entry has been posted twice, it may be cor- rected by entering the amount on the other side, noting the fa9t of its being twice posted. The greatest care should be exercised in mak- ing original entries, as they are the most dangerous of all. Balancing books should not be delayed beyond a specified time, for, the longer the time, the more difficult the correction of an error. Where an account has been under- paid for a year or so the person may have sub- sequently died, failed, retired from business, or otherwise become inaccessible. Thus a positive loss is sustained which might otherwise have been avoided. Subsidiary Books. Among the subsidiary books generally used is the Petty Cash-Book, in which a record is kept of the various charges incurred in trade, too trifling to be entered separately in the Cash- Book. This book is balanced monthly, and the total amount of expenditures transferred to the Cash-Book under the head of Petty Cash. The Bill-Book is used in the same manner in Single and Double Entry. A separate book should be kept for Bills Receivable and Bills Payable. When a note is received it should be imme- diately entered under the head of Bills Receiv- able and duly numbered ; and when a draft is accepted, or note paid away, it should be en- tered as Bills Payable. In some cases merchants keep a Cash account and Bank account separately. Thus, if they have §5,000 on hand in cash and should deposit §1,000 of it in the First National Bank, they would debit or charge the bank with the amount and credit Cash for the amount paid away, and when they draw any portion from the bank they credit the bank with the amount and debit Cash with it ; or, if it is paid away to any person, he is charged with it. In large establishments the / \ BOOK-KEEPING. 171 Bank account is frequently kept in a separ- ate book. THE TWO SYSTEMS. z^- ®_ In the following pages are given three sets of accounts, exemplifying thoroughly the theory and practice of Single Entry and Double Entr>' Book-keeping. Of the Double Entry sets, the first is a very simple one, and designed to prepare the student for a thorough understanding of the second, in which has been introduced the feature of com- bining the Journal and Day-Book, and which also presents two methods of closing the Led- ger, as will be explained further on. The Cash-Book, in Double as well as in Sin- gle Entry, shows on the debit side all cash re- ceived and on the credit side the cash paid out, and the excess of debit consequently shows the exact amount of cash on hand. The form used in both systems is the same, with this exception, that in Double Entrj', where the posting is done direct from the Cash-Book, a column is ruled off next to the date column to show the folio of the Ledger. The balances may be brought down weekly, but when the entries are numerous it would be better to balance the Cash account daily. Money received or paid on account is entered in the Cash-Book as well as the Day- Book. The first and last thing to remember in study- ing Book-keeping is that The thing received is Dr. The thing delivered is Cr. Or, What you owe is Cr. What owes you is Dr. Debit what costs value. Credit what produces value. Book-Keeping by Single Entry. In the pages immediately following we pre- sent to the student a set of books kept by Single Entry. The Day-Book affords a regular daily history of every transaction, giving details and particu- lars. The entries in the book are direct and simple, first stating the name of the person to be debited or credited on the Ledger, ex- pressed, respectively, by "Dr." and " Cr.," and giving the consideration and amount. These entries are transferred under the proper heads in the Ledger, which in Single Entry exhibits the relation in which persons with whom we deal stand to the business. An account in the Ledger should be transferred to a new folio be- fore it crowds upon the one below it. The Day-Book and Ledger contain only transactions relating to persons. A prudent business man, however, will feel the necessity of keeping a record of receipts and disbursements of cash, the issue and redemption of his own notes and the receipt and disposition of the notes of others, and for this purpose will keep a Cash-Book and a Bill-Book. The Cash-Book is here given in full. In view of the thorough ex- planations appended, the form of the auxiliary books is not given. The words and figures in italics would in practice be entered in red ink, as illustrated in the Double Entry sets. VL A 172 SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. Dr. Cash. ISS3. Nov. 1 To Charles Evans, invested by him " Thomas J effers, " " '* " Edgar Hatch, on ^ To Balance on hand from 3d inst. " I Bureau, Mahogany Veneered " Bills Receivable, Martin Stevens* Note, Evans* favor. '• John Roberts, Arm Chair for Office $50 64S 60 00 oS 00 7SS 08 Nov, S l 10 674 22 S 98 00 CO CX) 826 9S Nov, 12 '4 16 "7 To Balance on hand from loth inst. " I Pint of \^amish " Standing Cupboard '* I Reclining Chair " 2 Ottomans " I Walnut Bedstead, 64S 7 4 60 50 75 00 00 50 6S6 35 Nov. 19 22 To Balance on hand from 17th inst, " Steamboat Vint Shinkle, part Bill of date ^ • S9S 150 23 00 74S 23 Nov, 26 7.0 To Balance on hand from 24th inst. " 2 Mahogany Rocking Chairs Walnut, O $12.50 *' 2 Walnut Bedsteads, fai 4.50 " I Doz. CaneSeat Walnut Chairs 24.CO " 1 Child's High Chair 1.25 " " Rocking " I.2S " Edgar Hatch, in full " Repairing Tables " Chairs 474 25 9 26 62 2 I S3 00 00 50 75 f 62 1SS3. Dec, 602 oS , To Balance from Nov. 30lh, 1SS3 47" 98 \ SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. 173 / SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOQK. Cash. Cr. I8S3. 1 Nov. 2 By C. R. George, Bill of Lumber ? 75 60 " 3 " BiUof CoM V» " " " Balance in Bank ^Ojo, in Sa/t- ^24.08 674'qS . 75S oS Nov, 5 By Joseph Maynes, Bricklaver, Repairs to House 5' 50 " " ** James Wright, Painting Hdusc 22 00 " 8 " Samuel Hudson, in full of jf 6700 ** " '* One pair of Pinchers 38 " 10 " Wages paid hands ^.50 " " " Balance in Bank ?t2o, in Safe ^28.60 648 ta 82608 By Samuel Hudson, part Bill of Paints, etc. ] Nov. 16 5000 " ■7 '* Wages paid hands 38J.2 " Balance in Bank ^S^S-SO, '« -^'f/e f72.7j J9S •IJ ^ 6S6 3S Nov. 22 By Bills Payable, Evans' Note, Smith's favor, $200.00 Less Discount from date to Jan. 6th, 1SS3 1.50 19850 " 2.? ** Charles Evans on ^ 10 00 " " " Bill of Varnish ■3 50 " " " Gas Bill 1425 *' ^^ *' Dravagc of Furniture 50 " '* *' Wages paid hands 36 65 " " Balance in Bank $470^ in Safe ^4.83 474 Ss 74S|23 Nov. 27 By Bill of Veneering 25|6o " 29 " Thomas Jeffers, on f 2500 " •' " Glazing one Light of Glass 25 " 30 " Rent of Shop, one month 40 00 " '• *' Wages paid hands 39 ^5 " Balance in Bank ^4()o.so, in Safe ^rr.48 47' 9* . 602 oS \ IV 174- SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. St. Louis, November ist, i88j. V- Charles Evans, Cabinet-Maker, associates with himself Thomas Jeffers — JEvans transferring; to the firm such portion of his resources and liabilities as is mutually agreed upon, and Jeffers investing their equivak-nt in Cash. The parties are to share alike in gains and losses. Charles Evans, By Cash invested " Sundry Notes he holds against others, per B.-B. " Bal. of Edgar Hatch's jS " " Maurice Perry's {t " Materials and Unfinished work, as per Inventory '* Stock of Furniture, " ** *' " Tools, " " To Sundry Notes he owes, per B.-B. ** Bal. due Samuel Hudson, on ^ " " Richard Kelso & Co., on ^ Dr. Thomas Jeffers, By Cash invested Edgar Hatch, To Bal of his i due Charles Evans Maurice Perry, To Bal of his ^ due Charles Evans Samuel Hudson, By Bal. of Charl js Evans' * assumed by US Richard Kelso By Bal. & Co., of Charl es Evans' >! assumed by us Edgar Hatch, To I Hair Cloth Mahogany Sofa By Cash on ^ 3d Cr. 5th Peter Fowler, To 9 Mahogany Chairs, Cane-Seats, ® I1.25 " 6 " " Hair-Cloth Seats, (a> 3.00 " 2 Cherry Dining Tables, (3) 6.00 " I Maple French Bedstead " I " Low-Post Bedstead Osmond Ray, To I doz. Windsor Chairs " 1 Spring-Seat Black Walnut .Sofa Samvicl Hudson, To Cash in full Richard Kelso & Co., By Bill of Lumber To our Note ® 30 days in full of their ^ Sth yth Dr. Edgar Hatch, To I Ash F'ootstool Andrew Cummins, To 3 Patent Ofiice Chairs 'a) 5.00 Cr. 50.00 350.00 5S-75 37-+0 356-50 210.43 151.20 421.00 67.00 75-20 Dr. Dr. 11.25 iS.oo 12.00 4--5 Dr. $12.00 ® $15.00 7.50 " 10.00 5.00 21.00 Dr. Cr. 563 64S 67 4S '35 210 5° A^ ^y^ -.>- r^ SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. 175 "71 SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. S(. Louis, November 12th, 188 j. Edg:ir Hatch, To I Red Walnut Dining Table Francis AVatkins, To 2 CluUlrcn's Low Chairs, ® Jj.oo John A, Crowe, To 3 doz. Windsor Chairs, tSi ?i i.oo " I Rocking Chair ];dj;ar Hatch, To ^ of Osinoiul Ray, assumL'd bv him Osmond Rav, Ey transfer of f to Edgar Hatch Samuel Hudson, By Bill of Paints, Varnish, etc. To Cash in part Francis "Watkins, To I Walnut Book-case Edgar Hatch, To I Hat-stand, Mahogany Veneered Francis Watkins, To Varnishing i Table Steamboat Vint Shinklc, To 3 Mahogany Sofas, ® $15.00 " 2 " Tetc-a-Tctcs, " 16.00 " I " Rocking Chair '* 4 *' Arm Ch.airs, " S.oo '* 2 doz. " Chairs, " 30.00 " 14 Cherry Wash-stands, *' 2.00 '• 14 Looking-glasses, " 2.00 By Cash in part payment Charles Evans, To Cash on ^ A. E. Ford, By Bill of Lumber Tlioinas Jeffers, To Cash on f J ohn A. Crowe, To I Mahogany Bureau Francis Watkins, To I Black Walnut Centre Table 13th iSlh i6th Pr. 19th 22d Edgar Hatch, To 1 Mahogany Bureau, with Glass Cr. 23d 26th 2yth 3ot!i John A. Crowe, By 1 Mahogany Bureau, returned because it was toc) large for the room Edgar Hatch, By his Note fS) 60 days " Cash to Bal. i Dr. Cr. Dr. Dr. e).oo 32.00 12.0O 32.00 60.00 2S.OO 2S.OO ■lo A- 45 50 ■75 ^6 JO 00 23' ■50 >9 -N A, ra ^ ^ ^ (3\ 1 176 / SINGLE EXTRV LEDGER. ' Z);-. SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. Charles Evans. 0\ Jvov. 1SS3. Nov. I To Sundries " Net Capital at starting To Cash on )! " JVf/ Co/, to New i I 2 563 '20 b4S\oS 1SS3. Nov. 1SS3. Nov. 1SS3. Dec. I By Sundries I 1,211 2S 1,211 2S 00 3S i 1,211 64S 140 2S oS 30 3S 23 30 10 778 I Bv Net Cap. brought down 30 '' 5 Net Gains 7SS 7SS 1 By Net Cap. from old f 77s 3S Z?r. Thomas Jcffers, Ci\ 1SS3. Nov. 29 30 To Cash on ^ " .AV/ Co/, to New ^ 2 25 7b3 00 3l_ ■SS3. Nov. ■SS3. Dec. 30 By Cxsh invested " \ Net Gains Hy Net Cap. from old i I 648 140 oS 30 3S r 7SS 7SS I 763 Z?;'. Edgar Hatch, 0\ 1SS3. Nov. I 3 9 13 '5 To Charles Evans •• Sofa '* Footstool " Dinin)!; Table " Osmund Ray AmU to folio I I I 2 2 2 1 55'75 20I00 I 50 40100 4S|50 1SS3. Nov. 3 r.y Cash ^ Am^t to folio 1 2 60 00 00 ib2 75 60 Dr. Maurice Peny, Cr. 1SS3. Nov. I To Charles Evans I 37 40 Dr. Samuel Hudson, Cr, ■SS3. Nov. 1SS3. Nov. 8 To Cash To Cash " £al. to New f I 2 67 00 00 26 18S3. Nov. 1SS3. Nov. 1SS3. Dec. 1 By Charles Evans By Bill of d.ile By Bal. from Old f I 2 67 00 16 30 SO lis 16 ■75 26 >7S '75 125 26 26 I Dr. Richard Kelso & Co. Cr. 1S33. Nov. 9 To Bills Payable 1 210 20 1SS3. Nov. I 9 By Charles Evans •' Bill of dale I I 75 135 20 00 20 210 20 210 Z*/'. Peter Fowler. Cr. < 1S83. Nov. S To Sundries I ♦s -s k / \| 9 ^T" i » ' ■• "r ^^ -? ^ <5 >>• ^ G I \ SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. 177" > Dr. SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. Osmond Ray. Cr. 1SS3. Xov. S To Sundries > 45 50 1SS3. Nov. '5 By Edgar Hatch 2 4550 1 1 Dr. Andrezu Ctimmins, Cr, 1SS3. 1 Nov. 9 To Office Chairs I 1 1500 Dr. Francis Watkins. Cr. 1SS3. Nov. '3 16 20 To Children's Chairs '* Book -case '* Varnisliing 2 2 2 4 >S 00 00 50 50 1SS3. Nov. 20 Bv Hal. to folio 2 19 50 '9 10 5?_ Z?r. John A. Crozve. . Cr, .SS3. Nov. .SS3. Dec. 13 2y I To Sundries " Itureau To Hal. from Old f 2 3 42 00 00 00 00 ■ SS3. Nov. 30 3' By Bureau '' Sa/. to New i 2 19 42 00 00 61 61 00 42 - Dr. ^ Edgar Hatch. Cr. .SS3. Nov. 15 i6 To Am't from folio '• llat-srand ** Bureau I 2 2 162 10 2."; 75 00 00 75- 1SS3. Nov. 30 By Am't from folio •* Sundries 1 2 60 '37 00 75 '97 '97 75 Dr. Steamboat Vint Shinkle, Cr, ■SS3. Nov. ■ SS3. Dee. 22 To Sundries To Bal. from Old f a 237 00 00 .SS3. Nov. 22 30 Bv Cash '' ]3 LIABILITIES. Cash on hand per C.-B. Debts due the firm per Ledger , Bills Receivable per B.-B. i Furniture per Invt. Book 1 Materials, etc., per Invt. Book ' Tools, per Invt. Book Total assets Deduct liabilities Firm's net capital or present worth 471 264 300 776 239 141 98 ■5 75 79 95 Debts the firm owe per Ledger Bills Payable per B.-B. Tot.-il liabilities 221 431 66 20 2,19462 65286 6S2 36 i,S4" 7fi ASSETS, INCLUDING PARTNERS' DEBITS. LIABILITIES, INCLUDING PARTNERS' INVESTMENTS. Total assets per above statement Cash paid Charles Evans " Thomas Jeffers Deduct Firm*s net gains Each partner's K = ?MO.30' 2,19462 10 2S Total liabilities per above statement Charles Evans' investment Thomas Jeffers' investment 65^ 64S 64S oS oS 02 2,229 ^2 l,949'o2 '.9»9 2S0 60 /■ i n r 4 - "■ -^ c '»*' BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 179 ^¥3 HE distinguishing feature of Double Entry (3^ is in carrying out a mathematical principle of equilibrium, under the titles of debtor and cred- itor, or debits and credits. To preserve this equilibrium, every debit must have a credit or credits to balance the amount, and, vice-versa, every credit must be balanced equally by a debit or debits. In Single Entry a record is kept of resources and liabilities only ; in Double En- try is added a record of gains and losses. The Day-Book is the original book of entry and should contain in a concise and unequivocal form a consecutive history of transactions, in the order and on the date of their occurrence. The purpose of the Journal is to decide upon the proper debits and credits in each transac- tion, preparatary to entering them in the Led- ger. The process of thus classifying transac- tions by debits and credits is caXled journalizing. Very often the Day-Book and Journal are com- bined in a "Journal Day-Book," as in Set II. The Ledger is the final book of entry, and in it are arranged, under the proper accounts, all facts necessary for a full statement of the busi- ness. EacK of these accounts exhibits one of the four following results, viz. : A resource, a liability, a loss, or a gain. The process of transferring accounts from the Journal to the Ledger is called posting. To close an account in the Ledger, add the debit and credit sides separately on a slip of paper, and, if the totals thus obtained are not equal, subtract the smaller from the greater. This difference is entered in red ink to make up the deficiency of the smaller side. Then rule with red ink and enter the totals in black. The red ink entry is then transferred in black to the opposite side of the account into which it is closed. When both columns are equal the to- tals are simply entered in black, and this indi- cates that the account is cancelled. When there are more entries on one side of an account than on the other, a line is drawn, after closing the account, obliquely across the vacant space. This line commences at a double rule opposite the double rule under the totals, and extends thence in the direction of the last figure in the column. The Key to Journalizing. Remember that the key to all journalizing is stated in the two old lines which the student would do well to memorize : " By Journal laws ".chat you receive Is Dr. made to ivhat you give." By referring constantly to this rule and ex- amining each entry in the Journal or Journal Day-Book by its light, the whole mystery of Double Entry Book-keeping will become clear. /' \ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. -^^~- THE PRINCIPLES. An account is a statement of facts and figures relating to some person, property or cause, so arranged as to show a specific result. As stated on a preceding page, there are two classes of accounts, Ufa/ and Representative. In other terms, accounts showing resources and liabilities, and accounts showing losses and gains. The for- mer are closed " To Balance " or " By Balance," and the latter " To Loss and Gain " or " By Loss and Gain." Some accountants use the words " Profit and Loss," instead of " Loss and Gain." The following rules, embodying the principles of Double Entry Book-keeping, will be found to cover in a concise form all points which gen- erally confuse the student groping through a voluminous treatise : TXvi proprietor or \h^ partners in a business should be cred- ited for all investments and for the gain or share of the gain, and debited for liabilities assumed, for all sums withdrawn from the business and for the loss or share of the loss incurred. Where there is only one proprietor he is represented on the books by Stock, but in a partnership business each partner's ac- count is kept under his own name. The Stock account and partners' accounts are closed •'To Balance" or "By Balance." The Cash account is credited for all disbursements and debited for all receipts of cash. It always closes "By Balance." A Bank account shows on the debit side the amount deposit- ed, and on the credit side the amount withdrawn, and closes " By Balance," unless the account is overdrawn. The Merchandise account is credited with the proceeds and debited with the cost of merchandise on hand at commencing and purchased in the course of business. When the merchan- dise has all been sold, as in Set I., the difference between the sides will show a gain if the credit side is the greater, and a loss if the debit side preponderates. Real estate, personal property and speculative accounts come under this rule. The Bills Receivable account is credited when the notes, acceptances or obligations of others are disposed of or paid, and debited when such obligations are acquired. This account always closes "By Balance." The Bills Payable account is credited when notes, etc., of the firm or business are issued, and debited when they are paid or redeemed. It always closes " To Balance." Personal accounts, including the names of persons, banks and corporations or institutions competent to sue or be sued, are credited when we become indebted to them or they get out of our debt, and debited when they become indebted to us or we get out of their debt. These accounts are closed "By Bal- ance" or "To Balance." The Expense account is debited for liabilities incurred and cash paid out for which no direct return is expected — such as salaries, rent, etc. This account closes " By Loss and Gain." The Loss and Gain account is debited with losses and credit- ed with gains, and closes "To Stock" or "By Stock." Under the head of Interest and Discount are debited and credited all allowances for the use of money on notes, drafts, etc. Credit the account when it produces value ; debit the ac- count when it costs value. This account closes " To Loss and Gain" or "By Loss and Gain." SET I. By way of initiation into the principles and practice of Double Entry Book-keeping we present in Set L the record of simple business transactions. It will be observed that all trans- actions are first entered, in the order of their occurrence, in the Day-Book, from which they are transferred to the Journal, or journalized, and thence they are posted to the Ledger. The established form of Journal entries requires the debit expression to precede the credit. There- fore, in applying the preceding principles to the first entry in the Day-Book, using the word Stock to denote the proprietor, we have as our first Journal entry, " Cash, Dr., to Stock, $2,- OOO." When one person or account is indebted to another in a certain sum, the latter is the creditor of the former to the same amount. This is the foundation of Double Entry Book-keep- ing, the most important characteristic of which we now encounter in transferring the first trans- action to the Ledger, where it will be doitbly entered, on the Dr. side of the Cash account, and on the Cr. side of the Stock account. The check-mark (] ) in the Day-Book is to indicate that the transaction has been carried to the Journal, and the figure in the first column of the Journal shows the page of the Ledger to which the account is posted. The number in the Ledger column immediately preceding the amount refers, in turn, to the Journal page. How to Close the Ledger. The purpose of closing the Ledger is to show the state of each account in a single amount, to do away with the unused accounts, and to ascertain clearly the general results of the busi- VL -^1 ^i \ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. l8l ncss. In this process all the losses and gains are gathered together in the Loss and Gain account, and there compared, the gains being placed upon the credit, and losses on the debit side. When the credit side is the greater the account is closed "To Stock" and shows a net gain. The oppo- site entry, "By Loss and Gain," is made in the Stock account and increases the capital. When the debit side is the greater, the account shows a net loss and is closed " By Stock," and the op- posite entry in the Stock account, "To Loss and Gain," indicates a decrease in capital. The first step in closing the Ledger is to take a Trial Balance, that is, to make a systematic arrangement of the Ledger accounts, with their proper debit and credit totals and differences. If the Ledger is correct, the total debits will equal the total credits. The ne.\t thing in order is to ascertain by an inventory the value of all goods and property unsold and credit the amounts in red ink to the proper accounts, "By Balance, Inventory." The opposite entry is afterwards made on the debit side of the Balance account in black ink. Thus, if the Merchandise ac- count has in red ink the entry, "By Balance, Inventory, $i,6oo," the corresponding entry in black in the Balance accoimt will read, "To Mdsc., $i,6oo." In Set I. the entire stock is sup- posed to have been sold, and consequently no entry of this kind will be found. Now a Loss and Gain account is opened, if this has not been done previously, and also a Balance account. In the first are to be entered in black ink all accounts closing " To Loss and Gain " or " By Loss and Gain," showing the profit and loss on each account. In the second are to be enter- ed all accounts closing "To Balance" or "By Balance," show- ing the resources and liabilities. Close first all accounts to which inventory balances have been carried. Tlie differences between the sides of these accounts will show gain or loss, and the closing entry, in red ink, will express the difference — "By Loss and Gain" or "To Loss and Gain." Having finished these accounts, the other accounts in the Led- ger, excepting Stock and partners' accounts, are closed in red ink — "To" or "By Loss and Gain," or "To " or "ByBal- ance." The "Loss and Gain" and "Balance " red ink entries are now carried in black ink to the opposite sides of the Loss and Gain and Balance accounts. The Loss and Gain account is now closed, in red ink, "To Stock" or " By Stock." In a partnership business each partner is credited or debited with his share. The process of closing the Ledger is now completed by tak- ing the difference between the sides of the Stock account and entering in red ink " To Balance " or " By Balance," which is transferred in black to the Balance account. Balance 'Sheets. The balance sheet given for Set II. is tlie most condensed form for a partnership business. The style and symmetry will commend it to all accountants, while the fulness of the illustrations must satisfy all. The form has been used for a long time, but has never been adopted to any great extent by busi- ness men, the objection being its inadequacy to contain long lists of personal accounts. This objection can be overcome by using, instead of persons' names, the general titles Accounts Receivable and .Accounts Payable. In nearly all kinds of busi- ness this will reduce the number of accounts within the limits of this form. The following rules should be used in preparing this form : First rule the parallel head-lines, leaving space for the double captions. Then ascertain the number of Ledger accounts to be represented. This will, of course, embrace all the accounts in the Trial Balance that do not cancel. If the business is that of a single proprietor, rule in pencil as many lines as will contain all the accounts, and five additional. If it be a partnership busi- ness, with two or more partners, rule three additional lines for each partner. Next lay off proper spaces for debit and credit money columns : first, for the footings of Ledger accounts ; sec- ond, for Gains and Losses ; third, for Stock ; and fourth, for Re- sources and Liabilities; also, for a single money column for in- ventories, and for the Ledger titles and their Ledger folios. After denoting the proper space for each heading, commence to rule with red ink at the right hand and bring all the lines of the first two captions, Real accounts and Stock, or one of the part- ners, down to the lower pencil line. For the other partner drop two lines. For Losses and Gains " drop two lines, for Stock business ; and an additional line for each partner. Then rule the foot-lines as shown, and the schedule will be ready to receive the accounts. Auxiliary Books. All accountants, where the business is any way large, keep what are termed 'auxiliary books. Among these is the Intentory- BoOK. It is used to enumerate the different articles of unsold merchandise, at such times as may be deemed desirable. In- ventories are frequently copied into Invoice-Books. An Invoice is a statement in detail of goods sold, shipped abroad or consigned to another to be sold. The Invoice-Book is used for taking copies of the invoices which accompany goods purchased or received on consignment. Some houses, instead of copying, paste their invoices in a blank Invoice-Book prepared for this purpose. This book, while showing tlie entire cost of merchandise, will also exhibit the separate credits pro- ducing merchandise. If a lot or package is distinguished by a peculiar mark, that mark is transferred to the invoice, thus serving an important purpose in checking the articles, adjusting disputes, etc. Bills Receivable and Bills Payable are usually bound in op- posite ends of the same book, termed a BlLI,-BoOK. This book should never be omitted, and especially is it important to keep a record of the amount and condition of notes payable. The Sales-Book contains all the regular sales, cither for cash or on time. In houses doing a mixed business the Sales-Book and Commission Sales-Book can with equal propriety be kept together or separate, as convenience may dictate. V- J^J ^r BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. SET I. DAY-BOOK. (I.) St. Loins, December ist, i88j. V ,/ Commenced business this day with Cash to the amount of Bouglit of Armstrong" & Co., on t , i,ooo brls. Flour, fS) $6.00, Sold Jesse Jameson, for Cash, 300 brls. F^lour, © $6.50, Sold John Williams, on ^, 250 brls. Flour, ® $7.00, Sold Wm. Moore, on his Note ® 30 days, 15a brls. Flour, fS) $7.00, Bought of Joseph Wheelock, on our Note © 60 days, 500 bu. Wheat, © $1.00, Sold Albert St. John, for Cash, 100 bu. Wheat, %\.iS-, 100 brls. Flour, ® $6.75, $125.00 675.00 Paid Cash for Stationery and Books for use of Store, Bought of Edwin EUerton, for Cash, 300 brls. Flour, 5 3.32s 100 38,385 /• K- 184 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. =k.- Dr. SET I. LEDGER. (I.) Stock. Cr. Dr. ■883. Dec. I To Stock, 3 " Mdse., 12 " '■ '7 " 22 2S " Bills Receivable, 29 " Mdse., 1884. Jan. I To Balance, Dr. 1883, Dec. 1 I To Armstrong & Co., 10 ' " Bills Payable, IS i " Cash, 18 " W. L. George, 26 " Howard Harrison, 7/ I "' Loss and Gain, Dr. 1883. Dec. 3' To Balanct, 3.S70 1883. Dec. I 31 By Cash, '* Loss and Gain, By Balance, I 2,000 I.S70 3,SJ0 3.S70 1SS4. Jan. I 3.570 1 Cash. 2,000 '.950 800 600 2.730 3.325 11,920 10,270 1SS3. Dec. 14 15 3' Armstrong & Co. Cr. By Expense, I 50 " Mdse., I 1,500 *' Expense, I 100 Balance. L2 lo.rjo ^.^^--^^^^ 11,920 Merchandise. Cr. 18S3. 6,000 Dec. 3 I Jy Cash, i 1,950 ! 5oo| 5 ' John Williams, i 1,750 1,500 7 , ' Bills Receivable, i 1,050 750 ,2 ' Cash, I Soo 8,250 ■7 1 ' " I 600 "^ 7,720 i 20 22 27 ' Bills Receivable, I ' Cash, I ' A. A. McHatton, I 2,730 6,000 j 29 1 ' Cash, I 3.32s 18,720 18,720 Cr. VL. 1SS3. Dec. 3' Dr. 1883. Dec. Jan. To Mdse., To Balance, L2 1SS3. Dec. 1S84. Jan. I Bv Mdse., I ! By Balance, /okn Williams. 1.75 ■,750 6,000 Cr. Lt ',7iO \r. SET I. LEDGER. (2.) Bil/s Receivable. Cr. I8S3. Dec. 7 20 .884. Jan. I Dr. To Mdse., To Balance, 1,050 TS5S 1,050 1883. Dec. 28 By Cash, 31 I " Bitlanct\ Bills Payable. 1 1 /.ojc- >.S6i 1 1 Cr. 18S3. Dec. 3' To Balance, L2 JOO 1883. Dec. 10 .884. Jan. 1 By Mdse., By Balance, 1 500 Soo Dr. Expense. Cr. I8S3. Dec. H 3' Tq Cash, I I so 100 1 1SS3. Dec. 3' 1 . ; By Loss and Gain, ISO Dr. 1883. Dec. 3' Dr. To Balance, W. L. George. T.2 ISO 1883. Dec. 18 \ 1884. Jan. 1 I By Mdse., By Balance, Howard Harrison. Cr. I 7S0 1 7S0 Cr. /S83. Dec. "^" Dr. To Balance, L2 8,350 1883. Dec. 26 I .8S4. Jan. By Mdse., By Balance, A. A. McHatton. 8,250 8,250 Cr. 1S83. Dec. lSS4.~ Jan. 27 To Mdse., To Balance, Dr. 1883. Dec. 3> 3> 31 3' To Cash, *' John Williams, ** Bills Receivable, " A.A. McHatton, Dr. X 6,oao 1883. Dec. 3' 6,000 1 . ■ By Balance, Balance, L. Li La L2 10,270 ',750 1,050 6,000 1 IS83. Dec. «( 1 31 3' 31 ■ 3« 3" 19,070 By Armstrong & Co., •* Bills Payable, " W. L. George, " Howard Harrison, " Balance {net capital)^ Loss and Gain, L2 Ck Li L2 L2 L2 6,000 500 750 8,250 5vJ7o .9,070 Cr. 1883. Dec. 31 3' To Kxpense, '• Stock {net gain^i. k- v'ls" L2 Li ISO 'xSTO 1,720 1883. Dec. 31 ( By Mdse., Li 1,720 "T,72o fv i86 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. ^ A Dr. SET I. TRIAL BALANCE— FACE OF LEDGER. Cr. J 1 ,920! 17,000 1.750 1.565 150 6,000 ss^ss Stock Cash . Merchandise Armstrong & Co. J ohn "Williams Bills Receivable Bills Payable Expense W. L. George Howard Harrison A. A. McHatton EqiaUbriiim 2,000 1,650 iS,72o 6,000 500 750 8,250 38,3851 L TRIAL BALANCE— DIFFERENCES. Dr. Cr. Stock, Ca.^h, Merchandise, . Armstrong & Co., John AVilliams, ] Bills Receivable, ! Bills Payable, E.\pense, . \V. L. George, Howard Harrison, A. A. McHatton, 10,270, '.75° 1,050 ISO 6,000 19,220 *, ^-. o G 1 \ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 187 DOUBLE isEilL- ENTRY. DAY-BOOK AND JOURNAL COMBINED. ^H^ N the system given in the following pages, ^*^ the main feature is the combination (?^S of the Day-Book and the Journal. This form is the most practical in use for general pur- poses, and has been adopted by accountants in all branches of business. Its chief advantage is in dispensing with a separate Journal, and in bringing the Day-Book and Journal entries into such immediate connection as to leave no doubt of their identity. In this set by Merchandise Companies is meant the temporary copartnership existing between the consignor and the con- signee, having reference to the sale of particular consignments. In Merchandise Company busi- ness, one of the partners, the consignee, is the commission merchant, and, in that capacity, re- ceives and disposes of the property as he would of a simple consignment, the only difference be- ing that he is interested in the losses and gains. This species of copartnership differs from that of a general partnership only in its duration and the manner of conducting its sales. In the first method, exemplified by the three Merchandise Company accounts A, B and C, in the month of April, the principle recognized is that the holder of the property is responsible for it. Thus, when we receive from James A. Wright & Co. an in- voice to be sold on joint account, we debit Mdse. Co. A with the invoice and expenses, and credit the consignor with the cost of the invoice, thus making ourselves responsible for the property as if it were all our own. The consignor's entr}', if recognizing the same prin- ciple, will be to debit us for the entire cost of the merchandise. In the second method, shown by the three Mdse. Co. accounts D, E and F, the principle recognized is that the owner of the property is responsible. For example, when we receive from George Allen & Co. merchan- dise to be sold on joint account, we debit Mdse. Co. D with our own share only, and credit the consignor. The consignor's entry in this case, if made to correspond with ours, would be to debit us for our share, and "Shipment in Co., to St. Louis," for his share. However, the final result is the same in both cases. So far as ab- solute right and responsibility is concerned, the second method is correct, the principle recog- nized being that the owner of the property is responsible. The only advantage possessed by the first method is that the Mdse. Co. account shows its entire cost. For the month of April the Ledger is closed without the use of a balance account by bring- ine down the resources and liabilities under their proper accounts. This is the business method, and if each month is supposed to represent a year, this would be a good instance of the man- ner of closing books at the end of each year. The method of closing by Journal entries as shown in the month of May is used frequently, though requiring more labor and possessing no advantage over the other. The books used in this set are the Journal Day-Book and Ledger. VL Al •V o ^ ^ « .> 1 \ 1 88 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. / p * } SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. St, Louis, April 2, i88j. (1.) 1 2 J . 2 I 1 2 2 John Adams and Arthur Astor have this day entered into copartnership, under the style and firm of Adams & Astor, in the prosecution of a general Commission and Grocery business ; to invest in equal amounts and participate alike in gains and losses. Cash, Dr. 10,000 10,000 1 12,500 ; 3.900 j 7S 3.900 4,000 1,400 3.300 800 10,000 10,000 9.000 84 3.416 3.900 ii 3,800 JOO 4,000 1,400 3.300 10 "7 336 336 1- SO 25 To John Adams, For amount of his investment. First National, Bank, Dr To Arthur Astor, For amount of his investment. • • \ Bo't of John Adams his store and fixtures. 3 4 3 2 3 Merchandise, . Dr To John A. Fargo & Co., Bo't on ^, 5 casks Brandy, 300 gals. fS) $2, .... • • $ 600 1,800 1,500 30,000 lbs. Bacon Sides, ® 5|?, .... To Cash, Paid for set of Books. Mdse. Co. A, Dr. To Sundries Received from James A. AVright & Co., Pittsburg, to and risk, each .^, Soo kcijs Nails, © $3 be sold on our joint i $2,400 1,400 To James A. Wright & Co., Their invoice as above, " Cash, Paid freight, Mdse. Co. B, Dr. To Butler &. Carlton, Received from B. & C, Sedalia, Mo., to be sold on our j 500 brls. Flour, fS) ^ oint i and risk, eacli 2, Cash, Dr. 400 kegs Nails, <& $3.50 Bills Receivable, Dr To Mdse. Co. A, . . . Sold Joseph Stanton, on liis note (a) 30 days. fl,8oo 1,500 400 kegs Nails (a) $3.75 Mdse. Co. A, Dr. To Sundries, .... Closed Company sales with James A. Wriglit X- l"o., : of the same. To Stora<:,e AND Adv., " Commission, Our charges ® 2\'fi on $4,700, " J. A. Wright & Co., Their i net gain, " Loss and Gaxn, Our " " ml iL-nd ■red them an f 49.87s =. 49.87s 1 I e /* V 9 a "■ ^^ ZJ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. {2.f Saint Louis, April 6, i88j. 189 -A Amounts brought forward . . . . Butler At Carlton, Dr. To Sundries Shipped them, to be stfld on our joint ^,e:ichS, 20 lihds. Sugar, 24,000 lbs. /a) 5f ?i.200 100 bags Coffee, 14,000 lbs. fSi 10^ 1.400 100 boxes Raisins *® $3 300 Bo't of J. Wills & Co., on our Note © yo days To Bills Payable; For above Note, " Cash. Paid Insurance, ^ f on $.;,ooo James Scott, Mdse. Co. B, To Mdse. Co. B, Sold him f® 30 days, 500 brls. Flour ® ?7, Dr. To Sundries Closed sales in Company with Butler & Carlton, of Scdalia, Mo., and rendered them an ^ of sales. To Storage andAdv., Our Charges " Commission, 2^ 56 on $4,500 " Butler & Carlton, Their ^ net gain " Loss AND Gain, Our " " .*.... g Sundries, Dr. To Merchandise Cash, Bills Receivable, Sold John Tyler, 30,000 lbs. Bacon $3 — 16 Merchandise, To Cash, " J. Wills & Co., Dr. To Sundries, Bo'tof J-AVills &Co., 30 hhds. Sugar, 30,000 lbs., (3) 6^. Paid in hand, Balance on ^ , . . , ; jS Sundries, Dr. To Cash, Expense, Paid clerk hire to isth, Arthur ASTOR, Priv., Paid him on ^, . I Sundries, I Cash, Interest, Dr. To Bills Receivable, .... John Tyler has discounted liis note in our favor, due May 12th. Proceeds of note, Discount off, 22 days, 3 ^ Butler & Carlton, Dr To Loss AND Gain, Received on Account Sales of the Mdse, sent them to be sold on joint account on the 7th inst. Our ^ net gain as above. 23 Sundries, J, G. Holland, Peter Curtis, To Merchandise, " Cash, Dr. To Sundries, Shipped J. G. Holland, Memphis, to be sold on joint i of J. G. Holland, Peter Curtis, of Cairo, and ourselves, eacli 3, 33 hhds. Sugar, 30,000 lbs., fS) 630 $1,950 Freight on same 50 For his and our | above invoice. $2 ,000 As above. Paid Freight, 6 John Adams, Priv., Drew on Private ^ . To First National Bank, Butler & Carlton, Cash, Dr. 93.726 900 25 To First National Bank, Paid their draft on us in favor of James Flood. 2S Dr To Store and Fixtures, Received rent for upper floors to date. Steamer Missouri Belle, Dr To Steamer Missouri Belle Stock, For our share of earnings of last trip, as per statement rendered this day. 30 Expense, Dr. Loss AND Gain, To Cash Sundry expenses to date, as per Expense-Book. 30 Dr. To J. G. Holland For our \ net loss on shipment of Sugar for joint i of Holland, Curtis and our- selves, of the 22d inst., as per Account Sales this day received. 1,800 SO. 'SO 995173 4 300 1.333 34 666 pd ■/s 1,500 250 ■59 ■■5 103,119 I 93.726|2S 800 1,000 300 1,950 50 968 1.500 250 ■59 ■■5 103,119 /• \ a ^ .^ « > 1 \ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 19 I 1 SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. {A.f St. Louis, April JO, i88j. 1 i 3 1 Amounts brought forward 103,119 2,683 I 105,807 103,119 9o| 2,688 90 Cash, Dr To John Adams, Amount invested this day. • 90 105,807 90 6 7 2 2 2 7 ; 2 f 7 6 1 1 6 7 S 7 3 St. Louis, May ist, i88j. 1,460 8,500 909 909 -SO 37 2.370 i.fyfro 1 Mdse. Co. D, Dr. To Sundries, Received from George Allen, St. Joseph, to he sold on our joint f , each \ loobrls. Cider Vinegar, (3) $7 40 h'f kegs White Lead, fa) $^ $700 2,000 120 i ! ' M>o 5° 8,500 1 11 1 .,800' '^1 $2,820 I-'iKST National Bank, Dr To Cash Deposited. Sundries, Dr. To Sundries, Shipped Watson Weed, Springfield, 111., to be sold on joint f , each 4, 200 brls. Mess Pork fa) $9 Drayage charges Watson Weed, For his ^ above invoice ?i,Soo iS Shipment IN Co. i. " ourj " '* To Merchandise, As above, "Cash, Paid Drayage, .... Cash, Dr To Mdse. Co. I) ^ Sold to Richard Pralt, 100 brls. Vinegar © $7.50 j 750 1 i Insurance, Dr. To Cash J 1 3750 ».37o 50 7S i ■r«7' 1 *>' 50 "6.S9S50 Effected Insurance for $5,000 on any property that may be in our Warcho 1st-. $2,250 120 ccimnt Henry Green & Co., Dr To Mdse. Co. D, Shipped them to Chicago, as per tlu-ir order, Sobrls. I.inscL-d Oil (2) $45 40 h'f kegs White Lead fa) ?.^ Payable ® Sixty Days. Mdse. Co. D, Dr. To Sundries, Closed Sales in Company with George Allen, and midered him an A Sales. To Ciiarges, Storage, Advertising and Insurance, ........ *' Commission, 2.i?(.f3,i2o *' George Ai,i,EN, For his ^ invoice $1,411) and net gain $61 " Loss AND Gain, " Our J net gain i '6,595 1 ," /• \ 9 •I' s ^ 'T*' 192 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (5.) .k= St. Louis, May 5, 188^, Amounts brought fonvard, Expense, Dr To First National Bank, Paid advertising bills per check. . 7 __ Mdse. Co. E, Dk, To Sundries, [ Received of George Emerson & Co., of Vicksburg, to be sold on joint ^ of them- I selves, M. S. Clay & Co. and ourselves, each J, 100 hhds. Sugar f® $60 $6,000 To Geo. Emerson & Co., For our \ Invoice, '* First National Bank, Paid freight per check, S I Mdse. Co. F, To Hugh Spencer, Our \ above invoice, '* First National Bank, Freight per check, Dr. To Sundries, Received from Hugh Spencer, Topeka, to be sold on our joint ^ , each ^, 500 brls. Pork, r® $9. $4,500 250 do Lard, 50,000 lbs., (3) 51?. 2,500 $7,000 Sundries, Bills Receivable, Interest, Cash, Dr. To Mdse. Co. E, Sold George jenks, 100 hhds. Sugar, © $75 Received in payment, Frank H. Wells' note, dated January 1, 1&S3, due one day after date, Due to date on above note, For balance, Mdse. Co. E, Dr. To Sundries, Closed Mdse. Co. E..and rendered Account Sales of the same to George Emer- son, and M. S. Clay & Co., of Vicksburg. To Charges, Storage, Advertising, etc., *' Commission, 2.^^ on $7,500 " Geo. Emerson & Co. Their net proceeds, ** M. S. Clay it Co., Their net proceeds, " Loss AND Gain, Our J net gain, Cash, Dr. To Bills Receivable, , Joseph Stanton has paid his note, due this day. First National Bank, Dr. Deposited. To Cash, sundries. Mortgage Payable, Interest, Dr. To First National Bank, Paid on mortgage, favor of Patrick Fields. Amount applied on mortgage In full to date 2,500 Bills Payable, Dr. To First National Bank, . . . . Paid our acceptance, favor James A. Wright & Co., due this day. 5,000 123 2,376 3,300 4,000 4.500 *S7 John A. Fargo & Co., Dr To Bills Payable, Accepted their draft on us payable fS) ten days sight. — 14 —^ 3.900 Cash, Dr. Sold Adam Kauffman, 500 brls. Pork, fSl $9.50 To Mdse. Co. F. 4.75* 60,489 25 1 16,595] 50 150 2,OOC 500 3.500 500 7.500 50 1S75O 2,254 16 2,254; 17 2541 17 4.657 4,136 50 25 3.900! 4,7SW 60,48935 A.. ra C! t- ' P \ \ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. ^ 193 SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (6.) St. Louis, May /j, iSSj. -• 7 3 Amounts brought : Henry Green & Co., 1 1 60,4892s 27s 1 275 »AS 3,000 SO 16S 3.<»5 6.5 '5 7S 62 62 Dr Received advice from H. G. & Co., Chicago, of an error in an Account Sales of last year's business, in which wc were credited too little by the above amount. 2,60c 44 OS 01 7 2 2 svndries, Cash, Interest, Cash, Dr. To Henry GREEN& Co., Sold our draft on them (q> thirty days sight. Net proceeds, 2,000 2.750 4S437 6,siS 62 7,000 10,000 1 1 1 i ! 1 2 S s 3 7 5 S S 2 2 4 2 2 7 7 7 5 5 2 2 s 6 2 ^7 Dr To Mdse. Co, F, Sold John \V. Welsh, 250 brls. Lard, 50,000 lbs., ® 4^. . Sundries, Mdsf.. Co. F., Loss AND Gain, To Charges, " Co^I.MlSSION, " Hugh Spencer, Dr. To Sundries, Closed "Mdse. Co. F," and rendered Hugh Spencer, Topeka, an of the same. Account Sales 2.^ Son sales, . $3,500 Less \ net loss . . 4S43S Hugh Spencer, Dr , To Cash, ..••••• Remitted him in full of ^. Cash, First National Ban Dr 7,000 To Bills Receivable, Received payment in full for William Cook's note of April 13th. ■23 <, Dr JO.OOO Soo 2,SSl 3.900 4.S00 1,000 »4 To Cash, Deposited. Watson Weed, Dr Soo To Shipment IN Co. No. I, . Received an Account Sales of 200 brls. Mess Pork, shipped on the net proceeds as above. 2d inst. Our George Allen, Dr 2,SSl 3.900 To Bills Payable, Accepted his draft on us i® thirty days sight, favor of W. H. Walk his due. er, for amount IliLLs Payable, Dr To Cash, Paid our acceptance favor of John A. Fargo & Co., due this day. Cash, Dr 1,000 i To balance ^. J.Wills & Co., jO Dr To Cash, To balance )(. 1 1 ios,»40 >oS,»40 1 1 \ y I? t' a •' 'v \ 194 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. -A SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (7.) St. Louis, May j/, /t?500 Mortgage Payable, S Balance, S Balance, Interest, S Balance, 3 Loss AND Gain, 3 3 Loss and Gain, 3 I 1 S Balance, 4 5 Commission, 3 Dr To Balance, Amount due on Mortgage. Dr. . Amount on hand. Dr. . Balance on deposit. Dr. . To First National Bank, To Balance, Amount due from us to date on Mortgage To Interest, , Amount due us on ^ F. H. Wells' note. To Interest, Cost over proceeds of Interest. To Expense, Balance of Expense Account. To Bills Receivable, Note on hand (F. H. "Wells). To Loss AND Gain, Gain on Commission. 4.575 09 21,337 iSo 1S37 146 Sj 2,500 4.500 4.575 ,09 3M37SO ^^37 146 S2 213 ■S 2'3 'S 1 ISO ISO S.ooo 5,000 434 :;5 53.87s 43425 S3.87S|iS ^ \ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 19s SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (8.) St. Louts, May ji, i8Sj. Amounts brought forward. Bills Payable, Dr. To Balance, S3>S75 ■«, S3.S7S '"< 10,781 I 10,781 5 Peter Curtis, J. G. Holland, Our outstanding Notes. Dr To Balance Amount due him. Dr To Balance, Amount due him. Dr To Ste.vmer Missouri Belle Stock, Valuation of our interest in Steamer Missouri Belle. 5.340O' 1.954 W Balance, Balance, I-oss AND Gain, To Steamer Missol'RI Belle, 4 Loss AND Gain, Charges, Dr. . Amount due US. Dr. . Balance due us. Dr. . Our loss on shipment. Dr. . Cost of insurance. Dr To Loss AND Gain, Gain on storage, advertising, etc. To Watson Weed, To SlIIl'MENT IN Co. I To Inslrance, Geo. Emerson & Co., Dr. .•\mount due them. Dr. . M. S. Clay & Co., To Balance, To Balance, Amount due them. 3 Loss AND Gain, Dr. To Sundries, Net gain carried to Partners* ^ . To John Adams, His ^ net gain " Arthur Astor, .>...■.. John Adams, Dr To Balance, For amount his net capital. Arthur Astor, To Balance, For amount his net capital. 5,34001 ' .9.54 99 250 '.709 109 ■.709, 37 5° '50 4,254 16 37 5" 150 .'54 17 :,oSo :>» 40 1,34" i" 1,34" -o '3,>30 57 ^3,n°s 121,311 la. iaa,3ii 12 / \ -o V ,*- n i — i- , • < \ 196 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. / Br. SET II. LEDGER. (1.) yohn Adams. Cr. 1S83. Afr. 3' To Balance, To J. A., Private, " Balance, I '4,639 2b 1883. Apr. 2 30 30 By Cash, *' Loss and Gain, By Balance, " Interest, " Loss and Gain, 1 4 , L3 10,000 2,6SS 1.940 90 36 14,629 26 14,629 26 May 1 8 200 1S.7SS H May 1 31 31 Li 7 8 14,629 ■5 1,340 26 68 20 H 1S.98S ■4 i 1S.9SS . Dr. Arthur As/or. Cr Afr. 31 3" To Balance, To A. A., Private, ** Balance, Li 11,9^0 J7 1SS3. Apr. 2 30 By First National Bank, " Loss and Gain, By Balance, " Loss and Gain, I L3 10,000 1,940 37 37 37 20 11,940 37 ! ".940 May 1 s ISO I3>i30 57 May If I 31 Li 8 11,940 ■.340 ■3,2Sos7 13.2S057 1 Dr. 5/1?^^ and Fixtures. Cr 1S.S3. Apr. 2 JO 1 3" To Sundries, " Loss an^l Gain, To Balance, ** Loss and Gain, 1 12,500 /,S00 ISS3. Apr. 1 j May 2S 31 By Cash, " Balance, Inventory, By Balance, 3 Li 1,500 I2,yZ'^> 14,000 = 14,000 - May Li 7 12,500 2,500 7 1 15,000 15,000 15,000 = Dr. Mortgage Payable. Cr 1SS3. May 11 3' To First National Bank, " Balance, 5 7 4.S00 4,500 ; ■SS3. ! Apr. 2 By Store and Fixtures, I 9,000 — 9,000 9,000 ( \ tJ ^ \ 9 ■? to »■ - "• • ■^ ^ ~7\ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. Dr. SET II. LEDGER. (2.) Cash. Cr. 1883. 1 ! 1 iS33. 3,4»6' Apr. 2 To John Adams, 1 io,ood Apr, 2 By Store and Fixtures, | I •' S " Mdse. Co. A, I 1,400 " 3 ' Expense, I 75: " 9 " Mdse., 2 Soo *' 3 ' Mdse. Co. A, 1 1 "oo] " '3 " Mdse. Co. C, 2 3,000 6 ' Butler & Carlton, 2 id " '4 " Mdse., 3 900 9 ' Mdse. Co. C, 2 20o| " 20 " Bills Receivable, 3 995 73 41 12 ' ' Str. Missouri Belle Stock, 3 5,000 " 2S '• Store and Fixtures, 3 1,500 1 t> 16 ' Mdse., 3 q " 30 " John Adams, 4 2,688 90 , *' iS ' Sundries, 3 ^^.^ 1 *' 23 ' " 3 H ^^^"""^ " 30 ' Expense, 3 1 IS9| ^^^-"""^ . 1 30 ' Balance^ Lz ii,2t>g 1)3 ai,a84J63 21,284 *3 May I To Balance, L2 11,26963 , May I By First National Bank, 4 8,5001 " 3 " Mdse. Co. D, 4 750 " 2 * Sundries, 4 iSi " S " Mdse. Co. E, .■; 2,376 53 ■' 3 ' Insurance, 4 3750 " S " Bills Receivable, s 3,300 " .0 * First National Bank, 5 4,ooci " '4 " Mdse. Co. F, 5 4,750 " 17 • Hugh Spencer, 6 6,5'S!6» " ■S " Henry Green & Co., 6 2,60905 " 23 ' First National Bank, 6 10,00c " '7 " Mdse. Co. F, 6 2,000 " 26 ' Bills Payable, 6 3,900 " '7 " Bills Receivable, 6 7,ooq " 30 • J. Wills & Co., 6 1,000 " 28 " James Scott, 6 4,5a: 2: 3" * Balance, 7 4,57^09 38,54^ 1 38,54621 1 i :i 1 1 ■■ 1 .1 Dr. First National Bank. Cr. 18S3. - 1 1 1 1 .883. - 1 1 Apr. 2 To A. Astor, I 10,000 Apr. 25 25 By John Adams, " Butler & Carlton, 3 3 200 96S|75 To Balance, L2 1 ■ JO " Balance, By Mdse. Co. D, Lb 4 S,83l2j 1 io,ood IO,OOC May X 1 8,S3.i 25 May I so (1 1 " Cash, 4 8,50d 5 " Expense, 5 ■5t " 10 " " 5 4,000 7 " Mdse. Co. E, 5 Soc " 23 " " 6 10,000 7 " Mdse. Co. F, 5 Soc ^^-^ 1 II " Sundries, 5 4,65, so ^ — J2 " Bills Payable, 5 4.'3i5-5 21,33/150 ^^-^"^^ 1 I 31 " Balance, 7 3i^>J2S j 31.331; 25 1 1 1 Dr. Interest. Cr. /■ 1883. Apr. 20 3° To Bills Receivable, '* Loss and Gain, To Mdse. Co. E, " First National Bank, " Henry Green & Co., " John Adams, " Balance, 3 1 1 427 79 73 18S3. Apr. 2 By Store and Fixtures, By Balance, *' Loss and Gain, I 7 7 84 12347 15750 +4 95 1^68 1 1^37 84 May 8 11 15 31 31 S 5 6 7 7 May 31 31 .46 213 82 15 wcjgy 35^ 97 \ I ■ ra ,. rsT 198 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. SET II. LEDGER. (3.) Dr. Expense. Cr. ISS3. Apr. 3 iS 30 To Cash, <-. <. To First National Bank, I 3 3 Ij V 1 75 50 ■59 I 'SS3- Air. ?,■) \ A'v 7,>fv nn.i (7.7.-V, By Loss and Gain, • L3 sX, 284, 150 a8+ May S U^y 31 9 •so .1 ' Dr. Butler & Carlton. Cr. .SS3. Apr. 6 1 " 20 1 2S ' Dr. To Sundries, *' Loss and Gain, '' First National Bank, 2 [I 2,915 3 300 3 96S75 4,l53 75 1SS3. Apr. By Mdse. Co. B, Merchandise. 4,000 iS3!7S f«8j!7S Cr. 1SS3. Apr. May Dr. 3 16 To John A. F.irgo & Co., " Sundries, I 3 3,900 i.Soo ■ SS3. Apr. 9 ■4 n By Sundries, "' Cash, *' Sundries cnior; , 2 3 3 i,Soo 900 1,950 L3 6,450 i,Soo By Sundries, 4 6,450 To Balance, May 2 T,8oo 1 - - Loss and Gain. Cr. ■f &- i?S3. .SS3. Apr. 30 ToJ. G.Holland, 3 ■■5 Apr. 6 By Mdse. Co. A, I 336'2S " 30 " Expense, L3 284 " 7 •■ Md'.e. Co. B, 2 ■83 75 ■ "'r^hn Adnms {lift gain), Li 'mo J'' " 13 " Mdse. Co. C, 2 340 Ulor {netffain). Li ',W ■■: ** 20 " Butler & Carlton, 3 300 " .^0 " Store and Fixtures, Li 1.500 ^^ " 30 " Interest, L2 79 73 y^ " 30 " Mdse., L3 750 ^-^ " 30 " Storage and Adver., L4 60 ^ (■ 30 '* Commission, LS 480 To Mdse. Co. F, 73 1 37~ 30 " Str. Missouri Belle Stoolt, By Mdse. Co. D, L6 250 4.279 4.279 73 Xray '7 6 May 3 4 61 " 31 ** Interest, 7 »>3 «S " 8 " Mdse. Co. E, 5 254 17 ** 3> '* Expense, 7 ISO " ■S *' Henry Green & Co., 6 275 " 3> " Shipment in Co. I, 8 109 " 3' *' Store and Fixtures, 7 2.500 *' 3' ** Insurance, 8 37 SO ,, •' 3' ** Commission, 7 434 2.'! 3' " Sundries, 8 2,6Sol 3.674 40 1 42 3' •' Charges, 8 "SO 3.674 42 \ V BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 199 SET il. LEDGER. (4.) Dr. Joint A. Fargo & Co. Cr. 1SS3. May 12 To Bills Payable, 3.900 .SS3. Apr. 3 By Mdse., 3.900 Dr. Mdse. Co. A. Cr. 1SS3. Apr. 3 To Sundries, 6 1SS3. 3,900 Apr. 5 By Cash, Soo " 6 " Bills Receivable, 4.700 1,400 3,300 4.700 Dr. James A. Wright & Co. Cr. 1SS3. .\pr. 9 To Bills Payable, 1SS3. 4,136 25 Apr. 3 By Mdse. Co. A, 6 " " " " 4.136 -S 3.S00 3362s 4. "36 -^S Dr. Mdse. Co. B. Cr. .SS3. Apr. 4 To Butler i Carlton, " 7 " Sundries, 1SS3. 4,000 Apr. 7 By J ames Scott, 500 4.500 4.500 4.500 Dr. Bills Receivable. Cr. 1SS3. Apr. 6 "To Mdse. Co. .»i, " 9 ** Mdse., " 13 " Mdse. Co. C, May 1 To Balance, " I 8 I " Mdse. Co. E, L4 S 3.300 1,000 7,000 1SS3. Apr. 20 By Sundries, By Cash, 11,300 10,300 5,000 May S "7 3' '5. 300 Balance, 11,300 3.300I 7.000 5.000 ■5.30O Dr. Storage and Advertising. Cr. ias3. Apr. 6 Hv Mdse. Co. A, 7 ■'• •• •' B, ■3 C, 30 60 v_ JM BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. Dr. SET II. LEDGER. (5.) Commission. Cr. iS»3- Apr. J° To Loss and Gain, To Loss and Gain, 1 1-3 7 ! 1SS3. Apr. 6 7 ■3 By Mdse. Co. A, " B, C, By Mdse. Co. D, " E, F, 1 2 2 1 i'7iSo 11250 230 480 4S0 May 3' 434I25 ' May i 3 S ■7 4 S 6 78 187:50 16S7S 43+ 2S 43+25 1 Dr. Bills Payable. Cr. 1U3. Apr. 30 TV Balanc; To First National Bank, " Cash, '* Balance, I-S 5 6 S 1 11,036 ay 18S3. Apr. 6 9 12 By Butler & Carlton, " J;i3. A. Wright & Co., " Str. Missouri Belle Stock, By Balance, ** John A. Fargo & Co., " Geo. Allen, 2 2 2 5 6 2,900 4.136 5.000 12,036 25 12,036 2S 25 25 May 12 26 31 4.136 3,900 10,781 May I 12 26 12,036 3.900 2,881 25 18,817 25 18,817 2S Dr. 1SS3. Apr. 7 To Mdse. Co. B, Dr. yaiiics Scott. 4,500 1S83. May I 28 By Cash, Mdse. Co. C. Cr. 4.S00 Cr. Apr. 9 To Sundries, " I 13 " " Dr. 1SS3. Apr. I 23 To Sundries, I 50 I " B»lanct^ May 31 To Balance, : 1 8,700 1,300 11 10,000 — ■ 3 Ls Apr. 13 By Sundries, Peter Curtis. Ill >8S3. I j66 Apr. 9 ByMdse. Co. C, S,3^".•■' " "3 I 6,00667 5,34001 , , May By Balance, Cr. Ls 5,66667 340 6,oo6J67 SJ40 0' \ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. .» SET II. LEDGER. (6.) / Dr. I8S3. Apr. May »3 JO 3' To Sundries, " JSaiance, To Balance, J. G. Holland. 3 il >.333]34 /.ft 1 1 /.(y<|w 8 I _3.2SSI35 '.95+99 >8S3. Apr. I 9 ! By Mdsc. Co. C, May 30 Loss and Gain, By Balance, Cr. L6 2.S33 340 "S 3.>SS 33 '.9S4 I 99 Dr. 1SS3. Apr. 13 To Sundries, " ■ Loss and Gain, May ' X To Balance, Steamer Missouri Belle Stock, 2 10,000 10,250 L6 ' 10,0001 1SS3. Apr. 2S By Steamer Missouri Belle, u ^j " BalaHC£, Inventory . May 1 31 By Balance, Cr. 3 8 1 10,000 Dr. J. Wills & C 0. Cr 18S3. May 30 To Cash, 6 [. 1883. i,ooO| Apr. 16 By Mdse. 3 1,000 1 Dr. 18S3. Apr. as I To First National B.ank, Dr. Dr. Arthur Astor, Private • Cr 1SS3. Apr. 18 To Cash, 18S3. : 3 150 May 31 By A. A., Stock, 1 7 'S John Adams, Private. 18S3. 200 May 31 By J. A., Stock, Steamer Missouri Belle. 1SS3. Apr. I 2S To Str. Missouri Belle Stock, 3 «Sr. Ins2irance. Cr. 18S3. May 3 To Cash, 4 37 JO 1 May 1 31 By Loss and Gain, S ilS° Br. Henry 4 2.370 6 275 2.645 Green & Co. Cr. 1SS3. May 3 IS To Mdse. Co. D, *' Loss and Gain, lS?3. May 15 By Sundries, 6 4 S 6 2,64s 2,64s Cr. so SO 50 'SO £>r. Charges. i ■SS3. May 3' To Loss and Gain, '883. S 150 May 1 3 Bv Mdse. Co. D, " S ' E, ■7 F, 150 1 9 "*7 i5 -- ^^~ a \*" IV BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. "71 203 SET II. LEDGER. (8.) Dr. Mdse. Co. E. Cr. Dr. Geo. Emerson &• Co. I8S3. 1SS3. J May 7 S To Sundries, 5 S 2,500 5,000 7,500 May 8 By Sundries, s 7^ 7.500 c. ■S83. May 31 To Balance, 4.254] '6 ■SS3. Jlay 7 8 By 4.254 '6 By Mdse. Co. E, 2,000 2,-54 ■'^ 4.?5( "6 Dr. Mdse. Co. F. Cr. 1SS3. May 7 17 To Sundries, 5 6 ISS3. 4,000 May 14 By Cash, 2,750 " 17 " " 6.750 4.750 2,000 6,750 Dr Hugh Spencer. Cr. 1S83. May 17 1 To Cash, ■ SS3. 6,515 62 May 7 By Mdse. Co. F, 6,51562 3,500 3.01562 6,5.5 f'2 Dr. ■ M. S. Clay & Co. Cr. ■SS3. : May , 31 To Balance, 2.254 1SS3. May By Mdse. Co. E, 2,2?4 •^ Dr. Balance. Cr. .883. 1 1 ! JSS3. May 31 To Store and Fixtures, 15,000 Mav 3> By Mortgage Payable, 7 31 " Cash, 4.575 09 3" " Interest Payable, 7 3' ■' First National Bank, 1 ' 2>.337i5o 3" • " Dills Payable, 8 31 *• Interest Receivable, ! 7 146! 82 31 " Peter Curtis, 8 3" '* Bills Receivable, ~ 5,ooJ 3' " J. (J. Holland, 8 3' " Str. Missouri Belle Stock. 8 10,000 3' ■* Ceo. Emerson & Co., S 3. ** Str. Missouri Belle, ' 8 ; 250 3" " M. S. Clay & Co., 8 3' " Watson Weed. ' 8 1 -.709 31 '* John Adams, 8 i i 1 1 3> *' Arthur Astor, 8 S8,oi8 4. 1 1 4.500 IS37 10,781 5.34001 1.954 W 4.254 16 2.354 '7 'S.7SS '4 i3."3o57 58,01841 -o \ \ 204 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. lA SET II. TRIAL BALANCE, APRIL. BALANCES. 4,500 9,750 20c 15c 250 i:,26g63 8,831 25 2S4 1,05c S7,SS4|S8 TOTAI. FOOTINGS. 12,50a 21,284 63 10,000 2S+ 4,183 75 5.700 "S 4,700 4.13025 4,500 11,300 4,Soc| 10,00a 666 66 1.333 34 10,00c 20c 15c 25c 505,807 90 John Adams (Stock) Arthur Astor (Stock) Store and Fixtures Mortgage Payable Cash First National Bank Interest Expense Butler & Carlton Merchandise - Loss and Gain - John A. Fargo & Co. - Mdse. Co. A. - J as. A. Wright & Co. - Mdse. Co. B. - Bills Receivable Storage and Advertising Commission - Bills Payable - James Scott - Mdse. Co. C. - Peter Curtis - J. G. Holland - Steamer Missouri Belle Stock - J. Wills i- Co. - - John Adams (Private) Arthur Astor (Private) - Steamer Missouri Belle BALANCES. 105,807 90 79 73 1.04= 3,90c 6c "483 ■ 12,03d 25 5..340 01 1,954 99 57.58488 Inventory. — Property Unsold, April jo. Store and Fixtures, valued at cost . Mdse. on hand*. Steamer Missouri Belle, at cost . 12,500 i.Soo SET II. TRIAL BALANCE, MAY. BALANCES. FOOTINGS.* -- FOOTINGS. BALANCES. 20C 1 John Adams - - • . 14,644 04 '4,444 04 « 15< Arthur Astor 11,94037 11,79037 i2,Soq 1 12,50(3 38^54^ 21 Store and Fixtures Mortgage Payable 9,000 4,50d 4,575 09 1 33.971 12 21.33750 31,331125 First National Bank 9,993 75 3411 60 341,60 S, 37 Interest . '5c| Expense 105 80 Loss and Gain '1 S90 17 S,ooc 15,30' Bills Receiv,able li 10,300 43-125 1 • Commission i 434 25 S.osd 25 Bills Payable - Peter Curtis - iS,S.7 25 5,34poi 10,78 < 5,340 01 2S< 25t Steamer Missouri Belle ',70c 1,709 - A\'atson Weed - IOC 909 Shipment in Co. I Soo 3750 3750 Insurance Charges Geo. Emerson & Co. M. S. Clav & Co. 150 ^ 4.254 16 2,25417 150 4.2S4 "6 2.254 "7 10,000 - J.G.Holland - 1,954 99 1,95' 99 10,000 Steamer Missouri Belle Stock 1 i S6,ooc|69 ' "24,44^ '8 124,445 '^ i 56,00; 69 - 1 1 * The amounts in this column do not comprise, like those in the preceding balances, the footings of a// the Ledger accounts, but such only as do not balance or cancel. The footings of this column and its opposite will not, therefore, liaJ.'v with the footings of the Journal. The method here adopted is the one most in use with accountants, but does not afford so sure a test of ths i.;orrectness of the Ledger. kL V \ UOOK.-KKEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 205 <1 1 ^ ^ji : : «g : : X m 5 M UJ Ul CO < oa CO oc o I- co < CO E . < o < o »o .a 13- 8 I • WII'-CO • ly-l r*; — % 8.: 8S II ■ O fO ' S.5. I 8, : I ■.•^ is -J-O - O - "^ . r» - lowi — • • • - -t-CLQ • • i— rr*0 • • Q , _ n - TT • ■ O • xo f^ ■^X_ ro • 'CO 00" irt ; ; je tig : 8 Sv 8 8 •* ^ -r uvr' I ■ O OvQM-^ • ■ u->0 O CJ • I '2 '^ 1. •o.'/Ojf '7 I w N « f^c^-*»oui>oo r»t^t^r-oocc*oo I as a « ■ ! ^-^ • : 3 rt • : ^ X « •« : o-a ' it" •a ifl r K 206 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY OLUMNAR OURNAL. Combining in one bool( the Day-Boole, Journal, Cash-Book and Sales-Book, AND INTRODUCING THK COMBINED STATEMENT, SHOWINO, ON ONE SHEET, TRIAL BALANCE. LOSSES AND GAINS, ASSETS AND LIABILITIES. -^!^ A GREAT saving of space and time is effected by the use of the Columnar Journal. This plaji essentially com- bines four books in one : Day-Book, Journal, Cash-Book and Sales-Book, and the classification of the entries obviates the necessity of carrying a multiplicity of items to the Ledger. In the pages immediately following, the transactions of Set I. are presented in the shape of a Six-column Journal — so called because it has six columns for figures — three debit and three credit columns. Merchandise and Cash, being the principal items in this set, are given special columns, and are posted to the Ledger in totals at the end of the month, or as often as the Journal is to be posted. All the amounts that pass immediately to the Ledger are placed in the General column, and to this column must be added the footings of the special columns when- ever the Journal is to be fully posted. This plan may be extended to suit the requirements of any business, and instead of six columns, eight, ten, or even twenty, may be employed, the most frequently occurring items being given special columns. Besides the advantages mentioned above, the Columnar Journal presents a monthly summary, by which the business of a month or quarter may be compared with that of others, and the in- crease or decrease in trade may thus be more easily and defin- itely calculated. By way of practice, the student of the science of accounts will do well to write up a Ledger conforming to the Six-column Journal here presented. The results will be identical with the Ledger of Set L, except that the Cash and Merchandise entries will be posted in totals at the end of the month, " By Sundries " and " To Sundries," when the footings of the special columns have been added to the General column. When this set is completed Set II. will furnish material for further study and practice. pew 10 CJIHN6E 3lN6IiE EnII^Y B00Kg INT0 DoOBItE En¥^y. THE difference in the two systems, it should be remembered, is that in Double Entry you introduce Representative Accounts, representing the firm or business in ever)' transaction under some one or other of the subdivisions adopted, as Stock, Cash, Merchandise, Expense, Bills Payable, Bills Receivable, Interest, Profit and Loss, etc. In changing single entry books into double entry the first step should be to make an inventory of stock, etc., and a statement of all accounts due to or by you, on separate sheets of paper. When this is done proceed to make the following entries in your Journal, entering, of course, the proper amounts in the debit and credit columns : STOCK, DR. TO SUNDRIES. Bills Payable, For my Notes due as per schedule hereto. John Jones, For .imount due him ;is per schedule hereto. Phtrr Smith, For nmount due him .is per schedule hereto. (Antf so continue the iist 0/ /Parties you tr.ue anything to. ) SUNDRIES, DR. TO STOt K. Merchandise, For amount of stock on h.ind^as per Inventory. Bills Receivable, For notes due me as per schedule hereto. Charles Grey, For amount due me as per schedule hereto. Robert Brown, For amount due me as per schedule hereto, (Anti so cot:tin»e the whole list.) Property account in the same way, if you have any ; also Mortgages and Stocks. When this has been accurately tlone and the amounts posted to the Ledger, the accounts will produce a positive balance- sheet — that is, the total credits will be equal to the total debits, for the following reasons : 1 . Sundries is no actual account, but is used 00 6,00000 Cash. Mdse. 50000 5000 1.50000 75000 1,95000 1,75000 1,05000 Soooo 600 OD 51500 9,25000 i,55o;oo 6,66500 J^J 2o8 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. A SIX-COLUMN JOURNAL. (2.) Mdse. 8,750 Oo Cash. General. I pL.F, i: Si. Louis, December z2, 1883. Lf.1 General. 5.350 00 3.365 po 2.73° Amounts brought forward, .... Cash, To Merchandise, .... Sold Bernard Blair, 400 brls. Flour, (n) g6.0O, . $2,400.00 300 bu. Wheal, " i.io, . 330.00 26 9,25000 Cash. 1,550 bo Mdse. 6,665 00 2,730 loo 8,25000 6,00000 515 00 3.325 0° Merchandise, To Howard Harrison, Bought, on acc't, 1,500 brls. Flour, @ S5.50. 8,25000 21 A. A. McHattox, To Merchandise, I 000 brls. Flour, (J, g6.oo. 28- Cash, To Bills Receivable, . Sellers & Bro.'s Note paid in lull this day. 515 6,000 loo -29 Cash, To Merchandise, .... Sold Patrick Connolly, 500 brls. Flour, ® 55-75, . $2,875.00 500 bu. Oats, ■ " .90, 450.00 31 3.325 °° 17,00000 11,920100 9,465100 11,92000 17,00000 Expense, To Cash, Paid Clerk Hire, . " Store Rent, . . $60.00 40.00 Dr. Cash, Cr. Dr. Merchandise, Cr. 38,385 oo|| 18,015 1,650 18,720 38.385 1,650 18,720 00 COMBINED STATEMENT.— Trial Balance, Assets and Liabilities, Gains and Losses, all in one. Gains. Debit Face op Ledger. 15000 11,92000 ;,220 00 17,00000 1.565 CO 15000 1,75000 6,00000 Credit. Face of Ledger. Liabili- ties. Stock, Cash, Merchandise, . Bills Receivable, . Bills Payable, . . Expense, . 2,00000 1,6501001 1 18,720.00 515.00 50000 ,270100 ,50000 ,050 00 ^,0'^ Vz 3,220 00 3,220 38,385 OOi .\rmstrong & Co., 6,00000 . John Williams, .... .1' I . W. L. (.lEOKOE 75000 Howard Harrison, 8,25000 A. A. McHatton 500 6,000 00 00 Stock Investment, " Gain, . " Worth . . . $2,000 3^070 i,750i00i; 6,000 00' 38,385 00 20,570 00 20,570100 75000 8,250 00 3<070\ A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 209 / » i< - o » t< ' -o ■» i lOGRAPHY ■>•)>' •O'^o*' >--p=A ■•o^O" ;^o i -.o^«' \ — Lent^eUow's Psalm 0/ Life, She Gminent F^isipoi^igal ^bi^sonagbs op all ^Iges. N the following Biographical Diction- ary the most salient points in each career have been touched, and par- ticular attention has furthermore been paid to adapting it to the wants of American readers and of the present time. It will be found that many- names are included of persons recently brought into prominence, which are the subject of daily enquiry in this country, but of which no men- tion can be found in the more pretentious and bulky volumes devoted exclusively to biogra- phy. The great extent of the work has made it impossible within the pages allotted to this department to do more, in the majority of cases, than answer about each individual named the following questions: "Who was he?" "What was he?" "Where did he live?" "What did he do?" "When was he born?" "When did he die?" These queries have been replied to in the shortest possible manner. It has been the endeavor of the editor to make the collection so complete that this biographical information will answer every demand made upon it by the reader. It is confidently believed that no name at all apt to be met with in an ordinary course of English reading has been omitted. EXPL,AXATIOJr : The figures folloTving the name indicate the years ef birth and death. After the names of some of the Popes, where tlie date of birth is un- knoztm, the first figure shoivs the year of accession to the f>ontificate. An interrogation mark indicates that the date is d.iubtful or approx- imate. Assumed names or sobriquets art printed in italics immediately fol- loTving the name. PI. — Plourishcd or lived, B. C— Before the Christian era. Am. — American, Dan, — Danish, Eng, — English, Fr. — French, Ger, — German, Gr. — Greek. It,— Italian, Nor, — Nor-wegian, Port. — Portuguese, Prus. — Prussian, Scot. — Scottish , S-w, — Stvedis h , 'A^ ACHEN, Johann van. 1552-1620 German painter. Aaron. 1574-1451 B.C. First high priest of the Israelites. Brother of Moses. Aarschot, PhiUppe de Croi, Duke of. -'595- Flemish general and statesman. Aarsens, Franz van. 1572-1641. Dutch diplomatist. \ \ A A COMPEXDIUM OF EIOGRAPHV. Abati, Bocco degli. Florentine traitor mentioned in Dante's Inferno. In 1260, in a battle between the Guelphs and Ghibelines, he caused the deieat of his countrymen by striking off the head of their standard-bearer. Abbas I. T/ie Great. 1557-162S. Shah of Persia. Abassides. Fl. 749-125S. The most famous dynasty of C.diphs at Bagdad and Damascus. Abbot, George. 1562-1633. English prelate. Abbot, Rev. Jacob. 1803-1S79. Am. author. Hoilo Booh. Abbott, John Stevens Cabot. 1S05-1877. American historian. Abd-el-Kader, 1S07-18S3. Emir of Algeria. Led the Arabians, about 1830, in hostilities against the French, then beginning to invade his country. After a brave struggle he was vanquished in 1847 and imprisoned in France. In i860, risking his own life, he averted the massacre of thousands of Christians in Syria. He was noted for his devotion to the Moslem faith, for eminent literary attainments and great eloquence. Abdul-Aziz. 1S30-1876. Sultan of Turkey. Abdul-Hamid II. 1842- Sultan of Turkey. Abelard, Picne. 1 079-1 142. French orator and philosopher, Abercrombie, James. 1706-17S1. Britishgeneral in America. Abercrombie, John. 1781-1S44. Scottish metaphysician. Abercromby, Sir Ralph. 1734-1801. British general. Abernethy, John. 1764-1 S3 1.* Eng. physician and anatomist. About, Edmond Frant;ois Valentin. 182S-.... Fr. author. Abraham, or Abram. Born about 2000 B.C., and died at the age of 175. Hebrew prince and patriarch. Acier, Michel Victor. 1736-1799. French sculptor. Acilius Glabrio, Manius. Fl. 191 B.C. Consul of Rome. Acosta, Jose de. l539?-l6oo. Spanish Jesuit, missionary and author. Adair, John, 1757-1840. American general and statesman. Adam. 4000 B.C. Father of the human race. Adams, Charles Francis. 1S07-.... American statesman and diplomatist. Son of J. Q. A. Negotiated the Treaty of Geneva, Adams, John. Born at Braintree, Mass., 1735; died, 1826. American statesman and diplomatist. First vice-president and second president of the United States ; one of the negotiators of the treaty of peace with Great Britain, 1782. Defeated by Jefferson for the presi- dency in 1800, he retired to private life, disliked by both prevailing parties. His talents, patriotism and public services, however, entitle him to be regarded as one of the greatest of the founders of the American republic. Adams, John Quincy. 1 767-1848. Son of J. A. American statesman and diplomatist. Si.xih president of the United States, being elected by the House, not one of the four candidates in 1824 — Adams, Clay, Jackson and Crawford, all members of the same party — having a majority. Defeated by Jackson in i8;S. Elected to the House in 1830, his orator>' gained for him the title " Old Man Eloquent,'* and he was distinguished for his unremitting devotion to public business. He was a member of the House until 1848, in which year, while in his seat at the Capitol, he received a stroke of paralysis, which caused his death. Adams, Samuel. 1722-1803. Governor of Massachusetts; one of the popular leaders of the Revolution ; a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Adanson, Michel. 1727-1S06. French naturalist. Addison, Joseph. 1672-1719. English poet, moralist and dramatist. Requested by Lord Godolphin to write a poem on the battle of Blenheim, Addison composed " The Campaign," which procured for him a great public applause and a lucrative government position. He became undcr-sccrctary of state in 1705. and was elected to Parliament in 1708. Dr. Johnson says of him : " He not only made the proper use of wit himself, but taught it to others. * * • He h;is restored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be ashamed." His contribu- tions to the Tittiersind the Spectator are e.xamples of his graceful style and genial spirit. Adelaide. 1792-1849. Consort of William IV. of England. Adelung, Johnnn Christoph. 1732-1806. German philologist. Adrian I. Pope, from 772-795. II., S67-S72. III., 8S4-885. IV., 1154-1159. v., 1276; died same year. VI., 1521-1523. ^schines. 39S-314 B.C. Athenian orator; rival of De- mnslhenes. ^sop. 6i9?-564 B.C. Greek fabulist. Being a slave, he was liberated by his master on account of his talents. ^sopus, Fl. 1st century B.C. Roman tragedian. .^tion. Fl. end of 4th century. Greek painter. Affre, Denis Auguste. 1793-184S. Archbishop of Paris. Killed during the insurrection of June, 1S48, in an effort to arrest the carnage. Aga, Mohammed. 1 734-1 797. Founder of the reigning Per- sian dynasty; assassinated. Agamemnon — . . . . Generalissimo of the Greek Jbrces during the Trojan war. Agassiz, Louis. 1807-1873. Swiss naturalist; professor at Har\'ard ; founder of museum of comparative zoology, Cambridge, Jifscafc/tes on J^ossil Pishes. Agatharchus. Fl. 480 B.C. Greek painter, said to have been the first to adopt the rules of perspective. Agnesi, Maria Gaetana. 1718-1799. Italian lady possess- ing rare talents for languages and mathematics. Agricola, Cn^^us Julius, 37-93- Roman general ; built a line of fortresses across Scotland. Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius. 63-12 B.C. Roman soldier and <^t:itLsm.Tn. Agrippina Augusta -60 a.d. Mother of Nero; noted for her cruelty and immorality ; poisoned her uncle and second hus- band, the Emperor Claudius ; executed by order of Nero, Aiken, John. 1 747-1822. English writer. General Biog- raphy. Ainsworth, Robert. 1 660-1 743. English classical scholar. Ainsworth, William Harrison. 1805-1S82. English novelist. Jack Shtppard, Guy Ftnukes, etc. Airy, Sir George Biddell. iSoi— . . . . Astronomer Royal of England. Akbar. 1542-1605. Most illustrious of the Mogul emperors. Akenside, Mark. 1721-1770. English physician, poet and classical scholar. Pleasures oftkc Imag-inatior:. Aladdin. Fl. 1375. Son of Osman and organizer of the Janissaries. Alaric. 350?-4io. King of the Visigoths; conquered Rome. Albert, or Albert Francis, Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 18:9-1861. Consort of Queen Victoria. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. 1S41-. . . . Heir-apparent to the British Crown. Alboin -573- Ri^g of the Lombards. Assassinated at the instigation of his wife, whom he had requested to drink wine from the skull of her father. Alboni, Marietta. 1824-.... Italian vocalist; married Count Pepolo ; retired from the stage, 1863. Albuquerque, Alfonso, Marquis de. The Great. 1453-15 15. Portuguese conqueror. Alcibiades. 450-404 B.C. Athenian general. Assassinated. Alcott, Amos Bronson. 1799-.... American philosopher and teacher. Alcott, Louisa May. 1S33-.... American authoress; acted as hospital nurse during the civil war. Little Women: An Old-Fash- ioned Girl, etc. _N A COMPENDIUM OF EIOGRAPHY. 2H Aldrich, Thomas Daily. 1836-.... American poet and iiKvcIist. Story 0/ a Bad Boy ; Miirgery Daw : Baby Bell : Pru- lifiice Piil/rey, etc. , Alembert, Jean le Rond d'. 1717-1783. French geometer. Alexander. * The Gnat. 356-324 B.C. King of Macedon. '■ riic youlh who all things but himself subdued." — Popf. T.iughtby Aristotle. Ascended the throne of Macedon 336, destroyed Thebes and was chosen commander of the Greeks against Persia. He invaded Asia Minor in 334, defeating Darius on the banks of the Granicus. In 333 he almost annihilated the Persian army at the battle of Issus. Cut the Gordian knot and caused the -Ammonian oracle to declare him the son of Jupiter Ammon. Captured Tyre in 332, and, having invaded Egypt, founded Alcvandria. In 331 he defeated Darius at the decisive battle of Arbela. Becoming elated by his successes, he claimed the homage due to a god, st.abbing his foster-brother Clitus, for refusal to pay such homage. Inv.aded India in 327, advancing as far as the Hyphasis. Died at Babylon ofafeversaid to have been .aggravated by excessive drinking. Alexander I. 1777-1S25. Emperor of Russia. II., 181S-1881; ass.issinated by the Nihilists. 111., 1S45-.,., Alexander I. Pope from 108 to 117. II., 1061-1073. III., 1159-11S1. IV., 1254-1261. v., 1409-1410. VI., 1492-1503. Alexander I -1124. King of Scotland. II., 1198-1249. III., 1241-1286. Alexander, Archibald. 1772-1851. Am. author and divine. Alexander, James Waddell. 1804-1S59. Son of A. A. Ameri- can author and divine. Alexander, Joseph .\ddison. 1S09-1859. SonofA.A. Ameri- can theologian and orientalist. Alexander, William. Lord StirHn:;. 1726-1783. American Revolutionary general. Alfieri, Vittorio. 1749-1803. Italian poet. Alfonso XII. 1857- King of Spain. Alfred. The Great. 849?-90l. King of the W.est Saxons. Established schools and a system of police, and founded a navy. Algardi, Alessandro. l6oo?-i654. Italian sculptor. Alger, William Rounseville. 1823-.... Am. author and divine. Allen, Ethan. 1742-1789. American Revolutionary com- mander. With only eighty-three men, in 1775, he captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Abraham a Sancta Clara. (Ulrich Megerle). 1642 -1709. Ger. pulpit orator ; chaplain at the court of Vienna. Abt, Franz. 1819-1SS5. Ger. musician and composer. When the S'wallows Homeward Fly ; Oh, Ye Tears; Over The Stars is I'otir Rest. Albani, Emma. 1850-. . . . American vocalist. Allen, William F. 1847-.... American perfecter of the new system of standard time. Allen, William Henry. 1784-1813. Am. naval commander. Allibone, Samuel Austin. 1816. American author. Critical Dictionary 0/ English Literature . Allison, William R. 1829-.... Am. lawyer and statesman. Allston, Washington. 1779-1843. American painter. Alma-Tadema, Lawrence. 1836. Belgian painter. Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of. 150S-1582. Spanish commander in the Netherlands, infamous for his cruelties. Ambrose, .Saint. 340?-397. One of the fathers of the church. Ames, Fisher. 175S-1808. Am. orator and statesman. Amherst, Jeffrey. Lord Amherst. 1717-1797. British general and field-marshal and governor of Virginia. Ampere, Andre Marie. 1775-1836. French mathematician and natural philosopher. Anacreon. B.C. 560 ?-478. Greek poet. Many of his poems have been rendered into English by Moore. Anaxagoras. B.C. 500-428. Greek philosopher. " The f.ithcr of modem science." Andersen, Hans Christian. 1805-1875. Danish author and novelist, Anderson, Maj. Robert. 1805-1861. Defender of Ft. Sumter. Anderson, Mary. 1859-.... American actress. Andrassy, Julian, Count. 1823-.... Hungarian statesman. Andre, John. 1751-1780. English spy; hanged for his con- nection with the contemplated treason of Arnold. Andrew, John Albion. 1818-1867. .American statesman and abolitionist : governor of .Massachusetts. Andros, Sir Edmund. 1637-1714. British colonial governor of New England. Anjou. Famous noble house of France. Anne of Austria. 1601-1666. Queen of France. ' Anne. 1664-1714. Queen of England ; last of th; Stuarts. Anthon, Charles. 1797-1867. American classical scholar. Anthony, St. 251-356? Egyptian founder of monachism. Anthony, Henry B. 1815-. ... U. S. Senator. Anthony of Padua, St. 1195-1231. Monk of Franciscan order. Anthony, Susan B. 1820-. . . . American " woman's rights" advoc.ite. Antigonus. Cyclops. 8.0.3827-301. General of . Alexander the Great. Antiochus I. King of .Syria and Babylonia ; reigned B.C. 280-261. II., reigned B.C. 261-246; poisoned by his queen, Litodice. 111. {The Great), reigned B.C. 223-187. Antisthenes. Fl. 400 B.C. Greek philosopher; regarded as the fouiuier of the Cynic school. Antoinette, Marie. 1755-1793- Queen of Louis XVL 01 France ; guillotined. Antonelli, Giacomo. 1S06-1876. Italian cardinal. Antonius, Marcus. Mark Antony. B.C. 93 ?-30. Roman general and statesman. Applegarth, Robert. 1831- Leader of the workingmen of England. Aquinas, Thomas. Saint. The Angelic Doctor. 1 224-1 274. Theologian, teacher and writer; member of the order of St. Dominic. Arabi Pasha. 1834-.... Egyptian revolutionist. Aram, Eugene. 1704-1759. English scholar; noted for his learning no less than for his tragic fate. Executed for the murder of one Daniel Clark, whom he is said to have kilted to procure means for prose- cuting his studies. The chief character in one of Bulwer's novels. Arbuthnot, John. 1675-1735. Scottish physician. Archimedes. B.C. 287?-2l2. Greek mathematician and natural philosopher. Argyll (or Argyle), Archibald Campbell, eighth earl. 1598- 1661. Scottish Covenanter ; defeated by Montrose ; executed for treason. Argyll (or Argj-Ie), George Douglas Campbell, seventh duke. i8-'3- English statesman and author. The Keign 0/ Law, Ariosto, Ludovico. 1474-1533. Italian poet. Orlando Purioso. Aristides. B.c -468 ? Athenian general and statesman. Aristophanes. B.C. 444 ?-38o ? Greek comic poet. Aristotle. The Stagi rite. B.C. 384-322. Greek philosopher; tutor of Alexander the Great. Ethics. Arius. 2557-336? Patriarch of -Vlexandria and founder of the .\rian schism. Arkw^right, Sir Richard. 1732-1792. English manufacturer and inventor of the spinning-jenny. Vl \\ K" A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Arminius. B.C. 16-21 a.d. Ger. hero Arminius, Jacobus (Jacob Harmen). founder of the Arminiiin theology. Armitage, Edward. 1817-... Armstrong, John. 1709-1779. Armstrong, Sir William George tor of the .Armstrong gun. Arnaud, Henri. 1641-1721. Leader of the Waldenses. Arndt, Ernst Moritz. 1769-1860. German poet and writer, See Hermann. 1560-1609. Dutch Eng. historical painter. Scottish poet and physician. 1810-.... English inven- German general 1879 Prussian 1822-. . . . English author, poet and critic. .- The Strayed Reveller : Essays on Criticism, ^Xc. 1 795- 1 842. English historian and master Arnheim, Johann Georg von. 1581-1641. .ind diplomatist. Arnira, Harry Carl Edward von. 1824- diplomatist. Arnold, Benedict. 1740-1801. American general and traitor. His plot to betray West Point, one of the most important of American fortresses, into the hands of the British, was -betrayed by the capture of M^or Andre, and he barely escaped. He became a colonel in the British army, and is said to have received ;£6,3i5 from the British as indemnity' for the loss he sustained by his treacherj'. Arnold of Brescia (or Arnaldo) -1155. Italian re- former, orator and popular leader. Arnold, Edwin. 1832-. . . . English journalist and poet. Light 0/ Asia. Arnold, Matthew. GABER, Mohammed. 1483?-! 530. Founder of the tf^""^ Mogul empire in India. Baccio della Porta. Fra Bartolommeo di San Marco. 1469-1517. Italian painter . member of the order of St. Dominic. Last Judgment ; Marriage 0/ St. Catherine ; Virgin on a Throne. Bach, Johann Sebastian. 1685-1750. German composer and musical director, distinguished also for his skill as a performer on the organ and the piano. The Nativity. Bache, Alexander Dallas. 1S06-1867. American philoso- pher and savant ; great-grandson of Dr. Franklin. Bache, Franklin. 1792-1S64. Am. physician and chemist. Back, Sir George. 1796-1878. English .\rctic navigator. Bacon, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans. Lord Bacon. 1561-1626. English statesman, jurist and philosopher. Son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper of the great seal under Elizabeth. His youthful precocity caused Queen Elizabeth to call him her " little lord keeper." Studied at Trinity College, and at 15 began to oppcse the philosophy of Aristotle. Called to the bar, and made queen's counsel at 28. Solicitor-general, 1607: judge of the marshal's court, 1611; attorney-general, 1613: lord keeper, 1617; lord high chancellor, 1619. Charged with gross bribery and corruption in Parliament, 1621, he pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to pay a fine of .jC^OjOoo, and to be imprisoned during the royal pleasure, and incapacitated from holding public office. He regained hLs liberty after two days' imprisonment, his fine, too, being remitted by King James, who also allowed him a pension of .;£i,2ooper annum. He spent the remainder of his life in retirement, diligently pursuing the study of literature and science. The dark side -^ ^ IV A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 213 of Bacon's character was shown in his obsequiousness to the crown, and his enmity to the cause of liberty, and also in his base ingratitude to the Earl o( Essex, voluntarily assisting in the prosecution of that unfortu- nate nobleman. The Wisdont of the Ancients; Ntrz-um Organum. Bacon, Nathaniel. l630?-l677. Virginia patriot, born in England. Bacon, Roger. The Admirable Doctor, 1214-1292. Eng- lish philiisopher. Opus Afaj'us, Baconthorp, John. T/ie Jyesolute Doctor. , , . .-1346? English monk and philosopher. Baffin, William. 1580-1622. English navigator, (Baffin's Bay.) Bailey, Philip James. 1816-. , . . English lawyer end poet. J-'cslus: The ^lysttc. Baillie, Joanna. 1762-1851. Scottish poetess. The Family Legend : Plays on the Passions. Baillie, Matthew. 1761-1823. Scottish physician. Baillie, Robert. i6o2?-i662. Scottish theologian. Bailly, Jean Sylvain. 173^1793- French astronomer and philosopher. 1789, first president of the Stales-General ; mayor of Paris same year. Endeavoring, with Lafayette, to curb the violence of the revolutionists, he caused the National Guard to fire on a riotous mob in the Champ de Mars, in 1791, thus incurring the enmity of the people. Executed by the Jacobins. Baily, Edward Hodges. 17S8-1867. English sculptor. Baily, Francis. 1774-1844. English astronomer. Bainbridge, William. 1 774-1 833. Am. naval commander. Baird, Sir David. 1757-1829. Scottish general. Baird, Spencer F. 1823- .... American naturalist. Bajazet (or Bayazeed). 1347-1403. Sultan of the Ottomans. Subjugated Bulgaria, Asia Minor, and a portion of Greece, and gained a victory over the Hungarians, French and Poles at Nicopolis, in 1396, Defeated and captured in 1401 by Tamerlane, by whom he is said to have been confiued in an iron cage. Baker, Sir Samuel White. 1821- .... English African explorer, and author of geographical and literary works. In 1847 he established a sanatorium and prosperous agricultural settlement in the mountains of Ceylon, 6,200 feet above sea level, whither he conveyed emigrants and the best breeds of sheep and cattle. In 1861-4 explored, at his own expense, the region lying around the sources of the White Nile ; discovered and named Lake Albert N'yanza, and found the exit of the Nile. In 1869, the sultan of Turkey placed at his disposal 1,500 troops, with which another expedition was made to the great African lakes. Baker, Valentine, Pasha. English officer and commander of Eg>'plian troops in the Soudan. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de. I47S?-I5I7. Spanish discoverer. Discovered the Pacific Ocean, 1513. The jealousy of his superior offi- cers caused his conviction on a charge of treason, for which he was executed. Baldwin I. 1058-1118. King of Jerusalem; brother of C.odfrcy de Bouillon. Balfe, Michael William. 1808-1S70. Irish composer. The Bohcntian Girl. Baliol, Edward -1363- King of Scotland. baliol, John -1269. English baron; father of Edward Baliol. Baliol, John de. I259?-I3I4. Son of the preceding. King of Scotland ; rival of Bruce. Ballou, Hosea. 1771-1852. American theologian; founder of the denomination of UniversaUsts. Balmes, Jaime Lucio. i8lo-li theologian. Balzac, Honore de. 1799-1850 French novelist. 1848. Spanish philosopher and Bancroft, George. 1800-. . . . American historian and diplo- matist. Minister to Germany and to England; secretary of the navy. History 0/ the United States, which has been translated into all the principal languages of Europe. Baner (or Banier), Johan. 1 595-1641. Swedish general. Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss. 1816-. . , . American general and politician. Native of Massachusetts; worked during boyho(»d in a col- ton factory ; learned the machinist's trade ; edited a country newspa- per; admitted to the bar; elected to Legislature of his native state in 1849, and three years later bectme speaker. Sent to Congress in 1852 as a Democrat, and in 1854 re-elected by the American and Republican par- lies. Speaker of House in 1855, Served three terms as Governor of Massachusetts, and in 1861 was appointed major-general of volunteers. After the war was sent to Congress in 1866, 1868 and 1870. Supported Horace Greeley for presidency in 1872. Re-elected to Congress in 1876 by Democrats and disaffected Republicans. Banks, Thomas. 1735-1805. British sculptor. Banneker, Benjamin. 1731-1806. American negro mathe- matician. Barbarossa, Hadher. 1476?-! 546, Corsair king of Algiers. Barbaroux, Charles Jean Marie.' 1767-1794. French rep- resentative and Girondist; beheaded by the Jacobins. Barbauld, Anna Letilia. 1743-1S25. English authoress. Barbour, John. I320?-I395? Scottish poet. The Bt-uce. Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince. 1755-1818. Russian field-marshal. Barclay, Robert. 1648-1690. Scottish Quaker author. Barham, Richard Harris. 1788-1845. English divine and humorist, /ngoldsfiy Legends. Barebone, Praise God -1680. English fanatic. Baring, Sir Francis. 1740-1810. English capitalist. Barlow, Joel. ^755-1812. American patriot and poet. Barnard, John i. 1815-1882. American general and writer. Barmecides. Famous Persian family, noted for its tragic fate. Barnes, Albe.t. 1798-1870. American theologian and com- mentator. Barneveldt, Johan van Olden. 1549-1619. Dutch statesman, Barnum, Phineas T. 1S10-. . . . American showman; na- tive of Connecticut. Humbugs 0/ the World. Barras, Paul Francois Jean Nicola, Count de. 1 755-1829. French statesman. Barry, James. 1 741-1806. Irish painter. Barry Cornwall. See Procter. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Jules. 1805-. . . . French states- UKin and writer. Baxter, Richard. 1615-1691. English Dissenting minister and writer. The Saints' Everlasting Rest : Call to the Unconverted. Bayard, Pierre du Terrail de. 1475-1524. French warrior, whose bravery earned for him the sobriquet "The cavalier without fear and without reproach." Fntncis I. showed the universal reverence for Bayard's character by choosing to be knighted at his hands. Mor- tally Wduntietl at Romagnano, Bay.^rd would not alh»w himself to be carried from the field of battle, refusing to " turn his back to the enemy for the first lime." Bayle, Pierre. 1647-1706. French philosopher and critic. Bazaine, Francois Achille. 1811-.... French general. Made general of division during the Crimean war; held a command in the French expedition to Mexico, in 1862, wiih great distinction, and suc- ceeded to the supreme command in 1863. Created a marshal of France in 1864. Inlhe Franco-German war he surrendered the fortress of Meiz,with 173,000 men, 6,000 officers, 50 generals and 3 marshals, and fled lo Eng- land. He was court-martialed and sentenced to degradation and death, but the sentence w;is commuted lo twenty years' imprisonment. Con- fined at the isle Sainle Marguerite, he escaped in nine months and settled in Madrid. VL Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of. 1S04-1SS0. Eng- lish statesman and novelist. His first novel, ViT/ian Grey, was pub- lished at the age of 21. Entered Parliament in 1837, and became the leader of the Conservative party. Acted as chancellor of the exchequer a number of years, and in i863 was prime minister of England for a few months. Was again called to the premiership in 1S74, and was raised to [he peerage. Was succeeded in 1880 by William E. Gladstone. Beaton (or Beatoun), David, Cardinal. 1494-1546. Primate of Scotland. Beattie, James. 1735-1803. Scottish poet and philosopher. Beauharnais, Eugene de. 1781-1S24. French general; son of Ale.\ander de Beauharnais and Josephine, afterward Empress of France. Beaumarchais, Pierre Auguste Caron de. 1732-1799. French dramatist. Beaumont, Francis. 15S6-1615. English dramatic writer; associate of John Fletcher. Beauregard, Peter Gustavus Toutant. iSi6- American Confederate general. Born in Louisiana ; graduate of West Point ; served in Mexico. Entered Ctyifederate army in 1861, and commanded at Fort Sumter and at the first battle of Bull Run ; defeated at Shiloh by Gen. Grant in 1862 ; defended Charleston in 1863. Becket, Thomas a. 1117-1170. Archbishop of Canterbuiy; high chancellor of England. Having excommunicated two bishops for complying with the king's will, he was assassinated by four bai»ns of the royal household. Canonized in 1172. Bede. T/ie Venerabie. 673 ?-735. English monk and ecclesiastical writer. Ecclesiastical History 0/ the English Nation. Bedford, John Plantagenet, Duke of. 1390-1435. English general. Regent of France and protector of England during the minority of Henrj' VI. Defeated by Joan of Arc. Beecher, Henry Ward. 1813- American divine and lec- turer. Born in Connecticut. Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church, Brooklyn, since 1847. Powerful advocate of the abolition movement. Star Pa/>ers : Sermons. Beecher, Lyman, 1775-1S63, American divine. Father of H- W. B. Views on Theology. Beethoven, Ludwig von. 1770-1827. German composer. Sin/onia Eroica ; Lenore ; Fidelia ; Ninth Sytnphony. Behring, Vitus. 1680-1742 ? Danish navigator. Discovered Behrings Strait ,- suffered shipwreck while commanding an expedition to the northern seas and died on Eehring's Island. Belisarius. 505 ?-565. Byzantine general. Bell, Sir Charles. 1774-1842. Scottish physiologist. Bellini, Vincenzo. 1802-1835. Italian composer. La Son- mtnibula: I Puriiani : Norma. Belvedere, Andrea. 1646-1732. Italian painter. Belzoni, Giovanni Battista. 1778-1823. Italian traveller. Bcndemann, Edward. 181 1-. . . . German painter. Benedek, Ludwig von. 1804-1878. Hungarian general. Benedict L Pope from 575 to 578. II., 684-685. III., 855- 85S. IV., 900-903. v., chosen pope 964 but driven from Rome by Otho I., died at Hamburg 965. VI., 972-974; killed by the people of Rome. VII., 975-984. VIII., 1012-1024. IX., ascended the pontifical chair in 1034, but was driven from Rome. X., 1058-1059, when he was deposed on .iccount of being irregularly elected. XI., 1303-1304. XII,, 1334- 1342. XIII., 1724-1730. XIV., 1740-1758. Benedict XIII. 1334-1424. Anti-Pope. Original name, Pedro de I.unn. Chosen pope at Avignon in 1394, while Boniface IX. reigned at Rome. Both were deposed in 1415 by the council of Con- stance. Benedict, Sir Julius. 1804- German musician and C(»inposcr, residing in England since 1835. Benezet, Anthony. 1713-1784. French philanthropist. Bennett, James Gordon. 1800-1S72. American journalist; natue of Scotland; founded ihe Ne-w York Herald. Benjamin, Park. 1S09-1864. Am. journalist and poet. Bentham, Jeremy. 1748-1832. English jurist and utilitarian philoiriopher. B^ntinck, William Charles Cavendish, Lord. 1774-1839. British general; governor-general of India. Bentley, Richard. 1662-1742. English classical scholar and divine. The Epistles 0/ Phalaris. Benton, Thomas Hart. 17S2-1858. American statesman. Born at HJllsboro, N. C. ; removed to Tennessee, where he studied law, and commenced practice at 29. Commanded a regiment under Gen. Jackson, who, in a quarrel, atfbmpted to strike Benton with aliorse- whip, causing Benton's brother to severely wound Gen, Jackson with a pistol. Benton shortly after removed to St. Louis, where he published a political paper. Elected to the United States Senate in 1820, he con- tinued a member of that body for thirty years, being defeated in 1850 by a division in the Democratic party on the slavery question. His advo- cacy of a gold and silver currency during his second term in the Senate earned for him the sobriquet of " Old Bullion." Elected in 1852 to the National House of Representatives, he earnestly opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Defeated for the governorship of Missouri in 1856. Favored Buchanan for the presidency in opposition to his son- in-law, Fremont. A Thirty Years' I'iczv. Beranger, Pierre Jean de. 1780-1857. French lyric poet. Bergerac, Cyrano de. 1620-1655. Fr. dramatist and duelist. Beriot, Charles Auguste de. 1802-1S70. Belgian violinist and composer. Berkeley, George. 1684-1753. Irish Protestant prelate and metaphysician. The Principles oj" Human Knowledge. Berlichingen, Gotz von. Of the Iron Hand, 1480-1562. German warrior; hero of one of Goethe's dramas. Berlioz, Louis Hector. 1803-1869. French composer. The Damnation 0/ Faust : symphonies, Harold, Romeo and Juliet. Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules. 1764-1S44. Klarshal of Fr.'iiii:i' ; King of Sweden and Norway as Carl XIV. Johan. Bernard, Saint. 1091-1153. French ecclesiastic, canonized 1174. Abbot at Clairvaux, refusing other ecclesiastical preferment, but exerting great power over Europe. Bernard de Menthon, Saint. 923-1008. Founder of the hospices of St. Bernard. Bernardo del Carpio. P'l. 9th century. Spanish soldier. Bernhardt, Sara (Mme. Damala). 1S50-. . . . Fr. tragedienne. Bert, Paul. 1833- .... French physician and politician. Berthier, Louis Alexandre, Prince of Wagram. 1753-1815. Marshal of France. Berthollet, Claude Louis. 1748-1822. French chemist. Berwick, James Fitz-James, Duke of. 1 660-1 734. Marshal of France ; natural son of James II. of England. Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm. 1784-1846. Prus. astronomer. Bessemer, Henry. 1813— . . . . English engineer. {Bessemer process.) Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand von. Count. 1S09-. . .. German statesman. Beza, Theodore. 1519-1605. Yx. Calvinistic theologian. Biddle, John. The father of English Unitarians. 1615-1662. English theologian. Biddle, Nicholas. 1786-1S44. American financier. Bierstadt, Albert. 1829-1882. American landscape painter, native of Germany. Billings, William. 1746-1800. .\merican musical composer, Binney, Amos. 1S03-1847. American naturalist. Binney, Horace, 17S0-1S75. American lawyer. / A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 215 -y Birney, James G. 1792-1857. American politician. Bird, Robert Montgomer>'. 1803-1854. American author. Bismarck-Schonhausen, Karl Otto, Prince. 1815-.... (Icrm.in statesman : chancellor of the German i'^nipire. Bjornson, Bjornstjerne. 1S32- Norwegian poet and novelist. Black Hawk. 17O7-1838. American Indian chief. Black, William. 1841- Scottish author. .-/ Princess of ThulL-: Mac Uod 0/ Dare : A Daughter 0/ Heth. Blackburn, Joseph Clay Sliles. 1838- Am. statesman. Blackstone, Sir William. 1723-1780. English jurist. Com- if/oiftzr/es on the Laius 0/ England, Blackwood, William. 1776-1817. Scottish publisher. Black- ivood's Magazine. Blaine, James Gillespie. 1830-.... American statesman. Born in Pennsylvania; removed to Maine, where he edited the Fort- iand Ad-.-ettiser: served four terms in the Legislature; in Congress from 1862 to 1876, and speaker for three terms. Prominent candidate fur the Republican nomination for the presidency in 1876 and 1B80. Chosen United States senator in 1877, but resigned to accept the secretaryship of state under Garfield. Blair, Hugh. 1718-1S00. Scottish divine and rhetorician. Blake, Robert. 1599-1657. British athniral, regarded as the founder of England's naval supremacy. Blake, William. 1757-1828. English poet and artist. Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis. 1813-1883. French journalist, historian and politician. Blanchard, Thomas. 1788-1864. American inventor. Blennerhasset, Harman. 1770-1831. Friend and accom- plice of Aaron Burr. Blessington, Margaret, Countess of (nee Power). 1789-1S49. Beautifid and accomplished Irish lady. Blind, Carl. 1820-. . . . German radical. Bloomfield, Robert. 1 766-1823. English poet. A tailor's son and a shoemaker's apprentice. The Farmer's Boy, Blucher, Gebhard Lebrecht von. Marschall J'onoaris. 1742 -1S19. Prussian field-marshal. Decided the battle of Waterloo. Blumenthal, Leonard von, 1810-. . . . Prussian general and strategist. Boabdil -i 536 ? Last Moorish king of Granada. Boadicea -62. British queen. Bobadilla, Francisco de. Fl. 1500. Spanish administrator who sent Columbus in chains to Spain. Boccaccio, Giovanni. 1313-1375. It. novelist. Decameron. Bodenstedt, Friedrich Martin. 1S19-. . . . German poet and author. Boerhaave, Herman. 166S-1738. Dutch physician and philosopher, Boethius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus. 475-525 ? Roman statesman and philosopher. Falsely charged with treason, he was beheaded. Dc Consolationc FhilnsophitB. Bogardus, James. 1S00-1874, American inventor. Bohn, Henry George. 1800- English publisher. Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas. 1636-1711. French poet and satirist, Boleyn, Anne. 1507 ?-i536. Second ([ueen of Henry VIIL of Kngland. Belieaded. Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount. 1678-1751. English author, orator and politician. Dissertation on Farties. Bolivar, Simon. 1783-1830. Liberator of the South Ameri- can colonies. Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon. Napoleon III. 1808- 1873. Son of Louis Bonaparte. Emperor of the French. As claimant to the throne of France, he attempted in 1836 to take Strasburg, but was banished. In 1840 he was imprisoned in Havre for an attempted insurrection at Boulogne, but escaped to England in 1846. Returning to France after the revolution of 1848, he w;is elected president. He gained the support of the army, and abolishing popular represcnLition by the coup d'etat of 1 85 1 , was declared emperor. In 1853 he married Eugenie, Conntess dc Teba. Having surrendered at Sedan, after the decisive battle of the Franco-German war, he was deposed and retired to Chisel- hurst, in England, where he died. Bonaparte, Jerome. 1784-1860. Youngest brother of Napo- leon I. King of Westphalia. Bonaparte, Joseph. 1768-1844. Eldest brother of Napoleon I. King of Spain. Bonaparte, Louis. 1778-1846. Brother of Napoleon L King of Holland. Bonaparte, Lucien, Prince de Canina. 1 775-1840. Brother of Napoleon L Bonaparte, Napoleon. Napoleon I. 1769-1821, Emperor of the French. Born at Ajaccio, Corsica. Attended a military school from 1779 to 1784, and showed particular aptitude for history and mathe- matics. Entered the army as sub-licuicnant in 1785, and in 1792 had risen to the rank of captain of artillery. In 1793 he submitted a plan for the reduction of Toulon, held by the English and Spaniards, and was entrusted with its execution. His success in this undertaking won for him a commission as brigadier-general. In 1794, on the fall of Robes- pierre, Napoleon was suspended and put under arrest, his detention, however, being of short duration. In the spring of 1795, on the remodel- ling ot the army, he was again suspended, and placed upon half-pay, the only reason given by the authorities being that he w.-is too young to com- mand the artillery of an army. In the fall, on the breaking out of a for- midable insurrection led by the National Guard, the whole force of insurgents numbering more than 30,000, the convention recalled Napo- leon, who, with only 5,000 regulars and 1,500 volunteers, gained a brilliant victory after a brief but sanguinary' engagement. This victory made him v-irtually commander-in-chief of the army of the interior. In 1796 he was appointed to the comniand-in-chief of the army of Italy, and in the same year married Josephine de Beauharnais, In his very first campaign Napoleon appeared a consummate general. His peculiar mode of attack consisted in precision of movement, concentration of forces and formidable charges upon a determinate point. In a few weeks he gained four victories, conquered Lombardy and laid siege to Mantua, which he captured after almost annihilating three Austrian armies. Napoleon then turned his arms against the Pope, compelling him to pay 30,000,000 lires and surrender many valuable works of art. After defeating another Austrian army sent to Italy, Napoleon concluded a treaty securing his brilliant success. In 1798 he was given command of :i powerful expedition into Egypt, the intention being to strike at the power of Great Britain, and gained a decisive victory over the Mamelukes and Turkish auxiliaries at the battle of the Pyramids, and another at Aboukir, Returning to France, he overthrew the Directory and was elected first consul, In 1800 he gained the great victory of Marengo, Made peace with England 1802, granted general amnesty, established public order, re-established the Catholic faith, and produced his Ciz'il Code. Napoleon became emperor in 1804, and engaged in war with England, Russia, Sweden and Prussia. Divorced from Josephine ia i8og, he married Maria Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria, in 1810. tn 1812 occurred the ill-fated Russian campaign, Napoleon's loss being estimated at 450,000 men. Beaten at Leipzig, 1813, he made a disastrous retreat. In 1814 the allies entered Paris, compelled Napo- leon to abdicate, and sent him to Elba, granting him the sovereignty of that isbnd, with a yearly pension of 6,000,000 francs. Returning again to France, he was cnthusi.istically received and raised an army of about 125,000, but was completely defeated at Waterloo, 1815. He abdicated again, and, unable to carry out his intention of embarking for America, he surrendered to the captain of a British man-of-war. Carried to the island of St. Helena, he died there in 1821 after nearly six years' confinement. \ o r V 2l6 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Bonaparte, Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul. Prince Napoleon. 1S22-..., Son of Napoleon I. and Maria Theresa. Bonaparte, Napoleon Francpois Charles Joseph. Napoleon II. 1811-1832. Son of Napoleon I. and Maria Theresa Bonaventura, Saint. The Seraphic Doctor. 1221-1274. iL-ilian theologian. Bonheur, Rosa (or Rosalie), 1S22-.... French painter of animals. Boniface I. Pope, ruling from 419 to 422. II., 530-532. III., elected 607 and died same year. IV., 60S-615. V., 619-624; dis- tinguished for his eTorts to convert the Britons VI., died in 895, fif- teen days after his election to the Papacy. VII. (Anti-Pope), elected 974, during reign of Benedict VI. ; driven from Rome, but returned in 985, imprisoning John XI V. , who is said to have been starved to death ; died 985 VIII., 1294-1303. IX., 1389-1404. Boniface, Winfred, Saint. Apostle of Germany. 680-755 ? Bonner, Edmund. Bloody Bonner. I490?-I569. Bishop of London, noted for his persecution of the Protestants. Bonneville, Benjainin L. E. 1 795?-! 878. American soldier and traveller. Bonnivard, Frantjois de. 1496-1570. The hero of Byron's Prisoner 0/ Chilton. Boone, Daniel. 1735-1820? American pioneer. Born in Pennsylvania, but removed in boyhood to North Carolina. Visited Kentucky, hitherto unexplored, in 1769, and emigrated to that State with his own and five other families in 1773, constructing a fort at Boonsborough in 1775. Captured by the Indians, he was adopted by them, but escaped and returned to the fort, which was shortly after at- tacked by Indians under the British flag. The fort was ably de- fended, two of Boone's sons, however, being killed. Boone lost his lands in Kentucky in consequence of a defective title, and, removing to Missouri, pursued the occupation of a hunter and trapper. Booth, Edwin. 1833- Son of Junius Brutus Booth. American tragedian. Booth, John Wilkes. 1835-1865. Son of Junius Brutus Booth. American actor, who became infamous as the assassin of Abra'nam Lincoln, whom he shot at the theatre on the evening of April 14th, 1865. Effected his escape, but was traced into Virginia, where, refusing to sur- render, he was shot. Booth, Junius Brutus. 1796-1852. English tragedian. Borden, Simeon. 1 798-1 856. American civil engineer. Borg^, Giovanni. 1735-1S02. Italian founder of ragged schools. Borgia, Cesare, Due de Valentinois. 1457-1507. Natural son of Alexander VI. Italian cardinal and military leader. Made cardinal in 1492, but afterwards secularized. Notorious for cunning, perfidy and cruelty. Borgia, Francisco. See Francis, Saint. Borgia, Lucrezia, Duchess of Ferrara -1523. Sister of Cesare Borgia. Distinguished for beauty and talents, and a patron of learning, but contemporaneous writers differ in their estimation of her character. Borromeo, Carlo, Saint. 153S-1584. Italian cardinal, noted for benevolence and care of the sick. Borrow, George. 1S03-18S1. English author and traveller. Bos, Hieronymus. I450?-I5oo. Dutch painter. Boscawen, Edward. 1711-1761. English admiral. Bossuet, Jacques Benigne. 1627-1704. French prelate, ora- tor and controversialist, Boswell, James. 1740-1795. Scottish lawyer ; biographer of Dr. Johnson. Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of. I526?-I577? Scottish conspirator; husband of Mary of Scotland. Bottcher, Johann Friedrich. 1682-1719. Inventor of Dres- den china. Boucicault, Dion. 1822-.... Irish dramatist, residing in New York since 1876. Colteen Bawn ; The Octoroon. Boudinot, Elias. 1740-1821. Am. philanthropist and patriot. Bouillon, Godfrey de. 1060 ?-l 100. Leader of the first Crusade. Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sauter. 1816-.... Fr. general. Bourbon. The name of a famous dynasty reigning in France irom 1589 to 1848, excepting the republic and the empire of the first Napoleon. Bourbon, Charles, Due de. Constable Bourbon. 1490-1527. French general. Killed after mounting the wall of Rome at the head of his troops. A prominent character in Byron's The Deformed Trans- /ormed. Bourdaloue, Louis. 1 632-1 704. French Jesuit orator. Bourdon, Sebastien. 1616-1671. French painter. Bourne, Hugh. 1772-1852. English founder of Primitive Methodism. Bowditch, Nathaniel. 1773-1838. American mathematician; son of a cooper. Navigation. Bowdoin, James. 1 727-1 790. American statesman. Bowles, Samuel. 1826-7878. American journalist. Bowles, William Lisle. 1762-1850. English poet. Bowring, Sir John. 1792-1872. Eng. scholar and statesman. Boyce, William. 1710-1779. Eng. organist and composer. Boydell, John. 1719-1804. Eng. engraver and art publisher. Boyle, Robert. 1626-1691. Irish experimental philosopher and philanthropist. Disquisition on Final Causes. Bozzaris, Marcos. 1790-1823. Patriotic leader in the Greek war for independence. Slain in a night attack upon the Turks. Braddock, Edward. I7I5?-I75S- English general in Amer- ica. Killed by Indians. Braddon, ^L^ry Elizabeth. 1837- English novelist; editor of Belgravia. Lady Audtey's Secret ; Dead Sea Fruit ; An Open Verdict. Bradford, William. 1590-1657. Governor of Plymouth colony. Bradford, William. 1660-1752. First printer in Pennsylvania. Bradshaw, John. 1586-1659. English republican judge. Bradstreet, Anne. 1612-1672. American poetess. Bradstreet, John. 1711-1774. American majorgeneral. Bragg, Braxton. 1S15-1S76. Confederate general. Brahe, Tycho. 1545-1601. Swedish astronomer. Brainerd, David. 1718-1747. American missionary. Bramante d' Urbino. Donate Lazari. 1444-1514. Italian architect of St. Peter's. Brandt, Joseph. Thayendanega. l742?-l8o7. Half-breed chief of the Mohawks. Breckenridge, John Cabell. 1S21-1875. American states- man and Confederate general. Born in Kentucky. Vice-president 1857-61. Democratic candidate for the presidency in i860. Elected to the United States Senate from Kentucky in 1861, but resigned to enter the Confederate army. Confederate secretary of war, 1865. Bremer, Fredrika. 1802-1865. Swedish novelist. The Neigh- bors: The Homes 0/ the New World. Brentano, Clemens. 1777-1842. German novelist and poet. Brenghel, Jan. 1569-1625. Flemish painter. Brewster, Sir David. 1781-1S68. Eng. optician and physicist. i/— IV A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 217 Brian Boru {ox Boroihme). 727?-ioi4. King of Ireland. Bridget, Saint. 1302-1373. Patroness of Ireland. Bridgman, Laura. 1829-. . . . American blind deaf-mule, noted for her mental acquirements. Bright, John. 181 1-. . . . English statesman and orator. Bright, Richard. 17S9-1S5S. English physician. Brillat-Savarin, Anthelme. 1755-1826. French author. Physiology 0/ the Taste. Brissot de Warville, Jean Pierre. 1754-1793. French leader of the Girondists; beheaded. Broglie, Charles Jacques Victor Albert, Due de. 1821-. . . . French st.itesman and writer, Bronte, Charlotte. Currer Bell. 1816-1S55. English novelist. Jane Eyre; Shirley: ViUette. Brooks, James. 1810-1873. American journalist. Brougham, Henry, Lord. 1 779-1868. British author, states- man and orator. Brown, Charles Brockden. 1771-1S10. Am. novelist. Brown, Hablot, Knight. Phiz. 1815-1882. English comic designer. Brown, John, Captain. 1800-1859. Born in Connecticut, and a tanner by trade. Removed to Kansas and became prominent as an abolitionist, and gained the title of " Ossawatomie" by a victory, in 1856, over a company of Missourians vastly exceeding his own force in number. In pursuance of a plan for the invasion of Virginia and the emancipation of slaves, he surprised Harper's Ferry in 1859, and took the arsenal and armory and forty prisoners. Attacked the nev day by the United States marines and the Virginia militia, two of his soi.. -^nd most of his company of twenty men were killed, and he himself was wounded and taken prisoner. He was tried and hanged at Charlestown, Virginia, the same year. Brown, Thomas. 1778-1820. Scottish metaphysician. Browne, Charles F. Artemtts Ward. 1S35-1867. Ameri- can humorist. Browne, Sir Thomas. 1605-1682. English physician, phil- osopher and author. Religio Medici; Enquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett. 1809-1861. Wife of Robert Browning. English poetess. Aurora Leigh; Casa Guidi U'indozus, Browning, Robert. i8i2-.... English poet. The Ring and the Book ; Strafford ; Men and Women ; Fi/ine at the Fair ; A Soul's Errand. Brownlow, William Gannaway. Parson Broionl(nv. 1S05- 1877. American politician. Brownson, Orestes Augustus.- 1803-1876. Am. theologian. Bruce, James. 1 730-1 794. Scottish traveller; discovered the source of the Blue Nile. Bruce, Robert. 1274-1329, King of Scotland. Defeated Edward H. at Bannockbum, in 1314. The greatest of the rulers of Scotland. Brummel, George Bryan. Beatt Bmmmel. 177S-1840. English man of fashion. Brunei, Isambard Kingdom. 1806-1859. Eng. engineer. Brunei, Sir Mark Isambard. 1769-1S49. English engineer, born in France. Built the Thames tunu*l. Brunelleschi, Filippo. 1377-1444. Italian architect and sculptor. Bruno, Saint. 1040?-! 191. Gennan founder of the Car- tliusians. Brutus, Lucius Junius. Fl. 500 B.C. Roman patriot; over- threw Tariiuin. Brutus, Marcus Junius. 80-36 B.C. One of Caesar's assas- sins; committed suicide after his defeat at Philippi. Bryant, William Cullen. 1794-1878. American poet and journalist; born in Massachusetts. At 13 composed The Spanish Rev- olution and The Embargo^ Entered Williams College, read law, and was admitted to the bar in 1816. Published Thanatopsis in 1816. Became editor of the Neiu York Evening Post in 1826. He was a firm oppo- nent of slavery. Buchanan, George. 1506-1582. Scottish historian and jx)et. Buchanan, James. 1791-1868. Fifteenth president of the United States. Bom in Pennsylvania. Admitted to the bar, iSia ; member of Congress, 1821-31; minister to Russia, 1832-4; U. S. senator, 1834-5; secretary of state, 1845-9; niinistcr lo England, 1853-6; signed Ostend manifesto in 1854; presiJenI, 1857-61. In his last message, President Buchanan censured the Northern people for the imminent disruption of the Union, holding that neither the executive nor Congress had power to coerce a state. Buckland, William. 1 784-1 856. English geologist. Buckle, Henry Thomas. 1822-1862. English writer. History 0/ Ciznlization. Buddha [or Booddha)^ Gautama. 624-523 B.C. Hindoo re- former; founder of Buddhism. Buell, Don Carlos. 1818?-. , . . American general. Buffon, Georges L^uis Leclerc de, Comte. 1707-1788. French naturalist and philosopher. Natural History ; Epochs oj" Nature. Bull, Ole Bornemann. 1810-18S2. Norwegian violinist. Bulow, Bernhard Ernst von. 1815-, . , . German statesman. Bulow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, Count. 1775-1816. Prussian general. Bulow, Hans Guido von. 1830-. . . . German pianist. Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton, Baron Lytton, 1805-1873, English novelist, Bulwer-Lytton, Edward Robert, Baron Lytton. Owen Meredith. 1831-. . . , Son of the preceding. English poet, Bulwer, Sir Henry Lytton Earle. 1S04-1872. English author and diplomatist, Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias von, Baron. 1791-1860. Ger- man philologist and diplomatist. Bunyan, John. 1628-1688. English author. Tlic son of a tinker, he followed that vocation and led for many years a dissipated, wandering life ; served in the Parliament.-iry army; juined the Anabap- tists in 1654, and in 1655 became a Baptist minister ; sentenced to trans- portation for life on a charge of promoting seditious assemblies, but sentence not enforced ; w.as, however, imprisoned for more than twelve years, and during this time wrote his Pilgrim's Progress, After his release he was minister of the gospel at Bedford, and became very popular. Among his other works are The Holy City and The Holy War. Burckhardt, Johann Ludwig. 17S4-1817. Swiss traveller. Burdett-Coutts, Angela Georgina, Baroness. 1814-. . . . English philanthropist. Burger, Gottfried August. 1748-1794. German poet. Burgoyne, John. 1730-1792. English general and dijamatist. Surrendered at Saratoga, Burke, Edmund. 1730-1797. English (Irish) orator, states- man and writer. Prominent as the ablest member of the Commons to oppose the ministry's American policy. Impeached Warren Hastings in 1788. Reflections on the Revolution in France, Burke, Thomas N. 1830-18S3. Irish Dominican orator. Burleigh, William Cecil, Lord. 1520-1598. Eng. statesman. Burlingame, Anson. 1822-1870. American diplomatist; negotiator of treaty between the United States and China, Burnet, Ciilbert. 1643-1715. British prelate and historian. History 0/ My Own Times. -M Q ^ K~ 218 / A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Burns, Robert. 1759-1796. Scotch lyric poet. Born at Ayr ; the son of a poor farmer. Bums worked hard on his father's farm and had little opportunity for education. Began rhyming at the age of 16, and studied mensuration and surveying. His poems brought him into society, where he acquired dissipated habits. Formed a iiai- so?: in 17S5 with Jean Armour, whom he married in 1788. Intended to emigrate, but the popularity of his poems, published in full in 1787, in- duced him to remain in Scotland. He afterward became an officer of the excise. The principal characteristics of Burns' poems are beauty and independence of thought and intensity of feeling. T/ie Cotter's Saturday Night ; Tani O' Shunter; To the Unco' Gitid ; Halloween : Holy U'illie's Prayer. Burnside, Ambrose Everett. 1824-1881. American general. Burr, Aaron. 1756-1836. American statesman and lawyer. In 1800 Burr and Jefferson were the Democratic candidates for presi- dent and vice-president. Receiving the same number of votes, the House gave the higher office to Jefferson. Burr's course in endeavor- ing to supplant Jefferson lost him the regard of his party. Unsuccessful as candidate for governor of New York in 1804, Burr attributed his defeat to Alexander Hamilton, whom he killed in a duel. After the ex- piration of his term as vice-president, Burr was tried for treason, charged with the subversion of federal authority, and with raising an expedition for the conquest of Mexico, but acquitted. Burritt, Elihu. T/w Learned Blacksmith. 1S10-1S79. Am- erican scholar and journalist. The son of a shoemaker, and appren- ticed to a blacksmith, he devoted all his spare time to study, and event- ually mastered eighteen foreign languages. He became a successful lecturer and advocated many reforms. Burton, Richard Francis. 1821-. . . . Irish traveller in Africa. Burton, Robert. 1576-1640. English philosopher. Anatoviy 0/ Melancholy. Bushnell, Horace. 1S02-1876. American divine. Butler, Benjamin Franklin. 1818-. . . . American politician, lawyer and general. Born in New Hampshire. Butler applied the term "contraband of war" to the slaves who sought ,jrotection at Fortress Monroe while he was in command there. Military governor of New Orleans in 1862, ruling with vigor and efficiency and preserving the city from the yellow fever. Went to Congress as a Republican in 1866, and was re-elected for several terms. Elected governor of Mas- sachusetts in 1882 by the Democrats, but defeated for the same office a year later. Butler, Joseph. 1692-1752. English theologian. Butlf-r, Samuel. l6i2?-l68o. English poet. Hudibras. Byng, John. 1 704-1757. Eng. admiral, shot for cowardice. Byron, George Gordon Noel, Lord. 17SS-1S24. English poet. Born in Lond.m and educated in Scotland. Travelled 1809-11, and on returning produced the first cantos of Childc Harold, (jtaour and Bride o/Aiydos, 1^12', Corsair, 1814. In 1815 he married Anne Isabel Millbank, but separated from her and left England in 1816. In Italy he formed a liaison with the beautiful Countess Guiccioli. Espous- ing the cause of the Greeks in their struggle for liberty, he left for Greece in 1823, and died the following year at Missolonghi from the ef- fects of exposure while preparing for the siege of Lepanto. Byron's poetry is characterized by intense emotion, and by rare taste and mar- vellous felicity in composition, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage; Don yuan. y^ABALLERO, Fernan. 1787-1877. Pseudonym of the V^ Spanish novtilist Cecilia Bohl dc Fabcr. Cabanel, Alexandre. 1823-. . . . French historical painter. Cabanis, Pierre Jean George. '1757-1808. French physician and philosopher. Cabot, George. 1751-1823. President ui the Hartford Con- vention, Cabot, John -1498? Venetian navigator in the service of England. Discovered North American continent in 1497. Cabot, Sebastian. I477?-I557- Son of preceding. English navigator. Cade, John. Jack Cade -I450. Irish rebel. Cadoudal, George. 1 769-1 804. French Bourbon general. Executed for plotting the dethronement of Napoleon I. Cadvi^alader, George -1879. American general. Cadwalader, John. 1743-1786. American general. Caedmon -6S0? Anglo-Saxon poet. Tke Ci-eaiion. Csesar, Gains Julius. 100-44 ^-C Roman general and statesman. Elected Consul 60 B.C. ; formed a secret alliance with Pompey aiid Crassus known as the first triumvirate. It is said that during his Gallic wars a million of men were slain, eight hundred cities and towns captured and three hundred tribes subdued. Pompey having become Caesar's enemy through jealousy, the latter crossed the Rubicon, 49 B.C., and in a short time became master of Italy. Haviug conquered all his enemies, and subdued Spain and Africa, Caesar was made per- petual dictator, and received from the Senate the title of Imperator. Although beloved by the masses, the patricians feared and hated him, and the result of a conspiracy of Cassius, Brutus and others was his assassination. Cagliari, Paolo. Paul Veronese. I530?-I5S8. Italian painter. Cagliostro, Alexandre (Joseph Balsamo). 1743-1795- Italian impostor and adventurer, physician and alchemist, Caille, Nicolas Louis de la. 1713-1762. French astronomer. Caillet, Ciuillaume -^359- French insurgent leader. Cajetan, Thomas de Vio. 1469-1534. Italian prelate. Calderon de la Barco, Don Pedro. 1600-16S3. Spanish poet and dramatist. Produced his first drama at the age of 13. Served as a soldier, but took orders in 1652, after which he wrote only sacred dramas. He wrote some five hundred plays. Calhoun, John Caldwell. 1783-1850. American statesman. Born in South Carolina; elected to Congress, 1810; secretary of war, 1817; vice-president, 1825-1832, resigning to enter the Senate; secre- tary of slate, 1844; returned to the Senate, 1845. Calhoun was an avowed champion of slavery and state's rights, Caligula, Caius Csesar. 12-41. Emperor of Rome, noted for cruelty and sensuality. Built a temple to himself. Assassinated. Calonne, Charles Alexandre de. 1734-1802. Fr. statesman. Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore -1676. First proprietor of Maryland, residing in England. Calvert, George, first Lord Baltimore. i5S2?-i632. Father of the preceding. Founder of Maryland. Calvert, Leonard. l6o6?-l647. Brother of Cecilius. First governor of Maryland. Calvin, John. 1509-1564. French theologian. Established the Presbyterian form of church government. The fundamental prin- ciple of his theology is that of predestination to eternal happiness or misery by the absolute decree of God. Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis de. 1 757-1824. French statesman. Cambyses -522 B.C. King of Persia; conqueror of Egypt. Cameron, Richard -1680. Scottish Covenanter. Cameron, Simon. 1799- . . • • American politician; senator from Pennsylvania, secretary of war and minister to Russia. Camillus, Marcus Furius -364 B.C. Roman general and dictator. \ A COMPKNDILM OF UIOURAPHY, 219 ■Tf Camoens, Luis. 1517-1579. Portuguese poet. Served in Moroccii ;is a volunteer, .ind. failing to procure advancement at court on his return, went to India. There he was banished, on account of his satire, Follifs in India, from Go.1 to Macao, where he wrote the Lttsiad, the greatest of his works. Recalled to Goa, he suffered shipwreck, and saved the Lusiad by holding it ibove the waves as he swam ashore. He died ill great poverty. Campanini, Italo. Italian tenor singer. Campbell, Alexander. 1788-1866. Irish founder of the de- nomination of "Christians," or " Disciples of Christ." Campbell, Colin, Lord Clyde. 1792-1863. British General. Campbell, John, Lord. 1779-1861. Lord chancellor of England. The Lircs of ike I^rd Chancellors. Campbell, Thomas. 1 777-1844. Scottish poet. .Son of a Glasgow merchant. Published Pleasures of Hope in 1799. Among his other poems are The Exile 0/ Erin, Lochiefs Warning, Gertrude 0/ Myomingiind O^ Connor s Child. Also wrote biographies of Petrarch, Mrs. Siddons and- Frederick the Great. Canby, Edward Richard -Sprigg. 1819-1873. American general. Canisius, Petrus. (Ue Hondt.) 1521-1597. Dutch Jesuit theologian. Canning, (leorge. 1770-1827. P'nglish statesman and orator. Canova, .\ntonio. 1757-1822. Italian sculptor. Venus I'iir- torioHs; Venus and Adonis : Theseus and the Minotaur ; Da-da- ius and Icarus : The Graces, He executed statues of Washington and Napoleon. Canrobert, Francois Certain, 1809-.... French marshal and senator. Cantacuzenus, John -141 1? Greek emperor and historian. Canute IL 990-1035. King of Denmar'K ; conqueror of F.ngland. Capet, Ilugli. g40?-996. Founder of the Capctian dynasty. Caracalla. 188-217. Emperor of Rome, noted for cruelly. Caracci, Agostino. 1558-1602. Italian painter and engraver. Caracci, Annibal. 1560-1609. Italian painter. Caracci, Ludovico. 1555-1619. Italian painter. Caravaggio, Michel Angelo da. 1569-1609. Italian painter, Cardigan, James Thomas Bnidenell, Earl of. 1797-186S. English general. Carducci, Bartolommeo. 1560-1610. Florentine painter. Carey, Henry Charles. 1793-1879. Am. political economist. Carlisle, John G. 1829-. . . . American statesman. Carlos, Don, Duke of Madrid. (Carlos Maria de los Dolores Juan Isidore Josef Francesco Quirino Antonio Miguel Gabriel R.afael.) 1848-.... Claimant to the Spanish throtie. Nephew of Charles VI. Carlyle, Thomas. 1795-1881. Scottish essayist, biographer and historian. The son of a small farmer : educated at the University of Edinburgh. Taught mathematics for some time, but resolved to devote himself to literary pursuits and became thoroughly familiar with the literature of Germany. Married Jane Welch in 1827, and set- tled on ;i farm. Besides his best known works and several translations, he produced biographies of Schiller, Frederick the Great and John Sterling. Sartor Rcsarttts first appeared in Fraser's Magazine in 1833: French Kez'olution, 1837: Chartism, 1839: Heroes and Hero ll'orsliip, 1Z40; LAitter-Day Pamphlets and Crom-iuelCs Letters and Speeches, 1845. Carnarvon, Henry II. M. Herbert, third Earl of. 1831-. . . . English statesman. Carnot, Lazar Nicolas Marguerite. 1753-1823. French strate- gist and niilitarj- administrator. Carroll, Charles (of Carrollton). 1737-1S32. .\m. patriot. Cartier, Jacques. 1494-1555? French navigator. Cartwright, Edmund. 1743-1823. English inventor. Cary, .Mice. 1S22-1870. American poetess. Cary, Henry Francis. 1722-18S4. Eng. translator of Dante. Casas, Bartolopie de las. 1474-1566. Spanish missionary and historian. History o/ the Indians. Casaubon, Isaac. 1559-1614. Swiss scholar and critic. Casimir I. The Pacific -1058. King of Poland. II., 1137-1194. III., The Great, -1370. IV., 1425-1492. V., 1609- i67.>. Cass, I^wis. 1782-1866. .Vm. sLalcsman and diplomatist. Castelar y Rissol, Emilio. 1S32- .Spanish republican orator and statesman. Castlereagh, Robert .Stewart, Viscount. 1769-1822. Second marquis of Londonderry, British statesman, prominent in suppressing the Irish rebellion of 1798, and to him is attributed the union of Ireland with Great Britain. Opposed Bonaparte Committed suicide. Castro, Joao de. 1500-1548. Port, general and navigator. Catherine, Saint. 1347-1380. Italian nun at Siena. Mediator between the rival popes in the great schism. Catherine I. 1682-1727. Empress of Russia; succeeded to the throne on the death of her husband, Peter t'-e Great, II., 1 729-1 796; notoriously inunoral. Catherine of Aragon. 14S6-1536. Queen of Henry VHI. of England ; divorced. Catherine de, Medici. 1510-1589. Queen of Henry II. of France ; opponent of the Huguenots. Catiline, Lucius Sergius. io8?-62 B.C. Roman conspirator. Cato, Dionysius. Fl. 3d century. Latin poet. Cato, Marcus Portius. T/ie Elder. 234-149 B.C. Roman statesman and anther. Cato, Marcus Portius. The Younger. 95-46 B.C. Opponent of Carsar ; famed for purity and nobility. Committed suicide. Catullus, Cains Vallerius. 77 ?-45 ? B.C. Latin poet. Caulaincourt, Armand A. L. de. 1 773-1827. Fr. diplomat. Cavaignac, Louis Eugene. 1802-1857. French general and st.itesnian. Put down the insurrection of 1848. Cavour, Camillo Benso di. 1818-1861. First prime minister of the kingdom of Italy. Caxton, WilUam. 1412 7-1492. English scholar and mer- chant. Introduced printing into England. Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh. 1520-1598. Lord treasurer of England. Cecilia, .Saint. Fl. 2d century. Roman martyr; patroness of music. Cenci, Beatrice. The beautiful Parricide. 15837-1599. Roman lady, f inious for her beauty and tragic fate. Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. 1547-1616. Spanish novel- ist. Von Quit-ole. Cesnola, Louis Palma di. 1832- Born in Italy ; colonel in U, S, army during the civil war : appointed 1865 consid to Cyprus, and became famous for his excavations in that island. Chalmers, Thomas. 1780-1847. Scottish divine; founderof the " Free Church." .-Istronomy in its Connection with HcligictH. Chambers, William. 1800-1883. Scot, editor and publisher. Chambord, Henri Charles Ferdinand .Maiie Dieudonnti il'Artois, Comte. 1820-1883. Head of eider branch of the Bourbons. Chamisso, Adelbert von. 1781-1838. German traveller. Champollion, Je.m Frangois. 1791-1832. French Egyptolo- gist, Hieroglyphic Dictionary. Changarnier, Nicolas A. T. 1793-1877. French general. K A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Channing, William EUery. 1780-1842. American divine and author; opponent of slavery. Chantroy, Sir Francis. 1782-1841. English sculptor. Chapin, Edwin Hubbell. 1814-1881. American divine. Charlemagne. Charles the Great, or Charles I. 742-814. Emperor of Germany and King of France. Crowned emperor of the West, with the title of Csesar Augustus, by Pope Leo III., 800. The most powerful and enlightened monarch of his time. His empire extended from the Elbe to the Ebro, and from Calabria to Hungary. Founder of the Carloviogian dynasty. Charles II. The Bald. (Charles II. of France.) S23-S77. Emperor of Germany. Invaded Italy and was crowned Emperor. III., The Fat, 832?-888. IV., 1316-1378. Emperor of Germany and King of Bohemia. V., 1500-1558. Emperor of Germany. King of Spain as Charles I. Ascended the Spanish throne in 1516 and became Emperor of Germany in 1519. In 1521 summoned the Diet of Worms to check the progress of Luther's doctrines. In 1527, warring with Francis I. of France, and Pope Clement VII., Rome was sacked and the pope made prisoner. Convened the Diet of Augsburg to suppress the Reformation, but, the Protestants having united, liberal terms were granted them. In 1535, defeated Barbarossa and captured Tunis, liberating thousands of Christian slaves. Defeated in 1552 by the Protestant forces under Maurice of Sa.xony, he signed the treaty of Passau, establishing the Protestant church on a firm basis. Three years later he retired to the monastery of St. Yuste. VI., 1685-1740. VII. (Karl Albrecht), 1697-1745. Charles II. The Bald. (Charles II. of Germany.) 823-877. King of France. IV., The Fair. 11294-328. V., The Wise, 1337- 1380, VI., T/tf Mad or The Beloved, 1368-1422. Became insane in 1392. VII., The I'ictorious, 1 403-1461 ; expelled the EngUsh. IX., 1550-1574. X., 1757-1836. Charles I. Charles Stuart. 1600-1649. King of England. Executed after ineffectually attempting to subdue his rebellious subjects. II., 1630-1685 ; witty, but careless and voluptuous, the Habeas Corpus act was passed during his reign. Charles I. (Charles V. of Germany.) 1500-1558. King of Spain. II., 1661-1700. III., 1716-1788. IV., 1748-1819. Charles IX. 1550-1611. King of Sweden. X. (Gustavus), 1622-1660, XII., 1682-1718; ascended the throne in 1697. A league being formed against him by Russia, Denmark and Poland, in 1 700, he besieged Copenhagen, forced Denmark to make peace, and beat the Russians. He then invaded Poland, compelling King Augustus to resign. Invading Russia, he was badly defeated at Pultowa. He fled to Turkey, but soon returned. Marching into Norway, he was killed at the siege of Frederickshall. XIII. , 1748-1818. XIV. (Bernadotte), 1714-1844. XV., 1826-1872. King of Sweden and Norway. Charles Edward Stuart. The Young Pretender. 1 720-1 7S8. English prince. Charles the Bold. I433-I477- D»ke of Burgundy. While still Count of Charolais and before succeeding to his dukedom, he led a successful revolt of the nobles against Louis XI. of France. Aspiring to enlarge his dominions, he invaded Lorraine, but was defeated by Duke Rene's Swiss allies and killed in battle. Charles Martel. 694?-74i. King of the Franks. Charron, Pierre. 1531-1603. French moralist. Chartier, Alain. 13S5-1455. French poet. Chase, Salmon Portland. 1808-1873. American statesman and jurist. Secretary of the Treasury: chief justice. Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste de, Viscount. 1768-1848. French author. Genius of Christianity. Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of. The Great Commoner. 1708-1778. English statesman and orator. Opposed taxation of the American colonies. Chatterton, Thomas. 1752-1770. Kiit^lish literary impostor. Chaucer, Geoffrey. !340?-i400. English poet, styled the " Father of English poetry." Canterbury Tales. Cheever, George Barrelle. 1807-..,. American divine. Cheke, Sir John. 1514-1557. English scholar. Chenier, Andre Marie de. 1762-1794. French poet; exe- cuted. The Yon7ig Captiz/e, written just before his death, is called by Lamartine " the most melodious sigh that ever issued from a dungeon." Cherbuliez, Victor. 1832-.... French novelist. Cherubini, Maria Luigi C. Z. S. 1760-1S42. It. composer. Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of. 1694-1773. English orator and wit, distinguished especially as a man of fashion. Chevalier, Michael. 1806-1879. Fr. political economist. Chiabrera, Gabriello. 1552-1637. Italian lyric poet. Child, Lydia Maria. 1802-. . . . American philanthropist. Chillingworth, William. 1602-1644. English theologian. The Religion 0/ Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation. Chitty, Joseph. 1776-1841. English jurist and writer. Choate, Rufus. 1799-1859. American lawyer and statesman, noted for his eloquence. Senator from Massachusetts, Choiseul, Etienne Francois de. 1719-1785. Fr. statesman. Choris, Louis. 1795-1828. Russian painter and traveller. Christian I. 1425-1481. King of Denmark. II., 1481-1556. Called "The Hero of the North." IIL, 1503-1559. IV., 1577-1648. V., 1646-1699. VL, 1699-1746. VIL, 1749-1808. VIIL, 17B6-1848. *IX,, 1818-.... Christina. 1629-1689. Queen of Sweden. Daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. Learned and eccentric. Abdicated 1654. Chrysippus. 2S0-207 B.C. Greek Stoic philosopher. Chrysostom, John, Saint. 350?-4C7. Greek father of the church. Church, Frederick Edwin. 1826-. , . . American painter. Churchill, Charles. 1 731-1764. English poet and satirist. Cialdini, Enrico. 1811-.... Italian general. Cibber, Colley. 1671-1757. English actor and dramatist. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. 106-43 ^■^"' Roman author, states- man and orator. While consul, suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline. Exiled 58 B.C., but recalled and enthusiastically received. Was an ad- herent of Pompey.but enjoyed the favor of Julius Caesar. Killed by the soldiers of Antony. Cicero is regarded as an orator second only to Demosthenes. Cid Campeador. (Ruy Diaz de Bivar.) I040?-I099. Cas- tilian hero. Cimabue, Giovanni. 1140-1300? Italian painter. Cimon. 500-499 B.C. Athenian general and statesman. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintus. 520-438 e.c. Roman patriot and Dictator. Elected consul while cultivating a farm, having lost his property. Conquered the .^qui. Twice chosen dictator, and at the expiration of each term of office he returned to the plow. Cinna, Lucius Cornelius -84 B.C. Roman demagogue. Cinq-Mars, Henri C. de Ruze, Marquis de. 1620-1642. Frcncli conspirator. Civilis, Claudius. Fl. 70. Chief of the Batavi. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Flarl of. 1 60S- 1674. English historian and statesman. Clarke, At^lam. 1762-1832. Irisli Methodist Bible com- niLMitator, Clarke, John S. 1S35-. . . . American comedian. Clarke, Mary Cowden. 1809-. . . . English writer. Con- cordance 0/ Shakspere. Claude Lorraine. i(')oa-i6S2. French painter. v_ \ V '7] A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 221 Claudian (Claudius Claudianus). 365 ?-4oS ? Latin poet. Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero), H.c. IO-54 A.n. Roman emperor; invaded Britain. Claudius, Marcus Aurelius. 214-270. Roman emperor. Clay, Henry. 1777-1852. American statesman and orator. Born in Virginia; removed to Kentucky 1797; practiced law; elected to Kentucky Legislature in 1804, and two years later chosen to fill a short term in the U. S. Senate; re-elected to the Senate 1809, and to the House of Representatives iSii, of which body he was made speaker; re-elected speaker :8i3 ; signed treaty of Ghent, 1815; re- elected speaker four times; advocated Missouri Compromise. Not one-of his decisions as speaker was reversed. In 1824, he was one of four candidates for the presidency, receiving thirty-seven electoral votes. When the election devolved on the House of Representatives, his influence decided the contest in favor of Jackson. A bloodless duel between Clay and Randolph, in 1826, was the result of charges against Clay growing out of this election. Re-elected to the Senate in 1831 for six years; and in 1832 was defeated for the presidency as the candidate of the anti-Jackson party. Again elected to the Senate m 1836, but resigned in 1842. Whig candidate for the presidency in 1844, Re- elected Senator 1848. Clay is generally given credit fur the compro- mise of 1850, believed to have postponed for ten years the civil war. Clemens, Samuel Langhome. Mark Twain, 1 835-. . . . American humorist. Learned the printer's trade, and became a pilot on the Mississippi. Tke Innocents Abroad: The Jumping Frog; Roughing It : The Gilded Age i Tlie Tramp Abroad, Clement I. 30?-ioo. Pope. IV., ...-628. V., I264?-I3I4, VII. (Giulio de Medici), i475?-i534. VIII., 1605. XI., 1649-1721. XIV.. I 705-1774. Clement of Alexandria. i5o?-22o? Father of the church. Cleon -422 B.C. Athenian demagogue and general. Cleopatra. 69-30 B.C. Queen of Egypt, remarkable for beauty and accomplishments. Cleveland, Grover. 1837- .... American statesman. Born at Caldv/ell, N. J., the son of a Presbyterian minister, who removed to FayetleviUe, N. Y., in 1840. First worked in a country store, secured an education and became a teacher in the N. V. Blind Asylum. Studied law in Buffalo; admitted to tlie bar in \%(^^, and became assistant district attorney ; afterwards sheriff. Mayor of Buffalo, 1881, and then elected Governor of New York by 1^2,000 majority. DemiKTatic candidate for the presidency in 1884. Clinton, De Witt. 1769-1828. American statesman; pro- moter of the Erie Canal. Governor of New York, United States Sena- tor, and Federal candidate for the Presidency, Clinton, George. 1739-1812. Vice-president of the U. S. Clinton, Sir Henry. 1738-1795. English general in America. Clive, Robert, Lord. 1 725-1 774. English general and founder of the British empire in India. Committed suicide. Clodius, Publius. 52 B.C. Roman tribune and demagogue. Clootz, Jean Baptiste, Baron. Anacharsis Clootz. 1753-1794. Prussian traveller and French revolutionist. Guillotined. Clough, Arthur Hugh. 1820-1861. English poet. Clovis (or Chlodwig). 465-511. King of the Franks; con- queror of Gaul. Cobbett, William. 1762-1S35. English political writer. Cobden, Richard. 1804-1S65. English statesman and economist. Leading orator of the Anti-Corn-Law League. Coke (or Cook), Sir Edward. 1552-1633. English jurist. Colbert, Jean Baptiste. 1619-1683. French statesman. Cole, Thomas. 1801—1848. English landscape painter. Colenso, John William. 1814-. , . . Eng. theologian. Bishop of Natal. The Pentateuch and Book 0/ Joshua Criticaliy Examined. Coleridge, Hartley. 1796-1849. Son of S. T. C. Eng. poet. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. 1772-1834. English poet and critic. Educated at Cambridge, Intimate friend of Robert Southey, with whom he intended to emigrate to America for the purpose of found- ing a democratic community. In company with Wordsworth he studied German literature and wrote the Lyrical Ballads. In 1807 he took to wandering habits, and left his family dependent on his brother-in-law, Southey. His health failing about 1825, he became addicted to the opium habit, but succeeded in overcoming it. The Ancient AMariner, Colfax, Schuyler. 1823- 1885. Am. politician ; vice-president. Coligny, Gaspard de. 15 17-1572. French admiral. Leader of the Huguenots, and kil'ed in the massacre ol St. Bartholomew. Collier, Jeremy. 1650-1726. English theologian. Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord. 1750-1810. English lord high admiral ; second in command at the battle of Trafalgar. Collins, Anthony. 1676-1729. Eng. author and free-thinker. Collins, William. 1 720-1 756. Eng. poet. Thg Passions. Collins, William Wilkie. 1824- English novelist. After Dark; Armadale ; Tke Woman in Ultite ; Man and U'i/e, Colman, George. Tke Eider. 1733-1794. Eng. dramatist. Colman, George. The Younger. 1762-1836. English dra- matist. John Bull. Colonna, Vittoria. 1490-1547. Italian poet. Colt, Samuel. 1814-1862. Am. inventor of the revolving pistol. Columba, Saint. 521-597. The apostle of Caledonia. Columbus, Christopher. 1436-1506. Genoese navigator and discoverer of America. Became a sailor at 14. Studied mathe- matics at the University of Pavia. Removed to Lisbon at the age of thirty, and was employed in several expeditions to the west coast of Africa. Columbus meditated reaching Indi.a by a western route. He unsuccessfully solicited the aid of John II. of Portugal, but finally Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain furnished him two small vessels, and another was added by the efforts of his friends. With these ships and one hundred and twenty men he set sail from Palos, August 3, 1492, and after a long voyage, during which he was threatened with death by his mutinous crew, he discovered the island of San Salvador, October 12 of same year. Supposing that he had reached India, he called the natives Indians. After visiting Cuba and Hayti, he returned to Spain, where he was received triumphantly. In 1493 he again sailed across the Atlantic, this time with seventeen ships, and discovered Jamaica and Porto Rico. In 1498 he made his third voyage, with six vessels, discovering the mainland at the mouth of the Orinoco. In 1499, complaints having been made to the court of the conduct of Columbus at Hispaniola, he was carried to Spain in chains by Francisco de Bobadilla, whose action was, however, repudiated by the king and queen. Columbus' last voyage to America was made in 1502, to Honduras. He died neglected. Combe, George. 1788-1858. Eng. educator and phrenologist, Comines, Philippe de. 1445-1509. Fr. statesman and historian. Commodus, Antoninus. 161-192, Emperor of Rome. Comonfort, Ignacio. i8io?-i863. President of Mexico. Comte, Auguste, 1 798-1857. French philosopher. Positivism, Conde, Louis IL, Prince de. The Great CondL 1621-1686. French general. Victorious over the Spaniards at Rocroi, 1643, and over the Germans at Nordlingen, 1645. Again defeated the Spanish at Lens in 1648, almost annihilating their infantr>', previously regarded in- vincible. Seeking revenge for ha\'ing been imprisoned by the orders of Mazarin or the queen, he warred against the government, and next entered the ser\'ice of Spain. Returned to France in 1659, -""^ defeated William of Orange in 1674. Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de. 1715-17S0. French meta- physician. Condorcet, Marie Jean A. N. C. de. 1 743-1 794. French mathematician and philosopher. Imprisoned in 1794, he committed suicide by poison. ^ i\- A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. J- . / Confucius, or Kong-foo-tse. 551-478 B.C. Chinese phil- osopher. The son of a soldier, he was raised to the rank of mandarin at 19 ; superintendent of public markets and public fields. Commenced public teaching at 22. Became, in 499 B.C., minister of crime, and soon after retired from public life, devoting his time to study, travel, and the dissemination of his doctrines. The philosophy of Confucius re- lates to the present life only, the useful and the practical forming the chief objects. He placed great importance upon outward forms of po- liteness, being the first to enunciate, in substance, the Golden Ride. His object was to promote human happiness. His influence upon posteritj- has been truly enormous, his teachings affecting two-thirds of humanity for uventj' -three centuries. Congreve, Sir William. 1772-1828. English engineer. (Con- greve rocket). Congreve, William. 1 670-1 729. English dramatist and wit. Conkling, Ro.scoe. 1829- American statesman, lawyer and orator. U. S. senator from New York. Conrad I -918. Emperor of Germany. II., ....—1039. III., 1093-1133. IV., 1228-1254. v., 1252-1268. Conscience, Hendrik. 1812-18S3. Flemish novelist. Constaiis I. 32o?-350. Emperor of Rome. II., 630-668. Constantine I. The Great. 272-377. Emperor of Rome. Embraced Christianity*, and transferred his court from Rome to Byzan- tium, thenceforth called Constantinople. II., 312-340. III. (emperor of the East), 612-641. IV., ....-6S5. V., 719-775. VI., 771-797. VII., 905-959: poisoned by his son, Romanus II. VIII ^46. IX., 961-1028. X., ..,.-1054. XI -1067. XII -1071. XIII. (Palaeologus), 1394-1543 ; killed while defending Constantinople against the victorious Mahomet II. Last emperor of the East. Constantius I. 250-306. Emperor of Rome. II. (emperor of the West), 317-361. III., -421. Conti, Frangois Louis de. Prince. 1664-1709. Fr. general. Cook, Eliza. 1S17-. . . . English poetes-s. Cook, James, Captain. 1 728-1 779. English discoverer, and circumnavigator of the globe. Killed by natives inthe Sandwich Islands. Cooke, George Frederick. 1755-1812. English actor. Cooper, Sir .\stley Paston. 1 768-1 S41. English physician. Cooper, James Fenimore. 1779-185 1. American novelist. Having studied at Yale College, he entered the na\-y in 1806 as mid- shipman,but left the service in iSii. His first novel. Precaution, ap- peared in 1809, but was not a success. His next. The Spy, was enthu- siastically received. His sea-stories are considered the best of his numerous productions. Cope, Edward Drinker. 1840- .\merican naturalist. Copernicus {Copernik or Kopernik), Nicholas. 1473-1543. German astronomer. Disproved the Ptolemaic theory. In his great work, Tke Revolution 0/ the Celestial Orbs, the first copy of which was handed to him on the day of his death, he demonstrated that the sun is the centre of the imiverse. Copley, John Singleton. 1737-1815. English painter, bom in Massachusetts. Corday, Charlotte. (Mariane Charlotte Corday d'.\rmans). 1763-1753. French heroine ; assassinated Marat. Coriolanus, Cneius Marcius. Fl. 490 B.C. Roman hero. Corneille, Pierre. 1606-1684. Founder of the Fr. drama. Cornelius, Peter von. 1787-1867. German painter. Cornell, Ezra. 1807-1874. American philanthropist. Comwallis, Charles, Earl. 173&-1805. British general. Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille. 1796-1875. French painter. Correggio, .\ntonio .\llegri da. 1494-1534. Italian painter. Extremely skilful in foreshortening and in the use of chiaroscuro. The Assumption 0/ the Virgin ; Ecce Homo ; Penitent Stagdalen ; St. Jerome : La Vierge au Panier. Cortez, Hernando. 1485-1547. Spanish conqueror of Mexico. Corvinus, Matthias. 1443-1490. King of Hungary. Corwin, Thomas. 1 794-1865. American statesman. Cotton, John. 1585-1652. Puritan minister in Boston. Cottin, Sophie Ristaud. 1773-1807. French novelist. Cousin, Victor. 1792-1867. French philosopher. Cowley, .\braham. 1618-1667. Eng. poet. Pindaric Odes. Cowper, William. 1 731-1800. English poet. Studied at Westminster school, and became a fine classical scholar. Admitted to the bar, but never practiced, his morbid sensitiveness, nervousness and diffidence making him unable to occupy a conspicuous position. Became temporarily deranged, and made several attempts at suicide. In 1784 he commenced his translation ol Homer. T/ie Task was published in 1785. Cowper's letters are considered among tlie best in the language. His poetry is by turns pla>-ful and pathetic, tender and sarcastic — sometimes sublime. Cowper, William. 1666—1709. Enghsh anatomist. Cox, Samuel Sullivan. 1824- American statesman. Coxe, .\rthur Cleveland. 1818- Am. bishop and poet. Cozzens, Frederick Swartwout. 1818-1869. Am. author. Crabb, George. 1778-1854. Eng. philologist. Synonyms. Crabbe, George. 1754-1832. English poet. Studied surgery, but abandoned that profession. Was befriended by Edmund Burke, and published The Library in 1781. Ordained a minister of the Church of England in 1782. The Village, his best work, was produced in 1783. Craik, Dinah Maria (Mulock). 1826- English authoress. Oliz'e : John Halifax, Gentleman; A Life /or a Life ; A H'oman's Thoughts about IVomen. Cranch, Christopher Pearse. 1S13-. . . . Am. artist and poet. Cranmer, Thomas. 1489-1556. English reformer; arch- bishop of Canterbury. Burned to death. Crassus, Marcus Licinius. io8?-53 B.C. Roman trium\-ir; immensely wealthy. Defeated and slain by the Parthians. Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. 1812-1878. English historian. Fifteen Decisive Battles. Crichton, James. The Admirable Crichton. 1560-1583. Scottish prodigy. Stabbed by his pupil, a son of the Duke of Mantua. Crittenden, John Jordon. 1786-1863. American state-sman. Crockett, David. 1786-1836. American backwoodsman. Croesus. 590-546 B.C. King of Lydia, famous for wealth. Croly, George. 1780-1S60. Irish poet and pulpit-orator. Cromwell, Oliver. 1599-1659. English general; lord pro- tector of England. Elected to ParUament 162B. In 1637 resolved to emigrate with his cousin, John Hampden, but they were detained by an order of council. Re-elected to Parliament 1640. Entered the Parlia- mentary army in 1642 as captain of cavalry. Rapidly promoted, and led left wing at Marston Moor, 1644. Commanded right wing at Naseby, 1645, and became leader of the Independents. Transferred the custody of the king from Parliament to the army, 1647. Won the battle of Preston, 1648. Signed the death warrant of Charles I., 1649. Made commander-in-chief, 1650, and defeated the Scotch at Dunbar and Charles at Worcester. Dissolved Parliament in 1653, and ivas in 1654 proclaimed by the army protector of the commonwealth. Cropsey, Jasper Frank. 1823-. . . . American painter. Cruden, Alexander. 1700-1770. Scottish bookseller and author. Concordance. Cruikshank, George. 1792-1878. Eng. humorous artist. Cumberland, William Augustus, Duke of. 1721-1765. Con- queror at Culloden. Cunningham, .-\llan. 1 785-1842. Scottish author and critic. Curran, John Philpot. 1750-1817. Irish barrister and orator. Curtis, Benjamin Robb'-ns. 1S09-1874. American jurist. / \' A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Curtis, George William. 1S24-. . . . Am. author and editor. Gushing, Caleb. 1800-1879. American law-j'er, statesman and diplomatist. Cushtnan, Charlotte Sanders. 1816-1876. Am. actress. Custer, George A. 1839-1876. American general, killed by the Sioux. Cuvier, Georges C. L. F., Baron. 1769-1S32. French naturalist. Cyprian, Saint. 20O?-258. Latin father; bishop of Car- thage ; martyr. Cyril, Saint. 3i5?-386. Bishop of Jerusalem. Cyril, Saint. 376 ?-444. Bishop of Alexandria. Cyrus. The Great, or The Elder -529 B.C. King of Persia ; conquered Babylon. Cyrus. The Younger. . . . .-401 B.C. Hero of Xenophon's A na&asis. T \ABOLL, Nathan. 1750-1818. American mathemati- Dacier, Andre. 1651-1722. French scholar and critic. Dacier, Anne Lefevre. 1654-1720. Wife of preceding. Translated Homer. Daendels, Hermann W'illem. 1762-iSiS. Dutch general. DagTierre, Louis Jacques Mande. 1 789-1 85 1. French artist ; inventor of the daguerreotype. Dahlberg, Eric. 1625-1703. Swedish general and engineer. Dahlgren, John Adolph. 1S09-1S70. Am. rear-admiral. Dallas, .Alexander James. 1759-1S17. Am. statesman. Dallas, George Mifflin. 1792-1S64. Am. statesman. Dalton, John. 1766-1844. English chemical philosopher. Damiani, Peter. 990-1072. Italian ecclesia.stic. Damiens, Robert F. 1714-1757. French fanatic. Dampier, William. 1652-1712. Eng. explorer and naWgator. Dana, Charles A. 1819-.... Am. journalist. Dana, Francis. 1743-1S11. Am. lawyer and statesman. Dana, Richard Henry. 1787-1879. American poet and writer. The Buccaneer. Dana, Richard Henry. 1S15-1SS2. Son of preceding. Am. author and lawyer. Two Years Be/ore the .Mast. Dancer, Daniel. 1716-1794. English miser. Dandelot, Franijois de Coligny. 1521-1569. French general. Dandolo, Enrico. 1I05?-I205. Blind doge of Venice ; took Constantinople by storm, Dane, Nathan. 1752-1S35. Am. lawyer and statesman. DanieL Fl. 6th century B.C. Hebrew prince and prophet. Daniel, Samuel. 1 562-1619. English poet. 1 265- 1 321. The greatest poet of Italy. A leader of the French Guillotined. 1752-1840. English Dante AUighieri. Di'.'ina Cotnittcdia, Danton, Georges Jacques. 1759-1794. revolution, and head of the *' Dantonists." D'Arblay, J^Ime. (Frances Burney.) novelist. Evelina; Cecilia; Cantilla. Darboy, Georges. 1813-1871. Archbishop of Paris. Darius I. (Darius Hystaspis.) -435 B.C. King of Persia. II., -405 B.C. III. (Codomannus), ....-330 B.C.; defeated by Alexander. Darius the Mede. Supposed to be Cyaxares II. Darley, FeUx O. C. 1822-. . . . American artist. Darling, Grace. 1815-1S42. English heroine. Darnley, Henry Stuart, Lord. 1545?-I567. Husband of Mary Queen of Scots ; assassinated. Darwin, Charles Robert. 1S09-18S2. English naturalist and originator of the theory of evolution. In his *' Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection," published in 1859, he propounds the theory that all forms of life, animal or vegetable, past or present, have been produced by a series of gradual changes in natural descent. In his " Descent of Man," he infers that "man is descended from a hairy quadruped furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in its habits," Darwin, Erasmus. 1731-1S02. English physician and poet. D'Aubigne, Jean Henri Merle. 1794-1872. .Swiss historian. D'Aubigne, Theodore. 1550-1630. French soldier, poet and historian. Daudet, Alphonse. 1840-.... French novelist. Jack. Davenport, Edwanl L. 1816-1877. -American actor. David. 1090-1015 B.C. King of Israel; prophet and poet. David, Saint. 490?-544. Patron of Wales. David, Jacques Louis. 1748-1825. French historical painter. David, Pierre J. 1789-1856. French sculptor. Daviess, Joseph Hamilton. Jo Daviess. 1 787-1 854. Kra- erican statesman. Da Vinci, Leonardo. See Vinci. Davis, Henr)' Winter. 1817-1S65. American politician. Davis, Jefferson. 1808-.... American statesman and presi- dent of the Confederacy, Born in Kentucky : graduate of West Point ; ser\'ed in the Black Hawk war and Mexican war; elected to U. S. Senate from Mississippi in 1847; secretary of war 1S53-7; re- elected senator in 1857 ; inaugurated proWsional president of the Con- federate States in 1861, and elected for six years in 1862. Imprisoned in Fortress Monroe for two years after the fall of Richmond. History 0/ the Ci:il War. Davoust (or Davout), Louis Nicholas, Duke of Auerstadt and Prince of Eckmiihl, 1770-1823, Marshal of France. Davy, Sir Humphrey. 177S-1829. English chemist. Dem- onstrated that the fixed alkalies are metallic oxides. Inventor of the safety lamp. Researches Chemical and Pliiloso/>hical. Dayton, William Lewis. 1807-1864. American statesman. Dearborn, Henry. 1751—1829. Am. general and statesman. Decatur, Stephen. 1779-1820. American naval commander. Defeated the Algerines. Killed in a duel. De Foe (or Defoe), Daniel. 1 661-1 731. English novelist. Son of James Foe, a butcher, he assumed the prefix " de," Took part in the insurrection against James II, Imprisoned and pilloried in 1702 for publishing The Shortest IVay with Dissenters, an ironical pamphlet. His works are over two himdred in number, and show great versatility and originality. Eahinson Crusoe: The TruC'horH Englishman ; The History of the Union; Memoirs of a Cavalier; Reli^ous Courtship. De Kalb, John, Baron. 1732— 1780. German general; ac- companied Lafayette to America in 1777, and served under Washington. Killed at the battle of Camden. De Haas, Maurice F. H. 1830?- Dutch marine painter Delacroix, Ferdinand V. E. 1799-1863. French painter. De la Rame, Louisa. Oitida. 1S40?-.... Eng. novelist. Delaroche, Paul. 1797-1856. French painter. Delaware, Thomas West, Lord —1618. Gov. of Virginia. Delmas, Antoine Guillaume. 176S-1813. French general. Delorme, Marion. 1612-1650. French beauty and courtesan. Del Sarto, Andrea Vannuchi. 1488-1530. French painter. Demetrius Phalereus. 345?-284? B.C. Attic orator and philosopher, Demetrius Poliorcetes. 335?-2S4? B.C. Macedonian general. VL \i K" 224 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. J- , -yi Democritus. TAe Laughing Philosopher. 460-361 B.C. Greek philosopher. Demosthenes. 385?-322 B.C. Athenian orator. Conquered an impediment in his speech, and by perseverance and determination be- came the greatest of orators. Opposed Philip of Macedon, against whom he delivered his Philippics. It being proposed to reward his public ser- vices with a golden crown, a bitter contest ensued with his rivaK'Eschlnes, in which Demosthenes, however, was triumphant. This led to the oration On the Croivn, considered his greatest achievement. Con- demned to death by Antipater, he committed suicide by poison. He left sixty orations. Denis, Saint 272. Apostle and patron of France. De Quincey, Thomas. 1785-1859. Eng. author. The son of a wealthy merchant. Contracted the opium habit while pursuing his studies at Oxford — a habit which he overcame, in 1820, after a severe and prolonged struggle. His Confessions of an Opiui>:-£atfr, wnttGn as an autobiography, and published in 1821, created a great sensation. De Quincey was a brilliant writer, and left numerous works. Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, Earl of. 1799-1869. English statesman and orator. Translator of Homer's Iliad, Derby, Edward Henry Smith Stanley, Earl of. 1826-.... English statesman. Descartes, Rene. 1 596-1 650, Fr. philosopher and mathe- matician. Discourse on the Method of Reasoning Well, and of In- vestigating Scientific Truth ; Meditationes de Prima Philosophia ; Principles of Philosophy. " I think, therefore I am." Desfontaines, Rene Louiche. 1 752-1833. French botanist. De Smet, Peter John. 1S01-1873. Jesuit missionarj- to the Indians. Des Moulins, Camille. 1762-1794. Fr. Jacobin ; guillotined. De Soto, Ferdinand. 1460-1542. Spanish explorer; discov- ered the Mississippi river. Dessalines, Jean Jacques. 1760- 1806. Negro emperor of Hayti. De Vigny, Alfred, Count. 1 799-1863. Fr. novelist and poet. De Witt, Jan. 1625-1672. Dutch statesman. Diaz, Portirio. 1830-. . . . President of Mexico. Dibdin, Charles. 1745-1814. English song writer Dick, Thomas. 1772-1S57. Scottish author. Dickens, Charles. 181 2-1870. English novelist. After study- ing at college, he was articled to an attorney, but found the study of law uncongenial, and became a reporter for the press. Sketches by Bos appeared in the London Morning Chronicle in 1836. Pickwick Papers: Oliver Twist; Dombey 67^ Son ; Bleak House : Hard Times ; Nicho- las Nickleby ; David Copperfeld ; A Tale of Two Cities : Great Expectations, etc. Dickinson, Anna Elizabeth. 1S42-. . . . Am. lecturer. Diderot, Denis. 1712-1784. Fr. philosopher and novelist Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth. 1843-.... English states- man, editor and author. Greater Britain. Diocletian. 284-305. Roman emperor. Diogenes. Died 323 B.C. Greek Cynic philosopher. Lived ill a tub, affecting great contempt for the comforts of life. Dionysius. The Elder. 430?-367 B.C. Tyrant of Syracuse. Dionysius. The Younger. 398-340? Tyrant of Syracuse. Dionysius of Ilalicarr.assus. 70?-7? B.C. Cireek historian. Disraeli, lienjamin. See Beaconsfield. Disraeli, Isaac. 1766- 1848. Father of preceding. English litterateur; bom of a Jewish family. Curiosities of Literature. Dix, John Adams. 1798- 1 879, Am. general and statesman. Dixon, William Hepworth. 1821-1879. English traveller and historian. Dodge, Mary Abigail. Gaii Hamilton. 1838?-. . . . Ameri- can authoress. 1637-1706. 1536-1608. English poet English poet American surgeon. .-1 5 14? *' The great Dodsley, Robert. 1 709-1 764. English author and bookseller. For some time employed as a footman. The Footjnan s Miscellany. Doellinger, John Joseph Ignatius. 1799-. . . - German theolo- gian and historian ; leader of the " Old Catholic" movement. Domcnichino. (Zampieri). 1581-1641. Italian painter. Dominic, Saint. 1170-1221. Spanish preacher, and founder of the order of Dominicans Domitian. 5i?-96. Rom. emperor. Cruel and depraved. Donatus. Fl. 300. Founder of the Donatists. Donizetti, Gaetano. 179S-184S. Italian composer. Lucia di Lavtmermoor; Lucrezia Borgia. Donne, John. 1573-1631. English poet and divine. Dore, Paul Gustave. 1832-1883. French artist. Doria, Andrea. 146S-1560. Genoese patriot and commander. Dorr, Thomas Wilson. 1805- 1854. American politician. Dorset, Charles Sackville, Earl of. and wit. Dorset, Thomas Sackville, Earl of. and statesman. Dorsey, John Syng, 1783-1818. Douglas, Archibald Beii-lhe-Cat. earl of Angus." Lord chancellor. Douglas, James, Earl of. ... .-1 330. Scottish patriot. Douglas, Stephen Arnold. The Little Giant. i8i7?-lS6i. American statesman. Native of Vermont, admitted to the bar in New York ; removed to Illinois and gained destinction as an orator. Judge of Illinois Supreme Court 1841 . elected to Congress 1843 ; senator 1847. Supported the compromise measures of Henry Clay, and advocated the doctrine known as "squatter sovereignty" Re-elected to the Senate 1853, ^"*^ reported the bill repealing the Missouri compromise. Candi- date for the Democratic nomination for the presidency in 1856 De- feated Lincoln for the U. S. senate in 1858, they canvassing the state to- gether- Candidate of one wing of the Democratic party for president in i860. Supported the Union party in 1861. Douglass, P'rederick. 1817?-. ... Am. orator; formerly a slave ; native of Maryland His father was a white man and his mother a negro slave. Sold to a shipbuilder in 1832, but escaped to Massachu- setts and assumed the name of Douglass. Exhibiting rare powers as an orator, he was aided by Wm. L. Garrison and others, and employed, in 1841, by the American Anti-Slavery Society. Dow, Lorenzo. 1 777-1 834. American preacher. Downing, Andrew J. 1815-1852. Am. landscape gardener. Draco (or Dracon). Fl. 624 B.C. Athenian lawgiver. Drake, Sir Francis. 1 540-1 595- English naval hero; first English circumnavigator of the globe, captured or destroyed one hundred vessels in the port of Cadiz in 1587, and contributed in 1588 to the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Drake, Joseph Rodman. 1 795-1 820. American poet. Draper, John Williant. iSii-1882. American scientist. Drayton, Michael. 1563-1631. English poet. Dreyse, Joliann Nikolaus von. 17S7-1867. Prussian inventor of the needle-gun. Drusus, Claudius Nero. 3S-9 B.C. Roman general. Dryden, John. 1631-1700. English poet, critic and dram- atist. Educated at Cambridge. Wrote some spirited heroic stanzas in memory of Cromwell. After the accession of Charles II., he became a staunch royalist. His first drama. The Wild tJaZ/aw^, was published in 1662; Annus Mirabilis and The Indian Emperor, \66t. Appointed poet-laureate in 1668. He next wrote his Essay on Dramatic Poetry and several comedies and tragedies. Absalom and Achitophcl, 1681. Became a Roman Catholic in 1686 and wrote The Hind and Panther, a poetical allegory. His ode on Alexander* s Feast, considered the finest English lync, appeared in 1696, after he had completed his trans- lation of Virgil. Lord Macaulay calls Dryden " an incomparable rea- soner in verse." V- \ Q ^ A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 225 / Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni. 1S35- French traveller. Dudevant, Mme. Aniantine Lucille Aurore { nie Dupin). George Sand. 1804-1876. French novelist. Married at the age of 18 to a retired army officer, she separated from him ten years later. She was at one time a zealous Catholic, but later adopted most liberal views, adopting man's attire and denouncing the marriage system. She edited a democratic paper during the revolution of 1848. She has left numer- ous novels and several dram.as. Dudley, Benjamin Winslow. 1785-1870. Am. physician. Dudley, Charles Eilward. 1 780-1841. American senator. Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas. 1798-. ... Fr. statesman. Dufferin, Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, Earl of. 1826-. . . . English statesman. Governor-general of Canada. Dumas, Alexandre. 1803-1870. French novelist. Dumas, Alexandre. 1824-.... Son of above. Fr. novelist. Dumouriez, Charles Francois. 1739-1823. French general. Duncan I -1040. Scottish king. Killed by Macbeth. Dundonald, Thomas Cochrance, Earl of. 1 775-1 860. Brit- isli admir.il. Dunglison, Robley. 179S-1869. American physician. Medi- cal Pictiontiry. Dunois, Jean de. Bastard of Orleans. 1402-1468. French national hero. Natural son of the Dulce of Orleans. Defeated the English at Montargis in 1427, and assisted at the siege of Orleans in 1429. Expelled the English from Normandy and Guienne, and was created Count d'Orleans. Duns Scotus. The Subtle Doctor. 1265?-! 308. Scottish theologian, Dunstan, Saint. 925-988. English prelate. Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Filibert. 1802-1878. Fr. prelate, Dupleix, Joseph, Marquis. 1695-1763. Fr. governor in India. Dupont, Samuel Francis. 1803-1865. Am. rear-admiral. Duquesne, Abraham. 1610-1688. Fr. naval commander. Durer, Albrecht. 1471-1528. German painter and engraver. Crucifixion; Adoration 0/ the Alagi ; Tlie KnigJtt and Death; Rez'e- i.ition 0/ St. yohn. Dwight, Timothy. 1752-1817. Am. author and divine. >;7:ARLY, Jubal A. 1818?- Confederate general. Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock. 1793-1865. English painter. Eaton, Amos. 1777-1842. American naturalist. Eaton, William. 1 764-181 1. American soldier. Eble, Jean Baptiste. 1758-1812. French general. Edes, Benjamin. 1732-1S03. Am. patriot and journalist. Edge worth, Maria. 1 767-1 849. English novelist. Edge worth, Richard Lovell. 1 744-1 8 1 7. English author; father of preceding. Edison, Thomxs Alva. 1847-.... American electrician and inventor. Edmund I. 9227-946. Anglo-Saxon king. II., Ironside, 989-1016. Edmunds, George F. 1828-. . . . American lawyer and statesman. Bom in Vermont; admitted to the bar 1849 ; became U. S. senator in 1866 to fill an imexpired term, and has since been three times re-elected. Elected president of the Senate in March, 1883. Edward I -925. King of the Anglo Saxons. II., Tlte Martyr, 96o?-978 ; assassinated by order of his stepmother. III., The Confessor , 1004-1066. Edward I. Longshanks. 1239-1307. King of England; conquered Wales and Scotland. II., 1284-1327 ; defeated by Bruce at Bannockbum ; dethroned by the Queen and her favorite. Roller de Mortimer, in 1326; was murdered the following year. III., 1312- '377; son of Edward II. ; proclaimed king in 1327 ; executed Mortimer, and imprisoned the queen-mother; carried on war with France and won the great victory of Crecy. IV,, 1441-1483. V., 1470-1483 ; a.sccnded the throne at the age of 13, but assassinated two months later. VI., i537-'353- Edward, I'rince of Wales. The Black Prince. 1330-1376. Son of Edward III. Participated in the invasion of France, command- ing the main body of the English at Crecy. Won the battle of Poitiers. Edward the Confessor. 1004-1066. King of England. Edwards, .\mclia Blandford. 1831-.... English novelist. Edwards, Jonathan. 1703-1758. American theologian and metaphysician. Freedom 0/ the li 'ill. Edwin. 5867-633. King of Northumbria. Edwy. 938-958. King of the Anglo-Saxons. Effingham. See Haiuard, Charles. Egbert. The Great. 77S?-838. Saxon king of Wessex. Egmont, Lamoral, Count. 1 522-1 568. Flemish statesman and soldier. Tried for treason and executed. Elbee, Gigot d'. 1752-1794. Vcndean general. Eldon, John Scott, Earl of. 1751-1S38. English statesman. Elgin, James Bruce, Earl of. 1811-1863. British statesman. Governor-general of Canada. Elgin, Thomas Bruce, Earl of. 1777-1S41. British diplo- matist. The " Elgin Marbles," in the British museum, were obtained by him at Athens and sold to the government for ;£35,ooo. Eliot, George. See Evans, Mai ian C. Eliot, John. Apostle of the Indians. 1604-1690. English ctijrgyman. Ttranslated the Bible into the Indian language. Eliot, Sir John. 1590-1632. Eng. orator and statesman. Elizabeth. 1 533-1 603. Queen of England. Daughter of Henry VIII. Proclaimed Queen 1558 ; restored the Protestant religion. During her reign the Spanish Armada was repulsed, and Mary Stuart executed. Essex, Leicester and Raleigh were .among her favorites. Elizabeth Petrovna. 1 709-1 762. Empress of Russia. Daughter of Peter the Great. Ascended the throne in 1741; took up arms against Frederick the Great, and her armies in 1760 captured Berlin. Though unmarried, she was the mother of a large family. Elizabeth, Saint. 1207-123 1. Queen of Hungary. EUenborough, Edward Law, Lord. 174S-1S18. English chief justice. EUenborough, Edward Law, Earl of. 1790-1871. English statesman. Ellery, William. 1727-1820. .American patriot. Elliot, George Augustus, Lord Heathfield of Gibraltar. 1718- 1790. British commander. Elliott, Ebenezer. The Com Law Rhymer. 1781-1S49. English poet. Elliott, Jesse Duncan. 17S2-1845. American commodore. Ellsworth, Ephraim Elmer. 1837-1861. .-Vmerican officer. Ellsworth, Oliver. 1745-1807. Am. jurist and statesman. Ellwood, Thomas. 1639-1713. English Quaker author. Elssler, Faimy. 181 1-.... Viennese dancer. Elzevir. A celebrated family of printers and publishers at Lcyden, 157:^1680. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. 1803-1882. American essayist, philosopher and poet. Born in Boston; graduate of H.arvard; or- dained Unitarian minister in 1829, but retired from the ministry in 1832 ; travelled in Europe, and on his return began lecturing. The first volume of his Essays appeared in 1841 , and his Representative Men, regarded by some as his greatest work, in 1850. Emmanuel. The Great. 1469-1521. King of Portugal. k- A / 226 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Emmet, Robert. 1 780-1 803. Irish patriot and orator. Early in life became a leader of the " United Irishmen," and in 1803 became implicated in the killing of Lord Kilwarden, chief justice of Ireland, and others. Although defending himself with great eloquence, he was sentenced to death and executed. Emmet, Thomas Addis. 1764-1827. Brother of the preced- ing. A leader of the "United Irishmen," and imprisoned from 1798 till iSoi. Removed to America in 1804, and was in 1812 elected at- torney-general of New York. Empedocles. 475-. B.C. Greek philosopher. Encke, Johann Franz. 1791-1865. German astronomer. Endicott, John. 1589-1665. Colonial governor of Mass. Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Due d'. I77-- 18 ?4. French prince. Charged with conspiracy, and executed by order of Napoleon. Ennius, Quintus. 239-169 B.C. Roman epic poet. Enoch (or Henoch). 3378-. .. .B.C. Father of MethuseLih. Translated at the age of 365. Epaminondas. 412 7-362 B.C. Theban statesman, orator and general. Defeated the Spartans at Leuctra ; died after his victory at Mantinea, from a wound received in battle. Epictetus. 60-.... Greek Stoic philosopher. Enchiridion. Epicurus. 3407-270 B.C. Greek philosopher ; founder of the Epicurean school. Erasmus, Desiderius. 1465-1536. Dutch scholar. Erastus, Thomas. 1524-1583. Ger. physician and writer. Eratosthenes. 276-196? B.C. Greek geometer. Considered the founder of the science of astronomy. Eric XIII. 13S2-1450. King of Sweden (VII. or VIII. of Denmark). XIV., 1535?-I577. Eric the Red. Fl. 1000. Scandinavian navigator; discov- ered Cjreenland. .. Swedish engineer and inventor. ■ which destroyed the Confederate iron-clad Ericsson, John. 1803-. Constructed the " Monitor" Merrimac, Erigena, Joannes Scotus. Emesti, Johann August. Fl. 850. Irish philosopher. 1707-1781. German scholar. Erskine, Ebenezer. 1680-1754. Scottish theologian. Erskine, Henry. 1746-1817. Scottish lawyer and orator. Erskine, Thomas, Baron. 1750-1823. Scottish lawyer and orator. Recognized as the greatest advocate of his time. " He spoke as his clients would have spoken, being endowed with his genius." Admitted to the bar in 1778 ; successfully defended Lord George Gor- don in 1781 ; elected to the House of Commons in 17S3, and again in 1790 ; secured the acquittal of Hardy and John Home Tooke in the state tri.als of 1794; was made lord chancellor, and created a peer in 1806 ; retired from office in 1807. Escobar y Mendoza, Antonio. 1589-1669. Spanish Jesuit and casuist. Cases of Conscience. Espartero, Joaquin Baldomero, Duke de la Vittoria. 1 792- 1879. Spanish statesman and general ; defeated the Carlists. Essex, Robert Devereux, second Earl of. 1567-1601. Favor- ite of Queen Elizabeth ; beheaded for high treason. Essex, Robert Devereux, third Earl of. 1592-1647. English Parliamentary general. Estaing, Charles Hector, Count d'. 1729-1794. French admiral ; beheaded. Esterhazy de Galantha, Paul. 1635-1713. Hungarian governor-general. Ethelbeld -860? King of Wessex. Ethelbert. 4557-616. King of Kent. Ethelbert -S66. King of the Anglo-Saxons. Ethelred I -871. King of the Anglo-Saxons. II., The Unready, 968-1016; ordered massacre of Danes in 1002. Ethelwulf. -S58. King of Wessex. Euclid of Alexandria. Fl. 300 B.C. Greek mathematician. Eudoxie (or Eudocia). 3947-461. Roman empress. Eugene of Savoy. (Prince Frantjois Eugene de Savoie- Carignan). 1663-1736. Austrian general. Defeated the Turks at Zenta ; associated with Marlborough at Blenheim, Oudenard and Malplaquet; defeated the Turks at Peterwaradin in 1716, and at Belgrade in 1717, Eugenie Marie de Montijo. 1826-. . . . Empress of the French ; wife of Napoleon III. Eugenius I. Pope; ruled from 654 to 65S. II., 824-S27. III., 1145-1153. IV., 1431-1438; deposed; died in 1447. Euler, Leonard. 1707-1783. Swiss mathematician. Euripides. 480-406? B.C. Greek tragic poet. Eusebius of Nicomedia. Fl. 325. Arian prelate. Eusebius Pamphili. 266-340? Ecclesiastical historian, and bishop of Cassarea. Evald, Johannes. 1 743-1 781. Danish poet. Evans, Marian C. George Eliot. 1820-1881. English nov- elist. The daughter of a clergyman. Lived with George H.Lewes, as his wife, for several years, and after his death married J. W. Cross. Adam Bede ; Komola; Middlemarch; Daniel Deronda. Eustachi, Bartolommeo. 1510-1574. Italian anatomist. Evarts, William Maxwell. 1816-.... American lawyer and statesman Leading counsel for the defence in the impeachment trial of President Johnson . attorney-general 1868-9 . counsel for the United States in 1872 before the Geneva Arbitration Tribunal. Evelyn, John. 1620-1706. English author. Sylva. Everett, Edward. 1794-1865. American scholar, orator and statesman. Graduated at Harvard, i8ii, and ordained a minister in 1814. Appointed professor of Greek at Harvard 1815, but did not occupy the chair until 1819, after completing a course of study at Gottingen and travelling extensively in Europe. Elected to Congress in 1824, remain- ing in that body for ten years, and in 1835 became governor of Massa- chusetts. Minister to England, 1841-5. Secretary of state, 1852. Elected to the United States Senate, 1853, l^tit resigned on account of ill- ness. Defeated for the vice-presidency in i860. Supported the Federal government during the civil war. Ewing, Thomas. 1789-1871 American .statesman. Exmouth, Edward Pellew, Viscount. 1757-1S33. English admiral Eyck, van, Hubert. 1 366-1426 Flemish painter. Eyck, van, Jan. John of Bruges. 13907-1440? Brother of preceding. Flemish painter Adoration o/the Magi. Eyre, Edward John. 1818?-. . . . Eng. explorer in Australia. Ezekiel. Fl. 7th century B.C. Hebrew prophet Ezra. Fl. 5th century B.C. Hebrew law-maker. 'TTABER, Frederick William. 1815-1S63. English priest ^^ and writer. Fabius Maximus, Quintus. Cunctator. 203 r C. Roman consul and general. As opponent of Hannibal he inaugurated the " Fabian " policy, carrying on only a defensive war. Faed, Tliomas. 1826- . . . Scottish painter. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel. 16S6-1740 German natur.il philosopher and inventor of the Fahrenheit thermometer. Fairfax, Thomas, Lord. 1611-1671. Parliamentary general As commander-in-chief in 1645, wo the battle of Naseby. Falconer, William. 17357-1709. Scot. poet. The Shifrn'reck. Faliero lor Falieril, Marino. 1278-1350. Doge of Venice ; the hero of Byron's tragedy. K -^ A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 227 Faneuil, Peter. I7CX)-I743. American merchant. Faraday, Michael. 1791-1867. English chemist and natural philosopher. Founder of the science of magnelo-elcctricily. Farnese, Alessandro, Duke of Parma. 1546-1593. It. general. Farquhar, George. 1678-1707. Irish dramatist. The Beaux' Stratagem ; The Constant Couple, Fairagut, David Glascoe. 1801-1870. American admiral. Passed the New Orleans forts and captured New Orleans in 1862, and was made rear-admiral same year. Congress created for him the ofBce of vice-admiral in 1864, and he was made admiral in 1S66. Faust, Karl. 1825—.... German composer. Faust, Dr. Johann. Fl. 1500. German necromancer. Faust, Johann -1466? One of the inventors of printing. Fawkes, Guy -1606. English conspirator; executed. (" (.iiuipowdcr plot.") Fearne, Charles. 1749-1494. English jurist. Featherstonhaugh, George William -1S66. American traveller and geologist. Fechter, Charles Albert. 1824-1879. English actor. Fenelon, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe. 1651-1715. French prelate and author. Telentachus. Fenwick, Sir John -1697. English conspirator. Ferdinand I. 1503-1564. Emperor of Germany. II., 1578-1637: king of Bohemia and Hungary. III., ....-1657. Ferdinand IV. 1751-1S25. King of Naples. (I. of the two Sicilies.) Ferdinand II. 1810-1859. King of the two .Sicilies. Ferdinand I. The Great. 1000-1065. King of Castile. V., The Catholic (II. of Aragon, III. of Naples, II. of Sicily), 1452- 1516; founded the Spanish monarchy. VI., The Wise, 1713-1759. VII., 17S4-1833. 1724-1816. .Scottish philosopher. 1710-1776. Scottish astronomer. iSoS-.... Scottish architect. Fl. 1446. Portuguese navigator. ....-1576. Spanish navigator. Fernel, Juan. 1497-1558. French physician and writer. Ferry, Jules Francois Camille. 1832-.... Fr. statesman. Fersen, .^xel von, Count. 1755-1810. Swedish field-marshal. Fesch, Joseph, Cardinal. 1763-1836. French prelate. Fessenden, William Pitt. 1806-1S69. Am. statesman. Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm. 1775-1833. German jurist. Reformer of the criminal law. Feuillet, Octave. 1812- French author. Fichte, Immanuel Hermann. 1797-1879. Ger. philosopher. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. 1762-1814. Ger. metaphysician. Field, Cyrus West. 1819-.... American merchant and financier. Established the first telegraph cable between America and Europe, via Newfoundland. Field, David Dudley. 1805-.... American jurist. Fielding, Henry. 1 707-1 754. Eng. novelist and dramatist. Son of Edmund Fielding, a lieutenant-general under Marlborough. Commenced reading law at l8, but discontinued this study in a few years, and began to lead a dissolute life. About this time, however, he produced several successful plays. After marrying, and squandering his wife's fortune, he resumed the study of law, but, gout preventing his practicing, he turned his mind to literature. In 1749 his great novel, Tom Jones , w.as published. In 1750 he was appointed a magistrate, and endeared himself to the inhabitants ot the London suburbs by suppress- ing numerous bands of robbers. Among Fielding's novels, besides Tof't Jones, may be mentioned Amelia 3.ni Joseph Andrew's, Ferguson, .Ulam. Ferguson, James. Fergusson, James. Fernandez, Diniz. Fernandez, luan. Corsican conspirator ; Leader in a conspiracy to Fieschi, Joseph Marco. 1790-1836. inventor of the so-called infernal machine, kill Louis Philippe. Executed. Fiesco (or Fieschi), Giovanni Luigi, Count of Lavagna. '525-1547. Genoese conspirator. Having sent some of his adherents to capture the palace of the Dorias, he made a night attack on the Doria galleys in the harbor, but fell while passing from one galley to another, and was drowned before help could reach him. Fiesole, Giovanni da. Fra Angelica. 1387-I455. It. painter. Fillmore, Millard. 1800-1874. American statesman ; thir- teenth president of the United States. Born in New York ; learned fuller's trade ; read law and acquired a lucrative practice m Buffalo. Elected to Congress 1832, and continued a member of that body till 1842. Elected vice-president 1848, and became president on the death of Taylor, in 1850, Approved the Fugitive Slave Law and the com- promise measures of Henry Clay, and made Daniel Webster secre- tary of state. American statesman. English prelate ; executed. Op- Fish, Hamilton. 1S0S-. . . Fisher, John. I459-IS35- posed the Reformation. Fitch, John. 1743-1798. Fitzgerald, Edward, Lord. Am. inventor. (Steamboat.) 1763-1798. Irisli revolutionist. Flaminius, Caius -217 B.C. Rom. general and consul. Flaminius, Titus Quintius. 230-174 B.C. Roman general and consul. Flamsteed, John. 1646-1719. Eng. astronomer. Flaxman, John. 1 755-1826. English sculptor. Fleetwood, Charles . . . .-1692. Eng Parliamentary general. Fletcher, -Vndrew (()/■ 5a//o««). 1653-1716. Scottish author. Fletcher, John. 1576-1625. English poet and dramatist ; associate of Beaumont. The Maid's Tragedy : The Faithful Shep- herdess, Flotow, Frederick Ferdinand .'Vdolphus von. 1812-1883. German composer. Martha. Fontenelle, Bernard de Bovier de. 1657-1757. Fr. author. Foote, Andrew Hull. 1806-1863. American rear-admiral. Foote, Samuel. 1720-1777. English wit and comedian. Ford, John 15S6-1639. English dramatist. Forrest, Edwin. 1806-1872. American tragedian. Forster, John. 1812-1876. English biographer. Forster, William Edward. iSiS-.... English statesman. Forsyth, John. 17S0-1841. American statesman. Fortescue, Sir John. i3g5?-l4S5? English jurist. Fortuny, Mariano. 1 839-1 874. .Spanish painter. Foscari, Francesco. I373-I457- Doge of Venice. Foster, Birket. 1812-. . . . English engraver. Foster, Stephen Collins. 1826-1864. Am. song-writer. Fourier, Francois Charles Marie. 1 772-1 837. French social- ist ; founder of Fonricrism. Theory 0/ Universal Unity. Fowler, Orson Squire. 1809-.... Am. phrenologist. Fox, Charles James. 1749-1806. English orator and states- man. Entered Parliament in 1768 as a Tory, but joined the opposition in 1773, and became leader of the Whigs, in which capacity, and also as foreign secretary and secretary of state, he opposed the policy of Pitt, Fox, George. 1624-1690. English founder of the society of Friends, or Quakers. Fox, John. 1517-1587. English Protestant clerg)'man and author. Book 0/ Martyrs. Foy, Maximilian Sebastian. 1775-1825. French orator and general. Fra Bortolommeo di San Marco. See Baccio della For/a. ^ J- Fra Diavolo. ( Michael Rozzo. ) 1 769-1 806. Neapolitan brigand. Francia, Jose Caspar Rodriguez. i757?-iS40. Dictator of Paraguay; adopted a policy cutting off all intercourse with other nations. Francis I. 1494-1547. King of France ; defeated at Pavia. 11., 1543-1560. Francis I. 1708-1765. Emperor of Germany. II. (I. of Austria), 1768-1835. Francis II. 1836-. . . . King of the Two Sicilies. Francis Borgia, Saint! 1510-1572. Duke of Gandia and Viceroy of Catalonia ; joined the Society of Jesus and became a zealous preacher; elected general of the order in 1565. Francis de Paula, Saint. 1416-1507. Italian Franciscan monk ; founded the order Fi-atres Alinbni. Francis de Sales, Saint. 1567-1622. French Jesuit, writer and orator ; bishop of Geneva. Treatise on the Love of God. Francis of Assisi, Saint. 1 182-1226. Italian founder of the Franciscan order. Francis Joseph Charles. 1S30-. . . . Emperor of Austria. Francis, John Wakefield. 17S9-1861. Am. physician. Francis, Sir Philip. 1 740-1818. British statesman and writer. Believed to have been the author of the Letters of yunius. Francis Xavier, Saint. See Xavier. Franklin, Benjamin. 1 706-1 790. American statesman and philosopher. Born in Boston ; the youngest of .1 family of seventeen children. His father was a tallow-chandler and soap-boiler. Learned the trade of a printer and studied diligently. Removed to Philadelphia, where he established the Pennsyl-vania Gazette. Began the publica- tion of /'.^^r Richard's Almanac in 1735. Discovered the identity of lightning and electricity jn 1752, by means of a kite, Franklin occupied many positions of public trust and was the recipient of many honors. He was deputy postmaster-general of the colony ; delegate to the Con- tinental Congress; minister to France, 1776-85; president of Pennsyl- vania, 1785-8 ; member of the convention of 1787. Franklin, Sir John. 1786-1S47. English Arctic explorer; perished in the Arctic regions. Fredegonde. 546?-596. Wife of Chilperic I. of France. Frederick I. Ba7-barossa. 1 121-1 190. Emperor of Ger- many. Crowned by Pope Adrian IV. Reduced Milan in 1158, but was defeated by the Lombards near Legnano. Joined the third crusade in ii8g with 150,000 men, and defeated the Turks at Iconium. Died in the Holy Land. II., :i94-i25o. Opposed by the Guelphs and the pope in his project to unite Italy and Germany in one empire. Began a criisade against the Moslems in 1227, but turned back, and was excom- municated by Pope Gregory IX. Resumed the crusade in 1228, cap- tured Jerusalem and made peace with the pope. Defeated the Guelphs at Cortenuova, 1237, and renewed war with the pope. Frederick William. The Great Elector, 1620-168S. Elector of Brandenburg ; founder of the Prussian monarchy. Frederick I. 1657-1713. First king of Prussia. II. [Fred- erick the Great^^ 1712-1788. Subjected to inhuman treatment in youth by his father, he gave but little promise of his future greatness. As- cended the Prussian throne in 1740, and invaded Silesia, which was ceded to him by Maria Theresa in 1742. An alliance having been formed against him by Austria, Russia and France, he began the Seven Years' War in 1756 by invading Saxony. Gained a great victory at Prague in 1757, but was defeated at Kolin soon afterward. His affairs were now in a desperate condition, but in the same year he defeated a French army twice as large as his own at Rossbach, and won a brilliant and decisive victory over the Austrians at Leuthen. In 1759 he was de- feated at Kunnersdorf, and Berlin was captured by the allies, but in 1760 he gained the victories of Liegnitz and Torgau, and peace was made in 1763, Prussian Poland being added to Frederick's dominions. Besides being a great general and monarch, Frederick was a voluminous writer. Frederick 'William I. 1 68S-1 740. King of Prussia. Father of Frederick the Great. II,, 1744-1797. Ill,, 1770-1840 ; founded the Zollverein. IV., 1795-1S61. Frederick William Nicholas Charles. 1831-. . . . Crown prince of Prussia and of the German empire. Frederick VI. 176S-1839. King of Denmark. VII., 1808-1863. , Freeman, Edward Augustus. 1823-.... Englisli historian. The Nortuan Conquest : Historical Essays: History 0/ Federal Government, Freiligrath, Ferdinand. 1810-1876. German lyric poet. Frelinghuysen, Theodore. 17S7-1862. Am. statesman. Frelinghuysen, Frederick Theodore. 1817-. ... Nephew of preceding. American statesman. Fremont, John Charles. 1813- American politician, explorer and general. Republican candidate for the presidency in 1856. Freytag, Gustav. 1816-. ... German novelist. Soil und Haben. Froebel, Frederick. 1782-1852. German educator ; founder of the "Kindergarten." Froila I. 722-768. King of Spain. Froissart, Jean. 1337-1410? French historian. Chronicles. Froude, James Anthony. 1818-. English historian. Short Studies on Great Subjects ; History 0/ Henry VUL Fry, Elizabeth («f? Gurney). 1780-1845. Eng. philanthropist. Fugger. A rich .Augsburg family. Fl. 15th and l6th centuries. Fuller, Sarah Margaret, Countess d'Ossoli. 1810-1850. Am. authoress. Fulton, Robert. 1765-1S15. American engineer and inven- tor of the steamboat. Born in Pennsylvania. After spending some years in London as an artist, he turned his attention to civil engineering and inland navigation. In 1796 he published a treatise on Canal Navigation. Went to Paris, and there invented a submarine torpedo. He returned to New York in 1801 and, with the assistance of Robert Livingston, dis- covered steam navigation. In 1806 he built the steamer Clermont, which made regular trips between Albany and New York at a speed of five miles an hour. Although he spent a large amount of money on his inven- tion, the patent did not prove of pecuniary value to him. Fuseli, John H. 1742-1825. Swiss historical painter. y^ADSDEN, Christopher. 1724-1805. American states- \0[[ man. Gadsden, James. 17S8-185S. American statesman. (The Gadsden purchase.) Gage, Thomas. I720?-I787. British general in Ainerica. Gaines, Edmund Pendleton. 1777-1849. American general. Gaines, Myra Clark. 1805?- Wife of E. P. G. American heiress. Gainsborough, Thomas. 1727-1788. English painter. Galba, .Scrvius .Sulpicius. B.C. 4 ?-A.D. 69. Roman emperor. Galen, 131-205? Greek physician, medical writer and phil- osopher, living at Rome. De Locis Aj[fectis. Galerius, Caius Valerius Maximianus — S". Roman emperor. Galilei, Galileo. Galileo. 1564-1642. Italian astronomer. Discovered, about 1584, the isochronismof the vibrations of a pendulum, and the law by which the velocity of falling bodies is accelerated. Adopted in astronomy the system of Copernicus, and constructed his wonderful telescope in 1609. Through it he discovered the satellites of Jupiter, and w.as enabled to e.\plore the surface of the moon and view the phases of Venus. He also ascertained that the "milky way" was composed of myriads of stais. In 1632 he produced his Dialogues on the Ptolei/taic and Copernitan Systems, but w.as compelled by the -Ni ^^ A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 229 Inquisition to abjure the theory of the motion of the earth. He was detained in prison for several years, but it does not seem that he was severely treated, as he was allowed to pursue his studies until prevented by blindness. Gall, Franz Joseph. 175S-182S. German physician ; founder of phrenology. Gallatin, Albert. 1761-1849. American statesman; native of Switzerland. Secretary of the treasury, 1801-13. Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins. 17S7-1851. American clergy- man and instructor of deaf-mules. Gallienus, Publius Licinius Valerius. 233 ?-26S. Roman emperor. Gallitsin, or Galitzin. An illustrious family of Russian princes. Gait, John. 1779-1839. .Scottish novelist. Galvani, Aloisio. 1737-1789. Italian discoverer of galvanism. Gama, Vasco da. I450?-I524. Portuguese navigator. Gambetta, Leon. 1S3S-1SS2. French radical orator and statesman. Gambler, James, Baron. 1756-1833. British admiral. Garcilaso de la Vega. 1503-1536. Spanish poet. Gardiner, Stephen. 1483-1555. Eng. prelate and statesman. Garfield, James Abram. 1831-1881. Twentieth president of the United States. Bom in Ohio; worked on a farm in boyhood, and learned the trade of a carpenter ; afterward became driver and helms- man of a canal-boat ; graduated at Williams College in 1856 ; appointed professor of Latin and Greek at Hiram College, Ohio, and chosen president of that institution in 1858, About this time he married Miss Lucretia Randolph, and occasionally acted as a Campbellite minister. Elected to the state senate in 1859, and in iS6t was chosen colonel of an Ohio regiment ; promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. Elected to Congress in 1862, and remained in that body until 18S0, when he was made senator. Nominated for the presidency by the Republican parly in 1880, and elected the following November. Shot by Charles J. Guiteau, in Washington, July 2, 1881, and died on September 19 of same year. Garibaldi, Giuseppe. 1807-18S2. Italian patriot and general. Garrick, David. 1716-1779. English actor. Garrison, William Lloyd. 1804-1879. Am. abolitionist. Garth, Sir Samuel. 16727-1719. Eng. physician and poet. Gascoigne, George. 1535-1537. English poet. Gaskell, Eliz.ibeth Cleghorn. 1S10-1S65. English authoress. Gassendi, Pierre. 1592-1655. French savant. Gates, Horatio. 172S-1806. American Revolutionary general; hum in England. Captured Eurgoyne's army at Saratoga. Gatling, Richard Jordan. 1S1S-. . . . American mventor. Gauss, Carl Friedrich. 1777-1855. German mathematician. Gautama Booddha. 624-543 ? B.C. Hindoo reformer, and founder of Buddhism. See Buddha. Gautier, Theophile. 1811-1872. French poet and novelist. Gaveston, Piers de. ....-1312. Favorite of Edward II. of England; executed by the nobles. Gay, John. 1688-1732. English poet. Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis. 1778-1850. French chemist and n.^tural philosopher ; discovered cyanogen. Gellert, Christian Furchtegott. 1715-1769. German poet. Genevieve, Saint. 4227-512. French religious, said to have converted Clovis to Christianity. Patron of Paris. Genghis Khan. 1163-1227. Mogul conqueror; subdued China and Persia. Genseric. 4067-477. King of the Vandals. Invaded Africa, 429 : defeated the Romans in numerous battles ; captured Carthage, 439 : captured and sacked Rome, 455 ; defeated the navy of the Emper- or Marjorian in 457. Geoffroy of Monmouth. iioo?-ii54. Eng. chronicler. George I. (Lewis.) 1660-1727, KingofGreatBritain.il. (Augustus), 1683-1760. Defeated the French at Dettingen in 1743. Charles Edward Stuart was defeated at CuUoden, 1746, by the Duke of Cumberland, and the latter part of the reign of George II. wxs marked by victories over the French in Canada, in India, and on the ocean. III. (William Frederick), 1738-1820. Arbitrary and ignorant, and through his obstinacy lost the American colonies. Became insane in 1810, IV. (Augustus Frederick), 1762-1830. " The First Gentleman of Europe." Led a dissipated life and incurred an immense debt. Married, in 1786, Mrs. Fitzherbert. She being a Roman Catholic, the marriage was ille- gal. As his father refused to pay his debts unless he contracted a regu- lar marriage, he was induced, in 1795, to marry his cousin, whom he regarded with great dislike, a separation being the result. Became regent 1811. Took little interest in public affairs. One year before his death, an act was passed relievnig Roman Catholics from political dis- abilities. George, Saint. Fl. jd century. Bishop of Alexandria. Patron saint of England, To him is attributed the destruction of a terrible dragon. Gerard-Thom, or Tenque. 1040 ?-l 121. Founder of tlie Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. Germanicus, Caesar. B.C. 14-A.D. 19. Roman general. Gerome, Jean Leon. 1824- Fr. painter. Gerry, Elbridge. 1744-1812. Am. Revolutionary statesman; signer of the Declaration of Independence. Governor of Massachusetts, 1810; vice-president, 1812. Gessler -1307. Austrian bailiff killed by Tell. Gesner, Conrad. 1516-1565. Swiss naturalist. Ghiberti, Lorenzo. 1378-1455. Florentine sculptor. Gibbon, Edward. 1737-1794. English historian. Educated at 0.\ford. The first volume of his great work. History 0/ the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, appeared in 1776 ; the next two in 1781, and in 1783 he retired to Lausanne, in Switzerland, where he com- pleted the last three volumes, which appeared in 1788. Gibbon has been justly criticised for the antagonism to the Christian faith shown in this work. Gibson, John. 1791-1866. English sculptor. Giddings, Joshua Reed. 1795-1864. Am. abolitionist. Gifford, Sanford Robinson. 1823-. . .. American painter. Gifford, William. 1757-1826. English writer and critic; founder of the Quarterly Revieiu^ Studied at Oxford, after serving five years as a shoemaker's apprentice. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. IS39-1583. English navigator. Gilbert, Sir John. 1S17-. . . . English artist. Gilbert, William Schwenck. 1836-.... English humorous author and librettist. Bab Ballads : Pygmalion and Galatea: Pina- fore: Patience : Pirates of Penzance : lolanthe : Princess Ida, etc. Giles, Wm. Branch. 1762-1830. American statesman. Gilray, James. 17S5-1815. English caricaturist. Girard, Stephen. 1750-1831. American merchant and banker, born in France. Founded Girard College. Girardin, Emile de. 1S06- French journalist. Giulio Romano. 1492-1546. Italian painter and architect. Gladstone, William Ewart. 1809- English statesman. Glauber, Johann Rudolph. 1604-1668. German chemist. Glendower, Owen. I349?-I4IS. Welsh chieftain. Gluck, ChristophWilibald von. 1714-1787. Ger. composer. Gobelin, Gilles and Jean. Fl. 1450. French dyers. Godfrey of Bouillon. io58?-lloo. Leader of first crusade. Godiva. Lady Godiva. Fl. 1 ith century. English heroine ; wife of Leofric, Earl of Leicester. VL 230 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. / Godman, John D. 1794-1830. Am. physician and naturalist. Godunoff, Boris Fedorovitch. 1552-1605. Czar of Russia. Godwin, William. 1756— 1836. Eng. novelist. Caleb Williams. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. 1749-1832. German poet and author, dramatist, scientist and statesman. Faust: M'ilkelm JMt'ister ; Eg^ttont : Sorrows of li'erthcr ; Iphigenia in Tauris : West- Eastern Divan, Goffe, William. l6o5?-i679. Eng. Puritan and regicide. Goldsborough, Lewis M. 1805-1876. Am. rear-admiral. Goldsmith, Oliver. 172S-1774. Irish poet and miscellaneous writer. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterward studied medicine. Squandered in dissipation a large portion of the funds fur- nished for his education. In London, he became the intimate friend of Dr. Johnson. His f'jrVar ^ WaA^t"/i^ was written while he was under arrest for debt. The Traveller ; The Deserted Village : She Stoops to Conquer, Gomez, Sebastiano. 1616-1690. Spanish painter. A slave of Murillo, who liberated him and took him into his studio. Gonsalvo de Cordova, Hernandez. The Great Captain. 1443V-1515. Spanish commander. Goodrich, Samuel Griswold. Peter Parley. 1793-1S60. American author. Goodyear, Ch.irles. 1S00-1860. American inventor. (Vul- canized india-rubber.) Gordon, George, Lord. 1750-1793. English agitator. Gorgey, Arthur. 1818-. . . . Hungarian general. Gore, Catherine Grace. 1799-1861. English novelist. Gortschakoff, Alexander Michaelovitch, Prince. 1798-1883. Russian st.^tesman and diplomatist. Gottschalk, Louis Moreau. 1829-1869. Am. composer. Gough, John B. 1822-.... American temperance lecturer, born in England. Gould, Augustus Addison. 1S05-1866. American n.ituralist. Gould, Hannah Flagg. 1789-1865. Ameiican poetess. Gould, Jay. 1836-.... American railway manager. Gounod, Charles Francois. 1818-. ... French composer. Faust; La Reine de Stha : Romeo and yuliet. Gower, John. 1320?-I402. English poet. Gracchus, Caius Scmpronius. 159-126 B.C. Rom. statesman. Graham, John, Viscount Dundee. Claverhouse. 1650?- 1689. Scottish officer, noted for merciless severity toward the Cov- enanters. Graham, Sylvester. 1794-1851. American vegetarian. Granger, Gideon. 1767-1822. American statesman. Grant, James. 1 822-. . . . Scottish novelist. Grant, Ulysses Simpson. 1822-1885. Eighteenth presi- dent of the United States. Bom in Ohio ; graduated at West Point, 1843; ser\'ed in Mexico; became a captain in 1853. Resigned in 1854, and after passing some time in St. Louis, removed to Galena, III., in 1859, ^"'^ engaged 'n business. In 1861 he was made aide-de-camp to the governor of Illinois, but soon after was chosen colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois Volunteers, and in July of same year was made brigadier-general. His war record is history. Made commander-in- chief of the Union armies in March, 1864. Elected to the presidency in 1868, and again in 1872, and after the expiration of his second term he travelled e.>:tensively in Europe and Asia, being received everywhere with the highest honors. He was a prominent candidate for the presi- dential nomination before the Republican convention in 1880. Grattan, Henry. 1746-1820. Irish orator and statesman. Gray, Asa. 1810- American botanist. Gray, Thomas. 1716-1771. English poet. Declined the position of poet-laureate. Eleg}'. Greeley, Horace. 1811-1S72. American journalist. Bom in New Hampshire ; learned the printer's trade, and worked as a journey- man printer in New York for one year. Founded the AVif i'ork Trib- une in 1841. A staunch Whig and Republican, he favored Fremont for the presidency in 1856, and Lincoln in i860. Accepted the Democratic nomination in 1872, but was defeated at the election by Grant. Green, John Richard. 1 874-1 883. English historian. S/iort History 0/ the English People, Green, Seth. 1817-.... American pisciculturist. Greene, Nathaniel. 1742-17S6. Am. Revolutionary general. Greenleaf, Benjamin. 17S6-1864. American mathematician. Greenleaf, Simon. 1 783-1853. American jurist. Greenough, Horatio. 1805-1852. American sculptor. Gregory I. (.Saint.) The Great. 540-604. Pope, ascending the pontifical chair in 590. II., ruled 715-731. III., 731-741. IV., 827-S44. v., 997-999 VI. 1044-1047. VII. (St. Hildebrand), 1073- 1085; excommunicated Henry IV. VIII., 1187; diedsame year. XI., 1227-1241 ; excommunicated Frederick II. X., 1271-1276. XI., 1370- 1378 ; condemned the doctrines of Wycliffe. XII., 1406-1409, when he and the anti-pope, Benedict XIII., were deposed by the council of Pisa ; died 1417. XIII., 1572-15S5; reformed the Julian calendar. XIV., 1590-1591; excommunicated Henry IV. of France. XV., 1621-1623. founded the Propaganda. XVI., 1831-1846; succeeded by Pius IX. Gregory of Nyssa, Saint. 332-394. Greek father of the church. Gregory of Tours, Saint. 540-595. French prelate and hi^torian. Gregory, James. 1 638-1 674. Greek geometer. Gregory Nazianzen, Saint. 326 ?-389. Bishop of Constanti- nople. Grenville, George. 17x2-1770. Eng. statesman. (Stamp act.) Grevy, Frangois Paul Jules. 1813-. . . . French president. Grey, Charles, Earl. 1764-1845 English statesman. Grey, Lady Jane. 1537-1554. Gifted English lady ; executed. Grimm, Fiiedrich Melchior, Baron. 1723-1807 Ger. writer. Grimm, Jakob Ludwig (i785-i863),and Wilhelm Karl (1786- 1859) German philologists ; brothers, Grisi, Giulia. 1812-1869. Italian singer. Griswold, Rufus Wilmot. 1815-1857. American author. Grotius (De Groot), Hugo. 15S3-1645. Dutch jurist and theologian. Grouchy, Emmanuel de. Marquis. 1766-1847. Fr general. Guarneri, Giuseppe A. 1683-1745. Italian violin-maker. Guatemozin. 1497-1525. Last .A.ztec emperor of Mexico Guelph I or \A^elf). Noble German family, originally Italian. Guiccioli, Teresa Gamba, Countess. 1S01-1S73. Friend of Byron. Guido Reni. 1575-1645. Italian painter. Guillotin, Joseph Ignace. 1738-18 14. ' French physician; advocate of the guillotine. Guiscard, Robert. 1015-1085. Norman commander. Guise, Charles de. 1525-1574. Cardinal of Lorraine. Guise, Claude de Lorraine de, Duke. 1496—1550. French general and statesman. Guise, Frangois de Lorraine de, Duke. 15 19-1563. Guise, Henry I. of Lorraine de, Duke. 1550-15SS. Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume. 17S7-1874. French statesman and historian. Gustavus I. (Gustavus Vasa.) 1496-1559. King of Sweden. II. (Gustavus Adolphus), 1594-1632. Defeated the Polish and Russian armies invading Sweden. Became the head of the Protestant league in \ ± K A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 231 Germany and defeated Tilly at Leipsic in 1631, and on the banks of the Lech in 1632. At the great battle of Liitzen, Wallenstein now com- manding the imperial army, Gustavus was killed, but his troops nevertheless gained a complete victory. III., 1746-1792; assassinated. IV., 1778-1837 ; ascended the throne in 1792, but was deposed in 1809. Gutenberg, Johann. (Gansfleisch.) 1400-1468. German inventor of printing. Guzman, Alfonso Perez de. 1258-1309. Spanish commander. HACKLANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm von. 1816-1878. German novelist. Military Life in Time of War. Hadrian (or Adrian). 76-138. Roman emperor. Hafiz, Mohammed Sherns ed Deen. I300?-I390? Persian poet. Divan. Hagedorn, Friedrich von. 1 708-1 754. German poet. Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich. 1755-1843. Ger- man physician and founder of homcEopathy. Hale, Edward Everett. 1 822-. . . . Am. clergyman and author. Hale, Sir Matthew. 1609-1676. English jurist. Hale, Nathan, Captain. 1755-1776. American patriot. Halevy, Jacques F. F. E. 1799-1862. French composer. Haliburton, Thomas Chandler. Sam Slick. i8o2?-i865. Nova Scotian jurist and humorous writer. Halifax, Charles Montague, Earl of. 1661-1715. English statesman. Halifax, George Saville, Marquis of. 1630-1695. Hall, Charles Francis. 1821-1871. Am. Arctic explorer. Hall, James. 181 1-. . . . American author and judge. Hall, Mrs. S. C. (Anna Maria Fielding.) 1805- Irish authoress. Sketches 0/ Irish Character; The Oiitlazo, etc. Hallam, Arthur Henry. 1811-1833. English critic and essayist. Hallam, Henry. 1777-1859. Father of preceding. English historian and critic. Halleck, Fitz-Greene. 1790-1867. American poet. Alarco Bozzaris ; Fanny, Halleck, Henry Wager, lawyer. Halley, Edmund. 1656- Hamilcar Barca. father of Hannibal, Hamilton, Alexander. 1757-1S04. American orator, states- man, financier and general. Born in the West Indies. Secretary and aide- de-camp to Washington in Revolutionary war ; chosen to the Conti- nental Congress in 1782, but resigned in order to practice law ; leading member of the convention of 1787; secretary of the treasury, 1789-95 ; became recognized leader of the Federal party. Hamilton died from a wound received in a duel with Aaron Burr, and his death was deeply deplored. Hamilton, Sir William. 1788-1856. Scottish metaphysician. Hamilton, Sir William Rowan. 1805-1865. Irish astronomer. Hamlin, Hannibal. 1809- American statesman. Hampden, John. 1594-1643. English statesman and re- former. Entered Parliament in 1620. Denied the authority of the crown to levy tonnage without the consent of Parliament, and refused to con- tribute to the forced loan ordered by King Charles, for which he was imprisoned. Regaining his liberty and re-entering Parliament, he ably and firmly resisted the arbitrary measures of the crown. Intending, with his cousin, Oliver Cromwell, to emigrate in 1638, they were detained by order of council. In 1640 he was leader of the opposition in the Long Parliament, and the most popular public man in England. Impeached for high treason in 1642, together with four other members, the Commons refused to surrender them, the king himself going so far as to personally lead his guard in an attempt to arrest them in their seats. This caused 1714-1S72, American general and 1742. English astronomer. ,-229 B.C. Carthaginian general; the greatest excitement and indignation, so that the Commons were soon enabled openly to defy the regal authority. Hampden afterward raised a regiment for the Parliamentary army, and, after displaying great courage in numerous engagements, was slain in a skirmish with Prince Rupert's forces. Hampton, Wade. 1755-1835. American general. Hampton, Wade. 1S18- Confederate general. Elected governor of South Carolina in 1876, and U. S. senator in 1878. Hancock, John. I737-I793- American statesman; presi- dent of the Continental Congress. Hancock, Winfield Scott. 1824- American general; second in command at Gettysburg. Democratic candidate for president in 1S80. Handel, George Frederick. 1684-1759. German composer. Composed sonatas at 10 ; produced Almeria at 18 ; settled in England in 1712, after spending some years in Italy, and became chapel-master of George I. The oratorio of Saitl was produced 1740, and his greatest work. The Messiah^ \h^ greatest of oratorios, in 1741, Handel was stricken with blindness in 1751, but continued to conduct his oratorios. Buried in Westminster Abbey. Hannibal. 247-1S3 B.C. Carthaginian general. Sworn by his father, Hamilcar Barca, to eternal enmity toward Rome; became commander of the Carthaginian forces, 221 b.c; subdued several power- ful Spanish tribes, and in 219 captured Saguntum ; crossed the Alps, 218 ; defeated the Romans near the Ticinus and on the banks of the Trebia ; routed Flaminius at Lake Thrasymene, 217; almost destroyed a supe- rior Roman army near Cannae, 216 ; captured Capua. Recalled to Carthage to repel a Roman invasion under Scipio Afiicanus, he was defeated at Zama in 202. Banished from Carthage about 194, through the enmity of the aristocracy. Finally ended his life by taking poison, to escape falling into the hands of the Romans. Hans Sachs. 1494-1576. German poet and shoemaker, Hardee, William J. 1S18-1873. Confederate general. Hardenberg, Friedrich von. See Noimlis. Hardicanute. I0I7?-I042. King of England and Denmark. Hardinge, Henry, Viscount. 1785-1856. English general. Hardwicke, Philip Yorke, Earl of. 1690-1764. Eng. jurist. Hardy, Thomas. 1840-.... English novelist. Far fro7)i the Madding Crowd : Under the Greenwood Tree. Harley, Robert, Earl of Oxford. 1661-1724. Eng. statesman. Harney, William Selby. 1798-. . . . American general. Harold I. Harefoot -1041 King of England. H. . . . .-1066 Defeated by William the Conqueror, and slain. Haroun-al-Raschid. 766?-So9. Caliph of Bagdad. Harrison, William Henry. 1773-1841. American general and ninth president Born in Virginia , entered the army in 1 791 ; aide- de-camp to Gen. Wayne in Indian war; delegate to Congress, 1799; governor of Indiana, 1801-13 ; defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe, 1811 ; was made major-general in 1813, and defeated the British in Canada; elected to Congress, 1816 ; senator, 1824; minister to Colombia, 1828; Whig candidate for presidency, 1836 ; elected president, 1840. Harte, Francis Bret. 1839-.... American writer and humorist. Born in New York ; removed to California at 15, where he was successively miner, school-teacher and editor. Removed to Boston, and was appointed in 1878 consul to a German port. Heathen Chinee ; Luck of Roaring Camp, etc. Hartington, Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquis of. 1833- .... English statesman. Harvard, John. i6o8?-l688. Founder of Harvard College. Harvey, William. 1578-1657. English physician and anato- mist. Discovered the circulation of the blood. Hasdrubal -207 b.c. Punic general ; brother of Han- nibal. Defeated the Scipios in Spain ; slain at the Metaurus. \ \ N ~y\ 232 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Hastings, Warren. 1732-1S18. British general and states- man ; president of the Council of Bengal, and governor-general of India. Defeated Hyder All, king of Mysore. After perpetrating great outrages against the Rajah of Benares and the Begiims of Oude, in order to replenish the treasury', he resigned in 1775 and returned to England. Impeached soon afterward, and opposed in his trial by Eurke, Sheridan and Fox, but acquitted. Havelock, Sir Henry. 1795-1S57. British general. De- feated the Sepoys in India, and relieved Lucknow. Hawke, Edward, Lord. 1715-17S1. English admiral. Hawkins, Sir John. 1520-1595. English naval officer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. 1804-1S64. American author. Tivice-toid Tales: Mosses yr of n an Old Alanse ; House of Sezcn Ga- bles: Scarlet Lette-^ : The Marble Faun ; The Blithedale Romance, Haydn, Joseph. 1732-1S09. Germain musical composer. Born of extremely poor parents ; served seme years as a chorister in Vienna ; appointed in 1760 chapel-master to Prince Esterhazj', who became his patron ; visited London 1791, where six of his symphonies were received with great enthusiasm. His masterpiece, the oratorio of The Creation, was produced in 179S. Haydon, Benjamin Robert. 1786-1S4S. English painter. Hayes, Isaac Israel. 1S32-1SS1. American Arctic explorer. Hayes, Rutherford Birchard. 1S22-. ... Nineteenth presi- dent of the United States. Bom in Connecticut ; admitted to the bar, 1S45 ; brigadier- general in civil war ; Congress, 1865-8; governor of OhiOj 1S6S-76. Republican candidate for the presidency in 1876; inaugurated president in 1877, the electoral commission to determine the result of the election of 1876 having decided, by a vote of eight to seven, that Hayes had received 185 electoral votes as against 184 for Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candidate. Hayne, Robert Young. 1791-1S40. American orator and statesman ; opponent of Webster in discussing the constitution ; gov- ernor of South Carolina. Heath, William. 1737-1814. Am. Revolutionary general. Heber, Reginald. 1783-1826. English prelate and author; bishop of Calcutta. Hymns : Jottrney through India, Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1770-1831. German philosopher, metaphysician and pantheist. His system of philosophy is developed in the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, Heine, Heinrich. 1799-1S56. German lyric poet and author. Heloise. 1101-1164. French nun ; pupil and friend of Abelard. Helps, Sir Arthur. 1817-1S75. English author. Heivetius, Claude Adrian. 1715-1771. Fr. philosopher. Hemans, Felicia Dorothea (tiee Browne). 1794-1S35. Eng- lish poetess. Published her first volume of poems in 1808, and in 1812 married Capt. Hemans, but separated from him in 1818, she retaining all their children. Restoration o/the IVorksofArt to Italy Hendricks, Thomas Andrews. 1819- Am. statesman. Hengist -488. Jutish chief; founded kingdom of Kent. Hennepin, Louis. 1640-1702? French Catholic missionary and explorer of the Mississippi. Henrietta Maria. 1609-1669. Queen of England Henry I. Beaiiclerc. 1068-1135. King of England. Defeated his brother Robert and usurped the throne. II., 1133-1189; first of the PlantageneLs ; Issued constitutions of Clarendon, which were, however, repealed about ten years later ; conquered Ireland. During his reign Thomas i Becket was killed. III. {0/ Winchester), 1207-1272 ; warred with the barons. IV., Bolingbroke, 1366-1413 ; first king of the house of Lancaster. V. {of Monmouth'), 1388-1422 ; conquered France. VI. {of \Vindsor)yiJ^'z\--i^ix ; his reign was made memorable by the war of the Roses. VII., 1456-1509 ; founded the Tudor dynasty, VIII., 1491-1547 ; defeated the French at Guinegaste and the Scotch at Flodden, 1513 ; made Thomas Wolsey Drime minister ; applied unsuccessfully to the pope for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, his wife ; favored the Reformation ; deposed Wolsey and elevated Thomas Cranmer ; had himself declared head of the church ; married Anne Eoleyn after the convocations of York and Canterbury had declared his marriage with Catherine invalid ; declared the English Church independent of the papal see and abolished the monasteries ; had Anne Boleyn executed in 1536, and married Jane Seymour the day after the execution ; excommunicated by the pope, 1538 ; his third wife having died in 1537, he married Anne of Cleves in 1540; was divorced from her the same year and married Catherine Howard, who was executed on a charge of adultery in 1542 ; married Catherine Parr in 1543, she surviving him. Henry I. ioo5?-io6o. King of France. II., 1518-1559; married Catherine de' Medici. III., Henri de Valois, 1551-1589; last of the Valois. IV., Le Grand, 1553-1610; king of Navarre ; first of the Bourbons ; assassinated. Henry I. The Fowler, 876-936. Emperor of Germany. Defeated the Hungarians. II. (Saint), 972-1024. III., T%€ Black, or The Bearded, IC17-1056. IV., 1050-1106 ; excommunicated by Gregory VII. v., 1081-1125: last of the Salic line. VI,, 1165-1197.- VII., 1262-1313. Henry, Patrick. 1736-1799. American patriot and orator. Member of the Continental Congress ; governor of Virginia. Heraclitus. Fl. 500 B.C. Greek philosopher. Herbert, George. 1593-1632. British poet and divine. Herder, Johann Gottfried von. 1744-1803. German author. Hermann (or Arminius). B.C. 16- a.D. 21. Gennan hero. Defeated the Romans a.d 9, near the Lippe. Herod. The Great. B.C. 73 -A.D. i. Kingofjudea. Herodotus. 484?-4oS? B.C. Greek historian. Herrick, Robert. 1591-^1674. Englibh divine and poet. Hisperides, or Poems Human and Divine. Herschel, Sir John Frederick William. 1790-1S71. English astronomer and philosopher. Herschel, Sir William. 1738-1822. Father of preceding. German astronomer. Born in Hanover, but removed to England at 21 ; discovered Uranus. Hesiod. Fl. 800 B.C. Greek poet. Works and Days. Hezekiah. 750-69S B.C. King of Judah. Hicks, Elias. 1748-1830. American Quaker preacher. Hildreth, nichard. 1S07-1S65. Am. journalist and historian. Hill, Sir Rowland. 1795-1S79. Author of the English penny post system. Hipparchus- Fl. 150 B.C. Bithynian astronomer. Hippocrates. The Father of Medicine. 460-360? B.C. Greek physician. Hoar, George Frisbie. 1826—. . . . Am. lawyer and statesman. Hobart, Augustus Charles. Hobart Pasha. 1822-. . . . Turkish naval commander, bom in England. Hobbes, Thomas. 15SS-1679. English philosopher. Hoche, Lazare. 1 768-1 797. French general. Hoe, Richard March. 1S12-. . . . American inventor of print- ing presses. Hofer, Andreas. 1767-lSlo. Tyrolese patriot ; executed. Hoffman, Charles Fenno. 1S06-. . . . American author. Hogarth, William. 1 697-1 764. Eng. painter and engraver. Hogg, James. The Ettrick Shepherd. 1772-1S35. Scottish poet. Hohenlohe, Hohenstaufen, Hohenzollern. Princely families of Germany. Holbein, Hans. The Younger. 1497-1554. German painter. The Dance of Death ; Last Supper, etc. Holland, Josiah Gilbert. 1S19-1881. American author. Timothy Titcovib's Letters ; The Bay Path, etc. A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. ~y] 233 Holmes, Oliver Wendell. iSog-.... American physician, Author and poet. The Autocrat p/ the Brcnkfast'tabU : Elsie Venner ; The Guardian Angel : The Poet at the Brealcfast-table : Poems, etc. Holt, .Sir John. 1642-1709. English judge. Homer. Fl. 1000 B.C. Greek poet, about whose life .scarcely anything is known. Regarded as the greatest of poets. Supposed to have been blind and poor. Some doubt his existence, maintaining that the ///«(/ and Oiiyssey, the two great epics ascribed to him, are collections of songs from various poets. Honorius, Flavius. 384-423. Roman emperor. Hood, Thomas. 1799-1845. English poet and humorist. Si'ng 0/ tite Shirt: Bridge 0/ Sighs; Dreatn of Eugene Aram; Whints and Oddities. Hook, Theodore Edward. 17S8-1841. English author. Hooker, Joseph. 1819-1879. American general. Hooker, Richard. 1553-1600. English theologian. Hopkins, Johns. 1795-1873. American philanthropist. Hopkinson, Francis. 1738-1791. American author; signed tile Declaration oi Independence. The Battle o/ilte Kegs. Hopkinson, Joseph. 1770-1842. Son of V. H. American lawyer ; author of Hail Colttniliia. Horace. (Quintus Horarius Flaccus.) 65- S B.C. Latin poet. Odes : Epistles ; Satires. Hosmer, Harriet Goodhue. 1830-. . . . American sculptor. Houdin, Robert. 1805-1871. French conjurer. Houdon, Jean Antoine. 1741-1S2S. French sculptor. Houston, Sam. 1793-1863. American general and states- man. Governor of Tennessee, 1827-9; passed a number of years wi.h the Cherokee Indians ; commander-in-chief of the Texan forces in re- volt against Mexico, and defeated and captured Santa Anna in 1836 ; elected president of Texas same year, and re-elected 1841 ; elected sen- ator from Texas after its admission to the Union, in 1845, and governor in 1S59. Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey. 1516-1547. Eng. poet. Howard, John. 1726-1790. English philanthropist. Howard, Oliver Otis. 1830-. . . . American general. Howe, Elias. 1819-1867. American inventor. Howe, Samuel Gridley. 1801-1876. Am. philanthropist. Ho wells, William Dean. 1 837-. . . . American author. Howitt, William. 1795-1879. English author. Hoyle, Edmund. 1672-1769. English author. Games. 1813-1860. Fr. missionary. ....-1611. Eng. navigator. English author and barrister. Huck, Evariste Regis, Abbe. Hudson, Henry (or Hendrik). Hughes, Thomas. 1S23-. . . . foni Brovjn^ s Scltool-days. Hugo, \ictor Marie, Vicomte. 1S02-1885. French poet, novel- ist and dramatist. Lcs Miserables ; Notre Dame. Hull, Lsaac. 1775-1S43. American commodore. Hull, William. 1753-1825. American Revolutionary general. Humbert IV. 1844-.... King of Italy. Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von. Baron. 17^9— 1859. German scientist. Cosmos : An Essay o/a Physical Description 0/ the Universe. Hume, David. 1711-1776. Scottish historian and philoso- pher. History of England, Hunt, James Henry Leigh. 17S4-1859. English poet and author. The Seer. Hunt, William Henry. I790-1864. English painter in water- colors. Hunt, William Ilolman. 1S26-.... Enghsh painter. Hunter, David. 1S02-. . . . American general. Hunter, John. 1728-1793. Scottish surgeon. Huss, John. 1373-1415. Bohemian reformer. Burned at the stake by order of Emperor Sigisnunid. Huxley, Thoinas Henry. 1825-. . . . Eng. scientist. Physiology. Hyacinthe, Pere. See Loyson. Hyder-Ali. 1718-1782. Hindoo prince. Hypatia. Fl. 500. Female philosopher at Alexandria. YbERVILLE, Pierre le Moyne d', Sieur. 1661-1706. Canadian military and naval commander. Ibrahim Pasha. 17S9-1848. Viceroy of Egypt. Ibrahim Bey. I735?-I8i6. Mameluke chief. Ignatieff, Nicholas Pavlovitch. 1832- Russian general and diplomatist. Ignatius, Saint. Tlieophorus -107. Bishop of Antioch. Ignatius, Saint. 799-877. Patriarch of Constantinople. Ignatius de Loyola, Samt. See Loyola. Inchbald, Elizabeth, Mrs. 1753-1821. English authoress and actress. Ingelow, Jean. 1830-. . . . English poetess and novelist. Ingersoll, Jared. 1749-1822. American lawyer. IngersoU, Robert G. 1833-. . . . Am. lawyer, author and lecturer. Ingres, Jean A. D. 1781-1867. French painter. Inman, Henry. 1801-1846. American portrait painter. Inness, George. 1825—. . . . American landscape painter. Innocent I. Pope, ruling from 402 to 417. During his reign Rome was sacked by Alaric. II., 1130-1143. III. (Lotharius.) Born in ii6i,and chosen pope 1198. Put France under the ban, 1 190, be- cause Philip Augustus had repudiated his wife; promoted the fourth crusade, the result of which was the capture of Constantinople ; de- posed Otho, emperor of Germany, transferring the crown to Freder- ick of Sicily , subjected John of England to the papal see, compelling him to pay an annual tribute; crushed the Albigenses in 1214, and died two years later. IV. (Sinibaldo de Fieschi), 1243-1254. V., as- sumed the pontificate in 1276, and died same year. VI., 1353-1362. VII., 1404-1406. VIII., 14S4-1491. IX., 1591; died same year. X., 1644-1655. XI., 1670-1686. XII., 1692-1700. XIII., 1721-1724. Iredell, James. 1751-1799. American jurist. Irenseus, Saint. T40?-2Q2? Bishop of Lyons ; martyr. Irene. 752?-8o3. Empress of Constantinople. Irving, Edward. 1792-1834. Eloquent Scottish divine. Irving, John Henry Brodribb. 1838-.... English actor. Irving, Washington. 1783-1859. American author. Born in New York city. Read law, travelled in Europe, and on his return was admitted to the bar, but devoted himself exclusively to literary pur- suits. Kniciierbocker' s History of New York was published in 1809. In 1815 he sailed for Europe, remaining there a number of years and becoming an intimate friend of Walter Scott. About this time Irving lost all his property by the failure of his brother in New York, in whose business he was a silent partner. The Sketch-Book was written in Eng- land and appeared in 1818. Secretary of legation at London, 1829 ; minister to Spain, 1842-6. Bracebridge Hall ; Tales of a Traveller; Conquest of Granada; Life of Washington ; Columbus; li'olfert's Roost, etc. Isabella I. The Catholic. 1451-1504. Queen of Castile. Wife of Ferdinand of Aragon : patroness of Columbus. II. (Maria Isabel Luisa), 1S30-.... Ex-Quecn of Spain. Isabelle of France. 1292-135S. Queen of England, wife of Edward II., whom her adherents deposed, and with whose assassi- nation she is charged. Her son, Edward III., ascended the throne and ordered her arrest, and she died after twenty years' incarceration. Isaiah. Fl. 740 B.C. Hebrew prophet. Iturbide, Don Augustin de. 1790-1824. Emperor of Mexico. \ •^ K- A 234 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Ivan III. (Vasilievitch). 143S-1505. Czar of Russia. IV. (Vasilievitch), The Terrible, 1529-1584. VACKSON, Andrew. 1767-1S45. American general and J^^ ■ statesman; seventh president. Born in South Carolina: son of an Irishman; received but little education; served against the British in 178:- began the practice of law at Nashville, 17S8; Congress, 1796; U. S. Senate, 1797 ; judge Tennessee Supreme Court, 1798-1804 ; fought several duels, killing Chas. Dickinson in 1S06; defeated the Creek Indians, 1814, and was commissioned brigadier-general ; defeated the British at New Orleans, 1815; successfully carried on war against the Seminoles, 1817-18; Senate, 1823, and nominated for the presidency, the opposing candidates being Clay, J. Q. Adams and \V. H. Crawford. Although Jackson had the highest number of votes, he did not have the necessary majority, and Adams was elected by the House of Representatives. Clay'sadvocacy of Adams in this contest caused a bitter enmity between that gentleman and Jackson. Jackson was elected to the presidency, however, in 1S28. He was the first president to remove public officers on account of their pohtics. Re-elected in 1832. In that year, the conven- tion of South Carolina having declared the tariff laws of 1828 null and void, Jackson issued a proclamation declaring his intention to check by force of arms all movements tending to disunion. Jackson, Thomas Jonathan. Stoneivall. 1 824-1 863. Con- federate general, native of Virginia Defeated Gen. Banks at Cedar Mountain, and captured Harper's Ferry with 10,000 prisoners, 1862. Killed by a company of his own men, mistaking him and his staff" for Federal cavalry. Jacquard, Joseph Marie. 1752-1834. French inventor. Jamblichus. Fl. 320. Syrian Neo-PIatonic philosopher. Janies I. 1566-1625 King of England (VI. of Scotland). Executed Raleigh. A translation of the Bible was made under his direction. II., 1633-1701. (VII. of Scotland.) Deposed by revolution. James I. 1394-1431. King of Scotland. Assassinated. II., 1430-1460. III., 1453-1488. IV., 1473-1513; defeated and slain at Flodden. v., 1512-1542. VI. (I. of England). VII. (II. of England). James, Henry, Jr. 1843-. . . . American novelist. Jameson, Robert. 1 774-1854. Janauschek, Fanny. 1830-. . . . Jansen, Cornells. 1585-1638. of the Jansenists, Januarius, Saint. 272-305. Patron saint of Naples. Jasper, William. 1750-1779. Brave American soldier. Jay, John. 1 745-1829. Am. statesman; first chief justice. Jeanne d'Albret. 1528-1572. Queen of Navarre. Jean Paul. See Richter. Jefferson, Joseph. 1829-. . . . American actor. Jefferson, Thomas. 1743-1826. American statesman; third president. Bom in Virginia; admitted to the bar, 1767 ; elected to Virginia House of Burgesses, 17'x); Continental Congress, 1775 ; draft- ed the Declaration of Independence ; -jovernor of Virginia, 1779-81 ; minister plenipotentiary, 1784, to negotiate treaties with European powers; minister at Paris, 1785-g ; secretary of state, 1789-93; elected vice-president 1796, and president in 1800, holding that office from 1801 to iiiog. Jeffrey, Francis. 1 773-1850. Scottish critic and judge, Jeffreys, George, Lord. 1650-1689. Infamous British judge; lord high chancellor under JamesII.; died in the Tower. Jenkins, Edward. 1838-.... Eng author. Ginx's Baby. Jenner, Edward. 1749-1823. English physician ; introduced vaccination. Jenner, Sir William. 1815-.... English physician and anatomist. Jerome, Saint. 340?-420. Latin father of the church. Scottish naturalist. Bohemian tragedienne. Dutch theologian; founder Jerome of Prague. 137S-1416. Bohemian religious re- former ; follower of Huss. Burned at the stake. Jerrold, Douglas William. 1803-1857. English humorist and satirical writer. Mrs. Caudle's Curtain Lectures: Chronicles 0/ Clovernook. Jervis, John, Earl of St. Vincent. 1734-1823. Eng. admiral. Joan of Arc. (Jeanne d'Arc.) The Maid of Orleans. 141 1 ?- 1431. French heroine. Born in Lorraine, of an humble peasant family. Believing herself commissioned by Heaven to liberate France, and con- vincing Charles VII. of her divine authority, she was given command of a considerable force, and by the victories she gained enabled Charles to be crowned at Rheims. Although desirous of returning home and resuming her former humble peasant life, she was induced to retain her command in the army. 3he was captured in 1430, by the Eurgundians, and delivered to the English. Charged with sorcery, she wasbureed at the stake after a mock trial. Joel. Fl. 775 B.C. Hebrew prophet. John L (Saint). Pope, ruling from 523-526. II., 533-535. III., 560-573- IV., 640-642. v., 685-687. VI., 701-705. VII., 705-707. VIII., 872-882. IX., 898-900. X.,9i5-92S. XI., 931-936. XII., 956-964. XIII., 965-972. XIV., 984-985. XV., died in. 985, only a few days after his accession. XVI., 9S6-996. XVII. (Rival of Gregory V. in 997.) XVIII., 1003. XIX. 1004-1009, XX., 1024-1033. XXI., 1276. XXII., chosen 1316; deposed 1327; died 1334. XXIII., chosen In 1410; deposed 1414. John, 1166-1216. King of England; granted Magna Charta. John II. The Good, 1319-1364. King of France. John II. (Casimir V.) 1609-1672. King of Poland. III. (Sobieski), 1625-1696. John I. The Great. 1357-1433. King of Portugal. John. 1S01-1S73. Ki"g of Saxony. John of Austria, Don. I547?-I57S. Spanish general. John of Gaunt (Ghent). 1340-1399. Duke of Lancaster. Son of Edward III, John the Baptist. B.C. 5-A.D. 28. Prophet. John the Evangelist. (St. John.) -100? Apostle. Johnson, Andrew. 1808-1875. American statesman ; seven- teenth president. BominN.C; learned the trade of a tailor in Tenn.; Congress, 1843-53; governor, 1853-7 ; senator, 1857 ; miHtary governor, 1862; elected vice-president in 1864, and succeeded to the presidency on the death of Lincoln, 1S65. Johnson became involved in a bitter quarrel with the leaders of the Republican party, and was impeached in 1868, but acquitted, although thirty-five senators voted or conviction to only nineteen against, a two-thirds majority being necessary. He was subse- quently elected to he Senate from Tennessee as a Democrat. Johnson, Reverdy. 1796-1S76. American statesman. Johnson, Richard Mentor. 1780-1850. Ninth vice-president of the United States. Johnson, Samuel. 1709-1784. Eng. writer and lexicographer. Johnston, Albert Sydney. 1 803-1 S62. Confederate general. Johnston, Joseph Eccleston. 1807-.... Confederate general. Joliet, Louis. 1645-1700? Fr. explorer of the Mississippi. Jomini, Henri, Baron. 1770-1869. Swiss military ^vriter. Jonah. Fl. 800 B.C. Hebrew prophet. Jones, Inigo. 1572-1652. English architect. Jones, John Paul. 1747-1792. American Revolutionary naval commander ; bom in Scotland. Captured the Serapis. Jones, Sir William. 1 746-1 794. English orientalist, Jonson, Ben. 1574-1637. English poet and dramatist. Too poor to graduate at Cambridge, he became a mason, and afterwara served as a soldier in Flanders. Returned to England and Joined a com- pany of actors, but killed one of them in a duel and barely escaped death. Every Man in Itis Humor, his first drama, appeared in 1598. Appointed VL -^J N A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. lA ^35 poet-laureate by James I. Died in poverty. Srjanus ; The Alchemist : Catiline s Conspiracy. Joseffy, RafTaele, 1852- Hungarian pianist. Joseph I. 1676-17H. Emperor of Germany. II., 1741- 1 790 ; abolished feudal serfdom. Josephine. (Marie Josephe Rose Tascher cle la Pagerie.) 176J-1814. Empress of France; wife of Napoleon Bon.aparte. Josephus, Flavius. 37 ?-95 ? Jewish historian. Joshua. 1 537-1427 B.C. Hebrew leader. Jovian. 331-364. Roman emperor. Juarez, Benito Pablo. 1S06-1S72. i.Iexican Aztec statesman. Judas Maccabaeus -160 B.C. Hebrew leader. Judson, A'loniram. 17S8-1S50. Am. Baptist mi>sionary. Julian. The Apostate. 331-363. Roman emperor. Julius I. Pope, 336-352. II., 1503-1513. III., 1550-1555. Junot, Andoche, Due d'Abrantes. 1771-1S13. Fr. geneml. Justin. T/ie Martyr. 103-165? Church father in Palestine. Justin I. 450-527. Byzantine emperor. II., . . . .-578. Justinian I. T/ie Great. 4S2?-565. Byzantine emperor. Juvenalis, Decimus Junius. 40?-i25? Latin poet. ALAKAUA, David. 1836- King of Hawaii. Kamehameha IV. 1S34-1863. King of Hawaii. Kames, Henry Home, Lord. 1 696-1 7S2. Scottish judge and writer. Elements of Criticism. Kane, Elisha Kert. 1820-1857. American Arctic explorer. Kant, Immanuel. 1724-1S04. German metaphysician ; founder of the transcendental school of philosophy. Critique of Pure Reason. Kean, Edmund. 1787-1833. English tragedian. Kearney, Philip. 1815-1862. American general. Keats, John. 1795-1S21. English poet. Eve of St. Agnes. Keble, John. 1792-1866. Eng. divine. The Christian Year. Keene, Laura. 1820-1873. American actress. Kellermann, Francois Christophe de. 1735-1820. Fr. general. Kellogg, Clara Louise. 1842-. . . . American vocalist. Kemble, Charles. 1775-1854. Brother of J. P. K. Eng. actor. Kemble, I'rances Anne. 1S09-.... English actress. Kemble, John Philip. 1757-1823. English tragedian. Kempis, Thomas a. 1380-1471. German ascetic writer. Imitation of Christ. Kent, James. 1763-1847. American jurist. Commentaries. Kepler, Johann. 1571-1630. German a.stronomer. Key, Francis Scot. 1776-1843. American [roet; author of The Star-spangled Banner. Khosru I -579- King of Persia. II., . . . .-628. Kidd, William. 1650-1701. American pirate ; executed. Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson. 1836-. . . . American general. King, Rufus. 1755-1827. American statesman. King, William Rufus. 1786-1853. American statesman. Kingsley, Charles. 1819-1S75. English divine and author. Kitto, John. 1804-1854. English Biblical scholar. Kleber, Jean Baptiste. 1754-1800. F'fnch general. Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb. 1724-1803. Gennan poet. Kneller, .Sir Godfrey. 1648-1723. English portrait painter. Knowles, James Sheridan. 1784-1S62. English dramatist and actor; subsequently became a Baptist minister. The Hunchback ; I 'irgittius. Knox, Henry. 1 750-1806. American general and statesman. Knox, JoliM. 1505-1572. Leader of the Scot, reformation. Koerner, Karl Theodor. 1791-1S13. German soldier-poet. Kosciusko, Thaddeus. i746?-iSi7. Polish patriot and general; commanded the Polish insurgent army; bravely defended W'ai-saw, but was defeated. Kossuth, Louis. 1802-.... Hungarian patriot, orator and statesman. Leading spirit in the insurrection of 1348-49. Kotzebue, August F. F. von. 1761-1819. German dramatist. 1524-1700. 'y' ABLACHE, Luigi. 1794-1858. Italian singer. His 1^_-^ voice w.xs of phenomenal range and unusual sweetness. La Chaise d'Aix, Frantjois. P^re la Chaise. French Jesuit. Lactantius. The Christian Cicero. 26o?-325. Latui father of the church. Institutioncs Divince. La Fayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Molier de, Marquis. 1757-1834. French general and patriot. Came to America in 1777 to aid the Americans in their struggle for independence, and was commissioned major-general ; fought at Brandywine, where he w.-is woimded, and in numerous other engagements ; visited France and obtained supplies and munitions, returning in 1779; commanded the advance guard at Vorkstown, 1 781 ; returned again to France; chosen commandant of the French National Guard in 1789 ; visited America in 1824, and was enthusiastically received; took a prominent part in the revolution of 1830. La Fontaine, Jean de. 1621-1694. Fr. poet and fabulist. Lagrange, Joseph Louis. 1736-1813. Fr. mathe.natician. Lamartine, Alphonse de. 1792-1869. Fr. poet and statesman. Lamb, Charles. 1775-1834. Eng. essayist. Essays of Elia. Lambert, Daniel. 1 769-1 809. English giant. Lambert, John. 1621-1694. Eng. Parliamentary general. Lamotte-Fouque, Friedrich Ileiiirich Karl de. Baron. 1777- 1S43. German novelist and poet. Undine. Landon, Lelitia E. 1802-1838. L. E. L. English author- ess. Romance and Reality. Landor, Walter Savage. 1775-1864. English author, /wa^/- nary Conversations. Landseer, Sir Edwin. 1S02-1S73. English animal painter. Langlande (or Longland), Robert. FI. 1360. English monk and poet. I'ision of Piers PtoTuman, Langton, Stephen -1228. English prelate. Lannes, Jean, Duke of Montebello. 1 769-1 S09. marshal. Lansdowne, William Petty, Marquis of. 1737-1805 lish statesman. Laplace, Pierre .Simon, Marquis. 1749-1827. French astron- omer and ni.itliem.itician. La Rochefoucauld, Frangois de, Duke. 1613-1680. French m()ralist and statesman. La Salle, Jean Baptiste. 1651-1719. Founder of the Chris- ti.m Brothers. La Salle, Robert Cavelier de. Lasker, Eduard. 1829-1884. Latimer, Htigh. 1480-1555. Latour d'Auvergne, TliiSophile Male Corret de.' 1743-1800. French officer, called by Napoleon "The First Grenadier of France." Lauderdale, John Maitland, Duke of. 1616-16S2. English cabal minister. Laurens, H?nry. 1724-1792. American statesman. Lavater, Johann Caspar. 1741-1801. Swiss jjhysiognomist. French • Eng- i635?-i6S7. Fr. explorer. German statesman. English reformer; burned. Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent. 1743-' 794- French chemist. Law, John. 167 1-1729. Scottish financier in France; pro- moted the " South Sea Bubble." Lawrence, Amos. 1786-1852. American philanthropist. Lawrence, James. 1781-1813. American naval hero ; com- manded the Chesapeake and engaged the British frigate Shannon off Boston. He was killed in the action, and his last words were : " Don't give up the ship." Lawrence, Sir Thomas. 1769-1830. English painter. Lawrence, Saint -258. Roman martyr. Layard, Austen Henry. 1S17- English orientalist. Lebrun, Anne Charles, Duke of Piacenza. I775-'S59- French general. Lebrun, Charles. 1619-1690. French painter. Lebrun, Charles Francois, Duke of Piacenza. 1 739-1 S24. French statesman. Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. 1838- Eng. author. Lecouvreur, Adrienne. 1690-1730. French actress. Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre Auguste. 1808-1874. Fr. socialist. Ledyard, John. 1751-1788. American traveller. Lee, Arihur. 1740-1792. American statesman. Brother of R. H. and F. L. I.ce. Lee, Charles. 1775-1782. Am. general ; native of Wales. Lee, Francis Lightfoot. 1734-1797. American patriot. Lee, Henry. Light-Horse Harry. 1756-1818. American general and statesman. Governor of Virginia. Lee, Richard Henry. 1732-1794. Am. orator and patriot. Lee, Robert Edmund. 1806-1870. American general ; com- mander-in-chief of the Confederate army. Son of Henry Lee. Born in Virginia ; graduate of West Point ; chief engineer of Gen. Scott's army in Mexico; Confederate brigadier-general 1861, and appointed to the chief command in 1862. Surrendered at Appomattox, April 9, 1865. Subsequendy chosen president of Washington College, at Lexington, Va., where he died. Leech, John. 1816-1864. English caricaturist. Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, Duke of Dantzig. 1755-1820. French general. Legare, Hugh Swinton. 1797-1843. American statesman. Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm von. Baron. 1646-1716. Ger- man philosopher and mathematician. Leicester, Robert Dudleys Earl of. 1532?-158S. Favorite of Queen Elizabeth. Leidy, Joseph. 1823-. . . . American naturalist. L'Enclos, Ninon de. 1616-1706. French beauty. Leo L 400?-474. Byzantine emperor. IIL, 68o?-74l. V., -S20. VI., 865?-9ii. Leo L (Saint). The Great. Pope, ruling from 440 to 461. IL, 682-684. HI. (Saint), 795-816. IV., 847-855. V., 903 ; reigned only two months. VI., 928-929. VII., 937-939. VIII., 963-965. IX., 1049-1054. X. (Giovanni de' Medici), 1513-1521. XI., 1635; died twenty-four days after his accession. XII., 1823-1829. XIII. (Gioa- chimo Pecci.) Born at Carpineto, in the Papal States, i3io, the son of Count Ludovico Pecci ; ordained a priest in 1837, and created Arch- bishop of Damietta in 1843 ; nuncio to Belgium three years ; car- dinal, 1853 : cardinal camerlengo, 1877 : elected to the papacy, to succeed Pius IX., February 20, 1878. Leonidas -480 B.C. King of Sparta ; leader of the brave three hundred at Thermopylae. Leopold I. The Great. 1640-1705. Emperor of Germany. 11., 1747-1792. Leopold L 1790-1865. King of Belgium. IL, 1835-.... Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastian. 1825-. . . . President of Mexico. Le Sage, Alain Ren^. 1668-1747. Fr. novelist. Gil Bias. Leslie, Alexander, Earl of Leven -1661. Scot, general. Lesseps, Ferdinand de. Viscount. 1805-.... French en- gineer and diplomatist. Planned the Sue» canal, and the inter-oceanic canal across Panama. Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. 1729-1781. German author. Leutze, Emanuel. 1816-1868. German historical painter. Lever, Charles James. 1806-1872. Irish novelist. Charles O' Malley ; Tom Burke oj" Ours; Harry Lorrequer. Leverrier, Urbain J. J. 1811-1877. French astronomer. Lewes, George Henry. 1817-1878. English author; hus- band of " George Eliot." Biographical History of Philosopiiy. Lewis, Matthew Gregory. 1775-1818. English novelist. Lewis, Meriwether. 1774-1809. American explorer. Leyden, Lucas van. 1494-1533. Dutch painter. Lieber, Francis. 1800-1872. German historical writer. Liebig, Justus von. Baron. 1803-1873. German chemist. Lincoln, Abraham. 1809-1865. Sixteenth president of the United States. Born in Kentucky; removed to Indiana when eight years old ; captain in the Black Hawk war, 1S32 ; elected to the TUinois legis- lature 1S34 ; admitted to the bar, 1836, and removed to Springfield, III,; elected to Congress in 1846; Republican candidate for U. S. senator in 1854, his opponent being Stephen A. Douglas; nominated for the presi- dency and elected, i860 ; re-elected 1864, but assassinated April 14. 1865, by John Wilkes Booth. His death was universally deplored, for his wise administration of affairs during the civil war nad won for him the regard of both factions of the bloody controversy. Lincoln, Benjamin. 1733-1810. American general. Lind, Jenny. (Mrs. Goldschmidt.) 1821-.... Swedish vocalist. Linnaeus, Charles. 1707-177S. Swedish botanist. Lippi, Filippo. 1412-1469. Italian painter. Liszt, Franz, Abbe. 1811-1885. Hungarian pianist. Littleton (or Lyttleton), Sir Thomas. 1420?-I48i. English jurist. Tenures. Liverpool, Robert B. J., Earl of. 1770-1828. Eng. statesman. Livingston, Edward. 1764-1836. American jurist. Livingstone, David. 1S17-1873. Scottish explorer in Africa. Narrative o/an Expedition to the Zambesi. Livy. (Titus Livius.) 59 B.C.-17 A.D. Roman historian. Locke, John. 1632-1704. English philosopher. Essay on the Hitman Understanding. Lockhart, John Gibson. 1794-1854. Scottish author. Logan. Tah-gah-jute. l725?-l78o. American Indian chief. Logan, Benjamin. l742?-l862. Kentucky pioneer. Logan, John Alexander. 1826- American general and statesman. Loia Montez. 1820-1861. Creole ballet dancer. Long, Roger. i68o?-l770. English astronomer. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. 1 807-1 882. American poet. Born in Portland, Me. ; graduated in 1825 at Bowdoin College, at which institution he took the chair of modern languages after travelling four years in Europe ; held the same position at Harvard 1836-54. Hyperion: Voices 0/ the Night; The Spanish Student; Evangeline ; Song 0/ Hiawatha; Miles Standish ; Tales 0/ a ll-'ayside Inn, cic. Longinus. Fl. 3d century. Greek philosopher. Longstreet, James. 1821- Confederate general. Lome, John George Edward Henry Sutherland Campbell, Marquis of. 1845-.... Governor-general of Canada. fsr / A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 237 Lorraine, Charles IV., Duke of. 1604-1679. German general. v., 1643-1690. Lossing, Benson John. 1813-. . . . American historian. Louis 1. Le Debonnair. 77S-S40. Emperor of the West and king of France ; divided the empire among his sons. VI., The Fat; io78?-ii37. King of France. IX. (Saint), 1215-1270; led a large army against the Saracens in 1248; defeated and taken prisoner in Egypt, but effected his ransom; led another crusade in 1270, but died the same ye.ir near Tunis. He was a wise ruler, and noted for many virtues. XI., 1423-1483 ; established post-offices. XII., 1462-1515. XIII., 1601-1643. XIV., Le Grand, 1638-1715. (" I am the State.") XV., 1710-1774. XVI., 1754-1793; guillotined. XVII. (Dauphin), 1785-1795. XVIII., Monsieur, 1755-1824. Louis L 1786-1S68. King of Bavaria. Louis IV. llw Bavarian. I2S5?-I345. Get. emperor. Louis Philippe. 1773-1S50. " The citizen king" of France; abdicated 1848. Louvois, Frangois Michel Letellier de, Marquis. 1641-1691. French statesman ; caused revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Lover, Samuel. 1797-1S68. Irish novelist. Handy Andy; Rory C Moore, etc. Lowell, James Russell. -1S19- American poet and critic ; minister to Spain and to England. The Bigehw Papers ; Under the IViiioTvs : The Vision 0/ Sir Laun/al : Commemoration Odes: Fable for Critics : Among my Books ; jMy Study lVi?ido'ws , etc. Lowell, John. 1799-1836. American statesman. Loyola, Ignatius de. Saint Ignatius. 1491-1566. Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. Entered the army at an early age ; crippled by a wound in 152U, he turned his attention to religion; made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1523, and subsequently studied at the University of Paris, where he met Francis Xavier and James Lainez, in conjunction with whom, in 1543, he formed the society which has since become so celebrated. Loyson, Charles. F^re Hyacinthe. 1827- French reformer and ex-Carmelite. Lubbock, Sir John. 1834-.... English antiquarian. Lucanus, Marcus Annxus. 38-65. Roman epic poet. Lucian. 120?-. . . . Greek satirist. Lucilius, Caius. i48?-ioo? B.C. Roman satiric poet. Lucretius. (Titus Lucretius Carus.) 95- . u.c. Latin poet. Lucullus, Lucius Licinius. 110-57 B.C. Roman general, Luther, Martin. 14S3-1546. Leader of the Protestant Reformation, Born at Eisleben, in Germany, the son of a miner ; edu- cated at the University of Erfurt, and in 1505 entered the Augustine convent at that pl.ite ; ordained a priest, 1507 ; became professor of philosophy at Wittenberg, 1508; visited Rome, 1510; denounced the sale of indulgences, 1517, and became involved in numerous controver- sies ; cited to appear before Leo X., he refused to comply ; burned the papal bull containing an order to destroy certain of his works, and denied the authority of the pope; excommunicated; enjoyed the support of the Elector of Saxony; attended the Diet of Worms, convened for his trial, in 1521 ; laid aside his monastic dress in 1524, and married Cather- ine von Bora, an cx-nun, in 1525 ; enjoyed, during the latter part of his life, the greatest distinction from the princes of Germany. Luther com- pleted, in 1522, his translation of the New Testament, and in 1534 that of the Old Testament. The central point of his theology is justification by faith. Luxembourg, Frangois Henri de Montmorenci de. 1628- 16^5. Marshal of France. Lycurgus. Fl. S50 B.C. Spartan law-giver. Lyell, Sir George. 1797-1875. Scottish geologist. Lyndhurst, John Singleton Copley, Lord. 1772-1863. Lord chancellor of England ; born in Boston, Mass. Lyon, Nathaniel. 1819-1861. American general. Bom in Connecticut ; graduate of West Point ; appointed commandcrof the De- partment of the Missouri, i86i ; killed at the battle of Wilson's Creek. Lysander -395 b.c. Spartan general. Lysias. 458-378 B.C. Athenian orator. Lysimachus. 355?-28i B.C. King of Thrace. Lysippus. Fl. 330 B.C. Greek sculptor. Lytton. See Buhuer, *TT^ACAULAY, Thomas Babinglon, Baron. 1S00-1S59. (AV^^ English historian, critic and essayist. History 0/ F.ngland ; Es- says : Lays 0/ Ancient Rome. Macbeth -1056? King of Scotland. McCarthy, Justin. 1830-. . . . Irish writer and Home Rule member uf Parliament. Came to .\mcrica in 1868 and visiteokcn Sermons : The Miracles of our Lord, etc. Macdonald, Sir John A. 1814- Canadian statesman. McCloskey, John. 1810-. . . . First American cardinal. McDowell, Irvin. 1S1S-. . . . American general. MacMahon, Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de, Due de Magenta. i8o8~ Marshal of France and president of the French republic. Macpherson, James. 1738-1796. Scottish poet. MacPherson, James liirdseye. 1828-1864. Am. general. Macready, William Charles. 1793-1S73. Eng. tragedian. Madison, James. 1751-1836. Fourth president of the United States. Bom in Virginia ; member of the Virginia legislature and dele- gate to the convention of 1787 ; joint author with Jay and Hamilton of the Federalist ; CongresSjiySg-g?; secretary of state, 1801-9, president, 1809-17. Magellan, Fernando. 1470-1521. Portuguese navigator. Mahmood I. 1696-1754. Sultan of Turkey. Mahmood, Abool-Kasim-Vemecn-ed-Dowlah. 967-1030. M'lhammedan contjueror; founder of th'j Gaznevide dynasty. Mahomet. See Jlfohammed. Maintenon, PVanfjoise d'Aubign^ de, Marquise. 1635-1719. Consort of Louis XIV. /• A^ K" 2.^8 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. -A Malibran, Maria Felicita {nee Garcia). 1S0S-1836. French vocalist and actress. Malthus, Thomas Robert. 1766-1834. English writer on political economy, and author of tlie" Malthusian theory." Mandeville, Sir John. 1300-1372. English traveller. Manfred. 1 234-1 266. King of Naples. Manning, Henry Edward. 180S- English Catholic prelate and author. United with the Roman Catholic church in 1851 ; archbishop of Westminster, 1865 ; cardinal, 1877. Mansfeld, Ernst von, Count. 1585-1626. German general. Mansfield, William Murray, Earl of. 1704-1793. British jurist. Mantegna, Andrea. 1431-1506. Italian painter. Manteuffel, Edwin Hans Carl von, Baron. 1S09-1883. Prus- sian field-marsh.il. Manuel I. Comnenus. i i20?-ll8o. Byzantine emperor. II. Palaeologus, 1348-1423. Manutius, Aldus. I449?-I5I5. Venetian printer. Manutius, Aldus. 1547-1597- Venetian printer and author. Marat, Jean Paul. 1744-1793. French Jacobin demagogue, assassinated by Charlotte Corday. Marcellus, Marcus Claudius. 268?-2o8b.c. Roman consul. Conquered Syracuse ; killed in a skirmish with the Carthaginians. Margaret. Semiramis of the North. 1353-1412. Queen of Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Margaret of Anjou 1429-1482. Queen of Henry VI. of England. Margaret of Angouleme. 1492-1549. Queen of Navarre and author. Heptameron. Margaret of Austria. 1480-1530. Regent of the Netherlands. Margaret of Valois. 1553-1615. Queen of France. Margaret, Saint. 1046-1093. Queen of Scotland. Margaret, Saint -275- Virgin of Antioch ; martyr. Maria Christina. 1806-187S. Queen dowager of Spain. Maria II. da Gloria. 1S19-1853. Queen of Portugal. Maria de' Medici. 1 573-1642. Queen of France. Maria Louisa. 1791-1S47. Empress of France. Maria Theresa. 1717-1780. Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungarj- and Bohemia. Marie Antoinette. 1755-1793- Wife of Louis XVI. of France ; guillotined. Mario, Giuseppe, Marquis di Candia. 1810-1S83. It. singer. Marion, Francis. 1732-1795. Am. Revolutionary general. Mariotte, Edme. 1620-1684. French phycisist. Marius, Caius. 157-86 B.C. Roman general and consul. Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of. 1650-1722. Eng- lish commander. Commanded the English forces in the Netherlands, 1689: commanded in Ireland, 1690; accused of tre.ison, deposed and confined in the Tower, 1692 : reinstated 1696 ; commanded the allied armies in Holland, 1702 ; won the battle of Blenheim, 1704 ; Ramilles, 1706; Oudenarde, 1708 ; Malplatiuet, 1709. Marlowe, Christopher. 1564-1593. English dramatist. Marmont, Augusta Frederic Louis Viesse de, Dulie of Ragusa. 1774-1852. French marshal. Marquette, Jacques. 1637-1675. French missionary and discoverer ; explored the Mississippi river. Marryatt, Frederic. 1792-1848. English novelist and naval officer. Midshipman Easy : J'i:tcr Simp/i', etc. Marsh, George P. 1801-.... American philologist. Marshall, John. i755-'835. American jurist and states- man; chief justice of the United Stales. Martialis, Marcus Valerius. 43-104. Latin poet. Martel, Charles, Duke of Austrasia. T/u- Hammer. 694- 741. Conquered the Saracens in the great battle of Tours, or Poitiers, 732. Martineau, Harriet. 1802-1876. English writer. Marx, Karl. 1S18-1883. German socialist. Mary I. Bloody Mary. 1516-1558. Queen of England. Married Philip 11. of Spain; persecuted the Protestants. II., 1662- 1694 ; wife of William III. Mary Stuart. 1542-15S7. Queen of Scots. Daughter of James V. and Mary of Guise ; educated in France, where she was mar- ried to the Dauphin in 1558, who the following year ascended the French throne as Francis II., but died childless, 1560 ; invited to the throne of Scotland, and married her cousin. Lord Darnley; suppressed, 1565, a revolt of the Protestants instigated by Queen Elizabeth; joined, 1566, a league to extirpate heresy, and, wearj'ing of the arrogance and disso- luteness of Lord Damley, bestowed her confidence on David Rizzio, an Italian musician, whose murder was instigated the same year by Mary's jealous husband. Lord Darnley himself was killed in 1567, and Queen Mary married the Earl of Bothwell the same year. Public sentiment in Scotland against her became so intense that she was compelled to take refijge in England, where she was finally beheaded on an unproven charge of conspiracy. Masaniello. 1620-1647. Neapolitan insurgent leader. Mason, James M. 1797-1871. American statesman. Massasoit. i58o?-i66i. Sachem of the Wampanoags. Massena, Andre, Prince of Essling. 1758-1817. Fr. marshal. Massinger, Philip. 1584-1640. English dramatist. Mather, Cotton. 1663-1728. American divine and writer, notorious for his persecution of witchcraft. Mathew, Theobald. Father Mathew. 1790-1856. Irish Catholic priest, called *' The Apostle of Temperance." Maurice. 1521-1553. Elector of Saxony ; Gennan general and Protestant leader. Maurice of Nassau. 1567-1625. Dutch warrior; Prince of Oran-e. Maximilian I. 1459-1519. Emperor of Germany. Maximilian. (Ferdinand Maximilian Jo.seph.) 1832-1867. Archduke of Austria, and emperor of Mexico. Executed by the Mexicans. Mazarin, Giulio, Cardinal. 1602-1661. Fr. prime minister. Mazeppa, Ivan Stepanovitch. 1644-1709. PoHsh nobleman, and hetman of the Cossacks. Hero of Byron's poem. Mazzini, Giuseppe. 1807-1872. Italian patriot. Meade, George Gordon. 1815-1872. American general ; won the battle of Gettysburg. Medici, Alessandro de'. 1510-1537. First duke of Florence ; assassinated. Medici, Cosimo de'. The Elder. 1389-1464. Chief of the Florentine republic. Medici, Cosimo de'. The Great. 1519-1574. First grand duke of Tuscany. Medici, Lorenzo de'. The Magnificent. 144S-1492. Prince of Florence ; scholar, and patron of literature and art. MehemetAIi. 1769-1849. Viceroy of Egypt. Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest. 1812- French pamter. Melanchthon, Philip. 1497-1560. German reformer ; leader of the Reformation after Luther's death. The Augsburg Confession. Melikoff, Loris. 1824- Russian general. Melville, .\ndrevv. 1545-1622. Scottish religious reformer. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix. 1809-1S47. German com- poser. The .M.-iisummer Xighfs Dream and The Wedding 0/ Ca- mache, 1827 ; SI. Paul, 1836 ; Elijah, 1846. Songs 'without Words. V- A inMlM Ni.lUM OF BIOGRAPHY. ~A 239 Menno, Simonis. 1496-1561. Frieslantlic founder of the Mcnnonites. Mercadante, Saverio. 1797-1870. Italian composer. Merimee, Prosper. 1803-1870. French novelist. Mesmer, Friedrich Anton. 1733-1815. German discoverer of " mesmerism." Metellus, Quintus Caecilius. Fl. 100 B.C. Roman general. Defeated Jugvirtha, 109 B.C. Metternich, Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von. 1775- 1859. Austrian statesman. Meyerbeer, Giacomo. (Jakob Meyer-Beer.) 1794-1S64. Ger- man composer. Robert U Diable : Semiramide : Les Hitguenots : L' tlioile du Nord. Michael Angelo. (Michelangelo Buonarotti.) 1474-1563. Italian painter, sculptor, architect and poet. Patronized by T-orcnzo the Magnificent; invited to Rome by Pope Julius II., where he designed the church of St. Peter; became architect of that magnificent structure in 1546, and devoted the rest of his life almost exclusively to its comple- tion. Among his productions are the frescoes in the Sistine chapel, in- cluding The Last Jtuiginent ; The Holy FatttUy ,- a gigantic statue of David, and a marble group called Pieta^ representing the Virgin as weeping over the dead body of the Savior. Mifflin, Thomas. 1744-1800. American patriot; president of the Continental Congress. Mill, James. 1773-1830. Scottish hisitorian and writer. Mill, John Stuart. 1806-1S73. English philosopher and political economist. The Frinciples of Political Economy, Millais, John Everett. 1S29-. . . . English painter. Miller, Hugh. 1S02-1856. Scottish geologist. Miller, Joaquin. (Real name, Cincinnatus Hiner Miller.) 1841-.... American poet. Born in Indiana, and emigrated to Oregon in boyhood. The One Fair IFotnan, a novel ; Pacific Poems ; Songs 0/ the Sierras, etc. Mills, Clark. 1815-1883. American sculptor. Miltiades. Fl. 500 B.C. Athenian commander ; gained the great victory of Marathon. Milton, John. 160S-1674. English poet ; educated at Cam- bridge ; passed several years in travel ; visited Galileo, and gained the friendship of many eminent personages ; returning to England, he ad- vocated the popular party, opposing prelacy and the established church; wrote many political and controversial works in prose ; was appointed in 1648 Latin secretary of the Council of State ; in 1654 he had become entirely blind. His Paradise Lost was completed in 1655, and sold for _;^io, half of which was not to be paid until after the sale of 1,300 copies. His sonnets are among the best in the language, and among his other works are Comiis : Jl Penseroso : Satnsoti Agonistes ; U Allegro ; Paradise Regained : Lycidas. Milton is justly considered one of the greatest poets of all time. Minie, Claude Etienne. 1810-1879. French inventor. Mirabeau, Honor6 Gabriel de Riquetti de, Comte. 1749-1791. French orator and statesman. Entered the army in 1776; exiled and imprisoned for debt ; separating from his wife, he eloped with a young woman in 1776, for which offence he was condemned to death ; escaped, however, with four years' imprisonment; led a wandering life for sev- eral years, engaging in numerous intrigues ; sent to Berlin on a secret mission in i7£6, and elected to the States-General in 1789, and later to the National Assembly, of which he became president in 1791. Mira- beau possessed remarkable powers of oratory, and was one of the chief promoters of the French Revolution, Mitchel, Ormsby Macknight. 1810-1S62. American gen- eral and astronomer. Captured Huntsville, 1862. Mitchell, Donald Grant. Ik Maruel. 1822-. . . . American author. Ret'eries 0/ a Bachelor ; My Fann at Edgewood, etc. Mitford, Mary Russell. 1786-1855. American authoress. Mitford, Williniuf 1744-1827. English historian. Mithridates VI. The Great. 132-63 B.C. King of Pontus. Allied with TIgranes, king of Armenia, He defeated the Romans in sev- eral battles. Mohammed, or Mahomet. 569-. . . . Founder of the Mos- lem religion. Pretended, at the age of forty, to have received a revela- tion from Allah, and thenceforth devotcd^himsclf to the prop.igation of his new religion. Previous to this time he had been an idolater. His new faith, which included the unity of God, was rejected at Mecca, where a conspiracy was formed against him, but was warmly embraced in Medina, to which place the prophet fled in 622, From this flight, called the Hegira, the Mussulmans compute their time. After this event, Mohammed ceased to advocate liberty of conscience, but prop- agated the faith of Islam by the sword, gaining numerous victories, and spreading his religion over a large portion of Western Asia. The Koran was composed in separate chapters, as occasion required. Mohammed II. The VlctoriotiS. 1430-1481. Turkish sul- tan, in., 1642-1692. Moliere. (Jean Baptiste Poquelin.) 1622-1673. French dra- matist and actor. Among his numerous comedies are The Misanthrope and The Hypocrite {Tart ujfe). Moltke, Carl Bemhard Helmuth von, Count. 1800-.... Chief marshal of the German empire. Virtually commander-in-chief of the German armies in the Franco-German war, and designed the entire campaign. Mommsen, Christian Matthias Theodor. 1817-. . . . Ger- man historian. Monk, George, Duke of Albemarle. 160S-1670. English gt.-neral ; restored the monarchy. Monmouth, James Scott, Duke of. i649?-i6S5. Natural son of Charles H.; rebelled, but was defeated and executed, Monroe, James. ^758-1831. Fifth president. Born in Vir- ginia; captain in the war of 1812; studied law under Jefferson ; Con- gress, 1783; opposed the constitution; governor of Virginia, 1799: envoy extraordinary to France, 1802; re-elected governor, 1811 ; ap- pointed secretary of state same year by Madison; elected president, 1816, and re-elected 1820. I 690-1 762. English 1592. French philos- 1810-1S70. Fr. 1712-1759. 1689-1755. Montague, Lady Mary Wortley. authoress. Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de. 1533- ophcr and essayist. Essays, Montalembert, Charles Forbes de, Comte. publicist; leader of the liberal Catholic party. Montcalm, Louis J. de St. Veran, Marquis of. French commander in Canada. Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de. French jurist and philosopher. Montezuma II. 1480?-! 520. Last Aztec emperor of Mexico, Montfort, Simon de. Ii50?-I2i8. Norman crusader. Montfort, Simon de, Earl of Leicester. 1200?-I265. Son of preceding. Led the barons against Henry III. Montgolfier, Jacques Etienne (1745-1799) and Joseph Michel (i7-(o-i8io). French mechanicians ; invented air-balloon. Montgomery, James. 1771-1854. Scottish poet. Montgomery, Richard. '73^' 775- American general; killed at Quebec. Montgomery, Robert. 1807-1855. English poet. Montmorenci, Anne de, Due. 1493-1567. Fr. constable. Montmorenci, Henri de. Due. 1534-1614. Constable of France. Montmorenci, Malhew de. 1175-1230. Constable of France. •«si Q- A 240 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Montrose, James Graham, Marquis of. 1612-1650. Scottish t:ener.il. Executed. Moody, Dwight Lyman. 1S37-. ... American evangelist. Born at Northfield, Mass Moore, Sir John. 1761-iSog. British general; fell at Corunna. Moore, Thomas. 1779-1852. Irish poet. Lalla Rookh : Irish Melodies: The Lores 0/ the Angels, etc. Morales, Luis. El Divino. 1509-1586. Spanish painter. More, Hannah. 1 745-1 S33. English authoress. Calebs in Search of a Wife. More, Sir Thomas. 14S0-1535. English statesman and phil- osopher; educated at Oxford : entered Parliament, 1504: produced History of Richard III., 1513 ; Utopia, 1516 ; became a great favorite of Henry VIII., who made him lord chancellor in 1530; being an ardent Catholic, he refused to sanction the divorce of Queen Catherine and re- signedhis office in 1532 ; imprisoned in i534for declining to take an oath acknowledging the validity of the king's marriage to Anne Boleyn, and executed the following year for denying the king's supremacy as head of the church. Moreau, Jean Victor. 1763-1813. French general. Victor at Hochstadt and Hohenlinden; fell at Dresden. Morelos, Jose Maria. 1780-1815. Mexican revolutionist. Morgan, John Hunt. 1825-1863. Confederate cavalry offi- cer and major-general. (" Morgan's raid.") Mornay, Philippe de, Seigneur du Plessis-Marly. Dii Plessis IMornny. 1549-1623. French Protestant statesman. Morris, George P. 1802-1864. American journalist and poet. Woodman , S/tare That Tree. Morris, Gouverneur. 1752-1816. American statesman. Morris, Robert. 1734-1806. Am. statesman and financier. Morris, William. 1834-.... English poet. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. 1791-1872. Am. inventor of the magnetic telegraph ; graduate of Yale College; studied painting in England, returning to America in 1832 ; constructed small recording electric telegraph in 1835 ; finally obtained aid from Congress in 1843, and constructed a line between Washington and Baltimore in 1844. Mortimer, Roger, Earl of March. I287?-I330. Favorite of Is.-ibclla of England ; executed. Morton, James Douglas, Earl of. 1 530-1 58 1. Regent of Scotland. Executed as accessory to Darnley's murder. Morton (or Moreton), John. 1410-1500. English prelate. Morton, Oliver Perry. 1823-1877. American statesman. Moscheles, Ignaz. 1 794-1870. Hungarian pianist. Moses. 1 570-1450. Hebrew law-giver. Led the Israelites out of Egypt. Motley, John Lothrop. 1814-1877. American diplomatist and historian. The Rise of the Dutch Republic : History of the United Netherlands. Mott, Lucretia («tV Coffin). 1793-.... Am. social reformer. Mott, Valentine. 1785-1S65. American surgeon. Moultrie, William. 1731-1805. Am. Revolutionary general. Mozart, Johann Chrysostomus Wolfgang Amadeus. 1656— 1791. German composer. Composed short pieces at the age of six, and at seven gave concerts in Paris and London. Distinguished for the universality of his genius. Don Giovanni: The Magic Flute; The Marriage 0/ Figaro: Requiem. Muhlenberg, Henry Melchior. 1711-1787. Founder of the r.erriian Lutheran church in America. Muhlenberg, John Peter Gabriel. 1746-1807. Am. general. Mukhtar Pasha, Ghazi Ahmed. 1837- Turkish general and statesman. MuUer, Friedrich Maximilian (H/ax Miiller). 1823- German scholar and writer in England. Chips from a German IVork- shop. Mulock, Dinah Maria. See Craik. Munchausen, Hieronymus Karl Friedrich von, B.iron. 1720- 1797. German soldier and rom.ancist. Munzer, Thomas -1526. German Anabaptist fanatic. Murat, Joachim. 1771-1815. Fr. marshal and king of Itaiv. Murillo, Bartolome Esteban. 1618-1682. .Spanish painter. Excelled as a colorist, and regarded as the greatest of the Spanish school of painters. His virgin saints and beggar boys are famous. Murray (or Moray), James Stuart, Earl of. 1533-1570. Re- gent of Scotland. Opponent of Mary Stuart. Assassinated. Murray, Lindley. 1745-1826. American grammarian. Musset, Louis Charles Alfred de. 1810-1S57. French poet. Nadir Shah. (Kouli Khan.) 1688-1747. King of Persia. Expelled the Afghans and dethroned the Shah ; conquered part of India. Nana-Sahib. 1824-.... Leader of Sepoy mutiny. Napier, Sir Charles James. 1782-1853. Eng. general in India. Napier, Sir Charles John. 1786-1860. British admiral. Napier, John, Laird of Merchiston. 1550-1614. Scottish mathematician. Napier, Sir William Francis Patrick. 17S5-1S60, British general and writer. Napier of Magdala, Robert Cornells Napier, Baron. 1810- 1876. British gener.al. Napoleon. See Bonaparte. Nash, Richard. Beau Nash. 1674-1761. English fop. Nash, Thomas. i564?-i6oo? English satirist and dramatist. Neander, Johann August Wilhelm. 1789-1850. German theologian and historian. History of the Christian Religion. Nebuchadnezzar -561 B.C. Chaldean king of Babylon. Conquered Jerusalem, T>Te and Egypt. Necker, Jacques. 1732-1804. French statesman and financier. Father of Mme. de Stael. Neilson, Adelaide. 1853-1S81. American actress. Nelson, Horatio, Viscount. 1758-1805. The greatest of Britain's naval commmders. Entered the navy at 13; post-captain, 1779 ; rear admiral, 1797, his promotion having been eamet? by his share in the victory of St. Vincent ; lost his right arm in an unsuccessful at- tack on TeneriflFe ; won the battle of the Nile in 1798, for which he was raised to the peerage as Baron Nelson of the Nile; became separated from his wife, owing to an infatuation with Lady Hamilton which lasted until his death ; created a viscount for the victory of the Baltic, where, being second in command, he disobeyed the orders directing him to re- treat ; fell at Trafalgar, where his fleet gained a decisive victory over the French and Spanish. Nepos, Cornelius. Fl. 5 B.C. Roman historian. Neri, Filippo de. Saint. St. Philip Neri. 15 15-1595. Italian founder of the order of " Priests of the Oratory." Nerva, Marcus Cocccius. 32-98. Roman emperor, 76-98. Nesselrode, Charles Robert von. Count. 1 780-1862. Rus- sian diplomatist ; minister of foreign affairs for forty years. Nestorius -440? Syrian ])relate ; patriarch of Constan- tinople, and founder of the Nestorian schism. Newman, John Henry, Cardinal. 1801-.... English theo- logian. Graduated at O.xford ; founded an ascetic community in 1842, over which he presided for three years ; a recognized leader of the High Church party imtil 1845, when he became a Catholic ; appointed rector of Catholic University at Dublin 1854, and made a cardinal by Pope Leo Xlll. in 1S79. A Grammar of .4ssent. Newton, Sir Isaac. 1642-1727. English philosopher and mathematician. The son of a f.inncr : graduated at Cambridge 1665, about which time he invented the " tnethod of lUi.vions." and discovered the attraction of gravitation ; discovcre-.... English philanthropist. Nott-s OH Itospitols. Nilsson, Christine. (Mmc. Rouzaiid.) 1S43-.... Swedisli vocalist. Noailles, .Vdrian M., Duke of. 167S-1766. French general. Nordenskjold, Adolf Erik. 1S32-. . . . Swedish explorer. Nordhoff, Charles. 1S30-.... Am. author and journalist. North, Christopher. See Wilson, John. North, Frederick, Lord. 1732-1792. English .statesman. Northcote, Sir Stafford Henry. l8i8-.... Eng. statesman. Norton, Caroline Elizabeth Sarah {nie Sheridcn). 1808- 1S77. English authoress. Slitart 0/ Dunleith. Nostradamus. (Michel ile Notrcdame.) 1503-1566. French astrologer. Ci'ntiiries. Nottingham, lleneage Finch, first Earl of. 1621-16S2. Eng- lish jurist and statesman. Novalis. (Friedrich von Ilardenberg.) 1772-1S01. Ger- man author. Novello, Vincent. 1771-1861. English composer. Noyes, Ceorge Kapall. 1798-1868. American theologian. Noyes, John Humphrey. 1S11-. ... American communist. GATES, Titus. 1620-1705. English informer; contriver of the celebrated "Popish Plot." Oberlin, Jean Frederic. 1740-1S16. French-German re- former and philanthropist. O'Brien, William Smith. 1S03-1864. Irish political agitator. Leader of " V'oung Ireland " party ; banished for treason. O'Connell, Daniel. 1775-1847. Iri.sh patriot and orator. Advocated Catholic emancipation, but opposed resort to arms ; elected to Parliament in i8^'8, but not allowed to take his seat until 1829, when the bill for Catholic emancipation was passed ; gave up his large law practice and gave his entire attention to pidjlic duties ; began advocating the repeal of the union in 1840, and w.xs convicted in 1S44 on a charge of treason, but the sentence, one year's imprisonment and j^^,ooo fine, was reversed by the House of Lords. O'Conor, Charles. 1804-1884. American lawyer. Occam, William^f. The Imnncible Doctor. i28o?-l347. English theologian. Odoacer -493- Gothic king ofltaly; executed. O'Donnell, Leopold, Count of Lucena, Duks of Tetuan. 1809-1867. Spanish general and statesman. Oehlenschlager, Adam Gottlob. 1779-1850. Danish poet. Oersted, Hans Christian. 1777-1851. Danish natural phil- osnplier ; founder of the science of electro-magnetism. Offenbach, Jacques. 1S19-1880. German-French composer. La liclle Heliitf : Orphic aux Rn/ers ; Blutrhearti ; Lit Granjf Duchfsse ; Lajotie Par/umeuse, etc. Oglesby, Richard J. 1824-.... American statesman. Oglethorpe, James Edward. 169S-1785. English general; colonized Georgia. Oldcastle, .Sir John, Lord Cobham. 1360-1407. English re- ff)rmcr; head of the Lollards ; executed. Oldfield, Aline. 1683-1730. English actress. Oliphant, Margaret. 1S1S-. .. .English novelist. Ollendorff, Henri (Jodefroy. 1803-1S65. German educator. OUivier, Olivier Emile. 1825-.... French statesman. Omar I. 581-644. Arabian caliph. Conciuered Jerusalem. Omar Pasha. (Michael Lattas.) 1806-1871. Turkish com niandcrin the Crimean war; born in Croatia. O'Meara, Barry Edward. 1780-1836. Irish physician and author. Napoleon in Exile, Opie, Mrs. Amelia. 1769-1S53. English authoress. Orange, William, Prince of. The Silent. 1553-1584. Founder of the Dutch republic ; leader of the insurrection which broke out when it was attempted to introduce the Inquisition into the Netherlands. Assassinated. Origen. l86?-253. Greek theologian and preacher. Endeav- ored to harmoni/c the teachings of Christ and Plato ; opposed the theory of eternal punishment. Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Due d'. 1 747-1 793. Took the popular side on the assembling of the States-General, renounccanes ; deposed Pope John XII. 11., 955-981. III., 980-1002. IV., 1174-1218. Otho I. 1815-1867. King of Greece. Otis, James. 1725-1783. Am. lawyer, orator and patriot. Opposed " writs of assistance "; leader of the popular party. Otway, Thomas. 1651-1685. English dramatist. Oudinot, Nicholas Charles. 1767-1S47. French general. Outram, Sir James. 1802-1863. English general in India. Overbury, Sir Thomas. 15S1-1613. JEnglish poet. Ovid. ( I'uliliusOvidius Naso.) ii.c. 43- 18 A.D. Roman poet. Owen, Richard. 1804-.... Eng. zoologist and anatomist. ■*y Q .^ Owen, Robert. 1771-1S5S. community of New Harmony. Oxenstiern, Axel, Count. English socialist ; founder of the 1 583-1 654. Swedish statesman. ^TI^ADILLA, Don Juan Lopez de -1521. Spanish ^■^ patriot and general ; executed. Paganini, Niccolo. 1784-1840. Italian violinist. Paine, Robert Treat. 1731-1814. Am. lawyer and statesman. Paine, Thomas. 1737-1809. American political writer and free-thinker; bom in England. Covnnon Sense : Rights 0/ Man ; The Age 0/ Reason. Pakenham, Sir Edward -1815. British general; fell at New Orleans. Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da. I524?-I594. Italian com- poser of church music. Mass 0/ Pope Marcelhts. Paley, William. 1743-1805. English theologian. Palissy, Bernard. 1506-1589. Fr. potter and enameller. Palladio, .\ndrea. 1518-1580. Italian architect. Palmarcli, Pietro -1828. Italian painter. Palmerston, Henry John Temple, Viscount. 17S4-1865. English statesman ; minister of foreign affairs and prime minister. Paoli, Pasqualedi. 1726-1807. Corsican general. Papin, Denis. 1647-17 12. French physician. (Digester.) Papineau, Louis Joseph. 1 789-1 871. Canadian politician. Paracelsus, Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenhcim. 1493-1541. Swiss alchemist and empiric. Parepa-Rosa, Euphrosyne. 1S36-1874. Scottish vocalist. Paris, Louis Albert Philippe d'Orleans, Comte de. 1 838-. . . . French prince ; gmndson of Louis Philippe. Park, Mungo. 1771-1S05. Scottish traveller and explorer. Travels in the Interior of Africa. Parker, Matthew. 1504-1575. English prelate. Parker, Theodore. 1810-1S60. Am. rationalistic theologian. Parkman, Francis. 1823-. . . . American historian. Parnell, Charles Stewart. 1843-.... Irish agitator; leader of the Land Le.ague movement. Parr. Catherine. 1509-1548. Surviving queen of Henry VIII. Parrhasius. Fl. 400 B.C. Greek painter. Parrott, Robert Parker. 1804-1S77. American inventor. Parry, Sir William Edmund. 1790-1855. English Arctic explorer ; discovered Harrow's Strait. Parsons, Theophilus. 1750-1S13. American jurist. Parsons, Theophilus. 1797-1882. .'\merican jurist. Pascal, Blaise. 1623-1662. French philosopher and mathe- matician. At the age of twelve, he had acquired, without books, a knowledge of geometry ; established the theory of atmospheric pressure, 1648 : entered the cloister of Port Royal, and there produced, in 1656, his Froz'incial Letters against the Jesuits. Patrick, .Saint. 372?-46o? Apostle of Ireland. Patti, Adelina Maria Clorinda, M.arquise de Caux. 1843- . . . . Operatic singer, of Italian descent ; boni in Madrif the feudal nobles; imprisoned Pope Boniface III. and caused him to remove his seat to Avignon; suppressed tlie order of Knights Templars. VI. (of V'alois), :2()3-i350. Philip II. 1527-1598. King of Spain. Son of Charles V. Proviikcd insurrection in the Netherlands by his attempt to intro- duce the Spanish Inquisition; married, nn the deaili of Mary Tudor, his second wife. Isabella of France, the betrothed of his son, Don Carlos; equipped the " Invincib'e Armada" for the conquest of England. III., 1578-1621. IV., 1605-1665. V., 1683-1746; first of the House of Bourbon. Philip. The Good. 1396-1467. Duke of Rurj^undy. Phillips, Adelaide. 1833- . . . . English-American vocalist. Phillips, Wendell. 1811-1SS4. American orator and nbo- litiunist. S/feech in Faneuil Hall, 1836. Phips (or Phipps), Sir William. 1651-1695. Colonial gover- n«ir of Massachusetts. Captured Port Royal. Phocion. 402?-3i7 B.C. Athenian general and statesman. Piccolomini, Ottavio. 1599-1656. Austrian general ; con- spirator against Wallenstein. Gained great distinction in the Thirty Years' war ; led Spanish army in Flanders. Pickering, Timotliy. 1745-1S29. American statesman. Pierce, Franklin. 1804-1S69. Fourteenth president of the United States. Born in New Hampshire ; Congress, 1832-7 ; senator, 1837-42 ; brigadier-general in Mexican war ; elected president on the Democratic ticket, in 1852, holding that office from 1853-7 '• opposed co- ercion ot the South in 1S63. Pilate, Pontius -38. Roman governor of Palestine. Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth. 1746-1825. American states- m.ui and soldier; leader of the Federalists. Pindar, 520 ?-440? B.C. Greek lyric poet. Pinkney, William. 1764-1S22. Am. lawyer and orator. Pisano, Andrea. 1270-1345. Italian sculptor and architect. Pisano, Nicola. !200?-i278? Italian sculptor. Pisistratus. 612-527 li.c. Tyrant of Athens. Pitcairn, Maj. John -1775- English officer; fell at Hunker HiU. Pitman, Bcnn -. . . . English phonographer. Pitman, Isaac. 1S13-. ... Eng. inventor of phonography. Pitt, William. 1759-1S06. English statesman and orator. Son of the Earl of Chatham. Graduated at Cambridge ; admitted to the bar, 17S0; entered Parliament, 1781 ; chancellor of the exchecquer, 1782 ; first lord of the treasury and prime minister, 1783 ; head of the great coalition against Bonaparte. Pius I. Pope, 142-157. II., 1458-1464. III., 1503; died same year. IV. (Giovanni Angclo de'Medici), 1559-1565 ; convoked Council oJ Trent. V., 1566-1572. VI., 1775-1799. VH., 1800-1823 ; taken from Rome in 1809 by Napoleon, and detained at Genoa and Fon- taineble;ui. V^I., 1829-1830. IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai Fcrrctti), born 1792; chosen to the pontificate, 1846 ; died, 1878. During his incumbency the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and of Papal In- fallibility were promulgated ; temporal power overthrown, 1870, and the Papal States annexed to Italy. Pizarro, Francisco. I475?-I54l? .Sp. conqueror of Peru. Plantagenet. Dynasty of English kings, 11 54-1485. Plato. 428-347 B.C. Greek philosopher; disciple of Socrates. Held that the human soul h.is always existed, and that an idea is an eternal thought of the divine mind. Pleasonton, Alfred. 1824-. . . . American general. Pliny. The Elder. 23-79. Roman naturalist ; perished at an eruption of Vesuvius. Natural History. Pliny, The Younger. 62?-u6. Roman orator and author. Plotinus. 205-270. Greek Neo-PIatonic philosopher. Plunkett, William Conyngham, Lord. 1 764-1 854. Irish jurist. Plutarch. 50?-! 20? Greek biographer and philosopher. Parallel JJ-ves. Pocahontas. i595?-i6i7. Daughter of Powhatan. Saved the life (_.f Capt. John Smith, an English explorer; wxs converted to Christianity, and married an English gentleman named Rolfe. Poe, Edgar Allan. 1809-1S49. American author; extremely dissipated. The Raven: The Fall 0/ the House 0/ Usher : Tales 0/ the Grotesque and Arabesque. Polk, James Knox. 1795-1849. American statesman; eleventh president. Born in North Carolina; removed to Tennessee; admitted to the bar; Congress, 1825; speaker for two terms ; governor of Tennessee, 1839-41 ; elected president on the Democratic ticket, holding that office from 1845-9. During his term Texas was formally annexed to the Union, and the Mexican war prosecuted. Polk, Leonidas. 1806-1864. Episcopal bishop and Confed- erate general; prominent at Shiloh and Stone River. Pollok, Robert. i79S?-i827. Scot. poet. Course of Time. Polo, Marco. I252?-I324? Venetian traveller. Polybius. 2o6?-i24B.c. Greek historian. Polycarp, Saint. 8o?-i69? Bishop of Smyrna; martyr. Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de. 1721- 1764. Mistress of Louis XV. of France ; assumed complete control of public affairs. Pompey. The Great. 106-4S B.C. Roman general and triumvir; conquered Suetonius and Milhridates ; be.:amc leader of the arisl()cracy and opponent of C^^ar; defeated at Pharsalia. Ponce de Leon, Juan. 1460-1521. Spanish discoverer of Florid... Poniatowski, Jozef Antoni, Prince. 1762-1S13. Polish com- mander; created field-marshal by Napoleon. Pontiac. I7I2?-I769. Chief of the Ottawas ; formed coali- tion of Indians against the whites, and attempted to capture Detroit. Pope, Alexander. 168S-1744. English poet. The son of a linen-draper ; educated by a Catholic priest. Macaulay calls him " a great master of invective and sarcasm." Messiah : Pastorals : Essay on Man ; Essay on Criticistn ; The Dunciad ; Ra/>e of the Lock, and translations of Homer. Porter, David. 17S0-1S43. American commodore. Porter, David Dixon. 1813- Son of preceding. Am- erican admiral ; reduced Fort Fisher, 1865. Porter, Fitz John. 1S23- Nephew of David Porter. American general. Porter, fane. 1776-1S50. Eng. novelist. Thaddcus of Warsaw. Poussin, Nicholas. 1594-1665. French painter. Powers, Iliram. 1805-1873. American sculptor. Powhatan. i55o?-i6iS. Indian chieftain in Virginia. Jm Praxiteles. Fl. 360 B.C. Greek sculptor. Preble, Edward. 1761-1807. American naval officer. Prentice, George Denison. 1S02-1870. American poet and journalist. Prentiss, Sergeant Smith. 1S0S-1850. .American orator and l.lwyer. Prescott, William Hickling. 1796-1S59. American historian. Ferdinand and Isabella. Price, Sterling 1867. Confederate general. Prim, Juan, Count de Reus and Marquis de los Castillejos. 1814-1870. Spanish general and statesman ; assassinated. Prior, Matthew. 1664-1721. English poet and diplomatist. Piobus, Marcus Aurelius. 232-2S2. Roman emperor. Procter, Adelaide Anne. 1825-1S64. English poetess. Procter, Bryan Waller. Barry Cornwall. 1790-1874. Eng- lish poet. The Sea. Prout, Father. (Francis M.ihony.) 1805-1S66. Irish journal- ist and writer. Prynne, William. 1600-1669. English Puritan writer. Ptolemy I. S:'ter. 397?-283 B.C. King of Egypt. II., PhiladelphuSf 309-247 B.C. Ptolemy. (Claudius Ptolemseus.) Fl. 2d century. Greek .astronomer and geographer. Believed the earth to be at rest in the cen- tre of the universe, the heavenly bodies moving around it. Pugin, .-\ugustus N. W. 1811-1852. English architect. Pulaski, Casimir, Count. 1747-1779. Polish patriot; general in the American Revolutionary army. Fell at the srege of Savannah. Putnam, Israel. 171S-1790. American Revolutionary general. Conspicuous at the battle of Bunker Hill. Pym, John. 1584- 1643. English republican statesman and orator; popular leader in Parliament. Pyrrho. 36o?-270? B.C. Greek skeptic and philosopher. Pyrrhus. 3iS?-272 B.C. King of Epirus and one of the greatest of ancient generals. Defeated the Romans and conq lered Macedonia. Pythagoras. 6oo?-5io? B.C. Greek philosopher. Tauglit the doctrine of transmigration of souls. QUACKENBOS, George Payn. 1826- .American educationist. Quarles, Francis. 1592-1644. English poet. Emblems. Queensberry, William Douglas, Duke of. 1724-1S10. Scot- tish profligate. Quin, James. 1693-1766. English actor, famous as /aA^r/^. Quincy, Josiah. 1744-1775. .American orator and patriot. Quincy, Josiah. 1772-1864. Son of preceding. American statesman and scholar. Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius. 50?-iiS? Roman rhetorician. Vg^ABELAIS, Francois. I495?-I553. French scholar and ^A-\. sLitirist, Joined the PVanciscans, but left the order; afterward studied medicine. His great work, The Pleasant Story 0/ the Giant Gars^antua and his Ssn Pantasruel , is a satire upon the different branches of society of his age, more particularly the monastic orders. Rachel. (Elizabeth Rachel Felix.) 1821-1858. French actress, born in Switzerland ; daughter of a Jewish peddler. Racine, Jean. 1639-1699. French dramatist. Les Plai- detirs : Britannictis ; Berenice : Bajazet : Ifihightie ; Ph^dre : Esther ; Athalie. Racine, I.ouis. 1692-1763. French poet. .Son of J. R. Radcliffe, Ann. 1764-1823. English novelist. RadclifTe, John. 1650-1714. English physician. Raglan, James Henry Fitzroy Somerset, Lord. 1788-1855. English general. Commanded British army in Crimean war. Raleigh, Sir Walter. 1552-1618. English courtier, states- man, navigator and author, h favorite of Queen Elizabeth ; executed by James I. Rameau, Jean Philippe. 16S3-1764. French composer. Ramsay, .Vllan. 1 685-1758. Scottish poet. Ramsay, David. 1749-1815. American historical writer. Randolph, John (of Roanoke). 1773-1833. American poli- tician and orator. Entered Congress 1799 ; advocated extension of slavery; opposed Missouri Compromise; Senate, 1824; soon after fought a duel with Henry Ciay ; minister to Russia. 1830. Randolph, Peyton. 1723-1775. President of first American Congress. Raphael. (RaflTaelle Sanzio, or Santi d' Urbino.) 1483-1520. Italian painter. Sistine Madonna : Adoration 0/ tlte Mai^ : Marriage 0/ ilie Virgin : Transfigitration, etc. Ravaillac, Francois. 1578-1610. French fanatic ; assassin of Henry IV. Read, Thomas Buchanan. 1822-1872. American poet and artist. The House by the Sea : The Wagoner 0/ the Alleghanies, Reade, Charles. 1814-1884 English novelist. Peg IVoffiiig- ton : Hard Cash : H7tite Lies ; A Terrible Temptation ; Grijffitii Gaunt. Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault de. 1683-1757. French naturalist and inventor of a thermometer. Recamier, Jeanne F. J. A. IS. 1777-1S49. French lady noted for beauty and accomplishmenLs. Red Jacket. 1760-1830. Eloquent Seneca Indian chief. Reeves, Sims. 1S21- ... English oratorio singer. Regulus, Marcus Atilius -250 B.C. Roman general and statesman. Captured by the Carthaginians and sent to Rome to secure peace, but advised against it ; returning to Carthage as he had promised, he was tortured and put to death. Reid, Capt. Mayne. 1818-1883. Irish-American novelist. Rembrandt van Ryn, Paul. 1607-1669. Dutch painter. Remusat, Charles Frantjois Marie, Count. 1797-1875. Frencli st.itesman and philosopher. Essays on Philosophy. Renan, Joseph Ernest. 1823-.... French philologist and writer. Life 0/ Jesus. Retz, Jean Francois Paul de Gondi, Cardinal. 1614-1679. French prelate ; a leader of the Frondeurs. Memoirs. Reuter, Fritz. 1810-1874. Low-German poet and novelist. Reuter, Julius. 181 5-.... German originator of Reuters Telegraphic Agency. Revere, Paul. 1735-1S18. American engraver and Revolu- tionary patriot. Carried the news of Gage's impending attack to Concord. Reynolds, John Fulton. 1820-1S63. American general. Reynolds, Sir Joshua. 1723-1792. English painter. Ricardo, David. 1772-1S23. Enghsh political economist. Richard I. Ccctir de Lion. 1157-1199. King of England. Led a large army into Palestine, where he exhibited great personal prowess; conquered .\cre and defeated S.aladin. II., i36f>-i4oo. III., i452-i4S5,last of the Plantagenets. Richardson, Samuel. 1689-1761. English novelist. Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal. 1585-1642. French prelate and statesman. Made cardinal, 1622 ; prime minister, i6?4 ; curited the nobility ; subdued the Calvinists ; restored balance of power in Europe; granted religious toleration to the Protestants; secured exile of his foe, Marie de Medici, the king's mother, 1630 ; aided German Protestants against Austria ; founded French Academy (1635); added Alsace, Lorraine, and Roussillon to France. A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 245 Richter, Johaim Paul ]''rieilricli. Jean Paul. 1763-1825. German author. Among his works, which arc distinguished for quaint- ness and originr.lity, may be named Greenland lAiwsuiis : Hesperus ; The In-y'isU'te Lotige t Farson in Jubilee : Titan, Ridley, Nicholas. i50O?-l555. English bishop and reformer. I5urncd at the stake. Rienzi, N'icola Gabrini. I3I3?-I354. Roman oratur; made f.inious by his attempt to restore the Roman Rcpidtlic. Ripon, George Krederick Samuel Robinson, Earl de Grey and Marquis of. 1827- English statesman. Ristori, .\delaidc. Marchioness del Grillo. 1S21-. . . . Italian .tctrcss. Rittenhouse, David. 1732-1706. American astronomer. Riviere, liriton, 1840-. . . . English animal painter. Rizzio, David. 1540-1566. Italian musician; favorite and secretary of Mary Stuart: assassinated. Robert. Robert the Devil. -1035. Duke of Normandy; fattier of William the Conqueror. Robert I. Robert Bruce. 1274-1329. King of Scotland. II., 1316-1390; first of the Stuarts. Robert, Louis Leopold. 1794-1835. French painter. Robertson, Frederick William. 1816-1853. Eng. divine. Robespierre, Maximilien Joseph Marie Isidore. 175S-1794. French Jacobin revolutionist : ruler during the Reign of Terror; guil- lotined. Robin Hood. Fl. 12th century. English outlaw. Rob Roy. (Robert McGregor.) i66o?-i735? Scottish frecbiiotcr. Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur de, Count. 1 725-1807. French marsh.al ; general in .America in 1781. Rochefort, Victor Henri de Rochefort-Lugay, Comte. 1830- .... French editor and communist. Rochefoucauld, Franpois, Due de la. 1613-16S0. French wit and author. Maxims. Rochejaquelin, Henri de la, Comte. 1772-1794. French royalist ; leader of the Vendeans. Rodney, George Bridges, Lord. 1718-1792. Brit, admiral. Roebling, John Augustus. 1 806-1 869. American engineer. Rogers, John. 1829-.... American sculptor. Rogers, John. I500?-I555. English divine; burned at Smithfield. Rogers, Samuel. 1763-1855. English poet. Roland, Marie Jeanne Philipon, Mine. 1754-1793. French Girondist and writer; guillotined. Memoirs. RoUin, Charles. 1661-1741. Fr. historian. Aitcient History. RoUo, or Hrolf. 86o?-93o? Norwegian viking. First duke of Normandy. Romanoff, Michael Feodorovitch. l59S?-i645. Founder of the Russian dynasty. Romulus. Fl. 750 B.C. Founder of Rome. Romilly, Sir Samuel. 1757-1818. English statesman. Rooke, Sir George. 1650-1709. British admiral. Rosa, Salvator. 1615-1673. Italian painter. Roscius, Quintus. 61 B.c Roman actor. Rosecrans, William Starke. 1817-. . . . Am. general. Ross, Sir John. 1777-1856. British admiral and Arctic navigator. Ross, Sir James Clark. 1S00-1862. Nephew of precedint;. IJritish Arctic navigator, Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. 182S-18S2. English painter and poet. House of Li/e. Rossini, Gioamiimo. 1792-1S6S. Italian composer. Will- iam Tell : The Barber 0/ Serulle, Rothschild, M.ayer Anselm. 1743-1S12. Jewish banker .at Frankfort ; founder of the house of Rothschild. Rouget de I'lsle, Claude Joseph. 1760-1836. French jioct and musician. Marseillaise. Rouher, Eugene. 1814-.... French politician. Rousseau, Jean Baptiste. 1670-1741. French lyric poet. Rous3eau, Jean Jacques. 1712-177S. French i)hilosophcr and writer. Born in Geneva ; apprenticed to an engraver, but wan- dered about, and was successively a servant, .a clerk, and a music teacher; went to Paris 1745, and met Diderot and Grimmc ; formed a connection with Thcrcse le Vasscur, an ignorant woman, whom he afterward married. In 1760 appeared y«/iV, or The Nciv Helo'ise ; in 1762, The Social Contract. His Emile, or Eiiucation, was burned at Geneva, and he w.as compelled to take refuge in England. His CoH' /essions are an autobiography. Rubens, Peter Paul. 1 587-1 640. Flemish painter. Rubinstein, Anton. 1830-.... Rus. composer and pianist. Ruckert, Friedrich. 1 789-1 866. Ger. orientalist and jioet. Rudolph I. (of Uapsburg). 1218-1291. Emperor of Ger- m.iiiy. Founder of the Austrian empire. II., 1552-1612. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count. 1753-1814. Am- erican natural philosopher in France. Rupert, Prince. (Prince Robert of Bavaria.) 1619-1682. German warrior. Ruskin.John. 1819-.... English writer on art. Russell, John, Earl 1792-1878. English statesman. Russell, William, Lord. 1639-1683. English patriot. Be- headed on a charge of complicity in the " Rye House Plot." Rutledge, John. 1739-1800. American statesman and jurist. Ruyter, Michael Adrianzoon de. 1607-1675. Dutch admiral. Q'aCKVILLE, George, Viscount. Lord George Germain. ^^^ 1716-1785. English statesman and general. Sadlier, Mary Anne, Mrs. 1820-. . . . .'\m. authoress. Saint Clair, Arthur. 1734-1818. American general. Sainte- Beuve, Charles Augustin. 1804-1S69. French poet anti critic. Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri Bernardin de. 1737-1814. Fr. author. Paul et I'ir^inie. Saint Simon, Claude Henri de. Count. 1760-1S25. French socialist. Sala, George Augustus Henri. 1828-.... Eng. litterateur. Saladin. 1137-1193. Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Opposed the Crusaders. Defeated the Christians at Tiberi.as. Sale, George. 1680-1736. English orientalist. Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne Cecil, Marquis of. i83f>- English statesman. Sallust. (Caius Sallustius Crispus.) S6-34 n.o. Rom. historian. Saltonstall, Sir Richard. 1586-1658? Puritan in Massachu- setts colony. Salvini, Tonimaso. 1833-.... Italian actor. Samuel. 1 170-1060 n.c. L.i.st of the Israelite judges. Sand, George. See Dude-.iant. Sandeau, Leonard Sylvain Jules. 1S11-1883. Fr. novelist. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de. 1798-1876. Mexican gen- eral and statesman Sappho. Fl. 600 B.C. Greek lyric poetess. Sardanapalus. Fl. 900 B.C. King of Assyria. Sardou, Victorien. 1831- French dramatist. \ A 246 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Saul -i°55 I'-C-'- F'l'St l-^i'ig of Israel. Savage, Richard. 169S-1743. Eng. poet. The Wanderer. Savonarola, Girolamo. 1452-1598. Italian religious re- former. Saxe, Hermann Maurice, Count of. 1696-1750. Marshal of France; native of Saxony. Captured Prague 1741. Saxe, Tohn Godfrey. 1S16- American humorous poet. Scanderbeg, George Castriota. i4io?-i467. Albanian chief. Defeated the Turks. Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von. 1775-1S54. Ger- man philosopher. Schenck, Robert Gumming. 1809- Am. statesman. Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von. 1759-1805. The most popular of German poets. Studied medicine and law, but could not resist his inclination toward literature. His drama. The Robbers, appeared in 1777 ; Thirty Years' IVar, i-^gi; Waliejistein, the work of many years, 1/99. The Maid of Orleans, Alary Stttart and Witt- iain Tett are among his best known dramas, and Tlie Song of tlie Bettis considered the best of his minor poems, Schiller removed to Weimar in 1799, and there enjoyed the friendship of Goethe. Schlegel, August Wilhelm von. 1767-1845. German poet, critic and philologist. Lectures on Dramatic Literature, Schlegel, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von. Brother of preceding. ^ 1772-1829. German philosopher and scholar. Lectures on tlie Philoso- phy of History, Schliemann, Heinrich. 1S22-.... German traveller. Schoeffer, Peter. 1430-1500. One of the inventors of print- ing; partner of Johann Faust. Schofield, John McAllister. 1S31- American general. Schomberg, Friedrich A. H., Duke of. 16167-1690. Protes- tant general. Born at Heidelberg: served in Swedish army during the Thirty Years' war ; afterward marshal of France ; entered the service of the Prince of Orange, and fell at the battle of the Boyne. Schopenhauer, Arthur. 17S8-1S60. German pessimist philosopher. The M'ortd as Will, Schott, Andreas. 1552-1629. Dutch Jesuit scholar. Schubert, Franz. 1797-1S28. German composer. Schumann, Robert. iSlo-1856. German composer. Schurz, Carl. 1829-. . . . German-American statesman. Schuvaloff, Peter, Count. 1828-.... Russian diplomatist. Schuyler, Philip. 1733-1804. Am. general and patriot. Schwanthaler, Ludwig Michael. 1S02-1S48. Ger. sculptor. Schwarz, Berthold. Fl. 14th century. Gennan monk and alchemist : reputed inventor of gunpowder. Schweinfurth, Georg August, 1836-. . . . Ger. traveller. Scipio Africanus Major, Publius Cornelius. 235 B.C.-1S4? Roman general ; invaded Africa and defeated Hannibal. Scipio .ffimilianus Africanus Minor, Publius Conielius. 185 ?-i29 E.c. Roman gener.al ; captured and destroyed Carthage. Scott, Sir Walter. 1771-1832. Scottish novelist and poet. Scott, Winfield. 1786-1866. American general. Sebastian, .Saint. 255?-288. Roman soldier and martyr. Sebastian, Dom. 1554-1578. King of Portugal and warrior; invaded Morocco, but was defeated and slain. Secchi, Pietro Angelo. 1818-1878. Italian a.stronomer. Sedgwick, Catherine Maria. Daughter of T. S. S. 17S9-1867. American authoress. Sedgwick, John. 1813-1864. American general. Sedgwick, Theodore. 1746-1813. American jurist. Selden, John. 15S4-1654. English statesman. Selkirk, Alexander. 1676?-. 723. .Scottish sailor whose ad- ventures suggested the story of Robinson Crusoe, Semiramis. Fl. 1250 B.C. Assyrian queen. Built Babylon, and greatly increased her dominions ; invaded India, but was defeated. Semmes, Rapliael. 1809-1877. Confederate naval officer. Seneca, Lucius Annteus. 5 ?-65. Roman statesman, moralist and Stoic philosopher. Sennacherib. Fl. 700 B.C. Assyrian king. Sergius I. Pope from 687-701. II., 844-847. III., 904- 913. IV., 1009-1012. Servetus, Michael. 1 509-1 553. Spanish theologian. Burned at the slake. On the Errors of the Trinity, Sesostris. (Rameses.) Fl. 1400 B.C. King of Egypt. Severus, Alexander. 205-235. Roman emperor. Severus, Lucius Septimius. 146-211. Roman emperor. Sevigne, Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marquise de. 1627-1696. French lady celebrated for her beauty and accomplishments. Seward, William Henry. 1801-1872. American statesman. Secretary of state 1861-9. Seymour, Horatio. 1811-.... American statesman. Elected governor of New York 1852, and re-elected 1862; opposed the adminis- tration's war policy , Democratic nominee for the presidency in i863. Sforza, Ludovico. II Mora. 1451-1510. Italian general. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, first Earl of. 1621- 16S3. English statesman. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, third Earl of. 1671- 1713. English philanthropist, author and freethinker. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh Earl of. 1801- .... English philanthropist. Shakspere, Shakspeare, or Shakespeare, William. 1564 1616. The greatest English dramatist. Born at Stratford-on-Avon ; married Anne Hathaway 1582 ; went to London about 15S6 and became an actor and playwright ; acquired a competence and retired to his native town about 1610. I'enus and Adonis and T/ie Rape of Lucrece, the only works published under his own hand, appeared 1593-4. The first edition of his collected works appeared in 1623. Hamlet : Lear ; Mac- beth: Othello: The Tempest: Midsummer Night' s Dream, ac.,ac. Shaw, Henry W. Josh Billings. 1818-.... Am. humorist. Shell, Richard Lalor. 1793-1851. Irish orator. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. 1792-1822. English poet. Expelled from O.xford, at the age of sixteen, for writing a treatise on the necessity of atheism ; married the daughter of a retired innkeeper against his father's will ; became reconciled to his father, and eloped with Miss Weslbrook, whom he married at Gretna Green ; separated from her by mutual consent, and, hearing of his first wife's suicide, married Mary Godwin, with whom he was travelling on the continent ; demanded at law the custody of the two children by his first marriage, but the guard- ianship was granted to their maternal grandfather, on the ground of the father's atheism ; removed to Italy, where he was accidentally drowned. Adonais , The Cenci : Prometheus : Revolt of Islam : .-Itastor ; The Witch o/" Atlas. The Cloud, Ode to the Skylark and The Sensitive Plant are among the most exquisite of his shorter poems. Sheppard, Jack -1724. English burglar; hanged. Sheridan, Philip Henry. 1831-.... American general. Victorious at Winchester, Cedar Creek and Five Forks. Made lieuten- ant-general of the U. S. army 1869, and promoted to the chief command on the retirement of General Sherman, 1883. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley. 1751-1816. Irish orator and dramatist. The Rivals : The School for Scandal : The Duenna. Sherman, John. 1823-.... American statesman. Secretary of the treasury, 1877-81 ; resumed specie payments. Sherman, Roger. 1721-1793. American statesman. / / A COMPENDIUM OF DIOGRAPHY. 247 Sherman, William Tccumseh. 1S20-.... Brother of John Slierman. American genera!. Made the celebrated " March to Ihc Sea." Became general of the army in 1869, retiring in 1883. Sickingen, Franz von. 14S1-1523. German Protestant gcncr;d, Siddons, Sarah (nie Kemble). 1755-1S31. F^nghsh actress. Sidney, .Mgernon. 1622-16S3. Enghsh republican; exe- cuted on false charge of complicity in " Rye House Plot." Sidney, .Sir Philip. 1554-15S6. English soldier and poet. Siemens, Ernst Werner. 1816-. ... German inventor. Siemens, Charles William. 1S23- . lirollier of preced- ing. German inventor. Sigismund. 1368-1437. German emperor and king of Hungary. Sigismund I. 1466-154S. King of Poland. II., 151S-1572. Sigourney, Mrs. I-ydia Howard Huntley. 1791-1865. Am- erican poetess. Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse. Silliman, Benjamin. 1779-1864. American naturalist. Simeon Stylites. 390?-459. Syrian ascetic; lived for forty- six years on tlie tops of pillars. Simms, William Gilmore. 1S06-1S70. American author. Simon, Jules. 1814-.... French statesman. Sixtus I. Pope from 11710 128. II., 257-258; martyr. III., 431-440. IV., 1471-1484. V. (Felice Perelli), 1585-1590. Skobeleff, Michael. 1S43-18S2. Russian general. olocum, Henry Wadsworth. 1827- American general. Smiles, S,inniel. 1816-.... Scottish author. Smith, .Vdam. 1723-1790. Scottish political economist. An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes 0/ the Weatth 0/ Nations, Smith, Gerrit. 1797-1S74. American philanthropist. Smith, Horace (i78o?-lS49) and James (1775-1839). English poets and humorists ; brothers. Rejected Addresses. Smith, John, Captain. 1579-1631. English explorer; found- er of Virginia. History 0/ I 'ir^nia. Smith, Joseph. 1805-1844. Founder of the Mormon church. Smith, Seba. Alaj. Jack Downing. 1 792-1 868. Am. author. Smith, Sydney. 1771-1845. English divine and essayist. Smollett, Tobias George. 1721-1771. Scottish novelist. Roderick Random; Peregrine Pickle; Expedition of Humphrey Clinker. Sobieski, John. 1629-1696. Kins; of Poland and patriot. Defeated the Turks, and raised the siege of Vienna. Socrates. 470?-399B.c. Gr. philosopher; teacher of Plato. Soliman II. The Magnificent. 1494-1566. Sultan of Tur- key. Conquered Persia and part of Hungary. Solomon. The Wise. 1033-975 ? n.r. King of Israel. Solon. 638-558 ?n.c. Athenian law-giver and poet. Somers, John, Baron. 1650-1716. Eng. jurist and statesman. Sontag, Henriette, Countess Rossi. 1806-1854. German vocalist. Sophocles. 495-405 B.C. Gr. tragic poet. CEdipus Tyrannies. Sothern, Edward Askew. 1830-1S81. English comedian. Soult, Nicholas Jean de Dieu. 1769-1851. French marshal. Southey, Robert. 1774-1843. English poet-laureate. Thai- aba; 'flte Curse 0/ Kehama: Roderick, qU:, Jjouthworth, Emma D. E. (Nevitt). 1818-.... American novelist. Retrihution ; The Curse of Clifford ; The Pearl of Pearl Riz/er, etc. oparks, Jared. 17S9-1S66. .\mcrican historian. Spartacus. ^. .-7ll).f. Thracian glailialor in Rome; in- augurated Servile war. Speke, John Hanning. 1827-1864. English explorer in Africa. Spencer, Herbert. 1820-.... English philosopher. .Sociology. Spenser, Edmund. 1553-1599. English poet. The Faerie Queen ; Tlie Sltepltearde' s Calendar. Spinola, Ambrosio, Maniuis de. 1569-1630. Spanish general. Spinoza, Benedict. 1632-1677. Dutch philosopher and pan- theist. Ethics Heinonst rated by Geometrical Metliod. Spurgeon, Charles Haddon. 1834- English pulpit-orator. Spurzheim, Johann Caspar. 1776-1832. German phrenologist. Stael-Holstein, Anne Louise Germainc Keeker de, liaronne. Mine, de Staei. 1766-1817. French authoress, and a lady of remark- able genius. Corinne. Standish, Miles. 1584-1656. Captain of Plymouth Colony. Stanhope, Philip Henry, Earl of. 1805-1875. Eng. historian. Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn. Dean Stanley. 1815-1881. Eng- lish divine and author; dean of Westminster Abbey. Stanley, Henry M. (John Rowlands.) 1S40-. ... Ameri- can explorer in Africa : born in Wales. Stanton, Edwin McMasters. 1814-1S69. American states- man ; secretary of war in President Lincoln's cabinet. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. 1S16-.... American " Woman's rights " advocate. Starhemberg (or Stahremberg), Ernst Rudiger, Count.'* 1635^1701. Austrian general. Starhemberg (or Stahremberg), Guido Bahli, Count. 1657-1737. Austrian general. Stark, John. 172S-1822. American Revolutionary general. Stedman, Edmund Clarence. 1833-.... American poet. Steele, Sir Richard. 1671-1729. Brilish essayist and drama- tist. The Funeral ; The Tender Husband; The Conscious Ltyi'ers ; Essays in The Taller, The Spectator and The Guardian. Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl von, Baron. 1757-1831. Prus- sian statesman. Stephen, Saint. Stoned 36? First Christian martyr. Stephen I. Pope, 253-257. II., 752. III., 752-757. IV., 768-772. v., 816. VI., 885-891. VII., 896-897. VIII., 928-930. IX., 939-942- X., 1057-1058. Stephen I. (Saint.) 979-103S. King of Hungary. Stephen. 1105-1154. King of England. Stephens, Alexander Hamilton. 1812-1883. American statesman. Born in Georgia ; admitted to the bar, 1835 : Congress, 1843; vice-president of the Confederate States ; elected to the U. S. Senate from Georgia, but not permitted to take his seat ; m«mbcrof the House of Representatives, however, from 1874 until his death. History of the It'arbetitieentlte States; A Constitutional Vifw of the Late War between the States. Stephenson, George. 1781-1848. English engineer ; inventor of the locomotive engine. Stephenson, Robert. 1803-1S59. Son of preceding. Eng- lish engineer; inventor of the tubular bridge. Sterling, John. 1806-1844. British essayist. Sterne, Laurence, Rev. 1713-1768. Irish humorous writer. Tristram Shandy ; The Sentimental fourney. Steuben, Frederick William Augustus vor., Baron. 1730- 1794. German American general in the Revolutionary war. Stevens, Thaddeus. 1793-1868. American abolitionist. Stewart, .'Mexander Turney. 1802-1876. Am. merchant. Stewart, Balfour. 182S-.... Scottish physicist. Stoddard, Richard Henry. 1S25-. . . . American poet. V J- 248 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 1S06-1874. English authoress. i756-i!;2S. American portrait painter. 1602-16S2. Last Dutch governor of French novelist. 38-78 B.C. Roman Story, Joseph. 1779-1S45. American jurist. Story, William Wetmore. 1S19-. . . . American sculptor. Stowe, Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth Beecher. 1S12- Ameri- can .authoress. Uncle Tom's Cabin. Strabo. 54 B.C.-24 a.d. Greek geographer. Stradella, Alessandro. 1645-1678. Italian composer. Stradivari, Antonio. 1670-1735. Italian violin-maker. Strafford, Thomas Wentvvorth, Earl of. 1 593-1 641. English sLitcsman : beheaded. Strauss, Johann. 1804-1849. Gcr. composer of dance music. Strauss, Johann. 1S25-.... Sun of preceding. German composer. Strickland, Agnes. Stuart, Gilbert C. Stuyvesant, Peter New Netherland (New York). Sue, Marie Joseph Eugene. 1804-1857 Sulla (or Sylla), Lucius Cornelius. st;itesnian and general. Sullivan, Arthur. 1844-.... English composer, Faliciicf, etc. See also Gilbert. Sumner, Charles. 1811-1874. American statesman, lawyer and abolitionist. True Grandeur of Nations, Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of. I5i6?-i547. English poet. Suwarow, Alexander Vasilievitch. 1729-1774. Rus. general. Swedenborg, Emanuel. 168S-1772. Swedish theosophist. In his theosophy, the central point is the correspondence of the natural and the stipernatural. The True Christian Religion; The J\Iysterits oy Heaven. Swift, Jonathan. 1667-1745. Irish divine and satirist. Citlli- Ter's Trtti'els ; Tale o/ a Tub. Swinburne, Algernon Charles. 1837-.... English poet. Sylvester I. (.Saint.) Pope, 314-335- H-i 999-I003- HI. (Anti-pope), 1013. VtVACITUS, Caius Cornelius. 55? after 117? Roman his- ^ A ^ tori.in. Gerntania. Taglioni, Marie, Countess des Voisins. 1804-1884. Swedisli opera dancer. Pinafore^ Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe. i Talbot, William Henry Fox. and discoverer of photography. Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon. 828-.... French author. l8oo-i'877. English author 1795-1S54. Eng. author. Ion. Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice dc, Prince of Bene- ve[Uo. i754-iRj8. French chploniatist. Talmage, Thomas Dew ilt. 1832-.... Am. clergyman. Tamerlane (or Timour). 1336-1405. Asiatic conqueror. Tancred. 1078-1112. Norman leader in the first crusade. Taney, Roger Brooke. 1777-1864. American jurist. Tannahill, Robert. 1774-1S10. Scottish jioet. Tarquinius Superbus. (Lucius Tarc|uinius.) . . . .-495? B.C. Last king of Rome. Tasman, Abel Janssen. i6oo?-i645. Dutch navigator. Tasso, Torquato. 1544- 1595. Italian poet. Jerusalem De- li-.vreJ. Taylor, Bayard. 1825-187S. American traveller, novelist, poet and joiirnahst : minister to Germany ; translated Goethe's Faust. Among his works are yiews Afoot, or Europe seen with Knapsack ami Staff; Travels ; Poems 0/ the Orient; Book 0/ Romances ; Lyrics and Songs, and several novels. Taylor, Jeremy. 1613-1667. English bishop and author. Taylor, Thomas. The Platonist. 1758-1835. Eng. scholar. Taylor, Tom. 1817-.... English dramatist. Taylor, Zachary. 1784-1850. American general and states- man ; twelfth president. Born in Virginia ; entered the army in i3o3 ; served in Seminole and Black Hawk wars; m.ajor-general in Mexican war, and won the battles of Resaca de la Palma and Buena Vista. Elected president by the Whigs in 1848. Tecumseh. 1770-1813. Chief of the Shawnee Indians; formed alliance of Western Indians, and was delfeated by Harrison at Tippecanoe. Tell, Wilhclm. Flem. 1305. Legendary Swiss hero. Teniers, David. The Younger. 1610-1690. Flem. painter. Tennyson, Alfred. 1809-. . . . English poet-laureate. In Metnoriam ; Enoch Arden ; The Princess ; The Idylls 0/ the King -, Locksley Hall ; The Lotus Eaters ; The Holy Grail; Harold, ^ic. Terence. (P. Terentius Afer.) i95?-i6o? B.C. Roman comic poet. Terpander. Fl. 675 B.C. Greek musician. Terry, .Mfred Howe. 1827-.... American general. TertuUian. l50?-230? Latin father of the church. Tetzel, Johann. i46o?-i5i9. German monk; vender of in- dulgences. Thackeray, William Makepeace. 1811-1863. English novel- ist. Born in Calcutta. Henry Esmond; Vanity Fair; The New- cjmes : Pendennis ; The Adventures 0/ Philip ; The Virginians : The Booii of Snobs ; The Four Georges ; English Humorists. Thalberg, Sigismond. 1812-1871. Swiss pianist. Thales. 635?-546 B.C. Greek s.ige and philosopher. Themistocles. 5i4?-44g? n.c. Athenian general and statesman. Theocritus. Fl. 275? Greek pastoral poet. ,..-548. Empress of the East; wife of Theodora. Justinian. Theodore. Theodoric. Theodosius SlS?-l86S. King of Abvssinia. The Great. 455-526. King of the Ostrogoths. Flavins. The Great. 346?-395. Rom. emperor. Theophrastus. 372?-287? B.C. Gr. philosopher and moralist. Thierry, J.acques N. Augustin. 1795-1836. French hi-torian. Thiers, Louis Adolphe. 1797-1877. French statesman and historian. History of the Consulate and Empire. Thomas, George H. 1816-1870. American federal general. Won the battles of Chickamauga and Nashville, Thomson, James. 1 700-1 748. Scotch poet. The Seasons; The Castle 0/ Indolence ; Tancred and Sigism'.;n. la. Thoreau, Henry D. 1817-1S62. American author. The Concord and Merrimeu Rivers ; The Maine Woods. Thorwaldsen, Albert D. 1770-1844. Danish sculptor. Thucydides. 470-400 n.c. Greek historian. Tiberius. 42 B.C.-37 A.D. Roman emperor. Tilden, Samuel Jones. 1814-.... American statesman. (iovernor of New York ; Democratic candidate fur presidency, 1S76. Tilly, Johann Tierklas von, Count. 1559-1632. German general in Thirty Years' war ; fell at the battle of the Lech. Timoleon. 395-337 B.C. Corinthian general. Tindal, Matthew. i657?-i733. English theological writer. Tintoretto, II. (Giacomo Robusti.) 1512-1594. It. painter. Titian. (Tiziano Vecellio.) 1477-1576. The greatest of Venetian painters. Assumption 0/ the Virgin; Peter Martyr; The Last Supper ; Bacchus and Ariadne ; Homage 0/ Frederick Bar- barossa to the Pope, etc. Titiens (or Titjens), Therese. 1834-1877. German vocalist. VL ^ A COMPKNDIUM OF BIOGRAPHV. 249 Titus. 40-81. Roman emperor. Tobin, Joliii. 1770-1S04. Eng. dramatist. The Honeymoon. Tocqueville, .Vlexis Charles Henri Clerel dc. 1805-1859. Frcncli sl.itesman ; author of Dt-trtocracy in Avlerica. Todleben, I'ranz Eduard. 1818-. . . . Russian general. Tone, Theobald Wolfe. 1763-1798. Irish patriot; founder of the United Irishman. Tooke, John Home. 1736-1 Si 2. English philologist and radical. Having said that certain Americans had been " murdered " at the buttle of Lexington, he w.'is sentenced to one years imprisonment .and a heax-j' fine ; .subsequently tried for treason, but acquitted. Torquemada, Tomas de. 1420-1498. Spanish Dominican monk ; inijuisitor-gcneral. Torricelli, Evangelista. 1608-1647. Italian physicist. Toussaint I'Ouverture, Franpois Dominique. 1743-1S03. Negro leader of the Haytien rebellion. Trajan. 52-J17. Roman emperor. Trollope, Anthony. 1815-1SS3. English novelist. Tromp, Marten Harpertzoon van. 1597-1653. Dutch admiral. Tromp, Cornelis van. 1629-1691. Dutch admiral. Trumbull, John. 1750-1831. .\merican poet and satirist. Trumbull, John. 1756-1843. American painter. Trumbull, Jonathan. 1740-1S09. American statesman. Tupper, Martin Farquhar. 1S10-. ... Fng. poet and author. Turenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de. 1611- 1675. French general. Defeated Conde and the Spaniards in 1659 ; in- vaded Holland in 1672 ; killed at Salzbach. Turgenef, Ivan Sergyevich. 181S-1883. Russian novelist. Turner, Joseph M.i!lord William. 1775- English land- scape painter. The son of a barber. The Battle p/ the Nile ; The Sun Risiftg through I 'apor ; The Fall of Schaffhaitsen. Turpin, Dick. 1711-1739. English highwayman. Tweed, William Marcy. Boss Tmeeci. 1823-1878. American politician and embezzler; mayor of New York city. Tyler, John. 1790-1862. Tenth president of the United States. Born in Va. ; practiced law; Congress, 1816-21; governor of Virginia, 1825: senator, 1S27; sympathized with the nullifiers and opposed Jackson ; resigned 1836 ; elected vice-president on Whig ticket, 1840 ; succeeded Harrison in 1841. Tyler, Wat -1381. English rebel ; leader of rebellion against capitation tax. Tyndall, John. 1S20- Irish scientist. J y DAL, Nicolas. 1 506-1 564. English dramatist and -<,^ teacher. Author of the first F.nglish comedy. Uhland, Johann Ludwig. 1787-1S62. Cierman lyric poet. UUoa, Antonio de. 1716-1795. Spanish mathematician and naval ullicer ; governor of Louisiana. Ulphilas. 3'3-383- The aposlle of the Goths. Translated the Scriptures into Gothic. Ulpianus, Domitius -228. Roman jurist. Unger, Johann Friedrich. 1750-1813. German printer and engraver. Urban I. Pope, rufing 223-230; martyr, II., 1088-1099; organized the first crusade. III., 1184-1187. IV., 1261-1264. V., 1362- 1370. VI., 1378-1389. VII., 1500 ; died on the twelfth day of his pon- tificate. VIII., 1623-1644. Ure, Andrew. 1778-1857. Scottish chemist and physician. Urfe, Honors d'. 1567-1625. French romancist. Ussher, James. 1580-1656. Irish prelate and scholar. Utrechtj Adriaan van. 1599-1651. Dutch painter. 'TT'aLENS, ^•■lavius. 32SP-378. Emperor of the East. s*^^ Brother of Valcntinian L Arian persecutor of orthodo.\ Christians. Valentinianus I. (Flavins.) 321-375. Roman emperor. II. (Flavuis), 371-392. III. (Phicidius), 419-455. Valerian. (Publius Lucinius Valeiianus.) ... .-268? Roman emperor. Van Buren, Martin. 1782-1862. Eighth president of the United States. Enrolled at the bar in New York in 1803, and elected to the state senate; state attorney-general, 1815; leader of the " Albany Regency ": U. S. Senator, 1821 ; governor, 1828 ; secretary of state, 1829-31; vice-president, 1833-7 ; president, 1837-41. Vancouver, George. I758?-1798. English navigator. Vanderbilt, Cornelius. 1794-1877. American capitalist. Vandyke (or Van Dyck), .Sir Anthony. 1599-1641. Flemish painter. Resided in England for several years before his death, where hebecame the most popular artist of his time. Besides many portraits, including those of the celebrated nrtists of his time and several of Charles I . , may be mentioned .as among his best works. The Crucifixion ; St. Augiistine in Jicstacy, :ind Tlte Erection 0/ the Cross, Vane, Sir Henry. 1612-1662. English republican statesman. Convicted of treason and executed. Vanloo, Charles AndriS. 1705-1765. French painter. Vanloo, Jean liaptiste. 1684-1745. French painter. Van Rensselaer, Stephen. The Fatroon. 1764-1839. Am- erican statesman and landholder. Varus, Publius Quintilius. Fl. 7. Roman general ; governor of Germany ; defeated by Arminiiis. Vassar, Matthew. 1792-1868. Founder of Vassar College. Vauban, StiKastien le Prestre, Seigneur de. 1633-1707. French militarj' engineer. Velasquez, Don Diego Spanish painter. Velde, Willem van der. m.irine painter. Velde, Willem van der. marine painter. Vendome, Louis Joseph, Due de. 1654-1712. Fr. general. Verboeckhoven, Eugine Joseph. 1799-1S81. Belgian painter. Verdi, Giuseppe. 1814-.... Italian composer. Ernani ; La Trai'iata ; II Trovatore ; A'ida. Vernet, .\ntoine Charles Horace. 175S-1S36. Fr. painter. Vernon, Edward. 1684-1757. English admiral. Vespasianus, Titus Flavins. 9-79. Roman emperor. Vespucci, Amerigo. (Americus Vespucius.) 1451-1512. Italian navigator and astronomer, after whom America is named, Vestris, Gaetano Apolline. 1729-1S08. Italian dancer. Victor, Claude Perrin, Duke of Belluno. marshal. Victor I. Pope, from 185 to 198. II., 1086-1087. IV. (Anti-pope), recognized by died 1164. Victor Emmanuel I. 1759-1S24. King of Sardinia. II., 1821.-1878; first king of Italy ; restored Italian unity. Victoria. (Victoria Alexandrina.) 1819-.... Queen of Great Britain and empress of India. Vidocq, Eugene Fran(;ois. 1775-1850. French detective. Villars, Claude Louis Hector de, Due. 1653-1734. French gener.tl. Vincent de Paul, Saint. 1576-1660. French priest and re- former. Founded the Congregation of Missions and the Sisters of Charity. Rodriguez de Silva y. 1599-1660. The Elder. 1610-1693. E)utch The Yoicngcr. 1633-1707. Dutch 1764-1841. French 1055-1057. III., Frederick I. in 1159; K" "71 250 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Vinci, Leonardo da. 1452-1519. lulian painter. Last Siif- pcr : Madonnn: Adoration 0/ t/tc Miig-i,^lc. Virgil (or Vergil). (Publius Virgilius Maro.) 70-19 B.C. Latin poet. .-Eneid ; Ecioguts ; Bucoiics: Georgics. Volta, .\lessandro. 1745-1S27. It. inventor of the voltaic pile. Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouct de. 1694-1778. French .nuthor, poet, wit, dramatist, historian, philosopher and skeptic. The son of a notary ; imprisoned in the Bastile in 1716 on an unfounded suspicion of being the author of a libel on the Regent, and there pro- duced (Edipe and wrote part of the Henriadc; in England, 1726-9, passing much time in the society of Eolingbroke ; his drama of Zaire appeared in 1730, and about the same time he finished his History 0/ Charles XII.; Ahire, 1736; Mahomet, 1741; Merope, 1743; passed the years I75t^3 with Frederick the Great; took up his residence (175s) atFerney. The Age 0/ Louis XIV.: Essay on the Manners 0/ Na. tions : Candide, Voorhees, Daniel W. 1827- American orator and states- senator from Indiana. Vortigern. -4S5. King of the Britons. 1S26-. French VsyADDINGTON, William Henry. JL jL statesman and archjeologist. Wagner, Richard. 1813-1SS3. German composer, poet and critic. Rien::i : The Flying Dutchman : Tannhiiuser; Lohengrin: C'otterddmmerung : Nibelungenlied : Rheingold, etc. Waite, Morrison Remich. i8l5-'. .. American chief justice. Waldemar I. The Great. 1131-11S1. King of Denmark. Walker, John. 1732-1807. English lexicographer. Wallace, Sir William. I270?-I305. Scottish general and patriot. Defeated by Edward I. of England ; betrayed and executed. Wallace, William Vincent. 1815-1865. Irish composer. Maritajia. Wallenstein, Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von, Count. 1583- 1634. Austrian general. Hero of one of Schiller's dramas. Entered the imperial army at the beginning of the Thirty Years' war ; raised an army at his own expense in 1625, invading Denmark ; banished from court by Emperor Ferdinand, but recalled on the death of Marshal Tilly ; defeated by Gustavus Adolphus at Lutzen in 1632, but gained several victories in Silesia : again lost the emperor's favor, b( ing charged with aspirations to the throne of Bohemia, was deprived of his command and assassinated. Walpole, Horace, Eari of Orford. 1717-1797. English author and wit. Catalogue 0/ Royal a}id Noble Authors. Walther von der Vogelweide. ("Walter of the Bird- Meadow.") ii7o?-i23o? Greatest of the German minnesingers. Walton, Izaak. 1593-1683. English writer. The Complete Angler: or, A Contemplative Man' s Recreation. Warbeck, Perkin -1499- English pretender ; hanged. Ward, Artemas. 1727-1780. American general. Warner, Charles Dudley. 1829-.... American humorist. Warner, Susan. (Elizabeth Wetherell.) 1S18-.... American authoress. Warren, Joseph. 1741-1775. American physician, Revolu- tionary general and patriot ; fell at Bunker Hill. Warren, Samuel. 1807-1877. English author. Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of. The King-maker. 1420?- 1471. English warrior. Set up and ^deposed Edward IV. Hero of Bulwer's Last o/the Barons. Washington, George. 1732-1799. Commander-in-chief in the American Revolution and first president of the United States. Born in Virginia. Aide-de-camp to Braddock in the Indi.^n campaign of 1755: married Martha Custis, 1759: chosen to Congress, 1774; appointed commander-in-chief, 1775; president, 1789-97. \Vatt, James. 1736-1819. Scottish engineer .and inventor Improved and completed the steam-engine. Has also been credited with the discovery of the composition of water. Watteau, Jean .Vntoine. 16S4-1721. French painter. Watts, Isaac. 1 674-1 74S. English Dissenting minister and sacred poet. Hymns. Wayne, Anthony. 1745-1796. American Revolutionary general. Captured Stony Point. Weber, Karl Maria Friedrich Ernst von. Baron. 1786-1826. German composer. Der Freischiitz. His // rf/i/wtiVtr/^t-w, subsequently known as Sylvana, was composed at sixteen. Webster, Daniel. 17S2-1852. American lawyer, orator and statesman. Born in N. H. ; Congress, 1812-16, 1822-8; Senate, 1S28-41; secretary of state ; re-entered the Senate in 1S44 ; agam became secre- tary of state in 1850. Webster was nominated for the presidency in 1834, but defeated ; candidate for the Whig nomination in 1848, but defeated by Taylor, whom he cordially supported. Webster's reply to Hayne of South Carolina, is considered the greatest speech ever made on the floors of Congress. His greatest legal effort was in the famous Dart- mouth College case. Webster, Noah. 1758-1S43. American lexicographer. Wedgwood, Josiah. 1730-1795. English potter. Weed, Thurlow. 1797-1883. American journalist. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of. 1769-1S52. British general and statesman. Gained great distinction in India, in the waragainst the Mahrattas ; major-general, 1S02 ; Parliament, 1S05 ; sec- retary' for Ireland, 1807 ; defeated the Danes at Kioge, and was given command of an army sent to Spain against the French. iSoS ; opposed by superior forces and able generals, but|ahly thwarted their plans ; tri- umphantly entered Madrid, 1S12; defeated Jourdan and Soull, 1S13 ; in- vaded France and gained numerous victories ; defeated Napoleon at Waterioo, 1815, and entered Paris with the allies same year. Was .-fter- ward prime minister and minister of foreign affairs. Wells, Horace. 1815-1848. American dentist. (An;Esthesia.) Wells, Samuel Roberts. 1820-1875. Am. phrenologist. Wenceslaus (or Wenzel). 1361-1419. Emperor of Ckr- many and king of Bohemia. Wesley, Charles. 1708-1788. English Methodist divine ai d hymn-writer. Wesley, J(hn. 1703-1791. Brother of preceding. Englsh ioundcr cf Methodism. West, Benjamin. 173S-1820. Wharton, Francis. 1820-. . . . Wharton, Ilcniy. 1664-1695. Whately, Richard. 1787-1863. Wheeler, William Almon. 1819- vice-presidt^nt. Whewell, William. 1794-1866. English philosopher. White, Andrew Dickson. 1832- American scholar. \A^hite, Henry Kirke. 1785-1806. English religious poet. White, Joseph Blanco. 1775-1841. White, Richard Grant. 1822- Whitefield, George. 1714-1770. of Calvinistic Methodists. Whitman, Walt. 1819- American poet. In turn car- penter, editor, nurse and government clerk. Leaz'es of Grass. Whitney, Eli. 1765-1825. Inventor of the cotton-gin. Whittier, John Greenleaf. 1807- American poet. Born at Haverhill, Mass. Member of the Society of Friends. Farmer, shoe- nuaker, journalist and a'oohtionis' agitator. Snow Bound : Voices of Freedom : Songs 0/ Labor : Home Ballads ; In War Time : Nation- al Lyrics : The Tent on the Beach : Ballads 0/ New England : Hazel Blossoms, etc. Am. painter in England. Am. jurist and theologian. English ecclesiaslical writer Irish prelate and atithor. American statesman; English author. American author. English preacher; founder k- A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Wieland, Christoph Martin. 17J3-1S1J. (Icrmaii poet. Wilberforce, William. 1759-18^3. English philanthropist .-iiul statesman. Secured the abolition of the s1.ivetr.idc. William I. Tfie Conqueror. 1027-10S7. King of England. Diikc of Normandy : conquered England. II., ^////if, 1056-1100. III. (William Henry of N.lssaii, Prince of Orange), 1650-1702 ; won battle of the Royne. IV., 1765-1837 ; uncle of Queen Victoria. William I. 1772-1843. King of the Netherlanils. II., 1792- r-iy the American people. Early in the political history of the country party lines began to be sharply drawn, the adoption of the Constitution causing the first clearly defined difference of opinion, when those favoring it became known as Federalists THE SUSPENSION BR[DGE, NIAGARA. and those opposed to it as Anti-Federalists, the latter party as- suming the name Republican subsequent to the Constitution's ado])tion. The presidential elections following those of Washington, in which patriotic sentiment was allowed to over- come party feeling, were purely partisan ; and while the Fed- eralists succeeded in placing John .-Vdams in the presidential chair as Washington's successor, the Republicans elected Jeffer- son, Madison and Monroe, each for two terms of office. With the exception of wars with the Indians, who disputed the ad- vance into their territories caused by the rapid growth of the population, the country was at peace during the years subse- quent to Washington's inauguration. In 1812, however, dilTcr- ences arose with Great Britain, then at war with France, the most serious of which was her persistence in asserting the right of searching American vessels and removing from them sailors who she claimed were of British birth, but who really, in a vast majority of cases, were American citizens, of whom not less than 6,000 were so impressed in the year iSll. The war was conducted with varying success in different parts of the conti- nent. In the operations against Canada, General William Henry Harrison won a glorious victory near Detroit, defeating a British army with which was allied a powerful force of In- dians under the fa- mous leader Tecum- seh, who was .slain. General Scott secured successes at I.undy's Lane and Chippewa; while Commodore Perry, on Lake V.ne, and Commodore Mc- Ponough, on Lake Champlain, swept those waters of Brit- ish war vessels and greatly enhanced the importance of the militaryvictories. In the South, General Jackson defeated the British at the mem- orable battle of New Orleans. The principal reverses sus- tained during the war were the capture of General Hull and his army at Detroit, and of General Winchester and the defeat of the Americans at Bladensburgh, which opened the waj; to the British occupation of Washington. The war, which came to an end December 24, 1S14, was strongly opposed by the Federalists, and led to the overthrow of the Republican party. While it was in progress an uprising of the Creek In- dians in Alabama caused considerable trouble, but they were conquered by General Jackson. Further troubles with Indians occurred in 1832, when the Sacs and Fo.tes, tribes living in the Northwest, had to be quelled in what is known as the Black Hawk war, and in 1S35, when Osceola, a crafty leader of the Seminole tribe, of Florida, began a war which lasted for four years before they were brought under subjection. All of these troublesome savages were removed to lands reserved for them, and known then and since as the Indian Territory. Although no foreign war occupied the public mind for thirty years from the close of that of 1S12, important events / 254 THE UNITED STATES. at home caused great agitation. The question of perpetuating the institution of slavery in the new States caused a long and excited controversy, which ended temporarily in 1S20 by the admission of Missouri as a slave State, with a compromise resolution providing that in future no slave State should exist north of the parallel 36 degrees 20 seconds north latitude. In 1832, the adoption of a high protective tariff by Congress was resented by the Southern States, South Carolina declaring it unconstitutional and threatening secession. Happily, when a collision seemed unavoidable, a compromise, effected by Henry Clay, providing for the gradual reduction of duties, restored a peaceful condition of affairs. In 1S37 occurred a linancial crisis attended with many serious commercial dis- asters, the result of a period of over-speculation and expansion defeated the Mexican General Santa Anna. In 1847, General Winfield Scott captured the seaport of Vera Cruz, and, march- ing up the valley of Mexico, fought and won the battles of Cerro Gordo, Churubusco and Chapultepec, and captured the city of Mexico. The war came to an end February 2, 1848, the Mexicans ceding New Mexico and Upper California to the United States. No foreign war was conducted by the United States after this, but within her boundaries a conflict of forces was going on which was doomed to bring the country to internal strife. The agitation of the slavery question continued, and, as years went by, the discussion of its merits increased in bitterness. Still the country continued to grow rapidly in wealth and population, and many hoped that some compromise might yet THE CITY OF BOSTON. of the currency. During the administration of President Tyler, the boundary question threatened a disruption of peace- ful relations with Great Britain, but the arbitration treaty, which was arranged by Daniel Webster, averted the threatened disaster. In 1845, the Mexican State of Texas, which had been largely settled by Americans, and which had declared its independence some years previous, was annexed by the United States. .'\ dispute with Mexico over the boundary question followed, which led to war, and General Zachary Taylor, in the battles of Palo Alto and Resacade la Palma, captured the city of Monterey, and marched on to Buena Vista, where he preserve the national peace, which the more reckless support- ers of both the .\bolition and Slavery parties, judging by the fierceness of their utterances, seemed to hold of much lighter account than the respective principles they upheld. As each election went by, the issue became more clearly that of slavery or freedom, and in 1S60 Abraham Lincoln was elected Presi- dent by the Republican party on a jilatform which, while leav- ing to each State the right to order and control its own domestic institutions, insisted that freedom was the normal condition of all the territory of the United States. On the other hand, the Southern States had made the declaration that .^1 K" 7 THE UNITED STATES. 255 the election of a President pledged to oppose the extension of slavery would be a violation of their constitutional rights and a moral invasion of the Slave States. In adherence to this declaration, in December, iS6o, South Carolina seceded from the Union, and her example was followed by Mississippi, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina. In April following the Confederates opened hostilities by bombarding Fort Sumter, near Charleston, S. C, and compelling the Union before General Grant, and. Port Hudson surrendering a few days later, the blockade of the Mississippi was ended. The battle of Gettysburg, at which General Meade defeated Lee's splendid army, was another important Northern victory during the year of Emancipation. In 1S64, General Sherman cap- tured Atlanta, and accomplished his march to the sea, which ended with the fall of Savannah. The bloody victories of the Wilderness and of Spottsylvania helped the Union soldiers in their march south, and the siege of Petersburg was conducted THE IROOkLW SUsPF'-sION BRIDGE garrison to .surrender. Both sides to the impending conflict armed with haste, and the first serious clash of arms occurred at Bull Run, where the Federal forces became panic-stricken and suffered defeat. The Confederates gained but a slight advantage and were driven back. In the West, where the Confederates had closed up the Mississippi River, the Federals captured Forts Henry and Donelson, and overran the State of Tennessee. On January i, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. With varying fortunes the war progressed until July 4th of that year, when Vicksburg fell by General Grant in command of a line between thirty and forty miles in length. The fall of Richmond and Petersburg, April 2 and 3, 1865, brought the end near, and a week later General Lee surrendered at Ai>pomaltox Court-house. The war, in the conduct of which nearly i,Soo,ooo Union soldiers had been enlisted, and a debt of $2,000,000,000 incurred, called for special financial legislation. In 1S62, and on subsequent occasions, were issued legal tender notes of the United States, and interest-bearing bonds of various kinds. A national bank system, which survives, was established. Customs duties \ ~» a V 2s6 THE UNITED STATES. were raised to an average of nearly 50 per cent, and a direct tax and a large variety <■( iiilimil revenue duties were im- — - ■fU VL- COL. W A ROEBLING BUILUEK OF THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE. posed. These impositions provided for the annual expendi- tures of the Government, which were increased from $60,000,000 in 1S60 to $1,217,000,000 in 1865. April 14, 1S65, a few weeks after his inauguration for the second term. President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by J. Wilkes Booth, who was hunted down and killed a few days later, four of his accom- plices being convicted and exe- cuted. Vice-President Johnson became President, and the work of political reconstruction was begun. The Thirteenth Amend- ment to the Constitution, abol- ishing slavery within the United States and places subject to their jurisdiction, was duly rati- fied anil proclaimed. In April, 1866, Congress passed the Civil Rights bill over the President's veto, thus ensuring protection to the freed slaves, and giving to tile Federal courts enlarged jurisdiction in the matter. In June was passed the Fourteenth Amendment, whereby equal civil rights were guaranteed to all, irrespective of race or color, liy this time the breach between President Johnson and the Republican party was complete, and the antagonism grew until in March, 1S67, the Republican Congress ])assed, over the President's veto, the tenure of oflice act, intended to contract the executive's power to eniove officials. Mr. Johnson deemed the act an unconstitu- tional invasion of his rights, and defied it, which led to his impeachment and trial by the Senate, who acquitted him, the two-thirds vote necessary for a conviction not being secured. Just before his retirement, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed, which provides that the rights of citi- zens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. At the next presidential election General U. S. Grant re- ceived the nomination of the Republican party and was elected. Representation in Congress was restored to such States as had not regained it since reconstruction commenced. In 1869 the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads were completed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by rail. The claims of the United States against the British Govern- ment for the depredations of the Alabama and other Confed- erate cruisers built by the English were referred to a tribunal of arbitration, which met at Geneva, Switzerland, in Decem- ber, 1S71, and awarded the United States the sum of $15,500,- 000 damages, this being the first occasion in the world's history in which an international difficulty of such gravity had been disposed of in so peaceful a manner. During General Grant'ssecond term, which began in 1873, the Indians gave trouble. The Apaches, in Arizona, were subdued by General Crook. In 1873, General E. R. S. Canby and some other officers were treacherously massacred by the THE NEW YORK ELEVATED RAILROAD. Modocs, who were destroyed after a hard .struggle. In .1876, the Sioux, in Montana, under Sitting Bull, rebelled against United States authority and were attacked by General George A. Custer, who, with his immediate command, was surrounded and slain, other companies of the cavalry regiment under him being rescued by General Terry. THE UNITED STATES. 257 In 1876 the convention of the Republican party nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, while Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, was put forward by the Democrats. The ensuing election was extremely close, Mr. Tiklen receiving a majority of the popular vote, and the returns also giving him a majority of the Electoral College. The returns from Florida and Louisiana were disputed, however, on tlie ground of fraud. Congress was unable to reach a decision, and an Electoral Com- mission was appointed. Under its decision, by a vote of 8 to 7, Mr. Hayes became President, the commission allotting him 185 of the electoral votes, one more than the number allotted Mr. Tilden. During the administration of President Hayes a great ciuse of irritation throughout the South was removed by his aversion to th.- use of the military power of the United Stales in controlling State governni-'nts. The decline of values in all pirts of the cou-titry, however, as tiie time for re- sumption of specie payments approached, caused great distress. Wages wjre lowered, and thousands thrown out of employ- ment. In the summer of 1877 a great strike of men engaged by the railroad companies stopped, for a time, all traisporta- tion of passengers and freight on many roads, and filled the country with alarm. Riots occurred at Reading, Scranton, Pittsburg, Chicago and St. Louis. At Pittsburg property to the amount of several millions of dollars was destroyed. During 187S and 1S79 the lower Mississippi v,illey was ravaged by yellow fever, and great numbers perished with the dread disease in New Orleans, Vicksburg, Memphis, and smaller places, although the Howard Association, as well as sisterhoods and clergymen, nobly devoted themselves to the care and relief of the sick. A majority of Congress, during Hayes' administration, was elected by the Democrats, and many cases of disagreement occurred between the legislative body and the executive, several bills being vetoed by the President, who, in 1879, called an extra session to pass the annual appropriation bills. One of the bills vetoed by the President was that to prevent the further immigration of natives of China. During the excitement on this subject in California, many acts of violence were perpetrated, and m my Chinese left the Stale and became scattered through the country. A new treaty wuh Cliina at last removed some of the difficulties. In 1880 the Republicans nominated and elected General James A. Garfield, his opponent for the Presidency being General Winfield S. Hancock. A strong effort had previously been made in the Republican party to nominate General Grant, who had made a tour of the world, and been received with great distinc- tion in Europe. The election of 1880 was a close one, the vote of New York, which had for years been Democratic, deciding the contest in favor of the Republican candidate. The elections for Congress also showed a reaction in favor of the Republicans. The nomination of Garfield, however, had caused a split in the ranks of the Republican party, the supporters of the third term aspirations of General Grant, commonly known as " Stalwarts," feeling deeply their failure to nominate him. This opposition to the President reappeared after he had begun his administration, and an open rupture between him and the Stalwart leaders fol- lowed. While this was at its height, a political fanatic, named Charles Jules Guiteau, conceived the idea that he would restore unity to the party by removing the President, thus throwing the administration into the hands of Vice-President Arthur, who was a Stalwart, and had received the nomination as a concession to that faction. July 2, 18S1, Guiteau lay in wait for the Presi- dent at the railway station at Washington, and shot him as he was on the point of dep.irting from the city upon a vacation. The wounded President died September 19, at Long Branch, N. J., and was succeeded liy Vice-President Arthur. The as- sassin Guiteau was tried, convicted and sentenced to be hanged, the execution taking place in the jail building at Washington. Since Mr. .\rthur's accession to power the Democrats, in the general elections of 1S82, came to the front and carried so many of the Congressional districts as to secure them a large majority in the Forty-eighth Congress, which assembled in December, 18S3. Interest in the final session of that Congress settled largely upon their action in regard to the tariff, a modification of which was very evidently looked for by the people. In 1884 an unsuccessful attempt was made to re-adjust the tariff, with a view to redilcing the surplus in the treasury and securing a more equitable distribution of taxation. The defeat of the measure was largely due to the Democratic majority in the House, who desired to enter the Presidential campaign unfettered by prom- ises. Two unsuccessful treaties were negotiated during the same period. The first, with Mexico, was approved by the Senate, but failed to go into effect because of the refusal of the House to provide the legislative measures necessary to secure its operation. The other treaty, with Spain, was killed in its early stages. Negotiations for a new extradition treaty with Great Britain and her colonies were also begun. The Presidential campaign of 1884 was bitter and aggressive. James G. Blaine, of Maine, the Republican candidate, was defeated by Grover Cleveland, of New York, the nominee of the Democratic party, who received the support of many dis- satisfied Republicans; and in 1S85, for the first time in twenty- four years, a Democrat was installed in the White Hou.se- President Cleveland took the helm of state with the motto of '■ Reform," and the conservative spirit displayed in his adminis- tration of the office of chief magistrate of the republic has made it satisfactory to all classes. The foreign relations of the country have been peaceful for several years past, with the exception of a slight stringency existing in the diplomatic relations with Great Britain on account of the discovery of the fact that the plotters who are seeking by the employment of dynamite to frighten England into granting concessions to Ireland, have made the United States the base of their operations. The country was never in a more prosperous and healthy condition generally than .at present. The statistical department of the Popular Educator speaks volumes for the growth and rank of the Union in all those things which make a nation great. L^ lot Longitude 97 '^ Loo. W. g3 ofWnahlagloD En^. for "Pealb'b Popui.*b Epucatoe" by A. Zeese h Co., Chfcsfro. om 93 Gree-«wicli S9 We*t 16 from Washington 12 K 260 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. i- a-^©'^^^ , ©*"a'BifR.TfcrkV&T».tAU'3vtJ\-!akiC&'a^&'ta^S^T3^'^^ IWP^-VWfV^-'^ ^|p| She Dominion or (Sanada. Mh m<: i^Ti7&Tii.'!&ys^^v^^^r&rs>x&r^T:k^jk^T2^-^^s,^r&Ti:aji.'a^ e^^)(^7^"" -••^^•^ c-^.1 ^HE Dominion of Canada, now a semi-independent confederation of provinces subject to the British Crown, has an interesting history which reaches back to within a very few years of the discovery of America by Columbus. The French sea captain Jacques Cartier, in 1534, planted the r.tandard of Francis I. of France upon the shores of New Brunswick, and in later voyages he discovered the St. Lawrence River. Attempts at colonization were made, but none were very successful until the time of Samuel de Champlain, when the city of Quebec was established, and the foundation laid of the empire of New France. His explorations were ably followed up by the Jesuit missionaries who were sent out later by the French Government, and the names of Fathers Joliet, Mar- quette, La Salle and Perrot, who first saw the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River, are indissolubly linked with the story of early discovery in North America. Cruel wars with the Indians constitute the leading feature of interest in early Canadian his- tory, each of the leading claimants of North American soil — England and France — employing the willing savages to carry destruction into the settlements of the other. Directly result- ing from this cruel policy was the massacre of Lachine, in which the Iroquois, at the instigation of the English, fell upon the French settlements in the neighborhood of Montreal, and slaughtered their inhabitants, and which caused the cruel reprisals of Schenectady and Salmon Falls. During the fre- quent wars between England and France, the latter's Canadian colonies became more than once the object of English attack, but it was not until September, 1759, that the citadel of Quebec fell before the gallant English General Wolfe, and with it the French tenure of Canada, which was called, the Province of Quebec, divided into three districts and placed under the direction of a Governor appointed by Great Britain. During the war of American Independence, the Americans, finding that the Canadians would not join the revolution, in- vaded Canada, but were unable to hold the country on account of their failure to capture the city of Quebec. After the close of the war a great many persons from the English colonies settled in that portion of Canada lying north of Lake Ontario, which, upon the separation of the province in 1791, became known as Upper Canada, the eastern province taking the name of Lower Canada. Dissensions arose in both provinces over questions of government, but the war of 1S12 united Canada in defence against a common invasion, in which the Canadians showed a patriotism and valor very creditable for so young a country. After the war, the same causes of dissension still existing, the old quarrels were renewed and the disaffection finally culminated in separate rebellions in each of the provinces. In Upper Canada a popular agitator named Mackenzie attempted to set up the republic, and in 1S37 gathered a body of armed followers, who marched against the capital, Toronto, w'here they were defeated. More serious disturbances were caused in Lower Canada, when, under the leadership of Louis Papineau, the French Canadian "patriots" collected in masses on the Richelieu, and were not dispersed until after severe conflicts, in which several hundreds were slain. The union of the two provinces was decided upon by the home Government as a remedy for the troubles complained of, and this measure was accomplished in 1S41, the new Constitution giving Canada one legislature instead of two. Under it the country progressed rapidly in population, commerce and general prosperity. About 1S61 a strongparty feeling arose between the two provinces over the claim for representation by population made by the inhabitants of Upper Canada, who, having largely outgrown the lower province in numbers, desired that their representation in Parliament should be proportionately larger. The Lower Canadians would not agree to any change of the Constitution in accordance with this plan, and the political struggle was growing dangerously bitter, when the confedera- tion of the various British provinces in America, with local government for each, was suggested as an available remedy. The provinces of Canada, afterwards known as Ontario and Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, accepted the pro- posed union. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island rejected it. The matter was left with the British Government, which, in 1867, conferred the Constitution imder which the Canadians now live, as well as the name Dominion of Canada. Since then the confederation has been enlarged by the admis- sion of the Hudson Bay Company's Northwestern territories in 1S70, now known as the provinces of Manitoba and Keewatin; of British Columbia in 1871, and of Prince Edward Island in 1873- To the vast majority of Americans the country to the north of the international boundary line is a terra incognita, of which less is known than of the small revolutionary States of Central America. Of Mexican affairs the people of the a 'V THK DOMINION OK CANADA. 261 A United Stales have sufficient reminders to spur interest or promote enquiry, in its biennial revolutions and military dicta- torships, but of the quiet, progressive 5,000,000 of people owning the 4,000,000 square miles comprising the Dominion of Canada we know but little, and apjiarently care less. However much it may be ignored, it is still an undoubted fact that a great nation is rapidly assuming consistency and form in that country. National sentiment and feeling have been developed, and now the habitants and bourgeois of Quebec vie with the agriculturists, manufacturers and trades- men of Ontario and the Maritime Provinces in priding them- selves upon being Canatlians. Alreatiy they complain of being held in leading-strings by Great Britain, and the wish is gen- erally expressed that Canada should have the appointing of its own Governor-General, the power of negotiating foreign com- mercial treaties, antl that the slight ties now binding the Dominion to the Colonial Secretary's office in London be yet further loosened, until the political connection, now merely nominal, ceases to exist even in name. The appointment of Sir A. T. Gait as High Commissioner of Canada at the British Court, with functions approximated to those possessed by the representatives of independent powers, was a tacit claim by the Dominion of the privileges of a sovereign people. ITS VAST AREA. The Dominion, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans and from the United States boundary line to the Arctic seas, has a larger area than Europe, and even exceeds the United States exclusive of Alaska. Territory, however, does not of necessity imply a correspondence in greatness, wealth or power, and any speculations based entirely upon such data must prove fallacious. In order to form anything like a just estimate of the importance of the country the state of the settled and cultivated portions must be considered. Canada proper, consisting of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, containing more than three-fourths of the population of the Dominion, is i,ooomiles long, withan average breadth of 230. It contains an area of 350,000 square miles, or 240,000,- 000 acres. That portion of it included in Ontario may be considered the garden of Canada, both as to climate, soil and the variety of productiveness of its agricultural exhibits. POPULATION. The people of Ontario are very different from their French neighbors on the other side of the Ottawa, and are as noted for real American enterprise, industry and progressiveness as those are for the opposite. In 1825 the number of inhabitants in Ontario (at that time Upper Canada) was 158,027. In 1852 the number had reached 952,004, and at the present time is about 2,000,000, The growth of the cities is also remarkable. Toronto in 1S26 had only 1,677 inhabitants, and in 1S54 it numbered 40,000, and now it contains 100,000 people. Ham- ilton, within ten years, from 1844 to 1S54, quadrupled its popu- lation, and its increase since, if less rapid, has been remarka- ble. In 187s the population of the entire Dominion was 4,000,000 ; in 1881 it was almost 5,000,000, and now probably exceeds that number. The material progress of the country has been on an equally rapid scale. The agricultural products exported in 1SS2 amounted in value to $16,398,613, or $2,665,864 more than in the year previous. The wheat exported for the same period was equal in amount to 6,433,035 bushels, a quantity greatly in excess of that sent out of the country in the year before. In 1SS2 50,000,000 pounds of cheese were exportcti to Britain, and the production of butter in the Province of Ontario alone during that period amounted to an equal number of pounds. The lumber trade is one of the leading industries of the country, the value of that exported last year being $10,729,596. The Canadian exports for 1S81 amounted to $80,921,379, and last year to $90,042,711. The balance of trade being against Canada, the imports for both years were $17,000,000 in excess of those numbers. The imports from Great Britain in i8Si were valued at $43,583,808, and for 1882, $50,597,341. During the same periods the imports from the United States were $36, 704, 1 12 and $48,289,052, respectively. The duty collected on imports from CJreat Britain in 1882 was $10,011,811, or about 20 per cent of the value of imports. On goods from the United States for the same period $7,082,720 was collected, or about 15 per cent. The United States is the largest purchaser of Canadian goods and products, the value of the trade to the latter country being about $40,000,000 in 1882. The shipping interests of Canada are not the least considera- ble, $30,000,000 capital being employed in the carrying trade, which is valued at $350,000,000. .\llowing 5 per cent for freight charges, it would yield a revenue of about $i7,ooo,cxx) a year. The trade of the city of Toronto alone with the United States was equal in 1S82 to $10,447,818, or almost $4,000,000 more than in the previous year. Ten yearsago the Government expenditure was $23,316,316; in 18S3 the Finance Minister asked for $30,250,000 to carry on the affairs of the country. This amount, it is estimated, will be a few millions less than the revenue. The civil govern- ment of the country is estimated to cost $1,109,100 this year ; Indian scouts, $875,949, '""' ''i*^ mounted police, $416,000. CANADA PACIFIC RAILWAY. Otie of the most important factors in the j^rospectivc future advance of the country to a high condition of material prog- ress and industrial wealth will be, undoubtedly, the Canada Pacific Railway. The route through the Dominion is, in a certain sense, preferable to that now connecting the Atlantic and Pacific in our country. It is said by competent authori- ties to be shorter by over a thousand miles in connecting Kuropc with Asia. Pa.ssing close to I^ke Superior and traversing the watershed which vard, the route, though presenting serious engineering diffi- culties, is more easy of construction than the Union I'acific was. The effect of the comjiletion of this road can scarcely be estimated at present, as it will open up for settlement a vast region abounding in valuable timber, coal and other material products, and admirably suited to grazing and the growth of grain. The work of construction on the Canada Pacific was \^ _NJ 6^ \ 262 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. first commenced under the immediate supervision of the Gov- ernment, but this plan was not found to work well, and shortly after the change of Government, in 1878, the new Ministry handed over the work of construction to a syndicate, granting to them money and land bonuses and exclusive rights on a monopoly of trafRc for twenty years from the time of the completion of the road. It is now well under way, and is rapidly approaching the centre of the continent. The esti- mated cost is $100,000,000, and it is a work of extraordinary magnitude for 5,000,000 people to project. The settlement of the Northwest Territory along the line of the railway is proceeding at an unprecedented rate. Indeed, there is nothing to be at all compared with it unless it is the rapidity of opening up in some of the Western States. Free grants are given to actual settlers, which, with an inexhaustible soil, should be a sufficient attraction for emigrants from Europe. But of this class the Canadian Northwest country has so far attracted no considerable number. Of the 44,000 emigrants arriving in Manitoba and the Northwest last year, fully three- fourths were from Ontario and other parts of Canada. NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. There are extensive coal fields in the Valley of the Sas- katchewan and at Edmonton, but so far they have not been worked to any extent. When capital has been directed into this channel, a cheap supply of coal can be secured, and one of the principal defects of that section of the Dominion will be removed. The length and severity of the winter in Manitoba and the contiguous territory is also a serious obstacle to their settle- ment. Winter often begins in October, and continues until about the end of April, after which the weather changes rap- idly, and the chilling, freezing atmosphere becomes soft and warm, with the southern winds sweeping over the interminable plains. Vegetation after this becomes so rapid as to be almost incredible, and in less than four, and occasionally only three, months after the seed has been sown, abundant crops of wheat, barley and oats can be harvested. With all its defects, it is a magnificent coimtry, and it requires no great powers of prevision to foresee in it the home of millions of free, prosperous and intelligent people. Winnipeg, the leading city of the Northwest, has sprung up as if by magic, and is a very different place from the hamlet visited by General Wolseley and his troops, on the occasion of the Rial disturbance, a number of years ago. It has now a summer population of 20,000, and last year the boom in real estate was such that city lots were selling at a higher price than in Toronto. Many other cities now exist in embryo in that vast region, and with a liberal, wise policy on the part of the Government, the success of the Northwest is certain. In the other sections of Canada, Ontario especially, the condition of the farming population has been entirely changed within the past twenty years. The log shanties of the squatter have been changed to elegant farm-houses of stone, brick and frame. Frame barns have taken the place of the open log structures that so poorly protected the crops of the pioneers, and wire and picket fences surround the steadings instead of rails. Farm-houses now contain all that is requisite for com- fort, with many of the elegancies of life added, and in many will be found not only a piano or parlor organ, but also a young lady quite capable of rendering music by note. Educa- tion has also become generally diffused, and it is but rarely that a person can be met with who cannot read and write. That the Dominion is more prosperous now than ever it has been before, will scarcely be questioned by those familiar with its present and past conditions, and that it has now entered upon a new and vast phase of its progressive development, under the most auspicious circumstances, cannot for a moment be doubted. GOVERNMENT OF THE DOMINION. The executive power of the Dominion is vested in a Gov- ernor-General, who is appointed by the British Government, and exercises authority in the name of the Queen. His advisers constitute the Privy Council, whom he appoints and removes, subject to the convenience of the lower house of Parliament. The military command is vested in the Queen. Parliament, consisting of an upper and a lower house, known respectively as the Senate and House of Commons, controls legislation. Senators, who are appointed for life by the Governor-General, on the recommendation of the Privy Council, are 77 in num- ber, apportioned as follows : Quebec and Ontario, 24 each ; No\'a Scotia and New Brunswick, 11 each; British Columbia, 3 ; Manitoba, 2 ; Prince Edward Island, 2. In the House of Commons are 206 members — SS for Ontario ; 65 for Quebec ; 21 for Nova Scotia ; 16 for New Brunswick ; 6 for British Columbia ; 4 for Manitoba, and 6 for Prince Edward Island. A redistribution of memberships occurs after each decennial census, with the understanding that Quebec shall never have less than 65. All appropriation bills must originate in this house, to which the Privj'Coimcil is responsible, it representing the views of the political party which is in the ascendancy. Bills passed by Parliament may be vetoed at any time within two years. The seat of government is at Ottawa. The Dominion Parliament controls exclusively the currency, postal service, public debt, raising of money, regulation of trade and com- merce, the militia, savings banks, marriage and divorce, crim- inal law, navigation and shipping, bankruptcy, and all subjects not specially assigned to the local legislatures. The latter have the right to levy direct taxes, and to borrow money for provin- cial purposes, the management of public lands, public works lying within the province, municipal institutions, prisons, hospitals, asylums and charities, and generally matters of a local or private character. With a few minor exceptions, all Judges are appointed by the Dominion Government. There is a general court of appeal, possessing powers similar to that of the United States Supreme Court, and which passes upon the constitutionality of laws passed by the provincial legislatures. / MEXICO. 263 lli£li]^liii;^li£liiiT>lli%lii%lli!%lfi%fi»i%lli%lliialllDlifa6%llilDli% %J-£^ -SlS- GQexigo. ^■•^ li%l%llii%l%ti%lli&lli!nl&lli%lii%ll!%nilJiDlii»lii%i%llii%n -^h' ^ 4-f-f=^<^#+^ ;|ii^^O foreign country is attracting such close attention from the people of the United States just now as Mexico, sometimes familiarly alluded to as " the sister __^ republic." Bounded on the north by the United '^irii .States, on the south by Guatemala, on the east by the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the Pacific, it occupies the tapering southern extremity of the North American continent — a region of mountain table-lands, rich in mineral wealth and agricultural resources, which, hav- ing lain for ages comparatively undeveloped, are now begin- ning to feel the impulse of a new civilization supplied from the United States, whose capitalists are building railroads in differ- ent parts of the country. The history of the country begins — no one knows when. .A.ges before the coming of the Spanish conquerors the settlement of the Mexican valley had been accomplished by Indian tribes who are said to have come from the north, the last of these being the Aztecs, who founded a city, established a monarchial government, enforced civil and criminal laws, kept a standing army, and cultivated the arts and sciences, their skill in the working sof metals and their profouuLl knowledge of astronomy being attested by venerable relics which are extant at the present day. About the only dark feature in this pleasing picture of prehistoric civilization and culture is that provided by their religious observances, which included human sacrifices, the practice being so common that the observance of certain days caused the immolation of thousands of victims. Such were the accomplishments of the wonderful people whom De Cordova met in Mexico when he discovered it in 1517. Two years later Fernando Cortez effected a landing upon Mexican soil at a spot where the city nf Vera Cruz now stands. Here he burned his ships to give a disaffected portion of his command to understand that nothing was left them but obedience, after which he marched into the interior. On his way he fought several engagements with the natives, and finally arrived at the City of Mexico, where the Aztec Emperor, Montezuma, received him with apparent kindness. Fearing treachery, Cortez caused Montezuma to be seized and conveyed to the Spanish quarters. Cortez' conquests were delayed by the opposition of the Governor of Cuba, who sent a party to seize him and his staff and send them back to Cuba. The brave Spaniard turned the tables upon his pursuers, vanquishing them and taking their leader, Narvaez, prisoner. Montezuma, after a long imprisonment, consented to acknowl- edge Spanish supremacy, but the Aztecs declined to submit so easily, and, making a final effort, compelled Cortez to retreat. He returned, however, a year later, and, after a series of battles, reached once more the City of Mexico, which he captured, August 13, 1521, after a siege of seventy-five days. The other provinces fell in succession before the invader, and for nearly 300 years subsequently Mexico remained in subjection. The government which the Spaniards first inaugurated was known as " Audiencia," with a President and four Auditors, but the measures of this body soon proved so harsh and arbitrary that the colony complained loudly of their oppression. A vice- regal government was inaugurated in 1535, which lasted undis- turbed for nearly three centuries. Events in Europe at the opening of the nineteenth century shaped the history of Mexico. The uprising of 1810 is thus graphically described by Mr. John A. Dillon, a journalist whose thorough knowledge of Mexican affairs, no less than his eminent literary attainments, makes him peculiarly qualified to treat the subject : " The revolution was long in coming. Shut off as it was from the world, Mexico could not help noting that the power of Spain had grown weaker and weaker, until at last the rough hand of Napoleon pushed the feeble Bourbon from the throne. The latent fires of revolution broke forth on the 15th of Sep- tember, iSio, in the village of Dolores, near Guanajuato, where a curate named Manuel Hidalgo set up the Grtio de Dolores, as it is called in Mexican history, or the 'call of Dolores.' What the call meant was little known, either to him who started it or to those who heard it. It meant any- thing but a republic to Hidalgo; it meant the cause of religion, and loyalty to some Mexican sovereign. To the Indians who heard it, it meant death to the strangers; the Gachupines, as they called the Spaniards. " Then was started the most bizarre and motley revolution in history, outshaming Jack Cade. Swarms of ragged and swarthy Indians gathered around the ])riest, armed with sticks and stones and knives and clumsy pikes. They swarmed down to Guanajuato in thousands and tens of thousands, and the slaughter of Cortez was repeated on their defenceless bodies. Cannon and musket tore their ranks in vain, for they rushed up to the loaded cannon's mouth and stuffed in their battered straw hats and ragged serapcs, to keep the balls from coming out. By sheer force of numbers they destroyed the troops, and then in savage triumph sacked the city of their brothers. ■fU v^ K^ 264 MEXICO. / " Brief and sad was the career of the soldier-priest. Under the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe he led his hordes from Guanajuato down to Valladolid, and thence to Queretaro, and in six weeks had reached the mountain of Las Cruces, within thirty miles of the capital. Here the Viceroy gave him battle, and here again the ragged hordes rushed on the batteries and killed every man behind them, only three officers of the Vice- roy's army of 3,000 escaping. " Then fear came on the victor for the unknown power of a city such as he had never seen the like of. He came within sight of Mexico, lingered there for a month, and then turned to retreat. A bloodhound was set on his trail in the person of General Calleja. The fugitive rebels pas.sed back through Guanajuato, and the bloodhound Calleja followed them and cut to pieces 14,000 men, women and children in the city. In his report he said that he had them hacked with knives and swords, because gunpowder was very dear, and he did not want to put the Government to the needless expense of using ammu- nition. " On the 17th of January Hidalgo reached the place called the Bridge of Calderon, and there his last battle was fought and lost. He fled toward our frontier, but his commanders rebelled, and one of them, Elizondo, delivered the whole band up to the Government on the 21st of March, 181 1. It is needless to say that they were shot, and their heads were after- ward exposed in iron cages on the castle wall of Guanajuato." The population was made up of four classes — the Span- iards of European birth ; the Mestizos, or half-breeds, the result of union between the Indians and whites ; the Creoles, who were the pure-blooded descendants of the original Span- ish settlers, and the pure-blooded Indians. The last-named had experienced but little change of condition under the Vice- roys, and were still subject to the payment of tribute and held in a sort of life-long tutelage. Degrading restrictions weighed upon them from which only their nobles were exempted. The Creoles, as proud of their origin as the native Spaniards were of their birth, were treated contemptuously by the latter, and denied all part in the government, or even high command in the army. Many of them had ama.s.sed great wealth, and while titles and other empty honors were conferred upon such, the Government deemed it imprudent to allow them a share of the administration of public affairs. This treatment was resented by the Creoles, and open rebellion would have been gladly availed of by them, had they not dreaded that, at such a turn of affairs, an uprising of the Indians and half-breeds would occur, and they and the native Spaniards be together overcome and destroyed. While the revolution of 1S20 was going on in Spain, which lost Ferdinand his throne, the Mexi- cans agitated in favor of a liberal government, and Don Au- gustin Iturbide, a native Mexican officer of rank, who had served with distinction in quelling the earlier uprisings, inaugu- rated a second and successful revolution, which resulted in the declaration of Mexican independence, February 24, 1821. His authority obtained the national recognition ; in August he established a regency, and May 19, supported by his army and his followers, in the City of Mexico, he was proclaimed Emperor. December 2, 1822, Santa Anna, supported by other chiefs, proclaimed the Republic at Santa Cruz, and March 19 Itur- bide abdicated. Shortly afterwards he was ordered into exile, and in May, 1823, he left Mexico for London. The Constitution which Congress formulated October 4, 1824, was modelled after that of the United States, and estab- lished in Mexico a republic with nineteen States and five Territories. The first President was Don Felix Fernando Victoria, during whose administration Iturbide returned to the country and was arrested and shot. At the second presi- dential election the candidates were Generals Padraza and Guerrero. The former was elected, but Guerrero instituted a revolt, and seized the presidency in 1829. That year the Re- public received the recognition of the United States, and de- feated an attempt of the Spaniards to recapture the country with an army of 4,000, who were sent back to Havana. ' Gen- eral ."Vnastasio Bustamante, who had assisted in the expulsion of the Spanish invaders, declared against Guerrero, and de- posed him. Intrigues and revolts followed in quick succession, Santa Anna coming to the front April i, 1833, who, after banishing Bustamante and several other political leaders, insti- tuted an administration of sweeping reform., Laws were passed suppressing the convents and abolishing the payment of tithes, and measures discussed looking to the appropriation of church estates and their application to extinguishing the national debt. These failed to prove popular, going further than the people cared to follow. Insurrections followed, and troubles which led, in 1835, to the abrogation of the Constitu- tion which had been adopted in 1824, and the formation of a consolidated republic, which took the place of the confedera- tion of States. Santa Anna possessed dictatorial power, and the revolution was endorsed by the whole country except Texas, whose citizens declined to accede to the centralization of power. Santa Anna then invaded the State with an army, which was destroyed, and Santa Anna was captured. Busta- mante became President, but Santa Anna, after a trip to Washington, where he conferred with President Jackson, was released, and returned to Mexico. Another period of chronic revolution soon set in, a dictatorship was established for a while, and in 1844 constitutional government was resumed, with Santa Anna at its head. He was banished, however, and Herrara happened to be the President at the time war was de- clared against the United States after the annexation of Te.xas. The American arms were successful, and Mexico lost, in addition to Texas, New Mexico and Northern California, when peace was declared, in February, 1848. Santa Anna was re- called in 1S53, and for the fifth time elected President. He attempted now to secure the position for life, with the right to name his successor, and this led to another revolution in 1S55, when Alvarez deposed him and became President. He re- signed in favor of Comonfort, who gained the opposition of the ecclesiastical party by his promotion of a law, which was adopted in 1S56, for the sale of church lands and the freedom of religious belief. Revolutions followed, and in 1857 Con- gress promulgated, and the President was forced to accept, a very democratic Constitution. In the following year Benito Juarez, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, claimed the legal succession to the presidency, but was defeated by the incumbent, Zuloaga, and driven to Vera Cruz, where he established himself as Constitutional CENTRAL AMERICA. 265 President. His claims were strengthened by their acknowl- edgment by the United States, and, after defeating General Miramon in several engagements, he entered the capital in triumph, January ir, 1861. His administration was noted for the reforms which he carried out, and which gained him the love of the Mexican people. Among the most important of these were the appropriation of church property to the service of the State, by which more than three hundred millions' worth of real estate was saved to the people ; making marriage a civil contract ; the aljolition of ecclesi.istical tribunals and per- petual monastic vows ; and, finally, the complete separation of Church and State. Much as the people enjoyed their liberties, the Church party could not brook so great a curtailment of their property and prerogatives, and they resolved upon the destruction of Juarez' Government. Their opportunity was not long wanting. .Subjects of Spain, France and Great Britain having sustained alleged losses and injuries in Mexico, for which Juarez declined to give satisfaction, these three powers, at a convention held in London, October 31, 1861, decided to send a joint expedition to Mexico to demand it. In December of that year. General Prim, commanding a Spanish detachment from Cuba, landed at Vera Cruz, and a month later French and British troops followed. A settle- ment being effected with Spain and Great Britain, the forces of these powers were withdrawn from the country. The French army remained in Mexico, declared war against Juarez, and captured the City of Mexico June 10, 1863, President Juarez and his Ministers retiring to San Luis Potosi. June 24 a regency was formed, and July 8 an assembly of notables was convened to decide upon Mexico's form of government and re- solved that it should be a hereditary monarchial government under a Roman Catholic Emperor. The .\rchduke Maximilian, of Austria, accepted the crown. Juarez and his republican .sup- porters retired to El Paso, where they remained from Septem- ber, 1865, to the beginning of 1S66, when, the United States having secured the withdrawal of French troops from Mexico, they assumed the aggressive. Maximilian was captured and shot, together with his Generals, Miramon and Mejia, June 19, 1867, three days after Juarez had re-entered the City of Mex- ico. The work of national reconstruction was at once com- menced. An attempted revolution by Santa .Xnna was quelled and its instigator captured and exiled. In 1871 Juarez was again elected, his opponents being Porfirio Diaz and Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, the latter of whom, on the death of Juarez, July iS, 1872, became President. Although a brilliant scholar and statesman, Lerdo misun- derstood the sentiments of the Mexican people, mistook the spirit of the age, and seemed to oppose the material progress of the country, endeavoring to stem the tide of reform and advancement and opposing the railroad movement. General Diaz seized this opportunity, and in 1S76 organized a revolu- tion. After a series of victories and defeats, the revolutionary chieftains met the Government forces at Texcoac, and came out victorious after a .sanguinary conflict. During his short administration Diaz began the work of regeneration, and initi- ated the railroad movement, which was ably conducted onward by his successor, General Gonzales, elected to the presidency in iSSo. Mexico is a federal republic, and the General Government is administered according to the provisions of the Constitution of 1857, which was twice overthrown and restored, and which was considerably amended in 1873-4. The President is chosen by indirect popular suffrage every fourth year. Both houses of Congress and the Supreme Judiciary are elected in the same manner. The Senate and the Supreme Judiciary are elected for terms of six years, and the House of Deputies for two years. The States have local constitutions, with elective Governors and legislatures. s^S^^^^^SSs •^■••M ^ENUIP^AL flMEr^IGA. sS2sr*-2S^ ^fff'NDER the name of Central America are included the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and the territory known as British Honduras. In 1502 Columbus discovered the Eastern shore of Central America, and shortly afterward the .Spaniards took possession of it, retaining it until 1S20, when it rebelled and many of the States which then composed it were annexed by Mexico. Three years afterwards was formed the Central .-Vmerican Confederation, but in 1839 Nicaragua withdrew, as did also Costa Rica in 1840 and Guatemala in 1847. In 1872 Guatemala, Costa Rica, San Salvador and Honduras becantt united, forming the Central American Union, the object of the union being the maintenance of peace in the several States and of the repub- lican form of government. Since this was accomplished, the several States have generally enjoyed an immunity from the internal discords which frei|uently plunged them into civil \ .- S) J- 266 CUBA— SOUTH AMERICA. S^ ■@5 -!i |iiIi i ]lli3D i !l 'i iIl(i i 8>i!ti€"i i iIi i |"I> i ? 'f-< /IN VinVin (iUBA. /i\ /i\Vi\ # 4^ #"*^ lUBA, the greatest of Spain's colonial possessions, was discovered by Columbus while on his first voyage, but |jl|JJ\. . it was not until 1511 that Velasquez conquered the '^y natives. Eight years later the present capital, -iS^ ' Havana, was founded, which in 1538 and 1554 was destroyed by the French. Near the close of the sixteenth century the cultivation of the sugar-cane was begun, and slavery followed. In 1762 the English captured Havana, and took possession of the island, but restored it to Spain in the following year. Cuba's brightest and happiest era began with the rule of Las Casas as Governor-General, who arrived at the island in 1790. Under him the island's resources were developed rapidly, old restrictions were re- moved, and the natives, grateful for their new liberties, devel- oped a strong affection for their foreign rulers. In 180S, when Napoleon deposed Ferdinand of Spain, they remained loyal to the Spanish crown. Since that time Spanish misrule has caused Cuban discontent, and when the French republic was proclaimed in 1848 the question of annexation to the United .States was openly advocated, and President Polk offered Si)ain one million dollars for the island, which was declined. Ten years later a proposition to purchase the island for thirty millions was submitted to the United States Senate, but nothing was done in the matter. Four years previously the American Ministers at London, Paris and Madrid had drawn up what is known as the Ostend Manifesto, which urged that Cuba should belong to the United States, and that, if Spain declined to .sell it, it should be wrested from her. In 1S6S the discontent of the natives culminated in open rebellion, which soon spread over the entire island. In iS6g Ces]5edes, who had headed the uprising, was elected President, and Man- uel Quesada was given command of ihe forces. Offers from the United States to settle the strife amicably, and for the ces- sion of the island, were rejected by Spain, which continued to mass troops upon the island to quell the insurrection. Peace overtures were made to Cespedes in 1873, on the condition that Cuba should become a Spanish republic, but they were declined. Eventually the Spanish arms prevailed, but not until over 13,000 Cuban soldiers had been killed in battle and over 43,000 prisoners slain, in accomplishing which horrible result more than 150,000 men had been sent over from Spain and over twenty millions of dollars expended. Peace has been nominally restored, but the native Cuban still groans under the foreign yoke, and sighs for the free institutions of the land of the free, from which lie is separated by a very few miles of ocean. As a province of Spain, Cuba is governed by a Governor- General, who is appointed by the Crown for a period of from three to five years, is subordinate only to the Spanish King, and has despotic power as the head of the civil, military and ecclesiastical jurisdictions. No municipal government is allowed, although town councils prevail in the cities. t'OR obvious rSasons, no history of South America as a continent need be given. It will be readily gleaned jfli^^ W '''c reader from the following histories of the vari- ^ Iw ous countries contained within its boundaries. It cJ^ may be stated, however, that the table-land of Bolivia was the nucleus of the earliest civilization in South America. From there came the Inca rulers of Peru and Ecuador, which kL places, together with Colombia, provided the S|)anish ex- plorers with the only evidences of culture and civilization. These and the Portuguese made ea-sy conquests wherever they went in South America, and established colonies, which, however, declared their independence early in the present century, and obtained their freedom after fighting for it bravely. -^ liRAZIL-CHILl. 267 ~A i^' i i H ii i i Mni i iiiim i ii ii i i < iii rni » n ii in i ii ii t i ii ii !iMiiinii > o »tti itii i (g)- 0lli i ii . kt ii i »i | i ii i « i »i i ii i iHiMi i ii! i i|ii i i i i i i i | ii i i ii i ii i ti i iiiiDiit ii > i ii i i i (i i i ii t i iiii i ii i .t«m i(^ ^..o^..^ gOTABLE as the largest of the divisions of South America, and as the only empire now existing in the Western hemisphere, Brazil's history is of peculiar interest to the historical reader. Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, who had been sent out by King Emmanuel of Portugal to follow up the discoveries of Vasco da Gama, discovered the land in 1500, and the richness of its forests in dye-woods soon attracted the attention of commerce. A Gov- ernor of the territory was appointed in 1549, who founded the jMcsent capital of Rio de Janeiro. Numerous attempts were made by the Dutch and Krench to take the country, but it was retained almost in its entirety by Portugal, whose King, on the occasion of Napoleon's invasion of his country in iSoS, fled to Brazil, and virtually transferred the monarchy to his colonial jiossession. Seven years later Brazil was made a king- dom and its ports thrown open to the world, and in 1821 the King went back to Portugal, leaving behind him his son, Doni Pedro, as regent. A revolution, or rather a transition, occurred in the same year, and in 1822 Brazil was proclaimed an inde- pendent empire, and Dom Pedro was invested with the impe- rial crown. A Constitution was granted in 1824, when the home Government acknowledged the independence of the young empire. In 1826 Dom Pedro became King of Portugal by the death of his father, and he resigned the European crown to his daughter. In 1831, after long and harassing wars with adjacent countries, the Emperor abdicated in favor of his son, Dom Pedro II., then but six years old, and the country was ruled by a regent until he came of age, in 1841. Prosperity has rewarded the generally wi.se reign of this mon- arch. Political troubles have occurred from time to time, but on the whole the government of the twenty provinces under imperial control has been happily conducted. Wars have been carried on with neighboring countries, the most known of which was that with Paraguay, which lasted five years, and resulted in Brazilian aggrandizement. Brazil's Constitution, which has lasted since 1824, divides the governing power into four branches — the legislative, exec- utive, judicial and moderating, the latter expression defining the imperial prerogative. Imperial affairs are controlled 'oy the General Legislative Assembly, which consists of two houses, the Senate and Congress, whose members are all elected by popular vote, the Senators for life and the Members of Con- gress for four years. Provincial assemblies regulate the affairs of the respective provinces. Naturalized foreigners and non- Catholics are not eligible as Deputies. Executive power lies in the Emperor, who is assisted by seven Ministers and a Coun- cil of State. Over each province is a President appointed by the General Government. -¥^mr-^ ■Jf * @HILI. * * jl pN 1533 the Incas of Peru lost their control over Chili, and a few years later the Spaniards occupied the country, the city of .Santiago being founded by them shortly after their arrival. A treaty was established with the natives °"^ in the early part of the eighteenth century, by which boundary lines were established and the rule of the Spanish Vice- roy acknowledged. A preliminary movement to the declaration of independence was made in iSio, when the Clrilians deposed the Captain-CJeneral and placed the executive power in the hands of a committee of seven. War between the mother country and the colony commenced in the following year, and two years later the latter was entirely uiuler the control of the / royalist troops. Nothing daunted, the colony, in 1S17, rebelled again, and, after a severe struggle, defeated the royalists and secured their independence. At first the Government took the shape of a directorship, but confusion prevailed until 1833, when a new Constitution, whose formation was begun two years jireviously, was ado])ted. Under the amended form of govern- ment an improved condition of affairs was established, which has endured up to the ])resent day. Allusion has been made, under the head of Peru, to the war in which that country was con(|uered, but a fuller mention of it may be afforded here, as the event is one of great impor- tance in connection with South .\inerican history. In 1879 ••sf^f^e^^"^* -^ -A 268 PERU. hostilities began between Chili and the allied republics of Bolivia and Peru, growing out of rival territorial claims, and claims to guano beds and mineral deposits. Chili insisted that, having done more than either of the others to repel the enemy, she was entitled to generous treatment. When the war came she had an army of 22,000 and a navy of ten small steamers and two powerful iron-clads, which gave her a vast advantage over the enemy. The war was conducted with great spirit and intrepidity, the naval conflicts between the two powers being especially remarkable for the ferocious carnage displayed on both sides. In the spring of 1S81 Callao and Lima were taken, and the Chilians were masters of the situation. By the terms of peace Chili exacted from the conquered countries the abso- lute annexation of the territory containing all the nitrates and the great bulk of the guano, the occupation of other territory for a period of years, and of the Loblis islands as long as there is any guano on them; also the payment of a monster war in- demnity — terms which virtually crush the countries which have been forced to submit to them. Executive power is vested in the President, who is advised by five Cabinet Ministers, and subject to the check of a Council of State composed of eleven officials, six of whom are chosen by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consists of twenty members chosen for nine years, and the Chamber is composed of Deputies, elected for three years, in the propor- tion of one to every 20,000 inhabitants. «->^^- •^^-^ -K-H ^-^ #- 1?EI^U. -^^^^ ■fe-^-i -S>-J<- ,^^« '^N 1524, Pizarro made a visit to the coast of Peru, but it was not until 1531 that he returned with intention of con- quest. His aim was aided at the time by the divided con- dition of the country, for the possession of which rival °^' Incas were struggling. With less than 200 men in his command, the Spanish adventurer made the friendship of one of the Incas, whom he took prisoner. Promising to i-elease him for a ransom, he acquired from the natives metals and valuables worth nearly eighteen millions of dollars, after which he treacherously slew his prisoner. After subjecting the country to misrule, accompanied by atrocious cruelties, Pizarro was assassinated in 1541. Spanish rule became firmly rooted, however, and in the early part of the eighteenth century the colony of Quito was separated from Peru and added to the adjoining colony of New Granada. Another partition of the colony resulted in the formation of the separate govern- ments of Venezuela, Guatemala, Caracas, Cumana and Chili. Peru was the last of the colonies to rise against Spain, but in 1S21 patriots from Chili and Buenos Ayres entered the country and drove the Spaniards from the capital. In 1824 the dicta- torship was assumed by Bolivar, who, two years later, drove the Spaniards from their last stronghold, after which he formed a republic called Bolivia of the southern and southeastern por- tions of the colony, and resigned the dictatorship. Revolution in Peru occurred in 1S26, and in place of the Constitution pre- pared by Bolivar, a new one, similar in form to that of the United States of America, was adopted. Civil war followed, but peace was finally brought about by General Castilla, who became President in 1S45 and ruled the country until 1851, when, a vicious government succeeding him, another revolution occurred. Complications with the United States arose in 185S, through the seizure of several American vessels by ships belonging to the revolutionary forces, but in 1873 the American claims for damages were settled. Castilla's star once ' more shone in the ascendant, and the country enjoyed good gov- ernment until 1S62. In 1S67 a Con.stitution was adopted and a treaty of commerce and friendship was made with Chili. After revolutions, as.sassinations and other exhibitions of anarchical tendency, the country came, in 1879, into conflict with Chili. With the Bolivians as allies, the Peruvians made a gallant stand, but in iSSi the Chilians defeated and dispersed the Peruvian army and drove the President from the capital. Executive power in Peru vests in the President, who, with the Vice-President, is elected by the people for a term of four years. Legislative power is vested in a Senate composed of Deputies of the twenty-two provinces, two for each, and a House of Representatives nominated by the people, in the pro- portion of one for every 20,000 inhabitants. Five members who are nominated by the President form the Cabinet. Great liberality is the characteristic of the Constitution, except in regard to religion, as it provides that any other religion than the Roman Catholic, which is declared to be the religion of the State, is to be strictly prohibited. ^ UNITED STATES QF COLOMBIA. 269 fi ©HE United States op (©olombia & -ja-2er annum ; in counties to householders paying £\o rent. The members of the Cabinet Council are appointed by the sover- eign, but responsible to Parliament, and consequently their appointment is virtually made by the party in the majority. The sovereign appoints the members of the Privy Council, the Lord Mayor of London being the only ex officio member, but public business is in reality conducted by the Cabinet Council. In Ireland the Crown is represented by a Lord Lieutenant. -^ Ir^EliAND. -*- |r^ T the present moment, on account of the strenuous W^) effort the Irish are making to effect the liberation of their land, Ireland is commanding a great deal of attention. Christianity was introduced into the SJ*^^ island in the fifth century, when St. Patrick, being taken a captive in war, was sold into slavery in Ireland, where he remained for five years. Twenty years later he returned there as a missionary, and for thirty years preached the truths of the gospel to its people, succeeding most remarkably in his mission as a Christian propagandist. From the eighth to the eleventh century was the period of Ireland's greatest compara- tive civilization. During this period she was far more advanced than England in learning and culture. Colleges flourished, and the arts were carried to a high degree of perfection. Unfor- tunately, while so well advanced in civilization, Ireland had not achieved what was at that time necessary for her salvation — a strong central government. On the contrary, it was divided up into a number of petty kingdoms, which had no secure l)ond of union. Hence, when the Plantagenet monarch of England, Henry II., made his raids in 1 172, his conquest of the disunited country was a comparatively easy matter, taking into consideration the really warlike qualities of the Irish chiefs and Barons who ruled the land. The foothold thus gained was in the province of Leinster, and from that date England has asserted a fictitious claim to rule a people persistently unreconciled to any interference with home rule. It was under the Tudors, however, that the fate of the un- happy island was settled. There was no centralization in Ireland. Britain l)ecame great because the petty kingdoms were con.solidated into one nation, while Ireland dwindled away and lost its splendid opportunity, through the calamitous influence of the tribe and the clan, in distinction from the country. For a long time the "English Pale," or the area of actual British rule in Ireland, was very limited. Henry VII. determined to extend it, but pursued his purpose only feebly. Henry VIH. was more intently bent on Irish subju- gation, and under his reign nobles and people felt the crushing hand of a tyrant. In 1542 he assumed the title of King, instead of Lord of Ireland, by virtue of an act jjassed by the .\nglo-Irish Parliament in 1541, and about the same time some of the native princes were induced to acknowletlge him as their sovereign and to accept peerages. Since then his suc- cessors have never ceased to hold fast both the shadow and substance of Irish sovereignty. In order that the national sentiment might be suppressed, the language, dress, customs and laws of the country were prohibited. The fact that Henry was at war with the Pope made loyalty to Rome an expres- sion of patriotism in Ireland. Very little favor was extendeTj whose fighting he tasted of and then learned to respect. A conflict between the liomans and Germans was, PALACE, BERLIN. however, inevitable, and the freedom and independence of the nation was firmly established by Arminius, wlio cru.shed the invaders in the historic battle of Teuto- berger, which occurred B.C. 9. About 500 years later, Clovis, moving westward, established the Franlife- --i:<|.i»»».»i !;. ii f i (^i|!' ii jtij{^tg<(;'({t i > , <; <,gia^4i;jajggo|i (gi| i if ii j ii ji ii iji i | ii gv i».i -ii)^ mm- •^f*''.! ELGIUM, the most densely populated country in Eu- J rope, was in its earlier days a favorite bone of con- Ptention for the European powers, and frequently be- came the battle-field upon which their claims were ^•"jy settled. The Burgundians, the Austrians and the Spaniards successively ruled it, and in Napoleon's time it came under French rule. In 1814 a union between Holland and Belgium took place, which proved very unpopular with the Belgians, and shortly after the Paris revolution of 1S30 they rose against the Government in such force that the troops ordered to quell the uprising found themselves unable to do so. Brussels, the capital, and other large cities fell into the hands of mobs, who destroyed much valuable property. A separa- tion of the States followed, and the differences between them were finally settled by a convention of the great powers in London. The dissolution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands was proclaimed, and in 1831 Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg entered Brussels as the Belgian King; but the kingdom was not recognized by all the States of Europe until 1839, when the treaty was signed which established peace between Leopold and the King of the Netherlands. Leopold L died in 1865, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Leopold II., who still reigns. Belgium has long been the scene of a struggle between the priests and growing liberalism. In 1850 the educational ques- tion, which had occasioned a long and fierce dispute, was sup- posed to be settled on liberal principles, but since then there has been another keen struggle between the Progressionists and the Ultramontanes, and in 1S75 Belgium was the scene of serious religious riots, in which many persons taking part in processions were injured by mobs which attacked the demon- strations. The Government of Belgium is a limited constitutional monarchy, which was established in its present form by the revolution. The broadest principles of freedom and liberality are its foundation; power comes from the people, and is re- strained by law. Republican equality and simplicity pervade all institutions. No act of the King is valid unless it has the approval of one of his Ministers. The law-making power is vested in the Legislature, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives, who are elected in the proportion of one to every 40,000 inhabitants. The law is administered by local and provincial tribunals, with courts of appeal in the principal cities. The provinces, each of which has a Governor who is named by the King and a Provincial Council, are divided for civil purposes into arondissements, justice of peace cantons, and communes. The provincial councils guard the interests of the different provinces, direct taxation, superintend public improvements and prepare budgets. i-Jj'lf+J-n f^OIiliAND. (iPHB NETHEI^LANDS.) 5)0 $^-i>., •^ 4'^'/r^ ,1 k... -\ 40,1 — " o, Azores or o\f.Vt51. O C E A jsr 30 Longitude East 35 from Greenwich 40 *.S.9tV\.t%. ^t>.^tW\tV^ft. 300 SPAIN. -|,.V.VA.V-^vA-v-vV.giv»-V.\-\.v^..vvJr.' t^^;^ ^ Spain. ^ •^st^^ ECORDED history gives the Phcenicians the credit 1^ W of having first established colonies upon the shores =-1 ij. of Spain, which at that time was occupied by Celtic ™Vi' tribes. Later appeared the Greeks, who called the country Iberia, which name gave way to that of Hispania, from which the modern name is derived, when the Romans took possession of the country. After them the Carthaginians appeared, conquering a stronghold upon the country and establishing cities, one of which, Cartagena, situated upon the Mediterranean coast, is now a handsome city of 80,000 inhabitants. After the Punic wars the Romans again obtained possession of Spain, which readily improved the opportunity offered of advancement in civilization. In the reign of the Emperor Constantine, Christianity, which was introduced earlier, became the general religion. In the year 409 the country was overrun by vast hordes of barbarians who crossed the Pyrenees and made a clean sweep of the country, and in 412 the Visigoths invaded it, and a Gothic monarchy was established by their King, Athaulf, in Catalonia. Its first written laws were given to Spain by one of the Gothic dynasty of kings. In 711, the Moors subjugated a large por- tion of the country, and held the southern part of it as a dependency of their North .•\frican dominions. From A.D. 717, their .Spanish territory was governed by Emirs, appointed by the Caliph of Damascus, Under the independent dynasty which the Moors established .Southern .Spain flourished in agriculture, commerce and the arts and sciences. Wars oc- curred constantly between the Moors and the Gothic princes, who had maintained possession of the Cantanabrian territory, but the Christian kingdoms continued to grow in power, and, uniting at last, they succeeded in driving the intruders from the country. In the Kingdom of Granada the Moors made their final stand, but at last they succumbed to the troops of Ferdi- nand and Isabella. Of the Christian States at this time Arragon and Castile were by far the most powerful, and in time their sway extended all over the country. Ferdinand II., the last of the Arragon sovereigns, by his marriage with Isabella, Queen of Castile, followed by the conquest of Granada in 1492, and of Navarre in 1502, accomplished thus the unification of Chris- tian Spain, which now entered upon its most glorious epoch. Spanish discovery gave America to the civilized world, and, Spanish conquest extending her rule over Naples, a large portion of North, Central and South .-Vmerica, the new Kingdom at once attained rank as one of the great powers of the world. New riches were secured by Cortez' conquests in Mexico, and Pizarro's in Chili and Peru, but in the reign of the Philips the decline of Spanish power began and accelerated. Portugal had been conquered in 1581, but in 1640 she obtained her independence, and during this period Spain .suffered other serious diminishments of power and resources. The reign of Charles III. promised to bring the country back to something like its old glory, but his successor embroiled the country in inglorious wars which cost it its valuable possession of Loui- siana, in America, ceded to France in 1800, while England destroyed the Spanish navies. Ferdinand VII. was removed from the throne by Napoleon, who placed his brpther Joseph in his stead. England, at that time at war with Spain, ac- knowledged Ferdinand as King, and joined the Spaniards in their endeavors to drive out the Bonaparte, and lent the sup- port of its armies under Wellington. Ferdinand's rule was re-established, but his reign was marked by insurrections which cost the country very dearly. His daughter, Isabella II., suc- ceeded him, but her political and personal misconduct brought about many rebeUions, that of the Carlists in 1S34-9 being the most serious. In 1S68 she was driven from the throne and forced to fly to France, and two years later Prince Amadeo of Italy, the second son of King Victor Emmanuel, was elected by the Cortes and declared King. A year later he abdicated, whereupon Don Carlos, a grandnephew of Ferdinand VII., claimed the throne, and made an unsuccessful attempt to gain possession of it. A democratic federal republic was then declared and a President elected, who had two successors within three months. Castelar, who had been elected in September, 1S73, resigned in 1S74. The Cortes dissolved, and General Serrano w.-us charged with the duty of forming a new ministry. He coped successfully with the Carlists, who were then making strenuous efforts to gain a foothold, and retained executive power until January, 1875, when Don Alfonso, son of the ex-Queen Isabella, who had been declared King at Santander the month previous, landed in Spain and took the field against Don Carlos. He was finally victorious. Don Carlos .surren- dered his claim to the throne, and the young King at once devoted his attention to the work of reorganizing the Govern- ment and the development of the country. In June, 1876, a Constitution was proclaimed, which pro- vides that the Government shall be a constitutional nionarciiy, giving the executive authority to the King and placing the legis- lative power in the Cortes with the King. The Cortes comprises a Senate, which is divided into three classes, and a Congress, consisting of Deputies, one of ^^■hom is allowed to every 50,- 000 inhabitants. Spain is divided into provinces, districts and communes, which have municipal rights which the national executive and the Cortes are bound to respect. K- "y PORTUGAL— SWITZERLAND. 301 h- fe[^lM^^,M>^]^^>^^^,>^^^>^V1^^^^>^^>^^?,^^^^^^^s?s^^^?>?:5g 'T^^ -5 3°4 TURKEY. nobleman, and in 1291 the Cantons of Uri, Untenvalden and Schw)-z formed a league against foreign oppression. In 13 15 this was established as a perpetual confederacy, and in the course of time other Cantons joined them. Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug and Berne by 1353 had become members of " The Perpetual League of the Old Places of the Confederacy," which was the fomidation of the Swiss Confederation. In 141 5 the inhabitants of the Cantons invaded and annexed parts of the Austrian territory, and three years later they annexed Ticino. In 14S1 Solothurn and Freiburg were admitted, which was followed by internal dissension, lasting until 1499. Two years later Basle and Schauff hausen were admitted, as was also Appenzell in 15 13. There were now thirteen Cantons, and the true independence of the State was established. In I53t war broke out between the Catholics and the Protestants, and the former were victorious. Berne and Zurich managed to main- tain the neutrality of Switzerland during the Thirty Years' War, and in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 Switzerland was acknowledged as an independent State. At the time of the French Revolution Switzerland was invaded by two French armies, which captured the city of Berne and proclaimed the Helvetic Republic, designating Aarau as the capital. In 1S02, civil war dividing the Cantons, Napoleon undertook to reor- ganize the country, and the people accepted his suggestions, but in 1S09 a new Constitution was formed which added three new Cantons — Geneva, Vallais and the Prussian principality of Neufchatel — to the nineteen which had been framed by Napoleon. The European powers ratified this change and declared the perpetual neutrality and inviolability of the Con- federation. During the excitement aroused by the French Revolution agitations in the direction of liberty resulted in the reorganization of cantonal constitutions, which were made more liberal and democratic. Religious troubles reappeared in 1S34 and lasted for some years, finally resulting, in 1847, in the expulsion of the Jesuits and the suppression of the monas- teries, which excited the anger of some of the powers which attempted to intimidate Switzerland. In 1848 Neufchatel declared her independence of Prussian control, which nine years later was acknowledged. Switzerland made, in i860, an unavailing protest against the annexation of Savoy to France. By the revised Constitution of 1874 it is provided that all the rights of sovereignty not transferred to the Confederation shall be exercised by the twenty-two Cantons. Every Canton's Constitution is guaranteed if it is republican in form, if it has been adopted by a majority of the people, and if it can be revised on a demand of the majority of the voters. There is a Federal Assembly which comprises a National Council and a Council of States. The executive authority is exercised by a Federal Council, which has seven members, each of whom has a department. The President and Vice-President of the Fed- eral Council, also President and Vice-President of the Con- federation, are chosen for one year only and are selected from the Council by its members. ■M^N 1330 begins the Ottoman career of conquest. About that time Orcan, leader of a tribe inhabiting the Altai Mountains, led his hardy Janizaries against Nicomedia and Nicola. He called the gate of his palace the Sub- °-^ lime Porte, and himself Padisha, both of which expres- sions are still extant. His successor located his capital at Adrianople, and during his rule the Turks fell under the relent- less hand of Tamerlane, who, in 1402, routed them in battle, but effected no permanent occupation of their territory. Re- covering from the rude assault, the Turks, in less than a gener- ation, greatly humiliated the Byzantine Empire, which ceased to exist later, giving way before the irresistible Mohammed II., who transferred the seat of empire from Adrianople to Con- stantinople. The capture of Constantinople was followed by other important cities in Eastern Europe, and during tjie next century the Turkish Empire constantly grew in power. Greece and Arabia were added to the domain of the Porte. The glory of Islam culminated in the reign of the third Sultan of Stam- boul, Solyman the Magnificent, which lasted from 1520 to 1566. His ambition was to conquer Western Europe md establish the Crescent throughout the continent, and for many years it looked as though he would succeed. He did extend /* -^J "71 TURKEY. 305 his empire considerably, but his grand hope was destined for non-fulfihnent. He died in Hungary, where he was conduct- ing a victorious campaign, in 14S1, and with his death began the decHne of the Ottoman Empire. It was by no rapid national decay that the Turk fell from his high estate under Sol)Tnan to his lowly condition under Abdul Hamid, the pres- ent ruler. For centuries Turkish incursions carried terror into the lands of Russia, Hungary, Poland and Italy, while the whole of Europe felt apprehensive of Ottoman supremacy. It was not until near the close of the eighteenth century that the tide set in steadily against the Turk. Catherine of Russia was the first to bring the Crescent low, but England and France objected to the partition of the empire between Russia and Austria, and obtained for the Sultan terms of peace which secured the autonomy of the Ottoman Empire. This has been main- tained since by the friendly interposi- tion of the anti- Russian powers, who see that so long as the Sultan of a people who have lost all aggressive ambition rules at Constantinople the "balance of power" is safe. In the war with Russia in 1S77-8 Turkey suffered a very seri- ous loss of terri- tory, the treaty of Berlin reducing her area from 1,742,874 square miles to 1,116,848 square miles, and her population from 28,165,000 to 21,000,000. Turkey in Europe was re- duced more than one-half in both territory and population, the cessions under the treaty being as follows : Bulgaria, Eastern Roumelia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Roumania, Ser- via, etc., and parts of Thessaly and Epirus. In the same \ lEW .,F CONST.ANTINOPLE. year, too, the island of Cyprus was placed under British con- trol. As to the Government of the Ottoman Empire, it can generally be said that the precepts of the Koran are the foun- dation of its fundamental laws. Absolute power is vested in the Sultan, as long as his acts remain in conformity with Mo- hammedan doctrine. Forms of constitutional limitation upon the arbitrary authority of the Sultan have been adopted recently, but in point of fact the legislative and executive departments of the Government are in the hands of his Sub- lime Highness, and the functions of law are directed by two officers, the Grand Vizier, who looks after secular affairs, and the Sheik-ul- Islam, who is the head of the church. There is a body or class known as the Clema, which com- prises the " Mufti," or interpreters of the Koran, the judges and high functionaries of the law. " Bey " is a general term, apply- ing to all important civil officers, while " Pasha " is the de- signation of tax- gatherers and other ofScers who are both military and civil in function. •V ministerial coun- cilor cabinet .called the" Divan, "which is presided over by the Grand Vizier, exists, comprising eight ministerial departments, namely. War, Finance, Marine, Commerce, Public Works, Police, Justice and Education. The empire is divided into vilayets, under Governors, of which there are four in European Turkey, exclusive of the district of Constantinople. Cruelty and ve- nality are the main qualities of the Governors, whose rule is very arbitrary. 3°6 ROUMANIA. I^OUMANIA. ****««^ ^-l-+f^^^+4~«^ 1^:2 MONG the minor States of Europe, those which \/w0 received their autonomy at the treaty of Berlin are >\i worthy of close attention. Roumaniais the namecon- " ferred upon Moldavia and Wallachia when they be- came united under one prmce and one administration as a province of Turkey, in December, 1861. The represent- atives of the people met at the capital, Bucharest, May 21, 1877, and proclaimed absolute independence of Turkey, which the treaty of Berlin confirmed the following year. The Gov- ernment is an elective and strictly limited constitutional princi- pality. Karl I. is the present Prince. BULGAr^IA. Bulgaria, an autonomous principality tributary to Turkey, constituted previous to 1S78 the Turkish Danubian vilayet. Her subjection to the Porte dates from 1392, but nearly five centuries of Moslem misrule and oppression have not deprived the people of their national pride and desire for independence. In 1S76 they rose against their oppressors, but were unsuc- cessful, and the atrocities which the ferocious Bashi-Bazouks committed in suppressing the revolt, together with the lament- able condition of other Turkish provinces, led to the Turko- Russian war. At the treaty of Berlin, the erection of a Bulgarian principality was not permitted, but the province was granted its autonomy. Eastern Roumelia, lying to the south of Roumania, also was granted administrative autonomy. Sbi^via. Servia gained independence of Turkey at the same time and in the same way as Roumania. It was virtually free, however, as ear'y as 1829. Under the present Prince, Milan II., the fourth of his dynasty, a government similar to that of Rou- mania is carried on. BosNi.\ and Herzegovina, according to the same treaty, were to have their administration conducted by Austria-Hun- gary. flNDOI^I^A. In the Eastern Pyrenees, nestling among the high mountains, is the tiny European republic of Andorra, which has main- tained its independence since the days of Charlemagne. Its area is 149 square miles, and the burden of its government rests lightly upon no less than twenty-four Consuls. San CQai^ino. Of all the republics in the world that of San Marino enjoys the double distinction of being the oldest and the smallest. Situated in Eastern Central Italy, it has an area of twenty-two square miles, and a population of 10,000, an army of 819 men, 131 officers, while the Government, since 1847, has consisted of two Presidents, elective for si.^ months, and an Executive Council of twelve, and a Senate consisting of sixty life mem- bers. GQONAGO. Still smaller than San Marino is the principality of Monaco, whose ruler conducts the affairs of a population of a little over 3,000 within an area of six square miles. Monaco is a favor- ite resort for invalids, but its chief notoriety comes from its gambling-houses, which are here legalized, and patronized by European tourists. From this source a revenue of $350,cxx) per annum comes to the Prince of Monaco, who spends it in Paris, where he has his residence. \1 m|=W UT little remains to-day of the glories which once I '^WJ belonged to this most remarkable and interesting Of the early history of Greece but very little authentic knowledge is available. Hellen was '^^ claimed by the Greeks as their common ancestor, the popular belief being that from his sons, Dorus, ^-Eolus, and his grandsons. Ion and Achscus, sprang the four different branches of the nation : the Dorians, from whom the Spartans were descended ; the lonians, from whom sprang the Athenians ; the ••Eolians, whose dialect developed itself into the songs of Sappho ; and the Achaaans, who occupied Mycenae, Arros and Sparta. Previous to the Hellenic inhabitants of Greece were the Pelasgians, who had a different language. Many indica- tions go to show that Egyptian and Phoenician immigration had a large influence upon Grecian civilization, whose alphabet is apparently of Phoenician origin. What is known as the heroic age of Greece is a fragment of the poetic imagination of such minds as Homer and other great poets, who told the story of the great deeds of heroes, who, descended from the gods, performed deeds of supernatural valor and strength. Still, modern research has shown that much which has been gravely condemned as fiction has been actual occurrence, the persistent spade of Schliemann even establishing the fact that the siege of Troy w'as no myth, and that the story of .\chilles' wrath may to-day be read in the ruins of the ancient city. From first to last Greece was divided into numerous inde- pendent States, whose union was confederate rather than federal. Authentic history dates from 776 B.C., when the first Olympiad was held. Sparta at this time was the smallest and least important of the States, but the genius and valor of her citizens made her famous and strong, and by the sixth century before the Christian era foreign conquest and internal advance- ment liad placed her in the lead as to power and wisdom of administration. Greece was at this time the acknowledged centre of European civilization. Persia now began to dispute the Hellenic advancement, and the battles of Marathon, Salamis and Thermopylai were among the most famous encounters between these powerful nations. In B.C. 431 began the Pelopon- nesian war, the great civil war of Greece, which continued with hardly any cessation of hostilities for twenty-seven years. In 344 began the interference by Macedon in Peloponncsian affairs, which led to the wars which ended with the supremacy of the Macedonians, whose rule lasted until 325 B.C., when the Athenians accomplished temporarily their independence. In B.C. 214 occurred the first collision between the Greeks and the Romans, who in B.C. 200 invaded the coimtry, and three years later conquered the Macedonians. About twenty years later war aro.se again between the Romans and Macedonians, who were defeated and their country made a Roman province. In B.C. 146 occurred the battle of Leucopetra, which completed the dissolution of the last of the Greek le-tgucs, the .Acha'an, and henceforth Greece was under the Roman yoke. The Roman Senate, and afterward the Emperors, treated the fatherland of their own civilization with kindness, and it was not until the Byzantine Empire placed its cruel fool upon the Greek neck that all free institutions and popular rights were disregarded. Though conquered in war, Greece still remained the leader of the world in literature and the arts. Her temples and statues, her schools of philosophy and rhetoric, still maintained her dignity among the nations. After the Byzantine invasion the adherents of the ancient religion only retained the name of the ancient Hellenes, and in the reign of Justinian, in the sixth century, the teaching of doctrines opposed to Chistianity was forbidden. From the fifth to the eighth century Slavic and otlier foreign people appeared in Greece, but they were finally expelled. Its ancient inhabitants regained the country, though the Slavic influence is still evident in certain parts of it, especially the Southern Peninsula. In the eleventh century, llie Normans appeared from Sicily and plundered and ravaged the cities of Thebes, Athens and Corinth. In 1203 the Latin Princes appeared in the Crusade, conquered Constantinople, and divided Greece among them, establishing a number of principalities, which Frankish governments were swept away liy the Turks in 1453, when they captured Constantinople and e.stcnded their conquests in a few years over the whole country, which they made a portion of the Turkish Empire. Abject misery was the condition of the country under the Turks. In i6S7the Christian League, under Venetian leadership, besieged and took .\thens, but a few years later the Venetians were ex- pelled, and the Moslem once more ruled Greece, keeping it in a most deplorable condition of subjugation. Toward the close of the eighteenth century the national spirit again began to assert itself, and secretly the preparations were begun for throwing off the Ottoman yoke. They were completed in 1821, K" 30S ASIA. when the Greeks arose in insurrection against the oppressor. On their side was the sympathy of the whole civilized world, and money and men were supplied the struggling State from all directions. In 1822, the Moslems increased the execration in which they were held by massacring over 100,000 of the inhabit- ants of the island of Scio, reducnig the population from 120,000 to 16,000. Four years of heroic war found the Greeks ex- hausted and at the mercy, if such existed, of the conqueror, but the diplomatic interference of England, France and Russia stayed the ferocious hand of the Turk, and proposed that Greece should be constituted as a tributary province, with the right to choose its own government. Greece was willing to accept the terms; the Ottoman Empire rejected them. War was declared by the allied powers against Turkey, whose fleet was almost de- stroyed, and in 1S2S they decided to create Greece an independent kingdom. The crown was offered to two foreign princes and was declined by the first, while the second was assassinated. In 1S33 Otto, son of the King of Bavaria, assumed the reins of government, and in 1835 the capital was est.ablished at Athens. In 1S44, in recognition of a popular clamor, a Con- stitution was granted to the people, and after a stormy reign of nearly thirty years he was requested to abdicate, and accepted the invitation. An election by universal suffrage resulted in the choice of Prince George of Denmark, who accepted the throne on condition that England surrender the protectorate of the Ionian Islands, against which the people had rebelled, which was granted by that power. In 1863, the new King was crowned as George I., whose reign has since proved acceptable to the people. In i865, a revolution in Crete strained the relations of Greece and Turkey, but the danger was finally averted. Greece is governed in accordance with the Constitution elaborated by the constituent assembly in 1863 and adopted in 1S64. A single chamber of representatives, known as the BoiiUy hold the legislative power. Annual meetings are held by the Boule, whose members are elected by manhood suffrage for a term of four years. Executive power is vested in the King and his responsible Ministers, the heads of the following departments : Presidency of the Council, Interior, Finance, Justice, Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, War, Marine and Foreign .Affairs. A Council of State is provided for, with power to review or amend bills passed by the Deputies, but of late years its services have not been employed. %, ^^^, ^A PAN, 0H^ ^I^- ^^^^^^^v^^iluBS^^^"* ■^t^' I^LTHOUGH containing a vastly larger population than any other of the continents — its inhabitants in fact outnumbering those of the remainder of the earth — Asia, on account of her not having come to any great extent under the influences of modern civilization, is as weak in power as she is strong in numbers. In ancient days this was different: the world's his- tory was then largely framed by its Asiatic sons, who contended successfully against Egypt and Greece, and later on helped to build up the glory of the Macedonian and Roman Empires. It was from the regions north of the Caspian Sea that the Huns came, and, following the star of empire, marched westward and settled down in various parts of Europe. Over the plains of the Slav swept the victorious armies of Timour and Genghis Khan, and later the Caliphs, at the head of their Arabian troops, carried the Koran and the sword throughout Asia, Europe and .'\frica, and established religious nationalities which are, to a certain extent, formidable even in this day of their decadence. Before their march the Roman Empire gave way, and the Turkish dominion raised, which for so many years held other European powers in awe. With a population of 834,707,000, as compared with that of Europe, 315,929,000, it seems as though the day must come when Asiatic supremacy will exist as a fact. Asia has a great deal to learn, however, of the modern .spirit and system of government, before it can hope to cope with the more persistent, audacious and intelligent continent to the west of it \ V ^7" CHINA— JAPAN. 309 » # < » i i ii i>iii< i ii i ijiiii i i)ii i iiii i iii!Xiit"f"iiiii ' X'J^ (gHINA. ^ -'+l*>|^+"- ;-- VTIIOLOCJY, rather than hislary, must be cred- ited with tlie earlier chronicles of the Chinese, whose actual record, however, extends back 2,400 years jirevious to the Christian era, and contains the record of a great flood, which many have supposed to be identical with the deluge of the Pentateuch. Certain it is that the Great Wall, which extends 1,250 miles along the northern boundary of China, was erected 250 years before the Christian era, when the Tsin dynasty was founded by Chwang-Siang. In the thirteenth century a Mongol dynasty was formed by Genghis Khan, after his capture of I'ekin. European visits began in this century, when Marco Polo reached China by the overland route. Portuguese and Dutch traders followed, and in the seventeenth century En- gland visited the country, and after several unsuccessful negotia- tions the East India Company was allowed, in 1684, to trade with the natives. But little was done, however, until the opium trade set in, at the beginning of the present century, and soon attained enormous proportions. An attempt was made by the Chinese Government to exclude the pernicious drug, but the traders of the East India Company evaded the restrictions placed upon its entry, and this led to the Anglo- Chinese war, known as the opium war, which closed with the treaty of Nankin and the opening of five ports — Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai — to the British in 1842. American trade with China was inaugurated in 17S4, when the ship Empress made a successful voyage from New York to the Celestial Empire. In 1S44 the fir.st American treaty of amity and commerce between the United States and China was negotiated at Macao, and in 1S67-8 a more impor- tant one was negotiated by the Hon. Anson Burlingame, which was revised in 18S0, in order that an understanding might be reached with the Chinese Government in relation to the emi- gration of its subjects to this country, where opposition to Chinese cheap labor had been aroused in California and other sections. Such treaties as the Europeans have with China have been wrested from that country by force of arms, and during a war in i860 the French troops captured the Em- peror's summer palace, at Pekin, and carried off several millions of dollars' worth of booty. The most important event of modern domestic Chinese history was the Taeping revolution, which lasted from 1S51 to 1S64, and had for its object the overthrow of the Manchoo or foreign dynasty. Dissensions among the insurgents and the employment of European and American officers by the Government were the main causes of the failure of the uprising. An Emperor rules China, aided by the Interior Council Chamber, which is mainly composed of high nobles. The provinces are governed by Imperial Governors and Executive Boards. Bribery and corruption prevail throughout the civil service, which is a monstrous institution. Competitive exam- ination is the basis of the service, the intention being to secure for official positions the most intelligent and best educated men of the empire. ^4-1-1-^^4-^!- >C'X elAPAN. jRIGINALLY inhabited by a race known as the Ainos, who had a written language and were fairly advanced in civilization, the island of Japan subsequently fell into the hands of the Mongols, the present occupants being akin to the Chinese, whom they resemble in appearance. According to Japanese history, the ruling dynasty claims twenty-five centuries of unbroken succession, descent being claimed from the first Mikado, Jimmu Tenno, who was L^ reputed to have been of divine descent. Buddhism was intro- duced into Japan in the sixth century. Marco Polo was the first European to write of Japan, and the first Europeans to land upon its shores were Portuguese mariners. About the middle of the sixteenth century one of the smaller islands was visited by Fernam Mendez Pinto. In 1549 St. Francis Xavier landed and introduced Christianny, and he was followed by many others. In 1615 the priests were exiled, and nine years .V 310 1;R]'IISH INDIA. later all foreigners except the Chinese and the iJutch were expelled from the island, and the emigration of natives was prohibited. In 1637 the massacre of the Christians began, and for over two centuries Japan was left to itself. In 1854, however. Commodore Perry, of the United States Navy, effected a commercial treaty with Japan, which resulted in opening Japanese ports to American ships, and after a struggle with the old court party the civilization of the West began to grow in popular favor, lil^eral ideas struck root, and national progress was evidenced in a number of valuable reforms. In i868 the executive power of the Japanese Government was concentrated in the Mikado, and since then the work of ad- vancement has gone on very rapidly, promising to open up to American enterprise a large field for the exportation of her machinery and other manufactures. Absolute power in temporal and spiritual affairs is vested in the Mikado. He is assisted in government by an Executive Ministry similar to that which existed during France's second empire. A Senate of thirty members and a Council of State are consulted at pleasure by the Mikado. Prefects govern in the provinces, one being given to each of the seventy-five districts which make up the Mikado's realm. ^®= ^t=^^^ B^wlSK India. ^^ <^= ©^ •^ ^ ^^ ,„,^|ARLY Indian history, extending back millions of /lEEi ^ years,' is composed of a confused m.ass of fabulous [rpl[ chronicles. Research by careful historians leads to ^Svjl the behef that the Aryan Hindoos settled the coun- cj^' try some fifteen centuries before the Christian era, at which time the Brahminical religion and the social institution of caste are believed to have been in existence in undeveloped shape. About five centuries before Christ the northwestern provinces of the. country were conquered by the Persian mon- arch Darius, and later Alexander the Great invaded India and conquered some of its provinces. In the eighth century the province of Scinde and the Southern Punjaub were invaded by the Mohammedans, who were later expelled l^y the Hindoos. In the beginning of the eleventh century they returned and conquered all Northern India. At the close of the sixtccenth century occurred the invasion of Tamerlane. In 1526 Piaber, the Mogul Sultan of Cabul, invaded India, and established the Mogul dynasty, whose strength culminated with Aurungzebe, who subdued almost the entire peninsula, and Mohammed Shah. In 1739 occurred the invasion of Nadir Shah, King of Persia, who overcame the empire and occupied Delhi, from which city he removed enormous stores of precious stones and metals. The restoration of the Mogul dynasty was followed by another incursion of the Mahrattas, who in the eighteenth century were entirely overthrown by the Afghans. European attention was at last called to the country, and in the sixteenth century settlements were made upon tlie coast by Portuguese e-xplorers whom the Dutch e.xpelled later. Great Britain, rep- resented by the East India Company, effected settlements during the seventeenth century, and in the middle of the eig^xteenth came into conflict with the French, who had also gained a foothold, and after a hard struggle overcame them. Under Lord Olive the British troops vanquished tlie Emperor of Delhi and the King of Oude, and gained possession of Bengal, Berar and other provinces, which acquisitions were added to as years went by. For many years British rule was quietly submitted to by the natives, its enforcement being accomplished liy the army of native troops, under English offi- cers, armed by the East India Company. In 1S57 a revolt occurred, and the Kings of Delhi and Oude, at the head of the rebellious Sepoys, threatened for eighteen months to wrest the mastery of India from England. Fright- ful massacres, attended with indescribable atrocities, were per- petrated by the rebels, and the measures of reprisal adopted by the English were hardly less terrible. After the rebellion had been crushed the British Government assumed direct con- trol of the country, the East India Company being deprived of a monopoly which had brought in an annual revenue of many millions. Since tlien the British have largely advanced their Indian frontiers. In 1S76 Queen Victoria wa., proclaimed Empress of India. The Government, which regulates the affairs of nearly two himdred millions of people, is practically a military despotism, which is made possible by the division of the native popula- tion into Hindoos and Mohammedans. A Governor-General, appointed by the ruler of Great Britain, holds the executive authority and acts under the English .Secretary of State for India, who is advised by a Council, a majority of whom are appointed by the Crown. Lieutenant-Governors of the prov- inces and minor officers are appointed by the Governor-General. The officials are almost all Englishmen. Self-government pre- vails in the villages and townships, which levy and expend their own taxes under a system which has prevailed in India for ages, and which provides the only exception to the rule that all power rests in the hands of the resident Europeans. k- \ vl AFGHANISTAN' AND UELOOCHISTAN— PERSIA. .3" iCl-'<'0''-^i >5(X*X)5(X©Xisxsx^xax)SX)^xi^X)^/: a nation, Afghanistan, although only dating from 1747, when the successful soldier Amhed IChan assumed regal power, and possessing but a small territory and population, has, by her wars with for- eign powers, so impressed the world with the warlike character of her people, that her history possesses a unique interest. Amhed Khan's most important war was with the Mahrattas, whom he overthrew in 1761, and when he died, twelve years later, he left to his son, Timour, an empire reach- ing from the Indus to the O.xus, while Khorassan, Beloochistan and Scinde acknowledged his rule as tributary provinces. After Timour came anarchy, and the Punjaub and Scinde were lost, while Persian encroachments endangered the country. Diplo- matic relations with the Engjish, who regard Afghanistan with peculiar interest, as being the "key to India," were opened in 1809, and a permanent English resident at the Ameer's court was appointed in 1S37. The relations of the two coun- tries failed to remain friendly, and in 1S3S Lord Auckland, the Governor-General of P>ritish India, declared war against the Ameer, Mohammed Khan, who was defeated. Satisfied with the invasion they had accomplished, the English with- drew, leaving an army of occupation behind them. In 1S41 Akbar Khan, son of the deposed Ameer, organized a con- spiracy against the English occupants of the country, which resulted in the murder of the British Resident and Envoy, after which the invaders promised to leave the country, Akbar Khan agreeing to provide them with an escort. This promise was not kept, and the army, together with camp-followers, the whole amounting to about 26,000 people, while leaving the country by way of the Khyber Pass, in the depth of winter, were attacked by the fanatical tribes of the districts, who killed men, women and children. Of the whole host only one man escaped to convey the tidings to the nearest British port, Jelalabad. An expedition was immediately fitted out in India, and the country was desolated, the fortresses of Ghurzee and Cabul being taken. Notwithstanding this terri- ble lesson, the Afghans, in 1S46, allied themselves with the Sikhs against the British, and raised a revolt in the Punjaub, which was quelled only after severe fighting. The jjresent Ameer, Shere Ali, has maintained the throne after many vicissitudes caused by the insurrections led by his own rela- tives. In 1879 the inhabitants of Cabul arose in revolt, and assassinated the British Resident and a large number of other foreigners, which led to a war in which the British arms, after desperate fighting, were successful, and British influence in the national policy was firmly established. The Government of the country is a monarchy. The natives are divided into clans, ruled over by chiefs. Revenue is raised by taxation, an officer collecting it in each province. Justice is administered in the towns by the Cadis. Beloochistan, a country lying to the south of Afghanistan, is not considered of strategic value by either British or Rus- sians. In 1839 the British stormed the capital and killed the ruler, after wliich they occupied the country for several years. In 1854 a treaty was formed between England and Beloo- chistan, which, however, has been violated, and no diplomatic relations are now sustained between the two countries. The country is ruled by a Khan, who, however, has little power over the tribes who inhabit it. (T^i? UTHENTIC Persian hi.story begins with the revolt Vs under Cyrus against Astyages, the Median King, y, y, .. which resulted in the foundation of the Persian I h^yi Empire. Joining with Cambyses and Darius, Cyrus "°?f:i^^ subdued Lydia and Asia Minor, and crowned his career by the capture of the city of Babylon, the metrop- olis of Assyria. Darius carried the Persian arms to the bor- •^/3 A^^- I^EI^SIA. -*->^'^, -*->^-^' ^° ders of Thrace, but was defeated at Marathon, and his son Xerxes was not less unfortunate. About 330 years before the Christian era Persia was invaded by Alexander the Great, of Macedon, who extinguished the empire, which up to his com- ing had ruled the world. After Alexander's successors came the Parthian dynasty, which was overthrown in the third cen- tury, when the ancient laws and religion wc~e re-established R- 312 ARABIA— PALESTINE. under a aescendant of the famous Cyrus, and the Sassanida; dynasty thus formed ruled with great energy until 62S A.D. , when its last representative was slain, and the country fell a prey to the Mohammedan Arabians until S6S, when a native dynasty was established. A Mongol invasion occurred in the thirteenth century, and in the fourteenth Tamerlane swept the land with his Tartar followers. Of the Suffavean dynasty which succeeded, the most famous representative was Nadir Shah, who invaded India and carried away $100,000,000 worth of spoils from the city of Dellii. Of late years Persia has not been ablf to lo anything worthy of her ancient glories. Rus- sian encroachments have deprived her of important provinces. In 1856-57 she engaged in war with England and was defeated, which event led to a friendly feeling towards that country which, doubt- less, prompted the Shah, Nasr-ed-Din, in 1S74, to visit Europe. The Government of Persia is an unlimited despotism, the Shah being absolute in his monarchial powers. Direct taxa- tion defrays current expenses, and the country is free from national debt. Law, as laid down in the Koran, is adminis- tered by mollahs (judges), whose decisions are given in accord- ance with the side of. the case which possesses the greater power to bribe the court. #-*-•# fll^ABIA. ||LAIMING Jescent from Ishmael, the Arabs have always been and still are a wandering, wild, uncon- trolable peop.e vhose career and present condition seem to fulfil th; ingelic prophecy. The aborigines of Arabia were p' obably the Cushites, who passed into Africa and were succeeded by a rate descended from Abraham. After the destruction of Jerusalem large num- bers of Jews entered Arabia, which subsequently welcom- ed the doctrines of Mohamm'^d, with whose coming the history of the country really begms. Becoming united, they grew in power until in Europe, Asia and Africa empires were brought under their dominion. While producing impor- tant changes in the destinies of other nations, Arabia her- self underwent no great improvement, and when her day of conquest was over the Turks found her an easy prey, and in the sixteenth century captured Yemen, which they lost a century later. The Portuguese, too, conquered Muscat, while the Russians gained some temporary advantages in Arabia. In the eighteenth century the Wahabees made their appearance, and, though Mehemet Ali checked their progress, their in- fluence is still felt throughout the land. This powerful Egyptian subdued the seaboard of Hedjaz and part of Yemen, but in 1S40 he was forced to withdraw his forces and abandon all his conquests upon the Red Sea. ""^I^'*^!-'^"- * ©ALBSTINE. * 51^ 1*^ 'OrA,-^ K^^«^RIGINALLY inhabited by distinct nations, of whom j|ll| the Canaanites, Amorites, Jebusites, Kenites and Jhl II Perizites were the principal, and whose origin is not known, the land of Palestine was invaded by the Israelites after their escape from the hands of their Egyptian masters and their wanderings in the wilderness. Acting under tlie divine command, as interpreted to them by their leaders, they entered upon a merciless war of extermina- tion of the idolatrous tribes wlio inhabited the laml, which they partitioned off as follows : The tribes of Reuben and Gad and one-half the tribe of Manasseh took the territory east of the Jordan; Judah, Simeon, Dan and Benjamin occupied the southern portion ; Zebulon, Asher and Naphtali obtained the northern division ; while the other half of the tribe of Manas- seh, together with Issachar and Ephraim, secured the central portion. Being provided for by tithes, the Levites, in their priestly function, were not given any separate territory, but were scattered among the various cities of the other tribes. For over three centuries the tribes were ruled by Judges raised to that dignity by the people for valorous deeds in war or display of qualities of statesmanship, and during this time the nation was practically a confederation of republics, their bond of luiion being made up of their common origin, language and religion, and the ever-present danger of invasion by external foes. Among the most famous of the fifteen Judges who ruled the land were Gideon, Jephtha, Barak, Samson, Deborah, K- V PALESTINE. 313 Eli, and Samuel, who was tlie last of the Judges and the first of the Prophets, but the two latter exercised also priestly functions. Although their rule was satisfactory, the people clamored for a King, and the monarchy was established with Saul, a Benjaminite, as ruler. A great warrior, he led the hosts of Israel in a succession of victories, but his merciful treatment of a conquered people brought about the opposition of Samuel. The King's son-in-law, David, having slain the Philistine giant Goliath in battle, became suddenly popular, and, as he was taken up by the priestly party, he first aroused the jealousy and then incurred the enmity of Saul, who caused him to flee from the country. With an army of brother out- laws David made war upon the Philistines, who had befriended him in his hour of need, and on the death of Saul and his son, Jonathan, his tribe of Judah proclaimed him King. Saul's son, Ishbosheth, was acknowledged by the remainder of Israel, and a civil war followed, which was ended by the death of Ishbosheth, and the assumption of the sovereignty by David. Under King David war was actively pursued against the natives. Jerusalem was wrested from the Jebusites, and the Israelitish domain extended south and west to Egypt and north to the land of the Phrcnicians. With the last-named people, who had attained a high degree of civilization and were learned in the arts and sciences, the Hebrews remained on terms of friendship. David's successor, Solomon, raised the power of Israel to its pinnacle of glory. Under his rule commerce and trade were cultivated, the country was fortified, profitable foreign alliances were made, and the beautiful Temple of Jeru- salem was built. Great attention was paid to the military arm of the government ; the army was enlarged and strengthened, and with its aid neighboring nations were kept in subjection and forced to pay heavy tribute. Internal disorder followed the death of Solomon, whose last days were not marked by the wise and strong government which preceded, and under the rule of his son, Rehoboam, the heavy taxation of the people induced a revolt of ten tribes, who proclaimed Jeroboam King in Israel, which comprised the land beyond Jordan and that to the north of Benjamin. Judah and Benjamin alone remained loyal. Many wars between the rival nations followed. Under licentious Kings the people of the ten tribes waxed in wickedness, until about 700 years B.C. the Assyrians swept down upon them, destroyed their capital of Samaria and car- ried the people into captivity. N^ record of their fate exists. They disappeared entirely from history, though every now and then some one or other of the nations of the earth is recog- nized, according to Biblical prophecy, as being the identical " ten tribes " of Israel. In Rehoboam's reign Judah was invaded by the Egyptians, who pillaged the temple. Wars with the bordering nations occurred from time to time, and civil war was frequently aroused by the misrule of wick..'d Kings, whom even the fierce denunciations of the great Prophets could not entirely restrain. Weakened by these causes, the country came under tributary subjection to the Babylonian Empire, and the downfall of the people was brought about by the revolt of Zedekiah, who declared the nation independent, and defended gallantly but unsuccessfully the capital, Jerusa- lem, against the Babylonian armies. In 588 B.C. the city was captured, its walls and temple destroyed, and its citizens carried into Babylon, where they remained captive for seventy year.s. Their return to their native land was permitted when the Babylonians were vanquished by the Medo-Persians, and Darius, Ahasucrus and other Kings allowed them to rebuild their city and temple, and granted them many additional privi- leges. Under these favorable conditions they increased in strength and numbers, and when, about two centuries before Christ, the Syrians sought to prohibit the Hebrew religion, they arose in arms and fought for their religious liberty with such courage and vigor that the period of these wars, extend- ing from 167 B.C. to 105 B.C., is looked upon as the heroic era of Jewish history. Forty years later, however, the Romans conquered the country, and Judea became a province of that great power. Native rulers, known as tetrarchs, were given slight local power, but they were powerless to check the oppressions of the conquerors, and sixty-six years after the birth of Christ, whose earthly ministry was made while the people were in the depths of misery, the Jews rebelled and brought upon their country a scourge in the shape of Roman armies under Vespasian and Titus. After a four years' siege, during which the inhabitants endured indescribable sufferings with unparalleled fortitude, Jerusalem fell ; the temple was once more abased ; such of the inhabitants as survived were sold into slavery ; the Hebrew nation as such passed out of existence. After the Roman rule passed away the Byzantine monarchs held the country. Christianity becoming wide- spread, Palestine became a centre of religious interest as the birthplace and scene of the ministry, death and resurrection of the Savior. Thousands of pilgrims visited the " Holy Land," and the rebuilding of Jerusalem was commenced. In the earlier half of the seventh century Palestine was conquered by the Mohammedan Arabs, but in 1099 the warriors of the first Crusade captured the sacred city, and made Godfrey of Bouillon King of Jerusalem, who extended his territory until it comprised the whole of Palestine. This lasted twenty years only, and after further crusades against the Saracens, in which the Christians were more or less successful, the latter were, in I2gl, expelled by the Mame- lukes, who ruled the land until 1517, when it fell into the hands of the Turks, who still hold it. Several efTorls have been made to have the European Jews return to their father- land, but they have declined to abandon the profitable occupa- tions elsewhere to become the agricultural colonists of a not very fertile land. Under Turkish rule Palestine is part of the province of Syria, and comprises the sub-pashalics of Acre and Jerusalem. ^ i, ^ (J) ^ ^ s^. » ::>i»i i ji ^ x • J r i< j i '!' C ' -1 : :' : » »»■ i ign jM ji ijKgi iji iji 13" 'f it"SH;r - '^WM ^«^ Si AM. ^.o^.-;^ ^ ARLY ia the seventeenth century the Spanish, Portu- 'si ';." I guese, Dutch and French obtained admission to the «"Ffl[ Siamese ports, and Englani^ shared their privileges ■^vSJ' about half a century later. Each of these nations (Dj^^ made strenuous endeavors to gain the preponderating influence over the Siamese, and the French seemed for many years the favorites ; but in an outbreak which occurred several of their missionaries and traders were slaughtered, and this event was followed, on the part of Siam, by the inauguration of a policy of exclusiveness, which lasted until about fifty years ago, when Great Britain, France and the United States made treaties with Siam. A duarchial form of government prevails, there being two Kings, but the second is hardly more than a vice or lieutenant. About the court is the Council of Twelve, and that body, when the King dies, may defeat his will about the succession of the throne. There are laws to which the King must conform, and which render the Govern- ment, in effect, a constitutional monarchy. ECOND only to Asia in point of size, the continent of Africa, including the islands contiguous to its shores, has an area of 11,854,000 square miles, yet is the least important of aM the great divisions of the globe, judged by the standard of civilization and commercial prosperity. It is only within a few years past that the true quality of the interior territory of Southern Africa has become knowni, through the researches of English and .\merican explorers in the "dark continent." Attempts to colonize were begun by the French, on the west coast, in the seventeenth century, and at the Cape of Good Hope (the southern extremity of the continent, which was first doubled by Vasco da Gama) the Dutch established a port in 1650. An English trading company, a century later, also located here. The earliest explorers were James Bruce, who in 1772 visited .\byssinia and discovered the sources of the Blue Nile, and Mungo Park, who ascended the Niger in the earlier years of the present century, and was killed in 1S06 in the kingdom of Iloussa by the natives. The desire to discover the source of the Great Nile has impelled several explorers to pierce Central Africa. Up to his time, the most successful of these was Dr. David Livingstone, who travelled in 1S49 through the country watered by the Zambesi, and made a vast number of / important discoveries. Burton, Speke and Baker, in their hunt for the Nile's headwaters, discovered lakes Tanganyika, Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza, which were also visited by Livingstone, who defined the great water system of the Lualaba or Chambeze. Henry M. Stanley, an American journalist, acting in the capacity of special correspondent of the New York Hirald, visited .\frica on a commission to find Livingstone, who had not l»en heard from for some years, and in 1871 he discovered him at Ujiji in great destitution, but still anxious to press forward into the continent, for which he had organized a new expedition. In 1S73 Livingstone died, and in the following year his body was brought home and interred in Westminster Abbey. Stanley, after parting with Livingstone, explored the Congo River and accomplished dis- coveries which place him in the front rank of .\frican trav- ellers. Commerce is following fast in the footsteps of these adventurous men, and the colonization of the fertile territories they have visited and described is only a matter of time. Already the English have established colonies at the Cape of Good Hope, Sierra Leone, Natal and on the Gold Coast ; Liberia, on the West Coast, has been organized as a republic; the Portuguese have dependencies in Mozambique, Angola and Benguela, while Spain has colonized Fernando Po and Annobon. T EGYPT— UPPER AND LO^ER NUBIA. 315 a^^ a aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa a ^^-si'r irr^— ... ^ BEBEBBEEBBBBEEBEEEEEEEaEEBB ^ -^+#^^Nf+4- ^'GYPT is another of those countries whose prehistoric T , I ages are wrajjped in mystery as impenetrable as the sources of her own Nile, whose exact location has J ' l.afflcd the most enterprising of explorers. Great interest attaches to the country's early annals, but the stories of the dynasties which succeeded Menes, the founder of Memphis, of the rtile of the Pha- raohs, and the Ptolemies and the Cleopatras, though pregnant with true historical interest, cannot here be told, and it will suffice to quote the language of a graceful historian, who wrote: "It (Egypt) attained a high position for wealth and the institutions of civilized society when all the surrounding countries dwelt in the darkness of barbarism. It had a well organized and efficient government long before the na- tional greatness of the Hebrews." Moslem rule prevailed in the country after their conquest of it in 6jO. The Caliphs were expelled by the Turcomans, who gave way before the Mamelukes in 1250, whose rule continued until 1517, when Seli.i:, .Sultan of Turkey, put an end ti> their dominion and organized the land as a dependency of Turkey. For over two centuries the descend- ants of the vanquished Mameluke chieftains opposed the Turks. A descent upon Egypt was made by the French under Napoleon in 1798, but they were obliged to withdraw, and the Mamelukes were not over- come until the treacherous massacre of their leaders established the Pasha in quiet upon his vice- regal throne. Mehemet Ali, from an obscure position as an Egyptian villager, rose to the position of Viceroy, after a severe conflict with the Ottoman forces, and under him the country made great advancement, and, while nominally tribu- tary to Turkey, Egypt enjoyed nearly all the attributes of an independent nation. He died in 1849, and in 1S63 Ismail came to the throne, a man of such Oriental extrava- gance, both in public improvements and personal expenditures, that he became bankrupt, and his abdication was brought about by the combined pressure of his English and French creditors. His son, Mehemet Tewfik, succeeded him, but the actual _ control of the nation was placed in the hands of an International Commission of Liquidation. The burden of paying the interest on the enormous national debt which Ismail rolled up, amounting at the close of iSSoto about $5oo,chx),ooo, has rested heavily upon the Egyp- tian people, and the rebellion against Tewfik, under Arabi Bey, and the war which England waged against the Egyptians, in support of the Khedive, are of too recent occur- rence to require more than a passing mention. Of late years the influ- ence of England and France — Egypt's largest creditors — has alter- nately predominated in the manage- ment of Egyptian affairs, but the success of the Engli.sh arms in the late war, in which the French de- clined to participate, has made the country virtually a protectorate in the hands of F^ngland, whose con- troj of the Suez Canal is a matter of vital importance to that power. A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT. In 1820 the Egyptian Viceroy Mehemet .Vli iiursued the Mame- lukes southward and into Nubia, where they took refuge. In the following year he conquered the country and made it an Egyptian province, which it has since remained. Lower Nubia, almost entirely a desert, is retained by the Egyptians as a means of communication with the upper province, which contains a large area of fertile land. 3i6 ^ ABYSSINIA— CAPE COLONY. ^^ ' ® '^ ■ I 'i I '' i ' «Ii'{>>S' III 'Bi|'']D I I I <5>'I i i ll to ^ c S 6 _ « -^ o :S o at Deaianed and Engraoed express!!/ for Peale's Popular Educator, 121 \ ~o 'y \ w o •3 s n 2 -C 3 3 C C L, a; o M a: o o u o s ~ o QJ ;q G, QJ < Q 2 ic E >. W -2 c u >< 03 CO < k: 1/5 be S S i: y. z o > 03 < a E -3 s: o j^ a '"■ d T3 -C ^ Cu o -a _d r ^ 3 C X bo j3 1 c o" 1 C 1 i -^ 'rt 3 X ><, y: <>, < — 1 d: ' — 1 so , -^i ^_; >c """ u u ^ '-" j:: 5, _- S oj s s 5 N Si > W -1) OJ Di3 ii. U ^; M CQ Deaianget and Engraved exp reaaly for Peafe'a Popular Educator. 322 \ V / s o Pi o Q a u < u a u Oi o •II o U S H 8 a S • « H P- Q W3 CO Z < CO Oi Cd 0. ■a c n CO &) Q a CQ Q -u ^ t: < .3 S w rt (J "-^ s^ X 'JO O X X •s ^ ■o — : ^ .s j: u o: a: H m 2 -a ^ c ■g ■= Lri ^ J o H m Sou ■S 3 ^ U J= c 1 o ■ u 1 t: i rS u a 73 < tf3 CO en »© ^ op :;: cj r Bi Bi "o "o ^ "o w* / ^ Designed and Engraved expressly for Peale'a Popular Educator. 323 TV u M a a ~ -3 3 •- X h 3 s ^e ■= o .- I-. rt h- P h U c J ~ rt 1 a; C/3 :i ii 'E r fA. r^"( C "? o M^ c/^ ^ .c ^ ^ < < < •3 < .2 ^ < < in \0 »o £ o Oh 18 OJ Hs? r^ u ,hO — U Uh rn d r^ :/; fe (Ai TByrpirr; u ca V o £ -f ii rt 4 rt r •S O U £ S o " o ■a Vi r I iwniRifi O §- E i u i= > 1) fS rt 1 — i C- 2 ^- CO C M 1^ C tn* S 3 P o U eE rt S ^ « « o rt O •O < e^ O ■7 — Designed and Engraved expressly for Peale'a Popular Educator, 324 \ V 4, o .^ -rf" ?' A s ^ \ / c / - ( rt r Z D O u 2 OS (d H M < o H o )-• o U D. 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O 2 c o o 3 4 ^" . rt rt c £ .2 — 3 - 9 1 8 c > nessee and North Carolin; secede. Jefferson Davis, president. 5 3 u c" o c C p 3 a rt i -5 c 5 U c . 3 ^ 1 o rt o > ilderness battles. ;ge of Petersburg, erman's march to the sea ttle of Five Forks. rrender of Lee, of John Sinn and of Kirby Smith. c c .r" c c £ ■a c c d 6 G E in rt rt g c c X 'c c c U ■c rt 'rt c >, rt C w 1 .0 a £ 3 ■esident Garfield shot, Jn 2d ; died, September 191! c i 3 1- u in ^' P - S § rt 6 rt U ■^ 7. §. a ■?. > E s X a: c < 1 -; « c d r^ ^ ^ 6- tx CO 00 ? r^ pi •g Oi 3 ' «^ 1 c" 5 c ^^ 5. M o" 1 . 1 i J «9. f ■^ •a t a 2 '5 cr rt ■3 u -a 3 3 1 00 5 1 g 3 d tn .5 U 3 '^ '^, c n .H .y fin 3 «" t^ ■1 -s 3 a aj >>. 3 3 1^ 0, o c (L) § ^ r>. c a £ x: 1 00 ii 3 6. C c (X ^ 4 1: *- C 1 c. c" o u c J 6 a c (2 z ■o c '!■ rt X •< — rt CQ ri c c £ 1 a c o 1 o ■s rt m IP am Lincoln, president. ,■ JMltnsnn, vice-president. April 14. President || C.-S - U §1 —l 5 u -a ji a c a u m 01 •u CO a a 3 c a C S M w u (A [/] a c J _3J 1 CQ 1 3 a.' k i 1 A. Garfield, president. A. Arthur, vice-president. C * 3 u < (0 oo_ f r Cleveland, president, as A. Hendricks, yic^-p J3 n c rt J! 1 a c ri £ ■O £ T3 C 1 c 3 1 s 5 g 6 2.2 < I < 1> < < < 5 u X D X f^ ^ A u Oh ^ f^ vn cK r^ t< M ^ %D vO VO -0 C^ K CO 00 ^ m ( to 00 00 1 qI /_ Deaignta \xn0 engraved mxpnasii/ /or Ftatt'a Po»u$ar £ Jucator. \ 9 "*T 'i> " ^^■"^ ■■■^ 33^ '^ c V* N Periods. "1 PGLITIGAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES. "w^ Designed and Engmved expressly for Peale'a Popular Educator. 333 .±. -s^Ttie EigFiteen Decisive Battles ef the World. IT, (Name of Victorious Nation Appears First.) uest pendence Invasion resisted - Ir.ternational and political. K- / MILilTARY and NAVAL STREMITH ofYARIGcIS GGcINTRmS. Baseil (in tlic iiuiiierlciil strength of the respective armies on a war footing; where more than one number Is given, besides llic number of war vessels, the first represents the standing army I br^ NORWAY and SWEDEN *(...!:., ■War footing J 444.383 !'54 Vessels^ Designed and Engraued expreaaly for Peah'a Popular Educator. 335 A DICTIONARY or DATI-.S ._ 9 ^ 337 The World's Progress as shown in an Alohabetical Record of Notable Events and Discoveries. <:> — * — <> Air-Ba'.loons invcincil Ijy Gusm^ic, a Jesuit, it) 172^. Revived in France I.y M. Montgolficr, in Air-Ghins invcnicd by Guhr, of Nuremberg, in Air-Pumps invented in 1650. Algebra known in Kurope in 1300; in gL-ncral use in i3yo. AJmanaCS I'n'^t published in 1470, by Mariin Hkus, ;i( iJiitl.i. 'I'he first almanac in England was printed at Oxfurd, in 1673. Alien and Sedition Acts passed by Congress III i;l>>, ifxpircd, l»y l.Tiutaliun, Jan. 26, 1801. Alphabet. Ilic Ionic alphabet was introduced <)) years before Christ, before this lime the Greek letters were but sixteen in number. Anaesthesia discovered 1844. Anchors iiuenttd in 387. Anti Slavery Society (American) organized i)ec. 6, iS33,al Phil.idelphia. Arg'and XianipS invented by Aime Argand, nf (.Liiev.i ;.L)uul the year 1782. Arquebus i -troduced about 1520, and remained in use until after 1567, when the matchlock sup- planted it. In i6j<> the flint lock was invented, and the inusket was introduced. BankinST* The first bank in Europe was the Hank of Venice, 1171. The Bank of England was established in 1694, the Bank of North America, 1781. Barometers invented in 1626; wheel barometers 111 1665. phosphoric in 1675, pendant in 1695, and inarim: in 1 7".,, Batter in gT'It^-m invented 441 years before Christ. Bayonets invented at Bayonne in 1670. First Used in l-'.ngland in 1693. At first these had wundni handles fitting into the guns, but in 1699 the sui,ket bayonet was introduced. Bellows. — Strabo informs us that the invention ol bellows is due to the Scythian philosopher, Anacharsis, who lived in the time of Solon. Bells invented by Fanlinus, bisliop of Nola, in Campagnia, in or about the year 400. They were first used in France in 550, ill Greece in 864, and in the churches of Europe in 900, In Switzer- l.iinl they first appeared in 1020. Blanlzets first made in England in 1340. Blood, ' irculation of, discovered in 1619. Blue I Prussian) first made in Berlin, in 1704. Bombs invented at Venlo, in 1588, and used first ii: llie service of France in 1634. Books, in their present form, were invented by Attains, king of Pergamus, in 887. Boots invented 907 years before Christ. Boston Fire Nov. 9, 1S72. Loss, $73,600,000. Bread first made with yeast by the English about 1650, Bricks first used in England by the Romans. In I' .^5 tlieir regular size was fixed by Charles I. Bridgres. The fir<.t bridge of stone in England w.is ili.it built at Bow, near Stratford, in 1087. Buckles invented about 1680. Bullets of stone used in 1514. Iron bullets first nieiiliuncd in 1550. Bullion (Assaying of) introduced in 1354. Butter. — I l.c first mention of butter is that of Herodotus, who, in describing the Scythians, says : " These people pour the milkof their mares into wooden vessels, c;iusc it to be violently stirred or shaken by their blind slaves, and sep- arate the part that arises to the surface, as they consider it more vahiable than that which is col- lected heluw It." Soon after the ileath of Hippoc- rates, we read that the Greeks thnui;ht the but- ter which the Thracians ate a womlorful kind of food. The ancient Ethiopians appear to have used butter as food. The ancient Germans were biitter-ni.ikers. Calioo-Printing: and the Dutch-loom engine flisL i.se.l ru i'.7o. Camera ObSCUra invented by Haptista Porta, in i5'5- Canal. — The first English navigable canal was lin.slicd in 1134. Candles of tallow took the pl.icc of preparetl s|)liiuers of wood in 1290. Cannon invented in 1:130. First used by the En^llsh in 1346; used first in England in 1445: in Denmark in 13^4; by the Spaniards in 1406. The first iron cannon were made in England, in ^1547. Caps first worn in 1449. Cards invented for the amusement of Charles VI., in i,,8..>. Carriagres introduced in England in 1580; in \'i*:nna in 1 ^15. Chain Shot invented by De Wit, Dutch Ad- iLiirai, ill 1606. Chess invented 608 years before Christ. Chicag-O Fire, Oct. 8-ir, 1871. Loss, $290,- ..•oo.txxj; about 25'» persons perished, and 98,5o«.> rendered destitute ; 25,moo buildings destroyed. Chimes on Bells invented at Alvest in 1487. Chimneys first introduced in England in lacx), but at fust otily in the kitchen or large hall. Ch'.na made at Dresden, in Saxony, in 1706 ; at Chelsea (England) ii»i752; by Mr. Wedgwood in 176J. Civil Rig-hts Bill pa<;sed by Congress 1866. Civil Service Reform Bill introduced in congress j.iii. 20, 1667, Act for rules to be pre- scribed by the President for civil service cvani inaiions passed March 3, 1871, and commls- sinniTs fnr th.it purpose appointed June 28, with G. W. Ctirtis as Lhairnian. Clay's Compromise, tariff, 1833 ; slavery, 1850. Clocks* called water-clocks, were first used in koine 158 years before Christ. Clocks and diaK were first put up in cliurclies in 913, In 801 clocks were made to strike the hours by the Arabians, and by the Italians in 1300. A strik- ing-clock was used at Westminster in 1368. The first portable striking-clock was made in i;3o. Kichard Harris, of London, invented clucks with pendulums about 1041. To distinguish these from dials, they were first called sun- " nocturnal, or night-dials." Repeating clut ks and watches were invented by a maker nan;cd Harlow in 1676. Coaches. Covered carriages appear to have been used by the old Romans. In the year 1588, Duke Julius of Brunswick published an act against riding in coaches. Philip II, of Pomcr- ania-Stettin, published a similar document in 1608. Coaches appear to have been used in France very early. An ordinance of Philip the Fair, issued in 1294, for suppressing luxury, for- bids citizens' wives to rid*^ in coaches. Coaches were first used in England in 1565, the first being that made for the Earl of Rutland. In 1601 an act was p.issed lo jirevent men riding in coaches, on the score (.■( its effeminacy. Coaches began ID be common in 16 -5, and were petitioned against by the saddlers and others. Hackney coaches introduced in 1634. In 1661, a stage coach was two days goinK from London lo (.Jxford, and the "Flying Coach" was thirteen hours, even in summer weather, when the roads were at their best. Coal first dug for fuel in 1234. Coin. Silver was first coined by Pliidon, King ot Argos, 869 B.C. In Rome, silver money was first ucined ^69 B.C. Gold and silver coins first used in the East. Coin first used in Britain 25 B.C., and in Scotland not until 24S years later. In iioi, round comis were first used in England. Silver halfpence and farthings were coined in the reign of John, anl pence were the largest cur- rent Coins. Gold was first coined in England in 1087; in Bohemia in 1301. In 1531, groats and half-gruats were the largest silver roin in Eng- land. Gold was first coined in Venice in 1346. Shillings were first coined in England in 1068. Crowns and half-crowns were first coined in 1551, Henry III introduced copper money into France in 158M. Copper money introduced into England by James I in 1620. The process of milling coin introduced in 1662. The mint of tlie United States of America was established in >7'>3- Coining* with a die first invented in 1617, and lirsl used in Engl.md in 1620. Compass (Mariner's) invented in China 1120 B.C.; Used in Venice 1260; improved at Naples in 1302. Its variations observed in 1500; its dipping in 1576 Copyrigrht. Th .- cpyright law was first passed by Congress in 1791, the term being made four- teen years ; amended, and term extended to 28 years, with renew.d for 14 more, in 1831. Cotton. The first raised in the United States was in 1621, in Virginia; first exported from U. S. in 1747. Cotton Gin invenied in 1793, by Eli Whitney. Culverins lust nude in England in 1534. D ag"u e IT eo types first made in France, 1839. Declaration of American Independence, 1776; recugtiuioii, i 78^. Delf (or Delft) earthenware invented at Fircnzc in 1^50. Diamonds first cut and polished at Bruges ini489. Dice invented 1500 B.C. Dipping" lieedle invented by Robert Norman, Distilling first practiced in 1150. DivingT'Bell. This machine appears to have been known in 1309. and repealed mention of its use occurs in historical chruniclcs from that date. Electric Iji^ht. Invented at London, in 1874, by two Russians, Lodyguiii and Kosloff. The k- 33^ A DICTIONARY OF DATES. "71 Jablochkoff candle proved successful in 1878 iu lighting the streets of Paris. In the United States, the Sawyer-Man light appeared in 187S, and Kdison began his expenments in electric lighting in the same year. Emancipation Proclamation. January i, 1KD3. Engraving" on metal invented in 1423; on cop- per in 1511. Iiuproved process introduced by Prince Rupert ot Palatine in 1648. Engraving process for tints invented by Barable, a French- man, in 1761. Engraving on wood invented at Flanders in 1423, and revived in 1511 by Albert Durer. Engraving on glass invented at Paris in 1799, by Bundier. Envelopes for letters were first used in 1839. Etching* on coppt-r with aqua fortis was intro- duced in 1512. Ether was first used in surgical operations in 1844. Express. The first American express was ope- rated between New York and Boston, in 1821, by \V . F. H.irnden. False TT a i r introduced by the courtesans in 1 1 aly , and first brought into England from France in 1572. Fenian Raids into Canada, May 31. 1866; re- sumed Fel)ruiiry 3, 1870. Filibustering raids of Wm. Walker, 1853-60. Fire Eng'ines, to force water, existed in very ancient tunes. The first of the kind now in \ise, but of a vastly inferior character, was invenie'l by two Dutchmen, each named Jan van der Heide, at Amsterdam, in 1518. In 1657 an im- proved engine was introduced at Nuremberg by John Hantsch. Fire-engines were first known at Paris in 1699. The first volunteer fire com- pany in America was the Union of Philadelphia, about 1736. Flag*. The American flag was first used by Washington at Cambridge, January i, 1776. Fortification. The present mode introduced about i5-«-j. Forks are, comparatively speaking, quite a modern invention. They were firstknownin Italy toward the end of the islh century. They began to be known in France by the end of the i6tli century. Introduced in England in 1608. Free Soil Party. The first national conven- nori uas IkjUI ..t lUilT.^tu, Aug. 9, 1848. Fugitive Slave Law passed by Congress, Sept. 12, 1850. Gamut in music invented by Guy L'Aretin in I -.25. Gas was first evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton in 1739. Its fij-st application, as an illuminating medium, was maile by Mr. Murdoch, in Corn- wall, England, in 1792. Sir H. Davy, before a committee of the House of Commons, declared it was not practicable to light London with gas. The first display of gaslight was in Birmingham, on the occasion of the peace rejoicings of 1802. It was introduced for lighting the shops and streets of London, generally, in 1S14. In the United States it was introduced in 1822, iii Boston. Gilding, with gold leaf, invented in 1273. Glass introduced into England, by Benedict, a monk, in 674. First used in England, forbotiles, etc., in 1557. The first plate-glass, made at I.ambcth, in 1673. Window glass first made in luiyland III 1357. Grist Mills invented in Ireland in 214. Gunpowder was invented by the monk Schwartz in i_vi', although used by the Chinese A.D. 80. The liyzantines used Greek fire A.D. 668. Guns invented in 1330; used by the Moors at tlie siege of Algeciras, in Spain, in 1344 ; at the baltie of Crccy in 1516, and at the siege of Calais in the year following. Adopted by Denmark in 1354; used by the Venetians, at sc.-i, against the Genoese, in 1377. First used by the Spanisli in 1J06. The early English guns were first made of brass in 16^5 ; in 1547 they were made of iron. Bombs antl mortars were invented in 1543. Hartford Convention (anti-war) , Dec.i 5,1814. Handkerchiefs were first manufactured at Pais- ley, in bcolland, in 1743. Heraldry ori^^inated in the year 1100. Homoeopathy was introduced into the United ht.Ucs m 1825, Horseshoes. Although the ancients protected the hoots of their horses with some covering, horseshoes, of the kinil now known, were not in general use until the ninth century. Hour-Glasses invented in Alexandria 240. Hydrometer. The oldest mention of this in- strument belongs to the 5th century, but its invention has been attributed to Archimedes. Infallibility. The dogma of Papal Infallibility prumulgatea in 1870. Inoculation for small-pox, first tried on crimi- nals In 17J1. Vaccine discovered by Dr. Jenner in 1796. Insurance. The first fire insurance office in America was in Boston, 1724. The first for life insurance in London, 1772; the first American, in Philadelphia, in 1812. Marine insurance dates back to 1598 in England, and to 1721 in America. Interior Department established March 3, 1849- Jesuits. The order was founded by Ignatius I^u^ola in 1541. Judiciary Act passed by Congress Feb. 13, Knitting StockblgS invented in Spain about 1550. Knives were first used In England about 1550. Know-Nothing Party (American) arose in New York ui 185,3. National platform adopted and candidate for the P.'-esidency (Fillmore) in 1856. Lace. The knitting of lace is a German inven- tion, first known about the middle of the 16th century. Lamp (Sir Humphry Davy's safety) for pre- venting explosions by fire damp in coal mines, Lanterns invented by Alfred the Great 890. Leyden Jar invented in 1745. Liberty Party, national conventional Buffalo, Aug. ju, 1843. liibrary. The oldest American library is that of Harvard College, Cambridge, 1638. The first subscription library was established at Phila- delphia in 1731. Lig'htning'-rods were first used by Benjamin Franklin about 1752. Life-Boats i nvcnted by Greathead, who recei verl a premium front Parliament in May, 1802. Linen when first made in England was regarded as a great luxury, and was very costly. A com- pany of linen-weavers from the Netherlands was established in London in 13S6. Lithog"raphic Printing" first brought into Eng- land III i;S(ii. Mag'ic Lanterns invented in 1252. Mag-na Charta signed 1215. Mag-nifyingr-Glasses first made in England by Kuger BaLoii i.-O). Maps and Globes invented by Anaximander 6.>:> B.C. Marble Paper. A German invention belonging u> tlic i/th ceiitui-y. Matches. Friction matches first used in 1829. Mecklenburg- county, N. C, Declaration of Imlependi-iiee issued May 31, 1776. Medicinal Simples first brought into Europe, fioni ihe E.isl, 111 l^-oa. Microscopes first used in Germany In 1621. Im- proved by Torriielli in 1624. Military Academy, West Point, founded by Cungress Mareli lO, 1S02. Missouri Compromise pnsscd March 3. 1S20, and re^jealed M.iy 24, 1854. It restricted slavery to south of 36 ' 30'. Mirrors (Silvering) invented by Praxiteles 228 years B.C. Monroe Doctrine declared in the message of President Monroe, Dec. 2, 1823. Mormons arrived at Salt Lake Valley, Utah, July 24, 1S47. Musical Notes invented in 1070; improvedi33o ; printed 1^02. Nantes, Edict of, tolerating Protestants, issued April 13, 159S; revocation, Oct. 22, 1685. Needles first made in England by a native of India in 1545; re-invented by Christopher Green- ing in 1560. Netherlands, revolt of, 1565 to 1580. New Orleans, Battle of, Jan. 8, 1815, Jackson defeating the British. Captured by Farragut April 26, 1862. Newspaper. The first authentic newspaper was printed in 1494; first daily, Frank/ort Gazette, 1615. The first English was the Weekly /veives, 1622; the first in France, Gazette de Francf, 1631. The first advertisement appeared in 164S. The first American newspaper was printed in Boston, Sept. 25, i6go, and was called Publick Occurrences, Foreign and Domestic. The first continuously printed in America was the Boston Netvs Letter, 1702; first daily. The Pennsyh'ania Packet, 1784, Nullification Ordinance passed by South Carolina Nov. 19, 1S32. The proclamation of President Jackson denouncing the same was issued Dec. 10, 1832. Omnibuses were first used in New York in 1S30. Organs WL-re invented in 750, Ostend Manifesto, issued Oct. 21, 1S54. Paper Hang'ingrs. The invention of hangings ot paper to t.ike llie place of other more costly hangings, has been attributed to a manufacturer of paper hangings, named Breiikopf, of Leipsic. That kind known as velvet-paper is said 10 have been invented by Jerome Lanyer, an English- man, who received a patent lor it in 1634, al- though the invention has also been claimed for Francois, a Frenchman, who is asserted to have introduced it at Rouen in 1620. Paper made of cotton, in use in 1000. Made of linen rags in 1319. First introduced in England in 1588. White paper first made there in 1690. Paper was made from straw in 1800. Paper Money first used in America in 1740, and revived in 178S. Parchment invented by King Attains, of Per- g.inuis, bi-7 r. C. Patent Right Law^ first enacted in U. S., April 15, 179^.. Paving with Stones lirst introduced at Purls in 1 1S6. Philadelphia was foundtd by William Pcnn in 168^. Kiuis, native American and Irish, May 6 to 8, 1844. Penny Post introduced for London and its sub- urb-, by an upholsterer named Murray in 1681. Adopteil by the government in 1711. First set up in 1 774 in Dublin. C.irrled out on an enlarged scale in 1794, and made atwopenny post in 1801. Pens. Ihe style, or point or bone an 1 metal, which was used for writing on tables coated with wa.\,gave place to the reed, poinled and split, and used as a pen with some colored litjuids. These were gradually abandoned in favor of quills. The first known record of (luills being used for pens is that of Isidore, who died In 636' but supposed to have been introduced at an earlier date. The substitution of steel fur quill pens took place early in the present century, yet, strange to say, nothing is known with certainty of the person who first invented the metallic pen. Phonograph invented in 1877 by T. A. Edison. Phosphorus first made in 1677. Photog-raphs were first produced in England in 18.. J ; iii-rlecied in 1841. Pianoforte i:ivented about 1710 in Italy. Pilgrims l.mded at Plymouth, Mass., Dec. 21, i(,2o, alihough the date is commonly given as Dec. 22. \ V A DICTIONARY OF DATES. ^ 339 Pins were brought from France, and first used in England by Caihcrine Howard. Queen of Henry VIH. Before ihat time both scxts used ribbons, loop-holes, iaccs with points and tags, hooks and eyes, and small skewers made of gold, silver, ami bra-.s. Pins were first made by machinery in Am.-rica in iSj;2. Pipes of Xiead, for walcr, first cast in 1539. Pistols first used by the cavalry in 1544. Pitch and tar first made from pit coal at HristuI in i77[). Plaster of PcixiS. Castinc with it from the f.iLf iiiveiued in 1470. Porcelain "f Sa\ony greatly improved in 1767. Port- Holes introduced fur ships of war in 1545. Post-Offi.Ce first established between Vienna and Brussels in 1516. Po^ts established regiiUirly between Lontlon and all the principal town>4 throughont England 11 1635. Postage stamps were introduced in England in 1840; in the United Stales in iG.v7. Pottery improved greatly by Wedgwood in Printing'. The Assyrians and Babylonians used clay tablets, and wooden blocks were used by the Chinese as early as 952. Printing from movable types was invented by Faust in 1441, and made public by Gutenberg in 14341 -ilthough the invention is also claimed for L. Koster of Haarlem as early as 14:13. The first Hible was printed by Faust and Schoflfcr in 1456, and they also printed the first book with date, a Laiiii Psalter, in 1457. Wooden type first introduced into England, by William Caxton, a London merchant, in 1477. The first English press was set up in Westminster Abbey, where it remained until 1494. The first American book, " Escala Espiritual," was printed by Juan Hablas, Mexico, about 1535. Tlie first press in the United States was that of St';phen Daye, at Cambridge, Mass., 1639. Printing in colors was first introduced in Pyramids tirst erected about 2170 B.C. Q.uicksilver first used for refining silver ore in Railroad. The first passenger railroad was opened in England Sept. 27, 1825; the first in America, lialiimore anil Ohio, 182S, alihougli freight was moved by rail at the granite nuarrics of Quincy, Mass., as early as 1826. Tne first steam railroatl was operated in the United States in 1830, from Albany to Schenectady — 16 miles. Reformation m Germany, 1517; in England, Republican Party. The first convention was helrl at rmsburgh, Feb. 22, 1856. Resumption of Specie T'ayments in the United States — Act approved 1875; took effect Jan. 1, 1879. Ribbon Looms. It has been asserted that these looms were first known to the Swiss, but other»claim their invention for a German in the town of Danlzic in the iGth century. Rulingr-MacbineS invemeil by a Dutcliman in London \n 1792. Saddles. Pliny informs us that one, Pele- throiiiiis, was the first to introduce a piece of leather fastened to the back of a horse fur the accommodation of its rider. For a long time these cloths and pieces of leather were rcgardeil as immanly, and were, therefore, regarded by soldiers with great scorn. The old German races despised the Roman cavalry for riding on such effeminate contrivances. Saddles of the kind now used appear to have been in use in 385. Side-saddles first used in 1380, Previous to their introduction women always rode astride. Sailcloth fir>.t made in England in 1590. Saltinjo: Herrings after the Dutch method first used ill 1.116. Saltpeter first manufactured in England, in 1625. Saws. Theinventor of thesawts said, by the old Greek writers, to be Talus or Pcrdox. Pliny ascribes the mvcntjon to Dccdalus.but Hardouin affirms that the passage in which he tlocs so refers to Talus, and not toDocdalus. Talus was the son of a sister of Dccdalus, and the invention is said to be due to his using the jawbone of a snake lo cut through a piece of wood. His master grew jealous of the honor Talus won by this in- vcniton, and caused him to be privately put to de.Uli. Sedan Chairs introduced into England in 1734. Sewing Machine first patented in England, in 1735. The first complete machine was con- structed by an American, Elias Howe, in 1846. Sextant invented by Tyflio Brahe, at Augsburg, Shay's Rebellion, in Massachusetts, 1786-87. Sleepingr-Cars were first used in 1B58. Pull- in, ui's patent d.ites from 1S64. Soap first made in Lonrlon and Bristol In 1524. Tlic first e.\prcss mention of soap appears in Pliny and G.ilen. The former speaks of it as an invention of the Gaids. Speaking'-TrumpetS invented by Kircher, a Jesuit, 111 I'js'. Spinning-- Wheel invented at Brunswick, 1530. Spectacles invented by Spina, a monk, of Pisa, u) 1^99. Stamp Act enacted ALarch 22, 17G5; repealed March 19, 1766. Statutes "f the United States first revised and codilied ia 1873. Steam. The steam engine boilerwas discovered by the Marquis of Worcester, in 1663. New- commen's engine was patented in 1 705, and the in- vention was perfected by James Watt, in 1773. The high pressure engine was invented by an American, Oliver Evans, in 1779. The first steam vessel of which there is any record was that of Papin (France^ in 1707. Then follow those of Jonathan Hulls (England), 1736; Will- iam Henry {Conestoga river. Pa.), 1763; James Rumsey (Md.), 1786; John Fitch {Defaware river), same year. In 1806 Robert Fulton con- structed the Clermont, which plied regularly be- tween New York and Alb.iny, at a speed of five miles per hour. The first steamer crossing the .Atlantic made the voyage from Savannah to Liverpool in twenty-five days, A.D. 1819. Steel. The invention of steel is of very great an- tu|uity, as the process of hardening iron is de- scribed in the Old Testament (Isaiah xliv, 12). The helmet of Hercules, described in Hesiod, appears to have been of steel. Homer refers to the process of hardening steel by immersing it, while red hot, in cold water. Stereotype Printing invented by William ( oil, a gi>ldsnii h, ul l!ldinburgh, in 1735. Stirrups, according to a statement matle by the Emperor Mauritius, were first used in the 6th century. Hippocrates and Galen speak of a disease which, in their time, was occasioned by long and fre(iuent riding, because the legs hung down without any support. Sugar is first mentioned in 625 by Paul Fginetla, a physician. It came originally from China and the East; was produced in Sicily in 1148, in Madeira in 1419, in the Canary Islands in 1503, and in the West Indies by the Portuguese and Spaniards in 1510. In 1641 it was cultivated at Barbadoes. Sugar-refining was first carried out by a Venetian in 1503, and this process was adopted in F^ngland in 1569. Sugar cane was first cultivated in the United States in 1751, near New Orleans, the first sugar mill being con- structed in 1758. Sunday Schools were first established by Robert Kaike^, Gloucester, England, in 1781. Sun-dials invented 558 B.C. The first in Rome, 308 ]i.C.,w.is that erected by Papirius Cuisor, when time w.is divideil into hours. Tanningr Leather. A new and more expedi- liuus method than that previously in use was invented in 1795. Tax. I'hc first tax levied on the people w.-xs by Solon, 54 t B.C. Tea fir^t known in Europe in iGio, being brought from India by the Dutch. Teleerraphs fmcchanic.»l) invented in 1687. First useu hy the French in 1794. and by the English in 1 796. The first electric telegraph was operated from Paddington to Drayton, England, in 1835. the same year in which Morse's telegraph was invented. The first telegraph line in operation in America was between Baltimore and Washing- ton in 1844. The first submarirte cable was laid in i8>i, between Dover and Calais, and the first Atlantic cable was operated in 1858. Telephone. A. Graham Bell first presented a speaking telephone at the Centennial txposilion, Philadelphia, in 1876. Telescopes. The first reflecting telescope made on the principle discovered by Sir Isaac Newton in 1692. Thread first made at Paisley in 1722. Thermometers first invented by Drebcl. a Dutchni.oi. in i6jo ; improved by Reaumur in 1730, and by Fahrenheit in 1749. Tobacco was first introduced into England, from Virginia, in 1583. ^ Union of England antes. Wild-Fire invcntird by a Greek in 663, Wilmot Proviso, to restrict slaver>', oflTered in the House of Representatives, Aug. 8, 1846, by David Wilmot, of Pa. Wire invented at Nuremberg in 1351. Wire-Drawinff. The first record we have of this .irt IS probably that contained in Holy Writ, where we are told that gold \4.is beaten and cut to threads, so that it could be interwoven in cloth. The present mode of forming metallic threads, that known as wire-drawing, was first known in the 14th cenlurj'. Woolen Cloth, .-\tthough the making of woolen cloth is one of the most ancient arts, its manufacture was not known in France until 1646, when it was made at Sedan. It was first made in England in 1331, but was not dyed or dressed untrl \.M^-,. Yellowstone National Park established by Act of Congress, Fcl*. 28, 1871. / \ \ 340 SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT. /I . •^^^^i 111 -'^f ii^t ii'rai ^ 19 # lil 'C'^' O^i ff''^^^ ^^^ ^^" '^^Tx'^'^ "v^'^'^* I5-^:i!5N:?-!^^^'3 j^ pimple Explaoahioo of all ti^e ^c\euee<^. "■ffT E are all children of one Father, and His works it should be our delight to study. As the child, standing by its parent's knee, asks explanations alike of the simplest phenomena and of the most profound problems, so should man, turning to Nature, the living, visible oracle of his Creator, continually ask for knowledge. In scientific language, Nature is defined as "the united totality of all that the senses can perceive ; " in the language of theology, it "embraces everything that cannot be made by man," hence is synonymous with " God's crea- tion" In Nature there is no such thing as chance. Every effect has its cause, as Nature herself is but a name for an effect whose cause is God. When Newton observed an apple fall to the ground he asked the cause, and in answer to his inquiry came one of the grandest discoveries of science — a discovery which let in a flood of light upon the human mind, and led the way to the true knowledge of many things theretofore .shrouded in error or mystery. Montgolfier first conceived the idea of air-balloons while watch- ing fogs floating in the atmosphere, and all the '&- wonderful discoveries of science may thus be traced to simple phenomena, carefully pondered and diligently studied in all their bearings as to cause and effect. " Nature," says Whipple, " does not capri- ciously scatter her secrets as golden gifts to lazy pets and luxurious darlings, but imposes tasks when she presents opportunities, and uplifts him whom she would inform. The apple that she drops at the feet of Newton is but a coy invita- tion to follow her to the stars." The greatest philosophers have been those who have clung to the demonstrative sciences, and have held that a simple truth, well ascertained, is greater than the most ingenious theory founded upon questionable premises. The discoveries of Newton have borne the searching test of time because he snatched at nothing, leaped over no chasm to establish a favorite dogma, but learned to read Nature correctly by regarding the merest trifles as well as the highest phenomena. Thus he discovered a letter in each atom, a word in each blade of grass, a sentence in each phe- nomenon, and in the volume thus composed he read the wisdom and the power of the Almighty. Every flower, every ray of light, every drop of -A SCIENTIFIC»DEPARTMENT. 341 dew, each flake of snow, the lowering cloud, the bright sun, the pale moonj the azure of the heavens by day and the twinkling stars of night, all are eloquent of the great Hand that made thcni. From the earliest ages man has sought to read the open leaves of the book of Nature, but even now, after centuries of research and dis- covery, he docs not grasp it all, cause and effect being followed up step by step until the mind is lost in the search. One discovery only leads to another, and the scientist of twenty centuries hence will be compelled to acknowledge that one-half of the wonderful book is still a mys- tery. However, all may peruse its pages, and all will find pleasure and profit in observing what is daily going on around them in earth, sea and sky. It is, indeed, only by a study of the material world that discoveries are accom- plished. Let an attentive observer watch a ray of light passing from the air into the water, and he will see it deviate from the straight line by refraction. Let him seek the origin of a sound, and he will discover that it results from a shock or a vibration. This is physical science in its infancy. In the pages following it is purposed to pre- sent in brief and entertaining form much useful as well as practical scientific knowledge. It has been sought to convey to the mind of the un- initiated, in as simple and practical a way as possible, a general idea of the various branches of science, as well as to state scientific facts briefly and in proper consecutive order, in such a manner that the advanced student may freshen his memory and revive his interest. Technical terms have been avoided as much as possible, and where they are used of necessity the con- text will furnish ample explanation. When a person who is a stranger seeks to be directed to some point in a large and poorly laid-out city, whose streets, courts and places start from everywhere and end nowhere, cross- ing each other in a perverse and confusing man- ner, it were worse than useless to attempt to give him all the directions at once. The better way would be to point out to him the general direction, and then let him inquire as he pro- gresses on the journey. In this connection it may be said that there is nothing so conducive to loss of time as short cuts to those who are not familiar with them. They generally verify the axiom that " Haste makes waste." Willi these introductory remarks we will take the reader to the broad fields of Science, and point out to him the general direction of the respec- tive paths, noting in our way the most promi- nent turns, and if our readers desire more spe- cific information we will refer them to the writings of those great men who have devoted their lives to the solution of Nature's problems, and have enabled us to give the reason for many things which, but for their genius and unremit- ting labors, would still be shrouded by the veil of ignorance. Among the various works that have aided in the familiar exposition of science presented in this work may be mentioned the following : " Les Recreations Scicntifiques," by Gaston Tissandier ; " Astronomy," in the series of iV«c/ Works on Physics by J. A. Giilet and W. J. Rolfe ; " Physik und Meteorologie," by Dr. E. Lommel ; "The Teacher's E.xaniiner," by A. H. Thompson ; " Guide to Familiar Science," by Rev. E. C. Brewer ; " Lockyer's Solar Physics," Njwcomb's " Popular Astronomy," etc., etc. We desire in an especial manner to thank Pro- fessors Rolfe and Giilet for the use of a number of beautiful and accurate astronomical illustra- tions from their excellent work. / _\ 342 . NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. !K:5 ACURAL B RILOWPRY PHYSICS ANO CHEMISTRY. HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS. OPTICS AND ' ACOUSTICS. il: MAGNETISM and ELECTRICITY. THE FORCES OF NATURE, AND THE LAWS WHICH GOVERN THEM. THE ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. nATURE is revealed to us by objects and by phenomena. An object is a thing which occupies space and which is susceptible to feeling and to sight. The heavenly bodies may also be classed as objects, although we cannot touch them. Phenoviena include those results which are perceptible by only one sense, as thunder. Liglit and sound may also be classed as phenomena. A stone is a natural object. We take it up, open our fingers, and it falls. The motion of that object is a phe- nomenon. We know it falls because we see it fall, and it possesses what we term weight; but we cannot tell why it possesses weight. A cause of a phenomenon being independent of human will is called a foixe, and the stone falls by the force of gravitation^ or that natural law wliich compels every material object to approach every other material object. A single force may produce a great number of plienomena. Nature being revealed to us by objects, and by means of phenomena, we have two branches of science extending from such roots, namely, Natural History, the Science of Objects; and Natural Philosophy, the Science of Phenomena. Both of these branches have been subdivided thus : Natural History. Natural Philosophy. \ Biology, referring to Minerals, etc. I Zoology, referring to Anim.als. liotany, referring to Plants. Mineralogy, ) Geology, y { Physics. Phenoiltena without essential change Iof the objects. Chemistry. Phenomena with change of the objects. Physiology. Phenomena of animated objects. The two great divisions comprehend, in their extended senses, all that is known respecting the material world. We have spoken of objects. Objects occupy space. What is space ? Space is magnitude which can be conceived as extend- ing in three directions — length, breadth and depth. Matter occupies portions of space, which is infinite. Matter, when finite, is termed a body or object. A molecule is the smallest portion of a body which we can conceive of as retaining its identity. An atom is a division of a molecule. Suppose we take a quantity of water and conceive it to lie divided until we reach a limit. The last particle which we could call water would be a molecule. Now let a current of elec- tricity be passed through a quantity of water, and it is separated into two gases, essentially different from each other, and differ- ent from water. A given quantity of water will produce a certain quantity of gas, the proportion in volume of the two kinds being as i to 2. If one pint, say, of water produces one volume of one gas, and two of the other, one-half pint would produce one-half the amount of one gas and one-half the amount of the other, and so on down until we have made the ultimate division, which, for convenience, we call a molecule. Then we can truly say that the molecule is composed of two parts of one gas and one part of the other, and for convenience we call these parts of the molecules, atoms. Physics deals only with masses and molecules. Chemistry deals with atoms. When we tear a piece of paper in pieces, or grind it to a pulp, we separate molecules and have effected a physical change only. When we burn the paper in the fire we separate atoms and have effected a chemical change. In tlie first case we have effected a change of form, but the matter is identically the same. In the second case, the gases and ashes produced by the burning are totally different, and the paper has lost its identity. The sounding of a bell and the falHngof a stone axe physical phenomena, for the object which causes the sornd or tlie fall undergoes no change. Heat is set free when coal burns, and this disengagement of heat is a physical phenomenon; but the change during combustion which coal undergoes is a chemical phenomenon. / -^l Q fc^ NATURAL PHHrf)SOPHY — PHYSICS.: 343 The General Properties of Matter Are magnitude, impenelrability, inertia, diviiibitity, porosity, elasticity, coinpressibility, expansibility and indestructibility. Magnitude is the property of occupying s]\icc. Size is the amount of space a body lilts. Every body has three dimensions — length, breadth and thickness; and, in order to measure these, some standard of measurement is required. Impenetrability is the property of so occupying space as to exclude all other bodies ; for no two bodies can occupy the same space at the same time. We sometimes speak of one sub- stance jicnetrating another. Thus, a needle penetrates clolh, a nail penetrates wood, etc. ; but on a moment's reflection it will be plainly seen that they merely push aside the fibers of the eloth or wood, and so press tliem closer together. Inertia is the property of passiveness. Matter has no power of putting itself in motion when at rest. A body will never change its place unless moved, and if once started will move forever unless stopped. It is difficult to start a wagon because we have to overcome its inertia, which tends to keep it at rest. When the wagon is in motion it requires as great an exertion to stop it, since then we have again to overcome its inertia, which tends to keep it moving. Inertia causes the danger of jumping from cars when in motion. The body has the speed of the train, while the motion of the feet is stopped by contact with the ground. One should jump as nearly as he can in the direction in which the train is moving, and with his muscles strained, so as to break into a run the instant his feet touch the ground. Then with all his strength lie can gradually overcome the inertia of his body, and after a few feet can turn as he pleases. Divisibility is that property of a body which allows it to be separated into parts. It would be impossible to find a particle so small that it still could not be made smaller. Practically speaking, there is no limit to the divisibility of matter; but philosophers hold that there is in theory. When we attempt to show how far matter can be divided, the brain refuses to grasp the infinity. A pin's head is a small object, but it is gigantic com- pared to some animals, of which millions would occupy a space no larger than the head of a pin. These tiny animals must have organs and veins, and those veins must be full of blood globules. Prof. Tyndall says a drop of blood contains three millions of red globules. But there is something even more astonishing than this. It is stated that there are more animals in the milt of a single codfish than there are men in the' world ; and that one grain of sand is larger than four millions of these animals, each of which must be possessed of life germs of an equal amount, which would grow up as it grew to maturity. This carries us back again, and " Imagination's utmost stretch In wonder dies away." Porosity is the property of having pores. By this is meant not only such pores as are familiar to all, and to which we refer when, in common language, we speak of a porous body, as bread, wood, unglazed pottery, a sponge, etc., but a finer kind, as in- visible to the eye as the .atoms themselves. These pores are caused by the fact that the molecules of which a body is com- posed are not in actual contact, but are separated by extremely minute sp.ices. Elasticity is classed both among the general and the specific properties of matter. It is thought that all bodies have elas- ticity, yet some have it in such a degree that it serves to dis- tinguish them from other bodies. Compressibility is that property of matter by virtue of which it may be made to occupy less space. It is a result of porosity, the molecules being pressed closer together. Expansibility is the opjiosite of compressibility. Indestructibility is the jiroperty which renders matter inca- pable of being destroyed. No particle of matter can be annihi- lated, except by God, its creator. We may change its form, but we cannot deprive it of existence. The Specific Properties of Matter Are those which are found only in p.articular kimls of matter. The most important are ductility, malleability, tenacity, elas- ticity, hardness and brittleness. A ductile body is one which can be drawn into wire. Some of the most ductile are gold, silver, and platinum. A malleable body is one which can be hammered or rolled into sheets. Gold is the most malleable of all metals, and can be beaten into sheets 552V55 of an inch in thickness. Copper is so malleable that it is said that a workman, with his hammer, can beat out a kettle from a solid block of the metal. A tenacious body is one which cannot be easily pulled apart. Iron is the most tenacious of the metals. There are three kinds of elasticity — elasticity of compression, elasticity of expansion, and elasticity of torsion. Solids — Liquids — Gases. Matter is present in Nature in three conditions. We find it as a. solid, a liquid, and a. gas. To test the actual existence of matter in one or other of these forms our senses help us. We can touch a solid, or taste it and see it. But touch is the test. A solid is a body whose molecules cohere so that their rela- tive positions cannot be changed without the application of con- siderable force. A solid will retain any shape given it. A lii/uid is a body whose molecules cohere so slightly that their relative positions may be changed on the application of slight force. A liquid will assume the fonn of the vessel con- taining it, and the free surface will always be horizontal, each molecule seeking its lowest level by the force of gravity. A gas is a body whose molecules sep.irate almost indefinitely from each other. Essentially there is no difierence between a gas and a vapor. The term gas is generally applied to those bodies which are ordinarily in a ga.seous state, and the term vapor to that which is formed by heating a licjuid or solid. Steam is the vapor of water, but it is a gas as much as oxygen or hydrogen. The Forces of Nature. Force is a cause — the cause of motion or of rest. It requires force to set an object in motion, and this object would never stop unless some other force or forces preventeil its movement -N / 344 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- PHYSICS. beyond a certain point. Force, therefore, is the cause of a change of " state " in matter. The forces of Nature are three in number — gravity, cohesion, and affinity, or chemical attraction. Gravity. Gravity, ox gravitation, is the mutual attraction between dif- ferent portions of matter acting at all distances — the force of attraction being, of course, in proportion to the respective mass of the bodies. The greatest body, so far as our purposes are concerned, is the earth, and the attraction of the earth is gravity, or what we call weight. If we jump from a chair we shall come to the floor, and if there were nothing between us and the actual ground, sufficient to sustain the force of the attracting power of tlie earth, we should fall to the earth's surface. In a teacup the spoon will attract air-bubbles, and large air-bubbles w ill attract small ones, till we find a small mass of bubbles formed in the center of the cup of tea. Divide this bubble, and the component parts will rush to the sides of the cup. Two balls of equal magnitude will attract each other with equal force, and will meet, if not opposed, at a point half-way between the two. But they do not meet, because the attraction of the earth is greater than the attraction they relatively and collectively exercise toward each other. If the size of the balls be different, the attraction of the greater will be more evident. FALLING BODIES. Gravity is the cause of the phenomena of falling bodies, be- cause eveiy object on the surface of the eanh is very much smaller than the earth itself, and, therefore, all bodies fall toward the center of the earth. On the earth a body, if let fall, will pass through a space of si.iteen feet in the first second ; and as the attraction of the earth still continues and is exercised on a body already in rapid motion, this rate of progress must be pro- portionately increased. The space a falling body passes through has been calculated, and found to increase in proportion to the square of the time it takes to fall. For instance, suppose you drop a stone from the top of a cliff to the beach, and it occupies two seconds in falling. If you multiply 2 by 2 and the result by 16, you will find how high the cliff is — 64 feet. The depth of a well can be ascertained in the same way, leaving out the effect of air resistance. But if we go up into the air, the force of gravity will be diminished. The attraction will be less, because we are more distant from the center of the earth. This decrease is scarcely, if at all, perceptible, even on very high mountains, because their size is not great in comparison with the mass of the earth's sur- face. The rule for this is that gravity decreases in proportion to the square of the distance. So that if at a certain distance from the earth's surface the force of attraction be i, if the distance be doubled the attraction will be only one-quarter as much as be- fore — not one-half. Gravity has exactly the same influence upon all bodies, and the force of the attraction is in proportion to the mass. All bodies of equal mass will fall in the same time in a given dis- tance. Two corns, or a coin and a feather, in vacuo, will fall together. But in the air the feather will remain far behind the coin, because nearly all the atoms of the former are resisted by the air, while in the coin only some particles ai-e exposed to the resistance, the density of the latter preventing the air from reach- ing more than a few atoms, comparatively speaking. Drops of water falling from tlie clouds do not strike with a force proportional to the laws of falling bodies. This is because they are so small that the resistance of the air nearly destroys their velocity. If it were not for this wise provision, a shower of raindrops would be as fatal as one of minle bullets. The weight of a body varies on diffei-ent portions of the earth's surface. It will be least at the equator : (i J because, on account of the bulging form of our globe, a body is there pushed out from the mass of the earth, and so removed from the center of attraction ; {2) because the centrifugal force is there the strongest. It will be greatest at the poles : (i) because, on account of the flattening of the earth, a body is there brought nearer its mass and the center of attraction; (2) because there is no centrifugal force at those points. At the center of the earth the weight of a body is nothing, because the attraction is there equal in every direction. THE CENTER OF GRAVITY. The center of gravity is that point on which, if supported, a body will balance itself. In our daily actions are found many physiological applications of the center of gravity. When we wish to rise from the chair, we bend forward, in order to bring the center of gravity over our feet, our muscles not having sufficient strength to raise our bodies without this aid. And when we walk, we lean forward, so as to bring the center uf gravity as far in front as possible. SPECIFIC GR.WITY. Specific gravity is the weight of a substance compared ^\ itli the weight of the same bulk of another substance. It is re.dly a method of findnig tlie density of a body. Water is taken as the standard for solids and liquids, and air for gases. THE PENDULUM. The pendulum consists of a weight so suspended as to swing freely. Its movements to and fro are termed vibrations or oscillations. The path through which it passes is called the arc, and the extent to which it goes in either direction is styled its amplitude. As " heat expands and cold contracts," a pendulum increases in length in summer and shortens in winter. Therefore, a clock loses time in summer and gains in winter. CENTRIFUGAL AND CENTRIPETAL FORCE. Centrifugal force, wdiich means "flying from the center," is the force which causes an object to describe a circle with uni- form velocity, and fly away from the center. The force that counteracts it is called tlie centripetal force. To represent its action, an ordinary glass tumbler may be used. The tumbler should be placed on a round piece of card- board, held firmly in place by cords. Some water is then poured into the glass, and it can be swung to and fro and round, without the water being spilt, even when the glass is upside down. / _\1 N" NATURAL I'HIjrfJSOI'HV — PHYSICS. 345 Cohesion. Cohtiion is the attraction of particles of Ixjdies to each other at very small distances apart. Cohesion has received various names in order to express its various degrees. For instance, we say a body is tough or brittle, or soft or hard, according to the degrees of cohesion the particles e.xercise. We know if we break a glass we destroy the cohesion ; the particles cannot be reunited. Most liquid particles can be united, but not all. Oil will not mix with water. The force of cohesion depends upon heat. Heat expands everything, and the cohesion diminishes as temperature in- creases. Tliere are some objects or substances upon the earth the particles of which adhere much more closely than others, and can only be separated with very great difficulty. These are termed solids. There are other substances whose jjarticlcs can ca.sily be ilivided, or their position altered. These arc called fluids. .'\ third class seem to have little or no cohesion at all. Tliese are termed gases. ADHESION. Adhesion is also a form of altr.iction, and is cohesion existing on the surfaces of two bodies. When a fluid adheres to a solid we say the solid is wet. We turn this natural adhesion to our own purposes in many ways — we whitewash our walls, and paint our houses ; we paste our papers together, etc. On the other hand, many fluids will not adhere. Oil and water have already been instanced. Mercury will not stick to a glass tube, nor will the oiled glass tube retain any water. We can show the attraction and repulsion in the following manner : Let one "glass tube be dipped into water and another into mer- cury; you will see that the water will .isceml slightly at the side, owing to the attraction of the gbss, wliile the mercury will be higher in the center, for it possesses no attr.iction for the glass. If small, or what are termed capillary (or hair) tubes, be used, the water will rise up in the one tube, while in the other the mercury will remain lower than the mercury outside the tube. The law of adhesion is what necessitates the spout on a pitcher. The water would run down the side of the pitcher by the force of adhesion, but the spout throws it into the hands of gravitation before adhesion can catch it. Affinity, or Chemical Attraction. Affinity, or chemical attraction, is the force by which two different bodies unite to form a new and different body from either. This force will be fully considered in Chemistry. It is needless for us to dwell upon the uses of these forces of Nature. Gravity and cohesion being left out of our world, we can imagine the result. The earth and sun and planets would wander aimlessly about ; we should float away into space, and everything would fall to pieces, while our bodies would dissolve into tTieir component parts. Motion. Afotion is a change of place. Absolute motion is a change without reference to any other object. Relative motion is a change with reference to some other object. Kest is either absolute or relative. Velocity is the rate at which a body moves. Force, a.s has been said, is that which tends to protluce or destroy motion. The principal resistances to /notion arc friction, resistance of the air, and gravity. Friction is the resistance caused by the surface over which a body moves. If the surface of a body could be made perfectly smooth, there would be no friction ; but in spite of the most exact and complete polish, the microscope reveals minute projec- tions and cavities. Momentum is the quantity of motion in a body. Two laws of motion : :. A body once set in motion tends to move forever in a straight line. 2. A force acting upon a body, in motion or at rest, produces the same effect, whether it acts alone or with other forces. Circular motion is a variety of compound motion jirodnced by two forces, called the centrifugal and the centripetal. The former tends to drive a body from the center ; the latter tends to draw a body toward the center. Refected motion is produced by the reaction of any surface against which an elastic body is thrown. Curved motion. — Whenever two or more instantaneous forces act upon a body, the resultant is a straight line. When one is instantaneous and the other continuous, it is a curved line. And when a body is thrown into the air, unless it be in a vertical line, it is acted upon by the instantaneous force of projection and the continuous force of gravity, and so passes through a line which curves toward the earth. Machines linable us to apply and direct the forces of nature. The lever and the inclined plane, and their modifications, the screw, the wedge, the wheel and axle and the pulley, constitute the elemen- tary fonns of machinery. Power or energy, multiplied by the distance through which it moves, equals the weight, load or resistance multiplied by the distance. The fundamental law is, that what is gained in power is lost in time or distance. Thus, two pounds of power moving through ten feet equals twenty pounds moving through one foot. A lever is an inflexible bar capable of turning on a fixed point. The force used is called the power, the object to be moved, the weight, and the fixed point or pivot, the fulcrum. There are three kinds of levers, .as follows: I. Power at one end, weight at the other, fulcrum lictween them. 2. Power at one end, fulcrum at the other, and weight between them. 3. Fulcrum at one end, weight at the other, and power between them. The compound lever consists of several levei-s connected together in such a way that the short arm of one acts upon the long arm of the next, and so on. The wheel and axle is a modification of the lever in which the center of the axis of the wheel is the fulcrum, the distance from the rim of the wheel to the axis, or the length of the crank, the long arm, and the distance from the circumference of the axis to its center, its short arm. The/«//c/is a modification of the lever in which the distances -\ K" 346 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- PHYSICS. from the axis to the circumference represent equal arms of the lever. No advantage is gained in a fixed pulley except change of direction. By means of a number of movable pulleys the power distance is increased, the cord having to pass through a greater distance to gain greater power. The inclined plane is a smooth, hard surface inclmed so as to make an angle with direction of the force to be overcome. Comparing it .with the lever, the length corresponds to the long arm and the height to the short arm. The wedge is simply a movable inclined plane, its power depending upon friction as well as upon its form. The scre^v is an inclined plane wound around a cylinder. Perpetual Motion. Nothing can be more utterly impracticable than to make a machine capable of perpetual motion. No machine can pro- duce power ; it can only direct that which is applied to it. We know that in all machinery there is friction ; hence, this must ultimately exhaust the power and bring the motion to rest. These principles show the uselessness of all such attempts. HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS. J/ydroslatics treats of liquids at rest. Its principles apply to all liquids, but water, on account of its abundance, is taken as the type of the class, and all experiments are based upon it. Liquids transmit pressure in all directions. PaseaFs law is as follows : Pressure exerted anywhere upon a mass of liquid is transmitted, undiminished, in all directions, and acts with the same force upon equal surfaces, and in a direction at right angles to those surfaces. A necessary inference from this law- is that surfaces of vessels sustain a pressure proportional to their area. A practical application of Pascal's law is the hydrostatic press, more generally called the hydraulic press. This is a very powerful machine, liy means of which a pressure of several hun- dred tons may be obtained. Artesian wells are so named because they have been used for a long time in the province of Artois, in France ; "they were, however, employed by the Chinese, from early ages, for the pur- pose of procuring gas and salt water. These are on the principle above stated, tliat liquids press equally in all directions — that water " always seeks its level." By boring through strata of rocks, or earth impervious to water, and striking a Irasin of water which has descended from a greater height, through a porous strata, a well is formed which throws water to almost the height of tlie fountain head, being retarded only by friction and resist- ance of the air. The surface of slanding water is said to be level ; this is true for small sheets of water, but for larger bodies an allowance must be made for the circular figure of the earth. The spirit level is an instrument used by builders for leveling ; it consists of a slightly curved glass tube, so nearly full of alco- hol that it holds only a bulible of air. When the level is hori- zontal, the bubble remains at the center of the tube. Modern engineers carry water across a river by means of pipes laid under the bed of the river, knowing that the water will rise on the opposite side to its level. The ancients appear to have understood this principle, but were unable to construct pipes capable of resisting the pressure. Hydraulics treats of liquids in motion. In this, as in hydro- statics, water is taken as the type. In theory, its principles are those of falling bodies, but they are so modified by various causes that in practice they cannot be relied upon, except as verified by experiment. The discrepancy arises from changes of temperature, which vary the fluidity of the liquid, from friction, the shape of the orifice, etc. A fall of only three inches per mile is sufficient to give motion to water, and produce a velocity of as many miles per hour. The Ganges descends but Soo feet in 1,800 miles; its waters require a month to move down this long inclined plane. A faU of three feet per mile will make a mountain torrent. Barker's Mill consists of an upright cylinder with horizontal arms, and with apertures in the opposite sides, the cylinder being so arranged as to turn easily. When water is poured into the cylinder, the pressure being equal in all directions, it would remain at rest, did it not flow out at the orifices, thus relieving tlie pressure on the one side, causing the arm to move in the opposite direction and the cylinder to revolve. The Turbine water-wheel is a practical application of this principle. PNEUMATICS Treats of the general properties and the pressure of gases. Gases have weight, compressibility, expansibility aiid elas- ticity, and the principles of transmission of pressure, specific gravity and buoyancy of liquids apply to them as well. The pressure of the air has been several times referred to. The force of air can very soon be shown as acting with considerable pres- sure on an egg in a glass. By blowing in a small wine glass, containing a hard-boiled egg, it is possible to cause the egg to jump out of the glass, and with practice and strength of lungs it is not impossible to make it pass from one glass to another. The force of heated air ascending can be ascertained by cutting a card into a spiral and holding it above a lamp or a stove. The spiral, if lightly poised, will revolve rapidly. The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of air, and consists essentially of an apparatus, first used by Torri- celli, who took a glass tube about a yard in length, closed at one end, and filled it with mercury. Placing his thumb over the closed end, he immersed it in a vessel of mercury. Removing his thumb, the mercury sank until it stood at the height of 30 inches. The space above the mercury was as nearly a complete vacuum as has ever been attained. By this experiment he proved that the pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the weight of a column of liquid which it will sustain. The barometer is used to indicate tlie weather, and to measure the height of mountains. Three opposing forces act on the air, viz.: gravity, which binds it to the earth, and the centrifugal and the repellant (Iieat) forces, wlrich tend to hurl it off' into space. Under the action of the latter forces, the atmosphere, like a great bent spring, is ready to bound away at tlie first opportunity ; but the attraction of the earth holds it firmly in its place. ki .:y i^ NATURAL JIHILOSOPHY- PHYSICS. 347 The rise and fall of the barometric column shows that the air is lighter ill foul and heavier in fair weather. In fair weather, the moisture of the air is an invisible vapor, mingled with it, and adding to its pressure, while in foul weather the vapor is sepa- rated in the form of clouds. The common pump is an application of air pressure. The piston, or sucker, being raised, the water is forced up the tube by the pressure of the air on the surface of the water in the well, there being no resistance in the tube, for the piston lifts out the air. As the piston descends, the valve in it opens upward and allows the water to pass through above the valve, which, closing as it rises again, the water is lifted out and more is forced into the tube below. Owing to the necessary imperfection of the parts, water cannot be raised by atmospheric pressure more than about 27 feet. The air-pump is a machine for removing the air from within a vessel. It consists of a cylinder supplied with a valve open- ing inward and one ojiening outward, and a piston fitting accu- rately. When th.e piston is raised, tlie air rushes into the cylinder through the first valve to fill the vacuum. As the cylinder descends, the air closes the first valve and opens the second, and is driven out, every stroke of the piston thus removing a portion of air. The escape valve may be in the side of the cylinder or in the piston itself. The sip/ion consists of a tube, bent in the shape of a letter U, with unequal arms. Fill the siphon with water, closing both ends with the fingers. Insert the short arm in a vessel of water, with the long arm on the outside, with its end lower than the end of the short arm. The column of water in the long arm will run out by its own weight, and the tendency would be to produce a vacuum in the bend of the tube, but the water is forced up by the pressure of air through the short arm, and thus the stream is kept up so longas the outside arm is lower at its orifice than the orifice of the inside arm. The flow may be started by exhausting the air from the long arm by suction, and then it will not be necessary to fill the siphon with water. ACOUSTICS. Acoustics treats of the doctrine of sound. The term sound is used in two senses — the subjective, that which ha.s reference to int) at the rate of 1,090 feet per second. A rise in temperature diminishes the density of the air, and thus sound travels faster in warm and slower in cold air. Through water sound travels at the rate of 4,700 feet per second. Water is denser than air, and for that reason sound should travel in it much slower; but its elasticity, which is measured by the forje required to compress it, is so much greater that the rale is quadrupled. .Sound travels through solids faster than through air ; and the velocity in iron is nearly ten times greater. Under ordinary circumstances, all sounds travel with the same velocity. When a sound-wave strikes against the surface of another medium, a portion goes on while the rest is reflected. The law which governs reflected sound is that of reflected motion — fie angle of incidence is equal lo that of reflection. The air at night is more homogeneous than by day ; conse- lane. At the equator it is horizontal, but as it is carried toward the north it dips, or inclines toward the center of the earth. At a place near Hudson's Bay it stands vertical. This is ciUed the north magnetic pole. It does not coincide with the geographical pole. Electricity is that science which unfolds the ]>henomena and laws of the electric fluid. Electricity may be generated by means of friction, percussion, heat, cliemical action, cleavage, and by magnets. The effects of electricity in its various forms are manifested as attraction, repulsion, light, heat, violent com- motions and chemical decomposition. The first method of producing electricity, discovered in the earlier ages, was by rulibing amber, and so the term electricity was derived from the Greek word elektron, signifying amber. It was aftenvard found that certain other suti^tances, when rubbed, assumed electrical properties, and would attract or repel other materials. This electricity produced by rubbing or fric- tion can be held for a considerable length of time, and hence it has received the name of stationary or statical electricity. This is the only form of electricity that we can store up and keep for a time. What is known now as the storage battery does not really store up electricity, but only energy, which can be trans- formed into electricity at will. Dynamical electricity, or electricity in motion, circulates only in a conductor or along a wire, and cannot be held. It w:S first discovered by Galvani in experimenting on frogs' legs, and hence it is often called galvanic electricity. It is now ordinarily produced by means of galvanic batteries and dynamo machines. The third form of electricity is called magnetic electricity, or magnetism. According to the generally accepted theory, there ai-e two so- called electrical fluids, and these two are commingled in equal proportions in all bodies ; and hence all the processes for getting electricity must result in puUing these two electrical fluids apart, and in taking a portion of one away from a body. These two fluids are called, one positive and the other negative electricity. It is found that when two bodies are electrified with the same kind of electricity they repel each other; but when the two bodies are charged with opposite kinds of elec- tricity, or when one body is charged with either kind while the other is left in its normal condition, then the two bodies attract each other. When a piece of sealing-wax is rubbed it manifests electrical properties for some time, but certain other substances, like mctali, for instance, after being rubbed in the same manner, show no electrical properties, and this is because the electricity easily gets away from them. Thus we find that wliile certain substances remain electrified for some time, others do not, and hence these bodies are named conductors and non-conductors. These terms are not absolute, but only comparative. Tlie metals, carbon, gypsum and acids are called good conductors, while amber, glass, sulphur and silk are poor conductors. If we want to insulate electricity and keep it from running off into surrounding objects, we surround the object containing it with a poor conductor. Thus, the glass insulators on telegraph poles prevent the electricity from leaving the wires and running oft' into the ground, and the non-conducting materials placed around the wires of the Atlantic cable so protect it that a small charge of electricity will carry a message from here to Europe. Great difficulty is experienced in experimenting with statical electricity, because it so easily gels away. All substances are conductors to a greater or less degree, including the dust in the air and the moisture in the atmosphere. Perfect insulation and a warm, dry air are, therefore, favorable conditions for holding st.itical electricity. The reason it w'as not used earlier for prac- tical purposes was because it was so difiicult to manage. The electricity which is produced on glass by friction is called vitreous or positive, while that produced in the same manner on shellac or sealing-wax is called resinous or negative electricity. All bodies are, as has been said, charged w'ith an equal amount of the two electrical fluids called positive and negative, but when a body is electrified these two fluids are separated so tliat one / \ NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. 35' remains in excess of tlie other. There is always a passage of the electrical fluid in two directions, along a conductor, but when the direction of the current is spoken of, it is the direction of the positive current that is always meant. Statical electricity can also be produced by pressure, as when certain crystals are firmly pressed together; by cleavage, as when two layers of mica are split apart; and by heat, as well as by friction. It may also be produced by torsion. It is found that the charge of electricity, if collected in a spherical body, is on the outside, and not within the body ; and if it is not a spherical body, the electricity collects chiefly at the ])art most nearly pointed. Electrical Machines. Machines for producing statical electricity are usually based on the friction method. The old-fashioned machine consisted of a circular glass plate, which was rotated between two cushions, and the electricity thus ]iroduced was taken ofl" and carried to a metallic cylinder, called the prime conductor, by means of metal points. Silk and glass as insulators prevented the electricity from running ofi" into neighboring objects. More recently machines have been constructed on the principle of induction, as illustrated in the electrophorus. The Leyden Jar. The condensation of electricity is illustrated in the Leyden jar. This is a sort of bottle, lined up to a short distance from its top, both inside and outside, by tin-foil, and in the stopper is a brass knob, which is connected with the tin-foil on the inside of the jar by a chain. When the knob is charged with positive elec- tricity from a machine, it collects on the tin-foil inside the jar, while a corresponding amount of negative electricity collects on the outside of the jar. By this means a large amount of elec- tricity may be collected and held by the jar until discharged, by making connection between the tinfoil on the inside and that on the outside of the jar. The electricity is held, not on the tin-foil, but on the surface of the glass. This is proved by means of a jar that can be taken to pieces after being charged. Although the two pieces of metal which lined the inside and outside are now brought in contact, yet when the whole is put together again, the charge is found to remain, and it is discharged by connecting the knob with the metal lining of the outside. All that these metal linings accomplish here is to make a large conducting sur- face over the whole of the glass upon which the electricity collects. The discharge of electricity from such a jar, or a battery of several of them connected, ])roduces a variety of results. The spark will pa.ss through a thin ])late of glass or a card, and make a hole in them by disrupting them ; or, in passing through points of metal, it he.its them to a high temperature and vaporizes them, so that we get luminous ciTccts from them. Lightning Is only the discharge of a Leyden jar on the grand scale upon which Nature performs her operations. Two clouds charged with opposite electricities, and separated by the non-conducting air, approach each other. When the tension becomes sufficient to overcome the resistance, the two forces rush together with a blincHng flash and terrific peal. The lightning moves along the line where there is the least resistance, and so describes a zig-zag course. If we can trace the entire length, we call it chain light- ning ; if we only see the flash through intervening clouds, it is sheet-lightning ; and if it is the reflection of distant discharges, we term it heat-lightning. The report of thunder is caused by the clashing of the atoms of displaced air. The rolling of the thunder is produced by the reflection of the sound from distant clouds. Sometimes the clouds and the earth become charged with opposite electricities, separated by the non-conducting air. Lightning-rods are based on the principle that electricity always seeks the best conductor. Providence has provided a harmless conductor in every leaf, spire of grass, and twig. A common blade of grass, pointed by Nature's ex(]uisite workmanship, is three times more eflcclual than the finest cambric needle, and a single pointed twig than the metallic point of the best constructed rod. The duration of the lightning flash has been estimated at one- millionth of a second. Some idea of its instantaneousness can be formed from the fact that the spokes of a wheel, revolved so rapidly as to become invisible by daylight, can be distinctly seen by a spark from a Leyden jar. Wheatstone considered the ve- locity of lightning through a copper wire to be 288,000 miles jier second. Lightning sometimes passes upwanl from the earth, both quietly and by sudden discharge. Dynamical Electricity. Now, a few words in regard to dynamical electricity. Galvani discovered, in experimenting on frogs, that when two pieces of metal, like copper and zinc, were placed in contact with the frog's leg and their ends connected, a movement of the leg would take place. Volta developed the voltaic pile, which at first consisted of alternate layers of zinc, wet paper, and copper, piled one on top of the other in varying numbers. It was found that when the top layer was connected with the bottom one, by means of wires, a current of electricity was set up. It became understood then, that the electricity was produced by the chem- ical action of the water in the paper on the zinc, and so more solvent fluids came to be used instead of water, and cloth was substituted for the paper. The Galvanic Battery Is simply a combination by which we jiroduce this chemical action, and zinc is the metal acted upon. If a piece of cojiper and a piece of zinc be placed in water, containing a little sul- phuric acid, and the ends of the copper and zinc be brought together, or connected by wires, a current of electricity will be established between them. A spark may be seen in the dark if the two wires are brought near together, but not in actual con- tact. This electricity is produced by the chemical action of the acid on the metal, and is called voltaic or galvanic electricity. A glass vessel containing the metals and acid is called a cell, and several cells connected together constitute the battery. The metal plate in which the chemical action is greatest is called the positive plate, and the other the negative plate. The free ends of the wires are called electrodes. The one attached to the posi- tive plate is the negative electrode, and vice versa. Ji, K" 352 / NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS. While zinc is universally used for one element, the second element in the battery may be composed of different kinds of metals, according to convenience. A difficulty in using zinc as the positive element was soon found in the fact that little local currents were set up between it and the impurities contained in it, and this caused an unneces- sary waste of the zinc. So it became customary to amalgamate the zinc in order to prevent this local action of the lluid upon it. The next improvement made was to prevent the little bubbles of hydrogen from collecting on the surface of the copper, thus keeping the liquid from coming in contact with it in all parts — that is, to prevent the "polarization" of the copper. For this pui-pose certain substances came to be used to absorb the hydrogen. The first of these substances was the sulphate of copper as used in the Daniells battery. This consisted of a copper vessel containing a porous cylinder in which was sus- pended a rod of zinc. Dilute sulphuric acid was contained in this cylinder, and in the copper vessel outside of the cylinder was placed a solution of the sulphate of copper. In this battery the hydrogen set free decomposes the sulphate of copper, form- ing with it sulphuric acid, and sets free copper which collects on the copper element. Grove's battery consists of a glass vessel containing a porous cup, surrounded on the outside by a coil of amalgamated zinc, and on the inside is suspended a rod of platinum, instead of copper. The vessel outside of the porous cup is filled with dilute sulphuric acid, and inside with strong nitric acid. The nitric acid absorbs the liydrogen set free by the sulphuric acid and zinc. In the bichromate battery, the bichromate of potash dissolved in sulphuric acid is used to absorb the hydrogen, and chromic acid is formed. So the three substances in use for absorbing the hydrogen in different kinds of batteries are sul- phate of copper, nitric acid and bichromate of potash. Bunseu suggested the use of gas carbon to take the place of the copper. I lis battery consists of a cylinder of carbon immersed in a vessel containing nitric acid, and within this cylinder is a porous cell containing sulphuric acid, in which the zinc is suspended. To avoid using the porous cups, the force of gravity has been brought into play in the construction of the so-called "gravity battery." This consists of a glass vessel with plates of copper at its bottom, and upon this crystals of sulphate of copper are scattered, while over all is poured pure water, in the upper por- tion of which is suspended a plate of zinc. A very little sulphuric acid is added to start the battery, and then its action will keep up. Gravity here keeps the two liquids apart — the solution of sulphate of copper at the bottom, and the dilute solution of sulphuric acid at the top. This battery produces a constant current, and will run for a very long time. The Leclanchc batteiy consists of a porous cup containing sal ammo- niac, in which is suspended a rod of zinc, and this cup is surrounded by the oxide of manganese as a depolarizer, immersed in which is the carbon. This battery is used when a current of electricity is desired for a very short time at once, as in striking burglar alamis, signal bells, etc. The galvanic bat- tery is now being replaced for many purposes by dynamo-electric machines. Electrolysis and Galvanoplasty. A current of electricity passed through certain substances will decompose them, and tliis process is called electrolysis. Water may, for example, be thus separated into two gases, oxygen and hydrogen. The process of depositing metals by means of elec- tricity is known ai galvanoplasty. Electroplating, sometimes called galvanizing, is the process of coating one metal with another by means of a galvanic battery. Gold and silver are deposited most readily on German silver, brass, copper, or nickel silver, the last mentioned being a composition of copper, zinc and nickel. Vessels to be plated with silver, for example, are thoroughly cleansed, and then hung in a solution of silver from the negative pole, while a plate of silver is suspended on the positive pole. In about five minutes a mere "blush" of the metal will be deposited, which perfectly conceals the baser metal and is susceptible of a high polish. A vessel is gold-lined by filling it with a solution of gold, sus- pending in it a slip of gold from the positive pole of the batteiy, and then attaching the negative pole to the vessel; while the current passing through the liquid causes it to bubble like soda- water, and in a few moments deposits a thin film of gold. Electrotyping is a process much used in copying medals, wood cuts, type, etc. An impression of the object is taken with gutta-percha, or wax ; the surface to be copied is l^rushed over with black-lead to render it a conductor. The mold is then suspended in a solution of sulphate of copper, from the negative pole of the battery; a plate of copper is hung opposite on the positive pole. The electric current decomposes the sulphate of copper ; the metal goes to the negative pole and is deposited upon the mold, while tlie acid, passing to the positive pole, dissolves the copper, and thus preserves the strength of the solution. The Electric Light, Telegraph, Etc. If a strong current of electricity is sent along a good con- ductor, it passes very easily; but if passed along a poor con- ductor, it makes it hot. This is the principle upon which is based the incandescent electric light. A current sent over a fine thread of carbon heats it to a white heat, and thus produces a brilliant light. The same principle holds in the arc light, where the air acts as the poor conductor. Here two pointed sticks of carbon are placed in contact until a current is started through them, and then they are gradually separated for a short distance, when the resistance oft'ered by the air to the passage of the elec- tricity from one point to the other heats them to incandescence, and small particles of carbon in a state of combustion are broken off and carried through the air, thus causing an arc of light between the carbon points. The incandescent electric light and the arc light form two systems of electric ligliting. The galvanometer is the most convenient method of measmiug a current of electricity. This is a rotating needle, .around whicli the current is passed. The electric telegraph is an arrangement for sending messages by means of signals made liy breaking and closing a voltaic circuit. The telephone, microphone, etc., have been explained under the head of Acoustics. VL- SI \ NATURAL PI%lLOSOFHV — CHIIIIISTKV. 353 ^Tfe 1^2 -^ C H E M ISTR Y. •:• i^Mf'-^- -^=:H Gaseous < Solid Oxygen Hydrogen' Nitrogen Chlorine Iodine Fluorine Carbon Sulphur Phosphorus Arsenic* SiRcon Boron Silenium Tellurium Bromine Fluid Metals. Aluminium Antimony (Stibium). Barium Bismuth Cadmium Cxsium Calcium Cerium Chromium Cobalt Copper Didymium Erbium Gallium Glucinum Gold Indium O H N CI I F C S P As Si B Se Te • 32 ■ 3' • 75 . 28 . It • 79 .129 . 80 Al Sb Ba Bi Cd Cs Ca Ce Cr Co Cu D E Ga Gl Au In • 27 .122 •137 .210 .112 •'33 . 40 .141 • 52 • 58 ■ 63 •'47 • 70 • 9 •■97 .113 Metals, (continued.) E2.5» Iridium Iron Lanthanum Lead Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury Molybclenuin Nickel Niobium (Columbium) Osmium Palladium Platinum Potassium (Kalium).. Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Silver (.-Vrgentum). Sodium (Natrium) . . . . Strontium Tantalum Terbium Thallium Thorium Tin (Stannum) Titanium Tungcstcn (Walpam). Uranium Vanadium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium , Ir . Fe . La . Pb . Li . Mg . Mn . Hg. Mo . Ni . Nb . Os . PI . Pt . K . Rh . Rb . Ru . •Ag • Na . Sr . Ta . Tr . Tl . Th . Sn . Ti . W . u . V . Y . Zn . Zr . ,. 56 .139 .207 • 7 , . 24 . ■ 55 ..200 .96 ■ 58 • 94 ■99 .106 ■■97 .. 39 ..104 ,. 85 ,.104 ,.108 • =3 • 87 ,.182 .204 .230 .118 • 50 ..84 .240 • 5' • 93 • 6s . 89 * Sometimes considered ; stance. non-metallic and sometimes a metallic sub- The term "combining weight" requires a little explanation. Water, for instance, is made up of oxygen and hydrogen in certain proportions. The proportions are in eighteen grains or parts of water, sixteen parts (by weight) of oxygen, and two parts (by weight) of hydrogen. These arc llie weights or |)ro- portions in which oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water, and such weights are always the same in these proportions. Chemical combination always occurs for certain substances in certain proportions which never vary in tliose compounds, and if we wish to extract oxygen from an oxide v.e must take the "g^'^S^'e amount of the coml)iiiing weights of the oxide, and we shall find the pro]7ortion of oxygen ; for the compound always weighs the same as the sum of the elements that com])"SC it. To return to the illustration of water. The molecule of water is made up of one atoiu of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. One atom of the former weighs sixteen times the atom of the latter. The weight-, given in the foregoing table are atomic weights, and the law of their proportions is called the Ato7ttic Theory. An atom in chemistry is usually considered tlie smallest quantity of matter that exists, ami is indivisible. A molecule is sitpposed to contain two or mtue atoms, and is the smallest jior- tion of a compound body. The standard atom is hydrogen, whicli is put down as I, because we find that when one part by weight of hydrogen is put in combination, it must have mr'uy more parts by weight of others to form a compound. Two grains of hydrogen, combining with sixteen of oxygen, makes eighteen of water, as we have already seen. The red oxide of mercury contains sixteen parts by weight of oxygen to two hundred parts by weight of mercury (we see the same numbers in the table); these combined make two hundred and sixteen parts of oxide. So, to obtain sixteen pounds of oxygen, we must get two hundred and sixteen pounds of the powder. It is the same all through, and it will be found by experiment, that if any more parts than these fixed proportions be taken to form a compound, some of that element u^ed in excess will remain free. Lime is made up of calcium and oxy- gen. We find calcium combining weight is forty, oxygen sixteen. Lime is oxide of calcium in these proportions (by weight). When we wish to express the number of atoms in a compound, we write the number underneath when more than one ; thus water is H^ O. Sulphuric acid, Hj SO4. In chemistry we have acids, alkalis and salts, with metallic oxides, termed bases, or bodies that, when combined with acids, form salts. Alkalis are bases. 354 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — CHEMISTRY. Acids are compounds which possess an acid taste, impart red color to vegetable blues, but lose their qualities when combined with bases. Hydrogen is present in all acids. There are insol- uble acids. Silicic acid, for instance, is not soluble in water, has no sour taste, and will not redden the test litmus paper. On the other hand, there are substances, not acids, which possess the characteristics of acids, and most acids have only one or two of these characteristics. Thus it has come to pass that the term " acid " has, in a measure, dropped out from scientific nomenclature, and salt of hydrogen ha-s been substituted by chemists. For popular expo>ition, howe\'er, the term is re- tained. Alkalis are bases distinguished by an alkaline taste. The derivation is from the .Arabic, al-kali. They are chaiacterized by certain properties, and they change vegetable blues to green, and will restore the blue to a substance which has been red- dened by acid. They are soluble in water, and the solutions are caustic in their effects. Potash, soda and ammonia are alkalis, or, chemically, the oxides of potassium ; sodium, ammo- nium, lithium and ccesium are all alkalis. Potash is .sometimes called " caustic " potash. There are alkaline earths, such as oxides of barium, strontium, etc. Bases may be defined as the converse of acids. Acids and alkalis are then evidently opposite in character, and yet they readily combine, and we find that unlike bodies are very fond of combining (just as opposite electricities attract each other), and the body made by this combination differs in its properties from its constituents. Salts are composed of acids and bases, and are considered neutral compounds, but there are other bodies, not salts, which likewise come under that definition — sugar, for instance. As a rule, when acids and alkalis combine salts are found. Chemical phenomena are divided into two groups, called in- organic and organic, comprising the simple and compound aspects of the subject, the elementary substances being in the first, and the chemistry of animals or vegetables, or organic sub- stances, in the latter. In the inorganic section we become ac- quainted with the elements and their combinations so often seen as minerals in nature. Chemical /riy>ara//oKi are artificially pre- pared. To consider these elements we must have certain appli- ances, and indeed a laboratory is needed. Heat, as we have already seen, plays a great part in developing substances, and by means of heat we can do a great deal in the way of chemical decomposition. It expands, and thus diminishes cohesion; it counteracts the chemical attraction. Light and electricity also decompose chemical combinations. The earth, and its surrounding envelope, the atmosphere, con- sist of a number of elements, which in myriad combinations give us everything we possess. The air we breathe, the water we drink, the fire that warms us, are all made up of certain ele- ments or gases. Water is hydrogen and oxygen ; air, oxygen and nitrogen Fire is combustion evolving light and heat. Chemical union always evolves heat, and when such union pro- ceeds very rapidly fire is the result. But in all these combinations not a particle or atom of matter is ever lost. It may change or combine or be " given off," but the matter in some shape or way exists still. We may bum things, and rid ourselves, as we think, of them. We do rid our- selves of the compounds, but the elements remain somewhere. We only alter the condition. During combustion, as in a candle or a fire, the simple bodies assume gaseous or other forms, such as carbon, but tliey do not escape far. True, they pass beyond our ken, but nature is so nicely balanced that there is a place for everything- and everything is in its place, under certain con- ditions which never alter. We cannot destroy and we cannot create. We may prepare a combination, and science has even succeeded in producing a form like the diamond — a crystal of carbon which looks like that most beautiful of all crystals, but we cannot make a diamond after all. We can only separate the chemic.il compounds. We can turn diamonds into charcoal, it is true, but we cannot create ** natural" products. We can take a particle of an element and hide it, or let it pass beyond our ken, and remain incapable of detection, but the particle is there all the time, and when we retrace our steps we shall find it as it was before. This view of chemistry carries it as a science beyond the mere holiday amusement we frequently take it to be. It is a grand study — a study for a lifetime. The more we inquire, the more we shall find we have to learn. In this work it was only pos- sible to give a brief introduction. There are numerous excellent treatises on chemistry, but, exhaustive as they are, they do not tell us all. Nature, however, is always willing, like a kind, good mother, to render up her secrets, if we inquire respectfully and lovingly. / -^1 JC" "71 ASTRONOMY. ^Hr'Hr'HHrgg •**••****» fit' ^TRonomYj a The Wonders of the Heavens as Revealed by the Telescope. A History of the Progress of Astronomical Science. ASTRONOMY is the science which treats of the heavenly bodies and the laws which govern them. The space in which the celestial orbs are set is infinite and known as the "firmament" or "heaven." We can see a few stars, com- paratively speaking, but there are numbers whose light has never yet reached the earth. When we calm- ly reason upon the im- measurable distances, and the awful rapidity of mo- tion, with the masses of matter thus in movement, we are constrained to ac- knowledge that all our boasted knowledge is as nothing in the wondrous dispensation of Him who " telleth the number of the stars and calleth them all by their names." Astronomy is the most ancient of all sciences. The study of the stars is, without doubt, as old as man himself, and hence many of its discoveries date back of authentic records, amid the dim mysteries of tradition. The Chinese possess an account of a conjunction of four planets and the moun, which must have occurred a century before the flood. They have also the first record of an eclipse of the sun, which took place about two hundred and twenty years after the deluge. The Chaldean shepherds, watching their flocks by night under the open sky, cnuid not fail to become familiar with many of the movements of the heavenly bodies. The Chaldeans in- vented the sun-dial, and also discovered the "Saros,'' or "Chal- dean Period," which is the length of time in which the eclipses of the sun and moon repeat t!xmselves in the same order. Thales, who was noted for his electrical discov eries, and acquired much renown, established the first school of astronomy in Greece. lie taught that the earth is round, and that the moon receives her light from the sun. He also introduced the division of the earth's surface into zones, and the theory of the obliquity ff the ecliptic. He jiredicted an eclipse of the sun which is memorable in ancient history as having terminated a war between the Medes and the Lyd- ians. These nations were engaged in a fierce battle, but the awe produced bv Solar System. . , , . /. , the darkennig of the sun was so great that both sides tlirew down their arms and made l>eace. Anaximander and .\naxagoras were pupils of Thales. Ana.\- imander taught that the stars are suns, and that the planets are ^ M K" 3S6 -^ ASTRONOMY. inhabited. Anaxagoras maintained that there is but one God, that the sun is soUd, and as large as tlie country of Greece, and attempted to explain eclipses and other celestial phenomena by natural causes. For hii audacity ami impiety, as his countrymen considered it, he and his family were doomed to perpetual ban- ishment. Pythagoras founded the second celebrated astronomical school at Crotona, at which were educated hundreds of enthusiastic pupils. He knew the causes of eclipses, and calculated them by means of the Saros. Pythagoras was most emphatically a dreamer. He conceived a system of the universe in many re- spects correct ; yet he advanced no proof, and made few con- verts to his views, and they were soon well nigh forgotten. He held that the sun is the cenier of the solar system, and that the planets revolve about it in circular orbits ; that the earth revolves daily on iti axis, and yearly around the sun ; that Venus is both morning and evening star; lh.it the planets are inhabited — and he even attempted to calculate the size of some of the animals in the moon ; that the planets are placed at intervals correspond- ing to the scale in music, and that they move in harmony, mak- ing the "music of the spheres," but that this celestial concert is lieard only by tlie god.s — the ears of man being too gross for such divine melody. Pythagoras believed tlie sun to be 44,000 miles from the earth, and 75 miles in diameter. Eudoxus held that the heavenly bodies are set, like gems, in hollow, transparent crystal globes, so pure that they do not obstruct the view, and that they all revolve around the earth. llippaichus, who flourished in the second century B.C., has been called the " Newton of Antiquity." He was the most celebrated of the Greek astronomers ; he calculated the length of the year within six minutes, discovered the precession of the equinoxes, and made the first catalogue of the stars — i,oSi in number. Egypt, as well as Chaldea, was noted for its knowledge of the sciences long before they were cultivated in Greece. It was the practice of Grecian philosophers, before asjjiring to the rank of teacher, to travel for years through these countries, and gather wisdom at its fountain-head. Pythagoras thus spent thirty years in traveling. About two hundred years after Pythagoras the celebrated school of Alexandria was established. Here were concentrated in v.ast libraries and princely halls nearly all the wisdom and learning of the world ; here flourished all the sciences and arts, under the patronage of generous kings. The Ptolemaic System. Ptolemy of .\lexandria (A.D. 130-150) was the founder of a theory called the Ptolemaic system, based largely upon the materials gathered by previous astronomers, such as Hipparchus, already mentioned, and Eratosthenes, who computed the size of the earth by means even now considered the best — the measure- ment of an arc of the meridian. The advocates of the Ptolemaic theory assumed that every planet revolves in a circle, and that the earth is the fixed center around which the sun and the heav- enly bodies move. They conceived that a bar, or something ec[uivalent, is connected at one end \\'ith the earth; that at some part of tliis bar the sun is attacheil ; while between that and the earth, Venus is fastened, not to tlie bar directly, but (o a sort of crank; and farther on. Mercury is hitched on in the same way. They did not fully understand the nature of these bars — v\'hetlier they were real or only imaginary — but they did comprehend their action, as they thought; and so they supposed the bar revolved, carrying the sun and planets along in a large circle about the earth; while all the short cranks kept flying around, thus sweep- ing each planet through a smaller circle. The movements of the planets were to the ancients extremely complex. Venus, for instance, was sometimes seen as " evening star" in the west; and then again as "morning star" in the east. Sometimes she seemed to be moving in the same direction as the sun, then, going apparently behind the sun, she appeared to pass on again in a course directly opposite. At one time she would recede from the sun more and more slowly and coyly, until she would appear to be entirely stationary; then she would retrace her steps, and seem to meet the sun. All these facts were attempted to be accounted for by an incongruous system of *' cycles and epicycles." The system of Ptolemy passed current for 1400 years, and during this *ime Astrology was ranked as one of the most important branches of knowletlge. Star diviners were held in the greatest estimation, and the issue of any important undertaking, or the fortune of an individual, was foretold by means of horoscopes representing the position of the stars and planets. The system of the astrologers was very com- plicated, and contained regular rules to guide the interpretation, so intricate that years of study were required for their mastery. Venus foretold love; Mars, war; the Pleiades, storms at sea. Not only the ignorant were the dupes of this system. Lord Bacon believing in it most firmly. The Copernican System. The system as now accepted is called the Copernican system, after Nicholas Kopernik, or Copernicus, who, in 1543, breaking away from the theory of Ptolemy, revived that of Pythagora-s. He saw the beautiful simplicity of considering the sun the grand center about which revolve the earth and all the planets. He noticed how constantly, when we are riding swiftly, we forget our motion, and think that objects really stationary are gliding by us in the contrary direction. He applied this thought to the movements of the heavenly bodies, and maintained that, instead of the starry hosts revolving about the earth once in twenty-four hours, the earth simply turns on its own axis; that this produces the apparent daily revolution of the sun and stars, while the yearly motion of the earth about the sun, transferred in the same manner to that body, would account for its various move- ments. Tycho Brahe opposed the Copernican theory, but made many important investigations. Therv came Kepler, wlio adopted the Copernican theory, and whos'". observations upon the planet M ars cleared away many complications. He laid down three laws, as follows: /. Planets rmolve in ellipses^ luith the sun at one focus. 2. A line coinectin::; the center of the earth with the K- ASTRONOMY. center of Ihe sun passes over equal spaces in equal times. J. The squares of the times of revolution of the planets about the sun are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. Kepler also remarked tliat gravity was a power existing be- tween all bodies, and reasoned upon the tides being caused by tlic attraction of the moon for the waters. About this time, viz.: the beginning of the seventeenth century, the telescope was in- vented, and logarithms came into use. The telescope did not penetrate into Southern Europe till 1608-9. Galileo, who had discovered the laws of the pendulum and of falling bodies, learned that a Dutch watchmaker had invented ft contri\ance for making distant objects appear near. ^Yith his profound knowledge of optics and pliilosopliical instruments, he instantly cauglit the idea, and soon had a telescope completed that would magnify thirty times. With this instrument he ex- amined the moon, discovered its mountains and valleys, and watched the dense shadows sweep over its plains. Near Jupiter he saw three bright stars, as he considered them, which were invisible to the naked eye. Shortly after, he noticed those stars liad changed their relative positions. Being somewhat per- plexed, he waited three days for a fair night in which to resume liis observations. The fourth night was favorable, and he again found the three stars had shifted. After continued observations he discovered a fourth star, and finally found that they were all rapidly revolving around Jupiter, each in its elliptical orbit, with its own rate of motion, and all accompanying the planet in its journey around the sun. Here was a miniature Copernican system, hung up in the sky for all to see and examine for them- selves. Galileo met with the most bitter opposition. A great many refused to look through the telescope, lest they might be- come victims of the philosopher's magic. Some prated of the wickedness of digging out valleys in the fair face of the moon ; while others doggedly clung to the theory they had held from their youth up. Then Newton promulgated his immortal discovery of the l.iw of gravitation — that ez'ery particle of matter in the universe at- tracts every other particle of matter with a force directly propor- tional to its quantity of matter, and decreasing as the square of the distance increase.'' — and the relations of the sun and planets became more evident. Subsequent researches brought astronomy into prominence moie and more. The spectroscope has, in the able hands of living astronomers, revealed to us elements existing in the vapors and composition of the sun and other heavenly bodies. Stars are now known to be suns, some bearing a great resem- blance to our sun, others differing materially. The nebula; have been analyzed, and found to be stars, or gas, burning in space— hydrogen and nitrogen being tlie chief constiluents of this glowing matter. Instruments for astronomical observation have now been brought to a pitch of perfection scarcely ever dreamed of, and month by month discoveries are made and re- corded, while calculations as to certain combinations can be made with almost miraculous accuracy. The transit of V'enus, the approaches of comets, eclipses, and the movements of stars, are now known accurately and commented on long before the events can take place. THE SOLAR SYSTEM, Gravitation is the force which keeps the planets in their orbits. The sun attracts the planets, and they influence him i;i a minor degree. Likewise the moon and stars and our eartli attract each other. But as the sun's mass is far greater than the masses of the planets he influences them more, and could absorb them all without inconvenience or disturbance from his center of gravity. Every body will remain at rest unless force compels it to change its position, and it will then go on forever in a straight path, unless something stops it. But if this body be acted on simultaneously by two forces in different directions it will go in the direction of the greater force. Two ei|ual forces will tend to give it an intermediate direction, and an equal opposing The Surface of the Sun as seen through a Powerful Telescope. force will stop it. The last axiom but one — viz., the two equal forces in different, not opposing directions — gives us the key to the curving line of the planetary motions. Were it not for the attraction of the sun, the planets would fly off at a tangent ; wdiile, on the other hand, were not the impelling force as great as it is, they would fall into tlie sun. Thus they take an inter- mediate line, and circle round the center of the solar system — the Sun. The solar system consists of: (l) The sun— the center; (2) the major planets— Vulcan (undetermined). Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune ; (3) the asteroids, or minor planets, at present (Januar)', 1SS5) 244 in number; {4) the satellites, or moons, which revolve around the difTerenl planets; (5) meteors and shooting stars; (6) comets. R- M 35'^ ASTRONOMY. The stars called planets have certain motions, going from east to west, from west to east, and sometimes again appearing quite motionless. This change of place, appearing now at one side of the sun and now at another, has given them their title of " wanderers." The planets and their satellites, the asteroids, comets and meteors, all circle round the sun in more or less rjgular orbits. And there must be families of comets that have not yet appeared to us, and whole systems of meteors as yet unseen. THE SUN. When we consider the power and grandeur of the sun, we may well feel lost in the contemplation. He balances the planets and keeps them in their orbits. He gives us light and heat, and in darkness nothing will come to maturity. We obtain rain and dew owing to his evaporative power, and no action could go on upon the earth without him. The sun is not solid so f:ir as we can tell. It is apparently a mass of white-hot vapor, and is enabled to shine by reason of its own light, which the planets and stars cannot do, they shin- ing only by the sun's reflected light. From this we might con- clude that the sun is entirely gaseous, but, in the recent researches in spectrum analysis, the light of the sun has been examined by means of the spectroscope, and split up into i:s component colors, and scientists have discovered that a number of elements exist in the sun in a vaporous state. Hydrogen is there, with other gases unknown to us, and many metals, discovered by their spectra, which are the same under similar circumstances. The sun is supposed to be spherical in shape — not flattened at the poles, as our earth is — -and to be compose 1 of materials similar to those which constitute the earth, only that in the sun these materials are s;ill in a heated condition. Thus we can argue, by analogy from the spectra of earthly elements, that as the sun and star light give us similar spectra, the heavenly bodies are com- posed of the >ame elements as our globe. When the surface of the sun is examined with a good tele- scope, under favorable atmospheric conditions, it appears to be composed of minute grains of intense brilliancy and of irregular fjrm, floating in a darker medium and arranged in groups and streaks, as shown in Fig. 2. With a rather low power the gen- eral eflect of the surface is much like that of rough drawing- paper. The sun's average distance from the earth is 91,500,000 miles. The volume of the sun is 1,253,000 times that of the earth, but its density is only about one-fourth that of the earth. The attraction of gravitation at the sun must be more than that of the earth's surface twenty-seven times. A body dropped near the surface of the sun would fall 436 feet in the first second, and would then have attained a velocity of ten miles a minute. The light of the sun is equal to 5,563 wax candles, held at a di-,tance of one foot from the eye. It would require 800,000 full moons to produce a day as brilliant as one of cloudless sun- shine. The amount of heat we receive annually is sufficient to melt a layer of ice thirty-eight yards in thickness, extending over the whole earth. The sun appears to be about half a degree in diameter, so that 360 disks like the sun, laid side by side, would make a half cir- cle of the celestial sphere. It seems a little larger to us in win- ter than in summer, as we are 3,000,000 miles nearer it. The sun makes the apparent circuit of the heavens in 365 d. 6 /;. 9 m. 9.6 s. ; the transit from one vernal equinox to the next being only 365 d. 5 /;. 48 m. 48.6 s., owing to the precession of the equinoxes, explained elsewhere. The Sun's Apparent Motion. If we rise early in the morning we shall, as the reader will say, see the sun rise — that is, he appears to us to rise as the earth rotates. By the accompanying diagram (Fig. 3) we can %: — r-C ■^^f\\ ^^^ /v^S^\ s^N. y^^xv^ s/ '^^^ j^^\\ \ South\ -*^^^si--Ji.. *:i \ / ^. "^^Z P\^^ ^7^ H' .Vor(» 7: Fig. 3. The Sun's Apparent Motion. understand how Sol makes his appearance, and how he comes up again. The earth rotates from west to east, and so the sun appears to move from east to west. If we look at the diagram we shall see that after rising at O the sun advances toward the meridian in aa oblique arc to A, the highest or culminating point — midday. He then returns, descending to W; this path is the diurnal arc. At Q similarly, during his passage in the nocturnal arc, he reaches the lowest or inferior culmination. H H is the meiidian. On the 2ist of March this path brings the sun on the " equi- noctial" line. Day and night are then of equal duration, as the arcs are equal. So this is the vernal (or spring) equinox. Some weeks after the sun is at midday higher up at S', and so, the diurnal arc being longer, the day is longer. (Z is the zenith, Z' is the nadir, P P' is tlie celestial axis.) From tliat time he descends again toward the equinoctial to the autumnal equinox, and so on, the diurnal arc becoming smaller and smaller until the winter solstice is reached (S). Now, the sun has a two-fold apparent motion — viz., a circular motion obliquely ascending from the horizon, which is explained by the rotation of the earth, and by our position, o, to the earth's axis, / /', and also by a rising and setting motion between the solstitial points, S and S', which causes the inequal- ity of the days and nights. Independently of the daily motion of the sun, we observe that at tlie summer solstice, on the 2 \ st of June, at midday, the sun is at S', and one half year later, viz., on the 21st of December, 'at midnight, the sun is at s, from which he arrives again in the space of half a year at S' ; so we are able to represent this annual motion of the sun by a ^ .ASTRONOMY. l-fL. =^" 359 circle, the diameter of whiclt is the line S' s. This circle is calleil the Ecliplic. The plane of the ecliptic, S' s, cuts the plane of the equinoc- tial, A Q, at an angle of 23^°, and the a.\is of the ecliptic, S"' s", makes the same angle with the axis of the heavens, P P. The two parallel circles S' s' and S s include a ione extend- Fig. 4. The Ecliptic. ing to both sides of the e(|uiiuiclial, and beyond which the sun never passes. These circles are called the Iropits, from trr/io, I turn, because the sun turns back at these points, and again approaches the etiuinoctial. The parallel circles S" s" and g/// j/// Jescribed by the poles of the ecliptic, S'" s" , about the celestial poles, P P, are called the arctic and antarctic circles. Whenever the sun crosses the equinoctial, there is the equi- nox; but the points of intersection are not invariably the' same every year. There is a gradual westerly movement, so it is a little behind its former crossing-place eveiy year. This is the "precession of the equinoxes" because the time of the equi- noxes is hastened, but it is really a retrograde movement. Ilipparchus discovered this motion, which amounts to about fifty seconds in a year. So the whole revolution will be com- pleted in about 28,000 years. Sun-Spots. Sun-spots, as they are g'^ncrnlly called, are hollows in the sun's vapory substance, and are of enormous extent; and there are brilliant places near those spots, which are termed faculce. These spots have been observed to be changing continuously, and passing from east to west across the sun, and then to come again at the east, to go over the same space z^ain. Now this fact has proved that the sun turns around upon his axis, and, although he does not move, as we imagine, from east to west, round the earth, the orb lioes move — in fact, the sun has three motions : one on his axis; secondly, a motion about the center of gravity of the solar system, and a progressive movement toward the constellation Hercules. Solar Prominences. During solar eclipses the sun exhibits what are termed "red prominences," — the luminous vapors existing around it. When the orb is eclipsed, bright-colored vapors can be seen shooting out from underneath tlie dark shadow. These red prominences were first observed in 1842, and in 1851 it was proved that they appertained to the sun, for the moon hid them as the eclipse began. " The luminosity of these prominences is intense," says Secci, " and they often rise to a height of 80,000 miles, and occa- sionally to more than twice that; then, bending back, they fall again upon the sun like the jets of fountains. Then they spread into figures resembling gigantic trees, more or less rich in branches.*' THE PLANETS. The ancients knew fivr of the planets and named them Mercitrv, I'tnus, Mars, Jupiter and Siitiirn. In later years a great number were discovered, but we must confine ourselves to the consideration of the principal ones, eight in number, in- cluding our OM n Earth, Uranus and Xcpttine completing the list. Of these, Venus and Mercury are the interior (or inferior) planets, moving between us and the sun ; the others are called exterior (or superior), and pass quite round the heavens. All the planets are spheroids, and they vary greatly in size. Their comparative distance and magnitude are thus interestingly illustrated by Sir John Hcrschel : " Choose any well-leveled field, ami on it place a globe two feet in diameter to represent the sun. Mercury will be repre- sented by a grain of mu.stard seed on the circumference of a circle 164 feet in diameter for its orbit; Venus, a pea, on a circle 284 feet in diameter ; the Earth, also a pea on a circle 430 feet ; Mars, a rather l.irge pin's head on a circle of 654 feet ; Juno, Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas, grains of sand in orbits of 1,000 to 1,200 feet; Jupiter, a moderate-sized orange on a circle nearly half a mile across; Saturn, a small orange on a circle four-fifths of a mile ; and Uranus, a full-sized cherry, or small plum, upon the circumference of a circle more than a mile and a half in diameter." Comparative Table showing the Diameter. Distance from the Sun , Volume Density, etc ., of the Planets of the Solar System.' Diameter in Miles. Mean distcince from the sun. in miles, (about). .Sidereal period of revolution. (Length of year). Time of rotation on their axes. Average velocity. Miles per second. Volume, earth being 1. Density, ' ... ■ . . ..' 1 Weight, bei"g',. ^ earth bLgi. Date of Discovery. The Sun Mercury 888,646 7,926 4,070 92,164 75,070 36,216 33,6"o 35,000,000 66,000,000 91,000,000 139,000,000 476,000,000 873,000,000 1,753,000,000 2,746,000,000 .1. Ii. m. 87 23 16 224 16 30 365 6 9 686 23 31 4.332 14 2 10,759 5 16 30,686 17 21 60,126 17 s d. h. 24 sH 23 "H 23 56 24 37 >S 9 SSH 10 15 9 30 30 23 18 ■5 8« ""iH >.4"5.225.oo 0.05 0.99 1.00 0.13 1,491.00 773.00 86.50 76.60 0.25 1.22 0.90 1.00 .0.97 0.22 0.13 0.16 0.32 354.9.'6oo 0.07 0.91 1.00 0.13 101.36 M-25 18.98 Ariiiqiiily. Antiquity. Earth Antiquity. Antiquity. Antiquity. Herschcl. 1781. Qalle, 1846. * The planet Vulcan, discovered in 1859, ^"'■' having its orbit nc.>:t to the sun, i-i still undetermined. Prof. Tlce estimates that its diame er is as large ; that of Uranus. / rv 360 ASTRONOMY. The planets revolve upon their axes in the same manner as the earth. This we know by telescopic observation to be the case with many planets, and by analogy the rule may be ex- tended to all. Conformably to the principles of gravitation, their velocity is greatest at those parts of their orbit which are nearest the sun, and least at the parts which are most distant from it ; in other words, they move quickest in perihelion, and slowest in aphelion. The question whether the planets are inhabited cannot be satisfactorily answered. There are many who think that the only object God can possibly have in making any world is to form an abode for man. Our own e.irth was evidently fitted up, although perhaps not created, for this express purpose. When we turn to the planets we do not know but God has other race, of intelligent beings who inhabit them, or even entirely different ends to attain. Of this, however, we are fully assured, that, if inhabited, the conditions on which life is supported vary much from those familiar to us. Fig. 5. General Appearance uf a Sun Spot. Satcllilci, or "planetary moons'' are plainly perceived at- tending upon the great planets. One we are all familiar with — the moon, which lends a beauty to our ni;;hts which no other light that we can command can ever do. Mars possesses two moons and Jupiter four ; Uranus rejoices in the latter number; Neptune has only one; no less than eight satellites wait upon Saturn. No doubt there are many more of these moons to be found, and every year will doubtless bring us further knowledge res|)ecting them. Mars' moons were dis- covered only ill 1S77, although known to exist. Jupiter's moons are supposed to be as large as our own moon ; Neptune and Uranus can boast of equally-sized attendants. MERCURY. The distance of Mercury from the sun is less than half that of our earth, and so it receives much more heat and light than we do. The sun to the Mercurians, if there be any inhabitants upon the planet, must appear about seven times larger than he does to us. When the sky is very clear we may sometimes see Mercury, just after the setting of the sun, as a bright, sparkling star near the western horizon. Its elevation increases evening by evening, but never exceeds 30°. And if we watch it closely, we shall find that it again approaches the sun and becomes lost ill his rays. Some days afterward, just before sunrise, wt can see the same star in the east, rising higher each morning, until its greatest elevation _,» equals that which it before attained in the west. Mercury's or- bit is the most eccen- tric of any of the eight principal plan- ets, so that, although when in perihelion it approaches to within 28,000,000 miles, in aphelion it speeds away 15,000,000 miles farther, or to the distance of 43,- 000,000 miles. Being so near the sun, its motion in its correspondingly rapid — thirty miles per second. Fig. 6. A Sun-Spot as seen by Secchi, [■bit is VENUS. Venus, the nearest |)lanet to tlic earth, is somewhat smaller than the latter. This planet is both a morning and evening star, and is very brilliant — so much so, that close observation with the telescope is impossible. When at her nearest point she is invisible, as she passes between us and the .sun, and of course when fully illuminated she is directly beyond the sun. and inclosed in his rays. But under ^^li'^ A # 1 ilffU ^i'^ other circunistan ces she is distinctly visible as a cres cent in the even ing, and nearly full as a- morning star Venus has long been celebrated as the morning and evening star, as "Lucifer" and ** Hesperus " ^*&- 7" ^ Sun-Spot as seen by Nasmith. That Venus possesses an atmosphere denser than our own can scarcely be doubted. The observations made during successive transits seem to have established the fact that aqueous vapor exists around, and water in, Venus. No satellite can be found, although the ancients reported such an attendant. A transit of Venus, like one of Mercury, is simply a passing of the planet across the illuminated disc of the sun. The transits afford means to ascertain the volume, distance, etc., of the sun. The l.ist occurred in 18S2, and there will not be another for nunc / \ "71 GASTRONOMY 36. than a hundred years. The seasons in Venus must be verj' different from ours. As Iier inclination is greater than that of our earth, and as the sun is so much nearer to lier than to us, her tropical and polar regions are close, and a vertical sun is scarcely enjoyed Ijy two places for three successive days, and she may have two winters and summers, two springs and autumns. Fig. 8. A Solar Prominence. The evidence of an atmosphere, as well as of mountains, rests very much upon tlie peculiar appearance attending her crescent shape. The luminous part does not end abruptly ; on the con- trary its li^ht diminishes gradually. This diminution may be entirely explained by the twilight on the planet. The existence of an atmosphere which diffuses the rays of liglit into regions where the sun has already set, has hence been inferred. Thus, on Venus, the evenings, like ours, are lighted by twilight, and the mornings by dawn. The edge of the illuminated portion of the planet is uneven and irregular, and this appearance is doubt- less the effect of shadows cast by mountains. OUR EARTH AND HER SATELLITE. It seems rather strange to class our earth, which is dark and opaque, and which appears to us so vast, among the bright heavenly bodies. Nevertheless it is one of the smallest of the principal planets of the solar system, and although we see in it no motion, while the orbs about ub seem constantly changing their position, science has demonstrated that it revolves around the sun, in an orbit of nearly 600,000,000 miles, at the tremen- dous rate of eighteen miles per second, or 65,000 miles an hour. To other worlds our earth appears as a star does to us. In studying astronomy we must consider that it is a planet shining brightly in the heavens, held in its course by the invisible power of gravitation, and that in reality it is small and insignificant beside some of the mighty globes that so gently shine upon us from distances almost inconceivable ; that our earth, in fact, is only one atom in a universe of worlds, all firm and solid, and all, perhaps, equally well fitted to be the abode of life. Science teaches us that the earth was doubtless once a glow- ing star, and under the head of Physical Geography we can see that the Scriptures confirm this doctrine. The crust upon which we thrive is only the cinders and ashes of a fearful conflagra- tion, and the air we breathe is only the gas left over when the fuel was consumed. The earth has two motions — one from cast to west, in its course round the sun, and one on its own axis. If we send a ball rolling we perceive that it turns round as it proceeds. So the earth turns on its axis, the extremities of which are called the polts. The horizon appears to us stationary, and so the stars we see at night seem to move. Those on the west, which are passed over and hidden, seem to have sunk or set, and those on the east seem to have moved above or risen. The sun seems to move by day, and the stars by night, but this is a mere optical delusion — a delusion in which the untaught mind is confirmed by the relative fixity of everything on our globe, the apparent rest of everything around. The earth's rotation, according to sidereal time, is less than solar time, and we have 365 solar days and 366 sidereal days. A person going round the world would gain or lose a day, as he traveled east or west, according to his reckoning as compared with the reckoning of friends at home. We can best ascertain the earth's motion tiy watching the stars rise and set. The earth proceeds at its tremendous pace round the sun in an ellipse or oval track, 600,000,000 miles in length, from whicli it never moves, year by year, in any appreciable degree. Now what prevents this earth of ours from rushing off by itself into The Earth in Space. space? The reason is because the sun holds it back. The force of the sun's gravitation is so enormously great that it suf- fices to retain our globe and all the planets in their various orbits, and to counteract the force which launches them through space. If the earth were suddenly to increase her velocity or the sun to contract his mass, we should be flung into infinite -sN- K 362 ASTRONOMY. '.^ space, and in a short time would be frozen up completely. Our present diurnal course would probably proceed, but all life would cease as we whirled with distant planef! through in- finity. If, on the other hand, the earth were to stop suddenly, an amount of heat would be engendered sufficient to raise the temperature of a globe of lead the same si^e as our globe 384,000° of the Centigrade thermometer, and, as Prof. Tyndall says, the greater part, if not the whole, of our planet would be reduced to vapor. But against such a catastrophe we are as- sured by the immutability of God's laws. The variation in the earth's revolution has not exceeded the hundredth part of a second in 2,000 years. The Seasons. In the diagram (Fig. 10) we shall at once find the explana- tion of the constantly recurring seasons, and the amount of Fig. 10. The Seasons. our globe which is illuminated by the sun at various times. It will be easily understood that the poles have six months day and six months nijht. When the earth is at an e [uinox, one- half of the surface is illuminated and the other half in shade ; therefore the days and nights are equal. But when the north pole turns more and more toward the sun, the south pole is turning away from it in the same ratio, — the days and nights re- spectively are getting longer and longer, and at the north and south poles day and night are continuous, for the small spaces round the poles are, diving a certain period, wholly in sunshine and shade respectively. When the earth is in Libra, and also when in .\ries,* the rays *\V'hcn wc say that the earth is in Libra, we mean that a spectator placed at the sun would sec the earth in that part of the heavens which is occu- pied by the sign of Libra. See Zodiac (Dictionary of Astronomical Terms). strike vertically at the equator, and more and more obliquely in the northern and southern hemispheres, as the distance from the equator increases, until at the poles they strike almost horizon- tally. This variation in the direction of the rays produces a corresponding variation in the intensity of the sun's heat and light at different places, and accounts for t'.ie difference between the torrid and polar regions. As the earth changes its position, the angle at which the rays strike any portion is varied. For in- stance, take the earth as it enters Ca|;ricomus, and the sun in Cancer. He is now overhead 23 1^° north of the equator. His rays strike less obliquely in the northern hemisphere than when tlie earth was in Libra. Let six months elapse : The earth is now in Cancer and the sun in Capricornus ; and he is overhead 23/4° south of the equator. His rays strike less obliquely in the southern hemisphere than before, but in the northern hem- isphere more obliquely. These six months have changed the direction of the sun's rays on every part of the earth's stirface. This accounts for the dif- ference in temperature be- tween summer and winter. At the equinoxes one- half of each hemisphere is illuminated; hence the name equinox [ajiius, equal, and nox, night). At these points of the orbit the days and nights are equal over the entire earth, each being twelve hours in length. When the earth is at the summer solstice, about the 2lst of June, the sun is overhead 23^^° north of the equator, and if its ver- tical rays could leave a golden line on the surface of the earth as it revolves, they would mark the Tropic of Cancer. The sun is at its furthest northern declination, ascends the highest it is ever seen above our horizon, and rises and sets 23 '2° north of the east and west points. It seems now to stand still in its northern and southern course ; and hence the name solstice ( sol, the sun, sto, to stand). The days in the north temperate zone are longer than the nights. It is our summer, and the 21st of June is the longest day of the year. In the south temperate zone it is winter, and the shortest day of the year. The circle that separates day from night extends 23^2° beyond the north pole ; and if the sun's rays could in like man- ner leave a golden line on that day, they wouUl trace on the earth the Arctic Circle. It is the noon of the long, six-months polar day. The reverse is true at the Antarctic Circle, and it is there the midnight of the long, six-months polar night. \ ASTRONOMY. 363 The earth crosses the aphehon point the 1st of July, when it is at its furtliest distance from the sun, which is then said to be in apogee. The sun, each day rising and setting a trifle further toward the south, passes through a lower circuit in the heavens. We reach the autumnal equinox the 22d of September. The sun being now on the equinoctial, if its vertical rays could leave a line of golden light, they would mark on the earth the circle of the equator. It is autumn in the north temperate zone, and spring in the south temperate zone. The d.iys and nights are equal over the wliole earth, the sun rising at 6 A.M., and setting at 6 P.M., exactly in the east and west where the equinoctial intersects tlie horizon. The sun, after passing the equinoctial — "crossing the line," as it is called — sinks lower toward the southern horizon eaclt day. We reach the winter solstice the 21st of December. The sun is now directly overhead 23)^° south of the equator; and if its rays could leave a line of golden light, they would mark on the earth's surface the Trop- ic of Capricorn. It is at its furthest southern dechnation, and rises and sets 23^° south of tlie east and west points. It is our winter, and the 2ist of December i-i the shortest day of the year. In the south temperate zone it is summer and the longest day of the year. The circle tli.it separates day from night extends 23^^° beyond the south pole ; and if the sun's rays in like manner could leave a line of golden light, they would mark the Ant- arctic Circle. It is there the noon of the long six-months polar day. At the Arctic Circle the reverse is true; the rays fall 23^° short of the north pole, and it is there the midnight of the long six- months polar night. Here, again, the sun appears to us to stand still a day or two before retracing its course, and it is therefore called the winter solstice. The earth reaches its perihelion about the 31st of December. It is then nearest the sun, which is, therefore, .said to be \nptri- gee. The sun rises and sets each day further and further north, and climbs up higher in the heavens at midday. Our days Fig. gradually increa.se in length, and our nights shorten in the same proportion. On the 21st of March the sun reaches the equi- noctial, at the vernal equinox. He is overhead at the equator, and the days and nights are again equal. It is our spring, but in the south temperate zone it is autumn. We are nearer the sun by 3,000,000 miles in winter than in summer. The obliqueness with wliich tlie rays strike the norlli temperate zone at that time prevents our receiving any special benefit from this favorable position of the earth. We notice that we do not have our great- est heat at the time of the summer solstice nor our greatest cold at the time of the winter solstice. After the 2lst of June, the earth, already warmed by the genial spring days, continues to receive more heat from the sun by day than it radiates by night; thus its temperature still increases. On the other hand, after the 21st of De- cember, the earth continues to become colder, because it loses more heat during the night than it receives during the day. As the sun is not in tlie center of the earth's orbit, but at one of lis foci, that portion of the orbit which the earth passes through in going from the vernal to the autumnal equinox comprises more than one-half the entire ecliptic. On this account the summer is longer than the winter. The velocity of the earth varies in different portions of its orbit. Wlien p.Tssing from the vernal equinox to aphe- lion, the attraction of the sun tends to check its speed ; from that point to the autumnal eider the results of the spectrum analysis of the planet, we may fairly assume that Jupiter is in a very heated state, and that we can- not really perceive tlie actual body of the planet. There is an immense quantity of water thus surrounding Jupiter, and he seems to be still in the condition in which our earth was before geology grasjis its state, and long ere vegetation or life appeared. The waters have yet to be " gathered together unto one place," and the dry land has yet to appear. Under tliese conditions we can safely assume that there are no inhabitants on the " giant planet." The belts or zonesof Jupiter v.ary in hue, and the con- tinual changes which are taking place in this cloud region tend to show that disturbances of great magnitude and importance are occurring. It is useless to speculate upon what will h.ippen in Jupiter when the disc is eventually cooled. The planet, we know, has not nearly reached maturity; the earth is in the full ])rime of its life, and the moon is dead and deserted. What the millions of years which must elapse before Jupiter has cooled may bring forth we need not try to find out. The earth will then, in all proba- bility, be as dreary as the moon is now, and we shall have re- turned to dust. The velocity of light was discovered by an attentive exam- ination of the eclipses of Jupiter's moons, by Romer, a Danish astronomer, in 1617, who was led to discover the progressive motion of light. Before him, it had been considered instantan- eous. He noticed that the observed times of the eclipses were sometimes earlier and sometimes later than the calculated times, according as Jupiter was nearest or farthest fromthe earth. His investigations convinced him that it requires about 16^ minutes for light to traverse the orbit of the earth. Romer's conclusion has since been verified by the phenomena of aberration of light. SATURN Is an immense globe, surrounded by a beautiful bright ring, or, rather, series of rings, and attended by eight moons. He appears to possess much the same constitution as Jupiter, but is enveloped in an even denser atmosphere. He revolves on an inclined axis, and has seasonal alterations of unequal length. The rings of Saturn are apparently broad, and flat, and thin, resembling roughly the horizon of a globe, and are supposed to be a close agglomeration of stars, or satellites, revolving around the planet, and encircling him in a belt. The two outermost rings are very bright, the inner ring being darker, and partially transparent, for the ball of Saturn can be perceived through it. The rings are not always so plainly seen as in the illustration (Fig. 19). Sometimes they appear as a mere line of light on each side of the planet. This occurs at the time of the equinox. By degrees, however, as they become -ij \ K" 368 ASTRONOMY. inclined, they appear broader. The inner ring may be fonned of vapor, but the outer ones are of something more solid, as indicated by the shadows they cast upon the planet, and it casts upon them at certain times. Saturn possesses eight moons, seven of them revolving in orbits on the plane of the rings but one more inclined. Saturn, on account of its distance, shines with a feeble, but steady, pale yellow light, which distinguishes it from the fixed stars. Its orbit is so vast that its movement among the constellations may be easily traced through one's lifetime. It requires two and a half years to pass through a single sign of the zodiac; hence, when once known, it may be easily found again. As the earth and Saturn occupy different portions of their orbits, the ^ K" ASTRONOMY. 369 '-^ called "aerolites" or ''meteorites." Numbers, of course, are burnt u\> before they reach us, and who can tell what destruction such a catastrophe may represent, or whether it be or be not an inhabited world which has thus been plunged to destruction by fire ? They are of a metallic or stony nature. On certain nights in August and November it has been calculated that these meteors Fig. 20. An Exploding Meteor. will appear. They fall from certain constellations, after which they are named ; as T^eonides, from Leo, in the November displays. The star showers sometimes present the appearance of a beau- tiful display of rockets. Millions of them rush round the sun, and when, as occasionally happens, our earth comes near them, we have a grand display of celestial fireworks. It is estimated that the average number of meteors tliat traverse the atmosphere daily, and which are large enough to be visible to the eye on a dark, clear night, is 7,500,000; and if to these the telescopic meteors be added, the number will be increased to 400,000,000. In the space traversed by the earth there are, on the average, in each volume the size of our globe (including its atmocphere), as many as 13,000 small bodies, each one capable of furnishing a shooting star visible under favorable circumstances to the naked eye. COMETS. It has been lately suggested that there is a great degree of affinity between comets and meteors — in fact, that a comet is merely an aggregation of meteors. Comets have been supposed to be bodies of burning gas. Their mass is very great, and their lirilliant tails are many millions of miles in extent. In their orbits, they differ greatly from the planets. While the latter are direct in their wanderings, comets are most irreg- ular and eccentric. When first seen, the comet re- sembles a faint spot of light upon the dark back- ground of the sky. As it comes nearer, the brightness increases and the tail begins to show itself The term comet signifies a hairy body. A comet consists usually of three parts : the nucleus, a bright point in the center of the head; thecoma (hair), the cloud-like mass surrounding the nucleus; and the tail, a luminous train extending generally in a direction from the sun. It is not understood whether comets shine by their own or by reflected light. If, however, their nuclei consist of white-hot matter, a passage through such a furnace would be anything but desirable or satisfactory. It is to Halley that the discovery of the elliptical orbit of comets is due. A comet had been observed in 1607, and llalley made a calculation that it would reappear in 1757. The expected visitor passed the perihelion in 1759. This comet, on its appear- ance at Constantinople, is said to have caused much consterna- tion, and Christians regarded it as a ''sign," for the Turks had just then captured Constantinople and were threatening Europe. Halley's comet was last observed in 1835. Encke's, Biela's and the comets of 1843 and 1858 are com- paratively recent. Others came in 1861, 1874, 1883. In 1881 two comets appeared. Some comets of antiquity were ver)' remarkable, and are reputed to have eciualed the sun in magni- tude. One tail is usually supposed to be the distinguishing mark of a comet, but in 1774 one appeared with six tails, arranged something like a fan. Sometimes the tail is separateii from the head. Some comets appear at regular inter\'als, and their approach can be determined with accuracy. Of course we only see those which are attracted by the sun, or those which Fig. 21. Various Forms of Comets. revolve in the solar system. There must be thousands of other comets which we never see at all. The comet of 1680 pursued its course for two months at a v ■^ 37° — ' ASTRONOMY. J- / velocity of Soo.ooo mile^ an hour. The tail was estimated to e.\tend 123,000.000 of miles, and a length of 60,000,000 of miles was emitted in two days. This comet appeared B.C. 34, and again at intervals of about 575 years, and will reappear about 2255. Biela's comet was the cause of much anxiety in 1832, for a collision with the earth was feared. A month, however, inter- vened between the period at which the comet was expected at a certain place in the system and the earth's arrival at that spot, and so the comet was 60,000,000 miles away when the collision was apprehended. What the effect of such a collision would Fig. 22. Orbits of the Comets. be, cannot be said. Wonderful atmospheric phenomena and increased temperature would, however, certainly result. If comets, as is believed, consist partly of solid particles, a collision would certainly be unpleasant; but their weight is probably a mere nothing compared to their vapory volume, which must be enormous. That the tails must be of a very attenuated medium, is evident, as the stars can be seen through them, although a ver)' thin cloud will obscure a star. THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. This phenomenon, which may be seen in the western horizon on any clear winter or spring evening, after twilight, and also in the eastern horizon, just before daybreak, in summer or autumn, consists of a faint luminosity, extending out on each side of the sun, and lying nearly in the plane of the ecliptic. It can gen- erally be traced to about 90 degrees from the sun, growing fainter as it rises above the horizon. In a ver)- clear tropical atmosphere, however, it forms a complete ring, and may be traced all the way across the heavens. These appearances seem to indicate that it is due to a lens-shaped appendage surrounding the sun and extending a little beyond the earth's orbit. Various attempts have been made to explain the phenomenon, but the most probable theory is that it is due to an immense number of meteors revolving round the sun, and which lie mostly within the earth's orbit, each reflecting a sensible portion of sunlight, but far too small to be separately visible. THE FIXED STARS. Those stars which shine with a clear, distinct light, and visibly change their position with respect to the others, are called planets, and these have been fully described according to their order in our solar system. Those stars which apparently re- main immovable, and shine with a shifting, twinkling light, are \i\vatA fixed stars, although it is now known that they also are in motion. Arcturus, for instance, moves at the rate of fifty miles a second, and others less, but only the rates of a few are known. In the daytime we cannot see the stars because of the supe- rior light of the sun ; but with a telescope they can be traced, and an astronomer will find certain stars as well at noon as at midnight. When looking at the sky from the bottom of a . deep well or lofty chimney, if a bright star happens to be di- rectly overhead, it can be seen with the naked eye, even at middn)'. In reality, we never see the stars. This assertion seems par- adoxical, yet it is strictly true. So far are the stars removed from us that we see only the light they send, but not the sur- face of the worlds themselves. The number of the stars is beyond our calculation. Those visible only in the telescope amount to millions, and are called telescopic stars. The stars visible to the unaided eye amount to about six thousand. There are more visible in the southern than in the northern hemisphere. The magnitudes of the stars range in classes according to the brightness of the stars observed, for this is really the test from the first magnitude to the sixth ; after that the telescopic stars are seen up to the fifteenth or sixteenth. We can only see about three thousand stars at one time from any place, although, as remarked above, many millions may be observed with a good telescope, and as many more, probably twenty mil- ^ lions, are invisible. The Motion of the Heaven- ly Bodies. Attentive observation of the starry heavens will convince us that all the visible stars describe circles which are the smaller the nearer the stars are to a certain point of the heavens, P( Fig. 23). Near this point there is a toler- ably bright star, the Pole-star, which appears to the eye as always occupying the same position. A line, P P', drawn from the star through the center of the earth, C, represents the axis Fig. 33. The Celestial Axis ^ <2 _j»- ASTRONOMY. 371 around which all llie heavenly liodies perforin their apparent motions. The part of the celestial axis, I'P', passing through the earth, is the earth's axis; the North Pole,/>, is on the same side as the Pole-star, and the South Pole, /'. is on the opposite side. Thus//' is the earth's axis, and the line a(/, the plane of which cuts the earth's axis at right angles, is the equator, equally dis- tant from both poles. Now if we suppose the plane of the equator to be extended to the heavens, we have the celestial equator, A Q, or equinoctial, dividing the heavens into the northern and southern liemispheres. The equinoctial cannot be actually described or made visible, but its line of direction may be imagined by observ- ing the stars through which it passes. By assigning to an observer stations on the earth's sur- face differing in relation to the earth's axis, the aspects of celestial phenomena will be essentially modified. One of these stations may be supposed to be, for example, at one of the two poles, at /, or at any point of the equator, as at p W ASTERION away from Hercules and towards the opposite part of the heavens. Astronomers hold that this apparent common motion of the stars is due to tlie real motion the sun and the planets of his system through space. Wheth- er this motion of the sun is in a straight line or around some dis- tant center, has not been deter- mined, but it is estimated that our great lumin- ary moves along his path at the Gj^^ €J J ^c^J Fig. 29. Canes Venatici (The Hunting Dogs). rate of about 1 50,000,000 miles a year. In some cases, groups of stars, prob- ably forming connected systems, have a common proper motion, entirely different from that of the stars around and among them. The most remarkable instance of this kind occurs in the constellation Taurus. Proctor has shown that five of the seven stars forming the Great Dipper have a common proper motion, and he proposes for this phenomenon the name of Slardri/l. ] I. \^ NEBUL.*; AND STAR- CLUSTERS Fig. 30. Leo .■\re numerous in the heavens. The most important are those in Orion and in Andromeda. But there are other very beautiful " patches" of luminous matter, or cloud appearances, composed of stars invisible to the naked eye. There must be thousands of these star-clouds. The nebulae present the appearance of various forms — circu- lar, elliptical, annular and spiral. Sometimes one or more minute stars are enveloped in a nebulous haze, and are hence called nebulous stars. The great nebula of Andromeda is one of the few that are visible to the naked eye. One can see at a glance that it is not a star, but a mass of diffused light, and it has sometimes very naturally been mistaken for a comet. Its spectrum suggests that it is really an immense star-cluster, so dis- tant that the highest telescopic power cannot resolve it, yet in the largest telescopes it looks more like a gas than in those of moderate sire. The great nebula of Orion, surrounding the middle star of the three forming the sword, has above all others excited the wonder of observers. In its center are four stars, easily distinguished by a small telescope, together with two smaller ones requiring a nine-inch telescope to be well seen. Besides these, the whole nebula is dotted with stars. A good eye will perceive that what appears as a single star, instead of looking like a bright point, has a hazy appearance, due to the surrounding nebula. Huyghens first described the object in 1659. He says: " There is one phenomenon among the fixed stars worthy of mention, which, so far as I know, has hitherto been noticed by no one, and indeed cannot be well observed except with large telescopes. In the sword of Orion are three stars quire close together. In 1656, as I chanced to be viewing the middle one of these with the telescope, instead of a single star, twelve showed themselves (a not uncommon circumstance). Three of these almost touched each other, and with four others shone through a nebula, so that the space around them seemed far brighter than the rest of the heavens, which was entirely clear, and appeared quite black ; the effect being that of an opening in the sky, through which a brighter region was visible." The Nebular Hypothesis. What is termed the Nebular Hypothesis was put forward by Laplace, and by it he endeavored to account for the regular development of the stellar system, which is supposed to have originated from an immense nebular cloud. This immense mass would rotate and contract, and the outer portions would separate and develop into rings like Saturn's rings. Then the rings break into separate portions, and each portion condenses into a planet, or the small " bits " travel round the sun like asteroids, and in this manner various systems were formed. This theory was considered to be quite exploded when stars were discerned in nebulae by the more recent telescopes; but then the spectroscope came to our aid, and it was (The Lion). discovered that there were some nebulae which aresimply masses of glow- ing gas or aggre- gations of stones which are dash- ing against each other in so forci- ble a manner as to produce heat and luminosity. Proctor has put forward a hy- pothesis that the star or meteor showers are the original cause of the sidereal sys- "'e- 3>- Corvus (The Crowl. tem, and that this rain of meteors has fallen for all time, grad- ually consolidating into orbs. ■ 'M%^ K" 374 ASTRONOMY. "71 THE MILKY WAY Is a whitish, vapory-looking belt, and is composed of multi- tudes of millions of suns, of which our own sun itself is one, so far removed from us that their light mingles and makes only a fleecy whiteness. Philosophers have frequently discoursed upon this phenomenon, but all .statements must remain more or less speculative. From Kepler's to the pre^elU time astiono- Fig. 32. A Spiral Nebula. mers have been considering the Milky Way, but an actual knowledge is still beyond us. It is agreed, however, that the galaxy is not a continuous stream, but a series of luminous patches, most extraordinary aggregations of stars, which it is not only impossible to count, but each of which appears to be independent of the others. " Tlie sidereal system," says Proctor, in his Universe of Stars, " is altogether more complicated, altogether more varied in structure than has hitherto been sup- posed. Within one and the same region co-exist stars of many orders of real magnitude, the greatest being thousands of times larger than the least. All the nebulne hitherto discovered, whether gaseous or stellar, irregular, planetary, ring-formed, or elliptic, exist within the limits of the sidereal system. They all form part and parcel of that wonderful system whose nearer and brighter parts constitute the glories of our nocturnal heavens." And a little reflection will .show how true this is. Not very long ago in the world's life the solar system was supposed to consist of one sun with a few planets wandering around him. Then some more were found, and they were called *' satellites." For a long time man fancied he had reached the " ultima thule " of astronomy in these depths ; but the whole idea was changed when it was discovered that beyond Mars there lie the asteroids and the host of bodies in this solar system which we cannot do more than allude to. Then when we consider this " sun " of ours, which we think so enormous, and which keeps in subjec- tion and illuminates so many heavenly bodies, and when we reflect that there are in space, and visible, stars many times larger than our ruling orb, each a sun, and that our sun would, if placed where the great Sirius glows, be but a speck in the firmament, and his system invisible to our eyes, we may well wonder at the magnitude of the subject and bow down before the wisdom and power of Him " at whose sight all the stars hide their diminished heads." !+- A DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMIGAL DEFINITIONS. Aphelion. That point of a planet ur comet's orbit which is most distant from the sun; the opposite point is called the perihelion. ApOg^ee. The point of a planet's orbit farthest from the earth. (Generally used only when speaking of the moon.) Apsides (plural o{ Apsis.) The two points of an orbit whicn are respectively the greatest and least distance from the central body. Axis. A real or imaginary straight line on which a body revolves or is supposed to revolve. Azltnuth. An arc of the horizon intercepted between the meridian of the place and a vertical circle pa.ising through the center of any object. See Nadir and /.enitlt. O^estial Globe. An artificial globe represent- ing the constellations and the signs of the Zodiac in their pl.ices in the heavens. Celestial Sphere. The blue arch of the sky as It appc.irs spread above lis. Circumference. The line that goes round or tncomp.'ts.scs :i circular figure. Colures. Two circles dividing the ecliptic into four equal parts, and making the seasons. The "equinoctial colure" passes through the equi- noxes at Aries and Libra. The other, north and south, is the " solstitial colure." Conjunction. Planets are in conjunction with each other when in the same sign and degree. A planet with the sun between it and the earth is in conjunction with the sun. Declination. The distance of the heavenly hiid.e> from the equinoctial measured as a meri- dian. In other words, latitude upon a celestial globe. The Tropics indicate the limits of the sun's declination. Decree. The j6oth part of the circumference of a circle. Diameter. A right line passing through tlic CL-nttr of a circle or sphere. Disc. The apparently flat surface of a planet. Diurnal. Constituting the measure of a day. Diurnal arc , the arc described by the sun during the daytime or while above the horizon. Diur- nal circle, tlic apparent circle described by a celes- tial body in consequence of the earth's rotation. Ecliptic. 1 he earth's orbit about the sun, or the sun s apparent path through the heavens. The sun, of course, does not actually move, and there- fore the track, or supposed circle, is really the earth's motion observable (rom the sun When the moon is near this circle eclipses happen. The ecliptic cuts the equinoctial at an angle of 23'-" 28', one-half being to the north and the other to the south of the equinoctial. The poles of the ecliptic arc the points where the axis of the earth's orbit meets the celestial sphere. SlUiptical. Oval or oblong, with rounded ends. Epicycle. A circle in the center of a greater circle. Equator. An imagijiary great circle on the earth's surface, everywhere equally distant from the two poles and dividing the earth into two hemispheres. The equator 0/ the keaz'ens is a great circle of the celestial sphere, coincident with the plane of the eartli's equator, and called the equinoctial. 7- ^ ASTRONOMY ^ 375 £)QuinoctiaL The plane of the equator ex- tended to the heavens. When the sun appears in that line the days and nights arc of equal dura- lion — 12 hours each. This occurs about the 21st of March and the 23d of September. The term equinoctiiit is from the two Latin words eqttaes, equal, and nojc, night. £Q,uinoxes. The points where the equinoctial and the ecliptic (the sun's apparent path through the heavens) intersect. The vernai equinox is the place where the sun crosses the equinoctial, commonly called "crossing the line," in going north, which occurs about the 21st of March. The autuntttal equinox is the place where the sun crosses the equinoctial in going south, which occurs about the 21st of September. Horizon. i'he rational horizon is the great circle passing through the center of the Ciirth, separating the visible from the invisible heavens. The sensiolc (apparent) horizon is the small circle where the cann and sky seem to meet. It is parallel to the rational horizon, but distant from It the semi-diameter of the earth. No two places have the same sensible horizon. Latitude. The distance from the ecliptic at a right angle north or south. Parallels of latitude are familiar circles parallel to the equator. Lati- tude and longitude upon a celestial globe are known respectively as "declination" and "right ascension." Long'itude. The distance in degrees, reckoned from the vernal equinox, on the ecliptic, to a circlc al right ingles to it passing through the heavenly body whose longitude is designated. LlUiar. Relating to the moon. Lunation. The period of a synodic revolution of the moon, or the period from one new moon to the next. Meridians. Circles passing through the poles at right angles lo the equinoctial. Every place is supposed lo have a meridian, but astronomers apply only twenty-four to the heavens, and they represent the sun's, or the planets', "move- ments " every hour— 15° being one hour, 360*^ being 24 hours. Nadir and Zenith. The poles of the horizon. 'Ihe zenith is the point directly overhead, and the nadir the one directly under foot. Azimuth circles are circles drawn through these points. NoctumaL Relating to night. Nodes. The opposite points of a planet where its orbit cuts the ecliptic or the earth's orbit. Occident. The western quarter of the hemi- sphere. Occultation. The hiding of a heavenly body from sight by the intervention of some other of the heavenly bodies. Opposition. A planet with the earth between It jnd the sun is in opposition. Orbit. The path described by a planet revolving round the sun. The plane of the orbit is an imaginary surface cutting through the center of the sun and the planet and extending to the stars. The inclination of an orbit is the plane of the orbit with reference to the plane ot the earth. Orient. The part of the horizon where the sun first appears in the morning. Orrery. An apparatus illustrating, by means of small balls mounted on rods and moved by wheel- work, the size, motions, positions, orbits, &c., of the bodies of the solar system. Oscillation. Moving backward and forward, or swinging like a pendulum ; vibration. Parallax, l he difference between the position of a body as seen from some point on the earth's surface and its position as seen from some other Conventional point, as the earth's center or the sun. Parallel. A line which, throughout its whole extcnt, is equidistant from another line. Parhelion. A mock sun or meteor, appearing in the form of a bright light near the sun, and sometimes tinged with colors like the rainbow, with a luminous train. Penumbra. The shadow cast, in an eclipse, where the light is only partly cut oft" by the in- tervening body ; the space of partial illumination, between the umbra, or perfect shadow, and the light, Perigree. The opposite oi apoget. Perihelion. That point in the orbit of a planet ur comet in which it is nearest 10 the sun. Radius Vector. A line drawn from a planet to the sun, wherever the pl.inei may be. Ilig-ht A.SCension. Corresponds to "longi- tude " on a celestial globe. Sidereal. " Measured by the apparent motion of the stars. See Time, Si^n. The twelfth part of the ecliptic or zodiac. See Zodiac. Solstices. The points in the ecliptic at which the sun is furthest from the equ.itor, north or south, namely, the first point of Cancer and the first point of Capricorn, the former, about the 2ist of June, being called the summer solstice, and the latter, about the 21st of December, the winter solstice. Spectroscope. An optical instrument used in determining the physical constitution of the heav- enly bodies by analyzing their light. Sphere. ' An orb, or star. 2. The apparent surface of the heavens, which seems to the eye spherical, and in which the heavenly bodies ap- pear to have thtir places. Time* "App.irent" time is indicated by the sun; " sidereal " time by the stars. Mean time is that marked by a perfect clock, giving every day in the year pqual length. A sidereal day is the exact interval of tim^* in which the earth re- volves on its axis. It is found by marking two successive passages of a star across the meridian of any place. This so absolutely uniform that the length of the sidereal day has not varied i-ioo of a second in 2,00 years. The sidereal day is divided into twenty-four equal portions, which are called sidereal hours, and each of these into sixty portions, termed sidereal minutes, etc. A solar day is the interval between two suc- cessive passages of the sun across the meridian of any place. If the earth were stationary' in its orbit, the solar day would he of the same length as the sidereal; but while the earth is turning around on its axis, it is going forward at the rate of 360° in a year, or about 1° p^ day. When the earth has made a complete revoluiion, it must, therefore, perform a part of another revo- lution through this additional degree, in order to bring the same meridian vertically under the sun. One degree of diurnal revolution is about equal to four minutes of time; hence, the solar day is about four minutes longer than the sidereal day. ■I'he civil day extends from midnight 10 midnight. The present methoii of dividing the day into two portions of 'twelve hour^ each, waa adopted by Hipparchus, 150 years B.C., and ift now in gen- eral use over the civilized world. U*itil recently, however, very many nations lerriiinated one day and commenced the next at sunset. Under this plan, 10 o'clock on one day would not mean the same as ro o'clock on another day. The Puri- tans commenced the day at 6 p.m. The Baby- lonians, Persians, and modern Greeks begin the day at sunrise. Transitu i. The passage of a smaller heavenly body across the disc of a larger; as of Venus or Mercury across the sun's disc. 2, The passage of a body over the meridian of a place, or through the field of a telescope. "Veortical. Planets are vertical when directly overhead. Zenith. See Nadir. Zodiac. A girdle emending 8° on each side of the ecliptic, in which space of 16'^ the planets move. The zodiac is divided into twelve parts of 30*^ each, called tnc " Signs." Their names aie as under written : Northern Signs. Spring. Aries, the Ram, March. Taurus, the Bull, April. Gemini^ the Twins, May. Summe*. Cancer, the Crab, June. Leo, the Lion, July. yirgOf the Virgin, August. Southern Signs. Autumn. Libra, the Balance, September. Scorpio, the Scorpion, October. Sagittarius, the Archer, November. // 'inter. Capricornvs , the Goat, December. Aquarius, the Waterbearer, January. Pisces, the Fishes, February. The signs are reckoned from the point of inter- section of the ecliptic and equator at the vernal equinox. The names were originally the names of the constellations occupying severally the divisions of the zodiac, by which they are now retained. In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, however, the signs hav;, in pro- cess of time, became separated about 30 degrees from these constellations, and each of the latter now lies in the sign next in advance, or to the east of the one which bears its name. The con- stellation Aries now lies, for instance, in the sign Taurus, etc. V— :a ^ 376 HOW TO READ THE SKY. How -^TO •> Read •>the ■> Sky. Half-Hours with the Stars: A Plain and Easy Guide to the Knowledge of the Constellations. --^-WITH TWELVE MAPS OF THE HEAVENS, TRUE FOR EVERY YEAR.-r- BY RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A., F.R.A.S. IT is very easy to gain a knowledge of the stars, if the learner sets to work in the proper manner. But he commonly meets with a difficulty at the outset of his task. He provides him- self with a set of the ordinary star-map^, and then finds himself at a loss how to make use of them. Such maps tell him nothing of the position of the constellations on the sky. If he happen to recognize a constellation, tlien, indeed, his maps, if properly con- structed, will tell him the names of the stars forming the constel- lation, and also he may be able to recognize a few of tlie neigh- boring constellations. But when he has done this, he may meet with a new difficulty, even as respects this very constellation. For if he look for it again some months later, he will neither find it in its former place, nor will it present the same aspect, — if, indeed, it happen to be above the horizon at all. It is clear, then, that what the learner wants is a set of maps specially constructed to show him in what part of the sky the constellations are to be looked for. He ought, on any night of the year, to be able to turn at once to the proper map, and in that map he ought to see at once what to look for, toward what point of the compass each visible constellation lies, and how high it is above the horizon. And, if possible (as the present work shows is the case), one map ought to suffice to exhibit the aspect of the whole heavens, in order that the beginner may not be con- fused by turning from map to map, and trying to find out how each fits in with the others. It is to fulfill these requirements that the present maps have been constructed. Each exhibits the aspect of the who'e sky at a given day and hour. The circumference of the map represents the natural horizon, the middle of the map representing the part of the sky which lies immediately overhead. If the learner hold one of these maps over his head, so as to look vertically upward at it, the different parts of the horizon marked in round the cir- cumference being turned toward the proper compass points, he will see the same view of the heavens as he would if he were to lie on his back and look upward at the sky, only that the map is a planisphere, and the sky a hemisphere. But, although this illustration serves to indicate the nature of the maps, the actual mode of using them is more convenient. Let it first be noted that, properly speaking, the maps have neither top, bottom, nor sides. Each map may be held with any part of the circumference downward ; then the center of the map is to be looked upon as the top for that part of the circumference. The portion of the map lying beneath the center represents the portion of the sky lying between the point overhead and a cer- tain portion of the horizon — the part, in fact, corresponding to the particular part of the circumference which is turned down- ward. Thus, if on any night we wish to learn what are the stars toward the north, we look for the map corresponding to that night. At the hour named the stai-s toward the north will be those shown between the center of the map and the top; and, of course, we hold the map upside down, so as to bring the center above the northern part of the circumference. Again, it must be noted that, although the maps are neces- sarily arranged in a certain order, there is in reality no first or last in the series. The map numbered I. follows the map num- bered XII. in exactly the same manner that the latter follows the map numbered XI. The maps form a circular series, in fact. The only reason for numbering the maps as at present is that the map numbered I. happens to exliibit tlie aspect of the sky at a convenient hour on the night of January i . It will be found th.it the dates follow on with intervals of three or four days right round the year, the end of the year falling in the left-hand column of Map I., while the beginning of the year is in the middle column of the same map. It may be mentioned, in passing, that the dates have not been thrown in so as to fall regularly round the year, but correspond with the variations due to the earth's varia- ble motion round the sun. It will be seen at once that a map can always be found cor- responding to a convenient hour on any night of the year, except only in midsummer, when, on a few of the dates, night has not begun at the hour named. It was impossible, without spoiling the regularity of the dating, or adopting an inconveniently late hour for all the maps, to avoid this difficulty. But, as a matter of fact, the difficulty disappears at once when the student is told that on any date named under a map, the aspect of the sky two hours later than that named, is that represented in the following map. Thus, at eight o'clock in the evening of June 21, the aspect of the stars is as shown in Map VI., but the stars cannot be seen, because it is still daylight ; at ten o'clock, however, on the same night, the aspect of the sky is that shown in Map VII , as, indeed, the first date under that map shows. Next as to finding the north point, or any point of the com- pass which will enable the obser\-er to determine the rest. If he is only familiar with the aspect of those seven bright stars of the Great Bear which have been called Charles' Wain, the Butcher's Cleaver, the Great Dipper, and by other names, he can always determine the north point by means of the two stars called the pointers, since these seven stars never set. In the i^ HP' W TO READ THE SKY. 377 -/ explanation of each map it is shown where the Great Bear is to be looked for on each night, the observer being assumed to have such a general knowledge of the direction of the compass- points as will suffice for the purpose of finding so marked a collection of stars. Thus the pole-star is found, and for the purpose of such observations as are here considered, this star may be looked upon as marking the exact direction of the north. It is worth noticing that the stars called the Guardians of the Pole form no bad time-piece when used with the aid of such maps as the present. They revolve round the pole once in twenty-four hours (less about four minutes), in a direction con- trary to that of a clock's hands. But stars near the equator, whose motions are much more rapid, afford a yet better measure of time, if the direction of the south point is well determined. It will be well for the student to remember that the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn will at times appear among the constellations here shown. Venus and Jupiter can always be recognized by their superior light, and Mars and Saturn by the steadiness with which they shine. As they never appear, save among the zodiacal constellations, it becomes very easy to recognize them. The following list exhibits the names of all the stars of the first three magnitudes to which astronomers have given names ; at least, all those whose names are in common use : a Andromeda (Andromeda) Alpheralz. ji " Mirach Mizar. y " Almach. a Aquarii (Aquarius — The Water- Bearer) Sadalmelik. (3 " Sadahund. ;, /'■ f, and two small stars), as this ii a well-marked object. Map ll.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN FEBRUARY. MOiiaoH NaanxMom Southern horizo'*- Jan. 20. at 10 o'clock in the evening: Jan. 23, 9:45: Jan. 27, 9:30: Jan. 31. 9:15; Feb. 11. 8:30 ; Feb, 15. 8:15 : Feb. 19, 8:00. Feb. 4. 9:00; Feb. 7, 8:45: "7^ HE Great Bear is now midway between the horizon and^ the \G\ point overhead, and toward the northeast. The "pointers" are ^■^^ uppermost, and the pole-star lies toward the left (as shown in the map). The Guardians of the Pole are seen below, and toward the right. Immediately below the pole lies the Dragon's Head, the body and tail extending toward the right, to a point between the pointers and the Guardians of the Pole. Vega is seen just above the horizon, slightly to the left of the north point. Further to the left is the upper part of Cygnus, above which is the inconspicuous Cepheus. Due north- west and high above the horizon, is Cassiopeia, the W being now in this position ^. Further to the left, and close to the horizon, is the Flying Horse. The square of Pegasus stands just above the horizon. The upper corner (Alpherat) of the square belongs to Andromeda, still inverted ; and above the feet of Andromeda we see Perseus. Algol is now due west. Below Algol, but slightly to the left, is Aries; and still lower, and further to the left, Cetus appears, the figure presented by its principal stars reminding one of the Mantis insect. It is now setting. The star Mira may not be visible, as this is a variable, invis- ible at regular intervals for months together. Notice Eridanus setting toward the southwest, and Taurus above; and then turn to Orion, almost due south, standing erect in all his glory, at the greatest elevation he ever attains in our latitude. To the left, low down, we see the Greater Dog, Sirius, now shining with his full splendor. The dog is still rampant; indeed, he is never seen otherwise in our latitudes. Looking upward, and somewhat further to the kft, a most due south- east, we see the Twins, their feet resting on the borders of the Milky Way. Still higher is Auriga, now, in fact, ..verhead. Below the Twins see the Little Dog. Below this constellation ihe stern of the ship Argo is rising into view. But as the part of this constellation which rises above our horizon contains no conspicuous stars, we need not pay much attention to it at this stage of our stargazing. Somewhat to the east of southeast we see a single conspicuous sar —though several small stars arc seen in the neighborhood. I his is Cor Hydne, the Heart of the Sea Serpent. The Arabian astronomers gave to this star the name of Al Fard, or The Solitary One. Leo bes Toward the east, and between the Sickle in Leo and tJie Lesser Dog we recognize Pnesepe, and the two small stars on either side, known to the ancients as the Aselli. • We have now come round again to the Great Bear. Observe how much larger an extent of sky this o.nstcllation covers than is commonly assigned to it by beginners. Below the Bear's tail the head and shoulders of Bootes are rising into view. Map III- half-hour WITH THE STARS IN MARCH. > 1 M 1 •*l XII 3) I Z j xl o\ o\ .1 ;- »> ••'Vep.o T teo ^ I* \o Is |o Iz Iz la: ■III 1(0 liai U •^"'My^ra Southern horizo**' Feb. 19, at 10 o'clock in the evening ; Feb. 22,9:45: Feb, 26, 9:30; March 2, 9:15 , March 13, 8:30 ; March 17, 8:15 ; March 21. 8:00. March 6, 9:00 ; March 9, 8:45 ; "y^ HE Great Bear is now approaching the point overhead, but is \C) easily recognized toward the northeast. The Pointers, as shown, indicate the pole-star toward the left, and considerably below them. The Guardians of the Pole now lie on the right of, and some- what below the pole-star. Vega shines just above the horizon, immediately below them. Between lies the Dragon's Head; and we see the body and tail of the Dragon curving round between the head and the Guardians of the Pole. The upper part of Cygnus is now all that can be seen of this constellation, almost due north on the horizon. P'urlher to the left, and well raised above the horizon, we see Cassi- opeia. Andromeda is now approaching the horizon, her head almost touching it toward the northwest. Next on the left is Aries, and above Arie-s is Perseus. Above Perseiis is Auriga, Capella being almost due west. Cetus has nearly set, only, its head being visible above the horizon. Above Eridanus (now neafly set) is Taurus, very favorably situated for observation. The Pleiades lie due west, and Aldeboran — a brilliant red star — to their left. Orion is toward the southwest, bending forward toward the west. Above him, but somewhat to the left, are the Twins, Castor still uppermost. Below the Twins are the two Dogs, Canis Major toward the south-southwest, and low down. Cor Hydn« lies midway between the south and the southeast, and is well raised above the horizon. It is interesting to notice how blank this part of the heavens appears, .so far, at least, as conspicuous stars are concerned. Toward the southeast is Alkes, the chief star in the Cup; and we notice the Crow just risint^ into view toward the left. Above we recognize Leo, the Sickle being now a conspicuous object. Virgo has risen partially into view above the eastern horizon. The cup- shaped group formed by the five stars shown in the map was called by the Arabian observers, for reasons not yet explained, " The Retreat of the Howling Dog." Bootes has now risen above the horizon, though as yet in a recumbent position. Arcturus is a conspicuous object on the right of this constellation. Below the head and shoulders of Bootes notice the Crown, one star only of which (Alphecca) is shown in the map. Doubtless this group of stars originally formed the right arm of Bootes. The constellation recently attracted much notice as the region in which a new star (or rather, an inegular variable) made its appear- ance a year or two ago. Hercules is gradually rising into view toward the northeast. Map lY- half- hour WITH THE STARS IN APRIL. mOZIMOK HVaHlun^ SOOTHERN HOR'iO'*' March 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening ; March 24. 9:45 ; March 28, 9:30 ; April 1. 9:15 : April 5, 9:00 ; April 8, 8:45 ; April 12, 8:30: April 16, 8:15; April 20, 8:00. "7^ HE Great Bear is now easily found, being nearly overhead. The Vy pole lies below the Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole are now somewhat higher than the pole toward the right. Below the pole-star is Cephus, and due west of him is Cassiopeia, the W gradually approaching its natural posi- tion. Andromeda's feet are to be seen above the southwestern horizon, and toward the left Aries is setting. Above Aries is Perseus, now well situated for observation. The brilliancy of the Milky Way in this neighborhood is worth noticing. Due west is the Bull, above which lies Auriga. Orion is now approaching the horizon, and is prone toward his " western grave ; " above him hang " the starry Gemini." Toward the left are the two Dogs. The Greater Dog is now set- ting. Cor Hydrae is somewhat to the west of south. Above is the Sickle in Leo, due south, and with its handle vertical. The length of Hydra is now nearlyraised above the horizon. Virgo has risen, and the brilliant Spica is a conspicuous object toward the southeast. Just above the horizon is the second star of the Scales. Due east is the Serpent just above the horizon. It must be noticed, however, that a part of this constellation lies on the further side of the as yet unrisen Ophiuchus. Serpens is the only constellation thus divided. Above Serpens is Bootes, still nearly recumbent. Coma Berenices and Cor Caroli occupy the positions severally accorded to them in the map. To the left of Serpens is Hercules, or Engonasin, the Kneeler, sup- posed by many to represent Adam kneeling on the head of the serpent, Draco. The Lyra has now nearly risen, in the northeast, immediately beneath the Dragon's head. Map v.- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN MAY. ■noziaoH waaHXjion, SOUTHERN HORIZOH April 20, af 10 o'clock in the evening: April 23, 9:45 ; April 27, 9:30; May 1, 9:15; May 13, 8:30 ; May 17, 8:15 ; May 21, 8:00. May 5, 9:00 ; May 9. 8:45 ; ^'~' HE Great Bear, still overhead, is found immediately, and the \^\ Pointers, which have now crossed over to the west of the zenith, point downward to the pole-star. The Guardians of the Pole are now higher than the pole, toward the right. Below the pole Cephus and Cassiopeia are seen, the former on the right. Andromeda has nearly disappeared; and Perseus has passed the northwest, and is approaching the horizon. The Pleiades are just setting, almost due northwest; and above is Auriga. In the west we see Betelgeux, the sole star belonging to Orion, now visible. Above, and due west, are the twin stars Castor and Pollu.t. We have, in fact, the configuration described by Tennyson, speaking of the season we are considering: " It fell on a time of year When the shining daffodil dies, and the Charioteer And starry Gemini hang hke glorious crowns Over Orion's grave, low down in the west." Canis Major has set, but the Lesser Dog is still above the horizon, to the left of and below the Twins. Cor Hydra; is almost exactly toward the southwest, and above is Leo. Due south, the small quadrangle of Corvus is seen, above which is " The Retreat of the Howling Dog," Spica shining conspicuously on the left, toward the south-southeast. Libra has risen into view, and somewhat to the east of southeast we see the first indications of the interesting southern con- stellation Scorpio. The vertical row of conspicuous stars formed by a part of Ophiuchus and the body of Serpens is well worth noticing. Above it is Bootes; to the left of which, and lower down, we see Her- cules, inverted. His head is marked by the upper alpha, the lower representing the head of Ophiuchus, the Serpent-holder — typical, some suppose, of the Messiah. The feet of the kneeling Hercules are on the head of Draco, whose body and tail extend upward, between the Guardians of the Pole and the Greater Bear. It is impossible not to recognize, from the configuration of this constellation as now seen, that the ancients looked on the stars which form the Lesser Bear as forming a wing of Draco. Beneath the Dragon's head we see the Lyre. The Swan has now risen above the horizon, and the cross belonging to this constellation is seen in an almost horizontal position. The brilliancy of the Milky Way at this part of its extent is well worth noticing. In the space between the stars a, /J and y Cygni, there is a distinctly- marked black gap in the Milky Way, which has been termed the Northern Coalsack. The extension of the Milky Way toward Cephus should also be noticed. Map VI.- half-hour WITH THE STARS IN JUNE. • MOZmOH HH3Hj.vn^ Southern hori^o*** May 21. at 10 o'clock in the evening: May 25. 9:45; May 28. 9:30: June 1. 9:15: June 5. 9:00: June 9. 8:45; June 13. 8:30; June 17. 8:15 ; June 21. 8:00. y HE last star of the Great Bear's tail is now just passing the point \G\ overhead. The Pointers are lowermost, and the pole-star is ^~^ below, toward the right. The Guardians of the Pole are above the pole-star, a little toward the right. Below them is Cassiopeia, the W being now almost in the proper position of the letter. To the left is Perseus, Algol being quite close to the horizon. Further round to the left we see Capella and the other stars of Auriga low down toward the horizon. Not much higher are the twin-stars Castor and Pollux, Castor to the left, the feet of the twins resting on the horizon. It is interesting to compare the splendor of the sky near the horizon, from Gemini in the west-northwest, to Cassiopeia in the north, with the com- parative blankness of the part of the sky immediately above these constellations. PnEsepe is almost due west, about as high as Castor. Leo has come round so far toward the west that the tip of the .Sickle just reaches that point of the compass. Below Regulus is Al Fard, now near setting. Virgo is now at her highest, Spica shining resplen- dently a little toward the west of south. Below Virgo notice Corvus and Crater, two of the neatest small constellations in the heavens. Due south, just above the horizon, is the head of the southern constella- tion the Centaur. Above Virgo, and almost due south, we see Bootes, now nearly upright, and presenting a fine figure as with uplifted arm (the stars belonging to the Crown) he chases Ursa Major past the zenith. Returning to the neighborhood of "the horizon, observe the brilliant retl star Antares, or Cor Scorpionis, lately risen above the southeastern horizon. Due southeast we see a fine line of brilliant stars formed by C, e and ri (Iphiuchi, and f, a and (S Serpentis. These stars, with ;/ Ophiuchi, and the stars y and /J Serpentis, form a figure much resembling a saber, the cross-handle being formed by two stars not shown in the map. ■ Nearly the whole of the large constellation Ophiuchus (the reader will remember how Milton says of a comet, th.at it "fired the length of Ophiuchus large") has now risen above the horizon. It requires some imagination to recognize in it the figure of a man holding a serpent; but this is not the only instance in which the stars of a constellation bear little resemblance to the figure from which the constellation is named. Hercules is now nearly due east and high above the horizon. Toward the same quarter, but quite close to the horizon, Aquila is coming into view, the brilliant Altair scintillating finely. Lyra is above, Vega being almost exactly midway between the horizon and the point overhead. The leading star of Cygnus is toward the northeast, the length of the cross being still neariy horizontal. Between Cygnus and the point overhead is the head of the Dragon, the body and tail winding off toward the left and upward, above the Guardians of the Pole. On some of the dates named under this map the stars cannot be seen, as it is not yet dark. Therefore use Map VII. two hours later. For instance, on June 21, use M.ap VII. at ten o'clock, and similarly for the other days at the end of June. Map VII.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN JULY. .mOZIMOH NM3HXMnM Southern horizo** June 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening; June 25. 9:45 ; June 29, 9:30 : July 3, 9:15 : July 14, 8:30 ; July 18, 8:15 ; July 22. 8:00. July 7, 9:00 ; July 10, 8:45 , ^'-* HE Great Bear is now descending toward the northwest. The {fiy Pointers lie nearly half-way between the point overhead and the horizon, toward the northwest. Thus the pole-star lies to the right of the Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole have passed above the pole toward the left. Below the pole, and close to the horizon, we see Perseus on the right, and Auriga on the left. Capella is .scin- tillating brilliantly, as are Castor and Pollu.x, which are now setting near the northwest, Pollux lowest and on the left. Pra;sepe is nearly set, and will probably not be visible in the thick air so low down. Leo is approaching the horizon, the Sickle being inclined forward. Above /? Leonis notice the Hair of Berenice, half-way between the horizon and the point overhead, and forming an interesting object at this eleva- tion. Bootes stands now in the northwest, high up above the horizon. Below Arcturus is Spica, and lower still, toward the right, the Crow and Cup are setting. The constellation Scorpio forms a magnificent object in the south. The stars which are assigned to this constellation in maps form but a portion of the original constellation, and it is not difficult to recognize in the arrangement of the stars now lying toward the south a resemblance to the figure of a scorpion with extended claws. Above Scorpio we see th^ g"oup of stars compared to a saber, now no longer vertical, but inclined forward. "Ophiuchus large" is fully raised, and reaches from the horizon more than half way to the point overhead, and from the south to the southeast. Below his head (a) we see Sagittarius just rising above the horizon; and above Ophi- uchus, Hercules extends right up to the point overhead. The three bright stars in the body of Aquila are now midway between southeast and east; the uppermost is )•, the lowest ft, and the middle star is Altair. Above, toward the left, is Lyra, Vega being now raised far toward the point overhead. Below Vega is the head of Cygnus, and the cross of Cygnus is now in a position exactly horizontal, and also exactly midway between the pomt overhead and the horizon ; in other words, each of the stars a, y and /j Cygni now has an elevation of forty-five degrees above the horizon. Below Cygnus, Pegasus is rising into view, three stars of the square being visible, and the nose of the horse (c) due east. Andromeda has just risen above the northeastern horizon. Above her feet we see Cassiopeia, the W still in its natural position. Draco forms a cun'e round and above the Guardians of the Pole, his head being to the east, and close to the point overhead. On the last three dates mentioned under this map it will be better to use Map VIII., two hours later. Map VllL- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN AUGUST. ..^nliaOH NM3H.IMOM ''""THERN HORI^"**" July 22, at 10 o'clock in the evening: July 26. 9:45; July 30. 9:30: Aug. 3. 9:15: Aug. 7. 9:00: Aug. 11.8:45; Aug. 15. 8:30 : Aug. 19. 8:15 : Aug. 23, 8;00. V-* HE Great Bear is now in the nortliwest, and midway between (G) the point overhead and the horizon, the pole to the right of the ^-^ Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole have swung round above the pole-star toward the north-northwest. Below the pole is the head of the Charioteer, Capella still low down to« ard the right of the north point. Above the Lesser Bear is the body of Draco, his head almost exactly overhead. Below the Great Bear, Leo is setting, only a part of the Sickle being visible. Coma Berenices lies immediately above the tip of the Lion's tail (/J), and above Coma again is Cor Caroli and the poor constellation, the Hunting Dogs, of which Cor Caroli is the leading brilliant. Virgo is setting. To the left Spica is scintillaling brilliantly, close to the horizon in the west-southwest. Bodies is now midway between the horizon and the point overhead, and inclining forward, his head and shoulders due west, his feet above Spica. In the southwest is Libra, close to the horizon. Above is Serpens, reach- ing to a point midway between the horizon and the point overhead. Between the head of the serpent (), /3) and the zenith we see Hercules, reaching round from the south to the west, and still inverted. In fact Hercules is never seen upright in our latitudes. This kneehng figure must have been conceived by astronomers living in other latitudes, and at a time when the pole was very diflferently situated. Ophiuchus has now passed the south toward south-southwest, and Antares and the other stars of Scorpio lie toward the same quarter low down toward the horizon. It is interesting to notice tlie portion of the Milky Way now brought into view toward the south. We see here the commencement of that part of the Milky Way which, by its superior brilliancy, as seen in southern latitudes, indicates the greater proximity of the galaxy in that direction. It is also interesting to notice how singularly the two branches of the Milky Way vary in splendor along the southern half of the semi-circle now above the horizon. Lyra is high up toward the point overhead, the stars [i and y forming a pendant to the brilliant Vega. Below them, toward the southeast, and about half way between the horizon and the point overhead, is Altair, j- and ji Acjuilie lying almost in a vertical line, one above, the other below Altair. Low down toward the horizon are the zodiacal constellations Sagittarius (e.\tending from south to south-southeast), Capricornus (extending past the southeastern quarter) and Aquarius, reaching neariy tothe east. It is, indeed, noteworthy that from the northwest right round through south to the northeast, the horizon is occupied by zodiacal constella- tions, no less than eight of which are thus situated— though Pisces, hav- ing no conspicuous stars, is not m.arked in, in Map VIII. Cygnus is high up toward the east, and below Arided is the square of Pegasus. The left-hand start of the square is Alpherat, and Andromeda lies in a nearly horizontal position, her feet being toward the northeast. Above these is Cassiopeia, the right hand side of the W beginning to be the highest. Below, and close to the horizon, is Perseus. Map IX-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN SEPTEMBER. .>.nI>aOH NMHHXaOM SOUTHERN HORIlO"' Aug. 23, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Aug. 27, 9:45 ; Aug. 31, 9:30: Sept. 4. 9:15 i Sept. 15, 8:30; Sept. 19, 8:15; Sept. 23. 8:00. Sept. 8, 9:00 ; Sept. 12, 8:45 ; ^"^ HE Great Bear is now passing toward tiie nortli, and getting low \G\ down. Tile pointers are to tlie riglit of the seven stars, and tlie pole-star lies al>uve them, and toward tlie riglit. The Guardians of the Pole are to the left of, and scarcely higher than the pole-star. The Dragon passes between tiie two Bears toward the west, his head !jeing still higli above tlie hori/on. Coma Berenices is setting between nortliwest and west-northwest, lioutes has p.assetl the west, and forms a fine figure above tli at part of the horizon. The Norllicrn Crown, with tlie brilliant Alphecca, is due west, aliout midway i)etween the horizon and the point overhead. Above the Crown arc the feet of 1 lercules. I lis head and shoulders are to the left of the Crown, and at about the same height above the horizon. The Serpent lies between the shoulders of Hercules and the horizon. On the left is "Ophiuchus l.irgf," toward tlie southwest, and extending from the horizon halfw.iy to the point overhead. The brill- iant Vega lies toward the same quarter, but much higher up. Aquila is due south, Allair being about midway between the horizon and 'he point overhead. Close to the hori/on, and extending from south-southwest to south, is Sagittarius. Next to him, on the left, is Capricornus, and next to that again is Aquarius, now covering a wide range of sl, the former on his left, the latter on his right. The square of Pegasus is still high above the horizoii, toward the west-southwest. The highest star of the square is Alpherat, and Andromeda now extends from this point to the pomt overhead, close to which are both her feet. Aquarius is setting in the west-southwest. Cetus is due .south, well raised above the horizon. The space b:;low Cetus, quite b.rre of conspicuous stars, belongs to the southern constellations Sculptor and Fornax. Above Cetus is Aries, the star a due south, and raised neariy three-fourths of the way from the horizon toward the point overhead. Above the south-southeast honzoii is Eridanus, covering a large space of the sky. Onon has now well risen above the southeastern horizon somewhat easieriy. Above him is Taurus, the Pleiades now shining very conspicuously. Near the point overhead is Perseus, the star a being toward the east, and \lgol toward the southeast. Below Perseus, somewhat to ti.e left, is Auriga; and below the brilliant Capella are to be seen the twin-stars Castor and Pollux, the constellation G--mini being now in a horizontal position, the feet of the twins {a and )) resting on the Milky Way. Procyon has just risen above the eastern horizon. Toward the north east the sky is almost blank. But low down may be seen two stars belonging to the Sickle in Leo, now rising above the northea.stem horizon. O « - K" 39° PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. y'l RYSK^AL i ^^^WW^ GGOGRAPRY — ^>- m -ii! P ii! ii! OUR GLOBE, AS IT WAS AND AS IT IS; WEATHER AND CLIMATE; ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. ^..o^..^ OUR EARTH is, indeed, a world of wonders, and whetlier we penetrate its crust or explore its surface, we will ever find opportunity for study, and food for reflection. When we were at school, and learnt the various countries of the world, we had maps showing us the several divisions of one realm from another. The mountains, lakes and other prominent features of each continent were conned and repeated, but we seldom, perhaps never, bestowed a thought upon the formation of the mountains, and the manner in which rivers ran down into, and through, lakes to the ocean. There were the moun- tains, there were the lakes, and rivers, and cape-;, and head- lands, and there they are still, to all intents and purposes, the same to see, to climb up, to sail down, as the case may be. But the maps of some countnes have undergone visible changes. Territory has changed hands. Some powers have extended their dominions, while other countries have been dismembered. This study is called Geography — Political Geography — for it marks the political boundaries. The knowledge of the formation of hills, headlands, lakes, rivers, seas — their causes, constitution and effects ; how they rose, how they exist and wax or wane during the course of centuries — is Physical Geography. We must learn how this earth of ours has been gradually made fit for man's habitation, and what the various stages of its growth have been. We must consider plant and animal life upon our planet, and how the atmosphere affects them. All this is em- braced in Physical Geography and its satellite sciences of Ge- ology, Meteorology, Climatology, Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology and Ethnology. Our globe is nearly round in shape. In the language of science, it is an oblate spheroid — that is, a body having the polar diameter shorter than the equatorial. That our earth is round is evident from the following facts : I. Men have circumnavigated it — that is, they have sailed in one continuous direction as nearly as the configuration of the land would permit, and have arrived at the point of starting. 2. When we stand on the sliore, anti observe a ship coming in from the sea, we notice that the tops of the masts are seen first, and lastly the hull, or body. The hull is hidden by the curved surface of the water. In travehng across extensive plains, in like manner, the tops of mountains are seen before their bases. 3. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the moon. This shadow is always circular. A spherical body is the only one which .will cast a circular shadow in any position in which it may be placed. 4. The north star rises as we travel north, and declines as we go south, till we reach the equator, when it disappears. For the purpose of locating the different portions of the eartli's surface, imaginary circles are employed. Every circle, whether great or small, is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. A great circle divides the earth's surface into two equal parts, or hemispheres ; a small circle, into two unequal parts. The equator is a great circle equally distant from the poles. A meridian circle is any great circle passing through the poles. A meridian is half of a meridian circle, extending from pole to pole. The points on tlie earth's surface at the ends of the axis are called /tf/cj. The one which is nearest a certain fixed star called the north star, is the north pole ; the other is the south pole. The circumference of the earth is the distance around it, and measures about 25,000 miles. The diameter of the earth is a straight line pa.ssing through its center, and terminating in opposite points of its surface. The equatorial diameter extends from any point on the equator to the opposite point, and is about 7,925}^ miles long. The polar diameter extends from pole to pole, and thus coincides with its axis. Its length in miles is 7,899. The difference of length, about 26^ miles, is owing to the flattening of the earth, which brings each pole 13)^ miles nearer the center than are the points that lie on the equator. -^l V PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 391 The latitude of a place is its distance from the equator, measured on its own meridian. Latitude is eitlier north or south, and is reckoned in degrees (from o to 90), minutes and seconds. The latitude of places on the equator is o. The longitude of a place is its distance from some given merid- ian, measured on its own parallel. Longitude is either east or west, and is reckoned in degrees (from o to iSo), minutes and seconds. The given meridian from which longitude is reckoned is called the first meridian. Every degree of latitude is equal to about 69 J^ statute miles. A degree of longi- tude, at the equa- tor, is also about 69^:^ statute miles; but, north or south of the equator, it becomes less and less as the merid- ians approach each ether, and at the poles, where they meet, it is nothing. The polar cir- cles are the two parallels 23^ de- grees from each pole. The north- em polar circle is called the Arctic Circle; the south- em, the Antarctic Circle. The tropics are the two parallels 23|^degreesnorth and 23 J^ degrees south of the equa- tor. The north- em tropic is called the Tropic of Can- cer; the southern, the Tropic of Cap- ricorn. Zones are belts of the earth, bounded by the polar circles and the tropics. The North Frigid Zone, which lies north of the Arctic Circle, is 23'^ degrees wide. The North Temperate, which lies between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer, is 43 degrees wide. The Torrid, which lies between the tropics, is 47 degrees wide. The South Temperate, which lies between the Tropic of Capricorn and the .\ntarctic Circle, is 43 degrees wide. The South Frigid, which lies south of the Antarctic Cir- cle, is 23^ degrees wide. The circle of illumination is the great circle which separates the light side of the earth from the dark. DAY AND NIGHT -EASTERN HEMIiPHERE. Day and Night. Tae earth has two constant motions : (i) its daily motion, or rotation on its axis (its shorter diameter), from west to east ; (2) its yearly motion, or movement in a nearly circular path (called its orbit) around the sun. The length of time t'.i.: earth is turn- ing on its axis is called a day. Every part of the earth's surface being successively carried into light and shade, the daily rota- lion causes the phenomena of day and nii^ht. The length of time the earth is in passing around tlie sun is called a year. It turns on its own axis in the same time about 365^times,hence there are 365)^ days in a year. As the earth re- volves from west to east, the sun will appear to travel from east to west. At the equator thedaysandnighls are always twelve hours long ; the farther a point lies from the equator, tlie longer are its longest day and its longest night. At the poles the year is made up of but one day and one night, each lasting six months. All places in about 66^ de- grees of latitude, north or south, have one day in the year twenty- four hours long, and one night of an equal length. The Change of Seasons Is produced by the earth's revolution around the sun, in con- nection with the fact that its axis is constantly inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, and always points in the same direction. The earth's axis is constantly inclined 23'^ degrees to the plane of its orbit. If this were not the case there would be no change of seasons ; the circle of illumination would always be identical with some meridian circle. The sun's rays, reaching from pole to pole, would fall on each point of the earth's" -N %^ Ii.__-^ 392 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. surface at the same angle throughout the year, and days and nights would everywhere be of twelve hours' duration. {Sen Astronomy, ) GEOLOGY Tells us about t'.ie external surface of the earth, its stones and rocks, anil how they were formed, and generally something about the conformation of the crust of the earth and its history. As has been well said, " Geology is the Physical Geography of the past." *" Kverylhing must have a be- ginning," and the earth must have had a beginning, although the act- ual manner of the physical creation of our planet is a disputed fact . We are not about to discuss the religious side of the question, al- though we should undoubtedly find that Biblical teach- ing and Geology run side by side toward the same end, and the tes- timony of the earth and skybears witness to the di- vine hand that created the uni- verse, which we can trace back to the dim and dis- tant ages when "the earth Avas without form, and void ; and dark- ness was upon the face of the deep." DAY AND NIGHT.— WESTERN HEMISPHERE. The Six Eras of Creation. It seems to be established that each of the six days of Creation was an era, a period, not of twenty-four hours, but of centuries, during which great changes and new appearances took place. The first of these eras was marked by the creation of light ; the second, by the separation of vapors from the waters ; the third, by the separation of land from water, and the appearance of grass, herb, fruit and tree. On the fourth day, or rather in the fourth era, " God made two great lights in the firmament of the heaven ; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: and he made the stars also." In the fifth era were created fishes and birds — " great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abund- antly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind." In the sixth era appeared the beasts of the earth, and finally man, for whom the earth had now become a fit abode. The earth appears at one time to have been an intensely heated molten ball, surrounded by a hot atmosphere filled with vapors and gases. By degrees the outer part of this molten mass gave its heat into space, and portions of its matter became solid as they cooled. As the cooling proceeded, these solid masses grew larger, and at last blended in a thin crust. The vapor in the atmosphere was next con- densed, and thus was formed the great primeval ^^^^^^^^ ocean, covering the whole globe. From time to time this mighty ocean would break through weak places iii the crust, and pour on the seething mass be- low. Great vol- umes of steam would then be formed, which would rend the solid barriers above it, and force through the open- ings thus made floods of melted rock, to flow over the earth, and, in course of time cool down into a new mineral deposit. In the lapse of ages, innumerable changes of this kind occurred on the surface. Continents were upheaved, and the waters finally subsided into the hollow places, carrying with them and depositing a sediment of rocky matter. The crust gradually be- came thicker, the surface assumed a form comparatively ])emia- nent, and only occasional eruptions showed that fiery heat and waves of molten rock still raged within. A succession of plants, marking distinct eras of vegetable life, were then called into being, and different orders of animals were created — living and preying upon each other, and dying, as they l"^ ~7\ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 393 do now. The most simple forms of animal life appeared first ; then those of a higher organism; and finally man, created in the image of God. If any one will take the pains to evaporate any saline solution in a capsule till it is about to crystalli/,e, and observe attentively the pellicle of salt as it forms on the surface, an idea may be formed of our globe's physical history. First, a partiid film will show itself in a few places, floating about and joining witli others; then, when nearly the whole surface is coated, it wdl break up in some places and sink into the liquid beneath ; an- other pellicle will form and join with the remains of the first, and as this thickens it will push up ridges and inequalities of the surface from openings and fissures in which little jets of steam and fluid will escape. These little ridges are chains of moun- tains; the little jets of steam, those volcanic eruptions which were at one period so frequent; the surface of the capsule is the surface of the earth, and the five minutes which the observer has contemplated it, a million years. The principal agents in producing the constant changes going on within and upon our globe are the winds, the ocean, the rivers, and the forces at work within the earth. Land and water are to this day fighting for the mastery, as they did when the condensation of the vapors surrounding the earth formed the seas and oceans, leaving only the higher portions of the earth's mass exposed, and when the clearing up of the dense, dark clouds fur the first lime let in upon the earth's surface the glori- ous and vivifying rays of the sun, corresponding to the earliest record in the Bible of the acts of Creation : " And God said, let there be light: and there was light.'' But, jjerhaps, some reader may not think tliat the land and water of our earth arc thus engaged. A very few minutes' re- flection, however, will suffice to confirm the assertion. Look at the lofty crags in the Alps, for instance. What has shattered those peaks, and sent the masses toppling down in stone ava- lanches to the lower slopes, and then into the valleys? — Water. Water has been in the crevices, and was frozen there ; in freez- ing it expanded and loosened the crags, which, forced asunder, gave an opening to more snow and ice, and so this powerful leverage, aided by the wind and storm, is disintegrating our mountains. It is the same by the seashore ; the cliffs are wearing away, and the sea approaches ; at other places the sea recedes from the land, as coral formation and embryo chalk cliff's are rising under the surface of the ocean. Lakes dry up, and the meadow or farm arises on the site, while other oUl spots are sub- merged. The rocky wall over which the Niagara River precipitates itself, is constantly wearing away under the impact of ycxj.ooo tons of water every minute ; so that the falls are gradually re- ceding toward Lake Erie, at a rate variously estimated at from I foot to 1% yards every year. They were once, and that, too, within the present geological period, at least four miles nearer to Lake Ontario than they now are. It is computed that the Mississippi carries annually into the Gulf of Mexico 400,000,000 tons of earthy matter — enough to cover an area often square miles to the depth of twenty-five feet. Tlic winds transport loose sand, particularly on coasts ex- posed to their fury, and, driving it inland, heap it up in parallel ridges. Such sand-hills, or downs, as they are called, are very common near the ocean ; on the coast of England they have buried houses and farms. Rivers are constantly changing the earth's surface by wearing jiassages through the strata over which they flow, and by bearing incalculable ciuantities of earthy matter to the sea, to form new deposits at their mouths. No rest, no change of idea, but ever changing in physical ap- pearance. Nature goes on her wondrous way, working now as steadily, as harmoniously and as surely as she did before time was, and as she will continue to do when time shall be no more. And all the works of Nature, ever changing, yet ever the same, are recorded by the same Power that governs them. " All things," says Emerson, " are engageil in writing their his- tory. The |)lanet, the pebble, goes attended by its shadow. The rolling rock leaves its scratclies on the mountain; the river, its channel in the soil; the animal, its bones in the stratum; the fern and leaf, their modest epitaph in the coal. The falling drop makes its sculpture in the sand or the stone. Not a foot steps into the snow or along the ground, but prints, in characters more or less lasting, a map of its march. Every act of the man inscribes itself in the memories of his fellows, and in his own manners and face. The air is full of sounds, the sky of tokens, the ground is all memoranda and signatures, and every object covered over with hints which speak to the intelligent." Rocks. We must entirely put away from our minils the idea that the earth we live on was created at once, or as it appeared to the first human beings. Our planet was prepared for man by degrees during millions of years. Therefore, supposing (as is supposed) that the earth came from the sun, we have all the materi.al of the globe in a fused state. .\s the earth cooled, rocks were formed by pressure, and then water came, and now we can read " books in the running brooks, and sermons in stones," at our leisure. A rock, in geology, is any natural formation of earthy or stony material, whether in the form of sand, gravel, clay, mold, or a compacted mass. In regard to their form and position, the rock masses of the earth's crust may be divided into three classes — stratified rocks, unstratified rocks, a.nJ veins. Stratified rocks are those that lie in layers, or strata. They compose the greater part of the land surface of the earth, form- ing not only vast plains, but whole mountain systems. To this class belong slate, sandstone, limestone, marl, chalk, etc. Unstratified rocks arc irregular masses, formed, not by the deposit of sediment in beds or layers, but by the gradual cooling of melted matter. They embrace igneous and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks owe their orign to the action of heat, as the stratified rocks do to that of water. Basalt may be mentioned as an example of the igneous rocks. In some regions it consti- tutes immense beds, and in others forms gigantic columns, as regular as if wrought by art. \ ^ 394 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Melamorfhic rocks are such as were originally stratified, but afterward underwent a change of structure through the agency of heat or chemical action. Veins are rock-matter filling the cracks of fissures of other rocks. They vary greatly in size and e.xtent. They may be regular or irregular in form, isolated or united in a complex net- work. The term drift is employed to designate the immense deposits of sand, gravel, clay and boulders, or loose rocks, which exist over a great part of the American continent. The origin of tills material is referred to " Glacial Period" when, from some cause, a change of climate caused immense masses of ice, either in the form of icebergs or glaciers, to plow their way over the continent, bringing the material from the Archaean beds and depositing it over the existing formations, and at the same time scoring and grooving the underlying rocks. The Geologic Ages. There are se-^ien great geologic ages, or divisions of time, known as the Azoic, the Silurian, the Devonian, the Carbonifer-' ous, the Reptilian, the Mamm.ilian, and the Age of Man. Our knowledge of the plants and animals of the ages preceding the creation of man is derived from their remains dug out of the earth, and ctCAzA. fossils. The Azoic Age is the era, as its name impli^'s, when there was no life, either vegetable or animal, on the globe. The crystal- line minerals and all the igneous rocks date back to this age, and hence they are destitute of fossils. During the Silurian Age, the second in atiquity, there was no terrestrial life ; but niollusks — animals with soft, fleshy bodies, without any internal skeleton, like the oyster and the snail — abounded in the waters. The oldest sandstone and limestone belong to this period. Its plant-fossils are sea-weeds. The Devonian Age was the age of fishes, remarkable for their thick, bony scales. The sea also teemed with shells corals and sea-weed; while the land, though yet limited in extent, began to be covered with vegetation. Insects, the earliest of terrestrial animals, now first appeared. The Carboniferous Age, or age of coal, is fourth. Froin colossal tree ferns, leaves and branches, deposited in successive centuries, were formed, by gradual decomposition under water, those vast coal-beds on which the industrial pursuits of the pres- ent day so largely depend. The animals of this age consisted mainly of insects of various kinds; and inferior tribes of reptiles. The Reptilian Age was marked by tlie great number, variety and size of its reptiles, the appearance and habits of which are known from the remains, found buried in the rocks of this period. The rocks of this age are the freestones, extensively used for building, sandstone formations, intersected with ridges of trap of igneous origin, limestone and gypsum, laminated and plastic clays, and chalk-beds, containing layers of flint. The Mammalian Age was the sixth. The reptiles now dwin- dled in size and diminished in number, being succeeded by quadnipeds, some of which were much larger than any modern species. The deinotherium, mastodon, megatherium and fossil elephant were among the gigantic animals of this era, while the plants resembled those of the present time, palms, oaks, maples, magnolias, etc., being found in the forests. The Age of Man is the last of the seven geologic ages. The huge monsters that gave the preceding period its peculiar character became extinct, and were replaced by smaller animals — those we see around. Man was created, and invested with dominion over the earth. This is the "era of the finished world — the era, also, of man's progress and preparation for an- other and a higher life." THE EARTH'S SURFACE. The earth's surface of an area of about 197,000,000 square miles, of which only about one-fourth is land. Lo^iiilaiids are tracts, either level or diversified by hill and vale, not elevated more than 1,000 feet above sea-level. Deserts are extensive tracts destitute of water, and, consequently, of vegetation and animal life. Silvas are forest plains. Plains that produce grass, but not trees, are known in North America as /nji'/vW ,• in South Amer- ica as llanos ^ui pampas ; in Asia and Southeastern Europe as sfeppes. The desert of Sahara, as far as known, consists partly of table-lands and partly of low plains. It is interspersed with oases, or fertile spots, which are generally lower than the sur- rounding country; some of these are of considerable extent and well populated. A mountain is an elvation of land exceeding 2,000 feet in height. A hiH\s, less than 2,000 feet in height. A mountain-chain is a long, elevated ridge, or several moun- tains extending in a line. Mountains are of great use to man. They attract the clouds, condense their moisture, and store up in reservoirs the water received from them, sending it forth again in streams, from thousands of springs, to fertilize the soil. They increase the surface of the earth, giving variety to its vegetable pro- ductions. They protect the adjacent countries from cold and piercing winds, and thus exert a favorable influence on their climate. An avalanche is a large mass of snow, ice and earth, sliding or rolling down a mountain. A water-shed is the mountain- chain or ridge of land which separates one basin from another, and from which the rivers flow. A mountain pass is an elevated road crossing a mountain- chain through a natural opening or depression. Glaciers are ininiense masses of ice formed by the accumu- lated snows upon the mountain 4ops. They fill in vast valleys, and have an onward motion throughout like a liquid or semi- liquid body. Their course down the slopes is very slow, but, like rivers, they flow faster in the middle than at the bottom and sides. The lower extremities are constantly melting, form- ing torrents and mountain streams, while the upper parts are fed by the snows. Rocks of immense size are torn off and car- ried down by glaciers. They occur in the greatest numbers in the Alps. When a glacier reaches the ocean large fragments are broken off and float away as icebergs. K- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 395 VOLCANIC PHENOMENA. That the interior of the earth has a high temperature, inde- pendent of the influence of the sun's rays, seems to be proven by many phenomena. The majority of scientists maintain that the center of the earth is a mass of molten material, and that conse- quently the temperature increases the nearer this center is ap- proached. This theory seems to accord with the facts in rela- tion to hot springs, artesian wells, volcanoes, etc., although it is maintained by some that these phenomena may be caused en- tirely by local chemical changes going on within the earth's crust. Hot Springs. Thermal or hot springs are most common in mountainous regions, and especially where the earth's crust is most broken and disturbed. Springs of every kind are formed by the rain or melted snow sinking into the earth and issuing from it again at a lower level. The fact that the water is sometimes hot, shows that it must have come in contact with heated rock material within the crust of the earth. They are found of every grade of temperature from that of slightly above the surrounding atmosphere, to the boiling point. They are found in all parts of tlie world, the most numerous, jierhaps, in Europe. Geysers Are intermittent, spouting, hot springs, and have a temperature at the boiling point. They are found in Iceland, New Zealand, and in the " National Park " at the head waters of the Yellow- stone River in the Rocky Mountains. The most celebrated is the Great Geyser of Iceland. It con- si.sts of»an immense well, or funnel, lo feet wide at its mouth, and about 70 feet deep, surmounted at the surface with a ba.sin 65 feet in diameter and 7 feet deep, formed by the deposit of mineral matter from the water. At intervals it sends up a col- umn of water and steam to the height of 100 feet. More re- markable even than the geysers of Iceland are some that are found in the " National Park." One, the Giantess, throws water to the height of 200 feet. Grasshoppers and other insects, and pieces of wood which fall into the waters, soon become in- crusted with quart/, which is held in solution by the water, thus permanently petrifying them. Volcanoes. A volcano is a mountain, or opening in the earth's crust, through which issue fire, smoke, ashes, lava, steam, etc. Vol- canoes may be distinguished as extinct and active. Extinct volcanoes are such as are now at rest, but were subject to eru|i- tions in former ages, as is shown by their form and structure, and the presence of craters. Active volcanoes are such as are either in a constant state of eruption, or have eruptions from time to time, with intervals of rest. Volcanoes throw out an enormous amount of material. Whole islands and portions of continents have been formed by volcanic action. Iceland is an example of a volcanic island. The lava, when it first issues from a volcano, is somewhat like melted iron running from a furnace, but soon cools on the surface and forms a black, porous crust. Sometimes the streams are so thick that the interior remains hot for twenty years. A terrific eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, A.D. 79, destroyed the flourishing cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Slabiae, and covered them with ashes and cinders to the depth of fifteen feet. About sixty eruptions of Mt. Etna are recorded. In 1669, a stream of lava from this mountain overflowed the raniparts of Catania, sixty feet in height, and destroyed a portion of the city. In 1832, several craters opened in the sides of the mountain, and a stream of lava eighteen miles long, one mile broad, and thirty feet deep, poured over the adjacent fields. In 1835, the terrible eruption of Conseguina occurred. It lasted three days, during which the light of the sun was obscured over half of Central America, and more than 40,000 scpiare miles are said lo have been covered with dust, ashes and lava. Fields of Fire. In some localities an inflammaljle gas issues from openings in the ground. This gas frequently becomes ignited and burns for some time. There is a region of this kind on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. This gas is supposed to be from the decom- position of vegetable matter by internal heal. Earthquakes. The second class of volcanic phenomena are earthquakes. These consist of vibrations or tremblings of the earth's crust, and are caused by movements in the fluid interior; but how these movements are produced, is as yet unknown. It is esti- mated that since the Creation earthquakes have destroyed thirteen million human beings. Scientists assert that not less than twelve shocks of earthquake are experienced in the United States daily, although, of course, they are but slight, and individ- ually unworthy of mention. An earthquake is generally preceded by unmistakable signs. The electrical condition of the air seems to be changed percep- tibly to both men and beasts — the former experiencing oppression and dizziness; the latter uttering cries of distress, running wildly about, or otherwise manifesting uneasiness. The atmosphere is unnaturally still and hazy, and the sun seen through it looks like a ball of fire. The year 186S was remarkable for the number and severity of its earthquakes. One of these occurred in the Sandwich Islands, destroying whole villages and many lives. One of the most terrible earthquakes on record occurred in South America, in August of that year. Its center of activity seems to have been at Arica, a seaport of Peru, which was completely destroyed, with two hundred of its inliabltants. The shocks extended throughout the Andes, from the United Stales of Colombia to Chili, and towns and cities were laid in ruins. It is estimated that more than fifty thousand persons lost their lives by this catastrophe. The great earthquake of Lisbon occurred November I, 1755. A rumbling sound beneath the surface was immediately followed by three shocks, so close together that they seemed but one, which threw down the principal part of the city; the sea K ^. \ 396 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. s-'^ retired, leaving the bar dry, and instantly returned in a wave forty feet high, engulfing a great marble quay, to which multi- tudes had fled to escape the falling buildings. In the space of six minutes, thirty-tive thousand persons perished. The most remarkable earthquake that has occurred in the United States is that of New Madrid, on the Mississippi, in 1S11-12. For several months there was an incessant quaking of the ground, which, for a distance of three hundred miles, rose and sank in undulations. The most of the town was sub- merged. Readers will remember the earthquake which visited Java in 1882, and also that in Spain the lattei part of December, 18S4, the .shocks continuing into the middle of January, 1885. Accord- ing to the official record, the number of persons killed in Granada was 695, while 1,480 were injured. The crust of the earth is in some places gradually and slowly rising; in other places it is sinking. The coast of North Amer- ica, from Labrador to New Jersey, is slowly rising. The southern part of Greenland is sinking. The Scandinavian pen- insula is sinking in the southern part and rising in the northern ]iart. These changes are at the rate of a few feet only in a hun- dred \ears. The cause is probably the slow contraction from cooling of the earth's crust. ISLANDS. About one-seventeenth of the land surface of our planet is in the form of fragmentary bodies, called islands. They may be considered as of two classes : Continental, those lying in the near vicinity of the continents, and really forming a part of the continental structure, and oceanic, those lying at a distance from the continents, in t!ie midst of the oceans, and differing in struc- ture from the continents. Oceanic islands are all small and usually occur in groups. Their rock structure is essentially different from that of the conti- nents, and the vegetation and animal life generally peculiar. They may be divided into two classes — volcanic, or high, and the coral, or tow. The volcanic islands are the summits of active or e.ttinct vol- canoes projecting above the water. They are usually consider- al)ly elevated, with steep shores, and more or less circular in outline. Some have peaks of great height, as one of the Sand- wich Islands, with the peak of Hawaii, fourteen thousand feet above the sea level. Many of them have appeared within the history of man. Coral islands are among the most interesting phenomena of Physical Geography. They owe their existence to the work of colonies of small radiate animals called polyps. The structure of the polyp consists of a cylindrical or sack-like membrane, attached at the bottom to some solid body, and enclosing a second sack, which forms the stomach. At the top is an open- ing, or mouth, which is surrounded by thread-like organs called tentacles. When expanded, the polyp resembles a flower in form and often in the beauty of its color. The solid coral, which composes the reef, is secreted in the cavity between the outer and inner membranes, as the bones are secreted in the bodies of higher animals. Coral polyps multiply by eggs, to a certain extent, but chiefly by a process of budding similar to the branching of plants. Thus they grow into vast communities, in which generation succeeds gereration, each individual leaving behind, as it dies, its contribution 10 the reef in the form of a small cell of carbonate of lime. The polyps cannot live out of water, and hence their work must cease at low water mark. Fragments of the coral structure are broken off and thrown upon the top of the mass by the waves, and thus in the course of time a reef, as it is called, is formed, projecting from the water. Upon this reef a vegetation finally springs up from the seeds which the winds and waves bring, and a soil is formed from the pulverized coral, drifted material and decayed vegetation. The reef-building polyps exist only in tropical regions, or where the water never gets below the temperature of 68° F. WATER. This all-important and ever-present liquid is a chemical com- bination of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen — eight parts of the former by weight being combined with one of the latter. When pure, it is destitute of color, taste and smell ; but, as it readily absorbs gases and dissolves many solids, it is seldom found in this state. The large body of water covering by far the greater part of the earth's surface is called the ocean. There is really but one ocean ; but the continents partially divide it into five basins, which we distinguish by different names, as the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. The bottom of the ocean is supposed to be diversified with depressions and elevations — witli low plains, plateaus and mountains — like the land, hence the depth differs in different parts. Some of the researches lately made by English explorers in regard to deep-sea beds have, however, led to the belief that there are no rough ridges, abrupt chasms nor bare rocks, and that the sea bottom, at great depths, is not affected by currents or streams — even by tliose of the magnitude of the Gulf Stream — its general appearance rather resembling tliat of the American prairies, and it is everywhere covered by a kind of mud. The greatest depth shown by sounding-^ is eight and three-quarter miles. The mean depth of the whole body of the ocean is esti- mated at four miles. The color of the ocean is a beautiful sky-blue where the depth is great, but in shallow water, yellowish tints, reflected from the bottom, mingle with the blue, and produce a grayish green. Phosphorescence, one of the most beautiful of marine phe- nomena, is a brilliant light occasionally observed in the sea during dark nights, particularly in tropical regions. Sometimes the crests of the waves, the spray thrown up by the ship's bow, and the wake she leaves behind, look as if they were on fire. This phenomenon is produced by myriads of animalcules, which have the property of emitting light from their bodies, like firc-llics. A hundred of them have been found in a single drop of sea-water. VL PHYSICAL CKOC.kAI'in. 397 The Oceanic Movements. The great body of the ocean is never at rest ; not only is the surface agitated by the winds, but even at great depths the water moves from one region to another. There are four oceanic movements, viz. : waves, tides, cur- rents and whirlpools. IVaves are ridges of water, produced by the friction of winds on the surface. Tides are alternate risings and fallings of the waters of the ocean. TiJes are produced by the attraction of the moon and sun — principally that of the former — acting with difierent degrees of force on different parts of the earth. Were the moon the sole cause of the tides, they would always be of the same height ; Init the sun also exerts an attraction, which, according as it acts witli or ag.iinst that of the moon, increases or diminishes the height of the tide. The currenls are vast streams which traverse the ocean, and keep its waters in perpetual circulation. The principal of these are the Gulf Stream, the Equatorial, Japan, Antarctic and Arctic currents. The Gulf Stream. The most important of the oceanic currents is the Gulf Stream, so called from the Gulf of Mexico, out of which it flows into the Atlantic, through the Strait of Florida. It is from twenty-five to one hundred and fifty miles in width, and moves with a velocity of from one and one-half to five miles an hour, the water being much warmer than other parts of the ocean near it. Its color is of a deep indigo blue, strikingly different from the green of the surrounding ocean. A branch of this vast body of warm water, constantly fl jwing past the western coast of Europe, exerts a most genial influence on the climate. Even many miles in the interior the air is tempered by west winds, warmed by contact with this great stream. The Gulf Stream carries the heat of the Caribbean Sea across the Northern Atlantic to the shores of Scotland and Norway. This tropical river, flowing steadily through the cold water of the ocean, rescues England from the snows of Labrador. Should it, by any chance, break through the Isthmus of Panama, Great Britain would be condemned to eternal glaciers. The Equatorial Currents. An equatorial current crosses the AtLmtic from the coast of Africa to the neighborhood of Cape .St. Roque. It there divides into two branches, a northwesterly and a southwesterly, each of which follows the South American coast — the former making its way into tlie Caribbean .Sea and the (iulf of Mexico. In the Pacific two equatorial currents are found — one north and the other soutli of the equator. The former, turning to the northeast near the Loo Choo Islands, continues under the name of the Japan current. The south equatorial cuirent of the Pacific consists of two branches, one of which, striking the Australian coast, tliviiles into a northwesterly and a south- westerly branch, as does the .'\tlantic equatorial current on the coast of Brazil; the other, farther north, turns near the Caroline Islands, and reverses its course, crossing the Pacific again in a direction nearly due east to South America, under the name of the Equatorial counter-current. The Japan Current, In the Pacific, bears a remarkable resemblance to the Gulf .Stream in the Atlantic. Impelled by the Pacific equatorial cur- rent, it sweeps from the China Sea along the Asiatic island chains, in a northeasterly direction, toward the Aleutian I.^lands and Alaska, the climate of which it improves, as the Gulf Stream does th.at of Northwestern Europe. Between the Japan current and the main land, a cold current sets in the opposite direction, as in the case of the Gulf Stream. The Antarctic Current, Which enters the -Vtlantic, runs in a northwesterly direction to the soutliern extremity of Africa, and thence along its western coast until it joins the Equatori.il near the Gulf of Guinea. That which sets into the Pacific flows along the Soufli American coast, under the name of the Peruvian or Humboldt current, and is merged in the Equatorial west of the Gulf of Guayaquil. The Antarctic current, belonging to the Indian Ocean, runs along the western coast of .-Vustralia, and unites with the Equatorial just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. From the Arctic Ocean two cold currents set to the south, one on eacli side of Greenland. Uniting at the mouth of Davis Strait, they continue tlieir southerly course as far as Newfound- land, where part of this broad Arctic river, as an under-current, flows beneath the Gulf Stream, and the rest, as a surface-current, keeps inside of this stream, close to the American shore as far south as Florida. Whirlpools are circular currents, which occur in certain localities. Inland Waters. The inland waters of the earth are springs, rivers and lakes. The rain or melted snow and hail which sinks into the earth, penetrates the crust until it reaches an impervious strata, when it runs along until it finds an outlet at the surface in the form of a spring, or gathers into underground reservoirs, some of which, by their peculiar formation, having an outlet in the forai of a siphon, form intermitlent springs. The drainage from the surface and the water from springs form small streams which unite to form rivers. When the water from streams and from the surface collects in depressions on the earth's surface, it forms lakes. Lakes may be divided into classes, as follows: (I) Those having inlets, but no visible outlets. (2) Those having outlets, but no apparent inlets. (3) Those having no apparent outlets or inlets. (4) Those having both inlets and outlets. The Caspian Sea, Aral Sea and Great Salt Lake are examples of the first class. Such lakes are usually salt. The water is either all lost by evaporation or is absorbed by tlie earth. Lakes of the second class are usually found in mountainous regions, and are the source of some large rivers. The water evidently comes from springs and rises until it runs over tlie basin. Lake Albano, near Rome, is an example of the third class. Such lakes are usually situated in elevated regions, are supposed to be K- r^ 398 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the craters of extinct volcanoes, and are fed by springs. Lakes of the fourth class are by far the most common. When water evaporates, all impurities are left behind ; hence rain water is not salt like the ocean. The water of springs, rivers and lakes is, therefore, pure and fresh, unless it comes in contact with foreign matter that it is capable of dissolving. THE AIR. The earth is surrounded by an elastic fluid called air, which enters the minutest pores, and therefore exists in every substance. Air, like everything else, is attracted by the earth, hence it has weight, although experiments show that it is 815 times lighter than water. Air is essential to the transmission of sound, to combustion, and to life. CLIMATE. Climate is the state of tlie :itini>i,phere in regard to tempera- ture, winds, moisture and salubrity. The climate of a place as regards temperature depends upon : Latitude. — The general law is that the amount of heat is greatest at #ie equator, aiid diminishes toward the poles. There are three reasons for this: I. The sun's rays fall perpendicularly upon the earth at the equator, and more and more obliquely as we go toward the poles. 2. The area covered by a given amount of heating power from the sun is smaller at the equator, 3. Where the sun's rays fail perpendicularly they pass through a less amount of atmosphere, and the absorption of heat is less. Altitude. — The decrease in temperature is about three deg. F. for every 1,000 feet of elevation. As the air receives most of its heat by radiation and reflection from the earth, and as the higher we go the less dense the air, the less heat is absorbed either from the earth or from the direct rays of the sun. Prez>aili7zg Winds. — Winds blowing from the tropical regions carry the heat with them, and conversely, winds from the polar regions lower the tem- perature. Whichever wind prevails throughout the year in a given place will consequently modify the temperature of that place. Length 0/ Day. — During the day the earth receives from the sun more heat than it radiates into space ; while during the night it radiates more than it receives. Hence a succession of long days and short nights results in nn accumulation of heat, raising the average temperature and producing summer; while long nights and short days result in a temperature below the average, producing winter. The heating power of the sun is greater in summer, because at that season it is shining more directly upon that part of the earth, and conversely in winter. In the tropical regions the inequality of day and night is very Httle, but increases toward the poles. The tempera- ture in the tropics is therefore more uniform. The length of day makes up for the lessened intensity of the sun's rays ; hence a place in high latitude may have^at times higher temperature than a place within the tropics. Ocean Currents. — The warm waters of the tropical regions being brought toward the polar regions bring the heat with them, radiating it into space, and it is absorbed by the atmosphere. Mountain Ranges. — A mountam range will make a country near it warmer or colder, according as it shields it from a cold or warm wind. The Distribution of Land and Water. — Land heats or cools rapidly, absorbing or emitting but little heal. Water heats or cools slowly, absorb- ing or emitting large quantities of heat. Hence the land is subject to great '.\yn\ sudden changes of temperature; the water to small and gradual changes. Places situated near the sea have, therefore, a more equable climate. Character 0/ Soil . — Dry, sandy soil heats and cools more rapidly than wet and marshy lands; hence the latter will have a more uniform tem- perature. Slope 0/ Land. — Land which slopes so that the sun's rays will strike it nearer vertically will receive more heat. The south side of a hill is warmer in winter than the north sido. In regard to winds the climate of a place depends upon : Temperature. — As winds are but masses of air set in motion by the unequal heating, the winds of any given place depend primarily upon the temperature, though not necessarily upon the temperature of that place. As the air is heated in the tropical parts of the earth by the sun, it rises, and colder air flows in from the polar regions to take its place ; hence the primary currents, which are modified in various ways by other causes. Rotation of the Earth. — The winds are turned out of their course by the rotation of the earth in the same manner as the ocean currents. Land and Water. — The land becomes warmer during the day than the sea, and, the air rising, a cooler air flows in from the sea. At night the land parts with its heat more rapidly than the water and becomes cooler ; then the wind sets the other way. Hence we have the land and sea breezes. Elevation of the Land. — Mountains, as, has already been stated, shelter places from winds. Some of the great plains are subject to almost constant winds. In regard to moisture., the climate of a place depends upon : Prevailing Wind. — If a wind blows from large bodies of water in a warm region it will be laden with moisture which will be likely to be precipitated on reaching a colder country. Mountains. — The contact of a moisture-laden wmd with the cold sides of mountains will cause a precipitation of its moisture, and the regions beyond the mountains will not receive it. Forests, by shading the earth, keep its surface cool, and this tends to con- dense the moisture. Cultivation of the Soil, causing it to absorb moisture from the atmos- phere, and by capillary attraction in dry weather bring up moisture from below to the surface. Temperature. — Increased heat causes greater evaporation, and hence more moisture in the atmosphere. More rain falls within the tropics than in the temperate or polar regions. Land and Water. — More rain falls on the coasts of a country than in the interior, because the winds are more moist. More rain falls in the northern hemisphere than in the southern because there is a greater diversity of l.iml and water, the evaporation coming mainly from the ocean, and the condensa- tion from the diversified land surface. Isothermal lines are lines connecting places that have the same mean temperature. There is a line or limit of elevation, above which the surface is covered with perpetual snow; this is called the s?iowli7ie. WINDS AND WEATHER. Wind is air in motion. Winds have a purifying effect upon the atmosphere ; they dissipate unhealthy exhalations ; they transport vapors from the sea to moisten and fertilize the land ; they carry the seeds of plants far and wide, and thus extend the empire of vegetation ; finally, they waft our ships, and are, in some countries, made available as a motive power for machinery. The cause of winds is the difference of heat received from the sun in different places. The heated air expands, becomes rare- fied, and rises. The cooler air immediately rushes in from the surrounding parts, to restore the disturbed equilibrium. The trade-'iuinds are so named because, by their regularity, they favor commerce. They are produced as follows : The equatorial regions being most intensely heated, a current of rare- fied air is tliere constantly ascending, while colder currents from the north and south set in toward the equator to fill its jilace. When these reach the ascending current, having in turn become rarefied, they follow it in its upward course, and thus air is with- drawn from the higher latitudes, and accumulated in tlie equa- torial regions. Whirlwinds are bodies of air that have a rotatory or spiral motion, and are usually caused by the meeting of contrary winds. .K, Al "71 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 399 When a whirlwind occurs on a sandy plain or desert, great quantities of fine sand are carried up to a great height in the atmosphere, and move with the revolving body of air, forming what are called sand-pillars. The Sirocco, which in some places is a warm, damp wind, in Madeira is a hot wind, and likewise in Sicily, where it is equally warm ami damp like steam. The Simoon is a very hot wind, raising sand-storms in the deserts, and experience has shown it to be very prejudicial to life in consequence of the fine sand and the tremendous heat it carries with it. Then we have the Hurricane, from " Ouracan," of the Caribs ; the Typhoon, or Tae-fun, of China, so called from the dreaded god Typhon of Egypt ; and the Tornado and Cyclone — all violent winds, and circling round, causing, so to speak, whirlwinds, by which trees are uprooted and houses tiestroyed. In hurricanes, tornadoes, etc., the rotatory motion of the air is from right to left in the northern hemisphere, and from left to right in the southern. Water-spouts are whirled up by the winds in spiral columns of water, and when permitted to come near a ship at sea, or when they break upon land, which is seldom, are very destructive. Dew and Hoar-Frost. When air charged with moisture comes in contact with a solid surface colder than itself, aqueous vapor is precipitated on this surface as dew. The grass at night becomes cooled by rad- iation, and thus condenses upon iis surface the vapor of the air. Dew will gather most freely upon those objects that are the liest radiators, as they will the soonest become cool. Thus grass, leaves, etc., which need the most, get the most. Dew will not form on windy nights, because the air is con- stantly changing, and does not become cool enough to deposit its moisture. A heavy dew is a sign of rain, because it shows that the moisture of the air is easily condensed. If, during the precipitation of dew, the temperature falls to the freezing-point (32° F.), hoar-frost is formed. This consists of minute ice-crystals, and is nothing more than frozen dew. Frost will not form on cloudy nights, because the clouds act like a blanket, to prevent radiation, and keep the earth warm. Fogs. Fogs are formed when the temperature of the air falls below the dew-point (/. ^.,the temperature at which dew is deposited). They are found mainly on low grounds, and in the vicinity of rivers, ponds, etc., where the- abundance of moisture keeps the air constantly saturated. Clouds. Clouds are collections of visible vapor suspended in the at- mosphere, at altitudes ranging from one to five miles. Vapor consists of particles of water so fine and light that they lloat in the air like dust. Mountains are " cloud-capped," because the warm air rising from the valley is condensed upon their cold summits. Clouds are constantly falling by their weight; but, as they melt away in the warm air below, by condensation they increase above. The nimbus cloud is a dark-colored cloud, from which rain falls. The strains cloud is composed of broad, widely extended cloud-belts, sometimes spread over the whole sky. It is the lowest cloud, and often rests on the earth. It is the night cloud. The cumulus cloud is made up of large cloud-masses, looking like snow-capped mountains piledup along the horizon. It forms the summits of pillars of vapor, whiph, streaming up from the earth, are condensed in the upper air. It is the day cloud ; and, when of small size and seen only near midday, is a sign of fair weather. The cirrus cloud consists of light, fleecy clouds floating high in air. It is believed to be formed of spicuUe of ice or flakes of snow. The cirro-cumulus is formed by small, distinct, rounded por- tions of the cirrus clouil, which separate from each other, leaving a clear sky between. It accompanies warm, dry weather. The cirro-stratus is produced when the cirrus cloud spreads out into long, »lender strata. It forebodes storms. The cumulo-stralus presents tlie i)eculiar forms called " thunder-heads." I; is caused by a blending of the cumulus with the stratus, and is a precursor of thunder-storms. Rain — Snow — Hail. When the minute vapor-particles of clouds combine and grow too heavy to lloat in the air, tliey are precipitated as rain — or, at a temperature below the freezing-point, as sno-iv o"- kail. Snoiv is frozen vapor, with its particles aggregated in flakes. J/ail \% frozen rain. .Snow is an important agent in the economy of nature. Heing a non-conductor of heat, it protects the roots of the grasses antl the winter grains from severe frosts. Collecting in great masses on lofty mountains and gradually thawing, it feeds streams, which carry fertility and wealth to extensive districts. Lightning and Thunder. Lightning is a discliarge of atmospheric electricity, accom- panied by a flash of light. Heat-lightning \i either the reflection of distant flashes on the clouds, or the frequent and therefore weak and silent discharge of electricity from the clouds through a moist atmosphere. Lightning cleaves the air with inconceivable rapidity, and leaves a vacuum behind it, into which the surrounding air rushes with great force, and with a loud, crackling sound, which we call thunder. Lightning and thunder take place at the same instant, but we see the former before we hear the latter. This is because light travels with much greater velocity than sound. Thunder-storms are most frequent within the tropics during the rainy season. The Aurora Borealis. The aurora borealis is a luminous appearance, which at limes imparts wonderful beauty to the polar skies at night, and is also of occasional occurrence in the temperate latitudes. It is sup- posed to be produced by the passage of electric currents through strata of highly rarefied air. Vi- -Vj 400 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. V Mirage. Mirage (sometimes called I-'aUi A/organa) is the appearance in the air of the image ot" some distant object, seen either in con- nection with the object itself, above or below the latter, or sus- pended in the air, the object being invisible. It is a ven' curious but sufficiently common phenomena, and in the Asiatic and African plains it is frequently observed. When the weather is calm and the ground hot, the Egyptian landscape appears like a | lake, and the houses look like islands in the midst of a widely- spreading expanse of water. This causes the mirage, which is the result of evaporation, while the different temperatures of the air strata cause an unequal reflection and refraction of liglit, vvhich give rise to the mirage. Travelers are frequently deceived, but the camels will not quicken their usual pace until they scent water. Tlie Fata Morgana and the inverted images of ships seen at sea are not uncommon on European coasts. Between Sicily and Italy this effect is seen in the Sea of Reggio with fine eff-'^t. Palaces, towers, fertile plains, with cattle grazing on them, are seen, with many other terrestrial objects, upon the sea — the palaces of the Fairy Morgana. The inverted images of ships are frequently perceived, and many mo t extraordinary but per- fectly authenlic tales have been related concerning the reflection and refraction of persons and objects in the sky and on land, when no human beings nor any of the actual objects were within the range of vi-ion. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. Zoology is that science which treats of animals, their structure, habits and classification. There are four principal divisions of animals, based on dis- tinct types of structure, and including all the denizens of the earth, the water and the air. Following are the divisions of the animal kingdom, beginning with the lowest : SUE-KINGDOMS OR DIVISIONS. I. Protozoa — First-living things, r lowest form of animal life. II. Radiata— Radiates, that is, such as are shaped like a star or flower, and have their organs ar- ranged uniformly around a common center. III. MoLLtTSCA — Mollusks,thatis, sofl-bodicd, without joints, and with- out vertebrae, but usually protected by a shell . CLASSES OF SUBDIVISIONS. I. Amoeba, sponges, proteus, etc. They have no mouth, and no dis- tinct members, but are capable of making many changes in their form. 1. Coral animals, sea-anemones, etc. 2. Jelly-fishes, sea-nettles. I. Star-fishes, sea-urchins. 1. Bryozoa, that is, moss animals; as sea-mats, white sea-weeds, etc. 2. Brachiopods, that is, with arm- feet, or spiral appendages; as the lingulae, spirifer?;, etc. 3. Ascidians, that is, pouch-like; as salpje, etc. 4. Accphals, that is, headless; as oysters, etc. 5. Ccphalates, that is, with heads ; as snails, etc. 6. Cephalopods, that is, with heads and feet, or, more strictly, tenta- cles. IV. Articulata — Articulates, that is, animals having the body and members jointed, but without an internal skeleton. V. Vertebrata — Vertebrates, that is, animals that have a back- bone, and an articulated or jointed skeleton, and a great nervous cord, the spinal marrow, enclosed in a bony sheath. 1. Worms, as earth-worms, leeches, etc. 2. Crustaceans, as crabs, lobsters, etc. 3. Centipedes, etc. 4. Spiders, etc. 5. Beetles, butterflies, etc. 1. Fishes. 2. Reptiles, that is, creeping things, as turtles, frugs, snakes, lizards, etc. 3. Birds, that is, " Every winged fowl." 4. Mammalia, that is, animals with teats. The last class, Mammalia, is further subdivided into fourteen orders, of which the mo^t distinctive, still ascending from the lower to the higher, are four, namely : 1. Cetacea, that is, of the whale tribe. 2. Quadrupeds, that is, four-footed animals generally. 3. Quadnimana, that is, four-handed ; as the gorilla, chimpanzee, ape and monkey. 4. Bimana, that is, two-handed ; of which the only representative is man. ETHNOLOGY. Ethnology is that science wliich treats of the division of man into races, with tlieir origin, relations and characteristics. Natur- alists divide mankind, according to certain physical characteristics, into varieties, or races. Authorities differ greatly in this classifi- cation. Cuvier made three races ; Pritchard, seven ; Agassiz, eight, and Pickering, eleven ; but the classification most com- monly accepted is tliat into five races, as made by Blumenbach, as follows: The Caucasian, European, or white race; the Mon- golian, Asiatic, or yellow race ; the Ethiopian, African, or black race; the American Indian, or red race; the Malay, or brown race. The first three are much more clearly marked, and are considered by Guyot as primary races; the others, being modi- fications of these three, he designates as secondary races. Because of the blending of types, it is difficult to make a classi- fication, hence the difference among authorities. The points on which the classification is based are mainly the size and propor- tions of the body, the shape of head and the features, the hair and beard, and the color of the skin The Caucasian race are characterized by tall stature, oval head and face, high forehead, regular features, abundance and softness of hair and beard, and usually fair skin, but in some it is tawny or swarthy, as in the Hindoos, Arabs and others. They stand at the head in in-telligenee and civilization. This race is represented by tlie principal inhabitants of Europe and their descendants in America, and by the inhabitants of India, Arabia and of Western Asia and Northern Africa. The Germanic nations are descendants of tlie numerous tribes of the ancient German stock that destroyed the Roman empire and erected different states upon its ruins. Tlie Romanic nations occupy Southern Europe, and are so called because their languages are mostly derived from the Latin spoken by the ancient Romans. They are mixed nations, descended partly from the ancient Pelasgians and partly from other branches of Aryan stock. / -^1 K" PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 401 The ItalL-ins derive their origin from the Romans, German Longobards and Normans, with a slight intermixture of the Arabic slock. The Spanish and Portuguese have sprung from a mixture of Celts, Romans, Gemians and Arabs. The Mongolian race are distinguished by sliort stature, round head, wide face, high clieck bones, oliliquely set eyes, coarse straight hair, scarcely any beaixl, and yellowish color of the .skin. They are distributed over the whole of Eastern Asia, except in India, and inclade the Esquimaux of the northern part of North America. The Ethiopian race are characterized by medium stature, gen- erally ungainly form, low and retreating forehead, head full back of the ears, flat, broad nose, projecting jaws, thick lips, short, curly hair, and skin generally black or dark. They occupy all of Africa, except the northern part, and many of their descend- ants are found in America. The American race resemble the Mongolian, but. the head is not so round, the face less wide and flat, the eyes horizontal, the hair black and straight, and beard scanty, and the skin a reddish or copper color. They occupy North and South America, except on the Arctic shores. The Alalay race resemble also the Mongolian, but have thicker lips, horizontal eyes, hair less straight, generally full beards, and color usually brown. They occupy the Malay pen- insula and the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The number of languages spoken on the earth is estimated at eight hundred and sixty, embracing about five thousand dialects. The language spoken by the greatest number is the Chinese ; the one most widely spread is the English. In regard to religion, mankind may be divided into two gen- eral classes: JMonolheistic, those who worship one god, and polytheistic, those who worship more than one god, also called pagans, or heathens. Of the first class we have: (l) the C/iris- iian, which recognizes the Bible as the revealed word of God, and Jesus Christ as the Son of God; (2) \\\e. Jewish, which rec- ognizes the Old Testament as the word of God, but does not acknowledge Christ; (3) the JMohammedan, ox the religion of Islnni, whose two articles of faith are, "There is no god but God, and iSIohammed is the Prophet of God." Of the second class there are : ( I ) Brahminism, or Hindooism, the religion of the people of India, a very ancient religion which has many good moral doctrines, but strange ideas of a future state; (2) Buddhism, an offshoot of Brahminism, now practiced by the people of China and Japan, founded by Sakya-Muni, who adopted the title of Buddlia (the enlightened), a religion which has been more enthusi.nstic in making converts than any other, except Christianity, and has many good moral precepts, but is practically atheistic ; (3) Fetichism, a very low form of superstition, which consists in the worship of material objects, either living or dead, as animals, or idols of wood or stone. In regard to general culture and intelligence, mankind may be divided into: (l) Savages, \!aai^ who are scarcely elevated above the brutes, live in tribes and subsist by hunting and fish- ing; (2) Barbarians, those who have possessions, as flocks and h rds, and practice agriculture to some extent, yet have made no progress in arts and sciences ; (3) Half-civilized, those who have made some progress in the arts, have towns and cities, but depend chiefly upon agriculture ; (4) Tivilized, those who have made considerable progress in science and art, engage in com- merce and have a written language; (5) Enlightened, those who stand at the head of the scale, have a division of labor, systems of education, and have made the greatest progress in science, art, and in morality. The principal forms oi government are : ( I ) The monarchical, that form where one person exercises chief power, to which he succeeds by inheritance, and holds for life. (2) Republican, where the power is vested in men who are chosen by the people for a limited period. An absolute mvtarchy (despotism) is one wliere the ruler has unlimited or absolute power, his wUl being the sole 1 iw. A limited or constitutional monarchy is one where the ruler's power is limited by a constitution, or laws made by tlie representatives of the people. In a monarchical government the ruler receives various titles in diflierent countries, as emperor, kingoT queen, czar, sultan, shah and mikado. In a republican government the chief ofiicer is called :i president. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. The animals of a country taken together are called \\.% fauna, while its flowers and vegetation are denonunatcd_/?ffra. The frigid zones produce very scanty vegetation, mosses and lichens, and some stunted specimens of the higher forms, as the willow, birch and pine. The animal world is much more varied as to species. Here are found the reindeer, the musk ox and the white bear, and many smaller fur-bearing animals on the land; while, in the sea, or on its shores, are found whales, wol- ruses, seals and water-fowls of many species. In the torrid zone is found the most dense and varied vegeta- tion, flowers of the most brilliant hue and of the largest size, the most delicious fruits, the most powerful aromatics, the most val- uable woods ; in fact, the most of those productions which add to the luxuries of life. The animal world is represented by the greatest number of species, among which are those of the largest size, the most powerful and active, and the most intelligent. It is the home of the elephant, the giraffe, the lion, the tiger, the monkey, the ostrich, the condor, parrots, and of reptiles of the largest size, as the crocodile and boa constrictor, as well as those of the most poisonous character. In the temperate zones are found tlie vegetation most useful to man, as the oak, the pine, the maple and other useful timber trees ; the indispensable grains, as wheat, maize, barley, rye ; the useful fruits, as the apple, peach, pear, etc., and the fabric plants, as flax and cotton. The animal kingdom is represented by the boar, the bison, the elk and deer, the wolf; and the do- mestic animals so useful to man, as the horse, tjie ox, sheep and goats ; and many species of fowl, as pigeons, ducks, geese, turkeys, etc. MINERALS AND METALS. The prosperity and wealth of a country depend largely upon its mineral resources. Nature has bestowed her wealth in lavish aliundance, asking only the labor of man to make it useful. As K- / 402 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. a rule the useful and valuable minerals are found in rocky or mountainous countries. These countries not being adapted to agriculture, the people find employment in mining and manufac- turing the raw material which is stowed away in their hills, depending for subsistence upon commerce with their agricultural neighbors of the plains. On the other hand, the inhabitants of the plains must depend upon their neighbors of the hills for material which adds to their comfort and convenience. Wher- ever that most useful of metals, iron, is found, near by is always found coal, which is necessary in reducing the iron to useful forms. Timber also grows abundantly on the mountains. This, too, is necessary to the manufacturer. The streams of hilly countries have greater fall, and are thus adapted for water power, which also adds to the ad\antages. Many minerals occur near the surface of the earth, in alluvial soil or the sandy beds of rivers ; but the greater part lie deep in the ground, and are obtained with more or less labor by mining. The most important metals are gold, silver, platinum, mercury, iron, lead, copper, tin, nickel, zinc and antimony. The richest silver mines in the world are those of Mexico. Iron is found in the greatest abundance in different parts of the United States and Europe. The great lead mines of the United States lie on each side of the Mississippi River, in Northwestern Illinois, Southwestern Wisconsin, and Iowa, and in Missouri, south of the Missouri River. The richest and purest copper mines in the world lie on the shores of Lake Superior, in North- ern Michigan, where blocks of native copper weighing 80 tons have been found. Zinc occurs in the Appalachian region, par- ticularly New Jersey and Pennsylvania ; also in Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin and Tennessee. Some Strange Metals. Some of the metals, familiar enough to the chemist, though rarely seen outside his laboratory, have so little in common with the metals of everyday life as to scarcely seem to belong to the same class of substances. We commonly think of a metal as be- ing heavy, yet sodium and potassium will float on water, and lithium is the lightest of all known solids. The fact is, that the word "metal" is one of the hardest in the language to define. The metals all have a peculiar luster, to be sure, which, from its association, has come to be called metallic; but many minerals, as galena and black-lead, which most certainly are not metals, have the same appearance, and so on, through the list of proper- ties. The chemical relations of the metals give good reasons for placing these substances by themselves, though even here the lines are not clearly marked. One of the most distinctive properties of the metals is their power to form, when combined with acids, a class of bodies called salts — on account of their resemblance to common salt — ■ which contains about 40 per cent of the metal sodium. This metal is a bluish white, waxy solid, and has such a great ten- dency to rust, or unite with the o.xygen in the air, that it must be kept in some oil, like petroleum, which contains no oxygen. If a bit of sodium be thrown upon a piece of ice, the metal takes fire, and any attempts to put it out by pouring water on it would only be adding fuel to the flame. The sodium-match is an application of this peculiar property of the metal. It is merely a bit of wood tipped with sodium, and which can, of course, be lighted on the stormiest day by the mere contact of a raindrop. The matches are, however, decidedly dangerous, and their manufacture is generally prohibited. Potassium, which is obtained from potash, is another metal very similar to sodium, and will take fire upon ice or water even more readily than this last-named metal. A small piece of potas- sium thrown into a jug of water apparently takes fire at once, and swims about with gre.at rapidity, burning all the time with a brilliant violet flame One may be forgiven if his ideas on combustion are somewhat upset by the first sight of this phenomenon, but there is really nothing very strange about it. Water is a compound of hydro- gen and oxygen, and these metals, sodium and potassium, have so strong an attraction for oxygen that they will take it wher- ever they can find it, even from water. This, of course, sets the oxygen free, which is set on fire by the heat given off when the potassium and oxygen unite, and Ijurns with a violet color be- cause of the vapor of the metal. The same is true in the case of sodium ; the flame is due to the burning hydrogen rather than the metal. Sodium, potassium, and lithium, with several other metals, form a group known as the alkali metals. There is another group, to which iron belongs, which contains an interesting member called aluminum — sometimes aluminium — from its occurrence in common alum. Aluminum is a beautiful metal, much like silver in appear- ance, and possessing many valuable properties. It is very sonorous, easily worked, does not tarnish in the air, and is only about one-fourth as heavy as silver. It conducts electricity eight times better than iron. Added to this, it occurs in greater quantity than any other metal in the world. Every clay-bank, every granite-bed, is a bed of aluminum, but as yet no cheap and ready means of obtaining the metal has been found in spite of all attempts. Napoleon offered a large reward to any one dis- covering such a process, as, on account of its lightness, he wished to use the metal in his army for helmets and cuirasses. It is hardly possible to give an exact statement of the amount of aluminum in difi'erent clays, since the composition of these earths varies greatly. Clays are impure silicates of aluminum, and, generally speaking, a good brick clay contains a tenth or more, by weight, of the metal. This would be sufficient to plate the upper surface of the bricks, .as they are commonly laid in sidewalks, with a layer of metallic aluminum a fifth of an inch deep. Or this same amount of metal would form a layer one- third of an inch deep on the outside of the bricks, as they are laid in our houses. So we find this hidden metal everywhere about us, and a princely fortune awaits the man who can bring it to the light. ^ . / COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 403 3] o » SOe.* O O O. C.>'0 .0 e C 3 6 e O O O P •» O «;>'0'0 O O.'O 0.0 O O. O .0. O 00000 O O 00 /> 0^0 O I 5] O O O ' ' O > O > 0'^»' ' ' O O O ' ' O ' ' O' O « ' 6 O O ' O 'O'O 00 00000 « 0000 0000 00 OOOOW'OO o o[HJo O 1 [] O O > O O O .00 O ^ 0;-' 00000 00 0000 O 00; O'OOVO.'O'O 00 'O.i'O 000 00000 O 'O. 00 00 0^0 o 3}oeor=coOOeOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOoOO ' O O O ' O 00 OOP 000 O O O O OfHJO Oi Notes, Bills, Orders, Checks, Drafts and Receipts Properly Drawn for Every State. „ , IVERY business man has felt the neces- 4iLi1l sity of a simple and thorough explana- *» Vii'l tion irty days after date I promise to pay J. H. \ Ames, or bearer Two Hundred and Fifty Dollars, S at the Third National Bank in St. Louis, for value 3 received. 55e£ Charles Cams. K A Note Negotiable Only by Eudorsement. $aoo. Chicago, Nov. 26, 1SS3. Three months after date I promise to pay John H. WoUering, or order, Two Hundred Dollars, value received. J. T. Norton. A Note Not Negotiable. $200. St. Louis, Nov. 17, 1SS3. Ninety days after date I promise to pay Charles C. Collins Two Hundred Dollars, value received. Samuel Atkinson. A Note Bearing Interest- $100. Baton Rouge, La., Nov. 26, 1SS3. Six months after date I promise to pay R. V. Jennings, or order. One Hundred Dollars, with interest, for value received. John Q, Watson. A Note Payable on Demand. $[50. Philadelphia, Nov. 30, 1SS3. On demand I promise to pay Lamonte \Vhittlesey, or bearer. One Hundred and Fifty Dollars, value received. John Q. Chaffington. A Note Payable at Bank. $100. Cincinnati, Dec, 24, 1SS3. Thirty days after date I promise to pay Thomas I. Rankin, or order, at the Second National Bank, One Hundred Dollars, value received. __^__^^ Frank T. Morrison. Principal and Surety. $793. Newark, N. J., Dec. 28, 1SS3. Sixty days after date I promise to pay Daniel O'C. Patterson, or order. Seven Hundred and Ninety-three Dollars, with interest, value received, John G. Watterson, Principal, T. R. Graham, Security, A Married Woman's Note in New York. $400. New York, Dec. 13, 1SS3. Three months after date I promise to pay Johnson, Dunham & Co., or order, Four Hundred Dollars, with interest. And I hereby charge my individual property and estate with the payment of this note. Clara C. Dickerson. A Joint Note. $3,000. Detroit, Mich., Dec. 12, 1SS3. One year after date we jointly promise to pay E. C. Langworthy, or order, Three Thousand Dollars, vaiue received. John C. Jennings. Walter D, Curtis, A Joint and Several Note. $3,000. Detroit, Mich., Dec. 12, 1SS3. One year after date wc jointly and severally promise to pay E. C, Langworthy, or order, Three Thousand Dollars, value received, John C. Jennings. Walter D. Curtis. A Partnership Note. No, Boston, Mass., November 26, 1SS3. One month after date, witliout grace, we promise to pay to the order of ourselves Two Hundred and Fifty Dollars, at any bank in Boston, Johnson & Co., 209 Temple Place, $150. Due Dec. 26, 1SS3. K- ~7 406 COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. A Note Payable by Instalments. $3,000. PlTTSBL-RG, Nov. iS, 1SS3. For value received, I promise to pay R. P. Donaldson & Co., or order, Three Thousand Dollars, in the manner following, to wit: One Thousand DoUars in one year, One Thousand Dollars in two years, and one Thousand Dollars in three years, with interest on all said sums, payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. Hugo R. Mleller. A Judgment Note, with Collateral Note Combined. [The portions enclosed in brackets are used in collateral notes only.] Chicago, Dec. 20, 1SS3. One year after date, for value received, I promise to pay to the order of Jeremiah B. Shelton Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Dollars, with interest at the rate of eight per cent per annum [after due, hav- ing deposited with the legal holder hereof, as collateral security, * • *. And I hereby give said legal holder, his, her or their as- signs, authority to sell the same, or any part thereof, at the maturity of this note, or at any time thereafter, or before, in the event of said security depreciating in value, at public or private sale, without advertising the same, or demanding payment, or giving notice, and to apply so much of the proceeds thereof to the payment of this note as may be necessary to pay the same, with all interest due thereon, and also to the payment of all expenses attending the sale of the said collaterals, and in case the proceeds of the sale of the same shall not cover the principal, interest and expenses, I promise to pay the defi- ciency forthwith after such sale, with interest at ten per cent per annum. And it is hereby agreed and understood that if recourse is had to such collateral, any money realized on sale thereof in excess of the amount due on this note shall be applicable to the payment of any other note or claim which the said legal holder may have against me, and in case of any exchange of, or addition to, the collateral above named, the provisions of this note shall extend to such new or additional collateral,] And to further secure the payment of said amount, I hereby author- ize, irrevocably, anj attorney of any court of record to appear for me in such court, in term time or vacation, at any time hereafter, and confess a judgment without process in favor of the holder of this note, for such amount as may appear to be unpaid thereon, together with costs and twenty-five dollars attorney's fee, and a'so to file a cognovit for the amount thereof with the agreement therein, that no writ ot error or appeal shall be presented upon the judgment en- tered by virtue hereof, nor any bill in equity filed to interfere in any manner with the operation of said judgment, and to waive and re- lease all errors which may intervene in any manner with the opera- tion of said judgment; and to waive and release all error which may intervene in any such proceedings, and consent to immediate execu- tion upon such judgment. Hereby ratifying and confirming all that said attorney may do by virtue hereof, John T.Stratford, [Seal.] A judgment note in Illinois requires the power of attorney to confess it. Many, and, in fact, most people deem a judg- ment note a sort of mortgage. It has no such effect, how- ever, and creates no lien or claim different from any other note, and differs from any other note in this only, that the holder can take it and go into court, enter up a judgment and have execution against the maker at once. Thus, by the judgment so entered up, the holder gets a lien, and not by any lien created by the note before judgment. A Short Form of Judgment No(e. $460. Brooklvn, N. Y., Nov. 16, 1883. On demand, for value received, I promise to pay, to the order of Alexander A. McHatron, Four Hundred and Sixty Dollars. And I hereby confess Tudgment for said sum with interest and costs, a re- lease of all errors, and a waiver of all rights of appeal and to the benefit of all laws exempting property from levy and sale. EzEKiAH Partington. Sealed Note. $5,000. Cincinnati, O., Nov. 16, 1SS3. For value received, I promise to pay Edgar & Co., or order, Five Thousand Dollars, in three years from the date hereof, with interest payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. And in case of default of my payment of the interest or principal aforesaid with punctualitv, I hereby empower any attomey-at-law, to be ap- pointed by said Edgar & Co., or their assigns, to appear in any court which said Edgar & Co., or their assigns, may select, and commence and prosecute a suit against me on said note, to confess judgment for all and every part of the interest or principal on said note, in the pay- ment of which I may be delinquent. Witness my hand and seal, this i6th day of November, A. D. 1SS3. John White. [Seal.] Attest: George Oldham, Forms of Notes in Several States. MISSOURI. INDIANA. $31$- Indianapolis, InJ., July 2S, 1883. On demand, for value received, I promise to pay William IVestermann ^ Co.,or order. Three Hundred and Fijteen Dollars, without intertst, payable with- out any relief whatever from iialue or appraisement. Richard M. Sylvester. PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW JERSEY. ^300. Philadelphia, Pa., July 26, 18S3. Y Ninety days after date, I promise to pay to the li order of Lafayette Armstrong Three Hundred Dol- Cj lars, at Third National Bank, value received, with- Ei out defalcation. George Miller. -^1 ^ COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 407 A Swindling Note. Carlyle, III., October 3, i88j. One year after date, I promise to pay R. Tucker or bearer Ten Dollars, when I sell by f order Four Hundred and Seventy-five Dollars [$4.^3) for value received, at ten per cent per annum. payable at Carlyle, Illinois. JOHN WILSON, i worth of Patent Fanning Mills, '■ Said Ten Dollars when due is Allhoiigh the above venerable scheme of the confidence man has been exposed time after time, it still continues to add yearly to its list of victims. A paper is drawn up wherein a farmer agrees to pay ten or twenty dollars when he has sold goods to a given amount. By tearing off the right- hand end of this paper, what is apparently an agreement fur a small amount becomes a promissory note for a considera- ble sum. This note is sold at a bank, thereby becoming the property of a third and innocent party, and the signer of the agreement is called upon to pay the note. This shows how important it is that a man should read and carefully examine every paper presented to him for his signa- ture. DUE BILLS. A Due Bill differs from a note in the fact that it is a simple acknowledgment of a debt. It may be payable in money or merchandise. It is the simplest form of negotiable paper. $;o.oo. Philadelphia, May S, 1SS3. Due John J;icksc)n, or ordur, for v;iliie received, Twenty Dollars. Henky Folsom. In acknowledgment of debt, a form of due bill called an I O U is sometimes given. I O U Three Hundred uud Fifty Dollars. \Vm. Johnson. Due Bill Payable in Merchandise. ?5o.oo. St. Louis, M.iy 14, 1SS3. Due Knos Baldwin, Fifty DoILirs, payable in goods from our .store on demand. SoNTAG & Weber. Due Bill Payable in Money and Merchandise. $So-<». St. Louis, May 14, 1SS3. Due Howard Read, Fifty Dollars, payable. Twenty-five Dollars cash. Twenty-five Dollars in goods from our store, on demand. SONTAG & WeBEK. ORDERS. An Order for Money. Waco, Texas, April i, 1SS3, Mr. B.J. Ring: Please pay W, II. Cavanagh Ten Dollars on my account. M. F, Crenshaw. An Order for Merchandise, Dallas, Texas, May 15, 1SS3. Mr. N. \V. Bechtel: Please pay L. "W. Mjtsuff Tliirty Dollars in Mt:rchandisc and charge the same to my accounL. L.. E. KiTTRBLL. RECEIPTS. For Money on Account, $15.00. KiRKWooD, Mo., Jan. i* 1SS3. Received of J. M. Hardy Fifteen Dollars on account. P. D. Rich. $150- In Full of All Demands. • Des Moines, Iowa, Sei>t. 2, 1SS3, Received of J. C. O'Neal One Hundred and Fifty Dollars, in full of all demands to date. ALFKED W. GREGORy. For Rent. $80. St. Louis, Mo., Nov. i, 1SS3. Received of \V. F. George Eighty Dollars, in full for one moAth's rent of residence at 2S07 Olive St. John G. Stewart, For Money Advanced on a Contract. $500. Denver, Col., May 15, 1SS3. Received of L, W. Logan Five Hundred Dollars, in advance, on a contract to build for him a dwelling-house at No. 315 Cheyenne Ave., Denver, John T. Sherffy. K" 408 COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. -7 ^3< A --L- A '■i^ A -vU A "sU- pi ^ i!i lii;: A -^t" A -vU A POINTS OF BUSINESS LAW. ^ 7 ^ ? ^' ? =1^^ HECKS made payable to "Cash" or order, or to some character, or number, or order, are held to be payable "J/ to bearer. A past-due note entrusted for collection to an agent was converted by him to his own use, and was afterwards sold under an execution against him. The court decided that the purchaser had not acquired any interest in the note and could not maintain an action against the maker. In case of the death of the principal maker of a note the holder is not required to notify a surety that the note is not paid, before the settlement of the maker's estate. Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an intoxicated per- son, are not collectible. A note made by a minor is void. If no time of payment is specified in a note it is payable on demand. An endorser can avoid liability by writing " without re- course " beneath his signature. A check endorsed by the payee is evidence of payment in the drawer's hands. A signature written with a lead pencil is valid. No contract is good unless there be legal consideration. An outlawed debt is revived should the debtor make a partial payment. In case of a note made payable one day after date, with interest from date at the rate of 12 per cent per annum, in- terest to be paid annually, it was held that the note would draw the same rate of interest after maturity until paid. The revised statutes of Indiana provide that notes payable "to order" or "to bearer," in that State, are negotiable as inland bills of exchange, and the payees and endorsers thereof may recover as in case of such bills. Payment is the performance of an agreement or the fulfil- ment of a promise, the discharge in money of a sum due. Pleaded as a defence, payment of money or of an equivalent accepted in its place, to the plaintiff or his authorized repre- sentative, must be proved by defendant. To extinguish the debt, payment must be made by a person having the right to do so, to a person entitled to receive it, at the appointed place and time, and in something proper to receive, both as to kind and quality. Proof that anything has been done or accepted as payment is proof of payment. A receipt is prima facie evidence of payment; so also is the possession by the debtor of a security after the day of payment ACCOMMODATION PAPER. Drafts as well as notes are employed as accommodation paper. For example. Smith, being willing to lend Jones money which the later needs, and having none immediately available, draws a draft on Robinson, who is his debtor, and makes it payable to Jones, who gives no value for it. Such j^T^-if-^j^-Y-^T^-T^-^I^^ a draft in Jones' hand is accommodation paper and cannot be used as an implied contract against Smith ; if discounted at a bank, or transferred for money to an individual, it be- comes business paper as far as the holder is concerned, and its payment may be enforced. Forged Paper. The endorsee generally obtains a perfect title when paper is transferred before maturity; but if the first endorsement is forged, no title rests in the holder. If the signature of the maker of a note is forged, the holder has no recourse against him. Negotiable paper is void when the consideration is either contrary to the general principles of common law or is prohibited by statute. Want of Consideration. Want of consideration — a common defence interposed to the payment of negotiable paper — is a good defence between the original parties to the paper ; but after it has been trans- ferred before maturity to an innocent holder for value, it is not a defence. Stolen or Lost Paper. Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or endorsed in blank, which has been stolen or lost, cannot be collected by the thief or finder, but a holder who receives it in good faith be- fore maturity, for value, can hold it against the owner's claims at the time it was lost. Payment Before Maturity. Sometimes the holder of paper has the right to demand payment before maturity ; for instance, when a draft has been protested for non-acceptance and the proper notices served, the holder may at once proceed against the drawer and endorsers. State Laws as to Payment. If a note or draft is to be paid in the State where it is made, the contract will be governed by the laws of that State. When negotiable paper is payable in a State other than that in which it is made, the laws of that State will govern it. Marriage contracts, if valid where they are made, are valid everywhere. Contracts relating to personal property are governed by the laws of the place where made, except those relating to real estate, which are governed by the laws of the place where the land is situated. Collateral Security. If negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as security for tlie ])ayment of a loan or debt, falls due, and the bank fails to demand payment and have it protested when dishonored, the bank is liable to the owner for the full amount of the paper. r^ LAWS RELATING TO INTEREST. ^ ?' 409 Tp Law^ of the United ^tete? and daiiada I^eMng to Intefegt. COMPILED FROM THE LATEST STATE AND TERRITORIAL STATUTES. Laws of lilacli State and Territory Regarding Rates of Interest and Penalties for Usury, with the Law or Custom as to I>ay of Grace on Notes and Drafts. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware District of Columbia.. Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Mame Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey ~ . . New Mexico New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington Territory West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Canada New Brunswick Nova Scotia LEGAL RATE RATE OF ALLOWED BY INTEREST. CONTRACT. Per cent. Per cent. 8 8 10 Any rate. 6 10 7 Any rate. 10 Any rate. 6 6 7 12 6 6 6 10 8 Any rate. 7 8 10 18 6 8 6 8 6 10 7 12 6 6 5 8 6 Any rate. 6 6 6 Any rate. 7 10 7 lo 6 10 6 10 10 Any rate. 7 10 10 Any rate. 6 6 6 6 6 12 6 6 6 8 6 8 8 10 6 6 6 Any rate. 7 Any rate. 6 6 8 12 10 Any rate. 6 6 6 6* 10 Any rate. 6 6* 7 10 12 Any rate. 6 Any rate. 6 Any rate. 6 Any rate. PENALTIES FOR USURY. Forfeiture of entire interest. No penalty. Forfeiture of principal and interest. No penalty. No penalty, except of excess. Forfeiture of excess. Forfeiture of interest. Forfeiture of principal. Forfeiture of entire interest. No penalty. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Fine of $100 or imprisonment. Forfeiture of entire interest. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Forfeiture of 10 per cent on amount. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Forfeiture of entire interest. No penalty. Forfeiture of excess of interest No penalty. Forfeiture of excess above 7 per cent. Forfeiture of excess over 10 per cent. Forfeiture of entire interest Forfeiture of entire interest No penalty. Forfeiture of in\f rest and cost No penalty. Forfeiture of thrice the excess. Forfeiture of entire interest Fnrf'-iture of excess of interest. Forfeiture of principal and interest Forfeiture of entire interest. Forfeiture of excess above 6 per cent. Forfeiture of principal and interest. Forfeiture of excess of interest No penalty. No penalty. Forfeiture of excess of interest and $100 fine. Forfeiture of all interest. No penalty. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Forfeiture of excess over 6 per cent. No penalty. Forfeiture of excess of interest Forfeiture of entire interest No penalty. GRACE OR NO GRACE, Grace. Grace. No statute. No grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. No statute. No grace. No grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. No grace. Grace Grace. Grace. Grace. No statute. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. Grace. * Except in cases defined by stitutcs o£ the State. No agreement to pay a higher than the legal rate can be enforced unless such agreement is expressly authorized by statute, the established presumption of the law, in the absence of such legislation, being that such a rate is usurious. /• ; \ 4IO LAWS RELATING TO LIMITATION OF ACTIONS. >>■ -A The Law^ of the United ^tate^ aqd daqada I^elating to Limitatioq of i^ction^. Note. — A statute of limitation be^insto rin from the time at which a creditor is authorized first to commence suit. Upon mutual, concurrent and open accounts, the statute, in general, begins to run with the date of the last item. A debt, otherwise barred, may be revived by a new proir.ise made within the period oflimitation. The new promise may be either express or implied (roni a part payment, or any unqualified acknowledgment from which a promise may be inferred. * Al.ibama . Arkansas .. * Arizona . . California.. Colorado.. Connecticut. Dakota Delaware District ot Columbia. Florida Georgia Idaho * Illinois ..'. , * Indiana . . . * Towa .... * Kansas..., * Kentucky . * Louisiana Maine Maryland * M ;issachusetts. Michigan * Minnesota Mississippi Missouri * Montana * Nebr;iska * Mevada New Hampshire. New Jersey New hiexico. .. . W-w York North Carolina.. *Ohio * Oregon * IViinsylvania.. Rhode Island.... South Carolina.. * Tennessee * Texas *Ulah * \'ermont. Virginia ... * Washington Territory \V'est \'irginia * Wisconsin * Wyoming., C,\NADA. Province of Ontario., Province of Quebec.. H ES AND ACTS IN TING. w < Ou bl si S "J a Tears. r,;,rs. rears. 2 't-ars. 2'ears. 3 ■ 6 10 20 3 5 S 10 2 4 4 5 2 4 4 5 I 6 6 6 3 3 6 6 '7 17 2 6 6 20 20 I 3 6 20 20 I 3 3 12 12 2 4 5 20 20 11 4 7 20 7 2 2 4 4 5 I 5 10 10 20 2 5 20 20 10 2 5 10 10 20 I 3 5 5 s IS IS IS I 3 S 10 10 2 6 6 20 20 I 3 ^ 12 12 2 20 20 2 6 6 ID 10 2 6 6 lO 10 I 3 6 7 7 2 5 lO lO ■o§§ 2 5 10 lO 10 I 4 5 • 5 5 2 2 6 4 5 2 6 6 20 20 2§ 6 6 i6 20 1 4 6 6 IS 2 6 6 20 20 't 3 3 10 10 I 6 IS »5 15 2 6 6 ID 10 I 6 6 20 20 I 6 6 20 20 2 6 6 20 20 I 6 6 10 10 1 2 4 4t 10 1 2 4 4 . s 2 6 6 S s I 511 5 20 20 2 5 6 6 6 I Sim lO lO 10 2 6 6 20 20 I 4 5 5 2 6 6 10 10 I, 2 5 s 30 30 Judgments of Justice's court, 5 years. Judgment liens expire in 3 years. An action upon a judgment rendered or contract made out of the Stale is barred in 2 years. ^^'llen the cause of .iclion accrues without the State, the periods of limita- tion .ire 2 years for notes and accoimts ; 3 years for sealed instruments and judgments, Proinissorv notes not negotiable are barred in 17 years. Demand notes. when indorsed, must be protested 4 inontlis from date, without grace, to hold the indorser. Judgments become dormant in 7 years from date of last return on execution issued, but may be revived, boreign judgments barred in 5 years. Sealed instruments, judgments, notes, in 3 years if defendant resided out of Territory when the cause of action accrued. Judgments become dormant in 5 years. "Store account" for goods sold and delivered, 2 years from ist of January next succeeding date of last item. Merchandise accounts between mer- chants, 7 years. ^^'itnessed notes, 20 years. Witnessed notes, 20 years. Years from date of last execution. Foreign judgments barred in 3 years. Accounts stated, 3 yeare. Liabilities incurred out of State, 3 years. For foreign judgments. Domestic judgments become dormant in 5 yuars, but may be revived in 21 years after becoming dormant. Mercantile accounts are not affected by the statute as long as they remain open. Action *' for specific recovery of personal property,'* or " for relief on the ground of fraud," 3 years. Witnessed notes, 14 years. Judgments of ether States, period of limitation under the law of that State, not exceeding 10 years. " Store account," 2 years. Judgmcntsof another State, same as in Virginia. "Store account." 3 years. Judgments of other States and sealed instruments, where the liability ac- crued out of the State, 10 years. Judgments become dormant in 5 years. Foreign debts and judgments, i Year. 'In the States thus marked, it is provided by statute that a cause of action shall be barred which first accrued in another State and is barred bv thestatuteolliMuiatKMis of that State. This is conLrarv lu the general rule, by which a debtor must have resided in the State during the statute period before he can take advantage of it. t Slaiuler, 6 months. X Seals abolished. § Assault, 4 years. § j In certain courts, 20 years. *[ Slander, i year. I Store accounts, 2 years. II Store accounts, 3 years. A V BOARDS OF TRADE AND STOCK F.XCHANGHS. 411 |i i»< t > ii >[ i ii i ii i) i i i( i i# ii i< i i< i> ( i ii ta ii t i nii i (i » < i» f i i ii iiii i 'i i ii ii iii i niioD > '11 I >! ^^^ ^Msmssjs 00,^ > > Boards of1rade#"3tock £xchanges. > ( I i( l l (l li tIi ' I ii I i #0D ' 1D i Ii« I > 1 ' Ct » OOiBCD » -HEN the fisherman, in olden times, had secured his net of fish, to dis- ?iL£|:ULf pose of the product of his labor he had to travel inland until he found a farmer willing to exchange his wheat for the other's wares. It is a long step from that primitive trade to the commerce of the nine- teenth century, which is housed in magnifi- cent palaces, and whose domain stretches to the uttermost ends of the earth. The farmer of to-day grows his crop of grain in Dakota and sends it to his commission mer- chant in Chicago. This broker goes on 'Change and sells the wheat to the highest bidder. Perhaps it goes to Austria, perhaps to Florida — the pulse of the whole world beats in every exchange. Wherever there is scarcity, there food flows out of the Boards of Trade — they form a delicate balance, preserv- ing the supply of food all over the world in exact accord with the demand. Of all the products of our civilization, the Exchanges are among the most complicated, delicate and serviceable. They arc the places where those who want to buy meet those who want to sell. Backed up by all the accessories of civiliza- tion, they form the governors on the steam engine of progress, automatically regulating the world. Is there a probable failure of the crops in Denmark, the news is flashed at once to America, and vessels loaded for the Baltic are clearing for sea in twenty-four hours. In a word, they are the last best device for simpli- fying trade and reducing buying and selling to an exact science. Unfortunately the magni- tude of the business done and the methods of doing it are making of the Exchanges gigantic engines for robbery and oppression, instead of, as they should be, blessings to the land. \ K" 412 BOARDS OF TRADE AND STOCK EXCHANGES. DEALING IN FUTURES. The door by whicli the abuses crept into this great system was one opened for the purpose of facilitating trade. Sup- pose a miller tal 15. gives him the difference between $i.ioj'^and the market price at which he makes up his mind to close. A Call is a privilege the reverse of a put. The buyer of a call buys the right to call or demand a specified amount of grain at a price named, and the seller must deliver it or pay the difference. A Straddle is a combination of the put and the call. It gives the purchaser the right to get the difference if the grain goes either up or down. In other words, the man selling the straddle bets that, within the specified time, wheat will not fluctuate ; the buyer bets that it will. A " call " is generally sold a couple of cents under the mar- ket ; a " put " a couple of cents over, and a " straddle " a couple of cents on both sides, the difTerence being usually enough to much more than protect the seller. MARGINS. The gentlemen who built up this elaborate system of wind trading soon saw that, while it was entirely unnecessary that any gi'ain or provisions should change hands, some sort of a valuable stake should be upon the board. The vultures who live upon this business have little confidence in human honesty, and, to clinch trades, they invented another improvement — the margin. A. sells B. 5,000 bushels of December wheat at $1. 10 ; each man puts up a " margin " of one cent a bushel, $50 in the hands of the legal stakeholder, the secretary of the Exchange. The market drops to $1.09. A. at once demands more " mar- gin" of B., who must put up another cent a bushel, and keep on putting up as long as the market keeps going down, for, when he ceases to protect the property by keeping a clear margin put up, he is in danger of being closed out, and A. will freeze him out the moment his margin is exhausted. As soon as the trade is closed, the stakehokling secretary hands over the " margin " to the winner. If, instead of going down, the grain had gone up, A. would have had to put U]) the margins just in the same way as B. was compelled to do it. From this we see that a margin may be defined as a sum of money put up as a forfeit to .secure'the w inner in an option trade. When the margin is exhausted, so that further loss is not guaranteed to the winner by a ca.sh deposit, it is the custom to close the trade and " rake in the pot," as other gamblers would say. CORNERS. Supposing that there are six million bales of cotton in the country, and A., B. and C, great capitalists, combine their money and buy up five million bales. They are said to have " cornered " the cotton market. The purchase makes them masters of the situation, and they can put what price they wish on the cotton, which the spinners are waiting to buy. This was the old-fashioned way of " cornering. " It is obsolete now. Say there are six million bales in the land, and the .syndicate buys from those who sell, without having the stuff, ten million bales, to be delivered in January. Settling day comes, and the syndicate will not take the differences ; they demand the actual cotton, all of which they own themselves, and after selling it at a low price, the unfortunate brokei's who are caught have to buy it, from the very men they must deliver to, at as high a rate as the holders' consciences will permit them to charge. Beginning with future trading, the phantom of a bushel of wheat or corn, or a barrel of provisions, becomes entirely disas- sociated with the actual merchandise. And in every exchange thousands of bushels are bought and sold for every one bushel brought into the elevators, and hundreds of tierces of ficti- tious and ghostly lard for every one tierce run in the pork- houses. The Chicago Board of Trade sells every day as much wheat as the State of Illinois harvests in a year. Its yearly sale is five times the whole amount of wheat raised in the Union. Its spectral hogs outnumber the real hogs in the land three to one. But, although one may sell phantoms all day long, when settling day comes and the purchaser demands the real article of which you have sold him the image or ghost, you must produce. And if the seller owns all the grain, or all the lard in the market, it is from him you must buy in order to deliver. The fiction is turned into a reality, and the screws put on with terrible effect. Last year, in 1S82, to show how these things are done, one firm in St. Louis obtained control of all the oats in siglit, besides owning many thousands of bushels of futures. They fixed the settling price at 41 cents. If any of those who had sold them the oats could bviy the grain any cheajier anywhere else, of course they were free to buy it and deliver, but this one firm owned all the oats, and the unfortu- nate shorts had to come up and settle at the price named. A little later a wheat corner was attempted, but the shorts were alarmed in time before the syndicate got control of the market, and by remarkable push were able to secure the grain and deliver it, to the utter discomfiture of the longs. In a corner, K- -M V 414 BOARDS OF TRADE AND STOCK EXCHANGES. ~V\ each side proceeds upon the supposition that the seller is selling what he has not got, and the buyer is buying what he does not want. Any combination of men with an unlimited supply of money, unless they are met by another combination with an equally long purse, can corner any article in the market. The process is beautifully simple. It consists in buying more than can be delivered, and then making the sellers deliver or forfeit their margins. THE RESULTS OF CORNERS. With a wisdom which, under other circumstances, would be highly commendable, the gentlemen who make the corners al- ways select some article which must find a market, and as there is but one vital necessity, y'i'oa' is the favorite article which is manipulated. The corner always makes food dear. It buys grain and provisions at low prices, and forces them up to high ones, and the misfortune is, that the cost of the real grain must go up with the cost of the fictitious article. The livelihood, the sustenance of the whole people, is made the battledore and shuttlecock of the gamblers on the Exchange. We quote from an exhaustive article on this subject by Henry D. Lloyd, in the North American Review (August, 1SS3): " Dr. Drysdale, of London, at the last session of the Social Science Congress, pointed out how the death rate rose with scarcity of food. The mean age of the rich in England at the time of death is fifty-five ; among the poor it is not thirty. The death rate among the children of the comfortable classes is eighty in a thousand ; among the working people of Manches- ter and Liverpool it is three hundred in a thousand. Dr. Farr shows that the death rate of England decreases three per cent when wheat declines two shillings a quarter. As food grows dear, typhus glows plenty. Scarcer bread means more crime. .•\n increase of one larceny to every hundred thousand in- habitants comes with every rise of two farthings in the price of wheat in Bavaria. The enemies of the men who corner wheat and pork could wish for no heavier burden on their souls than that they should be successful. As wheat rises, flour rises; and when flour becomes dear, through manipulation, it is the blood of the poor that flows into the treasury of the syndicate. Such money costs too much. The following from the records of the Chicago market shows how the wheat corners of the last four years have enhanced the price of bread. The coincidence is doubly significant, because flour is not one of the speculative commodities of the Board. It is bought and sold only for use. But its prices are glued to the speculative quotations of wheat: The Corner of 1879. Wheat lowest, January, 81X ; highest, December, $1.33. Flour lowest, January, $4.00 ; highest, December, $6.50. The Corner of i88i. Wheat lowest, February, 96^ ; highest, October, $1.43. Flour lowest, February, $4.75 ; highest, September, $7.50. The .\pril Corner of 1S82. Wheat highest, April, $1.42 ; falling to 9134; in November. Flour highest. May, $6.25 ; falling to $4.75 in December. " The return of the price after the corner does not fill the stomachs that have been pinched for months. Every moment the corner lasts there is a mouthful of food the less for the laboring man. Every hour of its continuance some child in Pittsburg or Manchester grows more faint, and every day hun- dreds of little hands let go another finger from the slippery edge of existence. One of the iron manufacturers of the West, President O. W. Potter, of the North Chicago Rolling Mills, the employer of many thousands of men, when ques- tioned in May about the strike of iron-workers, then believed to be impending, and promising to be the worst that had yet taken place in this country, said: " ' The laborers oppose the reduction of wages for the very good reason that they cannot live upon any lower wages. And that is true. They cannot stand the reduction with the high price of living. There are some things that are not to be talked about in public that bring this about, and one of them is the cornering of food on the Board of Trade. A few men manipulate the foods of the workingmen, and create a corner in wheat and meats, and the laborer has to pay the increased cost. They turn the screws, and up go the prices a notch or two. And they may let up so that the market goes down a lit- tle ; but all the time a few men are making money, and the laborer gets no better fare and pays no lower price for the necessaries of life. I am apprehensive of the results that all this will bring about, and there is more anxiety in certain quarters about the future than people dare to imagine.' " THE BUCKET-SHOPS. The fiction of value which is always preserved on the Ex- changes is entirely cast aside in the " bucket-shops, " which are a sort of warts or excrescences which have grown out upon the commercial body in our large cities. These places secure the Chicago and New York quotations and furnish to boys and the poorer clerks the same opportunities for gambling offered to their betters in the Exchanges. Here the poorest can try his luck on grain, just as at the fair he can try it at thimblerig or three-card monte. You can make a trade in pork or wheat which will involve as small an amount as five dollars ; in a word, the wholesale methods of the great Boards of Trade are diminished to retail robbery in the bucket-shop. Here there is no pretence of delivery of the merchandise. The victim goes through the form of buying or selling, but it is a form and nothing more. The profits and losses depend upon the quota- tions, which are often doctored and are never wholly reliable. False figures are posted again and again, and the Iamb is shorn of his little fleece in the most barefaced manner. The bucket- shop keeper is generally a broken-down broker from the Board of Trade who has lost what remnant of self-respect remained A^ -N "7^ BOARDS OK TRADE AND STOCK KXCHANGES. 415 to him. The shops are exactly on a par with the pool-rooms and other gambling hells to be found in every city, and they are more demoralizing because they are more easy of access. KlcTiTl0i;3 Quotations are, as we said, one of the com- monest devices of the bucket-shop. These are effected in dif- ferent ways ; sometimes false telegrams are sent from the main source of information ; more frequently the telegraph operator is furnished with the figures he is to post up instead of those really telegraphed. Freezing-out is another cunning device, by which the little margin put up by the lamb is jobbed. The moment the com- modity falls to a certain point, even though the margin is not exhausted, the trade is declared closed and the loss charged up against the amateur operator. This high-handed proceeding is the most fruitful of all in the reach of the bucket-shops. Like Dante's Inferno, one motto should be painted over all of them : "All hope abandon yc who enter here." 'fm^.¥^- ^^^^ ^^ ■2si^_ TERMS USED ON 'CHANGE. Accommodation Paper. — Notes or bills not representing an actual sale or tr-\de transaction, but merely drawn to be discounted for the benefit of drawt r, acceptor or endorsers, or all combined. Accord and Satisfaction. — Offer and acceptance of one thing in place of another due. Account Sales. — The account of a broker or commission agent, showing amount and rate of sales, expenses of freight, commission, etc., and net amount due the principal. Advances. — Money paid before goods are delivered to buyer or sold by broker. Arbitration, — Settlement of disputes by disinterested parties. Balance of Trade. — Difference in value between total imports and ex- ports of a country. Ballooning. — To work up a stock far beyond its intrinsic worth by favorable stories or fictitious sales. Bear. — One who strives to depress the price of stocks, etc., and for this reason "goes short." Buying Long. — Buying in expectation of a rise. Board of Trade. — An association of business men to regulate matters of trade and further their interests, and for the settlement of differences be- tween its members. About equivalent to Merchants' Exchangee or Cham- ber of Coifunerce. Ereadstuffs.— Any kind of grain, com or meal. Brokf.r. — An agent or factor; a middleman paid by commission. Brokerage. — A percentage for the purchase or sale of money and stocks. Bull. — A broker or dciler who believes that the value of slocks or bread- StufTs will rise, and speculates for a rise — "goes long." * Call. — Demand for payment of instalments due » n srock. Call. — A privilege given to another to "call" for delivery at a time and price fixed. Chamber of Commerce. — An association of merchants for the encour- agement of trade. Clique, — A combination of operators controlling large capital in order to unduly expand or break down the market. Collaterals." — Any kind of values given in pawn when money is bor- rowed. Commission. — A percentage allowed an agent or broker for a sale. Corners. — The buying up of a large quantity of stocks or grain to raise the price. When the market is oversold, the shorts, if compelled to deliver, find themselves in a " corner." Curbstone Brokers. — Brokers or agents who arc not members of any regular organization, and do business mainly on the sidewalk. Delivery. — When stock or grain is brought to the buyer in exac accordance with the rules of the Exchange, it is called a good delivery. When there are irregularities the delivery is pronounced bad, and the buyer can appeal to the Exchange. Differences. — The price at which a stock is bargained for and the rate or day of delivery are not usually the same, the variation being termed the difference. Engrosser. — One who takes the whole of a line of goods ; a forestaller; one who " corners the market " on commodities. Exchange. — Place where merchants meet to transact business; diff:r- ence in value of currencies ; percentage on sale of bills. Exchange Broker. — One who negotiates foreign bills of exchange. Factor. — An agent appointed to sell goods on commission. Factorage.— Commissions allowed factors. Flat. — Inactive; depressed; dull. The _/?a/ value of bonds and stccks is the value without interest. Flyer. — A small side operation, not employing one's whole capital. Forcing Quotations is where brokers wish to keep up the price of a siock and to prevent its falling out of sight. This is generally accompli ihed by a small sale. Grain. — Collective name for all cereals. Gunning a stock is to use every art to produce a break when it is known that a certain house is heavily supplied and would be unable to resist an attack. Kite-Flving. — Expanding one's credit beyond wholesome limits. Lame Duck. — Stock-brokers' slang for one tmable to meet his liabilities. Long. — One is long when he carries stock or grain for a rise. Pointer. — A theory or^act regarding the market on which one bases a speculation. Pool.— The stock or money contributed by a clique to carry through a corner. Price Current.— The prevailing price of merchandise, stock or .secur- ities. Selling Short.— To "sell short" is to sell for future delivery what one has not got, in hopes that prices will fall. Stock. — Shares in the capital of a corporation ; goods on hand. Stock Broker. — One who buys and sells stocks on commission. Stock Exchange. — A place where shares of stock are bought and sold. Stock Jobber. — One who speculates in stocks. Time Bargain. — A contract for future sale of stock. Watering a stuck is the art of doubling the quantity of stock without improving its quality. -:^ KT 416 PEALE S TELEGRAPHIC CODE. p^g^^^^^^^^^^^^g^^M^MMMSMMM^^MS^^MM^MMMM^MMMMMMl] [g]^^^^^^g^^^[5p[5ifa[5ua[5i [a[5ng[5pi5!fa[5^ Making a Complete Business Cipher for the Use of the Merchant, the Banicer and Broker. OR convenience as well as secrecy in telegraphing, bankers, brokers and merchants have adopted Tele- ■•32 graphic Ciphers. This is merely a system of words mutually agreed upon, of which each has a list ar- -XlSv> ranged in alphabetical form and of "^'m easy reference. By this arrange- ^■*-3s ment the operator does not know the meaning of the message he may be sending or receiving over the wires, thus ensuring secrecy. Then again a large saving in telegraph tolls is made, one word usually standing for an entire order for the shipment of goods, etc. There is also a Cable Code arranged in a similar manner and exten- sively used. The system given below is one carefully prepared to meet every exigency of business, the words printed having been se- lected with great care, not alone from their own legibility when written but from their security in telegraphing, few of them being open to common telegraphic mistakes. Suppose, for instance, a merchant in StrLouis desires to tele- graph the following message to his correspondent in Kansas City: " Ship immediately five packages, eight pounds average, plain hams, canvased." Using the cipher, he would simply send the following three words: " Freeing badgereth exactly." Again, "Ship if possible before freights advance 5,000 bushels No. 2 Chicago spring wheat." This message would be worded thus: "Frigate boilers utility." The word "Hogpen" sent from a broker to a customer would mean : " Unless you provide additional margin at once, we must sell your property." Morse's Telegraph Alphabet is used in the transmission of messages. This is appended : The Morse Alphabet. A B C D E F G II I J K L M N O P n R S T U V \V X Y Z I 23 4 5 678 9 o The Telegraphic Detector. The following plan is a very simple one for detecting errors in telegraphic dispatches. It shows the letters most likely to be misspelled in transmitting or receiving, with the corresponding letters of the Morse Alphabet. The Detector is easily understood and is valuable to all persons who use the telegraph : A . — may be transmitted e t D— .. K. F.— . G . a li rv peale's telegraphic code. 417 T II.... V 00 •' or or J— •— • tt K— .— u L-^ '. Stocks in excess of probable demand. Eastern and foreign orders held up for further de- cline. C01>IMERCL\L. CREDIT. incultivate Give general commercial character of inculture Have applied for or procured extensions? incumbency Are. . . . ; .'s troubles serious or temporary? incumbent Have been protested for nonpayment? incumber Wh.at amount of capital is supposed to be in ....'s business? incumbrous ^^'hat are estimated liabili- ties and iusscts? incur Mention habits of incurability A\Tiat line of credit do you consider good for? incurable WTio is the moneyed man of the house? incurableness Are they in fair credit 4oT reasonable lines? incuriosity Do speculate? incurious Do do a legitimate business? incuriousness What do you consider firm worth, free of debt? incurvate General character good for ordinary lines of credit, incurvation They do not speculate; ap- pear to be frugal and industrious, incurve Are looked upon as honest and enterprising. 1 ■s, '5 »_ ^ ^> j- a \ / p I 422 peale's TELEGRAPHIC CODE. > incurvity Capital supposed to be ficti- vacation Yellow corn. venality Western creamery, fancy, in tious. vaccinate No. I corn. tubs. indagate Are not entitled to credit. vaccination High mixed com. vend Western creamery, choice, in indagation Speculate and do business vaccilant No. 2 corn. tubs. generally loosely. vaccilate Rejected corn. vender N. Y. dairy, prime, in tubs. indamage Do legitimate business, and vagabond 0.\TS. vendible N, Y. dairv', fair, in tubs. are making money. vagary No. I oats. vendition Western dain,', prime, in tubs. indarl Habits good ; high soci.il vagient No. 2 white oats. venerable Western dairy, fair, in tubs. standmg. vagrant No, 2 oats. venerableness Western dairv, lower grades. mdccorously is the moneyed man, vague Rejected oats. venery Grease butter, in tubs. and is worth vainly RYE. venger CHEESE. valance No. 1 rj-e. venial Eastern factory, prime. TELEGRAMS AND LETTERS. vale No. 2 rye. venom Eastern dair}', prime. indelicacy Wc received your telegram valediction Rejected rye. venomous Western factory, prime. of at valedictory BARLEY venous Western factory, fair indelicate We received your letter of Valencia No. 1 barley. ventilation EGGS. on Valeria No. 2 barley. ventilator Eastern, fresh, in boxes. mdemni6ed We did not get your tele valeric No. 3 barley. ventriloquist Western, fresh, in boxes. gram of valeriate Rejected barley. venture Western, fresh, in barrels. indemnify Your letter of has not valentine SEEDS. veracity Western, limed, in barrels. been received. valerian Prime timothy seed. 1 indemnifying Please repeat your tele- valantly Prime clover seed. FRUrrS ANO VEGETABLES. gram. valise Flax seed. verb osen ess APPLES. indemnity We do not understand your vampire FLOUR. verdancy Baldwins. telegram. van Best spring extra flcur. verdant Greenings. indenise We do not understand your vandal Good spring extra flour. verderer Russets. letter of vandalic Common spring extra flour. vermily DRIED FRUIT. indenization This is in reply to your tele - vandalism Low grade spring extra flour. Vermillion Apples evaporated. gram of Vandyke Choice to fancy spring extra vermin N. Y. sliced, fancy white. indenizen This is in answer to your flour. vernacular N. Y. sliced, fair to choice. letter of vane Medium to good spring extra verse Peaches evaporated, peeled indent Telegraph your market flour. fancy. daily from 'Change until vanguard Fair to choice spring extra versed Peaches evaporated, fair to further notice. flour. prime. indentedly Telegraph your market at vanilla Best winter flour. versification Peaches evaporated, unpeeled. close by night message. vanish Good winter flour. version Plums. indesert Notify us promptly of any vanity Common winter flour. verst Blackberries. material change in vanquish Fair to good white winter vertebral Riispbcrrics. market, by wire, without flour. vesicle BEANS. further instructions. vanquisher Choice white winter flour. vesper Medium, choice new. indesurently Send us report by night vantage Red winter flour. vest Pea, choice new. message daily of your vapid Choice Minnesota flour. vested M.-irrowfat, choice new. market until further no- vaporous Common Minnesota flour. vesture Limas. tice. vapor Good to choice Minnesota flour. veteran PEAS. variable Minnesota patent flour. veto Green. BBEADSTUFFS. variance Flour equal to New York, extra State. vex Southern, utile WHE.\T. vexation Split utilitarian No. i Chicago springwheat. utility No. 2 ■' ■• ii utilization No. 3 Milwaukee spring wheat utilize No. 2 *' << n variation varicose Rye flour. Buckwheat flour. viaduct vial POTATOES. Snowflakes. variegate Choice baker's flour from spring \\he.at. viand viaticum Peachhlows. Early rose. u'is No. I Northwestern spring wheat. uUary No. 2 Northwestern spring wheat, utmost No. I Minnesota spring wheat Utopia No. 2 •< " <■ variegation vaunt vaultage Good baker's flour from spring wheat HAY. Prime timothy. vicarial vice viceconsul vicinage Bermuda. Southern. Western. Cabbage. vaulted veer Good timothy Shipping grade. vicious victim Cucumbers, small. Cucumbers, large. Utopian No. 3 springwheat. utopianism Rejected spring wheat, utopical No. I white winter wheat. veal vuda vudutte vegetable Inferior hay. Clover, good. White clover. Buckwheat. victorious victoriously victory Onions, yellow. Onions, white. Onions, red. utopist No. 2 " ** " utricle No. i red winter wheat. vocabulary FISH, Mackerel. utriculate No. 2 •• •' " BUTTER, CHEESE AND EGGS. voice Codfish. utter Rejected winter wheat. volatile Herring. utterablc No. 1 amber wheat. velveting BUTTER. volitlve Sardines. utterance No. 2 " " velveteen N. Y. creamery, f.incy, in voluntary Salmon. utterly No. 3 " " tubs. varacious Smoked halibut. i vacancy CORN. velvety N. V. creamery, prime, in votary Salt. 1 vacant White corn. tubs. vulgarize. Saltpeter. ' careful this time, and feel sure it will give satisfaction. No use cabling at present, as our prices are above shi])- ping value. Hog cholera is prevalent, large numbers dying, and prices advancing in con- sequence. \\"\\\ fill balance of order at first opportunity. Political complications seem likely to be settled. refr.ictive I efrenate refrigerativc regency reimbursable rcinhabited releasing relight rely remedilessly renneting Will answer your cable to- morrow ; cannot do so to- day. Buy at price named in your cable or shade higher. Buy and hold for further in- structions. We may wish to resell in your market. If you cannot secure the brand wanted substitute any other equal. Have not been able to place your offer; but if you re- new it lowest i>rices pos- sible for next market mny be successful. Cannot ship your order; had to reject purchase, quality being inferior. reparation revisionary ringlead rossignal -\ K" 424 INSURANCE — FIRE, MARINE AND TRANSIT. "71 i.''!?^-'. .HH!3_ ,.z^Mfe%.. j-.^f^^^ ijpc^ o iiwjxjmc^ maP"J"xi jUTTT jr?, '^TX ' mn^Am& } 7r'.y\ \y.'V.'."".".'.''"''"",', n FNSURANCE, or ASSURANCE, is a contract wherein one party (the uiiiier-Mritfr or insurer) agrees, for a stated con- I sideration (the premium), to make up a loss which another L niay sustain. Insurance may be efTected on property, V against loss or damage by fire and water, on the lives of persons, as well as against accidents; also against the loss of live stock, the dishonesty of employes, the breakage of plate glass, etc. Premium rates are generally expressed by giving the cost in cents for g 100 insurance, and depend greatly on the nature of the risk and the length of time for which the policy (the written contract of insurance) is issued. The policy should contain a description of the property insured, the amount and conditions of insurance, etc. Insurance Companies. Insurance companies are associations or corporations which insure against loss or damage. A stock insurance company is one in which the capital is owned by individuals, called stockholders. They alone share the profits and are liable for the losses. The business of a stock company (and also of a mixed company) is managed by directors chosen by stockholders. No policyholder, unless a stockholder, has any voice in any way in the election of the officers, or in the management of its business. A mutual insurance company is one in which there are no stockholders, and the profits and losses are shared among those who are insured (the policyholders). A mixed insurance company is one which is conducted upon a combination of the stock and mutual plan. Non-participating policies, the holders of which do not share in the profits or losses, are issued by certain mutual and mixed companies. Usually, in a mixed company, all profits above a limited dividend to the stockholders are divided among the participating policyholders. FIRE INSURANCE. Insurance against loss or damage liy fire is termed Fire Insur- ance. I'olicies for this class of insurance are generally issued for a period of one to five years. Ordinarily, in case of loss by fire, the insured will be paid the extent of his loss up to the amount of insurance, unless the insurance company prefer to replace or repair the damaged jiroperty, which privilege is usually reserved. If the policy contains the " average clause," the payment will cover only such portion of the loss as the amount of insurance bears to the value of the property insured. Thus, under a $5,000 policy containing the "average clause," on $10,000 worth of property, the insured could recover only $2,500 in case of an actual loss of $5,000. Floating Policies. A floating policy is one which covers property stored in several buildings or places. The name is applied more pai'- ticularly to policies which cover goods whose location may be changed in process of manufacture or in the ordinary course of liusiness. The " average clause " is a usual condition of policies of this class. The Average Clause. The average clause, above referred to, is usually worded as follows : "It is a condition of this insurance, that if the whole value of the above described property, contained in any or all of the above mentioned buildings and premises, shall exceed the whole amount of insurance thereon, then, in case of loss or damage l>y fire, this policy shall contribute to the payment of said loss or damage in the proportion only that the whole amount of insur- ance on said property shall bear to the whole value of said properly, in all of said buildings, at the time said loss or damage may occur." Short Rates. Short rates are rates for a term less than a year. If an insurance policy is terminated at the request of the policyholder, the company retains the customary "short rates" for the time the policy has been in force ; if terminated at the option of the company, a ratable proportion of the premium is refunded for the unexpired term of the policy. MARINE AND TRANSIT INSURANCE. Insurance of vessels and their cargoes against the i)crils of navigation is termed Marine Insurance. Inland and transit insurance refer to insurance of mer- chandise while being transported from place to place either by rail or water routes, or both. A^ LIFE INSURANCE. 425 ~7\ Policies on cargoes are issued for a certain voyage, or from port to port, and on vessels for a specified time or for a certain voyage. The particular ai'trage claust exemjits the insurance com- pany from tlic payment of any partial loss or particular average, unless it exceeds a certain ]ier cent of the value of the property. Insurance certificates, showing that certain property has been insured, and stating the amount of the insurance and the name of the party abroad who is authorized to make the settlement, are issued by marine companies. They are negotia- ble, and are usually sent to the consignee of the merchandise to make the loss payable at the port of destination. The adjustment of marine policies in case of loss is on the same principle as the adjustment of fire policies containing the " average clause." Open policies are such upon which additional insurances may be entered at different times. LIFE INSURANCE. In Life Insurance, the insurance company agrees, in considera- tion of stipulated payments, to pay to the heirs of a person, at his death, or to himself, if living at a stated age, a certain sum of money. In ordinary life policies a certain premium is to be paid every year until the death of the insured, when the policy becomes payable to the beneficiary. There are other kinds of policies, however, and these are described below, with the conditions of payment and the peculiar advantages of each: Limited Payment Life Policy. — Conditions: Premiums to be paid annually for a certain fixed number of years, or until the death of the insured, should that occur prior to the expira- tion of this period. Policy payable at death of the insured. Advantages : Payments on this kind of policy may all be made while the insured is best able to make them, and, if he live to an old age, the policy will not be a continual burden, but will ratlier be a source of income, as the yearly dividends may be taken out in cash or added to the amount of insurance. Term Life Policy. — In this method of insurance the insurance company agrees to pay to the beneficiaries a certain sum on the death of the insured, should that event occur within a fixed term. Endowment Policy. — A combination of a Term Life Policy and a Pure Endownent. These policies are issued for endowment periods of 10, 13, 20, 25, 30 or 35 years, and may be paid up by a single payment, by an annual ])remium during the endowment period, or by five or ten annual payments. Condi- tions : I. //Mwranc^ during a stipulated period, payable at the death of the insured, should that event happen within said period. 2. An endo7oment of the same amount as the policy, payable to the insured if still Kving at the end of the period fixed. Ad- vantages : Limited term of payments ; insurance during the time when the death of the insured would cause most embarrassment to his family ; provision for old age, as the amount of the policy will be paid to the insured, if still living, at a time when ad- vanced age may make it of great benefit. Annuity Policy. — This kind of policy is secured by a single casli payment, and insures the holder the yearly payment of a certain sum of money during life. Joint Life Policy. — .\n agreement to pay a certain sum on the ticath of any one of two or more persons thus insured. Non-Forfeiting Policies. — A policy of this kind does not become void for non-payment of premiums. In some companies all limited payment life policies ai\d all endowment policies, after premiums for three (or two) years have been paid, and the original policy is surrendered within a certain time, provide for paid-up assurance for as many parts of the original amount as- sured as there shall have been complete annual premiums re- ceived in cash by the company. Some companies voluntarily apply all credited dividends to the continuance of the insurance. Others apply the legal reserve to the purchase of term insurance at regular rales. Tlie legislatures of several States have provided for the non- forfeiture of premiums paid in, and the companies doing busi- ness in or from those States are of course compelled to conform to these laws. According to the laws of the State of New York, after three full annual premiums have been paid, the legal reserve of the policy, calculated at the date of the failure to make the pay- ments, shall, on surrender of the policy within six months after such lapse, be applied as a single payment at the publisheil rates of the company in either of two ways, at the option of the as- sured — (i) to the continuance of the full amount of the in- surance so long as such single premium will purchase term insurance for that amount, or (2) to the purchase of a non-partic- ipating paid-up policy. According to the Massachusetts limited forfeiture law of 1880, after two full annual premiums have been paid, and without any action on the part of the assured, the net value (Massachusetts standard) of the policy, less a surrender charge of 8 ))er cent of the present value of the future premiums which the policy is ex- posed to pay in case of its continuance, shall be applied as a single payment to the purchase of paid-up insurance. Special Forms of Policies. — The Reserve Endowment, Tontine Investment, and other special policies, guarantee to the holder a definite surrender value at the termination of certain periods. The surrender value of a policy is the amount in cash which the company will \ay the holder of a policy on Its sur- render — the legal reserve, less a certain per cent for expenses. Reserve — Reserve Fund — Expectation. The reserve of life insurance policies is the present Talue of the amount to be paid .at deatli, less the present value of all the net premiums to be paid in the future. The reserve fund of a life insurance company is that sum in hand which, invested at a given rate of interest, together with future premiums on existing policies, should be suflScient to meet all obligations as they become due. It is the sum of the separate reserves of the several policies outstanding. The legal rate for the resen-e fund, according to the laws of the Stale of New York, is 4 j< per cent ; of Massachusetts, 4 per cent. The expectation of life is the number of years which one may probably live. This average number of yeai-s has been detemiiued from the experience of insurance companies. / V r^^ 426 BANKS AND BANKING. e:^Eak:[jL.^iL:^ik°Jk.uiL;:jk:'jk::^L::;ne of which you will forward to us), for any payment made under this credit. Whatever sum Mr, Atkins may take up, you will please endorse on the back of this letter, which is to continue in force until January I, 1SS4, and charge to the account of Your obedient servant, THE THIRD NATIONAL BANK, Richard Rankin, LThe Signature of President. Hannibal Atkins. To Messieurs- y_ The Bankt-rs iufnttaned on the third /•age 0/ this letter of credit, 5 vvvv'*rvvvv'vvv-vvv-v'vv'vvvvvv%rsrv-w'vvvvvvvvvv-vnrv'v-v'vvvvv-vvv Inland lelters of credit are also used, their general character- istics lieing the same as the foreign, though they differ some- what in their wording. Generally a letter of introduction is delivered to the party to whom the credit is issued, introduc- ing him to the correspondent of the bank of issue, and stating the nature of the transaction, the amount of credit granted and the time it has to run. Letters of advice, conveying the same intelligence, together with the signature of the party bearing the letter of credit, are sent to the bank's correspondents. Bill of Lading as Security. Shippers of merchandise, purchasing cargoes on specula- tion to be forwarded to an agent for sale, to obtain the money to (my for it, draw a draft upon the consignee, made payable to the bank from which the money is obtained, by giving as security for its payment a bill of lading made out by the captain of the craft or the railroad company owning the road upon which the goods are shipped, either in the name of the shipper, and assigned by him to the bank, or drawn originally in the name of the bank, both forms bemg common. As a general rulo, the bill of lading is attached to the draft and is held by the bank, to which the title at once passes. A BILL OF LADING. No.jiS. Chicago, yuty^^l JSS3, Shipped by Asa Lasaltc, as Agent, in app.ircnt -good order, on board the Propeller May Prescott, ot Ojjdcnsburj;, New York, wlicrcof James Perkins, of Cleveland, Ohio, is Master, the following described p-operty, to be transported to the place of destination with- out unnecessary delay, and to be delivered as addressed on the margin in like good order, in the customary manner, free of lighterage, upon prompt payment of freight and charges as prescril>cd in this hill. The Freight, Charges and Demurrage payable to Enos lianscomb, Cashier First Natiomtl Bank of Erie, Pa., or order, at place of destin- ation, who is the only party authorized to collect the same, and whose receipt shall be in full of all demands on this cargo or Bill of Lading. In Witness Whereof, the said Master of said boat hath affirmed to three Bills of Lading, one marked "original" and two "duplicate," of this tenor and date, one of which being accomplished the others to stand void. Order of Kranklin Bank. 10,000 Bushels No. i Winter Wheat. Freight, 3 cents per bushel. Notify Peter Albright & Co., Ogdensburg. Amos Bowen. J. G. Leitch. The grain thus hypothecated to the bank is subject to its control and direction, and its proceeds, when sold, must be applied to the draft's payment. Asa Lasalle's transaclion in purchasing the wheat and shipping it on the propeller May Prescott, of which James Perkins is captain, is partially described in the foregoing bill of lading. The grain is consigned to Peter Albright & Co., Ogdensburg, agents, on account of the Franklin Bank, which also requires Asa Lasalle to insure the consignment for its protection. The following is the form of draft employed in a transaction of this kind : THE DRAR. ^12, 000. Chicago, III., July 12, iSSj. Pay to the order of Franklin Bank Twelve Thousand Dollars, value received, and charge the same to account of (^10,000 bus. winter wheat. Prop. May Prescott) Asa Lasalle. To Peter Altright b' Co., No. Sjj. Ogdensburg^ The Clearing-House System. A Clearing-house is an association of the banks and bankers of a city for the exchange of their checks and the adjustment of accounts between themselves. A business man, receiving a check in the course of trade, seldom thinks of sending it to the bank on which it is drawn, but simply deposits it in the bank with which he keeps his account, only taking the precaution to have it "certified " if he doubts its goodness. Thus, at the close of a day, each bank will hold a number of checks drawn on other banks. These are assorted, and placed in envelopes, marked with the names of banks on which tliey are drawn and with the total amount, and taken by a clerk and messenger to the Clearing-house. There the balances against or in favor of each bank are ascertained, and are paid in by a certain hour each d.ay, and the accounts settled. By the Clearing-house system the exchange of millions of dollars is daily effected in large cities by the transfer of a few thousands. A^ 432 NATIONAL BANKS— STOCKS AND BONDS. J\ -lA OUR NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM.^ rHE NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM was created by Congress in the belief that it was the best perma- j ly nent method of securing paper money absolutely safe iX from loss to the holder and readily convertible into t' coin. Under the laws of the United States any num- ber of persons not less than five may form an association and obtain a charter for the purpose of carrying on the business of a national banlt. The capital stock of a national banlcing associa- tion is divided into shares of $loo each, and in cities of 50,000 population, or over, no association can be organized with a less capital than ^200,000; in cities of less than 50,000, jS 100,000 capital is required, but, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, national banks may be organized in places of less than 5,000 inhabitants with a capital of §50,000. National banks are authorized to discount and negotiate notes, drafts, etc. ; to receive deposits ; to buy and sell exchange, coin and bullion ; to loan money on personal security, and to issue circulating notes. They are prohibited from making loans on real estate, or on security of their own shares of capital, e.xcept to secure debts previously contracted, and real estate purchased or mortgaged to secure a pre-existing debt cannot be held for a longer period than five years. They are also prohibited from making loans to one person or association, excepting on business paper representing actually existing value as security, in excess of one-tenth of the capital of the bank. The stockholders of a national bank are individually liable (equally and ratably, and not one for another) for an amount equal to the par value of the capital stock held by them. The national banks in the reserve cities are required by law to hold a lawful money reserve of 25 per cent of their deposits ; all other national banks, 1 5 per cent. The excess above legal require- ments is called "surplus reserve." This reserve includes the 5 per cent redemption fund with tlie U. S. Treasurer. The law provides that a surplus fund shall be accumulated, by setting aside, before the usual semi-annual dividend is declared, one-tenth part of the net profits of the bank for the preceding half-year, until the suqjlus fund shall amount to 20 per cent of its capital stock. The national banks pay to the United States a tax of i per cent annually upon the average amount of their notes in circula- tion, J^ per cent annually upon the average amount of their deposits, and J^ per cent annually upon the average amount of capital not invested in U. S. bonds. Banks other than national pay taxes to the United States on account of their circulation, deposits and capital at the same rates as are paid by the national banks. National Bank Circulation. Every national bank, Ijefore it is authorized to commence busi- ness, must transfer to the Treasurer of the United States' registered bonds, bearing interest, to an amount not less than one-fourth of the capital stock paid in, as security for its circulat- ing notes. Banks having a capital of more than §150,000 shall be required to deposit bonds to the amount of one-third of their capital stock. Upon a deposit of registered bonds, tlie association making the same will receive from the Comptroller of the Currency cir- culating notes of different denominations, in blank, equal in amount to go per cent of the current market value, not exceed- ing par, of the bonds so deposited. The circulating notes of national banks are redeemed in law- ful money by the banks which issue them, and by the Treasurer of the United States at Wasliington. Every national bank must, at all times, keep and have on deposit in the Treasury of the United States, in lawful money, a sum equal to 5 per cent of its circulation, to be held and used for the redemption of such circulation. A bank going into voluntar)' liquidation must, within six months thereafter, deposit in the Treasury a sum equal to the amount of circulating notes outstanding. The law also requires that full provision shall be made for the redemption of the circu- lating notes of any insolvent bank before a dividend is made to its creditors. No association, therefore, can close up its business without first providing for the payment of all its circulating notes, and the amounts deposited for their redemption must remain in the Treasury until the last outstanding note shall have been pre- sented. Thus the Government, and not the bank, receives all the benefit arising from lost or unredeemed circulating notes. ••o^o*. -e^Tfe^ e^ rZ"X3 ^s STOCKS-^ AND ■> BONDS 7i^ ^I^- rz3^ rllE CAPITAL of a corporation is always divided into shares ranging from $10 to $1,000, but usually of 100 each. These shares are known as stock, and ^^ represent an interest in the property and profits of the ^v' company over and above liabilities and expenses. A dividend is the distribution of the profits, proportionate to number of shares held, among the stockholders. VL Stock certificates are written instruments, signed by tlie proper officers of the company, and certifying that the holder is the owner of a certain number of shares of the capital stock. _ These certificates are transferable, and may be bought and sold the same as other species of property. The sum for which each share or certificate was issued is the far value, and the amount for which it can be sold the market value. "Tt STOCKS AND BONDS —GOVERNMENT BONDS. 433 Preferred Stock. This kind of stock takes preference of the ordinary stock of a corporation, and the holders are entitled to a stated per cent an- nually out of the net earnings before a dividend can be declared on the common stock. Preferred stocks arc generally the result of reorganiiation, although sometimes issued in payment of float- ing or unsecured debts. How Stock is "\A^atered." .Sometimes the charier of a corporation forbids the declaring of a dividend exceeding a certain per cent of the par value of its stock. In this case the directors may find it desirable to " water" the stock — that is, issue additional shares. This increase in the number of shares of course reduces the percentage of dividend, although the same profit in the aggregate is secured to the stock- holders. BONDS. A bond is in the nature of a promissory note — the obligation of a corporation, state, county or city to pay a certain sum of money at a certain time, with interest payable at fixed periods or upon certain condition^. The bond of a company may I)e a perfectly safe investment, when the stock is not ; and tlie stock of a prosperous and suc- cessful company, jiaying large dividends or having a large sur- plus, may sell at a higher price than the bonds of the same com- pany, the income from which is limited to the agreed rate of interest which they bear. A much closer scrutiny should be made of a company's standing when one thinks of investing in its share capital, than when it is the intention to loan the com- pany money on its mortgage bonds. Generally the bonds of business corporations are secured by mortgage, but some classes of bonds are dependent on the solv- ency or good faith of the company issuing them. The coupons attached to bonds represent the different install- ments of interest, and are to be cut off and collected from time to time as the interest becomes payable. Bonds are sometimes issued without coupons, and are then called registered bonds. Such bonds are payable only to the registered owner, and the interest on these is paid by check. Convertible bonds are such as contain provisions whereby they may be exchanged for stock, lands or other property. Bonds are known as First Mortgage, Second Mortgage, etc., Debentures, Consols, Convertible Land Grant, Sinking Fund, Adjustment, Income or otherwise, according to their priority of lien, the class of property upon which they are secured, etc. Income bonds are generally bonds on which the interest is only payable if earned, and ordinarily are not secured by mortgage. Bonds are also named from the rate of interest they bear, or from the dates at which they are payable or redeemable, or from botli; as, U. S. 4's 1907, Virginia 6's, Western Union 7's, cou- pon, 1900, Lake Shore reg. 2d, 1903. 4^ GOVERNMENT BONDS. ^ .^*5>^UR GOVERNMENT found it necessary to borrow large «!-rivNl ^"""^ °^ money to prosecute the war of the Rebellion, jIvi'v^;/ ""' '" '''^'"''" issued interest-bearing bonds. All of ^i^l these bonds now outstanding are payable in coin, except ■^ J only the currency 6's, and all are exempt from tax.ation. The following is a complete list of bonds now outstanding : Continued6's — 6'soF 1881. Authorizedbyacts July lyand August 5, 1861, and March 3, 1863. Redeemable at option of Government after June 30, 1881. In 18S1, at the request of holders, these bonds were continued at 3J ri:K cent. Continued 5's — 5's of 1881. Authorized by the " Funding Acts" of July 14, iS/O, and Januarj' 20, 1 87 1, and issued for the puri)Ose of funding the 5-20 and 10-40 bonds. Redeemable at the option of the Government after 10 years from their date, or after May I, 1881. In 1881, at the request of holders, these bonds were continued at 3J per cent. 4l's OF 1891. Authorized by acts of July 14, 1S70, ami January 20, 1871, and issued for the purpose of funding the 5-20 and 10-40 bonds. Redeemable at option of Government after 15 years from their dale, or after September I, 1891. 4's OF 1907. Authorized by acts of July 14, 1870, and Jan- uary 20, 1 87 1, and issued for the purpose of funding the 5-20 and 10-40 bonds. Redeemable at option of Government after 30 years from their date, or after July i, 1907. Currency 6's. Issued to aid in con.struction of the Pacific railroads, and authorized by acts of July I, 1S62, and July 2, 1864.^ Principal and interest payable in lawful money of the United States. Payable 30 years after date, and maturing at different dates from 1S95 to 1S99. Refundinc; Certificates. Authorized by act of Februar)- 26, 1S79. These certificates are of the denomination of $10, licar interest at 4 per cent, and are convertible at any time, with accrued interest, into 4 per cent bonds. All Government bonds are dealt in and quoted " flat " — Ih.at is to say, the quoted market price is for the bond as it stands at the time, including the accrued interest — except that after the closing of the transfer books the registered bonds are quoted ex-interest — that is to s.iy, the interest then coming due belongs to the holder of the bond at the time of the closing of the books, and does not go with the bond to the purchaser. Coupon bonds, being p.ayable to bearer, pass by delivery with- out assignment, and are therefore more convenient for sale and delivery than registered bonds, which must be assigned by the jiarty in whose name they are registered. The interest coupons, being also payable to the bearer, will be cashed by any bank or banker. The interest on registered bonds is ]>aid by checks, made to the order of the registered owner and sent to him by mail. These checks, when jiropcrly endorsed, can be collected and cashed through any bank or banker. Coupon bonds may be converted into registered bonds of the same issue, but there is no jirovision of law for converting regis- tered bonds into coupon bonds. ki K" 434 TAXES AND DUTIES. J- m ■Jr='r='lS=it=iT=Jr=3\ m i .iiu ii mTi i i.i t,; u /% ■*i^- m ,,^.,, TAXES pf DUTIES. * * TARIFF AND INTERNAL REVENUE. * ^l^ ?fjji^- "^';"^''';"jm' TAX is the assessment of a sum of money on persons ^ or property to defray the expenses of government. lb Taxation on property is either " direct " or '• indirect." A direct tax is one which is levied from the very persons who it is intended should pay it. An indirect tax is one which is demanded from one person in the expectation that he will indemnify himself at tlie expense of another — as customs duties, for instance. In some States all citizens above 21 years of age are required to pay a personal tax, known as capitation ax poll tax. The expenses of towns, cities, counties and States are paid by a direct tax upon the property or polls of the same, the methods of assessment differing in the several States. In some .States the whole tax is paid by the owners of property; in others a certain percentage of the whole lax is assessed upon the polls, while in some the poll tax is a fixed amount for each citizen. The expenses of the United States Federal Government are paid by the internal revenue and the duties on imports. The internal revenue is the tax on tobacco, cigars, etc., and distilled spirits and fermented liquors. Fixed property, such as land, houses, etc., is called real estate. Movable property, such as merchandise, furniture, money, stocks, bonds, mortgages, etc., is called personal property. For the support of the Government, and in order to protect honie industries, certain taxes are imposed on imported mer- chandise, and these taxes are called duties or customs. Tiie waters and shores of the United States are divided into collection districts, in each of which there is one port of entry and one or more ports of delivery. All ports of entry are also ports of delivery. All cargoes chargeable with duties must be entered and the duties paid, or secured to be ]>aid, at the ]>ort of entry, before l)ermi.ssion is given to discharge the same at the port of delivery. The principal officer of every district is the collector, who is assisted l)y deputy collectors, surveyors, appraisers, weighers, gaugers, insjxictors, etc. The duties of tlie above vary in the several collection districts ami ports. There is also in the lead- ing ports of entry a "naval officer," whose de|)artment is a check upon that of the collector. An importer desiring a jicrmit to land merchandise presents his invoice, with the consular certificate, bill of lading, and a for- mal entry attached, to the entry clerk at the custom-house, and makes the necessary oath before the collector or his deputy. The duties, if any, are estimated in the departments of the col- lector and the naval officer. The amount oi the estimated duties having been paid, or secured by a bond, the collector, together with the naval officer, where there is one, grants a permit to land the merchandise. It is the custom of custom-house brokers and many merchants to calculate the duties and enter the same on the entry. The permit is presented to the inspector in charge of the vessel, who allows the merchandise to be landed. The collector indicates on the permit by numbers what packages shall be sent to the public store for examination. When the merchandise is examined by the appraiser, he enters on the invoice or manifest the rate of duty to be collected. The invoice and the accompanying papers are then sent to liquidators in l30th the collector's and naval officer's departments for adjust- ment. The liquidators check the calculations on the entry, or again calculate the duty if the appraiser has changed the rate or the dutiable value, or if the returns of the weigher or ganger differ from the weiglit or measurement in the invoice. The amount of duty to be refunded or collected is marked on the entry. If the difference between the duty as estimated and as liquidated is less than ^ I, it is disregarded, and the liquidator approves the original estimate. A custom-house broker is a person who makes entries, secures permits, and transacts other business at custom-houses for mer- chants. The greater part of the business at the New York Custom-house is done through brokers. DUTIES. Duties are of three kinds, ad valorem, specific and combined. An ad valorem duty is a tax assessed at a certain per cent on the dutiable value of the merchandise. The dutiable value of merchandise is its market value at the port of export, but not less than its invoiced cost, commission added, whether paid or not. It is usually the original cost plus all charges, excepting the consul's fee, to the vessel on which tlie shijjment is made. There is no duty on the freight or transportation from the port of export. A specific duty is a tax assessed at a certain sum per ton, pound, foot, yard, gallon, or other weight or measure, without reference to the value. Before specific duties are calculated, allowances are made for tare, leakage and breakage. In reducing foreign money to U. S. money for the purpose of calculating duties, if the cents of the result are less than 50, they are rejected ; if more than 50, %\ is added to the dollars. ■f tr- The U. S. customhouse ton contains 2,240 pounds, and the liundredweight 1 1 2 pounds. Combined duly. — On certain goods thefe is both a specific and an ad valorem duty, and this is termed a " combined duty." Bonded Warehouses— Drawback— Free List. A bonded warehouse is a place for the storage of merchandise on which the duties or taxes have not been paid. If an importer does not desire to place his goods at once in the market, or anticipates exporting the same, by giving a bond for the pay- ment of the duties and making the entry in the proper form, he may have the merchandise stored at his own risk in a bonded warehouse, and thus defer the payment of the duties. Merchandise may be withdrawn from a bonded warehouse for exportation to Canada, or other foreign country, without the payment of the duty on the same. Drawback.— Vlhen distilled spirits, fermented liquors, medi- cines and perfumery upon which an internal revenue tax has been paid, and foreign mercliandise upon which an import duty has been paid, are exported, the tax or duty upon the same is refunded. Such return of the tax or duty is called a drawback. The free list is a list of articles which are exempt from duty. In making entries of free goods, the value as given in foreign money must be reduced to U. S. money, permits must be obtained to land the goods, and certain packages are sent to the public store for examination. ~^*-S= THE TARIFF. ^'. \^^/ Rates of Duty fixed by the Tariff Act of 1883. Schedule A— Chemical Products. Gliic 20 p. c. Hccswax 20 p, c. GeLuhic and all simil.ir prepa'iions. 30 p. c. Glycerine, cnidc, brown or yellow, of I and 25-iooths 2 c. lb. Glycerine, refined 5 c. lb. Fish-2tuc or isinglass 25 p. c. Phosphorous 10 c. lb. Soap, hard anti .'warc, painted, print'd, gild'd, otherwise decor'd. China, porcelain, patian and bisque ware, white, not decorated Other earth., stone, cro'k'ware, etc. Stoneware, above capac'y of 10 gal. Encaustic tiles Brick, fire-brick, ro'ing, pa'ing tile. Slates, slate-pencils, etc Roofing-slates Green and colored glass bottles, etc., not cut, cngrav'd or painted. Iffilled Flint and lime glass boi's, vials, etc. 25 p. c. 60 p. c. 55 P- C. 55 pc. 2-1 p. C. 35 p. c. 20 p, c. 3-^ p. c. 2Sp. C. 1 c. lb. 1 30 p. c. in Vad. to duty J en c'nt'nts 40 p. c. \ 436 THE TARIFF. / "I 40 p. c. in If filled "-ad. 10 duty j onc'nt'nts Articles of glass, cut, engrav'd, etc. 45 p. c. Cylinder and crown glass, polished, not exceeding 10x15 in. sq 2j^ c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 16x24 in. sq 4 c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 24x30 in, sq 6 c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 24x60 in. sq 20 c. sq. ft. Above that 40 c. sq. It. Unpol, cyl'der.crown and com. win- d'w gla-^s.notexc'd'g 10x15 in.sq. 1^ c. lb. Not exceeding 16x24 '"• sq 1% c. lb. Not exceeding 24x30 in. sq 2^|c.Ib. Above that 2^ c. lb. Fluted, rolled or rough plate-glass, ) 75 c. 100 not exceeding 10x15 in. sq J sq. ft. Not exceeding 16x24 in. sq i c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 24x30 in. sq i}^c. sq.lt. Above that 2 c. sq. ft. Cast polis'd plate-glass, unsilvered, not exceeding 10x15 in. sq 3 c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 16x24 in. sq. ...'.... 5 c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 24x30 in, sq 8 c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 24x60 in. sq 25 c. sq.ft. Above that 50 c. sq. ft. Cast pol'd pbte-glass.silv. orlook'g glass pl't's, not exc'g 10x15 in. sq. 4 c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 16x24 in, sq 6 c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 24.X30 in. sq 10 c. sq. ft. Not exceeding 24x60 in. sq 35 c. sq. fi. Above that 60 c. sq. ft. Looking-glass plates or plate-glass, 30 p. c. in silvered, when framed addition. Porcelain and Bohemian glass, etc. 45 p. c. Schedule C-Metals. Iron ore, including manganiferous f ^^^ iron ore f '^ Sulphur ore, as pyrites, containing not more than 3 J^ p. c. of copper. 75 c. ton. Ore confg more than 2 p. c. copper j^_ ^for^cop^ Iron in pigs, iron kentledge, spieg- eleisen, wrought and cast scrap- iron and scrap-steel o. 3 c. lb. Iron r'way bars, over 25 lb. to yd.. 0.7 c. lb. Steel railway-bars and r'way-bars made in part of steel, over 25 lb. . 5^7 P- ton- Bar-iron, rolled or hammered, com- prising flats not less than i inch wide, nor less than ^3 in. thick.. 0.8 c. lb. Round iron not less than Y^ inch in diameter, and square iron not less than Yi, inch square i c. lb. Flats less than i inch wide or less than ^ inch thick; round ironless than 34 inch and not less ihan 7-16 inch in diam., and square iron less than 5.4 of an inch square 1.10 c. lb. All iron slabs, etc 35 P- c. Provid'd further, iron bars, blooms, billets, or sizes or shapes of any kind, in the man'f. of which char- coal is used as fuel $22 p. ton. Iron or steel tec rails, weighing not over 25 lbs. to the yard 0.9 c. lb. Iron or steel flat rails, punched 0.8 c. lb. Round iron, in coils or rods, less than 7-16 inch in diam., and bars or shapes of rolled iron not spec- ially provided 1.2 c. lb. Boiler or plate iron, sheared or un- sheared, skclp-iron, sheared or rolled in grooves 'K c. lb. Sheet iron. com. or black, thinner than \% inch and not thinner than No. 20 wire gauge i i-i6c. lb. Thinner than No. 20 wire gauge and not thinner than No. 25 i.a c. lb. Thinner than No. 25 wire gauge and not thinner than No. 29 1.5 c. lb. Thinner than No. 29 wire gauge, and all iron commercially known as common or black taggers' iron, whether put up in h'x's.b'dles.etc. 30 p. c. On all such iron and steel sheets or plates, exccpti'g what are known commercially as tin plates, tcrnc- plates and taggers* tin, when gal- v'z'd or co't'd with zinc, spelter or other metals, or any alloy of them J-^cIb. in ad Polishcd.pian's'cd, or glanc'd sheet- iron or shcct*stccl 25^ c. lb. Plate, sheet or taggers' iron other than the polished, planished or glanc'd herein provid'd for, which has been pickled or cleaned by acid or by any other material or process, and which is cold rolled. J^ c. lb. ad. Iron orstee! sheets, plates, taggers' iron, coated with tin or lead, era mixture of which these metals is a comp'nt part, by the dripping or other process, commercially known as tin plates, terne plates, and taggers' tin i c. lb. Cor'ga'd or cr'ped sheet ir'n orsteel 1.4 c. lb. Hoop band, scroll or other iron, 8 inches or less in width, and not thinner than No. 10 wire gauge . . i c. lb. Thinner than No. 10 wire gauge and not thinner than No. 20 1,2 c. lb. Thinner than No. 20 wire gauge. . . 1.4 c. lb. Articles not specially provided for, whether wholly or partly manu- factured, made from sheet, plate, hoop, band or scroll-iron herein provided for, or of which such sheet, plate, hoop, band or scroll- iron shall be material of chief value 1.^ c. lb. ad. Iron and steel cotton-ties or hoops for baling purposes not thinner than No. 20 wire gauge 35 P- c. Cast-iron pipe of every description, i c. lb. Cast-ir'nves'l,etc.,notsp'c'ly prov. i 1.^ c. lb. Cut nails of iron or steel i J^ c. lb. Cut tacks or brads, not exceeding 16 oz. to the 1,000 2}^ c. p. M. Exceeding 16 oz. to the 1,000 3 c. lb. Iron or steel railway fish-plates.. .. ii4 inch and under i inch. . , . -! 10 c. lb. Half an inch long and less (_i2 c. lb. I'-on and steel wire, under No. 5 and not under No. 10 wire gauge iHc lb. Under No. 10 and not under No. 16 2 c. lb. Under No, 16 and not under No. 26 2j^c, lb. Under No. 26 3 c. lb. Iron or stee! wire covered with cot- ('4 c. lb. ad ton, silk or other mai'al, and wire -< to forego- k'wn as c'n'inC.co's't and hat wire ( ing rates. 12 c.lb. ad. steel wire of same gauge. Galvanized iron or steel wire (except fence wire) ^ c. lb. ad. Iron rope and wire strand 1 c.lb. ad. Steel wire rope and wire strand 2 c. lb. ad. Steel, not specially provided for. 45 p. c. Arg'tine,arataor Ger. silv. unm'f'd -'5 p. c. Copper, imported in ores X y^ ' ff'f j^ fine copr. Coarse copper and copper cement. . 354 c. lb. Old copper * 3 c. lb. Copper in plate5, bars, ingots, etc. . 4 c. lb. • In rolled plates, sheets, rods, etc., not specially provided 35 p. c. Brass, in bars or pig, old brass, etc.. ij^ c. lb. Lead ore and lead dross ij^ c. lb. Lead in pigs, bars, etc 2 c. lb. Lead in sheets, pipes or shot 3 c. lb. Nickel in ore or matte 1 5 c. lb. Nickel, nickel oxide 15 c. lb. Zinc, spelter or tutenegue, in blocks or pigs ij^ c. lb. Zinc, spelter or tutenegue in sheets. 2J2 c. lb. Sheathing or yellow metal 35 P- c. Antimony, as regulus or metal 10 p. c. Bronze powder i5p.c. Cutlery not specially provided for. . 35 p. C Dutch or bronze metal, in leaf 10 p. c. St'el pl't's, eng'vd, stereo, pl't's.etc 25 p. c. Gold leaf pioopg-of ( 500 leaves. Hollow-ware, co'ted, glaz'd or tin'd 3 c. lb. Muskets, rifles and other fire-arms, not specially provided for 25 p. c. All sporting, breech -loading shot- guns and pistols 35 p. c. Forg'd shot-gun bar'ls, rough-bor'd jo p. c. Needles forknittmg or sewing ma- chines 35 p. c. Needles, sewing, darning, knit'g, and all not provided for 25 p. c. Pen-knives, pocket-knives of all kinds, and razors 50 p, c. Swords,sword-blades, and side-arms 35 p, c. Pens, metallic 12 c. gross. Pen-holder tips and pen-holders .... 30 p. c. Pins, solid-headed or other 30 p. c, Britannia ware and plated and gilt articles and wares 35 P- c. Quicksilver 10 p. c. Silver leaf 75 c. pkge. oi 500 Ivs. Type metal 20 p. c. Chromate of iron or chromic ore ... 15 p. c. Miner'l substances in a crude state and met'ls iinwr'g't, notpr'v'dfor 2j p. c, Manuf'res, notpr'v'dfor, composed wholly or in part of iron, steel, copper, lead, nickel, pewter, tin, zinc, gold, silver, platinum, or any other metal, and whether partly or wholly manufactured... 45 p, c. Schedule D— Wood and Wooden Wares. Timber, hewn and sawed 20 p. c. Timb'r.sq'ed orsid'jd, not pr'v'dfor 1 c. cb. ft. Saw'd b'rds, etc., of hc'lock, white- wood, sycamore and bass-wood.. $1 p. M. ft. All other sawed lumber S^ P- M. ft. Lumber of any sort, planed or fin'd. s-jcM.fi.ad, Pl'n'd on oneside, tong'dandgr'v'd $,1 p. M. ft. Planed on two sides, tongued and grooved $i-5o M. fl. Hubs for wheels, etc., rough-hewn or sawed only 20 p. c. Stavi^s of wood of all kinds 10 p. c. Pickets and palings 20 p. c. Laths 15c. M.pcs. Shingles 35 c. p. M . Pine clapboards S2 p. M. Spruce clapboards $^ S*^ P- M. House or cabinet furnit're, in piece or rough and not fini^^hcd 30 p. c. Cab'et ware and house furniture, fin'd 35 P- c. k- \ THK TARIFF. 437 Casks and barrels, etc., empty, not provided for 30 p. c. Man'f 's ofc'd'rw'd.grand'la, cbn'y, mahogany, ro^e and satin woods. 35 p. c. Manu'f's of wood not provided for. 35 p. c. Wood, unmanuf'd, not provided for 20 p. c. Schedule E— Sugar. Sugars not aliovc Nn. 13 D. S. in color, tank, bot'nii, sirups of cane. or beet juice, mclada, conc'tratea melada, concrete and conc'trated mola.sscs, testing by the polari- scopc not above 75° 1.4 c. lb. For every addi'a! ® or fract'n o( a "^ .04 c. lb. for shown by the polariscopic test . . . cv'ry ad'l °. Svigar above No. 13 and not above Noi6D. S 2.75 c. lb. Sugar above No. 16 and not above No. 20 1>. S 3 c. lb. Sugars above No. 20 D. S 3.50 c. lb. Molasses testing not above 56° by the polariscope 4 c. gal Molasses above 56 ° 8 c. gal. Sugar candy, not colored 5 c. lb. All other confcct'ry not provided for, valued at 30 c. p. lb. or less 10 c. lb. Confccr'ery val'd above 30 c. p. lb. or sold by bux or package 50 p. c. Schedule F— Tobacco. Cigars, cigarettes and cheroots of J $2. 50 lb. all kinds j_25 p. c. Leaf tobacco, of which 85 p. c. is of the requi'tc size and of the neces- sary fineness of texture for wrap- pers and of which more than 100 Icitvcs arc required to weigh a pound, if not stemmed 75 c. lb. If stemmed ^i lb. Other lub.icco in leaf, unmanufac- tured and not stemmed 35 c. lb. Tobacco stems i^ c. lb. Tob.icco, uianuf'd. of all dcscript's, and stemmed, not provided for. . . 40 c. Jb. Snuff and siuifT-fliinr 5^ c. lu. Tobacco, unman'f d, not provi'd for 30 p. c. Schedule G— Provisions. Animals, live 20 p. c. lieel and pork 1 c. lb. Hams anu bacon 2 c. lb. Meat, extract of 2> p. c. Cheevc 4 c. lb. I'utier and substitutes thereof 4 c. lb. Lard 2 c. lb. Wheat 20 c. bush. Rye and barley i >c. bush. Barley, pearled, u.ucnt or hulled.. . J^ c. lb. Barley malt, per Dush., 34 lbs ao c. bush. Indian corn or mai/e i.> c. bush. Oats I'j c. bush. Corn-meal 10 c. bush. Oat-meal H t. lb. R^e-llour %c lb. W hcai-llour 20 p. c. Potato or cornstarch 2 c. lb. Rice starch i-J^ c.lb. Other starch v^^ c. lb. Rice, cleaned 21,^ c. lb. Uncleaned 1 J.^ C. lb. Paddy iVf c, lb. Rice-flour and rice-meal 20 p. c. Hay $2 ]\ ton. Honey a > c. gal. Hops 8 c. lb. Milk, preserved or condensed 2j p. c. FISH. Nfackcrcl jr. 111. Herrings, pickled or salted J^ i.. lb Salmon, pickled i i:. lb. Other fish, pickled, in barrels 1 c. lb. Foreign -caught fish, imp'tcd, other- wise than in bar'Is or half bar'U, not provided for 50 c. 100 lb. Anchovies and sardines, packed in oil or oth'wise in tin bxs., p. size, 10 c. p. box. In \4 bxs., meas'ring not more than 5 in. long, 4 wide and i;*/8 deep. . . 5 c. deep. In |y^ boxes, mvas'ng not more than 4>^ in. long, i% wide and ij^ deep 2% c. each. In any other form 40 j). c. Fish preserved in oil 30 p. c. Salmon and all other fi^h, prep'd or pres'ved, and prep'd meats of all kinds, not provided for 33 p. c. Pickles and sauces, not prov'd for.. 35 p. c. Potatoes 15 c. biLsh. Vegetables in natural state or in salt or brine not provided for 10 p. c. Vegetables, not oth'wise prov'd for. 30 p. c. Chicory root 2 c. lb. Vinegar yli c. gal. Acorns antl dandelion root, and all other articles intended to be used as cnfTec or as substitutes thereof, not provided for 2 c. lb. Chocolate 2 c. lb. Cocoa, prepared or manufactured. . 2 c. lb. FKUITS. Currants, Zante or other .... Dates, plums and prunes. . . Figs I c. lb. 1 c, lb. 2 c, lb. Oranges, per size. Lemons, per size ■ Lemons and oranges, in packages, not provided for Limes and grapes Raisius Fruits preserved in their own juices and fruit juice Comfits, sweetmeats or fruits pre- served in sugar, spirits, sirup or mol'ses, not prov'd for, and jellies NUTS. Almonds Shelled Filberts and walnuls Peanuts or ground beans Shelled Nuts, not provided for Mustard, ground or preserved I -^s c. box. J 13c J'l box. •]$i6o p. M l35C. bbl. ( 30 c. hox. . < 16c. J^ box I $2 p. M. 2)p, C. 20 p. C. 2 c. lb. 20 p, c. 35 p. c. 5 c. lb, 7 '4 c. lb 3c.lh. Schedule H— Liquors. Champagne and all other sparkling wines , i;4 c, lb. 2 c.lb 10 c. lb, ?7 doz. qt. bottles. ^3 50 doz. pt. bottles. jr 75 doz, ]4 pt- bot, I §2 25 g.-.!. t on ex of qt 50 c. gal. f Si 60 case j doz. qt. bot. 5c.pt, on ex. 50 c, gal. Bottles of more than one quart each Still wines, in casks In bottles On any excess of these quantities. , Vermuth Wines, brandy and other spiriiuos liquors, imp. in bots,, shall be in pkgs. of not less than 1 doz. hots. 3c.0nea.bt. Brandy and other spirits manuf d or distilled from grain or other materials and not provided for.. , §2 p, gal. On all comp'ds or prep'ns of which dist. spirits arc compo'nt part of chief value, not spec. provi'd for, . J2 ji. gal. Cordial .and liquors not provi'd for. ^2 p. gal. Bay rum or bay water ji p. gal. .Ale, porter and beer in bottles or jugs ofgl's. stone or earthen-ware 35 c. gal. Otherwise than in bottles 20 c. gal. Ginger ale or ginger beer co p. c. Schedule I— Cotton and Cotton Goods. Cot'n thread, yarn, warps, or warp- yarn, whether single or advanced beyond tlie cond'n of snigle by twist'g two or more single yarns tog'her, value not exc'd'g 25 c. lb. 10 c lb. Over 35 and less th.m 40 c 1 5 c. lb. Over 40 and not exceeding 50 c... 2-1 c. lb. Over 50 and not exceeding 60 c... 25 c. lb. Over 6i and not exceeding 70 c 3"? c. lb. Over 70 and not exceeding 80c 38 c. lb. Over 8^ c. and not exceeding gi. ... 48 c. lb. Over; $1 50 p. c. On all cot'n cloth not ble'ed, dyed, colored, stain'd,paint*d or print'd and exceeding 100 threads to the sq're in., counting w'rp ami filli'g 25^c.sq.yd. If bleached sJ^c.sq.yd. If dyed, colored, stained, painted, 4% c. sq. or printed yard. On all cot'n cloth not bic'hcd, dyed, color'd, stain'd,paint*d or print'd, and not exc'di'g 200 threads to the sq're in., counting warp and fiU'g 3 c. sq. yd. If bleached 4. c. sq. yd. If dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed 5 C. sq. yd. On all cotton cloth not exceeding 200 threads to the square inch, count- ing the warp and tilling, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed, valued at over 8 c. p. sq. yd.; bleached, valued at over 10 c. p.sq.yd., dyed, colored, stained, painteciorpruu'd, valued at over 13 c. p. sq. yd 40 p. c. On all cotton cloth exceeding 200 threads to the square in., count'g the warp and filling, notbleach'd, dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed 4 c. sq. yd. If bleached 5 c. sq, yd. If dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed 6 c. sq. pd. On all such cot'n cloths not ble'ch'd, dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed; valued at over 10 c. p. sq. yd.; bleached, ^tllued at over 12 c. p. sq. yd,, and dyed, colored, stained, painted or printed, val- ued at over 1 5 c. p. sq. yd 40 p. c. On stockings, hose, half-hose, etc., made on knit'g mach'es or fram's, composed wholly of cotton, and not otherwise provided for 35 p. c. On stockings, hose, half-hose, etc., fashioned, narrowed or shaped wholly or in part by knitting ma- chines or frames, or knit by hand and composed wbolly of cotton. . . 40 p. c. Cotton cords, braids and corsets.., 35 p. c, Cot'n lace, emb'd'ics, insert'gs, etc. 40 p. c. Spool thread of cotton, not over 100 yds. on spool 7 c. doz. 7 c. doz, ca. Exceeding 100 yds ad. 100 yds. ot cotton. Schedule J — Hemp, Jute and Flax Goods. Flax straw $5 P- ton- Klax not hackled or dressed j2op. ton. Flax, hackled, known as *' dressed line " $40 p. ton. Tow, of flax or hemp ^10 p. ion. Hemp, manilla and other like sub- stitutes for hemp not provid'd for. ^25 p. ton. Jute butts . ... $iV- 'o"- Jute 30 ji. c. Sunn, sisal, grass and other vege- table substances, not provid'd for. f 15 p. ton. Brown and blcachedlinens.etc., not provided for 35 P- c. Flax, hemp and jute yarns 35 P- c. Flax or linen thread, twine, etc. ... 43 p. c. Fla.x or linen laces, insertings, etc.. 30 p. c. Hiirrp*. not excM'g 60 in. in width. 30 p. c. Oil-cloth foundations, etc 40 p. c. Oil-cloths for floors, stamped, painted, etc 40 p. c. Gunny cloth, not bagging, 10c. or less per square yard 3 c. yd. Over 10 c 4 c, yd. Bags and bagging and manufact's not enumerated 40 p. c. Bagi'g for cotton, 7 c. or lesssq. yd. 1^ c. lb. Over 7 c 2 c. lb. Tarred cables or cordage 3 c. lb. Untarred manilla cordage 2!^ c. lb. All other untarred cordage 3]^ c. lb. Seins and sein and gilling twine. ... 25 p. c. Sail duck or canvas for sails 30 p. c. Russia and other sheetings 35 p. c. All other inan'fsofhemp or manilla 35 p. c. Grass-cloth 35 !>• c. Schedule K— Wool and Woolens. Wools of the 1st class, valued at the last port whence exported to the U. S,, excluding the charges in such port, at ^o c, or less 'per lb. . 10 c. lb. Over 30 c. per Id 12 c. lb. -^i Wools of the ad class, valued at the last port whence exported to the U. S., excluding charges in such port, at 30c, or less per lb jo c. lb. Valued at over 30 c. per lb 1 2 c. lb. Wools of the 3d class, valued at the last port whence exported to the U. S., excluding charges in such port, at 12 c. or less per lb 2 J^ c. lb. Valued at over 12 c. per lb 5 c. lb. Wool'n rags^shoddy m'ngo & waste 10 c. lb. Woolen cloths, woolen shawls and all manufres of wool, not speci- ally provided for, valued at not 35 c. lb. exceeding 80 c. p. lb 35p. c. Valued at above 80 c. per lb 35C. lb. ^ 40 p. c. Flan'ls, bla'kets, hats of wool, knit goods and allgoods m'de on knit'g fr'm's, balm'ls, wo'l'n and worst'd yarns and all manufac's oJ every desc'pti'n, composed wholly or in part of worsted, the hair of the alpaca goat or other animals (ex- c'pt such as are co'p'sedin part of wool) not specially provided for, 10 c. lb. valued at not exceed'g3oc. p. lb. 35 p. c. Valued at above 30 c. per lb. and 12 c. lb. not exceeding 40 c. per lb 35 p- c. Valued at above 40 c. per lb* and 18 c. lb. not exceeding 60 c. per lb and 35 p. c. Valued at above 60 c. per lb. and 24 c. lb. not e.\ceeding 80 c. per lb and 35 p. c. Valued at above 80 c. per lb 35^- lb- ^ and 40 p. c. Bunting 10 esq. yd. * and 35 p. c. Wom'n's and chil'r'n's dress goods, coat linings, Italian cloths and like goods, composed in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the al- paca goat or other anim'ls, valued 5 c. sq. yd. at not exceeding 20 c. per sq. yd. and 35 p. c. Valued at above 20 c. per sq. yd. . . ^ J ^^' ^ ^ ^ ' and 40 p. c. If compos'd wholly of wool .worst'd, the hair of the alp'ca goat or other 9 c. sq. yd. animals, or ot a mixture of them, and 40 p. c. But all such goods with selvedges, made wholly or in part of other mate'als, or with threads of other mat'rials intr'd'c'd for thep'rp'se 9 c. sq. yd. of changing the classification .... and 40 p. c. All such goods weighing over 4 oz. 35 c. lb. per sq. yd and 40 p. c. Clothing, ready-made, and wearing apparel of every description, not 40 c. lb. provided for and 35 p. c. Cloaks, dolmans, jackets, talmas, 45 c. lb. ulsters, etc and 40 p. c. Webbings, gorings, suspenders, 30 c. lb. braces, beltings, etc and 50 p. c. Aubusson, Axminster and chenille carpets, and carpels woven whole 45 c. sq. yd. for rooms and 30 p, c. Saxony, Wilton and Toumay vel- 45 esq. yd. vet carpets and 30 p. c. BrusseU carpets 30c.sq.yd. "^ and 30 p. c. Patent velvet and tapestry velvet carpet*;, printed on the warp or 25 c. sq.yd. otherwise and 30 p. c. Tapestry Brussels carpets, printed ao c. sq. yd. on the warp or otherwise and 30 p. c. Treble ingrain, 3-pIy and worsted- 12 esq, yd. chain Venetian carpets ami 30 p. c. Yam, Venetian, and 2-ply ingrain 8 c, sq. yd. carpets and 30 p. c. I^ruKKcts and bookings, printed, 15 esq. yd. colored or otherwise and 30 p. c. Hemp or jute carpeting 6 c. sq. yd. Carpets and carpt-tings of wool, flax or cotton 40 p. c. Mats not exclu.';ivcly of vegetable mate'ls,scrc'cus,has'cks and rugs. 40 p. c. Endless belts or felts for paper or 20 e lb. printing machines 30 p. c. Schedule L— Silk and Silk Goods. Silk, partly manufactured 50 c. lb. Thrown silk, in pum, not moi e ad- vanced than singles 30 p. c. Lastings, mohair cloth, silk twist, patterns for buttons exclusively. . 10 p. e Silk goods, wares and merch'dise, not provided for 5° P- c. Schedule M— Books, Papers, Etc. Books, pamphlets, bound or un- bound, and all printed matter not provided for, engrav'gs, etchi'gs, illustr'd books, maps and charts. . 25 p. c. Blank-books, bound or unbound, and blank-books for press-copy'g. 20 p. c. Paper, sized or glued, suitable only for printing paper 20 p, c. Printing paper, unsized, used for books and newspapers exclusively 15 p. c. Paper, manufactures of, or of which paper is a component material, not provided for 15 p. e Sheating paper 10 p. c. Paper box's and all oth'rfancy b'x's 35 p. c. Paper envelopes 25 p. c. Paper-hangings and paper for screens or fire-boards, etc 25 p. c. Pulp, dried for paper-makers' use. . 10 p. c. Schedule N— Sundries. Alabaster and spar statuary, etc. .. . 10 p. c. Articl's comp's'd of grass, osier, etc. 30 p. c. Be'dsandbe'dor'm'ts, exc'pt amb'r 50 p. c. Blacking of all kinds 25 p. c. Bladders, manufactures of 25 p. c. Bone, horn, ivory, etc 30 p. c. Bonnets, etc., of chip, grass, palm- leaf, etc 30 p. e Bouillons or can'tille, metal ihred'ds 25 p. e Bristles i s c. lb. Broom of all kinds 25 p. c. Brushes of all kinds 30 p. c. Bulbs and bulbous roots 20 p. e Burr-stones 20 p. e Buttons and button-moulds 25 p. e Candles and tapers of all kinds. .... 20 p. e Canes and slicks for walk'g, finished 35 p. c. If unfinished 20 p. c. Card-cases, pocket-books, shell ' boxes , etc 35 P- c. Card-clothing 25 c. sq. ft. When manufactured from tempered steel wire 45 c. sq. ft. Carriages, and parts of 35 P- c. Chronometers, box or ship 10 p. e Clocks and parts of clocks 30 p. e Coach and harness furniture of ail kinds, etc 35 p. c. Coal slack or culm 30 c. ton. Coai, bituminous and shale 75 c, ton. Coke 20 p. c. Combs 30 p. c. Composition of glass or paste, when not set 10 p. c. Coral, cut, manufactured or set .... 25 p. c. Corks and cork bark, manufactured 25 p. c. Crayons of all kinds 20 p. c. Dice, draughts, chessmen, etc 50 p. e Dolls and toys 35 p. c. Emery grains and emery manufaci'd i e lb. Ep'ulets, gallo'ns, laces, knots, etc. 25 p. c. Fans 35 p. c. Feathers of all kinds, crude 25 p. e When dressed, colored or manuf'd. 50 p. c. Finishing powder 20 p. c. Fire-crackers of all kinds 100 p. c. Floor-matting and floor-mats 20 p. c. Friction or lucifer matches 35 p. e Fulminates, fulminating powders. . . 30 p. c. Fur, articles made of 30 p. c. Gloves, kid or leather 50 p, c. Grease 10 p. c. Grind-stones $1.75 ton. Gunpo'der and all explo've sub'ces, valued at 20 e or less per lb 6 c. lb. Valued above 20c. per lb 10 c. lb. Gun-wads of ali descriptions 35 p. e Gutta-percha, manufaciuied 35 p. c. Hair, human, bracelets, braids, etc. 35 p. c. Curled hair, except of hogs 25 p. c. Human hair, raw, unclean and not drawn 20 p. C. If clean or drawn but not manuf'd. 30 p. c. When manufactured 35 p. c. Hair cloth 30 p. c. Hair sealing 30 c. sq. yd. Hair pencils 30 p. c. Hats, and materials for braids, etc . 20 p. e Hat-bodies, of cotton 35 P- c. Halters' furs and dressed furs 20 p. c. Hatters' plush of silk or of silk and cotton 25 p. c. Hemp seed and rape seed i^c. lb. India rubber fabrics 30 p. e Art'l's of Iniiia rub'r not prov'd for 25 p. e India rubber bnots and shoes 25 p. e Inks of all kinds and ink powders.. 30 p. e Japanned ware of all kinds ........ 40 p. e Jet, manufacturers and imitations.. 25 p. c. Jewelry of all kinds 25 p. c. Leather, bend or belting 15 p. c. Calfskins, tanned, and dressed upper leather 20 p. c. Skins for morocco, tanned, but un- finished 10 p. c. All articles of leather, not prov'd for 30 p. c. Lime , lop. e Garden seeds 20 p. c. Linseed or flaxseed 20 c. bush. Marble, in block, rough or squared. 63 c. cub. ft. Veined marble, sawed, dressed or otherwise Ji.io cb. ft. Manufac't of marble not prov'd for. .so p. e Musical insmimenis 25 p. C. Paintings ia oil or water colors, and statuary 30 p. e Osier or wil'w for baskt-mak'rs' use 25 p. c. Papier-mache articles 30 p. c. Pencils of wood filled with lead or 50 e gros 1 other material and pencils of lead. & 30 p. c. j Pencil-leads not in wood 10 p. c. Percussion caps 40 p. c. Philosophical apparatus and instru- ments 35 P- c. Pipes, pipe-bowls 70 p. c. Common pipes of clay 35 p. c. Plaster of Paris 23 p. e Playing cards loop c. Polish'gpowd'rs of every dcsc'p't'n 20 p. c. Precious stones of all kinds up. e Rags 10 p. c. Rattans and reeds 1 o p. c. Salt, in bags, sacks, barrels 12c. 100 lb. In bulk 8 e 100 lb. Scagliola and composition lops 35 p. c. Sealing-wax 20 p. c. Shells, whole or parts of 25 p. e Stones, unmanufac'd or undressed, freestone, etc $j p. ton. Stones as above, hewen, dressed, or polished 20 p, c. Strings of catgut 25 p. c. Tallow I c. lb. Teeth, manufactured 20 p. c. Umbrella .uid parasol ribs, streicher- frames, etc 40 p. c. Umbrellas, paiasols, covered with silk or alpaca 50 p. c. Other umbrellas 40 p. c. Umbrell.is, parasols and sunshades, frames and slicks for, not provided for . . . '. 30 p. c. W,-iste to p. c. Watches, watch-cases, watch-move- ments, parts of watches, and watch materials, not provided for. 25 p. c. Webbing 35 p. c. / \ rs / A LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 439 r A^iH,^#. CALCULATOR I or the Use of the Farmer, Mechanic L' and Business Man. ct'^i, — jjS> For Computing; the Price of Cattle, Hogs, Cotton, or .4.ny Commodity Sold by tlie Hunflred or Part of tlie Hundred. If the desired amount or quantity is not in the tabic, add two numbers together. 1>* S Cl». S Cn. SC... S CIS. S Ct«. $ Ct.. $Ct,. t Cu. S CC-. t Ci». $ Cl.1. SC. $ Cts. S Cl;.. $ Cu. S Cu. I. Its. •i 2 '4 2 '2' 25i 3 3'4 3S 3?4' 4 4'..- 4', .04 4'.' 5 5'.,- BS' 65f 02 m ,02 ,03 ,03 .03 03 .04 01 04 .05 .05 .05 .05 .06 ,0.1 04 05 05 06 06 .07 10 07 .11 08 .12 .08 .13 .09 .13 .09 .14 .10 .15 .10 .16 11 -16 06 0: 07 08 ,09 .10 .08 ,09 10 .11 .12 .13 .14 .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 .21 .22 .23 10 11 12 .14 .15 .16 .17 19 .20 .21 .22 .24 .25 .26 .27 .29 ,12 ,13 15 .16 .18 ,19 .21 .22 .24 .25 .27 .28 .30 .31 ,U .16 ,17 19 .21 ,23 .24 .26 .28 ..10 .31 .33 .35 37 .38 ,16 18 20 .22 .24 .26 .2a .30 .32 .34 .36 .38 .40 -42 .44 .46 in 20 ,22 .25 .27 .29 .31 .34 ,36 .38 .40 .45 .47 .49 10 20 ,22 ,25 .27 .30 32 .3£ .37 .40 ,42 .45 .47 ..^0 .52 .55 'JO 10 45 50 55 ,60 65 .70 .76 80 .85 .90 .95 1 00 1 05 1 10 1 13 so ,00 ,67 75 .82 .90 .97 1 OS 1 12 1,20 1 27 1 35 1 42 1 50 1 a7 1 65 1 72 40 80 no 1 00 1 10 1 20 1 .'10 1 40 1 60 1 87 1 60 1 70 1 80 1 90 2 00 2 10 2 •iO 2 30 :iu 1 00 1 12 1 23 1 37 1 50 1 62 1 75 2 00 2 12 2 '23 2 37 2 50 2 62 2 75 2-87 60 1 20 1 35 1 50 1 65 1 80 1 95 2 10 2 26 2 40 2 55 2 70 2 85 3 00 3 15 3 30 70 1 40 I 00 1 57 1 80 1 75 2 00 1 92 2 20 2 10 2 10 2 '27 2 60 2 45 2^80 2 62 3 00 2 80 2 « 3 15 3 32 3 50 3 67 S 85 f* 3 20 3 40 3 60 3 80 4 00 4 '20 4 10 4 60 UO 1 80 2 00 2 02 2 25 2 25 2 50 2 47 2 75 2 70 3 00 2 92 3 25 3 15 3 50 3 37 3 75 3 60 3 82 4 05 4 '27 4 50 4 72 4 95 5 17 MO 4 00 4 25 4 M 4,75 5 00 5 •JS 5 50 6.75 :'IM) 4 00 4 50 5 00 5.50 6 00 s 00 6 M 9 75 7 00 11 50 7 50 11 25 8 00 6 50 9 00 9 50 10 00 10 50 ItlMi 1; 00 6 75 7 .'0 a 25 12 00 12 75 13 50 14 -ti 15 00 15 75 16 50 4.,U 8 00 10 OCT 9 00 1125 10 00 12 50 11 00 13 76 12 110 15 00 13 00 16 25 14 00 15 00 16 00 17 00 18 00 19 00 20 00 21 00 22 00 ikto 17 60 16 75 20 00 21 26 22 .',0 2:1 75 25 00 26 25 •27 50 ■28 75 lillO 12 00 11 00 13 50 15 75 15 00 r 50 16 M 18 no 19 50 21 00 22 50 24 00 25 50 '27 00 28 .50 7IW 19 25 21 00 •22 75 24 50 •26 a •28 00 29 75 31 50 .33 '23 35 00 36 75 w« 10 00 18 00 20 00 18 00 20 a 22 50 20 00 22 00 24 00 26 00 28 00 30 00 32 00 34 00 36 00 38 00 40 00 42 (10 41 00 *«} 22 5« 25 00 24 75 27 50 27.00 3d do~ •29 -25 32 50 31 50 35 00 33 73 3- fiO~ 30 00 40 00 38 a 40 50 42 75 45 00 47 25 32 50 49 50 55 00 1.000 42.50 45 00 47 50 50 00 57 50 1.100 2; 00 21 00 26 00 24 75 77 d6~ 29 •-■5 27 50 30 00 30 a 33 00 35' 75 33 00 36 00 39 00 35 75 39,00 42. •« 38 aO 42 00 45^5d~ 41 a 44 00 46 76 51 00 55 -26 49 50 64 00 58 50 52 '25 57 00 61 75 55 00 60 00 65 00 57 75 &1 00 6B.25 66 00 71 50~ V.oo 45 00 48 75 48 00 52 00 i.;*oo 32 50 1.(00 28 00 31 ;-|0 35 00 38,50 42 00 45 50 49 00 62 .» 56 00 60~00 59 50 63 75 63 00 67 50 66 50 71 25 70 00 75 00 73 50 78 75 77 00 82 50 l.flllO 90 00 32 do~ 31 00 36 00 Ss 00 40 00 60 00 80'o5~ 106 00 3.1 75 36 00 38 2S 40 .50 42' 7 5"" 4.-; 6o~ 67 50 90 00 112 50 37 50 40 60 42 r* 4.5'()0 47 SO 50 00 75 00 100 00 125 00 41 25 44 00 46 75 49 50 52 25 55 00 82 50 110 00 137 50 45 00 48 do~ 51 00 54 60 57 00 GO 00 90 00 120" 00 150 00~ 48 75 52 00 55 'IS 58 50 ~6f75~ 65 00 »7 50 130 00 162 SO 52 50 56 00 59 50 6:1 00 66 50 70 00 10.1 00 Tib o6~ 175 00 56 25 60 00 6:1 75 67 M 71 -a 75 00 112 riO~ 150 00 187 00 1.000 64 00 68 00 72 00 76 00 80 00 ~T20 00~ •200 00 68 00 72 25 76 50 80 75 85 00 1'27 50 17000 "1n2~50~ 72 00 76 50 81 00 85 50" 90" 00 ~I:ii oo~ 180 (10 76 00 80 00 84 00 88 00 1.700 I.HIW 80 7S 85 SO 90 25 95" 00 112 50 190 00 86 00 90 OC 95 00 "Too 00 150 00 200 00 250 00 89 tiS 91 50 93 50 99 00 97 73 103 50 l.WIO 99 75 105 00 157 50 210 00 262 50 104 50 109 /i') 2.000 110 00 115 00 3.000 ~4.000 165 00 220 00 275 00 172 50 2.30 00 5,000 2'25 00 '237 50 LRS. 6 6'.; 6)J ey 7 7« 7,'i IH 8 8f4 SH 9H 9 9,'.,- 9}i (IJi 1 06 06 .06 13 .07 07 .07 .07 .08 .06 .08 .08 .09 09 .09 .09 .10 2 12 12 13 .14 .14 .15 .16 .16 .16 .17 .17 .18 .18 19 19 3 .18 ,19 ,19 .20 .21 .•22 .22 .23 .24 .25 .25 .26 .27 .28 .•IS .29 4 .24 •i5 .•26 .•27 .28 .20 .30 .31 .32 ^ .33 .41 .34 .35 .36 .37 .38 5 30 .31 ,32 .34 .35 .36 37 ,39 .40 .42 .44 .46 .46 .47 6 .36 .37 ,39 .40 .42 .43 .45 ,16 .48 49 .51 52 .54 .55 .57 7 .42 .41 ,45 .47 .49 .51 .52 .54 .56 .58 .59 .61 63 .65 .60 .68 8 .48 ..50 ,52 .54 56 .58 .60 .62 .64 .66 .68 .70 .72 .74 .76 .78 9 .54 ,56 .58 .61 .63 .65 .67 .70 .72 .74 .76 .79 .81 .83 -^^ V -^ o 171 1 J- G ( READY RECKONER y • ISE-A.ID-^' I^E!ai^O:srEI5.~Con.tiii-u.ed_ S Cts. sets. S cts. sets. SCts.- $ Cts. S cts. $ Cts. S Cts. S Cts. S Cts. S Cts. S CIS. S Cts. S Cts. S Cts. LBS. 6 6',' ea ax 7 'iH 7M -% 8 %ii sy^ S% 9 - 9!i 9« 9Jf JO .60 .62 .65 .67 -70 .72 .75 .77 .80 .82 .85 .87 .90 .92 .95 .97 1.20 1 25 1 30 1 36 1 40 1 45 1.50 1-55 1 60 1 65 1-70 1-76 1 80 1 85 2.77 1-90 1 95 30 1-80 1 87 1.95 2 02 2,10 2.17 2.25 2-32 2.40 2 47 2 55 2-62 2-70 2-85 2 92 40 'i.40 2,50 2 60 2.70 2 80 2.90 3-00 3 10 3-20 3-30 3 40 3 50 3.60 3 70 3 80 3 90 50 3.00 3 12 3.25 3 37 3.60 3.62 3-75 3 87 4-00 4 12 4 25 4 37 4.50 4 62 4 75 4-87 3 60 3,75 3.90 4.05 4-20 4 35 4 -.50 4 66 4-80 4 96 6 10 5-25 5 40 6.65 5 70 5-85 70 BO 4.20 4.37 4.55 4,72 4-90 6,07 5-25 6-42 6-60 5-77 5-95 6 12 6-30 6-47 6-66 6-82 4.80 5 00 5,20 5 40 5 60 6,80 6-0O 6-20 6.40 6-60 6 80 7-00 7 20 7-40 7 60 7 80 90 6 40 5 62 5 85 6,07 6-30 6 52 6-76 6 97 7-20 7-42 7-66 7-67 8-10 8 .32 8 55 6-77 6 00 6.25 6 50 6 75 7-00 7.26 7.50 7 75 8 00 8-25 8,60 8 75 9 00 9 25 9 50 9 75 IJ 00 12,50 13 00 13 50 14 00 14 60 15 00 15 50 16 00 16 50 17 00 17,60 18,00 18-50 19 00 19 50 3(K) 18 00 IS, 75 19.50 20.25 21 00 21 75 22 50 23 26 24 00 24 76 26 60 26 25 27-00 27 75 26 50 29 26 400 •H 00 25.00 26.00 27-00 28-00 29 00 30-00 31 00 32 00 S3 00 34 00 36 00 36 00 37 00 38-00 39-00 30.00 31 25 32 60 33 75 35 00 36.25 37-50 38-76 40-00 41 25 42-50 43-75 45 00 46 26 47-60 48-75 700 36,00 37.50 39.00 40 50 42 00 43,50 46-00 46 50 48-00 49 50 51-00 62 50 54 00 55-50 57-00 58-60 42-00 (3.75 45.50 47-25 49 00 60 75 52-60 54-25 56 00 57-75 69 60 61 26 63 00 64-75 66-50 68 26 ftOO 4S 00 60.00 62.00 54 00 56 00 58 00 60 00 62-00 64 00 66-00 68 00 70 00 72 00 74-00 76-00 78-00 tfOO 5t 00 56 25 58 50 60 75 63-00 65 26 67 60 67-75 72-00 74-25 76 50 78-75 81 00 83 25 83 50 87-75 60 00 62 50 65 00 67.50 70 00 72 50 75-00 77 60 80 00 82 50 85-00 87-50 90 00 92 50 95 00 97-50 l,:iOO 66 00 68.75 71 50 74.26 77 00 79 75 62 50 85,25 88 00 90 75 93 50 96-25 99 00 101 75 104-60 107 25 72 00 75 00 78.00 61.00 84 00 87.00 90 00 93 00 96 00 99 00 102 00 105 00 108-00 lU-00 114-00 117-00 1,400 7» 00 61.25 64.50 67-76 91 00 94 25 101-50 97 50 100 75 104-00 107-25 110-50 113.75 117-00 120-25 123 50 126-75 84 00 87.50 91.00 94,50 98 00 105-00 108-50 112-00 115 50 119,00 122.50 126.00 129-60 133.00 136.50 1.500 aooo 93.75 97.50 101 25 105 00 108 75 112 50 116 26 120 00 123,76 127 50 131 26 135 00 138 75 142 50 116-25 % 00 lOO-OO 104 00 106 00 112 00 116 00 120 00 121 00 128 00 132 00 136 00 140 00 144 00 146-00 152 00 156-00 102 00 106 25 110 50 114-75 119-00 123 25 127 60 131,75 136 00 140-26 144 50 148 76 153.00 157.26 161 50 165-75 lOB 00 112 50 117 00 121-50 126-00 130-50 136 00 139 50 144 00 148 30 153 00 161 60 137 30 162 00 166.50 171 00 175 50 114 00 118 75 123 50 128-25 133-00 137-76 142 50 147-25 162 00 156 75 166.25 171-00 175 75 160 50 186 25 1:!0 00 125 00 130 00 135 00 140 00 145 00 150 00 156 00 160-00 165 00 170-00 175 00 180 00 185 00 190-00 196 00 ISO 00 J«7 50 195 00 202.50 210 00 217 50 225 00 300-00 232-50 240-00 247 50 255-00 262.60 270 00 360-00 277 50 286 00 292-50 4,000 240.00 250.00 260.00 270 00 280-00 290 00 310 00 320 00 330 00 340.00 350-00 370 00 380 00 390 00 300 00 312.50 325-00 337.50 350-00 362 60 875-00 38- 50 400 00 412 30 425 00 437 30 450 00 462 50 475 00 487-60 LBS. 10 loy lOJi W4 11 ll'i lUi lUi 12 12.14- 12K V2K 13 13 '4' 13 -a- 13% 1 .10 .10 ,10 11 -11 .11 .11 .12 .12 .12 -12 .13 .13 .13 .13 .14 ■' .20 .20 .21 -21 -22 .22 .23 .23 .24 .24 -25 .25 .26 .26 -27 .27 .31 .31 .32 .33 .34 .34 .35 .36 -37 .37 .36 .39 .40 .40 .41 4 .40 .41 .42 .43 .44 .45 .46 .47 .48 -49 .60 .51 .52 .63 .54 .55 .51 .52 ,54 .55 .66 .57 .69 -60 .61 .62 .64 -66 -66 .67 .69 .60 .61 .63 .64 -66 .67 .09 -70 .72 .73 -75 .76 -78 -79 .81 .82 7 .70 .72 .73 ,75 .77 -79 -80 .82 .84 -86 .67 -89 -91 .93 .94 .96 .»0 .»■! .84 ,66 .88 -90 -92 .94 .96 96 100 1-02 1-04 1 06 1 08 1.10 .no .92 .94 ,97 .99 1 01 1 03 1-06 1-08 1 10 1-12 I 15 1 17 1 19 1 21 1.24 1 07 1-10 1 12 1 15 1-17 1-20 1-22 1-25 1-27 1 30 1 32 1 35 1.37 30 2.00 2.05 2 10 2-15 2-20 2.25 2-30 2-35 2 40 2 45 2 50 2 56 2 60 2-65 2-70 2.-5 3.07 3.16 3-22 3 30 3.37 3-45 3 52 S 60 3-67 3-76 f 82 3 90 3-97 4 05 4.12 40 60 4 00 5.00 « 10 4 20 4,30 440 4 50 4-60 4-70 4 80 4 90 6 00 6 10 5.20 6 30 6 40 5.50 5 12 5.26 5-37 5 50 5.62 5-76 5.67 6 00 6 12 6-25 6 37 6 50 6-62 6 73 6.87 6 15 6 -.30 6-45 6 60 6.75 6,90 7 05 7 20 7.36 7 60 7 65 7 80 7 95 8 10 6.25 7.00 7.17 7 35 7 52 7-70 7.67 8 06 8 22 8.40 6 57 8-75 6 92 9 10 9 27 9 45 9.62 6,00 8 20 6 40 6 60 8 80 9 00 9 20 9 40 9-60 9 80 10 00 10-20 10 40 10,60 10 80 11.00 9 00 9.22 9.46 9 67 9 90 10.12 10.36 10 57 10 80 11 02 11 25 11-47 11 70 11 92 12 25 12.37 10 00 10 25 10.50 10.75 11 00 11,25 11 50 11 76 12 00 24-00 12 25 2t 50 12 50 25 00 12 75 25 50 13 00 26 00 13 25 26 50 13 60 27 00 13.76 27.50 200 20 00 20 50 21.00 21.50 22 00 22 50 23 00 23 50 30 00 30 75 3i 50 32.26 33 00 33.75 34 60 35 26 36 00 36 76 87-50 88 25 39 00 39-75 40 50 41.25 41 00 42 00 43 00 44-00 45 00 46 00 47-OC 48 00 49 00 50 00 61 00 52 00 63-00 64-00 55.00 51 25 52 50 53 76 66.00 .56 25 57 50 58 75 CO 00 61 25 62 30 63 75 76 50 65 00 78 00 66 -'25 67 50 81 00 68.76 82.50 fi^«0 fiO 00 61 50 63 00 61 60 66 00 67,50 69 00 70 50 62 25 72 00 84 00 -3.50 85-75 75 00 79 50 70 00 71 75 73 50 73 25 77.00 -8 75 90.00 80 50 67 50 89-25 91 00 92-72 94 60 96.25 60 00 82 00 81 00 86.00 88 00 92 00 94-00 96 00 98 00 100-00 102-00 101 00 106 00 108-00 110.00 80 00 92 25 91 50 96 76 99.00 101.25 103-60 105-75 108 00 110 25 112 30 111 75 117 00 119 26 121-50 123.76 105.00 107 50 110 00 102 60 115-00 117 60 120 00 122-50 125 00 127-50 130 00 132 50 135 00 137.50 112 75 116 50 lie 25 121 00 123 75 126 50 129-25 132 00 131 75 137 50 110 25 143 00 143-76 118 60 151.25 123 00 126 00 129 00 132 00 135 00 138 00 141 00 144 00 147 00 160 00 153 00 136 00 159 00 162 00 165.00 130 00 133.25 136 50 139 75 113 00 146 25 149 50 152 76 156 00 139 25 162 50 165 75 169 00 172 25 175 50 178.75 1,500 140 00 143 50 147 00 130 50 15( 00 157 50 161 00 164 50 168 00 171 50 175 00 178 50 182.00 185 50 189 00 192.50 153 75 157 50 161 25 165 00 108.75 172-60 176 26 180 00 183-75 187 .30 191 25 196 00 198 75 202.50 206.25 IM 00 168 00 172 00 176,00 l.SO.OO 181-00 188-00 192 00 196 00 200 00 ~2l7 50~ 204 110 208 00 212 00 216.00 220.00 1«0 00 174 25 ISI 50 176 50 189 00 182 75 193 60 187 00 191 25 195 50 199 73 211 50 223 25 204 00 216 00 228 00 208 25 216 75 221 00 225 25 229.30 233.75 198 00 202 50 207 00 220 50 223 00 229 50 2.14 IK) 238 50 251 75 243.00 23fi..30 247.50 261.26 lUO 00 191 75 199 50 201 26 209.00 213 75 218 30 232 75 237 50 242 25 247 00 3.000 1 4.000 300 00 46croo~ 205 00 807 30 410 00 210 00 215 00 220.00 225 00 230 00 235 00 240-00 246 00 250 00 253 00 260 00 263 00 270.00 273.00 313 00 420 00 822 50 430 00 330 00 440 00 .337.30 450^00 845-00 352 50 360 00 367-50 490-00 375 00 600 00 382 50 ~510"00~ 390 00 520 00 397 .30 5:10 00 403.00 640.00 412.50 6.30.00 460-00 470 00 480 00 1 625 00 637,60 650 00 562.50 675.00 587.50 600.00 612.60 626 00 637.60 660.00 662-50 675.00 687.50 a I \ 19 V •^ "• "fc ■v \ '^- \ AN INSTANTANEOUS METHOD OF COMPUTING INTEREST. 441 To compiiti I ■ ■ I Ji-- < p. r III tlic four per ctnL l.tblu ; at tuii ptjr cut riml liply the result by tlircc. i1ivm1<, th doublt 1 til. tile ; iit nine per cent, make the ligiires in tlie live per cent I TABLES OF INTEREST i- r cunt, double the fi(jures ui)ut.iHou ut three per cent and 12 9 4 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 1( 15 10 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 25 20 27 28 29 I I 1 00000000 u 00000000 00000000 n 11111 I 1 6~o " 000" 00000 H) 00000 _o_o_ o_ "o~o~ 000000 12 3 4 7 8 10 II 12 13 15 i; 87_ 88^ £9^ $10 ~$ll)0~ Sl.OOO ill 27I3 44 56 06 78 89~I^TllT22T.33~lT44 1.56 1.67~r7M~l.H9 2.o6~27ll 2.22 2.33 2.44 2.56 2.67 2.78 2.89 3.00 3.11 3.22 10 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 8 "10 12 13 ■i 4 b 8 10 2 4 7 9 11 2 5 8 10 '13 3 C V 12 15 16 18 20 22 "16 18 2 1 23 25 ~18 21 24 27 29 21 24 27 SO 3 6 10 13 16 20 23 26 30 33 67 I.OO 1.33 1.67 2.00 2.3 3 2.67 3 .0 3.33 3 .67 i33l.6Tio.oriS3.n6.6f207o 11 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 "5 9 11 19 23 28 33 37 42 47 51 »9 111 1 2 2 8 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 5 5 5 "ll 16 21 26 .32 37 42 47 53 68 »10 111 3 3 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 5 6 12 18 23 29 35 41 47 53 68 64 $100 2 4 6 810 12 14 18 18 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 61 56 19 .39 58 78 97 1.17 1..36 I.,56 1 .75 1.91 2.H 2.33 2.53 2.72 2.92 3.1 1 3.31 3.,50 3.69 .1.89 4.08 4.28 4.47 4.67 4.86 5.06 6.25 5.44 5.64 58 1.17 1.75 2..33 2.92 3..50 4.08 4.67 6.23 5.83 6.42 ^IPOO 578311.67 17.50 23.8.129.17 35.00 40.83 46.67 62.50 58.63 64.17 70.00 y' ^ K- 442 COMPOUND INTEREST, ETC. COTTON PICKER'S CALCULATOR. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. Rate per Hundred Pounds. 3 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 1.00 1.25 1.50 cts cts cts cts cts cts cts cts cts cts CIS cts cts cts 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •1 •> 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 ■1 3 3 8 3 4 4 4 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 :-; •A ■A 4 4 4 5 B 6 1 2 •> ■> •2 3 ■A 3 H 4 4 4 4 ft 5 6 7 6 •) *> '> i 3 ■A 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 7 9 7 ;; ■1 a H H 4 4 5 ft 5 6 6 6 1 7 9 10 8 2 ■6 ■A 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 / 7 8 8 10 12 9 :i ■6 4 4 4 ') 5 tl K 7 7 S 8 il 9 11 18 1U :■. ■i 4 4 h 5 H (i 7 7 S S 9 9 111 12 1ft 15 4 a 11 7 7 X il 111 10 11 12 13 13 14 15 19 22 2U 6 t s » 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 25 80 25 7 !l 111 11 12 14 15 10 17 ni 20 ■.•1 '."' ?4 25 31 37 3U 11 III 12 VA I.'. 11; IS V.I 21 ')•) 24 25 27 •.'K 30 87 4ft 35 111 12 14 K 17 111 21 23 24 26 28 30 31 33 .85 44 ft2 4U 12 U Hi IK 20 22 24 26 2S 30 3'.' 34 36 3S 40 50 60 4b 1:; 111 l.s 20 •>■> '2."> ''7 2;i 31 31 36 3S 411 43 45 .56 67 bU I.I 17 20 22 2.T 27 30 32 35 37 40 42 15 47 .50 62 75 bb 11; 111 22 2.T 27 30 Sft 311 .IS 41 44 47 4!l 52 ,55 69 82 60 IS 21 24 27 HO 33 311 39 42 45 4S 51 .54 57 60 75 90 6b I'.i ■JXi 211 2;i H2 3i; 3i) 42 45 411 52 5." 5 s 62 65 Kl 97 70 ■1\ 24 2S HI h;. 3S 42 45 411 .52 .56 511 611 66 70 87 1 05 /b 2'1 2I> 311 S4 87 41 45 4H 52 56 (ill (►l 67 71 75 94 1 12 HO ■J4 '»,s H. ;-;ii 40 44 4S W.\ 5(1 Wl 64 6S 72 76 811 1 00 1 ;'0 85 'Jii Sll ;« :w 42 47 .■il 55 .59 64 6S 72 76 SI 8.5 1 06 1 27 »0 J7 HI Sfi 40 4."-i 4!1 M 58 63 67 72 76 81 85 90 1 12 1 ;« 85 2s '^•' as 43 47 52 57 62 66 71 76 81 85 90 95 1 19 1 42 SHORT INSURANCE RATES. Policy for Pc.Iicyfor Policy for Policy for Policy for Charge this pro- portion of whole Premium. 1 year. 2 years. 3 years. 4 years. 5 years. 1 mn. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 20 per cent. 2 " 4 " 6 •' 8 '• 10 " 30 " 3 " 6 " 9 " 12 " 15 " 40 4 " 8 " 12 " 16 " 20 " .50 5 " 10 " 1ft " 20 " 25 ■• 60 6 " 12 " 18 " 24 " 30 " 70 " 7 " 14 " 21 " 28 " 35 " 75 " 8 " 10 " 24 " 32 " 40 " 80 9 ■' IS ■• 27 " 36 " 45 ■' 85 " 10 " :0 " 30 " 40 " oO " 90 " 11 " L2 " 33 " 44 " 55 " 95 HOW INTEREST ACCUMULATES. If one dollar be investeil and the interest added to the princi- pal, annually, at the rates nanicil, we shall have the following esult as the accumulation of t)no hundred years: One Dollar 100 years, at 1 per cent $2.75 2 " 7.25 2.1 " 11.75 " " 3 " 19.25 3J " 31.25 4 " 50.50 4J " 81.,50 5 " 131.50 C " 340.00 7 " 808.00 8 " 2,203.00 9 " 5,.543.00 " " 10 " 13,800.00 " 12 " 34.67.5.00 " " 15 " 1,171,405.00 18 " 15,145,007.00 " 21 " 2,651,799,404.00 TEAKS . 3 per cent. 4 per cent. 6 per cent. e per cent. 7 per cent. 1 1.03000 1.01000 1.05000 1.06000 1.070000 2 1.06090 1.08160 1.10250 1.12360 1.144900 3 1.00273 1.12486 1.1.5762 1.19102 1.225043 4 1.12.531 1.16986 121551 1.26248 1.310796 5 1.15!h>7 1.21665 1.2762U 1.33823 1.402552 6 1.19105 1.26.532 1.34010 1.41852 1.5007.30 7 1.22987 1 31593 1.40710 1.50363 1.605781 8 1.26677 1.36857 1.47745 1.59385 1.718186 9 1.30477 1.42331 l.!)5133 1.69848 1.838459 10 1.34392 1.48024 1.62889 1.79085 1.967151 11 138423 1.53945 1.71034 1.89830 2.104852 12 1.4257B 1.00103 1.79586 2.01220 2.262192 13 1.46853 1.66507 1.88565 2.13293 2.409845 14 1.51259 173168 1 97993 2.26090 2.578534 15 1.. 55-97 1.80094 2.07893 2.39656 2.759031 16 1.60471 187298 2.18287 2.54035 2.952164 17 1.65285 1.94790 2.29262 2.69277 3.158815 18 1.70343 2.02582 2.40G02 2.85134 3.379931 19 1.75351 2.10685 2.52695 2.02,560 3.616.526 20 1.80611 2.19112 2.65330 3.20713 3.869684 EXA.MPLE. — At 5 per cent compound interest what will $1,000 amount to in seven years? The table shows that $1 in seven years at 5 per cent compound interest amounts to $1.40710, which amount multiplied by 1,000 equ.als $1,407.10. Time in which Money Donbles. «^ Simple Int. 50 years. 40 years. 3;J yrs. 4 mos. 28 yrs. 208 da. 25 years. 22 yrs. 81 da. Comp. Int. :i5 years. 28 yrs. 26 da. 23 yrs. 164 da. 20 yrs. 54 da. 17 yrs. 246 da. 15 yrs. 273 da. Simple Int. 20 years. 16 yrs. 8 mos. 14 yrs. 104 da. 12J years. 11 yrs. 40 da. 10 years. Comp. Int. 14 yrs. 75 da. 11 yrs. 327 da. 10 yrs. 89 da. 9 yrs. 2 days. 8 yrs. 16 days. 7 yrs. 100 da. Daily Savings at Componnd Interest. DAILY SAVINGS. 2'X cents b^i " 8« " 11 13?i 27K " 55 $1.10 . . . 1.37 . . . 2.74 . . . $ 10 20 30 40 50 100 200 400 500 1,000 TEN TEARS. FIFTT YEARS $ 130 260 390 520 650 1,300 2,600 5,200 6,500 13,000 $ 2,900 5,800 8,700 11,600 14,500 29,000 58,000 116,000 115,000 290,000 SHORT INTEREST RULE. To find the interest on a given sum for any number of days, at any rate of interest, multiply the principal by the number of days and divide as follows: At 5 percent, by . At 6 i)er cent, by . 60 At 7 per cent, by .52 At 8 per cent, by 45 At 9 per cent, by 40 At 10 per cent, by At 12 per cent, by At 15 i>er cent, by At 20 per cent, by 36 30 24 18 /• V WAGES BOARD LUMBER MEASURE. ^ 443 A QUICK METHOD OF COMPUTING WAGES, On a Basis of Ten Hours' Labor per Day. Jl-OO I $1.50 I $-2.00 I $3.50 | $3.00 | $3.50 | $4.00 | $4.50 | $5.00 | $5.50 | $6.00 | $6.50 | $7.00 J^7.50 ^.01 |_^011 I.OIJI -O-i I .O-l j I . 03 I .0.!i|_.03i|.04J |_^44|_i?3_lI_i»3tl_J'6_l_:W'i ^UlS |_JKi l^;§ r .Otj I .05 I .0 6 |".05j| .O'il .0H\ .ODj I .10 | .11 I .11} I .l-'j .o;j| .05 I .OBji .osii'-io I .Tin .1341 .15 I .IB3I .m\ -20 I ■-■iiSI -asil -^ ^32i |_^35 |_.37i^ ^43i|_.4Gi|_.50 .54J|_-B8i|_C21 sa I .7 I .7 5 '.76 I .Wl}| .87i " .865 I .93^11.00 .97i I 1.05 I l.l'ii _ _l I I 1.00 I i.osn 1.16SI |~:3-m~50 I .(i(iSl~ 783i I l.OlM 1.1681X33^ i T.5 0~| 1.66J | 1.83^ | 2 .0 | 2.16} | 2. 3 3^ | 2.50 |~T50 |~r75~|T(Krj 1.25 I 1.50 |1.75 | 2.0O | 2.25 | 2.50 | 2.75 13.00 | 3.25 | 3.50 | 3.75 |^6es I iToo~ 11 . 33 J I reef | 2 . oo I .a3J|1.25 I 1.68f ! 2.0S5 13.50" I 1.00 I L.'iO 13.00 I 2.33J I 2.I.6J I 3.00_| 3.33J | 3.665 | 4.00 I 4 .33^ | 4.665 I 5-00 ~r2.9i8l"ir33i I 37751 4.165 I 47584 15.00 15.413 12.50 |3 00 I3..50 | 4 00 | 4.50 | 5.00 | 5.50 I 5.83i I 6.25 I 6.00 I 6.. 50 I 7.00 I 7 50 $8.00 I $».00 .0681 .134 I ^07i .15 .2651 .30 .401 .46 .5341 .00 ^.665 I .75" .80 I .90 .9.341 1.05 1^0651). 20 .20 I 1.35 T.3.3JJ 1.50 3.00 4.00 14.50 5.334 I 8-00 6.665 I 7.50 8.00 19.00 $ 10 I $11 I ^09 I .1841 .084 I ■16} I .3.34 1 -m I _.50 I .55 j" _.664|_.734T .834 |_ .9151 1^00 11^10 I 'l.T65'| l.2S4~r 1.3341 1.4651 1.50 I 1.65 _$12 .10 _^ _.4U _.G0 .80 1.00 j^20 1740 r^60 1.80" I L 1.66 5 I 1 83 4 I "3733 4 I 3.6 65 I 5.00 I 5. .50 I 2^00 4.00 a 00 6.6651 7.3341 8.334 I 9-16!l I 10.00 |il.90 I 8.00 10.00 12.00 To find wages at £>13, 914,915, 916, or more, per week, flad the amouut at 96.50, 97, 97.50, 98, etc. and multiply by 2. EXPENSE OF BOARD PER DAY. D.4YS. I .50c. I 7.5c.. I $1.00 I $1.25 I $1..50 | $1.75 | $2.00 | .f2.25 | $2.50 | $3.00 I $3.50 | $4.00 | $4.50 | $.5.00 | $6.00 | $7.00 | $.S.0O | $9.00 | $10 I .07 I .11 I .14 I .18 I .21 I 25 I .2!) | .32 | .36 I .43 | .50 | .57 | .6 4 | .71 | .8<; | 1.00 | I .14 I .21 I .29 I .36 I .43 | ..iO | .57 I .64 I .71 | .86 | 1.00 | 1.14 | 1.29 | 1.43 1 1 .71 I 2 .00" | 2.29 I 1.29 I 2.57 r 1.43 2.86 ^21 "I .29" I I .36 I .3 2 I . 43 I ..54 I I ^43J ..54 I I .43 I .64 .64 I .75 I .86 I .96 | 1.07 | 1.29 | 1.5 | 1.71 | 1. 93 | 2.1 4 | 3.57 | 3 .0 | 3.43 | 3 . 8b | 4 .29 4.57 I 5.1 4 I S.71 5^71 |_6.43 I 7.14 6.86 I 7.71"! 8.57 71 I .86 I 1.00 I 1.14 I 1.29 I 1 43 I 1.71 I 2 00 | 2.29 | 2.57 I 2.86 | 3.43 | 4.00 | .89 I 1.07 I 1.25 I 1.43 | 1.61 I 1.79 | 2.14 | 3.50 | 2 .86 | 3.21 | 3.57 | 4.29 | 5.00 .82 I 1.07 I 1.29 I l.M I 1.71 | 1.93 | 2.14 | 2.57 | 3.00 | 3.43 | 3.86 | 4.29 | 5.14""| 6.00 7 I ..50 I .75 I 1.00 I 1.25 I 1..50 | 1.75 | 2.00 | 2.25 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 3..50 | 4.00 | 4.50 | 5.00 | 6.00 | 7.00 | 8.00 | 9.00 | 10.00 For rates not given in this table the result may be obtained by addition or multiplication. LUMBER MEASURE. len<;tu in feet. 4 It. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. 11 ft. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ft. 17 ft. 18 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. 22 ft. 3 inches wide... 4 inches wide... 5 inches wide... 6 Indies wide... 7 inches wide... 8 inches wide... 9 inches wide... 10 inches wide... 11 incties wide... 12 iiiciies wide... 13 inches wi.ie... 14 inclics wide... 15 inches wide... 16 inclies wide... 17 inches wide... 18 inches wide... 19 inches wide... 20 inclies wide... 21 inches wicle... 22 inches wide... 23 inches wide... 24 inches wide.., 25 inches wide. .. 26 inches wide.., 27 inciios wide.. 2jS ini'ties wide.. 29 inches wide.. 30 inches wide.. ft, 1..00 1..04 1..0H 2. .00 2.. 04 2.. OS 3.. 00 3. .04 3.. OS 4.. 110 4.. 04 4.. 08 5.. 00 5. .04 5.. 08 6.. 00 6.. 04 6.. 08 7. .00 7.. 01 7.. 08 8. .00 8.. 01; 8..08( 0, ». .00 9. .01 9.. OS 10.. 00 ,03 ()8 01 ,0(i 11 04 09 0: 0' 00 0.^ 10 0,i OS 01 0:; II 04 o;! 10. 02 11. ,07(11. ,00 12. ,05 !2. .10 13. ,03 13. .OS U. .01 14. .06 15. in. .06 .00 .(« .IX) .01; M .00 .06 .00 .00 .00 .06 .00 .00 .06 .OHIO. .ouiu. .00 11. .06 12. .00 12. .06 IS. .00 14. .015 14 . .00 15. .m 15. .00 16. .06 16. .00 17. in. ft. in. ft. .091 .01 .11 .06: .111 .osl .0!, 6 6. 7. 8. 8. 9. .0:1 10. .04 10. .1111. .06 12. .01112. .OS 13. .II3T4. .10 14. .05115. .Oil 16. .07 16. .112 17. .09 18. .04 18. .1119. .06 20. .00 11. .08 12, .04 12, .00 13, .08 14, .04 15, .00 15, .OS IB .04 17 .00 IS .08 18 .04 19 .00 20 .0821 .04 21 .IX) 22 111. .03 .Oil .09 .06 .Oi .00 .09 .Oil .03 .00 10. .09 10. .06 1 1 . .113 12. .00 13. .01 14. .06 15. .03 15. .00' 16. .09 17. .0(>,1S. .03 19, .00 20. .09 20 . .06 21. .03 22. .00 23, .0i)24, ,.(Ki25, I in. ft. in. .06 2. .09 .111 3. .OS .02 4. .07 .00 5. .06 .10 6. .0.") .1)8 7. .IM .06 8. .03 .114 9. .02 .02 10. .01 .00,11 .10' u. .08' 12 .06 13. .04,14. .02115. .00' 16. .10 17. .08 18. .06 19. .Ot!20. .0221. .00 22. .10 22. .OS 23 . .06 24. .04 25. .02 26. .00 27. I .00 12. .11113, .lo!l4, .09 15, .O81I6. .07'17, .06 IS, .05 19, .04 20, .03 21 , .02 22 .01123 .00,24 .11,25 .1020, .09 27 .08 28 .07 29 .06 30 I ft. in. ft. 10. .0011. .00,13. .00114. .IIO|l5, .00116. .00 17. .O0II8. .00 19. 00 20. .00121. .00 22, .00 23, .00 24, .00 26, .011:27. .00,28, .00 29 .00 30 .0031 .00132, ft. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. ft. 10. 11. 12. 14. 15. 16. 17. .04,18. .05119. .01, 21. .07 1 22. .OS: 23. .09 '24. .10 25. .ll|26. .00,28. .01! 29 .m 30. .o:!!3i. .04 32. .05 33. .06135. in. ft. .06 3. .08 5. .10 6. .00 7. .02 8. .04 10. .06 11. .08112. .10 13. .00 15. .02 16. .1)4 17. .06 18. .08 20. .10 21. .00 22. .02 23. .04 25. .Of! 26. .08 27. .10 28. .00 30. .0231. .m .32. .06 33. .08 35. .10 36. .00 37. I ft. in. 00' 16 .03:17, .06JI8, .0920 .00 21, .03'22 .06:24 .Oft 25 .00 26 .1)3 28 .06 29 .09:30 .00 32 .II3'33 .06 34 .09'36 .00 37 .03:38 .06 40 .00:12 .04 14 .08 16. .00 17. .04 18. .OS l!l, .IX) 21 , .04 22 , .1)8 24, .IK) 25. .W 26. .08 28, .«) 29, .01131, .08 32, .IX) :u, .04|35, .08i36. .00 38, .04'39, .08*41. .00'42. 02:15 .07 16. .01)118. .05119. .10121. .03 22. .08124 . .0I|25. .06:27. .1128. .0430. .09 31 . m .33 in. 'ft. .06, 4, .00 6. .03 7, .00! 9, .OOill, .()0|l2, .06: 14, .00 16 .06 17 .00' 19 .06:20 .00 22 .(X;23 .1)1125 .06 26 .IX) 28 .06.30 .IH)'31 .00 33 .01)34 .l)(!,:lfi .01) 38, .06 39, .IH)41. .06 42, .00.14, .06:45. .00^47. 1 in. ft. in. .09 .04 .11 .06 .01 .08 .03 .10 .05 .00 .IT .02 23 .119 25 .01 26 .11128 .0t>,3ll .01 31 .08 33 .03135 .IOI36 .05138 .00 40 .07 41. .02 43. .09 45. .04 46. .11148. .06 50. .IK) .OS .04 .00 .08 .04 .00 .08 .04 . .nc lis 22 ,m 24 ,IKl 26 l)s,2s ,01 129 ,IK)l31 ,0Sj33 IM ..00 ..08 04 .IX) 42 .OS 43 .01 45 .0047 .08 49 .(M .50, .00:52. ft. .031 5. .00 7. .091 9. .06 11. .1)3 12. .00 14. .09 16. .(Xi Is. .03 20. .00 22. ..0923. ..0625. ..0327. .00 29. .09 31. .06 33. .03 34 . .00 36. .09 38. .06 40. .0:i43. .IX) 44. .01)45. .06 47. .o:i 49. .00 51. .09 .53. .06 .55. in. .06 .06 .03 .00 .10 .08 .06 .04 .00 .00 .10 .08 .06 .01 .02 .00 .10 .08 .06 .04 .02 .00 .10 .08 ,06 .04 .02 .00 (eet multiply the nunilicrof feet in Icncrth bv the number of inches in wid the product by ItJ: the result will be the number in feet .ind inches. Thus, multiply 9 inches wide by S6 feet long, and the result will be 334. Divide this by 13 and we have the product 19 feet and 6 inches. \ rr 444 PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS. S ■ 0.1 •^ PRACTIGAL + 6ALGULAT10NS >^^ '^''^^^^'^"^ To Measure Wells or Cisterns. Square the diameter in inches, nuiltiply by the decimal .7854, and the product by the depth of the well or cistern in inches. The result will be the full capacity of the well in cubic inches. If the actual quantity of water be sought, multiply by the depth of water in inches, and in either case divide by 231 for the number of gallons. Circular Cisterns, One Foot in Depth, Computed. DIAMETER IN INCHES. CONTENTS IN GALLONS. 15 16 • 5-875 . 9.18 .10.44 DIAMETER IN INCHES. 18 .... CONTENTS IN GALLONS. .13.218 .16.32 For any greater depth than one foot, multiply by the number of feet and fractions of a foot. As the areas of circles, and consequently the capaci- ties of circular cisterns of equal depth, varj' as the squares of their diame- ters, it is unnecessary to multiply calculations. For instance, should it l)e required to find the contents of a circular cistern of two feet in diame- ter, say as the square of i : to the square of 2 : 5-875- tliat is, as 1:4:: 5.875, and 5.875 X 4 = 23.5^ the contents of such cistern. This formula will apply to any diameter: for three feet, multiply by g: for four feet, multiply by 16, etc. ; for 5, by 25- The Amount of Rainfall on a Building. In this calculation the amount of annual rainfall is assumed to be thirty- .six inches, which is about the average for the Northern States. Find the area covered by the building, in square inches. Multiply it by 36, the dtpth of rainfall; divide the product by 231, the cubic inches in a gallon, and the quotient will be the number of gallons of water shed by the roof in one year. The Diameter of a Circular Cistern that will Contain the Rainfall on a Building. The side of a square is to the diaincter of a circle of equal area as 1 :i.i28. The square root of the area of the building, multiplied by 1.128, will be the required diameter, assuming depth of cistern and rainfall to be equal. Allowance must of course be made for greater or less depth of cistern than three feet, as well as for daily or occasional use of rainwater. The Per Cent of Profit or Loss. Add two ciphers to t!ie difference between the cost and selling price, divide by the cost, and tlie quotient will be the gain or loss per cent. Weights of Hay by Measurement. Four hundred cubic feet of dry meadow h;iy are estimated at one ton weight. Tlie actual measurement to make a ton will be modified by the density of the vohime of hay, the pressure it has been subjected to aa in a large or long-standing stack, and the like. In barns the volume is variously estimated from 400 to 550, according to coarseness and the length of time it has been piled up. Find tfic cubic contents by measuring the three dimensions of the pile in feet, and divide by 400, 450, soo or 550 (according to circumstances, as explained), and the quotient .^rill be the number of tons, approximately. Weights of Cattle by Measurement. To find the approximate weight, measure as follows: i. The girth be- hind the shoulders. 2. The length from the fore part of the shoulder- blade along the back to the bone at t'le tail, in a vertical line with the buttocks. Then multiply the square of the girth, in feet, by five times the length, in feet. Divide the product by 1.5 for average cattle (if cattle be very fat, by 1.425; if very lean, by 1.575) ; and the quotient will be the dressed weight of the quarters. Thus: The girth of a steer is 6.5 feet, and the length from the shoulder-blade to the tail-bone is 5.25. The square of 6.5 is 42.25, and 5 times 5.25 is 26.25. Multiplying these together gives iiog.0625, which, when divided by 1.5, produces 739.375 lbs., the appro-ximate net weight of the steer after being dressed. The Number of Shingles Required for a Roof. Multiply the length of the ridge-pole by twice the length of the rafter, and the product by eight if the shingle is to be exposed 4% inches to the weather, and by 7 1-5 if exposed five inches. The Number of Square Yards in a Floor or Wall. Multiply the length and width of the floor, or height and width of the wall, in feet and fractions of a foot, divide by nine, and the quotient is the number of square yards. The Number of Bricks Required for a Building. The average brick is eight inches long, four inches wide, and two inches thick, or 64 (8 X 4 X 2} cubic inches. 1728 cubic inches make one cubic foot, and 27 bricks make 1728 (64 X 27) cubic inches. In laying bricks, 1-6 is allowed for mortar, or 4U out of every 27, leaving 22j^ actual bricks for each cubic foot. Therefore, multiply the dimensions — length, height and thickness — in feet and fraction of a foot, of the several brick walls, and the product by 22!'^, and the result will be the number of bricks required. Multiply by 20, instead of 22'^, if the bricks arc larger than the average above given. Allowance should be made for chimneys, pro- jections for mantels, and the like, on the same basis. The Number of Perches of Stone Required for a Wall or Cellar. The perch of stone is now computed at a perch, or 16.5 feet in length, by 1.5 feet in width and i foot in height, or 24.75 ('6.5 X 1.5 X i) cubic feet. Of this amount one-ninth, 2.75 cubic feet, is allowed for mortar and fill- ing. Multiply the three dimensions of the wall or walls in feet — width, height and thickness — and divide by 22 (24.75 — 2.75) if the needed qual- ity of stone is the subject of enquiry, or by 24.75 if it be sought to ascer- tain the amount of masonry in the wall or cellar. The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Lot of Boards, Planks, Flooring, Scantling, Joists, Sills or Beams. 'I'lie foot of board measure is a superficial or square foot, one inch thick. Multiply the product of the width and thickness of each board, plank or other .article, in inches, by the length in feet and fractions of a foot, divide by 12, and the quotient will be the number of feet of board measure. In flooring, allowance must be made for rabbeting, the pro- portion varying with the depth of the groove and the width of the boards. The Cubic Feet in Squared Timber or Beams. Multiply as in board measure, but divide by 144 instead of 12, or multi- ply the three dimensions in feet and fractions of a foot K- The Number of Cubic Feet in a Round Log of Uniform Diameter. Square the diameter, in inches, multiply by .7854, and multiply this product by the length in feel, divide by 144, and the quotient is the number of cubic feet. Estimate of the Number of Cubic Feet in the Trunk of a Standing Tree. Find the circumference in inches, divide by 3.1416, square the quotient, multiply by the length in feet, divide by 144, deduct about one-tenth for thickness of bark, and the result will be, approximately, the number of cubic feet. The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Log of Unequal Diameters. Square the smallest diameter in inches, multiply by .7854, and the product by the length of the log in feet, divide by 12, and the quotient will be the number of feet <»f board measure, approximately. The Area of a Circle. Of all plane figures, the circle is the most capacious, or has the greatest area within the same limits. It is geometrically demonstrable that it has the same area as a right-angled triangle with a base equal to its circum- ference, and a pcrpcndiciitar ecjual to Its radius, that is, half the product of the radius and circumference. It is obviously larger than any figure, of however many sides, inscribed within its perimeter, and smaller than any circumscribed polygon. As a result of laborious calculaticms on this basis (pushed in one instance to 600 places of decimals without reaching the end ). it has been ascertained that the ratio of the diameter to the cir- cumference of any circle (sufficiently exact for all practical purposes), is as 1:3.1416 (3.141S92653X) or in whole numbers, approximately, ac 7:22, or more nearly as 113:355. Hence, to find the circumference or diameter, the other quantity being known, multiply or divide by 3.1416 ; and to find the area, multiply half the diameter by half the circumference, or the square of the diameter by .7854 (3.1416-74}. Capacity or Contents of a Granary, Bin, Crib or Wagon. Multiply the three dimensions — the length, width and dt-pth — in feet (the inches, if any, being reduced to fractions of a foot), multiply the product by the decimal .803564 — or deduct one-fifth, which is sufficiently exact for ordinary purposes — and the result is the number of bushels. Where the wagon or crib flares considerably in length or width, it will be necessary to obtain a mean dimension. This is done by taking the longest and shortest measures, with one or more intermediate ones, and dividing the sum of all by tlie number taken. The quotient will be the mean dimen- sion sought. The greater the flare the larger the number of intermediate dimensions that should be taken to insure accuracy. Corn In the ear, when first cribbed, is estimated at twice the bulk of shelled corn. To Measure Corn or Similar Commodity on a Floor. Pile up the commodity in the form of a cone; find the diameter in feet; multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the product by one-third the height of the cone in feet; from this last product deduct one-fifth of itself, or multiply it by .803564, and the result will be the number of bushels. To Measure Casks or Barrels. Find mean diameter by adding to head diameter two-thirds (if staves are but slightly curved, three-fifths) of dilTerence between head and bung diameters, and dividing by two. Multiply square of mean diameter in inches by .7854, and the product by the height of the cask in inches. The result will be the number of cubic inches. Divide by 231 for standard or wine gallons, and by 282 for beer gallons. The Number of Cords in a Pile of Wood. A cord of wood is four feet wide, four feet high and eight feet long, or 128 (4X4X8) cubic feet Multiply the three dimensions— length, height and width — of the pile in feet, divide by 128, and the quotient will be the number of cords. The odd inches in any or all of the three dimensions must be reduced to decimals or common fractions of a foot, before begin- ning to multiply. Contents of Fields and Lots. The following table will assist farmers in making an accurate estimate of the amount of land in different fields under cultivation : 10 rods X 16 rods — 8 " X 20 " ^ 5 " X 32 " = 4 " X 40 " ^ 5 yards X 968 " = 10 " X 484 yards = 20 " X 242 •' ^ 40 " X 121 " = 80 " X Ooa gallons make a barrel. DRY MEASURE. The bushel is 2150.42 cubic inches, that of England being 221S.192 cubic inches. The imperial bushel is, therefore, 1.0315 United States bushels. In dry measure the litre is legal at 0.908 quart. The following table is generally used: 2 pints I quart. 4 quarts . . . i gallon of 26S.S cubic inches. 2 gallons ..1 peck (pk.) 4 pecks....! bushel (bush, or hu.) 36 bushels.. I chaldron (for coke and coal). CIRCULAR MEASURE. 60 seconds i minute, 60 minutes i degree. 360 degrees i circle. 30 degrees i sign of zodiac 12 signs I zodiac circle. 360 degrees, the circumference of the earth. 24,899 statute miles, circumference of the earth at the equator. 69,124 statute miles, i degree of the equator. 1. 1527 statute miles, 1 geographic mile. 60 geographic miles, i degree. MEASURES OF TIME, 60 seconds 1 minute. 60 minutes i hour. 24 hours I day. 7 days i week. 25 days I lunar month. 28, 29, 30 or 31 days i calendar month. 12 calendar months i year. 365.25 days I common year. 366 days I leap year. LONGITUDE AND TEVIE COMPARED. LONGITUDE. TIME. I second 0666 second, I minute 4 seconds. 15 minutes i minute. I degree 4 minutes. 360 degrees 1 day. Add difference of time for places east, and subtract for places west, of the given place. ODD WEIGHTS. 14 pounds 1 stone of iron or lead. 56 pounds I firkin of butter. 100 pounds I quintal of fish. 196 pounds I barrel of flour. 200 pounds I barrel of beef or pork. 250 pounds I pig of iron or lead. FOR HOUSEKEEPERS. Wheat flour 1 pound = 1 quart. Indian meal 1 pound 2 oz. := i *' Butter, when soft i pound ^ i " Loaf sugar, broken r pound:= 1 " White sugar, pwd . i pound i oz. = i " Brown sugar r pound 2 o?;. = i " Eggs 10 eggs = I pound. Flour S quarts = 1 peck. '< 4 pecks =^ I bushel. LIQUIDS. 16 large tablespoonfuls *, pint. 8 " '* I gill. 4 '* " 'a'gill- 2 gills 'i P'"t. 2 pints I quart. 4 quarts 1 gJiHon. I common-sized tumbler holds ... *3 pint. 1 *' " wine-glass holds fi gill. 25 drops are equal to 1 teaspoonful. _vi [V THE LEGAL BUSHEL. 447 .EGAL WEIGHT OF A BUSHEL IK ALL THE STATES.* PRODLXT, Apples Apples, Drn;d Barley Beans, Cantor Beans, Wliiic Hccts Blackberries Bran Broomcorii Seed Buckwheat Carrots Charcoal Cherries Coal Coal, Cyiint.1 Coal, mined out of btalc Corn , on cob Corn, on cob (uf previous year) . Cornmcal, unbolted Cornmeal, bolted Corn, shelled Com, sweet Cranberries Cotton Seed Currants Flaxseed Gooseberries Grapes Grass Seeds : — Blue Clover Hungarian Millet Orchard ■ Red Top Timothy Hair, Plastering Hcmpseed Hominy. I.ime Malt, Barley M.dt. Rye Maiigel-wur/els OaLs Onions Onii>n Sets Union Tops Osage Orange Parsnips Peaches Peaches, Dried Peaches, Pared Pears Peas Peas, Ground Plums, Dried PoL'iioes, Irish Potatoes, Sweet Popcorn Quinces Kupesecd Raspberries RiiUibagas Rye Salt, Coi.rsc Salt, Fine Sorghum Seed Strawberries Turnips Wheat < < 24 24 48 48 46 46 60 60 76,70 73 . 50 46 56:56 60 60 43 50 48 5656 45:45 7 4444 501 • •1 3434 32 32 5757 46 60 60 60' so U. O 48 56 5656 5050 50;.. ■■ 4» 35' 60 60 60 60 80 60 24 25 4848 4646 60 60 60 60 56156 60 56 56 50 55 60 60 60 48 56 60 56 60 48 50 . .|50 56I52I56 56 60 C 2- « 48 48,48 46 . . 146 46 4850 24 .. 4748 46.. 60 40 70 68 50 146 5u 56 58,54 ■4 6064 48., 50., 44 • t/i H 26 26 28 48 4848 46.. 6060 h > 48 56 56 56 60 56 60 56^58 56 6^ 56 80. 38,. 30132 57,50 60 48 r> 48 56 56 56 14 60|-6o 454S 60 60 *- 56 'I44 . '80 ..38 3232 50 44 60 6060 • 54 ,5° ..56 5656 . . 50 ..66 56 38 60 43 60 60 • Ix)cal usage sometimes varies from legal enactment. All the States recognize the use of the standard U. S. bushel, without reference to weighu of articles measured, and some of the Stales no longer legalize any other, f Used by railroad companies when it is not convenient to ascertain actual weights. k- 448 FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. / '^ ^^fT\,D^.£y^\^C\^XD^^2)Q^^.,2:(3^^.,^X9\2:^^^ ;|p •~"m F0]^EIfi]V WEIGpTg ^JVD ME^^H^Eg. fefe If?" I - •^ s.ip(5^^^x^^^^.^^xr%^x^^^^i:x^^£^ France. /. Measure of Length. I Mvriamctrc. . ^ 10,000 metres. I KiloiTiL-trc .., = 1,000 metres. I Decametre. . . = 10 metres. I Metre = The io,ooo,oooth part of the quarter of the meridian of tlie earth, I Decimetre . . . := i-ioth of a metre. I Centimetre... :=i-iooth of a metre. I M illimetre ... ^ 1 - 1 ,oooth of a metre. //. Measure of Surface. I Hectare =;iooare5. I Are =: 100 square metres. 1 Ceiitiare =1 square metre. ///. Measure of Solidiij'. I Stare = 1 cubic metre, I Uocifitcre .... = i-ioth of a stcre. I v. Measure of Capacity, I Kilolitre = 1 cubic metre. I Hectolitre ...:= 10 decalitres, r Decalitre ,...=: 10 litres. I Litre = 1 cubic decimetre. I Decilitre = i-ioth of a litre. V. Measure of Weight. I Millia := 1,000 kilogrammes, and is tlie weight of a ton of sea-water. I Quintal = 100 kilogrammes. I Kilogramme = Weight of a cubic decimetre of water, at the temperature of 40 above melting ice, or about 40° P\ihrcnheit. I Hectogrammes 100 grammes. I Decagramme = 10 grammes. I Gramme ^ i ■ 1,000th of a kilogramme. I Decigramme. = i-ioth of a gramme. These measures may be compared with the English measures by means of the following table: I Metre =39.38 English inches, nearly. I Are = 3.9EngTishperchfs, nearly. I Stere =35-32 English cubic feet. I Litre ^ 1 .76 English pints. I Gramme ;= 15.44 English grains. The Frenrh Metric Systeni has been either introduced or legalized in the Argen- tine Confederation, Austria, Belgium, liuli- via, Rrazil, Chili, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, the German Empire, Greece, Italy, Mexico, Portugal and Spain. The present system of Switzerland is upon a semi-metric basis. In the United States the metric system was le- galized by an act of Congress passed in 1S66. Belgrium.— The metrical system is used here; hut tlie kilogramme is termed a livre ; the litre, a litron ; and the metre, an aune. Netherlands.— Here, also, the metric sys- tem luis been adopted; but Flemish names are employed instead of those used in France. r,omharrto-Venetian KinRcIoin.— The metric system, with Italian naniLs substituted for the most of the original terms, is used of- ficially ; but the old measures are also used. See Venice. Austria.— The ell = 30.6 inches. The joch = 1 acre 1.75 rood. Thernet2cn= i -7th bushel. The eimer=i2.4 gallons. The pfund = ^ pound, (iold and silver are weighed by the mark of Vienna, which ^4333 grains. Itasle. — tix) pounds^ 10S.6 pounds avoirdu- pois. The ohm = 10.7 gallons. Thesack.= 3.6 nushils. The large and small ells =46.4 and 21.4 inches respectively. Bavaria. — The long andf;hortells = 24 and 23.3 inches nspectively. The schaff of S met- zi;n = 5.6 bushels. The muid of 4Smass^i5 gallons. 100 pounds heavy and lightweight :=ioS.3and iO|. 2 pounds avoirdupois respect- ively. The mark of Augsbui'g^3,643grains. Bremen. — The foot or half eU = ii.4 in- The ohm =: 3 1. 5 gallons. The last= 10.2 quar- ters. 100 pounds ^= 109.9 pounds avoirdupois. Cape of Good Hope. — The centner or 100 pounds Dutch weight^ 10S.9 pounds avoirdupois. The leager of 15 ankers =■ 126.5 gallons. The muid = 3 bushels. The ell of 27 Rhynland inches = 27.8 inches, China. — The chang of 10 chih = 4 yards, nearly. Theshing=i pint. ioho=ishing; 10 shing^ I tow; 10 \.o\v= I hwuh or 120 cat- ties. The catty = 1.33 pound avoirdupois. 16 taels:^! catty; 100 catties=: 1 pecul. Liquids are sold by weight ; but the English gallon is used in trading with foreigners. Denmark, — The foot =12.3 inches. 100 ells =68.6 yards. The viertel=: 1.7 gallon. 100 tonnen:= 47. S quarters. The pound = i.r pound avoirdupois. The pound for gold and silver weighs 7,266 grains. £ast Indies. — Bengal. — The factory maund ^ 74.66 pounds avoirdupois. 10 bazar maunds=:ii factory maunds. 16 chittacks ^ I seer; 40 seers =1 maund. The guz of two cubits ^ 1 yard. Bombay. — The maund =: 2S pounds avoirdupois. 40 seers =; i maund; 20 maunds = i candv. The candv = 24.5 bushels. Madras. — The maund =: 25 pounds avoirdu- pois. 40 poUams = I vi ; 8 vis = i maund ; 20 maimds=i candy. The covid = 1S.6 inches. The gars of So parahs^= 16.875 quarters, and weighs 8,400 pounds avoirdupois. Egypt.— The Turkish pike = 27 in. The ardeb of 24 Cairo rubbie =: 6 quarters. The cantar= 100 pounds avoirdupois. 316 drams or 144 meticals^i rottole * 100 rottoli or 36 okcs ^ I cantar. Frankfort on the Main. — The ell = 21.2 inches. The foot =:i 1.2 inches. The matter :=3 bushels, nearly. The viertel=: 1.6 gallon, nearly. The pound, light and heavy weight, =r 1.03 and I.I pound avoirdupois. The Zoll- centner = 1 10.2 pounds avoirdupois. The Cologne mark, used for gold and silver, weighs 3,609 grains. Geneva. — The ell .= 45 inches. The acre = I acre 1. 1 rood. Tlie coupe, or sack, = 2.1 bushels. The setier=r 10 gallons. The heavy pound = 1.2 pound avoirdupois ; the light pound I -6th less. The mark weighs 3,785 grains. Genoa. — The braccio of 2.5 palmi ^ 22,9 inches. The niina^3.3 bushels. The barile ^ 16.^ gallons. The ]iound =0.7 pound avoir- dupois. 1.5 pound = 1 rottole. The pound sotlile, for gold and silver, weighs 4891.5 grains. Greece. — The \''cnetian measures of length are used, the braccio being called a picne. 100 kila:=ii.4 quarters. The cantaro of 40 okes = 112 pounds avoirdupois. Hamburg:. — The foot = 11.3 in. nearly; 100 ells :=62.6 yards. The scheffel:=i acre 6 perches. The viertel =: j.6 gallon. The pound :=i.o6 pound avoirdupois. For the Ctjngne mark, See /'VrtwXyor/. 2 marks =1 pound troy. L-ubeok, — The ell =22.0 inches. The last = 1 1 ouarters. The vierter= 1.6 gallon. The pounu =■ 1.07 pounds avoirdupois, nearly. Malta. — The pal me = 10.25 inches ; 3.5 pal- mi = 1 yard ; 8 palmi ^=- I canna. The salma = 7.S bushels. The caffiso =: 4.1; gallons. The oarile =9.^3 gallons. 64 rottoli = i hundred- weight, 'the cantaro^ 175 pounds avoirdu- pois. Manritiiis.— Besides the English weights and measures, those of France before thelate alteration are used. The aune = i .3 yard. The velte = i.7 gallon. The poid de inarc = i.oS pound avoirdupois. Naples, — The canna = S3. 2 inches. The moggia = 3 roods 12 perches. The tomolo = 1.4 bushel. The barile=9.i gallons. The cantaro grosso and piccolo ^ 196.5 and 106 pounds avoirdupois, respectively. The jiound used in weighing gold and silver contains 4,950 grains. Portugal. — The covado = 25.8 inches. The almiule = 3.6 gallons. The pound =:. 01 pound avoirdupois. Prussia. — The ell = 26.5 inches. The mor- gen =2 roods 21 jierches. The scheffel ;= 1.5 bushel. The eimcr=: 15.1 gallons. TIic pound = 1.03 pound avoirdupois. The mark of Cologne is used for gold and silver. R-ome. — The canna of 8 palmi :=2.2 yards. The canna of 10 pahna =■ 8S inches, nearly. The rubbio =; S.i hnshels. The boccale=ro.4 gallon. The pound =.0.7 pound avoirdupois. Russia. — The arshine = 2S inches. The foot ^: I J. 75 inches. The dessetnia = 2 acres 2.8 roods. The tschetwert ^5.7 bushels. The wedro = 2.7 gallons. The pound ^0.9 pound avoirdupois. The pood :^ 36 pounds avoirdu- pois. St. Gallen.— The ells for silks and wool- ens =31 .5 and 24.25 inches, rcs|jectively. The mutt of 4 viertels=2.o9 bushels. The eimer ^ 11.25 gallons. The poimd, light and heavy weight, = 1 .03 and 1 .3 pound avoirdupois, re- spectively. Saxony. — The foot =11.1 inches. The acre = 1 acre 1.5 rood, nearlv. The eimer, at Dres- den, = 14,9 gallons ; atLeipsic^i6.S gallons. Tlie wispcl, at Dresden, = ^_K). 9 bushels; at Leipsic = 9i .7 bushels. The pound = 1.03 pound avoirdupois. Sicilj'. — The canna =-76 5 inches. The salma = 7.6 bushels. The barrel =: 8 gallons, nearlv. The pound of 12 oiinces=:o 7 pound avoirdupois. The cantaro^ 175 pounds avoir- dupois. Smyrna, — The pike = 27 inches. The kil- low^ 1 1 .3 gallons. The rottolo = 1.2 pound avoirdupois. Sonth America. — The Spanish and Por- tuguese measures are most generally employ- ed. The use of the English prevails in some parts. Spain. — The vara or ell =33.3 inches. The fanegad.a=i acre 21 perches. The arroba = 3 5 gallons. The fanega = i.c; bushel. The pound =: 1 .01 pound avoirdupois. Sweden and Norway.— The cU = 23.3 inches. The timnuland = 1 acre 1 mod, nearly. The tunnu =0.6 quarter. The kanii =0.6 gal- lon. The pound .= 0.9 pound avoirdupois. Turkey. — The pike = 26.25 inches. The *kill()w =09 bushel. The almud = i.i gallon. The oke^2,S pounds avoirdupois. The rot- tolo r= ] .3 pound avoirdupois. Tuscany. — The braccio = 23 inches, nearly. The saccata=: i acre 0,9 rood, Thesacche = 2 bushels. The fiasche = 4 pints. The pound = 12 ounces avoirdupois. Venice. — Resides the metrical system, tlie following measures are used: The braccio, for woolens = 26.6 inches; for silks =■ 24. S inches. The stajo = 2.2 bushels. The sec- chia = 2.4 gallons. The pound sottile = o.7 pound avoirdupois, nearly ; grosso =: i .05 pound avoirdupois. V_ \ \ Till-: METRIC SVSTEM. 449 The Metric System originated in France about 1790. In 1799, on the iiivitalion of the Government, an international convention, at which were present representatives from France, Holland. Denmark, Sweden, Switzt-rlnnd, Spain, Savoy and the Roman Repuhlics, assembled at Paris to settle, from the results of the great Meridian Survey, the exact length of the '* definitive metre." As a rx^sult of Ihe investigations of this learned body, the Metric System \va> hascd upon tlie length of the fourth part of a terrestrial meridian. The ten-milltonth part of this arc was chosen as the unit of measures of length, and called Mrtr,\ The cube of Ihv tenth part of the metre was adopted as ihc unit of capacity, and denominated Lttre. The weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density was called h'tiogramme, of which the thousandth part, or CiVrtwm*-, was adopted as the unit of weight. The mullinles of these, proceeding in'deeimal progression, are distinguished bv the employ-^ ment of the prefixes deca, hecto, kilo and mvriu (ten, hundred, thousand, ten tliousand), from the Oreek, and the subdivisions by dici^ centi and milli (tenth, hundredth, thousandth), from the Latin. Measures of Lengrth (Unit, Metre). EQl'AL TO Millimetre Centimetre Decimetre Metki-: Decametre Ifeciomctre 3,937.07900 Kilometre 3u.3'70. 79000 Myriametre 393,707.00000 Inches. o. 03937 o.3y.?7' 3 -93703 30-37079 393.70790 Feet. 0.003.*^ I 0.o3JSa; o.3i8ftvS 3.jSot>S.S 33.So(>St)j 3jS.oS<(9i7 3,2So Syc/167 32,SoS.yiv't*)7 Yards. 0.0010936 0.0 1 01^363 o. 1093633 i-oc)36j3» "0.9363306 109 . 3633056 1,01x1-6330556 10.936.3305556 Cubic Pleasures, or Measures of Capacity (Unit, Litro). EQUAT- TO Cubic lurhrs. Cubic Feel. Millilitrc.or cubic centimetre 0.00103 . . 0.000035 Centilitre, 10 odJic centimetres 0.(11027 .. 0.000353 Decilitre, 100 cubic centimetres 6. 1027 1 .. 0.003532 I.ITKK, (r cubic Decimetre 61.02705 .. 0.035317 Decalitre, or Cenlistere 610.27052 .. o.353K''> Hectolitre, or Decistcre 6.102.705'! 5 ,. 3-53i'\5'^ Kilolitre, or Stcre, or cu!>ic metre 61,027.05152 .. 35 •3"'.'^^' Myriiiliire, or Decastcre 610,270.51519 .. 353''65So7 Pittlx. 0.00176 0.01761 0,1760s i.7^>077 17-60773 i76-o77.i4 1. 760. 7734 1 i7/>o7- 73414 Fathoms. o o3 0.00546S2 0.0546S16 0.^468165 5.yjS.653 54.6S16523 5;6.Si6527S 5,468.1652778 Gailofis. 0.0002J0t 0.002 2oro 0.0220097 O. 2200t/>7 2.20oi/y>S 22.00»/)677 220.0i//)707 2,200.9667675 Afiles. 0.0000006 0.0000002 0.0000621 0.0006214 0.00621 0.06213! 0.62 1 38.14 6.213^242 213S 13S1 Bushels. 0.0000275 0.0002751 0.0027512 o 0275121 0.2751 20S 2.75120S5 27.51 20f446 275.120S459 Aleasures of Weight (Unit, Gramme). EQfAL TO GrahlS. Milligramme 0.01543 Centigramme 0.15432 Decigramme i .54323 Gkammk 15 -4323s Decagramme 154.32349 Hectogram nie 1,543.234*^8 Kilogramme 15,432,3^880 Myriagramme 154,323.48800 Troy Ot. o.oo(y\\2 0.000322 0.003215 0.032151 0.321507 3-»'5073 32,150727 321.507207 Az'oirdupois Lbs. 0.0000022 O.O0O02JO 0.0002205 0.0022046 0.02204()2 0.2204621 2.2046213 22.0462129 Centi:ire, or square metre . Are, or loo square metres Hectare, or 10,000 square i Square 3Ieasures, or Measures of Surface (Unit, Are). eqval to Sg. Feet. Sq. I'ards. Sq. Perches. 10.794299 . . I . uX>o33 . . 0.03953S3 1 ,076.429934 . . 1 19.603326 , , 3.95382i>o >t:lrcs 107,642.993419 .. 11,960.332602 .. 395.382S959 Ctvt. of 112 Lbs.* 0.0000000 0.0000002 0.0000020 0.0000197 0.0001963 0.00196S4 0.oi9f>S4i 0.1968412 Sq. Roods. o.ooot>SS5 o.a>S^I57 9.S845724 Tons* 0-O000t«>O 0.0000000 o.oooooor o.oooooio O.OOOOOi/S O.OOOOt;84 0.0009S42 0.009S42I Sq. Acres. 0.0002471 0.02471 II 2.4711434 CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO ENGLISH. METRES INTO KILOMETRES INTO LITRES INTO GALLONS HECTOLITRES INTO KILOGRAMMES INTO HECTARES INTO YARDS. MILES AND YARDS. AND QUARTS. QUARTS AND BUSHELS. CWTS. , QRS., LBS., OZ. ACRES ROODS, P'CH'S. I 1.094 1 1,0)4 1 o.SSo 1 2-751 1 2 3'4 1 3 1 35 2 2.187 2 1 4-'7 2 1.701 2 5.. 503 2 I 6'i' 2 4 3 ^i 3 3.2SI 3 I '% 3 2.6.(1 3 1 0.254 3 9M 3 7 I 26 4 4- 374 S-4f 4 3 4 3 5^1 4 1 3.005 4 s ■3 4 9 3 5 I .1 IS^ 5 0.402 5 1 5 -756 5 1 1 0'4 5 13 1 '7 6 6.562 3 I,2S2 6 1 1.2S2 6 2 0.W7 6 M 3.^ 6 '4 3 12 I 7-655 S.749 9S43 10.936 21. §73 I 4 615 7 I 2.163 7 2 3-^58 7 ■5 7 I '7 8 4 '.709 S 1 3-043 s 2 6.010 b '7 10 U' '9 3 i 9 9 I >.

    0 20 12 753 20 t 20 7.024 20 1 16 ■'i 20 49 I 30 32.S09 30 iS 1,129 30 2.412 30 10 2-,5,i6 .^o 2 10 2'a 30 't 31 40 65.61S 40 24 ■,505 40 s 3-!'5 40 ■3 6.04S 40 3 4 3 40 98 3 '5 SO SO 31 123 50 It 0.019 .50 17 1 . ^6o 50 1 3 26 Vi i;o 133 3 9 60 60 37 ^ bo n 0.823 bo 20 5-072 60 I 20 -I'S 60 14S I 3 '& 76-554 87.491 9S.427 g 43 '& ■ 5 1.627 L° H 0. 5S5 70 1 1 1 i'' ^ '72 3 11 49 1,251 ■7 2-43' 27 4.017 .So 1 2 '97 2 90 90 55 1,627 90 19 3-235 90 ,30 7-609 ■ Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tuea. 26 19 12 5 -e» Thura. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. 27 20 13 6 -e» Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thura. •• 28 21 14 7 -«• Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. K LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. 451 -7\ -i-«^>^<^4+-^ 'NTIL the millennium begins, men will not be able to exist without courts, law and lawyers. When man was in a state of nature, before ^,,^~- what the philosophers call the social com- pact was entered into, the law that prevailed was the strong hand. Property belonged not necessarily to him who manufactured it or found it, but to him who had the physical ability to prevent other people from depriving him of it. As the verse runs, humanity be- gan with — The good old pLan, That llicy shall take who have the power, And they shall keep who can. And much as wt; may talk about the rea.sonableness and light of our civilization, that theory lies underneath every legal procc-^s we use to-day. F'irst the man righted his own wrongs according to his natural reason — a sort of wild justice that was made up of all injustice, and in which capital punishment w.is the only penalty recognized. Next the family took up the administration of the law — a step in the right direction, but only a step — and so, as men grew older in wisdom and experience, a man's wrongs were redressed first by himself, next by his family, next by his tribe, and lastly by his nation. Each of these changes was a change for the better, an approach toward impar- tiality .ind justice. Even in the night of time wise judges were at work making precedents which grew gradually into jaw, and that great system which we have to-day is as much a natural out- growth of humanity as our civilization. It was seen early in our history as a race that the wisdom of the umpires to whom men addressed their disputes was not alone enough to insure peace and tranquillity to the land, and hence great law-givers appeared from time to time in every nation, who have left codes out of which we have built our common law and st.-itute law of the nineteenth century. Each family of n.ntions had its own statutes, differing widely in practice, but all founded upon justice and common sense. Tlie English law, which we in America have brought with us from the old home, is, like the English language, an olla podridii of many elements. The Saxon code lies under all with its strong tendency to personal liberty, and exact and equal justice to high and low, just as the Saxon tongue is the basis and foundation of our language. The Norman Conquest brought in changes in the tenure of land, together with the martial law, the game laws and the criminal and the feudal laws of France. Mixing in this hotch-potch, the Koman Church added the ecclesiastical and ])art of the criminal law, drawn directly, as the French laws came indirectly, from the great Codex Justiniani, of the Roman Empire, and this strange mixture has grown in the centuries that have passed into the great guarantee of liberty and justice which our l.-rw to-day represents. Always seeking after right anil common sense, our law is not perfect, nor is it perfectly administered, but the whole world admits that the English-speaking people have the best laws know-n to man. I'erfection erring humanity will never attain. ^ \ 452 LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. Our criminal law has been built upon the theory that the criminal must be protected, and it is for his protection that the statutes run. At first the only punishment that men knew was death or maiming. In the middle ages thieves were boiled in oil, and robbers were impaled alive. Witnesses were questioned on tlie rack, and evidence extorted with thumbscrew and the iron boot, crushing the flesli in the search for truth. As the years rolled by all of this was ameliorated, and to-day mercy is tempered with jus- tice, and the shameful bar- barisms of the courts of the middle ages are becoming rarer and rarer. It is not the purpose of this work to make any man a lawyer learned in the law. It were idle, and worthy only of a catchpenny mountebank, to pretend that in a volume like this could be compressed the whole of a great science which demands of its professors years of toil and years of study and experience. Once involved in litigation, go to a lawyer, and to the best lawyer you can afford. Any one who gives the reader different advice is dis- honest and knavish, and common sense must recognize this indictment. An ounce of prevention, however, is worth a pound of cure, and we verily believe that in the pages that follow many ounces of prevention will be found. Law is a costly luxury that should only be indulged in as a last re- sort, when justice cannot be gained by less expensive means. The wise man avoids it as he would avoid bank- ruptcy or fire, and he takes all the prudent precautions that he can to escape litiga- tion. We claim tliat the student of these pages will he fully equipped for that purpose. Law is a costly luxury, we have said ; and the wisdom of an- tiquity, which built the law, has built also on this truism. One of the earliest fables the child is told, is the story of the two cats who referred a cheese case to a monkey learned in the law, and whose chose-in-action gradually went into the digestive system of tlie court. The story we illustrate below conveys a moral that all should heed. Observe llie obstinate litigants pulling at the head and tail of the disputed cow; how determined each is, not to win the ani- mal, but to prevent the other from getting her, and see the attor- ney, learned and gentlemanly, industriously milking fees and retainers into his bucket and advising the plaintiff to hold hard and steady. And when the cow is milked, see how the litigation ends : one man has the horns and a severe fall, the other has the tail and an equally unpleasant tumble, while the lawyer walks off with the cow and the milk and an exceedingly good opinion of the law. The satire may be rather broad, but it teaches what every sensible man will tell you, that there is no dearer commodity in this world than justice. No matter what transaction you are about to engage in, study the forms we give, read the hints we publish. Do nothing blindly. In no case is knowledge power so much as in busi- ness law. Who are the men that succeed ? They are those who understand it. Which of your friends is tangled up in costly, perhaps ruinous, litigation? THE SUIT BEGINS : The Lawyer gets the Milk for his Fees. II. END OF THE SUIT ; The Lawver gets both Cow and Milk, Ask him how it began, and he will point out to you some trifling error, made in a culpable ignorance, which, had he the lesson we teach before him, he would have avoided. Then study these pages if you would gain the benefit that lies before you. A half hour's attention be- fore a transaction is con- summated may save you thousands afterwards. The diligent student may be sure of one thing, that, with this manual at command, its hints obeyed, its instructions followed, its forms used, it will take a very much better lawyer than the average business man to force him into a lawsuit, and yet his rights will be as thoroughly secure as though they had been vindicated and asserted by all the supreme courts of the Re- public. r ~W '^ \i LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS. "Tt 453 -*5- V7KV ke^al v^Li^ine^^v l^of^m^. v)!^-:- '';/ <^- -!; ^;-^--^^^ -•feiKoco tReij are propcrPtj ©racor^ anc| G^ecufc<:|,-^^ AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS. t CONTRACT is legally defined to be an agreement between persons com- petent to contract to do or not to -I- do, for a consideration, some speci- fied thing. Following upon this definition, it is evident that those things to be specially examined about a contract are the parties, their legal ability and their consent. There must be two or more persons concerned, and it is vital that they must be able to contract. "Persons" is here taken in the legal meaning, which includes artificial persons, such as cor- porations and States. Corporations can only contract as they are empowered by their char- ters ; States, as they are permitted b)' their constitutions. Persons not of legal age can not usually contract, but when of age they may, in certain cases, ratify contracts made in infancy. The contract of marriage may be entered into under age. Idiots and insane persons cannot contract. Consent is vital to a contract. It may be given by a word or a nod, by the shaking of hands or by a sign. Often, in law, the old saying that " silence gives consent " is upheld. In a written contract assent is proven by the signature or mark of the persons. The first step toward a contract is the propo- sition or offer, which may be withdrawn at any time before it is agreed to. When the proposition is verbal, and no time is specified, it is not binding unless accepted at once. To give one the option or refusal of property at a specified price, is simply to give him a cer- tain time to make up his mind whether he will buy the property or not. To make the option binding he must accept within the time named. The party giving the option has the right to withdraw it, and sell the property to another, at any time previous to its acceptance, even within the time for which the refusal was given, because the offer is gratuitous, and there is no consideration to support it. A written proposition may be accepted at any time before notice of withdrawal. But the proposer can retract at any time before it is accepted. If a letter of acceptance is mailed, however, and immediately after a letter with- drawing the offer is received, the contract is binding. An acceptance takes effect from the time it is mailed, not from the time it is re- ceived ; it must be in accordance with the original proposition, for any new matter intro- duced would constitute a new offer. When the offer is accepted, either verbally or in / \ /. 454 LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS. writing, it is an express assent, and is bind- ing. Express assent is not affected by custom or usage of trade. Implied assent is accepted by the law when common sense seems to de- mand it. For instance, if John Jones draws a draft on Abraham Swift, which Swift refuses to accept, and James Smith accepts the draft to save John Jones' credit, there is an im- plied assent on the part of Jones to indemnify Smith. A contract made under a mistake of law is not void. Everybody is presumed to know the law, and ignorance is no excuse. This, how- ever, applies only to contracts permitted by law and clear of fraud. A refusal of an offer cannot be retracted without the consent of the second party. Once a proposition is refused, the matter is ended. And no one has the right to accept an offer except the person to whom it was made. The consideration is the reason or thing for which the parties bind themselves in the con- tract, and it is either a benefit to the promisor or an injury to the other party. Considera- tions are technically divided into valuable and good, and it sometimes happens that the con- sideration need not be expressed, but is im- plied. A valuable consideration is either money or property or service to be given, or some injury to be endured. A promise to marry, for instance, is a valuable considera- tion. A good consideration means that the contract is entered into because of consan- guinity or affection, which will support the contract when executed, but will not support an action to enforce an executory contract. Whether a consideration is sufficient or not is tested by its being a benefit to ihc promisor or an injury to the other party. If it has a legal value, it makes no difference how small that value may be. The promisor need not always be benefited, as, for instance, the endorser of a note, who is liable although he gets no benefit. Hut if a person promise to do something him- self for which no consideration is to be received, there is no cause of action for breach of the contract. Among sufficient considerations we may include "forbearance," the waiting for payment or for the execution of another contract, and " mutual promises," if made si- multanepusly, not otherwise, and finally a pre- existing " moral obligation," as, for instance, when a debt has become outlawed through the statute of limitations, a promise to pay it will renew the liability of the debtor. THE STATUTE OF FRAUDS. The English Statute of Frauds, which has been re-enacted in most of the American States, provides that " no action shall be brought whereby to charge the defendant upon any special promise to answer for the debt, default or miscarriage of another person, un- less the agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing, and signed by the party to be charged therewith, or some other person thereunto by him lawfully author- ized. " This is held not to apply to original promises, but only to collateral engagements or cases where a debt already exists on the part of a third person. As in the case of a note already given to Brown by Jones, a promise from Smith to pay must be in writing to be binding. If Brown tells Jones to deliver goods to Smith, saying: " I will pay if he doesn't," or " I will see you paid," it is a mere offer of guaranty, and is a collateral undertak- ing, which comes within the statute ; but it is different if he says: " Charge them to me," or " I will pay. " The latter is an original promise, and need not be in writing. No consideration is necessary, so far as the person who guarantees is concerned, if it is a benefit to the person in whose favor the promise is made. This statute does not apply in cases where an original promise is made at the time the debt is created. The statute of frauds "71 LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS. 455 also provides that no sale shall be binding un- less the buyer shall first accept part of the goods so sold, and actuallj- receive them ; or, 2d, give something in earnest, to bind the bar- gain, or in part payment; or, 3(1, that some note or memorandum, in writing, of the said bargain be made and signed by the parties or their agents. The writing must state the promise, and also the consideratii)n. Where goods exist in the condition in which they are to be delivered, and the delivery is to take place in the future, a sale of such goods comes within the statute. CAUSES WHICH VITIATE CONTRACTS. There are several causes which void con- tracts, first among which is fraud. Fraud is defined to be " every kind of artifice employed by one person for the purpose of wilfully deceiving another to his injury." No fraudu- lent contract will stand in law or in equity. The party upon whom the fraud has been practiced must void the contract as soon as he discovers the fraud, for if he goes on after having knowledge of the fraud he cannot after- wards avoid it. But the one who perpetrates the fraud cannot plead that ground for voiding it. Contracts in restraint of trade are void, as also are contracts in opposition to public policy, impeding the course of justice, in restraint of marriage, contrary to the insolvent acts, or for immoral purposes. Any violation of the essential requisites of a contract, or the omission of an essential requisite^ will void it. THE DEFENCES which may be set up against an action on con- tract are eleven in number, and may be sum- marized thus: Performance, Payment. Re- ceipts, Accord and Satisfaction, Arbitrament and Award. Pendency of Another Action, Re- lease, Tender, Statute of Limitations. Set-Off, Recoupment. A Building Contract. Memorandum of Ag^reem^nt, iiiat part to make, erect, build and finish in good, substantial and workmanlike manner, on the lot belonging to the party of the first part, and known as Xo. 243 North Nineteenth street, one brick house, agreeable to the draft, plan and explanation hereto annexed, of good and substantial materials (or of such materials as the parly of the firsit part may find and provide therefor), by the 1st day of September next. And the said party of the first part covenants and agrees to pay unto the said party of the second part, for the same, the sum of one thousand dollars lawful money of the United .States, as follows : the sum of $200 on the 1st of June, $200 on the ist of July, ^00 on the ist of August, $400 on the completion of the house. i If the otvHtr is to furnisk tiiateriais, add: and, also, that he will furnish and procure the necessary materials for the said work, in such reasonable quantities, and at such reasonable time, or times, as the said party of the second part shall or may require.) And for the true and faithful performance of all and every of the covenants and agreements above mentioned, the parties to these presents bind themselves, each unto the other, in the penal sum of $200, as liqui- dated damages to be paid by the failing party. In loitness ivkero/^ The parties to these presents have hereunto set their hands {and seals) the day and year first above written. Henry Davis. Signed, sealed and delivered in presence of J Joseph Stephbnson. James Wilson. H. C. BovD. Ill Contract with Employe. This Agreetnent, made this 22d day of December, 1883, between J. F. Townley, of Chicago, of the first part, and Campen, Strauss & Co., of St. Louts, Mo., of the second part, witnesscth : That the said J. F. Townley agrees faithfully and diligently to serve the said Campen, Strauss & Co., as clerk, in the store of said Campen, .Strauss & Co. (or other- ■jvise), at Sl Louis, for the period of one year, from and after the ist day of January next, for the sum of $1,500 per year. In consideration of which service, so to be performed, the said Campen, Strauss & Co. agree to pay the said J. F. Townley the sum of $125 per month, payable on the first day of each month, during said term. And it is understood and agreed that the death of either of them, occurring prior to the expiration of said term of one year, shall terminate this agreement. • Ik 7i'itness ivhereof, etc. Campen, Strauss & Co. J. F. Townley. Contract for the Sale of Property. This Agreement, made this 5th day of March, 1883, between Alan McDowell, of St. Louis, and C. S. Wheeler & Co., of New York, wit- nesscth: That the said Alan McDowell agrees to sell and deliver to the said C. S. Wheeler & Co., at their store in New York, five thousand bushels of potatoes on or before the 2d day of May, 1S83, and the said C S. Wheeler & Co., in consideration tlicreof, agree to pay to the said Alan McDowell fifty cents per bushel for said potatoes, immediately upon the completion of the delivery thereof. In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands, this sih day of March, 1883. at New York City. C. S. Whrelek & Co. ^LAN McDowell. Short Form of Contract. John I). Simons kcreby agrees to sell one thousand bead of two-year- old cattle, to be delivered in Chicago before February i, 1883, to Knox, Stout & Co., at $20 a head, and the said Knox, Stout & Co. agree to pay $20 per head for all two-year-old cattle, up to one thousand head, deliv- ered by said John 1>. Simons, prior to February i, 1883. Signed at Chicago, III., this 20th day of September, 1881. Knox, Stout & Co. John D. Simons. Vl \ 456 AGENCY AND ATTORNEY. ^ -7\ i«^#^®i»:^-#— #: enev •> Qnd •:• fithopnev. ^^^^ •2^3^ my-^^rc^i ^^^^^■■°<^-^ 5-f^Ppf- HEN one person is authorized to act in a business capacity for another, m under a contract either express or "^•^5^ implied, he becomes the agent of the latter, and the act of the agent, when legally authorized, is the same as if done by the principal. For ordinary contracts constituting an agency, a written or verbal agreement or appointment is required, but contracts required to be under seal can onl)^ be made by an agent whose appointment is established by a sealed instrument. An agent may be so constituted by his acts without a formal appointment. Where a principal will- ingly and knowingly allows a person to do acts in his name, he will be presumed to have given him authority. Where several persons are appointed by law as agents, the thing to be done may generally be executed by a majority of them. The extent to which the agent's authority binds the principal is to be gathered from the appointment, and depends upon the power which has been delegated to him by express or implied contract. The principal is not bound if the agent go beyond his authority, unless, with knowledge of the fact, he has taken the benefit of it. -«i^i^- ~^. fe^-j* ^T^^^ -*->^-«)) I J)iFfepent-+gnd^-of-^^eney. | r p y H 1'^ various kinds of agency arc called J ^ special and general ; limited and un- ■■''Jt/ limited ; factor and broker. A special ^ agency is an agency to do a single act, and every person doing business with a special agent must ascertain what the extent of his authority is, and at his own risk. A general agency consists of delegated authority to do anything about a particular business, the prin- cipal being bound for all acts of the agent that come within the scope of the business. Lim- ited agency is that in which particular instruc- tions restrict and limit tlie agent's authority. Unlimited agency is one in which a special agent is given authority to use any means he may find necessary to accomplish the desired ^ DIFFERENT KINDS OF AGENCY. 457 end. The factor, commonly called commis- sion merchant, is one who has the property of his principal in his own possession, for sale, such property being called a consignment. Such agent, accompanying a cargo on a voy- age, is called a supercargo. A broker is one who is employed to negotiate sales between the buyer and seller. He does not have possession of the property which he nego- tiates, nor authority to sell in his own name. With few exceptions to the rule, an agent is not obliged to account for the price of goods he has sold until he has recovered the money from the purchaser. When an agent makes the contract in the name of the principal, and under his authority, he generally avoids personal liabilit}-. The agent is given the right of lien on the property in his possession, and also the right to insure it, to secure the payment of his com- mission. He is also entitled to reimbursement for costs and damages which, through no fault of his, he has been obliged to pay in relation to the agency. The principal has reciprocal rights against third persons, corresponding with his own lia- bilities, and may sue them, when they are responsible, or their contracts made with the agency. He is liable to third persons for the negligence or unskilfulness of the agent, when he is acting in the fulfilment of the agenc)' business, even if he is not under his immedi- ate direction. The general principle is, that for all torts, frauds, misfeasances and defaults of the agent, done in the regular course of the ageijcy business, the principal is liable, whether he participated in it or not, provided it were not the agent's wilful act. The agent is liable equalh' with the principal for all wrongs done by him under order of his jsrincipal. Unless expressly authorized, the agent has no right to delegate his own powers to a sub- aeent. A notice to an agent is generally considered notice to the principal. Money paid by an agent can be recovered b)' the principal, if it has been paid by .mis- take ; if the consideration has failed ; if the money was illegally e.xtorted from him as agent; or if it was fraudulently applied to some illegal purpose by the agent. An agency may be dissolved : by a revoca- tion by the principal of the power of the agent; by operation of law. Power of Attorney — Short and Simple Form. A'nojv all titt-n by tkest- f ail men by these presents : That I, Homer Huston, of Paxton, 111., do hereby appoint T. M. Elliott to vote as my proxy at any election of directors or other officers of the (name tht' company or corporation) according to the number of votes I should be entitled to if I were then personally present. HoMEi; Huston, [l.s.] Power to Take Charge of and Carry on Business. Kho7u ail men hy these presents : 'I'hat I, Julius .Schonfeld, of Jeffer- son, Texas, do by these presents appoint, constitute and make R. V. Jennings my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my place and stead, to take charge of my business of general merchandising, at Marshall, Texas; to purchase and sell, for cash or on credit, all such articles, goods, merchandise and wares as he shall deem proper, necessary and useful to said business; to sign, accept and endorse all notes, drafts and bills; to state accounts; to sue and prosecute, compromise, collect and settle all claims or demands due or to become due, now existing or hereafter to exist in my favor; to adjust and pay all claims or demands which now exist or may hereafter arise against me, either connected with said busi- ness or otherwise. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day of , i8S — . Julius Schonfeld. (.i-s.] ^<**-^+|e^^=^H^< ^FFid a\/' f:'3 ■• ^N affidavit is a sworn declaration, taken before a competent official, which dif- "IMyt fcs from a deposition in the fact '^^^^^^^^ that no cross-examination is possible. When an affidavit is amended by order of court, it must be re-sworn. It should be positive in the description of amounts, places, persons, etc. ; even if an amount is uncertain, some sum must be named. It must also specify the day and place whereon it was sworn. The date is given in what is called \.\\& jurat, and the place in the venue of the affidavit. Where a person is unable to read or write, or is blind, the jurat must show that the affidavit was read over to the affiant, and his mark or sis^nature must be properly witnessed, and thcy«;7r/ must be also signed in all cases by the officer before whom the affidax'it is made. The J/trat is that part of an affidavit which tells how, when, by whom and before whom the oath was taken. The venue simply states the place where, thus : State of , I County of , f ' An omission of the venue is fatal, as it is the only evidence that the person administer- ing the oath had power to swear witnesses. Where an affidavit is required by law, the maker of a false one can be punished for per- jury, although in courts of law or equity affi- davits are not considered as testimony. General Form of Affidavit. State of Missouri, Franklin County, Town of Washington, ss. Bernard Mense, being duly sworn, deposes and says (or alleges and says); That — (Here set out in fuU and accurate language ike mat- ters to be alleged.} [Seal.] Bernard Mense. Sworn (or affirmed) before me, this twenty-ninth day of August, A. D. 1883. John Wellenkami-, Justice of the Peace. {If the affiant is unable to read, the subscription should be as follows :) Subscribed, and sworn to before me, this day of , A.D. 18 — , the same having been by me (o*" in my presence) read to this affiant, he being illiterate (or blind), and understanding the same. (Officer's signature and title.) Affidavit to Accounts. State of Illinois, Pulaski County, ss. Hefore me, the undersigned, one of the justices of the peace in and for said county, personally came Theodore Wehrfritz, of Mound City, and, being duly sworn according to law, deposes and says ; That the above account, as stated, is just and true. That the above sum of seventy-nine dollars is now justly due and owing to this deponent by the above named Robert Robinson, That he, the said Theodore Wehrfritz, has never received the same or any part thereof, either directly or indirectly, nor any person for him, by his direction or order, knowledge or consent. Theodore Wehrfritz. Sworn and subscribed before me, this thirteenth day of August. A.D. ^^^3- William Westermann, Justice 0/ the Peace. y=. K "Tf APPRENTICES. 459 Affidavit to Petition. State of Illinois, Clinton CoL'ntv, ss, Theodore V'olmcr, being duly sworn, says : That the facts set forth in the foregoing petition arc true to the best of hi* knowledge and belief. Theodore Volmer. S7"t>r», etc. fas in preceiiing forms f. Affidavit to Signature of Absent or Deceased Witness. Statr ok Kansas, Ckawi-oko County, ss. Be it reniemberfil, That on the f»jurth day of September, A.D. 1883, before me, the undersigned, James Atkinson, one of the justices of the peace in^said county, personally appeared William Hawley, who, being duly sworn, deposes and says ; That Alexander Stuart, one of the sub- scribing witnesses to the within { will or deed ) \<, ( dead or absmt from the State, as the case may he f. That he has frequently seen said Alexander Stuart write, and that he is well acquainted with the handwriting of said Alexander Stuart. That to the best of his knowledge and belief (or he verily believes) the name of Alexander Stuart, signed to the same as one of the subscrib- ing witnesses, is the proper and individual handwriting of said Alexander Stuart. William Hawlev. Subscribed and sworn to before me, this fourth day of September, A.D. 1883. Jamks Atkinson, Justice of the Peace. -¥M^l^- ^pppentiee^. N APPRENTICE is one bound out to service in due form of law, to learn some ^ art, trade or business. The contract con- ■'^#^^ tinucs for no longer time than the minor- ity of the apprentice, and the instrument should be signed by the apprentice and his father, or, in case of death or incapacity of the latter, by the mother or legally constituted guardian. The master stands toward the apprentice in the relation of a parent, and cannot dismiss the latter, except by decree of the proper tribunal, assigned by the laws of the particular State. An apprentice, on his part, is under obligation to obey all the lawful commands of the master, to advance, as far as he may, his interests, to en- deavor to learn his art, trade or business, and perform all the covenants entered into. The death of the master terminates the appren- ticeship, unless the indenture run to the execu- tors or administrators. An apprentice will be discharged by the proper authority for acts of the master injurious to his mind or morals. Indenture of an Apprentice. This indenture of apprenticeship between John Garrett, father of Philip Garrett, on the one part, and William Ne.id, of the other jiart, witnesseth : That the said Philip Garrett, aged 15 years on the 20th day of August, A.D. 1882, is hereby bound as an apprentice under the said William Nead, from the dale hereof until the 20th day of August, 1886, to k-arn the trade and art of a printer: and is faithfully to serve the said William Nead and correctly to conduct himself during the term of his apprentice- ship. And the said William Nead hereby covenants that he will teach the said Philip Garrett the said trade and art, and will furnish him, during said apprenticeship, with board, lodging, washing, cluthlng, medicine, and other necessaries suitable for an apprentice in sickness and in health; and will send him to a suitable public school at Iea.it three months during each of the first two years of the said term ; and at the expiration of the said apprenticeship will furnish him with two new suits of common wear- ing apparel and nnc hundred dollars in money. In testimony whereof, the parties hereto have set their hands and seals this twentieth day of August, A.D. 1882. Executed in presence of \ Peter Day, Notary Public. \ John Garrett. [l.s.I William Nead. [l.s.] Consent of the Minor. I hereby consent to the foregoing indenture, and agree to conform to the terms thereof in all things on my part tu he performed. Dated the 20th day of August, in the year 1882. PiiiLir Garrett. Release of an Apprentice. Knoiv alt men by these presents : That Philip Garrett, son of John Garrett, did by his agreement, hearing dale the day uf , hind himself as an apprentice unto William Nc:id, of , for a term of from the date thereof, as by said indenture more fully appears. That, complaint having been made to the undersigned Justice of the Peace upon oath of Philip Garrett, apprentice of William Nead, to whom said Garrett is bound, that (here state the cause for release). That by reason thereof, said William Nead docs hereby release and forever dis- charge said Philip Garrett and John Garrett, his father, of and from said agreement and all service and all other agreements, covenants, matters and things therein contained, on their or either of their parts to be obser\'ed and performed, whatsoever, from the beginning of the world unto the date licreof. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, this day of , A.D. William Nead. \. ~A 460 ARBITRATION. ^, «^ (g^f ^j?#»^|^#»|^-#^-| ^-j^#^-^ |-S^#^|»^»|^»^jti^ 7i\ f^Lihpation. •)[(• C^i^^*^-*^ iS-^* ***^**-*^ ^' ^eu f^HEN it becomes necessary or expe- dient in matters of dispute to have WM^^\ an equitable settlement without the (. c;/i>^ interposition of the courts, what are termed arbitrators are selected by the parties in interest. In ordinary cases the question is usually referred to a single person who has the confidence of both parties, and is conversant with the law and the rules of evidence. Ar- bitrators are not bound by legal rules in the admission or exclusion of evidence, unless it is so stipulated in the agreement. An award must be conformable to the terms of the submission, and only the precise questions submitted to them should be answered. A sub- mission to arbitration, voluntarily entered into by the parties, without the aid of the statutes or rules of court, may be revoked by either of the parties at any time before the publication of the award, though this would render the revoking parties liable in damages, which would include all the expenses incurred by the other party and all he could prove he had lost in any wa)' by the revocation. Form of Submission to Arbitration. Kho'a' all men. Thai a controversy exists between the undersigned, Lewis Anderson and James Ray, concerning the boundary and division lines of the following tract of land, situated in i here describe the land, and state the portion in controversy). That said Lewis Anderson and James Ray do hereby submit said con- troversy to the abitrament of Nelson West aii James Ray. Notary Public. \ Form of Arbitration Bond, Knotv all inen by these presents : That Lewis Anderson and James Ray have, this day of , A. D. , submitted their matters in controversy, concerning the boundary and division lines of a certain tract of land (describe it), to Nelson West and John Karnsworth, to arbitrate, award, order, judge and determine of and concerning the same. That we, the undersigned, bind ourselves, in the sum of dollars, that said Lewis Anderson and James Ray shall submit to the decision and award of said arbitrators, provided said award be made in writing on or before the second day of February, A.D. . (Signed) Eltgene Small. Jl'dson Willis. Form of Notice to Arbitrators. Gentlemen — You have been chosen arbitrators on behalf of the under- signed, to arbitrate and award between them, in divers matters and things, set forth in their submission, which will be produced for your inspection when you meet at , in , on the day of , at — o'clock — M., to hear the allegations ?tnd proofs. Dated, etc. Lewis Anderson. James R«v. General Form of Arbitrators' Award. To all to ivhont these presents shall come, or ?nay concern, knoiv ye .* That the matter in controversy existing between Lewis Anderson, of , and James Ray, of , as by their submission in writing, bearing date the day of , more fully appears, was submitted to Nelson West and John F'arnsworth, as arbitrators. That said arbitrators, being sworn according to law, and having heard the proofs and allegations of the parties, and examined the matter in con- troversy by them submitted, do make this, their award, in writing: ( Write out in full the award.) In ivitness ivhereo/, we have hereunto subscribed our names, this day of , A.D. . Nelson West, John Farnsworth, Arbitrators. V ASSIGNMENTS. 461 / iwii:^ V ^^^i^nment^. •:• -1*^^ /jj^jB^NY transfer of property made in writing vriiTU '^ properly called an assignment, thus ^It-AV distinguishing the act from a transfer '^^^^^ made by deliver}-. In effect, it is pass- ing to another person all of one's title or inter- est in any sort of real or personal property, rights, actions or estates. However, some things are not assignable ; an officer's pa\' or commission, a judge's salary, fishing claims, Government bounties, or claims arising out of frauds or torts. Personal trusts cannot be assigned, as a guardianship or the right of a master in his apprentice. Unlike many other legal devices, the holder of an assignment is not bound to show that a valuable consideration was given. The owner of a cause of action may give it away if he pleases, and in the absence of positive evi- dence to the contrary the court will presume that the assignment was for a sufficient con- sideration. Proof will only be called for when it appears that the assignment was a mere sham or fraudulent. No formality is required by law in an assignment. Any instrument between the contracting parties which goes to show their intention to pass the property from one to another will be sufficient. It may be proved, for instance, by the payee of a note, that he endorsed (or delivered without endorse- ment) the note to the assignee, and this is sufficient evidence of assignment In every assignment of an instrument, even not negotiable, the assignee impliedly war- rants the validity of the instrument and the obligation of the third party to pay it. He war- rants that there is no legal defence against its collection arising out of his connection with the parties ; that all parties were legally able to con- tract, and that the amount is unpaid. An assignment carries with it all the collat- eral securities and guaranties of the original debt, even though they are not mentioned in the instrument. It is usual to use as operative words in an assignment the phrase, " assign, transfer and set over;" but " give, grant, bargain and seli," or any other words indicating an intention on the part of the parties to transfer the property, are sufficient in law. Where property is assigned for the benefit of creditors, its actual transfer to the assignee must be made immediately. When an assign- ment is made under the common law, the as- signor may prefer certain creditors; but in a State where this sort of an assignment is gov- erned by statute, no preference can be shown. An assignment for the benefit of creditors cov- ers all of the assignor's property, wherever or whatever it may be, that is not exempt from execution. When insured property is sold, the insurance policy should be assigned. This can only be ^P \ done with the consent of the insurer, and that consent must be at once obtained. Correct schedules of the property assigned should accompany and be attached to every as- sis^nment. Assignment of a Note. I hereby, for value received, assign and transfer the within written (or above written), together with all my rights under the same, to John Dobson. William Atwood. Assignment with Power of Attorney. In consideration of the sum of one thousand dollars (the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged), I do hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart {of St. Louis, Mo.), all my right, title and interest in and to (here describe ivhat ). (And I do hereby constitute said John G. Stewart my attorney, in my name or otherwise, but at his own costs and charges, to take all legal measures which may be proper or necessary for the complete recovery and enjoyment of the premises.) Witness my hand (and seal) this 28th day of August, 1883. ( Witnesses.) William Snvder. [l.s.] Assignment with Guaranty of Assignor. For value received, 1 do hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart the within obligation, and all moneys due and to become due thereon. In case the same cannot be recovered of the within named Edwin Byron, I agree and promise to pay to said John G. Stewart the amount thereof, together with all necessary' and reasonable charges thereupon accruing. Witness tny hand, etc. William Snvder, (Witnesses,) Shorter Form. For value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart the within obligation, hereby guaranteeing payment thereof. (Witnesses.) William Snyder. Assignment Without Recourse. For value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart the within obligation, and all moneys due (and to become due) thereon. All failure of recovery, liabilities, losses, wholly at the risk of said John G. Stewart, without recourse in any event upon me. (Witnesses.) William Snyder. Assignment of Wages. Kno7v all men by these presents: That I, William Snyder fof St. Joseph, Mo.), in consideration of one hundred dollars, the receipt of which I hereby acknowledge, do hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart (of St, Louis, Mo.) all claims and demands which I now have, and all which, at any time between the date hereof and the 30th day of December next, I may or shall have, against Edwin Byron, for all sums of money due or to become due to me for services as . That I do hereby appoint and constitute said John G. Stewart and his assigns my attorney, irrevocable, to do and perform all acts, matters and things in the premises, in like manner and to all intents and pur- poses as I could if personally present. In ivitness ivhereo/^ etc. Assignment of Money Due on Account. Kno'jv till tnen by these presents : That William Snyder, in con- sideration of the sum of one hundred dollars to him in hand paid, does hereby assign, transfer and set over all his title and interest in and rights under an account for (state ivkat) in the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars, hereunto annexed, and all other sum and sums of money remain- ing due and payable upon said account, unto John G. Stewart, with full power to ask, demand and receive the same (at his own costs and ex- pensesj to his own use, and to give discharges and receipts for the same, or any part thereof. That there is due said William Snyder, on said account, at the date of these presents, the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars, and that he has not received or discharged the same. In ^fitness, etc :• ^ill^voFv^ale. BILL OF SALE is a formal written con- II' veyance of personal property. If the ^llli'A% property is delivered when sold, or if part of the purchase-money is paid, a written instrument is nut necessary to make the conveyance, but it is convenient evidence of the transfer of title. But, to protect the interests of the purchaser against the creditors of the seller, the bill is not sufficient of itself; there should also be a delivery of the prop- erty. If an actual and continued change of possession does not accompany the sale, it is void as against the creditors of the seller and subsequent purchasers and mortgagees in good faith, unless the buyer can show that his pur- chase was made in sjood faith, without intent i^ ^^pv V BONDS. 46j to defraud, and that there was some good rea- son for leaving the property in the hands of the seller. Short Form of Bill of Sale. I, Henry Anderson, of Chester, Pa., in consideration of two hundred and fifty dollars, paid by A. D. Crisle, of Munsier, Pa., hereby sell and convey to said A. D. Criste one bay horse (give sex^ size, color, age, etc.^, warranted against adverse claims. Witness my hand, this 4th day of Sept., A.D. 1883. (Witness.) (Signed) Henry Andrkson. [l.s.] Cpmmon Form — \A^ith Warranty, A'wcTf aii men by these presents : That tn consideration of one thou- sand dollars, the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, I do hereby grant, sell, transfer and deliver unto A. A. McHatton, his heirs, execu- tors, administrators and assigns, the following goods and chattels, viz. ; (here describe the property). To have and to hold all and singular the said goods and chattels for- ever. And the said grantor hereby covenants with said grantee that he is the lawful owner of said goods and chattels; that they are free from all encumbrances: that he has good right to sell the same, as aforesaid; and that he will warrant and defend the same against the lawful claims and demands of al! persons whomsoever. In witness whereof, the said grantor has hereunto set his hand, this 12th day of December, A.D. 1883. (Witness.) N. R. Jennek. Sale of Personal Property. Kno7o all men by these presents : That I, Peter Dolan, of the city of Cleveland, county of Cuyahoga, Slate of Ohio, farmer, in consideration of four hundred dollars, to me in hand paid by Conrad Ullner, the receipt whereof I hereby acknowledge, have bargained, suld, granted and con- veyed unto the said Conrad Ullner the following property, to-wii: two horses; to have and to hold the same; unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns forever. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this 20th day of March, 1883. Pe^er Dolan. -kim^^ 3— SI. -<^- ^ s— er )r^ goHGl^. /l\ J^— 3 =^ Tie— 2 -o- WRITTEN instrument, admitting an Mf/l obligation on the part of the maker ltt/'\% to pay a certain sum of money to ?K^^^ another specified person at a fixed time, for a vakiablc consideration, is called a bond. The obligor is the one giving the bond; the beneficiary is called the obligee. This definition applies to all bonds, but gen- erally these instruments are given to guarantee the performance or non-performance of cer- tain acts by the obligor, which being done, or left undone, as the case ma\' be, the bond becomes void, but if the conditions are broken, it remains in full force. As a rule, the bond is made out for a sum twice the amount of any debt which is apt to be incurred by the obligor under its conditions, the statement being set forth that the sum named is the penalty, as liquidated or settled damages, in the event of the failure of the obligor to carry out the con- ditions. An act of Providence, wherebv the accom- plishment of a bond is rendered impossible, relieves the obligor of all liabilit)-. A bond may be sued upon twenty years after right of action begins. A bond simply for the payment of money only differs from a promissory note in having a seal. Short Form of Bond. Knoitf alt men by these presents : That we, John Smith, as princip.ll, and William Meescr and A. J. Driscoll, as sureties, all of litadcnsburg, in the county of Prince George, State of Mar>-land, are holden and stiind firmly bound unto Davi^l Wright, of said county, in the sum of nine hundred dollars to be paid to the said David Wright, to the payment whereof we jointly and severally bind ourselves and our respective heirs firmly by the*ie presents. Sealed with our seals. Dated al Bladensburg, this tenth day of June, l88z. (The condition attached is the same as in the succeeding forms.) John Smith. [l.s." Wii.r.iAM Mef.ser. L.S. .\. J. Dkiscoll. [l.s. Executed and delivered J in presence of Waltkk Wkkn. \ Bond Secured by Mortgage. Know all men by these presents : That I, Arthur Dean, of Towanda, in Bradford county, and .State of Pennsylvania, am held and firmly bound unto Samuel Crafts, of Wyoming, in the same county and .State, in the sum of two thousand dollars, to be paid to the said -Samuel Crafts, his k- rv 464 y\ heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, and to this payment I hereby bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, lirmly by these pres- ents. Sealed with my seal, this 12th day of November, A.D. 1883. The condition of the above obligation is; That if I, the said Arthur Dean, or my heirs, executors or adminis- trators, shall pay or cause to be paid unto the said Samuel Crafts the sum of one thousand dollars on the — ^ day of , with interest at the rate of per cent per annum, payable six months from the date hereof, and every months afterwards, until the said sum is paid, then the above obligation shall be void and of no effect; and otherwise it shall remain in full force. And I further agree and covenant, that if any payment of interest be (ivithheld or delayed for days after such payment shall fall due, the said principal sum and all arrearage of interest thereon shall be and become due immediately on the expiration of days, at the option of said Samuel Crafts, his executors, administrators or assigns. Executed and delivered J in presence of > John Si.m.mons. j Arthur Dean. [l.s.I General Form of Bond. Knoiv all tnen by these presents : That I, John Grubb, of the town of Mound City, in the county of Pulaski, and State of Illinois, am held and firmly bound unto J. A. Williams, of Cairo, in the sum of one thousand dollars, to be paid to the said J. A. Williams, his executors or assigns; for which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, ex- ecutors and administrators, firmly by these presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated the 28th day of July, 1883. The condition of the above obligation Is such : That if the above-bounden John Grubb, his heirs, executors or admin- istrators, shall well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, imto the above- named J. A. Williams, his executors, administrators or assigns, the just and full sum of one thousand dollars, in five equal annual payments, from the date hereof, with annual interest, then the above obligation to be void; otherwise to remain in full force and virtue. Sealed and delivered in presence of Jno. G. Stewart, W. F. George. John Grubb. [l.; A Bond to Execute a Deed. Knoiv all men by these presents: That I, John T. Nixon, of the city of St. Louis, in the State of Missouri, am held and firmly bound unto George Kline, of the same place, in the sum of nine hundred dollars, to be paid to the said George Kline, his executors, administrators or assigns; for which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, firmly by these presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated the 30th day of July, 1883. The condition of the above obligation is such: That if the above-bounden John T. Nixon shall well and truly make, execute and deliver to the said George Kline a deed of release and quit-claim of said John T. Nixon's interest in ( designating the property } and shall suffer and permit the said George Kline, his heirs and as- signs, to peaceably occupy and possess said interest, then this obligation is to be void; otherwise to remain in full force. Scaled and delivered i John T. Nixon, [l.s.] in presence of > Jos. Peterson. ) A Bond to Execute an Assignment. Knoiu all men by these presents : That I, Chas. Curtman, of the town of Washington, in the county of Franklin, State of Missouri, am held and firmly bound unto William T. Smith, of the town of Pacific, in the sum of two thousand dollars, to be paid to the said William T. Smith, his executors, administrators or assigns; for which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administra- tors, firmly by these presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated the 14th day of August, 1883. The condition of the above obligation is such ; That if the above-bounden Chas. Curtman, his executors, adminis- trators or assigns, on or before the day of next, shall, upon the reasonable request, and at the proper cost and charges of the said Will- iam T. Smith, his heirs or assigns, make, execute and deliver, or cause so to be, to the said William T. Smith, his heirs or assigns, or to such person or persons as he or they shall nominate and appoint, and to such uses as he or they shall direct, a good and sufficient assignment of all such estate and interest as he, the said Chas. Curtman, now has in the lands and tene- ments of John Thompson at Washington, Mo., then this obligation to be void; otherwise to remain in full force. Sealed and delivered 1 Chas. Curtman. [l.s.] in presence of > Sol. Winston. \ :C^ V_ \ V K" CORPORATIONS. 465 / -1^ ^^--^ ••• Cor^popation^. •> |V^=" ^-^^^ ^f^i^i-i^- EVERAL persons joining together for the accomplishment of any business or social purpose can, if they wish, 't^.'- legally organize themselves into a cor- poration, a form of partnership which C(mi- bincs the resources of all, and yet gives a limited pecuniary liability, amounting only to the amount of stock owned by each stock- holder. In the States, the legislature of each Commonwealth enjoys the power of regulating the corporations, and in the Territories this power is, of course, vested in the General Government. The actual cost of organization amounts to something less than $10, most of which is in fees to the Secretary of State. When the stock has been subscribed a meeting is called, where each shareholder casts a vote for every share which he owns or holds a pro.xy for, for each person who is to be elected director, or he may give one director as many votes as the number of shares he is voting, multiplied b)" the number of directors to be elected, amounts to, or distribute his votes as he chooses. Thus, if he owns ten shares of stock and there are si.x directors to be elected, he has sixty votes, which he can give, either ten for each director, or twenty for each of three, or si.xty for one, or in any other way that he sees fit, so that his whole vote will not be more than sixty votes. These directors meet as soon after the election as possible and choose a president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer, whereupon the corporation is ready for business. FORMS FOR INCORPORATING. The law in all the States on the subject of incorporating companies is very similar, and the following forms of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company will furnish a good example of how this important public act is accomplished: STATE OF WISCONSIN, I City of Milwaukee. f 7*0 , Secretary 0/ State : Wc, the undersigned, John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James Bell, John O'Neil, propose to form a corporation under an act of the Gen- eral Assembly of the State ol Wisconsin, entitled " An act concerning cor- porations," approved May 24th, 1880, and all acts amendatory thereof, and that, for the purpose of such organization, wc hereby state as follows, tn- wit: The name of such corporation is Milwaukee Water Gas Company. The object for which it is formed is to carry on the business of manu- facturing water gas, or hydrogen, and to sell the product so manufactured. The capital stock shall be five hundred thousand {.'F50o,ooo) dollars, divided into five thousand shares of one hundred dollars each. John S.mith. JoH.N Jones. Charles Ford. James Hell. John O'Nhil. {Endorsed 0H the hack by the notary.) STATE OF WISCO.NSIN, ». City OK MiLWAUKKK. f I, a notary public, in and for the said city of Milwaukee, and State aforesaid, do hereby certify that on this 30th of November, A.D. 1880, personally appeared before me John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James licll, John O'Ncil, to me personally known to be the same persons who executed the foregoing statement, and severally .acknowledged that they executed the same for the purposes therein set forth. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, the day and year above written. , Notary Public, Also, there must be a further endorsement describing the nature of the corporation thus; Statement of incorporation of the Milwaukee Water Gas Co. Location, City of Milwaukee, State of Wisconsin. Capital stock, $500,000. Object, manufacture of water gas. At K 466 '7\ CORPORATIONS. State License for Incorporating. STATE OF WISCONSIX, I „ , r ^, . Department or State. f Secretayy 0/ State. To all to Tvkom these presents shall cotne — Greeting : Whereas, It being proposed by the persons hereinafter named to form a corporation under an act of the General Assembly of the State of Wisconsin, entitled "An act concerning corporations," approved May 24th, 18S0, the object and purposes of which corporation are set forth in a statement duly signed and acknowledged according to law, and filed this day in the office of the Secretary of State, Now, therefore, I, , Secretary of State of the State of Wisconsin, by virtue of the powers and duties vested in me by law, do hereby author- ize, empower and license John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James Kelt and John O'Neil, the persons whose names are signed to the before mentioned statement, as commissioners to open books for subscrip- tion to the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Co., such being the name of the proposed corporation as contained in the said statement, at such times and places as the said commissioners may determine. In testimony whereof, I hereto set my hand and cause to be affixed the great seal of State. ( '-—'—-> J Done at the city of Madison, this 6th day J GREAT ( of December, in the year of our Lord one j SEAL, t" thousand eight hundred and eighty-one, and ' —-^r^ of the Independence of the United States the one hundred and sixth. Secretary of State. To , Secretary of State: The commissioners duly authorized to open books of subscription to the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, pursuant to license heretofore issued, bearing date of the sixth day of December, A. D. 1881, do hereby report that they opened books of subscription to the capital stock of the said company, and that the said stock was fully sub- scribed : that the following is a true copy of such subscription, viz. ; We, the undersigned, hereby severally subscribe for the number of shares set opposite our respective names to the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, and we severally agree to pay the said company on each share the sum of one hundred dollars, SHAKES AMOUNT, John Smith 1,000 $100,000 John Jones — 1,000 100,000 Chas. Ford 1,000 joo.oco James Bell 1,000 100,000 John O'Neill 1,000 100,000 5,000 $500,000 That said subscribers met at the time and place specified and pro- ceeded to elect directors, and that the following persons were duly elected for the term of one year : John Smith, John Jones, Chas. Ford, James Bell, John O'Neil. (Signed) John Smith. John Jones. Chas. Ford, James Bell. John O'Neil. When this document, properly endorsed, is sent to the Secretary of State, he at once issues a charter to the corporation, which reads as follows: J- Secretary 0/ State. STATE OF WISCONSIN, Deft, of State. To all to lohont these Jtresents shall come — Greeting: Whereas, A statement duly signed and acknowledged has been filed in the office of the Secretary of State on the 30th day of November, 1881, for the organization of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, under and in accordance with the provisions of "An act concerning corporations," approved May 24, 1880, and in force July i, 1880, and all acts amenda- tory thereof, a copy of which statement is hereto attached ; and Whereas, A license having been issued to John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James Bell, John O'Neil, as commissioners, to open books for subscription to the capital stock of said company ; and Whereas, The said commissioners having, on the 20th day of Decem- ber, A.D. 1881, filed in the office of the Secretary of State a report of their proceedings under the said license, a copy of which report is hereto attached : Now, therefore, I, . Secretary of State of the State of Wiscon- sin, by virtue of the powers and duties vested in me by law, do hereby certify that the said Milwaukee Water Gas Company is a legally organ- ized corporation under the laws of this Stale. In testimony whereof, I hereby set my hand and cause to be affixed the great seal of State, Done at the city of Madison this 10th day of January-, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty- two, and of the Independence of the United States the one hundred and seventh. Secretary 0/ State. -N DEEDS. 467 ^«:s@ R3p^^5t5JcncES3:J^- v^^iv V J)eeGl^. V ; \\\ss\A -.\\-.' rt^y /jfyC-fv DEED is a writing by wliich lands, tenc- Iffinl? mcnts or hereditaments are conveyed, zM^ scaled and delivered. It must be written "^■^^ or printed on parchment or paper ; the parties must be competent to contract ; there must be a proper object to grant ; a sufficient consideration ; an agreement properly declared ; if desired, it must have been read to the party executing it ; it must be signed and sealed ; attested by witnesses, in the absence of any stat- ute regulation to the contrary ; properly acknowl- edged before a competent officer, and recorded within the time and in the office prescribed by the State wherein executed. The maker of a deed is the grantor ; the party to v.'hom it is delivered, the grantee. If the grantor have a wife, she must, in the absence of a statute to the contrary, sign and acknowledge the deed ; otherwise, after the husband's death, she may claim the use of one-third, during her life. By a general-wairanty deed the grantor cove- nants to insure the lands against all persons whatsoever ; by a special-warranty deed, he war- rants only against himself and those claiming under him. In deeds made by executors, admin- istrators or guardians, there is generally no war- ranty. A qnit-claiiH deed releases all the interest which the grantor has in the land, whatever it may be. A deed of trust is given to a person called a trustee, to hold in fee simple, or otherwise, for the use of some other person who is entitled to the proceeds, profits or use. A deed may be avoided, by alterations made in it after its execution ; by the disagreement of the parties whose concurrence is necessary; or by the judgment of a competent tribunal. Interlineations or erasures in a deed, made before signing, should be mentioned in a note, and witnessed in proper form. After the acknowl- edgment of a deed, the parties have no right to make the slightest alteration. An alteration of a deed after execution, if made in favor of the grantee, vitiates the deed. Ifaltered before deliv- ery, such alteration destroys the deed as to the party altering it. The statutory provisions of the several States and Territories relating to deeds will be found under the head of "Special Laws." Chancellor Kent's Deed. This form is given by Chancellor Kent as sufficient to convey an abso- lute fee in any part of the United States. I, F. H. Hill, in consideration of three thousand dollars, to me paid by John F. Waite, do bargain and sell to John F. Waite (and his heirs) the lot of land (bounded or described)^ etc. Witness my hand and seal, ttc. Short Deeii ir. California. I, W. B. Baird, grant to D. D. Parsons all that real property situated in El Dorado county, in the State of California, bounded (or described) as follows: Witness my hand this day of . W. B. BAIRn. ik= rr ■71 468 ABSTRACT OF TITLE. Short Form in Indiana. Enos Baldwin conveys and warrants to William Green (description of the premises) for the sum of four thousand dollars. Witness my hand and seal this day of . Enos K.-\ldwin. [l.s-I Short Form Used in Virginia and Texas. M. F. Crenshaw doth bargain, sell and grant unto W. H. Cavanagh all i here follo~.vs the description 0/ the real estate co7a'eycd). Witness the following signature and seal. M. F. Crenshaw, [l.s.] Short Form Warranty Deed with Full Covenants. This conveyance, made this loth day of May, by C. S. Smith, of lieloit. Wis., to Wm. Evans, of Lansing, Alich., witnesseth: That in consideration of (state nvkat), the said Smith doth with the said Evans bargain, sell and grant, all, etc. (here describe the property, and add ivhateT/er coz'enants, conditions, restrictions, limitations, etc., agreed upon }. And the said Smith covenants. That he has the right to convey said land to the grantee; that the same is free from all encumbrances: that the grantee shall have quiet possession of said land; that he will e.vecute such further assurances of said lands as shall be requisite; and that he will warrant generally [or specially) the property hereby conveyed. Witness the following signature and seal, etc. General Form of Warranty Deed. Knoiv all men by these presents: That I, J. A. Yarbro, of Tipton county, in the State of Tennessee, have this isth day of October, for and in consideration of the sum of three thousand dollars, to me in hand paid, granted, bargained and sold, and by these presents do grant, bargain, sell and convey unto J. B. Coals, of the same place, the following described tract or parcel of land, situate in the county of Shelby, in the State of Tennessee, that is to say (here /olloivs the description). To have and to hold the premises hereby conveyed, with all the rights, privileges and appurtenances thereto belonging, or in anywise appertain- ing, unto the said Coals, his heirs and assigns, forever. And I, the said Yarbro, hereby covenant to and with the said Coals, his heirs and assigns, for myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, to warrant and defend the title to the premises hereby conveyed against the claim of every person whomsoever. * * In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed my seal, this day of . J. A. Yarbro. [l.s.] Quit-Claim Deed, Knoiv all men by these presents: That we, W. H. Cooley, of Council Bluffs, la., and Mary E., wife of the said Cooley, in consideration of the sum of , to us >n hand paid by Charles Chapman, of Hastings, Neb., the receipt whereof we do hereby acknowledge, have bargained, sold and quit-claimed, and by these presents do bargain, sell and quit- claim unto the said Chapman, and to his heirs and assigns forever, all our and each of our right, title, interest, estate, claim and demand, both at law and in equity, and as well In possession as in expectancy of, In and to all that certain piece or parcel of land situate, etc. (give description), with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging. In ^fitness ivhereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the day and year first above written. Signed, sealed and delivered, etc, W. H. CooLEV. [l.s.] Mary E. Coolev. [l.s.] Short Form of Trust Deed. This conveyance, made this day of , witnesseth: That Thomas Pritchard, of Mills county, in the State of Iowa, conveys fand warrants) to N. W. Coleman, of Decatur county, in the State of Iowa, for the sum of dollars, all the following described real estate, situated in the county of Fremont and Stale of Iowa, to wit: (here f ol- loivs the description). In trust, nevertheless, for the following purposes, to-wit; (here set forth the objects and purposes to be ejff'ected). In loitness whereof, said parties have hereunto set their hands, the day and year first above written. (Signed) Thomas Pritchard. N. W. Coleman. -#*^=*4-^ "SSi^!- -:SV9S' met-oP-^itle. •> I ^ %^A r-|f«a '":f/^^^^ ^ ^BalEalsalEa EalaalEalea aa saiEalEa EalEa EalEa o) >>w - ' """^i-:- "^ i ?f^ V Chattel • [Dopttafe 7-^ l> ^HE purpose of all lien laws is to retain A the possession of personal property in (f the hands of the owners until it has ^'' been properly paid for. Without pos- session no lien is admitted at common law. It is a created right, for the benefit of mechanics, tavern-keepers, liverymen, pasturers and car- riers. Builders and persons furnishing mate- rial are given by statute a lien on both land and building, if their claim is made within the time named in the different statutes. These periods will be found, under their appropriate heads, in another chapter. No possession is necessary under this lien, and the right of re- demption is lost by the sale of the property under the lien. The surplus, of course, goes to the owner. Liens are foreclosed by order of court, upon petition duly made. Liens will lie against vessels and wharves as well as other buildings. When a mechanic desires to dra\^' up a lien for the recovery of money due him for labor or ma- terial, the form given below will be found conve- nient. It is a statement addressed to the county clerk setting forth his bargain, the failure to receive his pay, and the fear that he will lose the money unless the lien be now made. This paper must be sworn to and filed in the county clerk's office, and if it is not paid in a reason- able time the property will be sold for the debt. It does not make any difference if it is the con- tractor or the owner of the building who is in default. The mechanic has nothing to do with either of them — he holds the property itself for his money; and" even if the owner has paid the contractor, who should have paid the laborer, the property will be sold unless the laborer is paid. Sub-Contractor's or Workman's Notice. To- - lo (kfre You are hereby notified that I have been employed by ■ state liiltether to labor or/urnisk material, and substantially the na- ture of the contract } upon your (here state the building, and ivliere situated, in general terms); and that I shall hold the (building, or as the case may be) and your interest in the ground liable for the amount that (is or may become) due me on account thereof. (Signature. ) This notice, with a copy of the contract, if it can be obtained, shall be served within 40 days after payments should have been made. The owner may retain money due the contractor to pay such claims, and if there is not enough to pay them in full, he shall pay them_/r(» rata. If such pay- ment shall not be made within ten days after the same may become due, suit may be brought to enforce it •7i\- V/Ikk, •7i\- WILL is an instrument of writing de- W^ daring what a person desires to have '*M\\ done with his property after his de- '^^^^ mise. Any one of lawful age and sound mind can make a valid will, although in some States during the lifetime of their husbands married women cannot do so. A will only becomes of force upon the death of the maker, and can be changed or modified at his pleasure until that event occurs. The last will annuls all previous ones, unless it be a codicil or amendment to a previous will. A -N \ 478 EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS. great deal of latitude is allowed in the con- struction of a will. For instance, if the testa- tor marries after making a will, or has chil- dren subsequent to its date, it is supposed that he intended to change the disposition of his property, and the law accordingly will change it for him. Courts do not always re- quire written wills; sometimes what are called nuncupative wills are admitted to probate. These depend upon the testimony of witnesses, and are uncertain and dangerous. Many of the States will not admit nuncupative wills unless made within ten days before death, or by persons in the army or navy. A wife cannot be deprived of her right of dower, which is one-third of the proceeds of the real estate and appurtenances of her hus- band. She may be devised property in lieu of dower, which she can so take or not, as she may choose ; but if the words " in lieu of dower " are not used, she may take the bequest and her dower also. A corporation cannot accept bequests unless that power is expressly granted in its charter. No one can serve as executor of a will who is under age, a lunatic, a drunkard or a con- vict. An executor may decline the trust if he chooses, which declension must be made in the presence of two witnesses. There is no differ- ence in the duties of an e.xecutor and adminis- trator ; the names have this origin: the execu- tor is appointed by the person ipaking the will, the administrator is appointed by the court. When a married woman makes a will, her husband must be appointed administrator in preference to any one else. No witness to a will can inherit any prop- erty under it. They are not required to know what the will contains, but simply to witness the signing of the document. Executors and fidniiiiistrators. m ■^i^ j,^"^^S soon after the death of the testator \mIv/ as may be possible, the will must be iJrAx produced in court, and filed there with -E-;?,-^^ affidavits, showing its custody and the death of the testator. The judge orders pub- lication to be made, advertising the day when the will is to be offered for probate, and notices must be sent to the heirs-at-law. At the appointed time, all of the persons inter- ested, including the executor or executors, assemble in court. The witnesses swear to the signature of the will, and to the state of the testator's mind at the time the will was signed. Letters of administration are then granted to the executor, and a certified copy of the will and of the letters should be recorded in every county where the deceased owned real estate. The person administering must give a bond yi double the amount of the estate for the faithful discharge of his duties. When a person owning property dies intestate, that is, leaving no will, it becomes the duty of the ne.xt of kin, or the widow, to petition the Pro- bate Court for letters of administration K- -^ \p. K /' WILLS 479 As soon as tlie letters are granted, the ad- ministrator or executor addresses himself to the settlement of the estate. This is done by advertising for all persons owing the estate to settle the same, and for creditors of the estate to present their claims. At the same time a careful inventory of the property of the deceased is made, and the same appraised. This appraisement and inventory is filed in the Probate Court. The first money coming in is applied to the payment of the funeral expenses and the medical and nurses' bills; next in order come debts to the Government, liens or mort- gages, and, last of all, general debts of all kinds. If there is not enough property to pay the debts, the Probate Court must be at once notified of this insolvency, and the estate must then be settled according to the insolvent laws. The administrator is responsible for all the property of the deceased, valued and listed ac- cording to the inventory and appraisement, and he must keep very careful accounts of all his transactions for the estate. He must make semi-annual reports of the condition of the property, and when everything is ready for settlement, he presents a report, called his final settlement, to the court, and, upon presentation of the receipts in full of the heirs and credit- ors, he is discharged from his office and his bond cancelled and destroyed. Short Form for a Will. I, James Dickson, of tlie city of Chicago, in the county of Cook, and State of Illinois, being of sound mind and memory and understanding, do make my last will and testament in manner and form following : First, I give and bequeath to my daughters Mary and Jane two thou- sand dollars each after they have attained the age of twenty years. Second. I give and betiueath to my wife Susan all my household furni- ture, and all the rest of my personal property, after paying from the same the legacies already named, to be hers forever: but if there should not be at my decease suRicient personal property to pay the aforesaid legacies, then so much of my real estate shall be sold as will raise suflficicnt money to pay the same. Third. I also give, devise and bequeath to my wife .Susan all the rest and residue of my real estate as long as she shall remain unmarried. and my widow: but on her decease or marriage, the remainder thereof I give and devise to my said children and their heirs, respectively, to be divided in equal shares between them. I appoint my wife Susan sole executrix of this my last will and testa- ment. In testimony ivhtreof, I hereimto set my hand and seal, and publish and decree this to be my last will and testament, in presence of the wit- nesses named below, this eighth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three. James Dickso.v. [l.s,] Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said James Dickson as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request and in his presence, and in presence of each other, have subscribed our names as witnesses hereto. John Smith, residing at Chicago in Cook County. Peter Jones, " " " " " " Another Form of Will. Kno'^v all nun by these presents : That I, Joseph Atkinson, of Media, in the county of Chester, and State of Pennsylvania, merchant, consider- ing the uncertainty of this life, and being of sound mind and memory, do make, and declare, and publish, this my last will and testament. First. I give and bequeath unto my beloved wife Mary the use, im- provement and income of my dwelling-house, warehouses, lands, and their appurtenances, situate in Nelson township, Chester county. State of Penn- sylvania, to have and to hold the same to her for and during her natural life. Second. I give and bequeath to my son Robert two thousand dollars, to be paid to him by my executor, hereinafter named, within six months after my decease; and I also give, devise and bequeath to my said son Robert the reversion or remainder of my dwelling-house, warehouses, lands and their appurtenances, situate in Nelson township, Chester county. State of Pennsylvania, and all profit, income and advantage that may result therefrom, from and after the decease of my beloved wife Mary. Third. I give, devise and bequeath to my beloved wife Mary all the residue of my estate, real, personal or mixed, of which I shall be seized or possessed, or to which I shall be entitled at the time of my decease; to have and to hold the same to her and her executors and administrators and assigns forever. Fourth. I do nominate and appoint my brother James Atkinson to be the executor of this, my last will and testament. In testimony lohereo/, I have to this, my last will and testament, con- tained on two sheets of paper, and to each sheet thereof, subscribed my name and set my seal; ani to this, the last sheet thereof, I have here sub- scribed my name and affixed my seal, this eighteenth day of May, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three. James Atkinson. i.l.s.] Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said James Atkinson, as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request and in his presence, and in presence of each other, have subscribed our names as witnesses hereto. Thomas May, residing at Media, Pa. John Nolan, " " '* " Henry Mann, " " " *' Codicil to a Will. Whereas, I, Richard Roe, of the city of Pittsburg, in the county of Allegheny and State of Pennsylvania, have made my last will and testa- ment, in writing, bearing date the fourteenth day of Februarj-, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three, in and by which I have given to the Pennsylvania Institution for Deaf Mutes, in the city of Philadelphia, the sum of one thousand dollars. Xoiv, there/ore^ I do, by this my writing, which I hereby declare tc be a codicil to my said last will and testament, and to be taken as a part thereof, order and declare that my will is that only the sum of five hundred dollars shall be paid to the said Pennsylvania Institution Tor Deaf Mutes as the full amount bequeathed to the said institution, and that the residue of the said legacy be given to the person who shall be acting as treasurer at the time of my decease of the Baptist Publication Society, located in the city of Philadelphia, to be expended by the society' in such manner as the ofiicers of the said society may deem best for the interests of said society : and, lastly, it is my desire that this codicil be annexed to and made a part of my last will and testament as aforesaid, to all intents and purposes. In testimony ivhereo/y etc. (as in the form of a wili). V 48o DUTIES OF ADMINISTRATORS. (^<^ ^^^ siHH ^^ Duties of fidiiiinistrators in fettling Estates. #1 (te^^— > t *"it"S" HM^^ i" l - { i '^ '| ii M"I'g"I"»3»S'® ' S"K i S)'iti i Si«M -?<->-^ ^-m ^P^r^^HEN a person dies, leaving no valid -1 1 A i' will behind him, his estate is dis- \j\ IH^yllJl tributed among his heirs by what L~o,ii>^ i^X^nown diS operation of /azv. This is regulated by the statute of the State in which the deceased resided at the time of his death. The distribution must be made by an adininistratov duly appointed by law. The administrator is appointed by the court having jurisdiction in such cases, on being satisfied that the person proposed is legally qualified. The appointment must be made with the con- sent of the person appointed. It is the gen- erally accepted rule that any one is legall}' competent to be an administrator who is com- petent to make a contract. Certain classes of persons are disqualified by statute, as in the State of New York, for instance, drunkards, gamblers, spendthrifts,, etc. The relatives of the deceased are considered as entitled to the appointment to administer the estate, and the order of precedence is regulated by statute. The husband is to be granted administration on the wife's personal estate, and administra- tion on the husband's estate is to be granted to the widow and the next of kin in the following order if they or any of them will accept: 1 . To the widow. 2. To the children. 3. To the father. 4. To the brothers. 5. To the sisters. 6. To the grandchildren. 7. To any other of the next of kin who would be entitled to a share in the distribu- tion of the estate. The guardians of minors who are entitled may administer for them. In case none of the relatives or guardians will accept, the admin- istration will be given to the creditors of the deceased. The creditor who applies first, if legally competent, is to be preferred. If no creditor applies, any person who is legally qualified may be appointed. In the city of New York the public administrator may ad- minister the estate after the next of kin. In the State of New York the surrogate may select, among the next of kin, any one in equal degree, and appoint him sole adminis- trator to the exclusion of the others. In case there are several persons of the same degree of kindred to the intestate entitled to admin- istration, they are preferred in the following order: 1. Males to females. 2. Relatives of the whole blood to tho'ie of the half blood. 3. Unmarried to married women ; and should there be several persons equally enti- tled, the surrogate may grant letters to one or more of them, as his judgment may sug- gest. If letters of administration should be un- duly granted they may be revoked. V ■^ PARTNERSHIP. 481 Administration ma)- likewise be granted on certain conditions, for a certain limited time, or for a special purpose. The powers and duties of an administrator differ from those of an executor only inasmuch as he must distribute and dispose of the estate according to the direction of the law, as he has no will to follow. First. The administrator must give bond, with sureties, for the faithful execution of his trust. Second. He must make an inventory of the goods and chattels of the intestate, in accord- ance with the requirements of the law. Third. Two copies of this inventory shall be made, one of which will be lodged with the judge of the court, and the other will be kept by the administrator. The latter will be obliged to account for the property mentioned in the inventory. Fourth. Having completed the inventory, the administrator must then collect the out- standing debts of the intestate, and also pay the debts of the same. The order of payment is regulated by local statutes. Having liquidated all the debts of the in- testate, the administrator will divide the re- mainder of the assets among the surviving relatives of the deceased. In so doing, he will act under the direction of the court. ^%mi¥ epaF'tnei^^l^ip. |p-^ PARTNERSHIP is an agreement be- ■mwu tween two or more persons to share in ki^ the profit and loss arising from the use ^V^^ and application of their capital, labor and skill, in some lawful business, whether the capi- tal be supplied by one, and the labor and skill by another, or each contribute both labor or skill and capital. It is not constituted merely by an interest of different parties in the .same thing ; the test is, whether there is a participation in profits and a joint liability to loss. A i^cncral partncrslup is one formed for trade or business generally, without limitations; a special partnership is one in which the joint inter- est extends only to a particular concern, as, for example, in the erection of a house ; a limited partnership is one in which one or more of the partners put in a certain amount of capital, which is liable for the contracts of the firm, but beyond that amount the party or parties advancing are not liable. The regulations concerning the last- named species of partnership, in any particular State where it is recognized, are to be found in the statutes of such State ; and a strict compli- ance with the statutes is necessary, in order to avoid incurring the responsibilities attaching to the position of general partner. A person who lends his name as a partner, or who suffers his name to continue in the firm after he has actually ceased to be a partner thereof, is still responsible to third persons as a partner. A partner may buy and sell partnership effects; make contracts in reference to the business of the firm ; pay and receive money ; thaw, and indorse, and accept bills and notes ; and all acts of such a nature, even though they be upon his own private account, will bind the other part- ners, if connected with matters apparently having / \' -7[ 482 PARTNERSHIP. reference to the business of the firm, and transacted with other parties ignorant of the fact that such deahngs are for the particular partner's private account. So, also, the representation or misrepresentation of any fact made in any partnership transaction by one partner, or the commission of any fraud in such transaction, will bind the entire firm, even though the other partners may have no connection with, or knowledge of the same. If a partner sign his individual name to nego- tiable paper, all the partners are bound thereby, if such paper appear upon its face to be on part- nership account. So, if the negotiable paper of a firm be given by one partner on his private account, and in the course of its circulation pass into the hands of a bona fide holder for value, without notice or knowledge of the fact attend- ing its creation, the partnership is bound thereby. One partner cannot bind the firm by deed, though he may by deed execute an ordinary release of a debt due the partnership, thereby precluding the firm from a recovery of the same. If no time be fixed in the articles of copart- nership for the commencement of such partner- ship, it is presumed to commence from the date and execution of such articles. If no precise period is therein mentioned for its continuance, a partner may withdraw at any time, and dissolve such partnership at his pleasure; and even if a definite period be agreed upon, a partner may, by giving notice, dissolve the partnership as to all capacity of the firm to bind him by contracts thereafter made ; such partner subjecting himself thereby to a claim for damages, by reason of his breach of the covenant. The death of cither partner, also, dissolves the partnership, unless there be an express stipula- tion that, in such an event, the representatives of such deceased partner may continue the business in connection with the survivors, for the benefit of the widow and children. A partnership is dissolved by operation of law; by a voluntary and bona fide assignment by any partner of his interest fherein ; by the bankrupt- cy or death of any of the partners ; or by a war between the countries of which the partners are subjects. Immediately after a dissolution, a notice of the same should be published in the public papers, and a special notice sent to every person who has had dealings with the firm. If these precautions be not taken, each partner will still continue liable for the acts of the others to all persons who have had no notice of such dissolu- tion. Partnership Agreement. This Agreetmni, made this first day of April, 18S3, between Charles Jean and David Sellers, both of St. Louis, Missouri, witnesseth ; The said parties agree to associate themselves as copartners for two years from this date, in the business of buying and selling cotton, under the name and style of Jean & Sellers. For the purpose of conducting the above-named business, Charles Jean has at the date of this writing invested ten thousand dollars as capital stock, and David Sellers has paid in the like sum of ten thousand dollars, both of which amounts are to be expended and used in common, for the mutual advantage of ths parties hereto in the management of their business. That the details of the business may be thoroughly understood by each, it is agreed that during the aforesaid period accurate and full book accounts shall be kept, wherein each partner shall enter and record, or cause to be entered and recorded, full mention of all moneys received and expended, .IS well as every article purchased and sold belonging to, or in any wise appertaining to such partnership ; the profits, gains, expenditures and losses being equally divided between them. It is further agreed that once a year, or oftener should either partner desire, a full, just and accurate e.xhibit shall be made to each other, or to their executors, administrators or representatives, of the losses, profits and increase made by reason of such copartnership. And after such an exhibit is made, the surplus profit, if such there be, resulting from the business, shall be divided between the subscribing partners, share and share alike. Should either partner desire, or should the death of either of the parties, or other reasons, make it necessary, they will each to the other, or, in case of death of either, the surviving partner to the executors or administrators of the party deceased, make a full, accurate and final account of the condi- tion of the partnership as aforesaid and will fairly and accurately adjust the same. It is also agreed that in case of a misunderstanding arising with the parlies hereto, which cannot be settled between themselves, such difference of opinion shall be settled by arbitration, upon the following conditions, to- wit : Each party to choose one arbitrator, which two thus chosen shall select a third ; the three thus chosen to determine the merits of the case and arrange the basis of a settlement. In witness whereof, the undersigned hereto set their hands the day and year first above written. Signed in presence of *l Charles Jean. Frank Smith, v David Sellers. Henry Stiles. ) Notice of Dissolution. The partnership heretofore existing under the name of Jean & Sellers is this day of , A.D. -, dissolved by mutual consent. Charles Jean. David Sellers. -N HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. 483 "Tf -• .amaiiliMatafaitf^^itfjrfar^^ -^.^^p^-^^ ^ ^1 V +-| ovs/ • to • S)eeu r^e • a • Sb ten t. •> If^*^ ■.au^ •.^r I— a) -4^- IJ. >. k. >. kV . =^^1&— E ^ Unifed SraferS parent ©ffiee. tNY PERSON who has invented or dis- covered a new and useful art, machine, manufacture or composition of matter, ' -^^^ or any new and useful improvement thereof, may obtain a patent, provided the invention or discovery has not been known or used by others in this country, and not patented or described in any printed pub- lication in this or any foreign country, and not in public use or on sale for more than two years prior to his application, unless the same is proved to have been abandoned. A patent may also be obtained b\' any person who, by his own industry, genius, efforts and expense, has invented and produced any new and orig- inal design for a manufacture, bust, statue, alto-relievo or bas-relief; any new and original design for the printing of woolen, silk, cotton or other fabrics ; any new and original impres- sion, ornament, pattern, print or picture to be printed, painted, cast, or otherwise placed on or worked into any article of manufacture ; or any new, useful and original shape or con- figuration of any article of manufacture, the same not having been known or used by others before his invention or production thereof, nor patented or described in any printed publica- tion. In case of the death of the inventor, the application may be made by his e.xecutor or administrator. In such case the oath will be made by the executor or administrator. In case of an assignment of the whole inter- est in the invention, or of the whole interest in the patent to be granted, the patent will, upon request of the applicant or assignee, issue to the assignee ; and if the assignee hold an undivided part interest, the patent will, upon like request, issue jointly to the inventor and the assignee ; but the assignment in either case must first have been entered of record, and of a day not later than the date of the payment of the final fee. The application and oath must be made by the actual inventor, if alive, even if the patent is to issue to an assignee. If the inventor be dead, it may be made by the executor or admmistrator, or by the assignee of the entire interest. THE APPLICATION. All applications for letters patent must be made to the Commissioner of Patents. A complete application comprises the petition, specification, oath and drawings, and the model or specimen when required. V 484 HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. An application for a patent will not be placed upon the files for examination until all its parts, except the model or specimen, are received. THE SPECIFICATION Is a written description of the invention or discovery, and of the manner and process of making, constructing, compounding and using the same, and is required to be in such full, clear, concise and exact terms as to enable any person skilled in the art or science to which it appertains, or with which it is most nearly connected, to make, construct, compound and use the same. It must conclude with a spe- cific and distinct claim or claims of the part, improvement or combination which the appli- cant regards as his invention or discovery. In framing the specification the applicant should follow the appended arrangement, such portions as refer to drawings being omitted when the invention does not admit of repre- sentation by drawings. 1. Preamble giving the name and residence of the applicant, and the title of the inven- tion. 2. General statement of the object and nature of the invention. 3. Brief description of the drawings, show- ing what each view represents. 4. Detailed description, explaining fully the alleged invention, and the manner of con- structing, practicing, operating and using it. 5. Claim, or claims. 6. Signature of inventor. 7. Signatures of two witnesses. In original applications the applicant must distinctly state, under oath, whether the in- vention has been patented to himself, or to others, with his consent or knowledge, in any country. THE OATH. The applicant, if the inventor, must make oath that he believes himself to be the first and original discoverer or inventor of the art, machine, manufacture, composition or im- provement for which he desires a patent, and that to his best knowledge and belief the same was never before known or used. He must also state his place of residence, and the State or country of which he is a citizen. When applications are made by an adminis- trator or executor, the form of oath varies accordingly. DRAWINGS. The applicant for a patent is required by law to furnish a drawing of his invention, where the nature of the case admits of it. 1. Drawings must be made upon pure white paper of a thickness corresponding to three-sheet Bristol board, and the surface of the paper must be calendered and smooth. India ink only must be used, to secure per- fectly black and solid lines. 2. The size of sheet on which a drawing is made must be exactly ten by fifteen inches. One inch from its edges a single marginal line is to be drawn, leaving the " sight" precisely eight by thirteen inches. Within this margin all work and signatures must be included. 3. All drawings must be made with the pen only. 4. Drawings should be made with the fewest lines possible consistent with clearness. 5. Letters and figures of reference must be carefully formed. They must never appear upon shaded surfaces, and, when it is difficult to avoid this, a blank space must be left in the shading where the letter occurs, so that it may appear perfectly distinct and separate from the work. If the same part of an invention appear in more than one view of the drawing, it must always be represented by the same character, and the same character must never be used to designate different parts. 6. The inventor's signature must be placed at the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. 485 / and the signatures of witnesses at the lower left-hand corner ; all within marginal line. 7. Drawings should be rolled, not folded, for transmission to the office. MODELS Must clearly exhibit every feature of a ma- chine which forms the subject of a claim for letters patent, but should include no other mat- ter than that covered by the actual invention or improvement, unless necessary to the exhi- bition of the invention in a working model. Very often a working model is desirable in order to fully and readily understand the opera- tion EXAMINATION. Applications are classified and taken up for examination in regular order, those in the same class being examined and disposed of, as far as practicable, in the order in which they are presented. AMENDMENTS, ETC. The applicant has a right to amend before or after the first rejection ; and he may amend as often as the examiner presents any new references or reasons for rejection. When an original or reissue application is rejected on reference to an expired or unex- pired domestic patent, which substantially shows or describes but does not claim the re- jected invention, or to a foreign patent, or to a printed publication, and the applicant shall make oath to facts showing a completion of the invention before the filing of the application for the domestic patent, or before the date of the foreign patent, or before the date at which the printed publication was made, and shall also make oath that he does not know and does not believe that the invention has been in pub- lic use or on sale in this country for more than two years prior to his application, and that he has never abandoned the invention, then the patent or publication cited will not bar the grant of a patent to the applicant, except upon interference. When an application is rejected on reference to an expired or unexpired domestic patent which shows or describes, but does not claim, the rejected invention, or to a foreign patent, or to a printed publication, or to facts within the personal knowledge of an employe of the office, set forth in an affidavit of such em- ploye, or on the ground of public use or sale, or upon the mode or capability of operation attributed to a reference, or because the alleged invention is held to be inoperative, or frivolous, or injurious to public health or morals, affida- vits or depositions supporting or traversing these references or objections may be received ; but they will be received in no other cases, without special permission of the Commis- sioner. In case an applicant neglects to prosecute his application for two years after the date when the last official notice of any action by the office was mailed to him, it will be held that the application has been abandoned. DESIGNS. Patents for designs are granted for three and one-half years, or for seven years, or for four- teen years, as the applicant may, in his appli- cation, elect. When the design can be sufficiently repre- sented by drawings or photographs, a model will not be required. Whenever a photograph or an engraving is employed to illustrate the design, it must be mounted upon Bristol board, 10 by 15 inches in size, and properly signed and witnessed. The applicant will be required to furnish ten extra copies of such photograph or engraving (not mounted), of a size not exceeding 71^ inches by 1 1. K- 486 -7\ HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. REISSUES. When the original patent is invalid or in- operative by reason of a defective or insuffi- cient specification, or by reason of the patentee claiming as his invention or discovery more than he had a right to claim as new, a reissue will be granted to the original patentee, his legal representatives, or the assignees of the antire interest, provided the error has arisen from accident, mistake or inadvertence, and without any fraudulent or deceptive intention. APPEALS. An applicant for a patent or a reissue, any of the claims of whose application have been twice rejected, may appeal from the decision of the primary examiner to the Board of Ex- aminers-in-Chief, having once paid a fee of $10. The appeal must be made in writing, signed by the applicant or his attorney, and must set forth the points of the decision upon which the appeal is taken. FORM, DATE AND DURATION OF PATENTS. livery patent will bear date as of a daj- not later than si.K months frcim the time at which the application was passed and allowed, and notice mailed to the applicant, if within that period the final fee be paid. A patent will not be antedated. Every patent will contain a short title of the invention or discovery, and a grant to the patentee, his heirs and assigns, for the term (jf seventeen years, of the exclusive right to make, use and vend the invention or discover)- throughout the United States and Territories tliereof. EXTENSIONS. Patents granted since March 2, 1861, can- not be extended, except b\' act of Congress. CAVEATS. On payment of a fee of $10, any citizen of the United States who has made a new invention or discovery, and desires further time to mature the same, may file in the Patent Office a caveat setting forth the distin- guishing characteristics of the invention and praying protection of his right until he shall have matured his invention. Such caveat shall be filed in the confidential archives of the Patent Office, and shall be operative for the term of one year from-the filing thereof. ASSIGNMENTS. Every patent, or any interest therein, shall be assignable in law by an instrument in writing. The patentee or his assigns may also grant and convey, in like manner, an exclusive right under his patent for the whole or any specified part of the United States. Schedule of Fees. Oil filing each application for a Patent $15 ( )n issuing each Original Patent (17 years) 20 On application for Re-issue 30 On application for Extension 50 On granting every extension of Patent {7 years) 50 ( >n each Caveat 10 On appeal to Examiners-in-Chief 10 On appeal to Commissioner of Patents 20 On filing a Disclaimer 10 On application for Design (sJ^ years) 10 On application for Design (7 years) 15 On application for Design (14 years) 30 On each Trade-Mark (30 years) 25 On each Label (28 years) 6 CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE PATENT OFFICE. Personal attendance of applicants at the Patent Office is unnecessary, as all business is required to be transacted in writing. Correspondence should be addressed to " The Commissioner of Patents. " Express charges, freight, postage, and all similar charges, must be fully prepaid to ensure reception. jy- — PENSION LAWS. 4S7 A letter concerning an application should state the name of the applicant, the title of the invention, the serial number of the application and the date of filing the same. A letter concerning a patent should state the name of the patentee, the title of the inven- tion, and the number and date of the patent. All correspondence of the Patent Office will be answered without unnecessar)- delay. Telegrams must ordinarily be received before three p m. to insure an answer the same day. AGENTS AND ATTORNEYS. An>- intelligent person of good moral char- acter, upon filing a proper power of attorney, may appear as the agent or attorne)- in fact of an applicant. The power of attorney must be filed in all cases before an attornc)-, original or associate, will be allowed to inspect papers or take action of an\' kind. •7i\- eDen^ion •:• kav/^. • • — ;•> — • • XjHfXNY person who has been, since the 4th ■ >fn\t °*^ March, 1861, disabled in the mili- Sj^\) tary or naval service of the United ^^^ssof ImhIi leet Total disability in lioth feet. . Loss of sight uf both eyes. . . Loss of sight of one eye, the sight of the other having been previously lost Loss of one hand and one foot Total disability in one hand and one foot...... Any disability equivalent to the loss of a hand or loot Any disability incapacitating for the performance of any manual labor. . . . Any disability resulting In a condition requiring the regular aid and attend- ance of another person Total deafness $ao 00 $25 c» 20 00 25 00 20 00 15 00 20 00 >1 3" =5 31 25 31 25 31 2S 31 25 24 00 24 00 18 00 ^^ $72 00 72 00 72 00 72 00 36 00 24 00 June 4. '74- 31 25 50 00 13 00 • R.itc- from June, 1880, in case the disal)ility in permanent and requires the regular aid and attendance of another person. An applicant for increase of pension from $31.25 to $72 per month must furnish the testi- mony of his physician, or of two credible witnesses, to prove the extent to which he requires the aid and attendance of another person. The same provision of law which entitles to $31.25 per month entitles to $72 per month, provided that in the latter case the disability is permanent. The loss of a leg above the knee, or an arm at or above the elbow, entitles the person so disabled to a pension of $24 per month after June 4, 1874. The rates of $10, $12, $14 and $16 per month will be allowed in cases in whjch the dis- ability bears the same proportion to that pro- duced by the loss of a hand or foot that those rates bear to the rate of $18 per month. The phrase " total disability " is construed to refer to a total disabilit)- for the perform- ance of manual labor requiring severe and continuous exertion. The phrase " any man- ual labor" includes the lighter kinds of labor which require education and skill. The first step to be taken by an applicant for pension is to. file a declaration before a court of record, or before some officer thereof having custody of its seal, setting forth the ground upon which he claims a pension. Blank forms of declaration are furnished upon request at Commissioner of Pensions office. The iden- tity of the applicant must be shown by the testimony of two credible witnesses, who must appear with him before the officer by whom -^ L^ \ 488 PENSION LAWS. the declaration may be taken. A pensioner who may deem himself entitled to an increase of pension should file a declaration on a blank form furnished for the purpose, setting forth the ground upon w hich he claims such increase. A declaration for increase of pension may be taken before any officer duly authorized to administer oaths. All invalid pensions granted under the gen- eral law will terminate at re-cnlistment, or when the disabilities for which they were al- lowed shall have ceased. A widow's pension will end at her remar- riage, and not be renewable should she again become a w idow. Pensions allowed to dependent mothers and sisters end at remarriage, or when dependence ceases. Pensions allowed to dependent fathers end when the dependence ceases. The name of any pensioner shall be stricken from the roll upon his or her failure to claim a pension for three years after the same shall have become due. To entitle a widow or children to pension, the death of the husband or father must have been the result of injury received or disease contracted under such circumstances as would have entitled him to an invalid pension had he been disabled. A widow is entitled to a pension of the same rate as that to which the husband would have been entitled had he been totally disabled. In addition to this rate, she will be allowed $2 per month for each child of the officer or soldier under the age of si.xteen years. In the applications of widows and children for pensions, they will be required to prove that death of husband resulted from the injury or disease on account of which his pension was granted; and, if the husband had not estab- lished his claim for an invalid pension, the widow shall prove origin and cause of the fatal disease. Widows will be required to prove their marriage to the person on account of whose service and death the claim is made ; also proof of dates of birth of children bj- copy of church record. A mother claiming a pension must prove the cause add date of the death of her son ; her relationship ; that he left no widow or minor child or children surviving ; and her depend- ence upon him for support. A father claiming pension on account of the death of his son, upon whom he was depend- ent for support, must prove facts similar to those required of a mother. The claim on behalf of minor brothers and sisters should be made by a guardian duly ap- pointed. In administration of the pension laws, no distinction is made between brothers and sisters of the half blood and those of the whole blood. Evidence in a claim for pension cannot be veri- fied before an officer who is engaged in the prosecution of such claim. In claims for increase of pension, a fee of $10 will be allowed. All letters of enquiry relative to claims pending in Pension Office should give the number of the claim. No sumof money due, or to become due, to any pensioner, shall be liable to attachment, levy or seizure, under any legal or equitable process. Agents for paying pensions shall receive two per centum on all disbursements made by them to pensioners. No agent, or attorney, or other person, shall demand or receive any other compensation for his services in prosecuting a claim for pension or bounty-land than such as the Commissioner of Pensions shall direct to be paid to him, not exceeding $10. Every officer, or enlisted or hired man, who has lost a limb, or the use of a limb, in the military or naval service of the United States, is entitled to receive, once every five j^ears, an artificial limb or apparatus, or commutation therefor. The period of five years is reckoned J- , K THE LEGAL FENCE. 489 from the filing of the first application after June 17, nS/O. The commutation allowed in cast of the amputation of a leg is $75 ; in all other cases, $50. Applications for artificial limbs should be transmitted through the proper pen- sion agent to the surgeon-general of the army. -**f-5ff^ Si -^T^ 'l7evke^a F'enee. -^i^ HE legal regulations of the States and Territories with regard to fences are embodied in the followint: sum- mar)* : Alabama. — Legal fence, live feet high. Arizona. — Four and one-half feet. Arkansas. — Five fccL California. — The legal fence is described with great particularity — wire, post and rail, brush, picket, ditch and pole, and hedge; wire fences, not less than three separate strands, the first eighteen inches from the ground, the others two and one foot apart. CoLOKAiX). — Four and one-half feet. Connecticut. — Five and a half feet, with provisions essentially as in Massachusetts. Delaware. — Four feet, with a ditch within two feet, is a lawful fence. Wood or stone fences, or hedge, four and a half feel high. Florida. — Five feet. Georgia. — Five feet. Idaho. — Four feet. Illinois. — "Fences four and one-half feet high, of whatever material the fence-viewers shall deem sufficient." Indiana. — Any structure in the nature of a fence, such as good hus- bandmen generally keep. Iowa. — Four and one-half feet high, or fifty-four inches. Harbcd wire fence prescribed as legal fence, 1S76. Kansas. — "Worm fences four and one-half feel : turf, four feet, with ditches ; wire fence, posts twelve feet apart." Kenti;ckv. — "All sound or strong fences, five feet liigh. so close that stock cannot creep through," is the definition of the legal fence. Maine. — Four feet. Maryland. — Five feet. Massachusetts.— The legal fence is four feet high. A "sufficient barrier" only is demanded, whether the equivalents be furnished by strc.inis, ditches, live growths, or constructions in wood, stone or other material. Michigan. — Fences four and one-half feet high, or rails, timber, buards, stone, or other things deemed equivalent thereto in the judgment of fence-viewers. Minnesota.— Fences four and one-half feet high, etc. Barbed fence defined by the act of 1877. Missouri. — Hedge five feet, fence four and one-half feet. Montana. — Four and one-half feet. Nebraska. — The legal fence is described as "such a fence as good husbandmen generally keep." Ntw Hampshire. — Four feet. New Jersey. — Fences are to be four feet two inches high, of wood, brick or stone, and four and a half feet if of other materials. New Mexico. — Four feet. New York. — The town meetings prescribe what shall be deemed a legal fence in each town. Assessors and commissioners of highw.ays per- form the duties offence-viewers. Four and one-half feet is the usual height prescribed. North Carolina. — Five feet. Ohio. — " A fence, of whatever material, constructed in all respects such as good husbandmen ought to keep." Statute of 1865. Pennsylvania. — Towns and counties secure special legislation for fencing railway lines, and to prevent running of the stock at large. Rhode Island. — Stone or wood fences must be four and a half feet high ; hedges and ditches arc elaborately described. South Carolin.a. — Fences must be six feel high, of wood or hedge, or ditches equivalent as barriers. Tennessee. — Five feet. Texas. — Five feet high. Harbcd wire defined as legnl fence. Utah. — Four and one-half feet. ' Vermont. — The legal fence is five and a half feet high, with provisions essentially as in Massachusetts. Virginia.— Five feet. Washington Territory. —Four feet. Harbed wire fence must carry a top rail of wood. West Virginia.— Legal fences, four and a half feet high. Wisconsin. — "Fences four and one-half feet high," etc. By act oi April, 1878, barbed wire fence is defined as a legal fence. \ 49° GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. ler lanbebmann un5 ledjtagelelitle. Jtusjiicjc aus 6cn ®cfcfebud]ern jum (gebraud] im f)anbcISDerfcfjr. — IDinfc fiir ben ©cfd}dftsmann. -^««- »»> S}anbd5vcd}k un6 ^ormularc. ~;'|>^t^ 511111 9lnfang bc6 tnu|'eiibjnl)vigeii 3teic^co luivb ^^C/ bcv D-liciiid; oljiie C«cridjtc, 05cfcl(e uiib 3ted)tg; 'vEX^ gt'le^vte nidjt lu'ftc()fii toniicii. 5115 bie 9Jieii[d)5 I)eit nod) in i[)vcin Dtntiiv^uftnnbe roax, ei)e fic nod) ba§ gcfeU|d;aftlid)c 23anb iim[d;lot>, luav SOiadjt bnS f)cvv= fd^enbe ©efel^ ifigcnt^um ge(;ortc nid)t umimganglid) bom, bev i'5 fdjiif ofter faiib, fonbcni bcm, bcr bie pr)i)fifd}c ih'rtft Ijntte, eg gegeii bie C?ingviffc 'Jlnbcvcr jii ncv; t^eibigen. 9JJnd;t gtng oor 9{ed)t. Unb Ijcute no^, niogcn roiv nnd) nod) fotiifl non bcv'i'evniinftigfcit nnb bcr (frd'udjtuiig unfcvev (Jiuilifntioii fpvcdjcn, ift biefe 5;£)t'ovic bie ©runblage eiiu-g jebeit 3tcd)t§ucvfn^rcn§. 3"""ft fnd;te bov 9.1u'n|i^ bn6 @cfcl3 im (?tnflnng mit fetnem mititrlidjcn i>evftnnb ju briitgcn, nicld)C6 cine %xt mitbcs 9{ec^t [)i(betc, bnd 3u|nmmciigel'ctin 23c|'|'eren, cin Sdjritt nnl)cr jur Unpnrtcilid); teit unb (?crcd)tigtcit. iSelbft [djoii in bent bnnfelften 3eitalter ftellten lucife 9tid)ter Jormcln ,3uiammen, au§ benen nad) unb nad) unfcre 3fcd)tgniiffcnfd)aft cntftanb, unb ift uiifcr [jciitiges grofeartigec. (Mc[cl}|'yftem c6cnfofcI;r loie unfere 6tuiIi[ntion, ein nntiir(id)c§ SRefuItnt ber iP)iiinanitat. '2d)oii in ben friir)cftcii gtabicn ber ®e: fd)id)te un|'erer3ta|fc jcigtc cG fid), bnft bev Urtl)eil'3fprnd) bcr ®d)icb5vid)ter, benen ©trcitfragen jnr Sofniig uor; gclcgt raareu, iiidjt gcniigte, urn bcm Snnb (^vicben unb 9hi()e JU fidjcru, unb tvaten t>cftl)alb oou^cit ju ^cit unb in jcbem 25olfe @efe(3geber auf, bie ®efel3biid)cr nieber: fdjrieben, aug roeld)en roir roieber ba§ gemetue 9ted)t unb bieStaat^gefe^jc bee neunjebnten^aljrljunbcrts gcfainmelt Ijaben. ^ciiex 9>oIf6uerbanb l)at feiiic eigcncii i'anbc§; gcfeljc, unb luie ucrfd)tebeii fic and; atle fein niogcn, fo ift Bod) jcbeg auf ®ercd;tigfcit unb gefunben 9Jtcnfd)cn; uerftaub gcgriinbet. jDo^ cnglifd)e Stedjt, ba§ luiv non (Jnglanb l)icr nad) 9Iincrita mitgebrndjt Ijaben, ift, luie bie cnglifd)e ©prad;e, ein 9Jtifd;mafd) ucrfdjicbencr (Jkinente. 35a§ altfadirifd^e 9tedE)t, mit fciner ftarfen icnbcnj fiir perfontid)c gveitjcit unb fciner ftvciigcn unb glcidjcn @cvcd}tigfcit fiir Jpodj unb 3iicbrig, bilbct baS tyun- bameiit. 9Jfit bcr normanif^en ©roberung famen, juglcid) mit ber (^infiifjruiig ber fraujijfifdjcn j?rieg6i, SIBilb;, .U'vinunat; unb Vc[)nf>rccl)te, 9(enberungcn im in-fit^rcd)!. 'Saju fiigtc bie voinifc£)e Stixije bn§ geiftlid;e 9tec^t unb cinen ^[}cil be6.fi'riminalred)t§, raao bircft uon bcm grofu'u 3;uffinianifd)cn £obcr be§ rfimifd)cn 9teid)§ ^ergclcitet luovben, unb l)at fid) bicfe cigciit[)iiinlid)c ilfifdjiing im i'nufc bcr 3ial)rt)unbcrte jn ber grofenrtigen ©ciualjrlciftuiig uon Jrcitjcit unb ®ered)tigfcit entroicfcit, bcrcn luir uiig Ijciite in unferen ©efcl^cii cvfrcucn. UnfcrcmJtrimiiinlrcd)t liegt bcr ®cbanfe jn @vunbe, bafe bcr 5)crbrcd)er bes @d)u^c§ bcbarf, nnb banad; rid)tet fid) unfer $roje§; uerfal)ren. 3)ie erftcn ©trnfcn, mcldje bcr 9Jfcnfd; fannte, luaren ^ob ober iH-rftiimmelnng. ^m OJtittel; alter rourben "Diebc in Oel gcfotteit unb 3tauber lebenbig bcgrnben. 3f"fl''" imivbcn auf bie J-oItcv gcfpnnnt nnb Jlu^ingen mittelft ber 'Sttumenfd;raubc unb besS eifernen (Sd)ul)'§ erjmungen. ^m Saufc bcr ^fo^ve Dcr= beffcrtcn fid) bicfe 3»ftSii''e unb I)cutc ift @ered)tigfeit mit ®nabc gcpaart unb bie fd;nmIofc i^arbavci ber mitfcl; alterlid;cn ®crid)tg(}ofc roirb intmer felteucr. (5§ ift nid)t unfere ?lufgnbe, au§ bem Scfcr cinen 9h'd)tGgclcl)rtcn ju niadjcn, unb mdre e§ Iad)crlid), he- ^ttupten 5U toollcn, bnjj cine fo grogartige Sfi>iffenfd;aft, ■>^ \ "Tf GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS ' DKPARTMENT. 491 luic bic :Kcd)t^ii)ificiiid)nft, in ciiicm iBud} luie biefcs foUtc ^iifnmmonflcfafet lucrbeii foniicn. i)le\n, luev eiiiiitiil in ciiicii 3u'd)tQftvcit ucnuicfclt ift, gi'()c u' cincm 9(&uofntcii, uiib 511 bcm bcftcii, bcii cv fiiibeii faiiii. iSit bns Spnid)iuovt fogt, ift cine Unjc '-l>oifid)t nicl)r lut'vtl), nl^ eiu '•^Jfunb itfud^fid)!, unb (jlnnbcn miv, bcv Si'l'cv luiib in ben ncU'ljfolgcnBcn Syiiittcvn nuind;e Unjc i'Oii"id)t finbcn. @cvid)tc fiub tf;cnie iH-vcjniignngen, unb SJicninnij foUto fie uev|"iid)cii, |'o dingr 3tvcitigfeitcn auf cine eiiifnd)cvc unb biliigerc !!i.H'i|'c gelijft iiu-vben fonncn. jDerSBcife nieibet fic loie 23aiifcvott unb rvcncv, unb fict;t fid) Dov, nid)t in ^trcitiiagen iievn'icteft 5n nunben. 3[Siv bcfjniipten, baf; bev luifnicvfianic Vcft'v biefcv 3i'ili-''i ""U; ftanbig jn bicfcm ^mcd uovbevcitet tuirb. T>n5 (Scl'eli ift, luie u)iv norbev bcnicvften, eiu t()cuvc? '-Bevgniigen, unb die 3iH-iol)eit bcv-.HItcn, bic bio Wcfcbc gc = mnd)t (;nbcn, l)at auf bicfcn SBatjvfpvud) gebaut. (Sine bcv erftcn Jiit'cl", bic ben j^inbcvu cv;n()lt luivb, ift bic (Me|'d)id)te uon ben jmei iiiUicn, bic ben Stveit nnt cincn ^dfe cincni vcd)t§gelel)rten ?tffen uoilcgtcn, unb lUoBci bn6 ©tveitobjcft atlnuilig int 3."lcngcn be§ iSd)ieb^rid)tev?i ocvfdjiuanl). J'ic auf vScite 4r>-2 iUuftvivte @cfd)id)tc le()vt cine 9}foni(, bic '^llle bcl)ev5igcn folltcn. ®er;t end) bie 5a(;cn ©tveitfiid^tigen nn, mie fie bcibe, bee cine am Jtopf i:nb bee nnticie nni ^Sdjiiuinj bev beftvit; tcnen ,ftn[) jict^en ; luie entfdjloffen eiii;^'^'"^'' 'f*/ "•'')' bie Jli!() fclbft yi gciuinncn, ueiu, nne ben ''^Inbevn bnoon nbju; [jnlten, fie 5U geiuinneu, uub fel)t end) ben 'Jlbuotntcn nn, niie geledit unb anftiinbig cv bnbei ftebt, unb luie fleif;ig cv bic 03ebiil)vcn unb epovtedi ^u luelfeu uevfte()t, iDa()veub er bcni jllagcv vtitb, feft unb beftiinbig nn5u[)n[tcn. Uub lueuu bann bic Siul] tvocfen genmlfeu ift, fe()t uiic bev "J-U'DjeiJ enSet : Tev (5'ine ()nt bie .hijvncv un'!) einen tiid): tigeu Jail, unb bcr 3liibcre beu ®d)iunnj unb einen uid)t mcniger nnangencbnien Stnv^, unibvcnb bev ?lbyofnt fid) uiif Mut) unb OJiild) nub cinev nnfu'vovbentlid) gutcn DJJeiuuug uom (Mefelj unb feiuev 9lu^(cguug fovtinnd)t. Tie Sative niog gcfnd)t genanut luevbcn, e^ ftcr)t nbev fcft, unb jcbev lu'vuiinftige I'lcnid) luirb es yigcben, bnfi ®evcd)ligfcif in biefev ii}e(t cine uevyueifelt ll)enie aSnnve ift. 3!ebcv (5'eid)nft6mnnn ()nt beveit^ bie i)iot()mcnbigfeit cinev cinfnc()cii unb gviinblid)cn t^-vflavung bev ge|et}lid)en '^^vinnipien uub (^5ebvnnd)e, bie nllen G>'cfd)nftfibe',iel)nugen 5u Wvunbe licgen, fenuen gclevnt. T)a'3 Oievid)t niuinit nn, biifj 3>-'^c''""i"" i'''-' CMefete fount, unb iucuh, mie es Oft oovfonunt, iuid)tigc t^vgcbniffe nuf bent Spiele fteljcn, iftUuiuiffenbeit uuv ju oft uevbevblid). Alcin Jug ucvgef)! in gvoKen .5>«iibel5()iiufcvn, on beni uid)t bie cine obev nnbevc Jvngc nuftnud)t, bie eine genaue .Slenntnif^ bev bctveffeiibon C'iei'etu- cvfovbevt. 9(llen renou, bio bno i^ebiivfnij; eiuoo fid)evcn unb ciufad)cn Jiailjgcbevo in ben t(iglid;en @efd)nftofd)iuievigfeiteii ciniel)cn gclevnt bnbeu, unbnicn miv bic folgenbon .Unpitet. ?lllc ini gcaii.il)nlic()en OJofdjiiftolcbon yovfoniuionfton ''.)liigclcgenl)eiton finJi cin; gel^eub bef)nnbelt nub niit (fvliiutcvungeu oevfel)eu, bie bet fovgfciltigoni >2tnbinni ,3vi'tt'iiniev unniijglid) nirtd)cn. 3icbevninnn foUle fooicl ("'U'lel.UenntniK bofitjeu, uui feinc gemijt)ulic^eu uub nllgemeincn 3ted)te miil)ven ^u fijnneu, unb jebov i'eia mivb ^igobon, baf^ Okfdiriftolente ^uni niiiibeften in beu (MefelH'ii bonninbcvt fein follton, bie bcveii ^nnptfrid)lid)ftcu @e)d)nft^bc5iei)ungen betvcffcn ; jnm 23ci[pic( ,ftoniprtgnon:(Mc)d)nfte, "iH-vtviige unb .ffontvnftc, "■iH'vfcinfe, bie 3lneed)felii u. f. u). ©ie ytenntnijj bev ©vuubpvinjipien bev .^anbelSved)tr mivb teiglid) fd)weven .^vvtbiiuievu Bovbcugen, bie gvo^e iH'vlogeul)citen nnO 'iH-vlui'lc iiu ®cfo[ge t)nben fijnueu. 'i^ie (Mcfel^e fiub ()iev ftnv in fid) felbft bnvgetcgt, fo bnf? JU jebcv rfvage cine bontlidjc uub jufviebenftellenlio "'}(ntmovt gcfunbcn mevbcn tnun. J^ic in beni engliid)cu Xtieile btofeS "iin-vtes nngegebenen Jovnien un? bie t)iev iu'^ r'eutfd)o iibovietUeu (f-vfliivnngen finb iiusiuibni(jH)cife oollftnubig unb gennu, unb biic> (f-vgebnig fovgfiiltigcv uub gemi|"ienl)aitev 5(nt.nvbcitung unb ^Iniifnug. 9iBn§ !^l)V and) uutevuel)nien niijgt, ftubivt cvft unfcve (Me|"d)ciftofovineln unb nebnit I5ud) bie Ji>infe, bie luiv gobon, ^i .Oevjcu. ficnntnif^ ift i1nid)t, unb befonbcvg in (Mofd)nftfifnd)en. ii>ev finb bie evfolgvcidjcn i'ento? iMoo bio, bic bicfe .fi'enntuiffo bofit^en. 3?h-v oou (fuvcn (vveuubeu ift in ffjeuve, uielleidjt vninivcnbe Sfveitigfeiteu uovmicfoliV Anngt i^n, luie ev e^ nugefnngon ()nt, unb ev mivb nuf einen floiitlidion 3i'>'tl)uni juviirfmeifcii, inollcidjt in ftV(iflicl)ov llnu'i(icnl)cit bcgnngen, bev jcbodi uevniioben luovtion uuive, f)atte ev unfeve i,'ef)ve uov 5(ugen gebnbt. jDnvuni ftubivt biofe Soitou nufntevffani, menu .^Vx' beu i'ovtheil, ben fie gomii()ven, genief'on moUt. (J'ine ()nlbftiinbige Jlufuicvf: fiiuifeit cf)e ^i)\- ein ©cfdjiift nbfci)lief!t, mag Cud) iaufenbe cv)paveu. jTov f(eif;igo Vofcv fann fid) auf oino oevtafl'eu, baf; cs, menu ev mil biofoiu i^nd) ^uv .rianb, unfcve 58infe beadjtcl, unfcve ^el)vcu befolgt unb unfcve Aovmen gcbvand)t, cine^i gefd)cibteven 'Jltiuofatou, al§ eiu duvd)fd)nittlid)ov (Mcfdjiiftomann ift, bobavf, urn il)u in einen :1ied)t^ftveit ^n Dcviuicfolu, unb movbeu foinc ;)fed)ie fo fid;ev fein, ale menu fie uon ben ()oc!)ftou ©evid)t6()i)fon bev 3fepub(if gciua(ivlcit"tot uub boftiitigt miivon. /• -^ F 49- GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. (Negotiable Paper.) ©egenfcitigeg 93cvtraiieii ift ber (Suintftein aiif ten ba§ gaiije (Sefdjaft^lebcii riiht. 9Jiiv fdjiutiinnfe l)at c^ ftc^ 5ur ^eutigeu ©vbfee empovgefdjiruiigeii. 3""f' 'oar eS iiur 2:aiiid)t}aiitel, ba^S (gtiitau)d)en ciiic^ iDJajse^ ©etreil'e fiiv einc ?lii,5al)l *t.!feilipi^cii 311m S3fiipiel, rote mx e$ ^eute noc^ bei beii JSiIteii feljeu; baint iialjiit gepvagteS ®elt tie Stetle a\§ 3;auf(^mittel ein, uiib juletjl tameii an teffeit Stette rcte^ ber umfetsbare ^apiere, b. i. jcfcriftlidje Sotuiiieiite itt ?(ii= erteitiiuiig eiucr (i^elt djiilb. Uiitcr bie fiategorie biefev iimfe^^ bareit ober tcrtjantelbarcu *)!apiere tommeii SJcteii, @d)ult= fdjctue, Svatteii, SSaiiiaiirotiiungen, 2)cpofitenfct)eine, Sedo'el, 33an[noteii, ©taat^ = Saffenjcljeiite (Greenback-), tuvj atle ©c^ulbl'd^eine, beren glgent^itmSret^t Boit eiiiev *|3cvfDn anf eine onbere iibertvagbav i|i. Sie bloOe 9tncrtoitiuiiig einer ■@d)ulb gcniigt iiidjt, biefelbe umfe^bai- ju mac^cii: eiii ^a\^' ( iin g ^ » c r I p V e d) e n, obev bie 21 11 f f v b e v 11 n g an eine aiiteve '•I'evfou eine 3ahlnng jii Iciften, ift uiierla6lict). 35ie« ff5 3>eripTe(^cii, obev Mufiorbeniiig, mug fletS fiiv (Selb feiii. 35cv 33otrag mujj gcnau aiigegeben feiit unb cbeiifo nnt§ ba§ @igentt)iim§reci)t iibeitragbav jeiii. -Cicfe leBterc gigeiif(t)aft niiife auf ber SJorbevjeite beS ®(t)eiiieg burc^ bie aSovie " Bearer" ober " Order" auSgebriirft fein. 3n eiiijelneu ©taaten fe^veibt ba^ @efe^ geiuiffe *;*t)rafeu Bor, alg J. sB-wSi^"""^ Dl)iie2lt5ug ober 9Jabatt" ober „3at)l= bar ill ," iiiit Siigabe ber 53an[ ober Office. 3(f|ult>fif)eine unb SSed)fet (Promissory Notes and Drafts.) Unter Promissory Note Derfte^t man einen gefd^riebenen SSertrog, in bem [lA} eine *]3erfon ccrpflicfctet, einer anteren '}.Hnfon 5n einer feftgefegteu 3eit eine teflinimte 'Summe @elbe§ 5U jaljlen. 2)nrd) bas 3al)lt'armac^cn an ben Ueberbvinger, ober anf bie Order eineS anbevn, imvb bcrfelte i:nifebbar. 31B ein 35erirag bobingt bie 32ote bie Slngabe einer SJergiitung. Unb tro^bem eine foldje 9?ote jnjifdjen ben jroei Jjauptperfonen luigiiltig fein mag, rcirb biefelbe bnrc^ iljre Uebertragbarteit in ber >^anb einer britten *}.!evfon, bie in UnFenntnig it^rer il'iangelt^aftigtcit cine 2Bovtl)entfd)abignng bafiir geg.bcn t)at, Bollgiiitig nnb totleftirbav. 3ii ber ,'^eitbered)nnng roirb ber Jagbcv Mn^-ftcUnng nidjt mitgejal)It; c§ iflbicSter^tngenbltd, Bon bem an bie 3^'' beginnt, bei beren ?tb[auf bie 3ol)l»"g ftattftn^en ninfj. 3)aS 2ln§taffen bcS Satnmg madjt eine 9Jote bennoc^ nid)t nngiiltig, e§ fattt jebod) bann bem 3''l)aber bev= felbeu anl^eim, bie 3lu§fte(InngS3eit jn beweifen. Sa>5 3"^= lungSBerfprec^cn mnij genau bie Saner ber 3^'' «''>fi' 9'ote ongeben @^ mng bie§ eine beftimmte ^eriobe fein, ober bebingnng^roeife onf ba§ Sintreffcn einc3 geroiffen@reigniffe§ bafirt fein, 5. S3. „!8ei ©ic^t," „Siinf Xage iiad) Sidjt," „?luf SBerlangen," „®rei 3)iDnale Don tjente," „3f '"i Jage nad) bem 2obe beS 3ol;n 2om" 11. f. w. 3>i Jvatlen, tBO bie 3''i' "i'^' bcfonbevS aiigegebeu ifl, ttiirb angeitommen, bafj bie 9Jote anf C e r t a n g e n jaljlbar ift unb tann fofortige^lagc eiugeleitet loerben. 2)er 3JnSfteUer einer Dfote, ber bag 3a^lung§Der|pre(^en inad)t nHb beffen llnterfd)vift biefelbe tragi, nui6 tompetent fein. aSatjnftnntge iiiib 33Uibftiinige finb iiaturgemajj infont= petcnt; ^lu^-Ianber, aitinbevj:ibrige iiiiD Bevtjciratl)ete ^rauen tbnnen gefe(5lid) unbefngt crtlart rccrben. 2)er ^liiSftcUer ift Bevantn)ort(id) nnb Berpflidjtot fi(^, ten genannten 8?etrag ber DJote bei beren S5crfall;eit ju sal^teii. (gr braudjt nidit »orl)cr jn beja^len ; foltte er e§ bennod) tljnu, unb babei nitterlaffcn, bie ytote JU Dernidjteu, fo bleibt feine 2>erantniortIid)teit anbeven ^erfonen gegeniiber, bie eine fcldje 9Jote, oljue iicuntnig ber Borl)ertgcn Se,;at)[nng uiib Bor ber g?evfa[I',eit, ficr eine 5>ergiitnng an ftd) gebvadit haben, DoUftantig bcftc^en. ©elbff tie Ouittung beS erften 3J^'»ng'5beredjtigtcn loiirbc in biefem galle einer britten ^JJerfon gegeniiber roertI)(o-3 fein. Sie *Perfon, in beren 9{amen eine 9?ote auSgeftellt ift, ifl ber gefet3lid)c 3nl)abcr, unt an fte mug bie 3.it)lung geid)tt)en. 3ft bie Sfote jcbod) einfac^ auf ben 3nt)aber auSgeftcUt, ol)ne eine beftimmte *Perfon jn nennen, fo tann ein S^ter, ber fte e^rlid) cvroirbt, biefelbe tollcttiven. Sine nadjfolgente "jjavtei, in beren Seftts eine 9Jote nad) bem erften 3"l?abcr berfelben fomnit, l)at ein beffereS ?lnfprnd)^red)t, al-J bev trfle SBefi^er, au§ bem ®runbe, b.ig jroifdjen bem 9hilftettcv nab bem erften 3al)Iung§bered)tigtcn irgenb ein S^erftantnifj ober eine 93ctin» gung befteljen mag, tie ter 3al)Iniig bei 35eifatt roiberfprid)t, bie tritte ^Urtei jetod), oljneSeiintnig te§5Porl;cvge^enben, jaljlt ten 2Bert^ nnb empfangt tie 'JJote. Da§ ©efeg t)dlt ftetS ben 'Mnfprud) ber britten *J3artei aiifrei^it. ®er 3nboffant ift Berantioorttid), rcenn ber StnSfteller ber 5Jote am SBerfalltag ber 3^1)liing berfelben nid)t nadjfommt. Sine auf tie Order einer *l.H-rfon auSgeftellte 9cote ninfj bei ber lU'bertragung on eine antere 'iferfon Bon ter erften intofrtrt njertcn unb ba bei bem jebeSmaligen Uebertragen cine aBevtl)» cntfi^abigung bafiir gegebeu rocrben, fo ^alt [id:) ber (e^te 3n^aber an ben nadjftDDrl)erget)enben unb alle anteren. 3n gaUen, too eine Otote al» 'jjfaub Ijinterlegt ift, reirt ter jeitroeilige 3nl)aber terfelben ter 3a')Iung§bered)tigte, unb mug biefelbe bei'm SJerfall foUeftiren. SnUofrtrung. ®ie auf ©cite 404 ongegebene (^ormgibtbieSlrtnnbSScife in ber cine 9Jote an^geneUt nnb iiibofftrt roerbcn follte. Uiiter Snboifivnng Bcvftcht man bie fd)riftlid)e Uctertragung anf bem 9tucfen einer 9fote, bnrc^ TOelite ber 3ntofiant oter Ueber= trager fic^ flir ten Setrag ter Dtote BerantTOovtlid) mac^t. Sic JBcranttoortli^fcit ber ^nhofftrcr. ®§ rcirt allgemein jugegebcn, bafj bie trei erften 3ntot= rirnngcn in tern Borftetjenten gormnlar anf etnS l)ev.iu§tora= men, t. t). tic offenc Snboirtvnng foirobl, aU bie ootte unb allgemeine, beredjtigcn ten 3iih'>ber ter 9Jote gteidjntafjig ju teren S^etvag nub geben iljm gleid)en 9lnfprud) an 3aoi§ ini 9Jid)t3al)lnng§fotI S^enfon'S. lUan Ijal fogar angcnommen, baf; in emer ottgeincincn 3nbDfrirnng ter 3nl)abcr ter DJote ta§ 9?ed)t ^at, tie SBorte "or order" nad) tem iljamen SI}a'5. QnanS oug,5nfiiIIen. Site bcfc^vantte (qualified) 3ntofftrung befreit ten 3ntDffanten Bon ieber SJerpflic^tung im %aUe GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. 493 ^citfoii uid)t 3al)(cit foDtc; tie SBortc " without recourse" lohiie Shicfaiiipvud)) eutbinbcn ben 3iitoffauteit Don jebev Scrpfiidjtmi.ibcni ^I'ljiibcr ber 9Jotc gegeiiiibct. ®ic bettn- iliinc)§w<:ifc ^utoiruuiig cvfldvt fidi jctbft buril) tl)vcii i£Bort« laut inib ii'ivb bloS in fpcjicUen gallcii gcbvaucfjt. 3ltlc 3n= boffirev ^llt^ eiii;eln unb inSgcfamnit fiiv ben iPetrag eiiter 9Jote fevaiitroortlid), Dorau^geje^t, bag biefelbe ini OJidjtjal;^ Innggfalle gel)ong protcflirt uiib em 3eber berfelben Don ber Jbatfadjc bcnadnidjtigt rcovbeit ifi. Xcv Gnboifivcr l)alt ^id) an feiiie SJorgdngcr, unb fo jnviicf bii° aiif bou 'Jln^fletter ber 9tote. ©obalb cine Jiotc pvoteiiitt ift, ift c§ nniungdnglid) iibt^ig, bag otte tnteveifitteii *^Jcifonen fofort bcnac^vidjtigt roerben. Sine S4tninlicI'!Rote. Obg(ei(^ ia§ anf £eiie 407 angegcbene alte ©d)roinblev< niitfdjen fdjon oft bloggei'teBt worben ift,finbcte^bod)aUiabvlid) ncHC Opfov. (Sin Sc^ein njirb anf;iefft*t. in roeldieni fi<^ em gavnift Dcvpflidjtet, je^n obcr STOiJlj Sljalcv jn jableii, fobalb er SEBaaren 5u einem bejiimnitcn Setrag Dertauft l)at. Sffienn man bann red^tS einen Sbeil be5 ®ct)ein§ abrcigt, fo entfteljt baraiiS einc 9}otc fiir einc betrad}t(ic^e Snmnie. Sicfe 9Jotc li'ivb bann in bor 33antDcrtanft niib fommt bamit in bie §anbe einor britton unb nnfdjiilbigen *l.!artei unb bev ^lugfiettev ber 9iotc nine biefelbe ido1)1 obcr iibel bejal^len. Sie§ ,5eigt, roie n'idjtig e§ tft, bag 3cl'«rinann aUe *]3apiere, bie ibm jur Unterfc^iift Dorgelegt roerben, Dorfic^tig licSt unb prilft. Uetiereinfommcn un^ tScrtragc. (Agreements aiul Coiitructs.) ®ic gefeglidje 2)efinition cmc'3 Contracts ift ein lleberein» tonmicn jwifdjen jroci ober mel)reren bajn befugti'n*l.ierfonen, uni filr eine geniiffe 9?ergjitnng irgenb cine nanil)aft gcniadjte ©adje 5n tt)un ober nidjt jn ttjun. 2)em,5nfolge fmb ,^anpt: bebingniffe eineS ftontratteS: bie '^3artcien felbft, fomie bercn gcfet3lid)c 4 fc^aften tijnncn n»r .ffonirafte eingeben, foweit fie i^re gefel}« lid)cn 'J.iriDilcgien ba^u be;ed)tigen, Staatcn imr im Sintlang mit ibrcr jjonflitution. 2)Jinbcria^rigc fijnnen Hn= ter geroijljnlic^cn SJcrljaltniffcn tcinc Sontrafte madjen, mijgcn jeboc^, irenn fie bag gcif(5lid)c "alter errei(^en, folt^c, in iljrer 3J?inbcriabTigtelt cingcgangeiic ifertrage, befiatigcn. Jpei= ratl)§Dertrdgc fiju:icn in jebcm ■Jlltcr abgcfc^loffen werbcn. Slobfinnigc nnb iDaljiifmnigc >|lerfoneii fmb gcfctjlit^ unfaljig, i'frtrdgc ein",n9f'H'"- ISinroiUignng ift nottjiocnbig jn jcbcni Sontraft. Sic mag burd) cin iSort, einen SSinf, eine ier» tragg nnb ift nnv bann binbenb, rocnn bie Scfliinmnngcn Dor "Jlblauf biefcr 3^'' angononmien lucrben. Jiie '^artei, bie baS Sttedjt ber l>orbanb gibt, fann ben 3(ntrag 3nriic{;,ie^en unb bciifelben 35evtvag mit ilnbern eiitgeljcn, folaitgebic crfie'|5ar= tei benfelbcn nid)t angenommcn l)3t, fdbft Dor ber fcftgejefeten 3cit ber ilnna^mc, ba ber Jlntrog nnr roiUfilrltd) unb auf teineSBergiitnng ober (Sntgclb geftil^t ifl. gin fdjriftlit^er Slntrag fann ju jcber3eit Dor ber 93enad)" ridjtignng ber 3"riirf'"'^'"f angenoinmen roerben. gbeiifo tann ber 5IntragfteUer bcnfelben ^u jeber 3^'' "or b;'ffcn 3ln> naljme roiberrufen. Sobalb jebod) cin 9tnnat)mcbricf ber ^»oft iibcrgeben ift, bicibt ber ilittrag binbenb, felbft bann roenn em SSiberruf fofort nad) bem Sbgaiig bcg?lnnal)incbriefe'J cintref= fen folltc. gin 9lnnabmebrief madjt ben Sjcrtrag giiltig Don bev 3eit ber 1>oftanfgabe an, nnb nic^t Don ber 3'''' ^e^ gmpfan« gc5 burd) 'i^en 9lntragfteUer, jcbod; mug bie ■Jlnnabme genau in Uebereinftimmung mit bem uvfpriiuglit^cn ^Intrag fein; jebc i)(brocid)niig roiirbe cinfad) einen ncnen 3lntiag l-ilbcn. ®ie 3lnuabme eineS SBorfdjlage^J, mUnblid) ober fc^riftlid), iji eine an5briidlid)cginn)illigiuig unb be§l)alb binbenb. fiine foldje aU'Sbviicflid^e ginioiUignng loirb nid)t burd) (Scroobnbeit ober Jpanbel^braucfe bcemtvdd)tigt. gin ftillfdjrocigcncer SJerirag, iDcun in Ucberfinftiniinniig mit bem gefniibeit 2)Jenfd)cn» Dcrftanb, ifi red)t'^gitlfig. 3- 2^- ^'J'?" 3one^ ,^ie^t einen JSedjfcI auf %■ SiDift, beuiSroift ansunebmcu Derioeigcrt, nnb 3ame§ ©mitt) acccptirt benfclteu, um ben Srcbit bC'3 3ot)n 3one§ ju roal)vcn, fo cntflcftt bavanS cin ftillfdiroeigcnbcv SBertrag, bem= jnfolge 3one§ ben Smith ■,» cntfd)dbigcn l)at. gin i'crtrag, anf em >J.T?if!Derftcl)en bc§ (MefctJcS geftiifet, ifl bennod) giiltig. iUan iiinimt an, bag ."sftermann bie ®efe(5e tennt, unb Uuroiffcnbcit ift teiite gntfdjntbignug. Sie§ jcboc^ bejioht fid) lebiglid) auf 9.!ertrdge, bie in ftrcnger Ueberein- flimmuug mit bem ©cfc^ unb frei Don Setrng fmb. gine iBcrtrag-^^Off 'rte, in ber ber 'Jlntragftellcr ber anbern 'J>aitei cine geroiffc 3fi' 5»>' Snuabnie fctst, faun nid)t obne bie 3'" ftimnmng bev jrocitcn 'l.!avtei ^uviidgejogeu roerben. Xa§ ■.Hblcbuen einer 9.U-rtrag»offerte enbet bie Sad)e. 92iemanb hat baa ;)fed)t, einen 'Jjcrtrag^Dorfc^lag anjuue^men, auger bie 'IJerfon, an bie er gevid)tet ift. Sie Consideration ober SertragSbebingung ifl ber Orunb ober bie ®ad)e, anf bie bin 5iDei*^3artcien ud) tontraftlic^ bin- ben, nub faun biefelbe in einem fiir ben 9>crfpred)er crroad)> fcnben Siiorthcil ober 9iad)tbcil fiir bie an^erc *}.5artci beftehen. l>crtvag'jbebiugungen fmb tcAnifd) roertbDoll nub gut, end) tann e^ Dovtommen, bag biefclbeit blo-j angcbeuiet nub Mid)t au'Jbviidlid) angegebeu fnb. gincv roert^Dollen ::Bebtn« gnng licgt entrocber ®elb, gigeiithnni, einc J)ieuftleiflnng, ober eiu 5n erieibenber Jfadjt^cil ju CSmnbe. gin .^ei' ralhSfontraU j. 8 gel)ijrt in bicfe piaffe. S?crtrdge, anf eine iogcnaunte gutc 35ertraggbebingung geftii^t, roerben ge^ robbn(id) auf (Srunt Don 8lntgDevroanbtfd)aft ober Jiebe ein« / \ \ 494 GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. gegaiigen, betcii ©oHjie^uiig tann jebod) nic^t getic^tlid) er» Smiingeii rei-ttcn. 2ie g^ultigtcit ctiier iH-rtraggbeMiigung eviueift f"!) aii§ liem Umftaiib, njonadj 1>nn i^erfprtdjer ciii SBortljetl oter ter anteren ^avtei ein 9Jact)tlKil baraiiS evreai^ft. ?tcgt ctn gejetjlic^er SBertI) 311 Oruiite, fo ift beffeu Oibge unerl)eblict). %u6) braiit^t bem i'fvfpvccijev iiic|)t immer ein 3.5ortl;ei( ou§ bem $icrtvag 511 enradjieit, rote 3. 3?. 6oim 3nbofrtrcn emev SZote, roobei ber 3u^o)l"il■c^■ fic^ bhu bet, cl)iic eiiieii SJortbeil baraug jii sieben. 93erfpricbt je= bo(I) 3cinaiib, eiiie geroiffe 3ad)e 311 tbiiii, obiie Dafur ein gntgelb ober gntfcbabigung ,5n Dcrabveben, f o ift tie 9ad)tau!5= fiibvnng biefcS SerfpvccbenS fein SBerttaggbvud). ,311 ben gc= niigenbeii Oviinben tanii man and; -Mnffdjitb ved)nen, ba^ ®v« irarten tiou 3ablungen ober bie ansfiibvnng etneS anbeven ^ontratt^, ebcnfogegenfeitigeS5erfpved)iingen, roenn bicfelbcn gleicbjeitig gcmacht ftnt, unb enbtid; and; ba0 SBorljanbenfein einer moralifdicn SBevpfltdjtmig, alS 3. SB- ba§ 3al)lnng5« Uevfpred)en einev Sdintb, bie fdjon gefet^lid) Berjabvt ift, roo= buvdj bie 35evbinb[id)teit be5 ScbnltneiS erneuevt wtrb. llrfo^cn, tocl^e SBcrtriigc ungiilJig moreen. S^ gibt Biele ©viinbe, rceldie einen SBertrag ccrnicbten Imu lien; tev ^a«ptfa(^Iid)fte ift Setrug. man uctftebt tavuntev ivgeiib einen iinnftgriff einer ^5cifon jelbft, ober inm eiiicm non berfelbcit jpc',icll ante nfirten 95ertreter untcvfdirieben ift. ®ie5 be3iebt fid) nidjt auf nrfpriing(id)e Serpfddjtungcn,. fcntevn nur anf nitttel= bare 3?evbiiitlid)teiten ober rtaUe, in beiien bic Sdjulb einer brittcn fivion bereitci eyifitrt. 3nm iBeifptct, im JaU einer 9Jote iBroion'g, jablbar an 3Diie§, mnjj ein Serfpredjeu bou Sinitb biefelbe 3n sablen, fdjrifttic^ genmdjt fetn, nm bintenb 3U fein. Senn )8\:omn ben 3oncl beanftvagt, SBaaren an ©rnitb 3u liefern, unb babei benierft: „3dj roerbe bc3al;len, roenn cr e§ nicbt tbut," ober „3i^ roerte feljen, bafj 3I)r be= jablt roerbet," fo ift bie'3 (ebiglit^ ein 5fnerbieten son !8iivg= fdjaft, nub bemnad) bloSutittclbare SUcrbinblicbteit, unbfoinnit foinit nid)t in ben 3?ereid) ber ©tatnten. ®agt jebodj 93roron: „iSd)reifcen Sie e§ auf nteine 9{ect)' uung," ober „3d) roerbe bafiir be3al)Ien," fo entftebt tarau6 eine bivette 2Serpflid)tung nub biefelbe braiicbt nid)t fdjriftlid) 3n fein. ®ie§ Oefeg ft^reibt ferncr Dor, bag, nni einen i^ertauf biu« bent 3U ntacben, ber Sdnfer crft einen Jb^i' bc0 Sanfgnig an» netjnieit unb roirf(id) enipfangen mug; ober 3roeiten^, bajj ber» felbe ein Sraufgelb geben, ober 3ln3ablung madden mug, ober britteni, bag ein fd)riftlid)e§ 5)(emoranbum ober 92oti3 oon tern 5>erFauf gemai^t roirt, mit ber ltnterfd)rift beiber $ar» teicn ober beren Stellrertrctev. (gin foldjcS ®d)riftftitcl mug foiocljl bag SBertraggobjett aU aucb bie Sjevgiititiig entbaftcn. 3ntunft!lDertanfe con SSaaren, bie fd)on je^t im felben 3»= ftanbe oovbanben finb, in bcm fte fpatergeliefertroerteufoflen, lomincn ebenfaUg in ben SBercid) ber Statuten. Sic iRci^tfcrtigungcn, bie in einein'iJ.U-osegoevfabren loegeit eiite§ ^ontratteS gemac^t luerben tiinnen, luib bercn eg elf gitt, fiiit tnrj gefagt bie foI» genbcu: Sugfiibrnng, 3iiblnng, Siiipfaitg, giitlidier Sergleid) unb 3"fi'tetenftel[nng, fd)ietgrid)terlid)e gntfdjeitnng unb 3nevtennnng, bag ed)itiebeit eineg anbeveu *!|.U-o5effeg, giitlaffung, Jlnerbieten, SBevjabrnitgggefe^, ®egenforberung uifb 33erminberung beg St^abcnevfa^cg. SIflcnturcn un^ 'iBcuoUmadttigtc. (Agency mid Attonie.T.) SSenn eine 1.ser)Dn ermadjttgt ift, eine anbeve in gefdjaft= (id)erS8e5iebniig 3n Dertreten, entroeber unter einemaugtriirfs lid)eu ober ftillfdjroeigenbem SSevlvage fo rotrb fie ber Slgeiit ber (e^teren. 2)ie §.inblung eiucg 'Jlgenteu, roenn berfelbe gefe^lid) bevodmadjttgtift, iftgleii^bebeutent nut oonberfelben Xragioeite, alg bie ber Jpauptperfon. giir geroijbniidje .liou^ tratte 3ur Stnfeljnng eineg i'eBollniad)iigten geniigt ein tuiivtlidjeg ober fd^nftlidieg Ucbereintontinen, ftontratte bage« gen, bie einen ©tempcl bebingcn, tcnnen blog Ooii einein iin= ter Srief nitb ©iegcl beftdtigtcn 5tgenten gemac^t roerben. (Sin 3(gent tann alg foldjer bnrc^ feine §anb(nng unb ol)ne eine fi5iinlic^e (Srnennnng eingefcfst roerben. 2Bo eine .5>anpt= perfon lotllentlid) iinb roiffentlid) einer anberen eriaubt, in ibrem 9!amen jn banbeln, luirb augenommen, bag biefelbe bie anbcre ta3n beDoIlinad)tigt tjabe. 3'' S'iUf", rco bag ®cfet3 mebrcre 'perfoiieii alg 9lgenteu eriteniit, entfd)etbct eine TOeftr^ beit terfelben bie ipaiiblnng. S)er Utnfang ter 3Serbinblid)feit teg *4.!rtn3ipalg fiir bie Jpanblungeu eineg 3tgenteu i)auqt »on bciii (Siate ber(5rntad)= tignngab, bie bemfelben augbriidlidj ober tin ftiHfcbioeigenten ?Jertrag ertbeilt luorbcn finb. Die SJevbiublidjtcit biJrt anf, roo ber 3lgcnt feine i8eB'olIntad)tigniig iiberfdjreitet, angge= nominen ber *)3rin3ipal 3iebt im iScrongtfein ber Jbatfadte ben Sn^cn baoon. ^ \ GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT 495 Scrf^ittient Hrten don Vgentfiiiaftcn Sic oerfc^icteitcii 9tvieii Boit Jlgciitictjaftcn fiiib einget^cilt ill fpejicUe iiiib atljcmeiuc, beidjraullc iinb iiubc(ct)vaittte, .H'oiiimiifioiiave iinb iUJalli'r. Sine ipoiiellc OUjeiiifc^aft ift tie (Sniiac^tigiiiig ,511 ciiiet gc« loiffeii ciiijcliicii Apautliuig, uiiC' 3etfv, tcv mit euicm «pcjial= '.'Igeiitcii ©cicftafte tt)iit, iniiu fui) aiif feiii oigoiie^ Stififo ocv= rirfjcrii, rcic rocit bit- 3>oUiiiad)t bc-J Sctveffeiibcii gel)t. Uiitcr @cuera(=3(gciitur ucrftcbt man bie a3e»oflindcl)tiguiig jit ivgeiib eiiiev §aiibliiitg in eiuciu bi-fonbcven (Sefdjaft, unb ift bavin bev *15vin;ipal fiiv aUe JpauMungcn be§ agenton, foroeit fit- fein (5Jc(d)afl bctveffcn, Ofrantroovtlid). Sef.tjranttc -agcnticljaft ift eine foldje, in roetc^er bcfonbeve ■MnrociinngenbieSBoIlinad)tbe«3lgenieiifeflfe§cii niib bcf(^ran» ten. 3ii unbcfc^vanltev -itgeitifdjaft ift ber Sgent crmddjtigt, ivgeiib meli^e iDJittel aiijnroeitben, bie jiir (Srreic^uiig eineg geiDiinid)teii ^iiUS nijtbig evjdjeinen. Ser iloininiirtoiiSr ober fiominifrton§«Saitfmaii« l)at iaS ffiigcutljnin feincS '•}.U-iii3tpal'3 obcv Inftraggcter-S in (cinem cigencn i'efi^ nnb jnni 93cvfanf, unb man be^otdjnet foId)e§ (Jigcntljnm alg ttoiiriguation^roaaven. gin foldjer 3tgent, rocnn in sPeglcitnng cincv !iSaaien» fenbung ouf bev $Reife, tcivb Suijercargo gcnannt. ©in a)idf(cv ift angcftcllt, um25evt:infc jroifdjcn bcm 25cvtaiifev nnb fidnfev 5n Bevmittcin. (Sr l)at ba-ji jn uevtanfenbe gigentt)um nid)t in [einem sycft^, '""1) t""" «i' baSfelbe \n feinein eigciien 3fa= men oevtaiifen. 2Hi( moiiidcn -XuSiiafjmen ift teiirJtgent gebnnbcn, iiber ben •■^Jvei'j bet Bevtauften SBaarcn iRedjenjdjafi abjulcgon, bi5 cr felbft ba§ ®elb fiir biefelbeu oon beni .fiSufet eingejogen Ijat. Sffieiin em 3lgcnt im Siamen nnb nntcv bev 35eDoUmad;ti= guiig feiiieS ^ivinjipal^ obev 3lHftvagiicbcv-5 eiiien ftontvatt eingeljt, fo ift ev gcroijljnlid) nidjt povfijiilid) t^aftbav. Sev -Mgent l)at gcfc^lidjeit -Jlnfpvnd) anf baS gigentljnm in ftiuev §anb, nnb ba« 9fi-d)t bagfolbe 511 Bcvfid)evii, nm fid) bev 3al)lnng bev it)m jnfonimenbcn it'ommifrion ,511 Bevgetnifjevn. @v ift ebenfallS jnm (Svfa^ Bon .Vtbften nub gntfc^abigniigeu beved)tigt, bie er, oljne fciu SJevfdjulben, in feinev SieUiing al§ 3Igent ju jaljlen gi'saningen fein mag. Sev *}Jviit5ipal t)at au'djielfeitige 9fed)te gegeu bvitte ^Jerfo= nen, ini SBevljaltnijj ju feinev cigcnen syevbinblidjtcit, nnb taiin gegen biefelbeu JJlagc fiiljvcn, iBcnn biofclben BevantiBovt= lid) Tinb obev JTontvatte mit bcm 3lgenten abgefdjloffen I)abeii. gv ift bvittcn '•JJevfoneit gegeniibev fiiv bie JJadjIciffigteit obev Ungefd)i(flid)teit bc^ Slgenten Dcvantrooitlic^, menu bevfelbe in bev i!Dll,5iet)nng feinev 3(gentfd)aft, obgleic^ nic^t nntcv feiuev biveficn 3(uroeifnng, I^anbclt. Uiitev gciBiJbnlidjeu Umftanben ift bev 'fvinjipal fiiv a\ie gcl)Iev, Sdjiibignngcn, Ucbevtvctuiigeu nnb 95evuad)ld|fignn» gen be-3 3lgenten Bevantroovtiid), folangc biefelbeu im tegel» mdgigen iBevlanf bev 3tgeutfd)aft Bovfalleu nnb i^ncn fcine biiS.riUige 3tbrid)t be§ 3tgenten 511 (^vunbc licgt. I>cv 3lgeut ift im glcic^cn ®vabe mit bcm ^Jviujipal fiiv alleS Unvedit Bev< iinttBOvtlic^, ba§ ev im 31uftvag bc§ -livinjipalS bcgebcu maq. jjeiu 3lgent bat ba§ 9fed)t feiiie SoUniadjt an eiiien aiibcvcn JU iibevtvagen, cS fei benu, bag ev fpcjietl baju erma(^tigt ifi. giue iRotij, anbcn31gcntengevi(^tet, ifl gleiifibebeutenb mit cincv 9}otij ai\ ben '^Uinjipal. (Selbet, buvd) einen 3l3eutcn auSbejablt, tonnen buvt^) bcu 'JJvinjipaltBicicvgeiBonneu roevben: evfieaSipeuiibte 3ablung im 3vvtbuin geinad)t ift; .^mi-'i""^ "'f'"' *'« S.'bingnngen, uiitev beucii fie bejablt rouvben, nid)t anSgcfiibvt Tmb-, bv't= tens iBCiiu bev 3lgcnt nngcfiaUid) jii beren ,3"'1)''"'3 OfJ""'"' gcu iBovbeu, obcv cnblid), menu biefelbeu Don bcm3U3enten ju cinem nngcfctJlidjeu .c,wid ocvrccubet iBovbcu finb. giue 3(gcutfd)aft fann anfgcbobcn wevbcu, fercobl buvcb bie 3uviicfuabme bev 9>ollinad)t fciteuS be^ '(JvinjipalS, al§ bnrd) cine gevicbtlicbe @ntfd)eibnng. !Bcf(f)Uforcnc ('^rflaruttgen. (AfBdiiTits.) gin AflSdavit ift cine gcfd)vicbeue, eiblid) tetraftigte grtla^ vung Bov einem .^nv gtbuabmc bcfugten ©eamtcn, nub Hn'ev= fdjeibct ftt^ infofcvn Don einevSepofition obev 3[nSfage, a\S in bem etfteven tein Sveii5Devbi3v miiglid) ift. 3Benn cine gvtla» vung anf 3lnovbnnng bc3 Oevidjtg Berbeffcvt roevben foil, fo inufi fie Bou 9Jcnem befri)iBovcn roevben. 3n bev i8cfd)reibuug Bpii Sctvagen, Ovteu unb >;n'vfoucu n. f. ib. , fcUte c§ ftot* 5UBeilafrig fein; felbft roo bev ii^.tvag iu llngeroifibeit ift, uinf: eine bcftimmtc iSnmmc evroSbui rocrbeu. Sev Jag nub Cvt an bem bicfflbe befdjroorcn ift, miig cbciifalB angcgcbeii ieiii. 2)er Saturn ift in bem fogciianuteii Jurat, bev Ovt in bem Venue ber gvllovnng augegeben. 3m gatle ber UufSbigleit einer ^evfon, ju Icfen ober }U fdireiben, obcv imgalle i oiriMinbbeit, mug eSbaSJur.it cviDei= feu, bafj bie gvtldvung bov *i*evfoii Dovgelefeu roovben ifl. unb incn 3'-"'*en obev Untcvfd)vift miife Bon 3^"9f" beftatigt jeiii; cbcnfo mnfi ba§ Jurat in alien Sdllcu Bon bem Seamtcn nutcvfdjvicbcu fein, Bovbembie gvtiavung bctdiroovi-n ift. Sa§ Jurat ift ber Sbeil bev gvtidvung, iu tem augegeben ift, luie, iBcnu, Don roem nub Bov roem bev gib abgelegt roovben ift. Sa§ Venue gibt einfad) ben Ovt, roie folgt: pate of 1 ^ County of J gill SBcglaffcn be§ Venue ifl fcbliinm, ba bie§ baS ein^igc i^eiDeiSftiict ift, bafi bie *l.!evfoii, bie ben Sib abiummt, befugt ift, 3eufleu cin5iifd)robveu. 311 Sdllen, roo ba§ (S'cvfon, gcroiibnlid) minber= jdbvig, bie Tttl) fiiv cine Sfcibe Don 3ab>eii jit cincv Sieiift' Iciftnng Berpflidjtct bat, um eine .Hniift obev cin ^panbrocvt ,vi cvlcvncn. ®iefe Sln-vpflidnung fotlte jdjviftlid) gemadft fein u\C!> bio Unterfd)vift be? I'ebvIingS foroobl aU beffen SatevS cut. b.ilten, obev im iyalle beffen SobeS obev Unfdbigtcit, bie bev ilfuttev ober be« gcfctilidjen l!ovmiinb«. Scbvlingc fiub uidjt \ \ 496 GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. Iot)nt?ve(^tigt, aiijjei- btc§ i(i auSbriidlic^ aiigegeben ; ber ajjei= ftcv icbodi, in (einemSerljaltiiij; 311111 Seljriiiig, ift gcsmuigeii, fill- beffeit arjtlid^e S!?ef)aiibliiiig 511 bejaljleii, foroie bciifelbeii mit otten iJebeiiSbcbiirfiiiffeii 311 Ucvforgen 2)ev aWeifter ift 311 bcm Ootteit (grroerb be§ SehvIingS berec^tigt, unb fciiic iSiad^tbefiigniB iiter beffeii ^erfoii lommt bcr bcv (Slterii ober bci' Hcrmnitba gleic^. ®a§ Slblebeii beg TOeiftevd enbet bie 8el)re, auger iit golge bcftimiittcv 65cfe^Dcrorbiuiiigeii. ®er a)!ciftet tatiit ben Seljvtiiig iiidjt eiitlaffeii, felbfl wciiu bevfelbe firf) 3iir Srtcniuiig beg ^anbroertl itiitaiiglid} evnjcifeit fotltc; bod; tijinieit foldje gade auf giitcii Wrinib Ij'ni coii beiii Oevic^t emic^iebeu roerbeii. arteieii 2d)ieb§ri(^ter ernjatjlt. 3it gemijt)li= (ic^cu gatleit icirb bie ©tveitfvage ciiier ciu3igeu *(3evfott t)cr= getegf, bie bag SBertraucit beiber I'avteieii beftt't iiiib mit bem ®e(e^ uiib ber 33enjei'5fii()niiig Bcllftftiibig tiertraut ift. ed^iebgvic^ter fuib iiid)t biirc^ gefc(j(id)e l^ovidjrifteit jitr 3"- laffuiig obev ?tu§fd;lujj tioii 3?ciucigftiideii Bcrpflidjtet, aiig= geiiommeit, bem ift in bem Uebcveintommeii angbriidlic^ »or= gcfeljeii. ®ie freiroidige lIiiteriBevfuiig beiber '^arteien luitev eiiieii fd;iebgrid)terlic^en ©priid), ol)iie bie §utfe Bon @crid)tg= Berorbnungen nnb gefelslidjen iyorfdjrifteii, !ann jcberseit Bor ber I'erLiffentlidjiuig beg 2'd)icbgfpnid)g sen irgenb einer ber "^Sarteien snviidgenomineii tBerben; eg iBiirbe bieg jebod) bie iBiberrufenbe 1.!artei fiir @d)abenerfa^ Beraiitroovtlid) madjcn, eiiifdjlicglidj atter ,arteieii gcfe^= lid) jnr (Singe^ung eineg Sertragg befngt fn'l', ""t' ^ift i'"' SBetrag nnbejal^lt ift. (Sin Assignment tragt atie mittelbaren SJerbinblidjtciten nnb SBiirgfc^ofteu in fic^, felbft tsenu biefc in bem Sotument nit^t erroa^iit finb (£g ift gebrSni^tii^, in einer Uebcrtraggnrtniibe bie 3!Bovte "assign, transfer and set over " anjUlBenben; "give, grant, bargain and seU" jeboc^, ober irgenb mettle anbere Sorte, tic bie Slbftdjt einer 'Uebertragnng Bon gigeiUl)iim feiteng bcr 1'arteien augbriitfcn, geniigen Bor bem (Sefe^. So eine Uebertragnng Bon Stgentl^nm jnm SSeften ber ©lanbigcr ftattfinbct, ift bie fofortige wirllidje Ucbergabe bcg« felben nnbcbingi notfjig. SBcini eiii Assignment unter bem gemeincii3tc(^te gemac^t loirb, lanu bcr Uebertragcnbc getBiffe (Sldubigcr Bor5icl)c:i; in ©taatcn jebod), in bencii biefc Slrt Bon Assignment Bou ben "Statntcu Borgefebeit ift, ift cin folc^cr 3>or3ug nnmijglic^. gin Assignment 3nm 33eften ber ®Ian= bigererftvedtrK^ iibcrbag fammtlid^egigentljnm bcgAssignors, ttjo nnb >Bag eg anc^ fei, foroeit baffelbc nic^t uiiter bem ®efc^( eyetntiongfrei ift. 3Benn Berfidjertcg gigentfjnm Bertauft loirb, foQtc bie 3?erfid)crnnggpoti3e ebenfattg iibcrtragen rocr= ben. Sieg fann jcboc^ nur mit ber giuroiUigung beg 25er= fidjererg gcfdjeljen nub muft beffen ginroiUignng fofort cingc= t)oIt rocrbeu. gin genaueg I^er5eid)iii6 beg iibertrageneu gigent^nmg fotltc jcbeg Assignment bcglciteu. aScrfauf«l»rierEauf iiberlicfcrt roirb, ober tBcnn ein Jbcil beg .tanfgelbcg bcjatjlt ift, ift ein filjriftlidjcg Sotument iiid)t nijtbig, eg ift jeboc^ ein bequemeg 9?en)eigmittel fiir bie Uebertragnng ber 3Inred)tc. Um jebod; bie 3ntereffen eineg .ftauferg gcgcn bie ©lanbigcr beg I'crtauferg jn fdjiiljcu, ift bie Bill of Sale obcr I'ertaufgred/nung iii fid) felbft nid)t ge= niigcnb; eg muft 3ugleid) eiuc Ucbergabe beg gigcntbumg ftatt« fiiiben. ®olange tcin iBirt(id)er nnb boucruber 3?eft^iBedifcI ben 3Sertanf begleitet, iff berfctbe ben ®lanbigern beg 3.!er' Iiiuferg forool)(, alg ben folgenben ©lanbigern nub §PPotl)c. taren gegcniibcr ungiiltig, eg fei bcnu, baft bcr ifanfer bcroeifen !aun, baft fein Sanf in gntcm ®lanbeii geinat^t roar, of)ne bc= kL ;;c K- ■^ GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPAR 1 MENT. 497 Ijattc, taSgigeiillfuin in I'cii JiSiibcii bcS^ertaufevS su laficii. Vcrfd)rcit>un0cn. (Bonds.) Sine geft^riebeiie Urliinbe, in bev ciii Jljeil fic^ »erpf(i(^tet, ill ciitcv aiigegctciicii 3f't ci"f gfiwiffe Summe ait etiie tc* flinimlo *pcvfon filr eiiic genjipe SJergiitiiiig 311 jaljleii, iiciiiit man ciiicit Bond obcr ^c^iilbBcrfc^vcttiiiig. SevSfrpfli'^'fti" njivbOhUyor,t'er ©Kiubiger Obligee geiianiit. Siefc S8fgriff^» beftimiiniitg gilt fitv atle Bonds; im 3l(Igemeiiieii jct'oe^reevbeii biefe Xotiimciite iiiir atS 58ilrgfd)afteii fitv tic SBottjie^itiig obcv SJid^tDoKjicljititg gcroiffev SJertrage gcgebcii, bie btr Oliligor eiitgel;t, ititb con bercit Svfiilluitg dbevi8ritd)bic@iil« tigtcit bcis Bonds abljditgt. ®erobl)iilic^ n?irb ber Bond jiiiit boppclteit iBctrag bcr Sdjulb ait-3gemad)t, bic betii Obligor Hitter bfii S^cbiiigiiiigeit criBachfeit laiut, itiiter Sarlegitiig bcr ■Jltatfadje, bay bie gcitaniite ©itiitme bie Strafe ift, alS Iii|ui = birtcr ©d)abciierfat<, iiit gatlo bcr SJidjterfiitlung ber poii bcm Obligor eiitgegaiigciicii SJcrtragSbebiitguiigeit. gilt 3ltt berSJorfeljuiig, burc^ bcit bie grfiiUuitg ciiteS Bonds uitiiuiglid) gemadjt mirb, erIS|t ben Obligor Don aOer iBev= l-iiibltdjtcit. gill Bond taitii iioc^ nad) 3roaiijtg 3a^rc»« "on bcm 9>ei = fatltag ait, eiitgetlagt rocrbeit. gilt Bond fiiv bic ciitfad)c 3ab'ii"g i^oii (Selb uitterfc^eibet fid) coil eiiier $>aitbnote itnr burc^ ba^ ©iegel. Stot^fovationen. (Corporations.) SBenii fid) me^rere ^erfoiicn jiir ?(u§fiil)rung eineS gemein» fd)aft(id)cii C^cfdjaft? ober fojialcit .3nJC(f^ u.-rcinigeii, fo !Lin» ncii fie, ineiui fic tooUeit, cute ^ntieiigefellfdjaft griinbeii; cine Jlrt Atom)Jagnoiigefd)aft, tpcld^el bicaj?ittel ^Jlder Bcreinigt nnb bod) niir cine bcfd)raii[te 5>erantn;ort(id)toit aiiferlcgt, inbcm jeber ?(ttionar itnr filr ben Setrag feiner OUticn oerbinblidi ift. 3it ben Stoaten hat ber gcfcggebenbc ifijrper bic 5Wad)t, bie Sorporationen ju reguliren, in ben Jerritoricn ift bie§ ber 33nnbc'°=9tcgieviing ant)eintgcgebeii. 2)ie wirflidjcn iifoften ber@riinbnngcincriiorporation tclanfcit fid) anf cine,ftleinig = fcit untcr 5el)it Xlialcrn, nnb bc)'tct)eit mcifteitS in ©cbii^ven bc§ 'StaatSfefrctdrS. 9;.id)bcni bie 3f''ll"""9 ber 3lttien lic[(eii= bet i|l, wivb cine SJevfammlnng ber Jlfttonare bernfen, nnb je» bcr bcrfoU-cit ift ,;» finer Stiinme fiir jebe 3lltie bcred)tigt, bic er cntipcbcr fclbfl bcft^t ober Bertritt. ®iefe Stimme fiir jfbe 'Jlftic taint cr nun in bcr Sirettoreniral)! fiir jcbe jit er» redl)[cnbe ^crfon abgeben, ober aber, er tann awd) eiiicin ber 2)ivcftoien fcoicl Stiiiimcn jnroenben, aU bie 9tn3al)( fciitcr Jtriicn tniiltiptijirt niit ber ?liijal)l bcr jn crroiitiienbcit JivcN torcn ergibt. ®einnai^, inenn cin 9lttionar 5cl)it 3(ttten oer. tritt nnb c^ finb fed)§ Eircrtorcn }u erTOal)len, fo if^ cr 511 fec^jig Stiiuincn bcrct^tigt, Bon bcnen cr nad) 3?eliebcn einem jcben ber Sirettorcn 5el)it, ober breien jroanjig, ober eiiicnt aUe fed)5tg jnroenben tann, ober in irgenbeinetn aitbcren SJer- battnifj, folaitge eS nid)t fed),',ig -Stimmeit iibevfdircitct. 3)ie fo evroahltcii ®ircftorcn Bevfammeln fic^ fobolb roic mijglid) nad) ber SBa^l, nut cineit *^raftDenten, 4>ice»~|!rdfiben" fen, (Setrctdr nnb ®d)o(5tneif}er jn errodt)fcn, nnb nad) bercn OnftaHirnng loniteit bie @cfd)aftc bcr jtovporation begonitcit rcerben. Sic 0cfe(5e in ben Berfd)icbenen ©taaten, bic fit^ anf bie ^\itforporation |old)cr ©cfcUft^oftcit bcjiehen, fmb jiemlid) bie g(eid)en, nnb bic anf Scitc 466 angegcbcnc gorin bet Wi'.- wantce aBaffer>(Sa§=i?onipagnie mag al5 i8eifpic( bienen, reie biefe roic^tige ijffentlit^e ^anblnng ausgefii^rt roirb. U vtu n ben. (Deeds.) Unter Deed Berftet)t man ein fchriftlid)e^ Siofnmcnt, in njcld)cm Saiib, ©cbditbc ober(iitbere§3"'^f')or Boit ciiier'^icrfon anf cine anbere iibertragcii iBevben. SiefeS Xotiiinont luirb niiterfd)ricbcii, gcftcgclt nnb nad^ gcfc^iiii^ei! 95orfd)riftcii iibov= geben. g5 iiiiijj Don gefc^lid) bajn bcfngteit'^crfonen an§gc= fiil)rt iDcvbeii uiib tann entrocber anf ^^japier ober *iiergament gcfd)ricben ober gebrndt fein. ®ie Jlnevfennnng einc§ I)e<.d. tann nut Bor geroiffcn^'crfonen ()e(d)ct)eii, bie in ben Bcrfdiic beneii *taateitbiffcriveit inbgeii, aber in ben meificn gvicbeit;- rid)tcv, 9Jotave, ftanjleiridjter, (i^cridjtsbeamte, Siivgecmciflcv nnb anbeve in fic^ begrcifcn. Uin einen Deed red)ti^giiltig 311 iiiad)cn, muf; eiiie 3.>criBillignng unberocglidjcn gigcntlntmiS nnb cine geniigenbe Hergiitnng bariit anSgcfprodjcit fein. Uin gigentbnin red)tSgiiltig iibertragen jn fiinnen, mug ein 9J?oitn ober cine Jran bci gefunbcm 3?erftanb, Bon gcfe^lidjem filter nnb ba§ gigcntl)nm red)tindBig criBorben fein. Scr ?ln§ftcUer einc§ Deeds roitb Grantor, bcr gntpfSnger Grantee gen.iiint. 9Eo bie ®cfe^c eS nid)t befonbcrS regnliren, iniifj bie gran be§ 9lu§ficllcr^ ben Deed mitnntcrfdjrcibei!, fic iDiirbe foitfl nac^ bent Jobe bc^S ai(aniie§ nnb lDdl)renb bcr iiatiirlid)cn Saner i^re-j Seben^? 311 einem Jrittljcil beg gigcntt)niii'5 bcred)tigt fein. ®ie mng biefe 9Inertennuiig fveiiBiUig nnb an-J eignent 5lntrieb ntad)cn, nnb ber "i^camte, DoriBeld)cnt biefe ■Jlncrtcnnnng gcfd)iel)t, inn6 fciitcUiitcrfd)rift al'3 3>^i'9i''fi bafiir geben, bag fein 3'B'ii'g gebrand)t lonrbc, 11111 bie giitiBiUignng jn cvtjalfen. iKan tann nid)t Bovftd)tig gcitng fein, iiad)3nfehcn, bag ei" l>'^ed rec^tmdjjig Bor3fiigcii ancrtannt nnb geftempelt ift. SBcnn in einem S'ofnment Jlbdnberungen nnb Jtittcrlinea* tioneii BDrgcitommcn iBcrbcn, fo foUtcit biefe am nnteven giibe notirt nnb Don 3f''3f" bcftdtigt fciit. Viad) ber Sln> crfcnnitng beS Deeds ift gjicmanb bercd)tigt, anc^ nnv bie gcvingftc 'Jlciiberitiig 311 niad)en. 3rgenb cine Jlenbernng sn ©niiftcn bcS gmpfdiigfr« mad)t ben Deed tDertl)log. aSenn eiu Warranty Deed (?lUgeineinet i!?iirgfd)aft«fc^ein) gegcbcn loirb, fo Derpf(id)tet ftth bcr^InSftcUcr, ba« ilbertrfi'>--- gigent^um gegen alle nnb jebc 51nipriid)f Quit-claim Deed (i<;er5id)tIeiflnitg§=Url| Mn^ftellcr Bon alien 9lnfprii(^cn anf ond) Ben alien lUrpflic^tungcn. 9ia(^ ber Uebergabe cineS Deeds foUte c betreffenben @cti(^t regiflrivt irerben. kL FT 498 ~7\ GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. 8H»fd)riftcn i>on !ScfiHucfun9en. (Abstracts of Title.) Unter biefeii serlleljt man eiiic tiirsgefafjte Sefdjretbung aller Deeds, auf beiten 9iec^t§anfpriicl)e ruljeit, forote ber ge= vic^tlid) aiiertanntcn (3d)u(ben unt aiiberev Sotiimente, bie biefe 5lii(prucf)e betreffeii — cine Uebeiftc^t ber unterfd)eibcii= beii Jljeite ber uerfcijiebeiien Sotumente aii§ benen bie %\it\-- llvtiuibe beftel)t. 2)ie 2:ite(6eroeife fiub geTOb^nlid; Uebortragiingeit, 2:efta= iiieiite, ■•Inorbninigen unb Setrete beg ©eric^tl, Urtljeile, ge= vid)t(id)e SBertaitfe, sBefd^Iiiffe ber SegiSlatiir unb be§ ifoii- greffeS. lBurgf(i)aft wn^ 3i(i)cr()eit. (Guaranty.) tJtiie Guaranty ifl btc ffierftdjevung eiiier ^erfoit, bag eine iinbere ^erfon eine fpejielle §anb(ung au§fiit)ren roirb. Seuu3. S. "A" bent "B" eine 9Jotc gibt unb "C " bnvd) fein 3nbofrivcnbe§ScI>rittftutf§ firt) bem "B-'gegeniiber Berbnrgt, bag "A" ant2?erfalttag jaljlen roirb, folcirb "C" ber Guaran- tor, ©eine SBerantroortUdjteit ift auSbriicflid), tjijrt jebo^ anf, roeun " B " bie DJote bet Sgerfad ernenern foUte. Sie i8iirg» fcftaft einer SottettiDn ift uerfc^ieben bon einer 3i^Iui'S^* garantie. Sie erftere garantirt, bag ba§@elb totlettirbor ift, bie le^tere, bag e§ bei Serfall gejaljit roirb. 3m erfteren )5alt mug bie garautirte ^erfou int ©tonbe feiu, ju beroetfeu, bag ber uottjige gifer im SSerfud; beg (fiu,?iel)eug be§ @elbe§ angcroenbet ronrbe; im jroeitcn gad tji foli^e S8eroeigfiil)rung uid)t ubt^ig. Um eine 5?ote ju garantireu, brancfit man bIo§ fetnen 5Ja = men auf 'itw 9f itrfen berfelbcn ju ft^reiben, ober, roie e§ ge= roolinftd) genannt roirb, btefelbe gu inbofftren. 9Bictrje(»err unK SPitctJjcr. (Landlord and Tenant.) giue Lease (9MietIjg= ober *pact)ttontratt) ift ein SBertrag, ber einerfeitg ben SBefi^ nub beu Oeung Bon ©ruubeigentbnm ober nnbeireglidjem Out, anbrerfeitS bie 3a!)tung einer ge= luiffen iTOietlje, ober fonftigcii ginlommcnl bebiugt. SBer Saub unb ®ebaulid)teiten bcfi^t nub fo(d)e an anbere oermie- tl)et ober Berpadjtet, roirb Landlord genannt, unb berjenige, ber ben tcmporareit @enug con bem einem anberen getjiirigeu @runbeigcntt)nm l^at, ift oer Tenant. 2>ie Jauer unb SBebingnngen ber ©efi^naljme fiub in bem ie nnberoegbare;! ©cgenftdnbe fiiib bie folgenbeii: l'anb= roirtl)fd)aftlid)e Qiebanbe, I^'' i^n Tii't'- 3iii .>>iitjo bo|eiligtc ffatiiiclc. SBaffcrleitmigen. @croad)§l)ciufcr. S^ihfii. gruc^tbiumt, iBciiii bcv aJiietljcv iiid)t felbft ?3auiiit)anMcr ift. ®Ia«fenftcv. .'pccvtc. 2}hiI)Iftctiie. 2Be6ftitl)ie, mciiii fie fcaucvl)aft aiif bcm !8obeii ciiicv Jabrif augebvadjt fiiib. 'Svefdjmafc^ineii, bif mit Soljcit iiiib Sdjraiiben an in ten ©ruiib ciiigelafieiicii 'i^fofteii bcfcftigt Tint. 9iedf)tc t)crl)eiratl)ctcv ^rauen. i^Rlghts of Married Women.) .Jm geiiieiiicii 3fccl;t ijcv SScrciiiiiveii Staateii befiitbeu ftd; ciiiige cigcnHiimIid)c Serfiigiiiigcii in ^ejug auf bie Sfcdjtc ucvljeirat^eicr J?raiieii, obg(ei(^ aKe^taateit wicter iljrc cige^ lieu ftatiitavifdjcu SBevfiigiingeii l)abeii, tie biofeS (Sefe^ mcrf- lid) inotifisiven. 92od) bem ^eiitlgeit Staiib beg @efe|}c§ ifl ber Sljeiiiaiiii fiiv atle feiiievgvau gclicfevtcii :?obiUfiitffc ccv« antiBDvKid), fogar tvciiii ev felbft bcren Sefdjaffuiig ni(^t \\\\- fevlaffoii foUte. 5r ift Pevaiitroovtlid), ipenu et feiiie %X\x\\ auS belli §aiife weifi, obcv \\i) bind) bieUebevtragung bet? con bev ^van gelialtenen Gigeiitl)nin§ anf SeBollmfic^tigte gefidjert wevben. 5old;c Uvtnnben foUten bentlidj angeten, anS n?aS ba§ anoertronte @iit bel'tcljt, nnb foUteit forgfdltig anSgefcvtigt fein. SBeiin 3lbfd)tufi einev ^lintcvlaffenfdiaft, in ber eine SBittire jn einem Sitttjnm bevedjtigt ift, iniifj beven inatjvfdjcinlidje Scben^jeit bevedinel roevbeii, nm ben gegeni»artigeu3Bertl) iljveS 'Jlntl)eil§ an bie ©interlaifenfdjnft feftjuflellen. 3Benn bev i^etvag fefl^ gefefet ift, taiin bev •Mbfdilng fofovt gefc^cbeii. (Koal Estate M<(rta:as:es.) Jiic Uebertragung ton ®vnnb« obcv pevfijnlidjem Sigeii' tljum, jnv Sidievnng einev 2d)ulb, irivb Mortgage (.pt)potl)eI) geimnnt. SiJenii bie Sdiiilb bcjablt ifl, ii'ivb bie Mongayr mertljlos. Xev Oiaiiie, ivie oiele Stjnlidje im ;)ted)t'5rcefen, tomint an« bem gvanHififdjcu. "Mori," Job, nnb "gage," t'fanb; cin „tobtcy 'jjfanb", fogcnannt, meil baS gigeiitbnm fiiv bcn'MuSfteltov bev .N>i)Votl)ete folange tobi ift, bi§ crbie 5>e» binguugcn evfiillt l}at, bie feinc Sln-Slijfnng bebiiigen. 3" .N>npotl)t'Icn anf @vunbi'igentt)uni beljiilt bev JtiiSflellev bo5 (Sigentlnim in feinem 33cfi^, ,5iebt bie 9J!iell)cn nnb aiibevc gintomiiien eiu, nnb bo^al^lt alte Stenevn nnb fonftige Uii- lofteu. Siefcv 'l?faiibtniof iiing uon eincni a3camtcn bcglaii> bigt fein inib in bcv Office be§ (5onntn»Slecf§ obev Mecorbevo, obcv foiiftigen SJeamteii, bent biefe I'tlidit obliegt, rcgifirivt werbcu. Site ^ijpotljefeii miiffen fdjvifttid) auSgcferttgt fein. @ie iiiiiffeu eine Sln^IiifniigStlanfel cntljalteu nnb befdjrooven nnb geftcinpelt fein. 3)ic I'cvfalljoit bev 3d)ulb, fiiv bie bie .ft^potljef gcgebeii ifl, iiiiiB beutlid; evivd^nt fein, nnb ba§ gigentljuni felbft innfi tlav befd^rieben, feine Sage aiigegebfii iinb in gcl)lnigev Ovbnnng anfgejaljlt fein. giiijclnc §t)potl)eleii enttjalten eine Slaufcl, bevjufolge feinc gevic^tlidje (Sntfdjeibuiig nbttjig ift, biefelbe im 92id^t5al)lnng«= fall be>3 ,ie3;ilguiig einev .v)t)pDtl)eIcii-3d)uIb anfSviiiib obcv pcv» ibnlidiC'j Sigentljnm taiin erfolgen: 1. J>nrd) eine iHanbgloffe anf bcv,v)tipott)el>Uvtiinbe ielbft, uon belli .'pt)pott)efav ober beffen i^etiollmdc^tigten umcvfdjvic' bcH, nnb rooviii bie tetjtcven im Seifcin bev bctvcffenbcii 9kgiftviviing§beamtcn bie Jilgnng bev Sdiiilb aiievfcniieii; ober 2. 3)urtb eine (Smpfang^befd)einigiiug, ebenfallS bind) ben .§ppott)eIar ober beffen ©tellBertrcter nnterfdjvieten, ireldio anf bem iRanbc bcv bctveffenbcn llvtniibc eiiigctvagen irerbeii tann; obev 3. Diivd) ivgeiib eiu fd)riftlid)c>3 Xolnmcnt, in U'cldKiu bic lilgung berec^ulb uor einem bajii befugtcn iSeamtcit feiten^ bc5 iJ^potbefavS obev beffen 4^euoUindd)tigteii anevfaniit unb bcglanbigt luivb ; — ganj in berfelbcn lijeife roie aitbcven (aviiubbefi^ betveffeube Uvlunbeu. ^D)>oti)cfcii auf )>crfdnlt(ftce unD ti(lvc(|ltd)ce C^idcittDum. (Chattel Mortirairos.^ Xic mciftcn Sicgcln, bie ipi)pottietcii anf @vuubbefiy be tveffeu, finbaud)l)ieroufaniuenbbav, trciiii e^ anc^ in einjclueii 2t(iateii befoubcrc ©efc^^e gibt, bic foldje iiijpotbcfen anf bc« iueglid)c>o gigentbmn rcgnliren. 0*rgcnb eiii Jdiriftfliirf, ba» al5 i'cvfanfiSfd^ciu gelten tbiintc, taiui and) al-' .^^llpotbet anf pcrfbnlid)e? Sigcntbnm biciicn, fobalb edcine Wlanfel cnt- biilt, monad) bcim i^e.^ablcn bev Sdjiilb bie .vMipotbet cvlifcbt. Jiefelbc Sovgfalt foUte bei .Cippotbeten anf bciocglidieg Gigeiitbnm angerecnbet luevbeu, reie bci foldu-n anf @iiiub' cigentbum. Chaitcl Mortgages evftvcdeii fid) iiid)t iiber fpdtev crworbeucu (gigentbuin. 5ie fofltcn ftet-S eine bie '3?illigleit bcv 3lH>51l'fung betveffeube .tlanfcl cntbalten. gin .^-)t)potbetav taun feinc Apijpotbcfc nevtaiifcn obcv anciueii iliibcvu fiiv eiuc in-vgiitiing iibevtvagen, bod) tann fold)cS Sigcuibuiu uirfii !?ov bcv SJevfalljcit bcv ipt)potbcIc mit 'i«cfd)lag bclegt obev uevtau't irevbcii. §Dpotbeteii, bie ill bcv ^Ibfitbt gegebcn ivcvbcn, iim ®laubigev ju bctviigcn, fuib ircrtblo-J. K -A GERMAN LEOAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. SletentionSccdite iter j^antttvetfcr. Mechanics' Liens. Ser '^vitd aViix ©cfc^e in 3?ejug aiif SJett'iition^redjte iff t'ie ©i^cvung bev 3liirect)te aiif pevfoiilid^eS gigent^um in ten ^aiiben t'eKSigcnttjiimcvS, bi-3 ba'Sfelbe gebiil)renb beja^lt ift. Obne SBefi^ ftnt fcinc 3tetentiDn'3rcd)te for bcm (Sefe^ aii= ev!annt. @§ iff ciii im Sntereffe tet ©antwerter, SBivtlje, ®icner, ^ivtcn itnb SBoten gcf(^affencS 9iecl)t. Sauleute iinb \vM)t, bie Sauniaterial liefevn, Ijabcn iintcr bem @cfe§ etn 3Invecf)t anf bai° 'i.^xw'i unb 6'iebaube, roenn fic tt)i' 9iccDt in ber »orge|(t)riebencn 3^'' geltenb mad)en. 3n biefem 3" 9t5minlftrat«irctt (Executors and Administrators.) ©obalb alg mijglid) itat^ bem Eob be§ grblafferg mug bag Jeftamentim(5erid)tl)interlegt roerben, nnter fd)viftlid)er uub eiblid) befd)roorener grtldrnng feiner 95erroal;rung unb beg grblaffcrg Sob. ®ag ®erid)t ovbnet bie lUn-bffentlidinug begfelbeu an, mit ber Slngabe beg Xageg, an bem baffelbe beglaubigt loerben mug, uub bie red)tgmdgigen grben miiffcn beuad)rid)tigt roerben. 3>"' fff'Sffffe'e" 3t'it Berfammetu fid) alle interefftrten 'J.'erlonen, einfc^Iiefttid) ber gj-etntoren, ini @eri(^t. Sie 3f"3f" befc^robren bie gc^tl)cit ber Unter« fd)riften unb bie gefnube SSerucnft beggrbtafferg jur 3eit ber 3lugftelluu.i beg Xcftamentg. 2)ie gyetntoven roerben algbanu mit 3lbminiftvatiougrec^ten betrant unb eine bcglaubigte 3lbfd)vift beg Jeftanieutg mug in jebem Sonntp, in bent bev 35erftorbene @ruubeigentl)um befag, regiftrirt rocvbeu. ®ev 3lbmiuiftrator mug alg ®arantie fiir bie treue 3lugfiil)ruug alter 'i?f[id)teu 3id)evt)eit geben jum boppelten 3?etrag beg gigentl)nm§. ©tivbt eine *perfou, bie @rnnbetgentl)nm beglst, ol)ne leytroillig iiber baffeibc ju ocrfiigen, fo erbeifd)t eg bie 'i!flid)t ber ffiittrce, bag®eri(^t urn gruenunng tl)rer felbft alg Slbminiftvatriy jn evfut^en. ®leid) nac^ feiner SBeftallnug roenbet g'l) ber gyefntor ober 31bniiniftrator jur 9}egelnng bev §interlaffenfd)aft. Sieg bcbingt bie S?enad)rid)tignng aHer ©c^ulbner beg grblaffevg, it)reu S3erpflid)tuugeu nad^jntom* V_ V -/^ GERMAN LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. S°' men, iiiiij allcr ©laubigcr, i^ve Mitfpviicfje gcttciib ju madjeii. .Sii'jlc"^ rcivb ciii gciiaucS iyerjcidjiiijj aUeS Sijcm^umS aufgefe^t uiib taffelbe abgejd^alJt. ■l)ie|e3uDciitavaufiial)me luit'JlbfdjS^uiig niirlibem'lJvobat^ @ertd)t tiovgclogt. 2)a5 Siievft eiiiiommcitbc ©clt irirb 311V 33e» 3al)liiiig to^ iH-giabiiiffe^ uiib tcv avstlidjeii 9fect)iiiiugcu ccv= iDciibct, 3uiuid)ft toiiimcnbie'Sd)iiItcuanbie3icgievinig, Liens iiiibApnpotlietoii lint) jiiletjt tic aKgcmeiiieii Sdjiilbcn jcbcr *J(rt. 3ft ind;t gciiiigfiigciit^iiiuuorl^aiiteii, allciSdjiilbciisu liejal;= leii, fo iiiiiijl'ic Probate Court fofort beiiadjric^tigtujcricii, iiiiJ) bie "JliifliJiinigtcr.'pinterlaffeii(d}aitiiiujj baiiii iiad)bom i8antc» vott>®efcg porgeiiomincii rocrbcii. SevJlbmimfirator tft fiir afle^ gigeiitljiim beS iicvftorbeiieit, bcr 3iaieiitavaiifiial)me iiiib ^Ibjdia^iiiig gcmajj, t;eraiitn?ovt« lid), nub iniiB cine gt'iiaiie3{cd)niuig iibcvaUc SraiiSattioiicu, bic ipiiitcvlaiTciifc^iift bctrcffcnb, fi'ibrcit. A>albial)vlid) iiuifi cv iibcv ben ,-(nftaiib bcvidbcn 4V'vid)t cvflattcn, niib li'cnn 'iK^i:^ jnv '.'In'octnanbcrfcgung fcvtig ift, flaitet cv bcm @cvid)t j'.'uicii cnbgiilugcn 'J^crid)! ab, iiiib anib nadj iiorjcignng bcr iSnipfang^jdjcinc aUcv (Svbcii nnb (JJIdnbigcr Don feineii ';iflic^ieu entbiiiibeii iinb fcine Siivgfc^aft annullirt unb Ocv= niditct. tpfltditcn fier IHIiminiflratorcn bcim Ortinen Don §inter< laffcnf^aftcn. Seiiii einc 'ilJevlDn ftirbt, ol)iic cin vecl)tgultige§ £e(lamcnt JU t)iuterIaffoii, fo luirb i^r 33cfi5tl)nin niit.'pulfe bc§ ©eridjiS untcr tt)ve tirbcu »cvtl)eilt. SJicjc Xljciluug roirb uac^ bcu (Sefe(5c» bo§ ataatcS, in n3clct)cm bcr S!erftorbcuc jur Heit feincSSobc'j refibirt, Borgenoninieii. Sic S5frfiignngge|i^iel)t bnrd) etueu gc(e^lid) beftcUten 3(bniintftrator. 3)a§ fiir foldje gdtlc beftiinnitc (3^crid)t cvuonnt bcu ^Mbmiuiftrator, uat^beni c^ fid) iibcrjcugt l)at, bafj bcrfclbc bic gcfc(}lid) erforberIid)en @igcnfd)aitcii bcfi(}t. Sic Sriicnming nuifj luitSiiiroilligniig bcr betreffciibcn "jfcrfou gefd)ct)cn. @'5 roirb im '^Ulgemeinen al§ 9tcgcl angcncmmcn, bag jcbcr gcfc^ltc^ befatjigt ift, bcr ijur (Singel)nng eine^ itontvaii-3 bcfngt ift. ©crotffe Mlaffeit finb nad) beni Okfc^ I'on ber sBcfngnifj anSgefd)loffen, roic }. 58. in 9}cro ^ort Irnnlcnbolbe, ©picler, S!3crfct)icenbcr u. f. vs. 2)Jan iiiniint an, bag bie Sjcvroanbtcn bc-S 3>erftovbcneii iiiicrft JU bcr (Srncniiniig alo "^Ibminiftrator bcr 6intcrlaffeii = fdjaft bercd)tigt fiiib nnb bcr SJorjiig ^licrin roivb Don ben @c- fegcn gcvcgclt. ®cnt gl)eniann ftebt bie "Mbininiftratioii be^ pcrfi.iiilid)cii gigcntl)nniS feinc§ llU'ibcS ju; bic I'eriDaltung bc§ Don bcm (Sl)i'manii t)intcrlaffeiieu i8efi^tl)um§ fdllt txw bie SlMtiroe nub fonftigcn nad)ftcn 'Jlngcl)i)rigen, iDcnii bicfe obcr ciner bcrjctbcu biefdbe auniinmt, unb jioar in bcr fotgciiben Orbunng: 1. ber SittiDc; 2. bcu Jtinbern; 3. bcm 3?atcr; 4. ben 33riibcrn; 5. bcu iSd)iDeftcrn; 6. ben Snlclu; 7. ir> gcnb cinem anbcvii bor nad)ftcu 33erroanbten, bcr bci ber 2:[)ci» tnng ber £iiiitcvlaffciifd)aft jn cincin *J.*flic^ttl)ci( bcrcd)ugt ift. Sic l^ormiinbcr Don a.ihnbcvjat)rigcn inogeu an bevcit jStcHe bie 'Jlbmiuiftration iibcrnel)iueu. ai'eiiu tcincr bcr 33cnDanb» ten ober SBormiinber bie ■Jlbmiiuftratiou auniiniut, fdllt bicfe ben ©Idubtgern bcS SJcvftorbcncii aul)cini. ®cr Oldnbigcr, bcv fid) juerft barunt bciDivbt, t)at, fall* cr fonft ba',u bcfd^igt ift, ben Sorjug. SBcroirbt fid) fcincr bcr ©Idnbigcr barnni, fo tann irgcnb cine gcfctjlid) bcfdl)igtc 'Ifcrfou aU3 3(bniiniftra' tor criiannt iDcrbcn. 3u bcr vStabt *JJciD I'jorf lann bcv L'f= fentlic^cSlbminiftrator nac^ ben nad)flen'.Jlugel)ijrigen bic i'cr= roaltnng ubcrnel)mcn. 3m "Staate 9fciD yjort tanit ba3 Surrogat irgcnb eiiicii an§ ber ndd)ftcn Scrauinbtfdjaft anSiDdhlcii iiub mit 3ln§fd)Ing aflcr iHnbevu .lUm alleinigcn 'Jlbniuiiftrator ernennen. ^!x\\.i mebvcve $cvioncn bcm Sycrftorbcncn glcid) DcriDanbt fmb, reirb ber S5or,5ug in bcr folgcnbeu Orbuiing gcgeben: 1. 2cn manulid)cn Dor ben iDcibIid)cn SeviDanbtcu; 2. 33UitoDcrn3anbtcn Dor angcheivat^cten; 3. UnDcrt)eiratbeteii Dor Dcrheiratt)ctcn Stanen. ^at(5 me^rere '■JJerfouen ba fi"*, i'ie glcid)e 3Inred)te ^aben, fann ba^ ©uvrogat eiiier obcr iuel)rercn bcrfclben, itac^ eigenem ®uts biinfen, ".'lbminiftration§"*4Ja).ncre juftcUen. llnrcd)tli(^ au-Jgcftelllc 5lbmiuiftratioit^ • 'J.'apieve liJunen iDibcvnifcn iDcvbcn. (Sbcnfo fbnii(H9lbininiftvation§red)tc be« bingnngi'iDcife, obcvfiivcinc bcfd)vdutte 3^'', obev aiic^ fiir bcfoiibcre 3'Dede bcujiUigt iDcrbcn. 2)ie iUiat^t unb 'l.!flid)ieu cineS i![bminiftratovS uutcrfd)cibeu fid) Don bcncn cinc-S lS):e= cntorS infoiDcit, ai-j bcrfclbc bic 5Bcrtl)cilnng nnb 95crfiignng iibcr bie ,<;iiiiterlaffcnfd)aft gciiaii iiad) bcu gcfctjlic^cn 93or= fd)riftcn Dornet)mcn niiiB. iSr l)at tciiien eigeucii SiQeu in bcv ®ad)c. .Bum (Srftcii miifj bcr •.Ubniiiiiftvator i^iivgfd)aft fiir bie trciic :'lnSfiil)rung fcincr Dblicgcnl)eitcn flelleu. 3nm 3'Dciten miifj cv cin ^'tPf'tar atlcS uubciDcglii^eu unb bcrocglic^eii (Siflenti)iim'» anfncl)mcn, in llcbcvcinftini> uunig mit bcu gcfi'yiid)cn Srforbcruiffcu. SiittcU'S miiffcu jioci Sopicu ber SuDcntaranfuabme aiige» fcrtigtlDcvbcn, iDoDon eiiie im ®cvid)t l)intcilegt iDerbeu mug; bcr ^jibminiftvator bcl)dlt bie anbere unb mufj fiir 3111e§ in bcm 3nDcutar ongcfiibrtc eigcutl)um anffominen. i^icrtciiS mug bcv 9lbniintftvatov iiad) ifollcnbniig bcr 3n» Deiitaraiifnabme atlc ?lugcn)"tdube be^ Sfcrftorbcncn einjie^en unb ebenfo allc Sd)nlbcn bcJfclbcn bc3Qt)len. ®ie Orbuuiig bicfer 3a^I«ngeii loirb burd) bic lotaleu (Scfc^e bcftimmt. 5ftac^ 3al)Iung allcr aSerbinbIid)feiten bc-o Grblaffcr^ Dertl)eilt ber XUbininiftvator bcu 3tc|"t be§ S8cril3tl)nin'3 uiitcv bie iibcrlebeuben SJcvroanbtcn. 3)ic5 gefd)iel)t untcr ber '.)lnrocifung beS @e= vid)i'3. (Partnership.) SBeuit jiDci obcr met)vcre *(.'erfoncii fi^ Dereinigeu, um gc= incinjd)aftlid) il)rc '^i\i, '.(Irbcit nnb a)iittel in ctncm Untcr' ncl)mcu eaijnfci^eu, unb alle on^ bicfcni Uutcrnebmen crroac^' fcnbcn I'cvlufte unb ©croiunc gemcintd)aftlid) ju tragcn, (0 cntftcbt barauS cin jfompa3uon=@efd)dft (Pannership). Sie 4!crcinbaruug fann iDortlid) obcr fe^rifilid) gcfdje^en, mit ober ol)ne Stcmpd. iSinb teine 33cf(^rdnfungea barin Dorgcfel)eu, fo loirb bie Partnership eiue allgcmeiue gcnannt, ift ftc jcboc^ fiir bic 3luS= fiil)vung eine^ bcfouberen 3'DedcS gcgriinbct, fo reirb bavau§ eiue SpcjiaUPartnership. Xicfe Ic^tcreii iDcvbeu in ben ein» selneu Staaten gcic^lid) rcgnlirt. iijcuu eiiicv bcv Jl)cill)abcv feiiic pcvfLinIid)c Untcrfd)rift untcr cin fiir ben (Scbrauc^ ber girma bcftiuinitc« unifc^barea ~;iapicr fc^U, fo Derpflid)ttt er bamit allc aubercn 3ut)abcr. 3rgeub ciiic aubcve §anblnng, bie uid)t burd) bic Sfatnr bcS @cfd)aftC'5 bebiugt ift, biubet bie- fflbcn iiicbt. gin Xl)eitl)abcr (Parmer) faiiu bie Saaven filv bie ^ompagnie ciu= unb Dcrtaufeii. gr fann Jfoutratte ab= fd)ticgcn, l^'>e!bcr eiiitafrircn, 9fotcn uiibJCcdifd ,5icl)cii, iubof» fncii nub acceptivcn, unb iDdlncnb btc§ anrldd) fiir fciucii '4.!riDatgcbvaud) gefd)cl)cn utng, fo ftiib bod) allc 2)itttl)cill)abcv fiiv feme .'o.iublnngcn DcrantiDortlid), folaugc bicfe fc^cinbar fiir beii 9higeii unb (Sebvaud) bcr Wompagiiic bc)'tiinnit fi'it', unb bie *^.>artcicn, mit bciien cr bic (Metd)dftc mad)t, lu gntcm ©laubeu l)anbeln. ifflcnn 3cmanb fcincii yfamcn einer girma Iciljt, obcr bcu (Sebraud) be^felbcu gcftatict, uac^bcm er anS bent Sontpagnon=®efd)dft au*gctrcteu, fo blcibt er beunot^ britteii ^I'crfoneu gegciiiibcr aXi Jucilbaber Derantroortlit^. giiie Xl)cill)abcrfd)aft tann jii jcbcr 3f't aufgcbobcii rocrbcn, aiuSgcnommcn, il)rc Saiicr ift fiir eiue boftinimtc 3''>t in bcm 35ertrag fcftgcfe^t. igclbft bann lann cin ibciU)aber aiif dov> t)erige ■,'luftiiiibiguiig au'°trctcu, bleibt abcr fiir ben ctroa bav» auS cntfprtngcnbeH St^abcn DerantiDovtlidi. ©tivbt cin Jljeil" l)abcv nnb feme (Sjelntoven unb 'Mbmiuiftvatoren fiil)rcu fcin ®cfd)dft fovt, fo iDcvbcu fte pcvfbnlid) fiir bic iSdjulbeii ber girma t)aftbar. Jbeilbabcv ciner girma inbgen biefdbe anf gcgenfeitigcS Uebcrciufommcn auflbfcn, ebenfo laun bic-S auf ?lnorbnon bc§ @erid)t'j auf triftigc nub ^inreidieube (Svilnbe hilt gcfd)el)en. ®ie 9luflijfnug foUte burc^ ijffcntlidjc Slnjcige belauut gemac^t iDcrben. 5°2 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. » «(ft.«.*ftyV'*yi>''*r^>7^v«i«' VVftV^i o'.ft >« « a a[t>:^/^^,'y'«^^:'> c^^o^^^^^ » ».; ' . o ftft « <■ « -•"■$> •<" — _.o.-^. e) c;9^C,\AL {.4^^ c^- OF THE ■ "1. l-ife^flSflNBTERRV^^SliP ■ I ^ " ^-^-^ i>:»©«: . ~ » ',\t,v, y, Mv.y, ^t ;; :c ;c " " )\ "/■, y,y, ;; " ;; ;t;' ^wi ;; y, " 'i^i ^J ;i HHii H H ;; h ^'. ''. ''. r^"^'.^; " ^' " *' -' '' >' " t *; * O 0.9 9.. 0. 9 = 00 * 00. 00 .0 O 00000000000 O O 6 ff. O. C .0 0..? .*.*,. 9, * *. *^ Assignments, Attachments. Chattel Mortgages. Divorce. Exemptions. Rights of Married Women. Deeds and their Acknowledgment. Wills and Mechanics* Liens. Illustrations : The Coats of Arms of the States. —'-3 ALABAMA. ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by statute, which forbids prefer- ences or anv jirovision for the release of the debtor. There is no insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS may issue [T a upon affidavit of the creditor or his agent that the defendant is non-resident, has absconded, dis- posed of, transferred, or attempt- ed to remove his property out of the State, and garnishment pro- cess may be issued in aid of exe- cution. Judgments do not con- stitute liens. Stav of execution is allowed in justices' courts for thirty to sixty days, but the only way to delay the collection of a judgment of the Circuit Court is by appeal, which requires a bond for double the amount, legal inter- est, damages and cost of the appeal. Under the Constitution there can be no imprisonment for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must he recorded in the county where the grantor reside.-., also where the jiroperty i.s ; and if tlie properly is removed to a different county from the one in which tlie grantf)r re- sides, must there be recorded within six months from the removal, DEEDS may be acknowledged within the State before judges nf a court of record or their clerks, chancellors and registers in chancery, justices of the peace or notaries public. Out of the State and in the United States, by the judges and clerks of any court of record in anv State, notaries public or commissioners appointed by the Governor. Out of the United States, by the judge of any court of record, niavor or chief officer of any city, town, borough or countv, notarv public or any diplomatic, consular or commercial agent of the LTnited States. The wife may relinquisli her right of dower by joining her husband in a conveyance .and acknowledging the relinquishment. The husband must join in conveyance of the wife's separ.ite property. Neither seal nor scroll is necessary. One witness is required. DIVORCE may be obtained for the following causes: Impotency, adultery, desertion for two years, habitual dnmkenness. imprison- ment for two years and continued cruelty. An allowance must be made by the court, out of (he husband's estate, for the support of the wife pending suit J also an allowance when the orers have a lien on tlie product of their l:ilior; builde-s and lUL-chanics, on all buildings for which they have furnished work, labor or materials. The original contractor must file his lien with the circuit clerk within three months after all the work shall have been done or the material furnished. WILLS arc recorded in the Probate Court of the county in which most of the bequeathed land is situated ; but if only personal property. then in the county where the testator died. AH over twenty-one years may devise real estate; all over eighteen, personal property. Three witnesses are required. Married women may devise their sep- arate property. CALIFORNIA. ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law by which a debtor surrender- ing his property may receive a discharge from his debts. No preferences permitted. No dis- charge in case of fraud, nor from debts due as a depositary of funds received as banker, broker or commission merchant. Assign- ments are not allowed unless un- der this law. ATTACHMENT issues in an action upon a contract for the direct payment of money, where the contract is made or is pay- able in this State, and is not se- cured by any mortgage or lien upon real or personal property, or any pledge of personal property ; or, if originally so secured, ?*uch security h;is, without any act nf the plaintiff, become valueless. Gar- nishee process can be had in all cases where property. is liable to attachment. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES, to be valid against third parties, must show the residence and trade of the mortgageor and mortgagee, the rate of interest charged and when and where it is payable, and mort- gageor and mortgagee must each make affidavit that the mortgage is hona/idf and made without design to defraud or delay creditors. DEEDS may be acknowledged within the State before any judge or clerk of a court of record, recorder, justice of the peace or notary public. Without the State, before any judicial officer, commissioner or notary. Husband or wife can convey separate property without the other joining, but both must join when the property is !n common. A conveyance by a married woman h.as no validity until acknowl- edged. Deeds arc known as grants, and need not be under seal. Two witnesses arc required. DIVORCES arc granted for adultery, extreme cruelty, conviction of feh>ny, wilful desertion, neglect or habitual intemperance continued for one year. No divorce can be granted by default. EXEMPTIONS. The homestead on which debtor resides, to the value of 55,000, if he is the head of a family; if not, to the value of $1,000. Personal property exempt includes chairs, tables, desks and books, $200; necessary household and kitchen furniture, sewing-ma- chines, stoves, beds, etc. ; provisions for family forthrce months, three cows, four hogs, two horses, oymrv or mules; seed, grain and vege- tables for sowing, not above $200 in value; tools and implements of \ 504 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. ^ -yff r a mechanic or artisan; instruments of a physician, surgeon or den- tist ; professional library of attorney, minister, editor or teacher; a miner's cabin, not exceeding- $500 of value, with all tools and gear necessary for his business, not exceeding $"oo. Two horses or mules with harness, and the miner's claim worked by him, and not exceed- ing' $1,000 in value, are also exempt, MARRIED WOMEN. All property acquired in any manner before marriage, or afterwards by gift, grant, inheritance or devise, is wife's separate property, controlled by her and not liable for debts of the husband. The husband's property similarly acquired is not liable for debts of the wife. All property acquired after marriage by husband or wife, except as above, shall be common property, but under the husband's control. Dower and curtesy are abolished, but the sur- vivor takes half the common property after payment of debts and expenses of administration. A married woman may dispose of her separate estate by will without the consent of her husband and may insure her husband's life for her benefit. MECHANICS' LflENS. Mechanics, laborers and material-men have a lien on buildings for work done or materials furnished. An original contractor may file his claim within sixty days; others, within thirty davs. Suit must be brought within ninety days from the date of filing the claim. A lien has precedence over any subsequent or previous unrecorded encumbrance. WILLS. Real or personal property may be disposed of by will by all persons over eighteen years of age. Two witnesses are required. Married women may dispose of their separate property without con- sent of their husbands. Nuncupative wills not exceeding $1,000 are valid, but must be reduced to writing within thirty days. COLORADO. ASSIGNMENTS. There is no inscdvent or assignment law. ATTACHMENTS. Where defendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, evades service or at- tempts to remove his goods with intent to defraud, plaintiff may obtain a writ of attachment by making affidavit and sfiving suf- ficient bond. Garnishee process will issue in aid of attachment where sufficient property to sat« isfv the same is not found. No civil action can be begun by ar- rest, except in cases where mal- ice, fraud or wilful deceit is shown, when execution may issue against defendant's body, and he mav be imprisoned not exceed- ing one year, or until the judgment is satisfied. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES, to be valid as to third parties, must be acknowledged before a justice of the peace or notary public in the district wliere grantor lives, unless possession of the chattels actually passes. If the mortgageor retain possession the mortgage must ex- pressly provide for such possession ; otherwise it is void. Mortgage may be given for a term of two years, and after default mortgagee must take possession without delay, or his lien will be void as to third parties. DEEDS may be acknowledged before any justice, clerk or deputy clerk of the Supreme or District courts, county judge, county clerk or recorder, justice of the peace or notary public. Outside of the State, before the Secretary of any State under the seal of the State, any authorized officer in any State or Territory or any commissioner of deeds. Witnesses are not necessary, but are desirable. A seal is re- quired, but a scroll will answer. DIVORCES may be gfrantcd for adultery, impotency, bigamy, wil- ful desertion for one year, habitual drunkenness for two years, extreme cruelty or conviction for felony or infamous crime. One year's residence in the State is required before bringing suit, except where the offence \vas committed in the State or while one or both of the parties resided there. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead consisting of house and lot in town or city, or a farm of any number' of acres, in value not exceeding $2,000, is exempt if occupied by a householder and head of a family, provided it has been entered on record as a homestead and so speci- fied in the title. Personal property, including wearing apparel of ttic debtor and his family, pictures, school books, library, etc., and house- hold furniture, not exceeding $100; provisions for six months, tool;., implements or stock in trade, $30o; one cow and calf, ten slicep and necessary food for six months; working animals up to $200; the library and implements of a professional man up to $300. The head of a family may select personal property to the value of $1,000; others, to the value of $300. MARRIED WOMEN are treated, in all respects, as to their prop- erty rights, as if they were single. A wife may carry on trade or business, sue or be sued, contract debts, transfer real estate, and in all ways bind her separate property, without the husband's joining. She may make a will, but cannot bequeath more than half her prop- erty away from her husband without his consent in writing. The husband cannot by will deprive his wife of over one-half of his property. Dower is abolished. The husband is liable for debts of the wife contracted before marriage to the extent of the property he may receive through her, but no further. MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person furnishing materials or doing labor to the amount of more than $25 on any building may hold a lien thereon. The principal contractor must file his Hen within forty days, and sub-contractor within twenty days. Suit must be brought within six months. WILLS. To devise real property, the testator, if male, must he twenty-one; if female, eighteen years of age. Either may bequeath personal property at seventeen years of age. Two witnesses are re- quired. Neither husband nor wife can deprive the other of more than one-half the property by will, except the wife receive written consent of the husband allowing her to do so. CONNECTICUT. ASSIGNMENTS. In cases of insolvency, the Probate Court may appoint a trustee, on motion of a judgment-creditor for over $ico, when no property can be found to attach. On the hearing which follows, the petition may be granted, and the -trustee takes possession of all property not ex- empt. An allowance is made to the debtor for the support of his family, and if the estate will pay seventy per cent he receives a full discharge. The debtor's property is exempt for two years from legal process upon debts which might have been proved. Voluntary assignments can be made by a debtor to a trustee chosen by himself, but the court of probate may substitute another. ATTACHMENTS. In cases of fraud or judgment for damages for misconduct or neglect, defendant may be arrested, and may give bail to the person making the arrest. Goods concealed in the hands of agents, or money due the judgment-debtor, may be reached by foreign attachment; and no assignment of future earnings, unless recorded within forty-eight hours, will prevent their attachment when due. Where goods and lands cannot be found, the person of a defendant may be attached. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded like deeds of real es- tate. Acliattul mortgage of jiroperty not perishable in its nature is good although the grantor retains possession. Property exempt from execution is also a proper subject for a chattel mortgage. A(^ ~s V \ SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TEKKITOKI KS. 5°5 DEEDS must be in writing and under seal, a scroll being sufficient. Two witnesses are required. Acknowledgment in the ^ate is made before a judge of a court of record, justice of the peace, notary public, town clerk, commissioner of the Superior Court or commissioner of the school fund. The wife need not be privately examined apart from her husband. She must join with her husband in conveyance of her separate real estate, but the husband conveys his property without her signature. Dower attaches only to the separate real estate of the Jiusband at his death. DIVORCE, Absolute divorce may be granted by the Superior Court for adultery, fraud, duress or force in obtaining the marriage, wilful desertion for three years, seven years' absence without being heard of, habitual intumperance, intolerable cruelty, sentence to imprisonment fersonal property. Tools and implements of a mechanic to the value of $200, books and instruments of a professional man to the value of $600, are also exempt from seizure. MARRIED WOMEN may transact business in all respects the same as if uninarriedj Neither husband nor wife has any interest in the separate estate of the other. The earnings and accumulations of the wife are her separate property and not liable for the husband's debts nor even for household debts contracted by her as her husband's agent. Her separate property is, however, liable for her own debts, contracted before or after marriage, if such debts arc contracted on her own responsibility. MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, laborers or material - men who shall perform labor upon, or furnish materials, machinerv or fixtures for, any building or other improvement, shall have for such labor performed, or materials, machinery or fixtures furnished, a lien upon such building or improvement, also upon the land upon which it is situate. The receiving of collateral security on the same contract will invalidate the Hen. \VILLS. Both real and personal property may be disposed of by will by all persons above eighteen years of age. Two witnesses arc re«iuired, and wills the body of which is in the testator's handwriting, and signed and dated by htm, need not be attested. Married women may dispose of their separate property without consent of their hus- bands. A will made by an unmarried woman is revoked by her mar* riage and not revived by the death of her husband. DELAWARE. ASSIGNMENTS must be made for the benefit of all creditors aliltL'. Voluntary assignments are governed by the common law, ex- 5o6 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. ~7[ .^ cept that a special partnership may. not give preferences. The assignee must file within thirty days a schedule of property as- signed, and two appraisers are then appointed by the chancellor. A domestic insolvent law is in existence, providing for a full surrender and equal distribution of all propertj', but it is seldom used, and no provision is rflade for the discharge of the debtor upon his making an assignment. ATTACHMENT may issue in domestic casus when the debtor cannot be found, when defendant has fraudulently left the State, etc., and against foreign corporations or non-residents of the State. In both cases an affidavit setting forth the above facts must be given by tlie creditor or some responsible person in his stead. A capias may not be issued against the body of any debtor until an execution against his goods has been returned unsatisfied. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100, CHATTEL MORTGAGES are a valid Hen for three years when recorded within ten days after acknowledgment. The lien of a pur- cliase-money mortgage recorded within sixty days after it is made has preference over any judgment against the mortjjageor or other un - known lien of a prior date. Foreclosure is made by order of the court; no equity of redemption. DEEDS must be recorded in the county in which the land lies within one year after the sealing or delivery thereof. A scroll answers for a seal, and one witness is sufficient. Acknowledgments maybe made before any judge or clerk of record, justice of the peace or notary public. Outside of the State, the same as in Alabama. The wife must relinquish her right of dower, must be separately ex- amined, and the examination certified. DIVORCE may be granted by the Superior Court for adulter^', im- potency at the time of marriage, habitual drunkenness, extreme cruelty, desertion for three years or conviction of crime sufficient to constitute a felony. In the case of marriage by fraud or for want of age, the wife being less than sixteen, the husband being less than eighteen, at the time of marriage, absolute divorce or divorce from bed and board may be granted, at the discretion of the court. The wife receives all her real estate and such other allowance and alimony as the court may decree where the husband is proved to be in fault. Wilful neglect of the husband to provide the necessities of life also forms sufficient grounds for dii/orce. EXEMPTIONS. Family pictures, family Bible and library ; lot in burial-ground and pew in church ; family wearing apparel and tools and implements necessary to carry on business, the whole not exceed- ing $75 in value, are exempt from attachment. In addition to the above the head of a family may claim $200 of personal property. In New- castle county wages of laborers are also exempt. No homestead law. MARRIED WOMEN, married since 1S73, retain all real and per- sonal property held at marriage, or since acquired from any per>on other than the husband, as their separate estate, and not subject to the disposal of the husband or liable for his debts. They may receive wages for personal labor, sue or be sued in respect to their own prop- erty as if unmarried ; and the rents, issues and profits of their separate estate are not controlled by the husband. The widow is entitled to one-third dower of all the lands and tenements whereof her husband was seized at any time during her m.arriagc, unless she shall have re- linquished such right for and during the term of her natural life. She may be an administratrix, and tlie liush;ind's life may be insured for her benefit if premium does not exceed $150. MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person who has furnished material or performed labor to an amount exceeding $25 may obtain a lien upon the building or structure for which such labor was given or such ma- terial furnished. Claims must be filed within ninety days, and con- tractors must file a statement within thirty days after the expiration of ninety days from completion of the building. WILLS must be in writing, signed by the testator, and two wit- nesses are required. Any person, male or female, twenty-one years of age, and of sound mind, may dispose of real or personal property. Married women, in order to dispose of their property by will, must obtain the written consent of their husband, signed, sealed and attested by two witnesses. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. ASSIGNMENTS. No assignment or insolvent law is in force, ex- cept that assignments of the property of a special partnership with preferences are not valid. ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff giving bond when the de- fendant is a non-resident, or removes, or is about to remove his prop- erly, etc. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within twenty days after execution. In case of bills of sale, deeds of trust, or other prop- erty which is exempt from execution, the mortgage must be signed by wife of grantor. DEEDS may be acknowledged before any justice or court of record and of law, any chancellor of State, any judge of Supreme, Circuit, District or Territorial Court, any justice of the peace, notary public or commissioner of the Circuit Court of the district appointed for that purpose. The officer must annex to the deed a certificate under his hand and seal. Acknowledgments outside of the District must be accompanied by certificate of the register, clerk or other public officer, under his official seal, that the officer was what he purported to be at the time of the acknowledgment. Deeds made outside of the United States may be executed and acknowledged before any judge or chancellor of any court, master in chancery or notary public, or any secretary of legation or consular officer of the United btates. EXEMPTIONS. Family wearing apparel; household furniture to the amount of $300; provisions and fuel for three months ; tools or in- struments necessary to carry on any trade, to the value of $200; library and implements of a professional man or artist not above $300; family pictures and library to the value of $400, and a farmer's team and other utensils to the value of $100, are exempt from attachment or sale on execution, except for servants' or laborers' wages. There is no homestead exemption. MARRIED WOMEN may bequeath, devise or convey property or interest therein in tlie same manner as if unmarried. Real or per- sonal property belonging to the wife at marriage or afterwards ac- quired is separate estate. She may sue and be sued in all matters pertaining to her property, and the husband is not liable for any con- tracts made by her in respect to her personal estate. MECHANICS' LIENS. Any mechanic or laborer or material-man who shall perform labor or furnish materials for the construction or re- pair of any building, shall have a lien upon such building, and tlie land upon which the same is situated, for such labor done or material fur- nished, when the amount exceeds $20. Claims must be filed with the clerk of the Supreme Court of the District within sixty days after the work is completed, WILLS. To dispose of real estate or personal property by will, males must be twenty-one, and females eighteen years of age, must be of sound mind and capable of making a deed or contract. Three wit- nesses are required. Married women may bequeath their separate estate. Wills are recorded in the registry of wills. FLORIDA. ASSIGNMENTS. As no insolvent or assignment laws are in exist- ence io this State, debtors may assign their property with or without preference. / \ luwed in of fruud, ATTACHMENT may issue by plaintiff giving bond with two se- curities in at least double the debt or sum demanded. Adffia- vit must be made setting forth the amount actually due; that de- fendant is a non*residcnt, and that plaintiff has good reason t<> believe he is about to part with his property* fraudulently before judfjment can be obtained, or intends to reniovL- from the Stati-, or to fraudulently secrete his property, etc. No arrest is al- civil actions, and no imprisonment for debt except in case J urisdiction of justices of the peace limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, unless property is delivered within twenty days "and remains in the possession of the mortgagee. Unless the mortgaged property be delivered at the time of execution of the niort;jage, or within the twenty days, and unless such mortgage shall be recorded in the office of record for the county in which the mortgaged property shall be at the time of said execu- tion, ttie mortgage becomes ineffectual and invalid. Foreclosure is made by bill in equity or petition to the Circuit Court of the county in which the property lies. DEEDS may be acknowledged before any judge, justice of the peace or notary public, or before the clerk of a Circuit Court. If exe- cuted in another State, or foreign countn»', tht^y may be acknowledged the same way ;is in Alabama. Deeds must be in writing, sealed and delivered in the presence of two witnesses, and must be recorded within six months after the sealing and delivery of the instrument. A scroll is sufficient for a seal. DIVORCE. Applicants for divorce must have resided two years ^v^ithin the State. Absolute divorces may be granted only by the Cir- cuit Courts. Adulter\-, impotency, bigamy, extreme cruelty, habitual intemperance or desertion for one year are sufficient causes. Alimony may be granted to the wife by the courts, and provision for a division of property when a decree is granted. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead of 160 acres of land, together with improvements, in the countr\-, or a residence and one-half acre of ground in a village or city, is exempted to the head of a family. Also personal property to the value of $1,000. Xo property is exempt from sale for taxes or for obligations contracted for its purchase or for the erection of improvements thereon. The wages of every laborer who is the head of a family are also exempt under any process of law. MARRIED WOMEN retain all real or personal property owned at marriage or acquired thereafter, and arc not liable for the husband's debts. In order that it shall be free from his debts, the property must be inventoried and recorded within six months after mar- riage or subsequent acquirement of the property. The wife may sell and convey all real estate inherited by her the same as if she were unmarried^ but her husband must join in all sales, transfers and conveyances of her property, both real and per- sonal. She is entitled to dower in a life estate in one-third of all the real estate of which her husband was seized and possessed at his death or at anytime during his life, unless she has relinquished the same; also an absolute one-third of his personalty. MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics and laborers have a Hen upon a buil ling for which they have furnislied labor and materials, and upon the owner's interest in the lot on which the building stands. Claims must be filed within six months after the work is done or materials furnished, and suit be brought within one year.. Agricultural laborers have a lien on the crops cultivated by them t«) the amount of their wages, and laborers and contractors have a prior lien on logs, lumber, etc., for their lahor in cutting or manufacturing the same into boards, laths or shingles. Machinery furnished for any mill, distillery or manufactorj' obtains a lien to the extent of the interest of the tenant or contractor. WILLS. Any person twenty-one years of age and of sound mind may dispose of real or personal property. Three witnesses are required. Nuncupative wills must be proved by three witnesses who were pres- ent when it was made, and such will may be reduced to writing and sworn to within six days. GEORGIA. ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by a statute which i)ermiLi prefer- ences, except by special partnership, but every assignment made by a debtor insolvent at the time, either in trustor in behalf of a creditor, is fraudulent and null and void when any trust or bene fit is reserved to the assignor, or anv person for him. There is no insolvent law and no imprison- ment for debt. ATTACHMENTS may issue bv plaintiff filing bond in double the amount involved, when de- fendant is a non-resident, is about to remove without the lim- its of the county, absconds, con- ceals himself, or resists legal arrest, attempts to remove property be- yond the State, or fraudulently disposes of property, or threatens or prepares so to do, or creates a. fraudulent lien thereon. First attach- ment levied has priority. Garnishment issues in aid of attachment or judgment, but wages of journeymen, mechanics and laborers are exempt from garnishment. Jurisdiction of justice of the peace is limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must he recorded within thirty days in the county where tlie mortgageor resides ; and if the property' is situ- ated in another county, it should be recorded there also. Foreclos- ure by affidavit before justice, notary, or, if non-resident, before commissioner for the State. DEEDS must be attested by two witnesses, and if not recorded within one year the deed loses priority over a subsequent deed re- corded within the year. A deed must be in writing, under seal (a scroll will answer), and made for a consideration. Acknowledgments within the State may he taken by a judge or clerk of a court of record, commissioner of deeds, justice of the peac« or notary public. In otlier States or Territories, by a commissioner of deeds for Georgia, or judge of court of record in the State where executed, with a certi- ficate of the clerk under the seal of such court of the genuineness of the signature of such judge. DIVORCE. Grounds for total divorce are as follows: Marriage within the prohibited degrees of affinity or consanguinity; mental or physical incapacity at the time of marriage ; force, menace, duress or fraud in obtaining it; adultery, wilful desertion by either party for three years, cruel treatment by, or habitual intoxication of eitlier p.^rtv, or sentence to the penitentiary for two years or over for any offence involving moral turpitude. No total divorce may be granted except by the concurrent verdict of two juries, rendered at different times of court; and when a divorce is granted, the jury rendering the final verdict determines the rights and disabilities of the parties. EXEMPTIONS. Each head of a family, or guardian, or trustee of a family of minor children, and every aged or infirm person, or per- son having the care and support of dependent females of any age, who is not the head of a family, is entitled to realty or personalty, or both, to the value in the aggregate of 51,600. Said property shall be exempt from levy and sale by virtue of any process whatever, under the laws of this State, except for taxes, purchase-money of the home- stead, labor done thereon, or material furnished therefor, or for the removal of encumbrances. MARRIED WOMEN retain as a separate estate all property in their possession at the time of marriage, or afterwards acquired and arc not liable for any debts, defaults or contracts of the husband. By -X 5o8 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. consent of her husband advertised for four weeks she may become a free trader, in which event she is liable the same as if unmarried. The wife may not bind lier estate by any contract of suretyship, either in behalf of her husband or any other person. The widow takes dower in one -third of all the lands of which her husband was seized at his death; and wife and children, after the husband's death, are entitled to one year's support from his property, all other claims yield- ing to this. MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, not having taken personal security, have a prior Hen on tlie property built or repaired by them, which lien attaches, without regard to the title, in said property, 'ihe claimant must have substantially complied with his contract, must have recorded his lien within three months in the clerk's office of the county in which the property is situated, and must bring suit within one year after it becomes due. Those furnishing machinery', or labor for its repair, officers and employes of steamers or other water craft, millwrights, and builders of railroads, have a like lien if similarly en- forced. Landlords have a special lien for rent on crops, which is superior to the homestead exemption law, and to all other Hens except for taxes. WILLS may be made by persons of either sex who have arrived at the age of twenty-one years. Three witnesses are required. Wills are recorded in the Ordinary's Court. Married women may bequeath their separate estate. IDAHO. ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law exists, under which the debtor is discharged upon making an assignment, as therein provided, except in cases of fraud. ATTACHMENTS may issue in actions upon contract for the direct payment of money, when the plaintiff has no Hen or security, or when the defendant is a non-resident, etc. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded in the county where the debtor resides; otherwise they are null and void as regards credit- ors and purchasers. Record should also be filed in the county where the goods may be. Affidavit must be made as to good faith, and no intention to defraud creditors. DEEDS must be acknowledged the same as in Dakota; they must be in writing, signed and sealed (scroll will do), and no witnesses are required. Dower and curtesy are unknown. The husband must join in conveying the realty of the wife, who must be examined privately, certifying that the act is free and voluntary, without fear or compul- sion, or influence of the husband, and that she does not desire to re- tract the execution of the same. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead worth $5,000 is exempted to a house- holder who is head of a family ; either husband or wife may select the homestead. Personal property is also exempted to the value of $300. Exemption does not extend to purchase-money or to mortgages on the property. MARRIED WOMEN. All property, both real and personal, owned at marriage or afterwards acquired, by either wife or husband, re- mains a separate estate. All property acquired after marriage is held in common. Separate property of the wife should be inventoried with the county recorder; the husband has control of it during marriage, but cannot create a lien or encumbrance unless joined by the wife, who is examined separately. If the husband mismanages, or commits waste, the District Court may, on application of wife, appoint a trustee to manage her separate property. Upon the death of husband or wife half the common property goes to survivor; if no direct descendants, all goes to survivor. MECHANICS' LIENS. The improvement and development of mines, claims, flumes, bridges and ditches come under the law of me- chanics' liens. Claims must not be less than $25. Original contractor must file his claim within sixty days ; others within thirty*. The lien expires after one year unless suit is brought, and continues in force two years and no longer. Mechanics or artisans have a Hen on arti- cles left with them to repair or alter, and may sell them within two months unless charges are paid, provided the sale be advertised for three weeks. WILLS. At twenty-one years of age testator may dispose of realty, and at eighteen of personal property; t^vo witnesses are required. Married women may dispose of their separate estate, both real and ■ personal. Husband must leave wife one-half of common property. The will must first be recorded in the Probate Court, afterwards in all counties where any realty is conveyed by the will. ILLINOIS. ASSIGNMENTS are made without preference, and all debts must be paid/ri7 rati. While no provision is made for the discharge of the debtor, yet all proceedings may beuiscontinued with the assent of the debtor and a majority of the creditors in number and amount. The County Court has jurisdic- tion in all cases of assignment for benefit of creditors. Assignee must file bond, inventory and valuation, and send notice to creditors, who must present their claims under oath within three months. Claims not so presented do not share in dividends until after the payment of all claims properly presented and allowed. Assignee is required to make legal division among creditors at the first term of court after the three months allowed, and to render final account within one year. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff giving bond with approved security, in double the amount of the claim. Plaintiff must also make affidavit to one or more of the following facts: That the debtor is non-resident, conceals himself, resists process being ser\'ed on liim, has departed from the State or is about to do so, with the intention of removing his effects ; or has, within two j'ears preceding, fraudulently disposed of his property, or a pan thereof, so as to hinder or delay creditors; or where the debt sued on \vas fraudulently contracted. Writs may issue from courts of record on claims exceeding $20, from justices* courts not exceeding $200, and in county courts claims may not exceed $[,000. The wages of any person who is head of a family are exempt from garnishment to the amount of $50. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $200. CHATTEL MORTGAGES should be properly acknowledged and recorded, although as between the parties themselves this is not neces- sary. Property must be fully described so it may be identified. They are invalid as to third parties if given for longer than two years, or if the property mortgaged is allowed to remain iiyjossession of the mort- gageor, unless expressly provided for in the mortgage, A mortgage given on a stock of goods is fraudulent as to third parties, if the mort- gageor be allowed to remain in possession of the goods. DEEDS may be acknowledged before a master in chancen.', notary public. United States commissioner, circuit or county clerk, justice of the peace, any court of record having a seal, or any judge, clerk or justice of any such court. Outside of the State and in the United States, in conformity with the laws of the State, Territory or District where made. The officer mus.t he authenticated by the certificate of the county clerk or clerk of record onder his official seal. If before a justice of the peace, it must be certified by the proper clerk, under the seal of his office, that the person before whom the acknowledg- ment was made w.as a justice of the peace at the time of making the same. No deed will waive homestead right, unless expressly stated, both in the deed and certificate of acknowledgment. A scroll answers for a seal, and no witnesses are required. Al K SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 509 DIVORCE may be granted, where complainant has been a resident of the State for one year, for inipotency, bigamy, adultery, desertion or drunkenness for two years, attempt upon the life of the other by poison or other means showing malice, extreme cruelty, conviction of felony or other infamous crime. If no defence is interposed, decree may be granted on testimony of complainant alone ; but examination of witnesses must be had In open court, and the judge is required to be satisfied that all proper means have been taken to notify defendant. When decree is granted the court may restore the wife's maiden name. During pendency of suit the court may require the husband to pay such sum as may enable the wife to maintain or defend the suit, and alimony, when declared just and equitable. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead valued at $1,000 is exempted to every householder who has a family ; such exemption not covering liabilities for purchase -money or improvement of the homestead. After the death of a householder his family are entitled to the exemption so long as the survivor occupies it, or until the youngest child is twenty-one years of age. There arc also exempted to every person wearing apparel, school hooks, family pictures and family Bible, and $100 worth of other property selected by the debtor. In addition to this, $300 worth may be selected by the debtor if a head of a family ; but such selection cannot be made from any money or wages due; no exemption is allowed when the debt is for the wages of laborer or servant; $50 of wages is exempt to every head of a family if residing with the same. MARRIED WOMEN may own in their own right realty and per- sonalty, may sue and be sued, contract and incur liabilities, the same as if unmarried; but they may not enter into or carry on any partner- ship business without consent of the husband, unless abandoned by him or he is incapable of giving assent. Beyond the necessaries, the husband is not liable for debts of the wife, except in cases where he would be jointly liable if the marriage did not exist. The estate of both is liable for famijy expenses, but the wife's separate earnings are her own. A surviving wife or husband takes one-third of all '>e realty of the deceased, unless relinquished in due form. The husoand and wife are -put upon the same footing as to dower, and the estate of curtesy is abolished. MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person who shall, as principal con- tractor, by contract, express or implied, with the owner of any lot or piece of land, furnish labor, material or services, in building, altering, repairing or ornamenting any house or building on said lot, shall have a lien upon the lot or building for the amount due him for such labor, material or services; provided, that the owner shall only be liable to the extent of his interest therein ; and every sub- contractor, mechanic, workman or other person who sh.all, in pursu- ance of the original contract, perform any laborer furnish any ma- terials for the purposes above mentioned, sliall have a lien as in the case of principal contractors, the aggregate of such liens not to exceed the price stipulated in the original contract, unless it shall appear to the court that the owner and principal contractor designed to defraud sub-contractors by fixing an unreasonably low price in the contract. VVlien the contract is expressed, if the time stipulated for its comple- tion is beyond three years from its commencement, or if the date of payment is more than one year from its completion, there shall be no lien. If the contract is implied, no lien shall be had unless the con- triict be completed within one year from its commencement. WILL'S. All males twenty-one, and all females eighteen years of age, may dispose of real and personal property. Two witnesses are necessary. Wills are filed in the Probate Court, and originals remain there. INDIANA. ASSIGNMENTS. By filing with the recorder of the county in wliich assignor resides, wittiin ten days after iL'i execution, an indenture duly ^igned and acknowledged, setting forth a full description of all his realty and accompanied bv a schedule of all his per>;onaltv, to which assignor makes oath, any debtor in embarrassed circumstances may make a general assignment of all property in trust for the benefit of all bona fide creditors. Trustee makes oath and files bond in Circuit Court, also copv of assignment, within fifteen d;ivs after execution of indenture. If the trustee named fails to ;ict, the court may appoint a substitute upon petition. Trustee's com- pensation is fixed by the court, and dividends are declared pro- rata on all claims allowed by trustee or the court. No pro- vision for discharge of debtor from his liabilities. ATTACHMENTS may issue against the property of non-restdents or foreign corporations, and against all who have disposed of, or are about to dispose of their property to defraud, hinder or delay credit- ors. Plaintiff must give bond to answer damages if proceedings are unjust or oppressive. An affidavit is also required, which may be made by the creditor or his attorney. All creditors who file under the original attachment, before final judgment, share pro rata in the pro- ceeds of the attached property. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $Joo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES are not valid as to third parties unless recorded within ten days; a mortgage nf perishable articles left in the hands of the grantor, with right to use the same, is void ; a mortgage on a stock of goods, the grantor having a right to sell, is void ; any mortgage is void if unregistered and the chattels left with the grantor; so also is a recorded mortgage if the goods are left unreason- ably long with the grantor, after defaiilt is made in payment. DEEDS must be in writing, and acknowledged and recorded within forty-five days from their execution ; seals are abolished rnd witnesses are not necessary; dower and curtesy are unknown ; hus- band and wife must join in conveying the separate estate of either. Acknowledgments within the State may be taken before a judge or clerk of a court of record, justice of the peace, auditor, recorder, no- tary, or mayor of a city ; in other States and Territories before similar officers or a commissioner of deeds for Indiana. DIVORCE. Petitioners for divorce must be bona fide residents of the State for two years, and of the county at the time of. and for at least six months prior to filing the petition; the oath of two resident freeholders being required to this fact. Decrees may issue by the Superior or Circuit Court for the following causes: Impotency at marri.age; adultery (where connivance or collusion is not proven); habitual cruelty or habitual drunkenness by either party ; abandon- ment for two years; failure by the husband to provide for the family for a period of two years, and conviction of either party of an infa- mous crime at any time subsequent to marriage. EXEMPTIONS. There is no homestead exemption; any resident householder has exempted real or personal property, or both, to the amount t»f $600 on any debt founded on contract since May 31st, 1S79, On debts founded on contracts made previous to that date, exemption is $300. Exemption does not, in any event, affect liens for labor, purchase -money or taxes. MARRIED WOMEN retain all realty and personalty owned by them !it marriage, or afterwards acquired, and are not liable for the husband's debts. The husband is liable fur debts of the wife con- tracted before marriage only to the extent of the personal property he may receive from or through her, or derive from sale or rent of her lands. She may sell personal property, but she may not conveyor encumber her real estate unless the husband joins. Suits against her separate estate should be brought in the nanjc of both. A widow takes one-third of her deceased husband's real estate in fee simple, free from all demands of creditors, where the estate does not ex- ceed $10,000; where the estate is over f 10,000 and under |^o,ooo, she takes one-fourth; and one-fifth if it exceeds |jo,ooo. She also takes one-third of the personalty after payment of debts, and in all cases r \ V r\- 510 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. ,i takes $500, ^vithout accounting, and may occupy the dwelling and forty acres of land for one year, rent free. MECHANICS' LIENS. Workmen, contractors, mechanics and others who may furnish labor or materials have a lien on the land and buildings for material or labor furnished ; the statute also pro- vides a lien on all boats, for work or repairs, or wages earned. Em- ployes of corporations have a lien on the property and earnings for all labor done, which takes precedence of all other claims. Con- tractors have a lien on railroads where they are not m operation ; commission merchants on goods left for storage, artisans on articles left for repair, and landlords on crops raised on leased lands. Notice must be filed within sixty days after the completion of the work, and suit must be brought within one year. WILLS. All persons twenty-one years of age may bequeath both real and personal property. Record must be made in the office of the county clerk where probated. Two witnesses are required. Nuncu- pative wills may not exceed 5100. Married women may dispose of their separate estate. IOWA. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences are allowed, regulated by statute. A debtor may make assignment for the benefit of all credit- ors, with inventory and schedule of debts. Claims must be filed with the assignee "within three months after publication of as- signment. Dividends are made pro rata after State and mu- nicipal taxes have been paid in full. An assignment does not discharge the debtor from all lia- bilities. ATTACHMENTS are sub- stantially the same as in Illinois. Upon plaintiff giving bond for penalty and making affidavit that defendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, has disposed of or is about to remove his prop- erty, intends to permanently remove from the State, has absconded or concealed his property, a writ of attachment may issue. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100; by consent of parties, 1300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be acknowledged and recorded the same as deeds and nthcr conveyances. The mortgaged property is left in possession of the mortgagee unless otherwise provided. Sales under foreclosure may be made in the same manner as other sheriff sales, and foreclosure may be made by sheriff without action of court. DEEDS must be in writing, signed and acknowledged; no seal or scroll is necessary ; no witnesses are required. Acknowledgments in the State may be made before a judge or clerk of any court of record, county auditor or his deputy, each notary or justice of the peace in his own county. Out of the State, before some court of record, notarj' public or justice of the peace, or a commissioner for the State of Iowa. DIVORCE may be granted by the District or Circuit Court of the county in which plaintiff resides. Plaintiff must declare under oath that he or she has resided in the State for one year next preceding the filing of the petition, unless defendant is resident, and received personal ser\'ice of the writ. A decree may issue against the hus- band for adultery, wilful desertion for two years, conviction of felony subsequent to marriage, habitual drunkenness and continued ill-treat- ment. The husband may obtain a decree for like causes, and also when the wife at the time of marriage was pregnant by another. Bigamy or impotency at the time of marriage is also a sufficient cause to annul. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead in country of 40 acres, or in town or city of one-half acre, with improvements and buildings to the aggregate value of $500, is exempted to the head of every family. If less than $500 in value, it may be increased to that amount. It is not exemjited from execution for the purchase-money thereof, or for debts contracted prior to its acquirement. Upon the death of either hus- band or wife the homestead passes to the survivor. Professional men are allowed their libraries, instruments, etc., and a team and wagon; printers retain their presses and type to the value of $1,200. The head of a family may claim wearing apparel, tools, a gun, his library and furniture to the extent of $200 in value. The personal earnings of the debtor for ninety days preceding the execution, certain stock, with food for them for six months, a pew in church and a lot in a burying ground are also exempt. Non-residents and unmarried persons, not being heads of f.amilies, can only claim their ordinary wearing ap- parel and trunk necessary to carrj' the same, to the value of $75. MARRIED WOMEN may own in their own right real and per- sonal propertv acquired by descent, gift or purchase, may sell, convey and devise the same, may sue and be sued, make contracts and buy goods in th^r own name. Wife or husband are not liable for the debts of the other before marriage, or for sep.irate debts incurred afterwards. The wife's earnings are her own, and her note is good against her own estate. Women attain majority at eighteen, or ear- lier upon marriage; a female of fourteen may marry. The surviving wife or husband is entitled to one-third of the real estate of the de- ceased, free from all claims of creditors. If they leave no children, survivor takes one-half, parents the other half. MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics and workmen have alien upon buildings and improvements, and the ground upon which they are sit- uated, for work done or materials furnished. Railways are liable-for construction and improvements. The taking of collateral security invalidates a lien. The lien must be filed by principal contractor within ninety days; by sub-contractor and others, within thirty days- .Suit must be brought within two years after filing statement. Liens have priority in the order in which they are filed, and are assignable; and when for labor alone, they are exempt from execution. WILLS. Testators must be twenty-one years of age. Two wit- nesses are required. Nuncupative wills cannot exceed $300 worth of property, and must be sworn to bv at least two disinterested witnesses. Foreign wills must be probated in the State. KANSAS. ASSIGNMENTS must be for the benefit of all creditors alike, and do not discharge the debtor. Creditors whose claims .imount to more than ten dollars are notified by the clerk of the District Court, and a meeting is held to choose an assignee. Unless a majority of the creditors are present the appointment rests with the court. Those who fail to appear are pre- cluded. One month is given assignee to pay out funds in his hands after allowance of de- mands. The property must be appraised, and assignee is in all respects subject to order of the court, and his accounts are passed upon by a commissioner before his discharge. An assignment must be executed and recorded the same as any conveyance of real estate. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS are substaptially the same as in Illinois. They mav be had against the property of non-resident debtors, or in cases of fraud or attempt to remove or secrete property. Monev or prop- erty due or belonging to defendant may be reached by garnishment. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES need not be acknowledged; copy of mortgage deposited with register of deeds in county where mortgayeor lives. Mortgage of perishable articles left in the hands of mortgageor / Al with right to use them, or of a stock of goods left in the hands of the morlgageor with privilege to svll, :ire void as to creditors of the mortgageor unless they are duly notificcl. DEEDS must be in writing; neither seals, scrolls nor witnesses are required. Acknowledgments in the State must be before a court hav- ing a seal, a judge, justice or clerk thereof; a justice of the peace, notary public, county clerk or register of deeds, or m;iyor or clerk of a city ; outside the State, before a c<»urt of record, or clerk or ofTicer holding the stal thereof, a notary public, justice of the peace, or com • missioncr appointed by the Governor of Iowa; if before a justice of the peace they must be accompanied by a certificate of his ofhcial character, to which the seal of some court shall be affixed. No sepa- rate acknowledgment is necessary on the part of the wife, but she should join the husband in conveying, whether the property is her separate estate or not. DIVORCE. To obtain a decree of divorce, plaintiff must have re- sided in the State one year, and must bring suit in the county of resi- dence. Decrees are granted in the Circuit Court tm the following grounds: Adultery, impotency, fraudulent contract, extreme cruelty, habitual drunkenness, gross neglect, abandonment for one year or conviction of felony. EXEMPTIONS. An independent fortune is exempted in this State. A homestead of i6o acres of farming land, or of one acre within an in ■ corporated town or city, with buildings and improvements thereon, with no limit to value. The head of every family is allowed personal properly as follows: The family library, school books and family Bible ; family pictures and musical instruments in use ; pew in church and lot in burial ground ; all wearing apparel of the family , beds, bed- steads and bedding, one cooking stove and appendages and all other cooking utensils, and all other stoves and appendages necessary for the use of the debtor and his family; one sewing-machine, spinning- wheel and all other implements of industry, and all other houseUold furniture not herein enumerated, not exceeding $500 in value; two cows, ten hogs, one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, or in lieu of one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, a span of mules or horses ; twenty sheep and their wool ; food for the support of the stock for one vear; one wagon, two plows, drag and other farming utensils not ex- ceeding in value $300; grain, meat, vegetables, groceries, fuel, etc., for the family for one year; the tools and implements of any me- chanic, miner or other workman, kept for the purpose of carrying on his busin;:ss, together with stock in trade not exceeding $400 in value; library, instruments and office furniture of any professional man. Residents, not the head of a family, have tools, implements and stock in trade up to $400. No personal propertj* is exempt for the wages of any clerk, mechanic, laborer or servant. A lien on the homestead may be created by husband and wife joining in the mortgage. MARRIED ^VOMEN have the same property rights as men, and may make contracts, carry on business, sue and be sued, and seller convey real estate precisely as their husbands ; their earnings or profits :'.re their own. A note or endorsement made by a married woman will hind her property the same as if unmarried. Homestead is absolute properly <»f widow and cliildren, and neither wife nor husband mav bequeath more than half their property without written consent of ihe other. If either die intestate and without children, the entire property goes to the survivor. MECHANICS* LIENS. Mechanics, workmen and others perform- ing labor, or furnishing materials for the construction or repair of any building, have a lien on the building and the wholt tract of land. Original contractor must file his claim in the office of the Circuit Co\irt within four months; sub-contractors and others, within two months. Suit must be brought within one year. Artisans or mechanics may hold articles of construction or repair, and if charges are not paid within three months they may sell the same. WILLS are recorded in the office of the Probate Court; if made in other Slates they must be probated in the county where the property lies. The testator must be twenty-two years of age, and two witnesses are required. KENTUCKY. ASSIGNMENTS arc regulated by statute. Any preference may be set aside in six months. Trustee must give bond, and settle his account in two years. A general assigtimentforthe equal benefit of all creditors may be made, and all claims must be proven. There is no provision for the discharg^e of an insolvent debtor unless debts are paid in full. Xo insolvent law. ATTACHMENT issues where defendant is non-resident or a foreign corporation, or has been absent from the State, evades sL-rvice, conceals, attempts to re- move, disposes of or conveys property with intent to defraud or delay creditors. Plaintiff must give bond in double the amount of his claim, with security. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be duly acknowledged and re- corded, and, except as to creditors having actual notice, take effect only from the time they are recorded in the county clerk's office. The mortgaged property may remain in possession of the mortgageor, and may be redeemed within five years. DEEDS executed in this State by others than married women are acknowledged before the clerk of a County Court, or may be proved by two subscribing witnesses, or by one who also proves the attesta- tion of the other, or by proof of two witnesses that the subscribing witnesses are both dead or out of the State, or one so absent and the other dead, and like proof of the signature of one witness and th& grantor. The deed of a married woman must be acknowledged before a clerk of the County Court, who shall explain to her the contents and effect of the deed separately and apart from her husband ; if she freely and volu:itarily acknowledge the same, and is willing for it to be recorded, he shall certify the same. Deeds made by residents of Kentucky must be recorded within sixty days from the date thereof; four months is allowed to non-residents, and if living out of the United States, twelve months. The record dates from the time when the clerk's fee is paid. No seal or scroll need be used, and no wit- nesses are required. DIVORCE. Before a petition can be presented for a decree of divorce, one year's continuous residence in the State is required. Jury trials are not permitted, and decrees are granted by courts having equitable jurisdiction. An alisolute divorce maybe granted to the party not in fault on the ground of adultery, impolencv, etc., separa- tion for five years, condemnation for felony subsequent to the mar- riage, force, duress or fraud in obtaining the marriage, or uniting- with any religious society which requires n renunciation of the marriage contract. Habitual neglect or maltreatment on the part of the hus- band, or where the husba-^d is a confirmed drunkard, may give the wife a divorce ; and where the wife is proven unch.aste, or pregnant by another man at the time of marriage, the husband is entitled to divorce. The p.irties are free to marry again, and their personal property is restored. EXEMPTIONS. To ^<7»rrt yf,^£ the real estate and one-half of the personal property. MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, laborers and workmen, under the tjeneral hiw, have a lien for labor performed or materials furnished upon the improvements and interest of tlie smployer in the land. Sub-contractors and workmen have a lien by giving the owner written notice oi their claim, and that they look to the land and improvements for compensation. Claims must be filed within sixty days. Suit must be brought within six months after filing the account, WILLS. Any person twenty-one years of age may make a will. ^tie will must oe proveo xn me County Court of the county where tes- tator resided. If the will was written by the testator himself, only one witness is necessar>' ; if written by any other person, two witnesses are required. Married women may dispose of their separate estate. LOUISIANA. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences may be made without re- p;ird to thu insolvent law. Under the State laws an insolvent debtor may make surrender of property to creditors, or an involuntary surrender may be forced by any creditor "who issues an execution which is returned unsatisfied. Surrender vests all property in creditors, and stops all legal pro- ceedings against the debto:-; the latter must file S'"orn schedules of assets "na liabilities. The deb*/:! may oeuischtii'^ed by con- sent of a majority of creditors in number and amount, unless guilty of fraud or preference, in which case he is deprived of the benefit of the insolvent laws, and is liable to imprisonment. ATTACHMENTS may issue on application of creditor, under oath, when the debtor is about to leave the State permanently, without there being a possibility of obtaining judgment against him previous to his departure; wliun the debtor resides out of the State; when he conceals himself to avoid service of suit; when he has or is about to mortgage, assign or dispose ( f his property with intent to defraud his creditors or give an unfair preference to some of them ; and when he has converted, or is ab:ut to convert, his property into money or evi- dence of debt with intent to place it beyond the reach of his creditors. Defendant must give liond equal to the amount of his claim, with at least one solvent surely. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $ioo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES are unknown to the laws of Louisiana, DEEDS may be acknowledged, within the State, before a no- tary public, parish recorder or his deputy, in the presence of two wit- nesses. In other States, before a commissioner of Louisiana, or in conformity to the laws of the State where acknowledged. The hus- b:ind must join the wife in conveying her real estate, and authorize her; in disposing of his own real estate, the wife must be examined separately and renounce all her rights. DIVORCE. Sentence of either party to imprisonment in the peni- tentiary is suffittient ground for divorce. A decree may also be ob- tained by either party for adultery, habitual intemperance or cruel treatment of such a nature as to render living togother insupportable. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead of i6o acres of land, with buildings and ini[irovemenls thereon, is exempted to the head of a family, if owned and occupied as a residence, together with personal property, the whole not to exceed $2,000; all wearing apparel, implements, stock, etc., with provisions and supplies necessary for the plantation for one year. If the wife own separate property in her own right to the value o£ $2,000, there is no exemption. MARRIED WOMEN mayhold and control both real and personal DroDerty owned at time of marriage; al! property or revenues of sep- arate property acquireo oy eitner nusoana or wife alter marriage is held in common, and :c divided equally between them at dissolution of the marriage either by death or divorce. The wife may carry on a sc;).irate business, but her husband will be bound by lier contracts, so long as the community of property exists; she cannot sue without the concurrence of her husband, and she cannot bind herself or her prop- erty for his debts. There is no right of dower to the wife. MECHANICS* LIENS are known as "privileges;" these are allowed to architects, contractors, workmen and furnishers of mate- rial. For all work exceedine^ in value five hundred ooiiars, the agree- ment must be reduced to writing and registered with the recorder of mortgages. To be of effect against third parties, all privileges and Hens must be recorded in the parish where the property is situated. WILLS of four kinds are recognized: nuncupative by public act; nuncupative by private act; mystic or sealed wills, and olographic wills. The first must be dictated by testator to a notary public and read in the presence of three resident or five non-resident witnesses, and must be signed by the testator and w^itnesses. The second must be written in the presence of five resident or seven non-resident wit- nesses, read to them and signed by the testator and the witnesses, or at least two of them. In the country three resident or five non-resident witnesses will suffice, if -/.ore cannot be obtained. The third form, or mystic will, is first signed by the testator, then enclosed in an envel- ope and se^leo up. The testator then declares in the presence of a notary and seven witnesses that that paper contains his will, signed by himself, the notary endorses the act of superscription on the will or envelope, and that act is signed by the notary, the testator and the witnesses. Olographic testaments are written entirely by the testator himself, and dated and signed by him. No attestation or other form !::73'^u:red. The following cannot act as witnesses: Women of any age ; males under sixteen ; the aear, aumo, olir.d or '.T.zz.v.t ; those de- barred by the criminal law from exercising civil functions ; those who stand as heirs or legatees under the \vin, except in case of inystic X^S" taments. MAINE. AN ASSIGNMENT without preferences may be made for the benefit of creditors, who have three months thereafter to become par- ties. All property, except what is lawfully exempt, of the insol- vent debtor is transferred by such assignment and may not be at- tached for six months after first publication. Only creditors who are parties to an assignment are benefited. By the insolvent law 187S-79, where his debts exceed $300. a voluntary petition maybe filed by the debtor. For involun- tary proceedings, at least two creditors, owning one-fourth of the debts, should act. Assign- ees, approved by the court, may set aside an assignment made within four months of the filing of insolvency petition. They dispose of the property and divide the assets. The insolvent debtor is then discharged. Preferences or fraudulent conveyances are void. Proof, brought within two years, of fraud, may annul the discharge. For debts of less than three hundred dollars the debtor makes a general disclosure and is dis- charged. ATTACHMENTS. All property not exempt by law is liable to attachment for debt; neither affidavit nor security being re- quisite, unless the creditor is a non-resident. By consent of par- ties or by appraisement, attached perishable property may be sold at once, and the proceeds held by the officer. Upon affidavit of creditor of his belief that the debtor is going to leave the State and take away more property than is necessary for his present support, and that his :B5E5H5aEH5HS55aS25S5S5SSHSS52,Q -7\ SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 5'3 claim is for over ten dolars, the debtor may be arrested. Debtors under arrest may make complete disclosure and be discharged. Any person owinij an insolvent debtor may be held as trustee; but claims for wages under twenty dollars cannot be garnishecd except in ca.se of debt incurred for necessaries. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $[00. CHATTEL MORTGAGES for over $30 must be recorded where the mortgageor resides, or possession of property pass to mortgagee. Mortgageor may redeem within sixty days after notice of foreclosure. DEEDS. All deeds must be under seal. "Within the State ac- knowledgments are made before a justice of the peace or a notary public; in other States, before a magistrate, justice of the peace, no- tary public or commissioner of deeds for this State; in foreign coun- tries, before a notary public or United States minister or consul. One grantor may make the acknowledgment. The wife joins to relinquish dower. DIVORCE. The Supreme Judicial Court grants divorce for impo- tency, udultery, or for three years' wilful desertion. Alimony may he allowed and dower if the husband be to blame. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead $500, or any lot purchased from State as a homestead; $50 furniture, $150 library, $300 team, $50 poultry, Jioo sewing machine, $10 lumber; cow and heifer, ten sheep and lambs, plow, wagon, mowing machine, a two-ton boat, the flax, r:iw and manufactured, from one acre of ground, wearing apparel, pro- visions, fuel, seed grain, provender for stock, and tools. After the debtor's death, his family has the benefit of the exemptions. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds real and personal property, acquired in any way except from the husband, the same as if single. She may make contracts, sue and be sued and do business in her own name; and her property may be taken to satisfy judgments against her. Her property is liable only for her own debts. She joins husband in a deed selling his property to relinquish dower. He joins with her in selling hers only when such property comes from him. A wife, being abandoned by her husband, may be allowed to take and use his personal property. Dower, life estate in one-third of all husband's real property owned during coverture; one-half if no children. He has same interest in deceased wife's estate, MECHANICS' LIEN on buildings holds good and may be en- forced by attachment within ninety days. Statement must be filed within thirty days after work is done or material furnished. Lien against vessels four days after launching. WILLS. Three disinterested witnesses. Testator must be twenty- one years of age and of sound mind. Nuncupative wills must be reduced to ^vriting within six days. Wills devising real estate must be recorded the same as deeds. MARYLAND. ASSIGNMENTS. Eitiicr on his own application, or that of two or more creditors wlmse cl.iims exceed $^50, a debtor is decided to be in- solvent. Except on proof of fraud or preference, he is dis- charged by surrender of his prop- erty. Claims of non-resident creditors are not affected, unless filed in the proceedings. Assign- ments without preferences or pro- visions for release of debtor are allowed. ATTACHMENTS may be oh tained by simple afrula\it wlieii L^^-}^flY'LAH5>^^ 3 defendant is a non-resident, or K has absconded; and by afli davit ^sasssasasasasasE SE SBSBsesasa with security in double amount of claim, where plaintiff believes defendant is about absconding, or has disposed of, or intends to dispose of or conceal his proi-crty to defraud his creditors. Attachments reach debtor's property whether in his own hands or in those of others. Wages for less than $100 not yet due cannot be attached. No imprisonment for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, ?ioo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must have seal, be acknowledged and recorded within twenty days. Before recording affidavit must be made that the consideration is true and bona fide. To foreclose, mortgagee gives bond and twenty days' notice before sale. Court must confirm sale. DEEDS must be sealed and have at least one witness. Acknowl- edgments within the State are taken by any court of record, or justice of the peace who is certified to under seal of a court of record. In other States, by a notary public, cts liavc been paid. MECHANICS' LIENS. Account must have been filed within one year, and lien holds good for two years. Sub-contractors and jour- neymen claiming a lien by service of the papers on the owner will hive the amount of their claims retained from what is due the con- tractor. There is also a lien for work done on personal property, which may be sold after three months if charges be not paid. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one for men, eighteen for women. Two witnesses. MISSISSIPPI. ASSIGNMENTS, even with preferences, but without reservations for ilic debtor's benefit, may be made. Intent to defraud, being evident, will void any assign- ment. No insolvent law, and no provision for discharge of debtor. ATTACHMENTS issue after plaintiff furnishes bond and m:ikes affidavit that the debtor is a non-resident or has absconded or is about to abscond, has con- cealed himself or his property, or in any manner, by conveyance or otherwise, put his property be- vond reach of his creditors, so as fraudulently to avoid payment of his dclits. Resident and non-res- ident creditor^ have equal rights. The first attachment has priority over subsequent ones. No artist or imprisonment for debt. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the property must be taken into the possessiun of the mortgagee. Foreclosure and sale must be provided for in the mortgage. DEEDS. Two witnesses arc needed if not acknowledged ; other- wise one. Acknowledgments may be made before judges of any of the United States Courts, judges of the Supreme or Superior Courts of any of the States or Territories, justices of the peace, notaries public, or before commissioners appointed by the Governor of this State. In case of a justice or notary, his official character must be certified to under seal of some court of record. A married woman joins her husband in a conveyance to release dower, and, in making her acknowledgment, must he questioned separate and apart from him. DIVORCE. After one year's residence in the State, divorce may he obtaint-d for impoten(?y, adultery, bigamy, cruelty, two years' aban- donment or imprisonment in the penitentiary. Alimony is allowed wlien the wife is the injured party, and the court awards the custody of minor children. EXEMPTIONS. To househnlding head of family, 160 acres of land and improvements m country, or house and lot in town cither to value of $2,000. Tools and farming implements necessary for two male laborers ; library and instruments of professional man to value of $250 ; two horses or mules or a yoke of o-tcn. two cows and calves, five hogs, five sheep ; wagon, $103; personal property, $250 ; one sew- ing machine ; provisions and provender ; wages of a laborer, $100. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property acquired in any manner, and the revenues therefrom, for her own use and free from control or liability of her husband. .She may convey and en- cumber the same as if single, but husband joins in ceace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Mortgagee mu-t take immediate pos- session, or mortgage mu t be recorded with the affidavits of both the mortgageor and mortgagee that it is /'ona Jhi^ and for a real debt, h'oreclosed after thirty days from breach of condition, and sale lield ufter fi>ur days' notice. Mortgageor has a right to redeem until sale. DEEDS. Every conveyance of real estate requires a seal, and must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments may be taken by notaries public, justices of the peace or commissioner of deeds. Wife joins to release dower. No separate examination. DIVORCES are granted by the Supreme Court for physical incom- petency, adultery, drunkenness, cruelty, three years' desertion, one year's sentence to prison or adherence to a religious sect that con- demns marriage. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $500; $100 furniture; $100 tools; $200 b loks ; $5iX) fuel and provisions; sewing machine, cook stove, bedding and clothing, one hog, six sheep, one yoke of oxen or one hoise, and four tons of hay. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property owned before marriage or acquired afterwards, except what may come from the husband, for her own use. She may sell, convey and encumber, devise and bequeath, do lousiness, give notes, sue and be sued. Her contracts are binding, excepting that there can be no con- tracts or conveyances between hvisband and wife, nor can the wife become security for her husband. Wife is entitled to dower. MECHANICS' LIENS take precedence of ail attachments, and hold (Ml stationary property for ninety days ; on lumber, logs and bark for sixty days, and on vessels for four days. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one. Three witnesses. Nuncu- pative wills must be reduced to writing within six days. Probate within six months. NEW JERSEY. ASSIGNMENTS with preference-^ are void. Sworn inventory must accompany assignment. An itisolvent debtor is discharged on sur- render of all his property. Wages Gjsi due for service or labor to the amount of $300 have precedence over other claims. ATTACHMENTS issue when defendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, or absconds or assigns or conceals his prop- erty to defraud his creditors. If fraud be evident, the defendant may be arrested. Limit of juris- diction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must either be recorded or the property must pass into possession of mortgagee. To continue claim mort- gagee must renew record thirty days before the expiration of one year. Foreclosure by suit in court. No redemption. DEEDS must be under seal, and have one witness. The word "heirs" must appear in an instrument to convey in fee simple. Ac- knowledgments are taken by the chancellor or justice of the Superior Court, master in chancer}', judge of the Court of Common Pleas, or connnissioner of deeds. In other States, by commissioners of deeds for this State or by legally authorized local officers. Husband and wife join in a deed conveying the estate of either, he to give his con- sent, she to release dower. DIVORCE. Absolute for adultery, bigamy or three years' abandon- ment. Partial for cruelty. Applicant must reside in the State, unless the marriage or the alleged misconduct occurred here. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead $1,500, and $200 household properly. MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned before marriage, and such as she lu.iy acquire afterwards by gift, descent or bequest, is the sole property of a married woman and is not liable for the husband's debts. She may make contracts, but cannot sell or encumber her real estate without consent of husband. She cannot endorse notes o,- be- come security. She joins husband in his conveyances and mortgages. Dower and curtesy. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claims must be filed and suit brought within one year. On a structure erected by contract which has been filed and recorded only the contractor may claim a lien. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses. Wit- ness cannot be a beneficiary. A married woman making a will can- not impair her husband's rights by curtesy. , NEW MEXICO. ASSIGNMENTS. No assignment or insolvent laws. ATTACHMENTS when defendant is non-resident, absconds, con- ceals property or shows intent to defraud. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Growing crop is tlie only sort of per- sonal property tint may nut be mortgaged. Possession of property must pass into hands of mortgagee, or the mortgage must be re- corded. Mortgage holds for one year. For continuance, mortgagee must file renewal thirty days before each year expires. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a judge or clerk of a court <»f record, notary public, justice of the peace, ma\ or of a city or register of deeds. A married woman's separate property is conveved by deed signed by both husband and wife. Her acknowledgment mu t be taken apart, and she must be questioned as to her freedom of action in the transfer. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $100; %\o furniture; ?2o tools; $25 pro\ isions. V- s. "^ Si8 ^ SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. MARRIED WOMEN. The separate property of a married woman is what she owned previous to marriage, or what she may inherit. All that she acquires afterwards, and the revenues of her separate estate, go into the common property. The husband h.as control and management of her separate estate and the commun property. There is no dower, but on decease of a husband the wife's private property is first deducted ; then she receives one-half of the common property, after all debts are paid. If there be no children she has a right to all the common property. MECHANICS' LIENS. Must file claim within sixty days, and bring suit within one year. A lien may be had on movables repaired by mechanics. Landlords may have lien on property of tenants, and inn-keepers on the baggage of their guests, WILLS. Testators' age, fourteen for males, twelve for females. \Vritten wills require three witnesses ; verbal wills five. Probate judge may disapprove of a will, but appeal can be carried to District Court. NEW YORK. ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are allowed. A debtor who has been imprisoned on an execution for a sum less than $500, on making an assignment of his property, barring fraud, may be discharged immediately ; and for a larger sum, after three months* imprisonment. Consent of two- thirds of creditors may hasten discharge. ATTACHMENTS. When de- fendant is a non-resident or has absconded, conceals himself or is about to place his property be- yond reach to defraud creditors, or in an action for damages, at- tachments may be issued. An unsatisfied execution being re- turned after a judgment, the defendant or any other persons may be examined as to property of debtor in their hands, and be forced to use what is not exempted towards payment of the debtor. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $^oo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or property must change hands. Good for only one year unless record be renewed-. Foreclosure, unless by terms of mortgage, by seizure and sale after three days' notice. DEEDS must be under seal. Within the State, acknowledgments are made before notary public, justice of the peace, surrogate, judge of court of record, recorder or commissioner of deeds. In any other State, before commissioner for this State, judge of United States Court, judge of Supreme, Circuit or Superior Court, or the mayor of a city, or before any legally authorized officer, DIVORCE. Only for adultery will an absolute divorce be granted. Partial divorce is ordered for cruelty, desertion and neglect. Mar- riages are annulled for fraud or force, idiocy, lunacy or impotency at the time of m;trriage, or for bigamy. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; $250 furniture, tools, team and other personal property; sixty days' wages. MARRIED WOMEN may have real and personal property, buv and sell and do business in their own names. A married woman is liable for debts contracted in her own trade or business, or when an agreement or contract has been made for the benefit of her separate property, when, by the terms of such instrument, her separate prop- erty is to be charged with the liability. Dower. MECHANICS' LIENS. Time for filing notice varies indifferent counties from thirt\' days to three months. Suit must be brought with- in one year. WILLS. Testator's age to dispose of real estate, twenty-one years; of personal property, eighteen for males, sixteen for females. Two witnesses. The address of a witness acompanies his signature. NORTH CAROLINA. ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are allowed. An insolvent debtor, by filing petition and assigning his property to trustee for benefit of all creditors, is dis- charged. But property that he may afterwards acquire is liable for the same old debts. If con- cealment or fraud is proved the debtor may be imprisoned until he discloses all his property. ATTACHMENTS. Thecred- itor must give bond and security for costs and damages, and must file affidavits. An attachment is issued against the property of a debtor who is non-resident or a foreign corporation, who has left [iB5P_^BS?5E5ESHSasaS2SaSES252SaS2SaE5) the State or conceals himself to avoid summons, or has removed or is about to dispose of his property to defraud his creditors. Personal service of summons or publication within thirty davs after obtaining order for attachment is required. Publication must be continued four weeks. Justices of the peace limited to $200. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded ; may only be for property to value of $j00. Foreclosure by seizure and sale after twenty days' public notice. DEEDS must have one or more witnesses. Acknowledgments within the State are made before a justice of the peace, notary public or judge or clerk of a court of record. In other States, before a clerk of court of record or a commissioner of deeds for North Carolina. In foreign countries, before a mayor or chief magistrate of a city, or before a United States consular officer. Wife joins husband to bar dower and must make her acknowledgment separate and apart. DIVORCE. Only for impotency or adultery can absolute divorce be obtained. Partial divorce is granted for cruelty-, desertion or drunk- enness. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead to value of $1,000, and personal property worth $500. No exemption is good against taxes, purchase- money or mechanics' liens. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman's separate property is not liable fttr her husband's debts. She may devise and bequeath, but must have husband's consent to convey. Unless she be a free trader, she can make no contract other than for personal or family necessities or for payment of ante-nuptial debts, without the consent of her husband. She becomes a free trader, the husband assenting, by filing her intention. Common law dower and one year's subsist- ence out of husband's personal property. MECHANICS' LIEN holds building and lot. Notice in thirty days ; suit in ninety days. Alien for making or mending may be had on movables. Farm laborers or persons making advances for raising crop may have a lien. WILLS require two witnesses, not beneficiaries. If an unwit- nessed will be offered for probate it must be satisfactorily proved by three witnesses to be wholly in testator's handwriting. OHIO. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences, except wages to amount of $100 and individual taxes, are allowed. Assignment is filed in ten days, and schedule in thirtv. Creditors must bring in their claims within six months. First dividends in eight months. Debtor is always liable. ATTACHMENTS are issued when defendant is a non-resident, or a foreign corporation, has absconded or has removed or concealed his property, or in any other manner placed it or attempted to place it beyond reach to defraud his creditors. Plaintiff giving bond with surety to cover damages, and making affidavit of fraud, the defend- ki. V / SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 519 ant will be arrested. Garnishee except foruninatured notes. Ju- risdiction of justices of the peace $300- CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded; g-ood for only twelve months unless renewed by again recording- within thirty days before the expiration of the year. Same for each succeeding year. DEEDS mustbe acknowledged in presence of two witnesses, before some officer in the State who is authorized to take depositions. In other States or countries, deeds may be executed and acknowledged in accordance with the local laws. Wife joins husband in a deed, and is questioned apart. DIVORCE is granted for unfaithfulness, bigamy, incapacity, cruelty, drunkenness, deception, three years' neglect and abandon- ment, or imprisonment in a penitentiary. Alimony may be granted ; and if the decree is obtained on account of the husband's ill conduct, the wife has her separate property and her maiden name restored. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead is exempt to value of $1,000; if ap- praised to a higher value a partition is made, or an appropriate rental is charged. Clothing and necessary furniture are exempted; tools and farming implements to value $100; $50 worth, of provisions and three months' wages ; one horse or yoke of cattle, harness and wagon ; one cow, t^vo hogs, six sheep, and sixty days' provender, or instead, $65 in household property. Aprofessional man's books, $ioo. When res- ident debtor, being head of a familv, has no homestead, he may retain personal property to value of $500, besides other exempted property. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is not liable for her husband's debts ; beyond a three years* lease, or a con- tract for the improvement of her real estate, she cannot sell or encum- ber it without the consent of her husband. If a married woman engages in trade, her separate property is liable for the debts she may then contract, and she may sue and be sued the same as if sin- gle. A deserted wife must procure an order from court, by which she shall have all property rights as ^ /epne sole. Dower in all real estate owned by husband during coverture. MECHANICS' LIENS. Within four months after the perform- ance of labor or furnishing of material, .1 detailed statement of the claim must be sworn to and recorded, to procure a mechanic's Hen. The lien holds a building and the ground on which it stands, or a bridge or any kind of water craft. A lien is good for one year, or until the lawsuit begun within the year is finally settled. WILLS. Testator's age, t\venty-one years for men, eighteen for women. Two witnesses. Unless the will had been made at least one year before the death of testator, a bequest for religious, benevo- lent, educational or charitable purpose would be void against the claims of children. OREGON. ASSIGNMENTS. A general assignment for the benefit of all creditors must be without preferences. It dissolves all attachments on which judgments have been rendered. Creditors must receive notice to present their claims, or iheir objections to claim. Debts to become due will be taken into account, as well as those already due. Payments are pro rain. The debtor is still liable. No insolvent law, but an imprisoned debtor is discharged after ten days by complying with pre- scribed conditions. He cannot be again arrested for the same debt. ATTACHMENTS. Defendant being a nun resident or a foreign cor- poration, or where the action is on a contract for the payment of money which was not secured by mortgage or other\vise, or if so se- cured, where such security has been vitiated by defendant, an attach- ment may be issued. The plaintiff gives bond in double amount. Where the debt was fraudulently contracted, or property has been removed with intent to defraud, or where personal property is un- justly withheld, or the defendant is a non-resident, he maybe ar- rested. Limit of justices of the peace, ?250. CHATTEL MORTGAGE must be recorded at once, and is good for only one year, unless renewed by mortgagee making and record- ing affidavit within the thirty days before the end of the year that the debt is still due. Renewal each year in the same way. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgment may be taken before a commissioner of deeds for this State or before any duly authorized officer in any State or Territori,*, providing that the legal status of the officer taking the acknowledgment and the compliance of the deed with the laws of such State or Territory are properlv cer- tified to under seal by the clerk of a court of record in the county o» district where such officer has performed such service. Marrwd women examined separately. DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have been a resident for one year before bringing suit. Grounds are impotency, adulten,-, two years' drunken- ness, three years' abandonment, cruelty, conviction of felony. Plain- tiff gaining the suit has a right to one -third of the real estate belonging to defendant; and if a successful plaintiff be the wife, she mav have a maintenance awarded her. EXEMPTIONS. Musical instruments, books and pictures, $75; household effects, $300; clothing, $100, and clothing to each member of the family, $50; team, tools, instruments, library or whatever is needed in the trade or profession of debtor, .?40o; ten sheep, t^vo cows, five hogs, three months* provisions and six months' provender. No exemption is good against a claim for purchase-money. No home- stead. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds her property free from the control or debts of her husband. She may make contracts, buy and sell, and give notes, and her own property will be liable. The husband joins in her conveyances. She may make a will, but it must not interfere with her husband's rights of curtesy. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claims must be filed within three months. Suit begun witliin one year. Sub-contractors and workmen, to obtain a Hen, must serve written notice on the owner before payments be- come due. Payments to contractors before they are due arc no offset against lien of sub-contractors and workmen. WILLS. Age, twenty-one to dispose of real est.ate, eighteen for personal property. Two witnesses. Children unprovided for in a will share as if the parent had died intestate. PENNSYLVANIA. ASSIGNMENTS must be without preferences. Sometimes, a debtor prefers a creditor by confessing judgment, or making a specific assignment of certain property. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS issue where debtor removes, conceals or dis- poses of his property, or is about to do so, to defraud his creditors, or has fraudulently contracted the debt. Also when debtor is a non-resident. On proof of fraud a defendant may be arrested, and he will be imprisoned unless he pays or gives security. Justices of the peace limited to ?jjoo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES cannot be for less than $500, and must be recorded. Must be renewed within thirty days of expiration of the year,and the same for each 520 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. A succeeding year, to maintain mortgag-ee's right. Thirty days' notice, or four weeks' publication before sale by public auction. DEEDS. Acknowledgments may be taken by the mayor of a city or incorporated town, judge of a court of record, commissioner for this State, or by any officer appointed by the laws of the State where taken, providing such officer be certified to under seal by the clerk of a court of record. Wife joins to bar dower; examination separate. DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have been a resident of the State for one vear next preceding the apjilication. Grounds: deception or force in procuring the marriage, impotency, adultery, bigamy, cruelty and t\vo years' abandonment, and two years' sentence to imprisonment. Di- vorce will not be granted on the ground of adultery if proved to have been condoned. Even after a divorce, defendant is not allowed to marry a co-respondent. A wife may obtain partial divorce and ali- mony for ill treatment, EXEMPTIONS. Clothing, books, sewing-machine and $300 worth of other property. Right may be waived. No homestead. MARRIED 'WOMEN. The property of a married woman is held as her separate estatu, but is chargeable for family necessaries ordered by her. A wife cannot make a contract or conveyance without her hus* ind joining her. By obtaining leave from the court b.he may have the benefit of her own earnings. She may make a will, saving the husband's right by curtesy. She may deposit money in bank and write checks against it in her own name. Dower, one-third of all real estate owned by husband during coverture. MECHANICS' LIEN takes precedence of every other lien or en- cumbrance. Claims must be filed within six months, and liens hold good for five years. There may also be a lien held for wages up to the amount of $200 by the employes on any manufactory, mine or similar establishment. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses are required, but they need not attach their signatures. A husband can- not serve as witness to wife's will. RHODE ISLAND. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences the discharge of the debtor. allowed. No provision for ATTACHMENTS issue when debtor is a non-resident or a for- eign corporation, has absconded or fraudulently contracted the debt, or retains property and re- fuses to pay. Garnishment for personal property of debtor in other ])eople's hands. Jurisdic- tion of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the mortga- gee must take possession. Fore- closure by seizure and sale. DEEDS require a seal. Ac- knowledgments may be taken by a senator, judge, justice of the peace, notary public or town clerk. In other States, by the author- ized officers in such States, or by commissioner of deeds for Rhode Island. The wife joins in deed to release dower; only tlie husband need make the acknowledgment. DIVORCE is granted for impotency, adultery, cruelty, drunken- ness, neglect to support, five years' abandonment, conviction of mur- der or arson, presumption of death from long absence, or for defect in marriage rendering it void. Divorces may only be decreed by Su- preme Court. Alimony may be ordered, and restoration of wife's sep- arate property. EXEMPTIONS. Furniture and supplies for family, $.^00; tools, $200; library-, $300; wages, $10; clothing; one cow and one hog; debts secured by negotiable paper. No homestead. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman's property is held by truslces tor her separate use free from her husband's debts. She ;E5a53EHS35Z5=SS< c.mnot make contracts or do business. She may make a will subject to husband's right by curtesy. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed and suit begun within four months. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years for disposal of real estate ; eighteen for personal property. Two witnesses. SOUTH CAROLINA. ASSIGNMENTS. An assignment maybe made, and one or more agents appointtd by the creditors to act with the assignees. Creditors who do not take part in the proceedings, or accept div- idends, retain their claims against the debtor. An imprisoned debt- or may be discharged on making an assignment of all his prop- erty. ATTACHMENTS are issued where debtor is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, or has ab- sconded or concealed himself, or has removed or is about to re- move his property, or has se- creted or disposed of or assigned his property, or is about to do so, with fraudulent intent. Garnishment in aid. Jurisdiction of jus- tices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within sixty days. Foreclosure by seizure and sale. DEEDS must be under seal, and have two witnesses, and be recorded within thirty-three days in county where the land lies. In- side the State, acknowledgments are made only before notaries public and trial justices. In other States, before commissioners of deeds for this State. Wife joins to bar dower. Separate examination. EXEMPTIONS, Homestead, $1,000; this right cannot be waived. Furniture, wagons, live stock and tools, to value of $500. Homestead exemption cannot hold against an execution for the purchase-money^ a lien for improvements or for taxes. Any person not the head of a family may have one-third of his annual earnings exempted, MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman cannot be seized for her husband's debts. A married woman can bequeath, devise and encumber her separate property. She can buy in her own name and have convevances made to her, and make contracts, the same as if she were single, A gift from husband to wife is not good against a creditor's claim. Dower rights, MECHANICS' LIENS, Account must be filed in ninety days and suit begun in six months. The owner, by giving timely notice that he will not be responsible for the contractor's debts, may avoid the im- position of a lien by sub-contractors and journeymen. WILLS. Three witnesses. TENNESSEE, ASSIGNMENTS with preferences allowed, charged from liis liabilities. No insolvet.t law, ATTACHMENTS are issued when debtor is a non-resident, or is about to remove h-msclf or his property from the State, or con- ceals himself or his property, or absconds, or has fraudulently disposed of his property, or dies out of the State. Garnishee pro- cess will reach debts due the de- fendant, and that are to become due, as \vell as property of de- fendant in other people's hands. Noimprisonmentfor debt. Juris- diction of justices, $500. The debtor is not dis- K- -& V SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. S2I CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be registered. Foreclosure by proceedings in court unless the instrument contains power of sale. DEEDS require two witnesses. Acknowledgments within the State are made before judge or clerk of a Countv Court or a notary public. In other States, before any court of record or clerk thereof, notary public or commissioner of deeds for this State. Wife need not join in deeds conveying in fee simple, but must join in trust deed. Separate examination. DIVORCE. The applicant must have been a resident of the State for two years next preceding the petition. Grounds: physical inca- pacity at time of marriage, bigamy, adultery, two years* abandon- ment, conviction of crime, imprisonment in penitentiary, drunkenness, ante-nuptial immorality of wife, attempt of either party upon the life of the other. Limited divorce may be granted for cruelty, desertion or failure to provide. EXEMPTIONS. Only the head of a family can have the benefit of exemptions; $i,ikxj homestead and a viiriety of personal property designated by statute, prominent items being horses, mules, oxen, cows, calves, wagon, tools, lumber, grain, provisions, beds, bedding, furniture and $30 wages. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman has her separate prop- erty free frt)m tlie husband's control and from liability for his debLs. She may encumber, convey cjr devise her sep.irate property without being joined by hr.r hushnnd in the deed. Widow has dower in one- third of husb;ind's real estate, and a child's share in his personalty. The husband dying intestate, leaving no heirs, the wife inherits all his property. MECHANICS' LIEN lies on buildings and fixed machinery, and the ground'on which they are erected; also on water craft. Land- lords have lien on crops, growing and garnered, for advances of sup- plies and clothing, and for their rent. WILLS. Two witnesses. If for only personal property, witnesses need not subscribe their names. The handwriting of an unattested will may be proved by three witnesses. Nuncupative wills have no force for amounts over $250. TEXAS. ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent debtor making an assignment must have it rccordeil, accompanied by a sworn inventory of debts, assets, creditors, collaterals held by them and all evidences of debts to or iigiiinst debtor, with complete statement of his estate, with val- ues. The assignment may be made for the benefit of assenting creditors only; and accepting a /;■(? rata will be equivalent to discharge of debtor from liabil- ity. A creditor believing debtor has concealed his property may have him summoned and exam- ined under oath. Any fraudulent action on jiart of debtor is feltiny. ATTACHMENTS. The plaintiff making affidavit and giving bond in double amount, an attachment is issued where defendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, is about to remove from the State, or secretes himself to avoid summons, conceals his property or is about to conceal it, or is about to remove it from the State, or from the county, has disposed of his property, or is about to dispose of it, is about turning his property into money, so that it cannot be reached, or has obtained property by deception. Intent to defraud is surmised in any of the allegations. Limit of justices of the peace, $ioo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the property must change hands at once. Foreclosed by suit ; sheriff's sale sixty days' notice. DEEDS. Acknowledgments anywhere within the United States are made before the clerk of a court of record having a seal, a notary public or a commissioner of deeds for this State. Where a deed is not acknowledged it must be proved by two witnesses. Married women, separate examination. DIVORCE. Applicant must be really an inhabitant of the State and a resident of the county for six months previous to filing petition; grounds, adultery, three years' desertion, unendurable cruelty. EXEMPTIONS. Two hundred acres of land with improvements in the country, or city property to value at time of being designated as homestead (regardless of the value of after improvements) of $5,000. Furniture, farming implements, tools, books, five cows and calves, *wo yoke of cattle, two horses and wagon, a caniage or buggy, twenty hogs, twenty slieep, provisions, provender and ni.iny other articles. The exemption of the homestead is not good against taxes, purchase-money or mechanics' lien ; but in this last case the contract must have been signed by both husband and wife. On the death of a husband, the widow and children may have one year's support out of the estate, and if the property be not in such shape as to be exempted by law, enough may be sold to raise an allowance for homestead to value of $5,000 and other property $500. Any person not the head of a fam- ily may have exempted clothing, books, horse, bridle and saddle. MARRIED ^VOMEN. The property owned by husband or wife before marriage, and what either may acquire aftenvards, by gift, devise or descent, is community property. The husband controls the common property and the wife's separate estate. The common prop- erty is liable for the debts of either, and the husband may dispose of it. At the death of either the survivor takes one-half and the children the other half of the cominon property. The husband joins wife in conveyance of her separate property. She joins him in conveyance of homestead. A married woman cannot do business in her own name, but she may become security for her husband by nujrtgaging her separate estate. MECHANICS' LIENS must be on a written contract and recorded within six montlis. Sub-contractors and journeymen may furni.'^h the owner with their accounts, and he must retain the amount of their claims. Landlords have Hen for rent and for supplies advanced. WILLS. Age, twenty-one years. vills can devise real estate. Two witnesses. Onlv written itatutes. Mortgagee must take UTAH. ASSIGNMENTS. Common law. ATTACHMENTS. Plaintiff holding no securiry gives bond and takes out a-i attachment where there is an appearance of the debtor's probable failure to pay the debt. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Xo immediate p(jssession. DEEDS must have one witness. Acknowledgments before notarv public, justice of the peace, mayor of a city or judge or clerk of court of record. A married woman conveys the same as if single- EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; personal property to head of the family, $700. and to each member ?J50. Not good against pur- chase-money^ mechanics' lien or a mortgage. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman's separate property is held, managed, controlli-d and disposed of by herself. A wife niav carry on business, sue and be sued, give notes and make contracts the same as if single. MECHANICS' LIENS. Cluim must be filed within three months ; suit brought within one year. Sub-contractors and journe_\ men must serve the owner with timely written notice. Married WILLS. Testator's age, eighteen years. Two witnesses women make wills the same as if single. ^- 522 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. VERMONT. ASSIGNMENTS must be without preferences. Insolvent hiw by which involuntary proceedings maybe entered by one creditor having claim to $250. If assets pay thirty per cent of debts, or if majority of creditors consent, the debtor is discharged. ATTACHMENTS on mesne process. Trustee process for property in hands of third per- sons. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. All property, except fixed ni.t chinery, must be taken into the possession of the nfortgagec. Foreclosed by bill in equity. Court orders sale. DEEDS must be under seal and have two witnesses. Acknowledgments are made before a mas- ter in chancery, justice of the peace or notary public. No separate examination for married v/omen. DIVORCE is granted for adultery, cruelty, three years' abandon- ment, three years' imprisonment in penitentiary or seven years' ab- sence without being heard of. The wife may obtain divorce where the husband, being able, fails to support. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $500; growing crop, clothing, furni- ture, sewing-machine, tools, one cow, ten sheep, one hog, three hives of bees, poultry, one yoke of oxen or two horses, fuel, provisions and provender; also the instruments and library of a professional man, $200. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is held separate, and is not liable for her husband's debts. In conveyance of the wife's real estate, the husband must join in deed. A married woman may make a will. Widow has dower in one-third the real estate of which the husband died seized. MECHANICS' LIENS. On buildings suit must be brought within three months ; on vessels in eight months. WILLS. Three witnesses. VIRGINIA. The debtor is PSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS3SSS3S3SSSSBSSSSSS3p f g agamst ; m /4^ ^1 ^t^ S :iboutto ASSIGNMENTS may be made with preferences still liable. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS are issued Ljainst a non-resident debtor or ndant who is removing or /fe'*'' f¥J *X|^ in 'ibotJt to remove his property out of the State pendente iite^ or a tenant removing his property be- fore the rent becomes due, or a debtor taking his property out of the State before a debt is due. Garnishment will reach debts due the defendant. Plaintiff must give bond and file affidavit. Also, an arrest will be made on plain- tiff's affidavit that he believes de- fendant is about to abscond. The defend-int will then have to give a hail-bond or be imprisoned. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a notary, justice, com- tiiissioner in chancery, or before the judge or clerk of any county or corporation court. In other States, before any court or clerk of a court, or justice, or notary, or commissioner in chancery, or commis- sioner of deeds for Virginia. Record must be made within sixty days. Wife joins to bar dower. Separate examination. The acknowledg- ment of a married woman must be made before two justices of th<5 peace, or before an officer h.aving a seal. DIVORCE. Grounds : impotency, adultery, sentence to penitentiary, guilt of either of infamous crime before marriage, the other being ig- norant, notorious immorality of wife before marriage, five years' abandonment. Partial divorce for crueUy or desertion. Alimony and maintenance of children are decreed, and the care of the children is given to either parly at the discretion of the court. EXEMPTIONS. The head of a family who is a householder has a homestead exemption to value of ?.:,ooo, which may be in real or per- sonal property, both or either. Also clothing, ^ewing-machine, fur- niture and animals ; books, ?ioo; tools, $100. The value of the exemp- tions outside of the homestead is varied according to the number in family, and ranges from $50 to S500. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds the property owned by her previous to marriage, and what she may afterwards acquire, as sole trader, free from the control of her husband, and from liability for his debts. She may make a will subject to husband's rights by curtesy. Common law dower. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed within thirty days; suit brought within six months. Sub-contractors and journeymen must notify owner within ten days. WILLS. Age, over twenty-one to dispose of realty ; eighteen, per- sonalty. Two witnesses. WEST VIRGINIA. ASSIGNMENTS are made by deed, acknowledged and recorded as are all such instruments. If real estate is assigned, the wife must join in the deed. Therebeing no insolvent law, an assignment does not cancel the liability of the debtor. A defendant under :trrcst for debt, on making a con- veyance of his property. will be discharged from such arrest. ATTACHMENTS. The cred- itor first making affidavi:, attach- ments are issued, where debtor is a non-resident, or is about leaving the State, or conceals himself to avoid summons, is re- moving his property out of the State, or is in any manner trying to put it out of reach to defraud his creditors. Bond ;ind security being furnished by creditor, the sheriff takes complete possession of the attached property. Garnishment on third parties. No imprisonment for debt. But defendant may be arrested if about removing himself or his property with intent to defraud. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Common law. Form, deed of trust. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a notary public, re- corder, or judge or clerk of any court of record in United States, or before a commissioner of deeds for West Virginia. A married woman must be examined separate and apart from her husband. DIVORCE is granted for mental or physical defect at time of mar- riage, unfaithfulness, three years* abandonment, sentence to peni- tentiary, conviction of crime before marriage, or notorious immorality of either before marri.age, the other party being ignorant. Partial divorce may be obtained for cruelty or desertion. Alimony and cus- tody of children is decreed by the court. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000, where the property has been granted or devised for the purpose, to the head of a family, or where he has devoted such property to that purpose by having it so recorded. Also personal property to value of $.;qo. Tools to mechanic, $50. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman, however acquired, except from the husband, is held for her sole and separate use. Husband must join in conveyances of real estate. Dower. MECHANCS' LIENS. Must file claim within thirty days and bring ^uit within six months. W^ILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses. -/ SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 523 WASHINGTON. ASSIGNMENTS. Unless fraud or preference is evident, the insolv* eiit law allows the discharge of debtor whose assets equal thirty-three per cent of debts. Wages to amount of $100 are preferred claims. ATTACHMENTS issue where debtor is non-resident or a foreign corporation, absconds, removes his properly or attempts to place it out of reach of his creditors. Plaintiff gives bond. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGE must be accompanied by the afiidavit of bolh parties tliat it is (^(j/xa^t/f-, and made with no fraudulent de- sign. When for exempted property, wife must join. A chattel mort- gage must be acknowledged and recorded the same as a deed of con- veyance. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments arc taken by notary public, justice of the peace, judge or clerk of court of record, mayor of a city or register of deeds. In any other State or Territory, according to the laws of such State or Territory, For conveyance of separate real estate i>f a wife, she must be joined in the deed by her husband, and she must be questioned apart from him. No dower or curtesy rights. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead ('"'ist be actually occupied) to the value of $1,000; clotliing, books, bedding and household goods, to value of $1,500; one small boat, to value of $50; two cows, five hogs, bees, poultry, fuel .and provisions. To a farmer, two horses, or two yoke of oxen, and farming implements to value of $200. To profes- sional man, library worth fjOo, office furniture and fuel. To lighter- man, his boats, to value of $250. To drayman, his team. MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned before marriage by liu^band or wife, and all acquired afterwards by gift, devise or descent, to either, is sep irate property. All otherwise acquired is common property, subject to control of the husband. He also controls the s parale property of the wife 'lut cannot sell or convey it without her joining in the deed. To savt .tie separate i)roperly of the wife from attachment for husband's debts, there must be an inventory of it on re cor J. MECHANICS' LIENS. Notice must he filed within sixty days, and suit begun in four months. Every kind of structure, and the land thereunder, is covered by lien. There may also be a lien on logs, timber and lumber for work; and by the owner of land where such timber is cut. Farm laborers have lien on crops, but where crop is raised on shares, the landlord's portion cannot be touched. 'WILLS. Age, twentj'-one for men, eighteen for women. Two wit- nesses. - ' WISCONSIN. ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law, whereby debtor may file peti- tion, list of assets and liabilities with his affidavit, and make an assign- ment for the benefit of all credit- ors. After publication a jury trial may be exacted by the cred- itors. If the decision is in favnr of the debtor, the assignment is decreed, and debtor is discharged from all his debts. Proof of fra\idulent practice on part of debtor would void the discharge. ATTACHMENTS issue when the delit is nver fifty dollars in amount, on affidavit being made and bond given that the defend- ant has gone away or concealed himself, is a non-resident or for- eign corporation, or is about removing his property. On affidavit and bcmd of creditor, defendant may be arrested if he is about to leave the Stale, or conceals property. Garnishment in aid. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or possession of property pass into hands of mortgagee. Foreclosure by seizure and sale. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments are made before notaries public, justices of the pence, judges and clerks of courts, commissioners of deeds ; and in other States, according to the laws of such States, A married woman must join in a deed to bar dower. DIVORCE. Unless the parties had been married and since remained in the State, the applicant must have been for one year a resident be- fore filing petition. Absolute divorce is granted for impolcncy, adul- tery, one year's abandonment, five years' separation, three years' sentence to penitentiary, cruelty and drunkenness. Partial divorce for desertion, cruelty, drunkenness or failure to provide. The court may dccret- alimony, and the wife regain her separate property. EXEMPTIONS. Forty acres in the country, or one-quarter of an acre in town, with the dwelling thereon. Clothing, household furni- ture, $200; books, two cows, ten hogs, ten sheep, one horse and yoke of cattle, or a pair of horses and mules, farming tools, one year's pro- visions and provender. To a mechanic, tool^, $200; professional man, his library, $:oo ; a publisher or printer, his outfit to $1,500. To any head t.f a family, sixty days' earnings. No exemption good against a mechanic's lien or claim for purchase-money. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman has all properly rights the same as if single. She may buy and sell, lend and borrow, make conveyances, and have real estate conveyed to her, and all such busi- ness may be transacted between her and her husband as between strangers. She may sue alone, but in being sued she must be joined to husband. Dower, life interest in one-third of all husband's realty held during the marriage. Husband has wife's realty for life. MECHANICS' LIEN. Must file petition in six months and bring suit in one year. Sub-contractors and journeymen must notify owner within thirty days of the furnishing of material or labor. WILLS. Two witnesses. WYOMING. ASSIGNMENTS, Must be without preferences, without reserv- ations f r benefit of assignor and without provisions forcing creditor into a compromise or release of his claims. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS. Plaintiff must m.ake affidavit and give securilv before :iii :iU;ic!nnenl is issued, A non-resident or absconding debtor, or one who conrcals his property to avoid payment, is liable to the jjrocess. J urisdiclion of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded or the properly must pass into possession of nmrtgagee. Sale without consent of mort gaj^ed property by the mortgageor is a felony and maybe punished l>y imprisonment in the penitentiary for a term less than ten years. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments may be taken before justices of the peace, notaries public, judges and clerks of courts of record, registers of deeds and mayors of cities. In the States and other Territories, before commissioners of deeds for Wyoming or l^efore officers authorized by the laws of such States or Territories. Married women join in conveying common property. Separate property they convey alone. EXEMPTIONS. House and lot in town or one hundred and sixty acres of land in the country, either to value of $i ,500. Tools, team and stock in trade of mechanic, miner or other person, $300. Benefit of exemption can only be claimed by a bona fide resident householder, A MARRIED WOMAN may carry on business, make contracts, keep her own earnings, hold property, real or perscmal, receive the rents in her own name, sue and be sued, make a will, free from anv control or interference of her husband, the same as if she were single. lUr property is not liable for the debts of her husband. Women in this Territory have the right to vote and hold office. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed within sixty days, and suit begun within one year. WILLS. No statutes. Common law. \ 524 CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. JLJkAA.A^^A.AAA.. "Q:jkjj'Q:)'<^ JLJLA.A.AA.&JLA.A.AA.AA.&A..^ 'e I 'y'^f > > > > > J'r-^HILE it is impossible, in a world made :I\,U up of widely differing individuals, to -. „ |ly P formulate a set of rules by which each I c^5^ could be shown the surest and swiftest way to secure success in life, still it is possible to call attention to certain qualities of mind and character whose possession has come to be universally looked upon as essential to those who may aspire to struggle into the front rank of the world's workers. As a matter of fact, it would be as difficult to define the common expression "success in life" as it would be to lay down a royal road which leads to it. Given a hundred defi litions, from as many men, each treating the subject from his own standpoint, and no two of them would be found alike; and the opinion of each of these, as time passed along with its inevitable ups and downs, would be found to vary considerably. Flushed with recent success, the speculator to-day would see in the possession of millions and in the control of vast interests the only proper goal for a man of his great genius ; tamed a few days later by unexpected reverses, and he sees in some conservative enterprise the fittest sphere of his future usefulness. Perhaps, then, without attempting the impossible, in a defi- nition of success in life which will fit all who are seeking it, it will do to look upon it as the accomplishment of the laudable life-purpose of a man of natural or cultivated parts, who has found an object in life worth living and working for, and has worked honestly and perseveringly to attain it. As a rule, the larger the endow- ment of those faculties which go to build up success in life, the higher the aim which accom- panies them; but it must not be forgotten that man is the most cultivable of all God's crea- tures, and that by careful and intelligent study of the qualities which have enabled others to shine, one may acquire them and employ them in building up similar accomplishments. This being so, it does not lie in the power of the young man who feels that he possesses only a moderate share of intelligence, force and abil- ity, to decide, on this account, that he is not called upon to make fight for one of the front places in the life of his generation. The most brilliant lives have often been those of men of ordinary gifts, who, exerting to the utmost such power as has been given them, have accom- plished more than hundreds of men who were much more bountifully supplied with mental qualifications. If any man look among the circle of his acquaintances he will be surprised to see how few have made the voyage of life successfully, and sorrow cannot but arise when he considers the impotent conclusions to which / -M \ CAUSl?S OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 5 -'5 young men of brilliant parts frequently come. Every day witnesses the triumph of patient and studious mediocrity, and men of great intellect are constantly being forced to acknowledge, with surprise, the success of persons whose abilities, in comparison with tlieir own, have been deemed inconsiderable. These men know precisely the scope of their faculties, and never wander beyond them. They wait pa- tiently for opportunities which are of the kind they can improve, and they never let one pass unimproved. Being unnoticed, they excite so much the less opposition, and at last they sur- prise the world by the attainment of an object which others deemed as far away from their ambition as it seemed beyond their reach. How to Avoid Failure. It is a common thing, willi both llie brilliant and tlie mediocre, when the reward of their exertions and the result of their plans seem unsatisfactory, to blame the ever-ready scapegoat, bad luck, as the cause of the untoward outcome. One of the most healthful and profitable exercises which a young man who has just experienced failure of any kind cin perform, will be to analyze the whole transaction with merci- less candor, finding out just what proportion of the disaster is due to his own fault and what is due to fortuitous circuu- stances, and then make a cold-blooded comparison. If this were more generally done than it is, there would l)e far fewer believers in, or rather blamers of, luck as a business marplot than are at present to be found. To come down to the facts in the case, without going so far as to dispute the existence of such a thing as chance, in almost all cases of failure the cause is to be found in the man, and the reason it is not found there is because that is the last place in which the man hunts f.ir it. "Untoward accidents," "fate," "destiny," "ill- fortune," "evil star," "chance," "luck," or some other synonym of the scapegoat, suggests itself to the victim of ill- success, and he consoles himself with charging upon it his failure. He has the poets on his side, too. Does not Shak- spere say : " There's a divinity lh;it shapes oiir ends, Ilougli-hew them how we will." And Byron : " Nfen are the sport of circumstances, when The circumstances seem the sport of men.*' And, after all has been said, it were better, perhaps, that the young business man place some little, very little, credence in luck's existence, just enough, in fact, to cause him to so organize upon solid and substantial foundation each of his enterprises, and to so honestly and pcrscvcringly conduct them, that the smallest possible loop-hole will be left for ill- luck to make its appearance. Choosing an Occupation Is seldom an easy mailer. In some tew cases, a young man feels the possession of such an unmistakable bias to some peculiar profession that neither he nor his friends have any hesitancy in deciding upon his future. In most cases, however, there is no particular preference, and a wise decis- ion is not reached before many considerations have been carefully weighed. In far too many cases wrong considera- tions are given attention, and a decision is reached whose ultimate result is a life failure which, had the profession been selected with greater wisdom, would not have happened. A socially ambitious father and molher check their young son's honest ambition to become a mechanic, send him to college, and make a briefless barrister out of the material which could have been moulded into an honest and eflicient artisan. Many a boy whose soul yearned for the higher walks of intellectual culture, to share in which he had been endowed, has been doomed by injudicious parents, who despised colleges, to dull life at a dry-goods counter or counting- room desk. Parents are not by any means infallible judges upon this point, and every young man about to start out in search of success in life should study himself carefully in order to discover his aptitudes. The natural bent may be hard to find, but the discovery will well repay the search. Historical biography teems with the lives of men whose peculiar aptitude was early displayed to the advantage of themselves and the world. Napoleon, a school boy at Brienne, led the mimic armies of his youthful associates; Nelson had conceived the idea of future greatness as a sailor before he entered the navyj Pascal contributed to the mathe- matical literature of his age before he was seventeen; Pope acknowledged that " While yet ii child and still a fool of fame, I lisped m numbers, for the numbers came ; " Dryden illustrated the growth of natural aptitude when he wrote : " What the child admired The youth endeavored, and the man acquired ; " Michael Angelo stayed away from school to draw pictures ; Murillo covered his text-books with them; West, at seven, plundered the cal'-s tail of hair with which to make pencils; Calhoun, a student, held his own in debate with the college president — and so on, until the examples of the theory of natural aptitude become too numerous for recapitulation. Taking for granted that one has discovered, or believes that he has discovered, his bent, he must beware of the danger which lies in fickleness of purpose, which may, shortly after the weariness of work begins to be felt, lead him to suppose that he has chosen unwisely, and that some other field of use- fulness would be more suitable to his temper and parts. It is the practical repetition of the old story of the traveller in the express train sighing for the quiet pleasure of the farmer, whose broad fields are flying past, while the farmer looks longingly at the train as it dashes by, and dreams of the enjoy- able excitements of a life of endless bustle, slir and energy. Whatever the calling, there will be toil and trial for its ^ "7 526 CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. follower, and these come from him rather than from the occu- pation, which might be changed a dozen times in the vain hope of escaping from them. Having deliberately selected a profession, stick to it. The longer you remain in it, the more expert you become and the easier becomes the work and the larger the pay. It is only the early days which bring weari- ness and pain. These conquered by perseverance, the rest is easy, and the success in conquering- the first pleadings of the siren fickleness of purpose, who is of closer kin to laziness than one might think, lays the corner-stone of success in life. Excelsior! Having chosen his occupation, the young man of proper ambition will not be long in selectingfor himself an honorable position in it, to be filled as soon as he has shown himself worthy and able. What men have accomplished shows that hardly any ambitious longing can be considered as unwise on the part of those who are willing to undertake all work and suffer all want in the struggle. The extremest poverty has been no obstacle in the way of men devoted to the duty of self-culture. Professor Alexander Murray, the linguist, learned to write by scribbling his letters on an old wool-card with the end of a burnt heather-stem. The only book which his father, who was a poor shepherd, possessed, was a penny Shorter Catechism; but that, being thought too valuable for common use, was carefully preserved in a cupboard for the Sunday catechizings. Professor Moor, when a young man, being too poor to purchase Newton's " Principia," borrowed the book, and copied the whole of it with his own hand. Many poor students, while laboring daily for their living, have only been able to snatch an atom of knowledge here and there at intervals, as birds do their food in winter time wlien the fields are covered with snow. They have struggled on, and faith and hope have come to them. A well known author and publisher, William Cham- bers, of Edinburgh, speaking before an as'^emblage of young men in that city, thus briefly described to them his humble beginnings for their encouragement: "I stand before you," he said, "a self-educated man. My education is that which is supplied at the humble parish-schools of Scotland; and it was only when I went to Edinburgh, a poor boy, that I devoted my evenings, after the labors of the day, to the cultivation of that intellect whicli the Almighty has given me. From seven or eight in the morning till nine or ten at night was I at my business as a bookseller's apprentice, and it was only during hours after these, stolen from sleep, that I could devote myself to study. I did not read novels; my attention was devoted to physical science and other useful matters. I also taught myself French. I look back to those times with great pleasure, and am almost sorry I have not to go through the same experience again ; fur I reaped more pleasure when I liad not a sixpence in my pocket, studying in a garret in Edinburgh, than I now find when sitting amid all the elegancies and comforts of a parlor." William Cobbett learned English grammar when he was a private soldier on the pay of sixpence a day. These are men who have selected an aim in life and have attained it through sticking to it. Concentration of purpose carried them through. The "Admirable Crichtons " are scarce geniuses, and no young man need be ashamed, in these days of special accomplishment, of having decided to follow a single pursuit in life — to become a man of one idea — provided it is a good one. Almost all the great men in war, literature, science, diplomacy, business, the professions, have been men of "one idea," not because they were incapable of harboring more than one, but because, having selected some one object as worthy of attainment, they gave themselves up to it solely. If was often long of coming, but it came at last. Adam Smith gave ten years to his "Wealth of Nations; " Edward Gibbon, twenty to the "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Bishop Butler, twenty to his famous "Analogy;" Kant, fifty years to his metaphysical re- searches ; Dr. Johnson, seven years to his Dictionary. These men sought one prize and gained it. As many years have been spent by thousands of men of equal ability, who sought each a number of prizes and gained none. A Sound Body Is another of the essentials of success in life which are largely attainable by those who lack their possession. Mental as well as physical accomplishment depends largely upon the condition of the worker's digestion, and the thorough aeration of his blood. This can only be obtained with healthy exercise, which can only be taken by those whost muscles and nerves and wind are in good condition. "Walk twelve miles before speaking and you'll never break down," says Sidney Smith to an English Parliamentary debater. A strong intellect cannot well work with a weak body as its case. Energy without talent will accomplish more than talent without energy. The sharp edge of the woodman's axe avails noth- ing until the sinewy arm thi-ows it, stroke upon stroke, against the monarchs of the forest. Take the great men of the century, and it will be seen that they combined intellectual force with physical vigor. In England, Brougham; Lynd- hurst. Peel, Bright, Gladstone, Palmerston ; in America, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, Lin- coln — all these were men capable of strong muscular exertion and of standing a prolonged physical as well as mental strain. It is told of Lord Brougham that he once worked six days on a stretch without sleep, slept from Saturday night to Monday morning, and began work again thoroughly refreshed. These men are the conservers as well as the possessors of physical force, and the young man who seeks to retain the "sound mind in a sound body " will remember that it is not so much in the cultivation of additional body strength as in the economy of what he already possesses that the art of physical culture is best applied. The idea used to be that mus- cularity and rowdyism were natural associates, but people found out that it is possible for a young man to be a good rower, or boxer even, and still be a worthy Christian and admirable member of society, and even that it was difficult for him to be tl)ese unless with the employment of manly \ y CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 5-7 exercises he brought his physical condition up to the healthy standard. This is merely a recurrence to the old belief of the Greeks, who reverenced the muscular body as one of the noble parts of man, and made gymnastics and calisthenics a regular school exercise. Without good health and a sound body, moderate success in life may be painfully possible; with it a place in the front rank may be attained with far greater ease than otherwise. Self-Reliance. .\mong all the mental qualifications which help on to success in life, there is none which is of more importance than self-reliance. If you want a thing well done, do it yourself, says the old saw, and hence comes it that those who rely most upon themselves for the accomplishment of any aim are the ones wlio do the best work. "Heaven helps those who help themelves '* is a well-tried maxim, emliody- ing in small compass the results of vast human experience. The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in the individual; and, exhibited in the lives of many, it consti- tutes the true source of national vigor and strength. Help from without is often enfeebling in its effects, but help from within invariably invigorates. Whatever is done for men or classes, to a certain extent takes away the stimulus and neces- sity of doing for themselves; and where men are subjected to over-guidance and over-government, the inevitable tendency is to render them comparatively helpless. It is energetic individualism which produces the most powerful effect upon the life and actions of others, and really constitutes the best practical education. The determination to be one's own helper is the secret of this individual develop- ment and strength. No greater misfortune could befall an ambitious and able young man than a legacy. A story is told of a critic who, after reviewing the promising work of a young artist, praised it, but added: "It is a pity that he can never make a great painter." "And why not?" rejoined his com- panion. " Because he has ten thousand pounds a year," was the sententious response. When John C. Calhoun was ridi- culed by his fellow-students at Yale for his intense application to study, he raised a louder laugh against himself by replying, " I am forced to make the most of my time that I may acquit myself creditably when in Congress," and then, when the laugh was over, adding, " I assure you, if I were not satisfied of my ability to reach Congress in three years. I would at once leave college." Here was self-reliance and self-help. Calhoun knew the diflicullies that lay between him and the goal of his ambition, and, while the other students were laughing at him, he was helping himself to overcome them. "The man who dares to think for himself and act independ- ently, does a service to his race," says one of the brightest modern thinkers, and daily experience shows that it is ener- getic individualism which produces the most powerful effects upon tl>e life and action of others, and really constitutes the best practical education. Schools, academies and colleges give but the merest beginnings of culture in comparison with it. Far more influential is the life-education daily given in our homes, in the streets, behind counters, in workshops, at the loom and the plough, in counting-houses and manu- factories, and in the busy haunts of men. This is that finishing instruction as members of society which Schiller designated "the education of the human race," consisting in action, conduct, self-culture, self-control — all that tends to discipline a man truly, and fit him for the proper performance of the duties and business of life — a kind of education not to be learned from books, or acquired by any amount of mere literary training. With his usual weight, of words, Bacon observes that "studies teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them and above them won by observation " — a remark that holds true of actual life as well as of the culti- vation of theintellect itself. For all experience serves to illus- trate and enforce the lesson that a man perfects himself by work more than by reading — that it is life rather than litera- ture, action rather than study, and character rather than biography, which tend perpetually to renovate mankind. Attention to Detail Is a matter which constitutes much more than half of the battle in many spheres of usefulness, and, the more intellectual the task, the greater the necessity, very frequently, of careful and constant devotion to the little things whicli help to form it. Sedulous attention and painstaking industry always mark the true worker. The greatest men are not those who "de- spise the day of small things," but those who improve them the most carefully. Michael Angelo was one day explaining to a visitor at his studio what he had been doing at a statue since his previous visit. "I have retouched this pari — polished that — softened this feature — brought out that mus- cle — given some expression to this lip, and more energy to that limb." "But these are trifles," remarked the visitor. "It may be so," replied the sculptor, "but recollect that trifles make perfection, and perfection is no trifle." .So it was said of Nicolas Poussin, the painter, that the rule of his con- duct was, that "whatever was worth doing at all was worth doing well;" and when asked, late in life, by his friend Vigneul de Marville, by what means he had gained so high a reputation among the painters of Italy, Poussin emphatically answered, " Because I have neglected nothing." On the first publication of Wellington's dispatches, one of his friends said to him, on reading the records of his Indian campaigns: " It seems to me, Duke, that your chief business in India was to procure rice and bullocks." "And so it was." replied Wellington, "for, if I had rice and bullocks, I had men; and if I had men, I knew I could beat the enemy." All men who have accomplished success in life have been conspicuous for minute attention to details as well as for general scope and vigor. The great Napoleon was a wonderful example of this. His correspondence shows him arranging for supplies of saddles, directing where cattle could be purchased, advising the procurement of shoes for the infantry, and making sugges- tions as to various minor details, and complaining because of discovered carelessness in the reports upon matters of detail supplied by others. Lord Brougham, alluding to this quality. / ■o V N 52t CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. said: 'The captain who convcynl Napoleon to Elba ex- pressed to me his astonishment at his precise and, as it were, familiar knowledge of all the minute details connected with the ship." In the face of these examples, no one should come to the conclusion that details are beneath one's notice, or that one is less brilliant in the great things of life because he pays atten- tion to the little things. Of General Thomas it is said that he was careful in all the details of a battle, but, once in the fight, was as "furiousand impetuous as Jackson." Attention to details makes a business man, or any other kind of man, "sure that he is right," and then, of course, it only remains for him to " go ahead." Perseverance Is the ever ready and kindly ally of those who are seeking success and feel that they do not possess the ability to attain it so quickly as others. The greatest results in life are usually attained by simple means and the exercise of ordinary quali- ties. The road of human welfare lies along the old highway of steadfast well-doing; an 1 they who are the most per- sistent, and work in the truest spirit, will usually be the most successful. Buffon's definition of genius, "It is patience," may be exaggerated, but it hardly seems so when the accom- plishments of patience are considered. Fortune has often been blamed for her blindness ; but Fortune is not so blind as men are. Those who look into practical life will find that Fortune is usually on the side of the industrious, as the winds and waves are on the side of the best navigators. In the pur- suit of even the highest branches of human inquiry, the com- moner qualities are found'lhe most useful — such as common sense, attention, application and perseverance. Genius may not be necessary, though even genius of the highest sort does not disdain the use of these ordinary qualities. The very greatest men have been among the least believers in the power of genius, and as worldly-wise and persevering as successful men of the commoner sort. The extraordinary results effected by dint of sheer industry and perseverance have led many distinguished men to doubt whether the gift of genius be so exceptional an endowment as it is usually supposed to be. Thus Voltaire held that it is only a very slight line of separation that divides the man of genius from the man of ordinary mould. Beccaria was even of opinion that all men might be poets and orators, and Rey- nolds that they might be painters and sculptors. If this were really so, that stolid Englishman might not have been so very far wrong, after all, who, on Canova's death, inquired of his brother whether it was "his intention to carry on the business!" Locke, Helvetius and Diderot believed that all men have an equal aptitude for genius, and that what some are able to effect, under the laws which regulate the opera- lions of the intellect, must also be within the reach of others who, under like circumstances, apply themselves to like pur- suits. But, while admitting to the fullest extent the wonder- ful achievements of labor, and recognizing the fact that men of the most distinguished genius have invariably been found the most indefatigable workers, it mu^t nevertheless be sufficiently obvious that, without the original endowment of heart and brain, no amount of labor, however well applied, could have produced a Shakspere, a Newton, a Beethoven or a Michael .\ngclo. The world's history is full of the triumphs of those who have had to fight from beginning to end for recognition. Carey, the great missionary, began life as a shoemaker; the chemist Vanquelin was the son of a peasant; Richard Cnb- den was the son of a small farmer; Cook, the navigator, and Burns, the poet, were day-laborers; Ben Jonson was a brick- layer; David Livingstone, the traveller-missionary, was a weaver; Sturgeon, the electrician, and Bloomfield, the poet, were shoemakers; Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, was a tailor. At the plow, on the bench, or at the loom, these men dreamed of their future greatness, and persevered in their endeavors to accomplish it, and did so at last. Literature has provided several examples of single- handed triumph over difficulties by the persevering. Lord Brougham, working for over sixty years at law, literature, politics and science, and achieving distinction in all, was advised by Sir Sidney Smith to confine himself to only the transaction of so much business as three strong men could get through. Another hard-working man of the same class was Lord Lytton. Few writers did more, or achieved higher distinction in various walks — as a novelist, poet, dramatist, historian, essayist, orator and politician. lie worked his way step by step, disdainful of ease, and animated throughout by the ardent desire to excel. On the score of mere industry there are few living English writers who have written so much, and none that have produced so much of high quality. Like Byron, his first effort was poetical (" Weeds and Wild Flow- ers") and a failure. His second was a novel (" Falkland "), and it proved a failure too. A man of weaker nerve would have dropped authorship; but Bulwer had pluck and per- severance ; and he worked on, determined to succeed. He was incessantly industrious, read extensively, and from failure went courageously onward to success. "Pelham" followed "Falkland" within a year, and the remainder of Lord Lytton's life was a succession of triumphs. The late Premier of England, Lord Beaconsfield, afiords a similar instance of the power of industry and application in working out an eminent public career. His first achieve- ments were, like Bulwer's, in literature'; and he reached success only through a succession of failures. His "Won- drous Tale of Alroy" and "Revolutionary Epic" were laughed at, and regarded as indications of literary lunacy. But he worked on in other directions, and his " Coningsby," "Sybil" and " Tancred " proved the sterling stuff of which he was made. As an orator, too, his first appearance in the House of Commons was a failure. It was spoken of as "more screaming than an Adelphi farce." Though com- posed in a grand and ambitious strain, every sentence was hailed with "loud laughter." "Hamlet" played as a com- edy were nothing to it. But he concluded with a sentence K- CAUSr.S OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 529 which embodied a prophecy. Writhing under the laughter with which his studied eloquence h-J bjcn received, he ex- claimed, " I have begun several times many things, and have succeeded in them at last. I will sit down now, but the time will come when you will hear me." The time did come; and how Disraeli succeeded in at length commanding the attention of the first assembly of gentlemen in the world affords a striking illustration of what energy and determina- tion will do ; for Disraeli earned his position by dint of patient industry. He did not, as many young men do, hav- ing once failed, retire dejected, to mope and whine in a comer, but diligently set himself to work. He carefully unlearned his faults, studied the character of his audience, practiced sedulously the art of speech, and industriously filled his mind with the elements of parliamentary knowledge. He worked patiently for success; and it came, but slowly; then the House laughed with him instead of at him. The recollection of his early failure was effaced, and by general consent he was at length admitted to be one of the most finished and effective of parliamentary speakers, and finally became the favored Prime Minister of Queen Victoria. Decision of Ctiaracter Is one of the greatest of God's gifts to man, and, as every man has the germ of this quality, it can be cultivated to great advantage. It outstrips even talent and genius in the race f.ir success in life. Thousands and thousands of brilliant men have failed for the want of courage, faith and decision, perish- ing in the sight of less gifted but more adventurous competi- tors. As Sidney Smith says, " We must not stand shivering on the brink and thinking of the cold and the danger, but jump in and scramble through as well as we can." The old poem says : " He eitlier feurs liis fate to(» uiucti. Or Ills deserts are small, That d.ires not put it to the touch, To yain or lose it all." Decision of character enables one to do the right thing at the right time. Every one knows that '* There is a tide in the affairs of men Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune ; " but not every one has the ability to tell the time of flood, and many, after telling it, have losi its advantages through lack of nerve to embark upon it before the ebb came, and the opportunity was lost. In the smoke and din of battle, it was the genius of Napoleon which enabled him to see where one or two bold and rapid movements would secure the advantage ; l)Ut it was his decision of character which enabled him to profit to the full by the discovery. To be decisive on im- jiortant occasions, one must keep cool. The Duke of Wellington's calmness never forsook him, even in the most trying emergencies. At sea, one terrible night, the captain of the vessel rushed to the Duke, who was preparing for bed, and announced that the vessel would soon sink. "Then I shall not take off my boots," the imperturbable hero of Water- loo responded as ho jiaused in his preparations for sleep. There is need for this coolness of manner and decision of action in all lines of business. The surgeon, brought face to face with a sudden complication in the case beneath his knife; the lawyer, surprised by the springing of the trap which his wily opponent had prepared for him ; the merchant, apprised of a turn in his enterprises that threatens immediate disaster — all are called upon to exercise this quality, and in thousands of cases the dullest man in a company has obtained the prize simply because he grasped it while others were revolving in their minds what they had better do in order to secure it. Other Causes of Success and Failure. .'\ttention, application, accuracy, method, punctuality and dispatch are the principal qualities required for the efficient conduct of business of any sort. These, at first sight, may appear to be small matters ; and yet they are of essential im- portance to human happiness, well-being and usefulness. They are little things, it is true; but human life is made up of comparative trifles. It is the repetition of little acts which constitutes not only the sum of human character, but which determines the character of nations; and where men or nations have broken down, it will almost invariably be found that neglect of little things was the rock on which they split. Every human being has duties to be performed, and, there- fore, has need of cultivating the capacity for doing them — whether the sphere of action be the management of a house- hold, the cont' 'Ct of a trade or profession, or the government of a nation. It is the result of every-day experience that steady attention to matters of detail lies at the root of human progress; and that diligence, above all, is the mother of good luck. Accuracy is also of much importance, and an invariable mark of good training in a man — accuracy in observation, accuracy in speech, accuracy in the transaction of aflairs. What is done in business must be well done; for it is better to accom- plish perfectly a small amount of work than to half-do ten times as much. A wise man used to say, " Stay a little, that we may make an end the sooner." Too little attention, however, is paid to this highly impor- tant quality of accuracy. As a man eminent in practical science lately observed to us, "It is astonishing how few people I have met with in the course of my experience who cm i/i/i>u a fact accurately." Yet in business affairs, it is the manner in which even small matters are transacted that often decides men for or against you. With virtue, capacity anil good conduct in other respects, the person who is hab- itually inaccurate cannot be trusted ; his work has to be gone over again; and he thus causes an infinity of annoyance, vexation and trouble. Method is essential, and enables a larger amount of work to be accomplished satisfactorily. " Method," said the Rev. Richard Cecil, "is like packing things in a box ; a good packer will get in half as much again as a bad one." Cecil's dispatch of business was extraordinary, his maxim being, " The shortest way to do many things is to do only one thing / 1^- 53° CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. Vv "Tf at once;" and he ^ever left a thing undone with a view of recurring to it at a period of more leisure. A French Minister, who was alike remarkable for his dispatch of business and his constant attendance at places of amusement, being asked how he contrived to combine both objects, replied, ** Simply by never postponing till to-morrow what should be done to-day." Lord Brougham has said that a certain English statesman reversed the process, and that his maxim was never to transact to-day what could be postponed till to-morrow. Unhappily, such is the practice of many besides that Minister, already almost forgotten ; the practice is that of the indolent and the unsuccessful. Such men, too, are apt to rely upon agents, who are not always to be relied upon. Important affairs must be attended to in person. "If you wantyour business done," says the proverb, "go and do it; if you don't want it done, send some one else." An indolent country gentleman had a freehold estate pro- ducing about five hundred a year. Becoming involved in debt, he sold half the estate, and let the remainder to an in- dustrious farmer for twenty years. About the end of the term the farmer called to pay his rent, and asked the owner whether he would sell the farm. " Will you buy it?" asked the owner surprised. "Yes, if we can agree about the price." "That is exceedingly strange," observed the gentleman; "pray, tell me how it happens that, while I could not live upon twice as much land for which I paid no rent, you are regularly paying me two hundred a year for your farm, and are able, in a few years, to purchase it?" " I he reason is plain," was the reply; "you sat still and said Go ; I got up and said Come : you lay in your bed and enjoyed your estate; I rose in the morning and minded my business." Men of business are accustomed to quote the maxim that time is money ; but it is more : the proper improvement of it is self-culture, self-improvement and growth of character. An hour wasted daily on trilles or in indolence would, if devoted to self-improvement, make an ignorant man wise in a few years, and, employed in good works, would make his life fruitful and death a harvest of worthy deeds. Fifteen minutes a day devoted to self-improvement will be felt at the end of the year Good thoughts and carefully gathered experience take up no room, and may be carried about as our com- panions everywhere, without cost or encumbrance. An economical use of time is the true mode of securing leisure ; it enables us to get through business and carry it forward, instead of being driven by it. On the other hand, the mis- calculation of time involves us in perpetual hurry, confusion and difficulties ; and life becomes a mere shuffle of expedients, usually followed by disaster. Nelson once said, "I owe all my success in life to having been always a quarter of an hour before my time." Some take no thought of the value of money until they have come to an end of it, and many do the same with their time. The hours are allowed to flow by unemployed, and then, when life is fast waning, they bethink themselves of the duty of making a wiser use of it. But the habit of listlessness and idleness may already have become confirmed, and they are unable to break the bonds with which they have permitted themselves to become bound. Lost wealth may be replaced by industry, lost knowledge by study, lost health by temper- ance or medicine, but lost time is gone forever. A proper consideration of the value of time will also inspire habits of punctuality. "Punctuality," said Louis XIV., "is the politeness of kings." It is also the duty of gentlemen, and the necessity of men of business. Nothing begets con- fidence in a man sooner than the practice of this virtue, and nothing shakes confidence sooner than the want of it. He who holds to his appointment and does not keep you waiting for him, shows that he has regard for your time as well as for his own. Thus, punctuality is one of the modes by which we testify our personal respect for those whom we are called upon to meet in the business of life. It is also con- scientiousness, in a measure; for an appointment is a con- tract, express or implied, and he who does not keep it breaks faith, as well as dishonestly uses other people's time, and thus inevitably loses character. We naturally come to the conclusion that the person who is careless about time is care- less about business, and that he is not the one to be trusted with the transaction of matters of importance. When Wash- ington's secretary excused himself for the lateness of his attendance, and laid the blame upon his watch, his master quietly said, " Then you must get another watch or I another secretary." Napoleon was a thorough man of business. Though he had an immense love for details, he had also a vivid power of imagination, which enabled him to look along extended lines of action, and deal with those details on a large scale with judgment and rapidity. He possessed such knowledge of character as enabled him to select, almost unerringly, the best agents for the execution of his designs. But he trusted as little as possible to agents in matters of great moment, on which important results depended. Like Napoleon, the Duke of Wellington was a first-rate man of business ; and it is not perhaps saying too much to aver that it was in no small degree because of his possession of a business faculty amounting to genius that the Duke never lost a battle. His magnificent business qualities were every- where felt; and there can be no doubt that, by the care with which he provided for every contingency, and the personal attention which he gave to every detail, he laid the foundations of his great success. 'xV VL \ THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 531 '■^^ THE 'S'^^^r^ STUDY OF Character -^- -IN ITS- --€«- ^ RELATION TO BUSINESS SUCCESS. ^ AS TAUGHT BY PHRENOLOGY AND PHYSIOGNOMY. \^^^HE science of Phrenology is based on the '^V j«\S theory that the faculties of the mind are ■'■'■ J_|_7 shown on the surface of the human skull. '^ It points out those connections and rela- tions which exist between the conditions and developments of the />rain and the mani- festations of the mini/, dis- covering each from an obser- vation of the other. THE ORIGIN -S.OF : gHI^BNOLOGY. Franz Joseph Gal!, born at Tie fenbrunn, in Baden, March 9, 1758, was the first to mark the separate functions of the human mind and trace the Ujcation of the respective organs in the human brain. After studying the natural sciences at Strasburg, he graduated as a physician at Vienna in 17S5, practicing there for many years. As a boy he had observed that among his schoolmates good memories were invariably indicated by large ^' • -t^ -A ^^^"^^^^ i ^^^m m '^^m ik < ^ "'f&^r ■ji^.> ar^^^^Bf '^9 ^W •1^^ FRANZ JOSEPH GALL. rr*' eyes, and from this he conceived the idea that individual char- acteristics could be determined by external signs. The result of long-continued observation in schools, prisons, lunatic asy- lums and other places was the conviction that the brain, and not the heart, was the seat of all mental manifestations. After twenty years of study he decided the location of some twenty distinct mental organs and satisfied himself that their degree of activity could be determined from the shape of the skull. In 1791 he published "Medi- cal and Philosophical Researches on Nature and Art," and in 1796 he began lecturing in Vienna on his novel theories, creating a marked sensation. In 1802 his lectures were prohibited by the Austrian government as dangerous to religion, but in company with Johann Caspar Spurzheim, he made considerable headway in Central and Northern Europe. His principal work is entitled, " The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System and of the Brain." MEASURtMENT OF THE HEAD. Other things being equal, the size of the head, and af the brain, the differ- cnt portions of which arc called organs, and classified according to their par- 532 THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. / l-c^l_i- faact.uns, constitutes the principal phrenological condition by which character is iletermined. Most great men have had great heads. Webster's head measured a little more than 24 inches, and Clay's considerably over 33. Xapoleon's reached nearly 24. Hamilton's hat passed over the ears of a man whose head measured 233/^. Burke's head was very large; so was Jefferson's, while Franklin's hat passed over the ears of a 24-inch head. Small and average heads often astonish us by their brilliancy and learning, and perhaps eloquence, yet fail in that commanding greatness which im- presses and sways. The general rule laid down for head-measurement of adults is as follows : The smallest size compatible with fair talents, 20^ ; moderate, 20^^ to 215^ ; average, 2iJ^ to 22 ; full, 22 to 22}^ ; large, 22^ to 23^ ; very large, above 233':i. Female heads ^ to ^ below these averages; but as some heads are round, others long, some low and others high, these measure- ments cannot be depended upon to carry any accurate idea of the actual quantity of brain. In judging of the manifestations of the mind, the activity of the brain is a consideration quite as important as its size. WTiile size gives power or momentum of intellect and feeling, activi ty imparts quickness, intensity, willingness and even a restless desire to act, which go far to produce efficiency of mind, with accompanying eSbrt and action. Under the heads of size, given below, the effects of the different degrees of activity are presented. Very Large. One having a very large head, with activity az'crage or full, on great occasions, or when his powers are thoroughly roused, will be truly great , but ordinarily will sel- dom manifest any remarkable amount of mind pr feeling, and perhaps pass through life with the credit of being a person of good natural abilities and judgment, yet nothing more. With activity ^r^d/, strength, and the intellectual organs the same, will be a natural genius, endowed with very superior powers of mind and vigor of intellect ; and even though deprived of the advantages of education, his natural talents will sur- mount all obstacles. With activity zwry great, and the organs of practical intellect and of the propelling powers large or very large, will possess the first order of natural abilities, manifest a clearness and force of intellect that will astonish the world, and a power of feeling that will carrj- all before him, and, with proper cultivation, enable him to become a bright star in the firmament of intellectual greatness; his mental enjoyments will be most exquisite, and his sufferings equally excruciating. Large. One having a large-sized brain, with activity averagf, will /(ojjcjj considerable energy of intellect and feeling, yet seldom manifest it unless it is brought out by some powerful stimulus. With activity /ull, will be endowed with an uncommon amount of the mental power, and be capable of doing a great deal, yet require considerable to awaken him to that vigor- ous effort of mind of which he is capable. If the perceptive faculties are strong or vcr>' strong, and his natural powers put in vigorous requisition, he will manifest a vigor and energy of intellect and feeling quite above medioc- rity. With activity ^r^rt/ or very great, will exercise a commanding influ- ence over those minds with which he comes in contact ; when he enjoys, will enjoy intensely, and when he suffers, suffer equally so ; be susceptible of strong excitement, and with the organs of the propelling powers and of practical intellect large or very large, will possess all the mental capabilities for conducting a large business, for rising to eminence, if not to pre- eminence, and discover great force of character and power of intellect and feeling. With activity moderate , -when powerfully excited, will evince con- siderable energy of intellect and feeling, yet be too indolent and too sluggish to do much ; 4ack clearness and force of idea and intensity of feeling; un- less literally driven to it, will not be likely to be much or do much, and yet actually Possess more vigor of mind and energy of feeling than he will mani- *"est. With activity small, will border on idiocy. Full. One having a full-sized brain, with activity great or very great, with the organs of practical intellect and of the propelling powers large or verj' large, although he will not -possess greatfiess of intel- lect, nor a deep, strong mind, will be very clever; have consider- talent, and that so dis- ted that it will show to more than it really is ; is capable of being a good scholar, doing a fine business, and with advantages and application, of dis- tinguishing himself somewhat, yet he is inadequate to a great undertaking, can not sway an extensive in- fluence, nor be really great. With activi- ty /«// or average, will do only tolera- bly well, and mani- fest only a common share of talents. With activity moderate or small, will neither be nor do much worthy of notice. Average. One hav- ing an average-sized brain, with activity only average^ will discover only an ordinary amount of intellect ; be inade- quate to an important undertaking, yet, in a small sphere, or one that requires only a mechanical routine of business, may do well. With activity great or very great, and the organs of the propelling powers and of practical intellect large or very large, is capable of doing a fair business and may pass for a man of some talent. With moderate or small activity, will hardly have common sense. Moderate. One with a head of only moderate size, combined with great or Z'ery great activity, and the organs of the propelling powers and of practical intellect, large, will possess a tolerable share of intellect. With others to plan for and direct him, will execute to advantage, yet be un- able to do much alone. Will have a very active mind, and be quick of perception, yet, after all, lack momentum both of mind and character. With activity only average ox fair, will have but a moderate amouyit of intellect. With activity moderate or small, will be an idiot. Small or Very Small. One with a very small head, no matter what may be the activity of his mind, will be incapable of intellectual effort, ol comprehending even easy subjects, or of experiencing much pain or pleasure ; in short, will be a natural fool. -N \ TH1-. STUDY OF CHARACTER. 533 > f 'Tv\t Two Paths \ f' WHAT WILL THE fr WV W^ WT^ V"»"» W W W IF TT BOY BECOME? ^^\\ IDLENESS. DISSIPATION. THE illustrations on this page are intended to show the effects of training and circumstances and different modes of life upon the human countenance. Although the inheritance at birth '^''' of a sound constitution, well-balanced mental organization and favorable temperament are most impor- tant factors in shaping character, yet the possessor of all these natural endowments may so pursue the path of life that the close will find him a miserable wretch, to go from beggary and vice to an unhonored grave. On the contrary, education and moral training can atone for the lack of natural advantages, and make of a less favored child a useful and honored citizen. The human face has in it something expressive of that which enters into and constitutes the character of a man, and on it are written, by an unseen hand, but in indelible lines which all may read, the records of life's history. Who can divine, on looking at the head and face of the child represented above, what that young intelligence will become in the future of his life ? Look at the eye, nose and mouth of the boy at school, and you will not fail to perceive, from the very contour of the countenance, that his destiny depends on the influences by which he may be surrounded. In the one instance you see him choosing his profes- sion and contemplating a settlement in life, wedding himself to a virtuous, loving and devoted woman, and in course of time becoming surrounded by a loving family ; in the other you see the man emerging from the scenes of brutal intoxication to plunge into deeper, darker vices, until life becomes a burden, and he goes down to the grave unlamented and unwept. How different this from the career of the man whose happiest days are spent in the bosom of his loving family, and who grows old amid the most genial influences, honored, revered, beloved; who goes down to his last resting-place amid the prayers and tears of those he loved, cheered by the hope of a happy reunion in a world where life is perfect and joy complete. ;:;:> > r-6 INDL'STHV AND STUDY. HONORABLE SUCCESS. HONORED ACE. s — HRENOLOGISTS do not claim that the system in which they believe is perfect, but that they have demonstrated the following facts beyond question: jl 1:^ jl That the brain is the organ through which the mind ^C manifests itself, and that each faculty of the mind has a separate and distinct organ in the brain ; that the organs relating to each other are grouped together in the brain ; that, other things being equal, the power of the brain may be estimated by its size ; that the manifestations of brain are affected by the bodily conditions ; that every faculty of the mind is devised for a good purpose, and that every faculty may be enlarged and cultivated by exercise, or may be lessened by neglect. While differences of opinion may exist as to the right which Phrenology has to be considered one of the exact sciences, all mankind tacitly acknowledges the fact that the face is a reliable reflex of themindand character. Upon meeting a stranger we instinct- ively scan his face to learn whether we will like or dislike him. Our judgment is instantaneous, the impression being favorable or unfavorable. To what instinct or fact do we ascribe this? We of course judge by the expression of the face — in other words, by the p/iysiognomy. This unfailing index tells whether he is intellectual or dull, kind or brutish, strong or weak of mind. Beyond and outside of all physical characteristics, it is claimed that the mental peculiarities of the individual can be seen and known in the tone Dj ^v of the voice, the rapidity of speech, '~-^ '' —J the sprightliness of motion, the grasp of the hand, etc. The five faces given above, in Figure i, illustrate the various grades of intelligence. The face at the left is easily recog- nized as one of intellectual vigor. The one to the right, with its thick lips and retreating chin and forehead, bears all the evidence of intellectual feeble- ness. The intervening faces represent the gradations from a high to a low state of intelligence, and our opinion as to the relative intellectuality of these five faces is instan- FIG. 1. THE GRADES OF INTELLIGENCE. taneously formed by the shape of the head, the nose, the chin and the lips. In the next illustrations are contrasted a pair of faces whose features and expression exemplify boldly the theory of physiognomy. Figure 2, with its straight, darting, frank eye, its intellectual Grecian nose, forehead which bears the stamp of strong perceptive faculty, firm closed lips and res- olute chin, at once impresses the beholder with the presence of a person of strong and clearly defined characteristics, which have been improved by culti- vation. Figure 3, on the other hand, bears all the evidences of vulgarity and ignorance, untempered by culture's softening influences. The smoothly rounded and re- treating brow, the small and sunken eye, the coarse, mis- shapen nose, thick and sen- suous lips, and weak, reced- ing chin, indicate at a glance a nature which is strong only in vulgar and vicious pro- FIG. 3. pensities, and lacking almost entirely the intellectual and moral power to restrain them. -ra-= THE TEMPERAMENTS. >£^ One of the arguments frequently used against the claim that mental ability can be determined by the size of the brain is the fact that men with small heads often accom- plish more than those who have heads and bodies of much greater size. The reply of phrenologists to this is that there are four temperaments, viz. : the Lymphatic, the Sanguine, the Bilious and the Nervous ; and that every person possesses more or less of these in his physical consti- tution. The Lymphatic. The Lymphatic temperament is fig. 2. indicated by the predominance of stomach, which makes roundness of form, softness of flesh, a weak pulse and a languid condition of the system. With such the hair is light, complexion pale, eyes blue and dull. t THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 535 Tlie Sanguine. The Sanguine temperament largely depends upon a pre- ponderance of the arterial system. He who possesses it will have light hair and blue eyes, will be fairly rounded in muscle, will be ardent, active and enthusiastic. The Bilious. With the Bilious temperament the liver is taken as the basis. This is indicated by black eyes and hair, a dark and tawny skin, solid and spare flesh, angular form, great 1; energy and activity, and, if coupled with superior mental development, large power. Tlie Xervous. The Nervous temperament rests upon a preponderance of the nervous system. Those possessing it are known by their delicacy of health, thin and angular fea- tures, light, thin hair, rapid movements and mental ac- tivity. COMBINATION OF TEMPERAMENTS. Fortunately these temper- aments are generally found blended more or less with each other, and out of the combination phrenologists designate another class of temperaments called the Motive, the Vital and the Mental. digestive and assimilating organs, abundance of blood and animal spirits. The form is plump and limbs rounded and tapering, the complexion light or florid, with an inclination to take on flesh as age advances. This temperament is a combination of the Sanguine and the Lymphatic, as set forth by Combe and other writers ; but as the digestive and assimilating organs, which constitute the Lymphatic temperament, together with the respiratory and circu- latory systems, which constitute the .San- guine temperament, are really vital organs, their combination into one, under the name of Vital temperament, is both convenient and philosophical. Tliv Mental. The Mental temperament depends on the development of the brain and nervous system, and is indicated by -if^inijiLiiditsiiviitsijiiiiiiiii^^ mental activity, light frame, thin skin, fine hair, delicate features, and large brain as compared with the body. 3 It imparts sensitiveness and vivacity to the mind, a dis- position to think, study, or follow some light and deli- cate business. The structures which, in excess or great predomi- nance, determine these tem- peraments, exist in each Tlie Motive. The Motive temperament, cor- responding to the Bilious, has a strong, bony system, an abund- ance of muscle, dark, wiry hair, dark eyes, rough, prominent fea- tures, dark complexion and great executive force. The Motive temperament, in its influence on mental manifestation, is favorable to dignity, sternness, determi- nation, power of will and desire to govern and control others. It gives slowness of passion, desire for heavy labor or large fl business, and a liability to mias- matic diseases. The Vital. The Vital temperament is evinced by large lungs, a power- ful circulatory system, and large individual. In one person one temperament may predominate; in the next, another. They can be modified by proper training. When combined, they give har- mony of character and excellent health. The Brain. There are still other condi- tions upon which the phrenolo- gist rests his case, without which he admits the mental power of the individual cannot be deter- mined. It is claimed, for in- stance, that a loose and flabby flesh reveals a soft and spongy brain, and that a close-knit frame and firm flesh show in- tellectual power. Then, again, the slate of the health must be taken into consideration. In perfect health the brain is strong. _N 1^ 536 THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. S\^=V' • — '>-i-^ — °(^^udly lamented that no reporter was present to write him down an ass*. In our day the reporter is gen- erally at hand, and men who " make donkeys of them- selves" are often "written down" in that way without even being consulted in the matter. There is little harm done, of course, for if left alone they are sure to make the record themselves. Mulishness or obstinacy ha.s ruined many a man, and when there is little culture and much ignorance, we may look for conceit, prejudice and stupidity. The dog will take on something of the spirit of his master, will even come to slightly resemble him by constant associa- tion. Hogarth was always painted with his dog, and it has been said that ultimately he came to resemble the animal, although it is mure than probable that the latter, by remain- ing almost constantly in the presence of his master, and en- deavoring in a doggish way to understand his thoughts, words and expressions, had really come, in a limited manner. Id resemble the great humorous artist. We cannot believe that the man was lost in the dog, but it is not entirely unreason- able to suppose that tlie dog had taken on something of the man. The ancient physiognomists laid great stress upon the real or fancied resemblances existing between men and animals, but their speculations are of no real value. Moilern writings on the subject aic also mainly fanciful, and calculated to amuse rather than to instruct. We shall claim no more for this chapter, but shall be satisfied if the reader has been pleasantly enter- tained, the organ of mirthfulness developed, and the upward curving lines at the comer of the mouth improved. How- ever, while admitting that Comparative Physiognomy is still in a rudimentary state, it cannot be doubted that there must be some foundation in truth for the common belief that animal resemblances may be traced among men and women, and that they have some value, little or great, as signs of character. A COMPARISON. As the face of a watch presents to the eye signs of the movements going on within, and ceases to tell the hour whenever those movements cease, so the " human face divine" is an index of internal emotions and loses all power to change its exoression as soon as the vital jjowers are with- drawn. Behind the face of the watch is the machinery — which is the watch. Behind the human countenance are the comjilicaled apparatuses of bones, muscles and nerves, which form the human ma- chiner)' ; and behind this human machinery there is what the watch has not — the soul, the mind — the controlling intelligence which precedes the living organism to which it gives rational activity. A A *j|Sbv5^S^ ^^ y^^Sj >uHf ^Mj^^^'/T -, -^^r^^v .^J^^L '^JK flK^vUlilJi^ te^^j^A ^^JK^ajH f...^HK'«^- , ^llw^^A W^m ^p tK^^^^^^ mf ^^^^^^v ^^^ j: (^#9^1^^ |k9^ J|raTfl|3k~ ->c^. '^ifcm^^SN?^ ^5t>'Tl jj^^^^^ |M|^ ^^^SBr^N WmM^ "^ miS9^ %l? . ^^^ti^^S/B^-L^' \ \w " ' 'iri^* NJO ■■^ ' ' r~^ ■iy 'Wa''jjr^ ^' /./ ^ ^^ywp / .^ • DONKEY. — ? /• * *' O that he were here to write im; Nothing: e, style, etc.; extremely polite, ceremonious, etc. Large, sets everything by character, honor, etc.; is keenly alive to the frowns and smiles of public opinion, praise, etc.; tries to show off to good advantage ; is affable, ambitious, apt to praise himself Full, desires and seeks popularity and feels censure, yet will neither deny nor trouble himself to secure or avoid either. Average, enjoys approbation, yet will not sicnfice much to obtain it. Moderate, feels reproach some, yet is little affected by popularity or unpopularity ; may gather the flowers of applause that are strewed in his path, yet will not deviate from it to col- lect them. Small, cares little for popular frowns or favors ; feels little shame; disregards and despises fashion>, etiquette, etc.; is not polite. Very small, cares nothing for popular favor. 13. Self-Esteem. .Self-respect ; high-toned, manly feeling; innate love of per- sonal liberty, independence, etc. ; pride of character. Very large, has unbounded self-confidence; endures no restraint; takes no advice ; is rather haughty, imperious, etc. Large, is high-minded, independent, self-confident, dignified, his own master; aspires to be and do something worthy of himself; assumes responsibilities ; does few little things. Full, has much self-respect; pride of character; independence. Average, respects himself, yet is not haughty. Moderate, has some self- respect and manly feeling, yet too little to give ease, dignity. weight of character, etc. ; is too trifling. Small, lets himself down; says and does trifling things ; associates with inferiors; is not looked up to ; lacks independence. Very small, is ser- vile, low-minded, destitute of self-respect. 14. Firmness. Decision, stability, fixedness of character, etc. Very large, is wilful, and so tenacious and unchangeable of opinion, pur- pose, etc., that he seldom gives up anything. Large, may be fully relied on ; is set in his own way ; hard to be convinced or changed at all ; holds on long and hard. Full, has persever- ance enough for ordinary occasions, yet too little for great enterprises; is neither fickle nor stubborn. Average, has some decision, yet too little for general success. Moderate, gives over too soon ; changes too often and too easily ; thus fails to effect what greater firmness would do. Small or very small, lacks perseverance ; is too changeable to be relied upon. 15. Conscientiousness. Innate feeling of duty, accountability, justice, right, etc.; moral principle ; love of truth. Very large, is scrupulously exact in matters of right ; perfectly honest in motive ; always condemn- ing self and repenting ; makes duty everything, expediency nothing. Large, is honest ; faithful ; upright at heart ; moral in feeling ; grateful ; penitent ; means well ; consults duty before expediency; loves, and means to .speak, the truth; cannot tolerate wrong. Full, strives to do right, yet sometimes yields to temptation ; resists besetting sins, but may be overcome, and then feels remorse. Average, has right intentions, but their influence is hmited. Moderate, has considerable regard for duty in feeling, but less in practice; justifies himself; is not very penitent, grateful or forgiving; often temporizes with principle; sometimes lets interest rule duty. Small, has few conscientious scruples; little regard for moral principle, justice, duty, etc. Very small, does not feel the claims of duty or justice. 16. Hope. Anticipation ; expectation of future happiness, success, etc. Very large, has unbounded hope-s; builds castles in the air. Large, expects, attempts and promises a great deal ; is gener- ally sanguine, cheerful, etc. ; rises above present troubles ; though disappointed, hopes on still ; views the brightest side of prospects. Full, is quite sanguine, yet realizes about what he expects. Average, has some, but reasonable, hopes ; is seldom elated. Moderate, expects and attempts too little; succeeds beyond his hopes ; is prone to despond ; looks on the darker side. Small, is low-spirited ; easily discouraged ; fears the worst ; sees many lions in his way ; magnifies evils ; lacks enterprise. Very small, expects nothing good ; has no hope of the future. 17. Spirituality. Belief in the supernatural ; credulity. Very large, is very superstitious ; regards most things with wonder. Large, believes and delights in the supernatural, in dreams, ghosts, etc. ; thinks many natural things supernatural. Full, is open to conviction ; rather credulous ; believes in divine providences, forewarnings, the wonderful, etc. Average, believes some, but not much, in wonders, forewarnings, etc. Moderate, be- lieves but little that cannot be accounted for yet is open to N| THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 541 conviction ; is incredulous, but listens to evidence. Small, is convinced only with difficulty ; believes nothing till he sees facts, or why and wherefore, not even revelation farther than a reason is rendered; is prone to reject new things without exam- ination. Very small, believes little else than his senses. 18. Veneration. The feeling of worship for a .Sviprenie Being ; respect for religion and things sacred, and for superiors. Very large, is eminent, if not pre-eminent, for piety, heart-felt devotion, religious fervor, seriousness, love of divine things, etc. Large, loves to adore and worship God, especially through his works ; treats equals with respect and superiors with deference. Full, is capable of much religious fervor and devotion, yet is not habitually serious ; generally treats his fellow-men civilly. Average, may feel religious worship, yet little respect for men. Moderate, disregards religious creeds, forms of worship, etc. ; places religion in other things ; is not serious nor respectful. Small, feels little religious worship, reverence, respect, etc. Very small, seldom if ever adores God. 19. Benevolence. Desire to see and make sentient beings happy ; kindness. Very large, does all the good in his power; gladly sacrifices self upon the altar of pure benevolence ; scatters happiness wherever he goes; is one of the kindest-hearted of persons. Large, is kind, obliging; glad to serve others, even to his injury ; feels lively sympathy for distress ; does good to all. Full, has a fair share of sympathetic feeling, and some, though not great, willingness to sacrifice for others. Average, has kind fellow-feeling without much active benevolence. Moder- ate, has some benevolent feeling, yet too little to prompt to much self-denial ; does good only when he can without cost. Small, feels little kindness or sympathy ; is almost deaf to the cries of distress ; hard-hearted, selfish, etc. Very small, is destitute of all humanity and sympathy. 20. Constructiveness. Mechanical dexterity and ingenuity ; desire and ability to use tools, build, invent, employ machinery, etc. Very large, is a mechanic of the first order; a true genius. Large, shows great natural dexterity in using tools, executing mechanical opera- tions, working machinery, etc.; loves them. Full, has fair mechanical ingenuity, yet no great natural talent or desire to make things; with practice will do well; without it, little. Average, has some, yet not great, relish for and tact in using tools. .Moderate, with much practice, may use tools quite well, yet dislikes mechanical operations; owes more to art than nature. Small, hates, and is awkward and bungling in, using tools, etc. Very small, has no mechanical skill or desire. 21. Ideality. Imagination ; taste ; fancy ; love of perfection ; poetry, polite literature, oratory, the beautiful in nature and art, etc. Very large, often gives rein to his erratic imagination; experiences revellings of fancy, ecstasy, rapture of feeling, enthusiasm. Large, has a lively imagination ; great love of poetry, elo- quence, fiction, good .style, the beauties of nature and art. Full, has refinement of feeling, expression, etc., without sickly delicacy; some love of poetry, yet not a vivid imagination. Average, has some taste, though not enough to influence him much. Moderate, has some, but not much imagination ; is rather plain in expression, manners, feeling, etc. ; dislikes poetry, finery, etc. Small, or very small, lacks taste, niceness, refinement, delicacy of feeling, etc. B. Sublimity. Conception of grandeur; sublime emotions excite• 544 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 88030 ^%N^ ®D£r ®nc %ni)reb ©Ijousanb Important K£f£r£nc£s, arrangfi) iit Alpljabftical ®vhn, mxb SUustratciJ witlj ©rtgmal Diagrams on tijf Hem |.llan of (!i)bicct-Si;£aclimg. IRUE statistics are the record of in- dustrial history. He who cannot read what is written between their Hnes, or interwoven in their col- umns, may rest content with the narrative of wars and dynasties, or of political changes, and may imagine that he knows the true history of events. But can he tell how the people lived and moved — how wars and dynas- ties have been sustained ? If he cannot, let him study what figures can teach to any one who knows how to master them — the industrial his- tory of free nations. The battle is not to the heaviest battalions, but to the people who can sustain the battalions longest. It is the com- missary-general who wins, for without him the master of the ordnance would be powerless. In the battle of life it is the same. If there were no prophecy of the future in the statistics of the past and present there would be no meaning to the computations, and the disclosures of the census would be without value. It is not the province of the Popular Edu- cator to advance new theories in political economy, or to discuss theories already put forth, but it has been the endeavor of the editor to present in small compass, in compact, acces- sible and attractive form, a vast amount of valu- able information, gathered from the most reli- able sources. The wealth and resources of States and Nations, population, religion, com- merce, labor and capital, and all important sub- jects of discussion, are treated fully in their proper place, while subjects of minor import- ance, though often of equal interest, have not been neglected. In short, the object of the fol- lowing Dictionary of Facts and Figures is to afford ready reference on subjects of statistical interest. ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY.— The increase in area of the United States, by w.ir and treaty, is shown in the annexed table : When. How. Whence. What. Sq. Miles. 1776) '783; IS03 1819 1845 By war By treaty By treaty... By union. . . By treaty. . . England France Spain Mexico England .. . Mexico Mexico Rus.sia f The thirteen origi- ) \ nal States a / 82D,68o 899.579 06,900 318,000 308,052 522,955 45,535 577,390 3,559.°9i 1846 1846) '848/ 1853 1867 Oregon f California & New 1 \ Mexicoif J Gadsden Purchasey. . By treaty'.. . By treaty. .. a Estimated cost of War of Independence, 5i6S,ooo,coo. b Purchased for $15,000,000. c Cost ^3,000,000. (/ Debt of Texas on admission into the Union, $7,500,000. e Estimated cost of th^ Mexican War, $15,000,000. _/"Cost ^10,000,000. g Cost 57,200,000. V- ^. \ "Tt DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURKS. 545 AGE. — A man's working life is divided into four decades : 20 to 30, bronze ; 30 to 40, silver ; 40 to 50, gold ; 5010 60, iron. Intellect and judgment are strongest between 40 and 50. The percentages of population to age in various countries are shown thus: Country. United Statc5 . England Scotland Ireland France Germany Italy .\ustria Greece Spain Brazil Belgium .. . . . Holland Dernuark Sweden Norway Percentage of Population. Under 20 Years. 50 46 46 46 36 43 44 43 48 4= 46 40 43 42 43 43 From 30 to 60 45 47 45 43 52 49 49 50 47 52 45 50 49 50 49 48 Over 60. Average age of all tivlnfj Years. =4-9 27.1 27.4 28.6 32.2 28.0 27.6 27-7 25-5 27.2 »7-3 29.7 28.3 28.4 28.0 28.0 The Americans are the youngest, ihe French the oldest. AIR. — In its pure state air is composed thus: Nitrogen, 77 ; oxygen, 21 ; other components, 2; total, Itxj. The percentage 0/ oxygen varies as follows : Sea-shore, 2 1 .00 ; confined houses, 20.75; "ii"es, 20.50; when candles go out, 1S.50. The percentage of carbonic acid ranges thus : In country, .03 ; in town, .04; in hospitals, .05 ; in fogs, .07; in crowded Lines, 13 ; in theaters, 30. Each adult inhales a gallon of air per minute, and consumes d«ily 30 oz. of oxygen. For the conversion of this oxygen a certain amount of food is required — say 13 oz. of carbon for a male, and 11 oz. for a female, equivalent to 3 lbs. bread and 2^^ lbs. respectively. ALCOHOL. — The degrees in wines and liquors are : Beer, 4.0 ; porter, 4.5 ; ale, 7.4; cider, 8.6; perry, 8.8; elder, 9.3 ; Moselle, 9.6; Tokay, 10.2; Rhine, II.O; Orange, 11. 2; Bor- deaux, 11. 5; hock, ll.6;'gooseberry, 11.8; champagne, 12.2 ; claret, 13.3; Burgundy, 13.6; Malaga, 17.3; Lisbon. 18.5; Canary, 1S.8; sherry, 19.0 ; Vermouth, 19.0 ; Cape, I9.2 ; Malmsey, 19.7; Marsala, 20.2; Madeira, 21.0; port, 23.2; curacoa, 27.0; aniseed, 33.0 ; Maraschino, 34.0; Chartreuse, 43.0; gin, 51.6; brandy, 53.4; rum, 53.7; Irish whisky, 53.9 ; Scotch, 54.3. Spirits are said to be "proof" when they contain 57 per cent. The maximum amount of alcohol, says Parkes, that a man can take daily without injury to his health is that contained in 2 oz. brandy, !+' pt. of sherry, '2 pt. of claret, or I pt. of beer. ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS.— A table of the comparative con- sumption of alcoholic liquors was Compiled by the London Times in 1885, with some interesting results. The average yearly consumption per head is given in liters (a liter is a little less than a quart) : Spirits. Liters. Canada 3.08 Norway 3. 90 United States 4.79 Great Britain and Ireland 5*37 Wine. Liters. Beer. Liters. 0.29 1.00 2.64 2.09 8.51 ■ 5.30 31.30 143-9= 5.76 7,28 8.08 Austriu-Hungiiry France Russia Sweden 5.,^ German Zollverciti 8.60 Belgium '. 9.20 Switzerland 15.30 Netherlands O.o? Denmark jg .00 22.40 119.20 Unknown. 0.36 6.00 3-70 55. 00 2.57 1. 00 28.42 21.10 4.65 II. GO 65.00 169.20 37-50 27.00 33-33 Belgium, it seems, contains the greatest number of beer- drinkers, with Great Britain second in this list, and Germany, contrary to common opinion, only third. France drinks the mo.st wine, and Switzerland comes next, while the amount ac- credited to the United States, though comparatively small, yet exceeds that of Great Britain. Canada is the most moderate drinker of all. ANIMALS. Rabbit . Dog.... Sllecp . . Lion . . . WeiKht (lbs). Years of Life. 5 70 160 Weight (""•)• Cow 750 Ox 900 Horse f,ooo Camel i ,200 Elephant 6,oco Years of Life. 25 25 27 40 XOO AQUEDUCTS. — Among modern works the most famous are: Length. Million gal's Miles. daily. Cost. Crolon (New Vork) 41 88 $9,000,000 1^1^''"'' 47 40 11,500,000 .Marseilles.... 51 60 2,250,000 (jla-^Kow 34 50 7,775,000 W ashnigton j6 90 Rome, in the time of the Cassars, had nine aqueducts, measur- ing 249 miles in the aggregate, and with a daily capacity of 320,000,000 gallons, or 200 g.illons per inhabitant. The great aqueduct of Peru, built by the Incas, was 360 miles long. ARMY. — Proportions. — According to Napoleon the propor- tions of an army should be 70 per cent infantry, 17 per cent cavalry, and 13 per cent between artillery', engineers and train. Death rate. — In active service the death late among officers is heavier than among the rank and file. The Duke of V/el- lington's army roll from l8n to 1814 showed the following percentage : „ „ , Officers. Men. ' Kdled 14.5 Wounded 81.0 Died of Disease 13.0 Able-bodieil. — The percentage of men capable of bearing arms in various countries is as follows : England, 23; Scotland, 22; Ireland, 22; France, 27; Austria, 25; Germany, 24; Italy, 25 ; Belgium, 25 ; Holland, 25 ; Spain, 26 ; Denmark, 25 ; Sweden, 25; Norway, 24; United States, 23; Greece, 23. .See diagrain Military and Naval Strength, p.ige 335. ARTILLERY. — .Vt the close of the Franco. German war the Germans took from the French 7,234 pieces of cannon, includ- '"g 3.4S5 field pieces and 3,300 fortress guns. At the battle of Waterloo the British artillery fired 9,467 rounds, or one for every Frenchman killed. See Ordnance. AUTHORS. — Goldsmith received S300 for the " Vicar of Wakefield;" Moore, 515,500 for " Lalla Rookh ; " Victor Hugo, Sl2,ooo for " Hernani ; " Chateaubriand, Juo,ooo for his works; Lamartine, S 16,000 for "Travels in Palestine;" Disraeli, $50,000 for " Endymion ; " .Vnthony Trallope, $315,- 000 for forty-five novels; Lingard, {21,500 for his " History of England." 10.2 49.0 38.0 / -a\ Receipts at]d Expendilares Ui][M Stales Goverfiniefit. Year ending June 30, 1884. rxT ^^- ueaigned and Engraued expreasly /or Peale'a Popular Educator. 546 ->3PabliG Debts of VariGas GQontries.e^- ~A PER CAPITA. FOREIGN. (IN DOLLARS.) iS8a UNITED STATES. S"7-74 France, 54.683.840,000 SJ28E;iT-4:;E Russia, 4,314,607,590 109.04 Great Britain, 3,814,500,000 H 7=-38 Italy, 52,042,000,000 37-56 United Slates, ' 1,884,171,728 153-34 Spain. 1,826,613,043 44.65 Austria-Hungary, 1.1185424,276 29^86 Qe^^;^^^,/i^%^ii'^ 2.98 51 50 gS3S« 33-50 89.14 4033 India, 765,673,425 Turkey, - 532,186,170 Eg>'Pt. - 529.383.IS0 Australa-sia, 449.551,245 Portugal, - 430.879.399 94<'. 64.26 Brazil, Xetherlands, Belgium, - Japan, 41.17 Paraguay, 83.27 Peru, - I 45-77 Canada, - 15.43 Mexico, 21,24 Roumania. 409,866,550 376,523.380 341.917,662 311,294,347 251,000,000 241,650,000 199.861,537 144.953.785 125,727,822 "^ 23.77 Argentine Rep., 107,681,639 34.91 Greece, 32.35 Chili, - 37.72 Venezuela, 13.72 Sweden, .14 China, 107.07 Uruguay, 23.52 Denmark, 13.67 Nonvay, 12.73 Servia. - n 6.76 Colombia, n 14.42 Bolivia, ^ 16.01 Ecuador. - Q 2.16 Switzerland, - 97,231.480 85,762.664 67.309.990 63.373.292 51,100,000 47.861,042 43.331.657 27,384,000 20,248.090 Colorado, Iowa, Nebraska, - Oregon, - Kentucky, - Nevada, Delaware, - Michigan, Kansas, Florida. Rhode Island New Jersey, Wisconsin, - 233.688 - 245,435 449,267 - 458,888 480,394 - 527,000 715,000 - 900,150 1,181,975 1,276,500 1,622,500 1,796,300 2,250,000 Mississippi, - 2,685,867 New Hampshire, 3,387,357 California, - 3,396,500 Connecticut - 4,080,600 Minnesota, - ■ 4,343,251 Texas, - - 4,491.100 Indiana, - - 4,876,608 Ohio, - - 4,901,665 I Arkansas, - 5,072,492 South Carolina, 6,642,322 Maine, - 8,403,557 j? New York, - 9,109 Alabama, - 9,164,600 Georgia, - - 9,624,135 Mary'I.and, - 11,257,561 r.70 2.37 9.76 3-9* 6.SS s-ss ,2.81 2.46 1-53 6.32 6.67 12.34^ .055 [ 1.79 7.26 _6,a4:- 12.04 Louisiana. Sin.i2r,.493 17.15 Missouri. - 16,309,000 7.61 Pennsylvania, 21.105,802 492 TcniK.--^!' :£..t42,S50 17.20 3ES-J -' -" North Carblina,^ .2f,3B»s3a»^ Virginia, 3 1 .652.358 20.92 Massachusetts. 32,511.681 18.23 lJ ~^^ Designed and Engraved expressly for Peale's Popular Educator. 547 K 548 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. BALLOONS. — The most remarkable ascents on record: Date. Aeronaut. Place of Ascent. Height. Yards. Distance. Miles. 1783 1S04 Montgolfier Gay Liissac Holland 2,000 7,700 12,000 Paris 1S36 ^359 1862 500 1,150 Wise Wolverhampton During the siege of Pai-is — September, 1870, to February, 1S71 — there were 64 balloons sent up, containing 91 passengers, 354 pigeons, and 3,000,000 letters (weighing 9 tons). Mr. Glaisher states that in 3,500 balloon ascents only 15 deaths have occurred, that is, about four per thousand. BANKING. — The capital employed in banking in the prin- cipal countries is as follows: Great Britain, $4,020,000,000 ; United States, ^2,655,000,000; Germany, $1,425,000,000; France, $1,025,000,000; Austria, $830,000,000 ; Russia, $775,- 000,000; Italy, $455,000,000; Australia, $425,000,000; Can- ada, $175,000,000. On September I, 1SS4, there were 2,582 national banks in the United States, with a capital of $518,605,725, and a surplus of $147,721,475. The dividends for six months aggregated $20,- 171,668, and total net earnings for same time, $24,368,019. Since 1840 the banking of the world has increased about eleven-fold, that is, three times as fast as commerce, or thirty limes faster tlian population. height of barometer varies ac- Barometer. Degree of Latitude. 45 50 60 67 .. BAROMETER.— The mean cording to latitude as follows: Degree of Latitude. 10 29.98 20 30.06 30 30-" 40 30.02 It varies according to elevation as follows Feet Mean above Sea. Baromete Sea level.... o 30.0*:) Rome 151 2976 Milan 420 29.45 Moscow 984 28.82 Geneva 1,221 28.54 Munich 1 ,765 27-95 Mr. Glaisher's barometer Barometer. 30.00 29.81 29.80 29.67 Mean Barometer. 27.72 24-45 ,23.07 22.52 21.42 20.75 Feet above Sea. Madrid .... 1,995 St. Remy .. 5,265 St. Goihard 6,808 Mexico .... 7,471 Bogota .... 8,731 Quito 9,541 . his various balloon ascents marked as follows : At a height of i mile, 24.7 in.; 2 miles, 20.3 in. ; 3 miles, 16.7 in. ; 4 miles, 13.7 ; 5 miles, 1 1.3. BARRENNESS. — One woman in 20, one man in 30 — about 4 per cent. It is found that one marriage in 20 is barren — 5 per cent. Among the nobility of Great Britain, 21 per cent have no children, owing partly to intermarriage of cousins, no less than \]A per cent being married to cousins. BATTLES. — The numbers placed hors-de-combat are not rel- atively so large as formerly, as the table below will show : Men Engaged. Hors-de-combat. Ratio. Thrasymene 65,000 Canna: 146,000 Bannockburii 135,000 Agincourt 62,000 Crc>:y 117,000 Marengo 58,000 Austcrlitz 170,000 Borodino 250,000 Waterloo 145,000 Alma 103,000 Sadowa 402,000 , Gravelotte 320,000 Gettysburg 140,000 See also diagram, page 335. 17,000 27 per cent 52,000 34 38,000 28 11,400 18 31,200 27 13.000 23iboo 22 '3 78,000 3' ' , 51,000 35 8,400 8 33.000 8 48,500 '5 8,000 5 BAYS. — Length in miles (approximate) : Hudson's, about 1,200; Baffin's, about 600 ; Chesapeake, about 250. BEER. — See Alcoholic Liquors. See also diagram, Beer Production. BEES. — The largest bee-owner in the world in 18S4 was Mr. Harbison, of California, who had 6,000 hives, producing 200,000 lbs. honey yearly, worth $40,000. There are in the United States 7o»ooo bee-growers, but the average which they get from their hives is only 22 lbs., whereas the average in England is 50 lbs., and some hives have given as high as 120 lbs. A hive consists of about 5,000 bees, and will multiply ten-fold in five years. Bees eat 20 lbs. of honey in making a pound of wax. BELLS. — The largest bells are the following, and their weight is given in tons: Moscow, 202; Burmah, 117; Pekin, 53; Novgorod, 31; Notre Dame, 18; Rouen, iS; Olmutz, iS; Vienna, 18; St. Paul's, 16; Westminster, 14; Montreal, 12; Cologne, II; Oxford, 8; St. Peter's, 8. Bell-metal should have 77 parts copper,'and 23 tin. BIBLE. — No fewer than 1,326 editions of the Bible were published in the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was translated and publislied in many languages by tlie polyglot press of Propaganda Fide at Rome. In the nineteenth century the English and American societies have printed, in the Protestant version, 124,000,000 copies of the Bible or of the New Testament, viz. : British, 74,000,000; American, 32,000,000 ; other societies, 15,000,000 copies. The King James version of the Bible contains 3,566,480 letters, 773,746 words, 31,173 verses, 1,189 chapters, and 66 books. The word and occurs 46,277 times. The word Lord occurs 1,855 times. The word Reverend occurs but once, which is in the gth verse of the liith Psalm. The middle verse is the 8th verse of the 118th Psalm. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra contains all the letters of the alphabet except the letter J. The 19th chapter of H Kings and the 37th chapter of Isaiah are alike. The longest verse is the gth verse of the Sth chapter of Esther. The shortest verse is the 35th verse of the nth chapter of St. John. There are no words or names of more than six syllables. BICYCLE. — The bicycle stands fourth as regards tiie time taken to cover a mile. The following table gives the various ways of going a mile, and the least time required : Min. Sec. Min. Sec. Locomotive 50 1-4 Running man 4 16 1-5 Running horse i 393-4 Rowing 5 02 3-4 Trottmghorse 2 09 1-4 Snow-shoes 5 393-4 bicycle 2 39 Walking 6 23 Skating 3 00 Swimming 12 42 1-4 Tricycle 3 032-5 BIRDS. — A hawk flies 150 miles per hour; an eider duck, go miles ; a pigeon, 40 miles. See Carrier- Pigeons. BLIND. — The number of blind in the United States in 18S0 was 48,930, or at the rate of 97 per 100,000 population. The ratio of sexes was 55 male to 45 female. BLOOD. — The human heart beats 74 times a minute, sending each time JO lb-;, of blood through the veins and arteries. Tlie system of an adult averages 28 lbs. of blood. The elements of human blood are as follows : V r^ DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 549 -7 f Man. Woman. Water 77.8 79.6 Albumen 6.3 6.4 Color 14 ■ "•» Saline, e(c 1.9 1.8 100. o loo.o The amount of iron in human blood and that of some animals is as follows : Man, 0.91 oz. per owl. ; ox, I oz. ; pig, 1.06 oz. ; frog, 0.75 oz. BOOKS. — The terms folio, i/narto, octavo, etc., indicate the number of leaves into which a sheet of paper is folded in mak- ing a Iwok, and the number of pages in each sheet is termed a signature; and for convenience in use the siijnatures in books are numbered by figures jilaced at the bottom of the first page of the signature. A folio book or paper is made of sheets folded in 2 leaves; a quarto (or 4to) of sheets folded into 4 leaves; an octavo, 8 leaves; duodecimo (l2mo), 12 leaves; iSmo, in 18 leaves; a 241/10, in 24 leaves; s.j2mo, in 32 leaves, etc. About 100 new works are published daily, or 30,000 i>er annum, without taking into account new editions of old books. The annual average of new books from 1878 to iSSo was as follows: Great Britain, 5,771; France, 7,000; Germany, 14,- 560 ; United States, nearly 3,000. The number for the United States in 1883 had risen to 3,481, and in 1S84 over 4,000 new works were issued. In the year 690 the Duke of Northumberland gave 800 acres of land for one volume of history. Later on a pious farmer sold two loads of hay on Cornhill for a copy of the Epistle of Jude, an epistle containing only twenty-five verses. A devout countess of this same age gave 200 sheep and a large parcel of rich furs for a volume of sermons. In the year 1420, when London Bridge was building, a Latin Bible cost St 20, which was more than '% cost to build two arches of London Bridge. A laboring man only earned three cents a day in that time, and it would have taken the earnings of fifteen years for him to have bought a Bible. This will e.xplain, in part, how it was that Bibles were chained up in churches. A good, steady reader will not be able to read more tlian thirty pages of an average i2mo book in an hour. Now let us suppose the case of such a reader ; let him read eight hours a day, six days a week, all the year round. He will read 240 pages a day, 1,440 pages a week, making an average of three good-sized volumes of 480 pages a week, or 150 volumes per annum. But there are over 30,000 volumes published per annum, so that the publishers get ahead of this reader at the rate of over 30,000 books every year. In the course of a quarter of a century, this diligent reader, if he never fails a day, is never sick, never lakes a vacation, will have read only 3,750 volumes. Of course this illustration is exaggerated. No man could re.id at this rate without becoming raving mad before the end of the first year. These figures serve to show that a wise man must be content to leave a great deal unread. When we hear men de- scribed as bookworms, and others boasting of being well read, we may well smile as we think how little the worm hxs been able to accomplish, and how much the well-read man has left unread. The difiicully which this great wealth of literature pre- sents can only be wisely met in one way. We must be content to read only a little^ but if our reading is not to degenerate into the merest idleness, we must be careful that the little we read is worth the time we give it. .\ man who will read and master a dozen good books a year, will, in a few years, be a well informed, educated man ; but the man who rushes through a great number of books for mere pastime will add about as much to his mental wealth as if he had been pouring walei' through a sieve. BRAIN.— The l.itest classification of races, according to B.ist'ian and other experts, shows weight of brain, in ounces, as follows: Scotch, 50.0; Germans, 49.6; English, 49.5 ; French, 47.9; Zulus, 47.5; Chinese, 47.2; Pawnees, 47.1 ; Italians, 46.9; Hindoo, 45.1; Gypsy, 44.8; Bushmen, 44.6; Esqui- maux, 43.9. Compared with size of body, the brain of the Esquimaux is as heavy as the .Scotchman's. The measurement of that part of the skull which holds the brain is stated in cubic inches thus : Anglo-.Saxon, 105 ; Ger- man, 105; Negro, 96; Ancient Egyptian, 93 ; llotienlot, 58 ; Australian native, 58. In all races the male brain is about 10 per cent heavier than the female. The highest class of apes has only 16 oz. of brain. A man's brain, it is estimated, consists of 300,000,000 nerve cells, of which over 3,000 are disintegrated and destroyed every mikiute. Every one, therefore, h.is a new brain once in sixty days. But excessive labor, or the lack of sleep, prevents the re- pair of the tissues, and the brain gradually wastes away. Diver- sity of occupation, by calling upon different portions of the mind or body, successively aftords, in some measure, the requisite re- pose to each. But in this age of overwork there is no safety ex- cept in that perfect rest which is the only natural restorative of exhausted power. It has been noticed by observant physicians in their European travels that the German people, who, as a rule, have no ambition and no hope to rise above their inherited station, are peculiarly free from nervous diseases ; but in Amer- ica, where the struggle for advancement is sharp and incessant, and there is nothing that will stop an American but death, the period of life is usually shortened five, ten, or twenty years by the effects of nervous exhaustion. After the age of 50 the brain loses an ounce every ten years. Cuvier's weighed 64, Byron's 79, and Cromwell's 90 ounces, but the last was diseased. Post-mortem examinations in France give an average of 55 to 60 ounces for the brains of the worst class of criminals. BRIDGES. — The great bridges of the world are as follows: Location. Material. Chakactek. • Tot.iI Lenytii. iFcel.) Longest Span. (Fe«.) Brooklyn, N.Y Poughkccpsiu, N. Y... Omaha Neb Steel.... I ron .... iron Iron - .. . Stcci,... Iron .... Iron .... Iron ... Iron . . . . Iron .... Iron .... Stone .. . Suspension 5.989 4.595 2.750 2,a2o 1.550 1, 245 1,000 6.538 ■ .595 525 250 ".057 530 800 340 1,339 459 ii9° X30 Post truss Suspension Segmental arcli . Suspension l^ost tniss Suspension ..... Tubiibr Tububr Su'^pension Elliptical arch . . St. I. 3-14 Nevada 0.56 r 3-19 Paraguay Dakota 0.91 r- 4.06 Venezuela New Mexico 0.97 1' 4-15' Bolivia Washington 1. 12 t 4.6r Ecuador Utah 1.75 t 6.19 Uruguay Oregon 1.84 ' f 9.20 U. S. of Colombia... Russian Empire Persia Colorado 1.87 f 10.11 Florida 4,96 F II. California << 5-54 F 12.66 Mexico Nebraska 5.93 r '^^■T^ Norway Texas 6.06 "^ V 15-19 EevDt ChiU 9.8s ^ L '''^"^ Kansas 12 IQ W 20.31 Arkansas 14.57 ^ y 20.42 Louisiana Sweden 20.69 ^ 1 26.51 Maine 21.70 ^ I 29.10 Turkey Wisconsin 24.15 p 1 1 42-11 Peru Mississippi -r 24.41 1 ^3-9^ Greece Alabama 24.49 1 ^"'■^^ Spain West Virginia Georgia 25.09 1 84.64 Servia 26.15 95-31 Chinese Empire Roumania Michigan 28.50 107.17 North Carolina Iowa 28.81 1 111-65 Ceylon 29.28 125.69 Portugal Missouri 31-54 133-21 Denmark South Carolina Vermont 3299 1 156.98 Austria-Hungary.... Switzerland 36.37 1 177-10 Tennessee 36-94 i 180.88 France Virginia 37-69 1 216.62 Germany New Hampshire Kentucky 3853 234.28 Japan 41.21 1 246-63 Italy 54. 96 289.92 Gr. Brit, and Irel... British India Indiana 55-°9 3ir-57 Delaware 74.80 1 312.86 1 Netherlands Ohio 78.46 Bfl m tU8l-7l [Belgium 94.82 ^^™ Pennsylvania ^H Kansa-s, to be as thickly population of - Texas, as France, - California as New York, Dakota as Massachusetts The whole U. S. as Beig COMPARISONS uld have a 17.697,854 47.443,015 16,647,775 32.755,429 i.735.596,3'2 New York I^H Connecticut 128.52 ^HHI settled as Germany, wo ium, . - . - New Jersey 15I-7-' 1 ' ' Massachusetts Rhode Island United States 221.77 I 254.86 i ( 13.92 N 1 . e k u i 'o "■ Ue signed and En graved expreaslij for Peale' s Popular Educa 5 5° — CJ v*" ^ \ -A ^' nuRinsiTiES nF the census. "^^ Proportions of Native and Foreign Population, Male and Female, White and Black ; Centre of Population, etc. fO fr.inie this diagnim rciiuircci tlie study of h dreds of pages of ccnstis returns, and a fine sense of discrimination fixing the proportions of popula- tion in each Slate. The spaci each State takes up in the di.igram accurately defines its position in regard to the population. New York covers an inch of space, and Texiis, which is about five times as large, oc- cupies hardly a quarter of an inch. Mow slim Delaware. Colo- rado, Nebraska, Nevada, Ore- gon and Rhode Island appear ! New York. Ohio and Pennsylvania are given generous proportions, as they deserve and arc justly entitled to. North Caro- lina, Kentucky, Illinois, In diana, Virginia, Missouri and Tennessee arc States iiolding re- spectably large populations. \ sin gle glance will suffice to sliow tliat number of Chinese resident in this country and residents of Nebraska are nearly equal ; and that the natives of Germany resi- nt in the United States are more than equal to the residents of the combined States of California. Colorado, Delaware, Flor- ida, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebr.-iska, Nevada, Ore- gon and Rliode Islantl — ten States ip all out of thirty-eight. .-\s a quick method of reference to the proportions of the population, these diagrams are un- excelled. While the whole number of foreign - born persons living in the United States in 1880 wiis 6,679.- 943, the number of those having one or both parents foreign- born ( including those foreign - born tliemselves, a-s above given), was 14,95s,- 996, or, in round numbers, 15,000,000. It is within bounds to say that 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 of the residents of the United States arc foreign-born or have both parents foreign-born. — o-^THE CENTRE OF POPULATION. *-<>■- The centre of population is defined as "the point at which equilibrium would be reached were the country taken as a plane surface itself, without weight, but capalile of sustaining weight, and loaded with its inliabitants in number and position .as they are found at the period under consideration, each individual being .assumed to lie of the same gravity as every other, and consequently to ' exert pressure on the pivotal point directiv proportioned to his distance therefrom." In brief it is the centre of gravity of the popula- tion of the country. It is located eight miles west-by-south from the heart of the city of Cincinnati, which places it in Kentucky, one mile from the south bank of the Ohio River. The change of centre of population each ten yeani in the United States is shown in the following table. The very rapid settlement of the Northwest of late woiilil indicate that the line will move conhiderably northward in the next ten years. »,; Ceittrt lif Pofulalitm, Mmt westward, Milts. \ 1790 — 23 miles e. of Ualtimorc I - -T — 18 miles w. of Baltimore 41 1 iiL) — ^40 miles n.-w. by w. of Washington... 36 1B20 — 16 miles n. of Woodstock, Va.....' 50 183a — 19 miles s.-w, of Muoretield.W. Va.... 39 1840 — 16 miles s. of Clarksburg, W. Va 55 1850—23 miles s. of Parkcrsburg, W. Va.... 65 i86o — 30 miles s. uf Chillicolhc, 81 1870 — 48 miles e.-by-n. of Cincinnati, 42 1880 — 8 miles w.-by-s. of Cincinnati, 58 Total 467 Note. — For the exact figures and further detailed information, the reader is referred to the table headed " Population of the United States." Designi.'d and Engraved expressly /or Heale's Popular Educator. 551 K" 552 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. ~7{ The Brooklyn Bridge cost $15,000,000, having taken 13 years in construction, during which 20 lives were lost. Width 85 feet, height above water 135 feet. Weight 34,000 tons. There are 3,200 tons wire, section 580 square inches, strength 75 tons per square inch. Each of the four cables has 5,000 wires of ]/% inch. There are two towers, 274 feet high, and 1,600 feet apart. The central way is 15 feet wide, for pedestrians; each of the railway lines has 16 feet width, and each of the ways for wagons, horses, etc., 19 feet; in all 85 feet. The Forth Bridge (Scotland) is to cost §7,500,000. Main girder, 5,330 feet; total length, 2,700 yards. BUILDINGS. — Capacity of the largest public buildings in the world: Coliseum, Rome, 87,000; St. Peter's, Rome, 54,000; Theater of Pompey, Rome, 40,000; Cathedral, Milan, 37,000; St. Paul's, Rome, 32,000; St. Paul's, London, 31,000; St. Petronia, Bologna, 26,000 ; Cathedral, Florence, 24,300; Cathe- dral, Antwerp, 24,000; St. John Lateran, Rome, 23,000; St. Sophia's, Constantinople, 23,000; Notre Dame, Paris, 21,500; Theater of Marcellus, Rome, 20,000; Cathedral, Pisa, 13,000; St. Stephen's, Vienna, 12,400; St. Dominic's, Bologna, 12,000; St. Peter's, Bologna, 11,400; Cathedral, Vienna, 11,000; Gil- more's Garden, New York, 8,443; Mormon Temple, Salt Lake City, S,ooo; St. Mark's, Venice, 7,500; Spurgeon's Tabernacle, London, 6,000; Bolshoi Theater, St. Petersburg, 5,000 ; Taber- nacle (Talmage's), Brooklyn, 5,000; Music Hall, Cincinnati, 4,824 ; La Scala, Milan, 3,600. CALENDAR.— I. Jewish, 383 days; the Jewish year 5645 began on September 20, 18S4. 2. Julius Cajsar's, 365 days, B.C. 46, commenced in March. 3. Mahometan, 355 days, A.D. 622 ; the Mahometan year 1301 began February 19, 1884. 4. Charles IX., A.D. 1564, commenced January i. 5. Pope Gregory XIII., A.D. 1582; now used except in Russia. 6. The Russian year begins on January 13 of our calendar. The Gregorian calendar was adopted in England in 1752, before which date the year began on March 25, wliich would now be April 5. The festival of Easter, commemorating tlic resurrection of Christ, used to be observed on the 14th day of the moon, i. e., near the full moon — the same as the Jewish Passover. But the Council of Nice, A.D. 325, ordered Easter to be celebrated on the Sunday next succeeding the full moon, that conies oner next after the vernal equinox — March 21, thus making Easter and the related feast and fast days movable holidays. CAMELS. — A camel has twice the carrying power of an ox; with an ordinary load of 400 lbs. he can travel 12 or 14 days without water, going 40 miles a day. Camels are fit lo work at 5 years old, but tlieir strength begins to decline at 25, although they live usually till 40. CANALS. — The great canals of the United States and other countries are given below, with length in miles and cost of con- struction : A?e. Oz. Exhaled 16 16 28 ■7 Suez Kgypt... Burgundy 1' r;"ic& . . North Sea Holland Miles. Cost. 92 585,000,000 . 158 11,000,000 14 10,150,000 Bengal India goo 10,000,000 Chesapeake & Ohio Maryland 191 10,000,000 Dt-'Kiware & Hudson N. Y. & Pa io8 9,000,000 Illinois & Michigan Illinois 102 8,600,000 Erie New York 363 9,000,000 Welland Canada 41 7,000,000 Caledonian Scotland 60 5,700,000 Central Division .Pennsylvania 173 5,300,000 Jame?^ R. & Kanawha Virginia 147 5,000,000 Ohio & Erit; , Ohio 307 4,600,000 Miami Ohio 178 3,700,000 Morris & Essex New Jersey loi 3,000,000 Wabash & Erie Indiana 469 3,000,000 The Suez Canal is 26 feet deep, and was 13 years in con- struction. Steamers go through in 40 hours, of which 17 steam- ing, and the tolls average $4,300 per vessel. The saving to comiherce by reason of this canal, after deducting fees paid, is estimated at over §10,000,000 yearly. The British Government owns one-fifth of the shares. The canal shortens the distance between England and the East by one-third. The estimated cost of the Panama Canal is 3130,000,000. The length will be 46 miles, including a tunnel 4 miles in length, TOO feet wide and 160 feet high. When completed this canal will save about 10,000 miles of voyage between Europe and the Pacific. CARBONIC ACID.— The quantity exhaled in 24 hours : Age. Oz. Exhaled. Girl 10 9 Boy Boy 10 10 Man , Woman ig 12 The quantity varies according to exertion, namely : Sleeping, 0.6 oz. per hour; walking 2 miles per hour, 2.1 ; walking 3 miles per hour, 3.0; riding, 4.0; swimming, 4.4; treadmill, 5-5- CATTLE. — See diagram. CARRIER-PIGEONS. — In 1S77 the newspaper NationaU of Paris had ten })igeons which carried dispatches daily between Versailles and Paris in fifteen to twenty minutes. In Novem- ber, 1SS2, some pigeons, in face of a strong wind, made the distance of 160 miles, from Canton Vaud to Paris, in 6'/< hours, or 25 miles per Iiour. CHARCOAL. — To make a ton will require wood as follows: Oak, 4.4 tons; chestnut, 4.5 ; beech, 5.1 ; elm, 5.2; birch, 5.9; pine, 6.0. For heating power 12 lbs. charcoal are equal to 10 lbs. coal or 13 lbs. coke. CHECKS. — The checks paid in New York and London in one month aggregate ;? 6, 3 5 0,000, 000, which is greatly in excess of the value of all the gold and silver coin in existence. CHEMISTRY. — Below are given the common names of vari- ous chemical substances: Aqua Fortis Nitric Acid. Aqua Regia Nitro-Muriatic Acid. Blue Vitriol Sulphate of Copper. Cream of Tartar Bitartrate Potassium. Calomel Chloride of Mercury. Chalk Carbonate Calcium. Salt of Tartar Carbonate of Potassa. Caustic Polassa Hydrate Potassium. Cliloroform Chloride of Gormyle. Common Salt Chloride of Sodium. Copperas, or Green Vitriol Sulphate of Iron. Corrosive Sublimate Bi -Chloride of Mercury. Diamond Pure Carbon. Dry Alum Sulphate Alluminum and PVstassium. Epsom Salts Siiiphatc of Magnesia, Eihiops Mineral Black Sulphide of Mercury. Galena Sulphide of Lead. Glauber's-Salt Sulphate of Sodium. Gluco-ic Grape Sugar. Iron Pyrites Bi-Sulphide Iron. Jeweler's Putty Oxide of Tin. ^r DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 553 -7\ King's Yellow Sulphide of Arsenic. Laughing-Gas Protoxide of Nitrogen. Lime Oxide of Calcium. Lunar C^iusiic Nitrate of Silver. Muriate of Lime Chloride of Calcium. Niter of Saltpeter Nitrate of Potash. Oil of Vitriol Sulphuric Acid. Potash Oxide of Potassium. Realgar Sulphide of Arsenic. Red Lead Oxide of Lead. Rust of Iron Oxide of Iron. S.iImoniac Muriate of Ammonia. Slacked Lime Hydnte Calcium. Soda Oxide of Sodium. Spirits nf Hartshorn .*\mmonia. Spirit of Sail Hydro-Chloric or Muriatic Acid. Stucco, or Plaster of Paris Sulphate ol Lime. Sugar of Lead Acetate of Lead. Verdigris Bas.ic Acetate of Copper. Vermilion Sulphide of Mercury, Vinegar Aceiic Acid (Diluted). Volatile Alkali Ammonia. Water. Oxide of Hydrogen. While Precipitate Ammoniaicd Mercurj*. White Vitriol , Sulphate of Zinc. CHILDBIRTH.— The average of deaths in chilcll)irth for 20 years it! England and Wales has been 32 per 10,000 births — \yi per cent of all mothers, since the average mother has five children. CHOLERA. — In the visitation of 1866, the proportion of deaths j)er io,cx>o inhabitants in the principal cities of Europe was as follows: I^ndon, 18; Dublin, 41 ; Vienna, 51; Mar- seilles, 64; Paris, 66; Berlin, S3; Naples, 89; St. Petersburg, 98; Madrid, 102; Brussels, 184; Palermo, 197; Constantino- ple, 73S. CHRISTIANITY.— See diagram Distribution of Christians. CLIMATE. — The mean annual temperature at a given point in each of the forty-nine States and Territories, and also in Alaska, is shown in the following table : Place of Observation. Mean annual temper- ature. Placu of Observation. Mean annual temper- ature. Mobile, Ala 66° 55'' '^ 53° 55^ 6q° 58° 52° 50° 51° fxP •19" 5' 56° 69' '■''I 54'' 48° ^r 42° Jackson. Miss 64° Sitka Alaska 55° 49° 50° 46° 53° Little Rock, Ark San Francisco, Cal Cp Wmfield Scolt.Nev.. Concord, N. H I'rcnton, N. J Sania Fc, N. M Albany, N. V Kort R.indatl, Dak Washington. D. C Raleigh, N.C < 53° 53° 54° 48° Atlanta, Ga Portland, Ore Springfield, III Providence, R. I Columbia, S. C 58° 67° 52° 57° 5'. 52° 45° 41° Salt Lake City, Utah Montpclicr Vt Stcilacoom W T Romney. W. V Boston, Mass COAL. — Sec diagram Annual Production of Coal. COFFEE. — T\ac production in 1 880 was: Brazil, 333,000 tons; Java, 90,000; Ceylon, 53,000; West Indies, 42,000; Africa,- 36,000 ; Manilla, etc., 35,000. Total, 589,000 tons. The average annual consumption is as follows: United States, 165,000 tons; Germany, lio.cxjo; Brazil, 62,000; France, 55,(X)0; Belgium and Holland, 50,000; .Vustri.a, 40,000; British Colonies, 38,000; Russia, 20,000; United Kingdom, 15,000; Italy, 14,000. The cofl'ee fields of Brazil cover 2,000,000 acres, with 800,- 000,000 trees — that is, 400 per acre, each tree averaging almost 1 11). [ler annum., the industry employing 800,000 hands. COMMERCE.— The following table, prepared at the Bureau of .Statistics, Washington, exhibits the steady increase-of the trade of the United States during the past twenty years. Nearly the whole amount of merchandi.sc exported is of home growth or manufacture, that of foreign origin exported in l88l not exceed- ing two per cent of the whole amount. It is noticeable that for the first fourteen years the imports exceeded the exports, but that during the past six years the balance of trade has been in favor of the country. These figures represent the specie values of merchandise only : Year. Exports. Imports. Total. 186 $219,553,833 528<),3Jo,54J »5o8.864.375 1 86 J 190,670,501 189,356,677 380,027,178 ■ S63 203,964.447 243,335,815 447,300,262 1864 158,837,988 316,447,283 475,285,271 1S65 166,029,303 238,745,580 404,774,883 1866 348,859,522 434,8i2,^«6 783,671,588 1867 294,506,141 395,761,096 690,267,237 1868 281,952,899 357.436.440 639.389.339 1869 286,117,697 417.506,379 703,624,076 1870 392,771,768 435,958,408 828.730,176 1871 442,820,178 520,223,684 963,043,862 1872 444,177,586 626,595,077 1,070,772,663 1873 522,476,922 642,136,210 1,164.616,132 1874 586,283,040 567,406,342 1,153,689,382 "875 513.442,711 533.005,436 1.046,448,147 1876 540,384,671 460,741,190 1,001,125,861 1877 602,475.220 451,323,126 1,053,798,346 1878 694,865,766 437.051,532 1,131,917,298 1879 7>o,439-44i 445.777.775 1,156,217,216 1880 835,638,658 667,954,746 1.503,593,404 1881 902,377,346 642,664,628 1,545,041,974 18S2 750,542,257 724,639.574 1.475.181,831 1883 823,839,402 723,180,914 1,547,020,316 1884 740,513,609 667,697,693 1,408,211,302 See also diagram Commercial Balance-Sheet. CONSUMPTION.— Of the total number of deaths the percent- age traceable to cunsumption in the several States and Territories isas follows; ^Vlabama, 9.6;- Arizona, 6.1 ; Arkansas, 6.4; Call fornia, 15.6; Colorado, 8.2 ; Connecticut, 1 5.1 ; Dakota, 8.S; Delaware, 16.1 ; District of Columbia, 18.9; Florida, 8.3; Georgia, 7.9; Idaho, 6.8; Illinois, 10.3; Indiana, 12.6; Iowa, 9.9 j Kansas, 7.3; Kentucky, 15.7 ; Louisiana, 10.4; Maine, 19.2; Maryland, 14.0; Massachusetts, 15.7 ; Michigan, 13.2 ; Minnesota, 9.3 ; Mississippi, 8.8 ; Missouri, 9.8 ; Montana, 5.6; Ncbr.'iska, 8.8 ; Nevada, 6.3 ; New H.^mp.shire, 5.6 ; New Jersey, 89 ; New Mexico, 2.4 ; New York, 8. 1 ; North Caro- lina, 9.5; Ohio, 13.8; Oregon, 12. i ; Pennsylvania, 12.6; Rhode Island, 14.6; South Carolina, 9.8; Tennessee, 14.5; Texas, 6.5; Utah, 2.8; Vermont, i6.f; Virginia, 12.2; W.ash- ington, 13.2; West Virgini.i, 13.0; Wisconsin," 10.4; Wyoming, 2.6. Average, 12 o. COPYING. — Seventy-two words make i folio, or sheet of common l.iw ; 9 words, I folio, in chancer.'. COTTON. — The area under cotton in the United .states is in- creasing xery rapitlly : Vear. Acres. Crop, Million lbs, 1881 , 13,613,000 3,i6x 1882 16,590,000 3,550 1883 17,452,000 3,880 See diagram World's Yearly Production of Cotton and To- bacco. -^ [V ->^THE RELieiONS OF THE WORLD.-^- (FROM THE VERY LATEST ESTIMATES.) PARSEES, 1,000,000 h JEWS, 7,700,000 BRAHMINICAL HINDOOS, 120,000,000 Mohammedans, 122,400,000 BUDDHISTS, 482,600,000 CHRISTIANS, 388,350,000 PAGANS, 227,000,000 CHRISTIANS. Koman Catholic, 202,368,000 Protestant, 108,630,000 Greek, 70,482,000 / Bastern, {JMS^ 6,770,000 kL Designed an<* "ingraved expressly fo' "■'.ah'* Popular Educator. 554 r^ •^LISTEIBUTION*=- CHRISTIANS "7T Throughout the World. Outer Ring— Roman Catholics. 2d " —Protestants. 3d " — Greek Christians. Centre — Eastern Christians. a. Africa Rom.Cath. 1,106,200, Prot., 719,000. b. Australia and Polynesia. Rom, Calh.. 434,000. Prot,, 1,000,000 c. Archipelago, Arabia and Persia. Rom. Call)., 1.000,000. Prot., 89,000, d. India, Ceylon. Rom. Calh., 1,600,000, Prot., 300,000, e, Switzerland. Rom. Cath., 1,084.400. Prot., 1,558,000, China and Japan. Rom. Cath., 800,000, g. Luxemburg Rom. Cath., 204,000, VL- Designntl and tngraund txcrss/j /or Pealu'a Popular Cducator. X 03D 556 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES ^ ^ CREMATION. — A body weighing 140 lbs. produces 3 lbs. ashes; time for burning, 55 minutes. CRISES. — The most remarkable since the beginning of the present centurj- have been as follows : 1S14. England, 240 banks suspended. 1825. Manchester, failures 2 millions. 1831. Calcutta, failures 15 millions, 1837. United States, " Wild-cat " crisis ; all banks closed. 1S39. Bank of England saved by Bank of France. Severe also in France, where 93 companies failed for 6 millions. 1844. England. State loans to merchants. Bank of England reformed. 1847. England, failures 20 millions ; discount 13 per cent. 1857. United States, 7,200 houses failed for iii millions. i8C)6. London, Overend-Gurney crisis ; failures exceeded 100 millions. 1869. Black Friday in New York (Wall street), Septembe r 24. CURRENCY.— The Director of the Mint estimates the gold and silver currency of the United States: June 30, 1879 — Gold, $286,490,698 ; silver, 5112,050,985. Nov. I, 1879 — Gold, §355,681,532; silver, $126,009,537. Nov. I, 18S0 — Gold, §444,012,030; silver, $158,271,327. Nov. I, 1881 — Gold, §469,000,000; silver, §181,000,000. Oct. I, 1882 — Gold, $563,631,456; silver, $209,953,335. Oct. 1, 1883 — Gold, ^606,196,515 : silver, §240,399,234. Oct. I, 1884 — Gold, §610,500,000; silver, §262,000.000. Paper Money in the United States. The following table, from the report of the Comptroller of the Currency, sliows, by denominations, the amount of national bank and legal tender notes outstanding on October 31, 1884: National Legal Ten- Denominations. Bank Notes. der Notes. Aggregate. Ones $ 495,741 §26,763,098 §27,258,839 Twos 288,468 26,778,738 27,067,206 Fives 85,309,155 78,054,050 163,363,205 Tens 111,319.950 69,171,936 180,491,886 Twenties 79,206,580 56,070,509 135,277,089 Fifties i2, 221, 850 22,395,195 44,617,045 One-hundreds 3", 520, 700 33,649,990 66,170,690 Five-hundreds ?77,5oo 15,186,000 16,063,500 One-thousands 213,000 19,446,500 ' 19,659,500 Five-thousands 105,000 105,000 Ten-thousands 60,000 60,000 Add for unredeemed fragments of national banknotes 20,749 20,749 Deduct for legal tender notes destroyed in Chicago fire — i ,000,000 — i ,000,000 Totals §332,473,693 §346,681,016 §679,154,709 Aggregate Issues of Paper Money in 'War Times. The following table exhibits the amount /^r capita issued of the Continental money, the French assignats, the Confederate currency, and the legal-tender greenbacks and national bank notes of the United States : Amount Issued. Per head. Continental money § 359,546,825 §119 84 French assignats 9,115,600,000 343 98 Confederate currency 654,465,963 71 89 Highest amount in circulation, Jan. '66. Greenbacks and national bank notes 750,820,228 23 87 CUSTOMS.— See diagram. Receipts and Expenditure: U. S. Go'^'crnmcnt. DEBT. — See diagram. Public Debts. DEAF-MUTES.— The returns for the Umted States from the census of iSSo show the number of deaf-mutes to be 33,880, or 678 per million of population. The ratio of sex is 56 males to 44 females. DEATH. — A man will die from want of air in five minutes, for want of sleep, in ten days; for want of water, in a week; for want of food, at varying intervals, dependent on various circum- stances. See Fasting. According to Prof. Conrad, the proportion of deaths to classes is as given below . ' " " " Working. Stillborn 0- I year . . 1- 5 years . 5-'5 " ■ 15-20 " 20-30 3'>-6o Affluent. 28 118 95 48 35 86 247 Middle. 53 240 192 49 24 63 204 J 75 53 206 220 S8 21 64 222 .56 Over 60 years 343 Total 1 ,coo 1 ,000 1 ,000 DIAMONDS. — The six largest weigh, respectively, as follows : Kohinoor, 103 carats; Star of Brazil, 125 carats; Regent of France, 136 carats; Austrian Kaiser, 139 carats: Russian Cznr, 193 carats ; Rajah of Borneo, 367 carats. The value of the above is not regulated by size, nor easy to estimate, but none of them is worth less than $500,000. DIGESTION. — The time required for digesting various kinds of food is : Hours. Rice I Eggs, raw i Apples I Trout, boiled 1 Venison, broiled i Sago, boiled i Milk " 2 Bread, stale 2 Milk, raw 2 Tvirkey, boiled 2 Goose, roast 2 Lamb, broiled 2 Potatoes, baked 2 Beans, boiled 2 Parsnips, boiled 2 Oysters, raw 2 Eggs, boiled 3 Min. o 30 30 30 35 45 15 25 30 30 30 30 30 55 Mutton, boiled . Beef, roast . . . . Bread, fresh. .. . Carrots, boiled . Turnip-i, " Potatoes- Hours. 3 3 3 3 3 3 Butter 3 Cheese 3 Oysters, stewed 3 Eggs, hard 3 Pork, boiled 3 Fowl, roast 4 Beef, fried 4 Cabbage 4 Wild fowl 4 Pork, roast 5 Veal, roast 5 Min. 15 15 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 15 DISEASES. — The following table shows the number of deaths in the States, from the returns for 1S80. It is supposed, how- ever, that 15 per cent of all deaths escaped the notice of enumer- ators, and that the real death-rate was 17.8 per 1,000, instead of 15.1, as given : Cause of Death. Number. Whooping-cough 11 ,202 Scarlet fever 16,416 Typhoid fever 22,905 Digestive diseases 34,094 Diphtheria 381398 Diarrhcca 65,565 Nervous diseases 83,670 Consumption 9t>55i Respiratory affections 107,904 Various 285,188 Total 756,893 i5)t38 100.0 DRUNKENNESS.— Mulhall estimates the number of years of intemperance required to produce death as follows : Liquor. Per Million Inhabitants. Ratio 224 1-5 328 2.1 458 3-1 682 4-5 768 51 1,311 «.7 1.674 11. I 1,831 12.2 2,158 14.4 5,704 37.3 Beer. Spirits 17 Mi.\ed 16 Class. ' Women 14 Gentlemen 15 Working class. .... iS This shows that the working class can stand drink longest, and that beer is the least deadly form of intemperance. The value of life, drunk and sober, as to expectancy of yeai's, is given thus : Age Drunk. Sober. 20 15 44 3" '4 36 40 II 29 The number of cases of insanity traceable to drink is shown by the proportion of dipsomaniacs to all insane, as follows : Italy, 12 per cent; France, 21 per cent; United States, 26 per cent ; Scotland, 28 per cent. ^ DICTIONARY OF FACl'S AND FIGURES. 557 DWARFS.— The more notable human mites are named be- low : Height. D.1IC of Place of Name. (Inches.) Birth. Birth. Count BorowI.-iski • 39 1739 Warsaw. TomThumb (Ctui^. S. Mraiion) 31 1837 New York. Mrs. Tom Thumb 3a 1842 " Chti-Mah 25 1S38 China. I^uci.i Zaratc .... 20 1863 Mexico. General Miic 21 1864 New York. EDUCATION. — See diagram Educational Statistics. The progre-s of education since iS3ois shown in the following table, showing the ratio of adults able to write : 1830. 1850. 1881. United States 80 84 90 England 55 64 84 Scotland. 77 83 88 Ireland 46 55 67 France 42 57 78 Germany '. 8t 86 94 Russia I 2 II Austria 28 34 49 Italy 16 28 41 Spain and Portugal o 18 34 Switzerland 78 80 88 Belgium and Holland 41 6z 86 Scandinavia 80 82 87 See uIno tliagram Eifncatiouai Statistics. ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS— The average above sea level is: Europe, 670 feet ; Asia, 1,140 feet; North America, 1,150 feet ; South America, l,loo feet. EVICTIONS. — The total number of famihes evicted in Ire- land for }^-iy years is 482,000, as below : Net Years. Evicted. Re-admitted. Evictions. 1849-51 263,000 73,000 190.000 1852-60. 110,000 28,000 82,000 1861-70 47,000 8,000 39,coo 1871-S0 41,000 6,000 35»ooo i88i-52 21,000 4,000 17,000 Total f 482,000 119,000 363,000 The number of persons actually evicted was over two millions (say 70,000 per annum), about 35 per cent of the population. EXHIBITIONS.— Area Visitors D.iys Date. I'l.icc. (Acres). (Millions). Open. Receipts. 1851 — London =i 6.2 141 $2,120,000 1855 — Pari-i 24 4.5 200 640,000 1862 — London 23 6.2 171 2,040,000 1867 — Paris 37 9.3 217 2,100,000 1873 — Vienna 48 7.3 186 2,030,000 1876 — Philadelphia 55 10.2 ... 1878 — Paris 60 16.1 194 4,870,000 1885 — New Orleans 200 .... ... The main building of the New Orleans Exposition (1S84-5) is the largest ever erected, being i ,378 feet long by 905 feet wide. The building devoted to the United States and .State ex- hibits has a length of 885 feet and a width of 565, while Horti- cultural Hall is 600 feet long and 194 wide through its center. EXPENDITURES U. S. Government.— See diagram. FAIRS. — That of Xijni-Xovgorod is the greatest in the world, the value of goods sold being as follows: 1841, $35,000,000; 1857, $60,000,000; 1876, $140,000,000; th2 attendance in the last named year including 150,000 merchants from all parts of the world. In that of Lcipsic the annual average of sales is $20,oco,ooo, comprising 20,000 tons of merchandise, of which two-fifths is liooks. FAMILIES. — Number of families in the United .States (census of 1880), 9,945,916 ; average number to a square mile, 3.43. Number of dwellings, 8,955,842 ; average to the square mile, 3.02. Number of acres to a family, 186.62. Number of per- sons to a lamily, 5.04. Number of persons to a dwelling, 5.60- ilh century, France, 10; FAMINES. — Walford mentions 160 since the namely: England, 57 ; Ireland, 34; Scotland, 12 Germany, 1 1 ; Italy, etc., 36. The worst in modern times have been : Country. D.ate. No of Victims France . Ireland . India . . 1770 1847 1866 48,000 1,029,000 Deaths from hunger and want were recorded as follows in 1S79, according to Mulhall: Ireland, 3,789; England, 312; London, loi ; France, 260. The proportion per 1,000 deaths w.-is, respectively, 37.6, 0.6, 1.2, 0.3 FASTING. — In 1684, four men were taken alive out of a mine in England, after 24 days without food. In 1880, Dr. Tanner, in New York, lived on water for 40 days, losing 36 lbs. in weight. FARMS.— Number of farms in the United States in 1880, 4,008,907; in 1870, 2,659,985; in i860, 2,044,077; in 1850, 1,449,073. FLAX. — The average annual production is as follows : Rus- sia, 270,000 tons; Austria, 53,000; Germany, 48,000; Belgium and Holland, 38,000; France, 37,000; United Kingdom, 25,- 000; Italy, 23,000; United States, 12,000; Scandinavia, 4,000 — total, 510,000 tons. FOOD. — The yearly consumption of necessaries, in pounds, per inhabitant : Sugar. United Slates , United Kingdom Fnance Germany Russia Austria : Il.ily Spain Belgium and Holland. Denmark Sweden and Norway . Average Grain, Meat. Butter. 392 120 16 330 105 ■3 505 74 4 585 69 8 490 48 3 410 64 5 420 23 t 390 49 445 69 6 475 70 "5 340 65 9 445 70 7 ?i 7 14 7 Luxuries are consumed as follows, per inhabitant : United States United Kingdom .. . . . France Germany Russia AlLstria Italy Spain , ■ Belgium and Holland Denmark Sweden and Norway . Average Ounces. Coffee, 83 3 35 18 4 ■ 75 76 Tea, Tobacco, 59 23 29 2'6 80 23 32 84 61 29 41 Gallons, Wine, 0.60 0.44 20. 12 2.70 0.38 7.50 17.60 «3-5o 0.80 0.30 0.20 Beer. 7.20 28.60 5.10 19.40 0,80 6.50 0.70 o.io 22. 20 13.60 5.40 g.6o Spirits. 1.50 1.05 0.90 '•33 2.30 0.80 0.30 0.20 2.60 4.30 4.20 I 10 i^ -^l \ Komparative Sbowing of Religions in the United States, / u United Evangelical, 144,000 Meth. Epis., Colored, 74,195 Anti-Mission Baptists, 40,n00 Mormon, 110,379 Free "Will Baptists, 76,7C0 Church of God, 20,224 [l TTnitarian Congregational, 17,960 ^Moravian, 16,112 n Free Methodists, 12,120 n Keformed Episcopal, 10,459 a Ref'd Presbyterian, 6,020 PEO. EPISOOPALi a^ 8 23,876 3 CONGEEGATIONAL 383,685 Cumberland Presbyterians, Friends, 67,643 PEESBYTERIAN, 573.377 111,855 United Brethren in Christ, \l55,437 □ Primitive Methodists, 3,370 D Ne'w Mennonites, 2,990 n American Communities, 2,830 United Presbyterians 80,236 Second Adventists, 63,500 Universalists, 37,945 ■Wesleyan Methodists, 17,847 Q 7th Day Adventists, 14,733 J Adventists, 11,100 [] ~^ 7th Day Baptists, 8,606 Q CHRISTIAN, j New Jerusalem, 4,734 | , 567,443 \ LUTHERAN, 684,570 METHODIST EPISCOPAL SOUTH, 828,013 99,607 90.000 [ Evangelical Association. Dunkards. 1 RA TAO / Reformed Church in 104, /4>.irdof Trade 330 St. Patrick's, Dublin 336 Calhednd, Glxsgow 335 Bunker Hill Monument 330 Notre Dame, Montreal 230 Cathedral, Lima 330 " Rheims 230 '* Garden City, L. I. 2i() Sis. Peter and Paul, Phila... Washington, Mon., B.allo ... Vendomc " Paris . . . 310 310 'S3 • It is proposed to erect an i.-on tower 1,000 feet high, to be completed in iSSg, for the Paris Exposition. HOLIDAYS. — The legal holitlays in tlic United States are as follows : AV • Yfar'sDay — Jan. i. — In all States and Territories, except Arkan- s.as, Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, M.tine, M.'issachusetts, New Hamp- shire, North Carolina, South Carolina and Rhode Island. Anniversary ofthi: Battle 0/ New Orleans — Jan. 8. — In Louisiana. Lincoln's Birthit.ty — Feb. 12. — In Louisiana. IVashingion' s Birthday—Viih. 22 — In all States and Territories except Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Kansas, Maine, Mis- souri, North Carolina, Ohio, Texas, Oregon and Tennessee. Sitrajte Tuestiay — Alarch I — In Louisiana, .and cities of Mobile, Montgom- ery and Selnia, Ala Anniversary 0/ Texan Independence — March 2 — In Texxs. Firemen s Annri>ersary — March 4 — In Louisiana. Good Fritiity — April 15 — In Florida, Louisiana, Minnesota and Pennsyl- vania. Mentorial Day — April 26 — In Georgia. Battle c/ San yacinto — April 21 — In Texas. Decoration /'nv— May 30 — In Colorado, Maine, Vermont, Connecticut, Michigan, Now Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, New 'Ifork, Penn- sylvania and District of Columbia. Fourth 0/ July~\n all States and Territories. General Klec ion Day — Cn-'nerally on Tuesday after first Monday in November — In California. Maine, Missouri^ New Jersey, New York, Ore- gon. South Carolina and Wisconsin. Thanksffi^'in^^ Day — Usually Inst Thursday in November — and Fast days whenever appointed by the President — arc legal holidays in all States and Territories. Christmas Day — In all the Slates and Territories. HOPS. — -\vera5jc annual crop, in tons: England, 26,000; (leniiany. ig.ooo; United .States, 5, (X)0; France, 4,500. HORSE-POWER. — One horse-power will raise 10 tons per ininiiic a lieiylit of 12 inches, working 8 hours a day. This is about 5,000 foot-tons daily, or 12 times a man's work. The horsL'-power of Niagara is 3 '-4 million noniinnl, eijual to 10 million horses efi'ectivc. ICE. — Good clear ice two inches thick will bear men to walk on; four inches thick will bear horses and riders; six inches thick will bear horses and teams with moderate loads. ILLEGITIMACY. — The percentage of illegitimate births for v.irious countries, as stated by Mulhall, is as follows; Austria, 12.9; Denmark, 11.2; .Sweden, 10.2; Scotland, 8.9; Norway, 8.05; Germany, 8.04; France, 7.02; Belgiuin, 7.0; Uniteil States, 7.0; Italy, 6.8; Spain and Portugal, 5.5; Canada, 5.0 ; Switzerland, 4.6; Holland, 3.5; Russia, 3.1; Ireland, 2.3; Greece, 1.6. ILLITERACY.— See Education. IMMIGRATION. — The arrivals in the United States since 1820 are as follows in even thousands: 1820-30 143,000 I i87i-«o 2,731,000 1831-40 609,000 1881 o^x>- SHIPPING. Showing carrj'ing power in millions of tons. if / r 20,4 1 \ 8.9 % \ 2.1 <. lAL NAk NAtd x4^ \i^ ^-^ >U: N'""c5ij|i iMli.iu b|ijiii,li S»cJj5li KusM.in Dutch STEAM POWER. In millions horsepower. (Including stationary and locomotive engines.) 7.1J ©0j6 0.5 0.5 © © ® ^ "■'■ ■' I I. ■ III i;^ nil, my France Russia Austria Del^iiiini Tialy Sp.iin AGRICULTURE. Annual value of agricultural and pastoral products in millions of dollars. '(^(3 t««o L". SmIcs Ku^iia Germany France CATTLE. Showing the number in millions. 380 290 O O Austria U. Kingdom luly Spain Australia Canada Germany 18, France United Kiniido; It.ily ARMY AND NAVY EXPENDITURE. Showing the cost per inhabitant per annum. $4,25 I ^^00 ) I $3,2:/" ^ I t2,60 ) • Ij.^ZjsJ ' Germany I •$2.00 ) t $^'°0 ) Ql£5^ t $1,76 > a, $a.76 > t $1.60 > $1,00 Inly Portugal U. States Deaigned and Engraved expressly for Pgate'a Popular Educator. 563 \ 564 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. ^ "^ Age. 5- INTERNAL REVENUE.— See diagram, page 546. IRON. — See diagram Pi^ Iroi!, page 570. LABOR. — Dr. Farr estimates the value of an agricultural laborer to the commonwealth as follows ; Age. Value. Age. Value. 30 i5i.2oS 55 $69° 35 1,140 60 485 40 1,060 65 230 45 965 70 <= 50 840 At the age of 75 he is a loss of $125, and the loss rises to $205 at 80. This is only true of agricultural laborers, since in- tellectual workers are often of much value after 70 years of age, which balances the account. LAKES. — The length and width of the principal lakes of the world, in miles, is as follows: Value. $280 585 15 960 20 1,170 25 1,230 Length. Width. Superior 380 120 Baikal 360 Michigan 33° Great Sl.ive 300 Huron 250 Winnipeg 240. Erie 270 Athabasca 200 Ontario 180. Maracaybo 150 e.1 Length. Width, Great Bear 150 40 Ladoga ■ 125 75 Champlain 123 12 Nicaragua i2„ 40 Lake of the Woods .. . 70 25 Geneva 50 10 Constance 45 10 Cayuga 36 4 George 36 3 LAND GRANTS.— From the year iSootill iSSi, the United States Government ceded 192,000,000 acres of public lands to railways, 77,000,000 to schools, 62,000,000 to military, and 30,000,000 for other purposes, besides 248,000 acres in sales to settlers, this last item including 67,000,000 granted in homestead lots. LANGUAGES. — The English language is spoken by 100,- 000,000 people; French, 48,000,000; German, 69,000,000; Italian, 30,000,000; Spanish, 4 1 ,000,000 ; Portuguese, 13,000,- 000 ; Russian, 67,000,000. LEPROSY. — There were 2,180 lepers in Norway in 18S3, according to Mulhall. The numbers in Spain and Italy are considerable. In the Sandwich Islands the disease is so preva- lent tliat the island of Molokai is set apart for lepers, who are under the direction of a French Jesuit priest. In the Seychelles Islands leprosy is also coinmon. LIFE. — American life-average for professions (Boston) : Store- keepers, 41.8 years ; teamsters, 43.6 years>; laborers, 44.6 years ; seamen, 46.1 years; mechanics, 47.3 years; merchants, 48.4 years; lawyers, 52.6 years; farmers, 64.2 years. Sei Expcct- ancv Table. LONGEVITY. — The average of human life is 33 years. One child out of every four dies before the age of 7 years, and only one-half of the world's population reach the age of 17. One out of io,ooo reaches 100 years. The average number of births per day is about 120,000, exceeding the deaths by about 1 5 iier minute. There have been many alleged cases of longevity in all ages, but only a few are authentic. MARRIAGE. — A woman's chances of marriage at various ages. — This curiously constructed exhibit by Mr. Finlayson, a European statistician, is drawn up from the registered cases of 1,000 married women, taken without selection. Of the 1,000 tabulateil there were married : Marriages. lOI 219 230 165 60 ars of Age. Marriages. 14 to 15 41 i6"i7 18 18 " 19 15 26 " 27 Years of Age. 28 to 29 30 " 31 32 " 33 34 " 35 36 " 37 38 " 39 METALS. — Few people have any idea of the value of pre- cious metals other than gold, silver and copper, which are com- monly supposed to be the most precious of all. There are many metals more valuable and infinitely rarer. The following table gives the names and prices of all the known metals of pecuniary worth : Price per Av. pound. Vanadium ^10,000 00 Rubidium 9.070 00 Zirconium 7,200 oc Lithium 7,00000 Glucium 5*400 90 Calcium 4.500 00 Strontium , . 4,200 05 Terbium 4,080 00 Vitrium 4,080 00 Erbium 3,400 00 Cerium 3i4oo 00 Didymium 3,200 00 Indium 3,200 00 Ruthenium 2,400 00 Rhodium 2,300 00 Niobium 2,300 00 Barium 1,800 00 Palladium 1,400 00 0--inium 1,300 00 Indium i,ogo 00 Uranium 900 00 Titanium 689 00 Chromium 500 00 Gold Molybdenum . Thallium Platinum Manganese . . . Tungstein . . . , Magnesium. . . Potassium . . , Aluminum. . . , Silver Cobalt Sodium Nickel .. .. Cadmium Bismuth Mercury Arsenic Tin , Copper , Antimony . . ., Zinc Lead Price per Av. pound. 330 00 225 00 225 00 1 50 00 130 00 115 00 64 00 64 00 32 00 20 00 16 00 8 00 5 00 4 00 2 50 95 50 25 16 II o3 As Conductors. Gold Platinum Silver . . . . Copper. . . Heat. Electricity. 97 90 94 16 74 100 Iron . Zinc . Tin . . Lead Heat 37 36 30 18 Electricity. 16 29 15 Tenacity. A wire, 0.S4 of a line in diameter, will sustain weights as follows : Lead 28 lbs. Tin 3S " Zinc 110 " Gold 150 " Silver iS7lbs, Platinum 274 " Copper 302 ' ' Iron 549 " Fluid Density. Zinc , Iron . Tin . , , 6 48 I Copper 8.22 , 6.88 Silver g.51 7-03 I Lead 10.37 MILITARY AND NAVAL STRENGTH.— See diagram, page 336. MILK. — The component parts of milk are as follows : Woman . Cow . . . . .^55 Goat Ewe . . . . Water. Fat. Caseinc. Sugar. Total. ^ii 2-5 4.0 3-4 4.8 2.8 loo.o loo.o 85.6 I.I 3-3 4-2 1.9 4.0 4-5 6.1 5.9 5 7 lOO.O lOO.O lOO.O MONEY. — The amount of money in circulation in the princi- pal nations of the world is as follows, p.-iper money being in- cluded as well as gold and silver: France, ^2, 005, 000,000 ; United States, $1,510,000,000; India, §960,000,000; United Kingdom, $925,000,000; Russia, $760,000,000; Germany, $750,000,000; Italy, $525,000,000 ; South America, $465 ,000,- 000; Austria, $+10,000,000; Spain, $265,000,000; Japan, $255,000,000; Belgium, $210,000,000; Holland, $165,000,- CXX3; Australia, $95,000,000. The amount of coin in circula- \ "71 DICTIONARV 111 FACTS ANU FIGURES. 565 Hon, exclusive of copper, is as follows : France, $1,505,000,000 ; Inilia, $900,000,000; United Slates, $785,000,000; United Kinijdom, $715,000,000; Germany, $540,000,000; Italy, $225,000,000; Spain, $io5,ooo,ooo ; Russia, $170,000,000; Belgium, $145,000,000; South America, $140,000,000; Japan, $125,000,000; Austria, S I oo.ooo.ooo ; Holland, $85,000,000; Australia, $70,000,000. MOUNTAINS. — Highest and most noted mountains on the globe. — XoKiH .\MERICA. — Norlltern Coast Mis.: Ml. .St. Elias, 19,283 ft. Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range: Mt. Whitney, 14,887; Mt. Rainier, 14,444; Mt. Shasta, 14,440; Ml. Tyndall, 14,386; Mt. Dana, 13,277; Mt. Hood, 11,225. Rocky Mountains : Uncompihgre Peak, 14,540 ; Mt. Har- vard, 14,384; Gr.iy's Peak, 14,341; Mt. Lincoln, 14,297; Long's Peak, 14,271 ; Pike's Peak, 14,149. Mexican Plateau: Ori/.aha, 17,897; Popocatepetl, 17,784; Iztacciliuatl, 15,700. Central America. — .\gu.a, 14,494; Fue;.;o, 12.790. .South America. — Andes: lUampu, 24,812 ; Illimani, 24,155 ; Acon- cigua, 23,421; Tupaugati, 22,015; Chimborazo, 21,424; Nevada de Sorata, 21,290; Nevada de Cayambe, 19,535; Anlisiiia, 19,137; Catopaxi, 18,870; Tunguaragua, 16,424, Pichinclia, 15,924. Europe. — Elburi (.\siatic boundaryl, 18.573; Blanc (.Mps), 15,784; Rosa (.\lps), 15,223; Matter- horn (Alps), 14,039; Finsler-.\arhorn (.Vlps), 14,039 ; Jungfrau (.Vlps), 13,718; Lseran, 13,270,- Mulhacen (Spain), 11,654; Maladetia (Spain), 11,426; Mt. Etna (Sicily), 10,874; Mt. Olympus (Greece), 9,754; St. Bernard (Switzerland), 8,000; Parnassus (the home of the muses, Greece), 6,000 ; Vesuvius (volcano, ne.ir Naples), 3,900. Asia. — Everest (Himalayas, highest in the world), 29,002; Dapsang (Karakorum Mts.), 28,278; Kintchinjunga (Himalayas), 28,156; Dhawalagari (Himalayas), 26,826 ; Nanda Devi (Himalayas), 25,661 ; highest peak of the Hindoo Koosh Mis., 20,000; Ararat (Ar- menia), 17,200; Fusiyama (Japan) 14,177; Ml. Sinai (.Vrabia), 8,200. Africa. — -Killimanjaro (Central Africa), 20,ocx>; Kenia (do.), 18,000; TenerilTe (Canary Islands), 12,182; highest peak of the Atlas Mts., 11,400; highest peak of the Mts. of Abyssinia; 10,000. ISL.\NDS. — Mauna Loa (Sandwich Islands), 14,000; Ophir (Sumatra), 13,842; Owen Stanley (Papua), 13,205; .Semero (Java), 12,000; Egmont (New Zea- land), 8,840; highest peak of the Australian Alps, 7,500; Kilanea (.Sandwich Islands), 6,000 ; Stromboli (volcano in the Mediterrane.m), 3,000. The greatest height attained by Humboldt was 19,510 feet, in the Andes, but Mr. Whymper, in 18S0, ascended Cotopaxi to 19,620 feet, and Chimborazo to 20,545 feet. NAVIES. — See diagram, page 336; also Xavy Department. NAILS. — The size and weight of nails are as follows : Name. Length. 2 penny I inch. 4 " i',i " . 5 '■ iK •■ . 6 " 3 " . 7 " 2'^ " . No- in lb. 557 353 2^2 Name. Length. No. in lb. 10 penny 3)^ inch 68 ■2 " 3 " 54 . 20 " 3'* " 34 167 I Spikes 4 " 16 M' I " ■tM ■■ "^ NAVAL ARMAMENT in 30 years has been : 1854. Gunbo.its built for Crimean war proof. The progress of " iron-clad science " inch pt.itcs, perfectly sbot- 1862 The Merrimac and Monitor in American civil war ; first battle of iron-dads. 1873. English rifle cannon send 200 lbs. shots, 9-tor. gims, through 8-inch plates. 1874. Plates of 10 inches pierced in like m.inner. 1876. Armstrong 100-ton gims broke 22-inch Creusol steel plates. 1879. Shot from 9-inch gun, 75 lbs. powder, unable to pierce a t2-incli plate of iron and steel alternate layers. iSSo. Result of Krupp's experiments : — Pcnetra- Foot Gun Inch. Shot. Lbs. tion. Tons. Knipp 9;-^ 348 18. 1 8,630 British itj^ 8i2 17.9 12,260 Krupp's shot penetrated 18-inch plates, the British did not. 18S3. Italian iron-clad " Lepanto " has plates 36 inches thick. NICOTINE. — According to Orfila, the proportion of nicotine in Hav.tna tobacco is 2 per cent; in French, 6 p.r cent, and in Virginia tobacco, 7 per cent. Th.it in Brazilian is still higher. NEWSPAPERS.— The population of the world, the number of newspapers in each continent in 1885, and the number of copies per annum in proportion to each inhabitant, are shown below : No. of pub- Per Population. lications. head. Europe 3<» .356,369 19.557 =4-38 North America 7*.'J33.776 14.802 36.66 Asia 1.0^^7,128,657 775 0.01 South America 29,988,509 699 3.92 Australasia 3.670.85° o*' 30-63 Africa 205,, .£ >, ■ft. CJ30 E S ° B. s = rt " rt > 3 > < h < .iJ4 8 24 ji 50 i 9° 10^ 7 24 1 50 90 10 7 24 1 50 90 10 l\i 24 1 50 90 11 9 24 1 50 90 11 8 24 1 50 90 3'.« 3 12 1 00 75 6H 5 18 1 25 90 5 4 12 1 25 90 7'/2 s 12 1 00 75 4 3 12 80 75 7'/ 5 20 1 25 I 00 4!4 3-^ 12 75 75 4'/<; l!4 12 75 75 4^2 % 12 75 75 4i< 12 75 75 8}4 by- 18 1 50 90 SH 3!4 14 1 00 75 7 6 18 1 00 80 3 3 6 75 I 00 7 6 18 1 00 1 00 6 sM 15 90 I 00 6 ■;W 18 1 10 I 00 Z^ 6« 24 1 10 I 00 8 7 12 I 25 1 50 20 18 24 1 75 2 00 7 6 12 1 00 I 50 18 15 3? I 75 2 00 22 20 36 2 00 2 00 12 10 12 I 20 1 50 15 12 18 1 75 I 75 24 15 36 2 00 2 00 15 12 24 1 75 I 50 22 14 30 I 75 I 75 Jl 50 I 50 1 70 1 20 1 40- 1 so 1 60 1 20 1 70 1 7° I 80 1 70 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 GO I 75 1 70 1 70 90 80 1 00 30 40 20 40 50 50 50 50 A Comparison. The annual supply of eggs in the United States is estimated at over 500,000,000 dozen, and, at the low price of sixteen cents per dozen, represents a value of over $80,000,000 — twice the value of the product of our silver mines. PRECIOUS METALS.— See diagram, page 567. PULSE. — fhe number of pulsations per miniUe is 120 in infancy. So in manhood, 60 in old age, ami rather more in women than in nien. DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 569 A PYRAMIDS.— The largCbt, that of Cheops, is composed of four milliim Ions of stone, aiul occu))ied 100,000 men during 20 years, oi|ual to an outlay of $200,000,000. It would now cost $20,000,000 at a contract price of 36 cents per cubic foot. QUININE. — Annual production : IVru, 8,900,000 lbs.; India, 2,200,000 U«.; Java, 1 10,000 lbs.; Jamaica, 21,000 lbs. Total, 11,231,000 lbs. RABBITS. — One pair of rabbits can become multiplied in four years into 1,250,000. They were introduced into Australia a few years ago, and now that colony ships 6,000,000 rabbit skins yearly to England. RAILWAYS. — [Isee diagram..] There are constant additions to the railroads of the United States, and the number of miles, on Jan. I, 1S84, had increased to 120,552. From Jan. I, 1884,10 Jan. 1, 1885, 3,870 additional miles of track were laid, as follows : No. lines. Miles. New Engl.ind States 8 75 Eastern Middle States 24 332 Middle Western States 35 564 Southern States (east of Mississippi River) 50 1,003 Missouri Belt 36 828 Kansas Belt " 22 580 Colorado Belt 7 98 P.acific Belt 14 390 Railway Sigrnal Code. One whistle signifies " down brakes." Two whistles signify " off brakes." Three whistles signify " back up." Continued whistles signify "danger." Rapid short whistles "a cattle alarm." A sweeping parting of the hands on the level with the eyes, signifies "go ahead." Downward motion of the hands with extended arms, signifies "stop." Beckoning motion of one hand, signifies "back." Red flag waved up the track, signifies " danger." Red flag stuck up by the roadside, signifies " danger ahead." Red flag carried on a locomotive, signifies "an engine following." Red flag hoisted at a station, is a signal to " stop." Lanterns at night raised and lowered vertically, is a signal "to start." Lanterns swung at right angles across the track, means " stop." Lanterns swung in a circle, signifies " back the train." RECEIPTS and expenditures U. S. Government. — See dia- gram, page 546. RAINFALL. — The average annual rainfall, as ascertained by ob^ervalions at diflferent points throughout the Union, is as fol- lows: Inches. Baltimore 41 Baton Roni^e, L.i 6.* Boston 44 Buffalo, N. Y 33 Burlington, \'t ^4 Brunswick, Me 44 Charleston, S. C 45 Clevel.in.l.Ohio 37 Cincinnati 44 Dalles, Or 21 Detroit, Mich 31 Fort Bliss, Tex 9 Fort Bridger, Utah 6 Fort Brown, Tex 31 Fori Colvillc, Wash. Ter 9 Fort Craig, N. Mex it Fort Defiance, Ariz 14 Fort Carland, Col 6 Fort Oibson, Indian Ter 36 Fort Hoskins, Or 66 Fort Kearney, Neb 25 Inches. Huntsville, Ala 54 Key West, Fla 36 Macinac, Alich 23 ^I.lrie^ta, Ohio 42 .Meadow Valley, C.l 57 Mentphis, Teiui 45 Milwaukee, Wis 30 .Muscatine, Iowa 42 •Ml. Vernon Arsen.d, Ala 66 Natchez. Miss 53 Ne.ah Bay. Wash. Ter 123 Newark, N.J 44 New Bedford, M.-tss 41 New Haven, Conn 44 New Orleans, La 51 New York 4^ Penn Yan.N. \ 2!! Peoria, III. 35 Hhilatlelphia 44 Pittsburijh, Pa 37 Providence, R. I 41 Fort Laramie, Wy 13 Fort I^avenworth, Kan 31 Fort Marcy, N. Mex 16 Fort Massachusetts, Col 17 Fort Myers, Fl.i 56 Fort Randall, Dak 16 Fort Smith, Ark 40 Fort Snelling, Minn 25 Fort Towson. Indian Ter 57 Fort Vancouver, Wash. Ter 38 Fortress Monroe 47 Gaston, N . C 4 ^ Hanover, N. II 40 Richmond, Ind 43 Sacramento, Cal 19 Salt Lake, ULth 33 San Francisco, Cal 21 San Diego, Cal 9 Savannah , G.i 48 Sitka, Alaska 83 Springdale, Ky 48 St. I.ouis, Mo 42 Washington, Ark 54 Washington, D. C 37 White Sulphur Springs, Va 37 RELIGION. — [See diagrams.] The estimated number of religious denomin.ations among English-speaking communities throughout the world is as follows: Kpiscopaiians, 21,100,000; Methodists of all descriptions, 15,800,000; Roman Catholics, 14,340,000; Presbyterians of all descriptions, 10,500,000; Bap- tists of all descriptions, 8, 1 60,000 ; Congregationalists, 6,ooo,(XX) ; Unitarians, 1,000,000; Free Thought, 1,100,000; minor relig- ious sects, 2,000,000 ; of no particular religion, 20,000,000. Total English-speaking population, 100,000,000. RICE. — Production : India, 1 6,800,000 tons ; Japan, 3,450,000; Java, 2,740,000; Manilla, 1,800,000; Italy, 710,000; Ceylon, 480,000; United .States, 90,000; Spain, 80,000. RIVERS. — Length of principal rivers: North -Amf.rica. — Missouri to the sea (longest in the world), 4,200; Missouri to the Mississippi, 2,800; Mis.sissippi proper, 2,800; Mackenzie, 2,300; St. Lawrence, 2,200 ; Nelson and .Saskatchewan, 1,900; Rio Grande, 1,800; Yukon, 1,600; Arkansas, 1,514; Ohio (in- cluding the Alleghany), 1,275; Columbia, 1,200; Red River, 1,200; Colorado, 1,100; Platte, 800; Hrazos (Colorado of Texas), 650. South America. — Amazon, 3,600 ; Rio de la Plata (Parana included), 2,250; Orinoco, 1,500; St. Francisco, 1,500; Tocantius and Uraguay, 1,250; Magdalena, 9ire, 599 ; Tagus, 550; Dneister, Guadiana, 500; Oder, Douro, Rhone, Po, Seine, 450. Asia. — Yenisei, 3,400 ; Yang-tse- Kiang, 3,320; Lena, Obi, Hoang-Ho, 2,700; Amoor, 2,650; Indus, 1,850; Mekong, 1,800; Euphrates, 1,750; Ganges, lirahmapootra, 1,600; Irrawaddy, 1,200; Tigris, 1,150 Ural, 1,000. Africa. — Nile, 3,895; Niger, 3.000; Zambesi, 1,800; Congo (or Livingstone), estimated, 1,600; Senegal, Orange, 1,000. AfsTRAi,i.-\. — Murray, 1,700. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.— Pope Leo XIII. is the 258111 Pontiff. The full number of the Sacred College is 70, namely: Cardinal Bishops;, 6; Cardinal Priests, 50; Cardinal Deacons, 14. At present there are 62 Cardinals. The Roman Catholic Hierarchy throughout the world, according to oflicial returns published at Rome in 18S4, consisted of 11 Patriarchs, and 1,153 Archbishops and Bishops. Including 12 coadjutor or auxiliary bishops, the number of Roman Catholic archbishops and bishops now holding office in the British Empire is 134. The numbers of the clergy are approximate only. RYE. — The annual rye crop of the world is worth over $1,100,000,000, and feeds 1 So,ooo,ooo of people. Russia pro- duces annually 680,000,000 bushels; Germany, 240,000,000; Austria, 130,000,000; France, 80,000,000; Italy and Spain, 68,000,000; Scandinavia, 40,000,000, and the United States, -Vl / F>f(S TFiOM^- In tons of 2,000 lbs., produced in the United States in the year 1881. From the statistics of the American Iron and Steel Association. Connecticut, 28,483 Minnesota, 7,442 Colorado, 6,396 California, Note. — In 1S76 the total production of the world was 14,000,000 gross tons, and in 1882, 23,6oo,oou tons. In 1882 Great Britain produced 8,400,000 tons and the United States 4,600,000. The production in the United States has doub- led in the last five years. In 1870 the production in the Uni- ted States was 1,800,000 tons ; in 1872,2,800,000; in 1882, 4,600,000. Massachusetts, 18,318 Indiana, 7,300 M aine, 4,400 V srmont, 2,796 □ N orth Carolina, 800 D •*^ Designed and £ngraued expressly jor Peale'a Popular Educator. 57° Annaal ProduGtiGn q|' Goal in the United States. D (IN TONS.) Maryland, - 2,228,917 West Virginia, 1,839,845 Illinois, 6,115.377 Iowa, Indij Kentucky, Kansas, Wyoming, Missouri, II I Tennessee, Colorado, m Alabama, 1,461,116 1,454,327 946,288 771,142 589.59s 556,304 495.'3i 462,747 323.972 Pennsylvania, 47,065,982 Ohio, 6,008,595 IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. Great Britain, 158,000,000 United States, 1882, 88,100,000 France, 20,800,000 Russia, 3.245,000 Australia, 2,200,000 Canada, 1,437,000 Spain, 1,171,000 India, 1,030,000 Chili. 800,000 Japan, 530,000 D Swcdrn. I20.0CX> D California, 236.950 1 1 Georgia. - 154.644 n Washington, - ■tS.oiS 03 Michigan, - 108,000 u • Oregon, Virginia, Arkansas, 43.205 43.079 14.778 Rhode Island, - 6.176 1* North Carolini. 350 ■ Montana, Xebr.aska, 224 • Belgium, 17,500,000 Germany, 65,400,000 Austria-Hungary, 18,000,000 China, 3,000,000 V^ vs ".^ Designed and Engraued cxprasslif for Pvate'i Popular Educator, 571 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. ^ 31,000,000, while the products of other countries swells the grand total to 1,408,000,000 bushels. ■ SEAS. — Length in miles (approximate 1 : Mediterranean, 2,000; Caribbean, l,Sooj China, 1,700; Red. 1.400; Japan, 1,000; Black, 932; Caspian, 640; Baltic, 600; Okhotsk, 600; White, 450; Aral, 250. SERFS. — Russia: There were 47,932.000 serfs in Russia in 1S61, as follows : Crown serfs, 22,851,000; appanage, 3,326,000; held by nobles, 21,755,000. The cost of redemption was as follows, in round numbers : Mortgages remitted ;Ji 52,000,000 Government scrip 101,000,000 Paid by i-erfs . 52,000,000 Balance due 20,000,000 Totul , 53^5)000,000 The indemnity to the nobles was $15 per serf. The lands are mortgaged to the State till I912. The lands ceded to Crown serfs are mortgaged only till 1901. The item of " mortgages remitted " is the amount due by nobles to the Imperial Bank and canceled. Austrian Servitude (18401. Value. Labor (two days per week) gi 75 ,000,000 Tithe of crops, etc 60,000,000 Male tribute, timber 7,000,000 Female tribute, spun wool g,ooo,ooo Fowl, eggs, butter 5,000,000 Total ^256,000,000 There were 7»ooo,ooo serfs, whose tribute averaged more than $35 per head, which was, in fact, the rent of their farms. Some Bohemian nobles hud as many as 10,000 serfs. The redemption was effected by giving the nobles 5 per cent Government scrip, and land then rose 50 per cent in value. German Serfs. In 1S4S the State took 60,000,000 acres from the nobles, leaving them still 25,000,000 acres, and gave the former among the serfs. Indemnity as follows: 1. Government scrip, S900 for each serf family, to nobleman. 2. Land tax, $15 per annum, transferred to peasant. 3. Interest, S35 per annum for 47 years, to be paid by peasant to the State, being 4 per cent on cost of redemption. SHEEP. — The number of sheep in various countries is a.s follows (in round millions): River Plate, 76; Australia, 66; United States, 49; Russia, 48; United Kingdom, 28; Spain and Portugal, 25; Germany, 25; France, 23; Austria, 21; Cape Colony, II; Algeria, 9 ; Italy, 7 ; Roumania, etc., 6; Scandi- navia, 5 ; Canada, 3 '^ ; Belgium and Holland, i J^ ; the total number being about 395,000,000. SHIPPING.— [See diagram, page 563]. at principal ports : Thousands Omitted. Tonnage of entries London , 8,210 New York 7t5o6 Liverpool 7.320 Marseilles 3,260 Antwerp 2,720 Hamburg 2,315 Havre 2,260 Glasgow ' 2,170 SHOEMAKERS' MEASURE. Dublin 2, t2o Belfast 2,030 Hull 2,010 Genoa 1,640 Boston 1,560 Baltimore 1,365 Philadelphia i ,360 Small sizes. — Xi. i. 4 i--ih in. No. 2. 4 i-8th in. 4- i-3d = 4 ii-24thin. No. 3. 4 i-Sth in. + i-3d -f i-3d = 4 i9-a4th in. Etc, etc., etc. Lar^e sizes. — No. I. 8 ii-24th in. No. 2. 8 ii-24th in, -i- i-3d = 8 ig-24th in. No. 3. 8 ii-24lh in. -r i-jd -f 1-30 = 9 i-8th in. No. 4. 8 ii-24th in. -r i-3d -f- i-3d + i~3d ^ 9 ii-24th in. Etc., etc., etc. SICKNESS. — The ratio of sickness rises and falls regularly with death-rate in all countries, as shown by Dr. Farr and Mr. Edmonds at the London Congress of 1S60, when the following rule was established ; Of 1 ,000 pei-sons, aged 30, it is probable 10 will die in the year, in which case there will be 20 of that age sick throughout the year, and 10 invalids. Of l,oco persons, aged 75, it is probable that loo will die in the year, in which case the .sick and invalids of that age will be 300 throughout the year. For every 100 deaths let there be hospital beds for 200 sick, and infirmaries for 100 invalids. SILK. — Production of raw silk: lbs. Silk. Value. China 21,000,000 $72,500,000 Japan 4,400,000 20,500,000 Italy 6,600,000 33,000,000 India and Persia 2,000,000 7,500,000 France 1,200,000 6,000,000 Turkey, Spain, etc 2,800,000 12,500,000 Total 38,000,000 ^152,000,000 SILVER. — Production in 500 years; Tons. Mexico 78 ,600 Peru, etc 72,000 United States 11,600 Germany 8,470 Austria 7,93° Russia. 3,200 Various , 11,200 Millions Dollars. Ratio. 3,040 40.7 2.770 37-3 445 6-0 325 4-4 30s 4-1 120 1.7 430 5-8 7,435 100.0 Total 193,000 See also diagram, page 567. SLAVERY. — The number of slaves emancipated in the Bri/- ish Colonics in 1S34 was 780,993, the indemnity aggregating, in round figures, ^100,000,000. In Brazil, in 1876, there were 1,510,800 slaves, 15 per cent of the entire population. These were held by 41,000 owners, averaging 37 to each owner. In 1882 the number of slaves was 1,300,000, and it is expected that there will be more remaining in 1900. Slavery in the United States. Year. Number. 697,900 893,040 1810 1,191,400 1S20 1,538,100 1790. rSoo Year, Number. 1830 2,009,030 1S40 2,487,500 1850 3,204,300 i86o 3.979i7oo Slaves of Antiquity. Some of the wealthy Romans had as many as 10,000 slaves. The minimum price fixed by law was ^So, but after gieat vic- tories they could sometimes be bought for a few shillings on the field of battle. The day's wages of a Roman gardener were about 16 cents, and his value about $300, while a blacksmith was valued at about $700, a cook at $2,000, an actress at ;j;4,ooo, and a physician at j^ 11,000. SMALL-POX. — In the epidemic of 18S1 in England the re- turns showed 4,478 deaths per million inhabitants — 98 vacci- nated to 4,380 unvaccinatcd, or in the proportion of 44 to i. In the epidemic at Leipsic in 1871, the death-rate was 12,700 per million, 70 per cent of whom were unvaccinated. These figures A ^ 2>K \ DICTIONARY 111' FACTS AND FIGURES. A 573 are by Dr. Mulliall. In Boston tlio projiortioii was 15 to 50, and in Philatklphia, 17 to 64. During the Franco-German war the Germans lost only 263 men from this disease, the French 23,499, the former having been re-vaccinated in barracUs. In the war in Paraguay, the Brazilians lost 43,000 men from malignant or black small-pox, that is, 35 per cent of their army, nine cases in ten proving fatal. STARCH. — The percentage of starch in common grains is as follow-, according to Prof. Yeomans: Rice flour, 84 to 85 ; In- dian meal, 77 to So; oatmeal, 70 to So; wheat flour, 39 to 77; barley flour, 67 to 70; rye flour, 50 to 61; buckwheat, 52; peas and beans, 42 to 43; potatoes (75 jier cent wateri. 131015. STEAM POWER.— See diagram, page 563. STEEL. — The number of tons made for the years named is as {olhiws : Thousands Omiiicd. Ratio in 1881. 1850. 1870. 1881. 49 32 71 % 170 94 22 9 10 6 6-'o .,780 ■,374 865 418 ■ 76 296 '35 37 5,..8. 35.0 27.0 ■7-> 8.3 3-4 5.8 2.7 0.7 Austria Russia Total Sq. Inch Section. 1. 0000 •9799 .933» .8741 Strain, Tons pcrSq. Inch. 13-93 16.96 23-43 27.23 Tensile Test of Steel. BAR 8 ISXHES LONG. Extension, Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Extension, Inches. Section, per Sq. Inch. Inches. .8325 28.35 1.40 .7088 27.32 2.00 •554» 25-05 2 20 SUICIDES.— According to religion : .40 1. 00 EListic Limit 17*40 tons. Maximum Strain 28.35 " Breaking Load 25.05 " Cohesion 45-21 tons. Extension ^7% per cent. Contraction 44J4 '* Tuking the strength of Swedish iron at 100, the tensile strength of steel compares thus : Swedish iron 100 I Cannon steel 1 73 Boiler steel 118 [ Spring steel 202 STRENGTH. — Comparative scale : Ordinary nuiii 100 I Farnese Hercules 362 Byron's Gladiator 173 | Horse 750 Tensile and Transverse Strength. A crushing force of 1,000 pur scjuaie inch on a bar I incli square, and 12 inches long, gives the following ratios of strength : Tensile. Transverse. | Tensile. Transverse. Stone 100 10 Cast iron 158 20 Glass 123 10 I Timber 1,900 85 SUGAR. — Production, thousands of tons. •Germany 606 Cuba 520 'Austria 460 •France 390 British colonics.. 340 • Beet sugar. •Russia 240 Java 190 Manilla 180 Brazil 150 •Holland, etc 115 French colonics. 105 United States... 90 Eijypt, etc 285 All beet 1,811 All cane i,86j Ucet sugar has increased nine-fold since 1S53, and now gives 7 JILT cent of saccharine instead of 4 per cent ; that is, 14 tons of roots give a ton of sugar. Unitc Comparative Retail Prices of the Necessaries of Life. Bjef, Roast.... lb. Corned., .lb. Beans qt. Bread lb. Butter lb. Coal ton . Co'lfish lb Coffee lb. E;;gs doz. Flour lb Lard lb. Milk qt. Mutton lb. Oatmeal lb. Pork, fresh.... lb " salted lb. '* Bacon. . .lb " Sausage, lb. Potatoes... .bushel Rice lb. Soap lb, Sugar lb. Tea lb. Cents, 22 "3 10 3-7 22 S4-25 hV. Cents 12 13 6 28 Sii .00 9 32 t8 10 6 8>^ OCQ Cents. 9 iM- 4M 29-38 $2.65-84.10 6- 8 28-50 14-30 iii-4ii 12-18 5- 9 16-17 3'A- 4% 10-16 10-16 12-16 18 6S-S2 .00 3'A- 8 Sii-9 5M-10 4 88 United States. New York. Chicago Cents. 12-16 8-12 7-10 4- 4}« • i5-32 S3-*5-25 6-7 20-30 25-30 3- 4 10-12 8-10 g-io 4- 5 S-ij 8-10 8-10 8-10 . 40-S1.60 8-10 6-7 8-10 50-60 Cents. 0-125^ 4- 7 5- 9 , 4- 4>^ 16-40 S3-S6.7 5- 9 16-40 10-24 ^a- 45^ 6-10 3-6 5-I2j2 4- 5 4- 5 6-12 7-12 6-10 60-80 5-10 3-8 7-10 25-€i .00 WAR. — The cost of recent wars, according to figures furnished by the London Peace Society, is as follows : Crimean war ;iJ34o,ooo,ooo Italian war of 1859 60,000,000 American civil war — North ^ 940,000,000 " " " — South 460,000,000 Schleswig-Holstein war 7,000,000 Austrian and Prussian war, 1S66. 66,000,000 Expeditions to Mexico, Morocco, Par.tyuay, etc., (sLiiy only) 40,000,000 Franco- Prussian war. 500,000,000 Russian and Turkish war, 1S77 210,000,000 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 30,000,000 _^2, 653, 000,000 This would allow $10 for every man, woman and child on the habitable globe. It would make two railways r-U round the world at $250,000 j^er mile each. Summary of Losses from War in Twenty-Five Years (1855-80.) Crimean war Italian war, 1859 War.of Schleswig-Holstein American civil war — the North " " " — the South War between Prussia, Austria and Italy, in :866. . . . Expeditions to Mexico, Cochin China, Morocco, Paraguay, etc Franco-German war of 1870-71 — France " " " " ■' — Ciermany *Russian and Turkish war of 1877 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 Killed in battle, or died of wounds and diseasi;. 750,000 45,000 3,000 s8o,ooo 520,000 45,000 65,000 155.000 60,000 225,000 40,000 Total. ;l,lS8,.X)0 Length and Cost of American Wars. Wars. Length. War of the revolution 7 years — 1 775-1 7-'~'-; Indian war in Ohio territory 1790 War with the Barbary States 1803-1804 Tecumseh Indian war 1811 War with Great Brit;iin 3 years — 1812-1815 AlgL-rine war 1815 First Seminole war 1817 131ack Hawk war 1832 Second Seminole war 1 845 Mexican war 2 years — 1846-1848 Mormon war 1856 Civd w.ir 4 years— 1861-1865 Cost. 66,000,000 (i,50o,<.;0o,ooo *About thirty thousand skeletons of Russian and Turkish soldier-; were shipped to England iu 1881, as manure, in the form of bones or hone dust. / -^I rv DICTIONARV OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 577 Quota of Troops Furnished by the States and Territories Dur- ing the Civil War. nl 'I'crrilorics, Nt;w Knct.iDcl States Middle Slates Western States and 'I'crritories. . PacificSLiics Burdcr Stitcs Southern Stales In I Ian Nation •Colored troops (irund tot.al . . . Troops furnished. 375. '3t 1.098,088 19,579 30t,o6j 54.'37 3.530 93.44' t2.859.'3= At l.itKC Not accounted for. Ulliccrs 7.9 '6 13,922 12,711 45.t84 63.57' 733 5.083 7. '•-■•-■ 156,240 m 103,807 362,686 ^03,924 776,829 h. o a. 12.0 12.2 .3.6 4-3 8.3 .6 WAR EXPENDITURE.— Sec diagrams, pages 546, 563. WATER. — One cubic font = 62)4 lbs., or 6^ gallons. One cubic foot sea water = 64 lbs., or 6j,:( gallons. One gallon of water =10 lbs., or 277 cubic inches. One inch of rainfall equals 14,500,000 gallons per square mile. Eight cubic feet of snow will produce one cubic foot of water. Current requires a mini- mum fall of one-tenlh inch ]>er mile. WATER-POWER. — Niagara = Icn million cubic feet per minute, sav three million horse-power nominal, or nine million re.il. In the United Slates there arc 51,000 water- wheels, with 1 '^ millioit horse-power aggregate. WEALTH OF NATIONS— The wealth of the principal nations of lite world is thus given by Mulhall. The figures represent millions sterling : United States .... United Kingdom . France (fCnnany Russia Austria Italy Spain Holland Hclg.um Sweden C.nada Mexico Australia Portugal Denmark .\rgcnlinc Republic .Switzerland Norway Greece Total Land and Forest. 2.150 1,880 2,930 3,420 1,940 1,590 905 740 220 270 444 230 125 192 170 2l6 122 ito ■73 112 »6.939 Cattle. 378 23s 312 23' 345 205 56 57 33 3" 4= 35 32 66 II 3" 54 Rail- ways. Public Works. 1,190 770 494 467 309 255 108 79 27 61 26 72 527 547 590 442 224 188 '3' 60 125 4' 32 30 6 30 ■3 7 2,780 2,280 1,89a ".470 88a 770 656 116 140 62 140 240 108 80 44 72 70 Furni- ture. Merchan- dise. 1 ,140 945 735 440 385 328 170 58 70 3' 70 no 54 40 22 36 35 !,3o6 6,098 15; 350 165 ■55 60 64 48 23 61 58 ■4 18 20 52 7 Btiliion. 157 '43 301 108 34 20 45 4' ■7 29 4 Shipping. 60 120 ■5 '5 7 4 9 7 4 283 Sundries. 7'3 ■.255 5.8 280 104 132 65 77 326 105 35 41 67 '4 31 16 '3 9.495 8.720 8,c6o 6.323 4.343 3.613 2.35' ".593 967 806 t95 650 638 590 37' 366 33= 282 WEIGHT AND STATURE OF MAN. Age. 50 6.) 70 So Mean weight 103.66 Feet. 1.64 3.60 3.04 3-44 4.00 4.36 4-72 5.07 5.36 5-44 5-49 5-52 5-53 5.3» 5.29 5. 29 Lbs. 7.06 35.01 31.38 38.8a 49-95 59-77 75.81 96.40 116.56 137.59 132.46 J40.38 140.43 139.96 136.07 131.37 "7-54 >27-54 FEMALUS. Feel. 1.62 2.56 3.00 3.38 3.93 4.36 4.60 4.92 5.10 S.13 5.16 5.18 S.18 5.04 4-97 4.97 4-94 4-94 Lbs. The average weight of a male infant at birth, it will be seen, is a Utile over 7 lbs. ; of a female infant, a little less than Oyi •This gives colored troops enlisted in the Slates in rebellion ; besides this, there were 92,576 colored troops, included (with the white soldiers) in the quotas of the several states ; the second column gives the aggregate of colored, hut many enlisted South were credited to the Northern st:it._-v. lbs. Children lose weight during the first three days after birth ; at the age of a week they sensibly increase, and at the end of one ye.ir ihey triple their weight. WHEAT.— See iliagram, y'ear/y ly/ieal Crop, page 566. WIND. — Velocity and pressure : Pressure — lbs. per sq. foot. I oz. 4 oz. 1 lb. 3K lbs. U" "'A •' WINE. — See .\k.,holic Liquors, WOMEN WORKERS.— In the were women workers as follows : barbers, 2,902 ; commercial travelers, 272; dressmakers, millin- ers, etc., 281,928; journalists, 288; lawyers, 75 ; musicians, 13,- 181 ; physicians, 2,432 ; preachers, 165 ; printers, 3,456 ; tailors 52,098; teachers, 154,375; telegraphers, 1,131. tThis is the aggregate of troops furnished for all periods of service — from three months to three years* time. Reduced to a uniform three years' standard, the whole number of troops enlisted amounted to 3,330,272. Feet per Miles Second. per hour S 3» 10 7 20 '4 30 20 40 =7 50 34 60 4" 70 48 Feet per Miles Pressure — lbs. Second. per hour. per sq. fool. 16 lbs. 80 54 90 61 ^'A ■■ 100 68 25 110 11 30'X" 130 36 '■ 130 83 42K ;; 140 95 49 150 103 56 •' United Slates Artists, 2,061 ; in 1880 there authors, 320 ; \ z u s b. O el a m S z d o o o mLot^rnt>.o o mioo m -i--i-tv.mroco o^w -+ m >-* no\ - 1 1 1 . , . t/5 C z < a c H CO m 1 f ^^^^^^^^ 00 00 (J) Q < ' y/ -^^"""^ /^^ ^^.^^^"^ / ll /^ / V ^""--...^ ^ ^ f i # .# c^ - - - / "^---^ // ' i^ ^ - li 1 iijf i L f- ? §■ / 1 o ? r^ r~^^ K-^^^ < i^-M^ J ^ -? % "^ 1 - ~^~~--^ ~ J I - y C w a c z X ■ 1 ^ 1 ^ ■ r^ 1 __ _ r^ I ■ ^ _ 1 1 1 5 »• *c c : c c - - c 1- c 1 > 0, r c 1 ; > - ^ rt 1 XI c oo 1- « c •t- - c .„ rt >- is oc ^ I- r- r C C r c c 2 * oc t u C c c c p. r X d. C t S c 1 ►- PI (N .t C u r a t- ts « > Tennessee 1-974 ^ > tL a. ■1 u c c OJ 1 c n c C r c ^ 0\ -i 1 M oc . ^- * C C "S z ■S S ? 1 u OC > •c c a 1 B ri X i P . c "r c g r C C ^ ^ N C c 1. ") c In C c 0. c c t ^ vc ") 1- ^ c c c E a > .1 c > r r 'u C ^ H ■N ^ c > c oc ) C c 6 ^ ^ a < 1 r -t li ti c 1 > T C T a C •1 1 OC r 1 - s-^ c g r rt c rt 1 x: c / _^ ~^^ Designed and Engraved expresaly for Puale't Pupuutr td K" f HE Slocks of the ®orld. VL 579 Sr (V •>-JFiB REIX7 gYSiFEM 8B E^^RJRRB iFIfflR-^ \^ Difference between Old and New Standards at Points which have been Established Standards under the Old System. (/. faster, s. slower.) Compared with linstprn. Time: Albany, N. Y., s minutes {.; liMltimorc, MJ., 6 m. s.; B.ith, Me., 20 m. f.; Boston, Mass., 16 m. f.: Ch.irles- Dk'i J 1' i' '"«'■• I^'="'°"' Mich 32 m. s.; Hamilti>n, Ont., 19 m. s.: Montru.il, Que, 6 m. f.: New London, Conn., 12 m. f.: New York City, 4 m. f.; Philadelphia. Pa., i m. s.: Port Hope, Can., 14 ni. s.; Port Huron. Mich., 30 m. s.: Portland. Mc., 19 m. f ; Providence, R. 1., 14 m. f.; Richmond, Va., lo m. 5.. Savannah. Ga., 24 m. s.: Toronto, Can., 17 m. s.; Washington. D. C. 8 m. s. Cimiptlrcil with Crntrril Tiliiv: Atchison, Kan., 24 ""•I,*'! Allant:i,(,a.,22 rn. f.: Chicigo, 111,, 9 m. f.; Cincinnati. O., =2 m. f.: Cohimhus.O., 28 m. f.; Detroit. Mich,. 28 m. f.; Dubuque, la , 3 m. s.: Han- niDal, Mo., 1 m. s.; Houston, Tex., 24 m. s.; Indian.apolis, Ind., 16 m. f.; Jefferson City, Mo., 9 ni. s,; Kansas City. Mo,, 19 m, s,: Louisville, Ky,, 18 ni. 1^ iVIacon, Ua., 29 m. f.: Minneapolis, Minn., 13 m. s.; Mobile, Ala., 8 in. f,; Nashville, Tcnn., 13 m, f.; New Orleans, La,, exactly the same; Oma- ha, Neb,, 24 m, s,; Port Huron, Mrch,, 30 m, (.; St. Louis, Mo., i m, s.; St. Paul, Minn., 12 m. s.; S.avannah, Ga.. 36 m. f.: Selma, Ala.. 12 m. f.: Sioux City, Li , 26 m s.: Tcrre Haute, Ind., 10 m. f.; Vicksburj;. Miss , 3 m. s.; Winona, Minn . 7 in s. Com pa vol with Mniiiitiiili Time: Denver, J-ol, exactly the same; Laramie, W. T., 6 m. s.: Salt Lake City, U. T.. 28 m s. Ci>iiipni;tl with rarific Time: Kalama, Wash. T., 10 m. s.; Port- l.in.l, (Jr., 10 m. s.: San Francisco. Cal., 10 m. s Interciiloiiial Time, touchim; only Halifax, St. John and Quebec, is omitted. f s »- 5 So *. • -1 c > G\ GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 581 > ^STATISTICS OF POPULATION. - ' A TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. i SHOWING THEIR RANK ACCORDING TO POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS FROM 1790 TO 1880. STATES AND TEKKITOKIES. 1T90. 1800. 1 1 1810. 1830. 1830. 1840. 18S0. 1860. 1870. 1880. Total Alahama Arizona Arkansas California 3.9-9..!'4 5.308,483 7,239,881 9,633,822 12,806,020 17,069,453 23,191,876 31,443,321 38,558,371 So,'5S,7S3 I : :::;■.■.::: 19 2fl 127,901 ""■4,255 ■5 2S 309.527 30,388 12 25 590.75« 97.574 12 29 771.623 ,209.Sw 92.597 13 25 ]26 '24 42 32 35 1 964,201 435.4.';o 379,c)94 996.0.1' 9.65^ 4S4.471 5(«.Jt7 39,S04 537.451 14,1s, 125.015 '31.70.' '87.74^ 1,184,10,, 14..XJ.I 2.?.?0,S91 1 .oSi.(.3; 1,U_^,02U 264.30,1 1,321,01 1 726.91 ! 626,01,: 780,8.;, '.t.<7.35i 1,1 84,05,1 439.700 827.02.- 1,721,295 20,59? I22,i»3 42,491 3iS..iO" 906,0,/. 91,874 4..3S2,75„ 1.071,301 2,(y,5,2fxt 90,923 3,52 ',95' 2'7,.i.S3 705,001, i,2i;s.!:2o 818,579 86,7,86 330.55' 1,225,163 23.955 442,014 1,054.670 17 1- 24 28 ,!" 31 'A 4 < K 20 s 22 7 9 26 iS 5 15 ,io 43 31 19 41 1 15 3 37 2 M 21 12 11 .39 3i 14 42 ^ 16 1,262,50s 40rH0 .802.525 194,327 622,700 ■.35.177 146,60s 177.624 2o>.;,493 1,542,180 32,610 3.077.871 1 ..178,301 1,024,015 9.)6.o96 1 ,04S,r«» 9.W.'M6 64'*.9,?6 934 .W3 ■.783.085 1,6,^6,937 780,773 1,1 3^,597 2,168,380 39, '59 452,403 62,266 340.'»9' 1,131,116 119.565 5,082,^71 '..?9i).750 3.i.>S.o?>2 ■74,768 4.282,891 27",S3' 995,577 ■.54 2, .359 1.59' ,749 143,063 332. 2S6 i.5i2.-;63 75,116 6iSh(57 >.3^5497 Connecticut Dakota s 2,37.946 S 251,002 1^ 261,943 14 275,148 16 297.67s 20 .309.978 21 370.792 460,147 I25 4. 8.57 :, 45 112,216 135 75.0S0 ,34 Delaware Dist. of Coiiimbia Kloritla 16 59.09" 7 47 24.023 22 25 72.749 33.039 24 25 :: 76,74s 39.S34 34,730 5'6,S23 26 28 27 9 7S.0S5 43.712 54,477 691.392 .?o .33 31 9 91. .552 51.6S7 87.445 906.185 '3 82,54? 2 i62,6So II 252433 11 340,985 1,057,286 c: +1 4 1 1 29 8 21 23 20 7 13 2S iS 5 43 .56 4" 31 '7 Idaho I24 '21 12,2S2 24.520 \t 55, '62 '47,'7S ?3 '57.445 343.03' '4 10 29 4(6.1 S3 6S5,S<* 43,112 11 7 27 851.470 <^H4i6 192,214 t 20 33 9 17 22 19 7 16 21 ■ 2 29 iS 10 23 11 5 40 1.711.951 i,3;o,42S 674.913 107,206 1,155.684 70S,002 62S,..7o 687,0,9 1,231,066 749.113 172.023 791 .30^ 1,182,012 ""'2S.&li 6.S57 326.073 672,035 " 5.fH' Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts... ■4 11 6 4 73,677 96.540 378.787 9 220,955 4 "51.719 7 34' ,548 5 422.845 ,1 'i 5 25 20 23 iV) 12 40(',5" 76.556 228,705 3!>o,546 472.010 4,702 40.352 20,845 2'4.4"o 245,5<>2 6 '7 12 10 7 27 21 23 '5 13 564, '.35! '52,923 298,269! 407,350, ' '75.4+8 66,557; 1 244.022 277,4261 6 '9 12 11 S 27 22 21 is '4 687,917 2 '5.739 3W.45S 447,040 610,40s 3 '.639 136.621 •40,455 26<:>.32S 320,*>23 6 19 13 15 S 23 17 16 22 iS 779.S2S 552.(11 501.793 470,019 737,699 212,267 375.651 383,702 2S4.574 373,306 s iS 16 17 6 20 .56 iq 13 22 19 32 1 10 3 34 2 2S 14 5 25 35 4 9S2.405 517.762 583. i6>; 583,034 9<>».5'4 97."54 6.077 606.526 682,044 317.976 489,55s 6 '..547 3.0')7.3S,5o7 1,002,717 212,592 "..380 3'4.i'0 l,4Jl,6()l Minnesota Mississippi Mis^iouri Montana NehniNka Nevada New ilampshire. New Jersey ■; ■V4'i;ss5 'S4,'39 io"'s',S30 211,149 New York North Carolina.. Ohio 5 3 340,120 393,75' 3 589.05" 4 478.103 s 45.365 2 4 "3 959.049 555.500 230,700 1 4 5 581.295; 1 5 4 1 ,9lS,6oS 737 .9S7 937,903 1 7 3 2,428,921 7.53.419 '.5i9,4"7 3.8'^.735i 1 m)2.oj2| 14 2, 3,19..^ 11 ! .3 52,465 38 2,906,215 2 174.620 32 703.70SJ 22 I,IO,).StlI 9 604,215 19 40.273! .39 315,09s 30 Pennsylvania.... Khode Island South Carolina.. Tennessee Texas 2 ■5 7 '7 'mi 24<;.o73 35.''9' 2 602 ,,^65 6 69,122 6 345.591 5 ios.<'o2 3 'I 10 810,091 76,931 4'5."5 261,727 3 20 S 9 1 1,047,507 S3 .01 5 502.741 422.771 2 23 9 7 ',348,2.33 5?;:;g 6Si,./H 2 24 11 5 1,724.033 loS.S.io ■S9(,.i98i 829,210 Utah A'"erinont 12 1 85.425 747,610 3 '54.465 1 SSo,2oo| "5 1 217.895 974.600 16 3 ■• 235.966 1,065,116, '7 3 280,652 1,211,405 21 4 29',9fS ',239,797 Washington ".594 42 27 '5 Wisconsin Il" 1 1 30 30,945 24 1 775.SS1' ' t 1 1 ll" 1 9."8|.„, -.,-, 1 e Note.— The figures in the first column under c.ich year show the rank of the respective States an J Territories according to population. 1 ■r" l 3,l9S,ci(t2 3.077.S7" 2,i6S,3So 1, 978,^01 i,7S.?,oS; 1 ,648,690 '>63l'.W7 1,624,615 >,S')'<749 ',54^.(59 1,542,180 l,.?99>7So i,3'S.*)7 1,262,505 1,131,116 996,096 995.577 939.9*6 934 ■'>43 802,525 780,773 648,936 622,700 618,457 452,402 346,(x)i 332,286 27f'.53l 26),4<)3 '94.3^7 174,76s l46,fioS 62,266 7&».443 '77.6>4 ■43.963 ■35.177 ■ '9,565 75, "6 40,440 .W.'59 32,610 20,789 25,518,820 25.075.619 2.505,332 2,136.655 1.613,936 i,5S<>.523 1,127,187 1 ,010,361 858,440 832,590 862,355 848,136 823,840 769.277 762,981 745.5S9 6i7,90S 680,069 622,629 567.'77 559,922 536,667 4i>3,4o8 4'>''.754 41,2,187 518,176 416,279 419,149 3.!4,os8 305,782 3'4.19S 249,241 170.526 i«.,SS7 ■33.030 '.10.+44 ■29,13' 103,381 74.10S 42,019 443,201 S3.57S 74,509 82,296 64,41)6 45.973 25,202 28,177 2i,8iS 14,152 24.636.963 24.295.721 2,577.549 2,146,236 1,584,126 1.491.348 1,041.193 967,940 924,64s 816,100 774,582 776,479 753,909 773,082 779,199 766,976 7 1 1 .842 635,428 639,876 564,420 57'. '94 459.429 505,169 471.192 472,756 346,518 386,246 361 ,624 324.87S 316,918 303,962 203,161 176,465 '65,,1'19 '13,501 ',«,049 65,196 71.387 72,500 20,247 34". 242 94.046 69454 S2,ssi 55.069 29.'4.i 12,238 10,(^2 10,792 6.637 43.47S.S4O 42.S7i.556 3,871,492 3,695,062 2,803,1 19 2.494,295 1 ,956,802 l,S34.'23 ',.),i".5'4 ',.'i^i.i73 1 ,24s, 429 1.362,965 l.477,'.!3 1,525.657 1,531,616 1 ,497,869 1 ,396,008 010,072 1.252.77' 1,122,388 909,416 SS6,oio 987,891 885,800 S52.137 571,820 792,175 S'3,097 590,053 492,708 600,192 354,988 300,697 291,327 202,53s 259,584 ■54,537 ■ 44,265 ■37,140 36.613 604,284 160,503 S3,.>S2 111,514 59,3 '3 36,613 24,391 27,638 22,636 ■4,939 FOREIGN. 6,679,943 6.499.784 '.211,379 587,829 .394,943 5S3.576 21 ".578 144,178 443,491 S9,S'7 3^8,508 261 ,650 114,616 16,702 10,564 14,696 3.742 405.425 9,734 9,209 221,700 110,086 7.686 54, '46 S2,So6 292,874 10,350 26^,676 58,883 12l),t).12 18,265 97.414 46,294 40.959 73.9<;3 9,,;o9 39.790 30.503 >l,4(,8 25.653 ■80,159 17,122 43.9'H 5 ',795 8,051 '5,803 16,049 11,521 9,974 5.850 43.402,970 42.7'4.479 5,016,022 4,197,016 3.117.920 3,031. '5' 2,022,826 1,9,38,798 ■ ,763,782 ',,377.179 1,614,560 1,614,600 '.'97.2,37 l.i?S,8v 816,906 880,858 867,242 1,^09,618 «,2,i85 479.3'>8 1,(102,017 953,155 391,105 454.954 724.f»;3 767,181 591,53' 776,884 646,852 6io,7(i<> 592,537 449.7"4 346.229 331. 21S 2ttl.9.i9 142,1x15 191,126 '63,075 120,1(X> 53.556 688,491 iiS,oo6 ■42,423 ■.33, '47 108,721 67,1'W 35, "« 35,.385 29,013 '9,437 COLORED. 6.580,793 6.5'3.772 65.'04 S5.535 79,900 .46,368 '45.350 39.228 18,697 27'. 45' 15,100 9.5'6 393,384 403, '5' 725, '33 631,616 531.277 2,702 600,103 650.291 38,853 43,' 07 604.332 483.655 210,2^0 6,ji8 210,666 1,564 1.45' 11, .547 25,886 2,385 6S5 ' ,057 6,488 126,6110 2,4.55 4S7 26,442 488 62,421 59.596 232 401 ■ ,015 325 '55 346 S3 CHINESE. 105.465 93.7S2 9OC) I4S 109 209 9' 29 229 10 27 33 '36 25 '7 6 16 4 SI 170 '9 48.^ 5 75.132 '33 24 S '23 5 18 27 18 9,510 I S.4'6 11,683 ■3 5°i 2,iS 3.1S6 ' .630 '.765 3.379 914 JAPAN ■ ESE. 1 48 141 '7 8 • 3 3 66,407 44.S'''6 1S4 ■30 140 "3 246 3'pt Canton China i Calcutta India Cawnpore India Cohimho Ceylon Copcnh.igcn ... .Denmark Colngne Germany Constantinople. ..Turkey Christiana Sweden Detroit United States . . Delhi India Dhar India Damascus Turkey-in-Asia. Dantzig Germany Dresden Germany Dublin Ireland Dundee Scotland Edinburgh Scotland . . Fez Africa . . . , Frankfort Germany , Florence Italy Fatschan China , . . . Foo Chow China . . . . Glasgow . Gwalior . .Ghent ... • Scotland . .India . .. . .Belgium . 130,000, 165,752. 149,008. 113,876. 143-693 • 143,381. 159.579- 105,818. 308,948. 333.590 . 362.535- 566,689. 155,137- 128,929. 248,110. I42.5I3- 600,000. 102,982. 112,057. 175,188. 644,405. 399.936- 215,140. 826,341. 112,158. 272,390. 207,671 . 400,757. 104,012. 105,422. 183,032. 107,528. 206,503. 177,646. 111,969. 249,106. 347.536. 503.304- 255,708. 160,142. 327,462. [,500,000, 683.458, 122,770. 111,942. 273.7=7- 144,751. 600,000.. 119,407. 116,342. 160,553. 100,000. 150,000. 108,549. S20,2l6. 249,486. 140,463. 228,075. 100,000. 137,600. 168,423. 400,000. 600,000. 555.289. 200,000. 130,671. Est. 878 871 871 871 876 878 881 878 880 880 880 880 872 881 871 Est. 871 871 871 872 878 S76 880 880 880 880 880 880 83o 877 Est. 881 87" 88 1 g8o 880 879 880 880 S76 Est. Est. 2880 1880 loSi .Est. .1880 .1878 .Est. .Est. .1881 .Est. Genoa Italy 163,234. Hangtschcu-fu . .China 400,000, Hangjang Chin.i 100,000. Hankow China 600,000. Hutschcu China 200,000. Hutscheu-fu . . . .China zoo,ooo. Hwangjuer China 120,000. Hyderabad India 200,000. Hakodate Japan 112,494. Hamburg Germany 290,055. Hanover Germany 122,860. Hague Holland 117,856. Jersey City United States .. 120,728. Jangtschau China 360,000. Jongpin China 300,000. Jundpore India 150,000. Kesho India 150,000. Kagoshima Japan 200,000. Kanagawa Japan 108,263. Kiota Japan 229,810. Konigsberg Germany 150,396. Kingston England 154,250. Kijew Russia 127,250. Kischenew Russia 102,427. Louisville United States . . 123,645. Lima South America. 101,488. Leinkong China 250,000. Lahore India 128,441. Lucknow India 284,779. Lille Fr.ince 162,775, Lyons France 342,815. Leipzig Germany 143,760. Leeds England 309,126. Leicester England 122,351. Liverpool England 522,425. London England 3,832,441. Lisbon Portugal 253,496. Lcmberg Austria -Hungary 110,250. Liege Belgium 119,943. Milwaukee United States.. 115,578. Marseilles France 318,868. Manchester England 341,508. Messina Italy 120,917. Munich Bavaria 330,023. Milan Italy 262,283. Madrid Sp.iin 397.690. Malaga Spain 115,882. Moscow Russia 601,969, Madras India 397,552, Mandalah India 100,000. Manila Ind. Archipelago 160,000. Melbourne Australia 352,000. Montreal Canada 107,225. Mexico Mexico 336,500. Mukden China 170,000. New York United Stales ..1,206 New Orleans.... United States., 216 Newark United States.. 136 Nangkin China 450 Nantes France 122, Newcastle England 145, Nottingham .... England 186, Naples Italy 450, Nagoya Japan 135, Odessa Russia 184, .590- ,140. ,400. ,000. .247- ,228. ,656. .715. ,819. .1878 .Est. ,Est. .Est. Est. .Est. ,Esl. ,Est. .1877 .1880 .1880 .1880 .1880 .Est. .Est. .Est. ,Est. .1877 .1877 .1877 .1874 .1880 .1876 .Est. .1876 .1871 .1876 .1876 .1880 .iBHi .1878 .1880 .1878 ,1880 .1876 ,i8Si .1878 .1S80 .1878 .1877 .1877 .1871 ,1871 ,Est. Est. ,1881 .1871 .1879 .Est. .1880 ,1880 .1880 .Est. .1876 .1878 ,1877 ■1873 Countriea. Populk Oldham England 1 1 1 ,343 . . Osaka Japan 284,105., Pittsburg United States .. 156,381.. Providence United States . . 104,850. . Philadelphia United States . . 846,984. . Patna India 158,900.. Puna Indiii 118,886.. Pernambnco . .. .South America, 116,671. . Prague Austria-Hungary 162,318.. Paris France 1,988,806., Portsmouth England 127,953. . Palermo Italy 231,836,. Porto Portugal 108,346., Porto Novo Africa 100,000.. Peking China 1,648,800.. Rio de Janeiro. .South America, 274,972.. Rangoon India 132,004,, Rouen France 104,903. . Rome Italy 303,383.. Rotterdam Holland 147,082. , Riga Russia 103,000. , St. Louis United States., 350,522., San Francisco ..United States.. 232,956., Santiago South America, 129,837., Shaohing China 500,000., Shanghai China 278,000.. Siangton China 1,000,000. , Singan-fu China 1,000,000.. Sutschau China 500,000, , Saoul Corea 100,000,, Sianagar India 132.681.. Surat India 107,149,, Smyrna Turkey-in-Asia. 150,000.. Sydney Australia 220,427., St. Etiennc France 126,019.. Strasburg Germany 104,501., Stuttgart Germany H7,303.. Salford England '76,233.. Sheffield England 284,410. , Sunderland England 116,262.. St. Petersburg . , Russia 861 ,900. . Seville Spain 133.938.. Stockholm Sweden 169,439., Tunis Africa 125,000., Taiwau-fu Chin.i 235,000. . Tengtschau-fu ..China 330,000., Tientsin Chin.a 950,000. . Tschantschau-fu. China 1,000,000., Tschanjang China 300,000.. Tschingtu*fu. ...China 800,000., Tschungking-fu .China 600,000. , Tokio Japan 811,510., Tabris Persia 120,000. , Teheran , . .Persia 200,000. . Tiflis Russia-in-Asia . 104,024 , . Trieste Austria-Hungary 144,437. ■ Toulouse France 131,642. . Turin Italy 314,200. . Valencia Spain 143.856.. Victoria China 103,000. . Vienna Austria-Hungary 726,105., Venice Italy 125,376.. Warsaw Russia 308,548. . Wcihein China 250,000. . West Ham England 128,693. , .1881 .1877 .1880 .1880 .1880 .1871 .1871 .1872 .1880 .1876 ,1878 .Est. .Est. .1873 ,1881 .1876 .1880 .1878 .1878 .1880 .1880 .1875 .Est. .Est. .F^t. .Est. .Est. .Est. -1873 .1871 -Est. .1881 .1876 .1880 .1880 .1881 .1881 .1S81 .1869 .1877 .1880 -Est. .Est. .Est. .Est. .Est. .Est. .Est. .Est. .1877 .Est. .Est. .1876 .1880 .1876 .1878 .1877 .Est, .1880 .1878 .1877 .Est, :^ 584 POPULATION AND RANK OF AMERICAN CITIES. POPULATION OF CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES Having 10,000 Inhabitants and Over, by the Census of 1880, and Showing their Rank According to Population. Name of City. Name of City. Population 1880. Akron, Ohio i6, Albany, N. Y 90, Alleghany, Pa 78, AUentown, Pa 18, Alexandria, V'a 13, Altoona, Pa 19, Amsterdam, N. Y 11, Atchison, Kan 15, Atlanta, Ga 34, Attlebcro, jMass 11, Auburn, N. Y 22, Augusta, Ga 23, Aurora, 111 11, Austin, Tex 10, Baltimore, Md 332, Bangor, Maine 16, Bay City, Mich 20, Belleville, 111 10, Biddeford, Maine 12, Binghamton, N. Y 17, Bloomington, 111 17; Boston, Mass 362 Bridgeport, Conn 29, Brockton, Mass 13 Brooklyn, N. Y 566^ Buffalo, N. Y 155. Burlington, Vt 11, Burlington, Iowa 19 Brookhaven, N. Y ii. Cambridge, Mass 52 Camden, N.J 41 Canton, Ohio 12 Castleton, N. Y 12, Cedar Rapids, Iowa ioj Charleston, S. C 49. Chattanooga, Tenn 12, Chelsea, Mass 21, Chester, Pa 14, Chicago, lU 503 Cincinnati, Ohio 255. Clt:veland, Ohio 160 Columbia, S. C 10, Coliimbu.s, Ohio.. . Covington, Ky ... 5I; 29 Cohocs, N. Y 19. 18, Council Bluffs, Iowa , Concord, N. H , Cortland, N. Y Chicopee, Mass Chillicothe, Ohio Detroit, Mich Dayton, Ohio , Denver, Colo Des Moines, Iowa.... Dubuque, Iowa , Dover, N.H Danhury, Conn , Derby, Conn Dallas, Tex , Davenport, Iowa.... Evans^illc, Ind Elizabeth, N. J ^Erie, Pa ,512. ,Q03- ,63i. ,063. ,658. ,716. ,711. .106. .398- ,111 . .924- -023. .825. ,960. ,190. ,S=7. 1693- ,682. 1652. .315- ,184. ,535- ,145- ,608. ,689. .'37- .364- ,450. ,544- ,740. . ,658.. ,25s.. ,679.. ,104. . 999- • ,892. . ,735- ,996., 304., ,708. ,142. ,040. ,665. ,720. ,417- ,059. ,838. 12,664. ■1,3=5- 10,938 . 116.342. 38,677- 35.630. 22,408. 22,254- 11,687. 11,669. 11,657. 10,358. 21,834. 29,280. . 28,229. • 27.730- ■>9S 218 . 7 .129 97 .225 ,179 ,124 ■"=5 ■ 5 , 69 .161 • 3 • >3 .208 .105 .204 • 3" . 44 .■83 .177 .242 • 36 •■74 • 89 Elmira, N. Y 20,541 . , 99 East Saginaw, Mich 19,016. .110 Easton, Pa 11, 924.. 193 Eau Claire, Wis 10,118. .241 Fall River, Mass 49,006.. 37 Fort Wayne, Ind 26,880.. 74 Flushing, N. Y 15,919.. 140 Fond du Lac, Wis 13.091. .171 Fitchburg, Mass 12, 405.. 182 Fishkill, N. Y 10*732 . . 223 Georgetown. D. C 12,578. .180 Grand Rapids, Mich .... 32,015.. 58 Galveston, Tex 22,253.. ^4 Gloucester, Mass 19,329.-107 Galesburg, 111 11,446. .206 Hempstead, N. Y 18,160. .117 Hartford, Conn 42,553.. 42 Hoboken,N.J 30,999.. 61 Harrisburg, Pa 30,762.. 62 Holyoke, Mass 21,851.. 87 Houston, Tex 18,646. .113 Haverhill, Mass 18 475. .114 Hyde Park, 111 15.716. .143 Hamilton, Ohio 12,122. .187 Hannibal, Mo 11,074. -216 Indianapolis, Ind 75»o74- • =4 Jersey City, N. J 120,728. . 17 Johnstown, N. Y 16,626.. 132 Joliet, 111 1 1, 675.. 203 Jackson, Mich 16, 105.. 136 Jacksonville, 111 10,927. .221 Jeffcrsonville, Ind 10,422. .230 Jamaica, N. Y 10,089. .243 Kansas City. Mo 55.813.. 30 Kingston, N. Y 18,342. .115 Keokuk, Iowa 12,117. .188 Kalamazoo, Mich 11,937. .194 Louisville, Ky 123,645. . 16 Lowell, Mass 59,485.. 27 Lawrence, Mass 39,187.. 46 Lynn, Mass 38,284.. 48 Lancaster, Pa 25,769.. 77 Lewiston, Maine 19,083. .108 Long Island Ciiy,N.Y... 17,117. .127 Lexington, Ky 16,656. .131 Leavenworth, Kan 16,550. .133 Lynchburg, Va 15.959- '139 Lafayette, Ind 14,860. .149 Lcadville, Colo 14,820. .150 La Crosse, Wis 14,505. .151 Lincoln, R. 1 13,765. .156 Lockport, N. Y 13,522. .163 Little Rock, Ark 13,185. .169 Lincoln, Neb 13,004.. 173 Los Angclt^, Cal 11,311. .211 Logansport, Ind 11.198. .214 Lennox, N. Y 10,249.. 236 Milwaukee, Wis 115,578.. 19 Minneapolis, Minn 46,887.. 38 Memphis, Tenn 33.593" 54 Name of Citv. Manchester, N. H 32,630.. 56 Mobile, Ala 31,205.. 60 Meriden, Conn 18, 340.. 116 Montgomery, Ala 16,714. .130 Macon, Ga 12,748. .175 Maiden, Mass 12,017. .191 Middletown, Conn 11,731. .197 Muskegon, Mich 11,262. .213 Madison, Wis 10,325. .234 Marlboro, Mass 10,126. .240 Newburyport, Mass 13,537. .162 New York, N. Y 1,206,590.. 1 New Orleans, La 216,140. . 10 Newark, N. J 136,400.. 15 New Haven, Conn 62,882.. 26 New Bedford, Mass 26,875.. 75 Norfolk. Va 21,966.. 86 Norwich, Conn 21,141.. 93 Newport, Ky 20,433.. 100 Newburg, N. Y 18,050.-121 New Brunswick, N. J. .. 17,167. .126 Newton, Mass 16,995.. 123 New Albany, Ind 16,422. .135 Newport, R, I 15,693. .144 New Britain, Conn 13,978. .152 Norwalk, Conn 13,956. .153 New Lots, N. Y 13,681.. 158 Nashua, N. H i3)397. -'64 Norristown, Pa 13,064.. 172 Northampton, Mass 12,172. .184 New London, Conn 10,529. .227 North Adams, Mass 10,192. .238 Nashville, Tenn 43,461.. 40 Oakland. Cat 34.556- • 5° Omaha, Neb 30,518.. 64 Oswego, N. Y 21,117. . 94 Oshkosh, Wis 15,749. .142 Orange, N.J 13,206. .168 Oyster Bay, N. Y 11,923. .194 Ogdensburg, N. Y 10,340. .233 Pittsburg. Pa 156,381.. 12 Providence, R. 1 104.850.. 20 Paterson, N. J 50,887.. 34 Portland, Maine 33,810.. 53 Peoria, 111 29,315. . 67 Petersburg, Va 21,656.. 90 Poughkeepsie, N . Y 20,207 • • ^'^~ Pawluckct, R. 1 19,030. .109 Pittsfield, Mass 13.367- .165 Pottsville, Pa >3.aS3--i67 Portsmouth, Va 11,388. ,207 Portsmouth. Oliio 11,314. .210 Philadelphia, Pa 846,984. . 2 Portland, Oregon 17, 577.. 122 Quincy. Ill 27,275.. 73 Qnincy, Mass 10,529. .228 Rochester, N. Y 89,363.. 22 Richmond, Va 63,803.. 25 Reading, Pa 43,280.. 41 Racine, Wis 16,031. .138 Rockford, 111 13,136.-170 Richmond, Ind 12, 743- .176 Name of City. Rutland, Vt 12, 149.. 186 Rome, N. Y 12,045. .190 Rock Island, 111 11,660. .202 St. Louis, Mo 350,522 ■ San Francisco, Cal 232,956. Syracuse, N. Y 51,791. Scranton, Pa 45,850- St. P.^ul, Minn 41,498. Springfield, Mass 33,340. St. Joseph, Mo 32,484. Savannah, Ga 30,681. Salem, Mass 27,598. SomerviUe, Mass 24,985. Sacramento, Cal 21,420, Salt Lake City, Utah 20,768. Springfield, Ohio 20,729. San Antonio, Tex 20,561. Springfield, III 19,749. Sandusky, Ohio 15,838. Schenectady, N. Y 13,675. South Bend, Ind 13.279 . San Jose, Cal 12,567. Steubenville, Ohio 12,093. Stamford, Conn 11 ,298 . Shreveport, La 11,017. Saratoga Springs, N. Y. . 10,822. Saugcrties, N. Y io,375- Saginaw, Mich 10,525. Stockton, Cal 10,287. Shenandoah, Pa 10,148 . Troy, N. Y 56,747 Toledo, Ohio 50. 14,^. Trenton, N.J 29,910. Terre Haute, Ind 26,040. Taunton, Mass 21,213. Topeka, Kan 15,451- Utica, N. Y 33.913- 32 39 45 55 57 63 72 78 91 95 96 98 103 141 159 ,166 .181 ,189 ,212 ,217 .222 .231 .229 ■235 ■239 ■ 29 ■ 35 ■ 65 . 76 . 92 .145 Virginia City, Nev 13^705. .157 Vicksburg, Miss 11,814.. 196 Washington, D. C 147, Warwick, R. 1 12, Worcester, Mass ........ 58, Wilmingttm, Del 42, Wheeling, W. Va 31, Wilkesbarre, Pa 23, Watervliet, N. Y 22, Waterburj', Conn 20, Williamsport, Pa 18, Wilmington, N. C 17 Woonsocket, R. 1 16, Walikill, N. Y 11, Woburn, Mass 10, Watertown, N. Y 10, Weymouth, M.iss 10, Winona, Minn 10, Waltham, Mass 11, Yonkers, N. Y 18, Youngstown, Ohio 15, York, Pa 13, Zanesville.Ohio 18, 3"7- - 14 ■ 63. .1S5 295- . 28 499- • 43 266. - 59 339. • 79 202. . 85 =69. .101 934- .111 36.. .123 053- -■37 483. .205 938. . 220 697- -224 57' ■ .226 20S. .237 711. ■■99 892. .112 43>- .146 940. • ■54 »\ \ FAST TIME. 585 ■i / ^FASO^ T?IME1^ THE FASTEST STEAMSHIP. STEAMBOAT AND RAILROAD TIME. Tlic fastest Steamship time across the Atlantic is the run of the Oregon, from Queenslown to New York, in 1884, 6 days. loliuiirs, 30 minutes. The f.istest L/iComotivc lime was made on the New York Ceiitial— 1:1 miles in »nc liniir, 40 minutes, or 109 minutes. The hest Steamboat records arc as follows ; The Mary Powkll, from New York to I'ouKhkecpsic, 76 miles, in 3 hours and 13 minutes. The South Ambkica, 26 miles -on the Hudson, in 1 hour. FASTEST RUNNING RECORDS. MILBS. NAME. PLACE. VEAK. TIME. Vt, . Belle '. Galveston ( lex.) 1 880 0:21 )i •4- Olitii'A Saratoga 1874 0:47^ y%, RosAHY Louisville 1883 >:oiJ^ ^. Pearl Jennings Louisville 1883 ^'■'^'iVA }i. Uttlk Phil Monmouth Park 1882 i.=8K 1. Ten Hkocck Louisville 1877 *"3S^ I 1-16. Ckbosotu I^kiisvilte 1882 ^'-i^M i^. Rosalie Brighton Beach i88i i'oi% I % . Getaway Saratoga 1881 a :oy% I m. 5cx> yds. Brno Ok Saratog.i 1882 2:10^4 i}i. Uncas Sheepshead Bay 1880 2:21^ 1%. LuKii Blackburn Slonmouih Park 1880 2:34 i-H. Bend Ok Saratoga 1882 2:49 1^. Gli DELIA Saratog.i 1882 3:01 2. Ten Bkoeck I^iuisville 1877 3:27?-^ 2J4. Monitor Baltimore 1880 3:44 J^ ,/ f Springbok )c . „ ,,/ =''^- IPkkaknkss jSaratoga 1S75 So^J^ 2j«. Aristidfs Lexington 1876 4:27!^ s^f. Ten Bkoeck Lexington 1876 4:58^ 2^. HuiiUAKu Saratoga 1873 4:58^ 3. LiDA Stanhope Saratoga 1882 5:25 4. '1"ln Bkoeck Louisvdle 1876 7^1 sK HEAT RACKS. ;•<. Red Oak Carson City (Xcv.). .1879 .0:48^—0:49 ■/i- J*^*^ Howell San Francisco 188a .i:i^l4 — 1'^5 3 heats, Premium winning 1st in ^'^4l4 t. Bounce Sheepshead Bay ....1881 .. .::42— 1:41^ 1. 3 in 3. L" Argentine. . .St. Louis, 1879, won the ist, 3d and 4th heats 1 143— i :44— i :47^ 1 1-16. IJeni> Or Louisville 1883. .. 1:49 — ^o^J^ 3 heats. Bootjack winning 1st in 1:49!^. lis. Gabriel Sheepshead Bay 1880 ...1:56—1:56 il^. Glen.morb Sheepshead Bay 1880 2:10 — 2:14 3 heats, Mary Anderson winning ist in 2:09 , - ( Keno Toledo, iSS-j. .(ist and 3d heats) 2:43J4 — 2:45 ■-* \ (Belle of Nelson won 2d heat in 2:45.) ( *Brai)A,mantk Jackson (Miss.) 1877 .3:325^ — 3:39 2. s Willie D Prospect Park 1879 .3:34/5—3:35 ( •Bradamante's record d'nioiful. 3. Norfolk Sacramento 1865 .5:27^—5:29^ 4. Kerida Sheepshead Bay 1880 .7:2;}^ — 7:41 HURDLE RACES. I. .SwANNANOK Brighton Beach 1S81 1:50 if s. Kavev Saratoga 1882 2:06 1%. Jim McGowAN Brighton Be.ich 1882 2:16 i.'b. Speculation Jerome Park 1881 2:40. ,/ f Kitty Clark ) n ■ l. r> u 00 '^- ispRCVLATloN |Bnghton Bcich .881 2:47 i)i. ll'DiTii Monmouth P.irk 1880 y-^7h4 ''oM Lrathp.ks New C>rle.ins 1875 3^47^ •'875 4:33 .i87S.i:5o>i— i:5oJ< FAST TROTTERS AND THEIR RECORDS. NAME. TIME. 7\{. Cariboo Monmouth Park. Mile Heats. Job Rhodes St. Louis FASTEST TROTTING RECORDS. One Mile in Harness — Maud S One Mile to Wagon— Hoprpul One Mile to Saddle — Great Eastern One Mile with Running Male— Yfllow Dock One Mile— Double Team— Matd S. and Aldins (1883) OneMllc— Pacing— With running male- Wkstmont (at Chicaero. 1884) ?.. Two MUes in H.-imess- Maud Ciiiep ThreeMilcs in Harness— Huntress Four Miles in Harness — Tkistee Fi\«: Miles in Harness — Lady AL\ck Ten Miles in Harness — Controller , 2:09^ 2:1614 2:'5^ 2:11 201K 4:46 11:06 13:00 37:235^ PLACE. YEAR. Maud S Cleveland i88s 2:«8^ Jay-Eve-See Providence 1884 auo St. Julikn Hartford 1880. Rakus Buffalo 1878 . , Goldsmith Maid Boston '^Z*** Clingstone Cleveland 1882. , Trinket New York. 1881., HopEPUL Minneapolis 1878. LuLA ButTalo 1875., Smuggler Hartford '^?^* Hattik Woodward Rochester 1880. .877. 1874. 2:14 3:14 a:i4 .1879 a:>6>4 .882. .1882., .1880. .1873., .1874. .1867. .1882. .1881.. .1878. Lucille CJolddust Rochester ... American Girl Albany Darby Utica Edwin Thorne Chicago Jerome Eddy Buffalo Charlie Ford Chicago Occident Sacramento . (Jloster Rochester . . . Dexter Buffalo Black Cloi-d Chicago Piedmont Chicago So So Hartford .... Santa Claus Chicago Hannis .Hartford .... Edwin Forrest Utica Dick Swiveller Utica Great Eastern Buffalo i87§. Kate Sprague Rochester 1881., Judge Fullekton Cleveland ^875. Proteins Saginaw 1879. Nettie Boston 1874. Red Cloud Buffalo 1874 2:18 RoBRKT McGregor Chicago 1881 2:18 Lady Thorne Providence 1869 3:i8^ Fanny Withersjhion Poughkecpsic i88a ^'•i&H Lady Maud Rochester 1875 2:185^ Lucy Buffalo 1872 ^'^^H Midnight Buffalo 1878 2:i8Vi PiCKARD Hartford 1882 2:18^ Rosa Wilkes Cleveland 1882 2:<8^ Slow Go Cleveland 1877 2:18^ Monroe Chirp Chicago 1880 2:i8j| CoL. Lewis San Francisco 1878 2:i8;4 I. B. Thomas Chicago 1881 2:18^^ WILLIAM Chicago 1882 2:i8J^ Patch EN Hartford 1880 2:18x1 Clrora Chicago 1882 2:18^ Nutwood Stockton (Cal.) 1879 2:18)$ 16K 2:.6J4 2:16^ 2:16% 2:17 2:i7j< 2:17^ 2:18 2:18 2:18 2:18 2:18 2:18 Adele LlovLD Buffalo 1882. Albemarle Hanford 1878. Alexander Rochcslcr i83i. Alley Chicago 1879. BoNRSETTER Rochester "879. CoZETTE Rocheslcr 876. Edward Providence 1878. Graves Stockton 1879. Kitty Bates Buffalo 1880. Minnie R Chicago 1882. WEDtlEWotiD Hartford 1882. Aldine Hartford 1882. BoDlNE Kast Sa(;inavv »875. Comeu Hartford 1877. Croxib Buffalo 1878. GEORtvB Palmer Providence 1869. Jim Keenb Buffalo : 1880. Parana Beacon Park 1880, Driver Long Island 1880. Moose Rochester 1882. Romero...; Stockton 1882. Thos. L. Young Fleetwood Park, N.Y.i875 2;i9'j^ Von Arnim Rochester 1882 2:19^ Will Cody Chicago 1880 2:195^ Adelaide Buffalo 1878 s:'9K Camoks Buffalo 1874 2:i9« 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:19 2:i9K 2:19^ '■'<>% =:i9H 2:1954 i-.tg'A 2:195^ Daisy DALE Cleveland 1880. Deck Wright Buffalo 1880. Doctor Norman Cleveland 1882. Flora Temple Kalama^^oo 1859. John S. Clarke Rochester 1881 . JoSBPHus Hartford j88i. 2: '9% 2:i9« 2:i9K 2:19^ 2;i9Ji 2;i9ji -Vj K" 586 DURATION AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE. "Tf TABLES OF DURATION AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE. Constructed bv Dr. Fakk, F. R. S. 23 24 25 26 2S 29 ,^0 3" 32 33 34 35 36 PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN- NING OF YEAR. !>SO,507 7yf'.S27 768,589 750,133 736,818 726,919 7'9,iS' 7 '2, 592 707.'34 7o-',S09 698,481 6c)(,S4+ 6c)i,4i3 688,051 684,563 68o,S74 676,937 672,62a 667,900 662,750 657,'67 65',4'» 645,751 639,931 634,045 628,o<>5 622,086 616,021 fcij.cpo 603,724 597,493 591,206 584,863 S7S,4S9 .57i,9'.)3 565,460 5' ",745 428,026 400,505 386,290 377,077 370.358 365,325 361, ,572 358,062 355,328 353 ,03 > 3S'.04S 349,272 347,606 .345,969 .344,290 342,5011 340,581 ,338,469 336,149 333, 60S ,330,8+4 328,043 325,207 322,3,39 319,422 3"6,5'6 313.562 310,581 .307,572 .304.534 301 ,466 298,366 295,232 292,061 283,850 285,596 488,255 422,481 .396,322 382,290 373,056 ,566,460 361 ,594 357,779 354.530 351,806 3*9,478 347,433 ,345,572 343.807 342,062 340,273 3,38,385 336,356 3.34,15" 331,751 329,142 326,323 323,456 320,544 317,592 3i4,f>03 311,579 308,524 .305,440 .302,328 299,190 296,027 292,840 289,611 286,3,^8 283,143 279.864 O u s (- 3 u 149,493 53,680 28,238 18,456 13,315 9,899 7.7f'S 6,5.59 5.458 4.625 4,028 3.637 3.431 3.382 i,6(V 3,957 4.317 4.720 5.150 5.5S3 5.668 S.748 5,820 5,886 5,950 6,001} 6,065 6,121 6,176 6,251 6,287 6,343 6,404 6,466 6,S,?3 6,601 38 39 40 41 42 43 44- 45 46 47 48 49 PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN- NING OF YEAR. 558,859 552,181 545.425 538,584 531.653 524,626 517,499 510.263 502,915 495,448 487,856 480,134 472,277 464,280 456,139 447.725 439.13s 430,374 421, "5 41 1, .532 401 ,62 5 ,391,378 .380,785 360,827 358,489 346,752 334,603 322,031 .509,0:9 295.599 2S1 ,753 267,509 252.902 237.977 222,793 207,424 282,296 278,944 275.538 272,073 268,544 264,948 261,280 257,534 253.708 249,796 245.795 24 1 ,700 2.37.508 233.216 228,821 224. 19S 2'9.4.37 214,552 209,539 204,395 '99.114 193,686 iS8,i02 182,350 176,421 170,303 '63,98') '57,474 '50,754 143.S.33 1.36.718 129,421 121,963 ■ 14,370 106,67s 98,919 276,563 273,2,57 269,887 266,511 263,109 259,67s 256,219 252,729 249,207 245,652 242,061 238,4,14 234 ,76.) 231,064 227,31s 223,5,50 219,698 215,822 21 1 ,576 207,137 2o3,5a> 197,692 192,683 1S7.477 182,068 176.449 170,614 '64,557 ■58,275 151,766 '45,035 138,088 130,939 123,607 ll6,llS 108,505 J - ■= O u s ^- Q " 6,67s 6,756 6,841 6,931 7,027 7,127 7.236 7.34S 7.467 7.592 7.722 7,857 7,997 8,141 8,414 8,590 8,761 9,259 9,583 9.909 'O.245 '0,593 10,958 '1,3.38 11,737 12,149 12,572 13,002 13,430 13.S46 14.244 14,607 ■4.925 ■5.184 ■5.369 ■5.46S 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 So Si 82 84 S5 86 I 89 go 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 lOI 102 '03 104 105 106 107 108 PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN- NING OF YEAR. ■91.956 ■76,487 91.149 83.416 161,124 145,988 ■31.199 ii6,S8o 103,154 90.133 77.919 66,599 50,241 40,889 .38,565 3 ',26s 24,967 19,621 15,162 1 1,509 8,576 6,266 4,485 3,142 2.153 1,440 940 598 370 223 ■31 74 41 75,777 68,294 61 ,026 54,036 47.381 41.115 35.2S3 29,922 25,060 20,711 16,877 13,549 10,709 8,325 6,360 4,770 3.510 2,^:51 ■.787 ■.234 54S 352 220 134 100,807 93.071 85,347 77.694 70,173 62,844 55,773 49,0 1 s 42,656 ,36,677 31,181 26,178 21,688 ■7.716 14.258 11,296 S,So2 6,739 5,066 3,735 2,698 1,908 1 ,320 892 5SS 2.36 ■44 S5 49 27 15 J s a fc < - O (31 -■ 15.469 15.363 ■5. 1.36 ■4.7S9 ■4.319 13.726 13,021 12,214 ■ 1,320 10,358 9.352 S.324 7.300 6,298 5,346 4,4.59 3,653 2,933 2,510 1,781 '.343 989 713 500 342 22S 147 92 57 33 Note. — The annual rate of mortalily of males of all ages is 1 in 39.91, and of females, 1 in 41.85. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. .39-9^ 41-85 20 u 40.29 40 26.06 27-34 60 ■3-53 ■4-34 So 4-93 5.26 I "^gs 47-3' 21 39-63 .3S.98 4' 25-39 26.69 61 12.96 '3-75 Si 4.66 4-98 2 4S.S3 49.40 22 3S..3 42 24-73 26.03 62 12.41 '3-'7 S2 4.41 4.71 3 49.61 50.20 23 .37-46 38-33 43 24.07 25-38 63 11.87 12.60 S3 4.17 4-45 4 49.81 50-43 24 36 79 37-68 44 23-4' 24.72 64 ■■-.34 12.05 84 3-95 4.21 5 49.71 50-33 ' 25 36.12 37-04 45 22.76 24.06 65 iO.S2 11.51 85 3-73 3-9S 6 49-39 4S.92 48-37 50.00 26 35-44 36.. 39 46 22.11 23.40 66 10.32 10.9S 86 X-Si 3-76 I :§:^ 27 28 .34-77 .34- '0 .35-75 35-10 $ 21.46 20.52 22. C^ S t% 10.47 9-97 9-4S i 3 -.34 3.16 3-56 3-36 9 47-74 48.35 29 33-43 .34-46 49 20.17 21.42 69 S.90 89 3.00 3.18 10 47-05 47.67 30 32.76 33-Si SO ■9-54 1S.90 20.75 70 S.45 9.02 90 2.84 3.01 11 46.31 46-95 31 32.09 33-17 S' 20.09 T 8.03 8-57 91 2.69 2.85 12 45-54 46.20 32 31.42 I'M 52 1S.2S 19.42 72 7.62 8. 13 92 2-55 2.70 13 44.76 45-44 44.fi6 33 30.74 53 17.67 ;i:S 73 7.22 7-7' 93 2.41 2-55 14 43-97 34 .30.07 3'-23 54 17.06 74 6.S5 7-3' 94 2.29 2.42 15 43-18 43-1/5 35 29.40 30-59 55 fa ■7-43 75 6-49 6-93 95 2.17 2.29 16 42.40 43-14 36 28.73 29.94 56 16.79 76 6-15 6.56 96 2.06 2-17 '7 41. f4 42.40 3t 2S.06 29.29 57 .5.26 .6.17 11 5-S2 6.21 \t 2.06 iS 40.1/3 41.67 38 27-39 2S.64 S8 14. 6S ■S-SS S'S' 5-88 ■ '-t ■9 40.17 40.97 39 26.72 27-99 59 14.10 14.94 79 5-21 S-S6 99 100 i':6s 1.S6 1.76 The mean lifetime of males is 39.91 years, and of females, 41,85. /• DEPARTMENT OI'" PUULIC BUSINESS. SS7 ^ PUBLIC BUSINESS. § A Complete Digest of Pari ^ ^Y'lIE origin of Parliament- ary Law is to be found in the customs and rules of the British Parliament, the first deliberative body of the modern world. When tlie Jutes and Saxons left their over-crowded homes in the Low Dutch Lands and sailed to England, they carried with them the ll^itc/ia Goiiote, the root from which has sprung ev- ery Congress and Parliament, every Town Meeting and Con- vention, every Caucus and De- bating Society which the Anglo- Saxon race in the Old World, or the New, has held. Set rules governing the proceedings of Par- liament began first to be established about A. D. 1 1 80, so that now Parliamentary Science is about seven hundred years old. In the course of time these rules became more extended and exact, the conduct of public meetings was re- duced to a science, until at the present day the man who is not familiar with them is apt to ex- pose himself as one of imperfect education, and to make blunders which bring himself into ridi- cule, and the cause which he is supporting into ^P lamentary Law and Rules. danger. In America, where every matter, grave or light, affecting the public, or any part of it, is promptly made the subject of a meeting, the man who has not Parliamentary Law and Prac- tice at his fingers' ends is compelled either always to take a back seat and let less able men come forward, or else be in constant danger of an absurd display of ignorance unworthy of an American citizen. Fortunately, however, the whole subject is easi- ly mastered, and easily retained in the memory. It is based upon certain clearly laid down prin- ciples, and if we were asked to give in one sentence a comprehensive definition of Parlia- mentary Law, we should promptly answer that it was common sense divided into rules. Those things that appear strange are really founded upon reason, and the more the student attacks the subject the more evident do its harmonies appear. Anyone who will carefully study the following digest will thoroughly master the subject. CALLING A MEETING. It would be much easier to make a list of the subjects for which meetings should not be called than of those for which they should. Generally, all those matters which affect a considera- ble part of the community, of the church, or of the business to which one belongs, are proper matters for counsel and discus- sion among friends, and for meetings among citizens. The forms used in calling meetings sl'ould be ver)- brief and pointed, \ 588 PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. intimating plainly what the gathering is for, where and when it is to meet. For instance, forms to be printed in the newspapers should take this shape : Notice.— The members of the Second Presbyterian Church are requested to meet at ISIr, James Kyle's residence, 241 Walker street, on Tuesday evenintj, January 15th, at eight o'clock, to consider ways and means of rebuildinij the parsonage. Or thus : DEMOCRATS OF THE THIRD WARD, ATTENTION I A mass meeting- of the Democrats of the Third Ward will be held at Lafayette Hall, on Locust and Main streets, on Friday evenin;:;", Oct. 3d, at 7*. 30, p, ni., in accordance with the order of the Central Coin- niitlee, to select three deleg^ates for the City Convention on Saturday, Oct. 4th. The Hon. C. F. Pease, Jud^e Bradley Adams, Sheriff Por- son, and others, will address the meeting. Sometimes it is necessaiy that meetings should be called without publicity, when a form like this might be used : [ C ONFIDENTIA L . ] St. Louis, Jan, 12th, iSSo. James Ashton, Esq., Asliton & Co., Grocers. Dear Sir: Ynur attention is called to the fact that the retail dealers in coffee are cutting- prices until there is little or no profit 1 'ft in the trade. Quite a number of us have agreed to meet at the Majj^nolia Club next Saturday evening, to discuss the situation, and see if some measures can not be taken which will enable all of the firms to do a more satisfactory business than at present. Please either be present yourself, or send a representative empowered to act for you, and oblige Yours very respectfully, Spotts & Tremaine. J. R. Osgood A: Co. H. A. MiLLiiit & Son. These forms might be greatly increased in number, but the reader will see the shape upon wliich it is best to found them. Be cure that written notices are sent to all interested, and that printed ones are inserted several times before the event which they advertise is to occur. ORGANIZING A MEETING. As soon as a sufficient number have gathered together at the place of meeting, some gentleman — and it is well that the per- sons calling the meeting should select this person with care ; it is best to choose some well-known and representative citizen — ■ will mount the speakers' stand and r»p with the gavel on the table until the assembly is brought to order. He will then nom- inate some person present for chairman, using the simple fomi, "I move that Mr. John Gilkeson act as chairman of this meet- ing." ^\^len the motion is seconded he will at once put it to the house, saying, "It is moved and seconded that John Gilke- son act as chairman of this meeting. Those in favor will say ' aye'." Those in favor of Gilkeson will vote " aye " in a clear tone of voice. The temporary chairman will continue, " Those opposed say 'no'." If Mr. Gilkeson is defeated other names are proposed until a chairman is elected, when the one chosen will be escorted to the chair, and the gavel handed to him by the temporary chairman, who at once leaves tlie stand and takes a seat among the members. The chairman raps for order and after a word or two of thanks for the honor conferred upon him should proceed to lay clearly before the meeting the purpose for which it has been called. This is not the time for eloquence or for attempts at fine speaking. The chairman should endeavor to frame his remarks so that every person in the hall will under- stand clearly and definitely just what the matter for discussion is. It is in good taste for the chair to call upon any other mem- ber of the meeting to express the purpose for which it has lieen called if the chairman docs not feel himself thoroughly able to explain it. But if the chair means to call upon some other member to speak, he should first proceed to the election of a secretai-y, who, when elected, will read the call, and the chair will tlien call on the person whom he wishes to address the house ; otherwise the secretary is not usually chosen until after the president has spoken. GETTING TO WORK. Wlien the secretaiy has been elected and the purpose of the meeting stated, the next duty of the chairman is to get the assembly to work with as little delay as possible. Suppose, for example, it is proposed to rebuild the church parsonage lately destroyed by fire. The chairman will say, "Gentlemen, you have heard the reasons why this meeting has been called. What is the pleasure of the house ? " A member will rise to his feet and say, " Mr. Chairman." The chairman will look towards the speaker and say, " Mr. Mclntyre," or, if he does not know the gentleman's name, he will say, " The gentleman to my right," indicating the speaker with a wave of his hand. The purpose of this is to draw the attention of the meeting to the person about to speak. Mr. Mclntyre then says, "I move that a committee of three be appointed by the chair to report ways and means of raising $5,000 for the rebuilding of the parsonage." This motion being seconded, the chair announces, "It is 'moved and seconded that a committee of three to report ways and means of raising $5,000 to rebuild the parsonage be appomted by the chair." The matter now becomes debatable, and any member may rise and address the chair as to the pro- priety or impropriety of appointing such committee. When the discussion seems to be concluded, tlie chair will ask, "Are you ready for the question?" To which the members will respond by caUing, " Question ! " "Question ! " The chair will then very distinctly repeat Uie motion so that all can hear it clearly : "It is moved and seconded that a committee of three be appointed by the chair to report ways and means of raising $5,000 to rebuild the parsonage. Those in favor of the motion will say 'aye.'" The ayes vote. "Those opposed will say 'no.'" The noes vote. If the chairman thinks the ayes are in a major- ity he will say, "The ayes seem to have it," and then, after a pause, if no one calls for a division, "The ayes have it." If a division is called for, however, the chairman will call upon those in favor of the motion to take one side of the hall and those opposed to go to the other, when he may appoint tellers to count the votes, or count them himself. Or he may make a division by causing each parly to raise their hands in turn, or to rise up from their seats and remain standing while being counted. The motion having carried, the chair will proceed to appoint the committee, remembering that Parliamentary Eti- quette demands that the person who moved the appointment shall be be made chairman of the committee. The chair will also decide, as it was not incorporated in the motion, when the report shall be made. If it is probable that the work can be done in a half hour or an hour.he will order the committee to report in that time; if longer, it is wiser to adjourn over to an- other evening. The committee having gone out to work, and there being no business before the assembly, the chair may announce a recess, or call upon some one present for a speech, a /* 7^ ^ \ PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. 5S9 it. recitation or a song ; in this way, or in conversation, the inter- val may he passcers carefully. Do not allow members to remove them after they are read. 5th. See to it that all committees are properly warned of their appointment, and of the business they are to do. 6th. In w riling minutes make them as short as possible, but include every important matter. Four Things a Member Should Remember. 1st. Unless the chair is assisted by every member in the maintenance of order, l.iusiness will be retarded. 2nd. Always rise when about to speak, and address the chair- man alone. Be silent until he makes the necessary recognilitm. 3id. Be careful to keep to the point in your remarks, and never speak twice on a matter while there are other members waiting to be heard. 4th. That speaker is listened to with attention who only speaks when he has something pertinent to say. ^y \ PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. 591 / THREE HUNDRED POINTS OF ORDER. DECIDED AT ONE GLANCE, ON A SINGLE PAGE. BLANKS IN COLUMNS AFFIRM STATEMENTS AT THE HEAD--THE NEGATIVE DENIES THEM. • Not (U-I>:it:iMe when another question is hcforc the House. f An affirniative vote on this question cannot be rec u '^ u t . U ■Eg ^•= c rt K no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no 8ih no no * no no 2<1 1st no no no no no no no no no no 7lh Motion to limit debate no no no no no Molion to lay on the table no no no no '.'.'.'J\ 4lh no Srd no no no ....li no gth 6lh Motion for previous tiviestion no no no no no no Sth Motion to I'cconsiider a debatable ciuestion M(jtic)n to reconsider an undebatable Guestion no no no no no no no no no Motion to suspend rules » no no no no no no no no no no no no Motion to withdraw a motion no no no no Question of iirivilege , . . . c no no no Leave to continue speaking after breach of decorum no no no no no Motion that Committee rise FORMS IN WHICH QUESTIONS MAY BE PUT. On motion for previous question, the form ul)serve(I is: "Shall the main question be put?" This if carried ends debate. On motion for order of the day: "Will the House now proceed to the order of the day?" Thisif canned supersedes interven- ing motions. WTien objection is raised to considering question : " Shall the cpiestion be considered ? " On motion to strike out words: "Sh.all the words stand part of the motion?" If this be not carried, the words are struck out. On an appeal from decision of Chair: "Sliall the decision be sustained as the ruling of the House?" When yeas and nays are ordered by the House: "As many as are in favor of will answer a;'C those opposed will answer tio, when their names are called." When a member has been counted on the side against which he intended to vote, the presiding officer can order the amend- ment of the vote, having first asked the member: "On which side he intended to give his voice?" This correction can be made only on the member's own representation. \ -o V 592 PETITIONS AND MEMORIALS. T1 M EM0RIAL8: lil ■ _ f '(.f^ AND PETITIONS. ^^r-" ^ ^ ^ ^ -"-^-^^^ The right of rdition: is an expression frequently met with in Englisli liistory. Tlie earnestness witli which the people of that country strove for the maintenance of the right is a proof of its great importance. Tlie riglit of Petition necessarily im- plies the right of being heard and heeded. The bodies to wliom petitions are addressed are first of all Congress, the President and the executive departments of the Government, State Governors and Assemblies, Mayors, City Councils, and lastly public and private corporations of every kind. Certain set forms are used in addressing these assemblies and persons, and although the matter may vary infinitely it must always be put in a respectful and decorous manner. The me- morial to Congress presented by the Mississippi River Conven- tion, which assembled in St. Louis October, 1881, is one of the best exemples of this kind extant. It will be found first among the forms whicli follow, necessarily abbreviated to fit the space at our disposal. MEMORIAL TO CONGRESS. To the Senate attd House of Representatives of the United States, in General Assembly convened : The Executive Committee of the Mississippi River Improvement Convention, held in the city of St. Louis, Missouri, in October last, under one of the resolutions unanimously adopted, were charged with the duty of preparing and presenting to the Congress of the United St:ites a memorial embodyin^r the action of the Convention, accom- panied with such statistics ana information as the Committee might deem expedient. The Convention which committed this grave duty to your memor- ialists was one representing, in an unusual degree, the commercial and industrial power of the country. The highest order of talent, judgment matured by careful thought and Inrge experience of the great question so intimately connected with the progress and devel- opment of tlie imperial domain compreliended, met in council, and the important question was considered by men representing twenty States and three Territories, and half the population of the Union. Not less remarkable was the variety of interests gathered and given utterance to there. Tliefarmers andmerchants, the bankers, the man- ufacturers, the professions, and the heads of great transportation lines by river and by rail, with earnest zeal discussed, and with strik- ing unanimity reached the conclusion embodied in the resolutions adopted by the Convention, and which it now becomes the duty of your memorialists to urge upon the National Legislature. ********* ** The aid now asked, and the benefits sought to be received through the liberal action of the Government, is not alone for the present, nor for the near succeeding years, but stretches to the distant future — that eventful and busy future for which it is the duty and business of statesmanship to prepare. The Vallev States and those in the farther West and Southwest, bound together by the chords of a common in- terest, are fast gaining the political power winch will nuike them the grantors instead of the solicitors of favors through the instrumentali- ty of the Government. A compliance now with their reasonable de- mands will be gratetully recogni/.ed, and will liereafter lind reciprocal respttnse. A refusal will breed an antagonism of sections which may lead to sectional issues. And now we ask, can there be a more propitious time for the National Legislature to recognize the value and importance of the work ? The products of the Mississippi Valley, carried cheaply by the river route (and through its influence less expensively by railj to the outer markets, have thrown the balance of the world's trade grandly in our favor. Since this power and influence has been recognized, tor the first time in our history we now have among kindred commercial na- tions the rank of creditor. The long-sought position has been ob- tained through the agency of cheap transportation from the interior to the sea ; a policy we can only maintain by carx'ying the thouglit to tlie utmost conclusion. The report of the Secretary of the Treasury, and favorably present- ed by President Arthur in his message, shows a surplus revenue of over $100,000,000 for the last fiscal year, and tlie question suggests itself, how can this accruing surplus oe properly and most benehcially expended? Those for whom we speak do not complain of the bur- dens of taxation. They do not ask for the present reduction or speedy extinguishment of the national debt, but they do ask that this surplus shall m part be applied to their great and cheap thoroughfares, feel- ing that when this is done they can bear the burdens imposed by the Government in the form of taxes much easier than those resulting from defective and crippled transportation. Now in the days of our jirosperity, they ask those to whom they have entrusted their rights, to lay aside local antagonisms and sectional jealousies, to compass the height of the argument and conckisions presented, and meet the action of the Conventiem by the exercise of a statesmanship as broad and comprehensive as that which marked its deUberations. Secretary, PETITION TO THE PRESIDENT. To Chester A. Arthur^ President of the United States. The Petitioners undersigned respectfully solicit of you the appoint- ment of W. K. Hunter as cadet at large to West Po'int. The young man is the son of Major Wilson Hunter who distinguished himself and was severely wounded at the battle of Lookout Mountain. He is twenty v^'^rs of age, of perfect form and robust health, and is a grad- uate of Madison University. He carried off the highest htmors of the institution in mathematics and drawing, and is now engaged in the ofhce of Penny tt Rubold, Civil Engineers, We ask this of you because our Representative in Congress has already, without know- ing of Hunter's desire, made his selection. We refer to accompanying jiapers. A, R. C and D. \Vith the greatest respect, _ James T. Morgan. Geo, L. Vennor. Galena, Ills., Oct, 14, 1SS2. A. Letter of Hunter to Vennor. H. " Personal l-'riend of President. C. Printed slip. I). Letter of Dean of Madison University. My Dear Mr. Vennor: You have so frequently shown your kind feelings towards me that I am sure you will not think me too i>resuniptive in asking your assis- tance in a purpose that I have resolved upon. It is that I should / PETITIONS. 593 ■71 g^o to West Point. Vou know how well fitted I mny be for a cndct- ship. Shouhl my purpose meet with yotir approval, I throw all my hopus of lutiirc success in life on yon, and I know no one in this wide world so willing and so well able to help me. With the most sincere regard, Kver yours, Galena, Oct. 6th, 1SS2. W. E. Hunter, B. SEALED LETTER. J/y Old Friend: Should the application for the appointment of Hunter be favorably received by you, you will not only confer a favor on a most worthy oltject, hut settle another natter which will be a good stroke of policy for our distrfct. A man named Trevors is looking with hungry eyes at the position of U. S. Collector for this district, in which we want o»ir friend May- ville retained. Trevor's main dependence would be on Morgan and Vennor. Now Morgan is secretary of the Illinois State Kepublican Committee and w;is a power in the last convention. Vennor is a quiet capitalist whose subscriptions have been very heavy in any Kepubli- can necessitv. You would find it hard to refuse either. Appoint Hunter and you save Mayville. They could not expect you to make a second nuivc on their application. Pardon the length of this. As ever your most devoted. Galena, Oct. 13th. Morris Henley. PRINTED SLIP. From the Galena Times, Aug, i8tA, t882, ********* *.* This happy escape from what would have been a most frightful dis- aster is all owing to the presence of mind of a young surveyor in the employ of Penny & Rid>old. We predict for Mr. Hunter, the hero whose coolness and courage were the means of saving so many lives, a most brilliant future. Messrs. Penny d Rubold. Gkntlkmkn: — In recommending my yoimg friend W. E. Hunter to you, I can say with truth he was as a pupil all that could be desired, apt and studious. His proficiency in mathematics Is almost phenom- enal. Respectfully, MiRON Seymovr, Feb. 12th, 1SS2. J)ean oj Madison University. PETITION TO THE GOVERNOR. To Titos. T. Crittenden, Governor of the State of Missouri. Your Petitioner respectfully represent that the ollice of Clerk of the County Court of Davton County in this state is now vacant by reason of the decease of James Allison, the regularly elected incumbent. Your petitioner would further represent that imlil the next general state and county election the law requires that the vacancy be filled by appointment of the Governor, Now feeling myself capaole of fil- ling the i>osition, and being thoroughl)^ acquamted with the duties of the office, I respectfully make application and solicit you to appoint me Clerk of the Daytnh County Court. Witli our most cordial recommendation. HtNUY Warren Thomas Uakkison', \ 'County Court. William Hkndekson. S. K. Atchison. RicilAKD I-OKD, Sheriff. Jesse K. Dunlap, Minister. KouERT Ames. Justices of the PETITION TO A CORPORATION. To the Board of Directors of the Dubuque Gaslight Co. Gentlemen : — As the vacant lot adjoining your works and owned by you woidd suit my purpose, I resiiectfully solicit the use of it for the storage of cement and salt. Should it not be your intention to improve tlic lot for some time, the collection of a small rent from me would be better t!»an allowing such a property to lie idle. Respectfully, Alex. Goldman. PETITION TO A STATE LEGISLATURE. To the llonornhlr. State of - the Senate and House of Representatives of the in Le^slature assembled . The undersigned petitioners, residents and t;ix payers of the city of , respectfully represent that they and that they your petitioners fully hcHeve that such action on your part would be in favor of the best'interest of the city of , and would be in complete accord with the will of the majority of its citi- zens, and your petitioners as in duty bound will ever pray, &c., &c. Signed, PETITION TO CITY AUTHORITIES. To the Mayor and Common Council of the City of ; Gentlemen : Your petitioners, citizens and tax-payers of the second, fifth and sixth wards of this city, respectfully solicity your honorable body to extend the system of sewerage, already working in such ad- mirable order in the third and fourth wards, through our wards. The expense may be heavy but our need is stil! greater; for all the territory contiguous to the low grade streets, Adams, Pine and Lincoln, is in extreme danger, should the ^Jestilencc now raging in the Southern cities come this far north, \\ e respectfully represent that the largest portion of the city revenue is collected in our wards and that the pro- Eosed extension will be paid for wholly by the property -owners most enefited by the sewers. Signed, iCity, State, Date.) PETITION TO A COUNTY COURT. To the Hon, Justices of the The undersignedi residents of - County Court : Township, who are obliged to use the Raldwin road to market with their produce, re- spectfully inform your honor that the bridge crossing Pear Creek is so badly injured by tlie last flood that it is now dangerous and cannot be trusted. Hoping you will give the matter immediate attention they earnestly petition your honorable court to order the necessary repairs. Signed, ( County, State, Date ) A REMONSTRANCE. To the Mayor and Common Council oj ; Gentlemen : The petition of the undersigned citizens and tax pay- ers of the sixth an seventh wards of this city resi)ectfully represents tliat they have learned that a |)etilion is now before you praying for the privilege of constnicting a railroad along Jackson Street. That if this privilege were granted and a track laUVoii that street the result would be most injurious to the property fronting thereon and would obstruct the great traflic now continuous on that thoroughfare. They also suggest that there is no necessity for such railroad, as the one oh Henry street two blocks south is suflicient for the needs of the public. They therefore respectfully and earnestly remonstrate against the granting of said privilege by your body. Signed, {City, State, Date.) / ^ 594 LYCEUMS AND DEBATING CLUB?, LYCEUMS MP DEBATING CLUBS. She benefits derived socially and intellectually from attendance at Lyceums or debating societies are so generally conceded that there is no need of argument to urge their fomiation. The following form of a constitution and by-laws will give a clear insight into their workings : Constitution and By-Laws of the Ben Franklin Lyceum. PREAMBLE. For our mutual improvement, for tlie entertainment of our friends and for the cultivaUon of the amenities of social life, the undersigned agree to form themselves into a debating society. TITLE. ARTICLE 1. The name of this society shall be the Ben Franklin Lyceum. OFFICERS. ARTICLE II. The officers of the Lyceum shall consist of a President, Vice-Presi- dent Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian and Marshal. They shall be elected annually at the first regular meeting after the 15th of January in each year, and shall continue to perform the duties of their several offices until the installation of their successors, which shall take place at the next meeting after their election. DUTIES OF OFFICERS. AKTICLE III. The President shall preside at all meetings, and shall be ex-officJo member of all standing committees, but not of special committees. The Vice Phesident in the absence of the President shall take the chair, but will not assume his duties in committees unless the President'shall so request. The Secretary's duties shall be threefold — Recording, Corres- ponding and Financial, Recording, — He shall keep an accurate record of the proceedings of each meeting, be prepared to read them at the ensuing meeting and bv indexing or other method be prepared to read on call the record of any business that may have taken place at any former meeting. Corresponding. — He shall attend to all the correspondence of the Lyceum. Financial. — He shall keep the accounts of the Lyceum with the members, with all parties having dealings with the Lyceum, and with the Treasurer, lie shall collect and pay over to the Treasurer all dues and fines and other income. He shall write warrants on the Treasu-er to be signed by the President for all monies to be paid out. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary all monies of the Lyceum and shall pay out the same only on the production of the Secretary's \yarrant signed by the President. He shall make a quar- terly statement of the lunds in his hands, which shall be verified by tlie books of the Secretary. The Librarian shall have charge of all books, periodicals, maps, pictures, globes, curiosities and like articles either owned or borrow- ed by the Lyceum. The Marshal shall have charge of the hall, furniture, light, fuel and comfort of the members. He shall act as aoorkeeper, usIilt to visitors, and messenger. COMMITTEES. ARTICLE IV. Immediately after his installation the President shall appoint five -standing committees: The Executive and Financial Committee, The Library Committee, Committee o;^ Lectures, Committee om the Selection of Subjects forDebate, Committee on Criticism. These committees shall consist of four members each, /. <■., three appointed and the President himself. Special Committees for all other purposes shall be elected by the Lyceum. MEMBERSHIP. article v. Active Membership. — Any person of good repute in the commu- nity,of either sex, over the age of sixteen years may become a member of the Lyceum by a majority vote of the members present at the next meeting after their proposal ; the membership beginning only after signing the Constitution and paying the initiation fee of $1.00. Life Membership. — Any person of good repute, on the introduc- tion of a member and the vote of the society, may become a life member and have the benefit of the library and may attend all meet- ings and debates on the payment of $10.00. Honorary Membership may be conferred by vote of the Lyceum on any person. Honorary members shall pay no fees or dues. ORDER. article VI. The proceedings and deliberations of the meetings of the Lyceum shall be governed bv the rules of order as shown in the article on Par- liamentan,' Law in Peale's Manual, unless such rules conflict with this Constitution, its Amendments or the By-Laws. EXPULSION OF MEMBERS. ARTICLE VIT. For sufficient reason any member may be expelled by a two-thirds vote oi' the members present at any meeting, provided the Executive Committee has previously considered the matter and informed me member of the proposed action, and that he be given opportunity to defend himself. \ ^ LYCEUMS AND DEBATING CLUBS. 595 / TIME OF MEETINGS. ARTICLE VIII. The regular mt-i-tinj^ of the Lyceum shall be held in the Ben. Franklin H;ill at eijjlit o'clock on every AN'ednesday evening". Special meetings may be ciuleil by the President on the request of live mem- bers. AMENDMENTS. ARTICLE IX. This Constitution may be altered or amended at any regular meet- ing by a vote of two-thirds of the members present : Provided that written notice sh;ill have been given of the proposed amendment at a previous meeting. BY-LAWS. LIRRAKV. KLLE I. No member shall be allowed to take more than two books from the Library at one time, A fine of one cent per day tor each volume shall be collected from each member keepin^j books more than vern- ments long established shoidd not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer where evils are sufferable, than to right them- selves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. Rut when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despot- ism, it is their right, it is their duly, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Sucii h;is been* the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of govermiient. Tlie history of the i)resent King of Great It ri tain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct t)bject the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these stales. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. lie has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pres- sing importance, unless suspended in tlieir operation till his Jissent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in Uie legislature — a right inestimable to them, aiul formidable to tyrants only. He luis called together legislative bodies at places unusual, imcom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for tlic sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He h;is dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He hns refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large, for their exercise, the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. /• He has endeavored to prevent the population of these stales ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of fore:^-ners, refusing to pass others to encoura|y;c their migration hither, and raising conditions of new appro])riation of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his Jissent to laws establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of tlicir salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of ofliccrs, to hariiss our jieople, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation,— For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment from any murders wliich they should commit on the inhabitants of these states: For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: For imposing ta.ves on us witiiout our consent: For depriving us, in many cases, of the benelits of trial by jur\' : For transporting us beyond tlie se.as to be tried for pretended offenses: For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring pr- vince, est:lblisliing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same .absolute rule into these colonies: F'or taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments: F"or suspending our own legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cxses whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- tection, and waging war against us. He Ikis plundered our seas, ravaged our coxsLs, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. {le is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty :iiul perfidy scarcely paralleled in tlic most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their countrj-, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeavor- ed to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruc- tion of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; ourrcpeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked hy every act which m.ay define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 598 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. -7\ Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their leg^islature ta extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigation and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the tics of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of sanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man- kind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor. The foregoing Declaration was, by the order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members: NEW HAMPSHIRE. Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. RHODE ISLAND. Stephen Hopkins, William EUerj-. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Himtington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. JOHN HANCOCK. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John-Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Pace, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, of Car- roUton. VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee. Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward Rutledge, Thomas He^-ward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. Re.<:olvirJ^ That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several commanding officers of the Continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each of the United States, and at the head of the army. / \ K" THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. / 599 p^^^g|g^M^g][5p[5p[5Tra[fil^lSp[S pl5J^[5T^ P IS li fa m ^^r_. E ^ T^ -^ ^ -f? <^J ^ ^VV'^^, '"^'.W'V i^t, ;€::f>i j^ ^CONS T/TUT/ON/i^ "v? ''^ >t ,.-*^>w Bl R][5iJa][5p[5p[5i r?Jl51 [gJ[5Jya][5p[sp[5p[g^ PREAMBLE. We, the people of the Unitud States, in order to form :i more per- fect union, cstublish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. SECTION I. I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States ; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous brunch of the State Legislature. 2. No person sh.all be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citiz-jn of the Upited States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to ser\'ice for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within ever>* subsequent term of ten yean;, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty tliousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six ; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Dela- ware, one; Mar>*land, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, five, and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authoritj" thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION 111. I. The Senate of tlie United States shall be comi>()sed of two sena- tors from each State, chosen by the legislatiire thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall he assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expira- tion of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen ever)' second year; and if vacancies happen bv resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make tempor- ary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall exercise the office of president of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall all be on oath or affirmation. When the president of the United States is tried, the chief-justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concur- rence of two-thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disquulitication to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION IV. 1. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legisla- ture thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the place of choosing Senators. 2. The Congress shall ;xssemble at least once in every year; and such meeting sh.all be on tlie first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V. I. Each House shall be the judge of tlie election, returns .and qual- ifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent VL \ 600 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. members, in such manner and nnder such penalties as uach House may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rule of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their ser\'ices, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treas- ury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the sessions of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No Senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil ofhce under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. SECTION VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Rep- resentatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the I)ersons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be nccessarj' (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by t^vo-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION VIII. Tlie Congress shall have power — 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general \velfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States. 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes. 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout Uie United States. 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures. 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States. 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads. S. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. 9. To constitute tribun.als inferior to the supreme court. 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations. 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water. 12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years. 13. To provide and maintain a navy. 14. To make rules for the government and reg^ilation of the land and naval forces. 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrection, and repel invasion. 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the ser- vice of the United States; resenting to the States respectively tha appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States; and to exercise like authority over all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; and iS. To make all laws which sh.all be necessarj' and proper for carry- ing into execution tlie foregoing powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or office thereof. SECTION IX. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohib- ited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and ei-^ht; but a tax or duty m.ay be imposed on such importation not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas cor/w.? shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may- require it. 3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor- tion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be talien. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on any articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. 6. No money shall be drawn from the treasurj', but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be pub- lished from time to time. 7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. SECTION X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of m;xrque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobUitj'. 2. No State sh:Ul, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, \ ^ ^ THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 6oi shall be for Ihe use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Conyrcss. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any duty of ton- naj;re, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war. unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. SECTION 1. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years; and, together with the Vice-President chosen for the same term, he elected as follows. 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in tlie Congress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector, 3. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify and transmit sealed to the seat of govern- ment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such a majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President, and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of all the States, and a majority of all the States shall be neccssan,* to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the Presi- dent, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President, But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President. 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States, 5. No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty- five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President; and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resig- nation or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declar- ing what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall net accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during llie period for which he shall have been elected; and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or .iny of them. 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he sh.ill take the following oath or affirmation : — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States ; and will, to the best of my ability, preser^x", protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.'* SECTION II, 1. The President shall be Commander-in'chief of the army and navy of the United St.ates, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States. He may require tlie opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and con- sent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of tlie Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein othenvise pro- vided for, and which shall be established by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III. I. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. He may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them; and in case of disagreement bet^veen them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper. He shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers. He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall commission all officers of the United States. SECTION IV. • 1. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and convic- tion of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III SECTION 1. 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as Congress m.ay from time to time ordain and eslabhsh. The judges both of the Supreme and interior courts shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive fi>r their sen-ices a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance of office. SECTION II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties m.ide, or which shall be made, under their authoritv; to all cases affecting amb;issadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and bet^vcen a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a Slate shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other c:ises men- tioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crime shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress muy by law have directed. / J^ \ 602 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. SECTION III. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. Tso person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testi- mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on cdnfession in open court. 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; hut no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the lite of the person attained. ARTICLE IV. SECTION I. I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State; and the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect tliereof. SECTION II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall fiec from justice, and be foimd in another State, sh.-ill, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any laws or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor; but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SECTION III. 1. New States m.ay be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other Stijtc, nor any State be formed by the junction of t\vo or nu>re States or parts of States, without the consent of the Legisla- tures of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all need- fut rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United St.ates ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed :is to prejudice any claim of the United States, or of any particular State. SECTION IV. I. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against inv;lsion ; and, on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domes- tic violence. ARTICLE V. I. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution; or, on the application of the Legislature of two-thirds of the several St.ates, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall he valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Consti- tution, when ratified by the Legislature of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the fifth article; and that no St.ate, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suff- rage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. 1. All debts contracted and eng.agements entered into before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against tlie United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; .and the judges in even,^ State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrarv not- withstanding. 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States, ARTICLE VII. I. The ratification of the convention of nine States shall be suffi- cient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. George Washington, President and Deputy from Virginia. AMENDMENTS. ARTICLE I. Congress shiiU make no law respecting an establishment of relig-- ion, or prohibiting- the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of tlic penplc peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house witli- out the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to he secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, against imreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized, ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a caiiital or otherwise infa- mous erime, unless on a jiresentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in c:ises arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time ot war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a wit- ness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the wit- nesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel (or his defence. v^ -NJ THK CONSTITUTIOX OF THE UNITED. STATES. 603 / ARTICLE VII. In suits at common law, where the v.ilue in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall !>e pruscrveil ; nnd no fact tried l>y a jury shall be otherwise re-exaniinttl in any court of the United States, than according to the niks of the connnon law. ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment indicted. ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X, The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reser\'ed to the States respec- tively, or to the people. AJITICLE XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity CQinnienced or ])rosecuted against one of the United States by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. ARTICLE XII. 1. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vife-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. They shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots, the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for :is Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each; which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of voles for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest num- bers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, tlie President. But, in clioosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this pur]>ose sliall consist of a member or members from two- thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representativt-s shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-Presi- dent shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-Presi- dent shall be tlie A''ice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a major- ity, then from the two highest ninnbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necess:iry to a choice. 3. Rut no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- dent shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII. I Neither slavery nor involuntary ser\'itude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicte^l, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdic- tion. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce tJiis article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United St.ates and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. SECTION II. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the exec- utive and judidial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. SECTION III. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elec- tor of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having i>reviously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or .as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. SECTION IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for scr\-ices in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- tioned. But neither the United States ni>r any State shall iussume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. SECTION V. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. , ARTICLE XV. SECTION I. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or any State, on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. SECTION II. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. / V. 6o4 THE DEPARTMENTS AT WASHINGTON. THE DEpAl^TMEplT^ \J WA^flll^TOW. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT, S PROVIDED by the Constitution, the Govern- ment of the United States performs its allotted work through three distinct channels, the Execu- tive, the Legislative and the Judiciary. The President, whose oath of office, duties and powers are described in the Constitution, holds office for four years. He must be thirty-five years fourteen years, .auguration takes place on the fourth of March next succeeding his election ; his salary is $50,000 a year, payable monthly, and he has the use of the furniture and the other effects in the "White House," a Govern- ment building in Washing- ton, where he resides. The President's official house- hold, selected by himself, consists of: , SALARY. 1 secretary, - $3,^50 1 ass't secretary, 2,250 2 clerks, each, 2,000 I clerk, • • ijSoo THE CAPITOL SALARY. SALARY. 1 clerk, • • $1,400 I usher, • - $1,400 I clerk, • • 1,200 9 doorkeepers, e. 1,200 I stenographer, i,Sck) i watchman, - 900 I steward, • i,Soo i fireman, - - S64 The patronage of the President is enormous The appointments to every branch of public service, made by him, give him a power that would be appalling but that it is balanced by the safeguard of the consent of the Senate. The office of President is one which has been called by European writers the highest to which humanity can aspire. The chief magis- tracy of the American Republic is a prize for which every eminent American statesman has struggled, and it is singular in looking back over the history of the country to note how many men peculiarly fitted by their great talents and great prominence for the Presidency have been beaten by unknown men. Two of the greatest Senators in the history of the Union were Daniel Webster and Henry Clay, neither if whom succeeded in winning the crowning honor of a political career. On the other hand, the number of comparatively unknown men who have been chosen by their parlies and elected by the people, is very large The original intention of the Fathers of the Republic is one that the politicians of the country have departed from widely. The elect- oral system did not contemplate nominations and party organization ; it intended that the electors, men chosen by the people of each State as safe men for this important office, should cast about for the most fit man in the Republic for the honor of the Presidency. For this man they were to vote. But under the manner in which the system is worked the electors furnish a clumsy method, often a faulty one, lor expressing the direct popular will. No elector would dare to use his own judgment; he is simply chosen on a pledge to vote for a certain candidate chosen for him. In this way the people choose directly the President, and yet, owing to the facr that the electors are never in number in exact proportion to the population, it fre quently happens that, while one candidate has a majori- ty of the popular vote, the other has a majority of the electors and becomes Presi- dent. The Presidential resi- dence at Washington is a very handsome pile. It is called the White House from its color. It has been the centre of the fashion and grace of the republican court. There are regular reception days set, when any one who wishes may call upon the President. Upon private reception days admittance is only se- cured by card. Upon these occasions, the gay court costumes of the foreign legations, the mili- tary uniforms and the splendid dresses of the ladies form a scene not soon to be forgotten. The grounds about the White House, taking in as they do the conservatories and nursericsof the Agricultural Department, are very pretty and well kept. The Presidential residence is furnished by the Government for the President. The City Covernment of Washington. When the District of Columbia was cut off from Maryland and Virginia, and put in possession of the Government, it was decided that the whole territory should be in the hands of the Federal Union alone, so that it would be altogether independent of State influence. As the city of Washington grew up around the Capitol provision had to be made for its municipal government, which was obliged t' V 'inc duties of the Secretary of this Department are pre- scribed by law and relate chiefly to correspondence with public Ministers or Consuls from the United States, to negotiations with public Ministers of for- '* V '^ cign States and to memorials or other applica- i " tions from foreigners. Through his hands all the elMs business of the Government with other Powers passes. Any bill passed by Congress and signed by the Presi- dent, or that becomes a law in any other lawful manner, is received by the Secretary and made public by him. It is his duty to report annually to Congress all the in- formation that should naturally ronie through his office. Any new amend- ment to the Con- stitution, any act of Congress that becomes a law, any foreign treaty, postal con- vention or Con- gressional joint resolution is sent to the Public Pri n ter by the Secretary of State for legal publica- tion; he must also publish in some newspaper the commercial in- formation he may deem of public importance. Pass- ports when ren- dered are free of charge. Copies of records in this Department when applied for are furnished by the Clerk at a cost to applicant often cents for every hundred words. The salaries paid in the Department of State are : Secretary, - - $8,000 3 ass't secretaries, each 3,500 I chief clerk, - 2,500 I translator, - - 2,100 4 chiefs of Bureaus, each 2,100 I I clerks, each - - 1,800 I assistant engineer, - $1,000 With watchmen, firemen, laborers, etc, the total amount is about $100,000 a year. The Examiner of Claims, an officer appointed by the Attor- ney-General, has charge of the legal busmess of the Department of State. There are a number of Bureaus in the Department, the most important of which is the Consular. Quite a number of interpreters arc continually needed in the offices. The Diplomatic Service. IJIil'AHTMtNTS OF STATF, 4 clerks, each 2 clerks, e.ach - 10 clerks, each 2 clerks, each - 10 clerks, each $1,600 - 1,400 1,200 1,000 900 I engineer. - 1,200 The dinlnmntic scr\'icc of the United States, all of which is in charjje of^tlic Stcretary of State, consists of Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers I'lcnipotcntiarv, Ministers Kcsident, Charges d*Af- faires, CQnsuls-Gener;iI, Consuls an& Commercial Agents. The hi^hi^st class of Rlinisters arc those sunt to France, Germany, Great Britain and Russia; Ihey are paid $17,500 per year. The sec- ond chiss ($(2,oooayear) arc sent to Austria, Hungan,-, Brazil, China, Italy, Japan, Mexico and Spain, The third chiss ($10,000 a year) fo to Chili, Peru and the Central Amercain States. Ministers Kesi- cnt receive $7,500 (with the exception of the one in Bolivia, $5,000, and the one in Liberia, $4,000), and arc in the Argentine Republic, Belgium, Colombia, Hawaian I.sland*;, Hayti, the Netherlands, Sweden and Norwav. Turkey and Venezuela. Charges d' Affaires have J;.^^^ n venr. ana are in Denmark, Portugal, Switzerland, Uru- t!u;i\ :um1 r i" , Tliiru arc live Consvils-Gcneral in British do- minions, at Cal- cutta, Melbourne, London, H alif ax and Montreal; two in Germany, at Berlin and Frank- fort; two in Tur- key, at Cairo and Const antinople; and one each in Paris, Vienna, Kome, St. Peters- burg, Bucharest, i'angkok, Shang- hai, K an agaw a, Havana and Mex- ico. Their salaries range froni$j,oooto ff.txo. There arc tlu- iiillowing ranks of consulates. Five at $6,000 a year; two at $5,000; one at $4,500; six at $4,000; eight at$3.- ^00; twenty-one at ^5,000; sixteen at $.',500; thirty-seven at $j,ooo; forty- seven at $1,500; and twenty at $1,000. All Consuls receiv- ing a fixed salary pay into the Treas- ury all fees received by virtue of their office. But there are many Consuls and Agents whnsc only com- pens.ition comes from fees. Such officers are usually allowed to go into business. Secretaries of State. Thomas Jefferson, Va. Edmond Randolph, Va. Timothy Pickering, Pcnn. John Marshall, Va. James Madison, Va. Kohcrt Smith. Md. James Monroe, Va. John Q. Adams, Mass. Henry Clay, Ky. Martin Van Buren, N. Y. Edward Livingston, La. Louis McLanc, Del. John Korsyth, Ga. Daniel Webster, M.ass. Hugh S. Legair, S. C. Thomas 17S9 >7M >79S 1800 iSoi 1S09 iSii 1S17 .S2S 1S29 IS3I IS33 >SJ4 IS4I ■S43 F. Bayard, Del., Abel P. Upshur, Va. John C. Calhoun. S. C. James lliichanan, Penn. John M. Clayton, Del. Daniel Webster. Mass. Edward Everett, Mass. William L. Marcy, N. Y. Lewis C:lss, Mich. Jeremiah S. Black, Penn. William H. Seward, N. Y. Klihu B. Washburn, ILamilton Fish, William M. Evarts James G. Blaine F. T. l-relinghuyseo 1S43 .844 'S4S 1S49 1S50 1S53 1S54 ISS7 1S60 1S61 1S69 1S69 1S77 iSSi iSSi 1885 \ 606 THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT. J- . A LL of the moneys of the United States, all matters • relating to the collection and payment of the ac- counts of the Government, and, in a word, all of the duties appertaining to the finances of the nation, e^»p^= fall naturally to the Secretary of the Treasury, lie is assisted by a numerous corps, the Treasury Department requiring naturally more clerical detail than any other in the Government. There are two Assistant Secretaries, one having charge of appoint- ments, public money, revenue marine, loans and currency, engrav- ing and printing, the mints, and the signature of doc- uments ; the other attends to cus- toms, special agents, internal revenue and navi- gation, and thf general supervis- ion of accounts. There are two Comptrollers. The first counter- signs warrants, attends to the pay of the diplomatic service, and exam- ines requisitions and claims. The second has charge of the accounts of the Army, Soldiers' Homes, Pensions, Marine Corps and Navy Yards, Disbursing Agents, and of the Financial Agency of the Govern- ment at London. The Commissioner of Customs examines, revises and passes all accounts concerning duties, tonnage, marine hospitals, fines, penalties and forfeitures under the navigation laws, and approves bonds of customs officers. The Six Auditors. There are six Auditors in the Tre:isur>' Department, among whom the work is divided as follows: First Auditor;, Customs, Judiciarj', Public Debt, Warehouse and Bonded Goods, Miscellaneous Accounts. Second Auditor: Army Paymaster, Miscellaneous Claims, Indian Affairs, Bounties, Frauds, Book-keeping. Third Auditor: Book-keeper, Quartermasters, Subsistence and Engineering, State War Claims, Mis- cellaneous Collec- tions. Fourth Auditor: Prize Mdney, Xavy Agents, Paymas- ters. Fifth Auditor: Diplomatic and Consular division. Internal Revenue. Sixth Auditor: Post-of f i ce ac- counts. UNITED STATES TREASURY BUILDING, Other Treasury Officers. The Treasurer of the United States has custody of all the public monev; he pays warrants, issues and redeems Treasury Notes, re- deems National bank notes, pays the interest on the public debt, and IS custodian of the Indian trust funds. The Comptroller of the Currency supervises and controls theNational banks throughout the countn,', under the Secretary of the Treasury. The Solicitor of the Treasury examines all revenue frauds and over- sees the legal measures for their prevention and punishment. I\X\ of the legal business of the department goes through his hands, and the secret ser\-ice operations are directed by him. "When required he must give his opinion on any legal question. The Solicitor of the Treasury / THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 607 is really an officer of the Department of Justice, as will be seen on another page. The Comnussioner of Internal Revenue makes assessments and apportions taxes. The bureau is divided into seven departments: I. Appointments. 2. Laws. 3. Accounts. 4. Tobacco. 5. Distilled Spirits. 6. Stamps. 7. Assessments. Special agents arc appointed by the Commissioner to watch the manufacture and h:indlingof whisky. The Superintendent of the Coast Survey has charjife of all the sur- veys of the ocean and coast and the making^ of maps, charts, etc. The Bureau of Statistics collects and publishes information in regard to trade and commerce, shipping, imports and exports, emigration, etc. Its reports are published quarterly and distributed gratuitously. The Mint in Philadelphia is the one to which the Mints at New Orleans, Carson and Denver must send their reports. Kach Mint has a superintendent, assayer, teller, refiner, coiner and assistants, and the one at Philadelphia has also an engraver. The Director of the Phila- delphLi Mint makes an annual report of the mmting done in the country. Quarantine. The Secretary of the Treasury executes the laws which restrain, stop and govern vessels arriving at United States ports from pLaces afflicted with infectious discises. The officers of the customs revenue arc re- quired to see to the execution of the public liealth laws of the General Government and of the several .States in this regard. The Light-House Board. The Light-House Board, which is appointed by the President, is attached to the Trcasiirj' Department. It consists of two ofiicers of the Navy of high rank, two officers of the Corps of Engineers and two citizens of high scientific attainments. This Board h:is general charge of the light-house service of the United States. CASH-KOOM IN THE TK&ASUKY BUILDING. S The Life-Saving Service. rh« life-saving service is divided into seven ocean districts and three lake districts. The various stations are supplied with such apparatus as may, in the judgment of the Secretary of the Treasurj', be best adapted to the purpose of e.ach station, such as lifeboats, ropes, mortars for sending ropes onboard wrecked vessels, contriv- inccs for getting passengers safely on shore, etc. Each district is in charge of a superintendent, who possesses the powers and performs the duties of an inspector of the customs for each of the co:ists on which stations are established. These districts number seven on the Atlantic coast, and three on the great lakes, and each superintendent receives from the Secretary of the Treasury the proper instnictions relative to the duties required of him. Each station is in charge of a keeper, who is instructed in his duties by the Secretary of the Tre.asurj-. At some stations experienced surf • men are engaged to assist in aiding wrecked vessels. Secretaries of the Treasury. /• Alexander Ilaiiiilton. N. ^'. 17^) Oliver Wolcott, Conn. 1795 Samuel Dexter, Mass. iSoo Albert Gallatin, Penn. lSa2 George W. Campbell, Tenn, 1S14 Alexander J. U.-Ulas, Penn. 1S14 William II. Crawford, Ga. 1817 Kichard Rush, Penn. 1825 Samuel D. Ingham, Penn. 1S29 L 1833 not contirmed by Senate. J I. evi Woodbury, N. II. 18.^ Thomas Ewing, Ohio. 1841 Walter I'■or^vard, Penn. 1S41 John C. Spencer, N. Y. 1S43 Geo. M. Uible, Ky. 1S44 Hugh McCulloch, Ind. 1S84 KolurtJ. Walker. .Miss. William .M. Meredith, Penn. Thomas Cor^vin, Ohio. James Guthrie, Ky. Howell Cobb, Ga. Philip F. Thomas, Md. John A. Dix, X. Y. Salmon P. Chase, Ohio. William Pitt Fessenden.Me. Hugh McCulloch, Ind. George S. Boutwell. William A. Richardson. Benjamin II. Brislow. Lot M. .Morrill. John Sherman. William Windom. Charles J . Folgcr. Daniel Manning, N. Y. 1885 I&4S 1849 ■ S50 "853 ■S57 iS6o 1S61 1S61 1864 1865 1870 ■873 1S74 1876 1S77 iSSi 1S8I \ y 608 THE WAR DEPARTMENT. r~ THE WAR k^-^ ^ DEPARTMENTS jF ALL matters relating to military affairs the Secretary ofWar has entire charge. He must communicate to J Congress estimates of the appropriations needed for his Department, not only for its internal working, but for the construction of public works and other public ser\ice performed under his direction. He must report annually a statement of the appropriations of the pre- ceding year (always counting from the 1st of July), showing how much was appropriated for each Bureau of the Department, and the balance on hand, together with estimates of the amounts necessarj- for the ensuing year. He will submit to Congress reports of surveys of rivers and harbors ordered by Congress. He furnishes an abstract of the returns of the Adjutants-Gen- eral of the militia of the States. These annual reports are made at the beginning of each regu- lar session and cover all the transactions of the Department dur- ing the year. Tlie Department is divided into ten branches, governed by the following officers : The Adjutant-General, Quar- temiaster-CJeneral, Paymaster-General, Commissary-General, Surgeon-General, Chief of Engineers, Chief of Ordnance, Chief Signal Officer, the Judge Advocate-General and the Superinten- dent of the MiHtary Academy at West Point. The annual salaries paid in this Department are : Sccrctan', I chief clerk, I disbursing elerk, 7 Bureau chiefs, e. $2,000 52 clerks, each 52 clerks, each 95 clerks, each 390 clerks, each 191 clerks, each 32 clerks, each 1 draughtsman, 1 anatomist, S printers, - $S,ooo • 2.75° - 2,000 2,000 14,000 i.Soo 93,000 1,600 83,200 1,400 133,000 1,200 468,000 1,000 191,000 900 28,800 • i.Soo - 1,600 • S,Soo 3,Soo 46,800 33.000 1,440 3 engineers, 65 messengers, • 720 50 laborers, • 660 S char-women - iSo 125 physicians, • 1,200 150,000 1S5 hospital stewards 360 66,600 50 paymaster's clerks 1,200 60,000 90 Nat. Ccm. keepers Soo 72,000 450 weather obser\'ers 720 324,000 1,000 employes at ar- mories and other business of Dep't., Soo Soo,ooo ?-:.5y3.590 With rations, quarters and fuel in many cases, the expense of the Department borders on $3,000,000 annually. The Bureaus of the War Department. The Adjutant-General's Office. From this office are issued all orders with regard to the movements of the army. All records of individuals in the army from the privates to the officer of the highest rank may be found in this office. All com- missions, promotions, charges and discharges, come through this Bureau. In one word, the Adjutant-General is the instrument by which the Executive communicates with the army. The Quartermaster-General's Office. This Bureau has charge of the purchasing and distributing of all supplies (except subsistence) needed by the army, to furnish transportation for soldiers, military stores and supplies, and to pay all expenses of the military service not provided for in other Bureaus. The Commissary-General's Office. The business of this office consists in the purchase and distribution of subsistence and supplies for the army. The Paymaster-General's Office. Payments to the army are made through this office. Arrears of pay shall never exceed two months. The Surgeon-General's Office. This Bureau has charge of the surgical and medical department of the army, the pur- chase and distribution of hospital and medical supplies. It has authority in sanitary matters, such as supervising the cooking done in the army, and the preparation of rations for the enlisted men. The Office of the Chief of Engineers. This Bureau has charge of the various fortifications, and provides for the surveys of rivers and harbors. All matters connected with skilled labor, such as building, bridging, excavation, mining, etc., in the mili- tary service, belong to this Bureau. Office of the Chief of Ordnance. This office has charge of all skilled labor necessary in the preparation and care of the ordnance and ordnance supplies. It purchases, inspects and controls the construction, movement and storing of all the heavy armament in the service. The Office of Military Justice. This office is under the charge of the Judge Advocate-General. The proceedings of all Courts-Martial, Courts of Inquiry and Military Commissions are received, revised and recorded in this office. All matters con- nected with the administration of justice in the army are the peculiar province of this Bureau. The Signal Office. The Signal Service, which has proved itself of incalculable benefit to the country, is an adjunct of the War Department and is managed by the officers of the Army detailed by the Secretary of War. The Military Academy. The military school at West Point is the last of the Bureaus of the War Department. It is a school for the training of the officers of the army, and ranks on its own merits as one of the best colleges in tlie country. The Cadet Corps. The corps of cadets consist of one from each Congressional District of the United States, one from each State, one from the District of Columbia, and ten from the United St.ites at large, who are appointed by the President. The cadets must be between seventeen and twenty-two years old w'hen admitted ; they must be well versed in reading, writing, arithmetic, gram- mar, geography and historj', particularly of the United States. The course at the Academy lasts four years, and on graduation the cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants in tlie army. THE AMERICAN ARMY. 609 faEf jaEiiaisiraisnaiEi iaisnaisiiii R][5Hiii5TR]5iR][5pi5ifa[5iTa[5na[5ir^ rVERY citizen of this Republic may well be proud of the history of the American Army. Organized by George Washington and commanded ever since by -£,-y^ ' - eminent chieftains, it has carried the Star-spangled 't ■ Banner over hundreds of stricken fields of battle, and never without honor. It has fought through four great V wars and innumerable Indian revolts. Again and again has its valor been proved, until to-day, one of the smallest, the American Army is considered to be one of the most effective in the world. In time of peace its work does not cease. All along the Western frontier the scattered forces have all that they can do holding the savage Indian tribes to good behavior. Always fighting at tremendous odds, the service performed by the soldiers in the far West can only be described by the word "remarkable." The regular army is the skeleton upon which in time of war the forces of the Republic form. It consists of about 25,000. On a war footing our aiTny could now, 1883, be pushed up to over three millions of men under arms. Towards the end of the civil war the total of the Federal and Confederate service was much larger than that figure. On the resignation of Gen- eral U. S. Grant, who became President in 1868, General Wil- liam Tecumseh Sherman, a soldier who fought his way to the front in the time that tried men's soulr., was assigned to the highest rank. General .Sherman retired from relive service, however, in, 1883, and General Phil. .Sheridan is now at the head of the troops. The various ranks in the army, with ihcir pay, will be found In the table', followin};: Pay-Roll of the United States Army. I general, I lieutenant-general, 3 major-generals, each $13,500 — 6 aides dc camp, each • $3,500 11,000 — 2 aide;i-de-cainp, each • 3,000 7,500 — S aides-de-camp, $200 addition to line pay. 6 brigadier-generals, each 5,500 — 13 aides-de-cainp, $150 addition to line pay. CAVALUY. 10 colonels, each - $3,Soo 10 lieiitcnanl-colonels, each 3,000 30 majors, each • -,500 120 captains, each 2,000 10 adjutants, each • t ,Soo 10 rcg't quartermasters, ea. $i,Soo 120 1st lieutenants, each 1,600 120 id lieutenants, each 1,500 2 chaplains, each . 1,500 5 colonels, each • $3,500 5 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000 15 majors, each • 2,500 2,000 60 captains, each ARTILLERY. 5 adjutants, each - ?r,Soo S rcg't quarter-masters, ea. 1 ,Soo 120 ist lieutenants, each i.fioo 65 2d lieutenants, each, 1,500 / INFANTRY. 25 colonels, each • $3,500 25 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000 25 majors, each - 2,500 250 captains, each • - i.Soo 25 adjutants, each ■ i,Soo 25 '■fg't quartermasters, e. $i,Soo 250 ist lieutenants, each 1,500 250 2d lieutenants, each MOO 2 chaplains, • . 1,500 DEPARTMENTAL SERVICE. S brigadier-generals, each $5,500 12 colonels, each - 3.300 S3 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000 150 majors, each - * 127 captains, each 76 1st lieutenants, each ENGINEER CORPS. 1 brigadier-general, - $5,500 | 24 majors, each 6 colonels, each - - 3,500 30 captains, each - 12 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000 | SIGNAL OFFICE. I colonel, - . $3,500 I 32 lieutenants, each RETIRED LIST. 131 captains. $2 500 ,000 ,600 ,500 ,Soo $1,500 5 major-generals, iS brigadier-generals 59 colonels, - 34 lieutenant-colonels 50 majors. 72 ist lieutenants, 15 id lieutenants, S chaplains. Enlisted Men. NON-COMMISSIO.\ED OFFICERS. The following enlisted men are paid these sums monthly dur- ing their first terms of enlistment, with some modifications pre- scribed by law: Sergeant-majors of cavaliy, artillery and infan- try, $23 each; quartermaster-sergeants of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $23 each ; chief trumpeters of cavalry, $22 ; principal musicians of artillery and infantry, $22; chief musicians of regi- ments, $60, and the allowances of a quartermaster-sergeant; saddler sergeants of cavalry, $22 ; lirst sergeants of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $22 ; sergeants of cavalry, artillery and infantr)', $17; corporals of cavalry and light artillery, $15; corporals of artillery and infantry, $15; saddlers of cavalry, $15; blacksmiths and farriers of cavalry, $15; trumpeters of cavair)-, $13; musicians of artillery and infantry, $13; privates of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $13; sergeant-majors of engi- neers, $36; quartermaster-sergeants of engineers, $36; ser- geants of engineers and ordnance, $34; corporals of engineers and ordnance, $20; musicians of engineers. $13; privates (first class) of engineers and ordnance, $17; privates (second class) of engineers and ordnance, $13. To these rates of pay$i a month is added for the third year of enlistment. $1 for the fourth year, and one more for the fifth year, making $3 a month increase for the last year of enlistment; but this increase is "re- tained pay," and is not given to the soldier until his term is ended, and it is forfeited if he misbehaves himself before he receives his discharge. Occasional extra services by soldiers and non-commissioned officers also entitle them to additional pay. -M '\ 6io THE WAR DEPARTMENT. The Army During the Civil War. The following table shows the dates of the President's proc- lamations for men, the number of men called for and the num- ber secured. DATE OF president's PROCLAMA- TION. April 15, 1S61 May 3, 1861 July £2. and 25, 1861 . May and June, 1S62. July 2, iS62 Au^st 4, 1S62 June It;, 1S63 October 17, 1S63 February 1, 1S64 March 14, 1S64 April 23, 1S64 July iS, 1S64 December 19, 1864... Total . NO. CALLED FOR. PERIOD OF SERVICE. 75,000 82,748 ) 500,000 i 300,000 300,000 100,000 300,000 I 200,000 i 200,000 85,000 500.000 300,000 3 months. 3 years. 3 months. 3 years. 9 months. 6 months. 2 years. 3 years. 100 days. I, 2, 3 years I, 2, 3 years 2,94-'.74S NUMBER obtain'd 93.3^6 7'4.23» 15.007 431.95S S7,5S8 16,361 374.S07 284,021 83,652 384,882 204,568 2 ,6«;)0,40i The Strength of the Federal Army. January ist, iS6i July ist, 1S61 January ist, 1S62 January 1st, iS<>3 January 1st, 1S64 January 1st, 1S65 May 1st, 186s ON DUTY. 14.663 iS.i.'iSS 69S,Soa 61 1 ,250 620,024 797 .»07 1.704 3. '63 4S.7'4 219,389 249,487 338,536 202,709 16,367 1S6751 575,917 9lS,.8l 860,737 959,460 1,000,516 Volunteers in the War. The following the Federal army New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Missouri, Wisconsin, Alichigan, Iowa, New Jersey, Kentucky, Maine, Connecticut, " Maryland, New Hampshire, Vermont, West Virginia Tennessee, Alinncsota, table shows the number of men furnished to by each State in the Union. 445,959 Rhode Island 338,155 310,654 258,162 194-363 146,467 108,162 91,021 88, III 75.793 7S.3'5 75.275 69.73^ 55,755 46,053 33,9 '3 33,272 3 '.092 24,002 Kansas, District of Columbia, California, Delaware, Arkansas, New Mexico Louisiana, Colorado, Indian Nation, Nebraska, North Carolina, Alabama, Texas, • Oregon, Nevada, Washington Territory, Mississippi, Dakota Territory, 23,248 20,095 16,534 < 5.725 12,265 8,289 6,561 5.224 4,903 3.530 3.157 3.'5o 2.576 1.965 1,810 i,oSo 964 545 206 The Bivouac of the Dead. There were killed in action, or died of wounds in the Civil war, commissioned ofiicers, 5,221 ; enlisted men, 90,868. Died from disease or accident, commissioned officers, 2,321 ; enlisted men, 182,329; mak- ing a total loss of 289,739. Deaths which occurred after the men left the army are not included in these figures. The Strength of the World's Armies. COUNTRIES. Argentine Republic Austria-Hungary. . Belgium Bolivia Brazil Canada Chili China Colombia Denmark Egypt Prance Germany Great Britain Greece India, British Italy Japan Luxemburg Mexico Netherlands Norway Persia Peru Portugal Roumania Russia Servia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United States Uruguay Venezuela 2,400,000 37.739^*07 5,476,('rf>S . 2 ,0^0,000 11,108,29! 4,3c;2,oSo 2400,3./' 434,620,00-. 2,774,000 1 ,969454 17419,9^0 36,905,788 45.194.172 35.346,562 1.679,775 252,541,210 28,209,620 34,33^404 209,673 9,389461 3,981 ,iS7 I ,So6,i)O0 7,000,000 3,01^0,000 4.34^,551 5,376,000 72,520,000 1,589,650 16,333,293 4.53'. ^'3 2,831,787 8,86f'>,;32 50,155.7^3 447,000 ',7M.'97 1^ S,227 289,100 4fi.3S3 3,021 15,304 2,000 3.573 300,000 3,000 35,7.^7 15,000 502,7^14 ,H5.40- 131-".!" 12, uS 189,597 214,667 36,777 {^^ 24,830 65.113 18,750 57,600 4,670 34,874 19,812 974.771 50,000 90,000 41,280 ] 17,500 350,600 25,745 2,357 2,240 304,000 1,125,833 165,877 32,000 700,152 50,000 I ,coo,ooo 30,740 49,054 43,000 1.753,164 1,4.^,104 577,906 35,000 380,000 736,502 51.721 I 3,374,51s 53,386,915 s.776.429 1,126,916 8,690,000 777.699 163,198 241,600 40,000 78,024 300,000 2,733,305 265,000 450,000 202,783 210,495 6jO,20O 3,165,000 2^,357 185,000 < ,5 982,432 2.539.027 2,198,216 11^,279,76 98,330,429 74,901,500 2,264,716 84,481,195 42,947,263 8,151,000 90,980 9,786,964 8,397,000 1,626,750 3,392,000 4.373.833 5,222,227 137.812,202 1 ,765,02 1 24,802,930 4.649.940 2.352,160 19,642,099 40,466,460 1,870,686 o a f- o- " 11.46 I. 41 1.60 •35 1.19 .12 3-«< 2.1 2.12 1-34 •33 1-52 •23 •43 1.04 2.10 .90 .48 1. 00 •97 1.90 I. II ■•5 1.02 •83 2.21 .80 4.1S 19-53 87.3S 15-73 25.01 14-54 3.11 20.96 20.88 ^S.31 66-57 18.02 12.06 26.74 15-15 13-76 5-64 42-31 16.86 13.62 41-71 12.68 21.61 29-37 34 -t2 15.S2 23-13 29.32 34.19 15.52 40.53 Secretaries of War. Henry Knox, Mass. 17S9 Timothy Pickering, Penn. 1795 James McHenry, Md. 1796 Samuel Dexter, Mass. 1800 Roger Griswold, Conn. iSoi Henry Dearborn, Mass, iSoi William Eustis, Mass. 1809 John Armstrong, N. Y. 1813 James Monroe, Va. 1S14 William H. Crawford, Ga. 1S15 John C. Calhoun, S. C. 1817 James Barbour, Va. 1S25 Peter B. Porter, N. Y. 182S John H. Eaton, Tenn. 1829 Lewis Cass, Oliio. 1831 Joel R. Poinsett, S. C. 1837 John Bell, Tenn. 1S41 John C. Spencer, N. Y. 1S41 James M. Porter, Penn. \ q Negatived by Senate, j '**3 William Wilkins, Penn. William L. Marcy, N. Y. George W. Crawfod, Ga. Charles L. Conrad, La. Jefferson Davis, Miss. John B. Floyd, Va. Joseph Holt, Ky. Simon Cameron, Penn. Edwin M. Stanton, Penn. Ulysses S. Grant. Lorenzo Thomas. John ^^. Schofield. John A. Rawlins. William W. Belknap, Alphonso Taft. James D. Cameron. George W. McCrary. Alex.ander Ramsey, Robert T. Lincoln. William C. Endicott, Mass. 1S44 1S45 1849 1S50 1853 1S57 1S61 1861 1S61 1867 1S6S 1S6S 1S69 1S69 1S76 1S76 1S77 1S79 iSSi 1885 Vl ok ' 4. THE MILITIA. 6ll f -,♦/,► ^►^♦ %"*,^ ^'%* .N'". '%*%*', ^*t*: . ::!»*jE2-.__^^>.%* '.*"'^^ ' effectiveness. Military Etiquette. To settle the question of how orders should be signed, the editor of this*work affixes the following verbatim copy of an order issued some time since at Fort Leavenvforth: Fort Leavenworth, June iS, 1SS2. 1;. O. No. 34. Capt. Wvcks will parade Co. K at S A. M. to-morrow, June lotli.and march to the ruilro.-id depot in Leavenworth, where he will report to Col Oiincan for orders. The troop has been ordered to New Mexico, and the soldiers will make their necessary preparations for leaving this fort permanently. McDowKl.t,, By Priestly, ' Co/one/ Commanding. First Lieut, atui Post- Adjutant. >> \ 6t2 THE NAVY DEPARTMENT. [^faisTraEpEifaETfaEirafsifaET faE^^ HAT the duties of the Secretary of the Kr-vy are, is indicated in the name of the Department. He has control of the ships of war of the Republic, and of all mat- ters growing out of that con- trol. There are eight Bureaus in the Department, among which the duties and responsibilities of the naval work are divided. These are the Bureau of Yards and Docks, presided over by an officer selected from the navy, not below the grade of Commander ; the Bureau of Equipment and Re- cruiting, presided over by a similar officer; the Bureau of Navigation, similarly officered; a Bureau of Ordnance, a Bureau of Construction and Repair follow in order, the chief of each being a naval officer of rank ; the Bureau of Steam Engineering is presided over by one of the chief engineers of the na\7 ; the Bureau of Provisions and Clothing, at the head of which is one of the paymasters of the navv, of not less than ten years' standing ; and lastly the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, presided over by one of the surgeons of the navy. Each of these chiefs is appointed by the President; they hold office four years and receive only the salary of their rank in the navy. The Secretary in common with the other Cabinet officers gets $8,000 per year. The pay-roll then goes on : THE LINE AT SEA. * I admiral, I vict!-admiral, II rear-admirals, 25 commodores, ,50 captains, 90 commanders. So licut.-commandcrs,2,Soo*3,ooo 13,000 2S0 lieutenants, $2,400 i $2,600 9,000 100 masters, . i,Soo 2,000 6,000 100 ensigns, 1,200 r,4oo 5,000 40 midshipmen, 1,000 4.500 334 cadet midsliip*n, 500 950 3.500 43 mates. 900 15 medical directors, $2 13 pay directors, 2 70 chief engineers, 2 50 surgeons, - 2 50 paymasters, 2 100 passed and assist- ant surgeons, i 30 passed assistant paymasters, 2 20 ass't paymasters, i STAFF. ,Soo& 4,400 ,Soo 4,200 ,Soo 4,200 ,Soo 4,200 ,Soo 4,200 ,900 2,200 2,200 1,900 100 passed ass't eng's i 100 ass't engineers, 24 chaplains, 11 naval constructors, 5 ass't constructors, 12 professors of math ematics, g civil engineers, Cadet engineers. THE MARINE CORPS. I colonel-commandant, $3,500 1 colonel, - - 3,500 2 lieutenant-colonels, 3)000 I major, - - 3,500 iS captains, 30 1st lieutenants, 20 2d lieutenants, - 2,000 & 2,200 1 ,700 1 ,900 2,500 2,S00 3,200 4,200 2,000 2,600 2,400 3,500 2,400 3,500 500 1,000 $i,Soo 1,500 1,400 MARINE CORPS STAFF. $2,500 1 2 captains. $2,000 RETIRED LIST. I brigadier-general, - ' I 4 captains, ... I lieutenant-colonel, - • 2 1st lieutenants, - - - 3 majors, - - . • ' 3 2d lieutenants. Attached to the Bureau of Navigation is a hydrographic office which provides charts, sailing directions and manuals for the use of the naval and merchant marine. The Nautical Almanac is prepared at the Naval Observatory. Rank in the Army and Navy. The relative rank in the two arms of the service runs as fol- lows : The admiral with the general, the vice-admiral with the lieu- tenant-general, rear-admirals with major-generals, commodores with brigadier-generals, captains with colonels, commanders with lieutenant-colonels, lieutenant-commanders with majors, lieutenants with captains, masters with 1st lieutenants, and en- signs with 2d lieutenants. Ul Q «^ THE N \\ \' PI- I'AK 1 MEKT. 613 ■71 The Naval Force. There are now with the navy, counting cadets at Annapolis Academy, 1,103 officers of the line, 693 staff officers, 242 warrant officers ; total, 2,038 officers of all grades. There are 7,500 enlisted men and boys, and a marine coqjs of 77 officers and 1,500 men — grand total, 11,115 men. The fleet consists of 65 steam vessels, 23 wooden saihng vessels, 24 ironclads, 2 torpedo boats and 25 tugs — total, 139, only half of which are fit for duty. The Navies of the World. COUNTRIES. Ai^entinc Republic Austria- Hungary Belgium Ilrazil Canada, Dominion of Chili China Colombia Denmark li^&ypt I* ranee Germany Great Britain and Ireland . Greece Italv lap an. ftlexico Netherlands . Norway ,. Peru Portugal Kouniania. ... Russia Spain Sweden Turkey United States Venezuela .. . 25s S6 53S iS 67 27 4 122 389 "Is 139 4 NO. OF MEN. 99" 6,369 T 4.9!^4 l,46S '.'25 4S,iS3 15,815 58,800 652 16,140 5.S5I 5,914 4.34-! 3.5', Austm, Relmont, Aurora and Elko; Washington, at Olympia, Vancouver or Y 6iS THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. Columbia River, and AValla-'Walla ; Minnesota^ Taylor's Falls, St. Cloud, Duluth, Alexandria, Jackson, New Ulm, Litchfield, Redwood Falls and Oak Lake; Oregon, at Oregon City, Roseburgh, Lc Grand, and Lake View; Kansas, at Topeka, Salina, Independence, Concor- dia^ Wichita and Cowper; JV^braska, West Point, Beatrice, Lincoln, Dakota Citv, Grand Island, North Platte and Lowell ; Dakota ,z.t Ver- million, Springfield, Pembina and Yankton; Colorado, at Pueblo, Denver City, Fair Play and Central C\t\\ I^ezv Mexico, ^t Santa Fe; Idaho, at Boise City; Monta7ta, at Helena; Utah, at Salt Lake City; Wyoming, at Cheyenne ; Arizona, at Prescott ; Mississippi, at J ackson. How Pre-emption is Perfected. Within thirty days of first settling on the land, the pre-emptor must file a written declaration of his intentions. Failing to make this state- ment, or to furnish proof of settlement and improvement, or to make the required paj'ment within the vear, any other person may enter the same tract. When more than one person settles on the same tract, the first comer has the right of pre-emption. In entering land at the land office, the pre-emptor must swear that he is the head of a family, or that he js twenty-one years old ; that he is a citizen, or is about to become one, or has ser\'ed in the army or navy of the United Slates ; that he h.is never before availed himself of his privilege to pre-empt public Land ; that he does not own 320 acres of land in any State or Territory-; that he has not settled upon and improved this land to sell it on speculation, but for his own use ; that he has not bargained with any other person that the title of said land, either in whole or in part, shall be vested in any other than himself alone. The certificate of this oath is filed in the land office, and a copy of it is also sent to the General Land Office for preser\'ation. On making the application the pre-emptor must pay a fee of five dollars on a claim of eighty acres or less, and ten dollars on a larger one. The certificate of the Register of the Land Office is not issued to the applicant until proof is furnished of a five years' continuous residence and cultivation after the entry has been made. The payment must be complete before the expiration of the five years. The applicant must also prove that he still retains the land. Then, after taking the oath of allegiance to the United States Government, he is entitled to a patent. This homestead then cannot be levied upon and sold for any debts contracted before the Government patent was issued. Penalties for Perjury. By false swearing at the time of making the entr\-, the pre-emptor forfeits the money he h;is paid and the land itself ; and if he has agreed to convey his pre-emptive title to any other person, tliat conveyance is null and void. False swearing at the time of applying for the patent renders all the parties liable to punisliment for perjury. How to Shorten the Period of Pre-emption. The time of granting the patent is shortened to tiiree years if the claimant proves that he has timber of his own planting growing on the tract for two years, one acre with the trees no farther apart than twelve feet for every sixteen acres of the homestead. Officers of the Land Office. There are a Register of the Land Office and a Receiver of Public Money (the latter reports to the Treasury Department), appointed by the President, for every land district, and each is required to reside at the place where the land office to which he is appointed is directed to be kept. Each receives a salary of $500 a year besides fees and com- missions for locating land warrants, issuing certificates, etc. ; but the salar\', fees and commissions cannot exceed $3,000. All balances over this amount must be paid into the United States Treasury. The re- ceivers make monthly returns to the Treasury; should any Register knowingly and falsely inform a person applying to enter land that the same land liad been already entered, and refuse to permit the per- son so applying to enter the land, he makes himself liable to the ap- plicant for damages of five dollars for each acre of the land in ques- tion, which may be recovered in an action for debt, before any proper court. ■(\s— \ THE BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS. 619 W' 3,xm>xmycm^myc i|v|iK«i)<0X0^<'ic '<^# !•».>•» «rvi!L dJ^ _5)^ THE BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS. t-'ts" KT 1 i />J^ "iS-^ ©L>< x# Al* A# A 0X yfei .1" ^;VLL matters concerning the Indians are in charge of ^^V the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, lie examines :i!l accounts and vouchers forchiims and disburse- iiicnts connected with Indian affairs. He reports an- : Lilly a tabular statement sliowing the several objects t expenditure under his supervision, and embodying Llic statements of all agents issuing supplies of any ^^'~' kind to the Indians, with the number of Indians re- ceiving Ihcm. There is an Advisory Hoard connected with this Bureau, consist- ing of not more than ten persons, appointed by the President. Members of this Board receive no compensation ; they arc chosen as men eminent in the communit>', who have exhibited some peculiar mark of fit* ness for the position. The Board supervises the expenditures of money appropriated for the Indians, and inspects all goods purchased for tht m It has access l<> books and papers re- lating to Indian af- fairs in any Govern- ment office. TIu Board has no direct power further than that of inspection. Inspectors. From one to U\ c Indian Inspectors are appointed by the President. Their duty is to visit twice a } ear each Indian su- perintendency and agency, and fully investigate all matters belonging to the business of each, including the examination of accounts, the manner of expending the money, the number of Indians provided for, contracts of all kinds, the condition of the Indians, their advance in civilisation, the extent of the reservations, and what use is made of the hinds set apart for that purpose, and all matters belonging to the Indian service. Each inspector has power to examine on oath all officers and others in and about the superintcndencies and agencies, and to suspend any superintendent or employe and appoint others temporarily. He has j>ovver to enforce the hiws in the several agencies and superinten- dencies. The same inspector does not visit and investigate any agency or superintendency twice in succession. Four or more superintendents are appointed by the I'resident. Their duties are each in his own district to supervise and control the official conduct and acts of all persons employed by the Government in Indian affairs. Indian Agents. Indian Agents are appointed by the President. They must give bond vj}*h good security before enlisting upon their duties. Every agent must reside and keep his agency near the tribe of Indians to which he is assigned. ^Vilhin his agency he man- ages and superin- tends the intercourse with the Indians and enforces all rules pre- scribed to him. No person employed in Indian affairs may have an interest in any trade with them, under a penalty of $5,000 and removal from ollice. Teachers may be employed for the im- provement of the In- dians, when it is deemed opportune, Indian Traders. Abondof$5,noo.\vith approved secvintv, must be given, war- ranting the obser\'- ance of all laws with respect to intercourse with the Indians, by any one proposing to become an Indian trader. Pension Office. The Commissioner of Pensions has the management of this office. Pension Agents are required to give bond ; they receive a commission of two per cent on all money paid ont by them to pensioners, and a fee of thirty cents on every voucher prepared and paid by them. Agents and their clerks may take the affidavits of pensioners and their witnesses, but receive no fee for that service. In paying pension the agent is authorized to deduct the attorney's fee for aiding the pen r.\TEN'T OFFICE. / \ 620 DEPARTiiENT OF THE i:;t:::uor. / sioner. He retains a fee of thirty cents for this service. Pension sur geons receive $i,Soo a year; the medical referee receives $2,500. Boards of examining- surgeons consist of three members. In ordinary cases each member receives one dollar fee; in special examinations, tin-. ; doUa Patent Office. In this Bureau are kept all records, books, models, drawings, speci- fications and other paocrs and things belonging to patents for inven- tions. The Commissioner of Patents and the chief clerk are required to give bond. I o officer or employe in the Patent Office is allowed to acquire or take during his or her term of office any right or interest in any patent issued by the office. The Commissioner of Patents has copies of patent claims, laws, regulations and circulars printed for tlic information of the public. He makes an annual report to Congress of all matters committed to his charge. The Secret.iry of the Interior also has supervision of the Government Hospital for the Insane and the Columbia Deaf and Dumb Institu- tion in the District of Columbia. Agriculture. The Bureau of Agriculture, although the Commissioner is appointed directly by the President, is a branch of the Interior Department. This Bureau was created by Congress to acquire and distribute among the people of the United States useful information on subjects connected with agriculture, and to procure, propagate and distribute among the people valuable plants and seeds. The Commissioner of Agriculture is appointed by the President, and has for his subordinates a chief clerk, one chemist, one assistant chemist, one entomologist, one microscopist, one botanist, one statistician, one superintendent of experimental gardens and grounds, one assistant superintendent of same, one disbursing clerk, one superintendent of seed room, one assistan' superintendent of same, one librarian, one engineer, one Bureau of Education. The duties of the Commissioner of this Bureau consist in the collec- tion of facts and figures showing the condition and progress of educ.i- tion in the several States and Territories, to diffuse information with regard to the management of schools and methods of teaching, and promote the cause of education. The Miscellaneous Offices. Besides the six main heads under which the workings of the Interior Department are carried on, there are the office of the Superintendent of Public Documents, .and the Returns Office. The first needs no de- scription ; the latter is an office where the returns of all contracts made by the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary of the Interior arc filed and indexed. Certified copies of any of their returns are furnished at a charge of five cents per hundred words. supermtendtnt of folding-room, two attendants in museum and one carpenter. It is the duty of the Commissioner of Agriculture to procure and preserve all the information he can obtain concerning agriculture, by means of books, correspondence, experiments, practical and scientific* collecting statistics, and by any appropriate method in his power. lie is also required to collect seeds and plants, to test them by cultivation, propagate those that are worthy, and distribute them among agricul turists. Secretaries of the Interior. Thomas Ewing, Ohio. 1S49 Alexander H. H. Stewart.Va. 1S50 Robert McClelland, Mich. 1S53 Jacob Thompson, Miss. 1S57 Caleb B. Smith, Ind. iS6i John P. Usher, Ind. 1S63 James Harlan, Iowa. 1S65 O. H. Brownmg, III. Jacob D. Cox. Columbus Delano. Zachariah Chandler. Carl Schurz. Samuel J. Kirkwood. Henry M. Teller, Col. 1S66 1S69 1S70 1S75 1S77 iSSi L. Q. C. Lamar, Miss. 1885. \ THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL. 621 w (LA ^:< ~"~r :^Q^'T""~^ i > '^"^frtf'i?7i>'-'"--^- 'Yi-'if1-iMi*f^-^-* r-*-'»'i^THE / /:=s<»^. "■^^^m. » ^^ATTORNEY-GENERAL. 4^^^^ (im> '•rC^HE Attorney-General of the i Zf United States has charge of the De- partment of Justice. The officers under him are the Solicitor-General, three Assistant Attorneys-General, a Solicitor o£ the Treasurj*, a Solicitor of Internal Revenue, a Naval Solicitor and an Examiner of Claims for the De- partment of State, all of whom are ap- pointed by the President and hold office for , four years. %\'hcnevcr required by the President, it is the duty of the Attorney-General to ^ve his advice 1-j and opinion on questions of law. He must decide on the validity of the land-title to any Xy^J ^h^^y property where the Government proposes to ^ (^ erect buildings. He must give his opinion on any question of law arising in any of the Executive Departments, when called upon by the head of such Department. He superintends the District Attorneys and Marshals of the United Slates, and may employ other counsel to aid District Attorneys in their duties. He may send the Solicitor-General or any officer of his Department to any State or district of the United States, to attend •o the interests of the Government in any Federal or State court. He has supcr\'ision of the accounts of District Attorneys, Marshals, Clerks and other officers of the United States courts. He signs all requisitions for the payment of moneys appropriated for the use of his Department. He reports to Congress annually a full account of the business of his Department during the year, the expenses of the Federal courts, number of pending suits, number of additional counsel and attorneys employed, statistics of crime, etc. The approval of the Attorney- General is necessary to make the opinions of his subordinates valid. All questions of law referred to him he may submit to his subor- dinates for examination and opinion, except such questions as involve a construction of the Constitution of the United St.ites. The officers of this Department assist in performing all legal service required for the other Departments, in prosecuting or defending Gov- ernment claims and suits. The travelling expenses of the officers of this Department when on dut>" are paid in addition to their salaries. Attorneys-General. Edmund Randolph, Va. William Bradford, Penn. Charles Lee, Va. Levi I^incoln, Mass. Robert Smith, Md. John Brcckenridge, Ky. Ca;sar A. Rodney, Del. William Pinkney, Md. Richard Rush, Penn. William Wirt, Va. John M. Berrien, Ga. Roger B. Taney, Md. Benjamin T. Butler, N. Y. Felix Grundy, Tenn. Henry D. Gilpin, Penn. John J. Crittenden, Ky. Hugh S. Lcgarc, S. C. John Nelson, Md. John Y. Mason, Va. A. H. .7S9 Nathan Clifford, Me. ■ &(6 '794 Isaac Touccy, Conn. 1S4S '795 Rcverdy Johnson, Md. 1S49 iSoi John J. Crittenden, Ky. 1S50 1805 Caleb Cushing, Mass. 1S53 iSos Jeremiah S. Black, Penn. 1S57 1S07 Edwin M. Stanton, Penn, )S6o iSii Edward Hates, Mo. iSrtl 1S.4 James Speed, Ky. .S"93- 1S03- 1S13- 1823- 1833- ■ 1793. ■1S03, 1S13, ■ 1S23, 1S33. 'S43, 65 105 149 1S9 3>3 240 These Congressmen are paid $5,000 a year, with certain additions in the shape of mileage, stationery, etc., etc. The qualifications for a Representative are fully explained in the Constitution. [N 624 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. "Tf ■K^J)MXKK El}<2 various Eilmcnts of tl^c ^uman ISoby, anb l^ou) to STrcat STf^em. <^— »-»4^1^^*l"'' ft. ^HE mechanism to be studied in the body of a living animal — more particularly the highest of all animals, I ," man — is of such wonder and beauty, exquisite finish I T and perfection, that, could it all be comprehended CT^'' and long enough retained by the memory to afford one broad contemplation of its simplest facts, all the triumphs of art could bear no relation to its loveliness. Huxley so concisely and clearly begins his delightful little volume of Elementary Physiology, that for the purposes of this article we cannot do better than to quote his opening lines. " The body of a living man," he says, " performs a great divers- ity of actions, some of whicli are quite obvious, others require more or less careful observation, and yet others can be detected only by the most delicate appliances of science. " Thus some part of the body of a living man is plainly always in motion. Even in sleep, when the limbs, head and eyelids may be still, the incessant rise and fall of the chest continues to remind us that we are viewing slumber and not death. " More careful observation is needed, however, to detect the motion of the heart, or the pulsation of the arteries, or the changes in the size of the pupil of the eye with varying light, or to ascertain that the air which is breathed out of the body is hotter and damper than that which is taken in by breathing. " .'Vnd lastly, when we try to ascertain what happens in the eye when that organ is adjusted to different distances, or what in a nerve when it is excited ; or of what materials flesh and blood are made; or in virtue of what mechanism it is that a sudden pain makes one start — we have to call into operation all the methods of inductive and deductive logic, all the resources of physics and chemistry, and all of the delicacies of the art of experiment." It is plainly obvious that man differs from the stones and earth, the flowers and trees, and all inanimate objects. He is warm, whilc'these things are cold; he is able to move about at will while they must remain always in one place ; he can exert power and force, while they must remain forever inactive; he is possessed of mind and purpose to guide him, while they are influenced only by the elements. Combustion and Heat. Now warmth is clearly due to the burning of something. The warmth of the day and the heat of the summer come to us from that gi'eat central fire, the sun, whose flames leap up from its surface tens of thousands of miles. The warm breezes at night, when the sun does not shine upon us, and the temper- ate winds which from time to time visit us in winter, all gain their warmth from some great tract of southern land or tropical body of water, which, previously heated by the fires of the sun, now radiates the heat absorbed therefrom, warming the sur- rounding atmosphere, which, moving in currents, carries heat from the tropics even to the very poles. Wlien the sun's heat is not sufficient for our purpose, we make artificial fires of wood, coal, oil or gas. There is no heat or warmth, however slight, that is not produced hy combustion, or oxidation, or, in other words, the burning of something. But all things do not oxidize or burn with a flame, as in the case of our furnace fires. You every day see objects burn with- out coming to a blaze, but only with the red glow of a live coal. Other things you see burn and crumble to ashes which never even come to a glow. If you hold over a lamp, and at a little distance from it, a piece of writing-paper, it will burn black and finally crumble in ashes without showing a single spark of fire or light, and yet it so rapidly burns that it crum- bles to pieces in the space of only a few moments. The char- acter or appearance of combustion or oxidation depends entirely upon the rapidity with which the article is burned. Thus, .some objects burn with an explosion, some with aflame, some with a glow, while some show only a simple evolution of heat. Gun- VL KT PHVSIOI.OC.Y AND MEDIC. NIC. 625 "^ powder so quickly burns that great force is exerted, though we see but a single flash of light. Dry pine burns far more slowly ; the force of its heat is distributed over a greater length of time, and hence there is no disastrous explosion, though it burns with a roaring flame. Peat burns still more slowly, and with the glow of a live coal. In the slaking of fresh lime an oxidation or burning takes place, and great heat is given off, but there is no flame, no glow, no spark of light. A thousand things burn still more slowly, some of them requir- ing years or centuries, under certain conditions, in oxidation, and, while constantly giving off heat, the burning is so slow and the amount of heat given off therefore so exceedingly small, that it is not detectable except by the most delicate instruments of science. If combustion takes place almost instantly, as in the case of dynamite, or gunpowder, or certain gases, we call the result explosion. If it goes on more slowly, as with wood, coal or peat, we call the process burning. If combustion takes place still more slowly, as in slacking lime, or in a bin of wheat or barley, where heat is given off, but without a spark of fire or light visible, we commonly call the process oxidation. Thus, you see, the words explosion, combustion, burning and oxida- tion mean practically one and the same thing, and that all force, or heat, or warmth, comes from the oxidation or burning of something, cither rapidly or slowly, visibly or invisibly. " If a mass of seeds be laid together," says Draper, " as barley in the making of malt, the operation conducted at a gentle tem- perature, and with the access of atmospheric air, oxygen disap- pears, carbonic acid is set free, and the temperature rises forty or fifty degrees. A process of oxidation must, therefore, have been carried into effect, and to it we trace the heat disengaged ; for carbon cannot produce carbonic acid without a rise of tem- perature ensuing. The loss of weight which the seed exhibits is therefore due to its loss of carbon, and the whole effect is explained in the statement that atmospheric air has united with a portion of the carbon contained in the seed, producing car- bonic acid gas and an evolution of heat." If we put a lighted candle into a glass jar and seal it up air- tight, it will continue to burn for a certain time, the duration of which will depend upon the size of the jar ; the flame will grow less 'and less, until finally it will go out, and the candle will cease to burn. As soon as the air in the jar has coole 1 a little, drops of moisture will collect on the inside of the jar, showing that in burning the candle has given off water. If we now open the jar and test the temperature with a thermometer, we find the air of the jar warmer than when the candle was put into it, showing that in burning heat was given off. If we now force some of the air of the jar through lime water, the water becomes milky from the precipitate of carbonate of lime, showing the presence of carbonic acid in the air of the jar, which was not present before the burning of the candle — showing that in the burning carbonic acid was given off. If a further analysis be made it will be discovered that the oxygen of the air in the jar has dis- appeared, and if the candle be weighed, it will be I'ound to have lost weight. Such is the result of all combustion or oxidation — /icat is given off, luatcr and carbonic acid are evolved, oxygen is con- sumed, and the burning object loses substance. Oxidation and Animal Heat. If, in winter, we place a healthy living man in a cold, dry room with closed glass windows, having carefully noted the temperature of the room and the exact weight of the man, and shut him in as we did the burning candle in the glass jar, and then require him to walk up and down for an hour, the same important facts may be observed as in the case of the candle. In his exercise he will have obviously exerted a great amount of mechanical force — as nmch at least as would he required to lift his own weight as high and as often as he has raiseil himself at every step, which, in the aggregate, would be about a mile or more above the ground. At the end of an hour let the temperature of the room again be taken, and it will be found to be warmer than at the beginning. The man has, therefore, given off heat. If the windows of the room be observed, the glass will be found covered with the vapor of water, which, if the air outside be sufficiently cold, will be converted into ice or frost, such as is seen in the morning upon the window-panes of our sleeping- rooms in winter — showing that he has given off water. I f some of the air in the room be now forced through lime water, the water will be found milky from the precipitate of carbonate of lime, showing the presence of carbonic acid in the air, which, like the heat and the water, has been given off by the man, just as we have seen that heat, water and carbonic acid are given off by a burning candle. And so, if the air of the room be further analyzed, a large amount of oxygen will be found to have disappeared. The flame of the candle died and the light went out when all the oxygen in the jar had been consumed ; so would the fires of life in the man likewise have died out had he not been released before all the oxygen in the closed room had been breathed into his lungs and consumed. Furthermore, if the man be now again weighed at the end of the hour, he will be found to have lost weight just as the candle lost weight in burning and the barley in oxida- tion. Thus, in the concise language of Huxley : "A living, active man constantly exerts mechanical force, gives off heat, evolves carbonic acid and water, and undergoes a loss of sub- stance. " In other words, his tissues are constantly burning up, or oxidizing, and when this process ceases he grows cold and dies. Oxidation of the candle is started by apjilying a flame to the wick. Once b^gun, it needs no further aid. The oxygen of the air unites with the carbon of the candle, and the evolution of heat, carbonic acid gas and water in the form of vapor is the result, and the process continues until the candle is consumeplied with blood-vessels and a nerve, which enter, to pass into the pulp, at the root of the tooth, as shown by the illustration. When solid food is first taken into the mouth, it is first submitted to division and grinding by the teeth. It is kept between the teeth by the muscles of the cheeks on the outside, and by the tongue from the inside. When the teeth are closed together the food is pressed out on either side, but is immedi- ately replaced by the action of these nmscles, and this is con- tinued until the entire mass is thoroughly rubbeHYSlOLOGV AND MEDICINE. 631 / found the following prescription, after vomiting has occurred, to be of the utmost service in numerous cases : Hydrate of chloral, - - v - 15 grains. Sulphate of morphia, - - ■ }4 grain. Dissolve in a wine-glass of water, and take at one dose. If the patient does not find rest and sleep in one hour, repeat the prescription. Sometimes it is lietter to give 20 grains of chloral at the first dose. Often such treatment will afford the patient from five to eight hours' sleej) ; he then awakes free from headache and nausea. The disease sometimes appears to be hereditary, several members of the same family being subject to frequent attacks. It is a disease of early adult and middle life, usually disappearing after 40 years of age. DvsPEPSiA — a chronic affection — is characterized by dis- tention of the stomach and bowels by gas, and consequent uneasiness and pain, with an oppressive sense of fulness ; fre- quent regurgitations of fluid from the stomach which has either a salty, insipid or acid taste. Sometimes it is acrid and intensely disagreeable. This regurgitation is commonly known as water-brash. This condition is not unfrequently attended with a burning, painful sensation at a point where the oesopha- gus opens into the stomach, extending upward along the course of the oesophagus — a symptom commonly called heart-burn. Constipation is also generally present. Vomiting is rare. The gas in the stomach and bowels may be derived in large part from the fermentation of undigested food, but it is certain that in many cases it has its origin in a disordered state of the nervous system. Dyspepsia is attended with depression of spirits. This is greatest when the stom.ich and bowels are most dis- tended by gas, and is never seen, I believe, unless accompanied by more or less distention. This state of depression, carried beyond a certain point, eventuates in a form of mental aberration known as hypocondriasis (vulgarly called hyp.'), or even melancholia. We have in mind a night-watch in a public hos- pital, whowa.s subject to attacksof rapid a cumulati m of gas in stomach and bowels, attended with c >nsi lerable pai.i. Not- withstanding the frequency of the attacks and the always happy termination within an hour or two, his memory and experience seemed of little use. He always believetl that lie was within a few niinutes of death, and that the Lord had made this special visitation upon him as a punishment for his sins (although he was not noted for this sort of religious faith at other times), which he would proceed to confess, and which were ridiculous trivialities : he had failed to l)e polite to some one, or he had reported some employe for neglect of duty, or some other equally trivial fault, or even a virtue, which at these times he would distort into a fault. He was no coward, but a brave, courageous and sensible young man. As soon as the pain and distention was relievetl, these melancholy delusions appeared as ridiculous to him as to his physician, although the experience wa-s of no possible aid to his reason on the next occasion. Prof. Austin Flint, of New York, is authority for the state- ment that " in a large proportion of cases, dyspepsia originates and is perpetuated by mental causes. It is induced and kept up by anxiety and depression. In the first place it is produced by mental causes, and then the dyspepsia reacts upon the mind. increasing its morbid condition. Most cases show the affection to have been preceded by mental inquietude of some sort. Per- sons who aie constantly anxious about something, such as acquiring success in life, getting out of debt, securing independ- ent positions, or imaginary troubles, are those who are prone to the disease. The disease is most frequent from early adult to middle life, during the time when anxieties are greatest." The Treatment. — The scope of this article will not permit more than to indicate the general character of the treatment to be employed. First, attention should be given to the mind. The patient should be made to understand that his gloomy fore- boding regarding his health has no foundation in fact ; that his anxiety constitutes his dyspepsia, and that there is not another such a father of " the blues " as " wind on the .stomach." Exer- cise is a good thing, but if ordered to take it at stated times without any other purpose than treatment, it will fail of its best results by keeping the mind of the patient upon himself and his dyspepsia. He should have a change of scene— should go where new objects will engage his attention and take possession of his mind. Nothing is better than foreign travel. Objects of interest engage his mind, and he forgets nimself. He finds it impossible to stick to his brown bread and limited variety of foods (which he has had cooked in a particular way for years, perhaps, under the delusion that he could not live if he should dare to go beyond his self-imposed restrictions), for it is not to be obtained. By his exercise and cheerful interest in what is novel to him, he becomes hungry and indulges freely in the variety of table fares which he finds at the various hotels, and he soon learns that he suffers no inconvenience from whatever he chooses to eat, so that often a few months' travel is sufficient to permanently dispel the delusions and cure the most chronic case of years' standing. There is no more prevalent American fallacy than the notion that one should not sleep soon after eating — the notion that, no matter how hungry one may be, he must not eat before retiring. This notion is not held by any other nation in the world, and how it became so prevalent here, it is difficult to account for. Those people who eat the largest meal at from 7 to 9 o'clock in the evening, and perhaps take a luncheon the last thing before retiring, and who require, .consequently, a very light breakfast, are far less frequently attacked by dys- pepsia than those who exercise after eating. As regards diet, the patient should take in sufficient quantities and great variety all kinds of nutritious food. Milk and nice, tender meats of all sorts should particularly be largely eaten. Pastry, sweets and sugars had better be discardeti. Ripe fruit is very useful, and generally any article which the appetite craves — roast pork, or oysters, or melons, or even the infamous cucumber, if called for by the appetite — will do good and not harm. Medicinal remedies are useful in relieving some of the symp- toms. The regurgitation of fluid from the stomach, water- brash, and the heart-bttrn, may be relieved by moderate doses of subnitrate of bismuth. The distention by gas and the constipation are best relieved by an enema, which should be retained for fifteen or twenty minutes. The patient should drink a great deal of fluid — milk and water. Water shoukl be taken in large quantity between 632 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. ~A meals — not until an hour after or half an hour before meals. A movement of the bowels every morning should be sought directly after breakfast. Every effort should be made to induce this habit. A glass of cold water directly upon rising will be useful in this regard. A general tonic will be found most use- ful, and should be occasionally changed for another. Among the best may be mentioned quinine, in two-giain doses ; cotn- pound tincture of geJitian, in teaspoonful doses, and tincture of mix vomica, in fifteen-drop doses. Polyphagia — Excessive Appetite — Gluttony. PoLYPH.VGlAis characterized by a voracious appetite, and tlie ingestion of enormous quantities of food beyond the demands of the system. Sometimes the capacity of digestion is increased in these cases, which leads to excessive accumulations of fat, and to fatty degeneration of the heart and other organs. In the sense in which the term is used, it implies a disease. It is sometimes observed in cases of mental derangement. The excessive craving for food may be diminished by the use of opium in some form. Recovery is to be expected. Polydipsia — Excessive Thirst. Polydipsia is a very rare disease. It consists in an excessive craving for the imbibition of enormous quantities of water. The quantity of urine voided is proportionately great, is pale and limpid, with nearly the specific gravity of distilled water. It contains no sugar or other abnormal constituents. There is no other evidence of disease. The patient drinks several gal- lons of water daily. A young man, a patient in a public asylum, in excellent. physical health, developed this curious affection. As soon as the fact was discovered, an investigation was made by confining him to his room, where he was permitted to have all the water he desired, all of which was carefully measured to him. The amount drunk during the day was fourteen quarts. The urine voided during the same time was also measured, and corresponded precisely to the water drnnV.— fourteen quarts. The next day he was permitted to have only a pint and a half of fluid — half a pint with each meal. The third day he was ♦also restricted to a pint and a half of fluid, and the urine voided during the third day was precisely the same as the water taken — a pint and a half. Recovery in this case was com- plete, without other treatment than restriction in the amount of water drunk. The symptoms shown during the excessive water-drinking were indifference and excessive laziness. Now, after three years, there has been no recurrence of the symp- toms. Dipsomania. DlPSOMANi.\ is the term used to express a morbid craving for alcoholic stimulants. The habit may be developed through dyspepsia or other disease of the digestive system. We have in mind a pitialile case of a lady who developed the habit through efforts to get relief from a distress which afterwards proved to have been caused by a tape-worm. The desire for drink in some of these cases assumes the nature of the delusions of insanity. In such cases it is useless to reason with the patient, and the only certain hope of rehef is by placing the patient in some institution, where stimulants will be withheld and suitable medicinal and hygienic treatment can be enforced. The patient should reside in such an institution long enough to have the physical health fuUy restored and the morbid appetite quite fully overcome. Inanition — Starvation. In.\nition. — To preserve the health and strength it is abso- lutely necessary that food should be supplied in generous quantity and variety. There is no one article of food which contains all those principles which are necessary to the perfect nutrition of the body ; and among the first organs to suffer for lack of proper nutrition are the organs of digestion. Every one knows the pain and exhaustion produced by a single day's abstinence from food. Especially is this excessive if work has been necessary in addition to the abstinence from food. Now, we have very little to do with cases of famine, or starvation by shipwreck. I f our assistance could be made available in such cases, we should not need to seek the advice of a physician ; but the first move of the best informed as well as the most obtuse person would be to supply proper food. How differently even the best informed often treat the sick of their o\vn families, not knowing what is best to do. In a fever of what- ever kind, the tissues are being far more rapidly oxidized or burned up than in health, as evidenced by the great heat of the body and the rapid loss of weight. Under such circumstances, the patient, to keep up the loss, really requires more food than in health, and yet how often he is deprived of food entirely for days together, with the idea of " starving a fever." It is the patient, and not the fever, that is being starved. The tissues of the body are being rapidly consumed, and if food is not furnished to rebuild these tissues, the patient must die from exhaustion. If a well person even were put to bed, and there kept practically without food, and scarcely permitted water, for three or four weeks, as many typhoid- fever patients are, a very large proportion of them would die, and it w-ould be plain that such a person had been starved to death. Many a fever patient has been starved to death who is said to have died from fever. Many a dyspeptic continues ill for years because he restricts himself ignorantly to too small a quantity or to too small a variety of food. Patients with cancer of the stomach, or ulcer of the stomach, or chronic diarrhoea or dysentery, and many other diseases of the digestive organs, generally die of starva- tion. The prime object, then, in all such diseases, is to supply such food as can be digested and taken into the blood, in the greatest possible variety, and in such quantities as will repair the waste by disease. Either an insufficient quantity or variety of food is certain to be followed by disease. Disease and pesti- lence always follow famine. Certain diseases, as scorbutus (scurvy), are developed for want of variety of food. Gastritis — Inflammation of the Stomach. Acute Ga.stritis is a very rare affection. It seldom occurs except as the result of a wound or of some corrosive poison. Pain is intense ; thirst is excessive ; vomiting is frequent and very distressing. The vomited matters are at first of a gi'eenish color ; but if life is prolonged, in fata! cases, the vomited matters are black, with the appearance of coffee grounds. The surface is cold, and prostration is extreme. Besides poisons, the taking of large quantities of alcoholic stimulants without food may act as the cause of an attack. Death, in fatal cases, takes place in i^ -^ V PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 633 -A from a few hours to a few days. Cases of this disease are so grave that a physician is always promptly called. The treat- ment will therefore best be left to his advice. When the cause is by a corrosive poison, the proper treatment will be found under the head of poisons. Subacute Gastritis, or catarrhal itiflammalion of the stomach, is much more frequent in infants than in adults. When it occurs in adults, appetite is impaired or lost ; nausea and vomiting are very likely to occur ; sometimes it is a very severe and persistent symptom. Thirst is very great, and cold water is craved. Headache is usually very great, and weakness and exhaustion keep the patient in bed. Many of the symptoms are identical with the disease already spoken of under the heads of acute dyspepsia and sick headache. The most prominent dis- tinction is found in ihe duration of the attack, subacute gastritis continuing for from one to three weeks. The termination is almost always favorable ; only very rarely, and in the most severe cases, when the symptoms approach those of acute gastritis, is there any cause for alarm concerning the termination of the case. The cause of the di.sease is not always clear. Among adults, those addicted to intoxicating beverages are especially liable to it. Treatment. — The patient may, for a few days, be restricted to a milk diet. If the stomach is intolerant of food, enemas of milk may Ije given, half a pint at a time, and as often as once in three or four hours, until the condition of the stomach has improved. Small pieces of ice may be swallowed to relieve the thirst and the nausea. The following prescription will perhaps prove the most useful of any that could be taken to relieve the pain and vomiting : .Subnitrate of bismuth, • • - i dram. Sulphate of morphine, - - - i^ grains. Make eight powders. Give one powder as often as necessary to relieve pain. Neither emetics, cathartics nor la.vatives should be used. If constipation exists, an enema or injection of warm water should be used to produce an evacuation. Chronic Gastritis is a chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach. It is sometimes very difficult to distinguish between chronic gastritis and the functional disease dyspepsia. If there is great thirst, tenderness and soreness at all limes over the stomach, loss of weight, occasional vomiting, the symptoms point to gastritis rather than to dyspepsia, in which none of the above symptoms are prominent. Many causes lead to the disease. Insufficient food is perhaps the most frequent cause. Persons suffering from functional dyspepsia brought .ibout by a nervous condition due to anxiety or depression, may, by limiting the quantity and variety of the food, brmg about a real inflam- mation of the coats of the stomach. Remember that harm is always the result of severe so-called "dieting," that is, limit- ing the food taken to an insufficient quantity and small variety. .Another and almost as frequent a cause is, as in the subacute variety, the u.se of alcoholic stimulants. It is also caused by the continued use of arsenic, taken sometimes as a medicine, but more often to improve the complexion. Disease of the liver, by causing congestion of the stomach, also acts as a cause. Treatment. — The food best adapted in cases of this sort is milk, bread, butter and eggs, beef extract, rice, corn-starch, etc. A change of scene, fair exercise, and recreation for the mind, are in the direction of the best results. As regards medicine, nothing can be better than the treatment recommended in dyspeysia. Ulcer of the Stomach. Gastric Ulcer is a tolerably frequent disease. It is also a disease of gravity and danger. The ulcer is of two kinds. One, known as ihe perforating ulcer, is small and deeji, and affects chiefly young people — girls and young women with much greater frequency than young men. It is said that servant- girls are more often afflicted by this form of ulcer than others, although I can see no reason for this and doubt the fact. The other form is larger and not so deep. It may be as large as a silver dollar, or even larger, and people of middle age are more often the subjects. The prominent symptoms are pain directly after eating, local tenderness on pressure, vomiting after eating, and hemorrhage or bleeding into the stomach. If blood is poured out into the stomach it is very likely to be vomited. If it is not vomited immediately it is turned black by the action of the gastric juice. From the fact that the matter vomited is black, without further examination it can be almost certainly relied upon as being blood. If vomited immediately that hemorrhage takes place, it will have the red color of blood. If the above symptoms occur in a young person, it is almost certain that ulcer of the stomach is the cause. Hemorrhage may take place into the stomach, however, without causing vomiting. But even with- out this proof, the other symptoms are usually sufficiently clear to render an opinion upon. In case of ulcer, pain occurs im- mediately upon introducing food into the stomach. In other stomach diseases (with the exception of cancer) the pain does not occur until some time later. If any considerable bleeding takes place and is not vomited, the patient shows the fact by weakness, paleness, prostration, thir.st, and a peculiar throb- bing of the arteries in the neck, caused by being only half filled with blood at each pulsation. If the patient is young we may be absolutely certain that the ulcer is not a cancer of the stomach (which, in many respects, has the same symp- toms), for cancer rarely happens in young people. If the patient is of middle age, then we may not lie able to decide the case at once, although the peculiar symptoms as regards the appearance, in addition to peculiarities in the character of the pain in a patient suffering from cancer, are usually sufficient to render an opinion tolerably safe. In fatal cases death takes jilace by different ways. It some- times happens that the vomiting of blood is the first symptom pointing to the disease. Hemorrhage sometimes is so great as to cause death. By the ulceration af a blood-vessel of consid- erable size, the patient bleeds to death. Another cause of death is by the ulcer perforating the walls of the stomach, thus permitting some of the contents of the stomach to escape into the abdominal cavity, and thus setting up an inflammation of the lining membrane of the alxiomen {pcrilonitis, a very pain- ful fever), which, when produced by this cause, sjieedily results in death. The other way in which gastric or stomach ulcer causes death is by inanition, or starvation. When food is -^ V K- 634 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. /. "71 vomited as soon as taken, day after day and week after week, the patient rapidly loses weight, and if nutrition is not sup- plied in some other way, soon dies for want of food. Treatment. — To stop hemorrhage, pieces of ice may be given to the patient to swallow, and cold may be applied over the stomach. If perforation takes place, nothing can be done. If vomiting is persistent, it is well not to give the patient any food by stomach, but give enemas of half a pint of good rich milk, beef-tea or mutton broth, and the white of eggs beaten up with the milk. This is for the purpose of giving the stomach a rest, and the ulcer, being thus left free from irritation, a chance to heal. This method of feeding has, in some cases, been kept up for two or three months at a time, with the best results. Morphine and bismtttk may be given, to relieve pain and vomiting. If food is given by stomach, it should consist princi- pally of milk. Cathartics or laxatives should never be given by stomacti. If at all, they should be given by enema. Usually enemas of water are all that will be required. Cancer of the Stomach. Cancer of the Stomach is not a frequent disease. Sim- ple ulcer of the stomach is far more common. Perhaps one- third of all cancers are of the stomach. The disease rarely oc- curs before forty years of age. It is most common between fifty and sixty. It is twice as common in men as in women. Some- times there is considerable difficulty in finding out what is the matter. There is usually loss of appetite and loss of flesh, with weakness and exhaustion. There is pain in the stomach, which is increased after meals, and frequently vomiting also. Often there is a peculiar yellow complexion, which points to cancer as the cause. If these symptoms should occur in a young person, simple ulcer of the stomach is more probable. Some- times a tumor can be felt through the abdominal walls over the stomach. If this can be done, and the other symptoms are present, there can scarcely be two opinions in the case. The loss of appetite, the cutting pains, the vomiting, the black, cof- fee-grounds-appearing substance (blood acted upon by gastric juice) in the vomited matter, indicate that the trouble is not dyspepsia. The pain of cancer is " cutting. " Of simple ulcer it is described as " burning " or " gnawing. " The pain in cancer is more constant, while in ulcer it occurs more particularly after eating ; vomiting more immediately after eating in simple ulcer. Hemorrhage is more frequent and greater in amount in ulcer than in cancer. A tumor is never found in simple ulcer, and is often to be found in case of cancer of the stomach. These things, taken in connection with the history of the case, are usually sufficient to decide the case. Treatment. — There is no treatment that is of any avail in curing the disease. Remedies may be given to relieve pain, anil life may be prolonged by careful attention to the nutrition of the patient. Diarrhoea. DiARRHCEA is an affection of the small intestines, and is due to many different causes. It may be temporary, lasting but for a few hours, or it may be chronic, lasting for months. It may be caused by any trivial thing, as a slight change in the weather or some temporary indigestion, .or may be a syinptom of some grave or chronic disease, as typhoid fever, consump- tion or intestinal catarrh. There is one type which is prob- ably due to disease of the pancreas, in which fat, in appear- ance like melted butter, is evacuated, which upon cooling over the stool gives it the appearance of being mostly fat. This form is of considerable gravity, and often proves fatal. Diarrhoea occurs most frequently during the summer months. In September, when the weather suddenly becomes cooler, there are always a large number of cases. Treatme7it. — If in the beginning of a diarrhoea the bowels are freely evacuated by some mild cathartic, nothing further is generally required. For this purpose a small dose of salts, or what is better, castor oil, may be taken. If the diarrhcea con- tinues, twenty-five drops of laudanit7n may be taken every three to six hours. Or instead, five-giain doses of Dover's powder, or a sixth of a grain of morphine. In case of chronic diarrhcea, more dependence for a cure must be had upon suitable diet. Those articles should be eaten which are principally or wholly digested in the stomach, and not those which are digested in the small intestine. Ten- der meats of all sorts are best digested ; milk may betaken also, and ripe fruits. Vegetables generally should not be eaten. The food should be taken frequently, and a small amount at a time. If the patient lives in the city, a change should be made to the country. A malarious district should be avoided, and care should be taken as to dress. Woolen should be worn next the person at all seasons. Rest in bed is useful. Tonics should be taken — among the best are iron and quinine. Fif- teen or twenty drops of laudanum may be taken when required to check the diarrhoea. Summer Complaint. Diarrhoea occurring in young children, and prevailing during the warm season, is known as summer complaint. It is com- mon during teething, and may begin in an acute attack of cholera infantum. It is a cause of great mortality among lit- tle children. In the large cities during certain months fully one-half of the deaths are due to this cause. The little patient should be removed to the country if possible. A spot should be selected that is free from malaria, that is cool and dry. Pure, fresh, sweet milk, together with lean, tender meats, rare done, or raw tender beef chopped fine and seasoned to taste, should be fed the child. Tonics may be given, and from twenty to sixty drops (according to the age of the child and severity of the diarrhoea) of the camphorated tincture 0/ opium (paregoric) may be given every few hours. Food should be taken often, and a small amount at a lime. Enteritis — Inflammation of the Small Intestine. Enteritis, either acute or subacute, is very rare after the age of infancy. The diagnosis is not always clear, but diar- rhoea is always a .sympton, and is generally in children classed under summer complaint or cholera infantum. The treat- ment advised under these heads should be employed. When occurring in adults, rest in bed is to be strictly enjoined, hot poultices or hot water dressing over the abdomen may be used. V^ lA PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 635 / and opium in some shape, laudanum or ntorphitu^ is to be given, together with ijuinine. Dysentery — Inflammation of the Large Intestine. AcLTE IJvsENTEKV, or " jliix," occurs in single, isolated cases, and as an epidemic. The disease is more frequent in hot than in temperate or cold climates. It is more common in the summer or fall than at other se.isons. The inflammation is confined to the large intestine, and in many cases affects only a very small portion of it. The isolated cases usually end in recovery, although death sometimes results in the most severe cases. The epidemic variety, commonly known as the bloody flux, very frequently proves fatal. The disease usually begins with loose passages having the appe-irance of an ordinary diarrhoea, but within a short time the character of the evacuations changes, showing a large amount of mucus, commonly spoken of as slime, following this, very darlv evacuations frequently take place, the color being due to blood, the red color of the blood being changed to black by the contents of the intestine. There is considerable griping and pain with a constant desire (called by physicians tenesmus) to evacuate the bowels. There is more or less fever and weakness. Vomiting is also common. In the epidemic variety the progress of the disease is much more rapid. All of the symptoms are exaggerated. The quan- tity of slime is more abundant ; blood in its red color is evacu- ated, sometimes in considerable quantity. The fever is much higher, and exhau.stion and prostration are much more marked. Death sometimes takes place within a few hours, and some- times not until the third week. The great majority of cases recover. The disease may occur at any age, but is most com- mon from thirty to forty years. Treatment. — A full dose of castor oil or salts may be admin- istered in the beginning of the disease, to remove all offending substances from the bowels. This is not to l>e repeated. The treatment from this on consists in efforts to supijort the strength of the patient and to limit the movements from the bowels. The patient should be kept quiet in bed, and should restrain a movement as long as possible. Meat broths and milk should form the chief part of the diet. Vegetables should not be per- mitted. Opium in some form, either as laudanum or mor- phine, or Dover's powders, should be given after every move- ment. It is well to introduce this medicine by injection or suppository if it can be so retained ; otherwise it must be taken by stomach. If vomiting is present, efforts to relieve this must be made, directions for which will be found in this article, under its proper head. Quinine in four-grain doses should be given to keep up the strength. In malarious districts espec- ially is quinine imperatively called for. Stimulants, as brandy or -vliisky or milk punch, should be given in all cases of great prostration. Chronic Dyse.nterv rarely occurs except as it follows acute dysentery. It is a very grave and most intractable dis- ease. It may be difficult to determine whether a given case is chronic dysentery or chronic diarrhoea ; that is, whether the inflammation is of the large or small intestine. Treatment. — Enemas of warm water should be used after each movement, and immediately returned, the object being to keep free from irritating matter the ulcerated and inflamed spots. Tonics must be given, and the diet should be most nutritious, and contain as little waste as pos.sible to pass over the diseased parts. Opium should not be used except when especially indicated by pain, for the reason that it interferes with the appetite. The tendency of the disease is to progress- ive loss of appetite and flesh, and gradual decline, prostration, apathy and death from exhaustion. Constipation — Costiveness. CoNSTIPATlO.N, or costiveness, may proceed from a variety of causes. It is an aflfection of the large intestines, and is gen- erally functional, i.e., it is not due to any organic change in the part. It is a very frequent, and is generally not at all a seri- ous affection, although it brings about great discomfort, and may be the origin of dyspepsia, piles and various other troublesome diseases. It occasions headache, dulness of mind, palpitation of the heart, accumulation of gas in the stomach and intestines, colic pains, and sometimes diarrhcea. Severe straining may produce great harm. Blood-vessels in the brain have been rup- tured, and protrusion of the rectum has been occasioned by it. It is caused most frequently by neglect to attend to the calls of nature when it is demanded, and both the sensation and de- sire after a time subside. It may be twelve or twenty-four hours before the call is repeated. Again it may be ignored, and again subside. In this way a habit is formed which becomes very troublesome, destroys one's comfort, and fre- quently, by interfering with digestion, undermines the general health. This habit of neglecting the calls of nature is brought about chiefly by two causes : the mind may be occupied and the patient driven with work. He will not take the time either to eat properly, or to visit the closet. But the far more fre- quent cause, in my opinion, especially in the country, is the neglect of people to provide themselves with comfortable closets, and sometimes not even uncomfortable out-houses. In winter, when the thermometer is from five to forty degrees below zero, with deep snow-drifts, and the wind blowing a gale, a trip to a stable, or to a cold out-house, through the cracks of which the wind drives a freezing blast, is indeed a dreaded experience. To bare oneself in such cold, and perhaps stop the wind out of the privy with a portion of one's anatomy, is not an experience that seeks frequent repetition, .-\gain, when it rains in spring and fall, there is a dread of going out into the storm. And in summer the stench from the pri\-y vault is often so offensive as to deter frequent visits. Thus, by these inconvenieccs, people develop a habit of waiting as long as pos- sible, frequently for days together, until a troublesome consti- pation is developed, which may be very diflicult to cure. Treatment. — .Attention should first be directed to a cure of the bad habit of irregularity. The patient should go regu- larly every morning after breakfast, and take plenty of time to complete the act. Every house should have a comfortable closet, free from bad smells. If in the country where there are no sewers, and no closet is possible in the house, the privy should be well built, the outside well boardeil up and battened and the inside lathed and plastered, so as to keep out the wind. A wooden box should extend up through the privy and open outside, so as to ventilate the vault, which should be often VL Al 636 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. J-. "71 cleaned out. A good board walk should extend from it to the house ; then, if the house will keep an umbrella for rainy weather, the comfort and health of the family will be greatly enhanced, and the doctor's bills will be smaller. Of course there are other causes, but, whatever they are, care should be taken to remove or avoid them. If constipation is only temporary, a laxative pill may be taken, or an enema of water. If, however, it be habitual or chronic, other means •will have to be employed to cure it. The diet should be, in good part, articles which leave a large residue of undigested matter to be carried out of the body, such as vegetables, salads, cabbage, greens ; or corn-bread, oat meal, cracked wheat, etc. A glass of cold water taken fifteen or twenty minutes before breakfast is often very useful. If medicines be taken they should be taken in small doses and frequently repeated, so as to bring about a regular habit. Free purga- tion should never be sought ; much harm is done by it. A small pill of a/oes, or of a/ots and strychnine, which may be had at the drug stores, will be found very effective. One pill should be taken every night ; sometimes one every night and morning may prove most effective. Colic. Colic, strictly speakmg, is a functional affection of the colon, characterized by spasmodic pains. It has, however, by common usage, been made to apply generally to all severe spas- modic pains in the abdomen. Thus it is applied to the pains in certain inflammations, 2.% peritonitis, enteritis and dysentery, to the pain caused by the passage of gall-stones, and to that caused by the passage of small stones from the kidney into the bladder, as well as to certain neuralgias of the abdominal organs, as that caused by lead-poisoning. So the distinctions are made by prefixing a word, ai^atulent, or wind colic ; cra- pulous colic, or that caused by indigestion, as in cholera mar- bus ; hepatic colic, caused by the passage of gall-stones ; ne- phritic colic, caused by passage of calculi from the kidney, and lead colic, caused by lead-poisoning. For treatment of the colic of dysentery, peritonitis, cholera morbus and cholera, as well as of the pain accompanying the passage of stones from the gall-bladder and kidney, see the proper heads as above. The pain in colic is caused by spasm of the muscular coat of the intestine. The object of treatment is to relieve this spasm. Some persons are subject to frequent attacks, which are brought about by slight causes. Constipation is a frequent cause. Treatment should first be directed to the relief of the pain. Hot cloths placed over the abdomen, or cloths wrung out of hot water, will aid, and will sometimes alone fully relieve the patient. Various hot an'd stimuluting drinks are useful, but there is no remedy so absolutely certain of relief as some form of opium. Twenty-five to forty drops o{ laudanum maybe given every half hour to an adult, either by injection or by the stomach, until relief is obtained. For children, a proportionate dose. For infants and children under four years, paregoric is safest. For adults, morphine may be given in quarter-grain doses, every half hour until relieved. If the patient is consti- pated, two or three compound cathartic pills may be taken, or what is better, a large injection of warm water, so as to free the bowels. This, in most instances, will complete the cure. Lead Colic is caused by poisoning by lead. The lead may be taken into the system by many different ways, without the knowledge of the patient. Persons manufacturing paints or working in shot-factories or other places where lead is used may be poisoned. Painters are very liable to lead-poisoning. Persons have been poisoned by sleeping in a newly-painted room, or by using certain face-washes and hair-dyes which con- tain lead, or by drinking water which has stood in lead pipes, or beer or cider which has been for some time in contact with a lead faucet, and by many accidental or intentional adulterations of food. Lead-poisoning is manifested by various affections of the nervous system, such as paralysis, as of the extensor muscles of the hand, and neuralgias, of which colic, or neuralgia of the intestines, is one. The bowels are usually constipated. The pain is sometimes dull and heavy, and sometimes sharp and cutting. It usually comes on very gi'adually, beginning with slight pain, and grows worse until it may become very severe. There is seldom entire relief from pain, but there are periods of gieat increase, when the paroxysms are excruciating. If not relieved by treatment, the pain is likely to continue for days, and perhaps for weeks, and attacks will frequently occur. Persons do not die from lead colic, although they may from other effects of lead-poison- ing. A blue line along the gums next the teeth is usually present in these cases. Treatment should first be given as in ordinary colic. When the pain is relieved and the bowels moved, the following pre- scription should be taken, which will produce a permanent cure: Iodide of potassium, - - - - i ounce. Distilled w-ater, ad. - - - - i ounce. Mix. Dose: As directed. The above is a saturated solution. Begin with five drops in a wine-glass of water three times a day after meals, and increase one drop each day until the patient is taking twenty-five to thirty drops three times a day. Cholera Morbus. Cholera Morbus, ax sporadic cholera, begins very suddenly by vomiting and colic pains. This is followed by purging and increase in pain and continued vomiting. The vomiting is sometimes preceded by a sense of weight and uneasiness in the stomach. If the vomiting and purging continue long, both the vomited matters and the dejections become entirely fluid and acrid. The skin is usually cool or cold ; cramps occur in the legs and feet and in the abdominal muscles. During the interims between vomiting and purging, the patient is greatly prostrated and exhausted. The mouth is dry, and the patient suffers from great thirst. The disease is more frequent in the summer months, and is more likely to occur at night than in the day-time. The patient usually recovers. Treatmetit. — There is but one remedy worthy of mention in this disease, and that is opium in some shape. The injec- VL ^ IV PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 637 "TT tion of a solution of morphia under the skin is the best way to administer it. but none except physicians are possessed of the necessary instrument for this purpose. Therefore, if the method of administration given below should fail, by being vomited or evacuated before an effect can be produced, a phy- sician should be called. Half a grain of morphia should be taken dry on the tongue and dissolvetl in the mouth, and should be given directly after vomiting. If this is rejected, the dose should be at once repeated. If this is again rejected, it may again be repeated, or from sixty to eighty drops of laudanum may be given in two tablespoonfuls of water by injection. This should be given directly after a movement of the bowels, so as to have time to take effect before the next movement occurs. If this be rejected, the injection should be repeated. To relieve thirst, small pieces of ice may be taken into the mouth, or a spoonful of water may be allowed every few min- utes. Sometimes a very hot cup of tea, taken without milk or sugar, acts well in relieving the vomiting. The body should be wrapped in a warm blanket. Cholera Infantum. The affection treated of under this head is similar to the c/iolera morbus of adults, except that it is applied to children usually under two years of age. Unlike the disease in adults, wliere recovery is almost certain, in children under two years it is frequently fatal. Indeed, cholera infantum, together with the more chronic affection Vnownas summer complaint, causes, in the large cities of the United States, nearly one-half the deaths during the hot season. Children of the poor living in crowded tenement-houses are more liable to the disease than others. Change of food, as in weaning, frequently acts as a cause. Children brought up on a bottle are especially liable to it. Doubtless poor, diluted, changed or soured milk is a cause. The greatest care should be taken to obtain fresh and pure milk for infants during these months. Unless there is urgent need in the interest of the mother's health, a child should not be weaned during the hot months. The attack usually begins with vomiting and purging, which acts are frequently repeated. The vomited matters and the dejections are very fluid ; pain, prostration and cramps ensue ; the body is cold. If the purging and vomiting can be arrested recovery may quickly take place. If this cannot be controlled, however, the child rapidly fails, suffers from thirst and pain and prostration, aud in the course of two or three days goes into collapse and dies. It may, however, become chronic, an affection previously treated under the head of summer com- plaint, when the child, in unfavorable cases, gradually fails, becomes emaciated and dull, and finally dies of starvation. Treatment. — When an attack begins the babe should be wrapped in a warm shawl or blanket. Twenty to thirty drops of paregoric should be given directly after vomiting. If it is rejected the dose is to be repeated. If this is again rejected or if relief does not follow, it is again to be repeated. Each time it should be given directly after the act of purging. If purg- ing is not so frequent the medicine is better given by injection. Drinks of very warm tea may be given ; let the tea be as hot as can be well taken. A physician should be called if relief is not soon obtained. The treatment for the chronic form will be found under the head of summer complaint. Epidemic Cholera. Epidemic or Asiatic Cholera is a disease which seems to take its origin in India. There it exists sometimes in isolated cases, and sometimes as an epidemic. Frequently it leaves its native country, and makes trips over the entire civilized world, following the highways of travel and commerce. It first occur- red in the United States in 1832 ; again in 1834. Again it took its origin in India in 1847, and reached this country in 1S49, and prevailed here in 1850, '51 and '52. Beginning again in India in 1S64, it reached the United States in '66 and pre- vailed somewhat in '67. The pathology and cause of the disease are not well under- stood. But this much is quite well established : That it has a special cause, and that this special cause can be transported and reproduced in places wliere the conditions are favorable to its development— conditions similar to those where it first took its origin. That this special cause may be rapidly developed under conditions favorable to it ; that it may be destroyed by disin- fectants, and that it suddenly becomes inert, inoperative.or is carried away by causes not understood. There are many well- established facts concerning its communicability, which, how- ever, are often apparently contradictory, and hence there are few physicians who do not hold in reserve or doubt any opin- ion which their experience has led them to enlerlain. The introduction of cholera into New York in 1866 was not traceable to any particular emigrant passenger, nor any particu- lar lot of baggage or goods, nor to any particular ship ; but it followed the arrival of infected ships into the harbor. The first cases occurred almo.st simultaneously, and in widely separated districts. This could hardly have been the case if the disease had been communicated from one person to another. As the season advanced and cases became more frequent, the disease was found to prevail in certain low and insalubrious localities, while the rest of the city was almost free from the epidemic. These localities were widely .sejiarated. There was no evidence that the disease was ever directly com- municated from one ])erson to another. Persons in the same house, and who waited upon the sick, were not more frequently attacked than other persons who resided in the insalubrious dis- trict, but at a distance from any ease. Where the epidemic has prevailed in Europe and in this country, no more than from one to ten in a hundred physicians and nurses who cared for the cholera patients had the disease. In the London hospital, out of one hundred persons employed in the cholera wards only five had the disease, and of eleven laundry-women employed at the hospital to wash the soiled clothing and bedding of cholera patients, only one was at- tacked. It is thought by .some to have its origin in germs developed in the alimentary canal of cholera patients, which are further developed in the soil, the condition of which, as regards com- position, temperature and moisture, must be favorable. This one, of all the theories, would best explain the phenomena as V- \ lA 638 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. usually observed. In New York, for example, only in the low and unhealthy parts of the city did the disease make its appear- ance. Some cases occurred in persons after leaving these unhealthy districts for healthy ones, but none of these communi- cated the disease to persons living in the healthy district to which the patient had gone. The germs from the infected ships seem to have reached all of the infected districts at about the same time, and, it may be, could only become active by development in the soil peculiar to these districts, for the high and clean parts of the city never became affected. In the great majority of cases cholera is preceded by a sim- ple diarrhcca, which continues from a few hours to a week, in different cases, before the full development of the disease. This is not attended by pain and is usually considered by the patient as of no consequence. Vomiting during this stage rarely occurs. This diarrhoea occurs in not less than ninety per cent of cases. Suddenly the diarrhoea changes its aspect, and large watery evacuations take place. This marks the beginning of the disease proper. The dejections may be clear like water, or may be milky or muddy in appearance. Some- times the dejections are very large, sometimes small. The act is not attended by pain. Gurgling sounds in the bowels are common. Vomiting is also a common sjTnptom. The matter vomited is a watery liquid. As the disease progresses there is a sense of great prostration and weakness. The skin is cool. In some cases cramps occur in the muscles of the legs. If the disease pursues a favorable course, the vomiting and purging cease at the close of the stage of invasion, and the patient at once becomes convalescent, and in the shortest space of time is restored to his usual health. If the disease does not end with the first stage, all the bad symptoms continue. The pulse usually is frequent and very feeble, ranging from no to 150 per minute. The surface of the body becomes cold, the lips and face blue. The breath is cold and the respiratory act is more frequent and irregular. The voice is feeble ; the patient is indifferent and has no appre- hensions for the result. The cramps in the feet and legs is the only pain suffered. Thirst is very great ; the patient craves cold water. The face becomes so changed and old in appear- ance as not to be recognizable. The patient may sink into complete collapse in from three to eight hours, in which state death usually ensues. If the patient rallies from the state of collapse, he is likely to continue in a critical condition for some time before reach- ing convalescence. Diarrhcea and vomiting frequently con- tinue, the matters now being greenish yellow in color, and the patient may finally sink into a typhoid state and die. If recovery finally takes place, convalescence is generally slow, and the health is not fully restored for a long time. Excep- tionally, even from the collapsed state, recovery rapidly super- venes. Prevention of Cholera. — Much may undoubtedly be done to prevent the disease by attention to cleanliness, and by disinfectants, and none of these things should be omitted. There is, however, in nearly all cases, a premonitory diar- rhcea, and if this be effectually treated there is little danger of the full development of the disease. Prudent and intelligent people who give prompt attention to any occurrence of diar- rhoea during the prevalence of the disease rarely have cholera. If the diarrhoea occurs in a young child, full doses of pare- goric should be given every time the bowels move. If more than eight years old, full doses of laudanum should be given, together with acetate of lead and bismuth. For an adult, twenty-five to forty dropsof laudanum, or, instead, one-sixth to one-quarter grain of morphine after every movement of the bowels. Small doses of red pepper, in addition to the opiates, are useful. The above treatment, taken in time, will prevent the further development of the disease in almost every case. The treatment of cholera^ when fully developed, does not differ during the first stages from that recommended during the premonitary diarrhcea, except that the opiates should be given in larger doses. After collapse has taken place there is little that can be done with any hope of success. Sometimes active treatment in this stage does harm; it rarely does good. The body should be kept warm by the application of dry heat. The nutrition should be kept up, and brandy and water may be given frequently in small quantities. -H-THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS AND THE BLOOD.-h- Absorption. Under the head of " Physiology of the Digestive Organs " was described the elaborate process of the solution of the food. When this process has been completed, absorption takes place by the blood-vessels upon the walls of the stomach and small intestines, and by a special .system of little vessels called lactcals, which open upon the intestinal walls. The solution of albuminous substances and the emulsion of fats must be per- fect, or they will not be taken up. Whether they are taken up l)y the blood-vessels or lactcals, the product is emptied into the large veins. With the exception of that carried by the thoracic duct, and one or two other lacteal trunks, the product of digestion, chyle by name, is carried, with venous blood, directly to the liver, where it is distributed to the liver cells in minute capillaries, and is here probably further modified, elaborated and refined, and also gains the substance glyco- gen, a liver sugar, and is then carried to the heart in the cur- rent of venous blood, and from the heart is sent to the lungs, there to be purified by the oxygen of the inspired air, and again returned to the heart, fit to be used in nourishing all the deli- cate tissues and organs, and in turn to be oxidized or burned and carried out of the body. rr PHVSIOLOGV AND MEDICINE. 639 THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. The heart is the central organ of the circulatory system. It is situated almost in the centre of the chest, between the right and left lungs. Its base is above and to the right, and its apex downward and to the left. It may be felt beating a little below and toward the median line from the left nipple. It is in size about as large as the closed fist of the jicrson to whom it be- longs. It is a hollow muscle containing four cavities, two of which are upon the right and two upon the left side of the organ ; the heart thus being a double, or, indeed, two distinct organs, a right and a left heart, which, though bound together, are entirely distinct from each other, each having its own par- ticular work to perform. The two cavities of the right side of the heart communicate with each other, as do also the two cavities on the left side. The openings between the cavities are guarded by valves, which permit the blood to flow only in one direction. Fig. 4. Th« Human Heart. Connected with each of the four chambers of the heart are large blood-vessels. The large veins (Kig. 5), the vena cava ascendens (i), and the vetta cava descendcns (2), bring the blood from all jjarts of the body to the right heart, and pour it into the upper chamber (3), which, from its fancied resemblance to the car of a dog, is called the auricle. This upper cavity of the right side of the heart into which the -■cntc cava: empty, is known as the right auricle. It has very thin walls and .serves only as a receptacle for the venous blood until it can be received into the cavity below, which is called the right ventricle. .\s soon as the right auricle is filled, its walls contract, and the valves which guard the opening (5, 5, Fig. 6) are pushed ojjen as shown in the cut, and the blood flows into and fills the cav- ity (6) of the right ventricle. The right ventricle thus being filled, its walls immediately contract, the movement of the blood closes the valves (5, 5) called the ///Ww/iV/ valves, which guard auricular ventricular opening (4), thus preventing (as shown in Fig. 7), the regurgitation of the blood back into the auricle. At the same time it pushes open the valves Fig. 5. I, 2, Venascavae, ascendens and descendcns; 3, right auricle; 4, 4. 4, 4, lungs; 5, pulmonary artery; 6. right ventricle ; 7, 7. 7. 7, pulmonary veins; 8, left auricle; 9, left ventricle; 10, aorta. (9, 9) called the pulmonary valves, which guard the entrance (7) into the pulmonary artery, so that all the blood in the right ventricle (6) is forced into the pulmonary artery (8), which leads to the lungs (4, 4), as shown by the black vessel (5) in Fig. 5, where it divides into a minute capillary net- work upon the walls of the sixty million air-cells of the lungs. In these capillaries the pulmonary veins begin by little rootlets which flow together, forming minute veins, and these unite to form larger veins, these again to form still larger, until the four (7' 7> '■'g- 5) large pulmonary veins— two from each lung — are formed. These bring back the purified blood from the lungs and empty it into the upper cavity (8, Fig. 5, or 14, Fig. 8), of the left side of the heart. From this cavity, by contraction of the auricular walls, the blood flows down- ward through the auriculo-ventricular opening (15), guarded by the mitral valves, into the left ventricle (16, Fig. 8), in the same manner as on the right side. As soon as the left ventricle is filled with blood, its strong muscular walls con- tract. The movement of the blood closes the mitral valves (15, Fig. 8), which prevents the blood from flowing back into the left auricle, and pushes open the semilunar valves (g. Fig. 9) which guard the entrance into the aorta, so that all the blood in the ventricle is sent into the aorta, and thence all over the body, with .suchforce that .nil tlie larger arteries swell and throbasthe 1/ -^i 5r 640 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. ~7\ blood rushes through them. This throb of the arteries is called the pulse. Physicians make use of this knowledge to ascer- tain, in disease, how the heart is doing its work. ^'3 VM' 4 S\ Fig. 6. Diagram of Right Side of the Heart. I, 2, Vense cavEe, ascendens and descendens: 3. cavity of right auricle: 4, auriculo-ventricular opening: 5, 5, tricuspid valves: 6, cavity of right ventricle; 7, opening leading to pulmonary artery: 8, pulmonary artery: 9, pulmonary valves. The aorta ( 10, Fig. 5 ; 18, Fig. 8) branches and subdivides into a great number of large arteriesleading to the head, arms, trunk, lower extremities and internal organs. These arteries again branch and subdivide a great many times, until they are reduced to only ^nVrt of an inch in diameter. They are much smaller than the finest hair, and can be seen only by a magnifying-glass. They Fig. 7. Diagram of Right Side of Heart, with Tricuspid Valves Closed and Pulmonary Valves Open. lie so closely together that the point of a needle cannot be thrust into any part of the body without wounding a greater or less number of them. The circulation of the blood in the capillaries may be beautifully seen by placing the web of the foot of a living frog under a microscope magnifying about 400 diameters, when all the little capillaries, with the blood-corpuscles rapidly coursing through them, may be seen, as in Fig. II. If the frog is not allowed to breathe for a moment the circulation in the capillaries stops, to begin again when respiration is resumed. In these capillaries the system veins begin by little rootlets which flow together into minute vessels, these into small veins, these into larger, and these again into still larger, until all are collected into the two great trunks, the vente cavoe ascendens and descendens, which, as we have seen, empty the impure blood collected from the body into the right auricle of the heart. The heart is enclosed by a serous membrane, the pericar- dium, which foxvas a kind of a double bag. Theinner layer of the membrane is closely attached to the heart, the outer layer being free. Between the layers is a space, containing an ounce or two of fluid, which is secreted by the membrane to lubricate its surfaces, so that the movements of the heart will not cause friction and consequent inflammation. The heart is lined by a delicate membrane, the endoeardium, folds of which form the valves at the openings leading from the auricles into the ventricles, and from the ventricles into the arteries. Fig. 8. Diagram of Right and teft Sides of Heart. I. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. same as Fig. 5: 10, pulmonary' artery leading to the right lung: 11, branch of pulmonary artery to the lefthing: 12. pulmonary veins from left lung: 13, pulmonary veins from the right lung: 14, cavity of left auricle: 15, left auricula-ventricular opening: 16, cavity of left ventricle: 17, opening into aorta; 18, aorta. The muscular walls of the auricles (Figs. 8, 9 and 10) are very thin. As they have little work to do, it is not necessary that they should be strong. The walls of the right ventricle (Fig. 10) are much thicker than the auricular walls, for the reason that it has to force the blood through the capillaries of the lungs, while the auricle has to force the blood into the ventri- cle only. But the walls of the left ventricle (/; /;, Fig. 9) are much thicker than those of the right, for the reason that it has many times its amount of work to perform. The right ven- tricle has to send the blood only to the lung, while the left has to send it over the entire system — from the crown of the head to the tips of the fingers and toes, and to all the organs, the brain, liver, stomach, muscles and bones. / J^ fV PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 641 I 71 Diseases of the Heart. The heart, in health, is a most woiulLTful ami beautiful mechanism. It performs its work quietly and regularly, day and night, sleeping and waking, year after year, never stopping for a quarter of a second. But, like all parts of the body, it i.s subject to disease and injury, and, when out of repair, may cause the most distressing symptoms, and, not unfrequently, sud- den death. Tig. 9. Showing Right Side of Heart. «, fi, Columnar carncac; c, c.ivityof rigli .auricle; ' artery; A, aorta. Sometimes fat is deposited in the muscular fibre of the heart in place of the true muscular substance. This condition is known as /atty degeneration. It alw.iys greatly weakens the power of the heart, and its walls dilate. Sometimes the heart is paralyzed from this cause, and, occasionally, when one part is more degenerated than another, the walls of the heart may be ruptured by its own contraction upon a quantity of blood. Death in either case, of course, immediately takes place. k- M 642 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. Palpitation of the heart is not a disease proper of the heart. It depends upon a derangement of the nervous system, just as a trembling hand or jerking eyeUd is due to a fault of the nerves and not to any disease of the hand or of the eyelid. There is nothing dangerous in palpitation of the heart. Neuralgia of the heart is a disease of the nervous system, and not of the heart. Most lesions of the valves of the heart are caused by inflam- mation of the lining membrane, endocarditis, during an attack of injlammatory rheumatism. If the patient does not die during the time of the acute inflammation, he is likely to suffer from heart symptoms after a few years, by which time the valves become so deformed or the orifices so contracted as to interfere with the function of the heart, and the patient becomes aware, for the first time, of his condition. Valvular disease may have other causes than rheumatism. Diagnosis. — A skilled physician is able, by /(;-/-<-««/«^ or tap- ping the chest wall, and taking note of the sounds thus produced, to say positively whether the heart is enlarged or not ; and, by listening to the beating of the heart, he can tell certainly whether there is any leakage at the valves, and say with confi- dence which pair of valves are at fault, or whether there is or is not a contraction at any of the orifices. Where the valves leak, or the orifices are obstructed, there are certain hissing or blow- ing sounds, called murmurs, which, heard over different parts of the chest, and at different times with reference to the normal sounds of the heart, enable the educated and skilled physician to determine the character of the lesion, or to say that no disease at all of the heart exists. Fig. 11. Circulation of the Blood in the Foot of the Frog. Treatment. — If one suspects, for any reason, a grave dis- ease of the heart, he should go to some skilled physician in whom he has full confidence, and be examined. He will prob- ably learn, as is generally the case, that there is no organic dis- ease of the heart at all, and that the symptoms which occa- sioned the alarm, such as palpitation, are referable to a disor- dered state of the stomach or of the nervous system. The patient should not undertake to treat himself, if really suffering from valvular lesions of the heart, so that treatment had best be left to the physician whose advice is sought in the case. Digitalis is, perhaps, the most valuable remedy which exists for strengthening the heart's action. The body should be well nourished, the food of good quality and variety, and the meals taken regularly. The bowels should be kept regular, and no very severe exercise should betaken. A gentleman, a patient of the writer, suffering from valvular disease, together with great enlargement and dilitation of the heart, came very near death every Sunday night on account of difficulty of breath- ing, due to congestion of the lungs, from damming the blood back into the pulmonary veins, the left heart not having strength to empty the ventricle. It seemed strange to the patient that the distress came only on Sunday nights, but upon enquiry it was found that on the six week-days he took three meals a day, and on Sunday but two, the last of which was about 2 o'clock p. m. The full power of the heart, when well nourished, was required, in its damaged condition, for the per- formance of its functions, and the abstinence from food for a few hours so weakened its action as to make death imminent. Sunday night suppers were ordered, and thereafter Sunday night ceased to be an especial dread. ^r'^v Fig. 13. Red and \Vhite Blood-Corpuscles Highly Magnified. THE BLOOD. The blood is a compound fluid. In man, and all the higher order of animals, it is of a red color ; in some of the lower forms of life it is colorless. The quantity in man is about one- eighth that of the weight of the body. The vessels of a man weighing one hundred and forty poimds would contain nearly eighteen pounds of blood. The office of the blood is not alone to carry nutriment to the tissues to assist in their repair, but is also to carry out of the body the products of waste — the ashes, so to speak, of the oxidized tissues which have been burned up or consumed in the production of force and animal heat. If a smaU part of a drop of blood be examined under a microscope, it will no longer present the appearance of a simple red fluid, but little circular bodies with a yellowish-red V. \ \ PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 643 ~7 tinge will be seen, and, if magnified two hundred and fifty times, will present the appearance shown in the lower part (A, A) of Kig. 12. These are the red corpuscles. They are little flattened circular bodies about ^i'lm of an inch in diameter, and not more than one-quarter as thick. It would take 120,000,000,000 of them to make a cubic inch. The flat surfaces are somewhat concave, so that the centre of the corpuscle is its thinnest part. If examined with a lens magnifying 1,000 times, the corpuscles will present the appearance of B, C, D in the figure. After standing a few minutes the flat surfaces of the corpuscles are inclined to stick together, and so arrange themselves in the form of a roll of coin (/>, D). If treated with a drop of vinegar they become clear (A^. If instead of vinegar a drop of water ^is added, they swell up (E), and become globular. If exposed to the air for a time, they become shrivelled (/^, //) and irregular. In the lower part of Fig. 12 are to be seen two bodies (a, a) which do not look like the other corpuscles. They arc larger in size, globular in shape, present a granular appearance, and are of a white color. They are known as the white corpuscles. Only one white cor- puscle exists to four hundred of the red. The coloring matter of the blood is in the red corpuscles. When they are removed a clear fluid remains. If a quantity of blood be drawn into a bowl from the veins of an animal, it will be, at first, quite fluid, but in a few mo- ments will become thick like a mass of jelly. This mass is called a clot, and the process foa^K/a//o». If allowed to stand for a day or two the clot will continue to contract, and will be found at the end of that time in the bottom of the bowl, cov- ered with a clear liquid called the serum. If, as soon as the blood is drawn from the vein, it be whipped with a bunch of twigs, a white stringy substance, like the gluten obtained by washing flour, is found to cover the twigs, binding them together. This substance is called fibrin. Blood, subjected to this whipping, does not form a clot, for the reason that the coagulating substance, fibrin, has been removed upon the twigs. If this whipped or defibrinatcd blood be now permitted to stand, the red corpuscles settle to the bottom of the bowl, while the clear serum remains on top. These three constituents of the blood, fibrin^ serum and corpuscles, are rendered plain to the sight, but they are made up of many other substances, such as albumen, fat, sugar, soda, salt, iron, lime, magnesia, water, carbonic acid gas, oxygen, etc., etc. The serum and the fibrin are not separated in the living blood, but together form the plasma. The office of the plas- ma is to nourish and rebuild the tissues and to carry the prod- ucts of waste and combustion to those organs — such as the liver, kidneys and skin — whose function it is to separate them from the blood and carry them out of the body. The particu- lar oflice of the corpuscles is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbonic acid gas from the tissues to the lungs, there to be exchanged for oxygen. Diseases of the Blood. The plasma of the blood is replenished in its nutritive constit- uents by the food taken at frequent intervals. Water is neces- sary to render the blood sufficiently fluid, and to hold the other constituents in solution. The presence of certain chemical sub- stances is also essential. Lime, iron, and certain other minerals, must also find a place. Besides these conditions, certain constitu- ents manufactured in the body itself, as liver sugar and the cor- puscles in normal quantity, are necessary to health. Water is more essential than food, and oxygen more than water. One deprived of food dies from impoverishment of the blood ; if deprived of water, death takes place much sooner ; but if deprived of oxygen, death ensues within five to eight minutes. .\bout a ton and a half in the shape of fot)d and drink is added to the blood of an ordinary man during the year. As there is the same amount of waste, a ton and a half of material, therefore, must be carried out of the body through the blood during the same time. Some of the products of oxidation, as urea and carbonic acid gas, are very poisonous to the nervous system. Certain organs, as the kidneys, skin and lungs, are designed especially to remove these poisons from the current of the blood, and carry them out of the body. If, through disease of these organs, they fail 10 perform their functions, the blood becomes highly charged with the poison, and, unless speedily relieved, death is the result. If the lungs fail to eliminate the carbonic acid, death results within a few minutes. If the kidneys fail to remove the urea, death must follow in a short time. The same is true if the skin fails in its oflice. From the above it may readily be seen that the disorders of the blood arc many. There may be too much blood, when the condition is called plethora ; or too little, when it is called anamia ; or it may contain too much water, or too little ; or too many red torpuscles, or too few ; or the plasma may be deficient in tissue-building constituents ; or the blood may be poisoned by the retention of carbonic acid and urea ; or it may contain living germs. Treatment. — A considerable quantity and wide variety of food should be taken regularly. .\ sufficient amount of water and fluids should also be taken. Frequent baths and a reason- able amount of exercise are advised. The sleeping-room should be well ventilated, and plenty of fresh air supplied. Where the blood disease is due to disease of some particular organ, the latter requires primary attention. -^^^i^'Y"^^^^^^^ / 644 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. / -«*THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.^ It is essentially necessary to the life of all animals that the nutrient fluid should be carried to all parts of the system, and since the functional activity of the nervous and muscular tissues, and all tissues, is dependent upon their oxidation, it is also neces- sary that oxygen should be carried to and brought directly in contact with every fibre and cell in the whole body. This im- plies the introduction of air. It is necessary in every animal, moreover, to keep up the temperature or body heat to a specific point. This is also accomplished by oxidation or burning either the disintegrating material which is passing to waste, or the combustible substances, such as sugars and fats, found in the blood. Fig. 13. Head and GUIs of the Menobranchus. As we saw in the early part of this article, all organic mate- rial, at its death and combustion, gives rise to two products, car- bonic acid and water, and we have seen by experiment that these are the products alike of the burning candle and the oxi- dizing tissues of a living man. These products of combustion of the tissues are poured into the current of the blood. But the conditions of life are such that carbonic acid gas acts as a poison in the system, and means must therefore be provided for its removal. The introduction of life-giving oxygen into the system and the removal of the poisonous carbonic acid are ac- complished by the same mechanism, the breathing apparatus. Fig. 14. Swimming-Bladder of the Fish. a, h. Air chambers; d, r, wind-pipe: o, (Esophagus. THE LUNGS. The breathing apparatus, or mechanism by which oxygen is introduced into, and carbonic acid is removed from the blood, in all forms of life, consists of a thin membrane so arranged as to permit the blood to flow upon one side of it, while the other sideof the membrane (which must be moist) is in contact with the air. The oxygen gas of the air, having a greater affinity or h \% attraction for the blood corpuscles than the carbonic acid gas, passes, therefore, through the thin membrane into the blood and displaces the carbonic acid gas, which passes out through the membrane into the air. The membrane, or breathing apparatus, in all cases, is the skin, or some extension, reduplication or modification of it, as the mucous membrane. In the lower forms of aquatic life, and in certain worms, which are always moist, the skin serves the full purpose of lungs in purify- ing the blood, and no special organs of respir- ation are required. The moist skin of the frog is so delicate as to serve this purpose. We may remove its lungs, and it will continue to live and breathe, so to speak ; the heart will continue to beat, and the blood to circulate and be purified so long as the skin is kept wet. But if allowed to dry, so that the exchange of gases can no longer take place through the skin, the animal soon dies " from the want of breath. " In fishes, the gills, which are covered by n delicate membrane, take the place of the lungs. There is a rich plexus of blood-vessels on one side of this membrane, while the other side is bathed in water. Oxygen is held in solution in the water, and is appropriated by the blood, while carbonic acid is exhaled through the membrane. Humboldt placed fishes in water which contained 20 per cent of air in solution, this consisting of 29.8 parts of oxy- gen, 66. 2 parts nitrogen and 4.0 carbonic acid. After the fishes had remained in it a due time, analysis showed but 2.3 parts oxygen, while the carbonic acid had increased to 33. 8 parts, showing the ordinary results of respiration. In the menobranchus the gills (Fig. 13) are external feathery tufts on the sides of the Fig. 15. neck. Each filament consists of a fold of '-""S* °^ Reptile, mucous membrane connected with that of the pharynx, and con- tains a net-work of capillary blood-vessels. Respiration takes place as described in the above paragraph. But the first approach to the true lung is seen in the swim- ming-bladder of fishes. In the carp there is, in its double- chambered swimming-bladder (Fig. 14), an approach to the double lungs of the higher order of animals. It is connected by means of a wind-pipe, d, c, with the oesophagus, so that the fish is enabled at will to increase or diminish the amount of air in the chambers. While this is a rudimentary lung, its real use is to vary the specific gravity of the fish, by compression or rarification of the included air. As explained above, the gills in fishes fill the office of the true lung. \ J^ PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 645 Fir. 10. l.ungMof the I-Vtig. The lungs of the reptile present a sack-like form (Kig. 15). The two lungs are not equal in size, one, A, being fully devel- ope of an inch in diameter. It is said that each terminal bronchus has 20,000 air-cells clustered upon it, and that the total number in both lungs is more than 600,000,000, the walls of which, if united and spread out in one continuous sheet, would present a surface of 1,500 s<|uare feet. The cell walls are formed of an exceedingly delicate membrane, covered by the richest plexus ^ Fig. 1«. of capillary blood-vessels in the economy, which lie so thickly together that the spaces between them are less than their own diameters. Figure 18 represents five air-cells, with the capillary blood vessels distributetl ujxm their walls. These capil- laries are only ttAto of an inch in diameter, requiring 200 of them to equal the size of a cambric needle. As the cells are close together and the partition walls of incomprehensible thin- nes-s, the little capillaries pas.sing l)etween them are brought in com- munication with the air on both sides. The blood corpuscles are obliged to pass through the little vessels in single file, and so, with air on both sides, they rapidly and completely exchange their poison- ous carbonic acid gas for pure life- giving oxygen, and change their color from blue to crimson. Then, by the contraction of the alxlom- inal muscles, the chest walls, and the elastic walls of the air-cells themselves, the impure air is forctxl out of the body, and by a new in-^a^'i„1;^^{i;cCter« spiration the lungs are refilled w ith Alr-CeUs. pure air. This in turn loses its oxygen to the blood, becomes impregnated with carbonic acid, and is expired, and the lungs again refilled with pure air. The Mechanism of Respiration. The minute anato- my of the pulmonary lobule and the physi- ology' of the respira- tory membrane hav- ing been explained, it remains only to recite the gross anatomy of the respiratory or- gans, and the mech- anism by which the lungs are filled and emptied of air. The nose may be very properly consid- ered the first of the respiratory organs By its turiinaletl bones and the numer- ous cells connected with its cavity, a con- siiler.iblc surface is produced, all of which is lined by the nasal mucous membrane; over this surface the air passes, and is warmed and cleansed from dust before passing into the lungs. .•\t the entrance of the nostril are a number of stiff hairs, which act as a barrier to dust. Within the nose resides the sense of smell, which informs us of the quality of air we are breathing. The cavities of the nose communicate with the throat by two Shonine a Portion nf Flv<> Air-rrlls. with the Capillaries Upon Cell Walls ((ireally Ma|;niiit-tl). / Al V 646 Pm^SIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. openings. (See Fig. I.) Except during the act of swallowing, the epiglotis, or lid which covers the opening into the larynx, stands wide open, as shown in the cut, while the gullet below the larynx remains closed, so that there is a continuous tube from the nostrils, into the lungs. The Larynx is a kind of a triangular box placed at the top of the tracjiea, or wind-pipe, and is made up of rigid and unyielding rings of cartilage or gristle. The larger end of the larynx is placed upward, and across the superior opening are stretched four ligamentous bands covered by a most delicate mucous membrane. These bands are the vocal cords. The two upper cords are called the/a/jf, while the two lower bands are called the true vocal cords. To the vibration of these latter the voice is due. In front they are attached to a fi.xed point, the thyroid cartilages, which project forward on the neck, especially in men, and are called "Adam's apple." Behind they are attached to movable pieces of cartilage, which are controlled by little muscles, and can be so moved as to separate the cords from each other, as seen in inspiration (A, Fig. 19, or Fig. 22), allowing the air a free entrance into the trachea. In expiration the cords fall together, leaving only a narrow slit (B), through which the air passes out. When an attempt is made to produce a sound there is a great change in the conformity of the larynx ; the vocal cords are approxima ted more closely together and put upon the stretch. The air from the lungs is then forced through the narrow slit, causing the free edges to vibrate, at the same time forcing them slightly apart in the centre, leaving a narrow oval slit, C, as shown in Fig. ig. Fig. 19. The Vocal Cords. .4, as seen in inspiration: B, as seen in expiration; C, as seen while uttering a high-pitched sound. Below the larynx is the trachea, a long air-tube, composed of rings of cartilage bound together by connective tissue and lined with mucous membrane. The trachea divides into two tubes called the bronchia, one of which leads to each lung, and there subdivides and branches like a tree into the ultimate bronchial tubules which open into the air-cells. The lungs are contained in the cavity of the chest {A, Fig. 20). This cavity is separated from the cavity of the abdomen (C) by an arched muscle (£) called the diaphragm. The lungs are placed one upon each side of the heart (Fig. 21). Each lung is enclosed in a double membranous sack called the pleura, one fold of which is closely attached to the substance of the lung, while the outside layer lines the chest wall. Between the two layers is a cavity which contains a little fluid called serum, which is secreted by the membrane, and serves to lubricate its surfaces, so that they glide smoothly over each other with every movement of the lungs. The right lung is divided into three (6, 7, 8) and the left into two (1,2) lobes. Movements of Respiration. When the diaplu-agm contracts, it approaches a straight line across the body ; at the same time the costal muscles elevate the ribs, which are also, because of their direction, carried outward. This increases the size of the cavity of the chest. The descent of the diaphragm increases the length of the chest -cavity, while the movement of the ribs increases its breadth. This causes a vacuum in the chest-cavity, and the outside air rushes in through the trachea and dilates the air-cells until the cavity is filled. This is known as inspiration. The diaphragm and costal mus- cles now relax, the ribs return to their place, thus narrowing the chest, while the abdoininal muscles contract, forcing the stomach and liver upward against the diaphragm, which rises into its Fig. %0. ^, cavity of chest: .fl, diaphragm; C, cavity of abdomen, arched position, decreasing the length of the chest-cavity. These movements, together with the elasticity of the air-cells, force the contained air out through the trachea, emptying the limgs. This act is called expiration, which is followed by and alternates with the act of inspiration, and comprises the phe- nomenon of respiration. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. Diseases under this head may be divided into those affecting the mucous membrane lining the air-passages, those affecting the serous membrane covering the lungs, and those affecting the substance of the lung itself. Cold — Catarrh — Bronchitis. CoRYZA, or cold in the head, is an acute inflammation of the lining membrane of the nose. The eyes, in this disease, are also frequently inflamed and red, and the tears flow over the face. The symptoms begin with an itching or tingling sensation ^ PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 647 in the nose, which is followed by sneezing. A slight fever ac- companies these sj-mptoms, and not unfrequently there is more or less headache. Treatment. — Twenty or tucnty-five drops of laudanum should be taken at bed-time, the first evening after the s>-mp- toms arc noticed. Not unfrei|ucntly this will effect a cure. If not, another dose may be taken the following evening, and this repeated the next. If the cold is severe the laudanum should be taken night and morning until relieved. It is also well to take four grains of quinine night and morning. Instead of laudanum, one-sixth rf a gr.n of morphine, or a full dose of Dover's powder, will serve the purpose equally well. Treat«l in the beginning, nothing is surer than a perfect cure in from twenty-four to forty- eight hours, but if not effectually Weal- ed, it is apt to extend to the larynx and be- come a severe bron- chitis, or eventuate in a chronic, low-grade inflammation of the nasal membrane, called catarrh. Catarrh. Catarrh is a name that properly applies to all inflam- mations of any part of the mucous mem- brane,such as catarrh of the stomach or of 'the bladder, but by common usage, un- less qualifietl by an- other word, has come to mean a chronic in- flammation of the nasal mucous mem- brane. It is a very troublesome dbease, and is often very dif- ficult to treat. Pa- tients are frequently seen who have suf- fered from the disease for years. The inflammation is apt to extend through the eustachian tube to the ears, and sometimes with not only the cflect to impair the hearing, but to quite de- stroy it. The odor is, in bad cases, most penetrating, rendering the patient very offensive to his associates. Treatment. — In the beginning the most effective treatment is that recommended for coryza. Later, tonics should be given. Quinine in two-grain doses, three times a day ; laudanum in small doses and iodide of potassium in five-grain doses three times a day. In the beginning powders and solutions snuffed up the nose usually do harm, and it is a question whether they ever do good in any stage. The most effective treatment for a chronic case is, perhaps, a change of climate. The writer has known some excellent cures to result from a residence in North- em Wisconsin, or in the region of Lake Superior. Acute Laryngitis. Acute Laryngitis is an inllammation of the mucous mem- brane lining the larynx. It is attended with a cough and hoarse- ness, and frequently with much difficulty of breathing. The hoarseness is due to inflammation and swelling of the vocal cords. Medicinal treatment should be the same as that recom- mended for coryza. .\t night the throat may be bound with a bandage wrung out of cold water. Qui- nine should be taken in four-grain doses three times a day. Disease of Vocal Cords. It not unfrequently happens that speech, or the power of pho- nation, is lost in con- sequence of disease or injury of vocal cords, or of ulceration or swelling of the sur- rounding parts. Within the last few years a little instru- ment, calleatients who supposed they were suffering from kidney disease because of backache, which was in reality caused by sleeping in an uncomfortable, sagging bed. With a new bed- spring, the backache and supposed " Bright's disease " disap- peared. Certain quack patent-medicines have obtained a pop- ular reputation by the fact that many people, who never had any di.sea.se of the kidneys, have recovered from a backache while taking the medicine ; the cessation of the backache being in no way more dependent upon the medicine taken than upon the water drunk during the time. Pain in the back is not a symptom of kidney-disease. Swelling of the feet, dropsy of the face or loss of strength is most often the first symptom noticed by the patient, indicating that he is out of health. Not unfrequently failure of sight is the first symptom observed. The treatment should be left to the advice of a physician. THE SKIN. The skin is a hard, firm, elastic membrane which covers the body and serves to protect the soft parts from injury. It is also an excretory organ, exhaling, as it does, a large portion of the fluids given off from the body, besides being the chief means of maintaining the animal heat at an equable point. The skin is composed of two layers. The deeper one is called the derma, or true skin, and the outer layer the epidermis (Greek; epi, upon, and derma, skin). The derma is composed of strong elastic and inelastic fibres interlaced with each other; between the fibres in some parts is found much adipose, or fat tissue. In its substance are found also the sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles, lymphatics and nerves. The epidermis has no fibres, but is composed of several layers of cells placed one upon another. In the deepest of these is the pigment or coloring matter upon which depends the com- plexion. The hair and nails are appendages of the skin, and are but a modified form of the epidermic cells. At the root of each hair is a little gland, sometimes two or more, called a sebaceous gland, which secretes an oily substance which lubricates the hair and surface of the skin. Coiled up in the deepest part of the true skin, or beneath it, are little tubes, which pass up through the entire thickness of the skin and open on the surface. They are called sudoriparous or sweat glands. There is a constant exhalation from the skin, generally not visible, when it is called insensible perspiration. When visible, it is called sensible perspiration, or sweat. The skin excretes, perhaps, more water than the kidneys, amounting to between one and two pounds daily. Other excretions are also eliminated by the skin, so that it becomes one of the most important organs of the body. Diseases of the Skin. It is beyond the scope of this article to consider the rarer dis- eases of the skin, or to more than indicate the character and simpler means of treatment of the more common affections. At one time most of the skin diseases were thought to be constitutional, and that the eruption was caused by attempted elimination of the poison. It is now known that most of the skin diseases are of local origin. A certain class are caused by vegetable parasites ; another class by animal parasites ; others by the local effects of heat or cold, or by the irritation of mechan- ical or chemical agents ; others are in a measure dependent upon the general health, and others to specific poisons, which include syphilis and the eruptive fevers. The eruptive fevers will be treated under the head of fevers. Phthiriasis — Lousiness. There are three distinct forms o( pcdiculi, or lice, which in- festthe human body: l\\e pediculus corporis, or body-louse ; /?-w« the surface where they originate to the centres in the brain and cord. Those nerves which carry impulses from the central organ to the periphery are called efferent nerves, while those which convey impressions yVow the outside /y the central organ are called afferent nerves. If similar experiments be performed upon the spinal cord, it will be found to act in many respects similar. If the cord be divided in the back, the animal will lie unalile to move the hind legs, and this part of the body will be insensible to jiain, while all the iiarls forward of the cut will retain all the jiowers of motion and sensation. If, by an accident, a man should suffer a similar injury, all of the parts below the wound would be paralyzed. The ])atient would be unable by his own will-power to move his legs ; neither would he have any sensation in the parts. If he should be blindfolded, and the soles of his feet be tickled with a feather, he may jerk up his legs in the most violent manner, still he will not only know nothing of the tickling, but will have no knowledge of the jerking of his legs, for the reason that all impressions made upon his lower extremities are cut ofl" from his brain. which is the anatomical basis of his mind. He can make no intentional or voluntary movement of his legs for the same reason ; his brain is cut off from the muscles of his legs at the point where the cord is cut in two. The movement in response to the tickling of the feather is very easily explained. The impres- sion from the sole of the foot passes up by the sensory fibres to the gray matter of the cord, which, acting as a centre, origin- ates there an impulse or stimulus, which, passing out over the motor filaments to the muscles, causes them to contract, thus giving the violent jerk to the legs. The above is but an illustration showing that many of our common movements, such as walking, or any habitual and oft- repealed movement, may be executed without requiring the attention of the mind ; some of the basal ganglia of the brain acting as a centre, and originating the motor impulses. If not the whole cord, but only the anterior part, be injured, a paralysis of motion below the injury results, while sensation will remain perfect. If the posterior part be injured, on the other hand, sensation is lost while motion is unaffected. If one lateral half of the spinal cord be divided, say on the right side of the body, the patient will immediately lose all power in the right leg, but sensation in the right leg will be perfect. lie will, however, lose all feeling in the left leg, while the power of motion in this leg remains good. Hence, it must be true that the sensory fibres cross over from the side where they enter to the opposite side of the cord to pass up to the brain, while the motor impulses sent down from the brain must pass down on the same side of the cord by which they pass out to the muscles. Fig:. 31. Moflc of Termination of Motor Ner^'es, . f llic hum;tn sul'jcct: s. nerve tube: 4. (criiiiiiat pt:icc sttuutcd beneath A, primitive fasciculus of a tnuscli 3. tncdultary substance of iiervc tut llie sarcolemma; If this be true, it follows that .t longitudinal division down the centre of the cord throughout its entire length woukl destroy sensation on both sides of the body, without interfering at all with motion. If, however, the longitudinal incision be carried up through the lower part of the medulla, paralysis of motion on both sides immediately result.s, for at this point all of the motor fibres from the right side of the brain cross over to the left side of the cord, while those from the left side of the brain cross over to the right side of the cord. / -Vj \ 658 HYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. Nerve Endings. — The motor fibres of the spinal nerves originate in the anterior cornua of gray matter in the cord, and are believed to be intimately connected there with certain nerve cells, which are capable of originating motor stimulus. The distal end of the motor fibre passes through ihe sarcoh-mma of each muscular fibre and is brought into the closest relation with the muscular substance, as shown in Figure 31. The sense of touch is possessed by all parts of the body, some parts more perfect than others. Wherever the sense of touch is delicate, the deep layer of the skin is raised up into little conical papill<2. Into these papillse the terminal ends of the sensory nerve fibre enters. In certain localities, as the tips of the fingers, where the tactile sense is very acute, the Fig. 33. Taste-Biwls From the Rabbit. nerve ending is enlarged in the papillae, forming a little oval swelling called a tactile corpuscle. Filaments of the nerve of taste terminate in a similar manner in papillce upon the tongue. Surrounding these papilhe are peculiar cells, or taste-buds, in which is supposed to reside the sense of taste. Figure 32 shows these taste-buds in the rabbit. Fig. 33. Olfactory Ganglion and Nerves. The endings of the filaments of the olfactory nerve, or the special nerve of smell, upon the delicate mucous memljrane in the upper part of the nasal cavity, is beautifully shown in Fig- ure 33. The termination of the auditory and optic nerves is explained in the chapter upon the special senses of sight and hearing. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Tile diseases of the nervous system, as might be expected from its delicate anatomy and complicated functions, take a wide range, from the slightest twinge of pain in a minute nerve filament to total paralysis or hopeless insanity. In all the graver manifestations of nervous disease, the advice of a physician skilled in the treatment of disease is naturally sought ; this will render discussion of the more serious affec- tions unnecessary. No class of diseases are more serious than those of the nervous system, and while it may be true that there is less tendency to a spontaneous recovery than any other class of diseases, yet it is also true that no class of diseases are more favorably influenced by proper treatment. The chief symptoms of nervous disease are usually manifested either by /(?/«, convulsions, paralysis, trembling, sleeplessness, imbecility or insanity. Two or more of these conditions may exist in the same patient. Pain is a symptom common to many diseases. The disease in which it constitutes the only symptom is Neuralgia. Pain may have its seat along the course of any nerve. It re- ceives different names corresponding to the seat of pain. Thus we hear of yVjcw/ neuralgia, inter-costal xve\x\■^\'g\■^, occipital neuralgia, sciatica, or neuralgia of the sciatic nerve, gastralgia, or neuralgia of the stomach, etc. , etc. The pain of neuralgia varies in different cases and at differ- ent times from a slight, dull ache to the most e.xcruciating tor- ture. The nerve which is the seat of the pain, in many instances at least, is in a state of inflammation. It is usually tender, as shown by examination, at points where pressure can be made upon the nerve, and following an attack there is usually a certain soreness and tenderness over the seat of the pain. Treatment. — It is impossible in this article to give the space which the subject demands. The treatment embraces a large number of remedies and many methods of procedure. That which has affected a permanent cure in one case may have no effect in another. In some cases the pain is so persistent as to tax the physician to the utmost, who finds a remedy after hav- ing almost exhausted the pharmacopoeia. Some form of opium will always afford temporary relief if taken in sufficient doses, and it is one of the most valuable cura- tive remedies in many cases. The patient is apt to be in poor flesh. In such a case, if a permanent cure is to be anticipated, the general health must be improved, and the body weight gieatly increased. A method has, of late years, been very suc- cessfully employed in sanitariums, where the patient is reciuired to take the necessary amount of rest in bed, to take a large amount of the most nourishing food, at intervals of only a few hours, and accompanied with baths, massage and suitalite tonic treatment. By this means the body weight is greatly increased, the general health built up, and this is almost always followed by entire and permanent relief from pain. Convulsions. The term convulsion may be applied to an acute spasmodic contraction of the whole muscular system, as in infantile con- vulsions, or to an occasional paroxysm, as in an epileptic Jit, or to the constant irregular contraction of certain muscles, as in chorea or Saint Vitus' dance. PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 659 ~7\ li ■\ s\\ "^i'\ \ Treatment. — In the case of infantile convulsions the child may be placed in a tub of warm water, and coUl water may be poured upon its head. After the first paroxysm is over, the cause of the convulsion should be sought out. If due to denti- tion, or " cuttinsj teeth," or to worms in the bowels, the proper remedy for such conditions should be applied. Paregoric or l>romide of potassium will quiet the system. In case of chorea the general health must receive attention. (,)uinine and iron will be found to be most valuable Ionics. Malt or cod-liver oil is called for. A solution of arsenic, given in large doses, is perhaps the most valuable of all medi- cinal substances in this dis- - case, l)ut should be given ^ only under the observation y of a jihysician. X, Epilepsy. Ei'iLErsY, or "fits," needs no description here, since there is no difliculty in recognizing the disease when it exists. If all cases of epilepsy could receive ]>roper and thorough treat- ment from the beginning, 1 believe that in the ma- jority of cases it could be cured, but frequcntl)- no physician is consulted until after a large number of paroxysms have fi n al 1 y aroused the friends to the danger. Even when ad- vice is sought, treatment is seldom thorough or car- ried on for a sulTicient length of time. In few cases should treatment be left off litfore the end of, at least, two years. Tile treatment of benefit in the greatest number of cases is the bromide of potassium or sodium, to- gether with tonic treat- ment and a generous diet, sleep, rest and quiet. The bro- mide of sodium affects the stomach less, and, therefore, in most cases is to have the preference. It should be taken, according to the age of the patient, in doses of from two to ten grains, in a wine-glass of water, three times a day after meals. Paralysis. Paralysis may occur at any age, and is due to many causes. It may vary in extent from a single muscle, or group of muscles, to a loss of power over almost the entire body. Paralysis may result from an injury to a nerve, in which case only the muscles supplied by that particular nerve are atTected. It may result from an injury to or a disease of the spinal cord. '^N^ )%' \\ a. rti. Fig. 34. Superficial Bran. Iic^ I, Trunk of the suvciitli or facial nerve; ul' tile In such a case the paralysis may be found on one or both sides of the body, or in only a single group of muscles, according to the seat and extent of the injury. But in every case the par- alysis is always below the point of disease or injury of the cord. It may result from injury or disease of the brain, in which case the paralysis usually affects one entire side of the body, when it is called hemapUgia. When the disease or injury is upon the right side of the brain, the left leg and left arm are paralyzed ; and when the disease is upon the left side of the brain, the par- alysis is upon the right side of the body. This is explained by the fact that the motor fibres arising from one side of the brain cross over in the medulla to the opposite side of the body. Infantile paralysis oc- curs usually in children be- tween one and four years of age. The child may be fretful and troublesome for a day or two previous, but frequently the first symptom noticed is the paralysis. This may oc- cur in the leg or arm on the same side, or the leg on one side and the arm on the other, or both legs may be paralyzed and the arms not affected, or both arms may be paralyzed and the legs remain well ; or only one leg or one arm may be the seat of the paralysis. The paralysis is due to an inflammation of the anterior cornu of the gray matter of the spinal cord, and the extent of the paralysis will de- pend upon the extent of the inflammation. The child will probably not die. Some of the paralyzed muscles will regain their power. Others never will, but will waste away. The child will grow up more or less of a cripple. The treatment should be left to a physician. In paralysis of the extensor museles of the hand, due to lead-poisoning, recovery will take place under proper treat- ment. Remove the cause. If the patient be a printer or worker in lead, a change of occupation will be necessary. Iodide of potassium may be taken in ten-grain doses three times a day after meals in half a glass of water. f/emaplegia, or paralysis of one side of the body due to injury or disease of the brain, may be caused by embolism or thrombosis (plugging of a blood vessel), thus cutting off nutri- tion from a portion of the brain, or may be caused by a hemor- ► r tin- l<'{i<-ial and the Fifth Nerves. 18. ly, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, branches fifth nerve. / / 66o PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. rhace into the substance of the brain or upon its surface, and thus, by tearing the nerve fibres, or by pressure, the function of the organ is destroyed ; or paralysis may result from a tumor or an abscess in the brain, or from other causes. The results as regards the question of recovery from the paralysis will depend upon the exact seat and extent of the injury. The treatment should be left to the advice of a physician. There are a great number of diseases which manifest strange symptoms, affecting both the motor and sensory nerves, but which would require the attention of a physician, antl which would take up too much space to treat here. Insomnia. Insomnia, or sleeplessness, is a symptom common to many nervous diseases, and one which requires prompt attention, as without sleep little good can be accomplished in other directions by treatment. The treatment must depend very much upon the age, occupation and other circumstances of the patient. If in a child, out-door play at games requiring exercise sufficient to produce fatigue should be encouraged. In men and women worried by business or domestic cares, disappointments or anxieties, the case is much more serious. If possible, they should, for a time, leave home and business, when they will often leave their worries, also, behind them. Mental labor should be abandoned entirely, and physical labor or sports requiring little thought, of a kind most comform- ableto the tastes of the patient, and affording the most pleasant diversion, should be chosen and followed to the point of fatigue. A generous diet of llie most nutritious food should be taken, and a comfortable spring-bed, in a well-ventilated, cheer- ful room, should be provided. One of the bromides, with tonics, may be prescribed, together with meat and milk. In severe cases the hydrate of chloral, in from fifteen to thirty-grain doses, may be given at bed-time. Insanity. Insanity, the most dreaded of all the nervous diseases, Is a mental symptom dependent upon a disease of the brain. It is commonly classified according to the character of the delusions and conduct of the patient. Thus we have mania, melan- cholia and dementia. This classification is further divided into the acute and chronic of each class. The cause of the disease is more often hereditary tlian other- wise. Aside from hered.itary taint, general poor -physical health, nervous prostration, anxiety and worry will rank next as causes of attack. Where a predisposition exists, the most trivial disorders and circumstances, which, in other persons, would be unl'elt, may act, in those individuals, as exciting causes. Child-birth, typhoid fever, bu.siness failures, disappointment in love, religious or other excitement, and a hundred other things, may act as an exciting cause in a jierson of an unstable nervous system. In the beginning of an attack there is usually lack of aope- tite, loss of weight, sleeplessness, constipation. If these symptoms were promptly relieved many cases of insanity might be averted. Treatment. — .\fter the disease is fully developed, if melan- choly delusions are present, the greatest care and watchfulness should be observed to guard against suicide or self-injury. In case of violent mania, care is to be taken that no injury is done to others. Prompt attention should be given to secure a movement of the bowels, to induce the patient to take a suitable amount of food, and to secure not less than eight hours' sleep during the twenty-four. If this cannot be secured at home, the patient should be sent to an institution where he can have the proper care, without a day's delay. The choice of an institution will depend upon the circumstances of the patient ; if possible, an institution should be chosen where there are not too many patients, where individual care is certain to be given by physi- cians skilled in the treatment of such cases. If the patient is poor, he will have to be sent to a State institution, in which case avoid, if possible, a erow'ded ward. With the best treat- ment, from forty to fifty per cent of patients recover. -fSiT '^■^t- -t^THE EYE.«t- Anatomy. The eyeballs and nearly all of their accessory parts are securely contained in two bony cavities called the orbits. These are shap^.l like foar-sided pyramids, with their ba.ses pointing forward and outward, and their apices backward and iinvard. They are about \\ inches deep, and ih.-ir axes are inclined to each other at an angle of 42 degrees (343 degrees. Each orbit has a roof, flaor, inner and outer wall. The roof is very thin and separates the orbital from the cranial cavity. At its outer angle there is a depression for the lachrymal or tear gland, and another at its inner angle for the pulley of the superior oblique muscle. The inner wall has in fro.it the lachrymal groove for lachrymal sac. The base or facial opening of the orbit has a strong, bony edge, and is about i^ '"• wide, and ij.;j in. high. The apex is forme;l by the optic foramen and canal, which con- nects the orbit with the interior of the skull, and through w-hich the optic nerve passes. The orbits are lined by a vasculir membrane, which nourishes the bony walls, and which is continuous at fissures and sutures with the periosteum of facial bones, and dura mater within the skull. It also forms a tendinous ring around optic foramen, giving origin to the ocular muscles. Upon this membrane, ax periorbita, and filling the space not occupied by the eyeball and its appendages, is found connective tissue and loose fat, which serve as a support to the globe and facilitate the various movements of which it is capable. The A PHVSIOLOr.V AND MEDICINE. 66 1 / connective tissue is thickciieil in places, forming sheaths for llic muscles, vessels and nerves, and fascia for connecting the parts within the orbit with one another, and with the periorbita. The optic nerves originate at the base of the brain, in the thalamioptui and corporii quadri^emina^ and receive ^laments from other portions of the brain and spinal cord. From their origin they run forward as optic tracts until they unite just pos- terior to the optic foramina and form the optic chiasm, in which they decussate. The fibres of the inner side of each tract cross overto inner side of opposite nerve and supply the inner half of the retina on that side. The outer fibres of each tract pass directly, without crossing, to outer hall of nerve and retina of same side. The optic nerves proper begin at the outer anterior edge of chiasm, and, rapidly diverging as tliey leave the cranial cavity, pass through the orbits to th^ eyeballs, which they enter abi>ut two lines within and half a line bjlow the posterior pole. The eyeball is situated in the anterior part of the orbit a lit- tle to the outer side of its axis, and about equi-distaut from the 1. Optic nerve; 2, sclera: 3,corn(;;i: 4. Sclilcnirii'sc.in.i! : 5. choroid: 6. Imdy: 7. iris: 8. crystalline lens: 9, macula 1 11 tea of retina: 10, retina; 11, : &ury ligament and canal uf Petit: 12, vitreous. upper and lower walls. It i^ maintained in position by the ' optic nerve 1)ehind and the lids in front, and is further sup- [ ]iorted behind and on the sides by a cushion of fat. It is nearly spherical in form, but aside view shows it to be com- posed of segments of two spheres of different diameters. The anterior segment, which forms the transparent cornea, has the shorter diameter and is therefore more prominent than the pos- terior or scleral portion. The eye is longer from before back- ward than transversely, and is shortest vertically. The ante- rior pole is the geometrical centre of the cornea, and the pos- terior pole is the geometrical centre of the bottom of the eye. The axis is an imaginary straight line extending from pole to pole. The equatorial plane is an imaginary plane through the centre of the globe perpendicular to the axis. The equator is the line where the efjuatorial plane cuts the surface of the eye- ball. Meridianal planes are imaginary planes coinciding with the axis. Meridians are lines where meridianal planes cut the surface. The eyeball has three investing membranes or coals which maintain its shape and enclo.se three transparent humors. The outer coat embraces the cornea and sclera, the middle coal the choroid, ciliary body and iris, and the inner coat is'llie retina. The humors are the aiiueous, crystalline and vitreous. The greater part (five-sixths) of the outer cf canals and spaces containing serous fluid, lymph cells and corneal corpuscles. The cornea, unlike the other coats of the eye, has no blood-vessels, except al its edge, where a very narrow zone of capillary loops is found. It is sustained through the circulation of serum in the lymph ch.innels. Nerves are freely distributed throughout, chieHy near the anterior surface in epithelial and elastic layers. That portion of the middle coat which lines the inner .sur- face of the sclera is called the choroid behind, and the ciliary body in front. The choroid extends from the optic nerve entrance to a line just anterior to the e<|uator. The ciliary body extends from the anterior termination of the choroid to that of the sclera, where it joins the iris, with which it is con- tinuous. The iris hangs like a curtain from the anterior edge of the ciliary body, floating in the aqueous humor. The cho- roid is composed chiefly of hi .lod- vessels enibrane. If the focus be at any point not on the retina, a blurred image results, and vision of course is indistinct. To see perfectly, it is further necessary that the focus be formed on the most sensitive part of the retina (macula Ititea). The retina is .sensitive to the impressions of light throughout, but especially so near the posterior pole, and therefore, when ac- curate vision is desired, the eyes are so directed by the ocular muscles that the ligh' is focused on the macula. Rays of light coming from any point of illumination, how- ever distant, are divergent, but as the pupil ordinarily is only about two lines in diameter, rays coming from a distance more than twenty feet are so slightly divergent when they enter the eye that the divergence is not recognized. So, for all practical pur- poses, rays coming from a distance of twenty feet or more may be regarded as coming from an infinite distance, and, therefore, as being parallel. In the ideally perfect eye parallel rays are focused by its refractive media upon the macula, and a per- fect image is formed upon the perceptive layer of the retina. When rays enter the eye, coming from a distance less than twenty feet, they are perceptibly divergent, and the shorter the distance the greater the divergence. It will therefore be seen that the refractive media must undergo a change, i.e., increase the refractive power sufficiently to unite the divergent rays on the same place that the parallel rays were focused. This change the eye is capable of making, and it is called accommo- dation, because the eye can be adjusted or accommodated for different distances. The change is brought about by the ciliary muscle contracting. The suspensory ligament is in this way re- laxed, and the lens, of its own elasticity, is rendered more con- vex, chiefly on its anterior surface. The iris is at the same time pushed forward, and the pupil contracted. The changes thus produced in the refracting media greatly increase the refrac- tive power, accurately focusing divergent rays. There is a point, however, where the divergence is so great that the ut- most effort at accommodation fails to unite the rays on the macula. This is the near point of distinct vision, and its dis- tance from the eye gradually increases with age, oiving to physiological changes in the lens, diminishing its elasticity. By means of .accommodation the eye sees everything distinctly, from within a few inches to fifteen or twenty feet away, beyond which it is unnecessary, as the vision is jierfect with the media in a passive condition. While viewing distant objects, the axes of the eyes are par- allel, but near objects require a certain amount of convergence to allow the focus to be formetl upon the macula of each eye. The interal rectus is the principal muscle concerned in the act of convergence, but the other ocular muscles are more or less called into action to maintain a certain position or change the direction of the eye. When we consider that six muscles con- trol the movements of each eye, and while viewing near objects each eye must be accommodated and converged so that a perfect image may be formed on a corresponding point in the retina of each, we can but wonder how it is possible for this complicated muscular action to be maintained for any great length of time in a normal state of perfection, much more when some portion of the delicate mechanism is defective, and the harmony of action is seriously disturbed. Errors of Refraction and Accommodation. Contrary to popular opinion, the perfect eye is the excep- tion instead of the rule. In many cases, however, the defect is so slight that the eyes give very little trouble unless used excessively for close work, especially by artificial light. Very often the defect so materially disturbs vision, and requires smch an unnatural strain to overcome it, that a variety of troubles result. The eyes not only feel fatigued and ache, but the lids may swell, or become inflamed, the eyes becoming so sensitive that mere exposure to light will bring on a seveije paroxysm of pain. Again severe attacks of headache, dizziness and a host of nervous disorders may follow. Emmetropia is the term applied to the normally-shaped eye- ball. Hypermetropia, or over-sight, is a condition where the eye-ball is shorter from before backward than it should be, and as a consequence parallel rays of light are not united when they reach the retina unless the accommodation be called into play. A hypermetropic eye never sees at any distance without mak- ing an effort at accommodation ; hence it is never at rest except during sleep, and the constant strain tends often to produce very serious consequences. In the majority of cases where hypermetropia exists, one eye is more defective than the other, and thus makes the defect much more difficult to be overcome by accommodation. The muscle of accommodation is under the same nerve control as the muscles of convergence, and hence the action of the ciliary muscle calls for a corre- sponding effort on the part of the converging muscles, and I'ice versa. When, however, one or both eyes are hypermetropic, a greater effort at accommodation is required, and while the eyes are focused for a given point they are converged for a nearer one, and double vision is the result. The double vision is pro- duced by the images being formed at different points on the retina in the two eyes. Under such circumstances distinct vision is only obtained when the image of one eye (the weaker) is suppressed. If the difference in the'refractive con- dition be very great, it will be a comparatively easy matter to suppress the image formed in the weaker eye ; but if there be but littledifference, one will turn inward, and the image, being formed on a less sensitive part of the retina, is finally ignored. k- -N PHVSrOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 665 In the former case, the weaker eye may remain " straight," but in the latter the eye which turns in will soon become perma- nently " crossed. " In this way nearly all cases of convergent squint, or strabismus, are produced. Treatment of Hypermetropia. — The only thing that can be done to relieve this condition is to correct the defect by hav- ing the person affected wear convex glasses, which should be adjusted by an oculist who thoroughly understands the subject. The accurate correction of refractive defects is a matter of such great importance that no one but a competent person should undertake to do it. PRF.siivori.\, or far-sightedness, is a condition that is the result of natural changesdue toage. .At about forty years of age most people find that they are compelled, in order to see well, to hold their newspaper a little farther from their eyes than for- merly. The eyes also feel fatigued much sooner, especially when artificial light is used. This is the result of a diminished power of accommcKlation, and can be easily relieved by using properly fitted conve.x glasses. MvoriA, or near-sightedness, is the opposite condition from hypcrmetropia, that is, instead of being too short, the eyeball is too long. Parallel rays unite before they reach the retina, and divergent rays focus without the aid of accommodation. In hypcrmetropia the defect exists from birth, but in myopia it is usually acquired, although a predisposition, as a weakened condition of the coats of the eye, may be inherited. Close work favors the production of a myopic condition in the eye. Straining the accommodation and convergence increases the tension of the eye, and this interferes with the escape of the venous blood from the interior. As the veins pa.ss through the sclera obliquely, any increase of pressure from within would lend to obstruct the flow of blood through them. The retarded escape of venous blood tends to still further intensify the intra-ocular pressure, and this to increase the myopia. The trouble, once begun, therefore, is very likely to become pro- gressive, unless proper means are promptly employed to stay its further development. Treatment. — As a myopic should be considered as a "sick eye," no time should be lost in having it cared for by one skilled in the treatment of such difficulties. Unless checked, the defect is liable to go from bad to worse until all useful vision is irreparably destroyed. All strain should be removed as far as possible, and close work abandoned until the progress of the difficulty has been checked. Concave glasses carefully selected should be worn all the time. A full correction of the myopia should be made by glasses for distant vision ; and, if the defect be great, about one-half correction for near objects. AsrioM.\TlSM (Gr. : a, without, and sligma, a point). — In this condition the rays of light entering in one meridian are focused at a different point from those entering in another meridian, the meridians of greatest difference being at right angles with each other. In simple myopie astigmatism, one meridian is emmetropic (normal) and the meridian at right angle is myopic. Simple hypermetropic astigmatism has one meridian emmetropic and the other hypermetropic. Compound myopie astigmatism has both meridians myopic, but one more than the other. Com- pound hypermetropic astigmatism has both meridians h)'per- metropic, but one more than the other. In mixed astigmatism one meridian is myopic and the other is hypermetropic. On account of the inability to focus all meridians at once in astigmatism, the defect is a soiurce of much greater difficulty, and its correction is far more important than either hypcrme- tropia or myopia. Neither convex nor concave glasses will cor- rect astigmatism, because, the surface of the glass being curved equally in all meridians, when a glass is found that will correct one meridian, the other is either corrected too much or too lit- tle. A glass is required that will correct one meridian and leave the other unaffected. This is found in what is called the cylindrical glass, the shape of which shows it to be the segment of a cylinder, that is, in the direction of the axis of the cylinder the glass is the same thickness throughout, but its surface is curved in a direction at right angles with the axis. A cylin- drical glass may be either convex or concave. The ordinary convex and concave glasses are spherical in shape. Compound astigmatism is corrected by using a lens that is ground spherical on one side and cylindrical on the other. Mixed astigmatism is corrected by one ground concave-cylindrical on one surface and convex-cylindrical on the other, with the a.xes of the cylin- ders at right angles with each other. Diseases of the Eye and Their Treatment. Diseases of the eye are so numerous and their diagnosis so diffi- cult, that it requires long study, s|x;cial training and experience to recognize and treat them with .safely and success. Simple troubles will usually recover without treatment if not meddled with, but may ultimately prove serious if allowed to go un- checked or become aggravated by harsh or improper remedies, (jrave difficulties may be overlooked as such, until vision has been pcrm.inently impaired or destroyed. In view of these facts, it is considered unnecessary if not dangerous to outline the .symptoms and treatment of the various eye di.seases in this article. Nevertheless, a few hints with reference to the hand- ling of some of the simpler afTections, conduct in emergencies, anil the care of the eyes, will not be out of place. If a foreign body should get into an eye, the tears will quickly begin to flow freely, and, in many cases, will wash it out. Hut if the substance be rough and angular, it may be iinbeilded in the cornea or the folds of the conjunctiva. When a foreign substance is supposed to be in the eye, the cornea should be thoroughly inspected by aid of a convex lens, if at hand, to concentrate the light upon the eye. The boencil very fine, and, standing behind the person sealed in a chair, steady the eye and separate the lids with the left hand, and gently pick it out with the point of the pjencil. .\fter removal of the foreign body, the eye should be restetl, bathed in warm water if irritable, and the per- son instructed not to rub it. In case nothing be found in the cornea, the lower lid should be drawn down by placing the ball of the thumb on the cheek below, and, by pressing downward, the inner surface of the lia exposed. This should be carefully examined, and, if nothing is found, the upper lid should be everted, as sho«-n in Figure 37, by seizing the eyelashes at the 666 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. middle of the lid, and, directing the person to look down, pvUling the lid downward and outward, then placing a pencil or match on the lid about half an inch from its edge and gently pressing downward while the edge is lifted upward and over the pencil by means of the lashes. If anything is discovered on the upper or lower lid, it can be readily removed by the corner of a handkerchief being twisted to a point and used as a swab to brush it off. Ilg. 37. :Metliocl of Turning the Upper Lid. If the conjunctiva becomes reddened from any cause, it denotes, if long continued, that inflammation has been estab- lished ; this may be confined to the conjunctiva or be a com- plication of some deep-seated trouble. It is not safe to tam- per in such cases, but if a surgeon cannot be had at once, use nothing but simple remedies until professional advice can be secured. Warm salt water (one quarter teaspoonful to pint) is a safe remedy in all inflammatory conditions of the eye, and if used for ten or twenty minutes three or four times daily, will relieve most acute affections of the lids and conjunctiva. All patent eye-washes should be avoided, because most of them contain acetate of lead, and if this is employed when there is an abrasion of the cornea the lead will be deposited and a per- manent opacity remain. Should the warm salt water not prove sufiicient until a physi- cian can be seen, bathe the eyes in a weak solution of alum or boracic acid (two to five grains to ounce). As a rule, so long as the vision remains perfect there is nothing dangerous affecting the eye ; when, however, sight is impaired, an oculist should be consulted as quickly as possible. For the first twenty-four hours cold applications are advisa- ble in all injuries of the eye, especially of the lids and con- junctiva ; but after that time has expired, warm dressings are usually followed by the best results. When mortar, lime or an alkali by accident gets into the eyes, they should be quickly washed with vinegar and water (one part to eight or ten). After being thoroughly cleansed, if any part of the conjunctiva is found eroded, fresh castor oil or vaseline should be applied over the raw surface, and care taken not to allow the lids to " grow " to the eyeball. If the con- junctiva be very much injured, the lids should be kept from coming in contact with the eyeball by a piece of cotton soaked in oil. In cases of injury from acids, the eyes should be washed immediately in bicarbonate of soda (salaratus) and water (one part to ten > i.nd then dressed as a bum. ^■THE EAR.-^i- Anatoiny. The anatomy of the ear is usually divided, for the sake of convenience, into that of the external, middle and internal. The external ear embraces the auricle and exterior auditory canal ; the middle ear the memiraira lympaiii, cavity of tym- panum, mastoid cells and eustachian tubes ; the internal ear the vestibule, semi-circular canals, cochlea and auditory nerve. The auricle is the external funnel-shaped appendage attached to the malar and temporal bones by elastic fibres. It consists of filjro-cartilaginous framework closely covered by perichon- drium and skin. From the lower end of the cartilage a pro- jection extends, formed principally by the skin, the lobe of the ear. The outer edge of the auricle is called the helix ; within this a depression, the fossa navicularis, at the inner edge of which is another ridge, the anti-helix. In front of the open- ing of the auditory canal is a projection, the tragus ; opposite this on the other side of the canal is another projection, the anti-tragiis. The concavity around the orifice of the canal is known as the concha. The triangular depression above the concha is the fossa triangularis. The meatus auditorius externus, external auditory canal, extends from the auricle to the membrana tympani forward and inward, by a crooked course ; average length about one inch. The outer one-third is cartilaginous, continuous with cartilage of the auricle. The inner two-thirds is formed by the bony canal in the temporal bone. At the bottom of the canal the membrana tympani is inserted in the tympanic groove, sulcus tynipanicus. The membrane is placed obliquely, and hence the anterior and inferior walls of the canal are longest. The canal is lined by integument containing soft hairs, sebaceous and ceruminous glands. The secretion of the glands, corumen (wax), is chiefly fat and coloring matter. The membrana tympani, or drum-head, separates the auditory canal from the tympanic cavity. It is so obliquely placed that the upper border is about a quarter of an inch neardr the entrance to canal than the lower. The posterior border is about one-fifth of an inch nearer than anterior. It is ellipsoidal in shape, with its long axis (one-third of an inch) downward and forward. At the upper portion, the short pro- cess of the malleus shows as a conical protrusion, from which -^i fv PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 667 -A extend two folds, the anterior and posterior. The membrane is slightly concave externally. The deepest concavity surrounds the end of the handle of the malleus, and is called the umbo. The mcmbr.inc is inelastic, and about jin inch in thickness. It is composed of three laj'ers, a middle fd>rous layer, covered externally by skin of auditory canal, and mucous membrane of tympanum internally. The middle layer has two layers of fibres, an outer r.idiating and an inner circular. When viewed through the auditory canal, the healthy mem- brane presents a delicate bluish-gray color and is translucent. Tlie short process of the malleus appears as a whitish tubercle, near upper margin, and the handle of malleus as a light stripe, running from this downward and backward to centre of the membrane. The "light spot " is a bright triangular reflection from the oblique .surface of the membrane. Its apex ])oints to end of handle, antl its l)ase toward margin. The cavity of tympanum, or drum of the ear, is an irregular- shaped space, linetl by mucous membrane, which is continuous with that of eustachian tube and ])harynx. The antero-jiosterior diameter is about '/i inch ; the anterior-vertical, % inch, and the posterior-vertical, three-fifths of an inch ; transverse, one- eighth to one-sixth; opposite drum-head, one-twelfth inch. The eustachian tube opens into upper part of anterior wall. Above the tube is the canal for the tensor tympani muscle, separated from it by a thin plate of bone. The posterior wall separates the tympanum from the mastoid cells, the openings into which are found at the upper part, clo.se to the roof. The drum-head forms most of the outer wall. The inner wall forms outer wall of the laliyrinth. .\n oval opening (fenestra ovalis) is found opposite su|)port of drum-head in the inner wall which leads into the vestibule. The opening is closed by a membrane upon which rests the base of the stapes. A smaller opening below (fenestra roliindii ) leads into the coclilea. The latter opening is closed by a membrane calleony part of canal: 4, cartilaginous portion; 5, ceniminous glands; 6. ntenibrana tympani; 7, incus; 8, malleus; 9. manubrium: 10. tensor tympani muscle: 11, 12, eustachian tube: 13, 15, .semi-circular canals; 16, 'cochlea. The internal ear, or labyrinth, contains the essential parts of the hearing apparatus, the ultimate filaments of the audi- tory nerves. It embraces .several bony cavities contained in the petrous portion of the temporal bone. Within these osseous chambers are membranous sacs which receive the dis- tribution of the nerve. The sacs and intervening spaces are filled with a clear fluid. The bony cavities are three in nuin- l)er, the vestibule, semi-circular canals and cochlea. The vestibule is an irregular ovoid cavity, situated internal to the tympanum. Its height and depth, antero-postcriorly, is about one-fifth of an inch, and its transverse diameter about one-tenth of an inch. The semi-circular canals are three C-shaped canals, starting from the vestibule and returning to it rv / 668 PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. again.; are from one-twentieth to one-fifteenth of an inch in diameter. Length of posterior verticle, eleven-twelfths inch ; anterior verticle, four-fifths ; horizontal, one-ftfth inch. The cochlea (snail) is a tube that coils around a central pillar or axis, and tapers toward one extremity where it ends in a blind sac. It is about one and one-half inches long, one-tenth of an inch in diameter at the beginning and one-twentieth of an inch at the end ; makes two and a half turns from below upward from left to right in right ear, and vice versa in the left. The cupola, or apex, is directed forward and outward. A thin wall separates the cochlea from the carotid canal in front. Internally it is in contact with the blind end of the internal auditory canal. It projects slightly, as the proiiwii- torv on the inner wall of the tympanum. Its axis, spindle or modiolus, is made up by the inner walls of the tube and a central spongy bone substance ; gradually diminishes in size from base to apex. Diameter at base, one-eighth of an inch ; at apex, one-fiftieth of an inch ; length, one-sixth of an inch. Base rests upon the bottom of the internal auditory canal. The apex is formed by the inner wall of the last half whorl, ending in a thin section of funnel, the in/undtbulum. The walls of the cochlear canal are lined by a very delicate perios- teum. The bony cavities of the vestiljule and semi-circular canals contain membranous sacs which correspond in shape to the osseous chambers in which they are enclosed. The utricle (Lat., utriculus, a little leathern bottle) is a flattened elliptical tube resting on the inner wall of the vesti- bule. The outer wall is free and is separated from the outer wall uf the vestibule by a narrow space filled with endolymph. The membranous semi-circular canals are of the same shape as (he body canals, and open into the utricle by five openings, the same as the osseous communicate with the vestibule. The membranous fill the osseous canals at the openings, but in other parts considerable space exists between the two, which is filled by connective tissue, vessels and fluid. The walls of the utri- cle and canals are very thin and delicate. The auditory nerve, or portio mollis of seventh nerve, begins by two roots in the medulla oblongata. One nucleus of ori<'in is in floor of the fourth ventricle ; the other is in the ciKs cerebelli ad medullma. The roots are in communication with the gray matter of the cerebellum and border o{ calamus scriptorius. The nerve winds around therestiform body, from which it receives filaments, and then passes forward in com- ])any with the portio dura, m facial nerve, to the posterior border of crus, and enters the internal auditory canal, where some fibres connect them together. At the bottom of the canal the auditory nerve divides into two branches, one passing to the vestibule and the other to the cochlea. The nerve, like the optic, is one of special sense, receiving and transmitting the impressions of the waves of sound. Physiology. The ear, as a whole, is a very complicated structure. The sound-waves are collected by the auricle, reflected into the auditory canal, are received upon the merabrana tympani, which is thrown into corresponding vibrations ; these are car- ried by the chain of bones across the tympanum to the fluid of the labyrinth, and thence to the auditory nerves and through them to the brain, where they are recognized as sound. The membrana tympani, by the aid ot its tensor muscle, can be maintained at various degrees of tension adapting it to differ- ent kinds of waves. The atmospheric pressure within the cavity ot the tym- panum is governed by its communication with the mastoid cells and pharynx. The elements of the terminal auditory apparatus in the cochlea are supposed to be tuned to vibrate in harmony with all the different notes in our musical scale. The semi-circular canals are thought to preside over the equi- librium of the body, and to be concerned little, if any, in the function of hearing. There are still a number of points in connection with the physiology of audition remaining unsatis- factorily explained. Diseases of the Ear and Their Treatment. The statements made in the article on the eye are also appli- cable to the ear. The apparatus is so delicate that any disturb- ance of function should be referred to a skilled specialist for cor- rection. Many erroneous ideas still exist in the public mind, which seriously interfere with the work of theaurist. The ear is regarded by some as so "delicate " that nothing can be done to alleviate its disorders, and cases of partial deafness are allowed to go uncared-for that could be readily cured. The so-called " rising " in the ear, followed by an ofi'ensive discharge, is neglected because" it is dangerous to meddle with the ear" or stop a discharge from it. Many children are per- mitted to go in this manner without attention, at the imminent peril of their lives and with a serious impairment of hearing. The inflammation which causes .such a discharge is located in the tympanic cavity, and is very liable to extend into the mas- toid cells and the cranial cavity, resulting fatally. No jiossible harm could result from stopping the discharge, and no time should be lost in endeavoring to check it. Children often put beans, coffee grains and other small sub- stances into their ears, and the friends, in attempting to remove the foreign body, push it further into the canal. No instru- ment should ever be used, except by an aurist, to remove any- thing from the ear. The only thing that can be safely em- ployed for this purpose is a syringe. In case an insect gets into the ear, water should be jioured in to kill it or cause it to *)me out. If this should fail to accjir.- plish the desired result, a physician should be called. If the ear itches or attracts attention in any way, it sliould be examined by a surgeon, or washed out, or a little vaseline applied on a pleget of cotton ; and on no account should it be picked at with a hairpin, ear-spoon, or other hard instrument. One of the most common forms of deafness is caused by an extension of inflammation from the throat to the ear through the eustachian tulic. The first thing noticed by the person is a ringing noise in the ear and a slight impairment of hearing. These symptoms may come on so gradually as not to attract attention for some time. The disease can be checked in the early stages, and it is therefore important to attend to it as soon as noticed. Children frequently suffer with " earache," and as the attacks often occur in the night when it is inconvenient to call medical \^ hdi^^^i^^te PHYSIOLOr.V AND MEDICINE. 669 / aid, every family should know how to render prompt relief. The pain is usually indicative of inflammation in the middle ear which has begun in the pharynx and extended to the ear. Hot cloths shoulil l)e ajiplied to the throat and hot water poured into the ear. The water should be used as hot as can be borne, and if it fails to relieve, a small quantity (Ij grain) of morphine, dissolvejl in a few drops of warm water, should be droppcti into the ear while the head is inclined .so as to allow it to run in. It is not advisable to use oil or laudanum, because the oil may clog up the canal, and the alcohol in the lauilanum will irritate it. Nrcdisposing causes. Non- acclimated persons are more liable to be attacked than natives. It is more fatal among the white i)opulation. The death-rate is high. Patients recoveretl from this fearful diseas_ enjoy immu- nity from attacks in future. The attacks generally begin rather suddenly. The temperature ranges from loi to 107 degrees. The symptoms arc a dry skin, rajiid pulse, thirst, frontal head- ache, pain in the back and calves of the legs, and vomiting. At first, the vomited matters consist of mucus and of portions of fond. There is a cream-like coat upon the tongue, and tender- ness at the pit of the stomach. After a day or two the pains abate, but the vomiting is likely to increase, and the skin becomes yellow, .\bout the fourth day, the vomit contains blood, hav- ing the appearance of coffee-grounds, and known as " the black vomit." The urine and stools also contain blood. The tongue becomes dry and black, the pulse rapid but feeble. Delirium and coma now set in. Death or convalescence may take place at any time. Con- valescence may take place so early in the disease as to leave some doubt as to the correctness of the diagnosis, and death may strike the patient down before any of the characteristic symptoms are established. .-Vt times blood is found not only in the stools and urine, but the eyes, nose and mouth may bleed profusely, thus rendering the patient the most pitiable object imaginable. This disease demands the highest hygienic skill. It can be perpetuated by the virus contained in exposed clothing or fur- niture. Treatment should be according to general principles. I'ain and vomiting are best controlled by the hypodermic in- jection of morphine. Muriatic, niuie and sulphuric acid and quinine are called for. The convalescence is generally protracted. The yellowness of the skin continues for a long time. At this period the main thing needed is good, judicious feeding and tonic treatment. Rubeola — Measles. This is a very infectious febrile disease. As a rule it is ex- perienced but once. Children are more frequently altacketl then adults, partly because most adults have, as children, suffereti from an attack, and thereafter enjoy immunity from the disease. But it is also true that adults unprotected by a former attack are less susceptible, .'\bout two weeks ela))se from the time of exposure to the development of the disease. The first symptoms are those of a cold. The patient coughs and sneezes ; the eyes are suffused, and a thin mucus flows from the nose. There is a pink appearance of the eye, and during the catarrhal period there is a slight fever. On the third or fourth day the fever is increased, and an eruption begins to make its appearance at the roots of the hair and upon the forehead and temples. The eruption is of minute red spots scarcely raised above the surface, and smooth to the touch. In small-pox the eruption has a sandy or gritty feel. The first attack of small-pox is .somewhat like remittent fever — a high temperature with vomiting. In measles it is more like a cold. The fever rises with the erupticm. In small-pox it falls. Two days are required for the eruption to become general, and in about three or four days more it begins to disappear in the order in which it came. Now the tempera- ture suddenly falls to the normal, or very near it. The temper- ature seldom rises above 104 degrees. | At times the lungs become involved to -.mx alarming extent. ' The cough from the beginning is very annoying, and it is liable to continue for a long time after every other symptom has dis- appeared. The eyes become inflamed during the catarrhal jieriod, and they so remain long after the |>atient is well in every other respect. At times the eyelids become granulated. The throat symptoms may also continue for .some time, but never become a serious complication, such as that occasionce treated as such by all intelligent citizens. Vericella — Chicken-Pox. Chicken-pox is a contagious but an insignificant disea.se, generally confined to children. The fever is so mild as to need no attention. The eruption at first consists of pimples with inflamed bases, which develop into blisters, or vesicles, as large as split peas, or even sometimes as large as copper coins. These become filled with a milky fluid, and finally break and tlry up into crusts or scabs. The eruption comes out in suc- cessive crops, so that in a well-marked case it can be .seen in its various stages at the same time. The eruption lasts about a week, and in about another week the crusts fall off. This disease, like the other eruptive fevers, protects against itself. No treatment beyond good nursing is required. Scarlatina — Scarlet Fever. Scarlet Fever is a highly infectious malady, attacking children chiefly ; not because the child is any more susceptible to its influence, but because the older children and adults have all had the disease or are not susceptible to it. Why some should pass through several epidemics without taking it, and then some time in after life should contract the disease, we do not know. The beginning of the di.sease is generally sudden. A child exposed a week ago ha-s been in perfect health until now. The attack begins with a high temperature, headache, vomiting, and sore throat. Young children may have convulsions at the very beginning of the attack. Within the next twenty-four hours a fine ree communicated by the matter coughed up ; lience the necessity of es|jecial care. Handkerchiefs and towels used by the sick of this disease should be properly taken care of. It is better to use old cloths and bum them. This is a disease of all countries, persons, ages, sexes and conditions, but children are more liable to be attacked, and it is more fatal with them. The mortuary rate is high. This disease, in a particular case, may be so mild as not to occasion inconvenience to any extent beyond a little sore throat. It may be so severe and the swelling so great as to threaten death by shock or by suffocation in a few hours. The sequels may be serious ; by attacking the kidneys, and interfering with the proper evacuation of urea, the patient may die of uremic poisoning. The throat may become paralyzed, so that the jiatient cannot swallow, the paralysis extending to the organs of speech. It may extend also to the limbs. The ])atient, in the majority of cases, recovers from the paralysis within four months, if he survives the acute stages of the disease. Diphtheria is not to be treated wholly as a local disease. The tendency is to loss of strength and death from exhaustion ; hence tonics should be administered from the beginning. Qui- nine is well borne. Two grains every hour or two may be given, or tincture of iron in doses of ten drops every two or three hours in a tablespoonful of water. It will be well to have the patient drink this slowly so that it may have a local efTcct upon the throat. If the throat is badly swollen a gargle of tincture of iron and water may be used every three or four hours. In all cases of dijihtheria a physician should see the patient daily. Rheumatism. RllEt'MATlsM is a constitutional di.sease, characterized by certain local manifestations. These manifestations arc due to inflammation, acute or chronic, of the synovial membrane lining the joints, of certain serous membranes, particularly those of the heart, and of fibrous tissue elsewhere in the body. Kheumatism is classified as aeute articular rheuma- tism and chronic rheumatism. In Acute Articii.ar Riii'IMatism the lining membranes of the joints are inflamed. In the course of the disease cer- /• ^ " bIv K 674 PHVSIOLOOV AND MEDICINE. =t. A tain complications involving internal organs are liable to arise. The parts more likely to become affected are the serous mem- branes, the endocardium and pericardium lining and surround- ing the heart. The attack usually begins suddenly. Sometimes there is a slight amount of fever for a day or two preceding the joint affection ; sometimes the pain and tenderness of the joints precede the fever, but usually these sjTnptoms appear together. The disease may attack any joint of the body, and is indeed very seldom confined to one or two. The affected joints are swollen, red and extremely tender. Pain is not so great except when attempting to move, or when disturbed or jarred. The slightest movement causes the most excruciating pain. Swell- ing is most apparent when the knees, ankles or wrists are the joints involved. The swelling is usually in proportion to the severity of the inflammation. One joint after another gen- erally becomes involved. Sometimes upon attacking a new joint all tenderness and swelling disappear from the joints first involved. The fever ranges in this disease between 102 and loS degrees. Profuse sweating is a common symptom. The disease very rarely proves fatal. When it does it is due to the extension of the inflammation to the heart, and the development o( pericarditis. Even then the number of deaths during the acute attack is very small, but in the fact that the heart is so frequently attacked lies the danger of the disease, for, as explained under the head of diseases of the heart, the gieat majority of valvular diseases of the heart are due to eiidccardilis developed during an attack of acute rheumatism. Usually, however, the lesion of the valves causes ro inconvenience until a number of years afterward. The heart is more likely to become involved, the more intense the disease. Other organs, such as the pleura, the peritoneum and the membranes envel- oping the brain, have been known to suffer inflammation during the attack, but it is extremely rare. The head is usually free from pain. The duration of the attack varies from ten days to five or six weeks. There are sometimes relapses. One who has once suffered from acute rheumatism is more liable to sub- sequent attacks. Treatment. — Notwithstanding the popularity of salicylic acid, or the salicylate of soda, in the treatment of rheumatism during the last few years, we believe that as much or more may be accomplished by the use of w'hat has been known as the alkaline treatment. The alkali, either bicarbonate of potassa or soda, should be given in full doses, every three or four hours. Lemon juice may be added to the dose and taken while effervescing. As soon as the urine is rendered alkaline (which may be told by testing with red litmus paper, which turns to blue if dipped into an alkaline fluid), the dose should be greatly diminished, and taken thereafter only once or twice a day. Tonics are useful. Quinine in two-grain doses may be given. Tincture of aconite applied to the swollen joints often affords relief. Chloroform liniment or soap liniment is also used for this purpose. The salicylate of soda is much employed — per- haps at this time more than any other remedy. Chronic Rheumatism differs from the acute variety in the degree of severity of the symptoms, and in their duration. In mild cases the patients are able to go about their work, but suffer more or less pain in the affected joints. In other cases, more severe, the patient is confined to his bed, and frequently, with those about their avocations, there is more or less deform- ity of the joints. Treatment. — The alkalies may be used in small doses ; also the salicylate of soda. Iodide of potassium is sometimes very useful, and in malarious districts quinine is to be employed. The local applications to the joints here are of more impor- tance than in the acute variety. Tincture of aconite, tincture of iodine and chloroform liniment are very useful. / -VI ^ PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 6/5 -H- EMERGENCIES.-^- Hemorrhage. A rapid loss of blood is one of the most alarming eNperi- ences in life. Nothing is more startling than the hemorrhage from a large vessel, in the case of wounds made with a sharp instrument. If the wound is of one of the limbs, the bleeding may be easily controlled until a surgeon can arrive. If the blood is of a bright-red color, and flows in spurts with the pulse, the wounded vessel is an artery, and the blood comes directly from the heart. The artery must be comjiressed above the wound. The best way to do this, in case of the arm, is to tie a Fig. 39. BaiMlage Applied on Arm to .Stop Rleediiig:. The dotted line indicates the course of the artery. hard knot in a handkerchief; then pass the ends around the arm and tic firmly, having placed the knot over the course of the artery ; then insert a small stick, and tighten the bandage by twisting, as shown in Kig. 39. If the wound be of the leg, apply the knotted handkerchief as shown in Fig. 40. The bandage thus made is correctly applied if the bleeding ceases. ( )therwise the position of the knot must be changed until the bleeding vessel is successfully compressed. If the wound is of the trunk, or if the bleeding is not severe, the edges should be brought closely together with adhesive jilas- ter, or with a common needle and thread, and the wound filled with cobwebs, or any substance favoring coagulation of the blood. The patient should be laid down and kept perfectly quiet. Hi.F.F.niNn FROM THE NosE is caused by the rupture of a small vessel of the nasal mucous membrane. Generally, the loss of blood is not great, and soon ceases without treatment. Occasionally the hemorrhage is so profuse as to greatly weaken the patient, and even endanger life. Cold applied to the back of the neck, by means of a piece of ice or iron, is u.seful. Plugging the nostrils is sometimes of benefit, but in severe cases the blood will then flow backward into the throat. In the most severe cases it is sometimes necessary to plug also the opening of the nose into the throat. This last measure is always success- ful, but a physician should be called to do the operation, as a person without experience would be apt to fail. Bleedi.n'G from the Lungs. — .\ small amount of blood sometimes takes place into the bronchial tubes, giving rise to "spitting of blood." With this variety there in no immediate danger from loss of blood. Sometimes, however, in cases of consumption, rupture of vessels of considerable size takes place, causing a copious hemorrhage. This is sometimes so severe as to cause death. The patient should be put to bed at once and required to lie quietly upon his back. Twenty drops of laudanum may be given every two hours. Also ace- tate of lead or tannic acid. A lemon may be sucked, and in some instances has a most excellent effect. A large spoonful of common salt, dissolved and taken into the stomac'i, is said to be very useful in control- ling the hemorrhage. The patient should be kept quiet for several days. Accidents. BRUISES, SPRAINS, DISLOC.VTIONS .\ND FRACTURES. .\ Bruise should be dressed with a cold water band- age and kept wet. Perfect rest should be given the FJgr- 40. Randa^ Applied on Tliijjh m» as to Stop lllofd- iiijj troiii a WoiiikI Hi-Uiw, The black line indicates the course of the artery. part. In case of a bruise aliout the face or eyes, much of the discoloration may be prevented by at once applyingacold water dressing, or ice, which is better. 5r 676 -~ ~ " ■^ PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. A Sprain, whether it is of the ankle, or knee, or WTist, should at once be tightly and thoroughly bandaged, and perfect rest should be given the part. A speedy recovery by this means will usually result, when any other course may make a cripple. In bandaging the knee or ankle the bandage must be applied down to the toes, to prevent swelling and stoppage of the cir- culation. In case of either Fractures or Dislocations the patient should not be allowed to make an effort, lest he may do himself additional injury. A great many times, by attempting to walk with a broken leg, patients have thrust the end of the fractured bone out through the flesh, thus greatly increasing the danger of a serious result. The injured member should be straightened out, and the patient placed in the most comfortable position to await the coming of the surgeon. Bites and Stings. Bite of a 1I.\d Dog. — The wound is to be immediately sucked either by the patient or another person. No harm can result if there are no abrasions or scratches upon the lips, and it is a very ready and effective way of removing the poison from the wound. Send at once for a medical man to cut or cauter- ize the wound. If nojie can be had within a few minutes, any person can cauterize the wound with lunar caustic, or, if none be at hand, the wound may be burned to the bottom by a small red-hot iron. The bite of a dog not mad is usually very pain- ful, and is attended with considerable inflammation and swell- ing. Cloths wrung out of hot water may be applied. Later, a flax-seed poultice, with a half-teaspoonful of laudanum sprinkled upon it, should be applied. Bite of a Venomous Serpent should be treated in the same way as the bite of a mad dog. Brandy or whisky should be given in considerable quantity. Stings of Wasps and Bees may be treated by bathing the parts with ammonia or hartshorn, diluted with an equal amount of water. In case of the honey-bee sting, if there is much swelling, a poultice of flaxseed should be applied. Burns, Scalds and Frost-Bites. In case of Burns or Scalds the parts should be protected from the air at once. If a quantity of white oil-paint is at hand, cover the bum at once by applying gently a very thick coat of the paint. In a little while another coat is to be given. If no paint is to be had, apply olive oil and cover with flour. If no sweet oil is to be had, lard will do. If no oil of any sort is to be had, then cover the part with dry flour. The patient should be given a full dose of laudanum or paregoric, or opium or morphine. If the bum has been very extensive, a physician should now be sent for. In case of Frost-Bite, the circulation must be slowly restored; hence great care should be taken not to bring the patient into a warm room. The frozen part may be rubbed with snow in a cold room, or immersed in very cold water, and kept there for two or three hours, until the circulation has been fully restored. Suffocation. Suffocation takes place whenever the air is shut out of the lungs ; this may be done by compressing the windpipe, as in choking or hanging; or lllling the lungs with water, as in drowning ; or with poisonous gases, as charcoal gas from burn- ing charcoal, or by the escape of illuminating gas into the sleeping-room ; or by the poisonous gas in mines and old wells. In case of strangulation, as by hangings the pressure upon the windpipe is to be instantly removed, and the bands about the neck and body loosened. In the case of inhalation of a poisonous gas the patient is to be at once removed into the open air ; while the drowning person is, of course, to be removed at once from the water, and movements made for emptying the water out of the lungs. The wet clothes should be stripped off and the body wrapped in a warm shawl, blanket or dry coat ; no time should be lost in changing the clothing, but efforts at artificial respiration should be made at once, and the clothing can be gotten off while these efforts are in progress. Artificial respir- ation should be employed in all cases, whether of hanging, drowTiing, or suffocation by a poisonous gas. The following method of Marshall Hall is as good as any other : 1. Treat the patient instantly on the spot, in the open air, freely exposmg the face, neck and chest to the breeze, except in severe weather 2. In order to clear the throat, place the patient gently on the face, with one wrist under the forehead, that all fluid, and the tongue itself, may fall forward, and leave the entrance into the wind-pipe free. 3. To excite respiration, turn the patient slightly on his side, and apply some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as vetratrine, dilute am'monia, etc. 4. Make the face warm by brisk friction ; then dash cold water upon it. 5. If not successful, lose no time ; but, to imitate respira- tion, place the patient on his face, and turn the body gently, but completely, on the side, and a little beyond ; then agam on the face, and so on, alternately. Repeat these movements deliberately and perseveringly, fifteen times only in a minute. (When the patient lies on the thorax, this cavity is compressed by the weight of the body, and expiration takes place. When he is turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and insjiira- tion occurs.) 6. When the prone position is resumed, make a uniform anil efficient pressure along the spine, removing the pressure immedi- ately, before rotation on the side. (The pressure augments the expiration; the rotation commences inspiration.) Continue these measures. 7 Rub the limbs upward, with firm pressure and with energy. (The object being to aid the return of venous blood to the heart.) 8. Substitute for the patient's wet clothing, if possible, such other covering as can be instantly procured, each bystander supplying a coat or cloak, etc. Meantime, and from time to time, to excite inspiration, let the surface of the body be slapped briskly with the hand. g. Rub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, then dash cold water upon it, and repeat the rubbing. Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a dangerous loss of time ; also, the use of bellows, or any forc- ing instrument ; also, the warm bath, and all rough treatment. VL ^ Poisoning. In cases of poisoning something must be clone at once, before a physician can have time to reach the patient. The first effort should be to get the poison out of the stomach. This can be done by inducing vomiting. This should lie done in every case, no matter what poison has been swallowed. Endeavor to wash out the stomach in the following manner : a tablespoonful of common dry mustard is to be added to about two quarts of warm water; stir well and give to the patient by the tumblerful until he vomits freely. In some cases, half the mixture will be required before vomiting is induced. If no mustard is at hand, then use the warm water alone. The patient should be undressed and put to bed. If the skin becomes cold and the breathing rapid, stimulants are required, such as bottles of hot water placed at the feet and in contact with the Iwdy, always taking care not to burn the skin. In the case of known opium or morphine poisoning, in addi- tion to the above the victim should be walked rapidly by a strong person on either side. Acids (Oxalic, Sulphuric, Nitric). — Give large draughts of cooking soda in water, then wash out the stomach as directed in general rules. Carbolic Acid kills very rapidly. Pour oil into the victim's mouth freely. Apply friction to the surface. Inject diluted whisky into the bowels. Children have been seriously poisoned by carbolic acid injected into the bowels to destroy pin worms. In such cases empty the bowels completely by warm soap suds injected into the bowels, and stimulate the victim by whisky and water in the stomach. Aconite. — Wash out the stomach. Rul) the entire surface of the body with a coarse towel. Inject a tablespoonful of whisky with an equal quantity of water into the bowels. Antimony (Hive Syrup). — A draught of sweet oil or milk, followed by washing out the stomach. Give diluted whisky by the mouth and inject it into the bowels. Arsenic (Fowler's Solution). — Draughts of milk or starch, followed by washing out the stomach. Stimulants injected into the bowels. Alkalies (Potash, .Vmmonia). — Pour sweet oil or milk into the mouth freely; afterward wash out the stomach. Belladonna. — Wash out the stomach, .'\pply friction to the surface. Stimulate with whisky. Chloral. — Empty the stomach. Artificial heat to the sur- face. Stimulants by injection. Chloroform. — If taken into the stomach, wash it out. If respiration threatens to cease, use artificial respiration and ap- ply heat and friction to the surface. If inhaled, the victim should be placed head down while efforts are being made to maintain respiration artificially. Keep the body warm. All persons should make themselves familiar with methods of in- ducing artificial respiration, and remember to employ them with steady persistency in cases of drowning. Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate). — White of eggs, or, if not at hand, give milk freely. Wash out the stomach afterward. Opium (Morphine). — The greatest difficulty will be experi- enced in emptying the stomach, which may be facilitated by tickling the front portions of the throat with a feather. Com- pel the patient to walk rapidly if possible. If not, use the most vigorous friction to the surface without ceasing. If necessary, severe pain should be produced by sharply pinching the thumb nail until the patient responds. Hot black coffee. Artificial respiration. Children are frequently killetl by soothing syrups. These should never be given except by medical advice. Fainting. The cause of Fainting is lack of blood in the brain ; hence, the patient, in case of a faint, should be phaccd in a posi- tion favoring the flow of blood to the brain. The patient should be laid at once flat down upon a bed, a sofa, or the floor, with- out any pillow under the head ; then cold water can be dashed in the face, which will have the desired effect. Sunstroke. In case of Sunstroke, unfasten and remove all excess of cloth- ing and dash pails of cold water over the head and chest of the patient. As soon as ice can be procured make an ice-cap of towels, and cover the head with ice broken in small pieces. This treatment of cold to the head is to be kept up for many hours, or even for days in some cases. A physician should lie called as soon as possible, but treatment should go vigorously forward until his arrival. Al ^ - •^.POSOLOGICAL TABLE.-si- Medicines, ■with Doses for Adults. For patients over 20 years of age, the full dose ; from 14 to 20 years, Y^ of full dose 571014 years, yi dose ; 4 to 7 years, y\ dose ; 3 years, \ dose ; 2 years, '•:; dose ; i year, 1^2 dose. MecUcine. Dose. Arsenic, Fowler's Solution of 2 to 10 drops. Aconite, Extract of. B to >< grain. Aconite, Tincture of i 105 drops. Aloes, Purified i to 5 grains. Pills of I to 4 pills. Pills of Asafoetida and 1104 pills. Asafcetida, Mixture of >^ to 2 tablespoonfuls. " Tincture of >2 to 2 teaspoonfuls. " Pills of I to 4 pills. Atropia, Sulphate of 2u„ to /„ of a grain. Belladonna, Extract of X to I giain. " Fluid Extract of I to 5 drops. " Tincture of 5 to 30 drops. Bismuth, Subnitrate of 10 to 30 grains. Bromide of Ammonia 5 to 20 grains. " of Potassium 5 to 20 grains. " of Sodium 5 to 20 gi-ains. Buchu, Fluid Extract of 10 to 60 drops. Calibar Bean, Extract of K to i grain. Calomel i to 10 grains. Camphor, Spirits of 5 to 15 drops. Camphor Water i to 4 teaspoonfuls. Capsicum, Tincture of 10 to 20 drops. Castor Oil X to 2 tablespoonfuls. Chloral, Hydrate of 5 to 30 grains. Cinchona, Sulphate of 5 to 30 grains. Cinchona, Compound Tincture of i 104 teaspoonfuls. Cod Liver Oil /4 to i tablespoonful. Copper, Sulphate of s to >^ gi-ain. .Corrosive Sublimate (i^i to ^ grain. Cream of Tartar 5 to 60 giains. Croton Oil » to 2 drops. Digitalis, Extract of >^ to 2 grains. Digitalis, Tincture of 5 to 60 drops. Dover's Powder 5 to lo grains. Epsom Salts .J^ to 2 tablespoonfuls. Ergot, Fluid Extract of >2 to 2 teaspoonfuls. Gentian, Extract of i to 5 grains. Gilsemium, Fluid Extract of 5 to 10 drops. Hydrochloric Acid, dilute i to 5 drops. Hyosciamus, Fluid Extract of 5 to 20 drops. Hyosciamus, Tincture of K to 2 teaspoonfuls. Iodine, Compound Tincture of 2 to 5 drops. Medicine. Dose, Iodide of Potassium 5 to 30 grains. Ipicacuanha, Fluid Extract of 2 to 30 drops. Ipicacuanha, Syrup of i to 4 teaspoonfuls. Ipicacuanha, Troches of Morphine and i to 10 troches. Iron, Reduced i to 2 grains. Iron, Pyrophosphate of 2 to 5 grains. Iron, Tincture of the Chloride of 5 to 30 drops. Lactic Acid 15 to 30 drops. Laudanum 15 to 40 drops. Lead, Sugar of .J^to5 grains. May .\pple. Resin of yi, to % grain. May Apple, Extract of 3 to S grains. .Muriatic Acid, dilute 5 to 10 drops. Morphine yi to ]A, grains. Magnesia, Sulphate of ^ to 2 tablespoonfuls. Mustard, Ground I to 2 teaspoonfuls. Nitre, Sweet Spirits of ^ to i teaspoonful. Nitro-Muriatic Acid, dilute 2 to 10 drops. Nux Vomica, Tincture of 10 to 25 drops. Opium, Extract of /^ to 2 grains. Opium, Tincture of 15 to 40 drops. Opium, Camphorated Tincture of ^ to 2 tablespoonfuls. Paregoric ^'4 to 2 tablespoonfuls. Potassium, Bicarbonate of. 5 to 20 grains. Potassium, Bitartrate of 5 to 60 gr.iins. Potassium, Bromide of 5 to 20 grains. Potassium, Chlorate of 5 to 20 grains. Potassium, Iodide of 5 to 30 grains. Potassium, Liquor of % 2 to 20 drops. Pepsin 5 to 10 grains. Quassia, Tincture of 5 to 60 drops. Quinine 2 to 10 grains. Salicin 5 to 20 grains. Senna, Confection of i to 2 teaspoonfuls. Senna, Fluid Extract of i tablespoonful. Soda, Bicarbonate of 5 to 30 grains. Soda, Salicylate of 10 to 30 grains. Squill, Syrup of ^ to I teaspoonful. Strychnia, Sulphate of j^, to j^^ of a grain. Turpentine, Spirits or Oil of 5 to 10 drops. Valerian, Tincture of. . . . ^ to 2 teaspoonfids. Veratrum Viride, Tincture of ....i to 4 drops. Zinc, Oxide of /4 io $ grains. X .V 'V \ MODERN ARCHITKCTUKK. J79 With Plans and Estimates. the aim of this department is to give a practical ex- n of the science of Architecture as modified by 1 thought and necessity, and more especially in its relation to the building of country homes, a brief introductory al- lusion may be made to the general principles of architectural beauty, which, though founded upon ideas evolved and matured by the ancients, are to-day the main sources of inspiration for the builder who seeks to render what he builds beautiful as well as convenient and comfortable. Many as may be the styles of architecture, the science is divided into five great original divisions, known as the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan and Composite orders. Of these, the three first named arc of (ireeU origin; the last two are Roman adaptations of the former, the Composite order being a rich and glowing union of the Ionic and Corinthian, while the Tuscan is merely an elaboration of the Doric. With the political partition of the Roman Empire came a division of its architecture into tlie Byzantine, which became tinged with orientalism, indicate.l in its richness of color and decoration, and the Early Christian and Romanesque, both of which are more simple. Among other styles which strongly influence modem building are the Gothic, and the Renaissance, which-is a revival of Grecian architecture adapted to modern requirements. Other styles, which are very seldom resorteil to, are the Eg>-ptian, marked by sloping walls, great solidity, and ornamentation in hiero- glyphics and the lotus-flower j the Assyrian, of fantastic design, with huge flights of stairs and lengthy terraces; the Chinese, char- acterized by curling eaves and a succession of roofs tapering one above the other; the Indian, exemplified by temples cut from the solid rock, and the Moorish, richest of all in its combination of light colors and elaboration of minute and beautiful details. PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. A commendable tendency of the limes is to combine in all things beauty and utility. A house is the physic.al exponent of the standing and character, the tastes and aspirations of its owner, and nothing is more worthy of a man's thought and at- tention than the structure and its surroundings which he calls his home. In building a modern home in the countr)', it being al- ways understood that harmony of outline and jiroportion is sought in connection with more indispensable requirements, the follow- /■ -^, ^ s> 6So MODERN ARCHITECTURE. ing excellencies must be constantly aimed at : Convenience of arrangement; facility of construction and repair; protection from heat in summer and cold in winter; means of ventilat- ing and warming ; conformity with the surrounding scenery. These are the leading ideas which should guide the builder, and, as the question of convenient arrangement has an external as well as an internal application, the first matter to receive con- sideration will be The Choice of a Site. In making the selection the things to be avoided should re- ceive attention. Among these are a location on the north or west side of a hill, and proximity of sluggish streams, marshes, bcs, swamps, the miasma from which will poison the at- mosphere and certainly entail liability to disease upon those breathing it. The steep side of an evenly rising hill offers an objectionable posi- tion when other hills of equal height and like conformation surround it, cutting off the necessary amount of sunlight. The principal rooms of the house should be so located as to be well exposed to the sun's rays. The dining-room should get the benefit of the morning sun ; the principal chamber and the sitting-room should be located so as to invite the sun- shine through both the morning and the afternoon. Either the morning or the afternoon sun should be secured for the other rooms, parlors, etc., while the kitch- en, bath-room, store- rooms, etc., can be given the locations which are least favored with solar rays. An elevated site presents many great advantages. It m- vitss the s:;nlight to come early and stay late. It places at com- mr.nd a sweeping view of the surrounding country. It insures the presence of pure and salubrious atmosphere, and gives the best facilities for draining. With such a site, protected from the western and northern winds by belts of timber or thatches of higher ground, as near an approach as is possible to absolute comfort and healthfulness, as far as location can govern them, will be secured. Conformity with the surrounding scenery is an object that should not be overlooked. When possible place the house so that the occupant, no matter which way he will direct his glance, may be greeted by a pleasant landscape, whose natural A KUKAL IIuML. advantages can be greatly improved by the planting here and there of trees or shrubs. These, too, may be advantageously employed in the ornamentation of the actual site of the build- ing, care being taken that they should not be placed too near the building so as to swell the volume of dampness to an un- healthy extent. Building a Home. After the farmer has made up his mind that he will build a home, the next thing to be definitely settled is the kind of a house he intends to erect. WTiatever changes in the main plan are to be made are accomplished easily and at no expense be- fore the actual building has been begun. Therefore let the builder thoroughly embody in his plans what he wants in his house, where he wants it and how he wants it, before he even goes so far as to stake out the foundation. In this preliminary work, which will be found to be full of pleasure, an inval- uable adviser will be found in the wife who is to preside over the home when it is finished. Her keen intuition and ready inventive fac- ulty will find a quick solution for any of the agreeable puz- zles which arise from time to time in plan- ning a house. Con- venience of arrange- ment, which is the creator of home comfort, must be studied at every point when the work of building the home on paper is in prog- ress. These desid- erata should in no instance be made subordinate to ap- pearance. With the exercise of a httle ingenuity both comfort and beauty may be pre- served in combination. In the question of facility of construc- tion and repair many local issues will of course take part. Availability and cost have a good deal to say on this subject. Other tilings being equal, stone provides the handsomest and most durable building material, as well as the most artistic, its unembellished surface always harmonizing with the scenery which surrounds and the foliage which enfolds it. Next comes brick, which, though lacking the lasting power and beauty of stone, presents points of utility and permanence of great value. Lastly, wood claims attention, and on its behalf are urged its cheapness and dr)-ness, its general healthfulness. Its facility of ventilation, the readiness with which it is worked, and its pronounced capability of ready ornamentation. The ^ I ~a \ \ / MODERN ARCHITECTUKE. 68l only olTset to all these ailvantagcs is supplied in its perishable nature ; but \s ilh care this may be greatly moditied. No home presents a more cheerful exterior than that of wood painted in tlie bright and cheerful tints now in vogue. A propos of paint- >"gi 3. great mistake is occasionally made by the owners of wooden buildings when they seek to have the surfaces con- verted into a supposed imitation of stone or brick. At a dis- tance the imposture may succeed, but a closer \iew dispels the thin illusion, and the cheap effect creates anything but the im- pression which has been aimed at so awkwardly. As a general, a very general rule, the publishers of such Iiooks as have hitherto attempted to handle the question of modern architecture in a practical way have been content to supplj their readers with some good general advice on the sub- ject o the selection of the location and material of a house, aftei wnich they bring the subject to a sudden and unsatisfactory ending, by advising the intending builder, when he has got thus far, to employ an architect and entrust to his judgment and dis- cretion, paid for by a large percentage on the actual cost of the house, the completion of the structure. Such is not the inten- tion of this book. It has given the house-builder advice on the subjects mentioned, and, having led him up to the point where planning ends and construction begins, it will not there leave him. In the plans and specifications to be found further on are provided clear and comprehensive data, by following which any farmer, with the assistance of one or more competent car- penters, will be able to construct the house which he has planned. Before these are brought under consideration, an estimate, showing just How the Money is Applied in the building of a $1,500 house, will provide an idea of the cost of the various materials used in its construction, and will form a reliable basis of calculation for houses of less or greater cost: Excavation, 45 yards at 15 cents $ 6.75 Brick -wo-k. 13,600 at ^.00 loS.So Joists 63.00 Flooring, i,ooo feet, So.oo I?:iftcrs, 57>oo Stiiddinjj; and framing loS.oo Sheathing, 4,500 feet 103,50 Weather-boarding, 2,500 feet, I-5.00 Shingles and shingling, i,t;oo at fS-oo 95.00 Gutters and cornices, 196 feet feet at 30 cents 5S.S0 Doors, with hardware, 13 at $S.oo 104.00 Windows, complete, 14 at $7.50 105.00 Bases, 460 feet at 6 cents 27.60 Porches and stairs, 5S.00 Painting and gla/.ing, > 39.00 Galvanized iron and tin work 63.00 I-athing and plastering, S6S yards at 20 cents 173.60 Grates and mantels 30.00 Sundries, 33-00 Total, including labor, etc ?i,539»o5 Water. A full supply of water is of essential importance, and the near- er it can be brought to the house the better ; and best of all if it can be introduced right into the house. In hilly localities a spring may be found whose elevation will enable its waters to flow through the whole house. Failing such a convenient ally of domestic comfort, a hydraulic ram may be employed to forc« the water through the system of pipes with which the house is supplied. The ventilation of water is essential, and for this purpose cisterns should be left exposed and uncovered. With- out good drinking-water good health will be unattainable. Sev- eral simple but reliable tests of its qu.ility are given, among which the following are worthy of attention: Good dnnking water cooks vegetables well, especially the dry kind, such as peas and beans. To the eye it should be limpid ; to the nose, scentless ; to the taste, insipid. After dnnking in moderation no sensation of weight should be felt in the stomach. If the water fulfils all these conditions it may be relied upon as excel- lent. Avoid the use of rain-water caught on the roof and saved in cisterns, as, being impregnated with dust, soot, and other impurities, it is necessarily impure. liy filtration it can be ren- dered drinkable, aru:l it is a good plan to build your cistern in two compartments, separated one from the other by a water- tight wall of brick, with a space left in the bottom for a box fill- ed with alternate layers of gravel, sand and powdered charcoal. The water will be filtered by passing through this box, and be made safe and pleasant for use. Wlien it is decided to have a Cellar care should be taken to so construct it that the dangers arising from foul air, through bad ventilation and lack of the purifying sunlight, are reduced to a minimum. A cellar which is intended for the storage of vegetables through the winter should not be connected with, certainly never directly beneath the dwelling. In any case it should be kept scrupulously clean, as the foul gases given olT by decomposing vegetables are highly detrimental to health. A few dollars expended on an Ice-House will be found to be one of the best investments the farmer ever made. Up to within comparatively few years ice was invariably stored underground, but recently it has been found that the crystal coldness can be as well preserved in a house built above ground, provided only that it is constructed on a plan which secures non-conduction of heat into the interior. A ver)' good plan for an efficacious ice-house, to cost only $25, can be given : It should be built of boards with double walls filled with s,aw- dust, or chaff, or fine straw. A large ventilating window is placed at each end at the top; these windows should always be open. Care should be taken that all the saw-dust is pressed solid, so that no cavities are left. An ice-house with one apart- nent, 8 by 10 feet, and 6 feet high, will keep ice enough for a moderate family. To build such a house will be required 2l6 scjuare feet of inch-thick weather-boar.ling, $3.60; 132 feet of rafters, 10 feet long, 4 by 2 inches, $1.80; 103 feet of slats, 7 feet long, $2.10; two doors, $2.00; shingles, 1,150, $2.90. Total, $25. The employment of materials which are non- conductors of heal and the securing of proper drainage are the great points to be looked after in building an ice-house. /■ ^^ 682 MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 'BEAUT1FUL+ HOMES.-;^iit* >^^r:^-^-' -^ THE LATEST DESIGNS FOR COTTAGES AND DWELLINGS. ^m^ THE principal motive in this work is to give moderate- priced dwellings, ranging from $1,000 to $6,000, one or two, however, touching figures considerably higher. We realize that the architecture of the future will be more quiet and less florid than it has been for several years past ; we have, therefore, endeavored so to treat the designs that they will always look well. Careful study has also been given to the planning, the arrangement being comfortable and convenient. We consider it better taste to avoid flnnsy and trashy details in the construction of our homes ; the study should be more for repose and harmony and less for ostentatious display. The picturesque roof is the principal feature in modern cottage archi- tecture, and is coming to be treated more simply than formerly. Many people raise the objection to the picturesque roof, that it will get out of repair easily. But there is no reason why a steep roof need get out of repair sooner than a flat one, providing it is properly constructed. The question naturally arises, in looking over the designs, " How much would such a house cost ? " This question we anticipate, and in some cases estimates are given. But it is possilile to do so in a general way only, as the expense of a building depends entirely upon the specificatio(is and details, and on the cost of materials and labor in the location where the building is erected. It does not pay to attempt to build too cheaply, although economy .should b^ carefully considered. Take, for instance, plate A. This cottage might, by leaving out a good foundation wall, the cellar, cistern, etc., be built for $600 or $800. This would necessitate setting the house upon cedar posts, boarding up the under-pinning, and otherwise "skinning" it, thus making a trap for infectious diseases, not fit for a beast to inhabit, instead of a comfortable home for a family to dwell in. On the other hand, if the same cottage is built witli a good foundation wall, the cellar well drained, the frame warmly sheathed and other- wise specified to be in good condition, comfortable and healthful, it will cost from JiS 1,200 to $1,400. The designs and plans immediately following, numbered A to L, are by Mr. J. H. Kirby, of Syracuse, N. Y., and are selected from a series of twenty-four designs published by him in 1885. and constituting a " Portfolio of Cottages " which does credit even to an architect of Mr. Kirby's reputation. These designs are in accordance with the best modern taste, and represent that union of comfort and artistic beauty which is now demanded in the better cl.iss of home architecture. Design A shows a small frame cottage suitable for a family of modest means, but possessed of culture and refinement. By reference to the floor plans it will be seen that the arrangement of rooms consists of a living-room, dining-room, a small bed- room and a kitchen on the first floor. The stairs connect the living-room with the second story, and are what are known as box stairs. The cellar is reached by stairs immediately under the main stairs. This general arrangement is usually quite economical. The house is approached tlirough a commodious porch, which sweeps down from the main roof, and seems to invite you to come under its shelter. The balcony at the left is entered through a window extending to the floor of the parlor. The kitchen is reached through a side porch. The second floor contains three chambers, with closets from each. This cottage gave excellent satisfaction when built. Design B. — This cottage seems to suggest to us a home — a home where the little child basks in the sunshine of a mother's love, and where the broad, sheltering roof seems a guarantee of comfort within. This cottage is also arranged so that the cost may be kept at the lowest limit. On entering the hall the stairs mount to the second story. From the hall we enter the parlor, or living-room, which contains in one corner a cheerful fireplace. A kitchen and bed-room take up the remaining space allotted to the first floor. The cellar is reached by a stairway under the hall stairs. The second floor has a small hall and three chambers with accompanying closets. The entire exterior surface is covered with sheatliing or matched boards, to make it warm in winter and cool in summer. Upon this sheathing in the first story are placed feather-edge clapboards showing about three inches to the weather. The upper part or second story is shingled. The general effect of this cottage when painted with warm, harmoni- ous colors is very pleasing. Design C. — This design has an individuality about it which at once recommends it. While it is comparatively ornate, it is free from any of the flimsy detail which many associate with the so- called Queen Anne style. The broad veranda, extending across the entire front of the house, leads us into the vestibule or small 1..-' , --It of which ascend the stairs to the second floor. The sides of the stairs are neatly wainscoted, and have a rail attached to same. The dining-room and living-room are connected by an archway. At the left of the dining-room is a small bed-room, which the architect has not placed there to please himself, but because most people building a country house seem to demand something of the kind. ".So nice in case of sickness," they say. *f ■^ MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 683 It usually turns out, however, that they seldom use this little rooni for a bed-rooui, Imt turn it into a sewing-room, or some- thing of that sort. Dfsign D. — This design is somewhat more extensive than any of the foregoing. The house itself is even more pleasing than the jwrspectivc drawing of it. In this building we gel the soft, harmonious combination of colors, which, taken in con- nection with the gener.il outlines, makes an attractive appear- ance. In this example, as well as in some of the others, the porch, or veranda, is a special feature. The hall staircase has an ample landing, which is always desirable, and it will be noticed that the principal rooms and hall can be easily thrown together. The living-room contains a fireplace, and between the kitchen and dining-room there are two doors, each double-hung, to swing either way. This feature prevents steam and the smells of cooking from passing to the dining-room. A bed-room is arranged on the first floor. The kitchen is connected with second story by a back stairway. In the second story we get five chambers, with bath-room, having bath-tub, hand-basin and water-closet. The balcony to the right, on second floor, is reached through the chamber window. The staircase window has cathedral glass laid in lead muHions. Design E. — The exterior of this design is perhaps more re- markable for oddity than anything else. The lower part is clap- boarded, and the upper part is shingled. The interior, though small, has the benefit of quite a spacious hallway, with a nice landing staircase. A corner fireplace is also a feature of the interior. Design F. — This design embodies the usual arrangement of rooms, the hall having a landing .staircase. The hall, parlor and living-rooms are connected by means of sliding doors. The exterior is plentifully supplied with verandas, balconies, etc. The rooms are nearly all of very fair size, and are all conven- iently located. Design G was arranged for a summer cottage, and was in- tended to accommodate two or three families. The living-room is made large enough to be used in common, out of which the open staircase connects with the upper floor. Back of the living- room is a kitchen. The house is well supplied with bed-rooms, and has a wide veranda extending all around it. On cither side above the veranda are two large balconies. The interior is de- signed to be left unfinished. Design H. — This cottage is attractive on the exterior, ar.d desirable in the interior. The large reception hall forms a prominent feature of the inner arrangement. Its connection with all the other principal rooms is such that by means of slid- ing doors all of the rooms can easily be thrown together. This cottage would cost about Slo,ooo, much depending, however, upon the manner and style of finish. Design I. — As a frame dwelling design I has given most excellent satisfaction. A broad veranda spans the entire front, from which we enter the large reception hall. This hall has a fireplace, and is connected by archways with the landing stair- case, hall and parlor. The staircase is a beautiful feature in this house. A vei-y desirable arrangement is the connection of kitchen with front door by means of a second hall. The sec- ond floor contains chambers of good size, with spacious closets, and good bath-room and water-closet. Design K is a brick dwelling, and adjoins design C. It will be seen, by reference to floor plans, that the hall enters the cen- ter of the house, and communicates with a cross or transept hall, which is lighted by means of an elegant cathedr.-.l glass staircase window. A back hall with an open staircase is a good feature. The rooms are so arranged that all are pleasant and commodious. Design L gives us a brick building of .semi-detached dwellings. This house is three full stories high, besides the attic and cellar. The reception hall fonns a desirable feature, and the staircase is reversed from the usual order. The rear part of the house h.Ts no stairs, but is furnished with an elevator, extending from cellar to attic. On the second floor is a large bath-room, which takes the place of one of the rooms marked as bed-room. The first floor is finished in cherry, the second in oak, and the third in pine. ^■■'. r ^ ^.>-. „-- '-•^-v p V' ■' ' 'S*¥" ^' 1 .■'i.'<^sfr-'V ■•« J.KK.r^ -- sr^^'^*. ■ ■ / -VJ K 684 J.H.KcVliy- 'i^^^-'^fi' — ' -jiimi^^^^W^^^^^ Design A. A SMALL COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $1,400. Porch. xi-iMr Livin^TJ. I lo'x n: E oof ^ PRINCIPAL FLOOR. SECOND FLOOR. A \ 685 Design B. SMALL COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $1,500. Ho or. R OOF Bed"R. I 9x13 Roor. PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. 6S6 Design C. A SMALL FRAME COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $2,000. Kitchen. lOkH. Eantryjcios. JBedR 8xJ0G Dinin^R. 13x14-. Hall. -J I ' I Chamber. Clos Chamter. Hxis'. Rooj Clos. PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. VL Pnnc.ptI rloor"-Fl.s 687 r&:^ ■%« 18" i:;: "J.HXii-ay pt'l.' ^^/.^ i^?^- Design D. A SUMMER COTTAGE. To cost about $2,000. BedR. lOxlO' Bed R. lOx zo. f Livin^.R. I B^^j^ Ij 15x20' lOklo: 1— ^^ ' Vferanda. PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN ^ / BedP 10x10 OP BedR. lO'xlO'. 1 li 1 jL. BedR. 8xio: BaJ. Bal. BedR 1 8x 10. 1 Bed R. 8xl6." BedR. Bal. Roof -^^ "Tff 688 Design E. A SMALL FRAME COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $2,500. PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. /\ Design F. A FRAME COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $3,500. Roof. Store R. 12x 20! Vferauola r PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN Design G. FRAME COTTAGE. Cost, complete, about $4,500. Chamber. n'xl2.' m Chamber. 12'xl4-'. 1 Hall. Iciosjciosl Chamber. 13x15: !: CI03 Design H. A FRAME DWELLING. Bal Clos. I Clcs. Chamber. 11x12'. Chamber. -I llxl?" Oiamben 15'xie.' ^Balh. I CIos lew I Hnll. Chamber -»- ^^°^- 15x15.' ^ Chamber. 13xll' Ul Principal Floor. eoond Floor. \ 691 K" y\ 692 Design I. A 1 KA'VlE DWELLING. To cost about $6,000. Bath. ■Roof. PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. Iv 693 Design K. A BRICK DWELLING. PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. / K" 694 . ^^-->^'''' Design L. SEMI-DETACHED BRICK DWELLINGS S^^SsftSfe»»- PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. MODERN ARCHITECTURE. < 695 4t* A 1.5,000 PRIZE COTTAGE.— ELEVATION. The American Architcit, in 18S3, ofifered a prize for the best original plan of a cottage approximating in cost $3,000. .\ large number of architects entered the competition, but the jur)' de- cided that the accompanying designs, by W. E. Chamberlain, of Cambridgeport, Mass., were incontcstably worthy of the first place. While there is nothing that can be called eccentric in the architecture, it is a fresh and unexpected conception. There is a certain distinction which removes the design from the or- dinary type, suggesting that the occupant of this cottage has more social prestige than his neighbors. The plan provides a piazza which is partially roofed for sum- mer, while a vestibule to the hall answers the requirements of a winter dwelling. The parlor and dining-room communicate with each other and with the hall. The kitchen has an ample porch, which would, perhaps, better have been utilizcil for a shed or wash-room. There is a cellar under the whole house. A furnace is dependeil upon to heat the various rooms, except the parlor and dining-room, which have open fireplaces. By changing the position of the back stairs in the second-floor plan to the left side of the kitchen, some valui.ble space might be gained. The main stairs continue up in a tower to the attic, Nvhere another room is obtained. The house is supposed to be built in Allston, Mass., near Boston. Labor is as cheap there as anywhere. The Itoston market is at hand, railroad .accommodation easy, and stone- work cheap. The cellar walls are of 18-inch rough stone up to grade, and then 18-inch brick wall up to sill. Walls of first story covered with pine "siding," broad hori- zontal sheathing 10 inches wide. Above second-story floor-beams shingles everywhere, left untouched by paint or stain, to become gray with time. Rough boarding and lower floors of hemlock. Frame of spruce. Plaster, two-coat work. No wainscoting or hard-wood finish. Mill windows and doors. Sizes: Sills, 4 inches by 6 inches; plates, 4 inches by 6 inches; wall-studs, 2 inches by 4 inches. 16 inches on centres; partition-studs, 2 inches by 3 inches, 16 inches on centres; first- floor beams, 2 inches by 9 inches ; second-floor beams, 2 inches by 10 inches (ihc reason for this is that the second story pro- jects in two places, and has many unsupported partitions to carry) ; third-floor beams, 2 inches by 8 inches ; rafters, 2 inches by 8 inches. 696 MODERN ARCHITECTURE. Childa ^\ C>,iU Room Second FIooi"- Attic. Cellar- Estimate of Cost. Except for stone and brick work, the prices quoted for material are casf prices, not counting labor or builder's profit, which will be found added at the end. On the lower floor, without including piazzas, there are 817 sq. ft. At $3.50 per sq. ft., the house would cost $2,859.50. This, with piazza-work and the architect's commission, would bring the figure very near $3,055.55, as computed. Excavation, 5,500 cii. ft. ==204 cu. yds., to) 2itp — ^ $ 44.SS Cellar Wall (stone) 40 perch, (3) $3.50 (laid) 140.00 Bkick Foundation (S in. thick) with vault, piazza piers, and 2 cellar piers, 15S cu. ft. (24 bricks to a foot) ; 3,792 bricks, %zo per M. (laid) 75.84 Chimneys, 9,380 bricks,® $20 (laid).. 187.60 Frame. sq.ft. Sills, plates, outer walls and in- ner partitions 2,790 First floor I,2SS Second floor 1,480 Third floor 300 Second -floor ceiling- joists 648 Attic ceiling-joists 220 Roof i,ifj6 Total, ® $16 7,892 Rough Outside Boarding, go tt First floor 1,311 Second floor 1,107 Third floor 3S4 Roof 1 ,405 26.27 Outs, Windows. First floor, 14 Second " 12 Third " 4 30 fa) 22 .sq. ft. Total, ® $13 4,.;97 •3,637 47-2S K- Rough Lower Floors, gq ft First floor hoS Second floor ~oo Attic. .250 Total, (2) $13 1,55s 20.25 Outer Covering. qq p.j. First floor, siding fffi $30 964 28.92 Second floor, shingles Si6 Third and gables, shingles 424 Roof. ■1,40s Total 2,64s 120 ft. to 1,000 shingles, 22 M,, (cb $3.75. S2.50 Windows, 24 Iarp;e, including sash, glazing, weights, line, sash -fast, frame architraves and blinds, © $5.50 132.00 7 small ones, 'a) $3.25 22,75 Doors, 2S, including hardware, thresh- olds and architraves, ® $6.50 182.00 Stairs, all told 140.00 Nails 3-.00 Upper Floors. 1,611 ft., ® $30 4^-33 None in garret. Plaster (including lathing). ^^'^''^- sq.ft. First floor ^.473 Second floor 3,353 Third floor 712 Total ..6,537 C"''"- sq. J-t. Lower floor, 3 outer doors 85 ** " II inside doors 4S4 ** " 13 windows 195 Second " 10 doors 440 " " 12 windows iSo Third " 3 doors 133 " " 3 windows 45 Total 1 ,561 6,537— 1. 561 =4.976 sq. ft.= 553sq.yds.. ® 'SjJ $99-54 Ceilings 30-25 Plumbing (bath-room and sink only) 150.00 Gutters, 75 ft., ® 12^ 9.00 Conductors, 60 ft., © io0 6.00 Plaster Band on exterior (architect to do the *' scratch-work ") S.oo Furnace 150.00 Painting (on outside, the lower story and all mouldings will be painted; shingles left as put on) 125.00 Labor 700.00 Two Fireplaces (owner already has tiles) .' 50.00 Total $2,641.14 Builder's Profit, 10 ^ 264.14 Architect's Commission, 5 ?t 150.00 Other Expenses 150.00 Total $3,055-55 Al \ MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 697 y - This structure is in the Queen Anne style, now becoming so popular, and presents a neat and attractive appearance. The conventional main hall and stairway are dis- pensed with, and in- stead there is provided a vestibule entrance out- side the house, from a part of the veranda. This makes the stairs less conspicuous, with approaches at the foot from two directions, in that way serving well for general use from the main house and as a private stairway from the rear extension. The exterior presents an angular and pictur- esque appearance. Pro- tection from storms is afforded the windows and entrances by the extensive veranda and other projections. De- sirable shade is also fur- nished by the same means. The roofs are of dark slate, and a cresting of ornamental iron along the main ridges, properly connected with ground rods, serves as a protec- tion against lightning. The window openings, having a single light of plain glass in the lower sash, contain in the upper one several smaller tinted lights, which, ii) a variety of pleasing colors, pro- duce a most cheerful ef- fect. In the first story the height of ceilings is ten feet. There are four good- sized rooms, each with outlooks at their sides and ends. The main entrance is from the front veranda, through a good-sized ves- tibule, which is lighted at the side by a cluster win- dow of tinted glass, and has side and end doors opening to the parlor and sitting-room. The parlor has four windows, facing three direc- tions, each protected from storms, and agreeably shaded by the FKONT ELEVATION. SIDE ELEVATION. veranda. There is a large open fire-place, and doors commun- icating with the sitting and dining-room;;. The sitting and din- ing-rooms adjoin each other through sliding doors, which admit of their being used togeth- er, as occasion may re- quire. The kitchen is convenient, well-lighted, has a large fire-place, with range, and adjoins a jiantry. The rear en- trance, or porch, is also reached through a door from the sitting-room. The stairs to the cellar and to the second story are jilaced between the dining-room and kit- chen, and may be reach- ed from each direct. In the second story the height of ceiling is nine feet. This storj' has a central hall, three cham- bers, three closets and a trunk-room. The stairs to the attic are placed above those of the first story. The height of ceiling in the attic is three feet at the plates or sides, and follows the raf- ters to the full height of seven feet. \ hall and three chambers may be fin- ished on this floor, with the doors and window s placed in the centre of the ends of each. The cellar efpials the first story in area. It has an outside entrance, five windows, and stairs lca5.oo 23 full -sized windows, at $S each , II half -windows, at $5 each 29 doors, at $7 each 3 stairs, at $10 each , "N'cranda and porch finish 5 kegs nails, at $4 each 4 closet flnish Mantels Tin gutters and leaders Carting Painting Carpenters' labor (not included above)., Pump, sink and incidentals $184.00 S5-00 203.00 30.00 50.00 20.00 20.00 30.00 20.00 20.00 iSo.oo 240.00 6j3.00 Total, complete $2,499.60 / \ \ MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 699 Tl DWELLING-HOUSE.— Design I. '/^ I»KSM.N I. — El.i;\V\TI(JN. As long as the argument is indisputable that there is in a square house, in proportion to the amount of outside covering, more room than in one of almost any other form, a large major- ity who are about to build seem to have deter- mined to a- dopt that shape. The dwelling here illustrated was built on a slight elevation. PLAN OF PRINXIPAL STORY. J, veranda, 6 by 25 ; B, hall, 10.6 by 15; C, parlor, 15 by 19.6; /), sitting-room, 15 by I9.6; /;, book-closet; /", bed- room, 10.6 by 15; C, G, closets; H, dining-room, 12 by 22; /, /, china-closets ; _/, back porch, 6 by 7.6 ; A', veranda, 5 by 22 ; /, kitchen, 1 1 ^Sr ™" I . by 12.6; M, sink ; A', cis- tern - pump ; O , cup- board; /*, p a n t r y , 7.6 by 8; (?,stair- w a y to cel- lar ; R, stair- way to back chambers ; S, wood - room. CROL'ND FLOOR. THE SECOND STORY. The upper floor of this structure comprises a hall, three chambers, four closets, stair\vay to attic, two bed-rooms, bath- room, store-room and balcony. / \ 700 MODERN ARCfllTECTURE. A RURAL GOTHIC FARM-HOUSE— Design 2. In tliis plan for a rural home, with the exception of the cornice on the gables and a few cheap brackets, there is no orna- mentation to cause an unneces- sary outl ay of money, and noth- ing likely to get out of repair, as is often the case with the flimsy ornaments attach- ed to so many modern cottages. This house is in the Rural Gothic style, a style which, with its broken outline, its verandas and bay "^"^ windows, ex- presses no small amount of domestic and h monotonous a p - pearance of that side of the build- ing, and balancing in a degree the mass of the other side. The main roof rises at an angle of 45 ° ; the w o o d - house part is one- story; roof, one- fourth pitch. The inside is finished appropriately, plain and neat. Tlie lower stoiy is nine feet high in the clear; the up- per story, finished to collar-beams, is eight feet six inches. The cellar under kitchen and dining-room is well lighted, and FIRST rLOOR. r. Parlor; Z>, Dining-Room; I\, Kitchen; /?, B. Iltd-Rooms; C, Closet; E, Bath; /", Pantry; V, F, Verandas; IC, Wood-house. The house was planned for a family who aim to do their own work; therefore utility, compactness and economy of labor were first cons'dered. Yettheexternal appearance is quite picturesque and truthful. The part containing tlie two bed-rooms, bathing and clothes-room is quite economically obtained, it being a lean- to addition, one story high, with a flattish roof. Above this is a gabled window, with its stool resting on this roof. This gable rises to the height of the main roof, thus breaking the otherwise SECOND FLOOR ^, ^, i7, Bed -Rooms; C.Chambcr, r, c , Closets; /'.Passage, the chimney, standing in the centre, is furnished with open- ings for ventilation. With this arrangement the cellar can be kept sweet and wholesome. The rooms are warmed by stoves. Fire-places may be easily built in the dining-room and kitchen, if desired. The bathing-room is easily accessible, it being con- nected with the kitchen bed-room, which renders it a convenient and useful apartment. The cost of this house, with a light timber frame, clapboarded, lined on the inside with inch lumber, then furred with strip lath, lathed and plastered with two coats finish, is about $i,ioo. V V MODERN ARCIHTIiCTUKE. 701 A RURAL GOTHIC COTTAGE— Design 3. KL'KAL (.oIIlIC CDITAGE. This is an admirable de- sign for internal conven- ience. The plan of the first floor shows the kit- chen and one bed-room on the same floor with the living-rooms. The kitchen is a wing added to the rear, and is one stor)' in height. The situation on which this dwelling is placed has a prospect in one direction only, and the front, shown in the elevation, commands this view, the rear being nearly hidden by trees. On this front are situated two pleasant apartments, each 1 7 liy 20 feet, opening from GKOUND PLAN. the vestibule or entrance hall by large double doors, which, when fully opened, w ill throw these two rooms and the vestibule into one large apartment. Some ele- gance is conferred on the parlor by the bay-window, which is balanced by a double window opposite, in the dining-room. The living-room, or librar)', commands a pantry of convenient size, in the rear of which is a closet open- ing into the hall. This hall is of ami)le size to ser>*e as a dining-room. There is a glazed back door opening to the rear 702 MODERN ARCHITECTURE. of the house, and a door opening into the l, parlor, 122 by 20 feet; 4, dining-room, 15 by 18 feet; 5. kitchen, 12 by 12 feet; 6, back porch. Second floor— 7, hall, 10^ by 15 feet; S, chamber. I2i by 20 feet, 9, chamber, 15 by 18 feet; 10, chamber, 12 by 12 feet ^ 1 r- A ' V- i —J • 1 • • FIKST FLOOR. SECOND I'LOOR, \ -^■.^-^- ~-^.. . ^.■,. — 704 MODERN ARCHITECTURE. AN ORNAMENTAL COTTAGE— Design 6. / AN ORNAMENTAL COTTAGE. This is a good design for a lodge or a seaside or summer cottage, and looks extremely well among the trees of a camp-ground. The porch is large and roomy; the living-room is of good size, well lighted by a square bay window. The kitchen is well supplied with closets. The second floor contains three bed-rooms, very conveniently arranged, and each provided with a closet. The two down-stairs rooms and the large front bed-room are supplied with open fire-places. The estimated cost is from $1,200 to $1,600, according to locality and style of finish. GROUN'D FLOOR. — S IV MODERN ARCHITECTURE. / 1^1 COTTAGE— Design 7. The elevation and ground plan here given of this cottage fully explain it. The upper story consists of four bed-rooms and a bath-room. Cost, $i,8oo. Ground plan: 7, porch; ^, lobby ; j, drawng-room ; ^, library or boudoir; ^, outside porch ; b, dining-room ; 7, kitchen ; S, scullery. Note — No. j' might be used as a conservatory. U5 09 ee ed ui V^mm I GROVND FLOOR. sr IV 7o6 V MODERN ARCHITECTURE. A CHEAP FARM COTTAGE— Design 8. A CHEAP FARM COTTAGE. This plan is appropriate for a hilly or mountainous region. It is in the French style of roof, and al- lied to the Italian in its brackets and gables and half-terraced front. The body of the cottage is 22 by 20 feet, with 12-foot posts , the roof has a pitch of 50° from a horizon- tal line, in its straight dimensions, curving horizontally towards the eaves, which, together with the gables, project 3 feet over the walls. The terrace in front is 5 INTEKIOR ARKANGEMENT, feet wide. On the rear is a wood- house iS by 16 feet in area, open at the house end and in front, with a roof in the same style as the main house, and posts 8 feet high, standing on the ground, 2 feet be- low the surface of the cellar-wall, which supports the main building. The plan of the interior arrange- ment any builder can follow. The construction of this cottage may be of stone, brick or wood, either producing a fine effect. M V r MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 707 A SUBURBAN COTTAGE.— Design 9. A SUBCRBAN COTTAGE. A, front veranda, lo by i6 feet; S, hall, 7 by 20 feet ; C, parlor, 12 by 18 feet, with bay window, 4 by 9 feet; D, dining-room, 15 by 20 feet; ^, library', 12 by 15 feet, with square bay window, 4 by 8 feet; F, kitchen, 11 by 12 feet; C, pantry, 8 by 8 feet ; JI, store-room, 10 by 12 feet; /, coal-room, 7} by 8 feet; A" wash-room, 7i by 8 feet; Z, veranda, 8 by 16 feet; J/, veranda, 4 by 30 feet; iV, cistern, 9 feet in diameter; O, well; r, <-, closets ; s, s, shelves; /', bath ; /, back stairs; /, sink; /, pump. Second floor— Hall, 7 feet wide; C, C, C, C, closets ; D, linen closet; E, attic stairs; F, ser- vants' bed-room, Ti by 20 feet; G, garret; B, bed-room, 15 by 15 feet; H, bed-room, 12 by 15 feet; A", bed-room, 12 by 18 feet Cost of this building, $2,500. FIKST FLOOR, SECOSD FLOOR. !r_ ^ T 7o8 MODERN ARCHITECTURE. HORSE AND CARRIAGE HOUSE— Design 10. HORSE AND CARRIAGE HOI SE. ^ ^ This is to be built of brick, with stone basement eight feet deep. It is therefore designed for a side hill, unless the base- ment IS dispensed with, which would be poor economy, S is the stabW part, with double stalls for six horses. C is carriage-room for three or four light wagons or carriages, /) is a cir- cular drive eight feet wide, /" is an octagonal fountain eight feet in diameter //, //, are harness-rooms, C L, C L, closets, L is lad- der to loft The hay is cut and fed from the second story. A circular pine cistern, surrounded by sawdust, occupies one comer of the second story, and supplies the fountain through a small iron pipe. The orifice of this should be drawn down to a minute hole in order to save the water and yet keep it changing continually. There should e also be a stop-cock near the cistern to shut off the water in cold weather. The dimensions are : Main part, 24 by 26 feet ; wings, 16 by 24 I feet; height of basements, 8 feet; first stoiy, 10 feet; second story, 8 feet to plates, A cupola with double win- dows and fiat roof, with staff in the centre, will be an elegant feature. Eaves should project two and a half feet. Roof not more than quarter pitch. Cost, about $1,000, This is designed more especially for city resi- dents, and those farmers in villages and near large towns who can af- ford ample accommodations for man and beast. Many would object to the drive and fountain, and yet the small space on a single floor that they occupy does not make them a costly luxury^ while the air of elegance that they convey could ill be dispensed with by one who has a generous regard for taste. FIRST FLOUR, /' MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 709 A SUBSTANTIAL FARM BARN.— Design 1 1 A SUBSTANTIAL VAKM UAKN. This plan is a convenient as well as a substantial one. As seen I plan of second floor. in the elevation, the bam is built upon a side hill which slopes | This is used for horses, vehicles, etc Along the whole length of to the east. There are three distinct floors. The main building is 50 by 80 feet, and one wing 40 by 40 feet. The basement floor is divided in- to several departments, each well furnished for the pur- pose for which it is designed. B is the manure pit , C, a small cistern ; D, a root cel- lar ; E, a pen for calves ; F, under the wing at the south end of the main building, is fitted up with a number of roomy stalls for cows. Each of the departments has a door, g, g, g, g, opening to the stock yard. — 9 y " B Z6XS0 r\: 12X12 ?_ -t 3 D 21X.50 PLAN OF UASEMENT FLOOR. U-, 1 1 - II " nm. . , n ,iL ^Trri 1111 TTrm ■□-- L ZOXIO L „, ;i\, H I 30KIO [MMHl ^ . Jll PLA.N OF SECO.VD STORY. the east side are stalls for horses provided with hay- racks, K, K, K, K, K. L, L, f^ are two finished rooms, which are used as harness-rooms; M, a large room for putting away all the machinery and tools used about the farm ; O, P, loose horse-boxes ; K, a stairway leading to the b.isement or ground floor; S, a stairway leading up to third story ; T, V, trap doors. The structure is well sup- plied with windows, and is light and comfortable for both man and beast. ■K e_ -7\ 710 MODERN ARCHITECTURE. GRAIN AND STOCK BARN— Design 12. GRAIN AND STOCK BARN. This plan is a combined grain and stock barn. The grain bins are next north of the stables and form part of the partition between the stables and main floor. They are four feet in width and have a capacity for 500 bushels. The bottom of the bins slopes towards the main floor, and is ten inches above it. The bins have a free circulation of air on every side. The excavation for the structure, including that in the yard, is, at the southwest corner, about three feet in depth, and graded to a slope of one foot in forty feet, the natural slope being one in ten. A trench is dug three feet wide and one foot below the grade, and filled with broken stone, that serves as a drain, upon which the foundation rests. The foundation walls are built of stone. The first floor is divided into stables. A stairway leads to floor above, and there is also a place for harness. The forage for horses is put into tubes above. The floor is double and is made tight. The manure is dropped through a trap-door to shed. The cost of the en- tire structure is about $1,200. &:- ' '. 'j,,' -j'so. *!;!■: 5- --'T^SSf^-^'i.f.. . . DESIGN 13 — A CONVENIENT BARN. ;^^ IV MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 711 A CONVENIENT BARN.-Design 13. This is the plan of a very convenient barn. The stone wall is laid in mortar and painted. The frames are all made of square timber and joists. The basement is dry, sills two feet from the ground. Grain bins so arranged that you can get to anyone of them capable of storing over 3,000 bushels, and four root bins, which w ill store 800 bushels, where they can be seen at any time. The basement story is S feet; bam posts 18 feet long. The long shed is 25 feet v^ide and 64 feet long ; posts, 20 feet East shed posts 9 feet long. Enter the barn from the north, with team on upper floor. The necessity of fiimishing shelter for sheep in a northern climate is, we sup- pose, universally ac- knowledged, but how much is necessary for the comfort and health of the ani- mals, and how this is best obtained, is an open question. The accompanying en- graving of a sheep barn is taken from A SHEEP BARN AND SHEDS— Design 14. A SHEEP BARN AND SHEDS. Randall' s Shttp Husbandry. With those open ends closed, it seems to be a very convenient ar- rangement. The bam proper is used mainly for storing hay, and the wings should be made of sufficient size to af- ford the necessary room. -^icNOTEWORTHY SUGGESTIONS.:]^^ Having introduced to the reader the specific plans, etc., which will guide him in ..ne erection of a home, a few general words of advice and suggestion will be in order. It will be well to remember that no architect allows himself, when planning a house, to be guided by any cast-iron set of rules. A house is a good deal like a suit of clothes, of which a fair fit may be obtained at the ready-made store, while, if close-fitting and stylish garments are wanted, the man's measure is taken and the articles made to order. In the country care should he taken not to make the house too high. Ground is cheap, and a home in the country which spreads over a goodly extent of ground has a certain air of elbow- room and capacity about it that the most magnificent four-story city dwelling fails to possess. When building projections, window sills, etc., take care to provide a " deep molding'" imderneath, so that rain-water will drip off. Oth- erwli,c it will gather up the dust upon them and run down the walls, leaving mouldy streaks behind. \\*lierc there is no plumbing in the house, the best place for the bath-room is next to the kitchen. Have the range placed against the bath-room partition anJ jilacc a large tin boiler on the back of the range. From the back of the boiler carr\' a faucet through the parti- tion to open over a bath-tub. By this means the carrying of water to and fro is dispensed with. To discharge the water from the bath, run a small pipe to a distance of twenty leet from the house and let it end there in a large hole filled in with loose stones and covered with earth. The water when discharged into this hole will soak away into the ground and do no harm, as it is not polluted. To avoid rats or fire spreading through a house it is advisable to put one course of bricks in mortar at each floor level in .all the fur- rings and partitions. Kor the finest effect of foliage use trees and shrubbery as a back- ground and flanking for the principal building. Too many large trees in the foreground cut off the view; besides, they keep out the sun- shine, prevent free atmospheric circulation, and injure the house by concentrating upon it dampness and shade. When a low site for a dwelling cannot be avoided be careful to have a thorough system of under-draining. See that the cellar-wall is raised considerably above the ground and that enough soil is spread around the house to make a yard which will shed the water readily. In a case of this kind every sanitary advantage offered by sun, soil, shelter and prospect should be carefully improved. A square house includes more space within a given length of wall than any rectangular shape. Of the whole house the front, and of the front the main entrance, should show the most pains in the direction of ornamentation. Care in the disposition of rooms will save thousands of steps to those who do the house-work. Kitchen and dining-room should al- ways be adjoining apartments. The dining-room is the place for the china closet. A wood-shed connecting with the kitchen by a covered way is a great convenience in inclement weather. A multiplicity of closets is an invaluable boon to the housewife. Frame houses exclude the cold much better if the studding is covered with tongued and grooved sheathing, and this in turn by tarred paper, the weather-boarding being placed over the whole. The sheathing and weather-boarding should be fitted closely around door and window frames, and the tarred paper allowed to lap over a little where a crack is likely to occur. Where ingrain carpets, usually a yard wide, arc to be used, the ccc nomical cutting will be helped by having either the length or breadth of each room some multiple of the width, as fifteen feet, eighteen feet, etc. The difference bet\vecn slate roofing and shingles is about two cents per square foot, and where the former is used the difference in outlay purchases practically everlasting durability, a fire-proof roof, and purer rain-water in the cistern. If free from sap, shingles will last from t^vcnty to thirty years. An attic, running the full length of the house, with windows at both ends, will prove a fine dr>ing-room in bad weather. V^ 13 «^ KT 712 THE LAWS OF ETIQUETTE. •4-«»£"«<4''l t'iiC i i|ig>iI > il<(t'(ii'Ii i I i il » l i ^r»^li'I '' l ' iltli i 't> -itt -fieci-UCVV or cattfl, — Hawthorne. On manners, refinement, good breeding, and even the forms of Etiquette, we are forever talking. We judge our neighbors severely by the breach of written or traditional laws, and choose our society, and even our friends, by the touchstone of courtesy. The importance, therefore, of a thoroughly systematized code of manners, in this day of rapidly widening circles of society, can scarcely be overestimated. Men are continually rising from the workshop to that position of prominence which great wealth, in this country particularly, invariably insures. A few words as to the value of good manners may not be out of place, since it is too often the habit of those who have most need of them to undervalue their importance. The true spirit of good manners is very closely allied to that of good morals. No stronger proof of this assertion is required than the fact that the Messiah himself, in His great moral teachings, so frequently touches upon mere manners. He teaches that modesty is the true spirit of decent behavior, and openly rebukes the forward manner of His followers in taking the upper seats at banquets and the highest seats in the syna- gogues. In condemning the habits of the Pharisees, it was not their scrupulous cleanliness that He objected to, but their attach- ing too much importance to mere form. As to the philosophers, although they were seldom distinguished for fine manners them- selves, they did not fail to teach the importance of them to others. Socrates and Aristotle have left behind them a series of ethics that might easily be turned into a " Guide to the Com- plete Gentleman;" and Lord Bacon has written an essay on manners, in which he reminds us that a stone must be of very high value to do without a setting. Johnson doubtless con- sidered himself one of these unset gems when he made such a speech as " Sir, you are a fool," and unfortunately Johnson has too many imitators among those of greatly inferior value. The motive in cultivating good manners has too often been misrepresented by writers upon this subject. Chesterfield states the motive for politeness to be a desire to shine or to raise one's self into a society supposed to be better than one's own. It is unnecessary to state that Lord Chesterfield's good manners, fine as they appear, have not the ring of the true metal about them. Another and very excellent definition of Etiquette is : "A shield against the intrusion of the impertinent, the improper and the vulgar." But a man's best and only right motive in the culti- vation of good manners should be to make himself better than he is, to render himself agreeable to every one with whom he has to do, and to improve, if necessary, the society in which he is placed. With these objects in view, it is plainly as much a moral duty to cultivate one's manners as one's mind, and no one can deny that a man is a better citizen for being a gentleman in the sense that true courtesy makes the gentleman. THE ART OF CONVERSATION. ~A 713 iiijftaxD ^i iKi ia m a ani ii i ii iKn a rt i iirniiritrf Titii.,^.>^,i,r ..,.,... T T r 1 1 1 1 1 1 n i im j\p\: V oF •> Co .«, ;^,l^^,^.,T.^.^»,^,»^T j - t . . ,t, -■ t t, ,i> r . . t ,r t, i v ^ ,t....... ,, ,. ^ ....l.. ,. ^tt'TfltlllU l HHIUmiH]!, I* m ® /ti I^hHE art of expressing one's thoughts in clear, simple, elegant English is one of the first to be attained by those who would mix ingood society. You must talk, and talk fairly well, if you would not altogether fail of producing some kind of impression upon society. To have something good to say, and to say it in the best possible manner, is to ensure success and admiration. The first thing necessary for the attainment of this valuable accomplish- ment is a good education. An acquaintance with the current literature of the day is absolutely essential to a good talker. A perfect familiarity with the English language, its grammar, pronunciation, etc., is indispensable. Those who have to contend with a lack of early advantages in this respect can supply the deficiency by private study, and close observance wherever good English is spoken. Above all should they avoid associating with those who express themselves incorrectly and vulgarly. Nothing is so infectious as a bad accent or incorrect form of speech. All affectations of foreign accent, mannerisms, exaggerations and 'ismg are detestable. Equally to be avoided are inaccuracies of expression, hesitation, and undue use of French or other foreign words, and anything approaching to flip- pancy, coarseness, triviality or prevarication. The voice should never be loud, no gesticulation should accompany the speech, and the features should be under strict control. Nothing is more ill-bred than a half- opened mouth, a vacant stare, a wandering eye or a smile ready to break into a laugh at any moment. Absolute suppression of emotion, whether of anger, laughter, mortification or disappointment, is one of the most certain marks of good-breeding. Next to unexceptionable grammar, correct elocution, and a frank, easy bearing, it is necessary to be genial. If you cannot be animated, sympathetic and cheerful, do not go into society. Dull and stupid people arc but so many clogs to the machinery of social life. The 7nattLr of conversation is as important as the manner. Tact and good feeling will, in people of sound sense, indicate the shoals and quick- sands to be avoided in conversation, but for safety's sake it will be best to enumerate a few of them. Complimenuiry speeches should be avoided, unless, indeed, so delicately put as to be scarcely discernible. Flattery is suggestive of snobbery, partic- ularly if it be paid to people of great wealth and high position. It induces disgust on the part of the receiver, and insincerity on that of the giver. The habit of " fishing" for compliments is notably vulgar, and it is one in which a certain class of vain young people are very apt to indulge, espe- cially among themselves in private. It indicates vanity in the angler and begets contempt on the part of the one who from interested motives nibbles gently at the bait. All " sbng" is vulgar. This fact cannot be too forcibly impressed upon the minds of the young people of this day, as the alarming prevalence of slangy conversational phrases is enough to cause our decorous forefathers and mothers to rise in their graves. Many of the daughters of our most wealthy and influential citizens have an idea that their position will excuse or gloss the vulgarity of a " cant " phrase now and then. Nothing was ever more erroneous. No position, however high, can cxciLse the vulgarity of this practice, and it is a grand mistake also to imagine slang to be a substitute for wit. I refer particularly to this habit among young ladies, as it is more reprehensible in them than in the opposite sex, although it indicates b.id breeding on their part as well. Scandal should be avoided above all things. It is a sin against morality as well as good t.istc. Punning is a most objectionable habit in society. An inveterate punster is an intolerable bore, and unless a pun amounts to a positive w>uicism it should never be propounded in company. Long arguments should be avoided in general company. They become tiresome to the hearers. Always endeavor to change the subject after it h.-is continued a reasonable length of time. Religion and politics are two subjects to be avoided in general conversa- tion. People usually have strong prejudices on both these points, and it is a rule of good breeding to respect the prejudices of those about you. Never interrupt the speech of another. This is an unpardonable sin against g-i-od breeding. A good listener is more to be desired than a good conversationalist. In order to be a good listener you must appear to be interested, answer appro- priately, briefly and to the point, and give your companion generally (he impression that you are in perfect sympathy with, «nd highly entertained by, what he is saying. Avoid pedantic displays of learning. All topics specially interesting to gentlemen, such as the farm and business matters generally, should be excluded in general society. The expression of immature opinions is always in bad taste. Pcrsoa-t, young or old, should not attempt to criticise books or art unless positively certain that their knowledge of the subject is sufficient to justify the criticism. Be very careful of introducing long-winded anecdote into the conversation. Nothing is more awkward than to find an array of bored faces when one is not more than half through a long story. Repartee should be indulged in only moderately. Otherwise it may degenerate into flippancy, a habit much to be condemned in a certain class cl young ladies who think themselves unusually clever, or, as our American word goes, ** smart." In using titles, such as "General," "Doctor," etc., you must always append the surname if you are a stranger or any other than a most intimate friend. For example, you should say, "What did you observe, Doctor Gray? " not, " What did you observe. Doctor?" Names should be used as little as possible, and never familiarly. Few solecisms give greater offense than a liberty taken with a name. In addressing a person of title in England," My Lord" and " My Lady" are seldom used except by servants. The Prince of Wales may be addrcssc! as "Sir," and the Queen as " Madame." A Frenchman, however, what- ever his rank, is addressed as "Monsieur," and a Frenchwoman, whether / ^- ^r 714 RULES OF PRESENTATION. ^ ~A duchess or dressmaker, as "Madame." It would be as ill-bred to omit to say Monsieur, Mein Herr, and Signor, in France, Germany and Italy, respectively, as it would to say, Sir, Ma'am and Miss, as the servants do in this country. The great secret of talking well is to adapt your conversation to your company as skillfully as may be. People take more interest in their own affairs than in anything else which you can name. A wise host or hostess will, then, lead a mother to talk of her children, an author of his book, an artist of his picture, etc. Having furnished the topic, you have but to listen, and acquire a reputation for being amiable, agreeable, intelligent and well-bred. If you would not be unpopular, do not always be witty, no matter what your natural abilities may be in that line. People do not like to be always outshone. Do not too officiously supply a word or phrase if a speaker hesitate for a moment; he will think of the one he wants or supply another in good time. Never correct a fault in pronunciation or in facts, in company or in pri- vate, if you wish to retain a friend. Avoid such colloquialisms as " says I," "you know," and other senseless repetitions that might be mentioned. Never speak of a person as " a party," nor refer to absent persons as " he " or " she." Give the name of the lady or gentleman referred to. In telling a joke, do not laugh yourself before the point is reached. If the joke be original, do not laugh at all. In tite-a-tite conversation it is ill-bred to drop the voice to a whisper. Egotism is always in bad taste. Allow others the privilege of proclaiming your merits. Never speak of personal or private matters in general company. Avoid as much as possible beginning a conversation with stale common- places, such as, "It is a fine day," "The weather is charming," etc. Do not speak slightingly of the city or neighborhood in which you may be visiting. By offending the prejudices of those about you, you render your- self extremely disagreeable. Avoid all excitability and dogmatism in conversation. Nothing is more annoying than to converse with an arrogant, loud-speaking person. Always yield the point in conversation if you find the argument is likely to become violent. Avoid lavishing praise on the members of your own family. It is almost as bad as praising yourself It is exceedingly bad taste to parade the fact that you have travelled in foreign countries, or that you are acquainted with distinguished or wealthy people, that you have been to college or that your family is distinguished for gentility and blue blood. In speaking of husband or wife, do not use the surname alone. To say " I was telling Brown," is extremely vulgar. Always prefix the Mr. Always endeavor to contribute your quota to the general conversation. It is as much your duty to entertain as to be entertained. Bashfulness is as much to be avoided as too much assurance. - Never ask questions of a personal nature, such as what a certain article cost, or why so-and-so did not go to the opera. They are decidedly impertinent. Look at the person with whom you are conversing, but do not stare. Avoid loud laughter in society. If you carry on the thread of a conversation after the entrance of a visitor, you should always recapitulate what has been said before his or her arrival. Remember that " an excellent thing in woman is a voice low but sweet," and cultivate a distinct but subdued tone. Emerson says; "You cinnot have one well-bred man without a whole society of such." Elsewhere he says: "It makes no difference, in looking back five years, how you have dieted or dressed; but it counts much whether we have had good ciampanions in that time — almost as much as what we have been domg." ^^^ eDf^G^entahion ^ White House, at the English Court and the Papal Court. ' \3 1 1 ^. ^y HERE is very little ceremony about a presentation to the Chief Executive of the United States. On public occasions you will ":* simply be presented by the master of ceremonies, while at any other time, by sending in your card, you will secure the desired interview. THE COURT OF ENGLAND. The wives and daughters of the clergy, of military and naval officers, of physicians and barristers, can be presented. The wives and daughters of general practitioners, and of solicitors, of merchants, and of all business men, with the exception of bankers, are not entitled to be presented. No divorced woman can be presented to the Queen. A lady must be presented by another lady, and a gentleman by a gentle- man. In seeking a lady for a sponsor, it should be remembered that, the higher her rank and social standing, the better for the one presented. Any lady who has once been presented at court can present others. All wraps are left in the carriage before entering the palace. As her name is called by the Lord Chamberlain the lady advances toward the throne. If a peeress, the Queen kisses her forehead ; if a commoner, she kisses the Queen's hand. On leaving the royal presence, you must back out. A stranger must have the credential of the American Ambassador in order to be presented at the English court. THE PAPAL COURT. Foreicners obtain access to the Pope through their Ambassador. Ladies very seldom have private audience of the Pope. The lady's toilette, be the audience public or private, must always consist of black dress, long black veil and white gloves. When the Pope enters the gallery where those to be presented are collected, they fall on their knees, and do not rise until bidden. Gentlemen kneel on one knee, and do not rise until desired to do so. The proper form of address in English is " Your Holiness." It is best to consult some local authority upon the etiquette of many petty courts, as the rules are frequently much complicated. The lady must always be in full dress, and the gentleman in black clothes, white cravat and gloves. V- ^ K ETIQUETTE OF SALUTATION. / 7'5 -^Tfe^- M^^^^?t#T^' Eti^Liette • of • S^abtatioQ, --^w- jrN a rude sLite ol society every salutation was an act of worship. The commonest act-;, phrases and signs of courtesy with which wc are now familiar, date from those earlier times when the inferior demonstrated his allegiance by acts of servility. Our modern bow is a modified _^ prostration. Rising and standing are acts of homage. Removing the ^"^ glove on shaking hands is a custom handed down from feudal times. FORMS OF SALUTATION. Theforms of salutation common in America are bowing, hand-shaking, kiss- ing, and words of address. Acquaintances of every degree of intimacy, from theclosest to the slightest, are entitled to a bow. It is an act of discourtesy to refuse any one, no mat- ter how lowly his station, the recognition of a bow. When recognizing their gentlemen acquaintances, ladies should make a graceful inclination. It is the privilege of a lady to recognize the gentleman first. To a casual acquaint- ance it is not necessary to do more than bow, but an intimate friend should be more cordially greeted. Never fail to return a bow. It is extremely rude to refuse to recognize a salutation of this kind. A pleasant, cordial man- ner, without undue fa- miliarity, in recognizing acquaintances, conduces greatly toward a genial and* friendly feeling, and is therefore worthy of cul- tivation. The custom of nodding to every one you meet, in thinly settled neighborhoods, is a very pleasant one, as it evinces kindliness of feeling, and should be generally followed out. If a gentleman is smoking when he meets a lady, he should remove the SALUTATION IN THE STRKET. cigar from his mouth in bowing. None but a boor will puff a cloud of tobacco smoke in the face of a lady who is honoring him wiih a salutation. Etiquette requires a gentleman to niisc his hat from his head in bowing to a lady. If passing on the street, the hand farthest from the lady should be used in removing the hat. If on horseback, the gentleman seizes whip and reins in the left hand and uses the right for making the salute. When a gentleman, accompanied by a friend, meets a lady acquaintance, the friend should bow also, whether acquainted with the lady or not. A gentleman should return a bow made him on the street, even if he doe* not recognize the person saluting him. It maybe a mistake, but it is only courteous to spare the per- son saluting as much em- barra&smcnt as possible. On meeting a number of persons together, with some of whom you are slightly, with others inti- mately, acquainted, you should greet all alike. To gusl. exuberantly ovcronc and bow stiffly to another, would be making a dis- tinction that could not fail to be remarked, and might wound the feelings. A gentleman should not ^ :\v- from a window to a , . ly, but if a lady recog- nize him from a window, he should return the salu- t.ttion. It is best, how- ■ < r, for a lady to avoid . -li recognitions as much ;>05'+<+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+xx+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x H®l )}^ C-ei-R-D- /l\ ■^ .(> v + v+x+x+v+x+y+x+x+xy+x+v+v+v+v+v+y+x+x ©Y^ftea, ©yv^ftere al^^ JToco fo U^e Uftem, O a refined and cultivated person the visiting-card is indicative of riff the personal characteristics of the person whose name it bears. Its quality should be of the finest ; in color white (not cream), and in shape it should be long and narrow. Gilt bevel and col- ored designs are never used by refined society. ^^-^ The visiting card of a married lady should be in size a little larger than that of " Miss," and engraved in pure^rich script : Or, with reception days: For young ladies the cards should be engraved in a lighter script than that of " Mrs." For the eldest daughter the last name only should be used : With or without the address. For other than the eldest daughter, the full name; as : ,iK/vt^L/ CLwv^v (^/ywj/. Mother and daughters calling together, the engraving is on a card in size between the " Mr. and Mrs." and '* Miss" : Or: The form " Mr. and Mrs." is used only a short time after marriage. The engraving should be in bold, rich script : On all formal occasions, married ladies should leave their husbands' cards with their own when calling. The handsomest style of cards is that which is engraved, but it is permis- sible for persons to write their own cards if they can write prettily. A gentleman's cards should be small, fine in texture, and of five or six ply, and always white in color. The "Mr." should be prefixed in every instance ; as : Or, with club address: VV§) <2^Wv ^K. A physician may have his professional title; as : Officers of the army and navy may have their titles : Or: K~ ETIQUETTE OF THE TABLE. 717 V Eti^aethe •> of v hbe <• iakle v ^^^ *im -l-^i^ I^HE etiquette of the dinner-table should be mastered by all who aspire to the etitrie of good society. Ease, savoir-faire and good breeding are nowhere more indispensable than at the dinner-table, and the absence of them is nowhere more apparent. How to eat soup and what to do with cherry-stones are weighty considerations when taken as the Index of social status. No greater test of the culture, refinement and good breeding of a person can be found than the dinner hour. In the fol- lowing rules, therefore, will be found a brief com- pendium of the most ap- proved etiquette of the table, which those who have not had the educa- tional advantages of po- lite society will do well to read and "inwardly digest." •>RULE2<- r:)F — Coudnct at TaWe. EAT yourself in an upright posi- \ tion~not too close to nor yet too far from the table. Take your napkin, par- tially unfold it and lay it across your lap. It is not the correct thing to fasten it in your button- hole or spread it over your breast. Do not trifle with your knife or fork, or dnim on the table, or fidget in any way, while waiting to be served. CORRECT DINNER TABLE. Keep your hands quietly in your lap, your mind composed and pleasantly fixed upon the conversation. Let all your movements be easy and delib- erate. Undue haste indicates a ncr\'ous lack of ease. Should grace be said, you will give the most reverent attention in respect- ful silence during the ceremony. Exhibit no impatience to be served. During the intcrx'als between the courses is your opportu- nity for displaying your conversational abilities to those sitting near you. Pleasant chat and witty remarks compose the best possible sauce to a good dinner. Eat slowly; it will con- tribute to yourgood health a> well as your gtxKi man- ners. Thorough mastica- tion of your food is neces- sary to digestion. An ordinary meal should oc- cupy from thirty minutes (o nn hour. You may not desire the soup, which is usually the first course, but you should not refuse to take it. You can eat as much nr as little as you please, but you would look awk- ward sitting with nothing bcforeyou while the others arc eating. When eating soup, take it from the side of the spoon, and avoid making any noise in so doing. Should you be .'Lskcd by the host what part of the fowl you prefer, always have a choice, and mention promptly which you prefer. Nothing is more annoying than to have to serve two or three people who have no preferences and will take " anything." / K" 718 ETIQUETTE OF THE TABLE. «> Never place waste matter on the table-cloth. The side of your plate, or slde-disVie5 that have contained sauces or vegetables, will answer as a recep- tacle for bones, potato skins, etc. You will use your fork to convey all your food to your mouth, except it may be certain sauces that would be more conveniently eaten with a spoon. For instance, yon should not attempt to eat peas with a fork. If you are not provided with a spoon, ask for one. The knife is used only for cutting meat and other articles of food, for spreading butter upon the bread, etc. -t HOW TO SET THE TABLE ^ OUR dining-t.ible should be round or oblong. Use only the whitest and finest of linen. Let your silver and cutlery be highly polished, and your glass and china rubbed until they fairly shine. Your table will then present a brilliant and ele- gant appearance. For ordinary home oc- casions you will put at each person's place a knife and fork, napkin, salt-cup and goblet. The order of arrangement is accoilJing to one's taste. The plates, if not brought in afterward by a servant, are piled up at the right hand of the host. The gentleman of the house occupies the seat at the side of the table in the center ; op- posite him is seated his wife or whatever lady occupies the position as head of his household. In front oi paterfamilias is placed the joint for carving. In front of the mistress of the house is the tray containing the tea and coffee cups. The side-dishei are disposed around the table accord- ing to taste. In the centre is usually placed the caster, con- taining bottles filled with various condiments, such as red and black pepper, vinegar, oil, etc. A good housekeeper will see that these bottles are always kept well filled. Fashion, however, who is at best but a fickle jade, has decreed of late that the old-time caster be abolished, and in place thereof you shall stand at each person's place a small ornamental pepper-bottle in addition to the salt-cup and other articles, while the oil and vinegar shall be placed in handsome pitcher-shaped bottles of cut-glass and disposed at each end of the table. In. arranging the table, too, whether for the family alone or for ceremonial occasions, it must be remembered that the individual taste of the lady of the house may be brought into play with excellent effect. General rules, of course, will he followed ; but results of one who has naturally an artistic eye for those things will be very different from the work of one whose eye has never been trained to harmonizing lines and colors. As it is customary at the mere family dinner to have the carving done upon the tabic, it is very essential that the master of the house should thor- oughly understand how to carve meat; and expeditious carving may be acquired only by practice. It would be well, therefore, if young ladies and gentlemen were more frequently initiated into the art while at home, so that they might find it less awkward when obliged to do it at their own tables. DINNER-GIVIHG ^*- INCORRECT DINNER TABLE, N invitation to dinner is the highest social compliment, and should be so received and treated. While nearly all other social invitations are given in the name oi the hostess alone the invitation to dinner is given in the joint name of host and hostess. I'he host, in this case, occupies the position of chief entertainer. It is his duty to go first to the dining-room, taking the principal lady guest on his right arm and giving her the seat of honor on his right hand. He is expected, too, to contribute much to the entertainment of the guests. A good dinner does not consist alone of the meat and drinks, although they must also be con- sidered, but of the prop- er seating of the guests at table, of the etiquette to be observed toward them, and the perfection of arrangement in gen- eral. Many ladies who give dinners observe the habit of keeping a book in which they record the name of every guest whom they have dined, the names of their neigh- bors at other dinner par- ties, and the names of hosts to whom they owe return dinners; for this is an attention which mustbe returned by those who pretend to go in society. This record is convenient for reference in arranging for guests at another dinner. The hostess attends to the writing and sending out of invitations. The form of invitation, which should be printed from engraved plates on square cards with stamped or illuminated crest on the top centre, is as follows : V K ETIQUETTE OP THE TABLE. "Tt 719 The spaces containing guest's name and date are left blank on the engraved card and are filled out in writing. When the dinner is given in honor of some distinguished guest, the fict, with the guest's name, is also placed upon the card of invitation. Invitations to dinner should be accepted or declined immediately. Never let more than^a day pass before writing a note of reply, in which you posi- tively accept or decline the invitation. There is no greater rudeness than neglecting to observe this rule. The form of acceptance ot an invitation to dinner is : 'WiAv'^ 'irV\/yV\^^ .}^*^yV^O^U/ -VS^VWVVW/.. Or, declining, the form is: 'W S-vvw^vr., .}^voN^' that he is the last to be eating. A ready wit and a merry laugh are great aids to a hostess in entertaining a party of this description. Ceremonious dinners in the large cities arc all served now " These invitations are from engraved plates, on note sheets, and white in color. They are worded thus : Ov'v The form of acceptance or declination is much the same as In the dinner invitations, substituting "ball " for " dinner." The first requisites for a pleasant ball are good rooms, good music and plentj- of good company. No one should attempt to give an entertainment of this sort without being fully prepared for considerable expenditure of time, money and patience. If you wish your friends to enjoy the dancing, you must give them good music, a good floor, and plenty of good and suit- able partners. The supper, to be enjoyable, must be well served and abundant in quantity. As you wish your ball to be the event of the season, you must have your rooms handsomely decorated. An abundance of cut flowers should be artistically scattered around, with here and there a tropical plant in hall and ball-room, on the stairs, in recesses, and wherever they can conveniently be placed with good effect and not be in the way. The fire-places should be screened by flowers in summer and by guards in winter, unless heaters are in use, in which case the latter precaution is unnecessary. By the help of screens and flowers it is easy to arrange a small gallery for the musicians, so that ihey shall be heard and not seen. A refreshment-room , a dressing-room for the ladies, and one for the gentle- men, should be provided. Ladies will attend a ball in elegant and elaborate evening dress. Gentle- men will appear in full evening dress. A prudent hostess will limit her invitations to the size of her ball-room, in order not to overcrowd her rooms and spoil the pleasure of the dancers. It is safe to issue a few more invitations than you can accommodate, on the chance of a number not appearing on the arrival of the evening. The most favorable room for dancing is one which is nearly square, but rather longer than wide. Such a room will admit of two quadrille parties at once. The top of a ball-room is the part nearest the orchestra. It is well to know this, as in dancing the lop couples always lead off. A good floor is highly important. In private houses nothing is better than a good Holland floor-cloth well stretched over the carpet. Let there be an abundance of light and good ventilation in your ball-room. Good music is as essential at a ball as good wine at dinner, and no hostess should ta.\ her guests for this entertamment. Verj' few amateurs can play dance music well. Besides that, no one wants to be tied to the piano all the evening playing while others are dancing. For this reason, a hostess should provide skilled musicians to play for her guests. It is customary to provide three pieces for dancing: a piano and two violins, or piano, comet and violin. Sometimes the harp and violins only are used. The ladies* toilet-room should be well supplied with mirrors, pins, needles and thread for repairing rents, and plenty of attendants to assist the fan: ones at their toilets. It is well to check wraps and give a duplicate check to each lady. The supper hour is nsually from 12 to i o'clock, and the hour of departing from 2 to 3 A.M. The style of the supper is apt to be regulated by the wealth of the host. If he have ample means it is customary to put the whole thing in the hands of a caterer, and have it served up in good stj-le, with all the extra appliances of salads, oysters, fancy ices, coffees, wines and fruits, and cakes of every description. If the supper be home-made, coffee and sandwiches, with fruit, and two or three kinds of ices and cake, are all-sufficient. There should always be an abundance provided, however, as dancers are usually hungry- people. No one sits down to a ball supper. If seats are ranged around the room for the ladies, the gentlemen stand. Carpet should be laid from the edge of the pavement to the doorway, and if the evening be wet, a temporary covering should be erected for the protec- tion of the ladies in passing from their carriages to the house. A gentleman should not accept an invitatron to a ball if he does not dance, as it is an act of positive neglect for gentlemen to hold themselves aloof when ladies are waiting anxiously for an invitation to dance, and attempt to dance without a knowledge of the art is not only to make yourself ridicu- lous, but your partner as well. R- r^'" '? ETIQUETTK OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS, ETC. 721 ^Ic GENERAL SUGGESTIONS:}:-^ IT is folly to attempt to dance a figure wiih which you arc unac- quainted. In round dances, hold the lady's hand easily at the side, but do not place it behind you, nor raise it high in the air. In quad- rilles, a knowledge of the French terms employed is necessary in only the very choicest circles. These are : Balancez. — Swing partners. Ba.'ancez aux coins. — Swing corneis. Balancez qtmtre en ligne. — Set four in a line. Chaine Anglaisc— Head couples right and left. Chatne Anglaise double.— Double right and left. Chaine Anglaise demi.— Half right and left. Chaine des datnes. — Ladies' ch jin. Chaine des dames double. — Ladies' chain beginning together. Chaine la grande.~Qxd.n^ right and left. Ckassez, — Move to right and left or to left and right. Chassez croisaz.— Ladies and gentlemen chassez In opposite directions. Caz'alier seul. — Gentlemen advance alone. Demi promenade.— All half promenade. Dos-d-dos. — Back to back. Glissade. — A gliding step. Lagrande ronde. — Alt join hands at.d advance and retire twice. La grande tour du rond. — Join hands and dance round figure. La grande promenade . — All promenade round figure. Le mottlinet. — Hands across. Demi-moulinet. — Ladies advance to cenicr, give right hand and retire. TVrtZ't'rjcs.— Opposite persons change places. Re-traverses. — Cross back lo place. yis-d-vis. — Face to face. Be not, while dancing, confined to observations concerning the weather or the number of people present ; but having asked a lady lo dance, be a» agieeable to her as possible. ■^ m^ Etiquette of ^lie German, Receptions •••tj -^;^ AND PARTIES IN GENERAL j — J -.,- ■••THE GERMAN ^-^ jJ'USTOM decides that no lady's series of entertainments are com- li/rW ^ plete without " the prime favorite." splrTjiT^ Young ladles are now much accustomed to forming social clubs, AWV'i^yll with pretty, suggestive names, which meet at the houses of the different members. The Informalliles of the German necessitate great care in the inviting of the guests. It is necessary that all shall have been formally in- troduced, as no lady can refuse lo dance with a gentleman whom she may have received as a partner so long as she remain in the circle. Favors arc given in most of the figures, some of them being very elegant and cvpcnsive, while others are comparatively inexpensive, but uiiiciuc in design. The principal point Is to have a set of favors differing in design from those presented at any other entertainment. Invitations to the German should be sent at least ten days in advance. They should be from engraved plates, and in the following form : ^ RECEPTIONS or AT HOMES •#► HE full-dress reception is an event of considerable importance in the social world. Invitations should be issued at least two weeks beforehand, as for balU or dinner^. It prevents previous engagement. They should be engraved on heavy white card uf the finest texture. The form is: S'WUxLoAv -VM/WvvvO^., ^''\/i^j>^\\Javr ^-vcv.. The invitations should be dehvcrcd by the footm.in, as arc wedding and dinner invitations, etc. A serving-man should be provided to open the carriage door, another lo receive the cards and show the guests to their dressing-room. The gentlemen escort their ladies to the host and hostess. If there i* to be dancing it is mentioned on the card of invitation. 722. ETIQUETTE OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS. ETC. In New York it is quite the custom to present each guest with some ele- gant little souvenir of the occasion, something similar to the favors of ihe " German." When the daughter is receiving with her mother, her name is placed on the card of invitation heluw her mother's, thus : ^■^^Xo^^ %Kk^ Young ladies are permitted to d.ince during the evening, the mother remaining at her post of reception; but the daughter should return to her place as soon as the dance is over. A young lady should not dance more than once with the same gentleman at her own reception. You should attend receptions in full evening dress, and good breeding demands that you do not present yourself at the beginning, nor remain until the close of the evening. When your name is announced, look for the lady of the house and pay your respects first to her. She will usually be found stationed near the door, particularly if the party be large. You are at liberty, however, to salute such fritinds and acquaintances as you may meet in making your way through the crowd. It is well to throw open as many rooms as possible, and to have tables scattered around here and there, covered with choice engravings, photo- graphic views, valuable scrapbooks, etc., for the entertainment of the guests. If some eminent person be among the company, it is not in good taste for every one to follow him around, hanging on his words and striving for an introduction. The hostess should see that her company does not break up into cliques of twos or threes, as such a plan leaves a number out who do not possess any great conversational powers. Should any guest be invited by the hostess to play the piano, she should not v/ait to be urged, offering excuses, but rise quietly, proceed to the piano and play something short and suitable to the gathering. A natural tact will suggest what to play. In a company of musical con- noisseurs a sonata of Beethoven would not be out of place, but in a general company something lighter and shorter would be more appropriate. Never play upon the invitation of any one but the hostess. Should any one else make the request, turn it off as gracefully as you can, but do not comply. -^ PARTIES IN GEHERAL *^ [ HE guests should be more intimate acquaintances than at a h.dt or ' full-dress reception. The hours before supper are spent in social conversation. After supper, which is ser\'cd much earlier than at a ball, dancing is usually the order of the cvcnint,'. The time for departure is not later than i o'clock. A call, or leaving of the card, should always precede an invitation to a party. A call in person or by card is required by etiquette after the party, from all those who have been the recipients of invitation. The same general rules of etiquette apply in the case of parties as at full- dress receptions and balls. The laws of courtesy and good breeding will be observed by gentlemen and ladies wherever they may be, whether on the croquet ground, at the informal picnic, or at the formal dinner party. And the code is much the same. / ^@: JUVENILE PARTIES :@#- IT is now quite fashionable to give entertainments for the younger members of the family. These birthday and doll parties are fre- quently the source of as much amusement to the elders as to the little ones who attend them. A regularly engraved card is sent out after this design : -}Lo^i>'Wr ^^^<\f^\Xfij'y ^OA.wx\/iy OAjv^o/^uj /V^av/^VvO/^ D'V\^'V \>/.v'OW 'VvV^My. K" "71 ETIQUETTE OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS, ETC. 723 -^^5^.. BAL MASQUE •••^^H Invitations to a bitl tnasque should be elegant in design and read as follows ; >}^^. o-w TWENTY^FIRST BIRTHDAY PARTIES. A grand celebration is usually given in honor of a son's attainment to his majority. The form of invitation, on engraved cards, is: ^AJ.'i./i/lo^ V3VAA/^A/5/^ ^/^^MAJiO^W 'S'VCV^ -j^-" BREAKFASTS •♦^^^^ Invitations to breakf:isls and suppers should be informal and written on correspondence cards, with crest or monogram on top left corner. The form is : D-U/VUJvWr Lvcv. ♦^AFTERNOON RECEPTIOKS ^ VERY popular entertainment for ladies exclusively is the tea or rtA\ afternoon reception. The hours are from 4 to 6 p.m., and if IV continued later these affairs partake of the nature of more formal -i/l_j3*Ki entertainments. The refreshments are light, and all ostentatious display is avoided. The hostess receives her guests at the table, and dispenses tea and the otlier delicacies to them, which they receive from the tray borne by domes- tics, and eat or drink standing. On leaving they can dispense with the for- mality of bidding the hostess adieu. The form of invilatton, printed on large-sized visiting cards from engraved plates, is : «4^YQUKG LADIES' DEBUT -^-s-* ^||"^4 TIQUETTE decides that in this country, as in England, young " '>f ladies shall seldom be seen, except at family gatherings, imtil their * > school life shall be terminated, and then they shall be formally in- ji troduced into society. Three weeks previous to their debut, cards are left for those acquaintances who are to receive invitations. A week or ten days previous engraved invi- tations are sent, Durin,i^ the reception the young lady's position is to the right of her mother or chaperon, where she receives the congratulations of her friends. The guests should make their congnxtulations brief, and pass on to make room for others. The first dance should he accorded only to some intimate friend of the family, and the d^btttante should dance but once with the same gentleman in the course of the evening. For one year the young lady is allowed to make calls only with her mother or other suitable chaperon. After that time she can receive or call at her pleasure. ■fW 724 ETIQUETTE OK RiniNG AND DRIVING. ii_ ^ Eti^aette • oP • Riding • ^QgI • DHVin^.^ll- If ^ RIDING is an accomplishment in which all ladies and gentlemen ^lij) should be proficient. Riding, like swimming, cannot be taught by precept ; it must be taught early and practiced constantly — as ,'^\\^ little in the school and as much upon the road as possible, ;.!_! l,/\\\ A lady's riding-habit should be simple, close-fitting, and made "^-'.Ai by a first-raie tailor. The later habit is much shorter and nar- rower than the old style, and is always worn with pantaloons of the same material underneath. A lady can indulge her love of luxury only in her riding-whip. This may be jewelled, and as ele- gant as she may wish. Her gloves must always be unexceptionable. The art of mounting must be properly acquired, since in riding, as in other things, it is proficiency in trifles that proclaims the artist. The lady, having mount- ed the riding-steps, places her left foot in the stirrup, rises into her seat and lifts the right leg into its place, taking care to let the habit fall properly. If no riding-steps are at hand, her escort or groom must assist her to mount. Hence she must learn to mount in both ways. In the latter case she places her left foot in the right hand uf the gentleman or s'irvant ; he lifts it vigorously but gen- tly, and she springs lightly into the saddle, A lady who rides much and wishes to keep her figure straight should have two saddles, and change from one to the other. LADY AND GENTLEMAN RIDING. The great point in riding is to sit straight in the middle of your saddle, to know the temper of your horse, and to be able to enjoy a good galop in moderation. Ladies should not lean forward in riding. They should not rise in the saddle in trotting. They should know how to hold the reins and the different uses of each. A gentleman, in riding, as in walking, gives the lady the wall. In assisting a lady to mount, hold your hand at a convenient distance from the ground, that she may place her foot in it. As she springs, assist her with the impetus of your arm. Practice only will enable you to do this properly. A gentleman should be able to mount on either side of his horse. He places his left foot in the stirrup, his left hand on the saddle, and swings himself up, throwing his right leg over the horse's back. Nothing is more awkward than to see a man climb into a saddle with both hands. The correct position is to sit upright and well back in the saddle ; to keep the knees pressed well in against the sides of the saddle, and the feet parallel to the horse's body ; to turn the toes The foot should be about half-way in the stirrup. th^ art ot riding is plenty of confidence. A in rather than out The great desideratum timid person can never be a good rider Al K" ETIQUETTE OF RIDING AND DRIVING. 725 ^ -vi When escorting a lady be sure that her horse is quite safe, every part of its harness in perfect condition, and keep on the alert to assist her on tlie slightest sign of danger. A gentleman riding with two ladies will keep to the right of both, unless it be necessary for him to riJebetwccn them in order t'l render some assistance, Indismounting, thcgen- tLmnn will take the lady's kft hand in his right, re- move the stirrup and place her foot in bis left band, lowering her gently to the ground. Keep on the right or o(T side, and never presume lo touch her mount any more than you would that of a gentleman friend. ETIQ UETTE OS' 5l HE art of driving is simple enough, butrequires prac- tice. No one should pretend who does not understand every part of the harness and be able to harness or unharness a horse himself. A good driver will use his horse well, whether it b ■ his own or another's. >i ■ will turn corners gently, and know when to drive fast antl when lo eas. him up. In \e carriage, a gentleman places himself with his back to the horses, leavin^ the best seat for the ladies. Only very elderly gentlemen are LADY ALIGHTING. privileged to take the backseat to the exclusion of young ladies. No geni'.e- man driving alone with a lady should sit beside her, unless he is her hus- band, father, son or brother. Even an affianced lover should remember this rule of etiquette. To get in and out of a carriage gracefully is q-.iite an accomplishmtnt. If there is but one step, and you are going to face the horsts, put your kft f "A on the step and the ■'her in the carriage, so ili.it you can drop at once into your seal. If you are to sit the other way, reverse the process. Be careful to turn your back the way you intend sitting, - --Hr-*- V Ehi^Liette •:• of-:- [.lie •:• ®tf®eet •:• ^^^r^^^"^— S^-5-«- — ^"'^ +|^|-if. LADY will bow first if she meets a gentleman acquaintance on the street. A lady will not stop on the street to converse with a gentle- man. If he wishes to chat with her he will turn and walk by her side until he has finished his conversation, then raise his hat and leave her. It is not etiquette for a lady to take the arm of a gentleman on the street in the day time, unless he bealover or husband, and even then it is seldom done in America. In England it is per- missible for a lady to ac- cept the arm of even an ordinary acquaintance on the street. In foreign cities it is not comme il faut for ladies to appear on the street at all with- out a gentleman. A gentleman escorting two ladies may offer each an arm, but a lady should never under any circum- stances walk between two gentlemen holding an arm of each. On meeting friends or acquainLinccsonthestreet or in public places, you should be careful not to call their names so loudly as to attract the attention of those around. Never call across the street, and never carry on a conversation in a public vehicle unless you arc seated side by side. Gentlemen should never stare at ladies on the street. In walking with a lady a gentleman should take charge of any small par- cel, book, etc., with which she may be burdened. STREET PROMENADE SCENE. Never recognize a gentlemen unless you are perfectly sure of his identity. Nothing is more awkward than a mistake of this kind. A well-bred man must entertain no respect for the brim of his hat. Tnie politeness demands that the hat be removed entirely from the head. Merely to nod or to touch the brim of your hat is a lack of courtesy. The body should not be bent at all in bowing. A gentleman will always give a lady the inside of the walk on the street. Ladies should avoid walking rapidly on the street, as it is ungraceful. A gentleman walking with a lady should ac- commodate his step to hers. Itlookse.\ceedingly awkward to see a gentle- man two or three paces ahead of a lady with whom he is supposed to be walking. Staring at people, ex- pectorating, looking back on the stieet, c;dllng in a loud voice, laughing, etc., are very bad manners on the street. A gentleman attemling a lady will hold the door open for her to pass. He will also perform the same service for any lady passing in or out unat- tended. A gentleman may assist a lady from an omnibus, or over a bad crossing, without the formality of an introduction. Having performed the service, he will bow and retire. No gentleman will smoke when standing or walking with a lady on the street. A quiet and unobtrusive demeanor upon the street is the sign of a true lady, who goes about her own affairs in a business-like way and has always a pleasant nod and smile for friends and acquaintances. V FT ETIQUKTTE OF TRAVELLING. 727 ^'Ww^^ «^ V V Eti^Liethe •:• oFv ^raVellin^ •:• •:• --3 aO class of people carry with them so many distinguishing marks I as the experienced and the iiicxperienced traveller. The former If/KFI is always cool and collected, occupies the best seat in the middle /// of the car on the shady side and next to the window, and is _ \lr- especially remarkable for a total lack of flnrry and anxiety. ^zJ\^ All this is owing to the fact that he has had a long and varied experience as a traveller, and in that way gained a knowledge of the minor points ill travelling which go far toward begetting that state of peaceful con- fidence which is the source of much envy lo the uninitiated. The experienced traveller is always on time ; he keeps a time-table of the trains at hand for refer- ence and never fails to have his watch going cor- rectly. His baggage is always properly checked andhls ticket safely stowed away in his inside pocket. Being certain that he is on the right train, with everything in order, his mind is serene and a smile of benignant complacency illumines his coimtenance '^***'*^iL as he unfolds his evening paper or reviews the faces of his fellow passengers. The inexperienced travel- ler comes hurrying on the train at the last moment, all in a heat and flurry, and is scarcely seated on the last seat in the car, where he'll catch all the drafts from the opening door, when he discovers that he has lost his tickc. or forgotten to check his baggage. Then ensue; a storm of anxious enquiries and qucndcnis complain- ings, and before he has reached his destination he is voted a bore by all his fellow passengers. *^ SUGGESTIONS TO TRAVELLERS^ JONSIDER what route you intend taking when you arc contemplat- ing a journey, and decide definitely upon it. Go to the ticket-office of the road and procure a time-table, where you will find the hour for leaving, together with names of stations on the road, etc. When you intend taking a sleeping-berth, secure your ticket for same a day or two before you intend starting, so as to obtain a desirable location. RAILWAY CAR SCENE. PROPER. A lowtr berth in the centre of the car is always the most comfortable, as you escape the jar of the wheels and drafts from the opening door. Take as little baggage as possible, and see that your trunks are strong and securely f:istcned. A good, stout leather strap is a safeguard against bursting locks. In checkmg your baggage, look to the checks yourself, to make sure the numbers correspond. Having once received your check, you need not con- cern yourself further about your baggage. The company is responsible for its safe delivery. It is a wise precaution to have your name and address carefully written up n any small article of ba^jgage, such as satchel, umbrella, duster, etc., so that in case you leave thtm in the car the rail- vyi way employes may know where to send them. An overcoat or package '^ ly ng upon a seat is an indication that the seat is taken and the owner has only left temporarily. It wo lid, therefore, be rude in you to remove the J -irt cics and occupy the seit. It is only courteous for a gentleman, secingalady looking for a seat, to offer the one beside him, as i scarcely likes to seat clfbeside him without 1 invitation, although will, of course, if there no entirely vacant (. s, do so in preference t tanding. \ courteous geniknian II also relinquish his e to two ladies, or a leman and lady who re together, and seek other acconunodations. Such a sacrifice always receives its reward in grateful admiration of his character. Ladies travelling alone, when addressed in a courteous manner by gentle- men, should reply politely to the remark ; and in long journeys it is even allowable to enter into conversation without the formality of an introduction. But a true lady will always know how to keep the conversation from bor- dering on familiarity, and by a quiet dignity and sudden hnuteur will effect- ually check any attempt at presumption on the part of her strange acquaint- ance. VL >\^ 728 LADIES TRAVELLING WITHOUT ESCORT. Always consult the comfort of others wh:n travelling. You should not open either door or window in a railway coach without first ascertaining if it will be agreeable to those near enough to be affected by it. Ladies, in [larticul-ir, should remember that they have not chartered the whole coach, but only paid for a small fraction of it, and be careful not to monopolize the drcs:.!ng-room for two or three hours at a stretch, while half a dozen or more are waiting outside to arrange their toilets. Genteel travellers will always carry their own toilet articles, and not depend on the public brush and comb. A lady will avoid over-dressing in travelling. Silks and velvets, laces and jewelry are terribly out of place on a railroad train. The appointments of the traveller may be as elegant as you please, but they should be distinguished by exceeding plainness and quietness of tone. Some ladies have an idea that any old thing is good enough to travel in, and so look exceedingly shabbv on the train. 3SC j^J#!iis4= m kadie^ ^raVellin^ v/itl^oLih E^eopt.B -^^nm^' N America the liberty of action accorded women is so much greater than that allowed in any other country in the world that a special code of etiquette on some points is necessary in order to inform them how to act f I under all circumstances. r_/\ In England, the land of greatest liberty after ours, no lady of much "v genlility makes a journuy witliout a male escort or at least the company of her maid. Here it is quite common for ladies of ihe best families .ind greatest refinement to make journeys of length without the attendance of a male relative. Very young ladies are not allowed to travel, however, without the attendance of some ol ler pers e'tl er m le or f m le The directions for travel- ling having been given elsewhere, we will confine our directions to the man- ner in which an unattended lady shall behave at THE HOTEL LADY should en- t. ter a hotel by 4* way of the ladies' t^entrance. A ser- vant is always in attend- ance at the door to show her to the parlor, where she will be waited upon by the proprietor or clerk, to whom she should pre- sent her card and stale how long she intends re- maining. A simple request to the waiter, particularly if it be backed by a slight re- muneration, will ensure his meeting her at the dining-room entrance and preceding her to her seat, thus obviating the slight awkwardness of crossing a full dming-room with- out an escort. All conversation at a hotel table should be conducted in .i low tone of voice so as not to attract attention, and especially should care be taken that no re- marks of a personal nature are overheard by others. A lady will, of course, not enter into conversation with any but friends at a public table. While waiting to be served it is permissible to read a paper at a hotel table. All orders should be given in a low but clear and distinct tone of voice. Never ask any one at the table to pass you anything. That is the duty of the waiter. Never point to any article wanted; a glance at the dish, with a quiet request or a mere look at the waiter, is usually sufficient. RAILWAY CAR SCENE IMPROPER AH loud and ostentatious dressing is out of place in a hotel dining-room. A quiet, unassuming dress of clolh or plain black silk is the most ladylike. When a lady is without escort it would be best for her not to take her sup- per in the dining-room late in the evening. She can have a me.d sent lo her room at a trifling extra cost. A lady should never loiter in the halls, nor stand alone at a hotel window. She should never hum to herself while going through the halls, nor play on the piano, nor sing in a hotel parlor unless invited to do so. It is desirable when stopping at a hotel to secure a pleasant, comfortable roon V "th plentj of a'r and sunshine and a good outlook. ~ Be sure to lock your trunk and the door of your room whenever leaving it. If your have valuables, such as diamonds and much money, it is safer to leave them with the pro- prietor to be locked in the safe. They can easily be obtained whenever wan ted by ringing for them. It is never the act nf a lady or gentleman to be scolding at servants. If their conduct gives yuu dissatisfaction, compl.iin to the proprietoi . Always tender your requests in a pleasant and courteous manner, and you will usu- ally find them promptly attended to. As a lady without escort is apt to require more service than one who has, it is only riglit to tender a little extra fee to the servant who has been es- pecially attentive. A re- taining fee, that is, a small sum given at the outset, is very apt tosecure all the at- tention that can be desired. A lady should always avoid all hurry and bustle in travelling by securing her ticket beforehand and having her trunk packed and ready to express in good time. In order to secure herself positively against all impertinence and intrusion when unattended, a lady has need of a great deal of dignity and quiet re- serve : if she be naturally of a lively and chatty disposition, she must beware how she indulge these innogent propensities, lest they be misunderstood. An intelligent and thoroughbred lady, however, can travel alone anywhere in America without experiencing the slightest lack ol respect or courteous attention. HOME ETIQUETTK. 729 ♦♦(g)**®-*-*-®^-^®**©**®** •:•)!(•:• Home •:• Ehi'^jLiette. •:•);(■:■ gjy^ 0'Hi>@*^@'M^^.^M^\ J'V'&\t, ^*V*V' -4-+l-^<^f-(^- ^^S^ HILDREN should speak respectfully lo parents and obey the (i^rAf L slightest command immediately. ~ |T^/~ Parents should address a child In mild, pleasant, but firm manner. Issue no orders but those of a just and reasonable _ nature, and then see that they are obeyed. -/^i-^ ' Govern with justice and kindness and home will be indeed a little heaven on earth. 4-- -f — 1=^ THE LADY'S TOILET^ -Hr Cleanliness is the outward sign of inward purity. Cleanliness is health, and health is beauty. The first business of the dressing-room is the bath, and this should be a complete bath, and not simply a hasty washing of the face. It is not to be supposed that a lady washes to become clean, but simply to remain clean. A bathing of the entire body at least once a day is essential to health. It is not necessary to have a bath tub for this purpose, but merely an ordinary basin of tepid water, with soap, sponge and clean towels. The whole body may be quickly sponged off, or the sponge may be dis- penscil with and the hands alone used to convey the water to the body, after which dry the body thoroughly with a soft towel, and then use a coarse Turkish towel vigorously until the skin is red from the friction. In lieu of the coarse towel, a libenil use of the flesh-brush may be made, but either one or both must be regularly used, as nothing tends to keep the complexion in good condition so much as the daily use of the flesh-brush. Persons living in cities where Turkish baths are established will find a baih of this kind once a week very beneficial to their health. Oftcner than this the baths would be apt to have an enervating effect. But an occasional Turkish bath is the most effectual cleanser in the world. Early rising contributes not only to the preservation of health, but the proper condition of the mental faculties. Too much sleep induces minor ailments both of the body and mind. Fresh air, moderate exercise and good ventilation, together with the daily bath, are the great health-preservers. THE TEETH. Scnipulous care is necessary to the preservation of the teeth- Tlic teeth shotild be carefully brushed, not only every night and morning, but after every meal. The best and only needful tooth powder is a simple preparation of chalk. The numerous dentifrices advertised are most of them worthless and many of them positively injurious. A good tooth-brush, not too stiff, is necessary. Vcrj' hot and very cold things and a great deal of sweets are injurious to the teeth. Upon the first indication of decay, a good dentist should be consulted ; cheap dentistry is bad economy. THE BREATH. It goes without saying ihatasweet breath is one of the essentials of happi- ness, and should therefore be carefully looked to. The principal causes of a bad breath are a disordered stomach, decaying teeth and catarrhal affec- tions. In the latter case a good specialist should be consulted. When it arises from digestive difficulty, the diet should be changed to one better suited to the system. The eating of anything that will give an unpleasant odor to the breath i-. to be avoided, THE NAILS. Much care and attention is given to the nails by those who are particular in matters of the toilet. Of late years the care of the nails h;is been elevated to a profession, and persons calling themselves '* manicures " make it their business to dress the nails of ladies of fashion. It is sufficient, however, if you keep the nails carefully and evenly trimmed — great care, however, being required to preserve the correct shape, and keep all superfluous skin entirely removed. Plenty of warm water. Windsor soap and a nail-brush are all that is required to keep the hands in good condition. THE HAIR. Th2 hair should be regularly brushed, morning antl evening, with a clean hair-brush. It is important that the brushing be frequent; it is also im- portant that the brush be quite clean. The brush should be washed every day with hot water and soda, in order to preserve a glossy appearance to the hair. Occasionally the hair may be cleansed with a mi.vture of glycerine and lime juice. Pomades and oil should be carefully avoided. Never attempt to change the color of your hair by means of dyes and fluids. Your own hair, as nature colored it, is apt to be the only shade that will correspond with your eyes, eyebrows and comple.vion. Practices of this kind are much to be condemned. They indicate a sensekss desire for fashion, and an equally unladylike desire to attract attention. The use of hair dyes, false hair, etc., is almost as much to be condemned as painted cheeks and pencilled brows. THE COMPLEXION. As to the art of ul>taining a good complexion, all the recipes in the world can have but little effect compared with the excellence of early rising, reg\ilar habits, carefiil diet and absolute cleanliness. The various lotions recommended by Madame Rachel, and others of her ilk, the milk bath, pearl powders and washes of every kind, would never be needed if ladies were always careful to take plenty of exercise in the open air, wear broad-brimmed hats in the sun and veils in the wind. The face should never be washed when heated from exercise. Wipe the perspiration from the skin and wait until it is sufficiently cool before ytm bathe even in w^rm water. Rain-wa*-;r is the best for bathing purposes. If an eruption break out on the skin, consult a physician. FT 730 / HOME ETIQUETTE. CRESS IN dress, as in other things, society has passed under that wave of new impulse which has so much changed the appearance of our houses, the arrangement of our interiors, and even the texture and fashion of manufactures. That which we wore placidly, and even with a little complaisance and sense of superior good taste, twenty years ago, would fill us with alarm and horror now. The change which has taken place is more than a change of fash- ion : it is a change of principle. The differences of shape and form, which vary from one three-months to an- other, are but fluctuations of the standard, but the alteration which we have recently arrived at is fun damental. It has affected not only the cut, but the color, the fabric, the kind of our garments, and has re lieved the severity of rule and left such a margin for individual fancy as was not dreamed of twenty years ago. The change is chiefly visible in feminine apparel Where are now the fine full tones of blue and of green, the bright pinks, the orange yellow, in which we once flaunted in happy ignorance, knowing no better and believing, with some show of reason, that we were imitating the tints of nature, the color of the flowersj /^^ and of the birds? Where are now our appie-green gowns and our silk shawls "shot" with blue and yellow ' / ^^ The world has paled since those favored days ; even the vaporous tarlatan of the ball-room has sunk into softer tints, and in daylight no color affronts the eye of heaven that is not neutral. The result of the new impulse is to make Art the guide in matters of dress ; but with all due respect to that divine Priestess of the r.cautiful, we cannot but believe that she would prove a dangerous guide in a matter that involves so many practical features and so many individual peculiarities. Whatever painters may think, there are many costumes effective in a picture which would not be at all beautiful upon a living woman, and indis- criminate following of the fancies of Art would not be much less fatal than the usual indiscriminate following of fashion. No drejfS can be good which is not useful and into which the elements of individuality do not enter. The garments adapted for the slim and the tall and the graceful will never^ however admirable in themselves, agree with the dowdy, the dumpy or the ordinary. Fashion, indeed, throughout all its vagaries, has this one principle if humanity in it, that it is almost always designed to help those who want help, to cover deficiencies of nature, to conceal the evils wrought by time, and to make those look their best to whom no special charms have been given. Beautiful persons are free of all such bonds. Whatever they wear becomes them — they confer grace, they do not receive it ; therefore fashion is imma- terial to them. The time has never been when they were not allowed to flout it at their will. What saying is more general than, " She can wear anything?" It is said in admiration, in enthusiasm, in envy, and in spite, hut still it is said constantly of these favorites of Nature. And youth, even when not beautiful, has, to a certain extent, the same privilege. As a matter of fact, dress is by no means an unimportant item in human wcU-t'cing, and it may fairly claim to be considered in thehght of a fine art. To dress well requires something more than a full purse and a pretty figure. It reqi'ires t.aste, good sense and refinement. ^i^si"^^^ A NEATLY DRESSED LADY. A woman of taste and good sense will neither make dress her first nor her last object in life. She will remember that it is her duty to her husband and to society to always appear well dressed. Dress, to be in perfect taste, need not be costly, and no woman of right feeling will adorn her person at the expense of her husband's comfort and her children's education. The toilet of a well-dressed woman will be as well-chosen at the breakfast- table as at ball or reception. If she loves bright colors and can wear them with impunity, she will com- bine them as harmoniously as an artist does his colors. If she is young her dress will be beautiful; if she is old she will not affect simplicity. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ON DRESS. The golden rule in dress is to avoid extremes. Always follow rather than lead the prevailing fashion in dress. Do not be so original in dress as to be peculiar, and do not affect fashions that are radically unbecoming to you. Ladies who are neither very young nor very striking should wear quiet colors. It is not necessary to be rich in order to dress well, A little care in the choice and arrangement of materials is all that is necessary. Be sure that your dressmaker is a woman of taste and perfectly mistress of her art. Do not trust to any ordinary sewing-woman who may know nothing about harmony of colors and grace of outlines. A faultless morning toilet in summer should consist of the freshest of mus- lins, white or of delicate tints, with a tasteful arrangement of fresh, new ribbons, and plain linen collar spotlessly laundered. These, however, are better suited to young unmarried or married ladies. Ladies of more advanced years may wear dark silks iu the morning, but all jewelry, hair ornaments and fine laces should be eschewed for morning wear. Street costumes should always be quiet in tone. Fine woolen materials, in some shade of brown, gray, olive, dark green or dark blue, make the most suitable and natty street costumes. Any lady of taste who has once seen herself in some such costume, well-made and fitting to perfection, with hat and gloves to correspond, will never sigh for anything richer or more expensive for street wear. A lady of refinement will never wear a very expensive toilet of velvet or of silk or brocade of any light and conspicuous shade upon the street. Such costumes are ex- clusively for the carriage, for call- ing or for receptions. Much jewelry is out of place in the daytime, whether on the street or for indoor wear. It is particu- larly out of place in church. A handsome brooch and small, un- pretending ear-rings are the only jewelrypermissiblc in the daytime. Heavy bracelets, necklaces, a pro- fusion of diamonds and finger-rings should be reserved for evening wear. F.nglish ladies are much more strict in this matter than American ladies. According to their code it is never allowable to wear diamonds, pearls and other precious stones in the daytime. Custom, however, supports the wearing of a pair of solitaires in the ears at any time and in any place in America. Young ladies should not wear much jewelr>' at any time. AN OVER-DKESSED FEMALE. u: \ HOME ETIQUETTE 731 Mere costliness in jewelry is not always the best test of value. A rare intaglio or finely-wrought cameo, being a work of art, is a more desirable possession than a large diamond which any one might purchase. A stone of exquisite loveliness and by no me.-\ns common is the opal. Ball dresses may be composed of any Tich materials, either silk or satin, cashmeres, velvets or diaphanous materials, but they are usually of some light shade. It is not customary in America to go decoletti to balls. In England court etiquette prescribes bare neck and arms for full-dress. Dinner and reception dresses should be as rich and elegant as you can afford. Natural flowers are appropriate for dinners ; artificial ones for balls. In dressing the hair, be careful not to adhere too closely to the prevailing fashion if it is not becoming to you. Considerable latitude is always al- lowed in this respect. The dressing of the neck affords much opportunity for the display of taste. If the shoulders are broad, care must be taken not to enlarge the effect by too much trimming. Short persons should be careful not to diminish their height by numerous flounces, horizontal stripes or much trimming of any description. Stripes (perpendicular) have a tendency to in- crease the height and should therefore be worn by short and avoided by tall people. Every lady will pay especial atten- tion to her gloves and shoes. Nothing more emphatically marks the lady than to be well shod and immaculately gloved. Both gloves and shoes should fit closely, but not be loo tight. For evening wear the gloves cannot be too light, nor for street wear too dark. Slippers should never be worn upon the street. Black boots of soft French kid are the most genteel for all oc- casions except parties and balls. It is needless to say that a refined lady will give as much atleniion to the quality and finish of those garments which are not visible as to those which are. Dark shades are best adapted to stout people. Light shades and delicate tints are suited to the thin blonde type. The complexion, however, must always decide the question of color. THE BRUNETTE'S COLORS. carlct, orange and yellow are the brunette's colors par excellence, but she also looks well in glossy black and white. The tasteful brutie^-V\ always manage to have a scarlet blossom deftly twisted in her dark hair, or an orange knot looped at her throat. Dark green also sets off a dark com- plexion. Dark green and red will improve a sallow complexion, while those rich, creamy complexions one sees occasionally are set off by a reflection of yellow. THE BLONDE'S COLORS. The golden-haired blonde is charming in a setting of dark violet which may shade off into lilac or blue. Either light or dark shades of green look well with the ruddy face of the blonde, but the delicate, shell-pink complexion and fair hair of the very light blonde are exquisiie in a dress of pale Nile green. The blonde may also wear all the neutral colors, such as gray, drab, fawn, and the russets and browns as well ; in fact, there is very little except bright reds that blondes cannot wear. NliATLV UltiiSSKD GENTLEMAN. CONTRAST AND HARMONY IN COLORS. Ladies should be particularly carefid in selecting contra.sting colors for the same costume that they will harmonize as well ; else the beauty of the gar- ment is utterly destroyed. We iiave often heard it said, " The color of that feather absolutely kills the rest of the dress." This is when the wearer knows nothing of the rules which govern the harmony of colors, and for the benefit of such we affix the following brief table of harmonizing colors : Black and orange : black and white ; black and maize; black and scarlet ; black and lilac; black and pink; black and slate color; black and buff; black, white, yellow and crimson ; black, orange, blue and yellow. Green and gold ; green and yellow ; green and orange ; green and crimson ; green, yellow and scarlet ; green, yellow and crimson. Blue and gold ; blue and orange : blue and salmon color ; blue and drab ; blue and stone color ; blue and white ; blue and gray ; blue and straw color ; blue and maize ; blue and chestnut ; blue and brown ; blue and black. Crimson harmonizes with purple, with gold, with orange, with maize, with black and with drab. Lilac harmonizes with gold, with maize, with cherr>% with scarlet, with crimson. Purple harmonizes with gold, with orange and with maize. Yellow harmonizes with red, with brown, with chestnut, with violet, with crimson and with black. Red harmonizes with gold, with green and orange, with black and yellow, with white or gray, and with yellow, black and white. PERFUMERY WjT N the use of perfumery ladies must be extremely moderate. Perfumes should properly be used only in the evening, and then they should be of the most recherche kind. Many ladies have a .special perfumcrj*, such as violet, or white rose, which they use invariably in a very delicate manner, so that it becomes individualized, and tlicir friends come 10 associate them, insensibly, with the flower whose perfume they exhale. THE GENTLEMAN'S DRESSmG-RQQM. T ''.I HE first requi>iie of the ^ male tttilet is, of course, the bath , and this should be as bracing as the con- stitution will allow. The cold-water bath the year round is the best where the con- stitution will endure it, but there are very few physiques, espe- cially among Americans, that wilt admit of it. A sponge bath once a day, with a liberal use of the flesh-brush and a coarse huckaback towct, will answer every purpose. A sun and air bath after the water bath is an excellent thing, and is freiiuently recommended by physicians. A fresh-waicr bath should always be taken after bathing in the sea. The teeth should be cleaned at least twice a day, and smokers should rinse the mouth well after smoking. THE DUDE. f^ 732- ETIQUETTE OF ENGAGEMENTS AND MARRIAGE. Keep the nails clean and short. Long nails are vulgar. The beard should be kept well -trimmed and well-combed, and plenty of warm water and soap are necessary to keep them thoroughly clean. Do not i iidulge in long hair, thinking it gives you an artistic look . Painters and poets of eminence may be excused for wearing flowing locks, but in men of less degree it is a ridiculous affectation. The mustache should be neat and not over-large. A mustache d V Em- pereiir is absurd and smacks of the fop. The dress of a gentleman should be perfectly unobtrusive, in entire ha.- mony and becoming. Above all things should he avoid the extremes of fashion, such as wearing his coat extremely or absurdly short. When fashion dictates tight pantaloons let him not have his so tight that he cannot bend in them ; nor, if broad on:J be the mode, shall he have them so wide as to resemble his wife's gown. Loud patterns in cloth and glittering trinkets on the watch-chain are indi- cations rather of the gambler than the gentleman. A gentleman will have his clothes made by a good tailor, easy uf fit and excellent in quality, but subdued and quiet in tone, and neither too much in nor too far behind the prevailing style. Bulwer says, " A gentleman's coat should not fit too well," and he is right, as no self-respecting man wants to be taken for a tailor's dummy. The regulation dress for evening wear — but it should never be worn before sundown, no matter how ceremonious the occasion — is black swallow-tail coat, black trowsers, black vest, cut low to show the shirt-front, thin patent- leather boots, a white cravat, and light kid gloves. A gentleman should wear no jewelry but such as has a use, except it may be a handsome ring. His sleeve-buttons and collar-studs should be of plain gold, but genuine. False jewelry is vulgar, and elaborate ornamentation is foppish. It is more genteel even to dispense with a gold watch-chain and wear only a plain black guard. If a ring is worn, good taste would suggest that it be a fine antique intaglio rather than an expensive diamond. ^^iQUET^FEv.©^ '^ w^ En^a^ement^ •:• and •:• [Dapf^ia^e. 1 JIO lay down a set ot rules for the regulation of courtship would ffl prove as hopeless a task as Mrs. Partington's attempt to mop up '^^ the Atlantic Ocean. The best and only reliable counsellors at j ^V* this crisis of a young man's or young woman's life are feeling and good sense. ^^'^ No wise man will intrude himself upon the presence of a lady, nor risk being regarded as a bore, neither will a modest woman receive the attentions of a man too eagerly, however agreeabV she may regard them. A woman of tact can let a gentleman see that his attentions are not dis- agreeable tn her without actually encouraging him. It is equally possible for a man to be quite dczwie without becoming a lover. Unless a woman i.s a downright coquette, a man of sense ought to be able to judge whether his proposal will be favorably received or not. It is exceedingly dishonorable for either a man or a woman to trifle with the affec- tions of the other. S— sT ^THS PRQPOSAL.-;^T^ V^ her liberty, her obedience, her very life, and he should comport himself with suitable humility and accept her acquiescence with becoming gratitude. The manner of making the offer of marriage must always be regulated hy circumstances. If the case be a genuine love affair, the time and place and language of the proposal are apt to be the result of chance and impulse, rather than of premeditation on the part of the lover. If the gentleman be ready of speech and attractive in person, it is besi. for him tn i»lead his cause in pcrsomi propria, and receive his acceptance with the added sweetness of smile and blush and love-lit glance, or his rejection, if such it must be, with the tender, saving grace of sadly-murmured regrets. If the suii(ir, however, be of a nervous temperament, or " fears his cause too much" to risk a personal interview, he should make his proposal in writing. In making his offer of marriage, however, a man should always bear in .nind that he is a petitioner, that he is begging of the woman to gnint him DEPORTMENT OF THE EHGAGED. ""PON the conduct of brth parties during the preparatory stage of the engagement depends in a great measure the probability of its being carried to the desired consummation of marriage. I'he gentleman in particular should be careful to observe the following directions : He should be tender and devoted to his bride-elect. He should treat her family with the greatest respect. He .should particularly guard against acting as though he were already a member of the family by taking liberties that he is not justified in taking. He should be always on the alert to do any member of his /frtwtv^-'i- family a service; in fact he should play the devoted friend to his betrothed and all her relatives. He should conform to all the rules of the household, being punctual at meals, never intruding at unseemly hours ; kind to tlie children and courteous toward the servants. He should not compromise the reputation uf his future wife by keeping her up until a late hour. His visits may be as frequent as he pleases, but should always be short. The custom of lovers staying until a late hour of th:; night is no longer permitted in genteel society. He should be attentive and gallant toward other ladies, but not sufficiently so to excite the jealousy of his betrothed. He should not monopolize her company ir general society, but should always be accorded the first place as her escor. by the lady, and should be watchful of all her wants. .\^ I K / ETIQUETTE OF ENGAGEMENTS AND MARRIAGE. 7 -» -1 He may send her few or mnny presents, as she seems disposed to accept ihem. If tlic lady (ir her family object to her receiving costly gifts he may keep her supplied with flowers, with books, and with sweetmeats if she have a taste for bon-bons. An engagement is usually sealed by the wearing of a ring. If the accepted lover be wealthy a brilliant of rare value is the correct thing for the engage- ment ring, and should be worn upon the first finger of the left hand. If, however, his means are limited, a less expensive ring will answer the purpose. In the matter of gifts, too, a sensible man will not give more than he can 3lTt>rd, nor run into debt in order to procure them. The lady must be careful not to excite the jealousy of hei lover by flirting with other men. She must carefvilly avoid any undue familiarity and effectually check anj' attempt toward such on his part. She should remember that nothing so soon disgusts a man with a woman as any indications of untidiness or unclcanliness on her part. She should therefore be exceedingly neat and clean in his presence, and have her dress always chosen with taste. Let their conduct generally toward each other be such as to inspire con- fi lence, and in case of a misunderstanding let her not hesitate to make the advance toward reconciliation. -n^^/e) IT is not usual for the lady to visit any but her intimate friends after the announcement of the engagement. She should, however, leave her visiting-card at the residence of her friends just previous to the sending of the invitations, which should be sent at least two weeks prior to the wedding. The invitations should be engraved in a rich, heavy script, and should be of such shape as to fold in a long, narrow envelope, not square, for the latter shape is now somewhat out of date. The quality and tint of ihc invitations, "At Home" and church cards should be uniform with the envelopes, as the slightest difference would spoil their beauty. J'he invitations, the "At Home" cards and the church cards are all placed in one envelope, bearing the name only of the parties to whom sent. The full address is placed on the outside envelope. Invitations should be delivered by the footman at the residence of the parties for whom intended. The footman, too, should always be in full livery. The invitation shovdd be in this form : 'W / If a reception be given at the residence of the bride's parents, a card tu those whose presence is desired should be ^inclosed in the envelope with the invitation : thus : Or: WiAU/ ^tvowlX .oXWr loA,vr \,vwUA/ Kam>. It is quite customary at large weddings to issue usher or churcli cards, thus avoiding the crowd of curious sight-seers who cause nuich annoyance by filling all the best seats. This card should be small and engraved in script, with crest or monogram. In form : In case of the reception being given on the return of the bridal party the card should read : Should the bride's parents decide to give her a reception on her return to the city, the "At Home" card will contain the bride's name below her mother's ; in all other respects the same as model given. When the wedding is at the house, the form of invitation is same as at church, except that the number of residence is substituted for name of church. For "At Home" weddings, combining ceremony and reception, the form is: oX hjoJX A^ix^v Ic^Wv., ^2)^0 ^^ ^^. J j ■A ^^ v •v• ^^A^^■•"^^v^^•9^•T^■^vv^ g\ ■ ^^\•v^•\■^•v'^^■5 I * Jr -*. if A If A ii A i A ;f A rf A if A !f A it A ii A if A i\ A ;ir A !^ A ;f A !f A if A it A Jt A 5i" A S A ;*■ A ".i A X .* ; Geneml-iHinh^-oQ-Eti^aethe. -•^•^l-^* S??li^^HERE are a number of the minor points of etiquette which, not \\um \\M coming directly under any of the preceding heads, might other- wise be omitted, and which, therefore, we propose touching upon in this chapter. ^_^ The art of giving and receiving presents is not always an in- 'v^ tuition. A generous person may unwittingly wound where he intends to please, while a really grateful person may, by want of tact, appear to deprecate the liberality of his friends. A gift should always be valuable for something besides its price. It may have been brought by the giver from some famous place; it may have a valuable association with genius, or it may be unique in its workmanship. An author may offer his book or an artist his sketch, and any one may offer flowers, which are always a delicate and unexceptionable gift. A rich person should be careful how he gives to the poor, lest he hurt their pride, while a poor person can only give to those of greater wealth some- thing that has cost only affection, time or talent. Never allude to a present which you have given ; do not even appear to see it if you are where it is. Do not give a present in hopes of a return. If you present a book to a friend, do not write the name In it unless It is requested. By doing so you are taking for granted that your present will be accepted, and also that a specimen of your penmanship will give additional value to the gift. It is in bad taste to undervalue a gift which you have yourself offered. If it is valueless, it is not good enough to give to your friend ; and if you say you do not want it yourself, or that you would only throw it away if they did not take it, you are insulting the person whom you mean to benefit. Married ladles may occasionally accept a present from a gentleman who visits frequently at the house, and desires to express his gratitude in that way. An unmarried lady should not accept presents from any gentleman to whom she is not engaged, or who Is not a relative. Never refuse a gift unless you have a very good reason for so doing. How- ever poor the gift, you should show your appreciation of the kindness of heart which prompted it. All such deprecatory phrases .is " I fear I rob you," or " I am realty ashamed to take it," etc., are in bad taste, as they seem to Imply that you think the giver cannot afford it. Do not quickly follow up .i present by a return. It looks too much like payment. Never, however, fail to make an immediate acknowledgment of the- receipt of a gift. Remember, when you are prone to give In charity to the sick or the needy, that " he who gives quickly gives double." Never indulge in egotism In the drawing-room. The person who makes his family, his wealth, his affairs or his hobby the topic of conversation Is not only a bore but a violator of good taste. Wcdo not meet in society to display ourselves, but to give and take as much rational entertainment as our own accomplishments and those of others will afford. The man or woman who engrosses the conversation Is unpardonably .selfish. \Vc should not neglect very young people in our drawing-rooms. If we wish our children to have polished manners, and to express themselves wull, we must lead them to enter into the conversation that is going on. All irritability and gloom must be thrown off when we enter society. It is a duty to always look pleased. It is likewise a duty to appear inter- ested in a story that you may have heard a dozen times before, to smile on the most inveterate proser ; In short, to make such minor sacrifices of sin- cerity as one's good manners and good feelings may dictate. In conversation the face must be pleasant, wearing something that almost approaches to a smile. Always look at the person who is conversing with you, and listen respect- fully. In answering try to express your thoughts In the best manner. A loose manner of expression injures ourselves much more than our hearers, sinceit is a habit which, once acquired, is not easily thrown off, and when we wish to express ourselves well it is not easy to do so. A good bit of advice is the saying, " Think twice before you speak once," as thus only can you learn to always speak to the point. The young of both sexes would find it an inestimable advantage through life to cultivate from the outset a clear intonation, a well-chosen phraseology, a logical habit of thought, and a correct accent. A well educated person proclaims himself by his simple and terse lan- guage. Good and clear Saxon is m'uch to be preferred to high-sounding phrases and long words; It is only the half-educated who imagine such a style is elegant. Never employ extravagance in conversation. Always employ the word that will express your precise meaning and no more. It is absurd to say It Is "Immensely jolly," or "disgustingly mean." Such expressions show neither wit nor wisdom, but merest flippancy. Avoid awkwardness of attitude as well as awkwardness of speech. No man or woman is well-bred who is continually lolling, gesticulating or fidgeting in company. No lady of good breeding will sit sideways on her chj ir, or with her legs crossed or stretched apart, or hold her chin in her hands, or twirl her watch chain, while she Is talking ; nor does a well-bred gentleman sit astride of his chair, or bite his nails, or nurse his leg. A man is always allowed more freedom than a woman, but both should be graceful and decorous in their deportment. Never indicate an object by pointing at it. Move the head or wave the whole hand. X -N Sneezing, coughing and cle:»ring the throat must be done quietly whtn it cannot possibly be avoided ; but sniftling and expcctoniting must never be indulged in in decent society. Physical training is neccssarj* to both men and women who aspire to be of the best society. Every gentleman shouhl know how to fence, to box, to shoot, to swim, to ride, to dance, and how to carry himself. Calisthenic exercises and dancing should be t.iught every young woman. Even though she may not intend to dance, the acquirement of the art tends to produce that gnice of movement which is so beautiful in woman. Swimming, rid- ing, driving, archery and all suitabb outdoor amusements strengthen the mu'icles and give beauty and suppleness to the human form divine. A good niemor>' for names and faces, and a self-possessed manner, are necessary to every one who would m:ikc a good impression in society. Nothing is more delicately flattering to another than to find you can readily call his or her name, after a very slight acqu.iinlancc. The most popular of great men have gained their popularity principally through the possession of this faculty. Shyness is ver>' ungraceful, and a positive injury to any one afflicted with it. It is only allowable in very young people. A person who blushes, stam- mers and fidgets in the presence of strangers will not create a vcrj' good impression upon their minds as to his personal worth and educational ad- vantages. Shyness may be overcome by determined mixing in society. Nothing else will have an effect upon it. In conversing with a person, do not repeat the name frequently, as it im- plies one of two extremes, that of familiarity or haughtiness. If you are talking to a person of title, do not keep repeating the title. You can express all the deference you desire in voice and manner ; it is im- necessary and snobbish to put it in words. A furcigner should always be addressed by his full name; as, Monsieur de Moiumorcnci, never as Monsieur only. In speaking of him, give him his title, if he have one* For example, in speaking to a nobleman you would say, Monsieur le Marquis ; in speaking of him in his absence, you would say. Monsieur le Marquis deMontmorenci. Converse with a foreigner in his own language. If you are not suflTiciently at home in the language to do so, apologize to him, and beg permission to spe;ik English. Married people are sometimes guilty of the vulgar habit of speaking of each other by the initial letter of their first name, or the wife of her hiLsband as "Jones," omitting the "Mr." This denotes very ill breeding, and should be strenuously avoided. Never speak of absent persons by their Christian names or their sur- names ; always refer to them as Mr. or Mrs. . Gentlemen, when with ladies, are expected to defray all such expenses as car fares, entrance fee to theatre, refreshments, etc. In entering an e.'chibition or public room where ladies are present, gentle- men should always I'.fi their hats. In France a gentleman lifts his hat on entering a public omnibus, but that is not necessary according to the English code of etiquette. To yawn in the presence of others, to put your feet on a chair, to stand with your back to the fire, to take the most comfortable seat in the room, to do anything in fact that displays selfishness and a lack of respect for those about you, is luiequivocally vulgar and ill-bred. If a person of greater age than yourself desire you to step into a carriage or through a door first, it is more polite to buw and obey than to decline. Compliance with, and deference to, the wishes of others, is always the finest breeding. A compliment that is palpably insincere is no compliment at all. Boasting is one of the most ill-bred habits a person can indulge in. Travelling is so imivcrsal a custom now that to mention the fact that you have been to Europe is to state nothing exceptional. Anybody with wealth, health and leisure cin travel ; but it is only those of real intelligence that derive any benefit from the art treasures of the Old World. When in general conversation you cannot agree with the propositi()n ad- vanced, it is best to observe silence, unless particularly asked for your opinion, in which case you will give it modestly, but decidedly. Never be betrayed into too much warmth in argument ; if others remain uncon- vinced, drop the subject. Gentlemen precede a lady in going up stairs, but follow her in going down. In walking with a lady through a crowd, precede her, in order to clear the In walking on a public promenade, if you meet the same friends and ac- quaintances a number of times, it is only necessary to salute them once in passing. Never speak of your own children as "Master" and "Miss" except to servants. Nevercorrect any ^light inaccuracy in statement or fact. It is better lo let it pass than to subject another to the mortification of being corrected in company. No one can be polite who does not cidtivate a good inemor)-. There is a class of absent-minded people who arc to be dreaded on account of the mischief they are sure to create with their unlucky tongues. They always recall unlucky topics, speak of the dead as though they were living, talk of people in their hearing, and do a hundred and one things which, in slang parlance, is " treading on somebody's toes." Carelessness can be carried to such a pitch as lo almost amount to a crime. Cultivate a good memory*, therefore, if you wish to say plcisant things and to avoid disagreeable ones. People must remember that they must give as well as take in this life, and that they must not hesitate to go to a little trouble in those small observ- ances which it is so pleasant to accept. When entrusted with a commission, do not fail to perform it. It is rude to "forget," On entering a room filled with people, do not fail to bow slightly to the general company. If you accept favors and hospitalities, do not fail to return the same when the opportunity offers. The most contemptible meanness in the world is that of opening a private letter addressed to another. No one with the slightest self-respect would be guilty of such an act. Never betray a confidence. Never question a child or a servant about the private affairs of the family Do not borrow money and neglect to pay. If you do, you will soon find that your credit is bad. When offered a seat in the street car, accept the same with audible thanks. It is very awkward for one lady to rise and give another lady a seat in a streetcar, unless the lady standing be very old, or evidently ill and weak. Never fail to answer an invitation, either personally or by letter, within a week after its receipt. Do not fail to return a friend's call in due time. Never play practical jokes. The results are frequently so serious as lo entail life-long regret on the joker. Avoid any familiarity with a new acquaintance. You never know when you may give offence. Always tell the truth. Veracity is the very foundation of character. Without it a man is a useless and unstable structure. When writing to ask a favor or to obtain information, do not fail to enclose postage stamp for a reply. When an apology is offered, accept it, and do so with a good grace, not in a manner that implies you do not intend changing your opinion of the offence. It is rude to examine the cards in a card-basket unless you have an invita- tion to that effect. Never look at the superscription on a letter that you may be requested to mail. Never seal a letter that is to be given to a friend for delivery. It looks as though you doubted his or her honor in refraining irom examining the con- tents When walking with a lady, it is etiquette to give her the wall, but if she have your arm it is quite unnecessary to be changing at every corner you come to. After one or two changes the habit becomes ridiculous. Always adopt a pleasant mode of address. Whether you are speaking to inferiors or lo your equals, it will alike give them a kindly and happy im- pression of you. Long hair and a scrawling signature do not constitute genius. Be careful, then, how you draw upon yourself the ridicule of being a shallow pretender by adopting either or both. Never fail to extend every kindly courtesy to an elderly person or an invalid. Never ridicule the lame, the hall or the blind. You never know when misfortune may be your own lot. ^. 736 ETIQUETTE OF THE HOUSE. Do not make promises that j'ou have no intention of fulfilling. A person who is ever ready with promises, which he fails to execute, is soon known as a very unreliable party. Punctuality is a most admirable quality. The man or woman who pos- sesses it is a blessing to his or her friends. The one who lacks it is wanting in one of the first requisites of good-breeding. It is extremely rude to look over the shoulder of one who is reading or writing. It is also rude to persist in reading aloud passages from your own book or paper to one who is also reading. Do not appear to notice any defect, scar or peculiarity of any one. It is the height of rudeness to speak of them. Never presume to attract the attention of an acquaintance by a touch, unless you are extremely intimata. Recognition by a simple nod or spoken word is all that can be allowed. Do not be quick to answer questions, in general company, that are put to others. You should not lend an article that you have borrowed without first ob- taining permission from the owner. Avoid ail exhibition of excitement, anger or impatience when an accident happens. Neither a gentleman nor a lady will boast of the conquests he or she has made. Such a course would have the effect of exciting the most profound contempt for the boasters in the breasts of all who heard them. If you cannot avoid passing between two persons who are talking, never fail to apologize for doing so. Never enter a room noisily. Never enter the private bed-room of a friend without knocking. Never fail to close the door after you, and do not slam it. Temper has much more to do with good-breeding than is generally sup- posed. The French are allowed to be the most polite people in the world, when they are really only the most amiable. Learn to make small sacrifices with a good grace ; to accept small disap- pointments in a patient spirit, A little more of self-control, a little more allowance for the weaknesses of others, will oftentimes change the entire spirit of a household. We are not to be polite merely because we wish to please, but because we wish to consider the feelings and spare the time of others — because we wish to carry into daily practice the spirit of the precept, " Do unto others as you would have others do unto you." V Eti^Liette V oF V \:\ie •> Hoci^e. •• g^^u MANAGEMENT OF SERVANTS llVERY mistress of a house is a sovereign queen, whose court is the home circle, which is dependent entirely upon her grace and executive ability for happiness, comfort and refinement. In a well-ordered household the machinery is always in order, and always out of sight, and it is the special care of the mis- tress thereof to secure servants so reliable, so efficient and so well trained that this machinery shall run quite noiselessly, and with the most perfect satisfaction. No well-bred woman talks of her servants, her dinner arrangements, or of her housekeeping affairs generally, to her visitors in the drawing-room, nor yet to her husband in the privacy of the domestic circle. No lady, however gifted, can afford to neglect the management of her household. If she be possessed of immense wealth, she may afford to hire an efficient housekeeper, but even then tlie final responsibility rests upon her. No tastes and no pleasures should be allowed to stand in the way of this important duty. The momeAt you enter a house, the personality of the mistress is betrayed by the atmosphere which seems to pervade it. If she be a good and efficient ruler, the servants wear a cheerful air, the children are obedient and courteous, the rooms are tastefully furnished and spotlessly clean and neat. The unexpected guest receives a cordial welcome, and is conducted to a well-appointed table. In such a home scandal and gossip are never heard, and peace and contentment are the household gods. The first and most important rule for the governing of the household is to regulate the expenditure so that it shall come easily within the income. Elegance adds greatly to the enjoyment of life, but if it is to be purchased at the expense of all peace of mind, you had better do without it altogether. If you cannot be elegant, you can at least be clean, and the true gentle- woman will be discovered as soon in the cottage as in the palace by her sur- roundings. Shabby gentility is one of the most objectionable forms of snobbishness. To affect a better income than you have, to ape the maimers of your richer neighbors, proclaims you vulgar and ill-bred in the highest degree. Shams of every description are contemptible, and every young housekeeper should build her house upon a superstructure of sincerity, and then she will never have to blush at awkward discoveries. Your house may have the appearance of refinement without any great expense if good taste be exercised in its arrangement. The rooms must be furnished with an artistic eye for colors, and a careful eye for comfort. Whatever pictures or works of art there are should be good. One good en- graving is better than half a dozen cheap chromos. A house without books is a house without a soul. Be sure, therefore, 10 have plenty of books around. You may not be able to have a whole libriry, but you can at least collect a few shelves of well-chosen works. Thorns and ferns are ornamental and tasteful, and may be obtained :it a very slight expenditure ; all that they require is a little care and thought in their cultivation and arrangement. Be careful not to overload your rooms with cheap knick-knacks and gaudy tidies of crochet or knitted work. Any one having a taste for the higher style of embroidery, such as the Kensington and Arrasene work, may produce very artistic effects, at but slight expense. The walls of your rooms are a very important subject, and as you cannot expect to change the papering thereof with every fluctuation of fashion, it is essential that you exercise good taste at the outset, paying but little atten- tion to the prevailing style. The wails of a room should always be of some sober color. Your carpets may be bright as you please, but the pattern must be small, and the colors well blended. Set figures are very wearisome to the eye, either in a carpet or on wull-paper, and as boih are likely to be worn a long time, it is best to look out for that at the beginning. \ ETIQUETTE OF THE HOUSE. r37 In this day of armdc famiture, ait magaiziaes, and art craxes gcaaaBy, there Deed be do excme lor bad ta&te in fiannshing, Tbc day of one stiff SO&, six stiff chain, aod ooe straight tabfe, aU placed rigidly against the vall, andfermiog ri^u angles vith it. is over, the gods be thanked; and a persoD, be he ever so uncultured, can forot some oo n ce p ci oe of what is soitabie and beanti^ in the house to make it a home. Plenty of fresh air, ckanlinc&s and qmct, are aB indicarions of a veO- orderedhome. The servant qnestioa is the okost difficnh ooe that housekeepers have to contend with in America. The independent ^Niit of our republic ts inim- ical to anytfaii^ that kxiks like senritnde ; heace ottr 3rouDg wooiea of the poorer dasses would much rather go into ^ctories, or bend orer scwii^- machiacs, than go into pleasant, cultivated families, where the varied labor, better dre and purer aunospberc would contribute immeasurably to the presenratioo of their health and happiness. American ladies are largely dependent, therdbrc, upon the poor emigrant population of Germany and Ireland for their servams, and this will account for the main part of the difficulties in bousriteeping here. It would be task enough to instruct a ttatxTc-bom girl in the raried mysteries of dusting aikd dish-washii^, of waiting on the table and answering the door-bell ; but when it comes to wrestling «'ith the vernacular of the Fatherland as well, it is discouragii^ in the highest decree. The best way, however, is to offer good wages, take only such a ^rl as is well recommended, and then, by firm, patient and just measures, endeavor to have her do your work in your own way, and to your perfect satislacxioiL. Here, as elsewhere, the mistress must ever be on the alert. She must be quick to observe any negtect of orders and carelessness in the execution of them. She must rcmiad repeatedly, but always kindly and finnly. Let your servant see that you wi// be obeyed, but nrerr let her see you out of temper, and you wiD soon acquire such an ascendancy over her that everything will go as smoothly when you arc absent as when you are present. If you will keep a good servant, yoc must treat her properly. A good mistress »-ill give as much attention to the comibrt and happiness of her servants as she will to that t be expected to help another out, as that would be injustice to the industrious one. The mistress must give personal supervision if she would have her work well done. Only after a long and tried period of service can she afford to relax her vigilance. A good house-mistress will never be afraid of a little trouble The constant care pays in the end. Avoid a fault-finding axul scolding manner. When a thing does not suit you, say so quietly to your servant. A dbplay of temper only loses you the respect of your servant, and gains you nochii^ in the way of obedience. Servants shook! be treated as thou^ they were **«"■*« bongs, with httman weaknesses, and not as if they were mere workix^ machines. You should eadeavor to correct their faults, ikoc to aggravate them ; and jrou sboufci treat them, and have your children treat them, wtth in\-ariablc kind- ness and civihEy. You should interest yourself in the amuscBems of your servants. If the>- have a caste iot reading, proiride them with good books. Sec that the^- oocasioaally have an opportunicy to attend a place of amusement. Do noi restrict their boors of amusement, or eadeavor to curtail their personal liberty. A good, devoted servant is, particularly in thb coumr>-. where the sense of equality is felt and tacitly admiued, as much a part of the &mily as any member thervof. She is the trusted confidante in family troubles ; she is the recipient of all the joyfiil secrets of the various members of the dmily : she ts. in short, more friend than servant, without pccsumpcioa on the one hand or undignified oondesoensioa on the other. Putkctuality is one of the chief requiremetus of a wdl-ordered household. The good temper and consequent cotnfon of the whole £unily depeiMl upoo the regularity of the meats, to say nochic^ of the health, which is almost as largely dependent tjpon the meal betj^ served on time as upon the quality of tbe&od. The breakfast and dinner beU should be as punctual as the church bell. The mistress must look well to the quality and preparation of the food. Badly cooked fiaod, moootonoos ibod or insufficient food are all injurious to the health, and iko lady should lex other and more agreeable occupations engage her attention until she has attended \a her marketing, ordered her meals, and made stue of their betng properly prepared and neatly served. Unless she have a dining-room maid, upon whom she can chorou^ily depend, it b better for the lady of the bouse to go into her dinii^-room a few moments before meals are served, to sec that all is in order, the table properly anas^ed, etc There are very few servants in this country well trained enoi^ to be depended upon without dose supervision. A good housekeeper wiQ also attend carcAiQy to her daily accounts. Entries of expenditures sbotild be made ever>' day, ard the amount cast up at the end of the week. If a book is kept with the butcher and the grocer, it is always best to have a weekly settlement. A monthly or a quarterly set- tlement may of course be made, but the shorter time accounts are allowed to run, the easier it is to untai^lc anj- little knot in the skein. It is best for the mistress to do all her own ordering for the domestic commissariat than to depute any part of the task to her cook. UTicre servants arc allowed to nm and order this or that article, there is alwa)'s trouble with the tradesmen when the monthly bill comes in. While every woman should do all in her power to enbugc her views, cul- tivate her mind, and improve her social position, she should bear in mind that " home " is first and forever her special heritage, and that to embellish and beautify it, and to so order it chat it shall be a haven of rest to her dear oikcs, is her highest and noblest duty, to which ever>thing else should be subservient. "^^^^^^^ /#V ^ 738 -Tf" THE ART OF CARVING. ;^, # ^'^i^^^i^^^i^i^i^>^)^^^g"^>^^^^>^>^'^^^i^^'^^fiBi^gE'i^^)^)^)^ ^^^0. > l^e-flr^t-oF-Cai^Vin^. ^^fe ^1^ ^ _. *^l-l-|=^^^fH>^«* Hi \wr-ir^ H E importance of the art of carving has been referred to under h.l.^-^- !.-\^l: (he head of Dining, and we propose here to give a few rules upon the practice which may be of benefit to the tyro, and help him to acquire that ease and dexterity in carving which is so conducive to peace and comfort around the family board. *^T^ In carving a sirloin of beef, the upper cuts should be made lengthwise of the beef, while the under cuts are crosswise— the under cuts being also much thicker than the upper cuts. As there is much difference of opinion as to which is the choice piece, it is best for the carver to ask his guests which cut they prefer. Rib roasts, rolled, and a round of beef are always cut in very thin hori- zontal slices across the whole surface of the meat. It is essential, though, that these slices be quite thin. The leg, the loin, the shoulder and the saddle are the four pieces of mut- ton usually brought to the table to be carved. First, as to the leg. This must be placed on the table with the knuckle toward the left hand. Then cut into the side farthest from you toward the bone, helping thin slices from the right and thick slices toward the knuckle. Always divide the little bunch of fat near the thick end among your guests, as it is a great delicacy. A saddle of mutton is often ordered for a small dinner party. It is cut in very thin slices, close to the back-bone, and then downward. Place a " shoulder " with the knuckle toward the right hand, the blade bone toward the left. Place your fork firmly in the middle of the edge farthest from you, and cut dexterously from the edge to the bone. This causes the meat to fly open, when you can cut slices on each side of the opening, until there is no more to cut, when the meat should be turned over and slices cut from the under side. Another method of carving this joint is to cut slices lengthwise from the end to the knuckle. The loin of mutton, which is a piece intended specially for family use, should be carved either through the joints or may be cut lengthwise in a parallel line with the joints. A fillet of veal is, in shape and appearance, very similar to a round of beef, and is carved in the same way by cutting horizontal slices over the whole surface of the meat. The slices, however, should not be nearly so thin as beef. A fillet of veal is cut from the leg, the bone is removed by the butcher, and the pocket thus made is filled with dressing, which is taken out and liclped wiih a spoon by the carver. A breast of veal may be either roasted or stewed. If used as a roasting- picce, you will have the butcher make an opening or hole in it for the recep- tion of the dressing. In carving it, the ribs may be separated from the brisket, and sent round. A fore-quarter of lamb consists of shoulder, breast and ribs. The knife must be first placed upon the shoulder, drawn through horizontally, and the joint removed, and placed upon another dish. The ribs can then be separated, and the breast sliced and sent around. A calf's head, which is by some considered a delicacy, must be cut down the centre in thin slices on each sidt. A small piece of the palate, of the sweet-bread, and of the meat around the eye, must be put on each plate and sent round. In carving a haunch of venison, make a cut across close to knuckle, after which cut slices by making straight incisions lengthwise. There are three methods allowed in carving a ham. The most common one probably is to cut it like a leg of mutton, beginning in the middle, and cutting either way. You may, however, begin at the knuckle, cutting slices in a slanting direction, or you may begin at the thick end. The slices must always be as ihin and delicate as possible, and are the usual accom- paniment to fowl or veal. Tongue must always be cut in thin, regular slices. Make the first cut a short distance from the tip, where a slice of some size may be attained. The tip is considered quite a tid-bit by some people. In carving a chicken, first cut off the wings. This is easily done by learn- ing where to strike the joint. Then slice the breast, and cut off the merry- thought and side bones. The breast should always be helped first, then the wings — the liver wing being the better of the two. It is better to always reserve a small slice of the white meat to be served with the dark. Pigeon, snipe and quail are cut in half, and a piece sent to each guest. When the birds are small, you send a whole one. Goose and turkey are helped by cutting slices off the breast, and then the wings and legs are removed. The breast is considered the best meat, and after that the wings. Boiled rabbit is carved thus : First cut off the legs, then take out the shoul- ders with a sharp-pointed knife, then break the back into Ihree or four pieces at the joint. The back is the choice help, especially the piece in the centre. The shoulder is next in order after the back, and the leg comes last. The kidney is a delicate bit. ' For cutting fish a regular silver fish-slice is provided. Salmon and all fish of that order are cut in slices down the middle of the upper side, and then in slices across on the under side, A piece of each should be helped to all. Mackerel divides among four people. Pass fish-knife between the upper and under half from head to tail, then halve each side, and help to a quarter. Cut cod crosswise like salmon, then downward, and send a small piece of round on each plate as well. Large flat fish, as turbot, flounders, John Dorey, etc., are first cut down the middle from head to tail, then across to the fin, in slices. The fin, being considered a delicacy by some, should be helped, too. Small fish, like smelts, whiting, etc., are sent whole to each guest. /_ \ HOW TO SELECT MEATS. /■ 739 cr^ y EEK3 -^the*art*of*cooking^- feliXKR)- ia 8 i #']t i I i iIiiI'li»'iai i ]i) i I'»(I''S€i i |i i 1ii i I i ilt i iiIi(ltl JtiI i (tOt ii Ii » M ;? 4"^' _ ARCELY a young housekeeper, unless so fortunate as to liave had a thorough course of training by a sensible mother, but has been mortified at her own extreme ignorance of what before seemed unimportant matters, but afterward proved themselves very essential points in the way of doing the household market- ing. The difference in kind and quality, and the technical names of the various parts of edible animals, probably never occurred to her until brought face to face with the matter in the butcher shop, which she has entered for the first time to purchase her meat for dinner. For the benefit of such we give a few general rules upon how to select meats, the names of the different parts, appearance of good and bad meats, etc. First, as to the characteristics of good meats. Meat of a pale pink color is likely to be diseased, while that of a deep purple tint has not been slaughtered, but has died of acute fever. The proper color is a bright, rich red. It should be firm and elastic in appearance, and scarcely moisten the fingers. Bad meat is wet and sodden, while the fat in it looks like jelly. Good meat has little or no odor, and is not disagreeable. Bad meat has a sickly odor that is extremely offensive. Good meat should not shrink much in cooking. It should not become very wet on standing. It should drj' upon the surface. Meat should be dried with a clean cloth as soon as it conies from the butcher's. Cut out fly-blows if there are any on it. Never buy britised joints. Meat will keep a long time in cold weather, while if frozen it will keep for months. Always thaw frozen meat before attempting to cook it, by plunging it in cold water or setting it before the fire. It will not cook well without this precaution. In summer place your meat on ice, or in the coldest place you have, until ready to cook it. Always baste roast meat with its own drippings. You cannot baste it loo much. In order to retain the juices, your meat must be cooked in a hot oven. In boiling meat, if you wish to make soup as well, put your meat in cold water, and bring it slowly up to the boiling point. The juices then flav()r the water and make soup. If you put the meat in boiling water, the juices remain in the meat, and the liquor is worthless. Stewing is slow boiling. Frying is cooking in a pan, in a small quantity of fat. Broiling is cooking over a fire. Beef is the flesh of the ox, and is the principal meat eaten in this country and in England. Good beef shoidd be well streaked or marbled with fat, and should have plenty of loose fat or suet around. The joints of beef for roasting are ribs, sirloin, chump of rump, fillet of sirloin, mouse buttock, top side and heart. The choice roasts are sirloin and rib roasts. For a small family a nice roast is made of one rib, the bone being taken out, and the meat neatly rolled and skewered by the butcher. For frying or broiling the best steak is the "porterhouse." After that "tenderloin" and "sirloin" steak, and the "rump" steak. The latter should be well beaten, as it has a tendency to toughness. The choicest thing for breakfast is a "porterhouse" steak, broiledquickly over a bright fire. For beefsteak puddings and pics coarser pieces of the meat may be pur- chased. For soup, a good shin-bone is best. Beef is more nourishing roasted than boiled, and can be eaten more fre- quently than any other meat without causing surfeit. Veal has but little fat, and is of a pinkish white color. Good veal should be closely grained and small ; if it is large and coarse-grained, it is too old to be really nice. Do not buy it if it is moist and clammy, as it is then nearing decomposition. The best pieces of veal for roasting are fillet and best end of the breast. For frying, cutlets from the shoulder. Spring lamb is one of the most delicate kinds of meat that can be eaten. The whole animal is usually divided into quarters by the butcher, and sold at so much a quarter. A hind quarter is usually rather more expensive than a fore quarter, although the latter is considered by some the more delicate eating. It is always rather an expensive meal, but a roast of lamb, with mint sauce, is always a delicate dinner. Mutton is the meat of sheep upward of four years of age. The darker mutton is the better, as it is a sign of maturity. Good mutlon should also be fat. The parts for roasting are saddle, haunch, leg. best end ot loin, chump end of loin, shoulder, breast and others. For frying and broiling, chops and cutlets from loin and neck; also cut- lets from leg. For bcjiliiig the leg makes an excellent dinner. It should always be accompanied by caper sauce. Venison should be fat. A young deer may be distinguished by the cleft of the haimch being smooth and close. Winter is the season for buck ven- ison, while summer is the time f()r doe venison. The roasting parts are haimch, neck and breast. In choosing poultry, it is usual to try the breast bone in order to determine whether the fowl be young or old. If the bone be pliable — that is, easily bent with the- finger — the chicken or turkey is yoimg and tender enough for roasting; but if hard and unyielding, the fowl had better be boiled, and plenty of time allowed for the process. The principal kinds of game eaten are grouse, partridge, snipes, quails, woodcocks, ortolans, pheasants, wild duck, teal, land-rail, plovers and larks. '-- V< .-'i "V ■=•'"' ^•^ ^ '^^' -" ''- '•^^ y-- ^y i" c \y :;"-, \^ ^•' , \^ . '- s/- -' - ■ '■^f- >..».. *..*a^«.Aj * ^.M^^^^W^rf^ wg>^-^4>A><^J*^-»>.^^.* . ^ .S^*^ ■^♦ .« • '■M' ^ ^^|5^lUARfPo^^ ,^^^ ANn 7>v .>- rv '.,>v ;/^, ^„f ^ ,,,,,^ ^.^ ,„,^ ^ ,^,^^;r^V^^-,.^' r^ vav^ X %,,vS X >.„^ .*.*.*.*.*.*,*^*** • * * * •^* ♦ ♦ * ♦ • • * » • • ♦ * * • ♦ • • • • • • « * • • ♦ ♦ * • ■ " "\ ^ ".*. ^'a^. ,*# -s V-. 742 FAMILIAR POEMS. n^auafo^^^, William Cullen Bryant. TITO him who, in the love of nature, holds pJL, Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language ; for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile And eloquence of beauty, and she elides Into his darker musings, with a mild And gentle sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness, ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last bitter hour come like a blight Over thy spirit, and sad images Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, And breathless darkness, and the narrow house. Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart ; Go forth into the open sky, and list To nature's teaching, while from all around Comes a still voice : " Yet a few days, and thee The all-beholding sun shall see no more, In all his course ; nor yet, in the cold ground, Where thy pale form was laid with many tears. Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist Thy image. Earth, that nourishes thee, shall claim Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again ; And, lost each human trace, surrendering up Thine individual being, shalt thou go To mix forever with the elements, To be a brother to th' insensible rock And to the sluggish clod, which the rude swain Turns with his share and treads upon. The oak Shall send its roots abroad, and pierce thy mold. Yet not to thy eternal resting-place Shalt thou retire alone, nor couldst thou wish Couch more magnificent. Thou shalt lie down With patriarchs of the infant world, with kings. The powerful of the earth, the wise, the good. Fair forms, and honry seers of ages past. All in one mighty sepulchre. The hills. Rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun ; the vales, Stretching in pensive quietness between ; The venerable woods ; rivers that move In majesty, and the complaining brooks That make the meadows green ; and, poured round all, OIJ ocean's gray and melancholy waste. Arc but the solemn decorations all Of the great tomb of man. The golden sun. The planets, all the infinite host of heaven. Are shining on the sad abodes of death, Through the still lapse of ages. All that thread The globe are but a handful to the tribes That slumber in its bosom. Take the wings Of morning; and the Barcan desert pierce. Or lose thyself in the continuous woods Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound Save its own dashings — yet — the dead are there ; And millions in those solitudes, since first The flight of years began, have laid them down In their last sleep : the dead reign there alone. So shalt ikon rest ; and what if thou shalt fall Unnoticed by the living, and no friend Take note of thy departure ? All that breathe Will share thy destiny. The gay will laugh When thou art gone ; the solemn brood of care Plod on ; and each one, as before, will chase His favorite phantom ; yet all these shall leave Their mirth and their enjoyments, and shall come And make their bed with thee. As the long train Of ages glide away, the sons of men, The youth in life's green spring, and he who goes In the full strength of years, matron and maid. The bowed with age, the infant in the smiles And beauty of its innocent age cut off — Shall, one by one, be gathered to thy side, By those who in their turn shall follow them. So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan that moves To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death. Thou go not like the quarry -slave at night. Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed. By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. '^<^mfr' -M \ FAMIl-IAR POEMS A 743 ^ eFriacjoaffta'x^ ^* ^/Y^S unto the ^Al^ So unto k- he bow the cord is, > unto the man is woman : Though she bends him, she obeys him ; Though she dra\^•s him, yet she follows ; Useless each without the other." Thus the youthful Hiawatha Said within himself and pondered. Much perplexed by various feelings. Listless, longing, hoping, fearing. Dreaming still of Minnehaha, Of the lovely Laughing Water. In the land of the D;icotahs. " Wed a maiden of your people," Warning said the old Nokomis ; ** Go not eastward, go not westward. For a stranger, whom ye know not ! Like a fire upon the hearthstone Is a neighbor's homely daughter ; Like the starlight or the moonlight Is the handsomest of strangers ! " Thus dissuading spake Nokomis, And my Hiawatha answered Only this ; " Dear old Nokomis, Very pleasant is the firelight. But I like the starlight better. Better do I like the moonlight ! " Gravely then said old Nq(comis : " Bring not here an idle maiden. Bring nut here a useless woman. Hands iniskilful, feet unwilling; Bring a wife with nimble fingers. Heart and hand that move together, Feet that run on willing errands 1 " Smiling answered Hiawatha: '* In the land of the Dacotahs Lives the Arrow-maker's daughter, Minnehaha, Laughing Water, Handsomest of all the women. I will bring her to your wigwam, She shall run upon your errands, Be your starlight, moonlight, firelight. Be the sunlight of my people ! " Still dissuading said Nokomis : " Bring not to my IdWge a stranger From the land of the Dacotahs ! Very fierce are the Dacotahs, Often is there war between us. There arc feuds yet unforgotten. Wounds that ache and still may open ! '* Laughing answered Hiawatha : " For that reason, if no other, Would I wed the fair Dacoiah, That our tribes might be united. That old feuds might be forgotten. And old wounds be healed forever 1 " ys) ©Y^OOIQg. I Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Thus departed Hiawatha To the land of the Dacotahs, To the land of handsome women ; Striding over moor and meadow Through interminable forests. Through uninterrupted silence. With his moccasins of magic. At each stride a mile he measured ; Yet the way seemed long before him. And his heart outran his footsteps ; And he journeyed without resting. Till he heard the cataract's laughter, Heard the Falls of Minnehaha Calling to him through the silence. " Pleasant is the sound ! " he murmured, " Pleasant is the voice that calls me ! " On the outskirts of the forest, 'Twixt the shadow and the sunshine. Herds of fallow deer were feeding. But they saw not Hiawatha; To his bow he whispered, " Fail not 1 " To his arrow whispered, " Swerve not 1 " Sent it singing on its errand. To the red heart of the roebuck ; Threw the deer across his shoulder. And sped forward without pausing. At the doorway of his wigwam Sat the ancient Arrow-maker, In the land of the Dacotahs, Making arrow-heads of jasper. Arrow-heads of chalcedony. At his side, in all her beauty. Sat the lovely Minnehaha, Sat his daughter. Laughing Water, Plaiting mats of flags and rushes ; Of the past the old man's thoughts were. And the maiden's of the future. He was thinking, as he sat there, Of the days when with such arrows He had struck the deer and bison. On tlie Musl^oday, the meadow ; Shot the wild goose, flying southward. On the wing, the clamorous Wawa ; Thinking of the great war-parties. How they came to buy his arrows. Could not figlit without his arrows. Ah, no more such noble warriors Could be found on earth as they were ! Now the men were .ill like women, Only used their tongues for weapons [ She was thinking of a hunter From another tribe and country, Young and tall and very handsome. Who one morning, in the spring-time. Came to buy her fatlicr's arrows. Sat and rested in the wigwam. Lingered long about the doorway, ^^ Looking back as he departed. She had heard her father praise him, Praise his courage and his wisdom ; Would he come again for arrows To the Falls of Minnehaha? On the mat her hands lay idle. And her eyes were ver>' dreamy. Through their thoughts they heard a footstep. Heard a rustling in the branches. And with glowing check and forehead. With the deer upon his shoulders. Suddenly from out the woodlands Hiawatha stood before them. Straight the ancient arrow-maker Looked up gravely from his labor, Laid aside the unfinished arrow, Bade him enter at the doorway. Saying, as he rose to meet him, " Hiawatha, you are welcome !" At the feet of Laughing Water Hiawatha laid his burden, Threw the red deer from his shoulders ; And the maiden looked up at him. Looked up from her mat of rushes. Said with gentle look and accent, "You are welcome, Hiawatha ! " Ver)' spacious was the wigwam. Made of deer-skin dressed and whitened. With the gods of the Dacotahs Drawn and painted on its curtains. And so tall the doorway, hardly Hiawatha stooped to enter. Hardly touched his eagle-feathers As he entered at the doorway. Then uprose the Laughing Water, From the ground fair Minnehaha, Laid aside her mat unfinished, Brought forth food and set before them. Water brought them from the brooklet, Gave them food in earthen vessels, Gave them drink in bowls of basswood. Listened while the guest was speaking. Listened while her father answered. But not once her lips she opened, Not a single word she uttered. Yes, as in a dream she listened To the words of Hiawatha, As he talked of oltl Nokomis, ' Who had nursed him in his childhood. As he told of his companions, Chibiabos, the musician, And the vcr>' strong man, Kwasind, And of happiness and plenty In the land of the Ojibways, In the pleasant land and peaceful. A ■ " After many years of warfare, Many years of strife and bloodshed, There is peace hetween the Ojibways And the tribe of the Dacotahs ; " Thus continued Hiawatha, And then added, spealiing slowly, " That this peace may last forever. And our hands be clasped more closely. And our hearts be more united. Give me as my wife this maiden, Minnehaha, Laughing Water, Loveliest of Dacotah women ! " And the ancient Arrow-maker Paused a moment ere he answered. Smoked a little while in silence. Looked at Hiawatha proudly, Fondly looked at Laughing Water, And made answer very gravely ; " Yes, if Minnehaha wishes ; Let your heart speak, Minnehaha ! " And the lovely Laughing Water Seemed more lovely, as she stood there. Neither willing nor reluctant. As she went to Hiawatha, Softly took the seat beside him, While she said, and blushed to say it, " I will follow you, my husband 1 " This was Hiawatha's wooing ! Thus it was he won the daughter Of the ancient Arrow-maker, In the land of the Dacotahs ! From the wigwam he departed. Leading with him Laughing Water ; Hand in hand they went together. Through the woodland and the meadow. Left the old man standing lonely At the doorway of his wigwam. Heard the Falls of Minnehaha Calling to them from the distance. Crying to them from afar off, " Fare thee well, O Minnehaha 1 " And the ancient Arrow-maker Turned again unto his labor. Sat down by his sunny doorway. Murmuring to himself, and saying : " Thus it is our daughters leave us. Those we love, and those who love us ! Just when they have learned to help us, When we are old and lean upon them. Comes a youth with flaunting feathers, With his flute of reeds, a stranger. Wanders piping through the village. Beckons to the fairest maiden. And she follows where he leads her. Leaving all things for the stranger 1 " Pleasant was the journey homeward Through interminable forests. Over meadow, over mountain, Over river, hill and hollow. Short it seemed to Hiawatha, Though they journeyed very slowly. Though his pace he checked and slackened To the steps of Laughing Water. Over wide and rushing rivers In his arms he bore the maiden : Light he thought her as a feather. As the plume upon his head-gear; Cleared the tangled pathway for her. Bent aside the swaying branches. Made at night a lodge of branches. And a bed with boughs of hemlock. And a fire before the doorway With the dry cones of the pine-tree. All the travelling winds went with them O'er the meadow, through the forest ; All the stars of night looked at them. Watched with sleepless eyes their slumber ; From his ambush in the oak-tree Peered the squirrel, Adjidaumo, Watched with eager eyes the lovers; And the rabbit, the Wabasso, Scampered from the path before them. Peeping, peeping from his burrow. Sat erect upon his haunches. Watched with curious eyes the lovers. Pleasant was the journey homeward ! All the birds sang loud and sweetly Songs of happiness and heart's-ease : Sang the blue-bird, the Owaissa, " Happy are you, Hiawatha, Having such a wife to love you ! " Sang the robin, the Opechee, " Happy are you. Laughing Water, Having such a noble husband ! " From the sky the sun benignant Looked upon them through the branches. Saying to them, " O my children. Love is sunshine, hate is shadow. Life is checkered shade and sunshine. Rule by love, O Hiawatha 1 " From the sky the moon looked at them. Filled the lodge with mystic splendors. Whispered to them, " O my children. Day is restless, night is quiet, Man imperious, woman feeble; Half is mine, although I follow; Rule by patience. Laughing Water! " Thus it was they journeyed homeward. Thus it was that Hiawatha To the lodge of old Nokomis Brought the moonlight, starlight, firelight. Brought the sunshine of his people, Minnehaha, Laughing Water, Handsomest of all the women In the land of the Dacotahs, In the land of handsome women. * ■fte 5i)arefoot S^o^. V>LESSINGS on thee, little man, ^3 Barefoot boy, with cheeks of tan 1 With thy turned-up pantaloons. And thy merr>' whistled tunes ; With thy red lip, redder still, Kissed by strawberries on the hill ; With the sunshine on thy face. Through thy torn brim's jaunty grace. From my heart I give thee joy— I was once a barefoot boy ! Prince thou art — the grown-up man Only is republican. Let the million-doUared ride t Barefoot, trudging at his side. Thou hast more than he can buy In the reach of ear and eye — Outward sunshine, inward joy. Blessings on thee, barefoot boy 1 John Greenleaf Whittier. Oh, for boyhood's painless play. Sleep that wakes in laughing day. Health that mocks the doctoris rules. Knowledge never learned of schools, Of the wild bee's morning chase, Of the wild flower's time and place. Flight of fowl, and habitude Of the tenants of the wood; How the tortoise bears his shell. How the woodchuck digs his cell, And the ground mole sinks his well; How the robin feeds her young. How the oriole's nest is hung ; Where the whitest lilies blow. Where the freshest berries grow. Where the ground-nut trails its vine. Where the wood-grape's clusters shine; Of the black wasp's cunning way, Mason of hi*; walls of clay, And the architectural plans Of gray hornet artisans 1 — For, eschewing books and tasks. Nature answers all he asks ; Hand in hand with her he walks, Face to face with he%he talks. Part and parcel of her joy- Blessings on the barefoot boy ! Oh, for boyhood's time of June, Crowding years in one brief moon. When all things I heard or saw. Me, their master, waited for. 1 was rich in flowers and trees, Humming-birds and honey-bees; For my sport the squirrel played. Plied the snouted mole his spade ; \ V-lo- , \ o •. ^ ff) .*■ Si \ / .■) • ( FAMILIAR POEMS. 745 1 For my taste the blackberry cone Pewter spoon and bowl of wood. Every morn shall lead thee through Purpled over hedge and stone ; On the door-stone, gray and rude ! Fresh baptisms of the dew; Laughed the brook for my delight O'er me, like a regal tent. Every evening from thy feet Through the day and through the night. Cloudy-ribbed the sunset bent. Shall the cool wind kiss the heat ; Whispering at the garden wall, Purple-curtained, fringed with gold. All too soon these feet must hide Talked with me from fall to fall ; Looped in many a wind-swung fold, In the prison cells of pride. Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond. While foi music came the play Lose the freedom of the sod. Mine the walnut slopes beyond, Of the pied frogs' orchestra ; Like a colt's for work be shod. Mine on bending orchard trees, And, to light the noisy choir. Made to tread the mills of toil Apples of Hesperides ! Lit the fly his light of fire. Up and down in ceaseless moil : Still, as my horizon grew, I was monarch; —pomp and joy Happy if their track be found Larger grew my riches, too; Waited on the barefoot boy ! Never on forbidden ground ; All the world 1 saw or knew Happy if they sink not in Seemed a complex Chinese toy, Cheerily, then, my little man. Quick and treacherous sands of sin. Ah I that thou couldst know thy joy. Fashioned for a barefoot boy ! Live and laugh, as boyhood can ! Oh, for festal dainties spread, Though the flinty slopes be hard. Ere it passes, barefoot boy 1 Like my bowl of milk and bread, — Stubble-speared the new-mown sward. i^»f»k*'M"U'»«Mi»S*«»*'»*»M'»«Min»»i • 1 M ^r^=:^i /'^Jl9l^^\ t§i::!^'-~ =77* A ^^^^'^^^^r |&^^^^^ ^ v*w*u'u»u'V(»iyfc/»u»u»(«»w^J Edgar Allan Poe. 1. YVeAR the sledges with the bells— What a tale of terror, now, their turbulency tells I In the silence of the night. ^£\ Silver bells— In the startled ear of night How we shiver with afl'right What a world of merriment their melody foretells ! How they scre:tm out their aflTright ! At the melancholy menace of their tone! How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle. Too much horrified to speak. For every sound that floats In the icy air of night ! They can only shriek, shriek, From the ru^t within their throats While the stars that oversprinkle Out of tune, - Is a groan. All the heavens seem to twinkle In the clamorous appealing to the mercy of the And the people — ah. the people — With a crystaUine delight — fire, They that dwell up in the steeple. Keeping time, time, time, In a mad expostulation with the deaf and frantic All alone, in a sort of Runic rhyme, fire, And who tolling, lolling, tolling. To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells Leaping higher, higher, higher, In that muffled monotone. From the belK, bells, bells, bells. With a desperate desire. Feel a glory in so rolling Bells, bells, bells. And a resulute endeavor. On the human heart a stone — From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. Now — now to sit or never, By the side of the pale-faced moon. They are neither man nor woman — They are neither brute nor human — II. Oh, the bells, bells, bells, They are ghouls ; Hear the mellow wedding bells — What a tale their terror tells And their king it is who tolls; Golden bells ! Of despair ! And he rolls, rolls, rolls. What a world of happiness their harmony foretells ! How they clang, and clash, and roar! Rolls. Through the balmy air of night What a horror they outpour A psean from the bells ! How they ring out their delight ! On the bosom of the palpitating air I And his merry bosom swells From the molien-golden notes, Vet the ear it fullv knows With the pa;an of the bells 1 And all in tunc. By the twanging And he dances and he yells ; What a liquid ditty floats And the clanging, How the danger ebbs and flows ; Keeping time, time, time, To the turtle-dove that listens, while she gloats In a sort of Runic rhyme. On the moon ! Vet the ear disiinctly tells. In the jangling. And the wrangling, How the danger sinks and swells, By the sinking or the swelling in the anger of the bells — To the pa^an of the bells — Oh, from out the sounding cells, Of the bells : What a gush of euphony voluminously wells 1 Keeping time, time, time. How it swells ! In a sort of Runic rhyme. How it dwells On the Future ! how it tells To the throbbing of the bells — Of the bells, bells, bells— Of the rapture thai impels Of the bells— To the sobhing of the bells ; To the swinging and the ringing Of the bells, bells, bells, bells, Keeping time. time, time, Of the bells, bells, bells. Bells, bells, bells— As he knells, knells, knells. Of the bells, bells, bells, bells. Bells, bells, bells- In the clamor and the clangor of the bells 1 In a happy Rmiic rhyme. To the tolling of the bells— To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells. IV. Of the bells, bells, hells. To the tolling of the bells, Of the bells, bells, bells. bells- IIL Hear the tolling of the bells — < Hear the loud alarum bells — Brazen bells I Iron bells ! What a world of solemn thought their monody compels ' Bells, bells, bells— To the moaning and the groaning of the bells > . e) / \ L *v <5 »- -* ■v*" ) ' -^=«l%f 5i)Poa:>, Si)Poa:>, Uftou m ©Y^inter ©Y^Inc^. =rfe) #- Shakspeue. Fro7n "As Vou Like It. '•—Act Jl, Sc. 7. T^LOW, blow, thou winter wind, ^•^ Thou art not so unkind As man's ingratitude ; Thy tooth is not so keen Because thou art not seen, Akhough thy breath be rude. Heigh-ho ! sing heigh-ho ! unto the green holly, Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere folly. Then heigh-ho the holly. This life is most jolly. Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky. Thou dost not bite so nigh As benefits forgot ; Though thou the waters warp. Thy sting is not so sharp As friend remembered not. Heigh-ho I sing heigh-ho ! unto the green holly, Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere folly; Then heigh-ho the holly, This life is most jolly. Alfred Tennyson. TTTHE splendor falls on castle walls ffjL^ And snowy summits old in story ; The long light shakes across the lakes. And the wild cataract leaps in glory. Blow, bugle, blowj set the wild echoes flying ; Blow, bugle : answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying ! Oh, hark! oh, hear! how thin and cleai. And thinner, clearer, farther going, Oh, sweet and far from cliff and scar. The horns of Elfland faintly blowing ! Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying. Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes, dying dying, dyin? ! O love, they die in yon rich sky. They faint on hill or field or river ; Our echoes roll from soul to soul. And grow forever and forever. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying. And answer echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying ! Uft e * ^ tt- \vi HE sea ! the sea ! the open sea, \J^ The blue, the fresh, the ever free ! Without a mark, without a bound. It runneth the earth's wide regions round. It plays wth the clouds ; it mocks the skies ; Or like a cradled creature lies. I'm on the sea ! I'm on the sea ! I am where I would e\'er be : With the blue above, and the blue below. And silence whcresoe'er I go ; If a storm should come and awake the deep. What matter? I shall ride and sleep. I love (oh, koiv I love!) to ride On the fierce, foaming, bursting tide. When every mad wave drowns the moon. Or whistles aloft his tempest tune. And tells how goeth the world below. And why the southwest blasts do blow. I never was on the dull, tame shore But I loved the great sea more and more. And backward flew to her billowy breast. Like a bird that seeketh its mother's nest ; And a mother she ivas, and is to me ; For I was born on the open sea. The waves were white and red the mom, In the noisy hour when I was born ; And the whale it whistled and the porpoise roH'd, And the dolphins bared their backs of gold ; And never was heard such an outcry wild As welcomed to life the ocean child. I've lived since then, in calm and strife, Full fifty summers a sailor's life. With wealth to spend, and a power to range, But never have sought nor sigh'd for change; And Death, whenever he come to me. Shall come on the wild, unbounded sea. 748 FAMILIAR POEMS. Oliver An Ejctract /roiH C^WEET was the sound, when oft, at evening's close, ^3 Up yonder hill the village murmur rose ; There, as I passed with careless steps and slow, The mingling notes came softened from below ; The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung. The sober herd that lowed to meet their young : The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool, The pla>'ful children just let loose from school ; The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind. And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind, — These all in sweet confusion sought the shade, And filled each pause the nightingale had made. ***** Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled. And still where many a garden flower grows wild, There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose. The village preacher's modest mansion rose. A man he was to all the country dear. And passing rich, with forty pounds a year; Remote from towns he ran his godly race. Nor e'er had changed, or wished to change his place. Unskilful he to fawn, or seek for power. By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour ; Far other aims his heart had learned to prize. More bent to raise the wretched than to rise. His house was known to all the vagrant train, He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain ; The long-remembered beggar was his guest. Whose beard, descending, swept his aged breast ; The ruined spendthrift, now no longer proud. Claimed kindred there, and had his claims allowed ; The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay, Sat by his fire, and talked the night away ; Wept o'er his wounds, or, talcs of sorrow done, Goldsmith. The Deserted Villager Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won. Pleased with his guests, the good man learned to glow. And quite forgot their vices in their woe ; Careless their merits or their faults to scan, His pity gave ere charity began. Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride, And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side. But in his duty prompt at every call. He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all : And as a bird each fond endearment tries, To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies, Htf tried each art, reproved each dull delay. Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. Beside the bed where parting life was laid. And sorrow, guilt and pain by turns dismayed, The reverend champion stood. At his control Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul : Comfort came down, the trembling wretch to raise, And his last faltering accents whispered praise. At church, with meek and unaffected grace. His looks adorned the venerable place : Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. The service past, around the pious man. With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran ; E'en children followed, with endearing wile, And plucked his gown, to share the good man's smile. His ready smile a parent's warmth e.vpressed, Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distressed; To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given, But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven : As some tall cliff, that lifts its awful form. Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm ; Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread. Eternal sunshine settles on its head. fte <#^^ ^vreeQ. OH ! a dainty plant is the ivy green, That creepeth o'er ruins ^.7,, "u '"■= '■°'^^ "'<='■'= '■>='i in June ■ T„ ,1, h ," ?'? 'r*""^ ''"'^^ ^""^ fti'-'and sweet In he heat of the August noon ■ ' A 'a^.^^'""^^ were blowing the yellow wheat And the song of the harvest nigh And the beautiful world lay calm and sweet In the joy of a cloudless sky- Then the swallows were full of glad content In the hope of their northern nest- Were sure that the land they were tarr^-ing in Of all other lands was the best And if they had heard in those blissful days TL \}^ , , '," '"^y ""St heed say " Go " They had left their nests with a keen regret And their flight had been sad and slow." ''"' Xnd",hT'"" V' S™5,?nd flower, were dead And the brown leaves fell with a sieh And they watched the sun setting every d'av {■urther on in the northern sky I hen the Voice was sweet when it bid them "Go " 1 hey were eager for southward flight And they beat their wings to a new-born hope When they went at the morning light. If the w-ay was long, yet the way was glad And they brighter and brighter grew And they dipped their wings in the glowing heat And they still to the southward flew, ^ ' Till >hey found the land of the summer sun, 1 J ■ "Vu"° "■*"^^=,'''e nightingale sings. And joyfully rested 'mid rose and song 1 heir beautiful weary wings. Like swallow-s we wander from home to home — H c are birds of passage at best — "IJ.ny. =" "P"' "e have dwelt awhile. We have built us many a nest But the heart of the Father will touch our heart. ■ar "=,*'" sP="'"o"s soft and low, ' We shall follow the Voice to the better land And its bliss and its beauty know. ' 75° i^ "7 FAMILIAR POEMS. ^^ Si)ame of The Aagefx^. John Milton. J^»-ofti "Paradise Lost," Book VI. jHT^lCHAEL bid sound the archangel trumpet; ^Y-*^ Through the vast of heaven It sounded, and the faithful armies rung Hosanna to the Highest : nor stood at gaze The adverse legions, nor less hideous joined The horrid shock. Now storming fury rose, And clamor, such as heard in heaven till now Was never; arms on armor clashing brayed Horrible discord, and the madding wheels Of brazen chariots raged ; dire was the noise Of conflict ; overhead the dis&al hiss Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew. And flying vaulted either host with fire. So under fier>' cope together rushed Both battles main, with ruinous assault And ioextinguishable rage. All heaven Resounded ; and had earth been then, all earth Had to her centre shook, if. it ^ % ^ * Deeds of eternal fame Were done, but infinite : for wide was spread That war, and various : sometimes on firm ground A standing fight, then, soaring on main wing, Tormented all the air; all air seemed then Conflicting fire. ****** Forthwith (behold the excellence, the power Which God hath in his mighty angels placed) Their arms away they threw, and to the hilU (For earth hath this variety from heaven Of pleasure situate in hill and dale), Light as the lightning glimpse they ran, they flew From their foundations loosening to and fro. They plucked the seated hills, with all their load. Rocks, waters, woods, and by their shaggy tops Uplifting bore them in their hands ; amaze. Be sure, and terror, seized the rebel host. When coming towards them so dread they saw The bottom of the mountains upward turned, * * * * and on their heads Main promontories flung, which in the air Came shadowing, and oppressed whole legions armed ; Their armor helped their harm, crushed in and bruised Into their substance pent, which wrought them pain Implacable, and many a dolorous groan ; Long struggling underneath, ere they could wind Out of such prison, though spirits of purest light, Purest at first, now gross by sinning grown. The rest, in imitation, to like arms Betook them, and the neighboring hills uptore ; So hills amid the air encountered hills. Hurled to and fro with jaculation dire, That underground they fought in dismal shade , Infernal noise ! war seemed a civil game To this uproar; horrid confusion heaped Upon confiision rose. ^kivuTtj*bRinifik/H>*u^nH'u^^ T_TARE thee well, and if forever, Jl!* Still forever, fare thee well ; E'en though unforgiving, never 'Gainst thee shall my heart rebel. Would that breast were bared before thee Where thy head so oft hath lain. While that placid sleep came o'er thee Which thou ne'er canst know again ; Would that breast, by thee glanced over. Every inmost thought could show ! Then thou wouldst at last discover 'Twas not well to spurn it so. Though the world for this commend thee— Though it smile upon the blow. E'en its praises must offend thee. Founded on another's woe. Though my many faults defaced me. Could no other arm be found Than the one which once embraced me To inflict a cureless wound ! LoRD Byron. Yet, oh, yet thyself deceive not : Love may sink by slow decay ; But by sudden wrench, believe not Hearts can thus be torn away : Still thine own its life retaineth — Still must mine, though bleeding, beat. And th' undying thought which paineth Is — that we no more may meet. These are words of deeper sorrow Than the wail above the dead ; Both shall live, but every morrow Wakes us from a widowed bed. And when thou wouldst solace gather When our child's first accents flow. Wilt thou teach her to say " Father ! " Though his care she must forego? When her little hands shall press thee. When her lip to thine is pressed, Think of him whose love shall bless thee. Think of him thy love had blessed. Should her lineaments resemble Those thou nevermore mayst see. Then thy heart will softly tremble With a pulse yet true to me. All my faults perchance thou knowest. All my madness none can know ; All my hopes where'er thou goest. Whither, yet with thee they go. Every feeling hath been shaken ; Pride, which not a world coiJd bow. Bows to thee — by thee forsaken. E'en my soul forsakes me now But 'tis done ; all words are iale — Words from me are vainer still ; But the thoughts we cannot bridle Force their way without the will. Fare thee well ! thus disunited, Tom from every nearer tie. Seared in heart, and lone, and blighted. More than this I scarce can die. / \^ ■^ FAMILIAR POEMS. ^ / 75' ^^" ^^^. 4^T^ ©Jfte ld friend, remember still That I am Joe and you arc Bill. You've won the great world's envied prize. And grand you look in people's eyes. With HON. and LI..D.. In big brave letters, fair to sec — Your fist, old fellow ! olT thcy gu ! — How arc you. Bill ? How arc you, Joe ? 3i)if f aniL @)oe. Oliver Wendell Holmes. You've worn the judge's ermine robe ; You've taught your name to half the globe; You've sung mankind a deathless strain ; You've made the dead past live again ; The world may call you what it will, But you and I are Joe and Bill. The chaffing young folks stare and tay, " See those old buffers, bent and gray ; They talk like fellows in their teens I Mad, poor old boys ! That's what it means" And shake their heads ; thcy little know The throbbing hearts of Bill and Joe — How Bill forgets his hour of pride. While Joe sits smiling at his side ; How Joe, in spite of time's disguise, Finds the old schoolmate in his eyes — Thobe calm, stern eyes that melt and fill As Joe looks fondly up at Bill. -I-Scn^^, Ah, pensive scholar ! what is fame ? A fitful tongue of leaping flame ; A giddy whirlwind's fickle gust, That lifts a pinch of mortal dust : A few swift years, and who can show Which dust was Bill, and which was Joe ? The weary idol takes his stand, Holds out his bruised and aching hand, While gaping thousands come and go- How vain it seems, this empty show ! — 'i'ill all at once his pulses thrill : 'Tit* poor old Joe's " God bless you, Bill !" And shall wc breathe in happier spheres The names that pleased our mortal cars — In some sweet lull of harp and song, For earth-born spirits none too long — Just whispering »A the world below. Where this w.is Bill, and that was Joe? 4^- t G^fract ^ronq Tsucife. OwBN Mbkbuit:!. o « ^O-^E may live without poetry, music and art ; ^ Jfc^We may live without conscience and live without heart ; We may live without friends ; we may live without books ; But civilized man cannot live without cooks. We may live without books, — what is knowledge but grieving? Wc may live without hope, — what is hope but deceiving ? We may live without love, — what is passion but pining? But where is the man that can live without dining? \! K" 756 / FAMILIAR POEMS. Sicfurex^ o^ Memorv. 'TV^ MONG the beautiful pictures ^JyV That hang on Memory's wall, Is one of a dim old forest, That seemeth best of all. Not for its gnarled oaks olden. Dark with the mistletoe ; Not for the violets golden That sprinkle the vale below ; Xot for the milk-white lilies That lean from the fragrant hedge, Coquetting all day with the sunbeams, And stealing their golden edge ; Not for the vines on the upland Where the bright red berries rest. Nor the pinks, nor the pale, sweet cowslip It seemeth to me the best. I once had a little brother With eyes that were dark and deep — In the lap of that dim old forest. He lieth in peace asleep. Alice Cakv. Light as the down of the thistle, Free as the winds that blow, We roved there, the beautiful summers The summers of long ago; But his feet on the hills grew weary, And one of the autumn eves, I made for my little brother A bed of the yellow leaves. Sweetly his pale arms folded My neck in a meek embrace As the light of immortal beauty Silently covered his face ; And wlien the arrows of sunset Lodged in the tree-tops bright, He tell, in his saint-like beauty, Asleep by ihc gates of light. Therefore, of all the pictures That hang on Memory's wall. The one of the dim old forest Seemeth the best of all. \^ (go fo ©J% S^eAt. Lydia Huntlev Sigournev. "cr /~^0 to thy rest, fair child ! vX Go to thy dreamless bed, W'hile yet so gentle, undefiled, With blessings on thy head. Fresh roses in thy hand, Buds on thy pillow Liid, Haste from this dark and fearful land. Where flowers so quickly fade. Shall love with weak embrace Thy upward wing detain? No ! cherub angel, seek thy place Amid the cherub train. Ere sin hath seared ihc breast, Or sorrow waked the tear, Rise to thy throne of changeless rest. In yon celestial sphere ! Because ihy smile was fair, Thy lip and eye so bright, Because thy loving cradle-care Was such a dear delight. Claka Lauer Baldwin. ^TaT^HEN the last hope of life ^*i Has been crushed in the dust, And the last of our loved ones are gone — When we feel that there's none Left, who love us and trust, And we stand in the wide world alone — When the friends of the past Have become all estranged And forget " 'Us divine to forgive** — ^ When cold words arc said. And cold looks exchanged — And there's naught left to hope for or live,- Then ' tis joy 10 the soul To know that there's One Whose mercy and love reaches all — Who in tenderest love Clings till life's journey's done, And pities us still when we fall. / isr ^ 7S8 ^Ht>a^«s^^ FAMILIAR POEMS. J- / m ffte ^OQg o^ tfte ©amp. **/^IVE\is a song! '' the soldiers crlad, Vl^ The outer trenches guarding, When the heated guns of the camps allied Grew weary of bombarding. The dark Redan, in silent scoff, Lay grim and threatening under ; And the tawny mound of the MalakofT No longer belched its thunder. There was a pause. A guardsman said, " We storm the forts to-morrow; Sing while we may, iinother day Will bring enough of sorrow." They lay along the batter^-'s side, Below the smoking cannon : Brave hearts from Severn and from Clyde, And from the banks of Shannon, Bayard Taylok. They sang of love, and not of fame ; Forgot was Britain's glorj- : Each heart recalled a different name. But all sang " Annie Laurie." Voice after voice caught up the song. Until its tender passion Rose like an anthem, rich and strong. Their battle-eve confession. Dear girl, her name he dared not speak, But as the song grew louder. Something upon the soldier's cheek Washed off the stains of powder. t-^ l?^ Beyond the darkening ocean burned The bloody sunset's embers, While the Crimean valleys learned How English love remembers. And once again a fire of hell Rained on the Russian quarters. With scream of shot, and burst of shell, And bellowing of the mortars ! And Irish Nora's eyes arc dim For a singer dumb and gory ; And English Mary mourns for him Who sang of " Annie Laurie." Sleep, soldiers ! still in honored rest Your truth and valor wearing : The bravest are the tenderest, — The loving are the daring. ■^ je- ^ tb- -^^-- IF I had known in the morning How wearily all the day The words unkind Would trouble my mina 1 said when you went away, I had been more careful, darling. Nor given you needless pain ; But we vex ' ' our own " With look and tone We might never take back again. u. r cjo n Margaret E. Sangster. For though in the quiet evening You may give me the kiss of peace. Yet it might be That never for me The pain of the heart should cease. How many go forth in the morning That never come home at night ! And hearts have broken For harsh words spoken, That sorrow can ne'er set right. -€— SI We have carc-ful thoughts for the stranger, And smiles fur the sometime guest, But oft for *' our own " The bitter tone. Though we love *' our own " the best. Ah, lips with the curve impatient ! Ah, brow with that look of scorn ! ' Twere a cruel fate, Were the night too late To undo the work of mom. ©Jftere (#A Ro i®)eatfi. TTTHERE is no death ! The stars go down fJL, To rise upon some fairer shore : And bright in Heaven's jewelled crown They shine forevermore. There is no death ! The dust we tread Shall change beneath the summer showers To golden grain or mellow fruit, Or rainbow-tinted flowers. There is no death ! The forest leaves Convert to life the viewless air; The rocks disorganize to feed The hungry moss they bear. ~^t\=^-^ J. L. McCrheky. There is no death ! The leaves may fall. And flowers may fade and pass away ; They only wait through wintry hours The coming of the May, There is no death ! An angel form Walks o'er the earth with silent tread ; He bears our best loved things away ; And then we call them " dead." He leavts our hearts all desolate. He plucks our fairest, sweetest flowers ; Transplanted into bliss, they now Adorn immortal bowers. The bird-like voice, whose joyous tones Made glad these scenes of sin and strife, Sings now an everlasting song Around the tree of life. Where'er he sees a smile too bright. Or heart too pure for taint and vice, He bears it to that world of light, To dwell in Paradise. Born unto that undying life, They leave us but to come again ; With joy we welcome them the same— Kxct-pt their sin and pain. And ever near us, though unseen, The dear immortal spirits tread; For all the boundless universe Is life — there are no dead. -v;^^ / -M K FAMILIAR POEMS. -A 759 -ssysi- %■ Maftin' an Qcjifor ©ufea o' ^'^ OUR beautiful Maggie was married to-day — Ecaiuiful Maggie, with soft brown hair. Whose shadows fall o'er a face as fair As the snowy blooms of the early May ; We havj kissed her lips and sent her away. With many a blessing and many a prayer. The pet o( our house who was married to-day. The sunshine is gone from the old south room, Where she sat through the long, bright summer hours. And the odor has gone from the window flowers. And something is lost of their delicate bloom. And a shadow creeps over the house with its gloom ; A shadow that over our paradise lowers, For we sec her no more in the old south room. The pictures seem dim where they hang on the wall ; Though they cost but a trifle, they always looked fair, Whether lamplight or snnlight illumined them there — I think 'twas her presence that brightens them all. Since Maggie no longer can come to our call, With her eyes full of laughter, unshadowed by care, " The pictures seem dim where they hang on the wall. I lounge through the garden, I stand by the gate — She stood there to greet me last eve at this hour, Ever>' eve, through the summer, in sunshine or shower. Just stood by the postern, my coming to wail — Dear Maggie, her heart with its welcome elate. To give me a smile, and a kiss, and a flower — Oh ! when will she meet me again by the gate? I thought that the song of the robin this eve, As he sang to his mate on the sycamore tree. Had minors of sc^dness to temper his glee. As if he for the loss of our darling did grieve. And asked, " Where Ls Maggie? '* and " Why did she leave- The maiden who carrolled sweet duets with me ? " For she mocked not the song of the robin this eve. She loved us and left us — she loves, and is gone With the one she loves best, as his bjautiful bride. How fondly he called her his joy and his pride. Our joy and our pride, whom he claims as his own I But can he, like us, prize the heart he has won — The heart that now trustingly throbs by his side? God knows ! and we know that she loves and is gone. / Al ^^ (Sy^S^'-OO""-^^^ -*^ 3cerie. ']'. Buchanan Read. The following is pronounced by ii\c lyesiiuinstcr Re-vie^u to be unquestionably the finest American pocni ever written. XITHIN this sober realm of leafless ireus, The russet year inhnled the dreamy air, Like some tanned reaper in his hour of case, When all the fields are lying brown and bare. The gray barns looking from their hazy hills O'er the dim waters widening in the vales. Sent down the air a greeting to the mills, On the dull thunder of alternate flails. All sights were mellowed and all sounds subdued. The hills seemed further and the streams sang low; As in a dream the distant woodman hewed His winter log with many a mufiled blow. The embattled forests, erewhile armed in gold, Their banners bright with every martial hue, Now stood, like some sad beaten host of old, Withdrawn afar in Time's remotest blue. On slumberous wings the vulture tried his flight : The dove scarce heard his sighing mate's complaint; And, like a star slow drowning in the light. The village church-vane seemed to p;de and faint. The sentinel cock upon the hill-side crew — Crew thrice, and all was stiller than before — Silent till some replying wanderer blew His alien horn, and then was heard no more. Where erst the jay within the elm's (all crest Made garrulous trouble round the unfledged young : And where the oriole hung her swaying nest By every light wind like a censer swung ; Where sang the noisy masons of the caves, The busy swallows circling ever near. Foreboding, as the rustic mind believes, An early harvest and a plenteous year ; Where every bird which charmed the vernal feast Shook the sweet slumber from its wings at morn. To warn the reapers of the rosy east — AH now was songless, empty, and forlorn Alone, from out the stubble piped the quail. And croaked the crow through all the dreamy gloom; Alone the pheasant, drumming in the v.ile. Made echo to the distant cottage looiu. There was no bud, no bloom upon the bowi:rs ; I'he spiders wove their thin shrouds night by niglit ; The thistle-down, the only ghost of flowers. Sailed slowly by — passed noiseless out of sight. Amid all this, in this most cheerless air, And where the woodbine sheds upon the porch lis crimson leaves, as if the year stood there Firing the floor with his inverted torch — Amid all this, the centre of the scene, The white-haired matron, with monotonous tread. Plied her swift wheel, and with her joyless mien Sat like a Fate, and watched the flying thread. She had known sorrow. He had walked with her. Oft supped, and broke with her the ashen crust ; And in the dead leaves still she heard the stir Of his black mantle trailing in the dust. While yet her cheek was bright with summer bloom, Her country summoned, and she gave her all ; And twice War bowed to her his sable plume — Re-gave the swords to rust upon her wall. Re-gave the swords — but not the hand that drew. And struck for liberty the dying blow ; Nor him who, to his sire and country true, Fell, 'mid the ranks of the invading foe. Long, but not loud, the droning wheel went on, Like the low murmur of a hive at noon ; Long, but not loud, the memory of the gone Breathed through her lips a sad and tremulous tuae. At last the thread was snapped — her head was bowed. Life dropped the distaff through his hands serene ; And loving neighbors smoothed her careful shroud — While Death and Winter closed the autumn scene. V A[ J- V 76S DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. y] ys-^. V —^ _ , C\W-T> -^^ -Sr-S- ^ DlCTIOplAl^y OF pi(O^E f D pOETlCAL QUOT^TIOW^. J '^^-^-^^ -^^- Tj? -^^ Arranged both Topically and Alphabetically. Absence. Conspicuous by his absence. Sed prxfuli^ebant C;issius atque Brutus, eo ipso quod effigies corum non videbantur. Tticiius. Absence makes tJie heart grow fonder; Isle of lieauty, fare thee well ! Thomas Haynes Bayley. I dote on his very absence. Shakspert'. Your absence of mind we have borne, till your presence of body came to be called in question by it. Accident. A happy accident. The accident of an accident. «/'. Mmc, dc Statl. Lord Tluirlow. Acquaintance. Should auld acquaintance be forgot, And ULA'er brou^^ht to min'? Should auld acquaintance be forgot. And days o' lang syne? Burns. If there lie no great love in tlie beginning, yet Heaven may decrease it upon better acquaintance, when we are married, and have more occasion to know one another: I hope upon familiarity will grow more contempt. Shakspere. Action. Statesman, yet friend to truth ! of soul sincere, In action faithful, and in honor clear; Who broke no promise, ser\''d no private end, \\'ho gain'd no title, and who lost no friend. Pope. What a piece of work is a man ! How noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties! in form and moving, liow exi)rLSS and admirable! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a god ! Shakspere. For since these arms of mine had seven years' pith. Till now some nine moons wasted, they have us'd Their dearest action in the tented field, Shakspere, In peace there's nothing so becomes a man As modest stillness and Immility; But when the bhxst of war blows in our ears. Then imitate the action of the tiger; Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood. Shakspere, With devotion's visage, And pious action, we do sugar o*er The Devil himself, Shakspere, Adversity. A wretched soul, bruised with adversity. Shakspere. A man I am, cross'd with adversity, Shakspere. If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small. Old Testament. In the day of prosperity be joyful, but in the d ly of adversity consider. Old Testament, Sweet are the uses of adversity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in his 1 ead ; And this our life, exempt from puHic haunt, Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything. Shakspere, The aromatic plants bestow No spicy fragrance while they grow ; But crush'd, or trodden to tlie ground. Diffuse their balmy sweeis around. The wretch condcmr'd with life to part. Still, still on hope relies ; And every pan£» that rends the heart Bids expectation rise. Goldsmith. Age. My way of life Is fall'n into the sear, the yellow leaf; And that which should accompany old age, As honor, love, obedience, troops of friends, I must not look to have, Shakspere, Me, let the tender ofhce long engage To rock the cradle of reposing age, With lenient arts extend a mother's breath. Make languor smile, and smooth the bed of death : Explore the thought, explain the asking eye. And keep awhile one parent from the sky. The stars shall fade away, the sun himself Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years, Addison^ In a good old age. Old Testament. His hair just grizzled As in a green old age. Dry den. / \ i , \ ? -M^ ^ Ci J- ^ G \ A ' DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 769 ► The Pyramids themselves, doting witliage, have forgotten the names 1 1 Oil ! when a Mother meets on high of tlieir founders. The babe she lost in infancy. Fuller. Hath she not then, for pains and fears. Alone. The day of woe, the watchful night. For all her sorrow, all her tears. An over-payment of delight? Soniht'j^, So lonely 'twas, that God himself Scarce seemed there to be. Colerid'^c-, Battle. Like one that on a lonesome road Doth walk in fear and dread, And leaving in battle no blot on his name, And, having once turned round, walks on Look proudly to heaven from the death-bed of fame. And turns no more his head. Campbell. Because he knows a frightful fiend Ye mariners of England ! That guard our native seas. Doth close behind him tread. Colcruigtr. Whose flag has braved a thousand years Alone! — that worn-out word, The battle and the breeze ! So idly, and so coldly heard ; Campbell. Yet ::U that poets sing, and grief hath known, When tlie battle rages loud and long, Of hopes laid waste, knells in that word— Alone ! And the stormy winds do blow. Biilwer Lytton. Campbell. And little of this great world can I speak. Ambition. More than pertains to feats of broil and battle. Shakspere. When that the poor have cried, Cxsar hath wept: But to the hero, when his sword Ambition should be made of sterner stuff. Sbakspcrc. Has won the battle for tlie free, Thy voice sounds like a prophet's word. I have no spur J/alleck. To prick the sides of my intent ; but only Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself. Wut's words to them whose faith and truth And falls on the other. On War's red techstone rang true metal, Shakiiperc. Who ventured life an' love an' youth Here we may reign secure, and in my choice For the gret prize 0' death in battle? Lozvell. To reign is worth ambition, though in hell: Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven. Milton. Beauty. Angels. So stands the statue that enchants the world. So bending tries to veil the matchless boast. The mingled beauties of exulting Greece. woman ! lovely woman ! nature made thee fhomsoii. To temper man ; we had been brutes without you. Angels are painted fair, to look like you: In naked beauty, more adorn'd. There's in you all that we believe in heaven: More lovclv, than Pandora. Milton. Am.izing brightness, purity, and truth. Kternal jov, and everlasting love. She walks in beauty, like the night Ohotry. Of cloudless climes and starry skies; He pass'd the flaming bounds of place and time : And all that's best oi dark and bright The living throne, the sapphire blaze. Meet in her aspect and lier eyes ; Where angels tremble while they giize, Thus mellow'd to that tender light He saw ; but, blasted wi'.h excess of light, Which Heaven to gaudy day denies. Byron, Closed his eyes in endless night. Gnij'. k Blessing. Argument. Blessings be with them, and etern.al praise, I have found you an argument;! am not obliged to tiiul you an Who gave us nobler loves, and nobler cares, imdcrstanding. The Poets, who on earth have made us heirs yoliuson. Of truth and pure delight by heavenly lays ! It would be argument for a week, laughter for a month, and a good Wordsworth. jest forever. Shakspere. Blessings on him who invented sleep, tlie mantle that covers all human thoughts, the food that appeases hunger, the drink that He draweth out the thread of his verbosity finer than the staple of quenches thirst, the fire that warms cold, the cold that moderates heat. his argument. and lastly, the general coin that purchases all things, the balance and Shakspere. weight that equals the shepherd with the king, and the simple with the wise. Babe. Cervantes. Hush, my dear, lie still and slumber! A babe in a house is a well-spring of pleasure. Holy angels guard thy bed ! Tuppt-r. Heavenly blessings without number i And pity, like a naked, n^'w-born babe. Gently falling on thy head. \ Shakspere. Waits. /» \ 9 ^ ' -r > DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. / 771 The childhood shows thtr man As morning- shows the day. Milton. The children like olive plants round about thy tabic. Old Testament. By sports like these are all their cares begnil'd ; The sports of children satisfy the child. Goldsmith. Dancing. Midnight shout and revelry, Tipsy dance and jollity. On with the dance ! let joy be unconfincd. And bear about the mockery of woe To midnight dances and the public show. Milton. Byron. Pope. Doubt. No hinge, nor loop To hang a doubt on. Shakspcre, Doubt thou the stars are fire, Doubt that the sun doth move; Doubt truth to be a liar, But never doubt I love. And better had they ne'er been born, Who read to doubt, or read to scorn. Shakspere. Dreams. Hunt half a day for a forgotten dream. Wordszoorth. Who has not felt how sadlf sweet The dream of home, the dream of home, Steals o'er the heart, too soon to fleet, When far o'er sea or land we roam ? Moore. True, I talk of dreams, Which are the children of an idle brain, Begot of nothing but vain fantasy. Shakspere. Dust. IIow lov'd, Jiow honor'd once, avails tliee not, To whom related, or by whom begot: A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; 'Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be ! The knight's bones are dust, And his good sword rust; His soul is with the saints, I trust. PopL-. CoUriJtft:. Earth. Earth felt the wound ; and Nature from her seat. Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe, That all w:is lost. Milton. The common growth of Mother Earth Suflices me— her tears, her mirth. Her humblest niirlh and tears. W'ordstvorlit. Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. CohriJi;,'. Ease. How blest is he who crowns, in shades like these, A youth of labor with an age of case ! Goldsmith. Shall I not take mine ease in mine inn? Shakspere. Nor peace nor ease the he.-irt can know. Which, like the needle true. Turns at the touch of joy or woe. But, turning, trembles too. Mrs. Gre-villc. Error. To err is human, to forgive divine. Truth crushed to earth shall rise again ; The eternal years of God are hers ; But Error, wounded, writhes with pain, And dies among his worshippers. I'ofc. Byron. Eternity. 'Tis the divinity that stirs within us; 'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter. And intimates eternity to man. Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought! Adiiisou. But there are wanderers o'er Eternity Whose bark drives on and on, and anchor'd ne'er shall be. Byron. Faith. Happy he With such a mother! faith in womanhood Beats with his blood, and trust in all things high Comes easy to him, and, though he trip and fall. He shall not blind Iiis soul with clay. Tennyson. One in whom persuasion and belief Had ripened into faith, and faith become A passionate intuition, Wordsworth. Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen. New Testament. Farewell. I only know we loved in vain — I only feel — Farewell ! — Farewell ! Byron. Oh, now, forever. Farewell the tranquil mind! farewell content! Farewell tlie ploomed troop, and the big wars, That make ambition virtue ! Oh, farewell I Farewell the neighing steed, and the shrill trumi>, The spirit-stirring drum, th' ear-piercing fife, The royal banner, and all quality. Pride, pomp and circumstance of glorious war! And, O you mortal engines, whose rude throats The immortal Jove*s dread clamors counterfeit. Farewell I Othello's occupation's gone ! Shakspere. Folly. A fool must now and then be right by chance. Cozvper. For fools rush in where angels fear to tread. Pope. Of all causes which conspire to blind Man's erring judgment, and misguide the mind, What the weak head with strongest bias rules, Is pride, the ne\'er-failing vice of fools. Pope, Forgetfulness. Go, forget me — why should sorrow O'er that brow a shadow fling? Go, forget me — and to-morrow Brightly smile and sweetly sing. Smile — though I shall not be near thee ; Sing — though I shall never hear thee. Freedom. Wolfe. ■\Ve must be free or die, who speak the tongue That Shakspere spake; the iaith and morals hold Which Milton held. WordsTJorth. I am as free as nature first made man. Ere the base laws of servitude began, When wild in the woods the noble savage ran. Drydtu. No. Freedom has a thousand charms to show. That slaves, howe'er contented, never know. Covjpcr. That this nation, under God, shall have a ne^v birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. Abraham Lincoln. Glory. *Tis beauty calls, and glory leads the wav. Lee. Avoid sliaine, but do not seek glorv — nothing so expensive as glorj". Sydney Smith. I have touch'd the highest point of all my greatness, And from that full meridian of my glory I haste now to my setting: I shall fall Like a bright exhalation in the evening, And no man see me more. Byron. God. Had I but ser\-'d my God with half the zeal I serv'd my king, he would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies. .Shakspere. Just are the ways of God, And justifiable to men ; Unless there be who think not God at all. Milton. God helps them that help themselves. Franklin. Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind; His soul proud Science never taught to stray Far as the solar walk or milky way. Pope. God scndeth, and givelh, both mouth and- the meat. Thomas Tnsser. Grief. Every one can master a grief but he that has it. .Shakspere. Happiness. Domestic Happiness, thou only bliss Of Paradise that has surviv'd the fall ! Cowper. O happiness ! our being's end and aim ! Good, pleasure, ease, content ! whate'er thy name ; That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh, For which we bear to live, or dare to die. Pope. How bitter a thing it is to look into happiness through another man's eyes! Shakspere. All who joy would win Must share it ; Happiness was bom a twin. Byron. Heaven. 1^ *Tis heaven alone that is given away; 'Tis only God may be had for the asking. Thus, when the lamp that lighted The traveller at first goes out. He feels awhile benighted, And looks around in fear and doubt. But soon, the prospect clearing. By cloudless starlight on he treads. And thinks no lamp so cheering As that light which heaven sheds. Lowell. Moore, Sit, Jessica ; look, how the floor of heaven Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold ; There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st But in his motion like an angel sings, Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubins: Such harmony is in immortal souls ; But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it. Shakspere. Heaven open'd wide Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound On golden hinges moving. Milton. To heirs unknown descends th' unguarded store, Or wanders, heaven-directed, to the poor. Hell. Hell is pavL-d with j^ood intentions. Pope. Which way shall Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? Which way I fly is hell ; myself am hell ; And, in the lowest deep, a lower deep, Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide. To which tlie hell I suffer seems a heaven. fly, Milton. Full little knowcst thou that hast not tried. What hell it is in suing long to bide ; To loose good dayes that might be better spent. To wast long nights in pensive discontent ; To speed to-dav, to be put hack to-morrow; To feed on hope, to pine with feare and sorrow. Spi-n.'ier. Honesty. Every honest miller has a g( )lden thumb. Old .Saving. V DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 773 Hope. Thus heavenly hope is all serene, But earthly hope, how bright soe'er, Still fluctuates o\-r this changing scene, As false and fleeting as 'tis fair. Jfebf. Cease, every joy, to glimmer on my mind, But leave — oh ! leave the light of Hope behind ! What though my winged hours of bliss have been, Like angel-visits, few and far between. Campbfll. Hope ! thou nurse of young desire. Bickers/aff. Hope springs eternal in the human breast : Man never is, but always to l>c blest. The soul, une;isy, and confin'd from home, Rests and expatiates m a life to come. Pope. Sail on, O Ship of State! Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! Humanity with all its fears. With all the hopes of future years, Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! Longfellotv. Idleness. How various his employments, whom the world Calls idle ; and who justly in return Esteems that busy world an idler too ! Coviper. In idle wishes fools supinely staj' ; Be there a will, and wisdom finds a wav. Crabbe. Immortality. There is no death ! an angel form Walks o'er the earth with silent tread, He bears our best-loved things away. And then we call them " dead." Harfey. There is no death \ What seems so is transition. This life of mortal breath Is but a suburb of the life clysian, Whose portal we call death. Longfeliovf. Though inland far wc be. Our souls have sight of that immortal sea Which brought us hither. W'orJsjvorth. Our dissatisfaction with any other solution is the blazing evidence of immortality. Kmcrson. Innocence. An age that melts in unperceiv'd decay. And glides in modest innocence away. Hc*s armed without that's innocent within. First, then, a woman will, or won't, depend on*t; If she will do't, she will ; and there's an end on't. But if she won't, since safe and sound your trust is. Fear is affront, and jealousy injustice. /////. Jesting. Of all the griefs that harass the distrcst. Sure the most bitter is a scornful jesl. oh MS A jest's prosperity lies in the car Of him that hears it, never in the tongue Of him that makes it. S/taksp^rr. Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee Jest, and youthful Jollity, Quips, and Cranks, and wanton Wiles, Nods, and Becks, and wreathed Smiles. A//// on. Joy. And e'en while fashion's brightest arts decoy. The heart, distrusting, asks if this be joy. Go/Jsmith. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Life in three words — health, peace and competence. Pope. Silence is the perfcctest herald of joy; I were but little happy, if I could say how much. Shakspere. Bliss in possession will not last ; Remembcr'd joys are never past; At once the fountain, stream and sea, They were, they are, they yet shall be Mottigomery. There's not a joy tlie world can give like that it takes away. Byron. From our own selves our joys must flow, And that dear hut— our home. Coiton. Oh, the Joys that came down shower-like. Of Friendship, Love and Liberty, Ere I was old ! Coieriiige, Justice. Fiat Justitia ruat coelum. Terence. yohnson. Pope. Jealousy. Trifles, light as air. Are to the jealous confirmations strong As proofs of Holy Writ, Shakspere. Love is strong as death ; jealousy is cruel as the grave. Oid Testament. We but teach Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return To plague the inventor. This even-handed justice Commends the ingredients of our poison'd chalice To our own lips. Shakspere. What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted? Thrice is he arm'd that hath his quarrel just ; And he but naked, though lock'd up in steel. Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. Shakspere. Between two hawks, which flics the higher pitch ; Between two dogs, which hath the deeper mouth ; Between two horses, which doth bear him best; Between two girls, which hath the merriest eye — I have, perhaps, some shallow spirit of judgment ; But in these nice sharp quillets of the law. Good faith, I am no wiser than a daw. Shakspere, / \ \ 774 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. ~A Kindness. Assume a virUie, if you have it not. I must be cruel, only to be kind: Thus bad begins, and worse remains behind. Shakspere. Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 'Tis only noble to be good. Kind hearts are more than coronets, And simple faith than Norman blood. Tennysoti. And kind as kings upon their coronation day. DrydtH. Yet do I fear thy nature: It is too full o' the milk of human kindness. Shakspere. The King. Not all the waters in the rough, rude sea Can wash the balm from an anointed king. Shakspere. A man may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king; and eat of the fish that hath fed of that worm. Shakspere. Ay, ever\' inch a king. Shakspere. The king's name is a tower of strength. Shakspere. The right divine of kings to govern wrong. Shakspere, Kissing. Be plain in dress, and sober in your diet; In short, my deary: kiss me and be quiet. Mojtiague. Then come kiss me, sweet-and-t\venty. Shakspere. O Love, O fire ! once he drew With one long kiss my whole soul through My lips, as sunlight drinketh dew. Tentiyson. The kiss, snatched hasty from the sidelong maid. Thomson. A long, long kiss, a kiss of youth and love. Knavery. Byron. Now will I show myself to have more of the serpent than the dove ; that is, more knave than fool. Whip me such honest knaves. Knowledge. Marlowe. Shakspere. Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find information upon it. Johnson. Half our knowledge we must snatch, not take. Knowledge is power. Pope. Bacon. A wise man is strong; yea, a man of knowledge increaseth strength. Old Testament. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle ; natural philosophy, deep ; morals, grave ; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. Bacon. Labor. Man goeth forth unto his work and to his labor until the evening. Old Testament. Honest labor bears a lovely face. So he with difficulty and labor hard Mov'd on, with difficulty and labor he. Dekker. Milton. The laborer is worthy of his hire. New Testament, The Ladies. A lion among ladies is a most dreadful thing. Shakspere. If ladies be but young and fair, They have the gift to know it. Shakspere. Ladies, whose bright eyes Rain influence, and judge the prize. Milton. And when a lady's in the case. You know all other things give place. The Land. Gay. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, When wealth accumulates and men decay; Princes and lords may flourish and may fade, A breath can make them as a breath h:is made, But an honest peasantrj', a country's pride, When once destroyed, can never be supplied. Goldsmith. Breathes there the man. with soul so dead. Who never to himself hath said. This is my own, my native land ! Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned, As home his footsteps he hath turned From wandering on a foreign strand? ^ .Scott. There's nae sorrow there, John, There's neither cauld nor care, John, The day is aye fair, In the land o' the leal. Ladj Nairne. Laughter. They laugh that win. Shakspere. There was -x laughing Devil in his sneer. Byron, You hear that boy laughing? — you think he's all fun ; But the angels laugh, too, at the good he has done ; The children laugh loud as they troop to his call. And the poor man that knows him laughs loudest of all ! Jlolmes. And Laughter liolding both his sides. Milton. The Law. 1 Clo. Argal, he that is not guilty of his own death shortens not hi own life. 2 Clo, But is this law? I Clo, Ay, marry, is't; crowner's-quest law. When law ends, tyranny begins. Shakspere. Pitt. . ^\ © •. -»_ ^ J- 6 \ y\ \ DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 775 1 No man e'er ft-It the halter draw, Love. With good opinion of ths Jaw. TntMbif//. A mighty pain to love it is, Of Law there can be no less acknowledged, than that her scat is the And 'tis a pain that pain to miss ; bosom of God, her voice the harmony of the world : ail things in huavt-n But of all pain, the greatest pain and earth do her homage, the very least :is feeling her care, and the It is to love, but love in vain. greatest as not exempted from her power. //ooJtt-r. Cmvtry, The law is a sort of hocus-pocus science, that smiles in yer face while it picks yer pocket ; and the glorious uncertainty of it is of mair Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind. And therefore is wing'd Cupid painted blind. Shokspere. use to the professors than the justice of it. MacA/ni. Mightier far Than strength of nerxe or sinew, or the sway Learning. Of magic potent over sun and star. Is Love, though oft to agony distrest. Some for renown on scraps of learning dote, And though his favorite seat be feeble woman's breast. And think they grow immortal as they quote. Wordsworth, 2'oHrig. With just enough of learning to misquote. But to see her was to love her. Love but her and love forever. Burns. Liberty. Had wc never loved sae kindly. Had we never loved sae blindly, Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of Never met or never parted. chains and slavery? Forbid it Almighty God! I know not what We had ne'er been broken-hearted. Burns. course others may take; but, as for me, give me liberty, or give me death. Men have died from time to time and worms have eaten them, but Patrick Henry. not from love. Liberty's in every blow ! Shakspere. Let us do or die. Oh, my luve's like a red, red rose, Burns. That's newly sprung in Jiine, .0 libertj'! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! Oh, my luve's like a melodie Aftne. Roland, That's sweetly played in tune. Burns. Behold! in liberty's unclouded blaze We lift our heads, a race of other days. Alas ! the love of \vom.-in ! it is known Spragtie, To be a lovely and a fearful thing. ByroH. Life. Man's love is of man's life a thing apart, 'Tis woman's whole existence. I do not set mv life at a pin's fee. Byron. Shaksper,'. For stony limits cannot hold love out. The world's a bubble, and the life of man Sfiaksperf. Less than a span. Bacon. Madness. We are such stuff As dreams are made on: and our little life Great wit is sure to madness near allied, Is rounded with a sleep. And thin partitions do their bounds divide. Shakspen-. />r »'«/«■«. A sacred burden is this life ye bear, This is very midsummer madness. Look on it, lift it, bear it solemnly, Shakspi-re. Stand up and walk bencatli it steadfastly. Though this be m.idness, yet there's method in't. ■Kail not for soirow, falter not for sin. S/ntkspert. But onward, upward, till the ijoal ye win. 0^ F-11 Kembic, To be wroth with one we love i^ifu's but a means unto an end ; that end Doth work like madness on the brain. Beginning, me m an*! »;nd to all things— God. Coleridge. Baihy. And moody madness laughing wild, That life is long which answers life's great end. Aniid severest woe. Gray. Toung. Cure her of that: Our life is but a winter day Some only breakfast and away Canst thou not minister to a mind diseas'd, Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow. Raze out the written troubles of the brain ? others to dinner stay and are full fed Sbakspere. the oldest man but sups and goes to bed large is his debt Maidenhood. that lingers out tlic day he that goes soonest Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare, ( has the least to pay. And Mammon wins his way where Seraphs might despair. 1 Epitaph. Byron. e ^' \ 5 ■ •- r -w — a \ 776 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. / The maid who modestly conceals Her beauties, while she hides, reveals ; Give but a glimpse, and fancy draws Whate'er the Grecian Venus was. Edzvard Moore. She dwelt among the untrodden ways Beside the spring of Love, A maid whom there were none to praise And very few to love. Wordsworth. And when once the yoimg heart of a maiden is stolen. The maiden herself will steal after it soon. Moore. Standing with reluctant feet Where the brook and river meet, Womanhood and childhood fleet! Wretched un-idea'd girls. Man. Longfellow. Johnson. An honest man's the noblest work of God. A very unclubable man. Pope, y oh a son. Before man made us citizens, great Nature made us men. I dare do all that may become a man ; \Vho dares do more is none. Adam the goodliest man of men since born His sons ; the fairest of her daughters Eve. Shakspere. For contemplation he and valor form'd, For softness she and sweet attractive grace; He for God only, she for God in him. His fair large front and eyes sublime declar'd Absolute rule. Mi/ton. Like leaves on trees the race of man is found, Now green in youth, now withering on tlie ground : Another race the following spring supplies ; They fall successive, and successive rise. Pope. All the world's a .stage And all the men and women merely players; Tliey liave their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts— His acts being seven ages. At first, the Infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms. Thunthe whining School-boy, with his satchel And shining morning face, creeping like snail Unwillingly to school. And then the Lover, Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad Made to his mistress' eyebrow. Then a Soldier, Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard; Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel, Seeking the bubble reputation Kvcn to the cannon's mouth. And then the Justice, In fair round belly with good capon lin'd, With eyes severe and beard of formal cut, Full of wise saws and modern instances — And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts Into the lean and sllpper'd Pantaloon, His youthful hose well sav'd, a world too wide For Iiis shrunk shank ; and his big manly voice, Turning again toward childish treble, pipes And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all. That ends this strange, eventful history, Is second childishness and mere oblivion ; Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans — everything. Shakspere, Marriage. Choose not alone a proper mate. But proper time to marry. Cooper. Let me not to the marriage of true minds Admit impediments: love is not love Which alters when it alteration finds. Shakspere. How much tlie wife is dearer than the bride. Lyltenon, Such duty as the subject owes the prince, Even sucli a woman oweth to her husband. .Shakspere. You are my true and honorable wife ; As dear to me ;is are the ruddy drops That visit my sad heart. Shakspere. With secret course, which no loud storms annoy. Glides the smooth current of domestic joy, yohnsopi. Is not marriage an open question when it is alleged from the he- ginning of the world that such as are in the institution wish to get out, and such as are out wish to get in? R. I['. Emerson. Slie what was honor knew, And with obsequious majesty approv'd My pleaded re;ison. To the nuptial bower I led lier, blushing like the morn: all lieaven. And happy constellations on tliat hour Shed their selcctest influence ; the earth Gave sign of gratulation, and each hill ; Joyous the birds; fresh gales and gentle airs Whisper'd it to the woods, and from their wings Flung rose, flung odors from the spicy shrub. Milton. Melancholy. Sweet bird, that shunn'st the noise of folly. Most musical, most melancholy! Milton. And, with a green and yellow melancholy, She sat, like Patience on a monument, Smiling at grief. Shakspere. Go — yon may call it madness, folly; You shall not cli;ise my gloom away ! There's such a cliarm in melancholy I would not, if I could, be gay. Rogers. There's naught in this life sweet. If man were wise to sec't. But only melancholy ; Oh, sweetest Melancholy! Fletcher. The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, Of w.ailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sear. Bryant. Memory. Time whereof the memory <>f man runneth not to the contrary. Blackstone. / \ 1 a ^ scures, nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, Breaks the serene of heaven: In full-orbed glorj', yonder moon divine Rolls through the dark-blue depths. Beneath her steady ray The desert-circle spreads, Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky. How beautiful is night! Southey. Here in the body pent, Absent from Him I roam ; Yet nightly pitch my moving tent A day's march nearer home. Montgomery. O night, And storm, and darkness ! ye are wondrous strong. Yet lovely in your strength, as is the light Of a dark eye in woman ! Where eldest Night And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, hold Eternal anarchy amrdst the noise Of endless wars, and by confusion stand. Byron. Milton. Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. Milton. You meaner beauties of the night. That poorly satisfy our eyes More by your number than your light, You common people of the skies — • What are you when the moon shall rise? Wolten. Good night, good night: parting is such sweet sorrow, That I shall say good night till it be morrow. Shakspere. Pain. Rich the treasure, Sweet the pleasure, Sweet is pleasure after pain. So when a raging fever burns, We shift from side to side by turns, And 'tis a poor relief we gain To change the place, but keep the pain. Dry den. The labor we delight in physics pain. Shakspere. To frown at pleasure, and to smile in pain. Pains of love be sweeter far Than all other pleasures are. 2'oung. Dry den. Patience. This flower of wifely patience. Chaucer. The worst speak something good : if all want sense, God takes a text and preacheth patience. Pferhert. Like patience on a monument. Shakspere. Patience and sorrow strove, Who should express her goodliest. Shakspere. 'Tis all men's office to speak patience To those that wring under the load of sorrow. But no man's virtue, nor sufliciency, To be so moral when he shall end ire The like himself. .Shakspere. For there was never yet philosopher That could endure the toothache p.itiently. Shakspere. Arm the obdured breast With stubborn patience .is with triple steel. Milton. ^ ^ o ^ -^ J- G\ \ •■" 1 ' DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 779 ► The best of men Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, That e*er wore earth about him was a sufferer; Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door, A soft, meek, patient, humble, tranquil spirit. Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span ; The first true gentleman that ever breathed. Oh! give relief, and Heaven will bless your store. DiHft. Moss, Patriotism. Pleasure. That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain Rich the treasure. force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow Sweet the pleasure. warmer among the ruins of lona. Sweet is pleasure after pain. J 0^1 ns on. Dryden. Such is the patriot's boast, where'er we roam. But pleasures arc like poppies spread, His first, best country ever is his home. You seize the flower. Its bloom is shed; (V(i/i/.%' /«;'///. Or, like the snow-fall in the river. Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel. jfo/inso/t. A moment white, then melts forever. Burns. Who dared to love their country and be poor. The Puritans hated bearb.iiting, not because it gave pain to the J^Oj>f. bear, but because It gave pleasure to the spectators. True patriots all ; for be it understood Macaulay, We left our country lor our country's good. A man of pleasure is a man of pains. roung. Sarr/rigiort. Oh, Heaven I he cried, my bleeding country save. The soul's calm sunshine and the heartfelt joy. Pope. Campbe//. Come live with me, and be my love, My countr\', 'tis of thee. And we will all the i)le:murcs prove Sweet land of liberty — That hills and valleys, dales and fields. Of thee I sing. Samuf!F.Srni//i, Woods or steepy mountains, yields. I was born an American ; I live an American , I shall die an American. All hiiman race, from China to Peru, Pleasure, howe'er dlsguis'd by art, pursue? Our country— whether boundL-d by the St. John's and the Sabine, or Warton. however otherwise bounded or described, and be the measurements Here Skugg Lies snug. As a bug more or less — still our country, to be cherished in all our hearts, to be defended by all our hands. mul/irop. In a rug. Peace. Franktm, There »s little pleasure in the house Peace be within thy walls and prosperity within thy palaces. When our gudeman 's awa'. ^ Mickle, O/d Testament. Peace hath her victories No profit grows where is no pleasure ta'en ; No less renown'd than war. In brief, sir, study what you most affect, Shakspere. Afilton, Still in thy right hnnd carry gentle peace, Poverty. To silence envious tongues. Shakspete. Blessed is he that considercth the poor. There never was a good war or a bad peace. Old Testament. Frankiiii. Steep'd me In povertv to the very lips. Peace, peace: when there is no peace. ' * • Shakspere. Old Testament. lie left a paper sealed up, wherein were found tlircc articles as hU Where peace bust will : "I owe much, I have nothing, I give the rest to the poor." And rest can never dwell, hope never comes. Jlabelais. That comes to all. Milton. With one liand he put A pcnnv in the urn of poverty The inglorious arts of peace. And with the other took a shilling out. MarvelL Poiiok. Pity. Poor naked wretches, whercsoe'er you are. That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm. She loved me for the dangers I had passed, How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides, Your loop'd and window'd raggedncss, defend you From seasons such as these. And I loved her that she did pity them. Shakspere. lie that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord. Shakspere. Ohi Testament. Thou source of all my bliss, and all my woe, For pity melts the mind to love. That found'st me poor at first, and keep'st me so. Dry den. Goldsmith, Of all the paths lead to a woman's love Too poor for a bribe, and too proud to importune. He hath not the method of making « fortune. Pity 's the straightest Beaumont and FUtcher^ Gray. And pity, like a naked new-born babe, Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile ^ ( Striding the blast. The short and simple annals of the poor. Shakspere. Gray. qJ / N Is ^ to ^ -» a t ^\ * ^ 51 i- 6t ^ A a ( 780 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. \ A poor, infirm, weak and despis'd old man. So his life has flowed Skaisfere.. From its mysterious urn a sacred stream, Praise. In whose calm dejith the beautiful and pure Alone are mirror'd. The love of praise, howe'er concealed by art, Talfoitrd. Reigns more or less, and srlows in ev'rv heart. We understood J OltJIg. Her by her sight ; her pure and eloquent blood Praise God, from whom all blessings flow; Spoke in her cheeks, and so distinctly wrought, Praise Him, all creatures here below! That one might almost say her body thought. Doune. Praise Him above, ye heavenly host! Ken. The real simon pure. Poetic Justice, with her lifted scale, Ce7itiiz>re. ■Where, in nice balance, tnith with gold she weighs, They say that a lion will turn and flee And solid pudding against empty praise. From a maid m the pride of her purity, Pop,-. But the maiden, if she be a wise little thing. Of whom to be disprais'd were no small praise. Will keep out of the path of the beastly king. Miltot:. Ano7i. Green be the turf above thee. Ch;iste as the icicle. Friend of my better days; That 's curded by the frost from purest snow. None knew thee but to love thee. And hangs on Dian's temple. Shakspere. Nor named thee but to praise. HalUfk. Poets lose half the praise they should have got Quiet. Could it be known what they discreetly blot. All that are lovers of virtue, ... he quiet, and go a- Angling. Waller. ]Vititon. The sweeter sounds of woman's praise. Macaulay. Use three Paysicians, Still-first Dr. Quiet, Praise undeserved is scandal in disguise. Next Dr. Merj'-man And Dr. Dyet. Pofe. The rose that all are praising Oid zvork on Health. Is not the rose for me. Sayley. But quiet to quick bosoms is a hell. Byron. Pride. And join with thee calm Peace and Quiet, Spare Fast, that oft with gods doih diet. He passed a cottage with a double coach-house, Milton. A cottag^e of gentility ; Study to be quiet. And he owned with a grin Neifj Testament. That his favorite sin Is pride that apes humility. Rain. Southey. My pride fell with my fortunes. Violets plucked, the sweetest rain Shaksfere. Makes not fresh or grow again. Fletcher, Pride in their port, defiance in their eye. Goldstfiith. The thirsty earth soaks up the rain. And drinks and gapes for drink again ; Pride goeth before destruction, and an haughty spirit before a fall. The plants suck in the earth, and are Old Testament. With constant drinking fresh and fair. A falcon, towering in her pride of place. Cowley. Was by a mousing owl hawk'd at and killed. For the rain it raineth every day. Shiikspere. Shakspcre, In pride, in reasoning pride, our error lies; He shall come down like rain upon the mown grass. All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. Old Testament. Pride still is aiming at the blessed abodes; Ah, do not, when my heart hath scap'd this sorrow, Men would be angels, angels would be gods. Pope. Come in the rearward of a conquered woe ; Give not a windy night a rainy morrow. To linger out a purpos'd oveithrow. And the Devil did grin, for his darling sin Is pride that apes humility. Shakspere. Coleridge. Purity. Reading. Learn to read slow: all other graces Unto the pure all things are pure. Will follow in their proper places. New Testamejit. Walker. She was good as she was fair; Read, mark, learn and inwardly digest. None — none on earth above her! Book of Common Prayer. As pure in thought as angels are, You write with ease to show your breeding. To know her was to love her. But easy writing's cursed hard reading. Rogers. Sheridan. Like the stained web that whitens in the sun, Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing < Grow pure by being purely shone upon. an exact man. \ Moore. Baco7i. / V If) V » - -• ■v*" ^-y o .c ^ ^ \ A ' 1 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 1^^ > Whiit is Iwicc read is commonly better rLincmbercd than what is Sadness. transcribed. yo/tnson. Of all tales 'lis the saddest— and more sad And better had they ne'er been bom, Because it makes us smile. Byron. Who read to doubt, or read to scorn. Scoii. I had rather have a fool make mc merry, than experience make Reading? what they never wrote, me sad. Just fifteen minutes, huddle up theirwork, Shakspere. And with a well-bred whisper close the scene. Earth has no sorrow that Heaven cannot heal. MoOTe, Cowper. But hushed be every thought that springs Reason. From out the bitterness of things. W'ofdswofth, Reason is the life of the law; nay, the common law itself is nothing- else but reason. . . . The law, which is perfection of reason. But, sad as angels for the good man's sin, CcUc. Weep to record, and blush to give it in. Camphtll. Sure, He that made us with such large discourse, For seldom shall she hear a tale Looking before and after, gave us not So sad, so tender, and so true. That capability and godlike reason Shenstonf. To rust in us unus'd. A sadder and a wiser man. S/iai-spere. He rose the morrow morn. Now see that noble and most sovereign reason, CoUridgf. And Mecca saddens at the long delay. Like sweet bells jangled, out of tune and harsh. S/taAspe/Y. Thomson. Give unto me, madelowlv wise, The spirit of self-sacrifice ; The Sea. The confidence of reason give; And in the light of truth thy bondman let me live. They that go down to the sea in ships, that do business in great Wonfswor//i. waters. Old Testament. Error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to com- bat it. yt^t-rsofi. V\\ example you with thievery: The sun's a thief, and with his great attraction Robs the vast sea : the moon's an arrant thief. The ruling passion, be it what it will, And her pale fire she snatches from the sun: The ruling passion conquers reason sttll. The sea's a thief, whose liquid surge resolves The moon into salt tears. The intelligible forms of ancient poets. Shakspere, The fair lunnanities of old rcHgitm, 'Twas when the sea was roaring The power, the beauty and the majesty, With hollow blasts of wind, That had their Iiaunts in dale, or piny mountain, Or forest, by slow stream, or pebbly spring. A damsel lay deplorine, All on a rock reclin'd. Or chasms and watery deptlis : all these have vanished ; Gay. They live no longer in the faith of reason. Co/eridge. This narrow isthmus 'tvvixt two boundless seas, The past, the future, two eternities! Religion. Moore, To be of no church is dangt-rous. Religion, of whicll llic rewards On life's vast ocean diversely we sail, are distant and which is animated only by Kailh and Hojie, will glide Reason the card, but passion is the gale. Pope. by degrees out of the mind, unless it be invigorated and reimpressed , by external ordinances, by stated calls to worship and the salutary Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean— roll! 1 influence of example. Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; ; yo/iftso/i. Man marks the earth with ruin— his control The writers against religion, whilst they oppose every system, are Stops with the shore. Byron. wisely careful never to set up any of their own. Shame. A little philosophy inclineth a man's mind to atheism, but depth of philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion. And lovelier things have mercy shown I^ord Bacon. To ever)- failing but their own ; Revenge. And every woe a tear can claim, Except an erring sister's shame. Which, if not \ ictorv, is vet revenge. Byron. Milton. Oh, shame to men • devil with devil damn'd Revenge, at first though sweet, Firm concord holds ; mm only disagree Bitter ere long back on itself recoils. Of creatures r.itional. Milton. Milton. That practicM falsehood under saintly shew, O shame ! wher*: is thy blush I Deep malice to conceal, couch'd with revenge. Shakspere. Milton. Avoul shame, but do not seek glory— nothing so expensive as glory. If it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. Sydney Smith. Shakspere. Honor and shame from no condition rise; i Revenge is profitable; gratitude is expensive. Act well your part, there all the himor lies. 1 Gibbon . pope. c) / \ ^^4 '*7 to • - -•" S , •«y ■5 *. « <^ ^ G \ A 1 782 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 1 Men the most infamous are fond of fame, Thou hast been called, O Sleep ! the friend of woe; And those who fear not guilt, yet start at shame. But 'tis the happy that have called thee so. Churchill. Southey. I have mark'd He giveth his beloved sleep. Old Testament. A thousand blushing- apparitions To start into her face ; a thousand innocent shames, Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep. In angel whiteness, bear away those blushes. Old Testament. Shakspere. Tired Nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep ! Young. Sighing. Not poppy, nor mandragora, Nor all the drowsy syrups of the East, A plague of sighing and grief! it blows a man up like a bladder. Shakspere. Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep Which t! ou ow'dst yesterday. Sigh'd and look'd, and sigh'd again. Shakspere. Dry den. On parent knees, a naked new-born child Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul, Weeping thou sat'st while all around thee smiled; And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole. Pope. So live, that, sinking in thy last long sleep, Calm thou may'st smile, while all around thee weep. Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, yones. Men were deceivers ever. Shakspere. Now blessings light on him who first invented sleep : it covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak; it is meat for the hungrv, Had sighed to many, though he loved but one. Byron. drink for the thirsty, heat for the cold, and cold for the hot. Cervantes. I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs ; A palace and a prison on each hand. ByroH. Solitude. She gave me for my pains a world of sighs. In the desert a fountain is springing, Shakspere. In the wide waste there still is a tree, The sigh that rends thy constant heart And a bird in the solitude singing, Shall break thy Edwin's too. Goldsmith. Which speaks to my spirit of thee. Byron. Silence. I praise the Frenchman, his remark was shrewd. How sweet, how passing sweet is solitude ! There was a silence deep as death ; But grant me still a friend in my retreat, And the boldest held his breath Whom I may whisper, solitude is sweet. For a time. Co-wper. Campbell. He makes a solitude, and calls it peace. ^ The silent organ loudest chants Byron. The master's requiem. Emerson. For solitude sometimes is best societv. And short retirement urges sweet return. Come then, expressive silence, muse his praise. Milton. Thomson. That inward eye Silence in love bewrays more woe Which is the bliss of solitude. Than words though ne'er so witty. Wordsworth. A beggar that is dumb, you know, In solitude, where we are least alone. May challenge double pitv. Byron. Raleigh. Solitude ! where are the charms No hammers fell, no ponderous axes rung; Like some tall p.ilm the mystic fabric sprung. That sages have seen in thy face? Couper. Majestic silence ! There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, Neber. There is a rapture on the lonely shore, Now came still evening on, and twilight gray There is society, where none intrudes, Had in her sober livery all things clad ; By the deep sea, and music in its roar : Silence accompany'd; for beast and bird, They to their grassy couch, these to their nests. I love not Man the less, but Nature more. Byron. Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale. Millon. Strength. Silence that dreadful bell ! it frights the isle He that ^vrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens our From her prosperity. Shakspere. skill; our antagonist is our helper. Burke. Silence is the perfectest herald of joy; I were but little happy if I Spring. could say how much. Shakspere. Come, gentle Spring ! ethereal mildness ! come. Sleep. Thomson. When Si>ring unlocks the flowers to paint tlie laughing soil. Methought I heard a voice cry, " Sleep no more ! Jleber. Macbeth does murder sleep" — the innocent sleep ; Sweet Spring, full of sweet days and roses, ( Sleep, that knits up the ravell'd sleeve of care. A ble as the shade By the light, quivering- aspen made ; When pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering angel thou 1 ^ ^ Scott. Where is the man who has the power and skill To stem the torrent of a woman's will ; For if she will, she will, vou may depend on't ; And if she won't, she won't; and there 's an end on 't. Ohi Epigntm. Women, like princes, find few real friends. Lyitelton. Her voice was ever soft, Gentle and low — an excellent thing in woman. Shakspere. Sir, a woman prcacliitig is like a dog's walking on his hind legs. It is not done well ; but you are surprised to find it done at all. yohnson. The world was sad — the garden was a wild, And Man, the hermit, sighed — till woman smil'd. Catnpl'til. The woman that deliberates is lost. AJiiison. He is a fool who thinks by force or skill To turn the ciirrent of a woman's will. Titke. Her children arise up and call her blessed. Old Tfstamtnt. So well to know Her own, that what she wills to do or say Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. M//ton. Not she with trait'rous kiss her Savior stung, Not she denied him with unholy tongue; She, while apostles shrank, could danger brave. Last at his cross and earliest at his grave. Barrett. Youth. Crabbed age and youth Cannot live together. Shakspfre. Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth. Otd Testament. The canker galls the infants of the spring, Too oft before their buttons be disclosed ; And in the morn and liquid dew of youth Contagious blastments are most imminent. Shakspen. Of He wears the rose outh upon him. .Shakspt-re. 'Tis now the summer of your youth: lime has not cropt the rost from your check, though sorrow long has washed them. Edtvard Moore. Fair laughs the morn, and soft the zephyr blows. While proudly riding o'er the .izure realm In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes ; Youth on the prow, and Pleasure at the helm; Regardless of the sweeping whirlwind's sway. That, hush'd in grim repose, expects his ev'ning prey. Gray. • A worm is in the bud of youth. And at the root of age. And life is thorny, and youth is vain ; And to be wroth with one we love Doth work like madness in the brain. Cozvper. Coicn'dgr. In the lexicon of youth, which fate resenes For a bright manhood, there is ntJ such word As— /at'/. „ , , ,, Btihver Lytton. Ah! happy years! once more, who would not be a boy? Byron, J^J HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. / -^^T Heroes and Heroines of Prose and Poetry. J^-^V A Compendium of the Celebrated Characters in the Literature of the World. The name of tlie character is g-iven in black k-tter; the name of the author and of the work from which tiie character is taken, in italic. Abdiel. Paradine Lost, Milton. The faithful angel who opposed Satan in his re- volt. Abigail, The Bible. A waiting-maid. Ablewliite, Oodfrey. Moonstone ^ Wilkie Collins. A disreputable spy. Abou Hassan. Arabian Nights. An Arab who was made to believe himself Caliph. Absalom, i. The Bihle. The son of Da- vid, King of Israel. 2. Ahsalom and AchitO' Phely Drydt-n. A jiseudonvm for the Duke of an illegitimate son of Kii nper- Monmouth Charles II, Absolute, Captain. The Rivals, Sheri- dan. The hero ot the comedy, the gallant and fortunate lover. Absolute, Sir Anthony. The Rivals, Sheridan. Father of Captain Absolute, a very iriiscible and absolute old gentleman. Acliitophel. Absalom and Achitoph,l, Dryden. The ijscudoii^m for the Karl of Shaftesbury. Aeres, Bob. The Rivals, Sheridan. A cowardly boaster, the butt of the comedy. Aorasia. The Faery ^ueen, Spenser. An olii witch, the personification of^ Intern] ance. Adam, Bell. Reliqites, Percy. A cele- brated archer. Adams, Parson. Joseph Andre-v?;, Field- ing. An eccentric, good-natured clergj-man. Adriana. Comedy of Errors^ Shakspere. The wife of Antipliolus. Aguecheek, Sir Andrew. Twelfth Kighty Shakspere. A coward and a fool. Aladdin. Arabian Nights. The owner of a magic lamp and ring, which gave tlie pos- sessor every wish he made. Allworthy, Squire. Tom j'ones. Field- ing. A good-natured old country gentleman. Alp. The Siege of Corinth^ Byron. A brave and devoted man. Amadis de Gaul. Amadis de Gaul. The hero of a Portuguese chivalric romance, the authorship of which is unknown. It was translated into every language in liurope. Amelia, Amelia, Fielding. A lovely woman, supposed to be drawn from Fiel'i- ing's own wife. Amine. Arabian Nights. A wicked Bor* cercss who chaiiged her three sisters into hounds. Amlet, Rirbard, The Confederacy^ Van- burgh. A gambler. Amri. Absalom and Achitophel^ Dryden. Pseudonym for 11. Finch. Andrews, Joseph. foseph Andrnvs, Fielding. A hero ridiculously upright and pure. Anerley, Mary. Mary Anerley, Black- more. A lovely and beautiful girl. ' Apemantns. Timon of Athens, Shaks- pere. A cynic. Arden, Enoch, Enoch Arden, Tennyson. A sailor, supposed drowned, who returns home to find his wife married again. Argante. The Faery ^ueen, Spenser. A giantess. Ariel. The Tempest, .Shakspere. A spirit of the air, perhaps the daintiest creation of the myriad-minded poet. Artful nodger. Oliver Twist, Dickens. A young thief who understands his business. Arthur, King. Idyls of the King, Tenny- son. A legendarv British King, who estab- lished an order of chivalry known as the Round Table, and about whom many popu- lar legends are afloat in Wales and AVestcrn France. A^'Aton, Zury. The Bride of Lammermoor, Scott. A beautiful character^ loved and lost by Havens wood. Atalanta. Atalanta in Calydon, Szvin- bierne. One of Diana's maidens, Autolycus. Winter'' s Tale, Shakspere. An intellectual sneak-thief. Baba, All. Arabian Nights. The hero of the tale of the forty thie\'es, who breaks into the robbers' cave by means of the magical pass-word '* Sesame." Baba, Cassim. Arabian Nights. Brother of the above, who forgets the pass-word, and is captured by the roboers. Backbite, Sir Benjamin. School for Scandal, Sheridan. A scandal-monger. Bagstock, Joe. Dontbey and Son, Dick- ens. A pompous fellow. Bailey, Young. Martin Chmzlezvit,Dick' ens. A precor-ous youtli. Balderstoii*, Caleb. Bride of Lammer- moor, Scott. Thti Sutler of Ravenswood, Balthazar. \, Comedy of Errors, Shaks- /'ere. A merchant, z. ^Inch Ado about Noth- ing, Shakspere. A servant. Banquo. Macbeth, Shakspere. A chieftain murdered by Macbeth; later in the same play, a ghobt. Bardell, Mrs. Pickxvick Pa/>ers, Dick- ens. Mr. Pickwick's landlady, wno sues him for breach of promise of marriage. Bardolph. Jfenry /I'., Shakspere. A follower of Sir J olin Falstaff. Barkis. Daz-id Cof-f-erfeld, Dickens. A marrving man who eventually marries. Bath, Major. Amelia, Fielding. A pom- pous olVicer. Bayes. The Rehearsal, Duke of Bucking- ham. A pseudonym for Drjden. Baynes, Charlotte. Ad^'cntures of Philip, Thackeray. The hero's sweetheart. Bede, Adam. Adam Bede, George Eliot. An ideal workingman. Belch, Sir Toby. Tivelfth Nighty Shaks- pere. Olivia's hard-drinking uncle. Belford. Clarissa /larlowe, Richardson. The friend of Lovelace. Belinda. Rape of the Lock, Pope. The heroine, whose hair is cut. Bell, I,aura. Pendennis, Thackeray. One of the sweetest heroines in Knglish literature. Bell, Peter. Peter Bell, Wordsworth. An extremely prosaic man. Bellaston, I^ady, Tom Jones, Fielding. One of Tom Jones' sweethearts. Bellenden, Lady. Old Mortality, Scott, A Tory gentlewoman. Belphoebe. The Faery ^neen, Spenser. A pseudonym for Queen Hlizabeth. Belvidera. Venice Preserved^ Olway. The heroine of the poem. Benedict. Love's Labor Lost, Shaksfere. A confirmed bachelor who was converted to matrimony by tlie lovely Beatrice. l''romtliis gentleman comes the name Benedict applied to married men who were not gt>ing to marry. Beunet, Mrs. Amelia, Fielding. An im- proper character. Benvolio. Romeo and Juliet, Shakspere. One of Romeo's friends. Bertram. All's Well That Ends Well, Shakspere. The hero of the play, who mar- ries Helen. Bianoa. Othello, Shakspere. Ciissio's sweetheart. Birch, Harvey. The Spy, Cooper. The chief character of the novel. Bilfil. Tom Jones, Fielding. Allworthy's nephew, a tale-6earer. Blember, 3Iiss Cornelia, Don/bey and Son, Dickens. A blue-stocking governess. Boabdil, Captain. Every A.'rn in J/is Humor, Joh/ison. A boasting coward. Boeuf, Front de. Ivanhoe, Scott. One of King John's followers. A ferocious scoun- drel. Boffin, Noddy, Onr Mutual Friend, Dickens. The good-natured occupant of Boffin's Bower. Bois Guilbert, Brian de. Ivanhoe, Scott. The master of tlie Knights Templars. Boniface. The Beaux' Stratagem, Far- quhar. A bindlord. Hence apjiUed to land- lords generally. Booby, Lady, Joseph Andrrws, Fielding. One of the minor characters. Booth. Amelia, Fielding. The hero of the story. Bottom, Nick, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Shakspere. A ridiculous weaver with whom Titania. the queen of the fairies, is forced to fall in love by a cliarin. Bounderby, Josiah, Hard Times, Pick- ens. A prosaic, matter-of-fact manufacturer. Bowles, Tom. Kenelm Chillingly, Bui- Tver. A blacksmith. Bowline. Tom. Roderick Random, Smol- lett. A sailor whose name has been applied to mariners ever since. / HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. 787 -7\ Ilox nncl Cox, r-<^x and Cox^ Morton^ The heroes of tlic farce. Brartwardine, Itnrnn. M'lverly, Scott. The tattler of Kuse lJr;i(i\v;irdinc, Krninblf*, >lnttlie^v. Jfutnphrey Ciinkrr, Smoiiill. A walkiiij^ tpitume of dyspepsia. KranpTtoiis, £z't-//na, Jif/ss Jjurtuy. Ver^' vulgar people. Brass, Sally and Sampson. Ofd Curi- osity Shop^ Jjtckens. A shysicring lawyer aiiJ his sister. Brick, JeffpFson. Martin Chuzxtcioit^ Dui^ins. A ridicuU>us American editor. Bridgenorth, I>rajor Balph. Prveril of the Peak, Scott* A piomiiieiit ufHcer in tne f*uritan Ari:iy. Bridget, Mrs, Tristram Shandy, Sterne. Tristram's nurse. Bro\m, Tom. Tom Ttro'.mi's School Pays and 7i»w Provju at Ox/orJ^ Thos. Hughes. The hero of one of the best boys' books ever written in tnglish. Bufket, Inspector. Bleak House, Pick' ens, A detective. Bumble. Oliver Twist, Pickens. A bea- dle. Cains, Doctor, Merry Wives of Windsor, ShakA/icre. ^Vnue Page's Wei&h lover. Caliban. The Tempest, ShaksJ>ere. Probpero's monstrous servant. Candor, i*frs. The liivals, Sheridan. A scandal-monger. Carkor, Pombey and Son, Pickens. A scoundrelly clerk. Cassio. Othello, Shakspere. Othello's lieutenant. Candle, >Irs. Curtain Lectures, Pouglas yerrold. An ;irtistic scold. CiMistir, Col. The Lounger, Mackenzie. A satirical gentleman. Celia, As Yon Like It, Shaksperc. Kosalind's cousin. Chadband. Bleak Mouse, Pickens, A hypocrite. Chamont. The Orphans, Otway. The hero of tlie play. Chillingly, Kcnelm. Kenelm Chillingly, Bulxuer. 'i he hero of llie novel. Christnbi-1. Christabel, Coleridge. The lieroine ol tlie poeui. Christiana. Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan. The wife of the hero Christian. Chuzzle^vit, Jonas and Martin. Mar- tin Chuizlez'^it, Pirk,ns. 'Ihc tirst a miser and murderer, the second the hero of Dickens' story. Clare, Ada. Bleak Mouse, Pickens, The vite of Carstonc, and one of the most impor- tant characters in tiie story, Clifford, Paul. Paul Clifford, Bulvier, A beatified highwayman hero. Clinker, Humphrey. ffumphrey Clin- ker, Smollett. \ pliil<>sophic;il young' man who meets very singular adventures. Cnelebs. Carlehs in Search oj a Wife, Jiannah More. A gentleman who lias very precise ideas on the subjects of matrimony and woman. Coldstream, Sir Charles, Matlhezvs. A fatigued and wearj' man world. Consnelo. Consuelo, George Sand. The heronic of the novel, a rather intlammable young lady. Copper Captain, Tlte. Rule a Wife, and Have a Wife, Beaumont and Fletcher. A nickname applied to Peres, the boastful coward of the play. Copperfield, I>avid. Pavid Copperfield, Pickens. The hcrr> of the novel, supposed to be a picture of Dickens' own life and char- acter. Used Up, an of the Cordelia. Kinff J^ear, Shakxpere, The faitliful daughter of the King in Itie play. Curinne. Corinne, Mme, de .Stael. The heroine of dc Stall's greatest work. Costigan, Captain. Pend.nnis, Tliack- eray. Tlic father nt IV-ndenms' first swtel- heart, a hard-drinking but amusing old man. Coverly, Sir B<»gerde. Spectator, Ad- dison. A model country gentleman of the olden time. Crane, lohabod. Sleepy Hollow, Irving. The schoolmaster in tlie sketch. Crawley, Kawdon. Vanity Fair, Thack- eray. Tlie hero of "the novel without a hero." The husband of Becky Sharp. Cressida. Troilus and Cressida, Shaks ^'■re. The heroine of the play, in love with I'roilus. Crummies, Vineent. Nicholas Nickle- hv, Pickens. Atliealrical head of a theatrical family. Crusoe, Robinson. Bohinson Crusoe, Pe/\>e, TIic luTo of the most remarkable n( vel ever written. It h.is been translated into every civilized lantjuage on the globe. The sti ry relates Crusoe's adventures on a desert isle upon which he was castby the sea, and is one of inteube interest. Cuttle, Captain. Ponibey and Son, Pnkens. A nautical characier'who indulges in a number of queer mannerisms. Cymbeline. Cymbeline, Shakspere. A heroic King of Bril-iin. Dalgarno. I^orngald, WaTer/y, Scott. A famous and well drawn soldier of fortime, whose name has become proverbial. Deans, I>a%*ie, EfHe and Jennie. Heart his ladylove. Dnnord. Our American Cousin, Taylor. A tvpical and absurd English lord. The character was really created by Uic actor Soihern, Edgar. lung Lear, Shakspere. The son ol Olouceslef, Kmilin, Othello, Shakspere. %Vife of lago, Uie villain of the play. £;smon-re, Jane, fane Eyre, Bronte. Hero- ine of the novel. Eag, The Rtzfals, Sheridan, A servant. Fagin, Oliver Tivist, Pickens. The pre- ceptor in the thieves' academy, where Oliver Twist is held a prisoner. Faithful, Jacob, yacob Faithful, Mar- ryatt. I'he hero of the novel. Falkland. The Btvals, Sheridan. A jealous lover of Julia's, and friend to Captain Absolute. Enlstaff, Sir John. Henry IV, and The Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakspere. Tins is Shakspere 's mvist comic charncler; Queen Elizabeth was so ple;LScd with Sir jolm in Henry IV. that, nt her request, Shakspere composed The Merrv Wivts oi Windsor, in order to give the fat knight a wider field for fun, Fnnny, Under the Greenwood Tree, Hardy. A pretty school -mistress. Fat Boy, The. Pickwick Papers, Pickens. One of the minor characters in the novel, given to sleep aud pie, Faust, Faust, Goethe. The hero of the great German tragedy, who sells his soul to Uie Devil, and pets in return ynulh, wealth and an attendant devil, MephivtopheUs. Goethe was to Germany wIij^ Shakspere was to England, Triton, Septimius. Septimi'us Felton, Hawthorne, The mystical liero of Uic novel. Fewlinand. The Tempest, .'Shakspere. Son of the Kmg. falls in love with Prospero's daughter Miranda. Ferrers, Endymlon. Endymion, Ben- famin Disraeli. Hero of the novel. ^ / ^ 788 HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. Figaro, The Marriage of Fr's^aro. Beau- mareliais. An exceedingly coniie;il and sharp- witted barber. Firmin, Philip. The Adventures of Philip^ Thackeray. The hero of the novel. Florizel. A Winter's Taie, Shal-s/ere. The prince of IJoheinia. Fluellen, /fenry I'.. Shal-spere. A ped.uitic but brave \\ elsh officer. Foker, Harry. Pentieifnis, Tiiackeray. One of the minor cliaraiMers. Foppington, Lord. The JZelofse, Van Brttgh. An idiotic dandy. Fosro, Count. Woman in White, Col/ins. A complicated scoundrel. Frankenstein, Frankenstein, Jifrs^Southey. The dreadful result of the labors of a German student, who makes a man in the dissecting room out of corpses and briners him to life by falvanism. The hideous ht.ro ot the novel as a Scries of most blood-curdling adven- tures. Friar Tuck. Reliqites, Percy. The jolly companion of KobJn Hood, the outlaw of Sherwood Forest. Friday, Robinson Crusoe ^ DeFoe. Cru- soe's savage servant. GadgTind, Jeremiah, Hard Times , Pickens. A tyrannical ** practical " man. Gamp, Sairy. Alartin Chiizzlezvit, Pickt-ns. A comical and hard-drinking monthly nurse. Garg:antua, Gargantua, Rabelais. Hero of the tale. Gaunt, Griffith. Griffith Gaunt^ Reade. Hero of the novel. Gay, Walter, Dnnibry and Son, Pickens. Marries Florence Donihey. Gihbie, Goose, Old Mortality, Scott. A half-witted boy. Gil Bias. Gil Bias, Le Sage. The hero of a very f;imnus novel. His adventures are L.E daughter ofthe King, a traitor and an ingrate. Gonzalo. The Tempest, Shakspere. An old cuunciUor. Gosling, Giles. Kemhvorth, Scott. A landlurd. Grandison, Sir Charles. Sir Charles Grandi^on, Richardson, Hero of the novel. Gray, Vidian, Vivian Gray, Pisraeli. Hero of the novel. Grnndy, Mrs. Speed the Plough, Aforton. An old lady \sho represents worldly propriety and tale -bearing, Gulli\'er, Lemuel. Gulliver^ s Travels, Swijt. Hero of the romance. Hamlet. Jfamlet, Shakspere. The melancholy Dane, heio of the play. Harley. The Man of Feeling, Mackenzie. Hero of the novel. Hnrlowe, Clarissa. Clarissa I/ar/ovje, Richardson. Heroine of tlie novel, Harris, Mrs. Martin Chuzzler'it , Pickens. A fictitious person invenled by Sairy Gamp, for the ^Mirpose of enforcing her statements by quoting the opinions of Afrs. Ha: lams upon hy quoting the op: the subject under discussion, Headstone, Bradley. Our Mutual Friend, Pickens. A schoolmaster in love with Lizzie Hexani. Heep, Uriah. Pavid Copperfeld, Pickens. A hypocrite and sneak. Helena. All's Well thai Ends Well, Shakspere. Heroine of the iday. Hero. Much Ado about Nothing, Shaks- pere. Daughter of Leonato. Hexaru, Xizzie. Our Mutual Friend, Pickens. Heroine of the novel. Holofernes. As I'on Like It, Shakspere. A schoolmaster and pedant. Holt, Felix. Felix Holt, George Eliot. Hero of the novel. Honeynian, Charles. The Newcomes, Thackeray. A fashionable preacher. Honor, Mrs. Tom fones, Fielding. Sophia Western's waiting-woman. Hopeful, Pilgrim^s Progress, Bunyan. A pilgrim. Horatio. Hamlet, Shakspere. The friend of Hamlet. Howe, Miss. Clarissa Harlowe, Richard- son. Clarissa's friend. Hudibras. Hudibras^ Butler. Hero of the poem. Hunter, Mr. and Mrs. I^eo. Pickwick Papers, Pickens. Minor characters in the novel. lago. Othello, Shakspere. The villain of the tragedy. Imogen, Cymbeline, Shakspere. Hero- ine of the plav. Isabella. Measure for Measure, Shaks- pere. Heroine of the play. Ivanhoe, Ivanhoe, Scott. Hero of the novel. Jack, Col. Col. Jack, DeFoe. The criminal hero of the tale. Jaffier, Venice Preserved, Otway, Hero of the poem. Jaques. ^4^ 2'oh Like It, Shakspere. The melancholy philosopher. Jarndyce, John. Bleak House, Pickens. A benevolent old gentleman. Javert, Les Miserables, Hugo. A de- tective. Jessica, Merchant of Venice^ Shakspere. Shylock's daughter. Jingle, Alfred. Pickzvick Papers, Pickens. An amusing adventurer. Kilmansegg, Miss, The Golden Legend, Hood. The golden -legged heroine of^ the poem, Ititely. Every Man in his Hunter, John- son. A jealous husband. r.ady Bountiful. The Beau's Stratagem, Farqnhar. A generous ladv. Laertes. Planilet, Shakspere. The son of Polonius, killed by his own sword. Lnlla Rookh, Lalla Rookh, Moore. Heri)ine of the jtoem, to whom Feramorz re- lates the stories told in tlie romance. Languish, Lydia, The Rivals, Sheridan. Heroine of the play. Lear, King. Kim^ Lear, Shakspere. Hero of the play. Leatherstoeking, Natty. Pathfinder, PeersLiyer, and other wnels^ Cooper. A huntsman and Indian tighter. Legree. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stoive, Slave master. Leigh, Aurora, Aurora Leigli^ Brown- ing. Heroine of the romance. Leila, Giaour, Byron, Heroine of the poem. / I.>iglitwood, l>Iortimer, Our Mutual Friend, Pickens. Minor character in novel. Lismahago, Capt, Humphrey Clinker, Smollett. A retired officer. Little, Henry. Put Fourself in His Place, Reade. Hero of the novel. Little Nell. Old Curiosity Shop, Pickens. Heroine of novel. Looksley, Ivanhoe, Scott. One of Robin Hood's pseudonyms. Long Tonx Coffin. Pilot, Cooper. A boatman. Lothair, Lothair, Pisraeli. Hero of novel, supposed pseudonvm for the Marquis of Bute. Lothario, The Fair Penitent, Rowe. A rake. Lovelace, Clarissa Harlcnve, Richardson. A rake. Lumpkin, Tony. She Sloops to Conquer, Goldsmith. A Country squire. Macbeth, Macbeth, Shakspere. Hero of the play. Macduff. Macbeth, Shakspere. Rival of Macbeth. Maclvor, Flora. Rob Roy, Scott. Hero- ine of novel, 3Iaekenzie, 3rrs. jVejocomes, Thackeray. A termagant widow. Malagrother, Sir Mingo. The Fortunes of Nigel, Scott. An ill-natured courtier. Malaprop, Mrs. The Rivals, .Sheridan. A character famed for verbal blunders. Malvolio. Tvjelffk Night, Shakspere. Olivia's Conceited steward. Manfred, Manfred, Byron. Hero of the tragedy. Mantalini. Nicholas Nickleby, Pickens. The absurd husband of the milliner in the storv'. Marcliioness, The, Old Curiosity Shop, Pickens. Mr. Dick Swiveller's reni'arkable little nurse. Blargaret. Faust, Goethe. The heroine of the tragedy, Marlow, Toiing. .She Stoops to Conquer, Goldsmith. Hero of the play. Medora. The Corsair, Byron. Heroine of tlie poem. Merdle, >Ir. Little Porrit, Pickens. A speculator. Meister, Wilhelm. Wilhelm Meister, Goethe. Hero of the novel. Mephistopheles, Faust, Goethe. The Devil. Mercutio. Romeo and Juliet, Shaks- e. A wonderfully witty friend of meo's. 3Iieawber, "Wilkins. Pavid Copperfeld, Pickens. A remarkable character, always waiting for sometliing to turn up. Miller, Daisy. Paisy Miller, Henry James. An alleged representative American girl. Minna. The Pirate, Scott. One of the heroines of tlie novel. Miranda. The Tempest, .Shakspere. Daughter of Prosi>ero, bduvcd of Ferdinand ; heroine ofthe pla)'. Monimia. The Orphan, Otzvay. Heroine of the poem. Mouldy. Henry IV., Shakspere. One of Falstaff's recruits. Mucklewrath. Habbnknk. Old Mor- tality, Scott. A fanatical preacher. Neuchatel, Adriana. Endymion, Pis- raeli. A wealthy young lady. Newcome, Clive, Colonel, Ethel. The Nezvcomes, Thackeray. Cliaracters in the best novel Thackeray'has written. Nickleby, Mrs, Nicholas Nickleby, Pickens. The exjtsperating mother of Uie Jiero, Nicholas. Noma. The Pirate, .Scott. An insane soothsayer. Nydia. Last Pays tf Pompeii, Buhver. A blind Jlowtr girl. ^: HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. 789 ^ 01>ndiiih. Tristram S/tarufj', Sternt. A scrv.il 1 1. Ob*'ron. MidsummfY JVi^i/'x Dream^ Shakspcre. Tlic King of Fair^laiul. Ochiltree, Kdie. Thi Antiquary, Scott. A bcj^giir of prominence. Olilbuck, Jonathnn. The Antiquary^ Scott. IKto of the iiuvul. OI»l Mortality. Old Mortality, Scott. A gp"avi;stonc clcuiicr. Olifaunt, Nigel. Tfig Fortunes of Nigel, Scott. Hero of the novel. Ophelia. JIamiet, Skakspere. Heroine of the tragedy. Orville, I^-ord. Evelina, Miss Burney, Evehiia's lover. Othello. Othello^ Shakspere. Hero of the play, a Moor, husband oiDcsdemoiia. 0*Trigger, Sir I>«olus. The Rivals, Sheridan. Afire-eating Irishman. Overreai'h, Sir Giles. A Nctv Way to pay Old Debts, Massingt:r. A usurer. Paffe, Anna and Mrs. The Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakspere. Characters in the play. Pamela. Pamela, Richardson. An in- tensely good young iady. Panffloss. The Heir-at-Lavf, Colman, A pedantic teacher. PantagTuel. Pantagruel, Rabelais. Hero of the sketch. Partridge. Tom fones. Fielding. The hero's trusty folUnvcr. Pecksniff, Charity, Mercy, Mr. Martin Chuzzlevjtt, Dtckcns. Characters in the storj'. Pendennis, Arthur, Helen, Major. Pendennis, Thackeray. Well drawn and for- cible characters in the novel. Perdita- Winter's Talc, Shakspere, Florizet's sweetlieart. Fetruchio. The Taming of the Shrezv, Shakspere. The hero, and husband Katlieime. Pickle, Peregrine, Pere^inc Pickle, Smollett^ Tlie wandering and immoral hero of tlie novel. Pick^vick, Samuel. Pickwick Papers^ Dickens, Hero of the novel. Pierre, Venice Preserved^ Otway, A conspirator. Pistol, Ancient, Merry Wives of Wind' sor and Jlenry IV., Shakspere. Falstaff's most characteristic ft)ilower. Plpydell, Faulus. Guy Mannering, Scott. A lawyer. Poins, Xed, Jfenry IV., Shakspere. A friend of Prince Hal. Portia. The Merchant of I'enice. Heroine of the play. Poundlint, Peter. Old Mortality , Scott. A preaclier. Primrose, I>r, Vicar of Wakefeld, Gold- smith. The Vicar of Wakefield. Primrose, Moses. His son. I*rolius. Tt.'O Geulhmen of Verona^ Shak.^pere. One of the two Gentlemen, Proudfnte, I^air Maid of Perth, Scott. A bonnet-maker. Prynne, Hester. Scarlet Letter, Haw thorne. Heroine ot novel. Pumhlechook, I^nde, Great Expecta' tions, Dickens, A bully and fraud. Pynchon, Phoebe, Jloiise of the Seven Gables, Hawthorne. Heroine of'thc novel, Quasimodo. Our Lady of Notre Damcy Iluiio. A monster. Quickly, Mrs, Henry IV., .Shaksf>ere. The famed hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern, in Kastcheap. Qnilp. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A vicious dwarf. or Quince, Peter. Midsummer Night's Dream, ,'ihakspere. Character in the inter- lude. Kandom, ICoderitrk. Roderick Random^ Smollett, Hero of the novel, Knshleigh. Rob Roy, Scott. The villain of the novel. KasHelas. Rasselas,Dr. fohnson. Prince of Abyssinia, hero of the tale. Kattler, Jack. Roderick Random, Smol- lett. A nautical character. Kavcnswood. The Bride of Lammer moor, Scott. Hero of the novel, lover of I^ucy Ash- ton. Kebecca. Ivanhoe, Scott. A lovely Jewess. Redgauntlet. Redgauntlet, Scott. Hero of the novel, Rob Hoy. Rob Roy, Scott. A Scottish chief, hero of the novel. Koderigo, Othello, Shakspere, lago's dupe. Komeo, Romeo and fnJtet, .Shakspere. The hero of the play, lover of J uliet. Sabrina. Comus, Milton. River nymph. Sacripant, Orlando Fnrioso, Ariosto. King of Circ:issia, in love with Angelica. Saddletree, Bartoline. Heart of Mid' lothian, Scott. A learned peddler. Sancho Panza. Don Quixote, Cervantes. Worthy squire of a worthy master; the right man in the right place. Sandford, Harry. Sandford and Merton, Day. Hero of the ston.'. Sangradu, Ooctor. Gil Bias, Le Sage, A confirmed phlebotomist. Seheherezade, Queen. Arabian Nigfits. The Sultaness who tells the tales. Scrub, The Bean's Stratagem, Farquhar, A facetious valet. Sedley, Amelia, Vanity Fair, Tltackeray. An amiable woman, but of" no great decis.on. SetUey, Joseph, Vanity Fair, Thackeray. A fat, bashful Kast Indian^ Selim, Bride of Abydos, Byron. The hero. Shafton, Sir Piercie. The Monastery, Scott. A pedantic courtier. Shandy, Tristram. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. Hero of the story. Sharp, ReI>ecoa. J'attity Fair, Thack- eray. The designing heroine. Shylock. Jferchaut of Venice, Shaks- Pere. A vindictive Jew, Silvia. Tzvo Gentleman of Verona, Shaks- pere. In love with Valentine. Skimpole, Harold. Bleak House, Dickens. Always out of money. Slipslop, Mrs, 'josef'h Andr,-70s, Fielding, A waiting woman of doubtful character. Slop, Doctor. Tristram Shandy, Sterne, An irascible physician. Sly, Christopher. Taming of the Shrew, Shakspere. A drunken linker. Slj'me, Chevy. Martin Chuzzlcwit, Dickens. A " gent short of funds." Smyke, Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens, An ill-used, poor, half-witted pupil of Squeers. Sncenvell, Lady, School for Scandal, Sheridan. A gossip and back-biter. Snodgrass, Augustus. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. A poetical character, Snoiv, l/ucy. Villette, Charlotte Bronte, The heroine. Sparkler, Kdmond. Little Dorn'i, Dickens. Man of l;i^hion. Squeers, AVackford, Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. The brutal master of Dotheboy's Hall. Squeers, Master "Wnckford. In same. A spoiled child, the Image of his father. St, l/oon. St, Leon, William Goodvin. Hero of the tale, has llic secret of perpetual youth and the transmutation of metals. Steerforth, tlnmes. David Copperfield, Dickens. Talented and pronigalo. Steggs, Miss Carolina Wilhelnkina Amelia. Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith, A pretender to gentility. St iggins. Elder. Pickwick Papw^M, Dickens, Affects pineapple rum and ^Ir.-.. Weller. Strap, Tlugh. Roderick Random, Smollett. Roderick's follower. Surface, Sir Charles and Joseph. School for Scandal, .Sheridan, The first a good-natured rake, the second a hypocrite. Swiveller, Di'-k. Old Curioxity Shop. Dickens, A gay rattlepate and a goud fellow. Tamora. Titus Andronicus, Shakspere. A Gotiiic Queen. Tapley, Mark. Martin Chuizlcrif, Dickens, Happi(.-st when most miserable ; jolly when he ought to cry, Tappertit, Simon, Bamahy Rudge, Dickens, A ferocious little apprentice. Tartuffe, Tartiiffe, Moliere, A hypocriti- cal character. Teazle, Lady, School for Scandal, Slier- idan. The heroine. Teazle, Sir Peter. School for Scandal, Sheridan. The old husband of Lady Teazle. Thersites. Iliad, Homer, and Troilus and Cresstda, Shakspere. A foul-mouihed Greek. Thwackum. Tom jones. Fielding. A philosophical pedagogue. Tillemina, The Critic, .Sheridan. A maiden very much crossed in love, Timoii, Timon of Athens, Shakspere, A misanthrope, hero of the pl.iy. Tinto, l)ick. Bride of Lammermoor, and St. Romans Well, Scott. An arust. Titania. Midsummer Night's Dream, Shak.^Pere. The queen of fairies. Titmouse, TilHebat. Ten Thottsand a Tear, Dr. Warren. A--Ioni'ihed Parliament by an imitation of Chanticleer. Tito. Romola, George Eliot. The hand some, but weak hero. Tod gers, M rs. Martin Chuzzlev-'it, Dickens. The keeper of a commercial board- ing-house. Toots. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A simple, eccentric fellow. Topsey. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Mrs. Stowe, An ignorant young slave girl. Touchstone. As 2'oh Like It, Shakspere. A clown. Touchwood, Peregrine. St. Romans Well, Scott. An irascible liiist Indian. Tox, Miss, Dombey and Son, Dickens. A spinster, slightly curious. Traddles, Tom. David Cr^pperfeld, Dickens, A barrister and friend of Co]iper- field. Trapbois. The Fortunes of Nigel, Scott. A usurer. Trim, Corporal. Tn'sfam .Shandy, Sterne. The follower of Uncle Toby. Trinculo. Tempest, Shakspere. A jester. Triol, Marquis. 77/4? Pirate, Scott. A we;ilthy 2.eal.uuler, Trotwood, Betsy, David Copperfield, Dickens. The kindest of wotnen, but wiili an aversion to tresp;issiiig donkeys. Trulliber, Parson. foseph Andrews, Fietding, Ai\ ignor;uit clergym.in. Trunnion, Commodore Hawser, Pere- grine Pickle, Smollett. An odd nautical character. Tiilkinghorn, IVIr, Bleak House, Dickens. A wilv solicitor. ./ \ 790 HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. y Tulliver, Mag^e. Mill on the Floss y George Eliot, Tliu heroine. TiUliver, Tom. Mill on the Floss, George Eliot, Her selfish, conceited brother. Tupraaii, Trary. Pickvick Papers^ Dickens, An obese iM.hnircr of luvely women. Turveydrop. Bleak House, Pickens. Dancing^ master and professor of deportment. Tuslier, Thomas. ifenry Esmond , Thackeray. A sycophantic ckrj^ymun. Xivemlo-W", 3Ir. 0«r Mutual Friend^ Pickens. A diner-out and friend of tlie Ven- ecrings. Twist, Oliver. Oliver Tzvtst, Pickens. Hero of the novel. Twj'sden, Talbott. Philip, Thackeray. A public officer. Tybalt. Romeo and ynliet, Shakspere. Nephew of Lady Capulet, slain by Uomeo. tJlrica. Iz'anhoe, Scott. An old witch. Una. The Faery ^ueen, Spenser. The personification of Truth. Unoas. The Last of the Mohicans, Cooper. A Mohican chief. tJncle Toby. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A noble veteran, the real hero of the story. Uncle Tom. Uncle Tom's Cahin, Starve. A. pious and unfortun.ate slave, the hero of the novel. This book added more converts to the abolition party than :iny other factor. It is the most remarkable and effective American work j)rinted. Vardeii, Dolly. Barnahy Ritdge,Pickens. The heroine of the story. "X'athek. Vathek, Beckford, The hero of CecUforii's remarkable novel. Vernon, I>i. Rob Roy, Scott. The heroine of the novel. ■\nioles. Pleak House, Pickens. A crafty lawyer. Viola. TvJelftk Night, Shakspere, A sweet little lady in love with Orbino, Virgilia. Coriolanus, Shakspere. AVife of Coriolanus, Vir^nia. Paul and Virginia, St. Pierre. Heroine of the novel. Vivian. Idyls of the Kivg, Tennyson. The mistress of ^Merlin, the Enchanter. Wadman, WidoAV. Tristram .Shandy ^ Sterne. The ladv who seeks to decoy Uncle Toby into matrimony. Wamba. Ivanhoe, Scott. A clown. "VTardle, Mr. Pickiuick Papers, Pickens, A jolly country gentleman, friend of Mr. Pickwick. Wegg, Silas, Our Mutual Friend, Pickens. The villain of the novel. W^eller, Tony and Saniivel. Pickzvick Papers^ Dickens. Father and son ; the latter, Mr. Pickwick's ser\ing man, is undoubtedly the most original and mosthumorous creation of Dickens' exuberant fancy. Wertlier. Sorrozus of IVerther, Goethe. Hero of the tale. "Western, Squire and .Sopbia. Tom yones. Fielding. Father and daughter, the latter the heroine of the novel. "Wlxiskerandos, Don Ferolo. The Critic, .Sheridan. The lover of Tilburina. Wickfield, Agnes. Paiid Copperfield, Pickens. Heroine of the novel. "Wild, Jonathan. Jonathan Wild, Field- in^. A fanio'.is highwayman, and afterwards a noted thieftaker of London. VVUdair, Sir Harry. The Constant Cou- ple, and .Sir Harry \\ iUlair, Farquhar, The hero of both plays. Wilfer, Bella, Lavinia, Reginald and Mrs. Our Mutual Friend, Pickens. One of the most entertaining faniilv groups in Eng- lish fiction. Tlie first is the charming licroine of the novel. Lavinia is her abominable sis- ter ; Reginald, her angelic papa; while the somber background is made by the gloomy mamma, whose other name in the family is The Tragic Muse. "Wilfrid. Rokely, Scott. Hero of the poem. Williams, Caleb. Caleb Williams, Cod- 2vin. The hero of a very remarkable novel. "Wimble, "Will. Spectator, Addison. Pseudonym for Thomas Morecraft. Winkle, Rip Van. Sketch Book, Irving. The immortal sleeper of the Catskilts. "Wislifort, r,ady. The Way of the World, Cougrez'e. Heroine of the play. "Worldly Wiseman, Mr. Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan. One of Christian's diffi- culties. Wray, Enoch. The Village, Crahhe. A noble old man. "Wren, Jenny. Our Mutual Friend, Pickens, The dolls' dressmaker. Wrongbead, Sir Francis. The Provoked Husband, Vanburgh. Hero of the play. Yorick. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A jester descended from the Yorick whose history is tuld by Hamlet. Yseult. Tristram and I'seult, Matthetv Arnold. A Cornish heroine of the olden time. Zadoc. Absolobt anet Pseudonym for Sancrofi terbury. Zanoni. Zanoni, Bulwer, The mystical hero of the novel. Zeluco. Zeluco, Pr. J. Moore. The pr)digiil hero of the novel. Zobeide. Arabia?! Nights. The wife of the great Haroun al Ilaschid. Zodig. Zodig, Voltaire. The Uabylonian hero of the novel. Zophiel, Paradise Lost, Milton. A swift- winged cherub. Zuleika. The Bride of Abydos, Byron. Heroine of the poem. uid Achitophel, Pryden. [>ft, Archbishop of^Can- >A'Ml ^ m.. I Al V A DICTIONARY OF NOMS DE PLUME. 79' -^ !i§^SiSpgss§iiiSisiii§iiSisisiss!SiiSiif A DICTIONARY OF '■m^^mmm'^m^wmmmmm^ NOMS DE PLUME. jfe_A. -^^^^^Mm^^mm.Tmmmi I HE following list of assumed names in English ami American literature will be found to be the most com- prehensive ever published : ASSUMED NAME. REAL, NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WOKK. A Country Parson... .Archbish. Whately... .Divinity and Logic. A Gaol Chaplain Rev. Krskine yinnle. . .Bcnf/t-ys .'ifisce/.aTi^, ..-,,« ^ * ^' TT T, J, { Recreations of a A. K. H. B Rev. A. K. H. Boyd... I ^ . „ ( Country Parson. A. L.O. E. (a lady of Enj^land) A Lady Mrs. Jlundell Domestic Cookery. A Lady Mrs. Anna Jamieson..Art Criticism. A Literary Anti quary. A Lover of Literature A Lincolnshire i ™ ,, ,, ,, »,-.,■ . T. Hartwcll Ilorne. ..Kinliography. ! Charlotte Tucker City of No Cross. j F. W. Fairholt Costume in England. [ Thomas Grec Diarv. ;- Richard Cobden Political tract?. [ J. Fcnimore Cooper. ..Travels. Admonish Crime.. ' Poems. Grazier i A Manchester Manufacturer A Northern Man. ., .Chas. J. Ingersoll Political History. A Student at La\v..F. K. Hunt The Fourth Estate. A TravellintJ Bacliclor \ A Trinity Man Thomas Wright Alma Mater, 1827. A N. Farmer Rev. Isaac Wilkins... Political tracts. A Young American .A. Slidel Mackenzie. .Year in Spain. Abimelech Coody... Julian C. Vcrplanck.. .Political tracts. Acheta Domcstica ..Miss L. M. IJudgen.,, Episodes of Insect Life. Acton Bell Aime Bronte Agnes Gray. I Rev. J;inies Cook ' I Richmond Adolph Myer M. A. Goldschmidt... .Novelist. Agiitc \Vhitelaw Reid Journalist, Airricola William Elliott Carolina Sports. Alfred Croquis Daniel Maclisc Fraserian Portraits. Alfred Crowquill A. H. Forrester Eccentric Tales. Allan Grant William Wilson Dundee Rci-iew. ^ T I Alice Bradley (Neal) )^,, , ,3 t, , Alee G. Lee j Hi ^^^^J^^^'^y' Book, Ally Slnper Charles H.Ross Adventures in yudy. Alma viva Clement Scott Figaro* s dramatic critic. Alpin William Wilson Dundee RevUiu, Alter Rev. J. B. Owen Chess Studies. Alton Clyde Sarah Anne Jeffries. . .Maggie Lynn. Amateur Casual James Greenwood ....Night in the Workhouse. Amelia Mrs. Welby Poems. Amicus Thomas Fairbairn... .Social Progress. Amy Lothrop Anna B. Warner Dollars and Cents. An Amateur Charles K. Sharpe.. ..Portraits. An American Gen. Lewis Cass Sketches in France. An Angler Sir Humphrj' Davy...Salmonia. ^ '*«. I John Oxenford The Times. Playgoer \ ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WOKK. An Epicure F. Saunders Salad for the Solitary An Irish Woman, ...Miss Anna Perrler The Irishman. An Octogenarian An Old Bushman. An Old ^Lan An Old Sailor.... Anthony Pasquin.. Ascott R. Hope... j Aug. Dunshunner. Au^ur Aunt Fanny , Book About Roys. James Roche Essays. . . . W. Wheelwright Naturiilist. ( Sir Francis Bond i Bubbles from (he \ Head \ Brunner. ...M. H. Baker Sea Tales. John Williams Morning I leral.t. Arachnophilus Adam White Essays. Archxus Rev. John Sterling The Onyx Ring. Ariel Stephen R. Fiskc AV?i» York Lfad^r. Artemus Ward Charles F. Browne....*' His Book.'* Arthur Griff cnhoff. , .George Colman, Jr.... Dramatist. Arthur Sketchley...,Rev. George Ross Mrs. Brown. Asa Trenchard Henry Watterson Magazine sketches. ( Robert Hope / Monlcrleff Wm. E. Aytoun Talcs, Btncktvood, H. M. Feist The Racing Prophet. Mrs. T. D. Gage Juvenile Talcs. Aunt Judy Mrs. Alfred Gatt>' Aunt Judy's Mauizine. Azamat Batuk N. L- Thichlin Spain and Spaniards. Bab W. S. Gilbert Bab Ballads. Bailey Fred. Douglass J ournaKst. Barclays, One of the. .Mrs. H.G.Otis Barclays of Bnston. Barnacle A. C. Barnes Litterateur, Barrabas i_ , , ,, » .■ t • n f , . . , , I Doughis Jerrold Articles in Punch. Whitefeather i "= "^ Barry Cornwall B. W. Proctor The Sea and other Songs. Barry Gray Robert Barry Collin... My Married Life. Belle Britain Hiram Fuller AVrv York Mirror, Belle Smith Louise Klrby Piatt.. ..//tfw/ yournal, . Benjamin V. Austin » Bcnauly < and Lyman Abbott, > Conecut Corners. ^ Ben. Au. Ly., jointly ' Benedict Cruiser George Aug, Sala Howl Tamed Mrs. C. „ , . ( The John Brown Berwick James Redpath 1 * t •^ "^ ( Invasion, Besieged Resident. ..H. Labouchcrc In Paris. Bibliophile Jacob. . , . Paul Lacroix Novels. Bldcford Postman. ..Edward Capern Poems. Bill Arp.,.; Charles II. Smith. BIythc While, Jun. ..Solon Robinson AWi' I'orJh Tribune. Bob Shnrt A. B. Longstrcct Political articles. Bon Culticr Wm. E. Aytoun Ballads. Boston Bard Robert S. Coffin Poems. Boston Rebel John Lowell Political articles. Boz Charles Dickens Sketches by Boz. Bret ILirtc Francis B. Hart The Heathen Chinee. Brother Peregrine. , .Octavian Blewitt Fraser's MagaMine, Burleigh Matthew Hale Sm'iih.. Boston yournai. Bullerof Brascnose..John Hughes B/aei7food*s MaguMine, Cadwaladcr , ^ „^„^^ Life of H. M. S.anley. Rowlands t I\ 792 / A DICTIONARY OF NOMS DE PLUME. KEPKESENIATIVE WORK. C^sariensis. Literary World. George F. Pardon The Billiard Book. M. J.Whitty Tales of Irish Life. Chas. Summerfield. . .Albert ^^'. Arrin;^ton.. ; Charlotte Elizabeth ! Vis Tales. ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. I Rev. James AV. ' Alexander Caller Herrin Annie Smith Tales, Family Herald. Cannibal Jack Charles Reach. The W^^y to "Win. Cantell A. Ei^'ly George W. Peck Journalist. Captain Rawdon Crawley Capt. Rock in London S Captain Shandon.. ..C, Smith Cheltnam. ...Beigravia. Caradoc Henry W. Moore St. Louis Spectator. Carl Benson Charles A. Bristed Upper Ten Thousands. „ . ( Charles Carleton \ , Carleton ! _ _ f Journalist. / Coffin S Caveat Emptor Sir George Stephen.. ..Search of a Home. Cavendish W. Johnson Neale Sea Novels. Cavendish Henry Jones On Whist. Cecil Cornelius Tongue The Stud Farm. Cham A. de Xoe Caricatures. Charles Martel Thomas Delf Miscellanies. Southern Literary Messenger Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna Chartist Parson Rev. Chas. Kingsley. .Poems. Chevalier M. C. Hart Sunday Mercury, Cheviot Tichburn.. ..W. H. Ainsworth Novelist. Chinese Philosopher. Oliver Goldsmith Citizen of the World. Chris. Crowfield Mrs. H. B. Stowe Magazine articles. Christine Severne. . ..Mrs. Anna Boulton... .Could Aught Atone? Christian Reed Francis C. Fisher Novelist. Christopher North. . .John Wilson Noctes Ambrosianas. Claribel Mrs. Barnard Come Back to Erin. C. O. Nevers Chas. C. Converse Sweet Singer. Colley Cibber James Rees Dramatic Criticism. Viscomtesse de St. Mars „ , . ,. ( Alice Bradlev (Neal) J ^ , , , , , , Cousin Alice I " -t I Godey s Lady's h^ok. \ Haven J "^ -^ Cousin Kate Catherine D. Bell Hope Campbell. Currer Bell Charlotte Bronte Jane Eyre. Cuthbert Bede Rev. E. Bradley Verdant Green. ^ ^ -r ^ r 1 TT \ Letters on Church D. C, L Reresford Hope < Matters. D G George Daniel Dramatic critic. Danbury Newsman. -J. M. Bailey Life in Danbur^-. Darby North Daniel Owen Madden. The Mildmays. Davenant Cecil Derwent Coleridge.... A"/j;'f/i/'j Quarterly. Delta David M. Moir Poems. Dennis Jasper 1 Murphy \ Denvent Conway. . . .Henr^' D. Inglis Travels. Dick Tinto Frank B. Goodrich.... Court of Napoleon. , . , , J Washington Irving.. . .History of New York. Knickerbocker j » " Doctor Merrj' J. Wyndham Merry Companions. Dod Grile ^L Biercc Friend's Delight. Don Leucadio ) Rev. Joseph Blanco Doblado \ White Dow, Junior Elbridge G. Page Patent Sermons. Dr. Oldham at j „ ^ , t ^ -n ( American Advocate ! Rev. Caleb S. Henry.. , „ Graystones ) ' i 0/ Peace. Dr. Vicesimus Blenkinsop Dr. Peter Morris J. G. Lockhart Peter's Letters. Dr. Syntax Wm. Combe Tour of Dr. S. Dr. Updike 1 „ . ^ . ( The Life and Countess Dash.. . Sketches, . C. Maturin Novels and plays. ■ Letters from Spain. j Theo. E. Hook Whitington and His Cat. Underbill S ' Roval Tyler. Adventures of U. U. ■ Isaac Butt College Romance. ( Thos. De Quincey Confessions. Fannv Fern., ?^ern Leaves, ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. Druid H. M. Flint Neiu York ll^orid. Dunn Brown Rev Samuel Fisk Sj^ringficld Republican, E. B, Waverly J. Wilson Croker Letters on Currency. E. C, Rcvons *idon Weekly Times. Inipulsia ) Ladv Harriet G. ( Lispings from Low London AntiquarLii .J. C. Hottcn Slang Dictionary. GushinKton (Hamilton) Dufferi 1 \ Latitudes. Louise Muhlbach.. .Clara (Mullcr) Mundt.. Historical Novels. Ion .E. Kingman .Baltimore Sun. Louis de Monlalte. -Blaise Pascal Letters to a Provincial. I>aac Tomkins -Lord Brougham .On the Aristocracy. Luke Limner .John Lcighton Artist. .W. Gilmore Simms... .Novelist, ning, .Humor. Lynn Bard Mac Mc.Vronc .W. McConnell Comic Draughtsman. ; .George Arnold McArone Papers. , Jack Humphries... .Jonathan F. Kellv... Jack Ketch .T. K. Hervev .Poetrv. Mace Sloper .Charles G. Leiand Ballads. Jacob Larwood .L. R.Sadler .London Parks. Major Jack Downing Scba Smith Humor. Jacob Omnium January Scarle .M. J. Higgins .G. Scarle Phillips.... . The Times. .Gypsies of Dane's Dyke. Malakoff Manhattan .Joseph A. ScovWXt.... London Herald, .Dr. Dollinger .Religious controversy. Maria del Occidente Mari.(Gowcn) y Brooks S Janu^Wcatherboun dT. G. Wainwright . London Magazine. .Albert Smith .Miss Mackay . Medical Times. .Figaro, Mariett.i .Harriet M. Bradley. ..Minnie's Birthtlav, ■ Mary Virginia . Jeanie Dods Jedediah Cleishbotham * Sir Walter Scott .Talcs of My Landlord. 1 (Hawcs) Terhunc 1 Mrs. (larrict M. ) », , i I Novels. Jcemes Pipes of Pipcsville 1 Stephen C. Massett.. .Humor. Markham Howard. Stephens i .Mary Cecil Hav 0!il Middlctnn's Money. 1 Jennv June .Mrs. Jennie C. Croly.. .ChUdren's tales. Mark Littleton .John 1*. Kennedy Swallow Barn. 1 Jeremiah Bingletub ..John Styles .Velvet Cushion. Mark Rochester..,. .W. C. M. Kent The Derhv Ministry. J. K. L Joaquin Miller .Samuel 1-. Clemens.. ..Innocents Abroad. .Cincinnatus H. Miller.Poems. Married Critic -Jules G. Janin Criticisms. .Sunday Despatch. Martin Doyle Mary Clavers .Rev. William Hickey.. Irish Agriculture. .Mrs. CM. Kirkland...A New Home. Joe Miller, Jr .Thompson Westcott. . - John Darby .J. E. Garretson .Essays. Mary Ormc Mrs. Mary Sargent j l,,,„,„ ,„ l^ji,,. 1 John Gifford Edward Foss .Legal Peers. Gove (Ncal) Nichols ( e / _j \ ^ "*T \' ' V •V ' K 794 A DICTIONARY OF NOMS DE PLUME. ^ I W. M. Thackeray Paris Sketches. Minnie Myrtle... ' Robert McXish., f Poems, ..Blackwood^ s Magaz Mrs. Markham., Mrs. Manners.. V ASSUMED NAME, REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WOKK. Mary Powell Miss M. A. Manning. -Fiction. Massachusettensis... Daniel Leonard Pulitical controversy. ™ . ^ ,,- ,, T^ .1 ( Master Timothv's Master Timothy G. \\ . M. Reynolds.... Bookcase Matthew Browne. ...William B. Rands Poems. Matthew Stradling...M. M. F. Mahoney.... .Gilbert Massinger. Maurice Sand Maurice Dudevant. ...Travels. Max Adder Chas. Heber Clark ....Comic. Mercutio AVill Winter Ne^ York Tribune, Michael Angelo Titmarsh Miles O'Reilly See Private Miles O'Reilly Anna v.. Johnson (Mrs. Joaquin Miller) Modern Pythagorean Mof ussilite Thomas Lang Too Clever by Half. Morgan O'Doherty . .William Maginn DlackivoofPs Magazine. Morgan Rattler Percival Banks Fraser^s Magazine. Mr. Pips Percivai Leigh Punch. 1 Mrs. Elizabeth J c- i. i i.- . • ; „ \ School histories. / Penrose \ t Cornelia H. (Bradley) ) ,,,, aw, i ; ^- . , At Home and Abroad. \ Richards \ Mrs. Partington Benj. P. Shillabcr Boston Post. Ned Buntlinc E. Z. C. Judson King of the Sea. Nelsie Brook Mrs. Ellen Ross Litllc Mother Mattie. Nicias Foxcar Francis Jacox Journalist, Nilla Miss Abby AUin Home Ballads. Nimrod Charles J. Apperly.... Chase, Tu:f and Road. Novanglus John Adams Political controversy. O F Q ) „ I Natural history in „ „ .. f A. Douty i r-- Philander Smith S ( Figaro. Occasional John W. Forney The Press, Philadelphia. Old Humphrey George Mogridge Every-day Lessons. Old Merry Edwin Hodder Old Merry's Annual. Old Sailor Henry M. Barker Tough Yarns. Old Shekarry Major Leveson Forest and Field. Old South Benjamin Austin Indt-pejident Chronicle, Oliver Oldschool Joseph Dennie The Port/olio. Oliver Optic William F. Adams Juvenile tales. Olivia Emily Edson Grigg... Journalist. Ollapod Willis G. Clark. Knickerbocker Magazine, \ Handbook of OlpharHamst, Esq.. Ralph Thomas • J 1 X- ^ r ictitious Names. One from the Plough. G. Mitchell The Times, OnuphrioMuralto...Sce William Marshall, Gent. Onyx Titian Sarah M'oodward Apple Blossom. Orpheus C. Kerr Robert H. Newell Humor. Ouida Louise de la Ramc Under Two Flags. i Lord (Robert E. ; ( BuKvlt) Lylton \ v. Fisher W. E. Chatto Angler's Souvenir. r.irson Frank Francis J acox J nurnalist. Patty Lee Alice Cary Poems. I J. A. S. Coi;in 1 , r.- .• >■"'' neranger \ (jjanton) de Plancy ( '"'""^'' Dictionary. Paul Creyton John F. Trowbridge. .Fiction. Paul Pindar J. Yonge Akerman Legends of Old London. Paul Priggins Rev. J. Hewlett Novelist. Paulus Silentiarius... George P. Philes The Philobtblion, Peasant Bard Josiah D. Canning Poems. Pennsylvania Farmer Pcquot Charles W. March Boston Courier. Peregrine Pe^^ic James Morier Hajji Baba. Pcrlcy Benj. Perley Poore, ^.Baston yournal. Peter Palette Thomas Onwhyn.,,,.. Artist, Owen Meredith. . Lucille. [John Dickinson Political controversy. f Samuel Parr Characters of Fox. , ASSUMED NAME, REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. Peter Parley Samuel G. Goodrich. .Cabinet Library. Peter Pennot Rev. W. F. Round. Peter Peppercorn... .Thomas L. Peacock.. .Poems. Peter Pindar Dr. John AVolcot Satirist. Peter Plymlcy Rev. Sydney Smith.... Letters. Peter Porcupine William Cobbett P. P.'s Gazette, > Peter Priggins Rev. H. Hewlett College Scout. Peter Quince Isaac Stor^' Tlie Parnassian Shop. Peter Sclilcmihl George Wood P. S. in America, Peter Scriber Charles Aug. Dzixls. . .Commerciai Advertiser. Peter Wilkins Robert Pattock Fiction. Petroleum V. Nasby. David R. Locke Toledo Blade. Philanthropes William Lad Friend of Peace. Philip Qiiilibet George E. Pond. Philip Wharton John C. Thomson Wits and Beaux. Philopatris Varvi- ^ ^ censis \ Phiz H. K. Browne Illustrator of Dickens. Poor Richard rienjamin Franklin.... P. R.'s Almanac. Porte Crayon David H. Strother Harper* s M^^gazine, Priam C. J. Collins Dick Diminy. ^.^ .,, ! Charles G. Halpine.,..AV:y York Herald. O Reilly ) Prizeman Newdigate.^V. H, Mallock Every Man His Own Poet Publicola John Quincy Adams. . .Political controversy. Publicola W. J. Fox IVestminster Pcnie^u, Publicola David E. Williams London Weekly Despatch, I'uck John Proctor Caricature cartoons. Q Chas. G. Rosenberg... You've Heard of 'Em, Q Edmund 11. Yates Esening Star. Q. Q Miss Jane Taylor Youth's Magazine, Q. K. Philander ) ,, ,, ^, r., - , _ . , J M. M. Thompson Plu-ri-bus-tah, Doesticks ) Quallon S. H. Bradbury Poems. Qjiz Rev. Ed. C.iswcll Sketches. R.idical Leslie Grove yox\c^.,,, London Times, Rawdnn Cra\vley. .. .See Capt. Rawdon Crawley. Red Spinner W. Senior Waterside Sketches. Reuben Percy See Shollo and R, Percy. Richard Brisk J. Duncan Railway Book. Richard Hayward..,Frcd. S. Cozzens Knickerbocker ATagazine, Robinson Crusoe ... .Daniel Defoe Adventures of R. C. Rob Roy John Macgregor Canoe Voyages. Roving Englishman. Grenville Murray Sketches. Ruhama Miss Skidmore St. Louis Globe- Democrat. Runnymcdc Benjamin Disraeli Letters of Runny mede. Rustic Bard Robert Dinsmoor Poems. ■ Rutledge Mrs. Miriam (Coles) Harris. S. G.O S, G. Osborne The Times. Samuel A. Bard Ephraim G. Squier. .. .Waikna. Sam Slick Thos. C. Haliburton...The Clockmaker. „ , _ , -VT- T.- ij- ( Papers for Thoughtful Sarah Tyler Miss Keddie \ ^ ",. , f Girls. Saville Rome Clement Scott London Telegraph. Scrutator J. Horlock Country Gentleman. See De Kay Charles D. Kirk. Seeley Rcgester Mrs. O. J. Victor. Sexton of the Old- i_ , ,, „ J Dealings with the , , Lucius M. Sargent ^ ^ , school \ ^ \ Dead. Shamrock R. D. Williams Poems. Sh;:Isley Bcaucharap.T. W. Bradley Grantley Grange. Shirley Dare Mrs. (Susan Dunning^ Waters, Sholto and i Thomas Byerley and ) Reuben Percy \ Joseph C. Robertson ) ^ Sholto R. S. Mackenzie Philadelphia Press. Sigma Lucius ^L Sargent. .. .Boston Transcript, Silvcrpen Eliza Meteyard Lilian's Golden Hours. Sir Cosmo Gordon. . .Sir S. E. Brydges Letters on Byron, Sir Galahad Kenry "W. Moore Kansas City Times, -^ IV / A I5ICT10NARV OK NOMS DE PI.UM1£. 795 ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAMH. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. Solitaire Jolin S. Robh Humor. Sophie May Miss R. S, Chirk SwMinp Dr.'s Adventures. Spiirrowgrass V. S. Cozzens Sparrowgrass Papers. Speranza Laily Wilde Poems. Spy in Washington. .Matthew L. Davis. ...A''. 3'. Courier. Squihob George II. Derl>y Squibob Papers. Stampede Jonathan F. Kelly Humor. Stella Mrs. E. A, n. Lewis... Records of the Heart. Stonehen^e J. Henry Walsh The Dog, Straws Joseph M. Field Ntw Orleans Picayune, Straws, J r Miss Kale Field Springfield Republican. Sut Lovengood Guorjic W. Harris Humor. Sydney Yendys Sydney DobcH Poetry. Tabor Mrs. Robinson Novelist. Tag, Rag and Bobtail. Isaac D'Israeli Flim- Flams. Talvi Mrs. Ed. Robinson.. ..Tales. Tamoc Caspipinj J acob Duche Letters of T. C. TeufelsdrtEckh Thomas Carlyle Sartor Uesartus. Teutha William Jerdan Literary Gazette. Tlie Black Dwarf Th(im;is J. Wooler Politics. The Celt Thomas Davis Poems. The Druid Henry H. Dixon Silk and Scarlet. The Governor Hciiry Morford New York Atlas. The O'Hara I''amily..Juhn and M. Hanim.. .Novels. I'he Traveller Isaac Stary Columbian Sentinel, ' . \ Nathaniel Ward Simple Cobbler. Guarde J Theodore Taylor,,,., J. C. Hotten Life of Thackeray. Thinks I to Myself.. .Rev. Dr. Ed. Nares,,.. Novels. Thomas Little Thomas Moore Little's Poems. Thomas Iiigoldsby...Rev, U, H. Barham... .Ingoldsby Legends. Thomas Rowley ... .Thomas Chatterton,,.. Poems. Timon Fieldmouse.. .William B. Rands Essays. Timothy Tickler Robert Syme In Noctes Ambrosiana-. Vandyke Brown William Penn Brennan f ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. R KPKESBMTATIVE WORK. Timothy Titcomb,,..j. G. Holland Letters to tlic Young. Tom Brown Thomas Hughes Tom Brown at Ilugby. Tom Folio Joseph E. Babson. Tom Hawkins Theo. W. A. \^wz)f\Q\.. Gentleman*: Atoj^axine. Trinculo John A. CockerJll Journalist. Tristram Merton Thomas B. Macaulay..Aw/^A/'x Quarterly, Two Brothers A. and C. Tennyson... Poems. Ubique Parker Gilmorc Afloat and Ashore. Una Mary A. Ford Poems. Uncle Hardy William Senior Notable Shipwrecks. l^nclc John Elisha Noyce Marvels of Nature. Uncle Philip Rev. Dr. F. L. Hawks. American Histories. Uncle Toby Rev. Tobias H.Miller. V Mra. Archer Clivc Poems. Harp of a Thousand Strings. Veteran Observer Ed. D. Mansfield Chronicle and Atlas. V^illage SchoolmjisterC. M. Dickinson Tales. Vigilant John Corlett The Times. Vivian George H. Lewes The Leader, Vivi;in Joyeux W. M. Praed Knight' s Quarterly, Walter Barrett, clerk. Joseph A, Scoville Old Merchants of N. Y. Walking Gentleman. Thos. C. Gratlan.. ... .Highways and Bywavs. Walter Maynard W. Beale Enterprising Impresario. Warrington William S. Robinson. .5/*fi«i^cA/ Kepublican. Waters William H. Russell... Diary of a Detective. Werdna Retnyw Andrew Wynter Odds and Ends. \\*Iiat's His Name E. C. Massey Green-eyed Monster. Wm. Marshall, Gtfnt., Horace Walpolc Castle of Otranlo. William and Hnhcrt 1 , ., , , t t-- * .u ,,.,. , .JJohn Hookham rrere.King Arthur. \\ hisllecraft j ^ Wilibald, Alexis William H;vring Walladmor. Wizird John Corlett The Times. Zadkiel the Seer R. J. Morrison Prophetic Almanac. ^ \ 796 A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY. n_.:-- - L_ _ — ■ li I-' e r' r ^ rJ .ciiJx^ a P ' P: ' ■^.FFa iijdr' r) rijJtJ g HFP?' l^"'''J[i4^'"Jiisr ^ii:!^^!;." A DICTIONARY OF ■■K\.. ;- .■^^;,-^^'-:.r?Wv .'^■ i^?g7^ g?? HF?:E HEATHEN DEITIES AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS or GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. -TV" BEO'NA. A goddess of voyages, etc. e**^ Acha'tes. The trusty friend of .-Eneas. Acll'eron. Tin: son of Sol and Terra, changed by Jiipiier into a river of hell. Used also for hell itself. Achilles. A Greek who signalized himself in the war against Troy. Having been dipped by his mother in the river Styx, he was invulner- able in every part except his right heel, but was at length killed by Paris with an arrow. A'ciS. A Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphe- mas because he rivaled the latter in the atFec- tions of Galatea. Actge'on, A famous hunter, who, having sur- pris-d Diana as she was bathing, was turned by her into a slag, and killed by his own dogs. Ado'nls. A beautiful youth beloved by Venus and I'roserpine. He was killed by a wdd boar. When wounded, Venus sprinkled nectar into his blooJ, from which fiOwers sprang up, TKtrfi'ns. A king of Atheu'i, giving name to the .'t^can sea by drowning himself in it. -ffi'g'is. A shield given by Jupiter to Minerva. Al.'j the name of a Gorgon wtiom Pallas slew. JEne'aS. A Trojan prince, son of Anchises and Venus ; the hero of Virgil's poem the .-Eneid. .ffi'olus. The god of the winds, .^o'us. One of the four horses of the sun. .ZB3CUla.'pius. The god of medicine, and the sou lit ApoUu. Killed by Jupiter with a thun- oris, passionately loved by Polyphemus. Gan'ymede. The son of Tros, King of Troy, wriL'ni Jiipiler, in the form of an eagle, snatched up and made his cup-bearer. Ge'ryon. A monster, having three bodies and three heads, and who fed his oxen with human flesh, and was therefore killed by Hercules. Gor'diUS. A husbandman, but after^v'ard king of Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords, on which the empire of Asia depended, in so in- iric.ite a manner, that Alexander, unable to un- ravel it, cut it asunder. Qor'gona, The three daughters of Phorcus and Ceta, named Stheno, Kuryale and Medusa. Their bodies were covered with impenetrable scales, their hair entwined with serpents ; they had only one eye betwixt them, antl they could change into stones those whom they looked on. Qra'ces. Three goddesses, Aglaia. Thalia and Kuphrosyne, represented as beautiful, modest virgins, and constant attentlants on Venus. Ha'deS. A title of Pluto. Har'pieS. Winged monsters, daughters of Nep- tune and Terra, named .\elIo, Celacno and Ocy- pcte, with the faces of virgins, the bodies of vul- tures, and hands armed with claws. Selld* Tbe daughter of Juno ; jgoddcss of youth, and Jupiter's ciip-bc:trcr ; banished from heaven on account of an unlucky fait. Hec'tor. The son of Priam and Hecuba ; the mist valiant of the Trojans, and slain by Achdlcs. Hec'uba. The wife of Priam, who tore her eyes out lor the loss of her children. Hel'eaa, or Hel'en. The wife of Menelatu, and the m<.st beautiful woman of her age. who, running away with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. HeTenus. A son of Priam and Hecuba, spared l>>- the Greeks for his skill in divination Helle. The daughter of Athamas, who, flying fr >m her stepmother Inn, w.is drowned in the Pontic Sea, and g;ive it the name of Hellespont. Her'cules. The son <^f Jupiter and Alcmcna ; th^ most famous hero of antiquity, remar-ablc for his gre.it strength and numerous exploits. Her'mes. A name of Mercury. Hermi'pne. The daughter of Mars and Venus, .Old Wile ..1' Cadmus ; was changed intoascrpent. Also, a daufihtcr of Mcnelaus and Helena, mar- ried to Pyrrhus. He'ro. A beautiful woman of Scstos, in Thrace, and priestess of Venus, whom Leand^r of Abydos loved so tenderly that he swam over the Hellcs- pmt every night to see her; but lie, at leryjih. Dcing unfortunately drowned, she threw herself, in despair, into the sea. Hesper'ides. Three nymphs, itglc. Arethusa .Old Hesperethnsa, daughters of Hesperus. I'hey had a g.irden bearmg golden apples, watched by a dra.;nn, which Hercules slew, and bore away the fruit. Hes'peruS. The son of Japeius, and brother to .\tlas ; changed into the evening star. Hippol'ytuS. The son of Theseus and Antiopc. or Hippolyte, who was restored to life by jtscula- pius, at the reque>t of DiaiU. Hippom'enes. A Grecian prince, who, beating Atalanta m :he race by throwing golden apples before her, married her. They were changed by Cybelc into lions. Hyacin'thuS. A beautiful boy, beloved by .\p..,lo and Zcphyrus. l he latter killed him; but Apollo changed the blood that was spilt into a (lower called hyacinth. Hy'ades, Seven daughters of Alias and ^thra, ■ changed by Jupiter into seven stars. Hy'dra. A celebrated moaster, or serpent, with seven or. according lo some, fifty heads, which infested the Lake Lcrna. It was killed by Hercules. Hy'men. Son of Bacchus and Venus, and god of marriage. Hyp'erion. Son of Coclus and Terra. Ica'rius. Son of tp.lwlus ; having received from iiacchus a bottle of wine, he went iiuo Attica to show men tlie use of it, but was thrown into a well by some shepherds whom he had made drunk and who thought he had given them poison. lo'aniS. The son of n.xdahis. who, flying with his father out of Crete in;o Sicily, and soaring loo high, melted the wax of his wings, and fell Into the sea, tliencc calkd the Icariau sea. I'O. The daughter of Inachus, ttimcd by Jupiter into a white ncifer, but afterward resumed her former shape : was worshipped after her death by the Kgypiians, under the n.imc of Isis. Iphig-enia, The daughter of Agamemnon and ■Clytemnestra, who. standing ready as a victim to bes.acrificed to appease the ire of Diana, was by that goddess transformed into a white hart and made a priestess. I'ris. The daughter of Thaumas and Elcclra ; one' of the Occanides. and messenger and com- panion of Juno, who turned her into a rainbow. Ixi'on. A king of Thessaly, and father of the Cent.i'urs. He kiiled his own sister, and was punished by being fastened in hell to a wheel per- petually turning. / 7 \ 798 A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY. Ja'nilS. The son of Apollo and Crcusa, and first king of Italy, who, receiving the banished Salurn, was rewarded by him with the knowledge of husbandry, and of things pa^t and future. Ja'son. The leader of the Argonauts, who, with Medea's help, obtained the golden fleece from Colchis. Jocas'ta. The daughter of Creon. She unwit- tingly iiKirried her own son, CEdipus. Ju'no. The daughter of Saturn and Ops; sister and wife of Jupiter, the great queen of heaven, and of all tne gods, and goddess of marriages and births. Ju'piter. The son of Saturn and Ops ; the su- preme deity of the heathen world, the most pow- erful of the gods, and governor of all things. Lach'esiS. One of the three Fates. Laoc'oon. A son of Priam and Hecuba, and high priest of Apollo, who opposed the reception of the wooden horse into Troy, for which he and his two sons were killed by serpents. Liaoxn'edon. A king ofTroy.klUedby Hercules for denying him his daughter Hesione after he had delivered her from the sea-monster. Lia'res. Inferior gods at Rome, who presided over houses and families ; sons of Mercury and Lara. Laver'na. A goddess of thieves. Lean'der. See Hero. Le'the. A river of hell whose waters caused a tui.il fiiri^ctfulness uf things past. Luben'tia. Goddess of pleasure. Lu'cifer. The name of the planet VenuS, or morning star; said to be the son of Jupiter and Aurora. Luci'na. A daughter of Jupiter and Juno, and a goddess who presided over childbirth. Xju'na. The moon; the daughter of Hyperion and Terra. XiUper'calia. Feasts in honor of Pan. IVCars. The god of war. Mede'a. The daughter of jEtes, and a wonder- ful suiLCress or magician; she assisted Jason to obtain the golden fleece. Ikledu'sa. The chief of the three Gorgons ; killed by Pcrstius. Megr^'ra. One of the Furies. Megr'ara. Wife of Hercules. lUelpom'ene. One of the Muses, presiding over IVrpm'POTl. The son of Tithonus and Aurora, and king of Abydon ; killed by Achilles for assisting Priam, and changed into a bird at the request of his mother. TKCenela'uS. The son of Atrcus, king of Sparta ; t)ruiht;r ui Agamemnon, and husband of Helen. SEeu'tor. The faithful friend of Ulysses, the governor of Telemachus, and the wise---t man of his time. Mer'cury. The son of Juplrerand Mala; me*; senger ot ihe gods, inventor of letters, and god of eloquence, commerce and robbers. Sli'daS. A king of Phrygia, who had the power given him of turnmg whatever he touched intu gold. SSizier'va. The godde*:s of wisdom, the arts, and war ; produced from Jupiter's bratn. IVCin'otatir. A celebrated monster, half man and half hull. STnemos'yne. The goddess of memory, and niuiiier ol the nine Muses. SEo'mtlS. The son of Nox, and god of folly and pleasantry. Mor'pheus. The minister of Nox and Somnub, and gutl ot sleep and dreams. IVCors. Goddess of death. Mu'ses. Nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- syne, named Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Melpomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, 'I'halia and Urania. They were mistresses of all th<; sciences, andgovernessesof the feasts of the gods. ICu'ta. Goddess of silence. Na'iades. Nymphs of streams and fountains. Iiarcis'su3. A beautiful youth, who, falling in love with his own reflection in the water, pined away into a daffodil, Nem'esis. One of the infernal deities, and god- dess of revenge. Nep'tune. The son of Saturn and Ops ; god of tne sea, and, next to Jupiter, the most powerful deity. Ne'reids. Sea-nymphs. Nes'tor, The son of Neleus and Chloris, and king uf Pylos and .Messenia, He fought against the Centaurs, was distinguished in the Trojan war, and lived to a great age. Ni'obe. Daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am- phion, who, preferring herself to Latona. had her fourteen children killed by Diana and Apollo, and wept herself into a stone. Nox. The most ancient of all the deities, and goddess of night. Ocean 'ides. Sea-nymphs, daughters of Oceanus; thiLC thousand in number. Oce'anuS. An ancient sea-god (£d'ipilS> King of Thebes, who solved the rid- dle of the Sphinx, unwittingly killed his father, married his mother, and at last ran mad and tore out his eyes. Om'ph.ale. A queen of Lydia, with whom Her- cul<.s W.IS so enamored that he submitted to spinning and other unbecommg offices. Ops. A name of Cybele. Ores'tes. The son of Agamemnon. Or'plieus. A celebrated Argonaut, whose skill iu music is said to have been so great that he could make rocks, trees, etc., follow him. He was the son of Jupiter and Calliope. Osi'ris. See Apis. PaUa'dium. A statue of Minerva, which the Iroj.iii-^ imagined fell from heaven, and with which their city was deemed unconquerable. Pallas and Pylotis, Names of Minerva. Pan. The son of Mercury, and ihe god of shep- herds, huntsmen, and the inhabitants of the country. Pando'ra. The first woman, made by Vulcan, and endowed with gifts by all the deities. Jupi- ter gave her a box which contained all the evil; and miseries of l.fe, tjut with hope at the boltom. Par'is, or At'exander. Son of Priam and Hecuba; a mo-t lie.iuiUul youth, who ran away with Helen, and thus occasioned the Trojan war. Pamas'silS. A mountain of Phocls, famous for a temple ol Apollo ; the favorite residence of the Muses. Pegr'asuS. A winged horse belonging to Apollo and the Muses, which sprung from the blood of Medu^a when Perseus cut oft" her head. Pena'tes. Small statues, or household gods. Penel'ope. A celebrated princess of Greece, daughter of Icarus, and wife of Ulysses ; cele- brated for her chastity and constancy in the long absence of her husband. Per'seuS. Son of Jupiter and Danae; \i^r- 1 inne t many extraordinary exploits by means (f Medusa's head. Plia'eton. Son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene. Hij .isl^ed the guidance of his f.ither's chariot for one day as a proof of his divine descent; hut, unable to manage the horses, set the world on fire, and was therefore struck by Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river Po. Philome'la. The daughter of Pandicn, king of iViiieii^ ; changed into a nightingale. Phin'eas. King of Paphlagonia ; had his eyes torn out by Uorcas, but w;is recompensed with the knowledge of futurity. Also, a king of Thrace turned into a stone by Perseus. PhoeTjus. A title of Apollo. Ple'iades. Seven daughters of Atlas and Plei uuc, tliangcd into stars. Plu'tO. The son of Saturn and Ops, brother of Jupiter and Neptune, and the god of the inferna' regions. Plu'tus. The god of riches, Pomo'iia. The goddess of fruits and autumn. Polyhym'nia. The Muse of rhetoric. Pri'am. I he last king of Troy, the son of La- omedon, under whose reign Troy was taken by the Greeks. Prozue'tlieuJS. The son of Japctus ; said to have stolen lire from heaven to animate two bodies which he had formed of clay, and was therefore chained by Jupiter to Mount Caucasus, with a vulture perpetually gnawing his liver. Pros'erpine. Wife of Pluto. Pro'teuS. The son of Oceanus and Tethys ; a sea-go I and prophet, who possessed the power of changing himself into any shape. Psy'ch.e. A n>'mph beloved by Cupid, and made immortal by Jupiter. Pyg'rnies. A nation of dwarfs only a span Tuny, c.irried away by Hercules. Pyl'ades. Tlic constant friend of Orestes. Psrr'amuS and Thisbe. Two lovers of E.iby- |jii, WHO killed themselves with the same sword, and thus caused the berries of the mulberry tree, under which they died, to change from white to red. Py'th.on. A huge serpent, produced from the iiuid of the deluge; killed by Apollo, who, in memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games. Re'inuS. The el .!er brother of Romulus, killed by hi n fur ridiculing the city walls. Hhadaman'tbuS. One of the three infernal jud-e,. Rom'tllus. The son of Mars Ilia ; thrown into the 'liber by his uncle, but saved, with his twin brother, Remus, by a shepherd ; became the founder and first king of Rome. SaTii. The twelve frantic priests of Mars. SaluS. Goddess of health. Saturna'Ua. Feasts of Saturn. Sat'um. A son ofCcelus and Terra; god of time. Sat yrs. Attendants of fJacchus ; horned mon- ster:,, half goats, half men. Sem'ele. The daughter of Cadmus and Thebe, and mother of Bacchus. Semir'amis. A celebrated queen of -Assyria. who bu:lt the walls of Babylon; was slain by Iter own son, Ninyas, and turned into a pigeon, Sera'pis. See Apis. Sile'nus. The foster-father, master and com- panion of Bacchus, He lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, and was drunk every day. Si'renS. Sea -nymphs, or sea - monsters, the daugliters of Oceanus and Amphitrite. Sis'yplmS' The son of ./Eolus ; a most crafty prince, killed by Theseus, and condemned by Pluto to roll up hill a large stone, which con- stantly fell back again. Sol. A name of Apollo. Som'nus. The son of Erebus and Xox, and the god ol sleep. Sphinx. A monster, who destroyed herself be- cause LEdipus solved the enigma she proposed. Sten'tor. A Grecian whose voice is reported to have been as strong and as loud as the voices of fifty men together. Sthe'ziO* One of the three Gorgons. Gtyx. A river of hell. Sylvanus. A god of woods and forests. Ta'cita. A goddess of silence. Tan'talus. The son of Jupiter, and king of Lydi.i, \\\\o .-served up the limbs of his son, Pelops, to try the divinity of the gods, for which he was plunged to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to everlai>ting thiist and hunger. Tar'tarus. The part of the infernal regions in w iu^li the wicked were punisheii. Tau'rus. The bull under whose form Jupiter ciirried away Europa. Telem'achuS. The only son of Ulysses. Terpsich'ore. The Muse presiding over danc- ing. ^71 VL ■\ V A DICriONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS 799 The'inis. The daugliter of Cactus and Terra, and goddess of justice. Ti'phys. Pilot of the ship Argo. Tisipli'oxie* One of the three Furies. Ti'tan. 'I'he son of CceIus and Terra, elder hiuilur of S:uurn, and one of the giants who w.trrcl .lyainst heaven. Titho'nus. The son of Laomedon, loved by .'^urura, and turned by her, in his old age, into a gra<;^^lopptr. Tri'tOH. The son of Neptune and Amphitrite, a powerful sea-god, and Neptune's inimpeter. Tro'ilus. A son of Priam and Hecuba. Troy. A city of Phrygia, famous for holding out a siege of ten years again^^t the Greeks, but fnatly captured and destroyed. "Olys'ses. King of Ithaca, who. by his subtlety and eluqiicnce. was eminently serviceable to the drirck^. in the Trojan war. TTra'nia. The Muse of astronomy. Ve'nus. One of the most celebrated deities of the ancients, the wife of Vulcan, the goddess of beauty, the mother of love, and the mistress of the graces and of pleasurc^i. Vertuni'llUS. A deity of the Romans, who pre- sided over spring and orchards, and who was the lover of Pomona. Ves'ttt. The sister of Ceres and Juno, the god- dess of fire, and patroness of vestal virgins. V^iri'placo. An inferior nuptial goddess, who reconcilcil husbands and wives. A lemple ai Rfime was dedicated lo her, whither the married couple repaired after a quarrel. Varcan. The gnd who presided over subicna- iK-iJus fire, patron uf workers in metal. Zeph'yruS. The west wind, son of .^^oliis an*l Aurura. .md lover of the goddess Flora. Zeus. A title of Jupiter. -!-<-f=^ly. Sempre. Throughout — always. Sexnplice. In a simple, unaffected style. Segrno, or :S:. Sign : as. A! s^gytc, to the sign ; JMi Sf^no, repeat from the sigii to the word J-uu. Senza. Without. Sforzando. Emphasized. Sincopato. Forced nut of time. Smorzando. Smoothed, decreased. Soav©. ^oft and delicate. SottO Voce. In an undertone. So^tenutO. Li a smooth, connected style. Spirito, or Con Spirito. With spirit. Staccato. Detached, short. Tempo. In time. '''smpo di Marcia. In marching time. Tempo di Valse. In waltz time. Tempo Primo. In the original time. Trillondo. Shaking on a succession of notes. Tranquillo. Tranquilly. TuttO Forza. As loud as possible. Veloce. With Velocity. Vigroroso. Boldly, vigorously. Vivace. With extreme briskness and anima- Vivo. Animated, lively. Volti SubitO. Turn over the pages quickly. ZeloBO. With real. A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. ^-tg^T^y-t ^r^gfev^ Words and Phrases, Persons, Places, Pictures, Buildings, Streets and Monuments frequently alluded to in Literature and in Conversation. '^HO has not met, either in reading or conversation, with allusions to matters with which he was previously unacquainted? ^Jttt^ Facts and fan'ies of history and romance are continually encountered, to which only a liberal education or a wide course !%M> of study will give the key. We have gathered below a glossary of the most frequent of these allusions, and we flatter K%^ ourselves that the succeeding pages will throw a flood of light upon many interesting topics which to the majority of people have heretofore been dark and inexplicable. Abderite. Democritus.theoriginallaugh- inK philosopher, was born in Abdera, a Thra- cian citv. From hiin a scotfer or person ffiven to continual laughing is called an Abderite. Abraham's Bosom. The rest of the blessed dead. Abyla and Calpe. the Pillars of Hercules, the exit from the Mediterrinean. Academics. Plato's disciples were so called from the Academ\. Academy. (Academe.) Plato founded his s< hool in a gvmnasium of this name near Athens. 36S B'; "C. Academy, The French. A French sci- entific body limited to forty members. Acadia. Formerly the name of Nova Scotia. Adam's Apple. A part of the throat where, it is said, a piece of the forbidden fruit lodged. Admirable Crichton, The. James Crichton, an accomplished Scotchman of the sixteenth century. Admiral. The highest rank in the Navy. ^neid. An epic poem by Virgil. Ages. The five ages of the world accord- ing to Hesiod, are the Golden, the- SiIvlt, the Brazen, the Heroic and the Iron. Alabama. A Confederate privateer .luilt in England. Sunk by the Kearsarge June lyth, 1S64. Aladdin's Window, To Finish. Trying to complete another's work. Aladdin's palace was perfect except one window left for the Sultan to finish, but his treasure failed him. Albany Regency. Name anplied sixt^- years ago to some Democrats at Albany, N. \ . Albino. A person with white skin and hair and red eyes. The Portuguese so called the white negroes. Albion. England, so called from the chalky white cliffs. Aldine Press. Founded hy Aldus Manu- tius at Venice in i-^c/i. Editions of the class- ics issued from this press were called the Aldine editions. This term is n()W applied to some elegant editions nf English works. Alexandrian Library. Was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus. It contained 700,000 volumes, and was burnt 47 B. C. Alexandrine Age. 323-640, when Alex- andria was the seat of the highest culture. Alhambra. A magnificent palace and a fortress built by the "Moors at Granada, in Spain. All-Hallows. All Saints' day, Nov. ist. Allah. Arabic name of God. Almacks. Assembly room in London where the most exclusively aristocratic balls were given. Almighty Dollar. A phrase first used by Irving in his Creole Village, and which has become quite common. The title of a play. Alsatia. A q larter in London where criminals take refuge. Alto-Relievo. Figures in marble or cast- ings projecting one-naif or more from the tablet. Ambrosia. Food of the Gods. Anaclironism. An error in computing time. Anacreontics. Poems composed in the manner of Anacreon, a great poet noted for iiis exact imitation of nature. Ancien Regime. The French Govern- ment previous to the revolution of i";q8. Angling, The Father of. Izaak Walton. Annus ]>Iirabilis. (Wonderful year.) A. D. 1666. Noted for the great fire in Lon- don, the Plaguu, and an English victory over the Dutch. Antoninus, The TVall of. Was built by the Romans in A. D. 140 across Scotland be- tween the Clyde and the Frith of Forth; an embankment of earth. Apollo Belvedere. One of the most beau - tiful and perfect representations of the human form is the statue of Apnllo in thu Belvedere Gallery of the Vatican Palace .-it Rome. Appian "Way. The road from Rome to Capua. The oldest Roman road. Apples of Sodom. Beautiful fruit, hut full of ashes. Applied figuratively to the dis- appointment of sin. Apple, Golden. Prize for beautv disput- ed before Paris, bctvvcen Juno, Pallas and W-nus ; awarded by him to Vt-nus. Arabesque. Decoration in Moorish style. Arcadian. A shepherd ; a Greek grazing country named Arcadia has furnished this word to the poets. Argo. The ship in which Jason and his fiftv-four companions sailed when going to Colchcs for the Golden Fleece. Argonauts, The adventurers on the Argo. Argus-eyed, Crafty, watchful. Argus had a hundred eyes ;the jealous Juno put him on detective duty over lo. Armada, The Spanish. A fleet of 130 ships gathered bv Pliil'p of Spain for the in- vasion of Enghmd in 1500. Queen Elizabeth was busy preparing for resistance when tlie news came that a storm had completely wrecked the Armada. Artesian "Well. Boring in the earth un- til water is reached that will flow sponiaiie- ouslv. Their first use was in Artois, France. Aryans. The stem of the Indo-European peoples. Aster Library. Founded by John Jacob Astor in New York City. Athens, The Modern. Boston. Augustan Age. As the most flourishing period of the Roman literature was during the time of Augustus, that name is given to any age wherem literature is pre-emment. Auld Reekie. Scotland. Avalon. King Arthur's burial-place, Glastonbury. AjTeshire Poet, The. Burns. His birth- place was near Ayr in Scotland. Barnburners. A name given some years ago to radical Democrats, a leading man amongst whom was John Van Buren. Babylonish Captivity. The seventy years' captivity of the Jews at Babylon, ('>oS-53^ B.C. Baconian Philosophy. The inductive philosophy of Lord Bacon. Balmoral Castle. A Scotch castle own - cd by Queen \"ictoria. where she spends most of her time in the summer. Bank of England. Founded i6<>4. Bard of Avon. Shakspere, so calK-d from his home being Stratford-on- Avon. Barmecide's Feast. A mockery, a de- lusion and a sham. Barmecide asked a starv- ing beggar to dinner, and seated liim at a table of empty dishes. Basilisk. A mythical serpent with power to kill by merely looking at its victim. Basso Rrliovo. Fijjuns in marble and castings thai pmjcct but a little from the plant-. Hiistile. French prison ami fortress. IVnplc were incarcerated here bv Uttre de ctuJttt, without notice or trial. Destroyed by a mub, 170^. Bnttle of tlie Books. Satire by Dean Swift comparing ancient and modern literature. li.'ittle of the Kc'ST'*- A practical joke on the Itritisli General Lorin^^. Detailed in a ballad of the Kevolutionary war. Batterjs The. A park in New York City adjoining the river. B<>n<:on St. The aristocratic residence street of lJt)Ston. Beauty and the Beast. A fairy tale. Beautv lives with the Beast to save her fath- er's life. Hy l>er love she disenchants the Heiist. who pro\es to be a great Prince. Bedlam. A mad-house. Bee, The Attic, Plato; so called from his honeyed style. Bee, The Busy. An example of com- munal industr)'. Beel/.ebub. A Philistine deity. BeKIJinK *>»*■ Question, Assuming as true what you are to prove. Belle Frani-e, La. Beautiful France. Bel^avia. Fashionable quarter of Lon- don. Bell the Cat. In a convention of mice It was proposed to hang a bell on the cat's neck, to give warning of her coming. No one wouldserve on the committee. Bell, The Passing. Rung formerly when persons were dying. Beloved l>isciple, T1»e. St John. Bess, Go
      eath. A pla^e which desolated Europe, Asia and Africa in the fourteenth century. Black Friday. Gold panic Sept 26th, iS6y. Immense fortunes lost and won same day. Investigation could never discover the true inwardness of it. Itlack H€>le of Calcutta. Dark prison cell wherein Surajah Dowlah shut up 146 British soldiers ; only J3 lived till morning. Black Prince, The. Edward, Prince of A\*ales, son of Edward HI. Blac^k Republicans. The Republican party of I'. -S. so called when opposing the extension of slaverj". Blarney Stone. Its supposed virtue when kissed is lo impart a smooth and oily tongue. Profusion of compliments is called Blarney. This stone is in Blarney Castle, near Cork, Ireland. liluebeard. A wife-killing tyrant, in a nursery story. Blue Laws. Some severe New England statutes were so called. Blue Stocking. A literary socictv at Venice in 1400, whose members wore olue stockings, is the origin of this name for a female pedant. Itoheniinn. As opposed to Philistine, an artist or literary man living loosely by his wits. Bois de Boulogne. A Parisian prome- nade. Border, The. Frontier of England and Scotland. Border Minstrel, The, Sir Walter Scott, Border States. Man,*land, Delaware, Vir- ginia, Kentucky, Missouri. Bourgeoisie. A class of t!ie people of France mostly composed of traders and manutaclurers. Boulevard, A wide street in Paris, in the place (it the ancient ramparts. Itonrse, Parisian stock exchange. Itow Bells. A set of bells in the Church of .'^t. Mary-le-Bow, London. One "born within sound of Bow Bells" is a Cockney. Bowery, The, A New York thoroughfare. lioycfttt. To refuse to have anything to do with a person. To let him severely ahme. A trying ordeal passed through by Captain Boycott in Ireland in iSSi. No one would selt to him, buy from him, work for him or speak to him. Brandy Nose. Queen Anne of England. Breeches Itible, The. An edition in which "aprons'* in Gen. iii. 7 is rendered " breeches." Bride of tlie Sea. Venice. 15rie is in North Carolina. A North Carolina member said a fiery speech w.as not delivered to the House, but to Buncombe. Bunker Hill Monument. An obelisk of granite marking tlie site of the battle of Bunker llill, fought between the British and Americans, June 17, 1775. Cachet, Lettres de. (Se.iled letters.) Blank warrants with the seal of the French Kiiiff already affixed frir imprisoning or re- leasmg any person in the Bastile. Caledonia. Scotland. Caluuiet. An Indian pipe. In old times a treaty of peace with the red men would be ratified by smoking the calumet. Canipagna. The plains around the city of Rome. Carbonari. A secret political society or- ganized in Italy, 1S20. Carmagnole. Song and dance in the French Kevolution. Cartesian Pliilosophy. From Descartes, " I think, therefore I exist." Castle Garden. At New York Citj-, the landing-place of emigrants. Catacombs. Subterranean sepulchres. About three miles from Rome in the'Appian Way a viLst number of long untierground pas- sages about three feet wide and ten feet high. On each side in niches were deposited the bodies of the martyrs and earlv Christians. These niches were closed with tiles or slabs of marble having proper inscriptions on them. During the persecutions the Christians concealed themselves in these caves. Cavalier Serrente. The escort of a married woman. Cecilia, St. A martyr; patroness of music. Celestial Empire. China, whose first Emperors were all divinit?fcs. Central Park. The great park of New York City ; contains S63 acres. CliampN de .Mar«. A field in Paris for military manoruvres. Champs Klysees. A promenade in Paris. Charter Oak. A tree in Harttnrd. Conn.. in wliich the C«)lonial Charter w;is secrvteu in 16SS. It was blown down in 1S56. Chauvinism. Patriotism of the blatant kind, from Chauvin, one of Scribe's charac- ters. Cheapaide. A thoroughfare in London. Chiltern Hundreencli armies. It was thrown down by the Conmiunists in 1S71. Confederate States. The eleven States which seceded in iS(m, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, (ie()rgia, Louisian.i, Afississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia. Congressional Library. At Washing- ton ; it is the largest in the United States. Con.sols. English public securities. Copperheads. Northern sympathizers with the South in the Civil war. Corncrackers, Tlie. Kentuckians. Corn Law Rh3'mer, The. Ebenezer Elliott. Corso. The chief thoroughfare of Rome. Crapaud, Joluiuy. A Frenchman. Credit M(»billcr. An authorized stock company. The Anieririm Credit Mobilier formed for raising money for the Pacific Railroad raised a Uiul odor in 1S7J. Crocodile Tears. Counterfeit sorrow. A fable says the crocodile weeps as it eats its victim. Cumberland. A United States vessel sunk by the Confederate ram Merrimac in llampt(U) Koads, March S, 1862. Curfew Bell. At S o'clock, the ringing of the curfew bell in old times in England, all lights were extinguished, the fires raked up and covered, and the people of the Kingdom retired to bed. This rule, made by \\'illiani the Coiujueror, Ixsted for a long time, and even yet there is some sign of its observance in the nine o'clock bell rung in many )>arts of New England. Damocles* Sword. Damocles, having commented . upon tlie happiness which the tyrant Dionysins must enjoy, was invited bv him to a feast where, whilst discussing the good things, he looked up and discovered a sword hanging by a single hair imnu illately over his head. / \ \ 802 A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. Darby and Joan. The lovins^ couple. Darwinian Theory. An explanation of the origin of species in animals, tliat they come from one or a few original forms, the present differences resulting from develop- ment and natural selection. De Profundis. The 130th Psalm ; part of thet)urial service. Debatable Ground. Land on the west- ern border of Scotland, disputed between England and Scotland. Defender of the Faith. Henry VIII. received this title from Pope Leo. X., and his successors Iiave borne it ever since. Directory, The French. By the Con- stitution of 170$, the executive power was vested in five Directors; it lasted only four years. Dixie, Tlie I.and of. The Southern States. Dizzy. The nickname of Benjamin Dis- raeli, Karl of Beaconsfield. Doctors' Commons. The place where the Ecclesiastical Court sat in London. Doctrinaire. A cant term in French politics, given to the proposer of an imprac- ticable compromise me;isure. Doe, John, The fictitious plaintiff in ejectment suits, the defendant being Uichard Roe. Doomsday Book. Compiled by order of William the Conqueror. It contained a sur- vey and an estimate of value of all the lands in England. Donnybrook Fair. A once celebrated annual fair near Dublin. Douay Bible, The. The English Bible authorized by the Roman Catholic Church; first published at Douay, France. Do-rniing Street. The olTicial residence of the English Prime Minister since the time of Sir Roliert Walpole is in Downing Street, London. Drnry L-ane Theater. In London; was opened in l6;SS Djring Gladiator. An ancient statue in the Capitol at Rome. Eastern States, Tlie, Maine, New- Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Eece Homo. A painting by Correg^io representing the Savior crowned with thorns. Ecole Polyteclinique. A Parisian school, the graduates of which are given places in the public service. El Dorado. A fabulous region in South America, surpassing all other countries in the production of gems iind (irecirjus metals, A name for any wealthy country. Elephant, Seeing the. Seeing the w.irld. Elffin Marbles. A collection of Greek sculptures made by Lord Elgin. Now in the British Museum. Esriirinl, Tlie. A roval residence built by Philip II. ; it is the largest structure Spain, and one of the most splendid buildings in Europe. It is iJ miles from Madrid and contains a palace, a church, a monastery, free schools and a mausoleum. Eternal City, The. Rome. Eureka. (I have found it.) Exclamati-mboIs of th^. MatUiew has a scroll before him and holds a pen; Mark sits writing, with a winged lion by his side; Luke has a pen and a scroll, near him is an ox ; John is a young man behind whom is an eagle. Exclusion, Bill of. A bill wliich passed the English House of Commons in 1079, pro- posing to exclude the Duke of V» Jupiter a wagon, the beam and yoke of which were tied togetlier by such an intricate knot that no one could imravel it. An oracle hav- ing foretold that he who could untie this knot would be m;Lster of Asia, Alexander cut it asunder \\'ilh his sword. Gordon Riots, The. In 17S0 in London, the bill passed by the House of Commons for the relief of the Rctman Catholics caused so much ill-feeling that Lord George Gordon, a fanatic, incited the mob to try and force its repeal. Dickens in his RarnaHy Rudge gives a vivid description of these riots. Gotham. A name sometimes applied to New York City. Gotham, Tl»e Wise Men of. Noted for their folly. (Jutham w;is an English \illage. Great Commoner, The. William Pitt. Great Duke, The. Wellington. Great Eastern. The largest vessel ever launched. Slie was built to carry 1.000 pas- sengers and 5,000 tn, born Febru- ary II, O. S. Gretna Green, A Scotch village famous for runaway matches Grub Street. In London; used to be noted for its literary denizens. Giielphs. The adberenti in the thirteenth century of the Papacy against the German Kmpeft>rs. They were tlie constant oppo- nents of tlie (ili^ibellines, and between them llal\' was kept in turmoil. <;ttilflhall. The London town hall. (;iin|Hi\V(ler Plot, The, A plot to blow up the I-liiiilisb Parliament in its House, November ^, 1^105. A cellar underneath was stored with gunpowder intended to be touch- ed off during tne session by Guy Kawkes. Tlie discovery w:is made in time to prevent mischief. To use a modern but inelegant phrase, the plot was considered by some people to be " a put-up job." Gyereft* RinfC, A ring which made the wearer invisible. Gyges, havino found .1 man's ct>rpse in a brazen horse that he dis- covered in a cave, took a ring from the finger of the dead that rendered him invisible. By using this ring he entered unseen the chamber of the King^ of Lydia and murdered him. He became King. Habeas Con»"R Act, The, Was passed in the time of Charles IL and provides that the body of any person restrained of his lib- erty must on proper application be brought before a J udge and the rex^on of lusc onfine- ment staled. The Judge will then determine the amount of bail he shall furnish, or he will remand him t dum, as tli prison or allow him his free- case may require. Halcyiui Dayn. A period of happiness; days of peace and tranquility. The nalcyon, as the kingfisher was anciently called, was said to lay her eggs in nests on rocks near the sea during the calm weather about the winter solstice. Handicap. Apportionment of the weights that must be carried in a race by different horses, ctmsidering their age and strength, to equalize their cliances. Hansard. Name of the firm which prints the debates of the British I'arliument. Hantte Towns. In the twelfth century Sf>mj commercial cities in the north of Ger- many formed an association for the protec- tion of commerce. To these other similar cities in Holland. England, i*"rance, Spain and Italy acceded, and for centuries this con- federacy commanded the respect and defied the power of Kings. Hansentir I^eafirne. The name of the confederation of Ilanse towns. There were seveniy-two cities in the league, and thev held triennial conventions called Hansa. ft has long since fallen to iiieces. I-'our of its members, L\ibeck. Hamburg, Bremen and I-rankfort, are called free cities, but are really part of the German Empire. Hare, l*ljid as a March. The hare is wilder than usual in March. Harpies. Three ravcnons and filthy mon- sters, each having a woman's face and the body of a vulture. Their names were Aello, Ocypete and Celeno. Juno sent them to plunder the table of I'lnneus. Hari-Kari. (Happy dispatch.) Japanese ofiicial suicide. Harvest Moon. The full moon at or nearest the-fall e(piinox; rises for a number of days about sunset. Heathen Chinee, Tlie. A poem. Heiia. Holy Family, The. The name of pic- tures representing in group the infant Jesus, St. Joseph, the Blessed Virgin, John the Baptist. Anna, and St. Elizabeth. The most celebrated are bv .Michael Angelo at Florence, by Ka|)hael in London, aiidoy Leonardo da Vinci in the Louvre. Holy Land, The, Palestine. Holy Leagrue, The. The alliance of Pope Julius IL, I- ranee. Germany, Spain and some of the Italian Uepubiics in 150S, against Venice. Honi 8oit qui mal y pense. (Shame to him who evil thinks.) Motto of the highest order of knightliood in Great Britain, that of the Garter instituted by Edward III. Ataball, a garter of the Countess of Salisbury.-, having fallen off, was picked up by the Iving, who expressed liimself in the above phrase and fastened it around his own knee. This inci- dent led to the formation of the order. Honf»rs of War. Allowing a surrendered enemy to keep his arms. Hotel de Ville. The city hall in French and Belgian cities. Houris. Beautiful virgins of Paradise; promised by the Koran fur the delight of the true believers. HundrtMl Hays, Tlie. From March 20, 1S15, when Napoleon escaped from Elba, to June 22, 1S15, when he alnlicated. Iconoclast. (Image -breaker.) A radical reformer. Iliad. A Greek epic poem by Homer, re- laling the story of the siege of Troy by the Greeks. Independence, Declaration of. Issued July 4, 1776. Inilependcnce Hall. In Philadelphia, Pa., where Congress met and adopted the Declaration ot Independence. Index Kxpureatorius. A list of books forbidden to be read by the Roman Catholic Church. Inns of Court, The four I-ondon.law societies which have the sole right of admit- ting candidates to the Bar. Thev are Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple. Inquisition. A tribunal established in soMie countries to try heretics. Irish Agitator, The. Daniel O'ConncU. Iron City. The. Pittsburg, Pa. Iron I>ukc. The. The Duke of Welling- ton. Iron Mask, The Man in the. A mys- terious French stale prisoner. Jack Ketch. The hangman. The name of an I^Inglish hangman. Jack Robinson. Before you can say Jack Kobinson ; at once. Jack Uobinsem was noted for the shortness of his visits; the servant had scarcely lime to repeat his name, before he would leave. J.'ifk, The <«iant Killer. A nursery her<». Jack, T!»e American, or I'nion. The blue ground of th9 American l.ag with the stars but without the stripes. Jacobins, A revolutionary club, 17S9, in Paris, held its meetings in what had been the Jacobin Mon.istery. They were violent and extreme in the measures they proposed. Their name spread to all similar organizations and to individuals acting with them tliroughout France. .Jacobites. Adherents of James II. of England, and of ttie Stuarts, his descendants. Jardin des PI antes. Botanical and zoological garden in Paris. Jardin MHl>ille. Of world-wide notoriety. A l*arisian resort where the can-can flourish- ed. Suppressed in 1SS2. Jericho, ilee, Year of. Among the Jews the jubilee came every fiftieth \ear, which was the year after one week of weeks of years had passed (seven times seven). All sfaves who were of Hebrew blood were freed, all debts were canceled and all lands relumed lo orig- inal owners during the iubilce. In the Roman Catholic Church it is observed every twenty- fifth year. Juggernaut. A Hindoo god who has a famous temple in India. There is an immense car in the service of this god, which, when moved about the country, causes the greatest excitement. The car resembles a large build- ing and its weight is verv heavy. It is dragged along by the multitude and their fanati- cism is so great that crowds of de\ otees cast themselves under the wheels and are crushed to death, a fate which Ihey believe ensures paradise. Julian Era, The. A method of reckoning time from 40 B.C., when Ca'sar reformed the calendar. .Junius, Letters of. Some remarkable political letters written during the reign of George III. Their authorship is unknown. Kansas, Rleedlng. So called by Horace Greeley during the !• ree Soil controversy. Kensington Ganlcns. A London Park near which Queen \'ictoria was born. Kilkenny Cats, The. Disputing people ; from the old verse: There once were t\vo cats in Kilkenny, Who each thought there was one cat too manv. So they howled and they fit, and they scratch- ed and they bit. Until instead t»f twt) cats there wasn't any. King can do no wrong. The. Meaning ihat the Ministers and not the King are re- sponsible for mistakes of government. King of Ivetot, The Seigneur of Ivelot was made king of his estate by the King of I'" ranee as a recompense for the killing of his father. It w-as a kingdom of eight square miles. / _\ K" 804 A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. / King Cole. A Icgendan- king of Britain, who affected tobacco and spirits. King* Cotton. A name given to the great Southern industry before the war. King's Evil. The scrofula. So called from the belief that a king's touch would cure the disease. King r.og, A good-for-nothing niler. The name comes from one of Esop's fables, wherein Jupiter puts a log to rule ovtr the frogs. King-Maker, Tlie. Richard Nevill, the Earl of Warwick, who set up and deposed kings at his will during the Wars of the Hoses, in the fifteentli century. King Stork. A tyrant. The sequel to the Kson fable inuntioned above. The frogs grew tired of Kin^ Log. whereupon King Stork was brought in: at their request, who devoured the whole community Kit Kat Club, The. A London club founded in 16SS, It had many eminent mem- bers. Knickerbocker. A member of anv old Dutch family m New York. Derived from Irving's immortal history. Knigbt of Slalta. A chivalric and mon- astic order founded during the Crusades, also called the Knights Hospitallers of St. John. Kno^v-Nothings. A political party m the United States, whose cardinal iirinciple was opposition to foreign office-holders. Koh-i-Noor. A Golconda diamond, the largest in the world, now one of the crown diamonds of England. Value, $625,000. Koran, The. The Mohammedan Bible. Kremlin, The. The royal Russian resi- dence in Moscow. I.abyrinth, The. A celebrated structure built bv Minos, King of Crete, which con- sisted of a maze out of which no one who entered could find the way back. I-aconic. Curt. So called from the brief speech in fashion in old Laconia, afterwards called Sparta. Liacrymal Christi. An Itali.an wine. Lake School, The. A society of English poets consisting of Coleridge, Wordsworth and Southey. r,an(l of Bondage, The. Eg>'pt. Land o' Cakes, The. Scotland. Land of Xod, Tlie. Sleep ; Dreamland. Land of Promise, The. Canaan, the go.al of the Jewish wanderings in the wilder- ness. Lang Syne, Long ago. Langue d'Oc. Provence, apartof France so called from the dialect in use. Langue d'(Eil. All of France except Provence. Laoooon, The. A celebrated statue in the "\'atican representing Laocoon strangled by serpents. Laodicean. A person luke-warm in re- ligion. Lares and Penates. The household gods. Last Judgment, The. The theme of a number of frescoes of the Renaissance period in Italy, Last Supper, The, Similar to the above. Leonardo da Vinci's best canvas is on this subject. Lateran Palace, The. One of the Papal residences at Rome, Laughing Philosopher, The, Democ- rilus of Ahder.T, who believed that hfe was only to be laughed .at. Leaning Tower, The. A celebrated structure at Pisa, Italy, which leans thirteen feet out of the perpijndicular ; 17S feet high. Learned Blacksmith, The. Elihu Rurritt, Leonine Verses. Verses which rhyme at the middle and the end. Libby Prison, A Confedei.ite gaol for prisoners of war at Richmond, \'a. Lilliput. The pigniy land in Gulliver's travels. Lingua Franca. A dialect of French, Italian and Arabic spoken on the Mediter- raneai Sea. Lion and TTnicorii. The supporters of the Hritish royal arms. Lion of the North, Tlie. Gnstavns of Sweden, the great leader of the Protestant forces during the Thirty Years' War. Lion's Share. The bigger portion in a division. So called from one of Esop's fables. L'ttle Corporal, The, Napoleon Bona- parte. Little Giant, The. Stephim A. Douglass. Lloyds. The originators of marine insur- ance. Lombard Street. The financial street of L.oi>d«m. Lone Star State, The. Texas. Long Parliament. The Parliament whicli sat fur thirteen years at the beginning of the civil war in England. It sat from 1640 to 1653. Lfa- homet is said to hang in mid -air over *t Medina. Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc. Maid of Saragossa. Augustina Zara- goza, the heroine of the siege of Saragossa in 1S0S-9. Maiden Queen, The, Elizabeth of Eng- land. ' Maine Law, A prohibitory law first adopted in Maine. Malthusinn Doctrine, The. The theory that the population of the world is growing faster than the food supply. Mammoth Cave. A cave near the Green River, Kentucky, the largest cave in the world. Man in the 3Ioon. According to the legend the man who first broke the Sabbath. Man of Destiny. Napoleon Bonaparte. Man of Iron, The, Bismarck. Man of Stra'w. An irresponsible ])erson. Mare's Nest. A matter which seems of importance but turns out to be nothing. Marriage a la M*>de. The title of six satirical pictures by Hogarth. Marseillaise. The French national air, composed by Rouget de Lisle. Martinet. A strict disciplinarian. So called from a French officerof the seventeenth century. Mason and Dixon's Line. The north boundan' of the Slave States, dividing Vir- ginia and Marvland from Pennsylvania, Mausoleum. The tomb of Mausohis, built bv Queen Artemisia, one of tlie seven wonders of the world. Mp.yfair. The west end of London. M**reator'8PPOJ'*C«ioii. (<>r Mercalor's Chart), is so called after Gerard Mercator, a Fie" i-h gt ogra|>h r of the sixteenth centurv, the first to irive an unl>roken view of the whole .^urf.ue of the earlh. In it ;ill the meriaians are straight lines perpendicttlar to the equator, and ;.1I the parallels paralhl to the equiitor, the effect being to greatly exaggerate the polar regions. Merry Andrew. A buffoon, from Andrew Borde.the whimsical physician of Henry \'III. Merry Monarch, Tlie. Charles 11. of England. Mesmerism. Takes its name from Mes- mer a German physician. Mezzo Relievo. Carved or ca^t figures projecting from the tablet a little more than basso relievo, and something less than alto relievo, are called mezzo relievo. >Iiddle Ages, Tlie. The period between the destruction of the Roman Empire and the revival of learning in Italy — 476 to 1500, Middle States, The. New York, Penn- sylvania, New Jersey and Delaw.are. Minnesingers. (Love singers.) The German Ivric poets of the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries. Miserere. The fifty-first psalm. Mississippi Bubble, The. A hollow financial scheme. Missouri Compromise, The. A measure that prohibited slavery north of 36° 30' north latitude. Mistress of the Seas. England. Molly Maguires. A secret society in the United States. Many crimes were attributed to it, especially m Pennsylvania. Monarch, Le Grand, Louis XIV. of France. Monroe Doctrine. The United States is not to meddle in European affairs, nor to al- low Euri'pean Governments to meddle in the affairs of the American Continent. Mont de Piete, A pawnbroker's shop. Montmartre. A Parisian cemetery. Monumental City, The. Baltimore, Md. Morey Letter, The. A forged letter at- tributing to Gen. Garfield anti-Chinese senti- ments, iSSo. Morganatic 3Iarriage. A Tr.:...tiage be- t^veen a man of high rank and a woman of a lower one. She does not take her husband's title. Mother of Presidents, Virginia; hav- ing produced seven Presidents of the United States. Mother Carey's Chickens. Stormy petrels. \ fv A DICTIONARY Of FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. 805 Mother GooBe, She livt-d ncnr Hoston, and was a nursery rhymer. She sungrhvmcs to hur grandson Thomas Fleet, who printed them in 1S19. Mount Vernon, The home of Washing- ton, in \'irginia. Musexilnr CliriHtianity. An expression of Chiirks Kiiigslcy. "A sound mind in a sound body/* Music of tlie Spheres. Order, harmony. Pinto tauylit that each j>hint.'t had a siren whose song harmoni/.ed with tht.- motion of our sphere and with that of the others. NBmby-Pamby. Childish. A term used for poor literary productions. XnnteH, Kdirt of. A decree issued at Nantes, I'rance, in isuS.hy Henry IV.. grant- ing toleration to the l*rotestant religion. Ke- voKed by Louis XIV., October 22, 16S5. Xation of Shop-keepers. The name given to the English by Napoleon. Natural Bridge, The. A natural arch over Cedar Creek near James River in Vir- ginia. It is 200 feet high. Newgate. A London prison. New IrVorhl. The Americas. Nibelungen I>ie<1. A German epic poem of the thirteenth centurv. Nine Worthies, The. Joshua, David, Judas Maccaba-us, Hector, Alexander, Julius Ca'sar, Arthur, Charlemagne and Godfrey of Bouillon. Noetes Ainbrosianie. The title of a work by Prof. Wilson (Christopher North), Noel. Christm;is day. Non-Conformists. Dissenters from the Church of Kiigland. Northern Giant, The. Russia. Notre Dame. The Cathedral of Paris. Odyssey. A narrative poem of the adven- tures nf I^lysses on his voyage from Troy to Itliaca-Ho'nier. Ogres. Gi.ants who feed on human flesh. Oi Polloi. The multitude. Ohl Abe, Abraham Lincoln. Old Bailey. A London criminal court. Old Dominion, The. Virginia. Old Guard, The. A favorite regiment of NajHilcon Bonaparte. In the Chicago Con- vention, iSSo. the friends of Gen. Grant re- ceived this name. Old Hickory. Gen. Andrew Jackson. Old Probs. (Old Probabihties.) The U. S. Signal Service. Old Public Functionary. President James liuclianan. Old South, The. A famous church in rSoston, Mass. Orang«;man. A Protestant Irishman. Member of an org:inization which cherislies llie memory of William Prince of Orange. Orange Peel. Sir Robert PeeL Ordinance of 17«7. An act fixing the gnveriiiin-nt of the Northwest Territory of the United States. Orlando Furioso. An Italian poem by Ariosto. Ossian. The son of Flngal, a Scotch bard. Ossian's poems, published in 1760, were the work of James Mc Pherson, agif^ted Cal- edonian. Ostend Manifeso. "Was issued by the Ignited States Ministers to England, l-rrmce and Spain during Pierce's administration, declaring that Cuba must belong to the United States. Ostracism. The Athenians expelled every public man agamst whom a suflicient number of votes were cast. The votes were written on oyster shells. Palimpsest. A parchment having the original writing erased and new writing sub- tituted. Pall Mall. A street in London. Palladium. Is something that affords de(ence, protection and safety. A statue of Pallas was the palladium of Tnty, Pantheon. A circular building in Rome erected in the time of Augustus. It is now a church, the Rotonda. Paradise I^ost. A poem by John Milton treating of tlie lall of man. Paradise Regained. Poem by Milton on the temptation and triumph of Jesus. Paris of .Vinerica, The. Cinciimati. I*arth€-iion, A temple o( Minerva in Athens. Pai*tington, Mrs. The American Mrs. Malaprop. The creation of R. P. Shillaber. Pasqiiinaf rank was avoided. Roundheads. The Puritans, who wore short hair. Royal Martyr. Tlie. Charles!, of En- gland. Royal Society, The. A society for the advancement of natural science, founded ut London, i(x|5* Rozinante. The horse of Don Quixote. Rubicont To Pass the. To take nn irre- trievable step. When Carsar crossed the Rubicon he became an vnemy of Ihc Re- public. Rule Britannia, An English song. Rump Parliament, The. A remnant of the Long Parliament broken up by Cromwell. Rye House Plot. A conspiracy in 16S.1 to assassinate Charles 11. and the Duke of York. Rve House was the name of the con- spirators' place of meeting. Sabbath Day's Journey. About one mile. Sack, To Get the. To be discharged. The Sultan, when he w.ints to be rid of one of his haram. has her put into a sack and thrown into the Bosphorus. Sadducees. A sect of the ancient Jews who denieil the resurrection of the dead and the expectation of a future state. Sagas. Scandinavi.in books containmg the Northern legends. Saint Bartholomew, Mossarre of. Massacre of the French Huguenots in the reign of Charles IX., on SL Bartholomew's kL 8o6 A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. y Sailor JCing, Englaml.* The. AVilUani IV. A once famous French in the Franco -Prussian Saint Cloiul. palace, destroyed war. Saint James, The Court of. The En- flish court, so called from the Palace of St. anies ill London, formerly a royal residence. Saint Mark's. Cathedral of Venice, Italy. Saint PanPs. The cathedral of London; designed by Sir Christopher Wren. Saint Peter's. At Rome ; is the most splendid church building" in the world. Saint Sophia. A mosque in Constantino- ple, Turkey. Saint Stephens. A Gothic cathedral in Vienna, Austria. Salt River. Oblivion. Gone up Salt River IS generally taken to mean political defeat. Saniho. Nickname for colored man. Sanctum. One's private office. Sandwich. A piece of meat between two pieces of bread. Sang Azul. Of aristocratic descent. Sanhedrim. The Jewish court of seventy elders. Sans Culottes. (Without trousers.) The French revolutionists. Snns Souri. Palace of Frederick the Great, at Putsdam, near Berlin. Santa Croce, A church in Florence, Italy, the burial-place of Michael Angclo, Galileo, Machiaveili and others. Saturnalia. A festival in honor of Saturn observed annually by the Romans by givinir way to the wildest disorders. Unrestrained license for all classes, even to the slaves, ruled the city for three days, December 17, iS and 19. Schoolmen. The medieval theologians. Scotland Yard. The headquarters of the London police. Scourge of God, The. Atilla, King of the liuns. Scratch, Old. The Devil. Scylla. (Avoiding Scylla he fell into Charybdis.) In trying to avoid one danger he fell into another. Scylla and Charybdis were the two dangers in 'the Straits oi Messina, Italy. Sea-girt Isle, The. Great Britain. Secessia. The seceding Southern States. Secular Games. Games held by the Romans once in a century. Semiramis of the North. Catherine II., Empress of Russia. September Massacres. The massacre of the French Royalist prisoners in Paris, September 2, 3 and 4, 1702. About S.ooo were killed. Septiiagint. A Greek version of the Old Testament prepared by seventy doctors. Seven-hilled City, The. Rome. Seven \^'onders of the World. The pyramids of Kgypt; the Temple of Diana at j'Iphesus; the hanging gardens of Babvlon; the Colossus at Rhodes; the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus; thestatueof Zeus by Phidias at Olympus, and the Pharos (or light-house) of Alexandria in Egypt. Seven Years' "War. The war of Freder- ick the Great against France, Austria and Russia, 1756 to 1763. Shamrock. The emblem of Ireland. St. Patrick made use of it to prove the doctrine of tlie Trinity. Spanish IVfain. The southwestern part of tlie (.iulf of Mexico, Sphinx. An emblem of silence and mys- tery. A monument near Cairo, Egypt; half woman, half lion. Stabat Mater. A Latin hymn on the Crucifixion. Six Hundred, Charge of the. At the battle of Balaklava, October 25, 1S54, by a mistaken order, the British light cavalr>', 670 strong, ma,de a most gallant charge on the Russians. Sleeping Beauty, The. A fairy tale. Smell of the Lamp. A phrase first ap- plied to the orations of Demosthenes, show- ing their careful and labored preparation. Demosthenes studied in a cave by lamplight. Song of Roland. An old French poem recounting the deaths of Oliver :inJ Roland at Roncesvalles. Shibboleth. A countersign. The pass- word of a secret society. When the Ephraim- ites, alter being routed by Jepthah, tried to pass the Jordan, they were detected by not being able to pronounce properly the word Shibboleth. Sick Man, The. The 'Ottoman Empire. Sinews of War, The, Money. Single-Speech Hamilton. An English statesman of the eighteentli century, W. G. Hamilton. He never made but one speech, but that one was most eloquent. Stal^vart. A member of the Republican party of the United States chnging to tlie principles and practices of the party. His ojjposite, a " Half-breed," is a Republican unwilling to be controlled by the party leaders. Star Chamber. A court of criminal jur- isdiction in England having extensive poweis. It existed from the time of Henry Vlll. until that of Charles I. ".Stonewall" Jackson. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson, Confederate General. Strasburg Cathedral. At Strasburg; Gothic ; 46S feet high ; has a wonderful clock. Swedish Nightingale, Jenny Lind (now Mine. Goldschmidt). Sorbonne, The, A university in Paris founded by Robert de Sorbonne in the tliir- teenth century. Sortes Biblicfe, P'ortune-telling by con- sulting the Bible. South Kensington Museum, A collec- tion of works of art and manufactures in London. South Sea Bubble, The. A company formed m 1710 in England to pay tlie national debt and to have in return a monopoly of the South Sea trade. This company lasted about ten years, and its failure was the ruin of thousands. Tabooed. Prohibited. A Polynesian word meaning consecrated; used for what is out of date or in bad taste. Tammany Hall. A section of the Dem- ocratic ])arty in New York City, named from their place of meeting. Tammany Ring, Or the "Tweed Rin^," or "the Ring." A set of New York City officials which absorbed large sums of the city money. Exposed in 1S71. Tammany, S.tiut. Patron saint of the Democratic party in New York. He was an Indian chief, whose name was really Timenund. Tapis, On the. On the carpet; proposed for discussion. I'rom the tapis or cloth on a council talile. Temple Bar. A stone house in London over which the heads (»f traitors used to be exposed. Torn down in 1S7S. Termagant. A shrew. Termagant was, according to the Crusaders, the wife of Ma- homet. Terra Firma, Dry land. Tertiuni Quid. A third somebody not to be named. Theatre Francais. A theatre in Paris. Theleme, Abbey of. A creation of Rab- elais in his Gargantua. Its motto was, "Do as you please." Thirty Years* War, The. Between the Catliolics and Protestants in Germany, 161S- 104S. Thistle. The national emblem of Scotland. One night when the Danes were attempting to surprise an encampment of tlie Scotch, one of them trod upon a thistle; the pain caused him to raise an alarm, and the Scotch defeated them. Ever since the thistle is the insignia of Scotland. Thor. Is the god of war, son of Odin, the Scandinavian Myth. Threadneedle Street, The Old Lady of. The Bank of England. Three Estates of the Realm. The no- bility, the clergy and the commonalty ; represented in the two houses of Parliament. Thunderer, The. The London Times (newspaper). Tick, On. On credit. Tit for Tat. An equivalent ; this for that. Tom Thumb. Charles A. Stratton. Also, a fairy tale. Tory. The name of an English political partv ; opposite of \V'hig, Tour, The Grand. From Englan d through France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany and home. Tower, The, The citadel of London. Transfiguration, The. One of Raphael's most famous pictures, now in the Vatican. Trimmer. One who takes a moderate course in politics. Trinity Church. An Episcopal church on Bruadwav at the head of Wall Street, New York. The "richest churcli in America. Triple Alliance, The, Alliance between Great Britain, Holland and Sweden against France, 166S. Troubadours. Provincial poets from the elcventli to the fourteenth century. Trouveres. Northern French poets 1100 to 1400. Trumpet, To Sound One's Own. To boast. The entrance of kn'.ghts into a list was announced by the heralds witli a flourish of trumpets. Tuft-hunter, A toady. At Oxford a nobleman was called a tuft because of the gold tuft on his college cap. Tuileries. A French royal palace burn- ed by the Commune in 1S71. Tulip Mania. A European craze of the seventeenth centurv ceijtering in H oil anil. Evervhody was huving tulip bulbs, which ran up to'enormous prices. Many fortunes were sunk in their acquisitif runaway slaves, about the middle of the present century. ITnder the Rose. (Sub rosa.) Confi- dentially. \ -k \ A DICTIONARY OK FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. .S07 ^i -I ITnlirked Cnh, An ilMmd boy. The !>car cub \v;ui believed to be licked into sh.ipc by its dam. Vnter ^Greek statue found in the Island of Mclos, 1S20; it is now in the Louvre. Verhum Sap, A word to the wise. Veronica, A relic at St. Peter's, Rome. Versailles. A palace at Versailles, ten miU-S from Paris. A'espers, The Sicilian, The mnss.icre of the l-rcnch in Sicily, March ,Vi i^^i^. The sounding of the vesper bell was the signal. \ii\ Dolorosa. The sorrowful way of our I^oid from llie Mount of Olives to Golgotha. Vinesar Bible, The. Has "vinegar** for "v'mevanl'', in the head line of Luke .xxii. Oxford, 1767. Virsrin Queen, Tlie. Queen Klizabeth of England. Vitus nance, St, A disease anciently supposed to be under control of St. Vitus. 'Wabash Avenue, A street in Chicago. "Wall of China, The. A wall 1,200 miles long and io feet bigii, built as a protection against the Tartars. Wall .Street. The great financial street of New York. Wallaek*s, A theatre in New York. Walton, An Izaak. An angler. Wand^, F., after the English (manner). A la /node, V ., aftur the fashion. Alere flammam, L., to feed the flame. Alfresco, It., in the open air. Alis volat propriis, L., she flies with her own wings. (The motto of Oregon.) Ailez vans en, F., begone. Allans, F., come. Alma mater, L... benign mother. Alter ego, I-., another self. Alter idem, L., another similar. Amende honorable, V., an aiiology. A mense et thoro, L., from bed and board. Amor patriie, L., patriotism. Amour propre, F., self-love. Ancien regime, F., the old rule, Anglice, L., in English. Animis opibusque paratiy L., prepared with our lives and our money. (Motto of South Carolina.) Anno tztatis szke, L., in the year of his (or her) age. Anno cTiristi, L., in the year of Christ. Anno Domini, L., in the year of our Lord, Anno mundi, L,., in the year of the world. Annus mirabilis, L., the wonderful year. Ante helium, L., before the war. Ante lucein, L., before the light. Ante meridiem, L., before noon. A /'<7H/rawct', F., to the death. Apercu, F., sketch. Aplo^nbyY., firmly; perpendicularly. A posteriori, L.i reasoning from effect to cause. Apriori, L,, reasoning from cause to effect. A propos, v., to the point ; by-the-by. Aqua Z'it(S, L., water of life ; alcohol. Argumentum ad hominem^ L., an argument to the man. Argumentum ad i£rnorautiam,'L..,An argument for the ignorant. ArgumeJitum ad baculum, L., an argument with a cudgel. Arriere pensee, F., on after-thought. Ars est celare ariem, L., art is to conceal art. Ars longay vita brevis est^ L., art is long, lite is short. Asinns ad lyram, L., an ass with a harp ; an absurditv. A teneris annis, L., from tender years. Audaces fortunajuvat, L., fortune favors the bold. Aude sapere, L., dare to be wise. Audi alteram, L., hear the other side. An fait, F., expert. Aufond, F., at the bottom. Au pis aller, F., at the worst. Aura popularis, L., the wind of public favor. Aurea mediocritas, L., the golden mean. Alt reste, F., for the rest Au rez'oir, F., till the next meeting. Aussitot dit, aussitot fait, F., no sooner said than done. Aut amat aid odit inulier^ L., a woman either loves or hates. Aut Casar aut nidlus, L., either C.xsar or nobody. Auto dafe, Portuguese, an act ol faith ; burn- ing a heretic. Auto de se, L., suicide. Au troisieme, F., on the third floor. Aut vincere aut mori, L., either to conquer or die. Aux armes, F,, to arms. Azant-coureur, F., a forerunner. Avant-propos, F. a preface. Avec permission, F., with jiermissioo. A z'eri'is ad verbera. L., from words to blows. A vinculo matrimonii, L., from the bond of marriage. A volonte, F., atplea^re. A voire saute, F,, to your health. Bas bleu, F., a blue -stocking. Beau ideal, ¥., an idea! beauty. Beau monde, F., the tashiona&le world. Beaux esprits, F., men of wit. Beaux yeux , F., beautiful eyes. Bel esprit. P., a brilliant mind. Bete noir, F., a buo;bear. Bien seance, F., politeness. Billet doux, F., a love-lettei. Bis dat qui cito dat, L.., he gives twice who gives quickly. Blase, F., surfeited. Bon ami, F., good friend. Bonbon, F., candv, Bongre vial gre, F., willing or unwilling. Bonnomie, F., good nature. Bonis az'ibus, L.. with lucky omens. Bon jour, good day. Bonne, F., nurse. Bonne foi, ¥., good faith. Bon soir, F., o^ood evening. Brevi manu, L., immediately. Brutumfulmen, L., harmless thunder, Cacoethes loquendi, L., an itch for speaking. Cacoethes scribendi, L., an itch for writing. Cetera desunt, L., the remainder wanting. Cieteris paribus, L., other things being equal. Candida pax, L., white-robed peace. Caput, L., head. Caput mortuum, L.. the dead body. Carpe diem, L., be merry to-day. Cassis tutissima virtus, L.., virtue is the safest shield. Casus belli, L.. a cause for war. Catalogue raisotine, F., a topical catalogue. Causa\':i»e qua Hon,L,.,a.n indispensable con- dition. Cedant arma togm, L., let arms yield to the gown. Ce n'est que le premier pa' qui coute, V., the first step alone is difficult. C^est a dire, K., that is to say. Chacun a son gout, F., every man to his taste. \ \ A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES. 809 "71 Chcf^ F,, the head; the Icadinjj person or part. Cht/df hatnif/on, F., .1 major. Chff d^ cttisfttr-, v., head ct>ok, Cht'/'J^ctnvrf. K., a miL^terpiecc. (Shen amit\ 1'., a dear Iriend ; a mistress. Chfi'alier d'induslri^y F., knight of industry ; one who lives by liis wits. Chiaroscuro, It., distribution of light and shade in painting. C/V'frc>«<', It., a guide who explains curiosities. Cicixbeo. It., a m.*lu attendant on a married lady. Ci-d*-i>anty F., formerly; heretofore. CogitOf ergo sum, L.., I think, therefore I exist. Colubrtm in sinufaxert^ L.., to cherish a ser- pent in one's bosom. Commf ilftint, F\, as it should be. Cotnpogiion Je voyage^ F., a traveling com- panu"in. Compos metiiis, L., sound of mind. Comptc reuiin, F., account rendered; report. Comic, F., count. CofUtt-xst', F., countess, CoH awore,P.,with love or great pleasure; earnestly, CoH cowwodo. It., at a convenient rate. Conditio sine qua non, L.., a necessary condi- tion. Confrere, F., a brother of the same monas- ter)- ; an associate. Conge d'e/ire, F., leave to elect. Coni/i/iescut in puce, L., may he rest in peace. Conseii de familte, F., a family consultation. Conseil d^etaty F., a council of state; a privy council. Constaniia et virtule, L., by constancy and virtue. Consneiitdo pro lege servatur, L., custom is observed as law. Contra bonos wior^j, L., against good morals or manners. Coram nobis, L., before us. Coram non jtidice, L., before one not the proper judge. Corps de garde, F.,a b§dy of men who watch in a guard-room; the guard-room itself. Corps diplomatique, F., a diplomatic body. Corpus Cliristi,\..y Christ's oody. Corpus delicti, L., the body, substance or foundation of the offence. Corrigenda, L., corrections to be made. CouUur de rose, !•"., rose-color; an aspect of beauty and attractiveness. Coup d'essai, F., a first attempt. Coup d'etat, v., a stroke of p4>licy in state af- fairs. Coup de grace, F., the finishing stroke. Coup de main, F., a sudden attack; a bold effort. Coup d'aril, F., a slight view ; a glance. Coup de theatre^ F., u theatrical effect; clap- trap. Coute qn*il coute, F., let it cost what it may. Credula res amor est, L., love is a credulous affair. Cr^scite et multiplicamini, L., grow, or in- crease, and multiply. (The motto of Mary* land.) Crimen lasa majestatis^ L., the crime of high treason. Cut bonof L., f or whoflc benefit is it? what good will it do? Cul de sac, F., the bottom of a bag; a place closed at one end. Cum grano sails, I-., with a grain of salt; with some allowance. Cum privilegio, L., with privilege. Currente calomo, L.., wiln a runningor rapid pen. Gustos retulorum, I,,, tlie keeper of the rolls. Da capo. It., from the beginning. D'accordfl'., agreed; in tunc. JJamnant quod non intelligunt, I-., they con- demn what they do not understand. De bonne grace, F., with good grace; will- ingly. De ale in diem, l-., from day to day. De facto, L., from the fact; really. Degage, F., easy and unconstrained. Dei gratia, L., by the grace of (Jod. Dejeuner a la fourchette , F., a meat breakfast. Defure^ L., from the law; by right, Delenda est Carthago, I,,, Carthage must be blotted out or destroyed. De mortnis nil nisi bonum, L., let nothing but good be said of the dead. De nihilo nihil Jit, L., of nothing, notliing is made. De noz'o, L., anew; over again from the be- ginning. Deogratias, L., thanks to God. Deoj'uvante, 1,., with God's help. Deo, non/ortuna, L..,frviu God, not from for- tune. Deo Tolente, I.., Gnd willing; by God's will ; usually contracted into /A r. De profundis, L., out of the depths. Dernier ressort, F., a last resmirce. De bonis non, L., of the goods not adminis- tered on. Degiistibus non est disputandum, L., there is no disputing about tastes, Dcsagriment, F., something disagreeable. Des!d,ratum, L., a thing desired. Dtsttnt Ctelera, L., the other things are want- ing ; the remaindt-'r is wanting. De trop, F., too much, or too many; not wanted. Dies ir<£, L., the day of wrath. Dies non, L., in law, a day on which judges do not sit. Dieu defend le droit, F., God defends the right. Dieu et man droit, F., God and my right. Dignus xundice nodus, L., a knot u-orthy to be untied by such an avenger, or by such hands. Dii Penates, L., household gods. Dii majores, L., the greater gods. Dii minores, L., the lesser gods. Dirigo, L., I direct or guide. (The motto of Maine.) Disjecta membra, L., scattered limbs or re- mains. Distingue, F., distinguished; eminent. Distrait, F., absent m thouglit. Divertissement , V., amusement ; sport. Dii'ide et impera, L., divide and rule. Dolce far nicnte, It., sweet doing-nothing; sweet idleness. Double entente, ¥., double meaning; a play on words ; a word or phrase susceptible of more than one meaning. (Incorrectly writ- ten, double entendre.) Dramatis persomc, K,, the characters or per- sons represent';d in a drama. Droit des gens, F., the law oi nations. Dulce domum, L,., swisL-t home; homewards, Dulce est deslpere in loco, L., it is ple:isant to jest or be merry at the proper time. Dulce ft decorum est pro patria ntori, L,, it is sweet and becoming to die (or one's coun- try. Dum spiro, spero, L., while I breathe, I hope. Dum vivimus, vivamus, !_,., while we live, let us live. Eait de Cologne, F., a perfumed liquid ; Cologne water. Eau de vie, F., water of life; brandy. Kcce homo, L., behold the man. (Applied to a picture representing our Lord given up to the Jews by Filate, and wearing a crown of thorns.) Editio princeps, L., the first edition. Egalite, V ., equality. Ego et rex meus, L., I and my king. El dorado, Sp., the golden land. Emigre, I'"., an emigrant, Einpressement, F., atdor; zeal. En arriere, !•'., in the reur ; behind. En attendant, F.. in the meanwhile. En avant, V ., forAvard. En deshabille, F., in undress. En echelon, F., in steps; likest.airs. Enfantille, V ., in a domestic state. Etjfans perdus, V ., lost children; in miL, the fiirlorn hope. En grande tenue, F., in full dress. En masse, F., in .a body. En passant, F., in passing; by the way. En rapport, I*'., in relation ; in connection. En regie, F., in order; according to rules. En route, F., on the way. Ense petit flaeidam sub libertate gnietem, F., with llie sword she seeks quiet peace imder liberty. (The motto of Massachusetts.) En suite, F,, in company. Entente cordiale, F., evidence of gnnd-will towards cuch other, exchanged by ilie chief persons of two slates. Entourage, F,, surroundings ; adjuncts. En tout, h\, in all ; wholly. Entree, V,, entrance; firit course at mcols; freedom of access. Entn-mets, F., dainties; small dishes. Entrepot, F., a warehouse; a place for de- positing goods. Entre nousj V., bet^veen ourselves. Entresol, h ., a suite of apartments between the basement or ground Moor and tlie sec- ond floor. En verite, F, in truth; verily. E pluribus unum, L,,one composed of many. (The motto of the I'nited States, as one fovernmcnt formed of many independent lates.) Errare est humanum, L., to err is human. Esprit borne, F., a narrow, contracted mind. Esprit du corps, F., spirit of the body; fel- lowship ; brotherhood. Esse quam videri, L., to be, rather than to seem. Esto perpetua, L., let it be perpetual; let it endure forever. Et Cietera, L., and the rest; etc. Et hoc genus omne, L,, and everjthing of the kind. Et sequentes, L., Et sequentia, L., and those that follow. Et sic de cateris, \^., and so of the rest. Et tu. Brute! I-., and thou also, Rrutus! Eureka, (Jr., I have found it. (The motto of California.) Ex adrerso, L., from the opposite side. Ex animo, L., with the soul ; heartily. Ex capite, I-., from the head; from memon*. Ex cathedra, L., from the bench, chair or pulnit; with high authority. Excelsior, L., higher ; more elevated. (The motto of New York.) Exceptio p>robate regulam, L., the exception proves the rule. Excerpta, L., extracts. Ex concessio, L., from what is conorded. Ex curia, L., out of court. Ex dono^ L., by thegift. Exempli gratia, L.,for example ; for instance. Exeunt, \.., they go out. Exeunt onines, L., :U1 go out. Exit, L., departure; a passage out; death. Exitus actajirobat, L.. the event justifies the deed. (\\ ashingtou's motto.) Ex necessitate ret, L., from the necessity of tlie case. Ex nihilo ntliiljit, L., out of nothing, nothing comes. Ex officio, L,, by virtue of office. Ex parte, I-., on one part or side only. Ex pede J/erculum, I,,, we see n Hercules from the foot; we judge the whole from the specimen. ExPerimentum crnds, L,. the experiment of tne cross; a decisive experiment; a most searching test, Experto crede, L,,, trust one who has had ex- perience. Ex post facto, L., after the deed is done. Ex /<*w//tfre*, L.., off-hand ; without premedi- tation. Extra muros, L., beyond the walls. Ex uno disce omnes, L., from /c«, F., the Corpus Christi festival of the Roman Catholic Church. Fell dejoie. F., a bonfire ; a discharge of fire- arms on ]oyful occ:isions. Fiat jiistitia, mat ccelum, L., let justice be done, though the heavens sliould f .ill. Fidei defensor, L., defender of the failh. Fides Piinica, L., Punic faitli ; trcacherj'. Fidus Achates^ L., faithful Achates; a true friend. Fille de chambre, ¥., a girl of the chamber ; a chamber-maid. Finem respice, L., look to the end. Fitfabricandofaber, L., a workman is made by working; practice makes perfect. Flagrante delicto, L,, in the commission of crime. Fortiter in re, L., with firmness in acting. Fortuna favet fortibtis , F\, fortune favors the brave. Fro?iti nn//a ^d,s ,J^., no fzith in appearance; there is no trusting to appearances. Fiiit Iliiiiu, L., Troy has been. Fulmt-n briilum, I-., a harmless thunderbolt. Functus officio^ L., having discharged his ofhce. Furor loquendi, L., a rag'e for speaking. Furor poeticus, L., poetic fire. Furor scribendi, L.., a rage for writing. Garde du corps, F., a bodv-{r"^rd. Garde mobile^ F., a guard liable for general service. Gardez bien, F., guard well ; take care. Genius loci, L., genius of the place. Gens d'armcs, V ., armed police. Gens de lettres, F., liter.iry people. Gens de memefamiUe, F., birds of a feather. Gentilhomme, F., a gentleman. Germanice, L., in German. Gloria in excelsis, L,., glory to God in the highest. Gloria Patri, L., glory to the Father. Gradus ad Varnassum, L., a step to Parnas- sus, a mountain sacred to Apollo and the Muses; a book ctmtaining aids in writing Greek or Latin poetry. Grande parurc, F., full-dress. Gratis dictum, L., mere assertion. Guerre a routrance, L., war to the uttermost. Hand passibus tequisj L., not with equal steps. Haul gout, F., fine or elegant taste; high flavor or relish. Hie et vbique, L., here and cveryTivhere. Hicjocet, L., here lies. Hie labor, hoc opns est,\j.,\y\\s is labor, this IS work. Ific stpultus, L., here buried. Jlinc illie U*crimcE, L., hence proceed these tears. Ifisloriette, F., a little or short history; a tale. Jfoi polloi, Gr., the many ; the rabble, Jiombre de un libra, Sp., a man of one book. Homme d'vsprit^ L., a man of talent; a witty man. J/oui soil qui maly pense, F., evil be to him wlio evd thinks. Honorarium, L., a fee paid to a professional man. Horribile dictu, L., terrible to be said. Ifors de combat, F., out of condition to fight. Hortns SICCUS, L., collection of dried plants. Hotel de z'ille, F., a town hall. Hotel des Jnvalides, L., the military hospital in Paris. Humauum est errare, L., to err is human. fcb dii-n, Ger., I serve. /d est, L., that is— abbreviated to i.e. imitatores servuni pecus, L., imitators ; a ser- vile herd. Imperium in imperio, L., a government witli- iii a government. In teternum, L., forever. in armis, L., under arms. in arliculo mortis, L., at the point of death. Index expurgatoriuSy'L., a list ol prohibited books. /// e.'^se, L., in being. In extenso, L., at full length. In extremis, L., at the point of death. Injfa^rante delictu, L., taken in the act. /;/ forma pauperis, L., in the form of a poor person. Inforo conscientiiEy L., before the tribunal of cimscience. Infra dignitatejn, L., below one's dignity. In hoc siipio vinces, L., under this sign, or standard, thnu shalt compter. In hoc statu, L., in this state or condition. In limine, L., at the threshold. In loco, L., in the place. In loco parentis, L., in the place of a parent. In niedias res, in the midst «'f things. In memoriam, L., to the memory of; in mem- ory. In nomine, L., m the name of. In nubibus, L., in the clouds. In pace, L., in peace. Inperpetuunt, L., forever. In petto, L., within the breast; in reserve. In plenOy'L.., in full. In posse, L., in possible existence; that may be possible. In preesenti, L., at the present time. In propria persona, L., in one's own person. In puris naturalibus, L., in naked nature; quite naked. In re, L., in the matter of. /// rem, L., against the thing or property. In reriim natura, L., in the nature of things. In situ, L., in its original situation, lusouciaucc, F., inditference ; carelessness. In statu quo, L,, jn the former state. Inter alia, L., among other things. Inter 7ios, L., between ourselves. Inter pocula, L., between drinks. In terrorem, L., as a warning. Inter sc, L., among themscKes. In totidem verbis, L., in so many words. In toto, I-., \n the whole ; entirely. Intra muros, L., within the wall's. In transitu, L., on the passage; during the conveyance. In vacuo, L., in empty space; free, or nearly free, from air. In vino Veritas, L., there is truth in wine, Invita Minerva:, L., against the will of Minerva. /A'^'^tV/.v/V, L.. he himself said it: dogmatism. ipsissima verba, L., the very words. ipsissimis verbis, \.., in the very words. ipso facto, L., in the fact itself. Ira furor brevis est, L., anger is a short mad- ness. facta est alea, L., the die is cast. Je ne sais quoi, ¥., I know not what. Jet d'eau, F., a jet of water. yen de mots, F., a play on words ; a pim. feu d'esprit, F., a play of spirit ; a witticism. fubilate Deo, L., be joyful in the Lord. judicium Dei, !>,, the judgment of God. Jupiter tonans, L., Jupiter the thunderer. Jure divino, L., by divine law. Jure humano, L., by human law. Jus canonicum, L., canon law. Jus civile, L., civil law. Jus divinum, I-., divine law. Jus gentium, L., the law of nations. Justemilieu, F., the golden mean. Labore et honore, L., by labor and honor. Labor ipse voluptas^ L., labor itself is a pleasure. Labor omnia f/«c;/,L,, labor conquers every- thing. La fame non vuol leggi. It., hunger obeys no laws. Laissezfaire, F,, let alone; suffer to have its own way. Lapsus calami, L., a slip of the pen. Lapsus linguiE, L., a slip of the tongue. Lapsus niemoria:, L., a slip of the memory. Z(/;v.s- f//t'«rt/t-5, L,, domestic and household gods. Latet anc^uis in herba, L., a sn.ike lies hid m the grass. Laudaria viro laudato, L., to be praised by a man who is himself jiraised. Uax'enir, F., the future. Laus Deo, L., praise to God. Le beau monde, F., the fashinnahlc world. Le bon temps viendra, F., the good time will come. Le grand monarque,¥.,ihc great monarch- applied to Louis XIV. of 1- ranee. Lepas, F., precedence in place or rank. Le roi le vent, F., the king wills it. Lese-majeste, L., high treason. L'etoile du nord,¥., the star of the north— the motto of Minnesota, Le tout ensemble, F., all together. Lettre de cachet, ¥., a sealed letter; a royal warrant. Lettre de ?narque, F., a letter of marque or reprisal. Lex non scripta, L., the unwritten law. Lex scripta, L.,the written law; the statute law. Lex talionis, L., the law of retaliation. Liberum arbitrium, L., free will. Limee labor, L.. the labor of the file ; the slow polishing of a literary composition. Lis subjudice, L., a case not yet decided. Lite pendente, L., the law-suit hanging; dur- ing the trial. Litera scripta 7nanet, L., the written letter remains. Loci communes, L., common places. Locosy ninos dizen la verdad, Sp., children and fools speak the truth. Locum tenens, L., one holding the place; a deputy or substitute. Locus standi, L.., a place for standing; aright to interfere. Locus peniteiitiiv, L.. place for repentance, Lusus naturie, L., a sport or freak of nature. Ma chere, F., my dear— fem. Mafois, ¥., upon my faith. Magna est Veritas et prevalcbit, L,, truth is great and it will prevail. Magnum bouum, L., a great good. Magnum opus, L., a great work. Maintien, F.. deportment ; carriage. Maison de sante, ¥., a private hqspital. Maitre d'holel, ¥,, a house-steward. Malade dupays, ¥., home-sickness. Ma/afde, L.',with bad faith ; treacherously. Malapropos, F., ill-timed. Male porta male dilabuntur, L., things ill gotten are ill spent. ^ Malcrre nous, ¥., in spite of us. Mailibus pedibusque, I.., with hands and f :et. Malum in se. L,, bad in itself. Mann propria, L,, with one's own hand, Mardi Gras, ¥., Shrove Tuesday. Materfamiltas, L., the mother o5 a family. Manvaise honte, ¥., false shame. Mauvais sujet, ¥., a bad subject; a worthless fellow. Maximus in minimis, L., very great in trilling things. Medio tulissimus ibis, L., you will go most safely in a middle course. Mega biblion, mega hahon, Gr., a great book is a great evil. , . Mejudice, L., I being judge; in my opinion. Memento mori, L.. remember death. Mens Sana in corpore sano, L., a sound mind in a sound bodv. Mens sibi conscia recti, L.,a mind conscious of rectitude. \ J- A LEXICON OF FOREIGX PHRASES. 8ll Afi!ns agi'tat mokm, L., mind moves matter. Afenit, K., a bill of fare. Mt.ta//ianrf, F., improper association; mar- riage with one of lower station. Affitm et tuHttty L., mine and thine. Mirabile diitity L,., wonderful to be told. Mirahiie Ttsu, L., wonderful to be seen. M/se efi sc.-Hf, I-'., the K^-"i"^C up for the stage, or the putting in preparatu>n f'— the motto of Sc<»tland. Nemo mortaitum omnibus horis sapit^ L., no one is wise at all times. Nemo repente fnit tiirpissitfins^ L., no man be- comes a scoundrel at once. Nepius ultra, L., nothing further.^ Ne ^uid detrimcntt respublica capiat^ L., lest the republic should receive harm. Ne suior ultra crepidam, L.., let the shoe- maker stick to his last. Nil admirari, L., to wonder at nothing. Nii desperatidum, L., never despair. N'importe, K., never mind. Nisi domirtus,/rHstra, L., unless the Lord helps, nothing is gained. Nisi prius, I-.., unless previously. Nitor in adversiuHt L., I strive against op- position. Noblesse oblige, F., nobility obliges must act noblv. Nolens volens, L., willv-nilly. Noli me iamre/e. L., don't touch me; hands off. "* Nolle prosequi^ L.,to .ibandon prosecution. Nolo episcoparij L.., I am unwilling to be a Hishop, Nom de gucrreyV.^ a war name; an assumed name. Nom de plume, F., a pen-name : name assumed bv an author. Non compos mentis^ L., not in one's right mind Non constat, L., it does not appear. Non est inz>entus, L., be has not been found. Non multa, sedmultum^ L.., not many things, but much. Non nobis solum, T-., not for ourselves alone. Non mi ricordo. It., I do n-s ready. Tour deforce, V., a feat of strength or skill. Tautafait, F., entirely; wholly. Tout ensemble, F., the whole taken together. Troja fuit, L., Troy was. Trott'oir. V ., a sidewalk. „ Tuquoque. Brutel I. . and thou, too,nrutus! Tutor el iiltor, L., protecK.r and avenger. Tuum est, L., it is your own. Vbimel,ibiapes, L., where honey is, there are bees. , ^ - Ultima ratio regum, L., the last argument of kings; war. I ^ 8l2 A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES. "71 Ultima Tliuie, L., the utmost boundary or limit. Un bienfatt 11* est jamais perdu, F., a kindness is never lost. Unfait accompli, L., an accomplished fact. Ungnibus et rostra, L., with claws and beak. Usque ad nauseam, L., to distrust. Usus loqieendi, L., usa^c in speaking. Utile diilci, L., the useful with the pleasant. Ut infra, L., as below. Uti possidetis, I-., as you possess; state of present ])Ossession. Ut supra, L., as above stated. Vade mecum, L., eo with me. Vale, L., farewell. Valet de chambre, F., an attendant; a foot- man. Variie leciiones, L., various readings. Variorum nota, L., the notes of various authors. Veni, vidi, vici^ L., 1 came, I saw, I conquered. Vera pro gratiis, L.., truth before favor. Verbatim et literatim, L., word for word and letter for letter. Verbum sat sapienti, L., a word is enough for a wise man. Veritas prcTalebit, L., the truth will prevail. Veritas vincit, L., truth conquers. Vestigia, L.,, tracks; vestiges. Vestigia nulla retrorsum, L., no footsteps backward. Vcxata quiBstio, L., a disputed question. Vice, L., in the place of. Vice versa, L., the terms being exchanged. Videlicet, L., to wit; namely. Vide ut supra, L., see what is stated above. Viet nrmis, L.,by force and by arms; by main force. Viucit qui se luncit, L., he conquers who overcomes himself. Vinculum matrimonii, L., the bond of mar- riage. Virtus Iaudatur,et alget,V..,\'\xXnv: is prais- ed, and is not cherished (is starved). Virtus semper firidis, virtue is ever green and blooming. Vis inertia, J-.., the power of inertia; resist- ance. Vivat reginal L., long live the queen ! Vivat rex, L., long live the king. Viz'a I'oce, L., by the living voice; by oral testimtmy. Vivat resp'ublica! L., long live the republic! Vive la republique! F., lung live tlie repulilic ! Vive I'empereur! F., long live the emperor! Vive le roil F., long live the king.' Voila, F,, behold ; tliere is or there are. Volens et patens, L., able and willing; motto of Nevada. Volente Deo, L., God willing. Volenti nou fit injuria, 'L.,i\o injustice is done to the consentinii person. Vox et pr cetera nihil, L., a voice and nothing more; sound without sense. Vox popnli, vox Dei, I-., the voice of the peo- ple is the voice of (iod. Vnlgo, L., commonly.. Vuitus est index onimi, L., the face is the in- dex of the mind. !/@SfeMz iTpE Lf I^UAI^E OF ^\ AMETHYST, peace OF mind. Regarded by the ancients as hs.ving the power to dispel drunkenness. BLOOD-STONE, I MOURN YOUR ABSENCE. Worn by the ancients as an amulet ur charm, on account of the medi- cinal and magical virtues it was supposed to possess. DIAMOND, PRIDE. Awarded supernatural qualities from the most remote period down to the Middle Ages. Has the power of making men courageous and magnanimous. Protects from evil spirits. Influences the gods to lake pity upon mortals. Maintains con- cord between husband and wife, and for this reason was held as the most appropriate stone for the espousal ring. EMERALD, SUCCESS IN LOVE. Mentioned in the Bible as worn in the breast-plate of the High Priest as an emblem of chastity. RUBY, A CHEERFUL M'ND. An amulet against poison, sadness, evil thoughts. A preservative of health. Admonishes the wearer of impending danger by changing color. SAPPHIRE, CHASTITY. Procures favt)r with princes. Frees from enchantment. Prevents impure thoughts. TOPAZ, FIDELITY. Calms tlie passions. TURQUOISE. SUCCESS AND HAPPINESS. Preserves from contagion. GARNET, FIDELITY IN EVERY ENGAGEMENT. ONYX, RECIPROCAL LOVE. OPAL, PURE THOUGHTS. PEARL PURITY AND INNOCENCE. VL :A V DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS. 8'3 4tDICTI0NARY OF ABBREVIATIONS. «:^ ^^^Mi^H g^pl^ fg^ r^il^lr^li^ f^SllilZE v±E\ Sr^AlLY is the use of alibreviations increasing in America. The demand for continual short-cuts in writing as well as in ever>'thing ^*^else has huilt a great number of logogriphs, which without a comprehensive glossary must be often uninteliigible. Below will be found all the abbreviations in good English usage. a. In cnrniiKTCi', to. ®. Ill ComilKTCC, ai. A.A.U, jVi&i^iitiit Ailjutiint-Gcn- iral. A.A.l'.S AiiKrican Association J»>r ihe rrnitintidn of Sciuncc. A.A.S. At'odi-inut: America Use So- cms, l-\llu\v of the American Ac:uk-niy (nf Arts and Sci* ences). A.A.S.S. Ami-ricaiKE AtiliqKor- iitiue Socittaiis Socius, iMcmhcr ot the American Antiquarian Society. A.M. Art mm Baccalaitreus, Machclor of Art^. A. B.C.K.M. Aiiiurican Floartl of Comissioncrs for I'orcign Mis- sitnis. Abp. Archliishop. Alir. Abriil}^mL.nt. Al>l»r. Ablircviation. A.li.S. American Hihlc Sock-ty. A.C. Antt- Llirisliim, before Clirist; Arch-Chancellor. Acad. Academy. Acct. Account; Accent. A.C.S. American Colonization Society. A.D. Anno Domini^ in the year of nur Lord. A.D.C. Aide-de-camp. Ad. Advertisement. Adj. Adieclive. Adjt. Adjutant. Ad)l.-Geii. Adjntant -General. Ad lib, A'i lil'ilmii, at jileiisure. Adin. Adin.r.il ; Athniraltv. Adm. Ct. Admiralty Court. Ad Mir. Admiiiislralor. Admx. Administratrix. Ad V. Ad-jalorem, at (or on) the value. Adv. Adverb; Advent; Adver- tisement. jKt. yEiati.'s of age ; ajf»d. A.K.X-A.M. Ancient 1- rec and Accepted Masons. A.K.n.S. American and Foreign lliblc Society. A.G. Adjutant-General. Aip". Agriculture. A.<;.S.S, American Oeotfraph- ical and Statistical Society. Agt. Agent. A.H. Amto Ifegira^ in the year of the llegira. A.M. .M .S. American Home M is- sionary Siclety. Ala. Alabama. Aid. Alderman. A. I., of H. American Legion nf 1 lonor. Alex. Alexander. Alg. Algebra. All. Altitude. A.M. Anno tn/truU, In the year of the world ; Artiiim A(ng- istrr. Master of Arts; Atite iiii-riJicm. Meiore noon, morn- nh. Amh, Ambassador. (See Emb.) Amer. American. AMM. Amoigama, Amalgama- tion. Amt. Amount. All. Anno, In the year. An. A.C. Amio ante Christum^ in the vcar before Christ. Anat. Anatomy. Aric. Ancient; anciently. And. Andrew. Aug. Sax. Anglo-Saxon. Anon. Anonymous. Ans. Answer. Ant. Antiquity. Anth, Anthony. Aor. or aor. Aorist. A.O.S.S. Amcricnnu: Oric7tta/is Socittatix Socius, Member of the American C>riental Society. A.O.U.W. Ancient Order of United Workmen. Ap. Ajjoslle ; Applus. Ap. Apnd, in the writings of; as quoted by. Apo. Apogee. Ajioc. Apncalypse, Apj). Appendix. Apr. April. A.Q.M.O. Assistant Quarter- master-General A.K. Anna /itgi/ut,Qxi{:vn Anne. A/t/io tig///, year of the reign. A.K. .A. Associate of the Koyal Academy. Arab. Arabic, or Arabia. Ariz. Ter. Arizona Territoir. Arg. Arg/imcu/o, by an argu- ment drawn from such a law. Arith. Arithmetic. Ark. Arkansas. A.K.R. In tlie year of the reign of the king. A.U.S.S. lello>v of the Royal Society of Antiquaries. Art. Article. A.S. or Assist. Sec. Assistant Secretarv. A.S.v\. American Statistical As- sociation. Asst. Assistant. Asst. Surg. Assistant Surgeon. A.S.S.U. American Sunday - School Uni<»n. Astrtd, Astrology. Astron. Astronomy. A.T. Arch-Tre;isurer. A.'I'.S. American Tract Society. Ats. At suit of. Atty. Attorney. Atty.-Gen. Attorney -General. A.U.A. American Unitarian As- sociation. Aub.Thetd.Sem. Aidnirn Theo- Ini^ical Seminarv. A.l .C In the )ear of Koine. Aug. Auirust. -Aur. Gold, At/rrtm. « Auth. V'er. Authorized version (of the Hibk). Av. Average ; Avenue. A\ oir Avoirdupois. A.^'.M. Ancient Vork Masons. b. Horn. R.A. Bachelor of Arts. H.A. Kriiish America, Ral. Ralance. Rait. Rahlmore. Rar. Rarrel ; Harlevcorn, Bart, or !U. Raronet. Bbl. Rarrel. B.C. Iktore Christ. R.C. Rachelor of the Classics. R.C.L. Rachelor of Civil Law. R.D. Bachelor «,f Divinity. Rd. Round. Rds. or bds. Boards (binding). R.E. Rachelor ».f the Elements. Renj. r.enjauun. Rk. Rook. R. Lit. Rachelor of Letters. R.LI.. Bachelor of Laws. Rl., i:is. Barrel, Barrel-^. B.M. Bachelor of Meilicine. R. Mus. Rachelor of Music. Bor. Borough, Bost. Boston. Bot. Botany. Bp. Bishop. B.R. The King's or Queen's Bench. Brig. Brigade; rrigadier. Brig.-(ien. Brigadier- General. Brit. British; Britain. Brit. Mus. British Museum. Bro., Bros. Rrotlu-r, Brothers. Br. Univ. Rrown University. Rrus. Rrussi Is. B.S. Bachelor of Science. Bu.. Bush. Bushel. R.V. Blessed Virgin, BA'. Farewell. R.\".M. Blessed Virgin Mar>-. C, Ch. orChaj>. Chapter ; Consul. C. or Cent. A hundred, CVj//m/m. C.A. Commercial Agent. cx't. par. Other things being equal, Carttr/.< portions. Cad. Eng. Cai.ary-Gcneral ;Crn- sul-Gen(.ral. C.G.S. Commissary-General of Sid>sislence. C.li. Court hO"«-. Ch. Ch»irch; Chapter; Charles; Chaldron. Chanib. Chamberlain. Oianc. Chancelli-r. Chap. Chapter; Chaplain. Chas. Charles. Chem. Clieinistrv. Chf. E. Cliiel Engineer. Chf. Con. Chief of Ccmstruction. Chf. Med. I'ur. Chief Medical Purvevor. Chf. Ord. Chief of Ordoncc. Chr. Christopher. Chron. Chronicles. ' Cin. Cincinnati. C.J. Chief Justice. CI. CUrgvmun, Cld. Cleared. Clk. Ckrk. CM. \'inccntians or Lazansta. CM. ACaster in Surgcr)-. CM. Common Meter. C.M.G. Companicm of the Order of St. Micnael and i* t. Oeorgc, Co. Companv ; County. Coad. Coadii.tnr. Coad. Rp. Coa i. ? ^ ^ . Francis; Father; Friar; ness. rangements. K. East. Frank. H.R. LP. Here he rests in peace. Comtlg. Commanding. ea. Each. F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Astro- U.S. Here lies, ]Iic si/i/s. Comdt. Commiindant. E. by S. East by South. nomical Society. F.U.C.S.E. Fellow of the Royal M.i^.li. His Serene Highness. Comm. Commentary. Eben. Ebenezer. h.t. This title; In or under this Commo. Commodore. Eccl. Ecclesiastes. College of Surgeons, London. Fred. Frederick. title, Hoc iitnlo. Comp. Compare ; Compound. Ecclus, Ecclesiastieus. h.v. This word. Hoc iierbmn; In Com. Ver, Common Version (of Ed. Editor; Edition. F.K.G.S. Fellow of the Roy.al these words, His -verbis. the Bible). Edin. Edinburgh. Geographical Society. Fri. Fridav. Hund. Hundred. Cim. Ag"ainst; In opposition, Edit. Edition. I, II, HI. One, two, three, or, Co>t/ra. Edm. Edmund. F.R.S. Fellow of ihc Royal So- first, second, third. Con. Cr. Contra, Credit. Edw. Edward. cietv. la. Iowa. Con. Convent. E.E. Errors excepted. Frs. Frisian. lb. or ibid. In the same place. Conch. Conchology. Cong. Congress ; Congregation ; E.E. & M.P. Envoy Extraor- F\R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Ich. Ichthyology. dinary and Minister Plenipo- Society, Edinburgh. Ictus. Counselor at Law. Congregationalist. tentiary. F.R.S. L. Fellow of the Royal Id. The same, Idem. Conj. or conj. Conjunction. e.g. For example, ^.r^7«///^/*(7/M. Societv, London. Id. Ter. Idaho Territory. Conn. orCt. Connecticut. e.g. P'rom the tlock, among the F.R.S.L'. Fellow of the Royal i.e. That \s, Af est. Const. Constable; Constitution. rest. Society of Literature. I.H.S. Jesus the Savior of men. Cent. Contra. E.I. East Indies or East India. F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of ij. Two {medical). Conv. Convent. Ehz. Elizabeth. Arts. III. Illinois. Cor. Corinthians; Corner. E. Ion. East longitude. F.S.A.E. Fellow of the Society In. Inch ; Inches. Corol. Corollary. Emp, Emperor; Empress. of Antiqunries, Edinburgli. incog. Unknown, Incognito. Cor Sec Corresponding Secre- Encyc. Encyclopedia. Ft. Foot ; Feet ; Fort. incor. Incorporated. tary E.N.E. East- northeast. Fur. Furlong. Ind. Indiana; Index; Indian. C.F. Common Pleas. Eng. England; English. F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. C.P. Court of Probate. Eng. in Chf. Engineer in Chief. Society. Indef. Indefinite. C.P.S, Keeper of the Privy Seal. Ens. Ensign. G. org. Guineas. Inf. Beneath or below, Infra. inf. At the end of the titfe, l.aw CM. Keeper of the Rolls. Ent. Entomology. G.A. General Assembly. Cr Creditor; Credit. Env. Ext. Envoy Extraordinary. G.a. Georgia. or par.igranh quoted, Injine, in lim. At the outset, In limine. Crim. Con. Criminal conversa- Epj^ Epistle. Eph. Ephesians ; Ephraim. Gal. Galatians ; Gallon, tion, or Adultery. G.B. Great Britain. in loc. In the place ; on the pas- C.S. Court of Sessions; Com- Epis. Episcopal. G.C. Grand Chancellor. sage, In loco. missary of Subsistence. Esd. Esdras. G.C. Grand Chapter. in pr. In the beginning and be- C.S. Keeper of the Seal. E.S.E. East- Southeast. G.C.B. GrandCross of the Bath. fore the first paragraph of law, C.S.O. Chief Signal OtTicer. Esq., Esqs. Esquire, Esquires. G.C.H. Grand Cross of Hanover. In Principio. I.N.Ii.L Jesus of Nazarath, Ct., cts. Centj Cents ; Connec- Esth. Esther. G.C.L.H. Grand Cross of the ticut. et al. And others, Et alii. Legion of Honor. King of the Jews, C. Theod, In the Theodosian etc. or Ac. And other things; G.E. Grand Encampment. Insp.-Gen, Inspector- General. Code. And so fofth. Gen. Genesis ; General. Inst. Instant, of this month; C.W. Canada West. et. seq. And what follows, Et Gent. Gentleman. Institute. Cwt. Hundredweight. seqiientia. Geo. George. in sum. In the summ.ary, In Cyc. Cyclopedia. Evang. Evangelical ; Evangelist. Geog. Geography. Geol. Geology. summa. d. Penny or Pence. Ex. Example. Ex. Exodus. Int. Interest; Interpreter. d. Died; Day. Geom. Geometry. iTiterj, Interjection. D. Five Iiundred. Exc. Excellency; Exception. Ger. German ; Germany. Intr. Introduction. Dak. Ter. Dakota Territory. Exch. Exchequer. G.L. Grand Lodge. in tians. In the passage, In Dan. Daniel ; Danish. Exec. Com. Executive Com- Gl. A ghiss, (ilossa. Glas. Glasgow. transitu. D.C. Agam ; Deputy Consul. mittee. Introd. Introduction. D.C. District of Columbia. Execx. Executrix. G.M. Grand Master. lo. Iowa. D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. ex. g. For example. Exempli G.O. General Order. I.O.G.T. Independent Order of D.D. Doctor of Divinity. gratia. Exr. or Exec. Executor. Goth. Gothic. Good Templars. D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Sur- Gott. Gottingen. I.O.F. Independent Order of gery. Ez, Ezra. Gov. Governor. Foresters. D.E. Dynamic Engineer. Ezek. Ezekiel. Gov. -Gen. Governor-Geneml. I.O.O.F. Independent Order of Dea. Deacon. E. Hi O.Ii Errors and omissions G.R. King George, Georgius Odd-Fellows. Dec. December; Declaration. excepted. Rex. I.O.U. I owe you. Deft, or Dft. Defendant. Falir. Fahrenheit. Gr. Greek ; Gross. I.q. Idem quod^ tlie same as. Isa, Isaiah. Deg. Degree or degrees. Del. Delaware; Delegate. Del. or del. He drew it. F.A.M. Free and Acceped Ma- Gram, (irammar. sons. Gro. Gross, Isl. Island. Far. Farthing. Grot, Grotius. I.S.M, Jesus Salvator vnrndi. Dep. Deputy. F^.A.S. Fellow of the Antiquar- h. Hour. Jesus the Savior of the world. Dep. Q.M.G. Deputy Quarter- ian Society. h.a. Til is year, Hoc aiino. Ital. Italic; Italian. master-General. fcap. or ftp. Foolscap. Hab. Habakkuk. Itin. Itinerant or Itinerary. Dept. Department. F.D. Defender of the F'aith. Hab. corp, Vou may have the IV. Four or fourth. Dent. Deutertinoinv. Fe. Iron, Fcrrnm. body, Jfabeas corpus. IX. Nine or ninth. D.F. Dean of the i•^lculty. Feb. Febniarv. Hag.' Haggai. J. Justice or Judge, JJ. Jus- D.G. Ry God's grace. D.G. Thanks to God. Fee. He did it, Fecit. Ham. Coll. Hamilton College. tices. Fern. Feminine. H.n.C. Hudson's May Company, j. One {medical). Diam. Diameter. F'em. Ac. or Acad. Female Ac- H.n.M. His or Her Britannic J. A. Judge-Advocate, Diet. Dictator; Dictionary. ademy. Majestv. Jac. Jacob. Dim. Diminutive. F.E.S. Fellow of the Entomo- H.C. House of Commons. Jam. Jamaica. Dioc. Diocese. Irjgical Society; of the Ethm.- Hdkf, Handkerchief. Jan. January. Dioc. Scm. Diocesan Seminary. logical Society. H.E, His Eminence. J as. James. Disc. Discount. Feud. Feudal. h.e. That is, or this is. Hoc est. J. CD. Juris Civilis Doctor, Diss. Dissertation. F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Heb, Hebrews. Doctor of Civil Law. Dist. District. Society. Her. Heraldry. H, Exc. His Excellency. J.D, Juntm Doctor^ Doctor of Dist.-Attv. District- Attorney. F.H.S. Fellow of the Horticul- Laws. Div. Dividend. tural Society. H.F. Holy Father. Jer. Jeremiah. D.M . Doctor of Music. fi. fa. Cause it to be done, Fieri Ht.-bd. Half-bound. J no, John. D.,VI.D. Doctor Dental Med- facias. Hg. Mercury, Hydrart'YrHm. Jona. Jonathan. icim-. Fid. Def. Defender of the Faith. H.H. His Holiness. Jos. Josenh. Do. The Same, Di//o. Fig. Figure; ligurative. Hhd. Hogshead. Josh. Joshua. Dol., Dols..$. Dollars. Fir. Firkin. Hist. History; Historical. J. P. Justice of the Peace. Dom. To God, the best, the Fla. Florida. H.J.S. Here'lies buried. J.Prob. Judge of Proliate. greatest. F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnaan H.L. House of Lends. J.R. Jacobus Ifex, King James. Dom. Pre!. Domestic Prelate. Societv. H.M. His or Her Majesty. Jr. or Jun. Junior. D07,. Dozen. Fol, Folio. H.>LP. Erected this monument. j.U.D. or J.A'.D. Juris utrius- i D.P. Doctor of Philosophy. For. F'oreign. Hon, Honorable. que Doctor^ Doctor of boili Laws (of the Canon and the k Dr. Debtor; Doctor. F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Hort. Horticulture. D.S. P'rom the sign. Society. Hos. Hosea. Civil Law). c* / \ Q ^ .5 •■■ ■^ c v' DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS. 8'5 Jud. Judith. Jtuij^. J ndgcs. Jiulj^c-Adv. Jiidgc-A(^vocate. Jul. July ; Julius. Jul. Pur. Julian IVriod. « Jun. June; Junius ; Junior. Jus. P. Justice of the Peace. Just. Justinian. J.W. Junior W^ardcn. K. Kuxi^. K.A. Knight of St. Andrew, in Russia. K.A.N'. Knit^ht of St. Alexan- der Nevskof, in Russia. Kas, K:ins;is. K.H. King's Bench; Knight of the Hath. KiB.A. Knight of St. Bcnto d'Avis, in Portugal. K.B.E. Knight of the Black Kagle, in Russia. K.C King's Counsel; Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey. K.C.IJ. Knight ConiinanJcr of the Bath. K.C.H. Knight Commander of liunovcr. K.C.S. Knight (»f Charles III. ot bpain. K.E. Knight of the Klephant, in Denmark. K.l'". Knight of Ferdinand ol Spiiin. K.l-.M. Knight of St. Ferdin- and and Merit, in Sicily. K.G. Knight of the Garter. K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross. K.G.C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Hath. K.G.K. Knight ot the Golden Kleece, in Spain. K.G.H. Knight of the Guelphs of Hanover. K.G.V. Knight ot Gustavus \'asa, in Sweden. K.H. Knigrit of Hanover; Knights of Honor. Ki. Kings. Kil. or kil. Kilderkin. Kingd. Kingdom. K.J. K nigh I of St. Joachim. K.L. or K.L.A. Knight of Leo- pold of Austria. K.L..H. Knight of the Legion of Honor; Knights aiid Ladies of Honor. K.M. Knight of Malta. K.Mess. King's Messenger. K.M.H. Knight of \lerit, in Holstcin. K.M.J. Kniglit of Maximilian Joseph, in Bavaria. K.M.T. Knight of Maria Ther- esa, in Austria. K.N. Know Nothing. Knick. Knickerhocker. K.N.S. Knight c)f the Royal North Star in Sweden. Knt. Knight. K.P. Knight of St. Patrick; Knight of Pythias. K.R.C. Knightof the Red Cross. K.R.K. Knightof the Red La- gle, in Prussia. K.S. Knight of the Sword, in Sweden. K.S. A. Knight of St. Anne, in Russia, K.S.E. Knight of St. Esprit, in France. K.S.F. Knight of St. Fernando, in Spain. K.S.G. Knightof St. (Jeorge,in Russia. K.S.H. Knight of St. Huhert, in Bavaria. K.S. I. Knight of .St. Januarius, of Naples. K.S.L. Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia. K.S.M. A S.G. Knight of St. .Michael and St. George, in the Ionian Islands. K.S.F. Knight of St. Stanislaus, in Poland. K.S.S. Knight of the Southern Star, in Brazil; Knight of the Sword, in Sweden. K.S.W. Knight of St. Wladimir, in Russia. K.T. Knight of the Thistle; Knight Templar. Kt. Knigiit. K.T.S. Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal. K.W. Knight of William, in the Netherlands. K.VV.K. KniglU of the "White Kaglf, in Poland. Ky. Kentucky. L. Fifty or fiftieth; Liber, hook; Lake. L, i, or I. Libra or Librae^ Pound or pounds in weight. L.C. Lord Chancellor; Lord Chamberlain; Lower Canada. I.e. Lower-case. L.C. B. Lord Chief Baron. L.C.J. Lord Chief -Justice. L.D. Lady-Day. Ld. Lord. Ldi>. Lordship. Leg. Legate. Legis. Legislature, Lev. Leviticus. Lex. Lexicon. L.I. Long Island. Lib. Liber, book. Lieut. Lieutenant, Lieut. -Col. Lieutenant- Colonel. Lieut. -Gen. Lieutenant- General, Lieut. -Gov. Lieutenant-Gov- ernor. Linn. Linna-an. Liq. Liquidation. Lit. Literally ; Literature. Liv. Lifrt\ ftouk. LL.B. Li-gum Bacca/ttureris, Bachelor of Laws. LL.D. Legum JJoctor, Doctor of Laws. loc. cit. Loco citato, in the place cited. Lon. Longitude. Lond. London. L.S. Locus sigiili. Place of the seal. Lt. Lieutenant. LX. Sixty or sixtieth. LX_X. Seventy or seventieth ; The Scptuaginl (V'ersion of tne Old Testament). LXXX. Flighty or eightieth. M. A/eridies, noon, M. J//7/.-. a thousand. M. or M(Mis. J/o/isitttr, Sir. M.A. Master of Arts. Mace. Maccabees. ALul. Madam. Mad. Univ. Madison University. Maj. Major. Mai. -Gen. Major- General. Mai. Malachi. Alan. Manasses. Mar. March. March, Marchioness. Marg, Margin. Marg. Tran. Marginal Transla- tion. Marq. Marquis. Masc. Masculine. Mass. Massachusetts. Math. Mathematics ; Mathema- tician. Matt. Matthew. Alax. Maxim. M. IJ. Medwinit BaccahturruSy Bachelor of Medicine. M.B. Miisicte Jiaccalaureus, Bachelur of Music. M.B.C;. Lt H, M,ii(iia Britannia, Gallia ft Jfibernin, Great Brit- ain, l''rance, and Ireland, M.C. Member of Congress. Mch. March, M.D. Mt'dtcina /)(>r/«r. Doctor of Medicine. M(I. Ma^^•land. Mdlle. or Mile. Afadcmoisdlt. Mdse. Merchandise. M.K. Methodist Kpiscopal; Mil- itary or Mechanical Kngineer. Me. Maine. Mech. Mechanics, or Mechanical. Med. Medicine. Mem. Memorandum. Memento, remember. Merc. Mercury. Messrs. or MM. ,lA'.?je/V«r.?, Gen- tlemen. Met. Metaphysics. Metal. Metalliirgv. Meteor. Meteorofogy. Meth. Methodist. Mex. Mexico, or Mexican. M.-Goth. Mceso- Gothic. M.H.S. Massachusetts Histori- cal Society; Member of the Historical Society. Mic, Micah. Mich. Michigan. Mil. Military. Mil. Acad. Alilitary Academy. Min. Mineralogy ; 'Minute, Minn. .Minnesota, Min. Plen. Minister Plenipoten- tiary. Miss, Mississippi. M.L.A, Mercantile Library As- sociation. MM. Their Majesties; Mes- sieurs, Gentlemen ; Two Uiou- sand. M.M.S. Moravian Missionary Society. M. M. S. S. Massachitsettensis Medici fttx Sacietatis Socins, F'ellow of the Massachusetts Medical Societv. Mo. Missouri; Month. Mod. Modern. Mon. Monday. Mons. A/o/tsteur, Sir. Mos. Months. Mont.Ter. Montan.'i Territory. M.P, Member of Parliament; Metro])tditan Police, M.P. P. Member of Provincial Parliament. M.R, Master of the Rolls. Mr. Mister. M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal Asiatic Society ; Memher of the Royal Academy oi Science. M.R.'C.C. .Member of the Royal College of Chemistry. M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons, M.R.G.S. Member of the Royal Geograjihical Society. M.K.I. Member ol the Royal Institute. M.K.I. A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy, Mrs, Mistress. M. K.S.L. Member of the Royal Society of Literature. M.S. Memoritt sacrum. Sacred to the Memory; .Master of the Sciences. MS. Mauusrrif'tiim, Manuscript. ,M.sS. M:inuscri|)ts. Mt. Mount or Alountain. Mus.B. Bachelor of Music, Mus.D. Doctor <.f Music, M.W. Most Worthy ; Most Wor- sliipfiil. Myth. Mythohtgy, N. North ; Number; Notin ; Neuter, n. Note. N.A. North America. Nail. Nahum, Nat. Natural. Nat. Hist. Natural History. Nath. Nathanacl or Nathaniel. N.B. New Brunswick; N«)rth British ; JVota bene, mark well, take notice, N.C. North Carolina; New Church. N.E. Xew Kngland; Northc:ist. Neb. Nebr;Lska. Neh, Nchemiah, n.e.i. A'on est inventus. He is not found. nem, con. or nem. diss. Xemine contradicente. No one oppos- ing; L'lianinmuslv. Neut. Neuter (gender). Nev. Nevada. New Test, or N.T. New Testa- ment. N.I*". Newfoundland, X.G. New Grenada; NoMc Grand. N , H . New Hampshire ; New Haven, N.H.H.S, New H.impshirc His- torical Society. Ni.i)ri. Nisi p'rins (law), N.J. New Jersey. n.l. Non liquet. It does not ap- pear, N.Iat, Xorih latitude. N.Mex. New Mexico. X.N. F. N ort h • Northc.ist. N.N.W. North Northwest. N.O. New Orleans. No. Numero, number. Nol.pros. Nolens prosequi^ I am unwilling to prosecute. Nom. or nom. Nominative. Xon C()n. Not centent; dissent- ing (House of Lords), Xon cul. Non culpabilis. Not guilty. Xon o"bst, Non obstante, not- withstanding, Xon pri>s. Non prosequitur. He does not nroseoUe. Non seq. Non sequiiur. It does not follow, X()S. Numbers, Nov, November. N.P. Notary Public; New Providence. N.S. New Style (after 1752) ; Nov.a Scotia. N. r. New Testament. N,u. Nameornames, unknown. Num. Numbers; Numeral. N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary, N.W. Northwest. N.W.T. Northwestern Territory-. N.V. New Y.jrk. N.Y.H.S. New York Historical Society. O. Ohio. Ob. Obiit, He (or she) died. Obad. Obadiah. Obj. Objection ; Objective. O.K. A slang phrase for '*.\J1 correct.'* Obt. Obedient. Oct. October, 0,F. Odd l-ellow, or Odd-Fel- h>ws. O.F.P. Order of I'riar Preachers. Old Test, or O.r. Old Icsta inent, Olym. Olympiad, Out. Onlario. Opt. Optics ; Optical ; Option. il. t)r. Oregon. Ord. Ordinance; Order; Ord- nance; Ordinar}-. Orig. Origiiiall>.' Ornith. Ornilholop\'. O.S. Old Sl\le Mnlore 175J). O.S.F. Order of St. Francis. O.T. Ohl IVstanunt. O.l'.A. Order of I'nited Ameri- cans. Oxf. Oxford. Oxcm. Oxoniensis, Oxonii, of Oxford, at Oxford. Ox. Oui»ce. P. Pondere, by weight. P. or n. Page; Pan; Participle. Pa. I'ennsylvania. Pal. Pal.ionlology. Par. Paragraph. Par. Piis. Parallel passage. /" \ _ -s ra -. ^ ^> ^ (0 G \ / < 8i6 DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS. I Pari. Parliament. Q.B. Queen's Bench. Rt. AVpfuI. Right "Worshipful. Sq.yd. Square yard. Pathol. Pathology. Q.C. Queen's College; Queen's R.W. Right Worthy. Sr. Sir or S«}nior; Sister. Pavt. Pavmtnt. Coimsel. R.W.O. Riddare of U'asa Orden, S.R.I. Jrfolv Roman Empire. Pb: Piiimbi'.m, Lead. q.d. ^uasi dicat, as if he shnnld Knight of the Order of Wasa. S.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. P.B. Phi/oso/>hite Baccnhityens, Bachelor oiPhilosopliv. say; quasi dictum, as if said; S. South; Saint; Scribe; Sul- quasi dixisset. as if he had said. phur, Sunday; Sun; Series. S.S. Sunday-school. P.C. Fat res Conscn'pii\ Con- q.e. ^uod est, which is. S. So/idus, Ashilling. SS. Saints. script Fathers ; Senators. q.e.d. ^uod erat demonstron- dum, which was to be proved. S.A. South America; South SS. or SS. To-wit, Scilicet. P.C. Privy Council; Privy Coun- Africa; South Austrolia. ss. Half, Semis. cillor. q.e.f. ^tiod erat faciendiun^ s.a. Secundum nr/tvw. According S.S.E. South -southeast. P.D. Philosophite Doctor^ Doc- which was to be done. to art. S.S.W. South -sou th\vest. tor of Piiilosophy. q.e.i. ^uod erat invcnieudum. Sam. Samuel. St. Saint, Street; Strait. Pd. Paid. which was to be found out. Sansc. Sanscrit. Stat. Statute. P.E. Protestant Episcopal. q.l. ^uajituni libet, as much as S.A.S. Societatis Antiqnariorum S.T.D. Doctorof Sacred Theol- P.E.I. Prince Edward Island. you please. Sociits, Fellow of the Society ^f?}'- Pcnn. Pennsylvania. f.'M. Quartermaster. of Antiquaries. Ster. or Stg. Sterling. Pent. Pentecost. qm. ^uomodo, how; by what Sat. Saturday. S.T.P. Professor of Sacred Per, or pr. By the. means. Sax. Saxon. Theology. • Su. Sunday. Per an. Per annum, by the year. Q.M.G. Quartermaster- General. S.ax. Chron. Saxon Chronicle. Per cent. Per centum^ by the q p or q.pl. Quantum placet, as S.C. Senatus consultnm, K de- Subj. Subjective. hundred. much as you please. dree of the Senate ; South Car- Subst. Substantive. Peri. Perigee, Qr. Quartur. olina. Su.-Goth. Suio- Gothic. Pet. Peter. Q.S. Quarter-sessions ; Quarter- Sc. He (or she) engraved it. Sun. or Sund. Sunday. P.G. Past Grand. section. sc. or scil. Namely. Sup. Supplement; Superfine; Phar, Phnrmacy. q.s. Quantum sufficit, a sufficient Scan. M.ag. Scandal, Scandulum Superior. Pli.B. Phiio.'. S. of S-^l. Song of Solomtm. U.S. United Staies. P.S. Privy Seal. Rs. Respo/isum, Answer; Re- S.P. Without issue. Sine prole. U.S. As above, Ut supra or uli Ps. Psalm or Psalms. spoudere. To .answer. R.S. A. Roval Society of Anti- Sp. Spain. supra. Pt. Part; Pint; Payment; Point; S.P.A.S. Member of the Ameri- U.S.A. United States Armv. Port; Post-town. quaries; Royal Scottish Acad- can Philosophical Society. U.S.A. United States of Amer- Pub. Publisher ; Publication ; emy. R.S.D. Royal Society of Dub- S.P.G. Society for the Propaga- ica. Published; Public. tion of the Gospel. U.S.M. United States Mail. Pub. Doc. Public Documents. lin. Sp.gr. Specific gravity. U.S.M. United States Marine. P.v. Post-village. R.S.E. Royal Society of Edin- S.P.Q.R. The Roman Senate U.S.M. A. United States Military Pwt. Pennyweight; Penny- burgh. and People. Academy. weights. Pxt. Pinx/t, He (or she) painted R.S. I.. RoyalSociety of I-ondon. Sq.ft. Square foot or squ.-ire U.S.N. United States Navv. R.S.V.P. Respond.z s'r/ I'ous feet. U.S.N..\. United States N.aval it. plait. Answer if you phase. Sq in. Square inch or inches. Academy. \ * Q, Queen. Rt. Hon. Riu^ht Honorable. Sq.m. Square mile nr miles. U.S.S. U'nitcd States Senate. t q. ^uasi, -.is it were ; almost. Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. Sq.r. Square rood or roods. U.T. Utah Territory. , / \ , «- "• c V* V. l'"ivu or fifth. V. Violin. VV. Violins. V. orvid. See, V/ife. V. or vs. Aeainst ; In such :i\v;iy: Versrts: T trsicu/o. V.A. \'icar Apostolic. V. Adml. X'icc-Adnural. V:i. Virsrinia. Vat. Vatican. V.C. Vice -Chancellor. V.C. Vice -Consul. V.C.O. Vice -Consul -General. V.D.M. Ministcrof God's Word. Ven. Venerable. Ver. ^'erse ; Version. V.F. Vicar -Forane. V.G. Vicar -General. v.e;-. As : VT. Six or Sixth. VII. Seven or Seventh. VIII. Kijjht or Eighth. Vic.-Ap. V icar-A]>ostolic. Vic. -Gen. Vuar- General. Vice-Pres., or \'.l*. \'ice-Pres- idcnt. Vil. Village. Vise. Viscount. viz, or vi. To wit; Namely ; That is to say: Videlicet. A*o. Left hand page, Verso, \'ol. Volume. V.U. Queen Victoria, Victoriu Jitgiiia. V.R. Ven,- Reverend. V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. Vt. Vermont. Vul. Vulgate (Latin versi -S'SS^JjgSV®- NoTE. — It has been deemed unnecessary to repeal, in this summary of contents, those topics which have been arranged in alphabetical order in various departments cf the work. A glance at the Table of Contents will enable the reader 10 determine under which heading any subject of reference not named in the following pages may be found. A Abbreviations, dictionary of S13 in letter-writing 49 Aberration of light 348 Absorption of heat 349 Abstract of title 468 Abyssinia, history of 316 , map of - 299 Accent 18 marks 28 Accommodation of the eye 664 ' paper 408 Acids 354 Acknowledgment of deeds. See Special Laws. Acne 652 Acoustics 347 Acquisition of territory 544 Acrostic 38 Address, proper modes of.. 50 Adhesion 345 Administrators and executors 478 Adrice, letters soliciting 58 Aerolites 369 Affection, letters of - 56 Affidavits 458 , general form of 458 ■ to accounLs 458 to petition 458 to signature of absent witness 459 Affinity , chemical ., 345 Afghanistan and Betoochistan, history of 311 Africa, history of 314 , map of 298 Age 545 Agency and attorney 456 Age of Man 394 Agreements and contracts 453 Agriculture, Bureau of 620 , statistics of..... .562, 563 Ague 670 Air 398, 545 Air-balloons .... -. 337 Air, forces acting upon 346 Air-guns 337 Air-pump ...... 347 Alabama, special laws of. _ 502 Albums, new designs for 145 Alchemy 333 -\Icohol 545 Alcoholic liquors 545 Alexandrian library Soo Algebra 337 Alien and sedition acts 337 Alkalis 354 Allegory 34 Alliteration 35 Allusion 35 Allusions, dictionary of familiar Soo Almanacs _...- 337 Alphabet 337 Alphabets. See Penmanship. Alphabet, telegraphic 416 Altitude as affecting climate 398 Aluminum . 402 Amendments to the Constitution 602 Anaemia 643 Anxsthesia 337 Anapestic verse 37 Anchors 337 Andorra ...... .-j.. ... 306 Animal and vegetable life 401 Animal kingdom, the 400 Animals, age and weight of 545 Antarctic current, the 397 Anti-slavery Society 337 Antithesis 34 Antonyms, dictionary of 64 Aphseresis 31 Apocope » 31 Apophasis 35 Apothecaries' weight 446 measure 446 Aposcopcsis 31 Apostrophe a7t34 Appetite, excessive (polyphagia) 632 Apprentices 459 Aqueducts 545 Arabia, history of. 312 , map of 299 Archaism 3' Arbitration 4^ bond, form of 460 , form of submission to 460 Arbitrators, form of award of 460 , form of notice to 460 Architecture for Modem Times 679 Practical architecture 679 The choice of a site 680 Building a home 680 How the money is applied 681 Water, cellar, ice-house 681 Heautihtl homes — plans and estimates 683 Noteworthy suggestions 711 Area of States and countries (diagram) 336 Argand lamps 337 Argentine Republic, history of. .... 872 Arizona, special laws of. 503 Arkansas, special laws of 503 Armada Soo Army and navy expenditure 563 Army death rate 545 officers 609 proportions 545 statistics 610 , the American 609 Arquebus 337 Artesian wells 346,800 Articulation 4^ Artillery 545 Asia, history of- 3**^ Assignment 4^1 Assignment of money due on account 462 of a note - 4^ of wages 4^5' with guaranty of assignor 4^ without recourse 462 with power of attorney 4^ . 5cr, ahc^ Special Laros, Assumed names in literature 791 Assurance 4M Asteroids, or minor planets 368 Asthma - —..-.. 648 Astigmatism 66$ Astrology 35* Astronomy 355 History of astronomical science 355 Astrology 35* The solar system 357 The sun 358 The sun's apparent motion r-sS J^ NT 820 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Astronomy — Continued. Sun-spots 359 Solar prominences 359 The planets 359 Mercury 359 Venus _.. 359 Our earth and her satellite 360 The seasons 362 The moon 364 The phases of the moon... 365 The tides 366 Mars 367 Jupiter, the giant planet 368 Saturn 368 Uranus 369 Neptune 369 The asteroids, or minor planets 369 Meteors 369 Comets 369 The zodiacal light — 370 The fixed stars.. 370 Motion of the heavenly bodies 370 The constellations 371 Double and multiple stars 371 New and variable stars.. 371 Distance of the stars 371 Proper motion of the stars. . 372 Nebulce and star-clusters _ 373 The nebular hypothesis 373 The milky way 374 A dictionary of astronomical definitions .. 374 How to read the sky 376 Maps of the heavens 378, 389 Atoms and molecules 342, 353 Atomic theory 353 Attachments. See Special Laws. Attorney 456 jpowerof 457 Attorneys-General 621 Audiphone 348 Aurora borealis 399 Australia, history of. 320 , map of. 295 Austria-Hungary, history of 281 , map of 291 Authors 545 Avalanche 394 Average clause (insurance) 424 Avoirdupois weight 446 Azoic age 394 B Ballad 38 Ball, etiquette of the 720 Balloons 548 Bank, how to do business with a 428 Bank discount 427 Banking... 337 Bank ing frauds 429 Banking, statistics of 548 Bank officers and employes 427 Banks and banking.. 426 Banks, national 432 of circulation 427 of deposit .. . 427 of exchange 427 Barbarians 401 Rarhary States, history of 317 Barker's mill 346 Barns, designs for 709 BBTometer 337, 346, 548 Barrels, measurement of 445 Barrenness _ 548 Battering-ram. 337 Battery, Bunsen's.. 352 , Grove's 352 , the Daniells 352 , the Galvanic 351 , the Leclanche 352 , the so-called Gravity 352 Battles, diagram of decisive 334 , statistics of 548 Bayonets 337 Bays 548 Beer 548, 575 , production of. 575 Bees 548 Belgium, history of 284 Bells 337. 548 Bellows. 337 Beloochistan, history of 311 Bible 548 Bicycle 54^ Biography, a Compendium of. 209 Birds, flight of 548 Birthday parties 7^3 Bites and stings 676 Bilious temperament 535 Bill of exchange 429 , foreign 43° Bill of lading as security - 43^ Bill of sale 462 , common form, with warranty. 463 , personal property 4^3 , short form 4^3 Blackboard writing and drawing 142 Blankets 337 Blank verse -- 35 Bleeding from the lungs 675 from the nose 675 Blindness 548 Blood 638,642 , composition of 643 , circulation of --- 337 " , diseases of the 643 , elements of 548 Board of Trade, Chicago 4^2 Boards, measurement of. 444 Boards of trade and stock exchanges 411 Board, table of 443 Bolivia, history of. 272 Bombs 337 Bonds 463 and stocks 43^ , government 433 Bond, general form of 464 to execute an assignment — 464 to execute a deed 464 , short form of.. .- 463 secured by mortgage.. 463 Bones of the human body 654 , diseases of the 654 Book-)ceeping 16S Books used in single entry 168 Books used in double entry 169 How entries are made 169 How to detect errors 169 How errors are made 170 Subsidiary books — i7'3 Book-keeping — Continued. The two systems compared 171 Book-keeping by single entry 171 Single entry cash-book 172 Single entry day-book 174 Single entry ledger 176 Deductions from single entry set 17S Book-keeping by double entry.. 179 The key to journalizing . 179 The principles of double entry book-keeping 180 How to close the ledger 180 Balance sheets 181 Auxiliary books 181 Set I.— Day-book 182 Set I.— Journal 183 Set I.— Ledger 184 Set I. — Trial balances 186 Day-book and journal combined 187 Set II. — Journal day-book 188 Set 11.— Ledger 196 Set II. — Trial balance and inventory 204 Set II.— Balance sheet 205 How to change single entry books into dou- ble entry 206 The columnar j ournal — 206 A six-column journal — * 207 Combined statement 208 Books 337. 549 Boots 337 Boston fire 337 Brahminism --4oi» 554 Brain 535, 549. 656 , synopsis of the various organs of 538 Brazil, history of. 267 Bread 337 Breathing (elocution) 40 Bricks 337 , number required for a building 444 Bridges 337. 549 Bronchitis 648 Bruises 675 Bucket-shops 4^4 Buckles 337 Buddhism 401, 554 Buenos Ayres, history of 272 Buildings, capacity of public 55^ Bulgaria, history of 306 Bullets 337 Bullion 337 Burns 676 Bushel, legal weight of. 447 Business and Social Correspondence 48 Style 48 Arrangement of ideas 48 Ornamentation 49 Compoeition of letters 49 Form of a letter 50 Proper modes of address 5° Model headings 5^ Materials — 5^ Titles, etc 51 General hints 53 Letters of business 54 Letters of recommendation 55 Letters of courtesy, friendship and affection. 56 Letters of friendly counsel and remonstrance 57 Letters soliciting advice or favors 58 Letters of sympathy and condolence 59 Letters between parents and children 6u Notes of ceremony and familiar invitation .. 61 VL \ ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 821 Business and Social and Correspondence — Cont'd. Miscellaneous letters ......... 62 Business law, points of 408 letters 54 Fiutter ._ 337 Uy-laws for a society 595 c Cable code 423 Cadence (elocution) 42 Cadet Corps 608 Csesural pause 38 Calendar 552 for the ceniur>* 450 Calico printing 337 California, special laws of 503 Camcl-i 552 Camera 349 Camera obscura 337 Canada, history of 260 , map of 270 Canada Pacific Railway 261 Canals 337. 552 Cancer of the stomach 634 Candles 337 Cannon _. 337 Cantata 1 38 Canzonet 38 Cape Colony, history of 316 Capital letters, the use of 24, 49 Caps 337 Carbonic acid 552 Carboniferous age 394 Carbon, percentage of, in food 560 Cards, designs for 145 , etiquette of 716 .playing 337 Carriage house, design for 70S Carriages 337 Carrier-pigeons 532 Carving, the art of 738 Casks, tneasurement of. 445 Catarrh 647 Cathedrals, height of 561 Cattle-raising statistics 563 Cattle, table for computing price of 439 , weight of, by measurement 444 Causes of Success and Failure 524 Caveats 486 Cyclones 399 Celestial axis, the 370 Cellar, number of perches of stone required .. 444 Cellar, how to build 681 Census, cvirioslties of the 551 Central America, history of 265 , map of ,.- 294 Centrifugal and centripetal force 344 Ceremoiiy, notes of 61 Chain-shot 337 Chaldean period -. 355 Change, terms used on. 415 Character, decision of. 529 , how to read 538 , the study of 53» Characters of fiction 786 Charade 38 Charcoal 55^ Charts and Diagrams. Charts of universal history 321 , 329 Charts and Diagrams— G»i//»wrf/ The history of the United Slates 329, 33a Political parties in the United States 333 The eighteen decisive battles of the world.. 334 Military and navul strength of various nations 335 Comparative area in square miles of the States and foreign countries 336 Receipts and expenditures U. S. government 546 Public debts of the States and various coun- tries 547 Comparative density of population .. S5<> Curiosities of the census 551 The religions of the world 554 Distribution of Christians throughout the world 555 Comparative showing of religions in the United States 558 Educational .statistics of the United States and other countries 559 The world's industries compared .. 562 The world's commercial balance sheet 562 Shipping 5^3 Steam power - 563 Agriculture 563 Cattle 563 Army and navy expenditure 563 The yearly wheat crop in principal countries 566 The world's yearly production of the precious metals 567 Pig-iron 570 Annual production of coal 571 The world's yearly production of cotton and tobacco 574 Beer production 575 Railroads, telegraph and telephone lines 578 The clocks of the world 579 The new system of standard time 580 Chattel mortgages 47^ . See aiso Special Laws . Check-book, how to keep stub of 428 Checks, altered 429 , certified .«.-- 429 , how drawn and endorsed 428 , proportion of,[to coin 552 , raised -,.-. 4*9 Chemical affinity ., 345 phenomena - -- 354 substances, common names of 553 Chemistry 353 Chess 337 Chicago fire 337 Chickcnpox ^73 Childbirth, average of deaths in 553 Chili, history of. 267 Chimes on bells 337 China, history of 3^9 China, Dresden 337 Cholera, epidemic 637 , statistics of 553 —, prevention of 638 , sporadic 636 ■ infantum 637 ■ morbus 636 Christians, distribution of 555 , numlier of 554 Chromatic aberration of light. 348 Churches, capacity of 55* Cipher for telegraphic communication 4>6 Circle, area of a 445 Circulatory organs -- 638 Cisterns, construction of 681 , me-isurement of 444 Cities, population of 583, 584 Civilization 401 Civil rights bill 337 Civil service reform 337 Civil war, troops furnished 577 Clay's compromise 337 Clearing-house system... 431 Clergyman's sore throat 630 Climate 398 , mean annual temperature 553 Climax in elocution 44 ■ in rhetoric 35 Clocks 337 Clocks of the world (diagram) 579 Clothing, deformities from 655 Cloth, woolen 339 Clouds 399 Coaches 337 Coal 337 — statistics 571 CoflTec, production and consumption 553 Cohesion 345 Coin 337 Coining 337 Cold in the head 646 Cold, remarkable instances of 573 Colic 636 Collection of debts. Set AtiackmenU, under head of Special Laws. Colorado, special laws of 504 Colors, contrast and harmony in 73X Columnar journal ..., ao6 Combustion and heat 624 Comets 3^9 Commerce, statistics of 553, 56* Commercial law and forms 403 Negotiable paper 403 Promissory notes - 403 Endorsements 404 The endorser's responsibility 405 Necessary legal points 405 Forms of notes 405 A swindling note 407 Due-bills 407 Orders and receipts 407 Points of business law 408 Laws relating to inter »t 409 Laws relating to limitation of actions 410 Committees — 589 Compass, mariner's 337, 35" Compendium of Biography 209 Complexion 7*9 Composition 3a Style 3» Purity 3» Propriety — 33 Precision 33 Perspicuity 33 Unity 33 Strength 33 A discourse and its ports 34 Figures of rhetoric 34 Prosody - 35 Versification 35 Meter 3^ Iambic vcRe 3* Trochaic verse 37 Anapestic verse 37 V_ \ IV ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Compos\t\oi\— Continued. Dactylic verse 37 Csesural pause , 38 Varieties of poetry 38 Various kinds of poems 38 Poetical license 38 Condolence, letters of... --_ 59 Congress, duties of 623 Connecticut, special laws of 504 Consonants, peculiarities in sounds of 17 Constellations 371 , guide to the knowledge of the 376 .zodiacal 375 Constipation 635 Constitution for a society, form of 594 Constitution of the United States 599 Consumption 553 Continents, elevation of 557 Contracts and agreements 453 Contract, causes which vitiate a 455 , building 455 , for the sale of property 455 -. , short form of 455 , with employe. 455 Contractions (letter-writing) 49 Conventions 589 Conversation .... - 46 , the art of. 7'3 Convulsions 65S Cooking, loss of meat in , 560 , the art of 739 Copernican system 356 Copying 553 Copyright law 337 Coral islands 39^ Corners 4^3 Corona seen in solar eclipses 366 Corporations - - 465 Coryza -; •- ^4^ Costiveness 635 Cottages, designs for 682 Cotton 337 , area under cultivation 553 gin 337 picking table 442 - statistics 574 , table for computing price of 439 Counsel, letters of. 57 Courtesy, letters of 56 Court of England, presentation at 714 Creation, the six eras of. 39^ Credit Mobilier 801 Cremation 55^ Crises - 556 Cuba, history of. 266 Cubic or solid measure 446 Culture and intelligence 401 Culvcrins 337 Currency 55^ Currents 397 Customs receipts 54^ D Dactylic verse 37 Daguerreotypes 337 Dakota, special laws of 505 Dates, Dictionary of. 337 Day and night 39^ Dead letters 615 Death 556 Death rate, army .. 545 Deaths, proportion offrom various diseases... 556 Debate, questions for 595 Debating clubs 594 Debts of various countries 547 Debut, young lady's.. 723 Declaration, Mecklenburg 596 Declaration of Independence 597 Deed 467 , Chancellor Kent's form 467 , short form in California 467 , short form in Indiana 468 , short form used in Virginia and Texas 468 , short form of warranty 468 , short form of trust 468 , quit claim 46S . See, also. Special Laws. Deaf mutes 556 Deformities from clothing 655 Delaware, special laws of 505 Department of public business 587 Departments at Washington 604 Devonian age 394 Dew 399 Dixresis 28, 31 Diagrams. See Charts and Diagrams. Dialects 9 Dialogue reading 45 Diamonds 337, 556 Diarrhoea 634 Dice 337 Dictionary of abbreviations 813 of astronomical definitions 374 ofbiography 209 of dates 337 of facts and figures 544 of familiar allusions 800 of foreign phrases 808 Dictionary of heroes and heroines of prose and poetry 786 of mythology 796 of noms de plume 791 of prose and poetical quotations 768 of synonyms and antonyms 64 of terms used on 'change 415 Didactic poetry 38 Diffraction oflight 348 Digestion --- 556, 629 Digestive organs.'. 626 , diseases of 629 Dinner-giving - 7'8 Diphtheria 673 Diplomatic service of the U. S 605 Dipping-needle 337- 35° Dipsomania 632 Dipsomaniacs. See Drunkenness. Discoveries, record of 337 Diseases, proportion of deaths from 556 Dislocations 675 Distilling 337 District of Columbia, special laws of 506 Diving-bell 337 Divorce. See Special Laivs. Drafts and bills of exchange 429 Drafts, how drawn 429 Dramatic action 47 Dress 730 Drift 394 Driving, etiquette of 725 Drowning 676 Drunkenness, statistics of.. 556 Dry measure --- 44^ Due bills, forms of .-. 407 Duties - 434 Dwarfs 557 Dwellings, designs for 693 Dynamical electricity 351 Dysentery - 635 Dyspepsia 630 E Earth : Our Earth and her Satellite 361 Earth, motions of the 391 , surface of the 394 Earthquakes 395 Ear, anatomy of the 666 , physiology of the 668 , diseases of the.. 668 Easter, the festival of 552 Ecliptic --- ---3S9> 374 Eclipses - 365 Ecphonesis 34 Ecuador, history of 269 Eczema 652 Edict of Nantes .338, 805 Education, Bureau of 620 , progress of 557 , statistics of.. 559 Educational Department 9 Egypt, history of 315 , map of.. 299 Electrical machines 351 Electricity 350 Electric light 337, 352 Electric telegraph 339, 352 Electrolysis and galvanoplasty 352 Electroplating.. 352 Electrotyping 352 Elements 353 Ellipsis 27, 31 Elocution 40 Vocal culture 40 Proper breathing 40 Articulation 40 Pronunciation 41 Modulation 41 Quality of the voice 41 Melody 41 Form 42 Force 42 Time 42 Stress - 43 Emphasis 44 Word-individuality 44 Analysis and grouping 44 Transition 44 Climax 44 Repose 44 Impersonation 45 Dialogue reading .. 45 Rules governing gesture. 45 The three forms of speech 46 Conversation 46 Reading 47 Public speaking 47 Dramatic action 47 Emancipation proclamation ._ _. 338 Emergencies, medical and surgical treatment in 675 Kmphasis (elocution) -44 Emillage 3» Endocarditis 641 Endorsement of notes, various forms 404 Engagements, etiquette of 732 England and Wales, map of 083 English language 13 Its origin and development 13 Constituents and alterations 13 Anglo-Saxon, a.d. 700-1100 14 Semi-Saxon, A.D. 1150-1250 14 OKI English, A d. 1300 iS Middle English, A.D. 1350-1500 15 Modern English, A.D. 1550 15 Grammar - >6 Composition 3^ Engravi ng 33^ Enteritis ^34 Envelopes 52» 338 Epic poetry • 3^ Epigram 3^ Epilepsy M Epilogue 3S Epitaph 38 Epithalamium 3^ Equator 374 Equatorial currents 397 Equinoctial 375 Equinoxes 3^2, 375 Erotesis - 34 Errors in book-keeping 17*^ inspeech 29 Erysipelas ... — ^S-^ Essay 34 Etching 338 Ether - 348 Ether as an anaesthetic 338 Etiquette : A compendium of the laws of eti- quette 7*^ Etiquette, general hints on 734 Etiquette, military 6" Ethnology 4°° Etymology - ^° , figures of. 3' Euphemism 35 Europe, history of ^^7 ' ■, map of 282 Evictions in Ireland 557 Exchange, bills of 4^9 , foreign bills of 43^ Excretory organs ^49 Executive department ^4 Executors and administrators 478 Exemptions. See Special Latvs. Exhibitions 557 Expectation of life 425. 586, 473 , as affected by drink 5S6 Expenditures U. S. government 54^ Exports and imports. Sf^ Commtrcf. Express 338 Extension of patents 48^ Eyc.anatomy of the ^^ . .physiology of the 663 , muscles of the 662 — diseases of the 6^5 K;tcc-rcading Facts and figures, dictionary of.. 534 544 Failure, how to avoid 523 Fainting..,.. ^"77 Fairs... 557 Falling bodies, the law of 344 Familiar allusions, dictionary of Soo Familiar Poems and Those Who Wrote Them 741 Thanatopsis. Bryant 742 Hiawatha's Wooing. Longfellow 743 The Barefoot Boy. Wnittier 744 The Bells. Poe 745 Blow, Blow, thou Winter Wind. Shak- spere 74^ Bugle Song. Tennyson 74'» The Sea. Barry Cornwall 746 Those Evening Bells. Moore - 747 The Village Preacher. Goldsrnith 748 The Ivy Green. Dickens 748 From Home to Home. Anon 749 Battle of the AiigeU. Milton 75i" Farewell to His Wife. Byron 75" The Hour of Death. Mrs. Hemans 751 A Woman's Question. Mrs. Browning 751 A Horseback Ride. Grace Greenwood 752 Angel Watchers. Rosa Vertner Jeffrey, . . 752 A Farewell. Kingsley 753 What the Birds Say. Coleridge 753 A Georgia Volunteer. Mary A. Totvnsend 754 The Picket Guard. Ethel Lynn Been 754 The Soldier's Dream. Campbell 755 Billand Joe. Llolmes 755 Extract from Lucile. Owen Meredith 753 Pictures of Memory. Alice Gary 756 Go to Thy Rest. Mrs. Sigourney 756 We Parted in Silence. Mrs. Crawford 757 The Song of the Camp. Taylor 75S Our Own. Margaret E. Sangster 758 There is no De.ath. McCreery 758 Makin' an Editor outeno' Him. Carleton. 759 The Lightning-rod Dispenser. Carleton.. 759 Hannah Jane. Nasby 7^-^ John Anderson, my Jo. Burns 761 Home, Sweet Home. Payne 761 The Bivouac of the Dead. O'l/ara 763 The Stars and the Flowers. Holmes 762 BoatSong. Moore 7^3 Jim. Bret Ifarte 7^4 Married. Anon 7^4 Winged Words. McGregor 765 The Closing Scene. Read 7<''6 The Death of the Flowers. Bryant 767 Families, number in U. S 557 Famines - 557 Farms, number in U. S 557 Far-sightedness ^5 Fasting, notable instances of 557 Fxsttimc 548, 585 Fata Morgana 4oo Fatty degeneration of the heart 641 Fauna 40' Favors, letters soliciting 58 Federal courts 622 Feet, deformed ^55 Fee t, poetic 35 Fence, the legal *• 489 Fenian raids 338 Fctichism 4°' Fevers ^ Fiction, celebrated characters of 7^(> Fields and lots, contents of 445 Fields of fire 395 Figures in gran\mar 3' Fdibustering 338 Fire engines... 338 Fire insurance 4^4 Fixed stars 37" Flag, American 338 Flax statistics 557 Flora 40> Flourishing.... '37 Florida, special laws of 5^ Fogs 399 Food, foot-tons ofcnergy per ounce of. 560 — — , percentage of carbon in 560 , relative value of 5^ , statistics of. 557 Force (Elocution) 4^ Force, centrifug.ll and centripetal 344 Forces of nature 343 Foreign phrases, lexicon of 808 Foreign population ofU. S 55* ForcsLs 5^ Forged paper - 408 Forks 338 Fortification 33^ Fractures - '^75 France, history of. '89 -, map of , 39° Free Soil Party 333» 338 Freight car, cap.acity of 5^ French without a Master >«> Alphabet and pronunciation 100 Accents and other marks io> Number and gender »oi Parts of speech >ox Exercises in the use of the article 101 The noun >o4 The adjective 104 Numeral adjectives >o4 Ordinal numbers 105 Vocabulary of adjectives .-.. 105 The pronoun >o5 The verb 106 The .auxiliary verbs >o6 Regular verbs --- o8 Vocabulary of verbs <«o Vocabulary of .adverbs >" Vocabulary of prepositions na Vocabulary of conjunctions ... — ...... na Conversation inFrench ii3 Friction 345 Friendship, letters of 5* Frost-biles ^7* Frost, remarkable instances of 573 Fruit 5<» Fuel 560 Fugitive slave law 33* Futures 4»a Galvanic battery 35* electricity 35* G.tlvanometer 35' G.alvanoplasty. 35» Gamut 33^ Gas-light ^. 338 Gastritis *33 Gems, the language of. ^^^ Geologic ages -— 394 _vj Geology 392 Georgia, special laws of 507 Geysers - 395 German dialects _ 12 German, etiquette of the 721 Gennan : A self-instructor in the German lan- guage 82 Alphabet and pronunciation 82 The article 83 Combination of article and noun 83 Exercises in the article and noun 83 The adjective - 87 Vocabulary of adjectives 87 Cardinal, ordinal, and collective numbers.. . 88 Pronouns 89 The verb S9 Auxiliary verbs - 8g The regular verb. ,, 9» Vocabulary of verbs 9~ Adverbs 9~ Prepositions - 93 Conjunctions 93 Conversation in German 93 German Legal Business Department 49° Germany, history of - - 279 ,map of 291 Gesture language 10 Gesture, rules governing - 45 Giants 560 Gilding 338 Glacial period. .- 394 Glaciers 394 Glass 338 Gluttony - 632 Gold 567 Government, principal forms of, 4'^i Grain, measurement of 444. 445 Grammar, English 16 Orthography ^^ Letters - ^6 Peculiarities in sounds of consonants 17 Combination of vowels - 18 Syllables 18 Accent - ^8 Words --- »8 Word-building 19 Prefixes ^9 Suffixes 20 Spelling 22 Rules for spelling 23 Reformed spelling 23 Forms of letters 24 The use of capital letters 24 Punctuation 25 Etymology - 28 The parts of speech 28 Some rules of grammar 28 Plural of nouns -. 29 Rules for the plural of foreign nouns 29 Syntax - 29 Errors in speech 29 Figures of orthograph y 31 Figures of etymology 31 Figures of syntax 31 Figures of rhetoric 34 Prosody 35 Granary, capacity or contents of 445 Gravity 344 i, center of 344 , specific 344, 560 k. Great Britain, history of 273 Greece, history of. - 3°? Gregorian year 803 Gristmills 338 Guano 560 Guaranty 47° , general 47° offideHty 470 — , extension of time .. 47° of a note 47° Guiana, history of 269 Gulf s t ream - 39 7 Gunpowder 338 Gunpowder plot, the 803 Guns - t 338 H Habeas corpus act S03 Hail - 399 Hair -- 560 , care of the - 729 , false - 338 Half-hours with the stars - 37^ Handkerchiefs 338 Hartford convention 338 Hay, weight of, by measurement 444 Head, measurement of the 531 Headache -. --- 630 Heart and blood-vessels 639 Heart, diagrams of the 640 , diseases of the .- 641 Heat.. - 349» S^o, 626 , extremes of. 573 Heat-lightning 399 Height of noted cathedrals, etc $61 Hemaplegia - ^58 Hemorrhage — 675 Heraldry - 338 Heroes and heroines of prose and poetry 7S6 Hindooism 4°' Historical charts - 321 History : A panorama of history. A graphic account of every nation on the globe 252 The United States 252 The Dominion of Canada 260 Mexico 263 Central America 265 Cuba - - 266 South America 266 Brazil - 267 Chili 267 Peru - 268 The United States of Colombia and other countries of South America 269 Europe - 272 Great Britain 273 Ireland 275 Scotland 278 Germany 279 Austria -Hungary 281 Belgium 284 Holland (the;Netheriands) 284 Norway and Sweden ... 288 France - 289 Russia 293 Italy 296 Spain 300 Portugal 301 Switzerland 3°! History — Continued. Turkey 304 Roumania - 3°^ Bulgaria 306 Servia - -- 3"^ Andorra, San Marino and Monaco. 306 Greece - - 3^7 Asia - 308 China J - 309 Japan 3^9 British India 3^° Afghanistan and Beloochistan,. 311 Persia - 311 Arabia 312 Palestine -- - 312 Siam 314 Africa. -- 314 Egypt 3'5 Nubia 315 Abyssinia 3*6 Cape Colony - 3'^ Madagascar 3*7 The Barbary States 3*7 Republics in South Africa 318 Oceanica 3*9 Australia - 320 Hoar frost - 399 Holidays in the U.S 561 Holland, history of. 284 Home etiquette - 729 Homestead, how to secure a 617 Homoeopathy. -- 338 Hops 561 Horizon 375 Horse-power,. 5"i Horseshoes -- 338 Hostess, duties of - - 7*9 Hot springs 395 Hour-glasses 33^ Housekeepers' measures .-. 44^ House of Representatives 623 Hunger, deaths from - 557 Hurricane 399 Hydraulic press 34^ Hydraulics 34" Hydrometer 338 Hydrostatic press - 34*5 Hydrostatics and hydraulics 34^ Hymn - 38 Hyperbaton 3* Hyperbole 34 Hypermetropia ^^4 Hypertrophy - ^4* Iambic verse 3^ Ice - 56J Idaho, special laws of 508 Idiom - - 9 Illegitimacy - 5^1 Illinois, special laws of - 5^8 Illiteracy. See Education. Impersonation 45 Import duties, general average 573 , complete schedules of 435 Imports and exports. See Commerce. Impromptu - 38 Inanition °32 Incorporating, forms for 465 r^ ALPHABETICAL INDEX. "71 8^5 Incorporating, stale license for 466 India, history of British 310 Indian Affairs, Durcau of 619 Indian agents 619 Indiana, special laws of 509 Indians...... 5^^ Indian traders 619 India rubber 561 Industries of the world 5^^ Infallibility, Papal 338 Infantile paralysis 658 Inflammation of large intestine 635 Inflammation of small intestine 634 Inflammation of the stomach 632 Inflammatorj- rheumatism 642 Initials, artistic 146 Inoculation 33^ Insanity 561, 660 , treatment of 660 , cases of, traceable to drink 556 Insomnia ■ 660 I nsurancc 4^4 , history of 338 .short rales table 44= Intemperance. .V.v Drunkenness. Interest, compound, tables of 442 , laws relating to 409 , short rule 44^ , tables of. 44^ Intermittent fever - — 670 Internal revenue 434 receipts 54^ Intestines 628 Introduction, letter of. 63 Inventions. See Dictionary 0/ Dates. Invitation, notes of 61 lown, special laws of 5^*^ Iruland, history of 275 , map of 286 Iron statistics - 57° Irony 35 Islands 39^ Isuthermallines 39^ Italy, history of 296 J Japan current 397 Japan, history of 3^9 Jesuits 338 Jews, number of 554 Judiciary act 33^ Jupiter, the giani planet 3*^7 Justice, department of 621 Juvenile parties 722 K Kansas, special laws of 5^° Kentucky, special laws of 511 Kepler's laws 35^ Kidneys 649 — , diseases of the 65° Knitting 338 Knives 338 Know-nothing (or American) party 333, 338 Labor statistics . Lace 564 338 Lakes , 397 , length and width of 564 T^mp, safety 338 Land grants 564 Landlord and tenant 471 Landlord's agreement 472 notice to quit 473 Land oflUccs 617 Lands, public 617 Language g Origin of language 9 Gesture language 10 Natural language 10 Articulate language 11 Classification of languages 11 Language of gems ,. 812 Languages _. 401, 564 Lanterns 33S Laryngitis 647 Lava 395 Law, commercial _. 4-^3 • , points of business 4-8 Lease, common form of 472 of farm and buildings 472 of a mill 472 , short form of 472 Legal Business Department 451 How to avoid litigation 451 Legal business forms 453 Agreements and contracts 453 Agency and attorney 45^ Affidavits 458 Apprentices.... - 459 Arbitration 460 Assignments 4^1 Bills of sale 462 Bonds 4^3 Corporations 465 Deeds 467 Abstract of title 4^8 Guaranty - 47^ Landlord and tenant 47^ Rights of married women 473 Real estate mortgages 474 Chattel mortgages 476 Mechanic's lien 477 Wills 477 Executors and administrators 478 Partnership 481 German legal business department 49° Legal fence 489 Legislative department 623 Liver 638 Lenses - 348 Leprosy - ---- •--- 5*4 Letter-carriers - 616 Letter of credit j *- 43° of revocation 457 , composition of 49 ,form of 50 ■ of substitution 457 Letters, advertised 6*5 , registered - 6>5 Leverand inclined plane 345 Lexicon of foreign phrases 808 Leyden jar 338, 35' Liberty party 338 Library 338 License, poetical 38 Life-average 5^4 Life-boats 338 Life, duration and expectation of. 586 Life insurance 435 Life-saving service ^... 607 Life, the two paths of. 533 Light 348 , electric 337, 35a .g^s 338 Light-house Board 607 Lightning 351, 399 Lightning-rods 338, 351 Lightning Calculator 439 Limitation of actions, laws relating; to 410 Linear measure 446 Linen 338 Liquid measure 446 Lithography _, 338 Living, cost of 576 Llanos _ 394 Logs, number of cubic feet in 445 Longevity 564 Longitude and time compare<) 446 Louisiana, special laws of ,. 512 Lowlands 394 Lumber measure, tabic of .... 443 Lungs 644 Lyceums and debating clubs 594 Lymphatic temperament 534 M Machines - 345 , electrical — .. 351 Madagascar, history of__- - 317 Magic lanterns 338 Magna Charta 596 Magnetism and electricity 350 Magnify ing-glasses 338 Mail contracts 616 Maine, special lawsof. 5'* Malarial fever 670 Malthusian doctrine 804 Mammalian age 394 Mankind, races of. 400 Manufactures, statistics of. 563 Maps : The United States 258, 359 The Dominion of Canada 270, 371 Europe 282 England and Wales 283 Ireland 286 Scotland 387 France »9° The German Empire and Austro- Hungarian monarchy 29* The West Indies and Central America 294 Occanica and Australia 295 Africa 298 Egypt, Abyssinia, etc 299 The World ^Mcrcalor's Projection) 301, 302 Maps and globes 338 Maps of the heavens —.378-389 Margins 4^3 Marine and transit insurance 424 Mariner's compass 337 Marriage, a woman's chances of. 5^ ^—, etiquette of. 73» Married woman's note 405 Married women, rights of. 473 . Sf* also S/fciat Laws. VL Mars, the planet 366 Maryland, special laws of. 513 Massachusetts, special laws of 513 Matches, friction .... 338 Matter 342 , general properties of-. 343 , specific properties of. 343 Measles _ 671 Measures and weights 446 , foreign 448 Meat, loss of in cooking 560 Meats, how to select _.- -_. 739 Mechanic's lien 477 . See also Special Laws. Mechanism of the human body 6J4 Mecklenburg declaration 596 Medical. See Physiology atid Medicine. Medicines, table of doses 678 Meeting, how to call a 587 , organizing a 588 Memorials and petitions — 59^ Mental temperament 535 Mercurj', the planet - 3^ Metals -- 401 , as conductors - 5^4 , chemical relations of — 402 , fluid density of 564 , tenacity of 5^4 , value of -- 564 , some strange 402 Meteors - - - 3^8 Meteorites 3^9 Metric system - 449 , key to the - -- 445 Metaphor 34 Metonymy — 34 Mexico, history of 263 Michigan, special laws of 5^4 Microphone - 347 Microscopes - SS^i 349 Military Academy _ 338, 608 Military and naval strength (diagram) 335 Military etiquette 611 Militia ._. -- 611 Milk - - 564 Milky way, the ---374 Mimesis, or mimicry 31 Minerals and metals 401 Minnesota, speciallaws of 5^4 Mirage - - 400 Mirrors - - 338, 349 Mississippi, special laws of. 515 Missouri compromise 33^ Missouri, speciallaws of. 51 5 Modulation of the voice -.. 4' Mohammedanism _ 554 Moisture and climate 398 Molecules and atoms 342, 353 Momentum 345 Monaco 3°^ Money - 5^4 . . See Currency. Money orders 6»5 Monroe doctrine 338 Montana, speciallaws of 5^^ Monuments, height of 561 Moon, the 3^'4 , map of the — 364 ,path of the 365 , phases of the 365 Mormons -.,-, 338 Mortgages, chattel 476 , real estate 474 Mortgage, assignment of.... 475 , promissory note secured by. 475 , release and satisfaction ot 476 , release or discharge of 475 — ■ , shortest form of. _._ 475 Motion 345 , perpetual 346 Motive temperament ... 535 Mountain ranges as affecting climate 398 Mountains _ 394 .height of 565 Mouth 626 Mumps ._ -- 630 Muscular system 653 Musical notes 338 Myopia __,— 665 N Nails, size and weight of ......... 565 Nantes, edict of __ 338, 805 National banking system 432 Natural history 34- Natural philosophy 342 Physics and chemistry __ 342 The properties of matter 343 Solids, liquids, gases 343 The forces of nature 343 Hydrostatics and hydraulics 346 Pneumatics 34^ Acoustics ., 347 Optics. 348 The theory of heat 349 Magnetism and electricity 350 Chemistry 353 Nature - 34^ , the forces o. 343 Naval armament -- 5^5 Naval expenditure ... 563 Naval history, American 613 Naval strength (diagram) 335 Navies of the world 335. 613 Navy Department 612 Near-sightedness 665 Nebraska, special laws of 516 Nebulae and star-clusters 373 Nebular hypothesis 373 Necessaries, comparative prices of — -. 576 Needles 338 Negotiable paper 403 , as collateral security 408 , payment of, before maturity.. 408 , State laws as to payment of 408 . See Note. Neptune, the planet _ 368 Nervous system 655 — • , diseases of the 658 Nervous temperament. 535 Netherlands, history of the 284 Neuralgia 658 Nevada, speciallaws of 516 New Hampshire, special laws of - 517 New jL-rsey, speciallaws of.. ... 517 New Mexico, special laws of 517 Newspapers 338, 565 Newton's law of gravitation 357 New York, special laws of 518 Nicknames of States and Territories 565 N icotine 565 Noms de plume, dictionary of ., 791 North Carohna, special laws of 518 Norway and Sweden, history of 288 Notes of ceremony and familiar invitation 6r Notes, promissory 403 Note, bearing interest 405 , collateral . 406 , common form of. 404 , joint 405 ■ , joint and several 405 ■ -, judgment 406 , judgment, short form of 406 , married woman's, in New York 405 , negotiable only by endorsement 405 •, negotiable without endorsement 405 , not negotiable 405 , payable at bank 405 , partnership 405 — , payable by 'nstallments 406 , payable on demand 405 , principal and surety 405 , sealed 406 , secured by mortgage 475 •, swindling form 407 Note, special forms in several States 406 Nubia, history of — 315 , map of 299 Nullification ordinance 338 Occupation, choosing an 523 Ocean 396 Oceanica, history of 319 , map of 295 Oceanic movements 397 Oceans, superficial extent of 565 Ode 38 Ohio, special laws of 518 Omnibuses 338 Onomatopceia 35 Opera-glass 349 Opium _ 565 Optics 348 Option trading 413 Order, three hundred points of 59 1 Orders, forms of. 407 Oregon, special laws of 519 Organs 338 Orthography 16 , figures of - 31 Ostend manifesto 338, C05 Oxidation and animal heat . 625 Oysters 568 P Psean 38 Pagans, number of... 554 Palestine, history of, , 312 Palpitation of the heart 641 Pampas - 394 Pancreas 628 Papal court, presentation at 714 Paper 338 , accommodation 408 hangings .^ 338 money 338. 356 V- \ ALPHABETICAL INDEX. "^ 827 Paper. See also Currency. , negotiable 403 ■— , forged 408 , stolen or lost 408 Paragogc 3' Paraguay, history of 269 Parallax 375 Parallel 35 Paralysis 658 , infantile 65S Parchment 33S Parents and children, letters between 60 Parody ---- 38 Parliamentary law 587 Parsing. - - 28 Parties in the U.S. (diagram) 333 Partnership 481 agreement, form of 482 , notice of dissolution of. 482 Parts of speech 28 Party, etiquette of the 720 Pascal's law 34^ Patent Office 620 Patent-right law 338 Patents 483 Paths of life 533 Pause, csesural - 38 Pauses in punctuation 27 Paving with stones 33S Pendulum 344 Peninsular war 805 Penmanship, practical and ornamental 116 Positions 1^7 Movement 118 Scale of slant 118 Movement exercise 118 Care in practice 118 Writing not a special gift 119 Unity and simplicity of form 119 Economy of form - 119 Correct proportion i-o Correct spacing - 120 Slant of writing 120 Size of writing - 121 Conspicuous faults 121 Movement exercises 124 Principles 1=4. »28 Copies 124 Scale of proportion of letters 128 Standard alphabets 129 Abbreviated capitals for business 129 Extended letters for ladies' epistolary writing 129 Specimens of business and correspondence writing 13° Whole-arm capitals 131 Round writing for headings 132 Specimen business letters ^33 Artistic penmanship '35 Materials 136 Pens 136 Exercises for flourishing 137 Specimens for blackboard writing and draw- ing M2 Ornamental alphabets i44 Designs for flourished cards and albums 145 New designs for artistic initials 146 Pennsylvania, special laws of 5*9 Pens 338 Pension laws 487 Pension Office 619 Pericarditis 841 Peritonitis 633 1 Perpetual motion 346 Perseverance 528 Persia, history of 311 Personification, or prosopopoeia 34 Perspicuity of style 33 Perspiration 651 Pertussis 648 Peru, history of a68 Petitions 593 Pharyngitis, acute 630 , chronic granular 630 Phenomena, physical and chemical 342 Philadelphia riots 338 Phonograph 338, 348 Phosphorescence 396 Phosphorus 338 Photographs 338 Photophone 340 Phrenology 531 Phrenological organs, chart of 53S Phthiriasis 651 Physical geography 391 Geology 39.; The six eras of creation 392 The geologic ages 394 The earth's surface 394 Volcanic phenomena 395 Land and water ._ 396 The air 398 Climate 398 Winds and weather -.......- 398 The animal kingdom .,. 400 Ethnology 400 Animal and vegetable life 401 Minerals and metals. 401 Physicians, number of, 568 Physiognomy, or face-reading 534 Physiognomy, comparative 536 Physiology and Medicine 624 The mechanism of the human body 624 Combustion and heat 624 Oxidation and animal heat 635 Power and life due to heat ._ 6a6 The digestive organs 626 The mouth -...- 636 The teeth 637 Thestomach 627 Thc^intestincs 628 The liver 6a8 The pancreas 639 The process of digestion 629 Diseases of the digestive ot^ns 629 Mumps 630 Acute tonsilitis— Quinsy 630 Acute pharyngitis — Sore throat — Cold 630 Chronic gramdar pharyngitis — Clergy- man's sore throat 630 Dyspepsia 630 Polyphagia — Excessive appetite — Glut- tony 632 Polydipsia— Excessive thirst.. 632 Dipsomania 63a Inanition— Starvation 632 Gastritis — Inflammation of the stomach .. 633 Ulcer of the stomach 633 Cancer of the stomach 634 Diarrhoea 634 Summer complaint 634 Physiology and Medicine — Continued. Enteritis — Inflammation of small intestine. 634 Dysentery — Inflammation of large intes- tine 63s Constipation — Costivencss 635 Cohc 636 Cholera morbus 636 Cholera infantum 638 Epidemic cholera _. ' 639 Prevention of cholera 638 The circulatory organs and the blood 638 Absorption 638 The heart and blood vessels 639 Diseases of the heart 643 The blood 642 Diseases of the blood 643 The respiratory organs 644 The lungs 644 The mechanism of respiration 645 Movements of respiration 646 Diseases of the respirator)- organs 646 Cold— Catarrh — Bronchitis 646 Catarrh 647 Acute laryngitis . 647 Disease of vocal cords.... 647 Bronchitis 648 Pertussis — Whooping cough 648 Asthma 648 Pleurisy 648 Pneumonia 649 The excretory oi^ans _ 649 The kidneys 649 Diseases of the kidneys 650 Theskin 651 Diseases of the skin 651 Phthiriasis — lousiness 651 Scabies— The itch 653 Tinea trichophytina— Ringworm 653 Acne 652 Eczema— Salt rheum 653 Erysipelas 652 The muscular system 653 The bones 654 Diseases of the bones 654 Rickets 654 Deformity from clothing 655 Deformed feet 655 The nervous system .... 655 Diseases of the neiVwus system 658 Neuralgia 658 Convulsions 658 Epilepsy 659 Paralysis 659 Insomnia 660 Insanity 660 The eye ...... > 660 Anatomy of the eye 660 Physiology of the eye 663 Errors of refraction and accommodation.. 664 Diseases of the eye and their treatment .. 665 The ear 666 Anatomy of the car 666 Physiology of the car 668 Diseases of the car and their Ueauneni . . . 668 Fevers .... — .. 669 Typhoid fever 669 Typhus fever 670 Malarial fever— Intermittent fever— Ague. 670 Remittent fever 671 Yellow fever 671 K" 828 ALPHABETICAL INDEX J- Physiology and Medicine — Continued. Rubeola — Measles - 671 Variola — Small-pox 672 Varioloid - 672 Vaccination — Cow-pox 672 Vericella — Chicken-pox 672 Scarlatina — Scarlet fever 673 Diphtheria --- 673 Rheumatism ._ 673 Emergencies 675 Hemorrhage 675 Accidents _ 675 Bites and stings 676 Burns, scalds and frost-bites 676 Suffocation — Drowning 676 Poisoning __ -. 677 Fainting — - 677 Sunstroke _ 677 Posological table — Doses of medicines 678 Pianoforte -- 338 Pig iron statistics . -- 5^ Pilgrims, landing of the 33^ Pins - - 339 Pistols - 339 Pitch and tar -. 339 Pitch (Elocution) 41 Plagues, remarkable, of modern times 568 Planets, the 359 Planks, measurement of 444 Plaster of Paris 339 Pleonasm - 31 Plethora 643 Pleurisy 648 Plural of nouns 29 Pneumatics _ _. 346 Pneumonia , 649 Poems, various kinds of 38 Poetical quotations, dictionary of 768 Poetic license 38 Poetry... 35 J varieties of - 38 . See Familiar Poans. Poisoning 677 Political parties 333 Polydipsia 632 Polyphagia 632 Population, center of 551 , comparative density of 550 of U. S., proportions of 551 .statistics of 568, 581 Porcelain 339 Portugal, history of 301 Posological table. 678 Postage, rates of,. 616 stamps 615 Postal cars 616 Postmasters, duties and commissions of... 615, 616 Postmasters-General 616 Post-ofiicc Department 614 Post-office, origin of,. 339 ■ — ■ " , work of the 614 Potassium 402 Pottery 339 Poultry 568 Poverty not an obstacle to success 526 Power of attorney to collect debts, rents, etc.. 457 tosell stock 457 , short form 457 Practical cajculations 444 Prairies .„ 394 Precious metals, statistics of 567 Precision of style 33 Preemption of public lands 617 Preferred stock _ 433 Prefixes .._ ig Presbyopia _. 665 Presentation, rules of 714 President of U. S., duties of, etc 604 Printing 339 Prologue 38 Promissory notes 403 Pronunciation 41 Propriety of style 33 Prose and poetical quotations 768 Prosody 35 Prosopopoeia, or personification 34 Protest (drafts and notes) 430 Protestants, distribution of 555 Prothesis . 31 Proxy. See Pozuer of Attorney. Ptolemaic system.... 356 Pulley 345 Plumps .-- - ----337, 347 Punctuation 25 in letter- writing 50 points 25 Purity of style 32 Pyramids 339, 569 Q Quarantine 607 Questions (parliamentary law) 591 Quicksilver 339 Quinine 569 Quinsy 630 Quit-claim deed 468 Quotations, dictionary of 768 R Rabbits 569 Races of mankind 400 Rad-iation of heat 349 Railroads, history of 339 , fastest time ._ 58*5 Railway mail service 616 signal code 569 Railways 569, 578 Rain 349 Rainbow . 348 Rainfall, amount of on a building 444 , average annual 569 Rank in the army and navy 612 Reading 47 Ready Reckoner. 439 Real estate, how transferred 467 Receipts and expenditures U. S. government.. 546 Receipts, forms of 407 Receptions, etiquette of 721 Recommendation, letters of. 55 Reflection oflight 348 Refraction of light _ 348 Registered letters 615 Reign of terror 805 Religion 401, 569 Religions in the U. S.. 558 of the world 554 Remittent fever 670 Remonstrance, form of 593 , letters of 57 Repose (elocution) 44 Reptilian age 395 Republican party 333, 339 Respiration, the mechanism of 645 Respiratory organs 644 , diseases of 646 Resumption of specie payments 339 Rhetoric, figures of. 34 Rheumatism, acute articular 673 , chronic 674 , inflammatory 642 Rhode Island, special laws of 520 Rhyme 35 Ribbon looms 339 Rice production. 569 Rickets 654 Riding and driving, etiquette of. 724 Rivers 397 , length of 569 Rocks .- 393 Roman Catholic church 569 Roman Catholics, distribution of 555 Roof, number of shingles required for a 444 Roumania, history of 306 Rubeola ._ 671 Ruling-machines 339 Running records 585 Russia, history of 293 Rye - 569 s Saddles.. 339 Safety -lamp 338 Saltpeter 339 Salt rheum 652 Salts 354 Salutation, etiquette of 715 Sanguine temperament 535 San Marino, history of 306 Satire 38 Saturn, the planet 367 Savages 401 Saws 339 Scabies 652 Scalds 676 School statistics 559 Scientific department 340 Natural philosophy 342 Physics 342 Chemistry 353 Astronomy 355 Physical geography 390 Scotland, history of 278 , map of 287 Seals of the various States. See Special Laivs. Seas 572 Seasons - • 362 , change of 391 Secretaries of the Interior 620 of the Navy 613 of State 605 of the Treasury 607 of War 610 Sedan chairs 339 Self-reliance 527 Senate 623 September massacres 806 Serfs 572 Servants, management of - 736 \ Scrvia, history of 306 Seven Years' War 806 Sewing machine 339 Sex, proportion of, to population 531 Sextant 339 Shay*s Rebellion 339 Sheep 572 Sheep barn, design for 711 Shingles, number required for a roof 444 Shipping 572 Shoemakers' measure 572 Short-hand and Type-writing 148 History of stenography 148 Short-hand or phonographic alphabet 1 49 Benn Pittman's system.-, 149 Type-writing — 150 Advantages of the different systems 152 PracticaUhort-hand i54 Short-hand amanuenses i55 A self-instructor in short-hand writing 156 Short rates _ 4^4 Siam, history of 314 Sicilian Vespers - 807 Sick headache 630 Sickness, ratio of _- 572 Signal Service — .- 608 Silk production 572 Silurian age ?94 Silvas 394 Silver 567, 572 Simile 34 Simoon 399 Siphon 547 Sirocco, the 399 Six-column journal 207 Skin, diseases of the 651 Slavery 572 . See also Serfs. Sleeping-cars 339 Slides (elocution) 42 Small-pox 672 , statistics of 572 Snow 399 Soap 339 Sodium 402 Shipping statistics .- 563 Soil as affecting climate 398 Solar prominences 359 Solar system, the 357 Solids, liquids and gases 343 Solid measure 446 Solstices 362, 375 Song 38 Sonnet 38 Sore throat 630 , clergyman's 630 Sound 347 South African Republics 318 South Carolina, special laws of. 520 South Sea bubble 806 Spain, history of 300 Speaking, public -... 47 Speaking tnimpets 339 Special laws of the States and Territories 502 Specific gravity 560 Spectacles 339 Spectroscope 375 Speech 9 , the three forms of - 46 , parts of 28 Spelling, rules for 23 , reformed 23 Spherical aberration of light 348 Spinning wheel 339 Spiritlcvel 346 Sprains 675 Springs 397 Square or surface measure 446 Starvation 632 Stings of wasps and bees 676 Stomach, the 627 , cancer of 634 , inflammation of 632 , ulcer of the 633 Strangulation 676 Stamp act _ 339 Stamps, postage 615 Standard time 580 Stanza 36 Starch, percentage of in grain 573 Star-clusters 373 Star-maps 378, 389 Stars, distance of the 372 , double and multiple 37» , fixed 370 , how named and numbered 371 , names of the principal 377 , new and variable 371 , proper motion of the 372 State department 604 Statistical department 544 Statute of frauds 454 Statutes of the United Slates 339 St. Bartholomew, massacre of 805 Steamboat, fastest time 585 Steam power, statistics of. 563 Steam engine 339i 349 Steamship, fastest time 585 Steel - 339 statistics 573 , tensile strength of 573 Steppes 394 Stereotype printing 339 Stirrups 339 Stocks and bonds 43^ Stock exchanges 4^' Strength, comparative scale of 573 Strength of style 33 Stress 43 Style (rhetoric) 3^ (letter-writing) 4^ Synxresis 3< Syncope 3» Synecdoche 34 Synonyms and antonyms, dictionary of. 64 Syntax -.- 29 Syntax, figures of 3' Suffixes 20 Suffocation ^7^ Sugar 339 Sugar production 573 Suicide statistics '- 573 Summer complaint 634 Sun . 358 , apparent motion of the. «.- 358 Sunday-schools 339 Sundials „ 339 Sun-spots 359 Sunstroke ^77 Supreme Court *" Surface measure — . — 44^ Sweden, history of ...--. a£8 Switzerland, history of - 3°' Syllables >8 Syllepsis... 3^ Sympathy, letters of. i9 Table, etiquette of the ...... Tariff and internal revenue 434, Tariff, general average of impoflations....... Tariff of 1883 Tax . Taxation Taxes and duties Tea .339, Teachers, average pay of Teeth , care of the Telegraph , elec:ric... , mechanical statistics 573, Telegraphic alphabet Telegraphic Code , Telegraphic Detector - Telephone -339. , statistics of Telescopes 339, Temperaments , combination of Temperature and climate — Temperature, variations of Tenant's agreement Tenant's notice of leaving — Tennessee, special laws of Territory, acquisition of Texas, special laws of. Tides 3«*, Time ...... , comparative diagram .......... . in elocution , measures of ...... , standard... ... . See also Fast 'nine. Tine.a Iricophytina Title, abstract of Titles Thermometer 339, 349i Thermometric scales, comparison of Thirst, excessive (polydipsia) Thread — Thunder... . Tmesis Tobacco, introduction of — , statistics of .... Toilet Tonsililis, acute Topophone.. ... Tornadoes ........ Torricelli's experiment . — Trade-winds Transit (astronomy) Transit insurance ..-. Traveling, etiquette of. . Treasury Department , Ttiplc alliance, t!ic . Trochaic verse — ............ .. ...... Trotting records Troy weight * 7>7 546 573 435 434 339 434 339 573 559 fe7 7=9 35? 339 578 4.6 416 416 347 578 349 534 535 398 573 473' 473 530 544 521 397 375 579 4» 446 580 <>V 468 5> 57< 445 633 339 399 3' 339 574 7=9 630 348 399 346 398 375 424 7»7 606 806 37 585 44« Q »^ IV S-.o ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Trust deed 46S Tug-boats 576 Turf records 585 Turkey, history of 304 Types, forms of 24 Typhoid fever . 669 Typhoon 399 Typhus fever ...... 670 u Ulcer of the stomach 633 United States, growth of - 581 , history of ._ 252 , map of ._ 25S .population of 582 United States of Colombia, history of 269 Unity of style (composition) 33 Uranus, the planet 368 Uruguay, history of _ 272 Utah, special laws of 521 V Vaccination 339, 672 Vacuum-pans _ 349 Variola _ 672 Varioloid 672 Vegetation _ 401 Velocity 576 Venezuela, history of 269 Ventilators 339 Venus, the planet 360 Vericella _ 673 Vermont, special laws of 522 Verse _ 36 Versification 35 Violins 339 Virginia, special laws of 522 Vision, or imagery 34 Vital temperament 535 Vocal culture 40 Vocal cords, disease of 647 Voice _ - 40 , quality of 41 Volcanic islands 396 phenomena 395 Volcanoes 395 Voltaic electricity 351 Voltaic pile - 351 Vowels and consonants 16 Vulcan, the planet 359 W Wages and cost of living 576 Wages, quick methdd of computing 443 Wall, number of perches of stone required. ... 444 Wall-papers 339 War, cost of 576 , losses by. ^ 576 War Department 608 War-ships 339 Warranty deeds ,, 468 Washington city government 604 Washington Territory, special laws of 523 Watches 339 Water 396, 577 , evaporation of 398 Watered stock 433 Water-power 577 Water-mills 339 Waters, inland 397 Water-spouts 399 Waves . 397 Wealth of nations ,. 577 Weather 398 Weather-cocks 339 Wedding anniversaries 807 etiquette _ 733 Weight and stature of man 577 Weight of various substances 560 Weights and measures 447 , foreign 448 Wells or cisterns, measurement of 414 West Indies, map of... . 294 West Virginia, special laws of 522 Wheat statistics 566 Wheelandaxle 345 Whirlpools _ 397 Whirlwinds 398 White House 604 , presentation at ." 714 Whooping cough 648 Wild-fire 339 Wills 477 , codicils to 479 ■, forms of 479 , short form of 479 . See also Special Laivs. Winds and weather .. 39S Winds as affecting climate 398 Wind, velocity and pressure of 577 Wine. See Alcoholic Liquors. Wire-drawing 339 Wisconsin, special laws of 523 Women workers 577 Wood, number of cords in a pile 445 Woolen cloth __ 339 Words and word-building 18 World, map of the 301 Wyoming, special laws of. 523 Y Yellow fever 671 Yellowstone National Park 339 z Zeugma 31 Zodiac 375 Zodiacal constellations 375 Zodiacal light _ 370 Zoology ._ 400 \ ^Ma3/\irm jn* v/\UTUUII J» -JIJJIl* JUI ^'oaa/Miiiran'' *^Auraaii a*' "WAQvaairi^' ,'^tllBRARYG^ ^\WM)NIVERS/4 ^lOSANCElfj-^ "^ADvaaiH^"^ , ^'rtE I'NIVERJ/A '^UDNVSOV"^ ■^/iaaMNn-jftV" o %a3AiNn-3\^ ^^l■llBRARYO^^ .^tllBRARYQ/-, ^OfCAllFO/?^ '^OAavaani'*^ ^OFCAIIFO/?^ > AWEUNIVERS/a vj^lOSANCElfXx ^.JOJIIVDJO^ '^.J0dllVJJO>^ ^rjiJONVSOl^ -< "^Aa^AlNdJWV^ ^\^E■UNIVER5•//, ,vlOSANCEtfj> '^^Aavaani'^ ^riUDnvsoi^ %a3AiNfl-3i\v ^lOSANCElfj-^ 3 ^^^ ' ■^Aa3AiNa]WV *^lllBRARY(?x ^tUBRARYQc. ^^OdlTOJO"^ .\UEl)NlVERy/A ^VOSANCElfJij. 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