UC-NRLF IE 3 Ifll H*IK^ ^^ *ll- 1 r^-0^ *" OXO.8. ; -F.L.S. }7y.E.X STETTIN ; WILLIAM BALFOTJR BAIKIE, M.D., F.B.S.E. ; LATE ONE OF TUB PRESIDENTS OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. AND CHARLES BARRON, Curator of the Royal Naval Museum, at Haslar. LONDON: JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW. MDCCCLIV. Ah me! those joyous days are gone! ff I little dreamt, till they were flown, /ff How fleeting W ere the hours! For, lesi he break the plepsing ppell, Time bears for \ outh a muffled bell, / And hides his face in flowers ! / Ah! well I mind me of the days, Still bright in memory's flattering rays When all was fair and new; When knaves were only found in books, And f tiends were known by friendly looks, And love was always true! While yet of sin I scarcely dreamed, And everything was what it seemed, And alt too bright for choice; When fays were wont to guard ipy sleep, Crusoe still cou'd make And And Santadaus, rejoice! i me weep, When heaven was pictured to my thought, (In spite of all my mother taught Of happiness srene) A theatre of boyish play One glorious round of holidays, Without a school between! Ah me! these joy out days are gone; L little dreamt, till they were flown, How fleeting were the hours! For, lost he break the pleading spell, lime bears for youth a m* ffled bell, And hides bis face in flowers! John G, Saxe. A3 Stop Thief ! r ^ I saw a figure iu my rear, With stealthy step he ventured near / And sna'ched a curl away. " Give back the ringlet, give," I cried, " I need it a defect to hide" He gave, but it was gray. Thftn with a cold and formal bow He touched hi* pencil to my bow Ah, what a mark was there! " Oh, wipe ir off, you imp," I cried; He left another b/ its side. And moc&ed at my despair. And th D n, as if to leave a trace Of all hia footprints on my face, He stole the peach's fcloom Which mantled o'er my rosy cheek, And le't me callow, pale and weak, Fit teuant ior the tomb. He ptole my merry heart so gay, He stole my ringing laugh away, He veiled ray lustrous eye; H stole my firm elastic step, > 63, SNOW HlLL Stole all my charms, is stealing yet, And will steal till I die. " Stop thief ! stop thief ! stop thief !" I cried. A gentle angel-voioe replied, " Weep not for faded flowers; The arrant thief you so much tear, PREFACE. THE design of the following pages is to endeavour to supply what seems to be a blank in the scientific literature of this country, for, although numerous treatises exist upon every branch, yet no work has hitherto appeared, comprising either succinctly or in detail, a comprehensive outline of Natural His- tory. It may appear presumptuous on the part of the Authors to attempt to grapple with such an extensive range of subjects, which, they feel must be, in many instances, inadequately treated, still they trust that their effort to condense, within the limits of a portable volume, the leading features of Animate and Inanimate Nature, may prove of service to those at least for whom it is more espe- cially intended. Their chief aim has been to ren- der their work at once sufficiently popular for the general reader, without, at the same time, lessening its scientific value. For this purpose technicalities have been avoided whenever their employment could be dispensed with, English names have been given to all the Classes, Orders, and Families, and the principal divisions have been prefaced by brief IV PREFACE. introductory remarks. The classification adopted is that which has seemed most closely to accord with the advanced views of the time; and through- out the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms a uniform system has been employed, so that similar subdi- visions are designated by a cognate nomenclature. January, 1854. THE AURORA BOREALIS SEEN AT SACRAMENTO 16 Aurora Borealis was seen on the night of 16th scember, about half-past 11 o'clock, at Sacramento, is described as having been a beautiful exhibition, id is supposed to be the first that has been observed this country since it became an American State. le Union remarks on the phenomenon '-Jtf^ ^7 To the observer on Second street, the aurora first ipeared in a northeasterly direction, presenting every tpearance of an extensive fire, and, therefore, creating general alarm and turning out of the entire apparatus the Fire Department. The phenomenon extended adually and rapidly over the northern section of the javens, the dominant hue being a beautiful crimson. a duration was probably only about fifteen minutes; it during that time its aspect was frequently changed 7 the successive appearance and shifting of streak? columns of white light, which seemed to be more inspicuous at either extreme of the arch. SNOW \EiiEAS. ^While perambulating over the ep snqws, lyingpdn the mountains everywhere ousdlus . weJHave often observed myriads of ^pvering the surface in almost every )nr curiosity being excited, we have to examine them more minutely, to be what we call (in the absence name) snow fleas. They closely, the regular flea, both as regards action d appearance, but are not over half the size, hile watching them we have seen them burrow neath the snow to the depth of an inch, and d reappear with all the sprightliness of the ck biting tribe ; so far as we have been able to irn; they derive their sustenance from the ow exclusively, never having observed them any other substance. Can any one inform more fully of the nature oLthese beasts ? $ i Porte Messenger. **r** M m*> o- INTRODUCTION. NATUKAL History, or the study of the Mundane Creation, may be primarily divided into two grand empires, whose territories are distinct, and whose boundaries are well defined. The one is the Or- ganic, or that of Animated Nature ; the other is the Inorganic, or Inanimate. The first of these, which comprises within its realms everything possessed of life on our planet, is sub-divided into two king- doms, viz., the Animal or Zoological, and the Vege- table or Phytological. The domains of Inorganic Nature again comprehend Meteorology, or the science of atmospheric phenomena, and Geology, or the history of the composition of our globe, which includes Physical -Geography, or the superficial structure of the earth, and Mineralogy, or a know- ledge of the component parts of rocks. A con- necting link between these two great divisions is supplied by Palaeontology, or the study of Fossil Re- VI INTRODUCTION. - mains, which, though now petrified and inanimate, were once living organisms, abundantly supplied with vitality. A thorough acquaintance with all these varied branches being almost impossible, the student of Nature must make a selection according to his predilections or his opportunities. But while occupied more intently with one subject, the others need not be entirely overlooked, and particu- larly when travelling facts and appearances may be recorded, and specimens collected which will serve to facilitate the studies of fellow-labourers in the same field. The pursuit of Natural History, though adapted more or less to almost any locality, cannot be followed to more advantage, than by persons visit- ing distant countries or little-explored regions. The desirableness of collecting cannot be too strongly impressed upon travellers, as frequently with but little exertion on their part, much valuable infor- mation may be gleaned. To forward such views, the following work has been written, combining within portable bulk sufficient instruction on these diversified topics to point out to the reader what he ought to observe, and how he ought to pre- serve. And who can tell the result of well- directed exertions? Some "strange, bright bird" may, perhaps, on examination, serve to fill up an INTKODUCTION. Vll unoccupied space in the web of nature, a fossil bone may possibly reveal the existence of some pre- viously unknown, monstrous, pre-Adamite form, a broken branch may disclose invaluable materials for future Navies, a mineral fragment may indicate a yet untried gold region, or a geological observa- tion may point out a new locality for that indis- pensable aid to industry, coal. Of late years, Natural History, no longer a chaotic mass of wild theories or vague assertions, but a truly inductive science, has proved of vast service to commercial pursuits, and now possesses a truly national in- terest. Already the names of its cultivators oc- cupy a proud position in the annals of fame, and with another generation they may rank, at least, as high as those of the warriors and heroes of past ages. Let the Zoologist, the Botanist, or the Geolo- gist consider that their discoveries and labours will be remembered when deeds of blood are thought of no more ; and, in the meantime, they may, with pleasure and satisfaction, reflect that they have made themselves known to the world, not by in- flicting pain or misery on their fellows, but by working peaceably yet earnestly for their welfare; that those who venture into remote lands, or among savage tribes, in attempting to elucidate the laws of Nature, have as high a claim to distinction as V1U INTRODUCTION. the ruthless conqueror; and that those who devote their talents and their labours to furthering this great end, will secure for themselves an honourable position in the lasting records of science. ERRATA. Page 65, line 20 for 25 read 28 82 31 ,, Skates Turbots 273 25 Araneid Araneida 276 2 ,, Padipalpi j> Pedipalpi 302 23 Daracia Dorado, n 24 Conopea Conoplea 31 _! Aster olepas Astr olepas 346 12 after 10 place Family 379 27 for CodmintJia read Coelelmintha ,, 432 13 for Cane-wood read Cam-wood 446 16 after 10 place Family 508 10 occuring occurring 552 6 3) Clymenidce Clymeniidce 567 27 after Oycadacece place a comma 575 20 for Montmarle read Montmartre 671 5 preparations preparation 10 minature miniature 672 18 omit four- ,, 712 after Dendrocoela insert Dendronotidse ...141 PART I. ZOOLOGY. THE NATURAL FAMILIES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORGANIZATION. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. IN pursuing the study of the Animal Kingdom, two different methods may be followed. The one named the Zoological, considers more especially the classi- fication and arrangement of living creatures from their external configuration and general shape ; the other, by the aid of Comparative Anatomy, directs attention more particularly to their internal struc- ture and physiological analogies. To obtain a com- plete acquaintance with the subject, both plans of research must be adopted, but by those whose time and opportunities are too limited for such a compre- hensive study, either of these two branches may be followed out, without totally losing sight of the other. The latter is most successfully studied at home, while the former is of greater consequence to the travelling naturalist, for whose behoof this work is intended. In describing therefore the various classes, orders, and families, attention will be paid more par- ticularly to external configuration, and the leading 2 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. characteristics will be, as far as practicable, of a strictly Zoological nature; not that for a moment we would, by so doing, wish to cast any slight upon the other branch, which is undoubtedly the higher and more philosophical of the two, but merely be- cause it is not of so practical a nature, nor so univer- sally applicable for general discrimination of forms, and consequently less adapted for the purpose we have in view. A succinct and exact definition of an animal, as distinguished from a vegetable, is not an easy task. The two kingdoms do not run into each other by any means, but both appear to spring from a com- mon root, viz., vitality; and, for some distance from their origin, are so closely blended that a separation is extremely difficult. Accordingly we find that the lowest members of each group are, by different writers, described as animals, or as vegetables, just as their ideas happen to dictate. Linnaeus on this point gave utterance to a celebrated axiom, viz., "Stones grow, vegetables grow and live, animals grow, live, and feel/' This, though perhaps true enough in the main, is not sufficiently explicit, as it is difficult to prove that Sponges, which are generally admitted as animals, are possessed of feeling ; while again Sir James Edward Smith argued, though quite on hypo- thetical grounds, that plants might be endowed with sensation, though in a very low degree, in which opinion, however, he had but few followers. The power of voluntary motion has also been brought forward as a test, but such a criterion is alike futile MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 3 and inapplicable. Another distinguishing feature was believed to be afforded by burning the sub- stance in question, when, if of an animal nature, it would give out an empyreumatic odour, because of its containing nitrogen ; but it has since been shewn that this element is also afforded by vege- tables. The most satisfactory definition yet advanc- ed is, that "animals are possessed of an internal receptacle for food, wherein they collect the nutri- ment destined for their support/' * Even this, how- ever, is not fully correct. Another line of demar- cation has been attempted to be drawn from the circumstance that animals obtain nutriment only from previously organized matter, while plants ar nourished by inorganic material, which they thus prepare for the ultimate support of animal life. Many, if not all of these hold good, and are quite applicable in reference to the more advanced forms of both kingdoms; but in their primary stages the question still remains to be solved. It , has been beautifully observed by an eminent zoological autho- rity, " Light and darkness are distinct from each other, and no one possessed of eye-sight would be in danger of confounding night with day ; yet he who, looking upon the evening sky, would attempt to point out precisely the line of separation between the parting day and the approaching night, would have a difficult task to perform." And so it is with the point we have had under consideration. Nature * Vide " Rymer Jones." Nat. Hist, of Animals. Vol. I., p. 5. B2 4 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. throughout her works erects no lofty barriers, no visible boundaries ; for however well marked the cen- tral portions of her various territories may seem, yet on their confines they are so closely united, so inti- mately combined, as to blend her entire domains into a perfect and harmonious whole. The most simple division of the Animal Kingdom is into Vertebrates and Invertebrates, the latter being again divided into four sub-kingdoms. These are distributed into classes, orders, sub-orders, and families, which is the extent to which we shall trace them in the following pages ; as an enquiry into sub- families, genera, sub-genera, and species, would be perfectly impracticable within the limits of a portable volume. The system of nomenclature adopted is as uniform as circumstances allow, especially in the case of the families, which, according to the prevalent zoological views of the day, are always indicated by ending in idee. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. I. SUB-KINGDOM. VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. Vertebrata, Guv. Spinicerebrata, Encephalata, Grant Myelencephala, Owen. 1 Class Mammals (Mammalia, Mammifera) 2 Birds (Aves) 3 Reptiles (Reptilia) 4 Amphibians (Amphibia) 5 Fishes (Pisces) MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 5 II. SUB-KINGDOM. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. Mollusca, Guv. Cyclogangliata, Grant. Hetero gangliata, Owen. 1 Class Cephalopoda (Cephalopoda) 2 Pteropods (Pteropoda) 3 Gasteropoda (Univalves) (Gasteropoda) 4 Bivalves (Conchifera) 5 Tunicaries (Tunicata) 6 BracMopods (Brachiopoda, Palliobranchiata) III. SUB-KINGDOM. ANNULOSE /ANIMALS. Articulata, Guv. Annulosa, Macleay. Diplogan- gliata, Entomoida, Diploneura (part) Grant. Ho- mogangliata, Owen. 1 Class Cirrhopods (Cirrhopoda, Cirripedes) 2 Crustaceans (Crustacea) 3 fish-Parasites (Epizoa) 4 A rachnidans (Arachnida) 5 Insects (Insecta) 6 Myriapods (Myriapoda) 7 Annelids (Annelida, Annulida) iy._SUB-KINGDOM. RADIATE ANIMALS. Radiata (part), Cuv. Diploneura vel Helminthoida (part), Cycloneura (part), Grant. Nematoneura, Owen. Zoophyta, Auct. 1 Class Echinoderms (Echinodermata) 2 Wheel- Animalcules (Rotifera) 3 Ascidian-Polyps (Polyzoa, Bryozoa) 4 Cavitary-Entozoa .. (Coelelmintha, Nematoidea) 5 Parenchymatous-Entozoa (Sterelmintha) 6 Sea-Nettles (Acalephse, Malactinia) 7 Polyps (Polypifera, Phytozoa) 6 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. V._ SUB-KINGDOM. ACBITE ANIMALS. Acrita, Macleay. Cryptoneura (part) Rudolphi. Cy- cloneura (part), Grant. Oozoa, Cams. Protozoa, Oken. 1 Class Poly gastric- Animalcules (Polygastrica, Infusoria) 2 Foraminifers (Foraminifera) 3 Sponges , (Porifera, Amorphozoa) SUB-KINGDOM OF VERTEBRATES. The vertebrate animals constitute the first great division of the Animal Kingdom, and embrace the highest and most intelligent forms of living crea- tures, ascending from fishes, and finally arriving at man himself. The members composing this import- ant group are very numerous, and are formed to inhabit the air, the earth, and the waters, different individuals being adapted for each element by their external configuration and internal structure. Among them are to be found the largest and most bulky of living forms, as the whale and elephant among mammals, the ostrich among birds, the rep- tilian crocodile, and the basking-shark the giant of the finny tribes. In them the nervous centres are more specially allocated and protected by being placed in a bony canal ; and the organs of special sense are most perfectly developed. The expansion of nervous matter forming the brain first commences in them, at first small and unimportant, but gradu- ally increasing in size and volume until it finally MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 7 appears in the human race in its most perfect con- dition. In the size, number, and complicated nature of most of their viscera the Vertebrates shew a great advance over the inferior classes ; but on these points it would be out of place here to enlarge ; suffice it to say, that the body is generally divisible into a head, a trunk, and extremities, the latter never exceeding four in number. The voluntary movements attain perfection, being less automatic and more the result of volition than among the lower orders; and the system of organic life, so developed in the mollusks, here gives way to the more important system of animal life. In short, taking a mollusk or a star-fish as examples of an In- vertebrate, we find them to live within themselves and for themselves, not exactly worshipping their bellies, as they can hardly be said to possess one, yet devoted to gastronomy, in which they are probably adepts, and spending their time in alternate feeding and repose. While in Vertebrates higher occupations manifest themselves, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch become more refined, social feelings, of a dif- ferent description from those of the ants and bees, are observed, passions of various kinds disturb the frame, until finally the whole are centred in talking, reasoning, busy, marrying man. 1. SUB-KINGDOM OF VERTEBRATES. Vertebrata. Skeleton internal, jointed, vital, cartilaginous, or osseous. Head distinct, enclosing, and covering with the vertebrae the principal nervous centres. I r 8 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. Extremities never exceed four. Anal and oral ori- fices distinct, remote, mostly at opposite extremi- ties. Organs of special sense well developed, chiefly situated in or near the face. Mouth with two jaws opening vertically, one situated either above or be- fore the other; blood, red; heart, muscular; sexes, separated ; generation, viviparous or oviparous. MAMMALS. Among the many and singular forms to be met with in this class, are numerous examples which alike puzzle the systematist and astonish the be- holder; forms which clearly prove that though linear arrangements may be most convenient for our pur- poses, and such they certainly are with the present state of knowledge, they yet are naught but artifi- cial. Some have thought circular arrangements to be the natural method; but all are found imperfect, unusual forms occurring, having so many apparent affinities, yet with such an amount of differences as to baffle the ingenuity of the most profound na- turalists. A fit symbol of the arrangement of the Animal Kingdom in nature might perhaps be found in the beautiful web of the garden spider (Epeira diad&ma). The Mammalia are placed at the head of the Ani- mal Kingdom, because in them are to be found the most complete development of faculties and the most advanced structure. Man, regarded as an animal, stands first ; having MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 9 the most perfect form, the most delicate sensations, pre-eminent intelligence, and being little dependant on instinct. Those which follow are all found to be endowed with faculties and forms admirably suited to their modes of living, and to the vicissitudes to which they may be exposed. Those singular ani- mals, the Bats whose noiseless flight and rapid evo- lutions we witness in the summer evenings may well arrest attention, as amongst the many examples affording proof of design and adaptation ; nor, as we proceed, shall we be at a loss to find numerous others equally striking. The Mole, doomed to live a subterraneous life, and seek its food beneath the surface of the soil, requires suitable adaptations ; these it has to perfection in its fore feet, so admir- ably formed for digging ; the Hedgehog, not endowed with speed or strength to avoid a combat with an enemy, rolls itself up, and presents a prickly ball, which few dare touch, and as its food, chiefly con- sisting of coleopterous insects, is only to be found during the warmer seasons of the year, it passes the winter in a state of hybernation, instead of being subjected to the torture of a long fast. The Lion and Tiger, with the rest of the cat tribe, intended to live a rapacious life, possess great strength and agility, with teeth and claws of a most formidable nature; the latter, in order to preserve them with constant sharp points, are ordinarily kept in a re- tracted state, and are only thrust forward at the will of the animal, when about to seize its prey, or to act defensively; their habits too, being chiefly 10 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. nocturnal, require appropriate organs of vision ; thus we find the pupils of the eyes Very large and sus- ceptible, and that they may not be inconvenienced by the glare of day, the irides remain contracted during that time, leaving but a small part exposed. In the Seals, and more particularly in the Whales, we see the form modified, so as to be entirely adapted for an aquatic life. With the former it becomes necessary that they should at times seek the land or the ledges of rock for repose; their shape therefore has still some resemblance to the terrestrial members of the class to which they belong; while in the latter, des- tined to reside wholly in the water, the external form is fish-like, only, however, purely adaptive, as they still possess the essential character of mammals, having the organs of respiration and circulation so arranged as to enable them to dive down and re- main for a limited period in the depths of the ocean. The Camel, intended to live on barren sandy tracts of dry and heated desert land, where other animals, without some special provision, would perish from thirst, are provided with the means of allaying theirs, by a peculiar modification of the stomach, which thus becomes a reservoir of water sufficient for many days' consumption ; their feet, too, broad, padded, and elastic, are well suited for travelling over such light and yielding soil. The teeth of the Rodents furnish us with another instance. The front, or cutting teeth, by continually growing from a persistent pulp, compensate for the wear to which they are constantly subjected, and the inner part, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 11 being of a softer material than the outside ayer, a sharp edge is always preserved by their mutual attrition. The Sloth, destined to pass an arboreal life, and to feed on the foliage of trees, has its limbs modified into organs of suspension, and from their peculiar form and the position they hold in regard to the trunk, progression along the ground is to the animal a very difficult matter. In the great imitative power of the Apes, the craftiness of the wily Fox, and the sagacity of the Elephant, we may see the modifications of instinct which are more or less observable in all, and in the exercise of which we may find much to admire and astonish us, whether we witness it amongst the unreclaimed in their native haunts, or in the domes- ticated about the abodes of men : in the former it is especially interesting, though very much so also in the latter ; and how many are the pleasing anec- dotes recorded of the instinct of animals as exhibited in such as have become familiarized. To that power man is greatly indebted as exercised by those ani- mals which have been tamed and rendered subser- vient to his purposes. What he owes to the labour of the Horse, to the prosperity of his flocks and herds, or to the faithful companionship of the Bog, need scarcely be mentioned, being all self-evi- dent. In the vast diversity of form, and wide differences of size, how much there is to attract and engage us ; whether we gaze on the massive structure of the Elephant, or the light and graceful outline of the An- 12 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. telope ; the huge, unwieldy Whale, or the tiny creeping Mouse. How much, in the fleet and bounding step of the Gazelle, and the slow move- ments of the Ant-eater; in the gay and lively actions of the Squirrel, or the dulness of the Sloth. So likewise in the singular provision of the pouch amongst the Marsupials, whose young, brought forth at an early period, require some special protection in their then utterly defence- less state, and again in the extraordinary forms of the Echidna and the Duckbill. The covering of the members of this class too, is a subject deeply interesting, regarded either in connection with their own economy, or in relation to man. The spiny covering of the Porcupine con- trasts strongly with the woolly coat of the Sheep ; the thick, almost naked skin of most of the Pachy- derms, with the long, silky hair of the Llama. The smooth and closely adpressed hair of the Seal, points to its fitness as a clothing for an animal whose life is chiefly spent in the water ; while the smooth and naked skin of the more aquatic Whale, is evidently best suited to the almost fish-like habits of the Cetaceans. These are a few of the subjects of interest, rapidly sketched, which are to be met with in studying the forms and habits of the members of this class, and viewed in connection with the circumstances under which they severally live, attest "the wisdom of God in Creation/' MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 13 I._CLASS MAMMALS (Mammalia}. Faculties in most advanced state of perfection; powers of motion varied ; sensations delicate ; intel- ligence superiorly developed ; young suckled; mostly fitted for walking; a few are enabled to fly, and some are destined to live in the water. 1. SUB-CLASS. PL ACENTAL MAMMALS (Placentaiia). I. ORDER. MAN (Primates). Position of body vertical ; senses delicate, and nicely balanced ; organs of voice pre-eminent; intel- ligence in a high degree ; capable of progressive de- velopment. 1. FAMILY. Men (Hominidse). Characters as in Order. II. ORDER. FOUR-HANDED MAMMALS (Quadrumana). Limbs more or less lengthened ; possess four or- gans of prehension similar to hands, generally with an opposable thumb on each. 1. FAMILY. Apes (Simiidse). Nostrils divided by a narrow septum ; opposable thumbs on fore and hind feet ; generally naked callosities on rump ; sometimes cheek pouches ; usually furnished with a tail. Dentition incis : J can. i = J pre mol: mol: tJ=32. 2. FAMILY. American Monkeys (Cebidse). Nos- trils separated by a broad septum; thumbs sometimes absent on fore feet ; no callosities 14 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or cheek pouches ; tail often prehensile. Den- tition incis: * can: J~J mol: ^=36. The lacchi have only five grinders on either side of each jaw. 3. FAMILY. Lemurs (Lemuridse). Muzzle pointed ; fur woolly; grinders tubercular; tail some- times long, sometimes absent ; first, or second and third toes of hind foot furnished with claws. Some have large nocturnal eyes. In- cisors varying in number in upper and lower jaws. 4. FAMILY. Flying-Lemurs (Galeopithecidse). Hairy skin, expanded from sides of body, extending between fore and hind legs, and including the tail ; toes furnished with sharp compressed claws; cutting teeth pectinated. Habits nocturnal. III. ORDER. BATS (Cheiroptera). Fingers of fore limbs very long, connected by a membrane, which is continued to unite the anterior and posterior extremities, forming wings, by which the animals are enabled to fly. 1. FAMILY. Insectiverous Bats (Yespertilionidse). Grinders acutely tubercular ; index, or first finger, with one or two phalanges, without a nail; many have a nasal disk expanded in the form of a leaf. Those which are pecu- liar to the new world have three phalanges to middle finger ; the others have but two. 2. FAMILY. Frugiverous-Bats (Harpyidae). Grind- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 15 ers bluntly-tubercular; index with tliree pha- langes, usually furnished with a nail ; without nasal disk. Generally of larger size than the Vespertilionidce IV. ORDER INSECT-FEEDERS (Insectivora). Teeth beset with conical points; limbs short; feet mostly plantigrade ; mammae ventral. Nature timid ; habits mostly nocturnal, subterraneous, frequently aquatic. 1. FAMILY. Moles (Talpidse). Head long, narrow, somewhat depressed; nose much prolonged, pointed, flexible ; eyes very minute ; ears hidden ; feet plantigrade. The more typical forms have anterior limbs largely developed and furnished with strong nails adapted for digging ; tail of various lengths. 2. FAMILY. Elephant Mice (Macroscelididse), Head conical ; nose lengthened into a trunk ; eyes large ; hind legs and feet long ; fur long and soft ; habits of the Jerboas. 3. FAMILY. Banxrings (Tupaiidae). Head broad, somewhat depressed, tapering to a pointed muzzle, which is divided in the centre by a furrow ; eyes large ; ears naked ; feet plan- tigrade ; toes long, five in number ; tail often broad and hairy like the squirrels, sometimes hairy only at the tip ; habits arboreal, 4. FAMILY. Hedgehogs (Erinaceidse). Muzzle point- ed; eyes small and prominent; body covered above with sharp spines ; feet with five toes, 16 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY nails strong. Some have the power of rolling themselves up. V. ORDER. RAPACIOUS MAMMALS (Carnivora). Teeth more or less trenchant, canines large and pointed, six incisors in each jaw ; muscular energy great. By a comparison of the tubercular portions of the teeth with the cutting parts, the degree of sanguinary appetite, in these animals, can be deter- mined. 1. FAMILY. Dogs (Canidae). Muzzle lengthened; jaws with three false molars above, five be- low ; two true molars, behind each carnivor- ous tooth; tongue smooth; limbs lengthened ; tail generally more or less bushy ; feet digi- tigrade. The diurnal Canidse have the pupils round ; the nocturnal have them elliptical ; and many have the feet furred beneath. 2. FAMILY. Civet Cats (Viverridse)". Muzzle long ; form lengthened, comparatively low ; body somewhat compressed ; one true molar in lower jaw, two in upper jaw, two tubercles on inner side of lower carnivorous tooth ; tongue covered with sharp papillae; claws semi-retractile ; anal pouch with glands which secrete an odorous matter ; fur gene- rally spotted, that of tail annulated. 3. FAMILY. Cats (Felidse). Muzzle short and rounded ; jaws short ; number of teeth small, no true molar in lower jaw, one very small in MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 17 upper ; upper carnivorous tooth three lobed, with a broad heel inside, lower two lobed, no heel ; tongue roughened by horny, recurved papillae ; body compressed ; anterior limbs massive; digitigrade. Habits chiefly noc- turnal. 4. FAMILY. W easels (Mustelidse). Muzzle short, obtuse ; body long, slender, flexible ; limbs short; tail lengthened; one true molar on either side of each jaw ; digitigrade ; stature small ; disposition very sanguinary. They diffuse, when alarmed, a fetid stench. False molars in the typical forms |^j*. 5. FAMILY. Skunks (Mephitidse). Muzzle slightly elongate, obtuse ; body heavy ; limbs stout ; tail short and bushy, usually erect ; claws strong; lower carnivorous tooth with two tubercles on inner side ; feet plantigrade ; hair of body generally longitudinally striped. Commonly mephitic. 6. FAMILY. Bears (Ursidse). Body usually heavy, with or without a tail ; limbs long and thick ; plantigrade ; claws strong ; cartilage of nose elongated and moveable ; lips generally mo- bile ; tongue extensible ; molars tubercular. Most have the power of climbing trees. Ha- bits omnivorous. 7. FAMILY. SWs (Phocidse). Body lengthened, ta- pering posteriorly ; feet short, in the form of flippers ; toes connected by a membrane ; teeth variable ; fur short and close. Able 18 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. swimmers, and spend the greater part of their time in the water. VI. OKDER CETACEANS (Cetacea). External appearance somewhat fishlike; body ge- nerally covered with a smooth skin ; anterior limbs in the form of paddles ; no posterior limbs ; tail expanded horizontally into a fin of greater or less breadth. I. SUB-ORDER. CARNIVOROUS CETACEANS (Carnivora). Skin smooth, shining, generally destitute of hairs ; nostrils in the form of spiracles and pierced on sum- mit of head ; mammae placed near vent ; teeth coni- cal or wanting. 1. FAMILY. Baleen- Whales (Balsenidse). Head large ; upper jaw much arched ; no teeth, but from each side of the upper jaw is suspended a series of plates of baleen or whalebone, the edges of which are formed into a loose fringe of fibres which fill cavity of mouth ; spiracles on upper part of head ; with or without a dorsal fin. 2. FAMILY. Sperm-Whales (Physeteridse). Head very large, with an extremely obtuse snout ; lower jaw narrow, corresponding to a groove in upper, and furnished with a row of conical teeth which fit into cavities on edge of palate when the mouth is shut, there being no teeth in upper jaw ; blow-hole situated on anterior part of head. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 19 3. FAMILY. Dolphins (Delphinidse). Head small, short, and rounded, or lengthened into a beak ; jaws generally furnished with a num- ber of conical teeth ; with or without a dor- sal fin. For the most part of comparatively small size, and in form taper towards each extremity. II. S UB-ORDER.. HERBIVOROUS-CETACEANS (Herbivora). Grinders with flat crowns ; two mammae on breast ; hairy whiskers ; orifices of nostrils pierced at end of muzzle. 4. FAMILY. Manatees (Alanatidse). Skin thick, and coarse-grained, with a few scattered hairs ; head conical; muzzle large and fleshy, two tufts of stiff bristles at its sides ; upper lip cleft ; mouth moderate ; nails on edges of swimming paws ; tail terminated by a length- ened oval fin ; grinders |j ; no cutting or canine teeth in adult. 5. FAMILY. Dugongs (Halicoridse). Skin smooth, with a few scattered hairs ; head small in proportion, and of a peculiar form, owing, in great measure, to the large, thick, and trun- cate upper lip, forming a blunt thick snout, truncated portion furnished with bristles ; nostrils on summit of upper jaw at the point where it is bent down ; two cutting teeth in upper jaw in form of tusks, grinders ^J ; caudal fin bilobed. 20 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 5. FAMILY. Stellerines (Eytinidae). Skin thick, hard, rugged, forming a kind of cuirass of agglutinated hairs ; head small, obtuse ; nos- trils at end of snout ; lips double, space be- tween lips filled with strong bristles ; no external ears ; teeth horny \ J attached to the gums, having no insertion in the bones ; tail ending in a stiff crescent-shaped fin. VII. ORDER PACHYDERMS (Pachydermata). Form heavy, unsymmetrical ; skin thick, hard, deeply furrowed, generally but scantily clothed with hair ; toes included in a skin and tipped with broad nails, or enclosed in hoofs ; teeth often very large ; some have the nose lengthened into a proboscis. 1. FAMILY. Hippopotami (Hippopotamidse). Form unwieldy ; skin smooth ; head large, termi- nated by a broad swollen muzzle ; mouth very large ; four incisors and two canines in each jaw, lower canines long, thick and bent, forming large tusks ; legs very short ; four toes on each foot, terminated by small hoofs. Habits aquatic. 2. FAMILY. Elephants (Elephantidae). No front teeth in lower jaw, two large projecting tusks in upper jaw, which grow from a persistent pulp ; nose greatly prolonged, forming a pro- boscis of extraordinary flexibility and pre- hensive power, and furnished at tip with a small finger-like appendage ; limbs very mas- MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 21 sive ; toes five on each foot, included in hard skin. 3. FAMILY. Tapirs (Tapiridse). Nose lengthened into a short proboscis of considerable flexi- bility and prehension; six incisors and two canines in each jaw ; fore feet have each four toes, hind three, cased in small hoofs at tip. 4 FAMILY. Hogs (Suidse). Muzzle long, narrow, and truncate ; nose mobile ; incisors vari- able ; canines large and projecting, those of upper jaw turned up, lower longer, often very angular, recurved ; skin covered with strong, stiff hair ; tail rather short, or none ; legs rather short ; feet with four toes furnished with hoofe, the two middle toes being consi- derably the largest, postero-lateral pair small and scarcely reaching the ground. 5. FAMILY. Rhinoceri (Rhinocerotidse). Skin of extraordinary strength and thickness, often arranged in folds ; nose furnished with one or more formidable recurved horns ; upper lip long and flexible ; toes three in number ; g on each foot, shod with blunt hoofs. 6. FAMILY. Damans. (Hyracidse). Form some- what like the Rodents ; size not exceeding that of a Hare ; muzzle and ears short ; tail a mere tubercle ; body clothed with fur ; two incisors in upper jaw, four in lower ; three or four toes to each of fore feet, three to hind, united by the skin to the nails, which 22 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. are short, broad, and flat, except the inner posterior toes which are armed with a crook- ed nail. VIII. ORDER SINGLE-HOOFED MAMMALS (Solipedes). Hoofs undivided ; six cutting teeth in each jaw ; upper lip whole and mobile. Use their hind legs in defence. 1. FAMILY. Horses (Equidse). Characters as given in order. Some have tail covered with long hair throughout its length, others have long hair only at tip. The Equine group have a wart on inside of each leg ; the Asinine have a wart on inside of fore legs only. IX. ORDER RUMINANTS (Ruminantia). No incisors in upper jaw, a considerable space be- tween incisors of lower jaw and molars, crowns of molars marked with a double row of crescents ; feet with two toes in front, furnished with hoofs, which appear like a single hoof cleft, behind and rather elevated are two small, and more or less rudimen- tary toes provided with hoofs ; generally furnished with horns. 1. FAMILY. Camels (Camelidae). Without horns ; upper lip cleft ; canine teeth in both jaws ; feet broad, expanded, elastic, terminated by two small hoofs ; generally one or more pro- tuberances on back. 2. FAMILY. Deer (Cervidse). Horns solid, deci- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 23 duous, covered with a hairy skin when grow- ing, generally more or less branched or palma- ted; usually provided with lachrymal sinuses. 3. FAMILY. Musks (Moschidse). Without horns ; long projecting canine teeth in upper jaw of males ; size small ; of slender and very elegant proportions ; no lachrymal sinus. 4. FAMILY. Gira/s (Cameleopardalidse). Perma- nent, solid, simple horns in both sexes, always covered with a hairy skin, crowned with a tuft of stiff, upright hairs ; neck very long ; fore legs disproportionate in length ; tail rather long, and tufted ; tongue long, pre- hensile ; whole appearance graceful. 5. FAMILY. Hollow-horned Ruminants (Bovidse). Horns persistent, sheathing a bony core, round, or compressed and angular, often annulated, bent or curled in various ways ; with or without lachrymal sinus ; tail short, or elongated and tufted. The Antelopes (Antilopinse). Have the limbs long and slender in the typical species, general contour light and graceful ; no dewlap ; tail short and hairy. The more aberrant species assume a more or less bovine or caprine form ; the former are of large size with heavy bodies, tail lengthened and tufted ; the latter have rather heavy bodies, and stout limbs, legs short, hoofs large ; tail short and flat. Muzzle narrow or broad. Horns conical, or angular; straight, recurved, 24 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. lyrate, or spirally twisted, frequently annu- lated ; sometimes large and approximated at base, descend, and turn up at point. The Goats (Caprinse). Have a narrow clothed muzzle ; chin generally well bearded ; hair sometimes long and shaggy ; limbs short and stout ; hoofs large ; tail depressed and hairy ; horns generally large, directed upwards, back- wards, and outwards. The Sheep (Ovinae). Have the muzzle narrow and clothed ; limbs strong ; horns angulated, rugose, massive, directed backwards, then drooping assume a more or less spiral form. The Oxen (Bovinse). May be known by their large and powerful form, short neck, dewlap, comparative shortness of legs in proportion to length and bulk of bodies, and their broad naked muzzle ; tail generally long and tufted ; horns usually round and tapering, sometimes flattened, occasionally very massive at base. X. ORDER. EDENTATES (Edentata). No front teeth, or toothless ; molars, when pre- sent, of simple structure, being destitute of enamel and of distinct roots; large claws embracing extre- mities of toes ; the whole group marked by a want of agility. 1. FAMILY. Sloths (Bradypodidse). Head short and rounded ; no cutting teeth, canines rather pointed, molars cylindrical ; two pectoral mammae; anterior limbs long and weak, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 25 adapted for suspension; toes completely join- ed by skin, and armed with very long, strong, compressed, and curved claws ; tail none. 2. FAMILY. Armadillos (Dasypodidse). Head long and pointed, mouth small, tongue somewhat extensible ; no cutting or canine teeth ; grind- ers cylindrical; body covered by a hard, scaly armour ; fore feet with four or five toes, hind feet five. They have the power of rolling themselves up. 3. FAMILY. Earth-Hogs (Orycteropodidse). Head lengthened and pointed, tongue extensible; form bulky, long, and low; skin thick, co- vered with bristles ; nails thick and fitted for digging; grinders jj^j, cylindrical, and tra- versed in a longitudinal direction by a num- ber of little canals. 4. FAMILY. Anteaters (Myrmecophagidae). Head generally very long, tapering to a point; mouth small, toothless, tongue long, exsertile ; body long, thickly clothed with long hair ; tail long and bushy, or naked at tip and pre- hensile ; or body and tail covered with dense horny imbricated scales; claws long, cutting, incurved. Walk on sides of feet. XL ORDER EODENTS (Kodentia). Two long curved incisors in each jaw, which are bevelled off on inner surface, and always present a sharp cutting edge, a wide space between these and 26 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. molars, which have flat or blunt tuberculated crowns ; eyes large and lateral. 1. FAMILY. Squirrels (Sciuridse). Head rather broad ; eyes large and prominent ; fore feet with four toes, hind five; tail more or less lengthened, generally very hairy and ex- panded in the arboreal species, bushy in the terrestrial ; some have skin of body extended between limbs ; fur usually soft. For the most part lively and agile. 2. FAMILY. Jerboas (Jerboidse). Head large ; eyes very prominent ; fore feet short, with five toes ; hind legs and feet very long, with three, four, or five toes ; tail very long and tufted ; fur soft. Progress by leaps. 3. FAMILY. Rats (Muridse). Teeth with tubercu- lar crowns; muzzle conical; nose somewhat prolonged ; facial line nearly straight, or slightly curved ; or with nose short and blunt, and facial line more curved ; ears rounded ; tail long, tapering, and scaly, scan- tily clothed with hair; toes usually long. 4 FAMILY. Voles (Arvicolidse). Molars with flat crown ; head blunt ; facial lines much arched body usually stout; tail scaly, sometimes clothed, and rather tufted at apical portion, generally about half the length of body, sometimes longer. 5. FAMILY. Mole-Rats (Spalacidse). Head large and blunt; eyes very small; sometimes fur nished with cheek pouches; body thick, cy- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 27 lindrical ; tail absent or very short ; limbs short ; cutting teeth often very large. 6. FAMILY. Spiny-Rats (Echimyidse). Facial line slightly curved ; nose generally blunt, some- times rather produced, giving a more murine aspect; tail usually very long, scaly, but more or less clothed with hair, occasionally forming a brush at end; body clothed with fur, more or less intermixed with strong, grooved, lance-like spines, or with longer and larger hairs, which are flattened and grooved like the spines; molars with flat crowns. 7. FAMILY. Porcupines (Hystricidae). Body more or less armed with spines ; muzzle broad, thick, clothed with soft hairs ; facial line rather hollow between eyes and nose ; upper lip slightly notched or divided by a vertical groove ; tail short, and furnished with spines, or long, more or less destitute of hair at apical portion and prehensile; soles of feet naked and smooth, and having five toes, or with expanded and rough soles, and toes 45 or 44. 8. FAMILY. Chinchillas (Chinchillidse). Head broad; eyes placed far back ; whiskers long; ears large, rounded or elongated; tail long or moderate, recurved and bushy; toes 4-3, 4-4, or 5-4; fur soft. 9. FAMILY. Cavies (Caviidse). Head generally large and thick; facial line nearly straight or slightly curved ; eyes large ; upper lip c2 28 MAmTAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. entire; body generally clothed with coarse hair, which is sometimes very long on hinder parts of back ; tail wanting, or rudimentary ; limbs short, or long and fitted for running; feet naked beneath; toes 4-3, 5-3, or 5-5, nails strong, sometimes almost hoof-like. 10. FAMILY. Hares (Leporidse). Upper lip cleft ; tip of muzzle clothed ; four incisors in upper jaw, two small ones being hidden behind the front pair, which are grooved, lower incisors smooth, always white and shorter than in most other rodents ; tail short and turned up or not visible ; fur soft ; soles of feet hairy. Dentition in. |, molars ^J or ^J. II. SUB-CLASS. APLACENTAL MAMMALS (Aplacentalia). I. ORDER MARSUPIALS (Marsupialia). Females of most of these animals provided with a peculiar pouch on lower part of abdomen for the reception of their young, which are brought forth prematurely ; scrotum of male hangs before penis both sexes have two bones (marsupial bones) at- tached to pelvis anteriorly. With the exception of the Wombat (Phascolomys) none have the same number of incisors in both jaws. 1. FAMILY. Opossums (Didelphidse). General contour rat-like, with muzzle longer and naked at tip; tail long, very scantily clothed, covered by a scaly skin, prehensile ; feet with MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 29 five toes, furnished with claws, except inner toes of hind feet ; plantigrade ; pouch some- times rudimentary. Dentition in. ^ can. J~J pre-molars |j, molars ^t molars tubercu- lous. 2. FAMILY. Dasyures (Dasyuridse). Head rather depressed, tip of muzzle naked ; five well developed toes on fore feet, nails crooked; hind feet with the thumb small resembling a tubercle, or absent, and four disunited toes ; tail long, well clothed, non-prehensile ; pouch sometimes absent. Dentition in. **, canines large, molars trenchant. 3. FAMILY. Bandicoots (Peramelidse). Head long, very pointed, tip of muzzle naked; ears some- times very large; outer toes of fore feet re- sembling tubercles, the others fully deve- loped; hind feet considerably longer than fore, inner toes sometimes present, but rudi- mentary, the two next united as far as the nails, the fourth large and furnished with a strong nail ; pouch opening backwards. Den- tition in. ^ in. J~ J, pre-mo. Jj, molars j, 4. FAMILY. Phalangers (Phalangistidse). Head broad, short, tip of muzzle naked, upper lip cleft ; fore feet with five toes, armed with com- pressed curved claws ; hind feet with a nail- less opposable thumb, remainder furnished v with curved claws, second and third toes united; skin sometimes expanded from sides of body and extended between fore and hind 30 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. legs; tail generally long, frequently prehen- sile; pouch well developed. Dentition in. J, can. J-J or Jj, pre-mo. Jj^J, mo. j or jjj. 5. FAMILY. Wombats (Phascolomyidse). Head large, flat, eyes small; upper lip cleft; muz- zle obtuse, tip naked, nostrils widely sepa- rated; body stout; limbs short; feet broad; tail only a tubercle; fur long and coarse; nails on toes of fore feet broad and solid, on hind toes curved; teeth bearing a general resemblance to the Rodents. Dentition in. I grinders ^. 6. FAMILY. Kangaroos (Macropodidse). Muzzle elongated, contracted ; upper lip cleft ; fore legs small, with five toes; hind legs very long and powerful, two inner toes small and united, the next large, long, and armed with a very strong claw ; tail long and strong ; pouch well developed ; fur soft. Dentition, in. , can. jj, or J^J, pre-mo. J-J, molars j. II. ORDER. MONOTREMES (Monotremata). Animals so called on account of their possessing but one opening (cloaca) for all their excretions. Have no pouch, but have marsupial bones ; tooth- less, or provided with horny teeth. 1. FAMILY. Porcupine Ant-Eaters (Echidnidse). Snout long and narrow ; mouth very small ; tongue protractile; body covered above with strong sharp spines ; legs short, thick, and strong, a spur on hind foot of males ; toothless. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 31 2. FAMILY. Duck-Bills (Ornithorhynchidse). Body depressed, tapering at each extremity, clothed with a mixture of crisp and soft fur ; muzzle elongated, flattened, somewhat like a duck's- bill, and covered with a thick skin ; tail short and flat ; feet webbed, the membrane con- tinued beyond the toes ; a spur on hind foot of the males ; teeth horny. BIRDS. The arrangement chosen for this class, is that employed by Mr. G. R Gray in his "Genera of Birds," with such slight alterations as were thought to be necessary. That arrangement appears to be the best which has hitherto been brought forward, yet much remains to be done by travellers and others, having opportunity for making original observa- tions, towards determining the natural affinities of species and groups, which object can be greatly aided by carefully recording, in detail, the habits of such species as may come under their observation. Much has been written upon birds, by many authors, both of ancient and modern date, though the wonder is that more has not been written, for a general interest seems to have been always felt in them, which is not at all surprising, when we con- sider the charm they lend to nature, and the sur- prising manifestation of a beautiful adaptation of means to ends exhibited in their conformation. 32 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. No place appears cheerful without them ; the land- scape seems imperfect in their absence. The Swal- low must flit around the old church spire, the Rook strut upon the glade, the Daw must harbour in the ruined castle, the Wagtail follow the plough. The comfort too which man derives from the domesti- cated sorts is sufficient to interest him largely in these, whether they are kept as articles of food, or as objects of ornamental attraction. Nor is super- stition a small source from which attraction has sprung; numerous spots in Old England may even now be found where the Raven's croak is still re- garded as an omen of ill ; and many a ghost story is still rehearsed around the winter fire, originating in some benighted swain's having been startled in the woods by the hobgoblin hootings of an Owl. But it is in their native haunts where birds are best seen to perfection, and where they interest us the most, some being confined to comparatively limited spots, others having a world-wide range. The Swallow tribes, impelled by the nature of their food to lead a migratory life, may be said to live in a perpetual summer, and to spend the greater part of their existence on the wing ; the fine plumaged Trogons, the Puff-birds, and the Jacamars, dwell in the woods of tropical America; in the deep re- cesses of the forest, the Todies, the Boatbills, and the Motmots take up their abode, and there, in keep- ing with the gloom which pervades such spots, utter their melancholy croak. In the soft twilight the Goatsuckers course the pasture land, the river mar- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 33 gin, and the swamp, and hunt around the woods for those insects of crepuscular habits, on which they subsist ; while the beautiful Sun-birds of the Old World, amidst the glare of day, seek the flowers from which to sip the nectar ; and the Humming-birds of the New World, glittering with dazzling bril- liancy, poise themselves around the blossoms, to pluck from them the insects which there lie hid. In Australia, the Honey-eaters, more retired, creep among the foliage, and find their food in the flowers of the Eucalypti and other plants. In all parts of the world the Creepers are seen climbing the trunks and branches of trees, in search of the minute creatures which conceal themselves in the fissures of the bark ; while the Fly-catchers enjoy a like extended range, charming the woods with their song, or enlivening them by their activity ; and among the trees which border streams their short and fitful flight may often be seen, as they dart forth to seize some pass- ing insect. Pasture lands are the resort of the Star- lings and the noisy Crows; the sterile expanse and sandy deserts of Africa and Asia furnish subsistence and a home for the Sand-grouse ; the Plovers fre- quent the moorland and the plain ; the sly and timid Rails seek their food and screen themselves from observation amidst the long rank grass and sedge which grow in the marsh ; along the swamps, the sandy margin of the stream, or the sea-shore, in all parts of the world, may be heard the whistle of the Curlew, the Sandpiper, and the Snipe, some re- presentative being every where found; while the c 5 34 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. little Phalarope may be seen swimming buoyantly on the sea, the lake, or the fresh-water pond. In the quiet, lonely pool, or sequestered swamp, the Heron may be detected standing, silently watching for its prey ; the migratory Spoonbill has a similar resort ; and the Crane, and the Stork seek their food alike in the morass or the open plain. The Geese and the Ducks are universally observed, some fre- quenting the rivers, others resorting to the sea, while some find sustenance on the shores and flats left exposed by the retiring tide. The Gulls seek for food near the sea-coast, or resort to cultivated lands in search of worms ; a few lead a piratical life, and subsist by plundering other species. The Albatros and the Petrels roam at large over the waste of waters ; the Divers, the Grebes, and the Auks, are found in bays, creeks, rivers, or near cliff-bound coasts, in all parts of the world ; while the sin- gularly formed Penguins select their habitations around the rocky islands of the Southern Ocean. The architecture of birds is also a subject for our admiration. The curiously constructed nests of the Weavers of Africa, and the beautifully woven cradles of the Hangnests, suspended in numbers together from the slender branches of trees in the forests of tropical America, are among the most remarkable ; though not less interesting are those of others, par- ticularly when taken in connection with the condi- tions under which they live. The heaps of vegetable matter brought together by the Mound-bird of Aus- tralia, wherein several females deposit their eggs to MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 35 be hatched by the heat developed during fermenta- tion, astonish us by their novelty; and amongst other extraordinary habits may rank that of the Bower-birds of the same country, for whose singular bower-like erections it is difficult to determine a use. These, with numberless others, form subjects for pleasing investigation ; and the more such enquiries are pursued, the keener will be the interest taken in them, for truly in nature every charm is really supreme. II. CLASS. BIRDS (Aves). Body clothed with feathers ; anterior limbs con- structed for flight (with few exceptions) ; bills horny ; feet covered with a scaly skin. I. ORDER RAPACIOUS BIRDS (Accipitres). Bill strong, upper mandible sharp, pointed, and curving downwards; cutting margins toothed or festooned ; nostrils pierced in a membrane (cere) in- vesting the base of the bill; talons sharp, strong, much hooked ; muscular power great. I. SUB-ORDER. DIURNAL RAPACIOUS BIRDS (Diurni). Eyes placed laterally. 1. FAMILY. Vultures (Vulturidse). Head more or less denuded ; eyes level with surface of cheeks ; bill not toothed, lateral margins of upper mandible rather sinuous, extensively covered with the cere ; tarsi short and covered 36 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. with reticulated scales ; claws but slightly curved, blunt ; crop prominent. 2. FAMILY. Falcons (Falconidse). Head clothed; eyes sunk ; bill more or less curved from base ; cutting margins toothed, festooned, or sinu- ated ; tarsi variable in length, usually covered in front with large scales, seldom reticulated ; claws much curved, very acute. II. SUB-ORDER. NOCTURNAL RAPACIOUS BIRDS (Nocturni). Eyes large, placed in front, surrounded by a circle of radiating feathers. 3. FAMILY. Owls (Strigidge). Head large ; bill short, much hooked, upper mandible entire, lower notched ; tarsi and toes more or less feathered. II. OKDER PERCHING BIRDS (Passeres). Feet more or less formed for clasping the branches of trees ; toes generally three before and one behind, sometimes two and two. Very numerous ; divided into the Fissirostral, Tenuirostral, Dentirostral, and Conirostral tribes. I. SUB-ORDER. FISSIROSTRAL BIRDS (Fissirostres). Gape wide, extending beneath eyes ; feet variously formed ; tarsi nearly always short. 1. TRIBE NOCTURNAL FISSIROSTRAL BIRDS (Nocturni). Eyes very large ; plumage dingy, soft, downy. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 37 1. FAMILY. Goatsuckers (Caprimulgidge). Bill very wide at base; margins of upper mandible sometimes folding over lower, occasionally provided with a tooth, short and compressed at tip ; gape furnished with long stiff bristles. Many have inner side of claw of middle toes serrated. 2. TRIBE. DIURNAL FISSIROSTRAL BIRDS (Diurni). Eyes smaller ; plumage compact. 2. FAMILY. Swallows (Hirundinidae). Bill small, weak, very broad at base ; tarsi very short, occasionally feathered ; sometimes all the toes turned in front ; claws curved , wings very long and pointed ; plumage more or less glossy. 3. FAMILY. Wood- Swallows (Artamidse). Bill stout, broad at base, more or less compressed ; culmen rounded, curved from base to the tip ; nostrils round, pierced in substance of bill ; upper mandible distinctly notched near tip ; tarsi short, strong, covered with broad scales ; toes rather long ; claws strong and com- pressed ; wings long and pointed. 4. FAMILY. Trogons (Trogonidse). Bill short, broad at base, narrowed and curved to tip, margins serrated or notched near tip, base furnished with bristles ; tarsi short, small, more or less feathered ; toes two before, two behind ; plu- mage very rich. 5. FAMILY. Rollers (Coraciadidse). Bill broad at 38 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. base, varying in length, curved to the tip, where the upper mandible is more or less bent over the lower, margins sometimes ser- rated, sometimes notched near tip ; tarsi usually short ; toes three before, one behind ; wings generally lengthened and pointed 6. FAMILY. Kingfishers (Alcedinidse). Bill broad at base, lengthened, generally straight, tip acute where upper mandible is sometimes bent over, culmen often keeled ; tarsi short, robust, occasionally partly clothed with fea- thers ; toes 3], 22, or 21. 7. FAMILY. Bee-Eaters (Meropidse). Bill assuming the tenuirostral character, long, curved, acute, compressed, culmen carinated ; wings some- times long and pointed; tarsi short; toes ra- ther long, lateral ones more or less united to middle toes ; claws curved ; tail long, with sometimes the two middle feathers prolonged. II. SUB-ORDER. TENUIROSTRAL BIRDS (Tenuirostres). Bill varied in form and length, often arched and compressed, always slender and acute ; tongue often extensible and ending in a brush of filaments ; tarsi usually short ; hind toe strong, and armed with a strong claw. 8. FAMILY. Hoopoes (Upupidse). Bill long, slen- der, more or less arched, much compressed ; tarsi strong ; claws strong and curved ; outer toe partly united to the middle one ; wings somewhat rounded. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 39 9. FAMILY. Sun-Birds (Promeropidse). Bill gene- rally lengthened, slender, curved or straight, gradually compressed from base to tip, cut- ting margins sometimes finely toothed ; nos- trils covered by a long membranous or hard scale ; claws curved and acute. Males gene- rally remarkable for brilliancy of plumage. 10. FAMILY. Humming-Birds (Trochilidse). Bill more or less long, slender, straight or curved, generally acute ; tongue long, capable of being darted forward at the will of the bird ; tarsi very short, more or less clothed with feathers ; toes more or less united at base ; claws curved ; wings very long. 11. FAMILY. Honey-Eaters (Meliphagidse). Bill va- riable in length, of moderate strength, curved, often rather broad at base and gradually com- pressed to tip, which is acute and notched, sometimes subconic; nostrils in a large groove, covered by a scale ; tongue extensile, with a pencil of fibres at tip ; outer toe united at the base. 12. FAMILY. Creepers (Certhiidse). Bill more or less lengthened, often slender, compressed, arched, or with culmen curved or straight ; nostrils covered by a scale, or with bill broader and nostrils placed in a long groove ; tarsi and toes very strong, the latter fur- nished with curved claws, hind toe long, and armed with a strong claw; tail feathers often rigid, with shaft projecting and pointed. 40 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Many have the central portion of the feathers light with a dark margin, or dark with a light margin, giving them a mottled appearance. III. Sl7-0DEfi.DvNTiKOSTXAL BIRDS (Dentirostres). Upper mandible more or less notched near tip, and bent over lower ; gape often furnished with bristles ; tarsi comparatively slender ; toes formed for perching. 13. FAMILY. Warblers (Lusciniidae). Bill gene- rally slender, straight, more or less depressed at base, which is sometimes furnished with bristles ; nostrils placed in a groove ; tarsi generally elevated, slender ; claws curved, acute ; eyes, in most, bold and prominent ; plumage soft and loose. Mostly of solitary habits. The Tit-mice (Parince) have the bill stronger and more conical ; and the tarsi, toes, and claws stouter than most others. 14. FAMILY. Thrushes (Turdidse). Bill strong, sides compressed more or less, culmen cari- nated, straight or curved to tip, which in some cases is considerably bent over, denti- tion variable ; gape sometimes bristled ; tarsi and toes strong ; hind claw rather long ; wings moderate, generally rounded. 15. FAMILY. Flycatchers (Muscicapidse). Bill de- pressed, broad at base, narrowed to tip, where upper mandible is suddenly bent over and notched ; gape furnished with bristles ; nos- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 41 trils round, frequently exposed; feet short and weak; claws moderate; tail often lengthened. 16. FAMILY Chatterers (Ampelidse). Bill short, strong, broad and more or less depressed at base, culmen more or less curved to tip where upper mandible is bent down and notched ; gape wide, generally without bristles ; tarsi short and strong ; claws very strong ; tail often very short. 17. FAMILY. Butcher-Birds (Laniidse). Bill strong, culmen curved more or less, a deep notch near tip of upper mandible, which is hooked, generally a few bristles at base ; nostrils round ; tarsi of moderate length and strong ; claws acute. IV. SUB-ORDER. CONIKOSTRAL-BIRDS (Conirostres). Bill of various lengths, strong, conical, seldom notched ; feet well developed, fitted for walk- ing or perching, tarsi boldly scutellate ; wings generally pointed. 18. FAMILY. Crows (Corvidse). Bill strong, some- what compressed, generally straight, some- times arcuated, or upper mandible gently curved to tip, which is sometimes slightly in- flexed ; nostrils frequently covered with stiff feathers, directed forwards ; tarsi strong, co- vered with thick scales ; wings generally long and pointed. 19. FAMILY. Corvine-Starlings (Chlamyderidse). Bill strong, not very lengthened, more or less 42 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. compressed, culmen curved to tip, commissure curved, upper mandible inflexed and emargi- nated at tip ; nostrils generally round, ex- posed, or partly covered by frontal plumes ; wings moderate and pointed ; tail often lengthened ; tarsi rather long, strong ; toes and claws strong, especially the hind claw. 20. FAMILY. Starlings (Sturnidse). Bill in form of a compressed cone, ctilmen more or less ad- vancing on forehead, straight or very slightly inflexed near tip, commissure greatly angu- lated at base, upper mandible rarely emargi- nate ; frontal feathers advancing to posterior part of nostril-openings ; wings moderate and pointed ; tail often short. 21. FAMILY. Finches (Fringillidse). Bill short, thick, conical, broad, and often angular at base, more or less pointed at tip, where upper mandible is sometimes slightly inflexed, com- missure angulated at base, or sinuated ; tarsi of about equal length to middle toe, hind claw more or less lengthened. 22. FAMILY. Colies (Coliidse). Bill short, broad at base, culmen elevated and arched ; nostrils naked, placed in a large membranous groove ; wings short, pointed; tail long, cuneated. Possess the power of turning all the toes for- wards. 23. FAMILY. Plantain-Eaters (Musophagidse). Bill rather large, broad at base, compressed, cul- men high, curved to tip, sometimes advancing MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 43 on forehead, lateral margins generally ser- rated; nostrils placed near middle and ex- posed ; tarsi short, strong ; outer toe fre- quently capable of being turned backwards ; wings rounded. 24. FAMILY. Hornbills (Bucerontidse). Bill very large, long, broad at base, curved and com- pressed to tip, upper mandible generally sur- mounted with protuberances of various shapes at base, which advance more or less on fore- head ; lateral margins serrated ; tarsi short, strong. III. ORDER SCANSORIAL-BIRDS (Scansores). Feet particularly formed for climbing, having two toes before and two behind ; tarsi usually very short. 1. FAMILY. Toucans (Rhamphastididse). Bill very large, light, cellular, long and compressed, curved to tip, margin serrated ; tarsi short ; toes long ; wings rounded. 2. FAMILY. Parrots (Psittacidse). Bill very strong, short, compressed, deep, upper mandible form- ing a short curve from base to tip, which beads considerably over and is much longer than lower, lateral margins of upper mandible sometimes toothed ; nostrils placed in a cere ; tarsi short, strong, and rounded. 3. FAMILY. Barbets (Capitonid^). Bill thick, di- lated at base, which is generally furnished with stiff bristles, compressed towards tip, culmen gently curved to the tip which is 44 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. slightly prolonged, sometimes inflexed, mar- gins of upper mandible at dilated part falling deeply over lower ; tarsi short ; toes rather long ; tail feathers soft ; plumage brightly coloured. 4. FAMILY. Woodpeckers (Picidse). Bill lengthened, straight, angular, wedge-shaped, compressed, and more or less truncate at tip ; tarsi short ; toes long, particularly outer hind toe ; tail feathers stiff and pointed. The Wrynecks (Yuncince) have tip of bill acute, and tail broad and soft. 5. FAMILY. Cuckoos (Cuculidse). Bill very variable in size, generally more or less curved, culmen sometimes straight and inflexed at tip, gene- rally curved, sometimes elevated and keeled, lateral margins of upper mandible arched or undulating, emarginated at tip ; gape large ; tarsi very variable in length, covered with large, broad scales ; inner hind toe sometimes furnished with a long spur-like claw ; wings rounded, or long and pointed ; tail long and rounded IV. OKDEB. PIGEONS (Columbse). This embraces but one great group. The 1. FAMILY. Pigeons (Columbidse). Bill moderate, rather slender, soft at base, hard at tip, which is more or less elevated and arched ; nostrils covered by a soft fleshy tumid membrane ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 45 tarsi generally short, sometimes feathered, usually covered in front with broad scales, strong ; toes moderate. V. ORDER. GALLINACEOUS, or GAME-BIRDS (Gallinse). Feet especially adapted to walking ; legs long and strong ; tarsi generally provided with one or more spurs ; toes connected at their base by a membrane ; claws blunt ; wings short ; bill arched. 1. FAMILY. Curassows (Cracidse). Bill varied in form, covered at base by a soft skin, more or less curved, sometimes much compressed, with culmen greatly elevated; nostrils generally exposed ; cheeks more or less denuded ; head sometimes crested or ornamented with curled feathers ; tarsi without spurs ; claws some- times much curved ; hind toe long and placed on a level with others, forming a good perch- ing foot ; tail lengthened and broad. 2. FAMILY. Mound-Birds (Megapodiidse). Bill not stout, rather weak, with culmen low at base, apical half slightly elevated and curved to tip ; nostrils placed near middle of bill ; tarsi very stout, without spurs; toes long; hind toes on same plane as the others ; claws very long, slightly curved ; wings rather large, rounded ; tail sometimes very short. 3. FAMILY. Brush- Turkeys (Talegallidse). Bill strong, thick, somewhat compressed, culmen curved to tip ; head and neck very scantily clothed, with skin brightly coloured and more 46 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or less wattled; tarsi strong, without spurs ; toes and claws long ; tail long, and more or less broad. 4. FAMILY. Turkeys (Meleagridse). Bill broad at base, and invested by a soft membrane, in which the nostrils are pierced, narrowed to tip ; head and neck very scantily clothed with hairs, carunculated ', tarsi without spurs or only an obtuse knob ; toes moderate, hind toe elevated and short ; tail lengthened and broad, or short and drooping. 5. FAMILY. Pheasants (Phasianidse). Bill curved to tip, upper mandible prolonged, culmen somewhat elevated at base ; lateral margins rather undulating ; nostrils covered by a hard tumid scale ; cheeks more or less naked ; head sometimes furnished with a fleshy crest, and pendulous wattles from base of lower man- dible ; wings rounded ; tail long, broad, gra- duated or arched ; tarsi with one or more spurs ; hind toe elevated and short. 6. FAMILY. Grouse (Tetraonidse). Bill short, curved from base to tip ; margins of upper mandible arched; nostrils covered by a hard scale, sometimes partly concealed by the fea- thers ; tarsi sometimes clothed with feathers, with or without spurs; hind toe short and elevated, or wanting; tail lengthened or short. 7. FAMILY. Plover -Quails (Pedionomidae). Bill rather slender, compressed, culmen slightly MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. 47 elevated and curved towards tip, nostrils placed in a long groove, covered by a scale ; lower part of tibiae sometimes bare; tarsi generally lengthened, covered in front with transverse scales; hind toe generally want- ing, when present short and elevated ; back much arched; tail very short. 8. FAMILY. Tringoid-Grouse (Thinocoridse). Bill short, rather broad at base, compressed to tip, culmen curved to tip; nostrils fleshy; wings long and pointed; tail short, rather broad and rounded; tarsi short, strong, and covered in front with transverse scales, or wholly with reticulated scales, hind toe very short. 9. YAMiLY.Sheathbills (Chionidse). Bill rather short, strong, compressed, base of upper man- dible invested by a folded horny sheath covering nostrils; orbits partly encircled by a warty skin; wings rather long; tail of mo- derate length and even; tarsi very strong and covered with small rough scales. 10. FAMILY. Tinamous (Tinamidse). Bill rather lengthened, not stout, slightly curved, some- what depressed at base, which is covered by a membrane, frontal feathers sometimes ad- vancing to aperture of nostrils; wings short and concave ; tarsi covered in front with large scales; hind toe small or wanting; tail rudimentary. 48 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. VI. ORDER. RUNNING-BIRDS (Struthiones). Legs long, fitted for running; wings generally ru- dimentary ; clothed with feathers of a peculiar character. 1. FAMILY. Ostriches (Struthionidae). Stature large; bill broad, depressed; nostrils placed in a large membranous groove; head and neck sometimes destitute of feathers, the for- mer surmounted by a crest, the latter wat- tled; wings rudimentary; tarsi long and very strong, covered with broad scales, two or three in number; claws blunt. 2. FAMILY. Ki-wis (Apterygidse). Bill long, slen- der, curved and grooved, very hard; nostrils small and placed at tip; tarsi rather short, strong; hind toe small and armed with a long acute claw; wings rudimentary, con- cealed by the feathers ; tail none. 3. FAMILY. Bustards (Otididse). Bill rather length- ened, broad at base, compressed towards tip, culmen straight for a portion of its length, then curved to tip, lateral margin of upper mandible undulating ; emarginate at tip ; nostrils large, placed in a membranous groove ; tarsi long, covered with small scales; toes short, three in number; wings long and pointed ; tail broad and rounded. VII. ORDER. WADING-BIRDS (Grallse). Legs long and slender, with lower part of tibias naked ; bill often long and more or less slender. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 49 1. FAMILY. Plovers (Charadriidae). Bill variable in length, basal half soft and weak, apical part hard, with culmen generally somewhat elevated and curved to tip, which is more or less pointed ; nasal groove deep, extending about half the length of the bill ; tarsi more or less lengthened ; toes connected at then- base by a membrane, hind toe small or wanting ; wings long and pointed ; tail generally broad and even. The Oyster-catchers (Hcematopodince) have the bill long, much compressed, and trun- cate. 2. FAMILY. Herons (Ardeidse). Bill long, more or less slender, compressed, pointed ; long much depressed and spatuliform, long slen- der and arcuated, or short with culmen curved to tip ; tarsi long and slender ; toes lengthened and furnished with acute curved claws ; neck long and slender ; back gene- rally much arched ; wings usually rounded ; tail mostly short and even. 3. FAMILY. Snipes (Scolopacidse). Bill more or less lengthened, slender, generally obtuse, straight, arcuated or recurved, soft for a considerable portion of its length ; culmen sometimes curved at tip j upper mandible grooved to near tip, which is sometimes dilated ; nostrils basal, placed in groove ; tarsi variable in length, slender; toes more or less connected by a membrane ; wings 50 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. long and pointed ; tail generally short and rounded. 4 FAMILY. Screamers (Palaniedeidse). Bill not very long, rather slender with culmen to- wards tip somewhat elevated and curved, or stouter and the culmen elevated at base and curved to tip ; upper mandible rather prolonged ; nostrils placed near middle of bill j tarsi long, sometimes very stout ; toes very long and armed with long, acute, and straight or curved claws ; wings moderate and armed with an acute or blunt spur ; tail generally short. 5. FAMILY. Rails (Rallidse). Bill varying in length, compressed, culmen sometimes advanced and dilated, shield-like on forehead, always more or less curved at tip , nostrils placed in a groove towards middle of bill ; toes long, sometimes margined on each side by a lobed dilatation of the skin ; wings usually round- ed ; tail generally very short ; body com- pressed. VIII. ORDER. AQUATIC BIRDS (Anseres). Tarsi generally short, feet webbed ; plumage close and dense. 1. FAMILY. Ducks (Anatidse). Bill covered by a membrane, elevated and compressed at base, depressed towards tip, and often more or less dilated ; tip of upper mandible furnished with a nail ; lateral margins furnished with MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 51 lamellar plates or serrated ; tarsi generally short ; toes connected by a membrane, hind toe free. 2. FAMILY. Divers (Colymbidse). Bill generally lengthened, compressed, pointed ; tarsi much compressed ; toes webbed or margined by a lobed dilatation of skin ; wings pointed ; tail very short or wanting ; legs placed far back causing the bird to stand erect ; neck slender, and lengthened. 3. FAMILY. Auks (Alcidse). Bill varying in length, often short, sometimes greatly compressed, culmen curved to tip, where upper mandible is slightly prolonged and inflexed ; tarsi short and compressed; toes connected by a web, hind toe generally wanting; legs placed far back compelling an erect position when standing; tail feathers short and stiff; wings small and pointed, sometimes useless for flight ; neck short and thick 4. FAMILY. Petrels (Procellariidse). Bill rather long, straight, compressed, deeply grooved; upper mandible hooked ; nostrils tubular ; tarsi usually shorter than middle toe; toes webbed; wings long and slender. 5. FAMILY. Gulls (Laridse). Bill of moderate length, compressed, culmen straight for half its length, then curved to tip, which is acute ; nostrils lateral, linear, placed about middle of bill ; tarsi about the length of the middle toe ; toes connected by a web, hind toe ele- D2 52 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. vated, sometimes very small; claws curved, sometimes very acute ; wings long and point- ed. The Skimmers ( lihynchopince) have lower mandible much longer than upper, and both suddenly compressed from base, and truncate. 6. FAMILY. Pelicans (Pelecanidae). Bill long, strong, pointed or hooked, lateral margins sometimes serrated ; nostrils basal ; tarsi short ; all the four toes connected by a mem- brane; throat sometimes furnished with a dilatable pouch ; wings long and pointed. KEPTILES. The Reptiles, though not a very extensive group, present numerous points of great interest to the observant naturalist. Among them is to be found extreme diversity of external configuration, more so, perhaps, than in any other class of vertebrate ani- mals. They include, among their varied forms, the gliding, hissing Serpent ; the lively, active Lizard; the gigantic Crocodile ; and the huge, unwieldy Turtle. Yet all these, though differing so much from each other in outward appearance, nevertheless possess a sufficient number of characters in common as to enable them to be united into one class. They are all cold-blooded creatures, and their movements are more sluggish than in either of the preceding classes; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 53 the size of the brain and the amount x>f nervous matter is proportionally small, and their motions appear to proceed less from a common centre. They abound more in the warmer regions of the globe, where they remain lively all the year through, while in colder climes they become torpid during the win- ter months. The typical family of Reptiles is that of Lizards, in which the essential characteristics are well marked, and the individuals belonging to which attain to a more advanced state of development, generally speaking, than any others of the group. Many possess an amount of beauty capable of arrest- ing the attention of any ordinary observer, their hues being rich and varied, and their actions grace- ful and agile. Few exceed in these particulars the handsome Green Lizard, so abundantly met with in the South of Europe, and which may there be seen basking on sunny banks, darting from spot to spot, or retreating hastily under some friendly rock to escape the gaze or the grasp of some too curious stranger. Presenting a striking contrast to this, is a wild, forbidding-looking reptile, aptly named by Gray "Moloch horridus," which, with its short, broad, dark-coloured body, armed at all points with sharp, bristling spines, and with an unshapely head, appears to be the incarnation of some mischievous imp or unclean spirit. The Skinks, with their curi- ously-rounded toes, the Blind -Snakes, with their extremities concealed under the skin, the limb-less Serpents progressing on their belly, or the strange Amphisbsenians, so named from being believed to 54 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. advance by either end, also present singular and wonderful gradations. The Tortoises, lacustrine and terrestrial, with rounded bodies and more slug- gish motions, appear, at first sight, widely removed from the more slender and active creatures to which we have just alluded; yet these, as well as the ma- rine Turtles which propel themselves through the water by means of their fin-shaped extremities, alike agree in presenting all the essential characters of the class. New-Holland, so prolific in novel forms, sup- plies a Tortoise (Chelodina), whose long, swan-like neck, bearing a small head, with fierce-looking eyes, almost carries us back in fancy to those remote times when the somewhat similarly-constituted Plesiosau- rus moved through primeval waters, of which ani- mal this Australian species would seem to be a living representative. The Chameleon, so renowned in story and in fable, is one of the existing wonders of this class, and still condescends to exhibit to the amazed beholder its seemingly magical power of changing its complexion. The origin of the belief in some of the fabulous creatures of antiquity, as the Dragon or the Basilisk, may be traced to forms which prevail even in these matter-of-fact-days. The latter name is still retained by an elegant tro- pical Lizard, which has, however, lost the dread power of its namesake of old, and we still possess a Flying-Dragon, which, though terrible no longer, flits about with its wing-like appendages from tree to tree among the forests of the Indian Archipelago. A mystical member of this alliance is the semi- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 55 fabulous monster of our own times, the celebrated Sea-Serpent, whose existence, though repudiated by all sufficiently learned to be sceptical, still forms part of the creed of honest Jack-tars and other dwel- lers on the mighty deep, and which is reported still to pay an annual visit to the Scandinavian fisher- men on the shores of Norway. The flesh of many reptiles is eaten by the inhabi- tants of the countries in which they are found, and that of the turtle forms a very important item in the bill of fare of English epicures. In a really econo- mical point of view they are not of much import- ance, the principal product which they yield being " Tortoise-shell/' so extensively employed in the arts and manufactures. Though this class is now far from numerous, yet at one period of the earth's history Reptiles formed its principal inhabitants, and in size exceeded any- thing of the kind now extant. Oar crocodiles and boa-constrictors, the largest now in existence, were far outvied by the Saurians, whose fossil re- mains so abound in the lias and oolitic formations, among which the Megalosaurus and Ichthyosaurus may be noted for their almost colossal proportions ; while the Plesiosaurus, with its elongated neck, is no less remarkable for its singular fish-like contour. Among the terrestrial species of that era were the gigantic Iguanodon, and a strange, flying Lizard, named the Pterodactylus, which, with expanded wings, Bat-like, flitted through the air. All true Reptiles are air-breathing, and respire by 56 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. -Hearts of lungs, to which, rule those which are aquatic form no exception, as they must obtain *heir supply of fresh atmospheric air by coming to the surface of the water. As far as regards man the majority are harmless, though some, as the Croco- diles and Alligators, will occasionally attack him ; and others, as the venomous Serpents, are justly feared, from the deadly nature of the secretion from their poison glands. In the following list, the arrangement followed is that given by Dr. Gray in his Catalogues of the Rep- tiles of the British Museum, which seems to be at once a convenient one, and also adapted to the pre- sent extent of our knowledge. The descriptions therefore of the orders and families, have been chiefly condensed from these valuable works. III. CLASS.- REPTILES (Reptilia). Air-breathing ; cold-blooded ; skeleton bony ; in- tegument clothed with horny plates, or imbricated scales, which are covered with a thin and often de- ciduous epidermis ; lungs cellular ; heart trilo- cular ; no transformation after birth ; reproduction oviparous.* I. SUB-CLASS. SCALY-REPTILES (Squamata). Body covered with overlapping scales ; skull formed of separate bones ; tongue free, elongate, nicked at tip, often extensile ; vent a cross slit ; * With some exceptions, as in the case of the " Viviparous Li- zard " (Zootoca vivipara) of our own country. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 57 generative organs bifid ; oviparous, rarely ovovivipa- rous ; eggs when deposited with a more or less co- riaceous shell. I. ORDER. LIZARDS (Sauria). Mouth not dilatable ; jaws toothed ; lower jaw- bones united in front by a bony suture ; eyes gene- rally with distinct eyelids ; drum of ear generally distinct, exposed ; limbs 4, distinct, rarely rudimen- tary ; toes clawed ; body elongate, rounded, co- vered with imbricated or granular scales ; tail elon- gate, tapering, rarely prehensile, generally covered with whorls of scales ; eggs with hard skin. I. SUB-ORDER. SLENDER-TONGUED LIZARDS (Leptoglossata). Tongue flat, elongate, and bifid. 1. TRIBE. CYCLOSAURIANS (Cyclosauria). Scales of belly square, in cross bands ; of back and tail rhombic and imbricate, or circular and sub-gra- nular, in cross-rings ; of sides generally granular ; tongue elongate, flattened, base sometimes sheathed, generally free, with two elongate, cylindrical, horny tips ; tail elongate, with whorls of scales, generally conical, tapering, sometimes compressed, with two elevated crests above. A. Head with small many-sided shields. Tongue sheathed at base. Sides flattish, granular. 1, FAMILY. Monitors (Monitoridse). Head-shields minute, flattish, polygonal; tongue retrac- tile ; scales small, roundish, in cross rings, 58 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. those of sides like those of back. Legs 4, strong. Toes 5-5, compressed, unequal. Thighs poreless. 2. FAMILY. Galtetepons (Helodermidse). Head de- pressed ; head-shields many-sided, convex ; muzzle rounded ; femoral pores none ; scales of back and sides oblong, 6-sided, very convex ; of belly oblong, rather convex ; tail round, with oblong convex scales above, and flat, elon- gate, thin plates beneath; legs 4, strong; toes 5-5, curved. B. Head with large, regular shields. Tongue mostly free at base. 3. FAMILY. Teguexins (Teidse). Head pyramidi- cal : shields regular, many-sided ; teeth solid, rooted ; tongue free, elongate, flat ; scales of back granular or keeled, rhombic ; sides flat, scales small, granular ; throat scaly, with a double collar. 4. FAMILY. Lizards-proper (Lacertidse). Head pyra- midical ; shields regular, many-sided ; throat scaly, often with a cross fold in front, and a collar of larger scales behind ; tongue elon- gate, flat, long-forked ; teeth hollow, rooted ; scales granular or rhombic, keeled ; sides flat, scales small, granular. 5. FAMILY. Gordyles (Zonuridse). Head pyramidal or depressed; shields regular, many-sided; tongue flat, nicked at tip ; scales of back and tail large, rhombic ; sides with a distinct MANUAL OP NATURAL HISTORY. 59 longitudinal fold, with small granular scales ; ears distinct ; eyes with two valvular lids ; limbs 4, strong, rarely wanting, or hid under skin. 6. FAMILY. Short-legged Lizards (Brachypodidse). Head-shields regular, many-sided ; temples shielded. Tongue squamose, with two small pointed -tips ; palate toothless ; nostrils late- ral; eyelid distinct; ears hidden ; limbs 4, rudimentary; femoral pores none; body elon- gate, cylindrical ; lateral fold indistinct ; scales of back and tail 4 or 6-sided, imbri- cate, in cross bands, of belly square. 7. FAMILY. Argalias (Argaliidse). Head-shields regular ; cheeks, eyelids, and eye-brows shielded ; lower eyelid scaly, opaque ; nos- trils lateral, anterior ; body subcylindrical ; sides rounded, smooth; scales in thin, smooth, imbedded, transverse series, scarcely overlap- ping ; of back, sides, and tail 4-sided, longer than broad, in alternating series, of belly and under side of tail in longitudinal series, of limbs oblong ; limbs rather short, strong ; femoral pores distinct, numerous ; claws short, compressed ; tail cylindrical, tapering. 8. FAMILY. Anadias (Anadiidae). Head-shields regular, many-sided ; ears distinct ; eyelids distinct ; scales of back and sides squarish, 6-sided, thin, smooth, imbedded, in alternat- ing cross rings, of belly 4-sided, of tail 4- sided, in rings, one behind another, forming 60 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. longitudinal series ; sides rounded ; scales of throat square ; toes 5-5, unequal, clawed ; nostrils in facial ridge ; temples shielded ; femoral pores numerous. 9. FAMILY. Iphisas (Iphisidse). Head and chin shielded ; ear open, circular ; sides rounded ; scales of back, belly, nape, and throat smooth, broad, 6 -sided, transverse, forming a single series on each side of tail, narrow, lanceolate, elongate, regularly keeled, in rings alternat- ing with each other. 10. Chirocoles (Heterodactylidse). Head-shields regular, many-sided ; tongue scaly ; palate toothless ; nostrils lateral ; eyelids distinct, lower transparent ; collar double ; ears hid- den ; body and tail elongate, subcylindrical ; scales of back, sides, and tail slender, 6- sided, lanceolate, keeled, imbricate, in regular rings, those of neighbouring rings alternating with each other, of belly square, smooth, im- bricate, in longitudinal series ; legs 4, short ; femoral pores numerous, in the centre of a scale. 11. FAMILY. Ming-tailed Lizards (Cercosauridse). Head-shields many-sided ; upper eyelids very short ; ears distinct ; collar rather distinct ; body subcylindrical ; sides rounded ; scales of back, sides, and upper part of tail ringed, large, keeled, in longitudinal series ; of belly and tail beneath flat, square ; legs 4, mode- * rate ; toes 5-5, unequal, smooth beneath ; tail rounded. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 61 12. FAMILY. Anguine- Lizards (Chamsesauridse). Head-shields many-sided ; tongue nicked ; palate toothless ; temple scaly ; eyelids dis- tinct, lower scaly ; body subcylindrical, elon- gate, all except head covered with rings of elongate keeled scales in longitudinal series ; limbs rudimentary ; ears distinct ; no lateral groove. 2. TRIBE. GEISSOSAURIANS (Geissosauria). Scales of belly, back, and sides rounded, quincun- cial, imbricate ; sides rounded, with scales like those of back ; tongue narrow, short, flat, and slightly nicked ; head with regular many-sided shields ; neck not contracted ; body fusiform or sub-cylindrical ; praeanal pores mostly none. A. Eyes distinct, exposed; eyelid rudimentary; head conical. 13. FAMILY. Gape-eyed Skinks (Gymnophthalmi- dse). Body fusiform ; ears distinct ; eyelid circular, iinmoveable ; nostrils lateral in a nasal shield ; teeth conical, simple ; palate toothless ; tongue scaly, nicked ; limbs 4, weak, unequal ; femoral pores none. 14. FAMILY. Pygopodes (Pygopodidse). Body cy- lindrical, elongate ; ears distinct ; eyelid rm- moveable, scaly ; head pyramidical, shielded ; nostrils oblong; teeth conical, simple, palate toothless ; tongue flat, scaly in front, velvety behind, nicked ; ventral shields in 2 or 4 62 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. series ; tail with a central series of larger shields ; limbs 2, posterior, rudimentary. 15. FAMILY. Aprasias (Aprasiidse). Body and tail cylindrical, tapering ; ears hidden ; nostrils small ; head small, half-conic, shielded ; muzzle rather produced ; eyelids edged with small scales ; pupil round ; scales of back and belly hexagonal ; limbs none ; prseanal pores none. 16. FAMILY. Scaly-cheeked Lizards (LialisidaB). Body elongated, sub-cylindrical ; head elon- gated, depressed ; head- shields subimbricate, scale-like ; cheeks scaly, muzzle flattened ; eyelid scaly, pupil elliptical, erect; ears dis- tinct; scales oval, smooth, imbricate; belly with 2, tail with 1 series of large shields; limbs 2, posterior, short; series of prseanal pores in front edge of a scale. B. Eyes distinct; eyelids distinct , valvular; head conical. 17. FAMILY. Skinks (Scincidse). Body fusiform, or sub -cylindrical; head sub-quadrangular, shielded ; nostrils lateral ; rostral plate mode- rate, triangular ; limbs 4, more or less strong, sometimes hidden; femoral pores none. 18. FAMILY. Snake-Lizards (Ophiomoridse). Body cylindrical, elongate; head shielded, muzzle rather produced ; nostrils lateral ; teeth straight, conical, blunt ; palate not toothless ; tongue flat, scaly, feebly nicked ; ears hidden ; rostral moderate, triangular; limbs none ex- ternal ; scales smooth, 6-sided. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 63 19. FAMILY. Seps (Sepidse). Body fusiform or subcylindrical, elongate; tongue flat, scaly, nicked; teeth conical, simple; palate tooth- less ; rostral rather large, square ; scales smooth ; toes simple, unequal, clawed ; tail conical, pointed. 20. FAMILY. Acontias (Acontiidse). Body cylin- drical ; head small, shielded ; muzzle coni- cal; upper eyelid small or wanting; ears very small or hidden; tongue scaly, imbri- cate, nicked; rostral large, cup-like; scales smooth ; limbs 4, very short, or none ; femo- ral pores none C. Eyes hidden under skin. 21. FAMILY. African Blind-Lizards (Typhlinidae), Body and tail cylindrical ; head conical ; chin with a cup-like shield ; rostral rather large, cup-shaped ; ears hidden ; scales smooth, equal, 6-sided ; limbs 2, posterior undivided, or none. 22. FAMILY. Blind-Lizards (Typhlopidse). Body cylindrical, sometimes larger behind ; head broad, depressed; nostrils lateral; tongue elongate, flat, forked; mouth small, lineate, inferior ; rostral elongate ; scales 6-sided, smooth. 23. FAMILY. Rough-Tails (UropeltidaB). Body cy- lindrical; head conical, compressed; nostrils roundish, lateral ; tongue elongate, flat, fork- ed; eyebrow-shields none; rostral produced, erect, convex ; scales 6-sided, smooth ; vent with three scales in front. 64 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY IT. SUB-ORDER. THICK-TONGUED LIZARDS (Pachy- glossata). Tongue thick, convex, attached to the gullet at the base. 3. TEIBE. NYCTISAURIANS (Nyctisauria). Scales of belly small, rhombic, imbricate ; of back and sides granular; tongue thick, short, convex, slightly nicked; eyes nocturnal; eyelids circular, not conni vent ; pupil linear, erect ; body depressed ; toes sub-equal, lamellar beneath. 24. FAMILY. Gekkoes (Gekkonidse). Body depressed, sometimes fringed on the sides ; pupil linear, rarely round ; eyes nocturnal ; scales of belly small, rhombic, imbricate ; of back and sides granular; feet for walking; toes generally dilated. 4. TRIBE. STROBILOSAURIANS (Strobilosauria). Scales of belly small, rhombic, imbricate ; of back and sides, imbricate; tongue thick, short, convex, slightly nicked ; eyes diurnal, eyelids valvular, pupil round; feet for walking, toes unequal, compressed; tail with more or less distinct whorls of scales. 25. FAMILY. Iguanas (Iguanidse). Body com- pressed, sub-trigonal, or depressed; toes sim- ple or dilated; teeth round at root, dilated and compressed at tip, toothed on the edge, placed along inner side of jaws, just below the edge. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 65 26. FAMILY. Crested-Lizards (Draconidae). Body compressed; tongue short, depressed, apex entire, or slightly nicked ; eyelids connivent ; feet for walking; thumb anterior and inter- nal; great toe of hind foot occupies same position ; teeth on edge of jaw-bones ; live in trees. 27. FAMILY. Spinous-Lizards (Agamidse). Body depressed; tongue short, depressed; eyelids valvular ; scales of back imbricate ; throat with a cross fold ; toes free, unequal ; terres- trial. 5. TRIBE. DENDROSAURIANS (Dendrosauria). Scales of belly, sides, and back, granular; tongue elongate, sub-cylindrical, worm-like, very exsertile; eyes globular, very mobile, with a small, central, round opening; toes equal, united into two opposing groups ; ears hidden. 25. FAMILY. Chameleons (Chamseleonidse). Body compressed; scales generally granular; tail prehensile; teeth implanted on edge of jaw- bones; males distinguished by thickness of base of tail ; slow-moving animals. The arrangement of the toes of the Chamelions into two opposing groups is beautifully adapted to their habits, enabling them to take a firm hold of what they crawl along, and almost quite to encircle small branches. The division of their toes is rather singular, on the fore feet two toes being external and three internal, while in the hind feet the num- 66 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. bers are reversed, three being external and two in- ternal, so that their whole number of twenty toes may be looked on as arranged in four longitudinal series, each containing five. II. ORDER. SERPENTS (Ophidia). Mouth dilatable ; facial bones moveable ; jaws toothed ; lower jaw bones united by ligaments in in front ; eyes without eyelids ; external ears none ; tongue very long, retractile into a sheath at its base, apex forked, very long, slender, tapering ; limbs none, or only rudimentary ; one lung very large, the other very small or rudimentary. I. SUB-ORDER. VENOMOUS-SERPENTS (Viperina). Jaws weak, upper one toothless, with distinct poi- son-fangs in front, lower toothed ; head large behind ; crown with scales, rarely with shields ; hinder limbs not developed ; eyes lateral ; nostrils apical, lateral 1. FAMILY. Rattle-Snakes (Crotalidse). Face with a large pit on each side, between eye and nostril ; crown covered with scales or small shields ; upper jaw with long fangs ; belly- shields broad, band-like ; anal spurs none; viviparous. 2. FAMILY. Vipers (Yiparidse). Face without sub- orbital pits ; rostral shields broad, band-like ; scales mostly keeled ; tail short, tapering. II. SUB-ORDER. WATER-SERPENTS (Hydrina). Jaws strong, toothed ; fangs moderate, intermixed MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 67 with maxillary teeth ; eyes and nostrils superior ; pupils small, round ; hind-limbs not developed ; ven- tral shields narrow, hexagonal, or band-like. Live in water. 3. FAMILY. Salt-Water Serpents (Hydrophidae), Head usually small, with shields or scales ; belly keeled, with two rows of small scale-like shields, often united together ; nostrils val- vular ; tail mostly broad, compressed ; colours chiefly green or yellow. Can live only for a short time out of water. Live in the sea or in salt lakes. Venomous. The genus " Ackrocordus" is included with this family by Gray, but its tail is conical It inhabits rivers, and in Manilla and Java, is considered by the inhabitants as quite innocuous. 4. FAMILY. Fluviatile- Serpents (Homalopsidse). Belly rounded, with more or less broad band- like shields ; head moderate, often depressed, mostly shielded ; tail conical, tapering ; eyes and nostrils small ; colours mostly sombre. Inhabit rivers and ponds. III. SUB-ORDER. HARMLESS-SERPENTS (Colubrina). Jaws strong, both toothed ; no poison-fangs ; head moderate or indistinct ; crown at times with regular shields ; tongue very extensible. 5. FAMILY. Boas (Boidse). Hinder-limbs rudimen- tary, spur -like ; nostrils lateral ; eyes lateral, pupils oblong ; ventral-shields narrow, trans- 68 .MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. verse, band-like, often 6-sided ; tail short, conical, generally prehensile. Live in marshy places. 6. FAMILY. -Serpents-proper (Colubridse). Vent without spur-like feet ; head usually shielded ; belly with broad band-like shields; nostrils apical, lateral, open; tail conical, tapering. Live chiefly in dry places. 7. FAMILY. Grown- Serpents (Coronellidse). Size moderate or small ; body compressed, often angular ; scales generally smooth, temporal- scales large ; tail conical, rather long. In- habit dry or humid regions. 8. FAMILY. Short-Headed Serpents (Oligodontidse). Size small ; head short, narrow, obtuse ; pala - tine teeth wanting ; colours mostly bright. 9. FAMILY. Wood- Serpents (Herpetodryadidas). Form slender ; head elongate ; tail much lengthened ; mouth very wide ; scales small, partly carinated, in oblique series. Colours chiefly green. Live in woods. 10. FAMILY. Tree-Serpents (Dendrophidse). Form elongated ; trunk compressed ; tail slender, in some angular ; head small, not broader than body ; pupils mostly orbicular ; colours generally vivid. 11. FAMILY. Forest-Serpents (Dipsadidse). Body somewhat lengthened, vigorous, compressed; head thick, obtuse, broader than body ; pupils often vertical ; row of scales along spine larger than those of sides. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 69 "II. SUB-CLASS. SHIELDED-REPTILES (Cataphracta). Body covered with square imbedded plates, generally forming a dorsal and a ventral shield ; bones of skull thick, united into a hard mass ; tongue short, affixed to mouth, scarcely exsertible ; jaws united into a solid mass ; mouth not dilatable ; vent round or linear, plaited ; oviparous ; egg with a hard sheU. I. ORDER CHELONIANS (Chelonia). Body short, depressed, enclosed in a case, formed by two shields united at their margins ; jaws tooth- less ; upper bill covers lower like a box ; eyes with distinct eyelids ; drum of ear visible ; legs short, thick ; tail conical ; vent circular. 1. FAMILY. Land-Tortoises (Testudinidse). Head ovate, shielded ; jaws naked ; nostrils apical ; neck retractile ; feet short, club-shaped ; claws 5-4, or 4-4, blunt ; shell very solid, thick, ovate ; tail short, thick ; slow moving. 2. FAMILY. River-Tortoises (Emydidse). Head rather depressed ; jaws naked; nostrils apical, small ; feet depressed, palmate ; toes 5-5, or 4-4, mostly webbed to the claws ; claws sharp ; tail conical, shielded beneath ; thorax gene- rally depressed; pelvis united to vertebrae only; sternal shields 11 or 12 ; egg oblong, white ; carnivorous ; rapid. 3. FAMILY. Long-necked Tortoises (Chelydidse). Head much depressed, broad ; nostrils elon- gate, tubular ; eyes superior ; jaws horny ; 70 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. neck long, broad, contractile ; feet webbed ; toes 5-5 ; claws 5-5, 5-4, or 4-4, elongate, acute ; shell depressed ; pelvis attached to vertebrae and sternum ; sternal shields 13. 4. FAMILY. Soft-Tortoises (Trionycidse). Head flattened, ovate ; eyes small, superior ; jaws horny, with dependant fleshy lips ; nostrils elongated into a thin cylindrical trunk ; neck long, contractile ; feet palmate, short, strong; toes 5-5, short, expanded, webbed ; two outer clawless ; claws 3-3, acute ; tail short, conical, simple ; bones covered with a soft skin with a flexible margin ; pelvis attached to verte- brae ; eggs spherical. 5. FAMILY. Turtles (Cheloniidse). Head globose, shielded ; nostrils rather tubular ; jaws horny, naked ; neck short, sub-retractile ; feet very long, not retractile, compressed, fin- shaped ; toes depressed, with flat claws ; tail short, thick ; shell low, cordate, with a de- fined bony margin. II. OKDER. EMYDOSAURIANS (Emydosauria). Head large, covered with a thin skin ; ears linear ; gape wide ; tongue short ; jaws with a single series of conical teeth ; nostrils small, anterior ; eyes small ; body fusiform, covered with square bony plates in longitudinal lines ; limbs 4, free ; tail compressed vent linear, longitudinal. 1. FAMILY. Gavials (Gavialidse). Muzzle very long, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 71 slender, sub-cylindrical ; teeth nearly equal ; feet webbed. Old World. 2. FAMILY. Crocodiles (Crocodilidse). Body fusi- form ; muzzle oblong, depressed ; teeth un- equal; lower canines fit into notches in edge of upper jaw ; feet webbed. Old World chiefly. 3. FAMILY Alligators (Alligatoridae). Muzzle broad, obtuse ; teeth unequal ; lower canines fit into a pit in edge of upper jaw; feet scarcely webbed. New World. III. ORDER. AMPHISB^ENIA^S (Amphisbsenia). Body elongate, cylindrical, naked, with square imbedded plates in cross rings ; tail short, conti- nuous, blunt ; tongue flat, not sheathed, nicked ; eyes small, hidden ; eyelids none ; ears hidden ; mouth small ; jaws not extensile ; feet none, or rarely in front ; skull very solid ; vent rather trans- versely plaited. 1. FAMILY. Trigonophes (Trigonophidae). Teeth on edge of jaws, nearly united at base, un- equal, conical, rather compressed ; nostrils lateral, small, oval ; prseanal pores none ; limbs none. 2. FAMILY. Double - Walkers (Amphisbsenidse). Teeth on inner side of jaws, conical, simple, pointed ; nostrils lateral, small ; nape with a longitudinal groove ; limbs none ; prseanal pores distinct ; tail short. 3. FAMILY. Lepidosternons (Lepidosternidse). Teeth on inner side of jaws, conical, simple, 72 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. pointed; nostrils lateral, small, inferior ; chest covered with large and differently shaped shields from rest of body ; limbs none ; prae- anal pores none ; tail short, truncate. 4. FAMILY. Chirotes (Chirotidse). Teeth on inner edge of jaws, conical, recurved, simple, point- ed, unequal, separate; limbs 2, anterior, short, weak ; toes 5, sub-equal, one clawless ; prse- anal pores distinct ; tail short, cylindrical. AMPHIBIANS. Until a recent period Amphibians were, by syste- matic writers, included under the head of Reptiles, constituting the Linnaean order of Batrachians ; but a more careful and attentive study of their develop- ment and structure, led to their being established as a separate class.* To the popular mind most of the members of this tribe are objects of the greatest ab- horrence, whereby many an unfortunate toad has been sacrificed at the shrine of vulgar prejudice. For- merly they were subjects of even more intense de- testation, so much so as to be commonly connected with what was then looked on as a deadly crime, viz., witchcraft ; and Shakspere mentions, among the contents of the witches' cauldron, not merely the persecuted toad, but likewise " Eye of newt, toe of frog." Nay, to such an extent was this belief carried, * By Latreille. Vide " Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Na- turelle," Ire. edition. 1804. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 73 that many an ancient crone, who, in a blazing tar- barrel, expiated at once her own ugliness and her supposed dealings with the evil one, was held to have her familiar spirit near her, encased in the out- ward form of some hateful reptile. But to the more enlightened understanding of the present age, Amphibians, though constituting by far the smallest class of vertebrate animals, have been shewn to present a vast number of singular and curious facts in their history, and in their habits, so as to yield to none in the interest they excite in the mind of the Zoologist. The most remarkable point connected with their development is, that they all undergo transformation after birth, being in early life entirely aquatic, respiring by gills, and at that period in most respects closely allied to fishes ; while, after a time, they throw aside their ichthyic characters, their gills disappear, and they come out as inhabitants of dry land, breathing like all other terrestrians, by means of lungs. A few, however, seem to be so attached to early habits as never to be able to dispense with their gills, which, therefore, they retain for life, at times more for ornament than for use. One individual, is named "Proteus," after his celebrated namesake of antiquity, whom he tries to imitate in a small way, having the external appearance of an Amphibian, but the manners of a Fish. In the young, or tadpole state, they generally have a long tail, which in many, on arriving at maturity, becomes atrophied and finally disappears. Altogether they constitute a most interesting transi- 74 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. tion class, forming an intermediate, connecting link between Fishes on the one hand, and Reptiles on the other. Amphibians can hardly be said to play an import- ant part as far as man is concerned. The legs of the Edible-Frog (Rana esculenta) are eaten in France, where they are reckoned a great delicacy, fit only for the table of the opulent and dainty. In Mexico, another species, rejoicing in the almost unpronounc- able name of " Axolotl," is at times an article of food ; but from their small size and slight muscular deve- lopment, they cannot afford much nourishment. The different viscera of the Toad, or at times the entire animal dry roasted, and reduced to powder, formed in the good old times an article of Materia Medica, and entered into the composition of many a wonderful nostrum, and in Sir Kenelm Digby's "Choice and Experimented Receipts in Physick and Chirurgery," the calcined powder is ranked along with the " fat of a buck rabbit/' " powdered cock- chaffers," &c., as capable of performing wonderful cures. The Amphibians are here classified according to Professor Bell's plan, which seems to form a very natural arrangement. In the detail some of the families given may afterwards require to be united ; but as many of the genera are yet but imperfectly understood, it has been considered advisable rather to amplify the sub-divisions, as more useful for obtaining a practical acquaintance with the class. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 75 IV. CLASS-AMPHIBIANS (Amphibia). Respiration atmospheric or aquatic ; cold-blooded ; skeleton bony ; skin naked ; lungs cellular ; heart trilocular. Most (if not all) undergo a transforma- tion or metamorphosis after birth; re-production oviparous ; eggs with a soft shell. I. ORDER. TAIL-LESS AMPHIBIANS (Anoura). Body short, broad, depressed ; feet wanting during tadpole state, afterwards 4, hinder ones longer ; tail before metamorphosis long, compressed, after- wards wanting ; tympanum open or hid. 1. FAMILY. Frogs (Ranidse). Body tapering ; head flat ; hind legs extremely long ; feet webbed ; skin smooth ; teeth on upper jaw and palate, minute ; tympanum open. 2. FAMILY. Toads (Bufonidse). Body bulky; hind legs slightly elongated; skin covered with warts ; no teeth ; tympanum open ; avoid water. S. FAMILY. Palmate-Batrachians (Dactylethridse). Body short or oval ; skin smooth or tubercu- lated ; tongue wanting or distinct ; teeth minute or partly absent ; tympanum hid ; hind feet broadly palmate; toes pointed. 4. FAMILY. Cell-backed Toads (Pipidse). Body flat- tened horizontally ; head triangular ; tongue wanting ; no teeth ; skin granulated ; tym- panum hid. In females, during fecundation, skin of back forms cells, in which the eggs are hatched. E2 76 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. II. ORDER. GILL-LUNGED AMPHIBIANS (Amphipneurta). Body elongate, naked, smooth ; feet 4, or 2 ante- rior only, rudimentary ; toes short, weak ; tail com- pressed, persistent; eyes small; eyelids none; res- piration aquatic by means of persistent external branchise co-existing with rudimentary lungs. 1. FAMILY. Proteans (Proteidse). Legs 4, weak ; tail compressed; gill-flaps distinct ; gills large ; palatine, teeth in two long series on front edge of vomerine bones. 2. FAMILY. Sirens (Sirenidse). Legs 2, anterior; body sub-cylindrical ; operculum none ; gills small ; palatine teeth in numerous cross series on vomerine bones. III. ORDER. LONG-TAILED AMPHIBIANS (Urodela). Body elongate ; tail long, persistent ; limbs 4, weak ; skin naked, smooth, or warty ; ears hidden ; respiration at first aquatic by external branchiae, afterwards atmospheric by cellular lungs. 1. FAMILY. Salamanders (Salamandridse). Tail compressed or round (remains compressed in aquatic species) ; palatine teeth in two diverging series, one on inner posterior edge of each elongate palatine bone ; sphenoid toothless ; females of some viviparous. 2. FAMILY. Smooth-Salamanders (Molgidse). Head depressed ; tongue large ; tail rounded ; pala- tine teeth in two converging series along outer and posterior edge of each elongate palatine bone ; sphenoid toothless. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 77 3. FAMILY. Cross-toothed Salamanders (Plethodon- tidae). Skin smooth, rarely granular ; pala- tine teeth in interrupted cross series in front of palate ; sphenoid mostly toothed. IY. ORDER GILL-LESS AMPHIBIANS (Abranchia). Body elongate, formed for swimming; legs 4, rudimentary; tail compressed ; respiration by means of lungs only ; branchiae rudimentary, internal. 1. FAMILY. Menopomas (Protonopsidse). Body depressed ; legs 4, strong, fringed on sides ; toes 4 or 5 ; head depressed ; palatine teeth in a transverse arched series. 2. FAMILY. Amphiumas (Amphiumidse). Body very elongate ; head oblong; lips thick; gape small ; legs 4, rudimentary ; neck with a foramen on each side ; palatine teeth in two longitudinal diverging series. Y. ORDER. ANGUIFORM- AMPHIBIANS (Apoda). Body slender, elongate, anguiform ; feet none ; tail almost wanting ; branchiae exist in the young state, disappear in the adult.* 1. FAMILY. Blind-Newts (Caeciliidse). Skin smooth, wrinkled, with minute scales ; head depressed ; eyes very small, mostly concealed beneath skin; gill opening closed in adults. * See Miiller in Oken's "Isis" for 1831, p. 710, or a translation by Mr. J. Hogg, in " Annals and Magazine of Natural History," vol. vii. 1841, p. 354. 78 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. FISHES. Among the countless myriads of living creatures which inhabit the boundless domain of waters on our globe, none are more extensively diffused, or are more generally known to mankind than the finny tribes which we are now about to consider. They are found alike in salt and in fresh water ; in the former, whether it be the vast ocean, or the more restricted sea, gulf, or inlet; and in the latter they equally pervade lake, river, streamlet, or pond. None of their fellow inhabitants of the deep present greater diversity in size, form, or general configuration, and none more abound in points interesting to the human race. As fully two-thirds of the earth's surface are occupied by water, it may be easily supposed that fishes form considerably the largest division of the vertebrate sub-kingdom. In the zoological scale they stand lowest in the list of vertebrate animals ; that is to say, that although perfect in their own day and generation, they never attain to such an advanced state of general development as those classes which precede them. Their structure is admirably adapted for residence in the medium by which they are surrounded, as their bodies are nearly of the same specific gravity as the element which they inhabit, while their shape being that which offers the least amount of resistance, is no less beau- tifully calculated for favouring their powers of mo- tion. Being excluded from direct contact with atmos- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 79 pheric air, the oxygenation of their blood is depend- ant on the air dissolved in the water, which requires a special adaptation of their breathing apparatus. Accordingly we find that their permanent condition resembles that which is seen to exist in the young of the immediately preceding class of Amphibians, that is to say, they respire throughout their life by means of aquatic lungs or gills. By their agency the venous blood is exposed in a state of minute sub- division to the influence of streams of water, which is effected by the blood-vessels leading to them di- viding again and again until they become nearly microscopic, in which state they are supported by a thin, delicate membrane, the whole being arranged as a series of plates or processes placed on what are named the branchial arches. In the greater number of fishes the water meant to supply these vessels enters by the mouth, and, being directed backwards, passes over them, and is finally expelled by the gill- opening under the gill-cover or opercuLum. Fishes are cold-blooded animals ; that is, their temperature hardly exceeds that of the medium in which they live; yet to this there are some exceptions, as in the case of the " Bonito," mentioned by Dr. John Da- vey, whose temperature, he ascertained, surpassed that of the surrounding water by nearly ten degrees of Fahrenheit. Their chief propelling power is their tail, which acts by alternate strokes on either side, similar to the action of an oar in sculling. It is observed that their swiftness varies with the form of the tail ; that those whose velocity is very great, 80 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. such as the Mackarel, have this organ deeply forked and pointed ; while in the more slowly-moving it is square or rounded. The projection backwards of water through the gill-aperture is also believed to have some effect in assisting their forward progress, which is also probably affected by the movements of their various fins. These last-named organs are among the most distinguishing objects of the class, and mostly consist of thin, delicate membranes, spread upon and supported by filaments or rays of more 'or less power and flexibility. These may be modified or divided in various ways, but an ac- quaintance with their names and situations is requi- site, as by their differences families and genera are often separated. When complete they are seven in number; viz., one on the back, named the dorsal; two attached to the breast, the pectoral; two ven- tral, one on either side of the belly; one anal, situ- ated along the under surface of the body; and one caudal, forming the tail. Of these the pectoral and ventral fins may be looked on as analogous to the fore and hind extremities of higher animals. The dorsal fin was formerly considered as influencing the perpendicular position of the fish in water, but from some experiments mentioned by Yarrell,* the idea would seem to be erroneous. The bodies of the greater number are covered with scales, which, how- ever, vary much in their size, shape, and arrange- ment. These are attached by their anterior edge being left free posteriorly. Four principal forms are * 2nd ed., vol. i. p. 365. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. 81 described, of which some knowledge is required, as they are frequently mentioned in the following classi- fication. Agassiz has considered them of such im- portance that he has founded an arrangement on their differences, whereby fishes are divided into four orders, named respectively Ganoidians, Placoi- dians, Ctenoidians, and Cycloidians. Ganoid scales are so designated from their being covered with bright enamel ; they are mostly thick and angular. Species of this order chiefly belong to extinct forms, the Sturgeons, and a few others, being the only living representatives. Placoid scales are composed of hard osseous matter, sometimes large, at other times re- duced to small points, as when they form the prickly tubercles of the Skates. The third variety, or Ctenoid, derives its title from having the outer or posterior edge toothed like a comb. It is found occasionally in fossil genera, and is abundantly numerous among the Perches and other allied families. The last, or Cycloid, is that which is most characteristic of the fish of the present era, and is composed of smooth rounded layers of horny matter, entire at the mar- gins. The external configuration of fishes is extremely diversified. The most usual appearance is that of a cylindrical body, more or less pointed at the extre- mities. Others, as the common Cod, are broader anteriorly, and taper towards the tail. Some are short and broad, as the Chsetodons ; others, as the Eels, long and narrow. Some present a considerable thickness of body, as the Salmons ; while others, like E 5 82 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOKY. the Dealfish, are excessively thin. The mouth may be enormous as in the Fishing-Frog, or small, as in the File-Fishes ; it may be situated beneath as in the Rays, or at the end of a long tube as in the Trumpet-Fish. Their teeth may be large, sharp, and numerous, as in the hungry Sharks ; or they maybe perfectly toothless. They may carry about with them long, gracefully waving rays, as the Gemmeous- Dragonet ; be variously ornamented with leaf-like growths like the Phyllopteryx ; or be armed at all points with sharp spines as the Diodons. Their exteriors may be hard and resisting, as those of the well-named Trunk-fishes ; or soft and gelatinous, like the Lancelet or Myxine. Their nose may, as in some Breams, be snub, and not even so long as their chin ; it may confer an air of impudence as in the Lesser- Weever ; be a regular beak as in the Sea- Snipe ; or be so prolonged like that of the Sword- Fish, as to make its possessor formidable even to the mighty Leviathan of the deep. The eyes of fishes have been formed more to allow of ample power within a limited distance, than for extensive range of vision. In structure they vary from the simple eye-speck of the Amblyopsis to the singularly framed organ of the Anableps. They are most commonly situated one on either side of the head, but are sometimes brought more forwards. They may be far apart, as in the Hammer-headed Shark; be situated superiorly as in the star-gazing Uranoscopus; or, as in the Flounders and Skates, be placed both on one side of the head. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 83 One striking internal peculiarity of fishes must here be noted, viz., the possession of a swimming- bladder, or " sound/' as it is popularly termed. This organ, which is generally situated in the abdomen, laying close to the under surface of the back-bone, is, from various anatomical and physiological char- acters, which need not here be more than alluded to, considered to represent the lungs of air-breathing animals. It is found to exist in about three-fourths of the total amount of species, and is believed to be connected with their amount of buoyancy, as the greater number of those which do not possess it are ground fish. It is not found in the Sharks, as it might interfere with their power of turning on their side previously to seizing their prey. In a few it is thought to be subservient to the production of sound. Among fishes remarkable for peculiar individual properties, may be mentioned the Flying-Fishes, which, by means of their extended pectoral fins are enabled to^take flights, or leaps out of the water ; and which, while so engaged, form one of the strange sights of tropical seas. The Pegasi, or Flying Sea- Horses, also at times appear above the surface. There are likewise wandering Fishes, which, imbued per- haps, with a strong spirit of curiosity, like the "Tree-Climber" (Anabas testudineus), set out on their travels, leaving their native element, and pre- senting the singular sight of "fish out of water/' Some fishes, as the Gurnards, are known to utter strange sounds. A species of Pogonias, named the the "Organ/' or "Drum-fish/' mentioned in the 84 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. " Account of the Voyage of the ' Samarang/ " * as- sembles in numbers, and holds a kind of " solemn aquatic concert ;" and lastly, the electric fishes, such as the Torpedo and Gymnotus, resent the rude in- terference of strangers in a very unpleasant manner. Fish are very important in an economical and commercial point of view, and are taken in great numbers for the sake of the food and other products they afford. Fisheries are encouraged and protected by all enlightened governments ; and in our coun- try, those more especially of the Cod, Ling, Coalfish, Torsk, Herring, Pilchard, Salmon, and Mackarel, afford employment to many thousands. The oil afforded by their livers is used for light by many northern races, and in Britain is also similarly em- ployed in places along the sea-coast. Of late, that yielded by the Cod, Haddock, and Skate has been extensively administered as a medicinal agent in consumption, with wonderful results. It is not, however, only in modern times or among civilized nations that fishes are sought after and prized ; as food they have been in use from the ear- liest times. Whole tribes have been recorded by Pliny, Strabo, and other ancient writers, as Ichthy- ophagi, or fish-eaters ; and among the most savage people, rude hooks and other implements for their capture are in constant employment. The spawn- ing season varies in different species. Previous to it, some migrate from fresh to salt water, others from salt to fresh, in their endeavours to attain which * Adams' Nat. Hist, of the Voyage of H.M. S. " Samarang," p. 259. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 85 many will encounter and overcome apparently in- surmountable obstacles. In ascending streams, Sal- mon and Trout take often wonderful leaps, clearing thereby small rapids and falls. The former species leaps farther and higher than the latter, which is used to measure the size and strength of falls in some North American rivers, a Salmon leap being more considerable than a Trout leap. At present consider- able attention is being paid to the artificial impreg- nation of fish-roe, a process which promises to prove of no little importance. The most simple and primitive division of fishes is into osseous and cartilaginous, according to the na- ture of the skeleton. This was done by Cuvier, who sub-divided the former from the nature and position of the fins. Agassiz, as before stated, proposed a classification founded on the shape and structure of the scales, which, however, being founded on one par- ticular system, may be looked on as somewhat artifi- cial. In the following arrangement, the orders have been taken from Professor Owen's modification of Miiller's classification; while the descriptions of fami- lies are mostly from Cuvier and Swainson. The more comprehensive families of Muller and Owen, however perfect in a philosophical point of view, or however well adapted for a work including mention of ge- nera, are not suited for our pages, as they would afford but little assistance to those most likely to require directions. The details have therefore been more amplified than they would otherwise have been. The terms " Endo-skeleton" and " Exo- 86 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. skeleton/' are employed in the sense in which they are used by Owen, the former meaning the vertebral centre, with the attached bones ; and the latter im- plying the external, or what is often called the tegu- mentary covering of the body. V. CLASS. FISHES (Pisces). Live habitually in water ; cold-blooded ; respira- tion aquatic ; skeleton bony or cartilaginous ; body generally covered with scales ; heart bilocular ; no organ of prehension except mouth ; flexure of spine principally lateral ; reproduction oviparous.* I. ORDER. WIDE-MOUTHED FISHES (Plagiostomi). Endo-skeleton cartilaginous, or partially ossified ; exo-skeleton placoid ; gills with 5 or more gill aper- tures ; no swimming-bladder. I. SUB-ORDER. RAYS (Raiinse). Body horizontally flattened, and more or less dis- cous ; dorsal fins mostly on tail ; a peculiar (naso- pectoral) cartilage, arising from nasal part of skull, extends towards or meets anterior part of crest of pectoral fin ; branchial openings inferior. 1. FAMILY. Horned-Rays (Cephalopteridse). Muzzle with two horn-like processes ; mouth before or beneath, very broad ; teeth very small, in some wanting in upper jaw ; tail as long, or longer than body, with a back-fin, and a spine. With many exceptions, such as the 'Viviparous Blenny ' (Z octrees viviparm) of our own shores. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY 87 2. FAMILY. Eagle-Rays (Myliobatidse). Head par- tially disengaged from pectorals ; mouth transverse ; teeth large, mosaic-like ; eyelids wanting ; tail long, with a back-fin on root, and a serrated sting behind. 3. FAMILY. Sting-Rays (Trygonidse). Head la- terally enclosed by pectorals ; teeth trans- versely elliptical; tail without any fin, or merely a low, vertical, cuticular hem, and with one or more sharp serrated spines. 4. FAMILY. Stingless-Rays (Anacanthidse). Teeth flat, transversely elliptical ; tail without any fin, or with a small one on under side ; no spine. 5. FAMILY. Skates (Raiidse). Body rhomboidal; tail depressed, slender, generally with a low terminal fin, and frequently with rows of small spines ; skin smooth, or with small curved prickles ; teeth flat, pavement-like, and pointed in males in spawning time. 6. FAMILY. Torpedos (Torpedinidse). Head very large and surrounded by pectorals, so as to form a circular disk ; tail short, fleshy, de- pressed at base, cylindrical at extremity ; mouth beneath ; teeth pointed or flat. Some members of this family are remarkable for their power of communicating at will powerful elec- tric shocks. The organs whence these proceed are two in number, lodged on either side of the head, and encompassed by the gills, and the anterior bor- ' ders of the pectoral fins. They consist of a mass of 88 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. perpendicular, hexagonal columns, the ends of which are covered by the dorsal and ventral integuments. Each separate column, when recent, seems like a mass of clear trembling jelly ; but consists of a series of delicate membranous plates, inclosed by a proper capsule, and separated from each other by a small quantity of limpid, albuminous fluid. Each half of this electric battery derives its nervous influence from one branch of the trigeminal, and four branches of the vagus nerves. The battery is thus vertical, and its plates horizontal, and the direction of the current is from above downwards, the dorsal surface being positive, and the ventral negative.* 7. FAMILY. Beaked-Rays (Rhinobatidse). Muzzle generally beaked and pointed ; mouth undu- lated ; teeth rounded or elliptical, in some broader than long, and longer on summit of undulations ; body smooth ; caudal fin bilo- bular, or cut obliquely, forming one lobe. 8. FAMILY. Saw-Fishes (Pristidae). Snout pro- duced into a long, flat, osseous, saw-shaped blade, with teeth on the lateral edges ; body flattened before, somewhat elongated pos- teriorly ; skin with very small, flat, roundish, or six-cornered scales ; mouth beneath. II. SU-OfiDfiIt.SiLAKKS (Squalinse). Body elongated ; tail fleshy, thick ; branchial openings lateral ; skull without frontal cartilage. * See " Swainson's Natural History of Fishes," vol. i., p. 178 ; and " Owen's Lectures on Comparative Anatomy," vol. ii., p. 212. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 89 9. FAMILY. Hammer-headed Sharks (Zyggenidse). Head excessively elongated on either side, so as to resemble a hammer; eyes remote, on the lateral ends ; teeth serrated in adults. 10. FAMILY. Angel -Fishes (Squatinidse). Body flat above and below ; mouth at fore end of snout ; eyes on dorsal aspect ; pectorals large, expanded anteriorly. 11. FAMILY. Greenland-Sharks (Scymniidse). Head flat, or compressed on sides, obtusely pointed ; mouth beneath ; dorsal fins without spines ; gill-openings small. 12. FAMILY. Fox-Sharks (Alopeciidse). Snout short and rounded ; teeth sharp, triangular ; bran- chial openings small ; tail unequally divided, upper lobe greatly prolonged, so as nearly to equal length of body. 13. FAMILY. Porbeagles (Lamniidse). Branchial openings large ; spiracles very small ; caudal fin crescentic, with a lateral keel ; second dor- sal and anal fin opposite each other. 14. FAMILY. True-Sharks (Squalidse). Body elon- gate, sub-cylindrical ; head flat ; mouth con- vex ; teeth sharp-edged and pointed, mostly serrated ; no spiracles in adult ; dorsal-fins two, the second opposite anal fin ; tail with a short under lobe. 15. FAMILY. Topes (Galeidse). Head flat ; snout pointed or blunt ; teeth in both jaws alike, flat or pointed, sharp-edged, sometimes ser- rated along one or both edges ; spiracles small 90 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or large ; tail-pits indistinct, or wanting ; under lobe of caudal-fin abortive in some; upper lobe notched. 16. FAMILY. Spotted Dog-Fishes (Scylliidse). Snout generally obtuse ; teeth tricuspidate ; an anal and two dorsal fins ; first -dorsal opposite, or behind abdominal fins, never before ; caudal none ; spiracles distinct, generally large ; colours lively. 17. FAMILY. Piked Dog-Fishes (Spinacidse). Strong, sharp spine before each dorsal fin ; skin rough in one direction ; teeth in both jaws, mostly small, sharp, and cutting. 18. FAMILY. Gray-Sharks (Notidanidae). Head flat ; branchial openings six or seven, decreas- ing in size from first to last ; one dorsal fin ; tail-fin with a small under lobe, notched at the end, obliquely or directly truncated. 19. FAMILY. Cestracions (Cestraciontidse). Bran- '* chial openings small; mouth at fore-end of snout; teeth pavement-like, anterior rows small and pointed ; spiracles small ; a prickle or sting before each dorsal fin ; tail-fin short, with distinct under lobe. II. ORDER FALSE-SHARKS (Holocephali). Endo-skeleton cartilaginous ; exo-skeleton as pla- coid granules ; most of the fins with a strong spine for the first ray ; gills laminated, attached by their margins ; a single external gill-aperture; no swim- ming-bladder. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 91 1. FAMILY. Chimceras (Chimseridas). Beak conical, in some ending in a foliaceous appendage ; one external branchial opening, with five ter- minal sub-divisions ; tail long, attenuated, and pointed ; dorsals contiguous or remote ; jaws furnished with hard plates instead of teeth. III. ORDER -^AMPHIBIAN-FISHES (Protopteri). Endo-skeleton partly osseous, partly cartilaginous ; exo-skeleton as cycloid scales ; pectorals and ven- trals as flexible filaments ; gills filamentary, free, swimming-bladder as a double lung, with an air- duct. 1. FAMILY. Lepidosirens (Lepidosirenidse). Body lengthened, or long, covered with scales ; sur- face of body spotted; gill-filaments, in some, tripinnatifid ; ribs 36 to 55 pairs. Inhabit marshy spots. Some remain torpid under ground during dry season. Obs. The position of this singular creature in the animal kingdom has been keenly debated. It possesses in nearly equal proportion characters of an Amphibian and of a Fish, and it has accordingly been arranged by different authorities in one or other of these two classes. The former are held to predominate by Milne - Edwards, Bischoff, and Gray, while by Owen and by Muller the latter are believed to deserve the preference. In accord- ance with the views of these last, and until further enqui- ries finally decide the matter, it has been deemed advisable to continue it among the fishes. Its ichthyic claims have been favoured by Owen upon the " accumulative evideace of 92 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY the structure of its dernal, dental, osseous, digestive, sen- sitive, and generative systems," but especially from the construction of the nasal cavity, and the microscopic cha- racter of the teeth and ossified parts of the endo-skeleton. Its amphibian alliance is again chiefly supported by the au- ricle of the heart being double, and by the large size of the blood discs. But three species are as yet known; one from the Amazon (L. paradoxa), one from the Gambia (L. annectens), and the third (L. amphibia), discovered by Dr. Peters, from the Quillemane marshes. Possibly these may represent genera, for which the names of Lepidosiren, Protopterus, and Rhinocryptis have been proposed to be respectively appropriated. For further information, see "Fitzinger," in "Wiegmann's Archiv," 1837, p. 232; " Lepidosiren paradoxa," von Johann Natterer, Annalen des Wiener Museums der Naturgeschichte, 1837, vol. ii. p. 165; "Owen," in Linn. Trans., vol. xviii. ; "Owen's Odontography," vol. i. p. 166; "Milne -Edwards," in "Ann. des Scien. Natur.," Sept. 1840, p. 159, and in " Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist." vol. vi. 1841, p. 466 : also papers, &c., by Jardine, Owen, Hogg, Muller, Smith, and Gulliver, in "Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist." vol. vii. 1841, pp. 21, 211, 358; xvi. 1845, p. 348; and ii. 1848, p. 292; "Owen's Lectures on Comp. Anat." vol. ii. pp. 78, 278 ; "Gray's Brit. Mus. Cat. of Amphibia," P. ii. p. 61. IY. ORDER GANOID-FISHES (Ganoidei). Endo-skeleton in some osseous, in some cartilagi- nous, in some partly osseous and partly cartilagi- nous ; exo-skeleton ganoid ; fins with the first ray usually a strong spine; a swimming-bladder; 1 air- duct. MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 93 1. SUB-ORDER. CARTILAGINOUS GANOID-FISHES (Chondrostei). Skeleton partly cartilaginous ; vertebral column contains a soft chorda instead of vertebral bodies. 1. FAMILY. Sturgeons (Acipenseridse). Body co- vered with large indurated plates or tuber- cles; mouth beneath, cirrhated; bony jaws perform office of teeth, 2. FAMILY. Spoonbill-Sturgeons (Polyodontidse). Body without any tubercles or bony plates ; muzzle excessively prolonged into a flat lan- ceolate plate ; opercula absent. 2. SUB-ORDER. OSSEOUS GANOID-FISHES (Holostei). Vertebral column osseous. 3. FAMILY. Bichirs (Polypteridse). Body anguil- liform, with hard scales; upper jaw not di- vided ; dorsal fin sub-divided into a row of perfect, distinct finlets; gill-membrane cleft; no opercular-gill, or pseudo-branchia ; a blow- ing-hole on each side with an osseous valve ; pectorals pedunculated ; swimming-bladder double. 4. FAMILY. Diamond-Fishes* (Lepisosteidae). Head and body mailed with thick plates and scales of stony hardness; upper jaw composed of several pieces; gill-membrane undivided, 3-rayed; a respiratory opercular-gill and pseudo-branchia; no blowing-hole; anterior margin of fins covered with two rows of * Called also "Bony-Pikes." 94 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. spinous scales; caudal fin truncate or bilobed swimming-bladder cellular. 5. FAMILY. Amias (Amiidse). Form elongate head rounded; hard buckler on lower jaw, conical teeth on edges of jaw, and pavement- like ones behind ; scales soft, without enamel, flexible, and rounded ; no opercular accessory gills ; no fulcra on fin-margins ; swimming- bladder cellular. Y. ORDER TUFTED-GILL FISHES (Lophobranchii). Endo-skeleton partially ossified ; exo-skeleton ga- noid; gills tufted; opercular aperture small; swim- ming-bladder without air-duct. 1. FAMILY. Pipe-Fishes (Syngnathidse). Body prolonged, slender, linear, or angulated ; snout greatly prolonged, cylindrical ; mouth termi- nal, vertical ; ventral fins absent ; caudal fin wanting in some. 2. FAMILY. Sea-Horses (Hippocampidse). Head and body compressed ; snout narrow, tubu- lar ; mouth terminal ; pectorals small ; dorsal single ; caudal fin wanting. 3. FAMILY. Winged Sea-Horses (Pegasidse). Body broad, depressed ; snout suddenly contracted, narrow, somewhat protractile; mouth ter- minal, beneath; pectorals generally large; caudal fin small. VI. ORDER. SOLDERED-JAW FISHES (Plectognathi). Endo-skeleton partially ossified ; exo-skeleton as ganoid scales or spines ; maxillaries and pre-maxil- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 95 laries fixed together; swimming-bladder without air-duct. 1. FAMILY. Sun-Fishes (Cephalidse). Body oval or orbicular, compressed, spineless, not capa- ble of inflation ; jaws undivided ; dorsal, caudal, and anal fins united. 2. FAMILY. Globe-Fishes (Gynmodontidse). Body oval, scabrous or defended by prickles or by spines ; belly capable of being greatly in- flated ; teeth none ; jaws in some divided, giving the appearance of teeth. 3. FAMILY. Trunk-Fishes (Ostraciontidse). Body smooth, triangular, or quadrangular, covered by angulated bony plates, soldered at su- tures ; dorsal single ; ventral none. 4 FAMILY. File-Fishes (Balistidse). Body com- pressed; skin coriaceous, granulated; muzzle prolonged ; mouth very small ; a few sharp teeth in each jaw ; dorsals 2, ventral single. VII. ORDER. SPINY-FISHES (Acanthopteri). Endo-skeleton ossified; exo-skeleton as ctenoid scales ; fins with one or more of first rays unjointed, or inflexible spines ; ventrals in most beneath, or in advance of the pectorals ; swimming-bladder with- out air-duct. 1. FAMILY. Fishing-Frogs (Lophiidse). Head very large, much flattened, often spiny or tuber- culated; body depressed; tail small, com- pressed ; skin naked; mouth often very wide, cleft horizontally ; pectorals pedunculated. 96 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 2. FAMILY. Hand-Fishes (Chironectidse). Body naked, thick, generally compressed, some- times tuberculated, no scales; mouth cleft vertically, lower jaw longest ; pectorals pe- dunculated, capable of being used as feet. 3. FAMILY. Blenny-Bullheads (Batrachidse). Head broader than body, obtuse, depressed, with slender cirrhi ; no distinct spines or bony tubercles; scales small, regular, sometimes embedded in skin and not visible externally pectorals broad, not pedunculated ; mouth wide, not vertical ; ventrals very small, 4. FAMILY. Blennies (Blenniidae). Body com- pressed ; ventrals before pectorals, very slen- der, of two or three cylindrical rays ; head thick, obtuse ; lips fleshy ; body covered with a slimy mucus; dorsal fins composed of spinous and soft rays. 5. FAMILY. Gobies (Gobiidse). Body elongated, slimy ; head large, depressed ; dorsal fins two, rays thin, setaceous, and flexible ; ven- trals united into a funnel ; eyes approxi- mating. 6. FAMILY. Dragonets (Callionyniidse). Head and body depressed ; first dorsal rays in some much elevated ; ventrals larger than pecto- rals, distinct, shortest rays, in some, in front j in some, wanting. 7. FAMILY. Suckers (Cyclopteridse). Body ovoid or oblong, slimy, scales none ; pectorals very broad, and uniting with a transverse mem- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 97 ferane connecting the ventrals, forming an oval, concave disk ; branchial spiracle one ; eyes on each side, approximating. 8. FAMILY. Sucking-Fishes (Echeneidae). Body lengthened, sub-anguilliform, covered with small scales ; crown flat, bearing a flattened disk, composed of moveable, transverse, car- tilaginous laminse, placed obliquely back- wards; mouth cleft horizontally. 9. FAMILY. Slender -rayed Blennies (Chiridse), Body compressed ; dorsal rays slender ; ven- trals distinct ; several lateral rows of pores along side of body ; mouth slightly cleft. 10. FAMILY. Wolf -Fishes (Anarrhichadidae). Body elongate, slightly compressed j dorsal, caudal, and anal fins united ; rays soft. 11. FAMILY. Flute-Mouths (Fistulariidee). Body long, slender, linear ; scales none j long tubu- Jar projection in front of cranium formed by an extension of anterior cranial and facial bones ; mouth terminal, vertical. 12. FAMILY. Sea-Snipes (Centriscidse). Body oval or oblong, unelongated, compressed ; snout tubular, prolonged ; first dorsal spines long ; body covered with scales, or mailed with broad scaly pieces. 13. FAMILY. Lancet-Fishes (Acanthuridse). Body compressed, ovate or oblong ; tail armed with lateral spines ; dorsal single ; mouth small, slightly or not at all protractile. (Theutyes, Cuv.) 98 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 14 FAMILY. Riband-Fishes (Gymnetridse). Body very long, thin, and compressed ; head large, generally truncate ; eyes very large ; mouth nearly vertical ; consistence soft ; rays fragile. 15. FAMILY. Star-scaled Dolphins (Astrodermidse). Crown gibbous, obtuse ; mouth and eyes very small ; ventrals on the throat, nearly obso- lete, first ray serrated ; body with scattered, detached, star-like scales. 16. FAMILY. Scabbard-Fishes (Trichiuridse). Yen- trals rudimentary or wanting ; finlets none ; body narrow, linear; jaws lengthened, the under the longest ; chin pointed ; teeth ge- nerally large, remote, unequal, and acute. 17. FAMILY. Pomfrets (Stromateidae). Body very thin, short, rhomboid ; back with minute prickles ; head obtuse ; ventrals generally none ; scales minute ; apparently two lateral lines. 18. FAMILY. Fish-Dolphins (Coryphsenidse). Body compressed, oblong, slender ; scales small, nu- merous ; head large ; crown gibbous ; pecto- rals falcate ; eyes close to angle of mouth. 19. FAMILY. Dories (Zeidse). Body stout, oval, or rhomboid, very broad in middle, and exces- sively thin ; mouth small compared with size of head, often protractile ; dorsal generally single ; caudal sometimes forked ; scales mi- nute or none. 20. FAMILY. Spiny - Mackar els (Centronotidae). Body lengthened or oblong ; spines in front of dorsal ; dorsals two, not connected ; ven- trals perfect ; scales generally very small MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 99 21. FAMILY. Spine-Backs (Notocanthidse). Body anguilliform, much compressed ; dorsal and anal, when present, very long, and close to caudal which is small ; series of free, detached spines before dorsal ; snout produced. 22. FAMILY. Scale-less Mackarels (Alepisauridse). Body lengthened, linear, much compressed ; head lengthened, pointed ; teeth large, un- equal, very acute ; mouth wide ; two dorsals, the hinder adipose ; scales none. 23. FAMILY. Sword-Fishes (Xiphiidse). Upper jaw excessively prolonged, considerably flattened above, the edges sharp ; mouth beneath ; ven- trals either wanting, or a single inflexible bone in each. 24. FAMILY. Mackarels (Scomberidse). Body ob- long, lengthened, smooth, covered with very small scales ; caudal fin deeply forked, large; tail often bearing spurious finlets ; no fleshy lips ; dorsals two, in some close together. 25. FAMILY. Climbing-Fishes (Anabatidse). Body ovate, sub-fusiform, or cylindrical ; dorsal fin single, mostly with spinous rays ; upper pha- ryngeals of branchia divided into numerous small, irregular lamellae, forming small cells, in which they have the power of retaining water, for moistening the gills when the ani- mal is on shore ; dorsal single ; ventral gene- rally extremely long, narrow, and ending in a filament. The members of this family are remarkable for F 2 100 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. the property they possess of being able to crawl out of the water, being enabled to re- spire by means of the water contained in the labyrinthic cells connected with the gills. Some species are exhibited for this purpose by Indian jugglers. (Labyrinthici, Cuv.) 26. FAMILY. Stickle-Backs (Gasterosteidse). Body oblong, or linear ; back armed with a row of small spines, or prickles ; snout often pro- longed into a tube. 27. FAMILY. Sea-Pikes (Sphyrsenidse). Body li- near ; jaws produced, broader than high ; teeth strong, those in front much lengthened ; dorsals two, triangular, remote ; ventral under first dorsal. 28. FAMILY. Gray-Mullets (Mugilidse). Body ob- long, sub-cylindrical ; scales large ; snout short, obtuse, generally projecting beyond mouth ; dorsals two, remote, the first of strong spiny rays ; teeth very small ; eyes large, close to snout ; caudal fin forked, or lunated. 29. FAMILY. Sea-Breams (Sparidae). Fins naked ; pectorals pointed ; caudal fin forked ; no spines on operculum ; pre-operculum smooth ; snout not gibbous ; teeth strong, none on palatines. 30. FAMILY. Maigres (Sciaenidse). Fins generally scaled at base ; operculum armed with spines ; pre-operculum serrated ; teeth strong ; none on vomer or palatines ; bones of cranium and MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 101 face generally cavernous ; snout more or less obtuse ; dorsals two or one. 31. FAMILY. Ckcetodons (Chsetodontidae). Body short, broad, much compressed ; dorsal, cau- dal, and anal fins thickly covered with minute scales ; mouth very small ; teeth setaceous, long ; dorsal fin generally single. 32. FAMILY. Nendoles (Moenidse). Body oblong or fusiform ; upper jaw extremely exten- sible ; teeth small, fine, crowded ; covered with scales ; caudal generally forked or lunate. 33. FAMILY. Riband-Gurnards (Lepidosomatidae). Body anguilliform, sword-shaped, very thin, covered with osseous scales, rough, and be- set with small acute spines ; head depressed, mailed ; dorsals two, the first small, the se- cond long, and united with anal and caudal ; ventrals small. 34. FAMILY. Gurnards (Triglictee). Head co- vered with bony plates resembling armour, and defended with large spinous processes ; scales rough, cuspidate, or prickly ; caudal fin generally lunate ; distinct finger-like pro- cesses generally placed at base of pectorals ; pectorals often very large. 35. FAMILY. Sea-Scorpions (Scorpsenidse). Head compressed ; mouth opens horizontally ; body generally covered with smooth scales ; eyes prominent, lateral ; pectorals with some of lower rays detached, but without digitated .processes. 102 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 36. FAMILY. Hog -Fishes (Synanchiidas). Body naked, without scales, thick, gross, often de- formed with fungus, or spongy skin, with fleshy lobes, or cirrhi on sides ; head spinous, directed upwards; eyes small, close to or upon crown ; mouth large, vertical ; pectorals large, often very long. 37- FAMILY. Weevers (Trachinidae). Body ovate or elongate ; head compressed or cuboid ; mouth and eyes mostly vertical; body co- vered with compact scales ; ventral before pectorals, very small in some. 38. FAMILY. Flat-Heads (Platycephalidae). Head and body broad, and depressed ; eyes large, vertical ; ventrals large j dorsals two ; body scaly ; no tubercles or filaments on head. 39. FAMILY. Mailed-Bullheads (Agonidas). Body angulated, generally long and slender, co- vered with mailed plates ; jaws prolonged, somewhat tubular ; no teeth on vomer ; ven- trals of two rays, very small. 40. FAMILY. Bullheads (Cottidae). Head large, broad, depressed, armed with spines and tu- bercles ; mouth large ; small teeth on jaws and vomer, none on palate ; body naked, or with patches only of minute scales; dorsals generally two, either separate, or united at base ; ventrals small, imperfect, behind pec- torals. 41. FAMILY. Surmullets (Mullidse). Body obovate, anterior part thicker than posterior ; head MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 103 large, high ; profile abrupt, sub-vertical ; eyes lateral, close to crown ; mouth and teeth very small ; ventral profile of fish nearly straight ; opercula denticulated ; covered along the body with large deciduous scales ; dorsals two, remote ; caudal fin forked ; two fleshy cirrhi beneath lower jaw. 42. FAMILY. Naked-headed Perches (Helotidae). Head and muzzle naked ; dorsal fin one, deeply emarginate ; dorsal, and often anal fins sheathed at base with scales ; pectorals pointed ; spines on middle of operculum ; jaw-teeth numerous, small, close-set. 43. FAMILY. Spiny-headed Perches (Holocentridse). Body covered with hard, rough, or denticu- lated scales, or mailed plates ; head very spiny ; mouth often oblique ; dorsal emar- ginate. 44> FAMILY. Serpentiform- Perches (Percophidse). Body ovate, or lengthened; ventrals before pectorals ; dorsals entire, mostly single ; spi- nal rays weaker, and shorter than the others. 45. FAMILY. Sea-Perches (Serranidse). Body ob- long ; dorsal fin single, emarginate ; branchial membrane mostly with seven rays ; jaws with strong canines. 46. FAMILY. Perches (Percidse). Body oblong; scales distinct, generally hard or rough ; teeth in jaws, on vomer and palate ; operculum spined ; pre-operculum serrated ; dorsal fins two, distinct ; no canines. 104; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. VIII. ORDER. SPINE-LESS FISHES (Anacanthini). Endo-skeleton ossified ; exo-skeleton in some as cycloid, in others as ctenoid scales ; fins supported by flexible or jointed rays ; ventrals beneath pec- torals, or none ; swimming-bladder without air-duct. I. S UB-ORDER. THORACIC SPIXE-LESS FISHES (Thoracici). 1. FAMILY. Flat-Fishes (Pleuronectidse). Body oval, very thin ; dorsal and ventral fins extend nearly whole length of fish ; head non-sym- metrical ; both eyes on same side of head ; swim on the side ; seldom quit the bottom. 2. FAMILY. Anguilliform God-Fishes (Brotulidse). Body anguilliform ; scales very small ; dorsal fin one, united to caudal and anal, termi- nating in a point. 3. FAMILY. Torsks (Brosmiidse). Body elongated ; dorsal fin one, long, extending whole length of body ; ventrals fleshy. 4 FAMILY. Forked-Beards (Phycidse). Head broad, depressed ; dorsal fins two ; ventral fins with posterior rays obsolete, or altogether wanting, the anterior rays being prolonged and forked ; chin furnished with a cirrhus. 5. FAMILY. Hakes (Merlucciida3). Body elongate ; dorsals fins two, the first sometimes composed of fleshy filaments, and scarcely perceptible ; anal fin one ', ventrals with five distinct rays. 6. FAMILY. God-Fishes (Gadida3). Body slimy; scales very small; fins fleshy; all the rays MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 105 soft, and covered with the common skin ; head large, depressed ; body more or less lengthened, compressed ; dorsal fins three ; anal two ; ventrals very small. II. SUB-ORDER. APODAL SPINE-LESS FISHES (Apodes). 7. FAMILY. Donzelles (Ophidiidse). Body anguil- liform, compressed, fins more or less fleshy ; ventrals obsolete ; dorsal, caudal and anal fins united ; body invested with small scales in the thickness of the skin. IX. ORDEK. PHARYNGEAL FISHES (Pharyngognathi). Endo-skeleton ossified ; exo-skeleton in some as cycloid, in others as ctenoid scales ; inferior pharyn- geal bones coalesced ; swimming-bladder without duct. I. SUB-ORDER. SPINY PHARYNGEAL-FISHES (Acanthopterygii). 1. FAMILY. Ctenoid -Wrasses (Cteno - Labridse). Body oval ; pre-operculum mostly dentated ; lateral line interrupted ; colours diversified ; scales ctenoid. 2. FAMILY. Cycloid - Wrasses (Cyclo - Labridse). Body oval or fusiform, scaly; colours bril- liant ; lips thick, fleshy ; cutting teeth sharp, simple, distinct ; those in front longest ; oper- culum smooth ; pre-operculum sometimes ser- rated ; lateral line abruptly bent, or totally interrupted at end of dorsal fin ; scales cycloid. 3. FAMILY. Parrot-Fishes (Scarid^e). Head and F 5 106 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. crown elevated ; jaws convex, rounded, with teeth arranged like scales on their edge and anterior surface; scales at base of caudal very large. 4. FAMILY. Coracines (Chromididas). Body oval or elongate ; teeth setaceous, often minute, and very fine ; operculum scaled ; pre-oper- culum smooth ; ventrals very long. II. SUB-ORDER. SOFT-FINNED PHARYNGEAL-FISHES (Malacopterygii). 5. FAMILY. Saury-Pikes (Scomberesocidse). Body herring-shaped or elongate ; mouth obliquely cleft ; teeth small, acute ; eyes large. X. ORDER. SOFT-FINNED FISHES (Malacopteri). Endo-skeleton ossified ; exo-skeleton in most as cycloid, in a few as ganoid scales ; fins supported by rays, all, save the first sometimes in the dorsal and pectoral, soft or jointed ; abdominal or apodal ; gills free ; operculate ; a swimming-bladder and air duct. I. SUB-OEDER. ABDOMINAL SOFT-FINNED FISHES (Abdominales). 1. FAMILY. Mailed Sheat - Fishes (Loricariidse). Body lengthened ; head and body mailed with large osseous plates ; head depressed ; eyes small; mouth beneath. (Goniodontes,Ag.) 2. FAMILY. Naked Sheat- Fishes (PimelodidaB). Body compressed, more or less naked ; dorsal fins two, the hinder adipose ; muzzle not pro- duced ; anal fin short. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 107 3. FAMILY. True Sheat-Fishes (Siluridse). Body slightly elongate, compressed, generally slimy ; anal fin and tail long ; operculum moveable ; mouth furnished with cirrhi. The genus Malapterurus possesses electric pro- perties, but in a less degree than the Gymnotus or Torpedo. 4. FAMILY. Flat -Headed Sheat-Fishes (Aspredi- nidae). Eyes very small, vertical ; operculum immoveable, the aperture opening only by a a narrow slit beneath the head ; under jaw transverse, and shorter than the upper ; first pectoral ray generally excessively developed ; dorsal single, close to head. 5. FAMILY. Long-Headed Sheat-Fishes (Pterono- tidae). Head large, much lengthened, de-- pressed, bony ; muzzle broad and obtuse, pro- jecting beyond the lower jaw; cirrhi long; dorsal fins two, the hinder generally adipose ; caudal lobed or forked, rarely lunate. 6. FAMILY. Double -Eyed Loaches (Anablepidaa) Body cylindrical, covered with stout scales ; head small, short, depressed, not widened ; eyes very prominent, apparently double ; mouth transverse ; generation viviparous. 7. FAMILY. Loaches -proper (Cobitidse). Body lengthened, slimy ; head Vith cirrhi ; mouth inferior ; teeth none ; gill-opening small ; dorsal fin central, above the ventral. 8. FAMILY. Thick - bodied Loaches (Poeciliidse). Body thick, oval, compressed ; scales large ; 108 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. head small, flattened above ; snout sharp ; mouth small, transverse ; jaws protractile ; generation viviparous. (Cyprinodontes, Ag.) 9. FAMILY. Carps (Cyprinidse). Body compress- ed, covered withs cales, which are generally large ; fins naked ; mouth small ; jaws weak, without teeth ; strong teeth on pharynx ; tongue smooth ; dorsal single, generally in centre of back. 10. FAMILY. Small-mouthed Pikes (Mormyridse). Body compressed, oblong, scaly ; muzzle pro- duced ; mouth terminal, vertical ; teeth small, slender ; branchial aperture resembling a spi- racle. 11. FAMILY. Pikes (Esocidse). Body compressed, scaly ; dorsal fin single, close to end of tail ; mouth large ; teeth numerous, acute ; very voracious. 12. FAMILY. Galaxies (Galaxiatidse). Scales obso- lete; mouth small, slightly cleft; pointed teeth on palatines and jaws, strong hooked teeth on tongue ; dorsal, and anal fins opposite. 13. FAMILY. Deep -bodied Salmons (Myletidse). Depth of body as much, or more than half the length; head small; snout blunt; upper jaw small, strongly angulated in some ; sharp, triangular cutting teeth on lower jaw larger, than those of upper ; belly in some sharp and serrated. 14 FAMILY. Wide-mouthed Salmons (Scopelidse). Snout short ; mouth deeply cleft ; teeth MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. J 09 rather small, sharp j branchial rays eight to fifteen; first dorsal behind ventral; body in some semi-transparent. 15. FAMILY. True-Salmons (Salmonidse). Body covered with compact scales ; jaws generally well furnished with teeth ; dorsal fins two, first with soft rays, the second small and adipose ', mostly voracious. 3 6. FAMILY. Herrings (Clupeidse). Body com- pressed, always covered with numerous scales ; mouth mostly moderate ; lips thin ; teeth minute or none ; gill-aperture large ; dorsal fin single. ]7. FAMILY. Blind-Fishes (Amblyopsidse). Form elongate ; head obtuse, rounded, without scales ; scales on body very small, oval, en- tire, concentrically striated ; eyes as minute black points covered by the skin, or none, cornea none ; gills four ; pseudo- branchiae none ; anus in front of pectoral fins between posterior inferior terminations of opercula. Viviparous. (Heteropygii, Tellkampf) II. SUB-ORDER. ASQVPJ. SOFT-FINNED FISHES (Apodes). 18. FAMILY. Electric-Eels (Gymnotidse). Body linear, anguilliform, but compressed, often with small scales ; ventrals none. In this family the most noted species is the Elec- tric Eel (Gymnotus electricus) of South America. 110 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. The electric apparatus is placed along the under side of the body, extending from behind the pec- torals to the tail. The organs are four in number, two on either side, and one above the other, the upper ones being the larger. The organs of one side are separated from those of the other by the vertebral column, its muscles, the air-bladder, and an aponeurotic septum, from which last, and from one covering the air-bladder, extend outwards to the skin numerous horizontal membranes, arranged in the longitudinal axis of the body. These are inter- sected transversely by more delicate vertical plates, which thus form cells, filled with a pellucid liquid. The battery is thus horizontal ; and it has been shewn by Faraday, that the electric current is al- ways from the anterior to the posterior parts of the animal. In this fish the electric organs are supplied by the ventral branches of all the spinal nerves.* 19. FAMILY. Eels (Mursenidse). Body serpentiform ; scales very small, enveloped in a mucous epidermis; branchial spiracles two, lateral, placed one on each side ; ventral fins wanting. 20. FAMILY. Sub-branchial Eels (Synbranchidse). Body anguilliform ; spiracles two, or in some one, placed under the throat. (Symbranchii, MulL) XL ORDER SUCTORIAL-FISHES (Dermopteri). Endo-skeleton unossified ; exo-skeleton, and ver- tical fins muco-dermoid ; vermiform, or abrachial, and apodal ; no pancreas ; no air-bladder. * See Owen's " Lectures on Comparative Anatomy," vol. ii, p. 213. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Ill I. SUB-ORDER. ROUND-MOUTHED SUCTORIAL-FISHES (Marsipobranchii, sen Cyclostomi). Gills fixed, bursiform, inoperculate, receiving re- spiratory streams by apertures usually numerous and lateral, distinct from the mouth ; a heart. 1. FAMILY. Lampreys (Petromyzontidse). Body elongated ; eyes small or none ; mouth cir- cular ; teeth distinct ; branchial openings mostly seven ; nasal aperture closed ; palate entirely covered with skin. 2. FAMILY. Glutinous -Hags (Myxinidse). Body cylindrical ; eyes none ; branchial apertures two ; a single tooth on upper part of maxil- lary ring ; palate perforated. II. SUB-ORDER. FRINGED-MOUTHED SUCTORIAL-FISHES (Pharyngobranchii, seu Cirrhostomi). Gills free, pharyngeal, inoperculate ; no heart 3. FAMILY. Lancelets (Amphioxidse). Body com- pressed, hyaline ; mouth narrow, elongated, the margins furnished with slender filaments. MOLLUSKS. The unsymmetrical, soft, and fleshy bodies of the animals forming the Sub-Kingdom of the Mollusks have no internal bony skeleton to protect the ner- vous centres, nor are they covered with a horny, jointed skin like the tribes of Annulosa. Nature, however, not to leave them altogether destitute in this respect, has invested them with a muscular 112 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. tunic or mantle, which often secretes a shelly coat to guard the more delicate organs from external violence. These shelly envelopes are the prized, and much sought for, objects of the Conchologist, and are alike remarkable for their imperishable nature, the extreme beauty and elegance of their forms, the richness of their colouring, and the deli- cacy and endless diversity of their sculpture and markings. The molluscous architects of these cal- careous homes are generally apathetic beings, dis- playing but a small amount of energy when con- trasted with the restless, active, air-breathing legions of the articulated classes. They comprise the Cephalopoda, the highest of their class, with prehensible arms disposed around their mouth, large and perfect eyes, and with the sexes separate ; the Pteropods, with their bodies often enclosed in fragile shells of glassy transpa- rency, and with fin-like expansions on the sides of their heads to enable them to navigate the high seas ; the Gasteropoda, furnished with a muscular disk on the lower portion of their bodies adapting them for crawling on the ground, and with distinct head, eyes, and tentacles ; the Bivalves, protected by solid shelly plates, headless, and breathing by means of plait-like gills ; the soft, aquatic, headless Tunicaries, either free and isolated, or united or- ganically in a common brotherhood ; and the Brach- iopods, enclosed in bivalve shells, breathing by the mantle, and with long spiral or twisted arms on the sides of the mouth, by the ciliary movements of MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 113 which they create currents to bring them food. In arranging the classes of Mollusca, the characters are principally determined by the organs of loco- motion ; in the orders the nature of the branchial apparatus is taken advantage of ; in the diagnosis of families the lingual dentition and peculiarities of configuration form the leading points; in genera, the form of the shell is chiefly considered ; and in spe- cies, the colour and sculpture of the shelly envelope. The molluscous tribes, with a few exceptions, re- produce by eggs which are deposited by the mother in situations best adapted to insure incubation, and in numerous instances, are protected by a leathery envelope or gelatinous nidus ; the young fry, when first excluded from the egg, are enclosed in little shells fitted with a lid, and swim about by the aid of fins ; as the animal grows older the fins disap- pear, and frequently the shell falls off, and gills and tentacles become developed. The senses of the Mollusca are not acute; they are mostly dumb, their vision is imperfect, their smell limited, their taste implied, their touch obtuse, and their energies are mainly directed to the procuring of food, and the multiplication of their species. The intensity of their instinct, and the power of their volition and motive power will, however, be found to vary in proportion to the complexity of their organiza- tion, being feebly expressed in the lowest or Annu- loid forms, and more perfectly manifested as we approach the Vertebrate type, as shewn in the class of Cephalopods. 114 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Like other animals, the Mollusca obey certain laws, and offer peculiarities in their geographical distribution. Thus, as we approach the equator from the poles, we find their size, beauty, and va- riety, gradually increase ; the species are also more numerous near the shores, but perceptibly diminish as the water deepens ; and, in like manner, the land shells are large and abundant in the valleys, and become smaller and less in number as we ascend the mountains. Rivers, lakes, ponds, and springs are peopled by numerous tribes, as the Am- pullarice of South America ; the Melanice of the East Indies; and iheLimncei of Europe. The pela- gian forms are found in all oceans, as the lanthina, the Carinaria, and the Argonaut. In the Northern Seas the shells are of a dingy hue, and often covered with an epidermis, while in the tropics they often vie in splendour with the fishes, and are sometimes highly polished. The Mediterranean and the surrounding regions are very rich in Mollusca, the number of species of Glausilia being especially great ; the deserts of Africa give sustenance to few species, but what are known are of a peculiar character ; while the rivers also yield singular types, such as JEtheria and Galathea ; in South Africa we observe the great Achatince, and the sinistral Lanistes ; while the Cape of Good Hope is famous for its species of Patella. The shells of the Canary Islands and of the Madeiras, are nearly all of a peculiar stamp ; and the West Indies harbour an abundance of forms, each island MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 115 containing species peculiar to itself, Jamaica being particularly rich in Gyclostomata, Helicince, and Cy- lindrellce. South America is the grand emporium of the Bulimi and Ghilince ; while the great rivers of North America are extremely prolific in Unio and Anodonta; and the West coast is remarkable for its numerous examples of Chiton, Calyptra and Fissurella. The islands of the Pacific Ocean also exhibit several peculiarities in their molluscous fauna ; the Struthiolaria and Amphibola are from New Zealand ; the Trigonia, Chamostrea, and M y- ochama, are from New Holland ; the Partula is from the Society and Sandwich islands ; while the Orthostylus and kindred forms people the wooded parts of the Philippines ; and the Nanina is from Borneo and Java, which also furnish us with nume- rous Auriculce. The great Island of Madagascar and the other islands in the Indian Ocean, also yield their peculiar species of mollusks, both terres- trial and marine. II. SUB-KINGDOM OF MOLLUSKS. Mollusca. Animal invertebrate, without jointed limbs ; body soft, furnished with a mantle, which usually secretes a calcareous envelope or shell; heart bilocular; ner- vous system forming a transverse series of medullary masses, or ganglia arranged around the gullet. CEPHALOPODS. The Cephalopods, comprising the Cuttle-fishes, the Squids, the Argonauts, and the Nautili, are by 116 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. far the most highly organized and intelligent of the Molluscous tribes. Their head is separate from the body, their eyes are large and complex, their ears are developed, and they even possess the rudiments of an endo-skeleton. They are varied in their habits and mode of life, but all agree in being carnivorous and raptorial, preying on Crustacea and other small animals, which they seize with their long and mus- cular arms, secure near their mouth by innumerable suckers, and tear in pieces with their horny mandi- bles. The Octopi frequent the shores, and when molested escape from the pursuit of their enemies by ejecting a coloured fluid from their ink-bag, which obscures the water around them ; crabs and lobsters constitute their favourite food. The Argonauts are oceanic in their habits, frequenting the high seas, swimming rapidly backwards by ejecting the water through their funnel, while their upper expanded arms firmly embrace the sides of their shell, recent observation having effectually dispelled the poetic notion so long entertained of their sailing along the surface. Some, like the Ommastrephes or Flying Squids, have the power of leaping out of the water, so as sometimes to fall upon the decks of vessels ; others, like the Pelagian Cuttles (Philonexidce), in- habit the solitudes of the ocean, assembling together in large shoals, so as even sometimes to discolour the water, and preying in the night upon the small fishes and floating Medusce that swarm in the upper regions of the ocean. That somewhat apocryphal Cephalopodic monster, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 117 the "Kraken," concerning which the fishermen of the Scandinavian shores have many legends, will most probably be found to belong to the family of Cuttles. During the early ages of the world's history, when vast tracts were covered by a surging ocean, the Cephalopods played an important part in the drama of animal existence, peopling the warm seas in pro- digious numbers. Then might be seen gigantic Ammonites, with large and lustrous eyes, and long extended arms, shuffling awkwardly along the sur- face of the primeval rocks, or engaged in deadly struggles with strange-formed antediluvian fishes ; then solitary Octopi, of colossal size, equally carni- vorous and fierce, might be seen prowling among the sunken reefs, with eager heads directed down- wards, seeking whom they might devour. At that epoch Belemnites, with long slender bodies and small lateral fins, were darting vertically up and down the watery abyss ; while thousands of pearly Nautili, taking the place of the predaceous Gasteropods that now keep in check the excessive increase of the smaller marine animals, might have been detected crushing with their calcareous mandibles the plaited bodies of the old-world Trilobites. I. CLASS. -CEPHALOPODS (Cephalopoda). Body ovate; mantle open in front; gills one or two pairs ; head large, separate from the body ; mouth with horny or shelly jaws, surrounded by 118 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. eight or ten fleshy arms ; a tube or siphuncle used in locomotion ; sexes separate ; shell internal or external. I. OKDER OCTOPODS (Octopoda). Body roundish ; head with eight fleshy arms fur- nished with sessile cups or suckers ; eyes fixed ; gills two ; shell none or rudimentary. 1. FAMILY. Octopods (Octopodidse). Arms similar, elongated, united at the base by a web, mantle supported by fleshy bands ; cephalic aqui- ferous-apertures none ; shell represented by two short styles in the substance of the mantle. Littoral. 2. FAMILY. Pelagian - Octopods (Philonexidae). Arms subulate ; cups peduncled, in two rows ; eyes large and prominent ; mantle supported by two buttons at base of siphuncle fitting into grooves of mantle ; shell none. Pelagian. 3. FAMILY. Argonauts (Argonautidse). Arms subu- late, the two upper dilated, secreting (in the female) a symmetrical involute shell ; mantle supported by two buttons fitting into grooves at base of siphuncle ; shell external, one- celled, thin ; apex involute. II. ORDER DECAPODS (Decapoda). Body naked, more or less elongated; head with ten fleshy arms, the two longer or (tentacular) arms with peduncled cups with horny rings ; eyes free in orbit ; gills two ; shell internal, medial. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 119 I. SUB-ORDER. CHONDROPHORES (Chondrophora). Shell solid, horny or cartilaginous, more or less lanceolate, with a produced and thickened apex. 1. FAMILY. Cranchias (Cranchiidse). Body large and membranous ; head small ; eyes large and prominent, covered with a skin ; mantle supported by two internal fleshy bands ; siphuncle with a valve ; club of tentacular arms finned ; fins of body small and terminal. 2. FAMILY. False- Squids (Loligopsidse). Body elongate, membranous, tapering behind ; eyes peduncled, not covered by a skin ; mantle supported by two internal fleshy bands ; siphuncle simple ; fins caudal, terminal, semi- circular. 3. FAMILY. Long-armed Calamaries (Chirateu- thidse). Body elongate, tapering ; ears with- out crest ; eyes naked, simple, above ; mantle with three internal cartilages, one dorsal and two ventral ; siphuncle simple, without a valve ; tentacular arms outside the web, not retractile ; fins on hind part of back 4. FAMILY. Hook-armed Calamaries (Onychoteu- thidse). Head moderate, cylindrical ; eyes naked with a sinus at upper part ; ears with a longitudinal crest ; mantle with three in- ternal cartilages, one dorsal and two ventral ; tentacular arms with a group of small sessile cups at end of club ; fins posterior, dorsal, angular. 120 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 5. FAMILY. Squids (Loliginidee). Eyes simple, co- vered with skin ; ears with a transverse crest ; buccal membrane often with cups ; mantle with three internal cartilages, one dorsal two ventral ; tentacular arms partially retractile ; fins on sides of hind part of back. II. SUB-ORDER. SEHOPHORES (Sepiophora). Shell cellular, calcareous, back hard ; cavity filled with laminae, separated by numerous cells. 6. FAMILY. Cuttles (Sepiidse). Head united to mantle by a broad cervical band ; eyes co- vered with the skin ; mantle with two carti- laginous ridges on ventral side ; tentacular arms* expanded at the end, entirely retrac- tile ; buccal membrane without cups ; si- phuncle with an internal valve. III. SUB-ORDER. BELEMNOPHORES (Belemnophora). Shell calcareous, internal, chambered; chamber traversed by a siphon. 7. FAMILY. Spirulas (Spirulidse). Eyes covered with the skin, lower eye-lid distinct ; mantle free all round, a linear cartilage on inner side of ventral surface ; body sub-cylindrical, rounded at the end ; buccal membrane with- out cups; sessile arms triangular, with six rows of small peduncled cups tentacular arms elongate, cylindrical, club ? siphuncle with an apical valve ; shell internal, shelly, spiral, chambered ; chambers with a siphon. Pelagic. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY 121 III. ORDER POLYPODS (Polypoda). Body without fins ; head not separate from the body ; with a great number of cylindrical, retractile, annulated arms, without cups ; gills four. 1. FAMILY. Nautili (Nautilidse). Siphuncle slit ; a distinct foot-like appendage ; body enclosed in the last chamber of a shell ; shell involute, discoidal, few-whorled; septa dividing the chambers simple ; inner surface pearly. PTEROPODS. The Pteropods rank among those little-known beings that serve to people the expanse of the great oceans, occurring both in northern latitudes and in intertropical regions in vast multitudes. Being noc- turnal or crepuscular in their habits, they are not generally observed ; at the setting of the sun, how- ever, they come from various depths towards the surface, and may then be readily taken in a towing- net. They swim rapidty, though in an irregular manner, progressing by sudden jerks, and move in every direction by means of their large lateral wing- like fins. The different species make their appear- ance near the surface at certain fixed times, and seem to dwell in the water at a depth peculiar to themselves ; some come to the surface at the setting of the sun, but many of the larger ones do not ascend till towards midnight. Those genera that have their bodies protected by a shell are most nu- 122 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. merous in species ; their shells are varied in form, and are glassy, clear, and transparent ; they are beautiful objects, but on account of their fragile nature and their inaccessible oceanic habitats, are not often found in the Collections of Conchologists, or even in those of National Museums. Many peculiar forms of Pteropods seem to swarm in the polar seas ; and one genus, the Limacina, occurs in such prodigious multitudes as even to constitute the principal food of the mighty Baleen- Whale. The long pallial prolongations often pro- truded from the fissures in the sides of the shells, do not appear to be of much service in propelling or guiding these animals through the water, but are most probably subservient to respiration. II. CLASS. PTEROPODS (Pteropoda). Head more or less distinct ; eyes none ; mouth often furnished with cup-like appendages ; fins two, usually on sides of mouth, often with an interme- diate lobe ; body ovate or roundish ; unisexual ? free, floating on the surface of the sea by means of their fins ; crepuscular or nocturnal. I. OKDER SHELL-BEARING PTEROPODS (Thecosomata). Head indistinct, with two wings on sides of mouth; tooth of lingual membrane hooked, with a strong hooked tooth on each side ; gills internal ; body en- closed in a shelL 1. FAMILY. Spiny-Pteropods (Cavolinidse). Fins united, no foot-like appendage between them ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 123 gills in pairs ; abdomen voluminous ; shell symmetrical, calcareous, globular or elongate- conical, furnished with spiny processes. 2. FAMILY. Subulate-Pteropods (Tripteridse), Body elongate, cylindrical, fore part with two large lateral wings united below to a flat central portion ; shell sub-cylindrical, calcareous, sub- angular near the mouth, ending in an acute point separated from the anterior cavity by a transverse septum ; tip often deciduous in the adult. 3. FAMILY. Slipper -shaped Pteropods (Cymbu- liidse). Animal globular or ovate ; fins two, on each side of mouth, with a small interme- diate lobe ; shell cartilaginous, slipper-shaped, rarely wanting. 4. FAMILY. Spiral-Pteropods (Limacinidse). Body spiral, fins elongate, rounded, united at their base by an intermediate lobe bearing an oper- culum ; mantle large, open in front ; shell spiral, usually sinistral, and produced on the collumellar side; operculum ^stinct, spiral vitreous. II. ORDER. NAKED-PTEEOPODS (Gymnosomata). Body naked, without any shell ; head distinct ; fins two or four, at junction of head and body, a cen- tral intermediate lobe ; gills exterior ; shell none. 1. FAMILY. Olios (Clionidse). Body fusiform ; head with a series of conical prominences on each side ; wings two, with an intermediate foot- like appendage. G 2 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 2. FAMILY. Pneumoderms (Pneumodermonidae). Body fusiform ; head with arms furnished with pedicellate suckers ; wings two, with a central foot-like appendage ; gills on hind part of body. 3. FAMILY. Cymodoceas (Cymodoceidse). Body divided into two parts; wings four, two on each side, at the junction between head and abdomen, with a foot-like appendage. GASTEROPODS. The Gasteropods, comprising the tribes of the spiral shell-bearing Mollusks, will be eagerly sought after by the enterprising traveller on account of their rarity and beauty, nor will he have to look in vain for traces of their whereabouts. On the bosom of the ocean fleets of purple lan- thince and sprightly Atalants, with clear transparent shells, and sometimes a Glassy-Nautilus (Carina- ria), swift and rapid in its movements, will be no- ticed on his outward voyage ; nor will the pelagian Dorids and Eolids that occupy the stems of floating sea-weeds escape his observation. Wandering amid the labyrinths of tropical forests, he will discover, sheltered by the leaves, or hid among the fissures of the bark, showy-looking Bu- limi, and fine banded Snails, while active Nanince, with their truncate, glandular tails, will be seen among the foliage of the lower bushes, or hiding in MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 125 the moss and dead leaves at the foot of the trees; and among their tangled roots . he will bring to light earth-loving Cyclostomes and ear-shaped Land- Volutes. The beds of ancient torrents, decaying rocks, and the debris of mountain slopes, will also yield him curious flattened, dingy Helicidce, and the slug-like forms of Onchidium and Veronicella. If he is near the coast, he will find, on the rocks, the Chitons, with their coats of mail, the curious Cup-and-Saucer Limpets, and the beautiful pearly Ear-shells ; and among the coral reefs the polished Cowry, or the spine-armed Murex; nor will the numerous kind of Wreath and Top-shells be over- looked in his search among the stones along the strand. Here also, perchance, he may discover some of the elegant Volutes, frequently as rare and costly as they are beautiful ; and he may notice the large and powerful animals of the Strombidce, or Wing- Shells, with their telescope-eyes and strong muscular foot, leaping and rolling about in pursuit of prey ; Purple-Shells and Periwinkles will be observed grazing on their sea-weed pastures, in company with gaudy-coloured Nerites ; while on the sand-flats he will see the Naticas and the glossy Olives, partially covered by expansions of their foot, forming bur- rows in the moist soft bed on which they pass their lives ; here also will be seen the large-footed Bullia and the Nassas, with their bifid turned-up tails, describing sinuous tracks as they quickly traverse the surface of the yielding sand ; while in the coral- .masses around him a careful search will enable him 126 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. to discover, securely lodged, the curious Magilus and the Leptoconchus. III. CLASS. GASTEROPODS (Gasteropoda). Head distinct, furnished with eyes and tentacles ; body usually protected by a spiral or conical shell ; adult walking on an expanded foot. I. SUB-CLASS. PROSOBRAIJCHS (Prosobranchiata). Heart placed behind gills ; sexes distinct ; gills comb-like, on back of mantle or round its edge. I. ORDER. PECTIKIBRANCHS (Pectinibranchiata). Gills formed of one or two series of laminae on left side of mantle over back of neck ; shell spiral. I. A^ UB-ORDER. PROBOSCIDIFEROUS-PECTINIBRANCHS (Proboscidifera). Head with a long retractile proboscis ; tentacles close together at their origin ; eyes sessile at their outer bases. Carnivorous. 1 . FAMILY. Rock-Shells (Muricidse). Teeth in three rows ; mantle with a long straight siphon ; foot simple in front ; shell with a more or less elongated canal at fore part of aperture ; whorls with varices. 2. FAMILY. Trumpet-Shells (Tritonidse). Teeth in seven rows ; mantle enclosed, with a straight siphon; shell with irregular or few varices on the whorls ; aperture with an elongated siphonal canal. 3. FAMILY. Whelks (Buccinidse). Mantle enclosed ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 127 siphon short, recurved ; foot simple in front ; shell without varices on whorls; aperture with no canal but an oblique notch at the fore part. 4. FAMILY. Olives (Strephonidse). Mantle enclosed ; siphon recurved ; foot fissured on each side in front, the margins reflexed on shell; shell with last whorl enrolled round the others, polished ; aperture with an oblique notch in front. (Olividce, Auct.) 5. FAMILY. Tulip-Shells (Faseiolariidse). Mantle enclosed ; siphon straight ; lateral teeth not versatile as in Muricidce, but broad and mul- tidentate ; shell without varices on whorls ; siphonal canal straight ; columella with plaits on fore part. 6. FAMILY. False-Volutes (Vasidse). Mantle en- closed ; siphon straight ; lateral teeth nar- row, with a single large denticle ; shell with the aperture channelled in front ; pillar with plaits on the middle. (Turbinellidce, Gray.) 7. FAMILY. Volutes-proper (Yolutidse). Siphon short, recurved, with auricles on each side at base ; tentacles far apart, united by a veil over the head ; shell with apex of spire mammillated ; columella with plaits. 8. FAMILY Mitres (Mitridse). Siphon simple at base ; tentacles close together at base ; mantle enclosed ; foot small ; shell with apex of spire acute ; columella with plaits. 9. FAMILY. China-Shells (Porcellanidse). Siphon 128 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. simple at base; tentacles close together at base ; mantle-lobes expanded, covering sides of shell; operculum none ; shell polished, with plaits on pillar ; margin of outer lip thick- ened. (Marginellidce, Auct.) 10. FAMILY. Fissure-Shells (Turritidse). Siphon straight ; mantle with a slit on hind part of right side ; shell turreted ; aperture with a straight canal in front ; outer lip with a fis- sure or sinus at hind part of margin. (Pleu- rotomidce, Gray.) 11. FAMILY. Tun-Shells (Doliidae). Mantle en- closed ; siphon recurved ; foot small ; oper- culum none ; shell thin, ventricose, witl transverse ribs or grooves ; aperture with an oblique notch in front. 12. FAMILY. Fig-Shells (Sycotypidse). Mantle with expanded lobes covering sides of shell ; siphon produced ; operculum none ; shell light, ventricose ; aperture with a produced canal ; whorls with transverse ribs. (Ficula, Swains.) 13. FAMILY. Velvet-Ears (Velutinidse). Eyes on outer side of tentacles ; margin of mantle in- flated, folded on the edge into two canals; operculum none ; shell thin, turbinate, co- vered with a velvety epidermis; aperture wide, simple in front. 14. FAMILY. Dwarf-Ears (Otinidse). Tentacles obsolete ; eyes on upper part of head ; man- tle enclosed; foot divided by a transverse MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY 129 fissure into two creeping disks ; operculum none; shell ear-shaped, spire minute; aperture large. 15. FAMILY. Coriocellas (Lamellariidse). Eyes at bases of tentacles ; mantle very large, en- tirely covering the shell, notched in front ; operculum none ; shell thin, semi-pellucid, ear-shaped ; aperture wide. 16. FAMILY. Sea-Snails (Naticidse). Eyes none; mantle enclosed ; foot very large, produced in front, operculigerous, lobe greatly deve- loped, partly covering the shell ; operculum sub-spiral ; shell smooth, spiral ; aperture semi-lunar, entire in front. 17. FAMILY. Helmet-Shells (Cassididse). Teeth nu- merous, similar, in many rows ; mantle en- closed, with a recurved siphon ; operculum annular ; shell ventricose, whorls often variced; aperture with a recurved canal, or a notch in front ; outer lip thickened. 18. FAMILY. Wentletraps (Scalidse). Mantle en- closed, without a siphon ; foot moderate ; eyes on outer side of tentacles ; operculum horny, spiral ; shell turreted, variced ; aper- ture round, without any canal. 19. FAMILY. Awl-Shells (Terebridse). Mantle en- closed, with an elongated siphon ; eyes on tip of tentacles or wanting ; tentacles small ; foot small ; operculum annular, nucleus apical ; shell turreted ; outer lip thin, not variced. (Terebrina, Morch ; Acusidce, Gray.) o5 130 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 20. FAMILY. Pyramid-Shells (Pyramidellidse). Tentacles ear-shaped; eyes on their inner sides ; mantle enclosed ; foot moderate ; shell turreted ; columella plicated. 21. FAMILY. Eulimas (Eulimidse). Tentacles simple, subulate ; eyes on their outer bases ; mantle enclosed ; foot moderate ; shell tur- reted ; columella simple. 22. FAMILY. Star-fish Parasites (Stylinidse). Foot greatly produced in front ; tentacles subulate, simple : eyes on their outer bases ; mantle enclosed; shell globose or turreted ; aperture oblong columella simple. Parasitic on Star- fishes. 23. FAMILY. False Club-Shells (Cerithiopsidae). Eyes on centre of tentacles at their base ; mantle enclosed, with a short siphon; foot grooved beneath ; operculum with the nu- cleus apical ; shell turreted, granular ; aper- ture with a short anterior canal. 24 FAMILY. Stair case -Shells (Architectonicidse). Tentacles folded, with the suture below ; eyes sessile on upper surface of their base ; ten- tacles close together at their base; foot small ; operculum ovate or circular ; shell trochiform, with a wide umbilicus. (Solarium, Lamck.) II. S UB-ORDER. ROSTRIFEROUS-PECTINIBRANCHS (Rostrifera). Head with a non-retractile rostrum ; tentacles subulate, wide apart, on the sides of the rostrum. Mostly phytophagous. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 131 25. FAMILY. Wing-Shells (Strombidse). Eyes on the end of cylindric peduncles, with the ten- tacles on their middle ; mantle with outer margin lobed ; foot divided, formed for leap- ing not walking ; operculum claw-like ; shell with the outer lip expanded, notched near the fore part, changing in form with age. Marine. 26. FAMILY. Auger-Shells (Terebellidse). Eyes on the end of cylindric peduncles ; tentacles none ; foot compressed, sub-ovate ; operculum horny, tricuspid externally; shell subulate, involute ; aperture linear, outer lip simple. Marine. 27. FAMILY. Cones (Conidse). Eyes near the ends of the tentacles ; teeth barbed, in two rows ; mantle enclosed ; operculum ovate, nucleus apical ; shell cone-shaped ; aperture straight ; outer lip simple. 28. FAMILY. False Wing-Shells (Aporrhaidse). Eyes sessile on outer bases of tentacles ; mantle with the outer edge expanded or lobed ; siphon bent to the right ; foot simple ; operculum annular, ovate ; shell with the outer lip sinu- ous, lobed, or digitate. 29. FAMILY. Lattice- Shells (Cancellariidse). No tongue nor teeth ; eyes sessile on outer bases of tentacles ; mantle enclosed ; siphon ru- dimentary ; operculum none ; shell spiral, whorls cancellated; columella with plaits. Marine. 132 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 30. FAMILY. HoAr-Keels (Trichotropidse). Teeth in seven rows ; tongue short and broad ; eyes on lower halves of tentacles ; mantle with a rudimentary siphon; operculum ovate, annu- lar ; shell spiral ; aperture nearly simple in front ; columella without plaits. 31. FAMILY. Coral-Parasites (Pediculariidse). Eyes on outer bases of tentacles ; mantle enclosed, simple in front ; operculum none ; shell non- spiral ; apex lateral ; aperture very wide ; columella simple ; outer lip thin. 32. FAMILY. Egg-Shells (Amphiperatidse). Lateral teeth pectinate ; mantle lobes expanded, co- vering the sides, of the shell, bearded exter- nally ; operculum none ; shell porcellanous, smooth; outer lip with the edge inflexed. (Ovulum, Lamck.) 33. FAMILY. Cowries (Cyprseidse). Outer lateral teeth conical; eyes sessile on outer bases of tentacles ; mantle-lobes expanded, covering the shell ; operculum none ; shell involute, the last whorl enrolling and concealing all the others ; spire none ; columella toothed. 34. FAMILY. Carriers (Onustidse). Eyes sessile on outer bases of tentacles ; mantle simple in front ; foot compressed, formed for jumping not walking ; operculum horny, sub-annular ; shell trochiform ; whorls more or less covered with fragments of shells, &c. (Phoridce, Gray; Xenophoracea, Phil.) 35. FAMILY. Chambered-Shells (Calyptridse). Eyes MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 133 sessile at base of tentacles ; gills placed ob- liquely across neck ; foot expanded, simple ; operculum none ; shell conical, non-spiral ; aperture wide, with an internal testaceous appendage. 36. FAMILY. Bonnet-Shells (Capulidse). Eyes on outer bases of tentacles ; gills placed obliquely across neck ; foot folded on itself; operculum none ; shell simple, cap-shaped ; aperture wide, simple internally. Marine. 37. FAMILY. White-Ears (Vanicoridae). Eyes ses- sile on outer bases of tentacles ; foot small ; circular, winged at the sides, and with a narrow lobe in front ; operculum ovate, horny ; shell spiral, white ; last whorl large ; aperture semi-lunar. Marine. (Naricacea, Phil.) 38. FAMILY. Worm -Shells (Vermetidse). Eyes sessile on outer bases of short tentacles ; foot cylindrical, produced and truncate in front, not fit for walking ; operculum circular, spi- ral ; shell attached, tubular, irregularly spiral. Marine. 39. FAMILY. False Tooth-Shells (Cteecidse). Eyes sessile on the head behind bases of ten- tacles ; foot short ; operculum circular ; shell many-whorled, sub-cylindrical, arched ; apex sub-spiral, deciduous. Marine. 40. FAMILY. Apple -Snails (Ampullariidse). Ten- tacles subulate ; eyes on peduncles at their outer bases ; mantle with a siphon ; rostrum 134 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. bilobate, lobes subulate ; operculum annu- lar, regular ; shell turbinate, thin ; aperture entire in front. Fluviatile. 41. FAMILY. River -Snails (Viviparidge). Eyes sessile on outer bases of tentacles ; rostrum entire ; mantle simple in front ; operculum annular, regular; shell turbinate, covered with an epidermis ; aperture entire in front. Fluviatile. (Paludinacea, Phil.) 42. FAMILY. Valve-Shells (Valvatidse). Eyes ses- sile on outer sides of tentacles ; siphon none ; gills plumose, exposed, protected by a long, slender lobe ; operculum spiral, many-whorl- ed ; shell spiral, turbinate or discoidal ; aper- ture entire. Fluviatile. 43. FAMILY. Periwinkles (Littorinidse). Eyes ses- sile on outer side of tentacles ; mantle-margin with a slight siphonal fold ; operculum sub- spiral ; shell turbinate ; aperture simple in front. Marine. 44. FAMILY. Rissoas (Rissoidae). Eyes on outer bases of tentacles ; rostrum adnate to fore part of foot ; mantle simple in front ; oper- culigerous lobe with tentacular appendages ; shell spiral, white, more or less turreted ; aperture entire in front. Marine. 45. FAMILY. Quoyias (Planaxidae). Eyes sessile on outer bases of tentacles ; mantle with a siphon in front ; foot with the sides simple ; operculum sub-spiral ; shell turreted, with a notch at fore part of aperture. Marine. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 135 46. FAMILY. Sargasso, - Shells (Litiopidse). Eyes sessile on outer bases of tentacles ; mantle with a siphon in front ; foot with tentacular filaments on the sides ; operculum sub-spiral; shell sub-turreted ; aperture with a distinct notch in front. Marine. 47. FAMILY. Salt-Water Clubs (Cerithiidge). Eyes on outer sides of tentacles ; mantle with a siphonal fold or a distinct siphon in front ; operculum ovate, sub-spiral ; outer lateral teeth conical, curved ; shell turreted ; aper- ture more or less beaked and channelled in front ; outer lip expanded. Marine. 48. FAMILY. Fresh-water Clubs. (Melaniidse). Eyes sessile on outer bases of tentacles ; mantle margin fringed, with a slight siphonal fold in front ; operculum sub-spiral ; lateral teeth multicuspid ; shell spiral, many-whorl- ed, covered with an epidermis ; aperture usually simple in front. Fluviatile. 49. FAMILY. Screw-Shells (Turritellidse). Tongue very short, minute ; eyes on bulgings at outer bases of tentacles; mantle - margin fringed, nearly entire in front ; a single long branchial plume ; operculum circular, mul- tispiral, edges of whorls fimbriated ; shell turreted, many-whorled ; aperture simple in front. Marine. 50. FAMILY. Rissoellas (Rissoellidse). Eyes sessile, far back behind tentacles ; rostrum bifid, lobes nearly as long as tentacles ; opercu- 136 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. him annular, with an internal process ; shell spiral, hyaline, sub-turreted ; aperture en- tire in front. Marine. 51. FAMILY. Macgillivrayias (Macgillivrayiidae). Tentacles four (?), nearly equal ; eyes (?) ; mantle with an elongate siphon in front ; foot large, produced behind ; a float (?) ; oper- culum annular, with an internal process ; shell spiral, sub-globose, horny, sub-pellucid. Pelagian. 52. FAMILY. Oceanic-Snails (lanthinidse). Ten- tacles subulate, with pedicles at their outer bases ; eyes none ; foot small, flat, with a vesicular appendage on hind part ; shell thin, turbinate, violet ; aperture sub-quad- rate ; columella straight ; outer lip notched. Oceanic. II. ORDER. SCUTIBRANCHS (Scutibranchiata). Gills of two series of lamellae, forming one or two series over back of neck, or on under edge of mantle round foot; shell spiral, or symmetrical and conical. I. SUB-ORDER. PEDUNCLE-EYED SCUTIBRAJTCHS (Podophthalniata). Eyes pedicelled, separate from the tentacles ; teeth numerous, lateral ones reniform, very numer- ous, crowded. ]. FAMILY. Wreath-Shells (Turbinidse). Foot with MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 37 a lateral fringe ; head-lobes developed ; shell turbinate, pearly within ; operculum calca- reous. 2. FAMILY. Top-Shells (Trochidse). Foot with a lateral fringe ; head-lobes rudimentary ; shell conical, spiral, pearly within; operculum horny. 3. FAMILY. False-Ears (Stomatellidse). Foot with a lateral fringe ; front edge of mantle entire ; muscular impression crescentic ; shell ear- shaped, imperforate, pearly within ; opercu- lum none or rudimentary. 4. FAMILY. Sea-Ears (Haliotidge). Foot with a lateral fringe ; head-lobes developed ; mantle with the front edge fissured ; muscle of at- tachment oval, central; shell ear -shaped, pearly within, with a series of holes ; oper- culum none. 5. FAMILY. Nerites (Neritidae). Foot simple, with- out a lateral fringe ; head-lobes none ; shell spiral, turbinate, not pearly within; oper- culum sub-spiral, calcareous, with an internal process. II. SUB-ORDER. SESSILE-EYED SCUTIBRANCHS (Edriophthalmata). Eyes sessile, or on a slightly-raised tubercle on outer side of base of tentacles ; shell (adult) symme- trical, conical, not spiral, not pearly within ; oper- culum none. 138 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 6. FAMILY. Fissure-Limpets (Fissurellidse). Gills two, symmetrical, on back of neck ; foot di- lated ; sides with a series of short tentacles ; shell conical ; apex perforate, or margin fis- sured. 7. FAMILY. Tooth-Shells (Dentaliidse). Head with- out tentacles or eyes ; foot small, conical ; sides simple ; shell elongate, conical ; apex perforate. 8. FAMILY. False-Limpets (Tecturidse). Gill single, on side of back of neck ; foot with a simple groove on the sides ; tentacles simple ; shell conical, simple. 9. FAMILY. Blind-Limpets (Lepetidse). Gills two, pinnate, on back of neck ; tentacles subulate ; eyes none or rudimentary ; shell conical, simple. 10. FAMILY. Groove -Limpets (Gadiniidas). Gills simple, placed obliquely across back of neck ; tentacles folded, expanded ; eyes sessile on middle of their bases ; shell conical, with a groove for vent in front of right side. 11. FAMILY. True-Limpets (Patellidse). Gill under edge of mantle, forming a more or less com- plete ring round the body; tentacles subu- late ; shell conical, simple. 12. FAMILY. Chitons (Chitonidse). Gills in two series, one on each side of hind part of body ; head covered by a hood, formed of the united tentacles ; eyes none ; shell formed of eight imbricate pieces along the back. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 139 II. S UB-CLASS. OPISTHOBRANCHIATE-GASTEBOPODS (Opisthobranchiata). Heart placed before gills ; gills plume-like, on the side under the mantle, or arranged along the back, exposed. I. ORDER. TECTIBRANCHS (Tectibranchiata). Gill forming a plume on the side under a fold of mantle, usually protected by a shell. 1. FAMILY. Umbrella -Shells (Pleurobranchidae). Tentacles ear-shaped ; eyes sessile on their inner bases ; gill on the side, under mantle ; shell external or internal, membranous or calcareous. 2. FAMILY. Sea -Hares (Aplysiidse). Tentacles separate, ear-like ; eyes sessile on head ; foot with large lateral lobes, usually folded across back ; shell internal. 3. FAMILY. Long -tailed Bullas (Lophocercidse). Tentacles distinct, ear-like ; eyes sessile ; organs of generation close together in one tubercle ; shell external, partly covered by lobes of foot. 4. FAMILY. Bullceas (Philinidse). Tentacles form- ing a square frontal disk with lobes ; eyes none ; shell concealed in substance of mantle. 5. FAMILY. Bubble -Shells (Bullidse). A tentacu- lar frontal disk, notched behind ; eyes sessile on the middle ; foot -lobes covering sides of shell ; mouth of shell entire in front. 140 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. 6. FAMILY. Banded Bubble-Shells (Aplustridse). Frontal disk produced into ear-like tentacles ; eyes at their bases ; operculum none ; shell with mouth channelled in front. 7. FAMILY. Cylindric-Bullas (Cylichnidse). Ten- tacles broad, flattened, lateral, recumbent ; eyes on their inner bases ; foot short ; shell external, cylindric, with a plait on colu- mella. 8. FAMILY. Turned ' - Shells (Acteonidse). Head depressed, with broad posterior tentacular lobes ; eyes sessile on middle of head ; an operculum ; shell with the columella plicate. II. ORDER. NUDIBRANCHS (Nudibranchiata). Gills exposed, or contractile into cavities of mantle; shell only present in the larva state. L SUB-ORDER. ANTHOBRANCHS (Anthobranchiata). Gills surrounding vent, on middle of hind part of back. 1. FAMILY. Dorids (Dorididse). Gills in a com- mon cavity ; mantle -edge simple ; teeth many in each cross series, sub-similar, inner often smaller. 2. FAMILY. False-Dorids (Onchidorididse). Gills in separate cavities ; mantle edging the foot and simple ; teeth two in each cross series. 3. FAMILY. Clubbed-Dorids (Triopidse). Gills in a common cavity ; mantle small, edged with tentacles ; teeth many (rarely only four) in MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY." 141 each cross series, inner lateral ones large, irregular. IT. SUB-ORDER. AIOLOBRAKCHS (Aiolobranchiata). Gills superficial, generally in the form of fusiform processes, plaits, or branching vessels. 4. FAMILY. Tritonias (Dendronotidae). Tongue broad ; teeth many in each cross series ; jaws horny ; tentacles sheathed ; gills fusiform or branched, on each side of back ; vent lateral. 5. FAMILY. Antiopas (Proctonotidse). Tongue broad, teeth many in each cross series jaws horny; tentacles simple, linear, not sheathed ; gills fusiform, on sides of back ; vent dorsal. 6. FAMILY. Pleurophyllidians (Pleurophyllidiidse). Tongue broad ; teeth many in each cross series ; jaws horny ; tentacles simple, united, expanded ; gills in folds, on under side of mantle-margin, which is bent up. 7. FAMILY. Dotos (Dotomdse). Tongue narrow ; teeth in a single central series ; tentacles sheathed at base, retractile ; gills fusiform, on sides of back. 8. FAMILY. Eolids (Eolididse). Tongue narrow; teeth in a single central series ; tentacles subulate, simple, rarely ringed ; contractile ; gills fusiform or branched, on sides of back ; jaws horny. 9. FAMILY. Hermceas (HermseidaB). Tongue nar- 144 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. tentacles cylindrical, shorter than and under eye- peduncles. Living on the land. 1. FAMILY. Water-loving Slugs (OnchidMso). Eye- peduncles contractile (not retractile), eyes at their ends ; body covered with a large coriaceous mantle shell none. 2. FAMILY. Burrowing-Slugs (Testacellidse). Eye- peduncles retractile ; mantle usually con- cealed under shell ; breathing orifice on hind part of mantle ; shell external, small, on hind part of body. 3. FAMILY. True-Slugs (Limacidse). Eye-peduncles retractile ; mantle shield-shaped, covering the shell ; breathing orifice on right side ; caudal gland none ; shell rudimentary, internal. 4. FAMILY. Arions (Arionidse). Eye-peduncles retractile ; mantle shield-shaped, covering the shell ; breathing orifice on right side ; foot with a distinct caudal gland near the end ; shell internal, rudimentary, or external and well developed. 5. FAMILY. Snails (Helicidse). Eye-peduncles re- tractile ; mantle lining the shell ; caudal gland none ; shell external, spiral, well-de- veloped. 1. Bulimi/nce. Aperture of shell longer than wide, columella not truncate ; spire ele- vated. 2. Helicince. Aperture of shell wider than long ; columella simple in front ; spire moderate. MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 145 3. AchatinincB. Aperture of shell longer than wide ; columella truncate ; spire more or less elevated. 4. Vitrinince. Animal not completely retrac- tile within the shell ; shell thin, trans- parent. II. SU-0I)E. FRESH-WATER PULMONIFERS (Limnophila). Eyes sessile ; tentacles sub-cylindrical or flat- tened, simply contractile ; operculum none. 6. FAMILY. Pond-Snails (Limnseidse). Tentacles contractile, flattened ; eyes sessile on their inner bases ; shell horn-ooloured ; aperture without plaits. Fluviatile. 7. FAMILY. Marsh - Volutes (Auriculidse). Ten- tacles contractile; eyes sessile on nape at inner sides of bases of tentacles ; shell with the aperture plaited. Terrestrial, or living in marshes. III. SUB-ORDER. MARINE-PULMONIFERS (Thalassophila). Eyes sessile on front part of frontal disk formed by the expanded tentacles. Living on the shores or in salt marshes. 8. FAMILY. Siphon-Shells (Siphonariidse). Ten- tacles forming a large bilobed frontal disk ; mantle with a fleshy lobe on right side co- vering the respiratory aperture ; shell coni- 146 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. cal, simple, with an internal groove on middle of right side ; operculum none. 9. FAMILY. Amphibolans (Amphibolidae). Ten- tacles forming by their union a large frontal disk with the eyes sessile on the fore part ; shell spiral, turbinate ; outer lip notched in the middle ; operculum horny. II. ORDER PHANEROPNEUMONS (Phaneropneumona). Edge of mantle free from nape, leaving the pul- monary cavity open ; operculum distinct ; animal unisexual. I. SUB-ORDER. OPISOPHTHALMIANS (Opisophthalmata). Eyes sessile on upper part of head behind base of tentacles. 1. FAMILY. Looping-Snails (Truncatellidse). Eyes sessile behind base of tentacles ; tentacles subulate ; foot divided across ; operculum horny, sub-spiral ; shell turreted, spiral. II. SUB-ORDER. ECTOPHTHALMIANS (Ectophthalmata). Eyes placed on sides of head at outer base of tentacles ; operculum horny or testaceous. 2. FAMILY. Cyclostomes (Cyclophoridse). Eyes at outer base of tentacles ; foot moderate ; oper- culum spiral ; shell with the aperture cir- cular. 3. FAMILY. Helicines (HelicinidsB). Eyes at outer bases of tentacles ; foot elongate ; operculum annular ; shell with the aperture semi-lunar. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 147 BIVALVES. The Conchifera, comprising the Bivalve Mollusks, have the sides of their mantle protected by shelly valves, which, however, are not spiral as in the Gas- teropods, but simply concave and united together by a horny ligament. The Conchifera are without any apparent head, nor are they possessed of either eyes or tentacles. There is usually a pair of gills between the mantle and the body on each side; and the foot, although attached to the belly, does not form a flattened disk as in the Gasteropods, but is laterally compressed, allowing the animals to leap or burrow, but not serving as an organ of reptation. The mantle, in many of the families, is posteriorly prolonged into two siphons or tubes, the upper one of which is anal and excretory, and the lower one branchial or respiratory; in other families the si- phonal tubes are entirely wanting. Some Bivalve Mollusks swim freely about by alternately closing and expanding their valves, as the Pectens, which have hence been termed the "butterflies of the deep;" others, on the contrary, are securely an- chored to foreign bodies at the bottom of the sea, as the Clam-shells and the Oysters ; while others, as the Venuses and Cockles, are enabled to move about on the surface of the sand by placing their bent foot under their shells and suddenly straighten- ing it, causing it to act like a lever. Some Conchifera bury themselves with great facility in the mud or H 2 148 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. sand by means of their long conical muscular foot, as the Razor-fish, the Gapers, and the fresh-water Pearl-Mussels ; some again are loosely attached to sub-marine rocks by a long byssus, as the Mussels and Pinnas, in which case the foot, being useless, is rudimentary or obsolete. Others perforate stones, as the Pholades, or wood, as the Ship-worms or Tere- dines, which are often very destructive to the bot- toms of vessels, and do much mischief in dockyards to timber. Many Bivalves are excellent articles of diet, as the Scallop and the Cockle ; nor must that epicurean morsel be omitted, the much-prized Oyster ; other Conchiferous shell- fish are important in a commercial point of view, on account of the pearly nature of their shells, and the globules of free nacre they sometimes secrete, as the Pearl-Oysters. IV. CLASS. BIVALVES (Conchifera). Head indistinct ; body covered with a bilobed mantle, each lobe protected by a shelly valve ; gills lamellar, two on each side ; foot usually compressed and keeled ; mouth with elongate fleshy lips ; valves of shell united on their dorsal edges by a ligament. Aquatic. I. SUB-CLASS. BlMUSCULAR-BlVALVES (Dimyaria). Animal with two nearly equal adductor muscles for closing the valves. I. ORDER PHYLLOPODS (Phyllopoda). Foot lamellar or elongate ; gills not produced into MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. ] 49 anal siphon ; mantle-lobes more or less disunited ; siphons elongate, usually separate at their ends. 1. FAMILY. Venuses (Veneridae). Siphons short, united for the greater part of their length ; foot large, compressed ; shell regular, closed ; hinge with three diverging cardinal teeth; ligament external. Marine. 2. FAMILY. Cyprinas (Cyprinidas). Siphons very short ; mantle-lobes free beneath ; shell ovate, cordate, covered with an epidermis ; hinge -teeth 3 3 ; anterior lateral teeth none ; siphonal inflection none or rudimen- tary. 3. FAMILY. Glauconomes (Glauconomidse). Shell oblong, covered with a green epidermis ; hinge- teeth 3-3, in right valve the hinder elongate and bifid, in left valve the hinder small and laminar ; lateral teeth none. 4. FAMILY. Rock -Borers (Petricolidse). Siphons elongated, separate ; foot small, lanceolate, with a byssal groove ; shell boring, gaping, often irregular; ligament external; hinge- teeth large and irregular. 5. FAMILY. Gyrenoids (Cyrenoididse). Mantle- lobes free beneath, with two united siphons ; gills two on each side ; shell oblong, ventri- cose, covered with a thin epidermis ; cardinal teeth 3-3 ; siphonal inflection none. 6. FAMILY. Freshwater- Venuses (Corbiculidse). Siphons produced, more or less united ; foot large, linguiform ; shell tumid, covered with 150 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. an epidermis ; ligament external ; hinge with cardinal and lateral teeth. Fluviatile. 7. FAMILY. Paphians (Paphiidse). Shell variable in form ; ligament internal ; pallial impres- sion sinuated ; hinge with the anterior car- dinal tooth simple, compressed. 8. FAMILY. Madras (Mactridse). Siphons united to their extremities, which are fringed ; foot linguiform, geniculate ; shell with the carti- lage internal ; two cardinal teeth in each valve, the anterior usually bifid. 9. FAMILY. Anatinellas (Anatinellidse). Shell oblong, rather gaping behind, equivalve, covered with an epidermis ; cartilage internal, in a pit ; lateral teeth none ; siphonal inflec- tion none. 10. FAMILY. Tellens (Tellinidse). Siphons long, slender, entirely separate ; foot broad, geni- culate ; shell regular ; hinge with two primary teeth in each valve ; ligament external ; si- phonal inflection deep. 11. FAMILY. Mud- Madras (Scrobiculariidse). Ori- fices of siphonal tubes plain j mantle-margin toothed ; foot large, compressed ; shell slightly gaping posteriorly ; hinge with an internal cartilage situated in a pit. 12. FAMILY. Wedge-Shells (Donacidse). Mantle freely open in front ; siphons separated to their bases ; foot large, sharp-edged, with a byssal groove ; shell variable in form, more or less wedge-shaped ; hinge with primary teeth. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 351 II. ORDER. CLADOPODS (Cladopoda). Foot large and club-shaped, often truncate and expanded at the end ; mantle-lobes usually united, with a passage in front for the foot ; siphons large, produced, generally united to their ends ; gills pro- duced into the anal siphon. 1. FAMILY. Borers (Pholadidse). Siphons greatly prolonged, united as far as their ends ; foot club-shaped, truncate at end ; shell free, or within a tube, without ligament, and with apophyses under the beaks ; often with sup- plemental valves, 2. FAMILY. Tube-Shells (Gastrochsenidse). Siphons very long, united almost to their ends and fimbriated ; foot small, digitiform ; shell equi- valve, often gaping, incrusted in whole or partly, or free in a tube, which is either free or enclosed ; no apophyses at the hinge. 3. FAMILY. Razor-fish (SolenidsB). Siphons short, united ; orifices fimbriated ; foot elongated, thick, club-shaped, truncated ; shell sub- cylindrical, greatly elongated transversely, gaping at each end ; hinge with two or three teeth in each valve, the hinder bifid, carti- lage external, on a pad or fulcrum. 4. FAMILY. Pod-Shells (Pharidse). Siphons sepa- rated for more than half their length ; foot ovate, elongate, truncated ; shell greatly elongated transversely, gaping at each end ; ligament external; hinge simple, or with one or two hooked teeth. 152 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOET. 5. FAMILY. Lantern-Shells (Laternulidse). Siphons slender, separated, with fringed orifices ; foot small ; mantle almost entirely closed ; shell inequivalve, gaping at the hinder extremity ; ligament internal; usually a free ossicle at the hinge ; a siphonal inflection. 6. FAMILY. Arctic-Gapers (Glycimeridse). Siphons elongated, united ; mantle-lobes united ; shell more or less gaping at the sides, transversely elongated ; ligament large, prominent, exter- nal, on a fulcrum ; hinge simple or with a few primary teeth. 7. FAMILY. Gapers (Myidae). Siphons greatly elongated, united to their ends ; foot small ; mantle almost entirely closed ; shell oblong, gaping at the extremities ; cartilage in a spoon-shaped cavity in one of the valves ; hinge edentulate ; no free ossicle. 8. FAMILY. Pearly - Gapers (Pholadomyidae). Mantle- lobes united ; siphons none ; an open- ing under siphonal orifice ; foot bifurcate ; shell transverse, pearly within, gaping pos- teriorly ; hinge without teeth ; ligament ex- ternal. 9. FAMILY. Pod-Gapers (Solenomyidse). Mantle al- most entirely open, with a single cirrhated orifice behind ; foot cylindrical, truncate, ending in a fimbriated disk ; shell transverse- ly oblong, with a thick epidermis extending beyond the margins ; hinge with a cardinal tooth in each valve. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 153 10. FAMILY. Galeommas (Galeommidse). Mantle very large, double-edged, tubercled, almost entirely open, with a single aperture at hind part ; foot long, ligulate, perforate, byssifer- ous ; shell thin, equivalve, transversely oval, entire, ventral margin gaping ; hinge eden- tulate ; ligament internal. 1 1 . FAMILY. Pandoras (Pandoridse). Siphons short, united nearly to their ends, ends diver- gent, fringed ; shell equivalve, pearly within ; ligament internal, hinge often with an inter- nal ossicle. 1 2. FAMILY. Corbulas (Corbulidse). Siphons very short, united, ends fringed, and with a mem- branous tube ; mantle almost entirely open ; foot narrow ; shell inequivalve, beaked an- teriorly; hinge with primary teeth in one or both valves ; cartilage in an internal pit. 13. FAMILY. Stone-Borers (Saxicavidse). Mantle closed except for passage of foot; siphons elongate, united ; foot byssiferous ; shell ir- regular, gaping at ventral margin ; hinge with a few primary teeth. 14. FAMILY. Laseas (Laseidse). Mantle with only one (anal) opening, folded anteriorly into a canal or tube ; foot ligulate, grooved, byssi- ferous ; shell small, tumid or compressed ; ligament and teeth variable. 15. FAMILY. Scale-Shells (Leptonidse). Mantle- margin extending beyond the shell and cirr- hated ; siphon short ; foot keeled and disked ; ii 5 154? MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. shell orbicular, compressed, gaping at the sides ; pallial impression simple. III. ORDER. GONIOPODS (Goniopoda). Foot angular, more or less compressed ; siphons none or rudimentary ; mantle-lobes more or less united. 1. FAMILY. False-Cockles (Carditidse). Lobes of mantle disunited in their entire length, with a single posterior opening ; foot compressed, with a byssal groove ; shell closed, regular, free ; hinge with one or two oblique cardinal teeth, lateral teeth none. 2. FAMILY. Chamas (Chamidse). Two short si- phons beset with cirrhi; lobes of mantle united behind ; foot small, cylindrical, trun- cate ; shell irregular, porcellanous, attached, inequivalve, with a single large hinge-tooth ; pallial impression not sinuated. 3. FAMILY. Cockles (Cardiidse). Siphons short, their bases beset with cirrhi, margins fringed ; foot large and geniculate ; shell cordate, with radiating ribs and furrows ; hinge usually with two primary teeth in each valve, and distinct lateral teeth ; pallial impression not sinuated. 4. FAMILY. Heart- Cockles (Glossidse). Mantle- lobes united behind, with two short siphons ; foot small, sub-angular, compressed, and trenchant ; shell symmetrical, heart-shaped, ventricose ; beaks spirally inrolled ; hinge MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. 155 with two primary teeth in one valve and three in the other ; ligament internal. 5. FAMILY. Astartes (Astartidse). Mantle almost entirely open ; siphons rudimentary, consist- ing of two scarcely separated orifices ; foot thick, hatchet-shaped, without a byssus ; shell thick, closed ; hinge with primary teeth ; ligament external ; pallial impression nearly entire. 6. FAMILY. Crassatellas (Crassatellidse). Animal ? shell with the valves closed ; hinge with two cardinal teeth ; lateral teeth none ; cartilage in an internal triangular pit. 7. FAMILY. Lucinas (Lucinidse). Mantle-lobes half united, with two openings at the hind part; foot cylindrical, folded on itself, hol- low, the tube opening into the visceral cavity ; shell more or less orbicular ; ligament ex- ternal or sub-internal ; muscular scars large. 8. FAMILY. False-Lucinas (Diplodontidse). Mantle- margins united except for a large inferior opening for foot, and a small posterior anal opening without any siphon; foot vermi- form ; shell irregular, closed, with cardinal teeth in each valve. 9. FAMILY. Arks (Arcidse). Mantle freely open ; siphons none ; gills of separate filaments ; foot bent, grooved, with slightly crimped margins ; shell not pearly within, closed or gaping at ventral margin; hinge multiden- tate, teeth interlocking. 156 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOKY. 10. FAMILY. Solen-Arks '. (Solenellidse). Mantle open the entire length, margin double, with a single anal siphon ; labial palps elongate ; foot compressed, geniculate, with a disk with crenate margins ; shell thin, gaping slightly posteriorly, not pearly within ; hinge-margin with comb-like teeth ; ligament external, prominent. 11. FAMILY. Pearly- Arks (Nuculidse). Mantle completely open, with or without siphonal tubes ; one of the labial palps curled, with fimbriated margins ; gills foliaceous ; foot deeply grooved, forming an ovate disk with serrated margins ; shell pearly within ; teeth comb-like ; ligament internal. 12. FAMILY. Cockle -Arks (Trigoniidse). Mantle- lobes free, prolonged into short siphons ; gills foliaceous ; foot large, geniculate, with a disk ; shell equivalve, with radiating ribs, pearly within ; hinge with a few broad, lamelliform, grooved teeth interlocking with each other. 13 FAMILY. Pond-Mussels (Unionidse). Mantle freely open, branchial orifice fringed, anal plain or tube-like ; gills foliaceous ; foot broad, compressed, without a byssal groove ; shell pearly within, covered with an epider- mis ; hinge variable ; ligament external. Flu- viatile. 14. FAMILY. Nile -Mussels (Mutelidse). Mantle freely open, united behind and prolonged into two short siphons ; gills foliaceous ; foot MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 157 large, compressed ; shell transverse, pearly within ; hinge-margin tuberculated ; ligament marginal, external. Fluviatile. 15. FAMILY. JRiver-Solens (Mycetopidse). Mantle freely open ; siphons none ; foot long, cylin- drical, produced, inflated at the end ; shell thin, sub-cylindrical, gaping at both sides ; beaks nearly central. Fluviatile. 16. FAMILY. River-Oysters (^Etheriidas). Lobes of mantle entirely disunited, prolonged into short siphons ; gills foliaceous ; foot large, thick, oblong; shell irregular, attached; hinge edentulous ; ligament in a groove of beaks. Fluviatile. IY. ORDER POGONOPODS (Pogonopoda). Siphons indistinct or rudimentary ; animal at- tached by a bundle of fibres arising from front of base of foot. 3. FAMILY. M ussels (Mytilidse). Mantle-margins more or less united ; siphonal tubes distinct or wanting; gills foliaceous; foot small, nar- row, byssiferous ; shell elongated, equivalve ; hinge simple or sub-dentate ; ligament mar- ginal, sub-internal; muscular scars unequal. Marine. 2. FAMILY. Fresh-water Mussels (Dreissenidse). Mantle closed ; branchial opening tube-like, with a fringed orifice, anal sessile and plain ; foot short, byssiferous ; shell with the beaks 158 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. terminal ; hinge usually edentulate, with a, transverse septum. Fluviatile. 3. FAMILY. Pearl-Oysters (Aviculidse). Mantle freely open, margins cirrhated ; foot small, cylindrical, with a byssal groove j shell foli- ated, irregular, pearly within, right valve with a notch for the byssus ; hinge-margin straight ; ligament marginal, simple or inter- rupted. 4. FAMILY. Pinnas (Pinnidse). Mouth with folia- ceous lips ; no separate posterior opening ; anal siphon with a long ligulate valve ; gills foliaceous ; shell wedge-shaped, gaping at ventral margin, pointed at dorsal ; hinge lateral, without teeth ; ligament linear, al- most internal. 5. FAMILY. Clams (Tridacnidse). Mantle closed, except for the branchial and anal orifices, and the aperture for the thick, cylindrical, byssi- ferous foot ; shell regular, transverse, truncate ; hinge with two compressed teeth ; ligament external ; muscular scars united, irregular. II. SUB-CLASS. UNIMUSCULAR-BIVALVES (Monomyaria). Animal with a single adductor muscle for closing the valves. I. OEDER. MICROPODS (Micropoda). Mantle-lobes entirely free ; siphons none ; foot rudimentary. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 159 1. FAMILY. Scallops (Pectinidse) Mantle open in its entire length, with pendent tentacular edges, usually with eye-like spots ; foot small, cylindrical, with a byssal groove shell free, regular, not foliaceous, usually auricled ; liga- ment in a cardinal groove. 2. FAMILY. Water-Clams (Spondylidse). Mantle- margins with truncate cirrhi ; foot short, pe- dunculate, ending in a disk, with an elongate cylindrical tendon arising from its centre ; shell irregular, attached ; hinge with two strong teeth ; ligament internal. 3. FAMILY. Oysters (Ostreidse). Mantle open in its entire length, without siphons, edges double bordered with cirrhi, no conspicuous ocelli ; foot obsolete, rudimentary ; shell irre- gular, attached, foliated ; hinge without teeth ; ligament internal or semi-internal. 4. FAMILY. Perforated-Oysters (Anorniidse). Mantle freely open, with cirrhated margins, no con- spicuous ocelli ; foot rudimentary ; shell emar- ginate, or perforated near the beak, through which opening the adductor muscle passes, attached to an opercular shelly plug. 6. FAMILY. Window-Oysters (Placunidse). Shell compressed, thin, transparent ; cartilages on the edge of two divergent ridges on one of the valves, which fit into grooves in the other. 160 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. BRACHIOPODS. The Brachiopods are headless Mollusks like the Conchifera, and the foot is also wanting ; they are, moreover, destitute of true gills, and appear to re- spire by means of their mantle. Their bodies are protected by two unequal, symmetrical, valves united by a hinge without a ligament ; the under or ven- tral valve is sometimes attached, and the upper or dorsal is frequently perforated near the beak for the passage of a tendon, by means of which the animal is anchored to sub-marine bodies. The mantle-mar- gins are disunited, but the great distinguishing fea- ture of these remarkable creatures is the existence of two, strangely contorted or spiral, bony arms covered with a ciliated membrane, and arising from each side of the mouth. The ends of the spiral arms, in some genera, are endowed with voluntary motion, the movement being effected by the injec- tion of a fluid into the hollow spiral tube by which the coils are separated. The peculiar bony apophy- sary skeleton exhibits various modifications; two thin processes usually proceed from near the hinge of the upper perforated valve, and form loops or simple apophyses ; sometimes there is a median per- pendicular lamella between them, and sometimes they develope other processes, and constitute a very complicated apparatus. Their nervous system is composed of several ganglia surrounding the ceso- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 161 phagus ; their organs of taste are probably situated in the filaments of the mantle-margin ; and those of touch most probably consist of the curious ciliated, twisted or spiral, tentacular arms. Their digestive organs do not differ materially from those of the Bivalves, the alimentary canal commencing in a simple oral aperture situated between the bases of the tentacular arms ; in Terebratula it is tubular and curved for some distance, and then becomes di- lated into a stomach, while in other genera, it makes several turns and continues throughout of the same calibre ; there are no salivary glands, and the dis- integrated liver pours its secretion directly into the digestive tube. The structure of the shell varies in different genera ; in Discina it is almost entirely horny, in Lingula it is covered with an epidermis, which in Terebratula is entirely wanting. The shells of the Terebratulidce are finely perforated, the tubular apertures being lined, in the living ani- mal, with prolongations of the mantle. The Brachio- pods are extremely numerous in fossil genera and species, and appear to have been among the forms of Mollusca earliest created. The recent genera are few, and live in all seas, usually at very consider- able depths ; the Craniidce being sessile on stones and other sub-marine bodies ; the Terebratulce are also attached by means of their tendons ; while the Lingulce perforate the mud in more shallow situations. 162 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. V. CLASS. BRACHIOPODS (Bracliiopoda). Animal furnished with a pair of ciliated oral arms, sometimes supported by a calcareous append- age ; respiration performed by the vascular mantle ; body covered with two shells. Attached to marine objects. S UB-CLASS. ANCYLOPOD-BRACHIOPODS (Ancylopoda). Oral arms recurved and attached to fixed appen- dages on the disc of ventral valve ; shell with nu- merous minute perforations. I. ORDER. ANCYLOBRACHIATE-BRACHIOPODS (Ancylobrachiata). Oral arms affixed to calcareous plates, forming hoops attached to the hinge-margin of the ventral valve, and prominent in its cavity. 1. FAMILY. Lamp-Shells (Terebratulidse). Arms looped or contorted, fixed to an apophysary skeleton; shell regular, valves articulated, attached by a tendinous band which passes out of a hole in upper valve. II. ORDER. CRYPTOBRACHIATE-BRACHIOPODS (Cryptobrachiata). Oral arms sunk into grooves in the convex centre of the inner surface of the ventral valve. 1. FAMILY. Thecidians (Thecideeidae). Arms con- torted, fixed to margin of apophysary ribs and cardinal teeth ; shell attached by apex of lower valve, which is produced. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. J63 IT. S UB-CLASS. HELICTOPOD-BRACHIOPODS (Helictopoda). Oral arms regularly spirally twisted when at rest ; shell not pierced with minute perforations. I. ORDER. SCLEROBRACHIATE-BRACHIOPDOS (Sclerobrachiata). Oral arms supported by a shelly plate arising from the hinge-margin of ventral valve. 1. FAMILY. Beaked Lamp-Shells (Lampasidse). Arms spiral, supported only by short curved processes ; shell not punctate, usually tetra- hedral and sharply plaited. (Rhynchonellidce, Auct.) II. ORDER. SARCICOBRACHIATE-BRACHIOPODS (Sarcicobrachiata). Oral arms fleshy, without any shelly support ; lower valve of shell simple, or with a slight median elevation. 1. FAMILY. Skull-Shells (Craniidse). Arms fleshy, spiral, attached to a process in centre of lower valve ; upper valve limpet-like. 2. FAMILY. Disk-Shells (Discinidse). Arms cili- ated, fixed to a central process of lower valve, which is perforated for the passage of a peduncle, or tendon of attachment ; upper valve conical, simple. 3. FAMILY. Duck-billed Limpets (Lingulidas). Ani- mal attached by a tendinous tube, which pro- 164 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEV. jects between the apex of the gaping valves ; rudimentary branchiae developed from the mantle ; shell almost equivalve. TUNICARIES. The Tunicaries comprise the " acephalous Mol- lusks without shells " of Cuvier, and are the same as the " Heterobranches " of Blainville. They are marine animals of variable form, their bodies in- vested in a thick coriaceous or gelatinous sac-like mantle, with a branchial and an anal aperture, with the gills differently formed, attached to the inner lining membrane. They are usually fixed to rocks and other sub-marine bodies, as the Ascidians and Botrylli, but others among them are free and pela- gian, as the Salpians and Pyrosomes. They are either simple, or united together organically, form- ing a compound animal of great diversity of shape and complexity. In the warm seas of equinoctial countries, their star-like bodies arrest the eye by the richness of their tints, and the curious manner in which the individuals are grouped. In their young or larval state the Tunicaries are free, but afterwards become fixed to one spot for the re- mainder of their lives. Some species are employed as food in certain parts of China and the Mediter- ranean, although by no means inviting in their general appearance. In the genus Chelysoma of Broderip and Sowerby, the mantle is strengthened MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 165 externally with horny plaits, resembling those on the carapace of a Tortoise ; in the Boltenia of Savigny, the body is globular and placed on a long peduncle ; in Clavellina the individuals composing the general mass are connected by creeping, root- like prolongations ; in the Botrylli they are ad- herent, side by side ; in the genus Polydinum they are placed at unequal distances from a common centre ; in Distoma the individuals are in one or two ranks, at unequal distances from the common centre ; while in Diazona they are arranged in con- centric circles. The Pyrosomes, having the animals united together in whorls, forming a common cylin- drical tube, float freely about the warmer parts of the ocean, and are frequently met with in incre- dible numbers ; at night these tubular brotherhoods are vividly phosphorescent, and exhibit a striking effect as they move vertically through the water. The Salpians are also remarkable animals, occurring under two distinct forms, being met with sometimes associatec 1 in long strings, at others, solitary and isolated ; the solitary kinds, as discovered by Cha- misso, not being specifically distinct from those united in chains, but either their parents or their progeny. The Pelonaians resemble the Sipunculi among the Echinoderms, and differ from the Asci- dians in being bilateral ; in the transverse plaits of their bodies they seem also to present an analogy to the Annulose animals. The very singular genus Appendicularia, for which we have constituted a family, has been ably investigated by Huxley, who 164 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKV. jects between the apex of the gaping valves ; rudimentary branchiae developed from the mantle ; shell almost equivalve. TUNICABJES. The Tunicaries comprise the " acephalous Mol- lusks without shells " of Cuvier, and are the same as the " Heterobranches " of Blainville. They are marine animals of variable form, their bodies in- vested in a thick coriaceous or gelatinous sac-like mantle, with a branchial and an anal aperture, with the gills differently formed, attached to the inner lining membrane. They are usually fixed to rocks and other sub-marine bodies, as the Ascidians and Botrylli, but others among them are free and pela- gian, as the Salpians and Pyrosomes. They are either simple, or united together organically, form- ing a compound animal of great diversity of shape and complexity. In the warm seas of equinoctial countries, their star-like bodies arrest the eye by the richness of their tints, and the curious manner in which the individuals are grouped. In their young or larval state the Tunicaries are free, but afterwards become fixed to one spot for the re- mainder of their lives. Some species are employed as food in certain parts of China and the Mediter- ranean, although by no means inviting in their general appearance. In the genus Chelysoma of Broderip and Sowerby, the mantle is strengthened MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 165 externally with horny plaits, resembling those on the carapace of a Tortoise ; in the Boltenia of Savigny, the body is globular and placed on a long peduncle ; in Clavellina the individuals composing the general mass are connected by creeping, root- like prolongations ; in the Botrylli they are ad- herent, side by side ; in the genus Polyclinum they are placed at unequal distances from a common centre ; in Distoma the individuals are in one or two ranks, at unequal distances from the common centre ; while in Diazona they are arranged in con- centric circles. The Pyrosomes, having the animals united together in whorls, forming a common cylin- drical tube, float freely about the warmer parts of the ocean, and are frequently met with in incre- dible numbers ; at night these tubular brotherhoods are vividly phosphorescent, and exhibit a striking effect as they move vertically through the water. The Salpians are also remarkable animals, occurring under two distinct forms, being met with sometimes associated in long strings, at others, solitary and isolated ; the solitary kinds, as discovered by Cha- misso, not being specifically distinct from those united in chains, but either their parents or their progeny. The Pelonaians resemble the Sipunculi among the Echinoderms, and differ from the Asci- dians in being bilateral ; in the transverse plaits of their bodies they seem also to present an analogy to the Annulose animals. The very singular genus Appendicularia, for which we have constituted a family, has been ably investigated by Huxley, who 166 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. first shewed the true relations of the animal and its position among the tunicated Mollusks. VI. CLASS. TUNICARIES (Tunicata). Animal acephalous, with a soft organized coria- ceous or gelatinous test or shell provided with a branchial and an anal orifice ; mantle forming an interior coat ; gills attached wholly or partly to inner surface of mantle ; mouth without labial ten- tacles ; animals single or aggregate ; fixed or free. Hermaphrodite. 1. FAMILY. Ascidians (Ascidiidse). Body sacci- form, gelatinous or coriaceous, fixed at one end, free at the other, with two more or less prominent orifices ; isolated or gregarious, not united by a common integument. 2. FAMILY. Social-Ascidians (Clavellinidse). In- dividuals each having its own heart, respira- tion, and system of nutrition ; but fixed on peduncles that branch from a common creep- ing stem, and all connected by a circulation that extends throughout. 3 FAMILY. Compound - Ascidians (Botryllidse). Animals oval, adhering by their sides in a greater or less number so as to resemble a single complex animal ; each individual with distinct branchial and anal orifices. ]. Polydininm. Body divided into three distinct portions, or a thorax, a superior- abdomen, and a post-abdomen. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 167 2. Diademnince. Body distinctly divided into two parts, thorax and abdomen. 3. Botryllince. Body not divided into a dis- tinct thorax and abdomen, the viscera being pushed forward on side of branchial cavity and forming, with thorax, an ovoid mass. 4 FAMILY. Pyrosomes (Pyrosomatidse). Common body semi-cartilaginous, floating, cylindrical, open at one of its extremities only ; animals associated in a verticillate arrangement, hav- ing two orifices one at each extremity. 5. FAMILY. Salpians (Salpidse). Animal free, pela- gian, in form of a more or less cylindrical tube open at one or both ends ; test and mantle continuous at respiratory aperture, but elsewhere separated by a wide space ; gill forming a hollow band across respiratory cavity ; anal orifice ending close above and to right side of mouth. 6. FAMILY. Pelonaians (Pelonaiidse). Body cylin- drical, with the branchial and anal orifices on the same plane on papillary eminences at one extremity ; no rays or tentacles sur- rounding either of the 4-cleft orifices. 7- FAMILY. Appendicularians (Appendiculariidse). Body flask-shaped, with a lanceolate append- age ; mouth at bottom of respiratory cavity ; respiratory orifice at smaller extremity ; gills represented by a ciliated band of mantle ; anus on dorsal surface, in front of insertion of caudal appendage. 168 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. ANNULOSE ANIMALS. The classes of the Animlose division of the Ani- mal Kingdom, which is characterised chiefly by the segmented nature of the skin, the possession of jointed limbs, and a double knotted chord of nerv- ous matter, vary greatly among themselves accord- ing to the modifications of their organs of locomo- tion, their breathing system, and their generative apparatus. Thus we find the Cirrhopods, covered with a- testaceous envelope, fixed to one spot, and with their legs metamorphosed into breathing or- gans, living in the water ; the Crustaceans, also aquatic animals, respiring by means of gills, and pro- tected by a hard skin composed of carbonate of lime, and having never less than ten legs, but often furnished with many more variously modified ; the Insects, the most highly organized and intelligent of all the Annulose classes, breathing the free air, having only six legs, usually provided with wings, and undergoing a regular metamorphosis ; the Arachnidans, which have eight legs, respire free air, have no wings, and whose head, deprived of antennae, is consolidated with the thorax forming a single piece ; the Aiolopods, comprehending a a large portion of the Ametabolous Insects of Leach and Macleay, in which the number of legs is vari- able, where the head is provided with antennse, and where the metamorphosis is irregular ; and finally the worm-like Annelids, which gradually conduct MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY 169 us to the next and more apathetic Radiate division in which we see the locomotive organs begin to as- sume the form of jointless tubercles and even simple bristles, and where the ringed character of the skin becomes less and less obvious. As we have seen already in our sketch of the two former mighty zones of animal life, the Vertebrate and the Mol- luscous, so shall we be led by the study of the Annulose tribes to see many marvels of instinctive sagacity, of constructive power, and of admirable structure. We may be led to trace the changes from infancy to fixed old age of the molluscous, crab-like Barnacle ; we may investigate the moulting of the Crustacean, read of the journeys of the Land- Crab, smile on beholding the monstrous claws of the Calling-Crab, or wonder at the ingenuity of the Soldier -Crabs ; we may watch the ingenuity of the artful, spinning Spiders with their curious foot- brushes, egg-baskets, geometric webs, envenomed bite and cruel cunning ; or admire with the Ento- mologist the plumed antennse of the Gnats, the symmetric honey-cells of the ingenious Hive-bees, with their pollen-brushes, their pollen-baskets and their wax-pockets, or praise the colonising Ant and the paper-making Wasp, examine the structure of the houses of the Caddis-Flies, the conical den of the clever Ant-Lion, the wondrous domes of the methodical White- Ants, or deplore the ravages of the Plant-Lice, the Cockroaches, and the Locusts. Perhaps the Zoologist looking yet among the tribes with jointed skins, may pause to ponder on the 170 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. gradual change exhibited by the Annelids from the vivacious Nereis with its powerful teeth- armed pro- boscis and numerous feet, down to the soft-bodied Leech and limbless Earth-worm. Thus we find crawling on the earth, or winging through the air, peopling the ocean, the river, and the swamp, or lending new beauty to the leaves, the flowers, and the trees, active, eager, Annulose creatures, bent upon rapine, eager for food, ardent in love, bust- ling, chasing, slaying, and caressing over the entire domain of Nature's Kingdom. III. SUB-KINGDOM OF ANNULOSE ANIMALS (Annulosa). Nervous system composed of two parallel chords, united by a regular series of ganglia ; body symme- trical, jointed, often with jointed appendages ; re- spiratory organs distinct ; jaws, when present, lateral, with lateral movements. INSECTS. The travelling naturalist will find himself sur- rounded by the wonders of the insect-world, what- ever may be his destination. The singing of Cicadce in the woods, the leaping of Grasshoppers in the prairies, the flitting lights of Fire-Flies at night, the glittering forms of Beetles in the sun, the nests of Wasps hanging on the trees, the galls of Cyni- pidce on the leaves, the cocoons of Moths in cre- vices of bark, the flights of Locusts on the plains, the ravages of Aphides, the depredations of Ants, MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 171 the attacks of Mosquitoes, and the swarms of Flies that make the air above him musical, will all force themselves upon his notice. Among the Beetles he will of necessity acquire many fine species, these in- sects being very numerous, more than eighty thou- sand species being already known. He will see the splendid Buprestidce alighting on the leaves and trunks of trees in sunny spots of the woods, the Tiger-Beetles flying over sandy tracts, the Ground- Beetles running among the herbage, the Diving- Beetles in the ponds, the Carrion-Beetles preying on the carcases, the Dung-Beetles revelling in the ex- crement of various quadrupeds, the Fungus-Eaters in the rotting Toadstools and Agarics, and the Stag- Beetles and Darkling-Beetles hiding under bark, or among the tangled roots of old forest trees. Among Orthopterous insects, tropical forms of large size and splendid colours will often arrest his attention, nor will he fail to marvel at the wondrous forms of the Walking-Stick and Leaf-Insects he may encounter on his path. Among this order he will also find the devastating Locusts, the lively Crickets, the pestiferous Cockroaches, and the pious Sooth- sayers, which raise their fore-feet as in the act of prayer. The little Bee-Parasites (Strepsiptera) must be sought after by the intelligent traveller in the bodies of the Bees he may capture, on examining the abdo- mens of which he will see their small white heads protruding from between the segments. Of course among the Neuropterous insects the Dragon-Flies i 2 172 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. will be most eagerly pursued ; they will be found especially numerous in marshy places, where their blue, green, and crimson bodies impart a brilliant aspect to the scenery. The White- Ants (Termitidce), though not so beautiful, are also important objects of observation, from their being active agents in re- moving decomposing matter, on account of the pro- digious damage they do among the habitations of man, and for the curious edifices they rear. The Hymenopterous tribes need only be referred to as comprising the Bees, the Ants, the Wasps, and the Ichneumon-Flies, to remind our travelling in- quirer of the curious nests of wax and paper they manufacture, and the stores of honey many of them gather for the use of man. Among the Homoptera, he will find in the course of his rambles the musical GicadcB, the strangely-fashioned Lanthorn-Flies, the Cochineal insects, manufacturers of a valuable dye, the destructive Aphides, the curious Wax-Insects, the useful Lac-Insects, to whom we owe shell-lac, and the pernicious Scale-Insects so injurious to the agri- culturist and the lover of flowers. Clinging to the leaves, upon the juices of which they feed, or prey- ing on smaller and more defenceless insects, the va- rious forms of Hemiptera will attract his notice ; they are extremely numerous in the tropics, and ex- hibit not only wonderful forms but great and varied brilliancy of colour ; when touched they emit a pe- culiar odour, and some inflict a painful sting. The Caterpillars of the Lepidoptera will be ob- served eating the leaves of various plants, frequently MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 173 of considerable size, and of the strangest forms; Chrysalids suspended by their tails, braced by silken bands, or encased in shrivelled leaves, will be seen hanging from the branches, or entombed among the crevices of the bark ; and the perfect Butterflies will court his notice as they alight to suck the juices of the fruits and flowers, or as their splendid wings glance in the sunbeams among the forest glades. With the setting sun the Butterflies will give place to the noiseless Moths, some of which, as the Satur- nia Atlas, are eight or nine inches across the wings, and all of which are worthy of capture. The two- winged Flies, or Diptera, he will see hovering over woody places during the heat of the day, or settling on the flowers in the sun ; the Forest-Flies (Taba- nidce) will put his patience to the test, and in the swamps the Mosquitoes will sorely try his temper, which pernicious Gnat is the Culex Mosquito in the West-Indies, and the Culex molestus in the Brazilian forests. I. CLASS. INSECTS (Insecta). Animal breathing by tracheae ; head furnished with antennae ; eyes compound ; body in general winged, composed of a series of segments disposed in three portions, or head, thorax, and abdomen ; legs six, jointed ; sexes distinct. Undergoing a regular metamorphosis. , I. SUB-CLASS. BITING-INSECTS (Mandibulata). Mouth furnished with transverse jaws. 174 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. BEETLES. Beetles are readily distinguished from the other insect tribes on account of their first pair of wings being changed into hard horny coverings, or elytra, which protect and conceal the hind wings when they are at rest. Except by the eye of the Naturalist these insects are seldom seen on the wing ; in cross- ing sandy heaths near the sea, the beautiful Tiger- Beetles will, however, occasionally start up beneath the feet ; in the woods the Springing-Beetles will be seen alighting on the leaves, and often in an evening stroll the poet's well-known lines, " Save where the Beetle wheels his drony flight," is brought vividly before the mind by the steady course of the Dor- and the Stag-Beetle. The ex- treme diversity of form often assumed by these case- winged insects may be well shewn by contrasting the curious Mormolyce of Java, with its flattened leaf-like body and elongated head, with the leaping Mordella in which the head is entirely concealed, and the elytra pointed and narrow ; or by compar- ing the diving Dyticus, with its compact and horn- less body and oar-shaped feet, with the long horned South American Acrocinus or long legged Harle- quin-Beetle ; or again, the Elephant Balaninus, with its arched back and slender proboscis, with the de- pressed form and powerful mandibles of the Cicin- delidce. In like manner what shall we say to the remarkable Kangaroo -Beetle, with its enormous thighs, wheD contrasted with the short-legged Byr- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 175 rhus, or the Helmet-Beetle. In confirmation of their beauty the advocate of the beetles may point to our native Rose-Chaffer, and bid us gaze on the splendour of the Sun-Beetles and the Diamond- Beetles. The utility of these despised creatures to lordly man is by no means so great as the loss they occasion him by the depredations of their larvse ; we may, however, refer to the useful labours of the Blister- Beetles, the Carrion-Beetles, the Dung-Beetles, and the Rove-Beetles, to enlist our sympathy in their behalf ; while to prove the importance of becoming acquainted with their habits we may allude to the ravages of the Turnip-Fly, the Chaffer's-Grubs, the Corn- Weevils, the Skin-Beetles, the Book- Worms, and the Wood-Borers. Beetles, like Butterflies, pass through several stages in their lives, being hatched from eggs, then existing as greedy grubs (often mischievous withal), next becoming inert chrysalids, and finally assuming their nuptial attire, in which they prosecute their loves and are often seen no more. The instinctive sagacity of our little favourites is also worthy of our notice, whether we contemplate the Sexton-Beetles burying the bodies of the dead as nutriment for their own young progeny, the Bom- badier-Beetles repelling their enemies by repeated discharges of an acrid vapour, a kind of small artil- lery, or the cunning Mimic and Pill-Beetles, Hister and Byrrhus, feigning death when they fall into the hands of their enemies, and thus escaping de- struction. 176 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. I. OKDEK. BEETLES (Coleoptera). Wings four, the anterior one (or elytra) hard, horny, or leathery, covering the hind wings and abdomen in repose, united down the back by a straight suture ; hind wings membranous, folded when at rest ; mouth with transversely moveable jaws. I. LEGION. ADEPHAGOUS-BEETLES (Adephaga). Outer lobe of maxillae distinct, jointed, palpiform ; lower jaws armed with spines and ending in an acute hook; antennse long and slender; anterior tarsi generally dilated in the males. Predaceous, feeding on other insects. I. SUB-ORDER. PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLES (Geodephaga). Legs long, formed for running ; the four hinder placed at equal distances apart ; body oblong ; an- tennse filiform or setaceous ; eyes prominent. Ter- restrial, 1. FAMILY. Tiger-Beetles (Cicindelidae). Maxillae with a moveable claw at tip ; mandibles strong, acute, armed with teeth; antennae filiform ; labial palpi hairy, 3-jointed, with a moveable base ; head large ; eyes prominent ; legs long, slender ; fore-tibiae not notched on inner side. Carnivorous ; fly in the sunshine ; run with great agility. 2. FAMILY. Bombardier-Beetles (Brachinidae). Max- illae with a fixed claw at tip ; labrum linear, MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 177 notched or trilobate ; labium exserted ; labial palpi 4-jointed, basal joint fixed ; antennae filiform ; elytra truncate behind, shorter than abdomen ; legs moderate ; fore-tibiae with a notch on inner side near the tip ; anterior tarsi rarely dilated in the males ; head and thorax narrower than abdomen. Emit a pungent vapour, accompanied by an explo- sion. 3. FAMILY. Burrowing Ground-Beetles (Scaritidae). Maxillae with a fixed claw at tip ; labrum short, sometimes trilobate ; labium short ; labial palpi 4-jointed, basal joint fixed ; elytra entire behind ; abdomen pedunculated ; fore- legs expanded and palmate externally ; an- terior tarsi simple in both sexes ; antennae moniliform ; nocturnal, living in holes near the sea shore. 4 FAMILY. True Ground-Beetles (Carabidae). Max- illae with a fixed claw at tip ; labrum lobate ; labium usually toothed ; labial palpi 4-jointed, basal joint fixed ; mentum large, produced in the centre ; elytra entire, not truncate ; fore- tibiae slender, not notched within ; fore-tarsi greatly dilated in the males. Run fast ; when irritated eject an acrid fluid from abdomen. o. FAMILY. False Ground - Beetles (Harpalidae). M axillae with a fixed claw at tip ; labrum usually quadrate; labium not toothed, fur- nished with a process on each side ; labial palpi 4-joiiited, basal joint fixed ; mandibles i 5 178 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. slightly toothed within; mentum deeply notched ; body elongate, neck rarely distinct ; elytra entire or slightly notched behind ; an- terior tibiae notched on inner side ; fore-tarsi more or less dilated in the males. 1. Feroniince. Two anterior tarsi alone dilated in the males ; four hind tarsi simple ; central tooth of mentum notched at tip. 2. Harpalince. Four anterior tarsi dilated in the males ; mentum tooth acute, never notched. 3. Ghlceniince. Front tarsi of males with two, three, or four of the basal joints square or cordate. The species of this family are exceedingly nu- merous. 6. FAMILY. Subaquatic-Beetles (Bembidiidae). Max- illae with a fixed claw at tip ; labrum trans- verse ; labium quadrate ', maxillary and labial palpi with the last joint minute ; mentum notched ; antennae filiform ; elytra entire ; fore-tibiae not palmate, their inner edge notched; anterior tarsi with one or more dilated joints in the males. Live on the margins of streams. 7. FAMILY. Marsh-Beetles (Elaphridae). Maxillae with a fixed claw at tip ; labrum entire ; mandibles simple; labial palpi 4-jointed, api- cal joint tumid, basal, fixed; mentum notch- ed, with a bifid central tooth ; elytra entire ; anterior tibiae not palmate, without a notch on the side, slightly notched at tip ; fore-tarsi MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 179 not dilated in the males. Living in marshy situations. II. SUB-ORDER. PREDACEOUS WATER-BEETLES (Hydradephaga). Legs short, formed for swimming hinder pair re- mote from the others and horizontal; hind-tibiae and tarsi generally compressed and fringed with hair ; body ovate ; antennae setaceous ; eyes not prominent. Aquatic. 8. FAMILY. Diving-Beetles (Dyticidae). Antennae long, setaceous ; legs unequal, hind pair long- est, deeply fringed ; tarsi broad, flat, fringed, ending in a point ; males with the fore tarsi dilated, females often with elytra sulcate. Swim and dive with agility, inhabit ponds, often fly by night. 9. FAMILY. Whirlwigs (Gyrinidae). Antennae short, clavate, rigid, second joint with a lobate ap- pendage ; eyes divided ; thorax transverse, waved before and behind ; legs unequal, the two front very long, ambulatory; the four hind very short, compressed, formed for swim- ming ; with a metallic lustre. Usually swim on the surface of the water. II. LEGION". RYPOPHAGOUS-BEETLES (Rypophaga). Mouth with four palpi, the inner maxillary repre- sented by outer lobe of maxillae, which is dilated or jointed but not palpiform ; antennae gradually or abruptly clavate ; males with basal joints of tarsi 180 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. more or less dilated. Feeding on animal and vege- table substances in a state of decay. III. SUB-ORDER. WATER-LOVING BEETLES (Phi%dride). Mandibles small, rarely exserted ; maxillary palpi usually 4-jointed ; body short, convex ; elytra cover- ing abdomen; hind-legs usually formed for swim- ming, sometimes for walking ; fore-tibiae often spi- nose. Aquatic or sub-aquatic. 10. FAMILY. Mud-burrowing Beetles (Heteroce- ridae). Antennae 11 -jointed, two basal joints large, the others forming an obscurely ser- rated mass thickened towards the tip ; head elongate, deeply inserted into thorax ; thorax transverse ; body flattish ; tibiae compressed, spinose. Form burrows in muddy banks of ponds. 11. FAMILY Pond -Beetles (Parnidae). Antennae 9-jointed, the second with a lobate append- age, the rest forming a clavate serrated mass ; body sub - cylindric, convex ; head deeply inserted into thorax ; thorax quad- rate, narrowed in front ; tibiae cylindric, simple ; tarsi filiform, long, 5-jointed. Bur- row among the roots of aquatic plants. 12. FAMILY. Stream-Beetles (Limniidae). Antennae 9 13-jointed, somewhat filiform, terminal joints largest, forming a club ; body ovate or sub-globose, convex ; head inflexed, deep- ly inserted into thorax ; thorax sub-qua- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 181 drate, margined; legs long, tibiae slender, not spinose ; tarsi 5-jointed. Live under stones in running streams. 13. FAMILY. Herbivorous Water-Beetles (Helopho- ridae). Antennae 9-jointed, perfoliate, cla- vate ; club sub-serrated ; mandibles not tooth- ed at tip ; maxillary palpi very long ; body oblong, flattish ; thorax sub-quadrate ; tibiae slightly spinous ; tarsi 5-jointed, filiform, not ciliated, basal joint minute. Inhabit ponds and ditches ; herbivorous in the perfect state. 14. FAMILY. Water-Beetles (Hydrophilidae). An- tennae 6 9-jointed, perfoliate, clavate, club distinctly cleft, mandibles bidendate at tip ; maxillary palpi very long, filiform ; body oval or globose ; thorax short, transverse ; tibiae slightly spinose ; tarsi 5-jointed, fili- form, hind pair often ciliated Frequent the water, fly abroad in the evening. 15. FAMILY. Excrement-Beetles (Sphaeridiidae). An- tennae short, 9-jointed, basal joint very long, four next short, the rest forming a com- pressed perfoliate club ; maxillary palpi as long as antennae, second joint thickened, head round in front ; thorax transverse ; body more or less hemispheric ; tibiae com- pressed, spinose ; tarsi filiform ; claws two, unequal Living in the excrement of vari- ous animals. 16. FAMILY. Armadillo - Beetles (Agathidiidae). Antennae 11-jointed, rather long, slender at 182 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. base, ending in a club ; palpi short ; head small, ovate ; thorax more or less gibbous ; body convex, orbicular or globose ; tibiae often spinose and compressed ; tarsi of four or five joints. Counterfeit death by rolling themselves into a ball. (Anisotomidce, Ste- phens.) IV. S UB-ORDER. CAKKION-BEETLES (Necrophaga). Mandibles generally elongate, exserted ; maxillary palpi with the basal joint minute or wanting ; maxillae with a double membranaceous process, the outer lobe often slender, rarely jointed ; body more or less elongate, depressed ; elytra frequently ab- breviated ; legs all formed for walking ; anterior tibiae simple. Feed on decaying animal and vege- table matter. 17- FAMILY. Scavenger-Beetles (Scaphidiidse). An- tennae more or less clavate ; club 5-jointed, the second joint often minute ; maxillary palpi generally exserted ; mandibles mostly bidentate at tip; head inserted up to eyes in thorax ; thorax convex ; legs long. Feed on decaying fungi, rotten bones. Frequent dunghills. 18. FAMILY. True Carrion-Beetles (Silphidae). An- tennae clavate ; club usually 4 or 5-jointed, maxillary palpi filiform, the last joint cylin- dric ; mandibles entire at tip ; head inflexed, contracted behind into a neck ; thorax large, shield-shaped; elytra simple, outer margin MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 183 generally with a groove ; body depressed ; legs rather short. Found in carrion and the carcasses of animals. 19. FAMILY. Bone-Beetles (Nitidulidse). Antennae abruptly clavate ; club 3 or 4-jointed ; palpi filiform, short ; mandibles elongate, notched at tip ; head inserted up to eyes in thorax ; thorax broad ; body flat, wide ; legs short. Feed on bones and other animal remains. 20. FAMILY. Hairy Fungus - Beetles (Mycetopha- gidae). Antennae gradually clavate ; club from two to four joints ; palpi rather long ; maxillae bilobed ; mandibles short, bifid at tip ; labrum transverse ; head somewhat in- serted into thorax ; body rather wide, hairy or pubescent. Living principally on decay- ing fungi. 21. FAMILY. Smooth Fungus-Beetles (Erotylidae). Antennae ending in a large 3-jointed club ; palpi with apical joint large ; maxillae com- pressed, subulate ; mandibles short, dentate at tip ; head small ; body oval or hemispheric, smooth, polished. Feeding chiefly on putre- scent fungi. 22. FAMILY. Elongate Bark-Beetles (Engidae). An- tennae short, more or less distinctly clavate ; club 2 5-jointed ; palpi rathers hort ; maxillae mostly one-lobed ; mandibles bifid at tip ; labrum transverse ; head deeply inserted in thorax ; body elongate, glabrous. Usually found under bark of trees. 184 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOKY. 23. FAMILY. Flat Bark-Beetles (Cucujidae). An- tennae rather long, moniliform, slightly thick- ened at tip or distinctly clavate ; palpi short, filiform ; mandibles large, exserted, bifid at tip ; labrum rounded ; head large, exserted ; body oblong, flat. Chiefly found beneath the bark of trees. 24. FAMILY. Skin-Beetles (Dermestidae). Antennae short, rather abruptly clavate ; club 3 4-jointed ; palpi very short ; mandibles short, thick, toothed at tip ; labrum short, membra- nous at tip ; body convex, oval, rounded at each end, clothed with scales or pile ; legs contractile. Counterfeit death. Found in old skins, furs, and dried carcasses. 25. FAMILY. Nocturnal Wood-Beetles (Paussidae). Antennas very large, of two or more joints ; irregular ; palpi much developed, unequal ; head small, generally narrowed behind into a neck ; body oblong, quadrate, depressed ; elytra broader than thorax ; legs short, strong, compressed. Nocturnal, wood-eating. V. SUB-ORDER. ROVE-BEETLES (Brachelytra). Mandibles strong, seldom exserted; palpi gene- rally filiform or subulate, rarely clavate ; maxillary palpi 4-jointed, labial 3-jointed, their last joint some- times minute or obsolete ; maxillae with the tip often bifid ; outer lobe palpiform ; body very long, narrow, with two vesicles at tip ; elytra consider- ably abbreviated, rarely covering half the abdomen ; MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY 185 legs formed for walking, anterior pair with elongate .coxae ; antennae usually moniliform, slightly thick- ened at tip. Voracious, living on decaying animal and vegetable matter. 26. FAMILY. True Rove-Beetles (Staphylinidae). Antennae short, stout, inserted between the eyes ; maxillary palpi short, filiform ; labrum mostly with a deep notch in front ; head ex- serted, neck distinct ; thorax quadrate or sub-ovate ; body elongate ; elytra moderate ; tibiae spinose. Usually found under dead leaves, stones, or dung. 27. FAMILY. Large-eyed Rove-Beetles (Stenidae). Antennae sub-filiform ; mandibles long, acute, sharply toothed internally; maxillary palpi long, clavate, apical joint minute ; labrum entire ; eyes usually very large ; head large, exserted, with a short neck ; thorax rounded, heart-shaped, or globose; tibiae simple. Inha- bit damp situations ; run with great agility. 28. FAMILY. Burrowing Rove-Beetles (Oxytelidae). Antennae thickened towards apex ; maxillary palpi short ; apical joint distinct ; labrum en- tire ; head exserted ; neck distinct ; thorax mostly heart-shaped ; body linear ; anterior tibiae spinose or toothed on outer margin. Burrow underground, under dung, or form galleries in rotten bark. 29. FAMILY. Broad-bodied Rove-Beetles (Omaliidae), Antennae rather short, thickened at tip, rarely filiform; maxillary palpi short, apical joint 186 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. minute ; labrum transverse, entire ; head exserted; thorax usually convex, wide behind > body broad, flattened ; elytra rather long ; tibiae simple. Found in decaying vegetables, dung, and moss. 30. FAMILY. Small-headed Rove-Beetles (Tachypo- ridae). Antennae gradually thickened to apex ; last joint sometimes very large ; maxillary palpi generally acute ; eyes small ; head usually inserted deeply into thorax; thorax broadest behind ; elytra short ; tibiae some- times spinose. Frequent putrescent fungi and other decaying vegetable substances. 31. FAMILY. Moss-loving Rove-Beetles (Pselaphidse). Antennae clavate ; maxillary palpi generally very long, clavate ; labrum minute ; eyes prominent ; head exserted, narrowed behind eyes ; body short, robust ; elytra nearly half the length of abdomen, broader than thorax, folded at base ; tarsi 3-jointed, with a single claw. Generally found during the winter and spring in moss. III. LEGION. VARICOKN-BEETLES (Yaricornes). Palpi four, two labial and two maxillary, the inner maxillary pair wanting; head not produced into a rostrum in front ; antennae various ; tarsi usually 5-jointed. VI. SUB-ORDER CLAVICOEN-BEETLES (Helocera). Antennae more or less clavate, tip sometimes rather MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 187 abruptly slender, joints unequal ; basal occasionally half the entire length ; thorax often with a groove beneath to receive the antennse ; body more or less globose and convex, or quadrate and depressed ; sternum often produced in front, concealing the mouth beneath ; legs more or less compressed, capa- ble of being closely applied to body in excavations for receiving them. 32. FAMILY. Pill-Beetles (Byrrhidse). Antennse not elbowed, mostly placed in repose in a groove beneath sides of thorax; mandibles not exposed ; body short, oval, very convex, generally pilose ; legs contractile. Found in sand-pits and on foot-paths. Feign death, folding up the legs and antennse. 33. FAMILY. Mimic-Beetles (Histeridse). Antennas elbowed, basal joint long, the others placed angularly at its tip ; mandibles rather long, exserted ; body hard, polished, square or ob- long, quadrate ; elytra generally short and truncate ; legs dentate, the hinder inserted, widely apart. Counterfeit death. Found in dung or beneath bark of trees. VII. S UB-ORDER. LAMELLICORN-BEETLES (Lamellicornes). Antennse clavate, the club composed of three or more lamellse or pectinations, the apical joints either lamellated or the basal joint cup-like, receiving the other joints ; legs robust, the fore-tibise generally dilated and toothed. 188 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 34. FAMILY. Stag-Beetles (Lucanidae). Antennae strongly elbowed, with the club pectinated ; mandibles (especially in the male) very large ; body oblong, oval, depressed ; elytra entirely covering the abdomen; legs elongate, claws large, with a bifid process between them. 35. FAMILY. Sacred-Beetles (Scarabaeidae). An- tennae 8 or 9-jointed ; labrum, mandibles, and maxillae membranaceous ; club of antennae large, 3-leaved ; clypeus large, advanced, notched in front ; body broad, depressed ; scutellum concealed ; legs stout, the hinder remote ; tibiae broad, dentate ; claws small. Terrestrial. Living on excrementitious matter. 36. FAMILY. Shard-Beetles (Geotrupidae). Anten- nas 10 or 11 -jointed; mandibles porrect, horny, exposed ; club of antennae large, glo- bose ; body short, thick, convex, elytra en- tirely covering the abdomen ; legs very stout ; tibiae broad, spinose at tip, dentate; tarsi long and slender. Terrestrial. Living on ex- crementitious matter. 37. FAMILY. Sand-Beetles (Trogidae). Mandibles horny, stout, exposed, acute at tip ; club of antennae transverse ; body ovate, gibbose ; elytra inflexed at the sides ; legs short, stout ; tibiae compressed. Terrestrial Living in the sand on excrementitious matter. 38. FAMILY. Dung-Beetles (Aphodiidae). Antennae 8 or 9-jointed; labrum, mandibles, and max- illae membranous, concealed; club of antennae MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 189 sub-ovate ; body oblong ; abdomen entirely concealed by the elytra; legs short, equi- distant ; thighs with a row of hairs within ; tibiee broad, dentate. Terrestrial. Living on excrementitious matter. 39. FAMILY. Rhinoceros-Beetles (Dynastidse). An- tennaa 10 or 11-jointed; mandibles horny, convex, obtuse at tip, exposed; club of an- tenna3 short, ovate ; clypeus small, triangular, usually horned ; body large, the males often with horns and tubercles on thorax, legs stout, anterior tibia3 strongly dentate ; tarsi long. Arboreal. Living on decayed trees. 40. FAMILY. Kangaroo-Beetles (Rutelidas). An- tenna3 10 or 11-jointed; mandibles horny, exserted, with a notch on inner margin near tip ; body ovate, depressed ; scutellum dis- tinct ; elytra shorter than abdomen ; thorax and clypeus unarmed ; legs robust, hinder thighs sometimes greatly thickened; claws of tarsi usually unequal in size. Arboreal. Living on the decomposed matter of decaying trees. 41. FAMILY. True-Chafers (Melolonthidae). An- tennas 10 or 11-jointed; mandibles horny, stout, concealed ; labium concealed by men- turn ; club of antennas foliated ; labrum bi- lobed ; body ovate, sub-convex, shorter than abdomen ; legs rather long and slender ; tibiaB not dilated ; claws bifid or dentate. Arboreal. Eating the leaves of trees. 190 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 42. FAMILY. False-Chaffers (Anoplognathidae). An- tennae 10 or 11 -jointed; mandibles large, horny, obtuse at tip ; labium concealed by mentum ; clypeus dilated in front, entirely concealing the mandibles ; body ovate, con- vex, or sub-quadrate ; mesosternum often produced into a spine in front ; legs robust, the hind pair often greatly thickened. Arbo- real. Eating the leaves of trees. 43. FAMILY. Flower-Beetles (Glaphyridse). Anten- nae 10 or 11 -jointed; mandibles horny, con- cealed, dilated ; labium produced ; maxillae with a coriaceous pilose lobe forming a small brush; body ovate, depressed, squamose or pilose ; elytra shorter than abdomen ; legs long, hinder thighs sometimes thickened ; tarsi spinulose. Floral. Living on the juices of flowers. 44. FAMILY. Sun-Beetles (Cetoniidae). Antennae 10 or 11 -jointed; mandibles membranous, compressed, slender, lanceolate; maxillae with the inner margin ciliated ; labium concealed by mentum ; antennae glabrous ; body ob- long-ovate, depressed ; scutellum distinct ; mesosternum often produced into a spine in front ; legs slender, claws simple, acute. Floral. Living on the juices of flowers. YTIT. SUB-ORDER. HARD-SKINNED SERRICORN- BEETLES (Sternoxi). Antennae filiform, pectinate or serrated ; sternum MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 191 armed with a spine, the tip received into a cavity of breast ; body hard, elliptic, conic, or trigonate, some- times elongate ; head short, deeply inserted in tho- rax ; thorax with hind edges acute ; legs short, capable of being closely applied to body. Feed on wood, sap leaves, or flowers. 45. FAMILY. Gold-Beaters (Buprestidae). Antennae short, serrated ; mandibles entire ; palpi mostly filiform ; thorax sometimes lobate ^ behind, the hind angles slightly produced, never acute ; body hard, oblong-ovate or de- pressed; elytra frequently narrowed at tip; tarsi short, third and fourth joints generally heart-shaped. Reside in thick woods and forests ; fly actively in the sunshine ; colours bright, often metallic. 46. FAMILY. Oak-Beetles (Eucnemidse). Antennae pectinated or serrated, lodged in repose in grooves on under side of thorax ; mandibles ending in a simple tooth ; palpi with apical joint large ; body oblong-cylindric, or ovoid ; elytra rounded at tip ; tarsi compressed or dilated ; claws sometimes denticulated. Liv- ing in decayed oak-trees ; flying in the hot sunshine ; unable to leap. 47. FA.mi.Y.Springing-Beetles (Elateridae). An- tennas short, more or less serrated ; mandibles notched at tip ; palpi ending in a large trian- gular joint ; thorax with hind angles produced into an acute spine, sides grooved for recep- tion of antennae; prosternum produced be- 192 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. hind into a compressed spine which fits into a groove in front of mesothorax ; tarsi rather long and slender. Possess the power of spring- ing when laid on their backs ; creep slowly ; fall to the ground on approach of danger; colours dingy. IX. SUB-ORDER. SOFT-SKINNED SERRICORN-BEETLES (Malacodermata). Antennae usually elongate, more or less serrated or pectinate, the last three joints often produced or clavate ; head deflexed, usually deeply inserted into thorax ; thorax semicircular or cylindric ; body soft, depressed, usually elongate or cylindrical; legs rather long. 48. FAMILY. Flabellicorn- Beetles (Cebrionidse). Antennae pectinate or flabellate in males ; palpi filiform ; labium short ; mandibles strong, curved, entire at tip, exposed ; head small, inclined ; body hard, convex, deflexed in front ; legs not contractile, nor formed for leaping. Found in forests on low plants, feeding on leaves and stems; fly and walk slowly. 4-9. FAMILY. Reed-Beetles (Cyphonidae). Antennas filiform, sometimes subserrated ; maxillary palpi filiform, labial furcate ; mandibles con- cealed ; body soft, hemispheric, ovate or de- pressed ; elytra flexible ; head very small. Colours dull ; found among reeds and plants in damp situations; fly and run with agility. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 193 50. FAMILY. Glow-worms (Lampyridse). Antennas close together at base, filiform, serrated or pectinate ; maxillary palpi slightly thickened at tip, much longer than labial; mandibles acute ; head small, concealed beneath front of thorax ; thorax semicircular or quadrate, forming a hood over head ; elytra wanting in females of some species. Feign death ; both sexes often emit a bright interrupted light, whence they are called " Fire-flies/' 51. FAMILY. Sailor-Beetles (Telephoridse). An- tennae rather remote at base, elongate, seta- ceous, rarely serrated ; maxillary palpi with terminal joint ovate or hatchet-shaped ; head exserted ; body very soft ; elytra long ; pe- nultimate joint of tarsi bifid. Predacious ; found upon Umbelliferous flowers and White- thorns. 52. FAMILY. Insectivorous Flower-Beetles (Me- lyridse). Antennae short, setaceous, sometimes serrated; palpi nearly equal, sub-filiform ; man- dibles elongate ; head small, deeply inserted in thorax ; thorax wider than head ; body rather firm, elongate ; tarsal joints all simple. Found on flowers ; voracious, preying on other insects. 53. FAMILY. Cuckoo-Beetles (Cleridae). Antennae with the three or four terminal joints thick- ened ; head inflexed, retractile within thorax to the eyes ; eyes lunate ; body elongate, rather soft, often cylindric ; penultimate joint 194 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. of tarsi bilobed. Variegated in colour ; de- posit their eggs frequently in nests of bees and wasps. 54. FAMILY. Deathwatches (Ptinidae). Antennae filiform, elongate, occasionally serrate or pec- tinated, or rather short, thick at apex with the last three joints suddenly elongated ; mandibles and palpi short ; head rounded, deeply inserted in thorax ; thorax generally produced in front ; tarsal joints simple. Feign death ; slow-moving ; found in old furniture, rotten palings, and stumps of trees, which they perforate in every direction; produce a ticking noise by striking the wood with their jaws. 55. FAMILY. True Wood-boring Beetles (Lymexy- lonidse). Antennae short, fusiform, some- what serrated ; maxillary palpi of male with branched appendages, labial simple ; neck narrow, distinct ; mandibles short, stout ; body linear ; elytra gaping at tip ; tarsal joints simple. Wood-boring, causing much damage in dockyards to timber. 56. FAMILY. Hooded Wood-boring Beetles (Bostri- chidse). Antennae clavate, basal joint robust ; club solid or perfoliate, intermediate joints small ; palpi short ; head globose, deeply in- serted in thorax ; thorax obliquely truncate in front, forming a hood over the head, often roughened in front ; body cylindric, tarsal joints simple. Found on trunks of old trees ; commit depredations on timber. MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY 195 IV. LEGIOK HETEROMEROUS-BEETLES (Heteromera). Palpi four, two labial and two maxillary ; labrum distinct ; mandibles horny, inner edge with one or two teeth and furnished with a fleshy lobe ; mentum distinct, labium leathery, pilose ; antennae various, never laminated or pectinate ; legs various ; tarsi heteromerous, or with the four anterior 5-jointed, the two posterior 4-jointed. X. SUB-ORDER. DARKLING-BEETLES (Melasomata). Antennae moniliform ; maxillae with an internal tooth ; head not narrowed behind into a neck, apter- ous. Colours usually black or dingy. 57. FAMILY. Meal-Beetles (Tenebrionidae). An- tennae generally moniliform ; palpi thickened at tip, apical joint mostly hatchet-shaped ; head inserted up to eyes in thorax ; thorax quadrate ; body oblong flattish ; claws simple. Feed upon wheat and flour ; frequent corn- mills and bake-houses. 58. FAMILY. Sexton-Beetles (Blapsidse). Antennae nearly filiform ; palpi with terminal joint large, dilated, triangular ; head inserted ; thorax sub-quadrate ; elytra soldered to- gether; wings none ; body elongate ; claws simple. Found in churchyards and damp obscure situations. 59. FAMILY. Burrowing Shore-Beetles (Pimeliidae). Palpi filiform ; mandibles bifid at tip ; max- illae concealed by mentum ; labium slightly produced; elytra soldered together; wings 196 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOKY. rudimentary or obsolete. Sluggish, living in sandy situations, or burrowing in the sea shores XL SUB-ORDER. TAXICORN-BEETLES (Taxicornes). Antennae perfoliated ; maxillae unarmed head not narrowed behind into a neck ; elytra hard ; tarsal claws simple. 60. FAMILY. Shield-Beetles (Cossyphidae). Antennse ending in a 4 or 5-jointed club; body narrow, margins of thorax and elytra extended into a flattened shield all round the body. Co- lours dull ; live under bark. 61. FAMILY. Fungivorous-Beetles(Diaperid.8Q). An- tennae short, moniliform or pectinated ; palpi nearly filiform, rarely enlarged at tip ; head inserted ; thorax quadrate, trapeziform, or somewhat cylindric ; body rounded or qua- drate, convex. Found in Boleti and Fungi. XII. S UB-ORDER. STENELYTROUS-BEETLES (Stenelytra). Antennae simple ; maxillae unarmed ; head not narrowed behind into a neck ; elytra hard ; winged ; tarsal claws simple. 62. FAMILY. Garden-Beetles (Helopidae). Antennae filiform, base concealed ; palpi with terminal joint large, hatchet-shaped ; head inserted ; thorax transverse ; elytra not soldered to- gether ; wings rudimentary or short ; claws simple. Often found in gardens upon flowers. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 197 63. FAMILY. Narrow-winged Flower-Beetles (Cis- telidse). Antennae filiform, sometimes pec- tinate or serrated, base not concealed ; palpi filiform or with the apical joint hatchet- shaped ; head inserted ; thorax transverse ; elytra free ; wings ample ; body elongate, softish ; claws denticulated. Chiefly found upon flowers and in hedges. 64. FAMILY. Leaping Bark-Beetles (Melandryidse). Antennae shortish, filiform ; maxillary palpi with the last three joints large, often de- flexed ; eyes occasionally notched ; head in- serted, sometimes inflexed ; thorax widest behind ; body elongate, sub-cylindric or flat- tish ; hind legs often long, compressed, form- ed for leaping. Chiefly reside beneath the bark of trees. 65. FAMILY. Thick-legged Flower-Beetles (CEdeme- ridse). Antennae rather long, filiform ; head deeply inserted in thorax, more or less elon- gate in front ; thorax somewhat quadrate ; body elongate, flattish ; elytra sometimes narrowed at tip ; hind thighs of males often greatly thickened ; claws simple. Of lively colours ; frequent flowers, fly with agility, but do not leap. XIII. S UB-ORDER. TEACHELIDAN-BEETLES (Trachelides). Head narrowed behind into a neck ; body soft ; tarsal claws often bifid. 198 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 66. FAMILY. Mimic Flower-Beetles (Lagriidae). Antennae filiform, inserted in a notch of the eyes ; palpi thickened at tip ; mandibles thick, short ; head inserted ; thorax narrower than elytra ; body elongate ; elytra, free, ample, soft, flexible ; femora oval, clavate j penul- timate tarsal joint bilobed, claws simple. Found on plants in woods and hedges. Feign death when alarmed. 67. FAMILY. Blistering - Beetles (Cantharididae). Antennas various ; palpi mostly filiform ; head dilated behind eyes, united to thorax by a distinct neck ; thorax somewhat quadrate ; elytra flexible, deflexed at sides, often short- ened or devaricating ; claws bifid. Varie- gated in colour ; feign death. Many possess powerful blistering properties. 68. FAMILY. Soldier -Beetles (Pyrochroidae). An- tennae filiform, pectinate or serrated ; maxil- lary palpi with terminal joint somewhat hatchet-shaped ; head exserted, with a dis- tinct neck ; thorax small, somewhat orbicu- lar j elytra ample, flattish ; penultimate joint of tarsi bifid ; claws simple. Colours often red. Frequent leaves and flowers. 69. FAMILY. Parasitic Flower-Beetles (Mordel- lidse). Antennae short, often flabellate or serrated ; head inflexed, closely applied to thorax ; thorax trapeziform ; body elevated, arched ; elytra narrowed at tip ; abdomen conic, sometimes with an anal style ; legs MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY 199 dissimilar, the hinder often compressed, with long tibial spurs ; tarsal claws bifid. Fre- quent flowers, fly with rapidity, leap well ; often parasitic on other insects. 70. FAMILY. Unicorn-Beetles (Notoxidae). An- tennae simple, rarely filiform ; maxillary palpi with terminal joint hatchet - shaped ; head subcordate, with a distinct neck ; thorax narrowed behind, sometimes armed in front ; elytra rigid, as long as abdomen legs rather short, claws simple. Found about roots of grass in sandy situations. 71. FAMILY. Parasitic Wood - Beetles (Horiidse). Antennae rather short ; palpi filiform, labial as long as maxillary ; jaws large, porrected, ending in an acute point ; head large, dilated behind eyes ; thorax sub-quadrate ; elytra flexible ; tarsal claws denticulated, furnish- ed beneath with a long slender filament. Parasitic in the nests of wood-boring Bees. 72. FAMILY. Social Grass-Beetles (Scydmaenidae). Antennae rather long, distinctly clavate ; palpi with third joint large, pear-shaped, terminal, minute; head slightly narrowed behind ; thorax sub-globose, broader than head ; elytra ample, convex, entire ; legs slender, thighs incrassated; tarsi 5-jointed. Live among grass and moss, in society. 73. FAMILY. False Snout - Beetles (Salpingidae). Head deeply inserted, produced in front into a short flattened snout; antennae in- 200 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. serted at the base in front of eyes ; palpi fili- form, short ; maxillae bilobed ; thorax more or less heart-shaped ; body ovate or oblong, flattish ; legs slender ; penultimate joint of tarsi bilobed. Often brightly coloured ; found in flowers or beneath the bark of trees. Y. LEGION. PSEUDOTETRAMEROUS-BEETLES (Pseudotetramera). Palpi four, two labial and two maxillary ; head produced in front into a rostrum with the mouth at its apex, with the antennae 9-10-jointed, more or less clavate, or head not rostrate, with the antennae 11 or 12-jointed, filiform or setaceous, occasionally serrated ; labium more or less heart-shaped ; tarsi 5-jointed, the fourth joint very minute and concealed by the third. XIV. SUB-ORDER. SNOUT-BEETLES (Rhynchophora). Head produced in front into a rostrum with the mouth at the apex ; palpi minute ; labrum wanting or obsolete ; mandibles generally small, stout ; an- tennae inserted on rostrum, mostly clavate, basal joint usually elongate ; funiculus (joint between basal one and club) slender ; body short, firm, hard ; abdomen mostly robust. Subsisting upon plants. I. TRIBE. STRAIGHT-HORNED SNOUT-BEETLES (Orthocerata). Antennae not elbowed, basal joint not much elon- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 201 gated ; rostrum without lateral canal for reception of basal joint of antennae. 74. FAMILY. Grain-eating Snout-Beetles (Bruchi- dae). Antennae filiform or slightly thickened ate tip, serrated or pectinate ; eyes emargin- ate ; rostrum broad, deflexed ; elytra not en- tirely covering abdomen ; hind-legs often very large. Feeding on grain, seeds, and nuts. 75. FAMILY. Club-horned Snout-Beetles (Anthri- bidse). Antennae distinctly and suddenly clavate ; eyes entire ; rostrum short, broad, deflexed; elytra truncate ; mandibles robust, toothed ; labium and labial palpi arising from a large, lunate, horny piece. Usually found among old wood, or on the trunks of trees. 76. FAMILY. Leaf -rolling Snout-Beetles (Attela- bidae). Antennas straight, inserted upon ros- trum, the terminal joints forming a club ; labrum obsolete ; palpi conical ; head pro- duced into a cylindrical bent rostrum without lateral grooves ; body ovate, narrowed in front ; tarsi with third joint bifid. Females roll up portions of leaves in which the eggs are deposited. 77. FAMILY. Elongate Snout-Beetles (Brenthidae). Antennae straight, filiform, last joint alone elongated ; head elongated, produced in front ; rostrum varying in length according to the sex. Usually of a black colour, varied with red or yellow ; burrowing under bark of trees. E 5 202 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. II. TRIBE. BENT-HORNED SNOUT-BEETLES (Gonatocerata). Antennae elbowed, basal joint elongated, inserted in an elongated canal on side of rostrum. 78. FAMILY. Weevils (Curculionidae). Antennae elbowed, basal joint elongate, second joint inserted obliquely at its end, three or four terminal ones forming a club; labrum obso- lete; palpi minute, conical; head produced into a rostrum, at the end of which the mouth is placed, its sides with a groove to receive the antennae ; body oval, narrowed in front. 1 . Curculionince. Rostrum short, thick ; anten- nae inserted near its extremity. 2. RhynchoBnince. Rostrum cylindric or filiform, elongate, antennae inserted between its base and middle. 79. FAMILY. Wood-eating Snout-Beetles (Scolyti- dae). Antennae short, slightly elbowed, basal joint elongate, apical joints forming a more or less solid mass ; labrum obsolete ; max- illae thin, broad, spined externally; palpi conical, minute ; body oblong, convex ; tibiae hooked at tip. Burrowing in trunks of trees ; causing great injury in pine-forests and parks. XV. SUB-ORDER. LONGICOKN-BLETLES (Longicornes). Head not produced in front into a rostrum ; palpi conspicuous; labrum more or less conspicuous, rarely obsolete ; mandibles generally large, robust ; an- MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. 203 tennae filiform or setaceous, more or less elongate, sometimes very long and slender ; body more or less elongated, convex or slightly depressed ; eyes generally lunate. Wood eating ; larvae residing in trees. 80. FAMILY. Goat-Beetles (Prionidae). Antennae stout, moderate, serrated in the males ; eyes notched ; labrum very small or obsolete ; mandibles large, robust ; head not narrowed behind into a neck ; thorax transverse, usu- ally toothed on the sides ', body elongate, convex. Found on trunks of trees ; fly by twilight ; colours obscure. 81. FAMILY. Husk-Beetles (Cerambicidae). An- tennae very long, never serrated ; eyes notch- ed ; labrum exserted, transverse ; maxillary lobes distinct, membranous ; head exserted, deflexed ; thorax somewhat cylindric, lateral margin sometimes spined ; body long and rather flat, occasionally somewhat convex ; femora often clavate. Often gaily coloured ; found in woods and forests, sitting on trunks of trees ; frequently emit a fragrant odour. 82. FAMILY. Long-horned Flower-Beetles (Leptu- ridae). Antennae moderate, inserted before the eyes ; eyes entire, rounded or very slightly notched ; labrum exserted, transverse ; head deflexed, with a distinct neck ; thorax some- what conical, narrowed in front ; elytra nar- rowed behind. Active ; usually found upon Umbelliferous flowers in the hot sunshine. 204 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. XVI. SUB-ORDER. LONG-LEGGED HERBIVOROUS- BEETLES (Eupoda). Head not produced in front into a rostrum, deeply inserted into thorax ; thorax mostly cylindric, nar- rower than elytra ; elytra elongate, sometimes de- pressed; body elongate; palpi andlabrum conspicuous, labrum generally entire ; mandibles short, entire or bifid ; antennas not longer than head and thorax, somewhat filiform, often thickened at tip ; eyes entire, rarely emarginate ; hind femora more or less clavate and elongate, sometimes toothed. 83. FAMILY. Lily-Beetles (Crioceridae). Antennas filiform'; eyes prominent ; mandibles truncate at tip, with two or three teeth; lower lip entire ; head and thorax narrower than ab- domen; head immersed nearly to eyes in thorax ; thorax cylindric or sub-quadrate ; hinder thighs frequently clavate, elongate, sometimes toothed. Usually found on leaves or stems of liliaceous or aquatic plants. 84. FAMILY. Thick-Legged Lily-Beetles (Sagriidse). Antennae filiform, inserted before the eyes; eyes prominent ; head immersed in thorax ; outer lobe of maxillae broad ; mandibles terminated by an acute point ; lower lip bilobed ; hind femora incrassated and toothed ; tibiae curved. Frequently of brilliant tints. XVII. S UB-ORDER. SHORT-LEGGED HERBIVOROUS- BEETLES (Cyclica). Head not produced in front into a rostrum, fre- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 205 quently concealed beneath front of thorax ; thorax often as broad at base as elytra ; body oval or ovoid, more or less globular ; antennae filiform, or gradually thickened at apex; palpi thickened in middle; la- brum distinct ; labium thick, square or oval ; eyes simple ; legs moderate, femora sub-equal, or hind pair much thickened. 85. FAMILY. Tortoise-Beetles (Cassididse). Anten- nae inserted near together, short, slightly thickened towards tips ; head concealed be- neath front edge of thorax ; thorax generally semi-circular ; body shield-shaped ; sides of thorax and elytra dilated. Generally remain motionless, lying close upon the leaves of plants. 86. FAMILY. Spiny Tortoise-Beetles (Hispidae). An- tennae filiform, porrect; head exserted; mouth not concealed ; palpi short ; thorax trapezi- form ; body oblong, more or less armed with spines ; tibiae compressed. Larva mines the leaves of plants. 87. FAMILY. Flea-Beetles (Galerucidae). Antennas approximating at base, exserted, filiform, ra- ther long ; palpi with terminal joint thickest in middle ; body somewhat oval or hemi- spherical ; elytra wider than thorax ; thorax mostly transverse ; legs simple ; hind thighs often considerably thickened. Often possess the power of leaping. Herbivorous, feeding on the leaves of plants. 88. FAMILY. Golden-Beetles (Chrysomelidse). An- 206 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. temi86 remote, short, moniliform,- sometimes rather serrated ; palpi short ; body generally hemispherical or ovate ; thorax with base usually as broad as elytra ; legs of equal size, not formed for leaping. Herbivorous ; often ornamented with brilliant colours among which gold is conspicuous. EARWIGS. The Earwigs form the connecting link between the Beetles and the Orthopterous insects, and re- mind one especially of the Rove-Beetles, in their long and flattened body, in their short wing-covers, and in the menacing habit they have of presenting their armed tails against their enemies. Although founded on a mistake, the ominous names they have received, as "perce-oreille" and "ear- wig/' usually cause them to be regarded with peculiar aversion. The original word was probably Ear-wing, from the shape of the beautiful hind wings, which are so elaborately folded up under their short elytra. These insects are of small size, and of dingy colours, and are widely diffused, being found in North and South America, the Cape of Good Hope, India, and New Holland. In some of the exotic species the forceps at the end of the tail is straight, and as long as the body (Forficula parallela W.~), while in others, it is singularly contorted, as in F. macropyga, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 207 W. The Euplexoptera are nocturnal in their habits, and often migrate in the evening in considerable flocks ; they feed on fruits and flowers, and often do great damage in gardens by depriving the petals of dahlias, pinks, and carnations of their symmetry, by their hungry bite, causing the florist to wage against them a war of extermination. The female Earwig sits on her eggs in the manner of a hen, and after the young ones are hatched they follow their mother, who continues to brood over them for many days with true maternal solicitude. II. ORDER EARWIGS (Euplexoptera). Fore-wings very small, coriaceous, without veins, horizontal, uniting in a straight suture ; hind- wings large, membranous, with radiating nervures, and with numerous transverse and longitudinal folds ; mouth with transversely moveable jaws, hind pair galeated ; tail armed with a forceps. Pupa semi-complete, active, with rudimentary wings. 1. FAMILY. Earwigs (Forficulidse). Antennae long, slender, many-jointed; head moderate, flat, narrowed behind into a short neck ; eyes small, lateral ; ocelli none; jaws small, robust, notched near tip ; abdomen ending in a for- ceps formed of two long, curved, horny ap- pendages pointed at tip, and toothed on inner margin. Fly by night ; feed on flowers and fruits. 208 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS. Among the cursorial tribes of the Orthoptera we find those common pests, the Cockroaches, remark- able for their omnivorous propensities ; one of which, the domestic " Black-Beetle " (Blatta orientalis), is an importation from our Indian possessions of by no means a satisfactory nature. Here, also, we find the Camel-Crickets or Soothsayers, raptorial insects, so named from their long necks, and the imitative movements of their fore-legs, and which comprise several strange tropical genera, as Empusa, with the top of the head formed into a leaf-like lobe, Eremia- phtta, whose movements are slow, and whose colour resembles that of the sandy plains on which it lives, and Deroplatys, with the legs furnished with mem- branous appendages. In the ambulator ial group, where all the legs are alike, we meet with those phantasms of the insect world, the " Walking- leaves/' and the stick-like Phasma, which seems made up of dead twigs, and some Australian species, which attain the length of more than a foot-; these curious forms move about the branches of low shrubs in a sluggish manner, either singly or in pairs. In the saltatorial tribes the hind legs are formed for leaping like the Frogs ; indeed, some writers have compared the Orthoptera with the Batrachian-Reptiles, instancing their loud singing noise, their leaps, and even a singular coincidence MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 209 of form among certain species. This section in- cludes our familiar merry little friend, the Cricket (Acheta domestica) ; the Mole-cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris), with its broad, burrowing fore-feet ; and that joyous chorister, the Grasshopper, with his less agreeable consimilars, the Migratory - Locusts, so notorious for their devastating powers, and the vast swarms in which they sometimes appear. These latter are herbivorous, the Mantidce are predatory and carnivorous, while the Crickets and Cockroaches are indiscriminate devourers. III. ORDER. STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS (Orthoptera). Fore-wings large, coriaceous, thickly- veined, over- lapping at tips; hind -wings large, membranous, thickly netted, folded longitudinally ; mouth with transversely moveable jaws, the hind pair galeated ; tail often styliferous. Pupa active, semi-complete, with rudimentary wings. Chiefly herbivorous ; ter- restrial. I. SUB-ORDER. RUNNING-ORTHOPTERA (Cursoria). Legs long, compressed, formed for running ; wings horizontal ; fore-legs not raptorial. 1. FAMILY. Cockroaches (Blattidse). Antennae very long, setaceous, many-jointed ; mandibles strong, horny, toothed at tip ; upper lip en- tire ; eyes kidney-shaped ; ocelli obsolete ; body flattened, oval ; thorax large, shield- shaped, concealing head ; legs long, com- pressed ; tibiae with spines and spurs ; ab- 210 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. domen with two jointed appendages at tip. Omnivorous ; nocturnal. IT. SUB-ORDER. RAPACIOUS-ORTHOPTERA (Raptoria). Legs long, formed for walking, the fore-legs larger than the others, formed for seizing their prey ; fore- wings long, horizontal when at rest. 2. FAMILY. Leaf -Insects (Mantidse). Antennae in- serted between the eyes, usually slender and filiform ; eyes large, on sides of head ; head vertical, exposed ; face triangular ; ocelli three, in a triangle in middle of forehead ; upper lip entire ; mandibles horny, trigonal, with acute teeth at tip and a strong tooth at inner margin ; thorax produced and nar- rowed in front, forming a narrow neck, to which the large raptorial fore-legs are at- tached ; hind legs long, slender. Predacious ; found on plants and trees, where they re- main stationary with the fore- legs raised pre- pared to seize any insect that comes in their way. III. SUB-ORDER. WALKING-ORTHOPTERA (Ambulatoria). Fore-legs of the ordinary form, fitted for walk- ing ; hind-legs not saltatorial ; fore- wings of small size. 3. FAMILY. Stick - Insects (Phasmidse). Antennae usually long, slender, many-jointed, placed MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 211 in front of eyes ; eyes large, globular ; ocelli rudimentary or obsolete ; head moderate, oval, sub-depressed, porrect ; jaws strong, horny, entire at tip, or with inner margin notched or toothed ; thorax greatly elon- gated ; body usually long, slender, sometimes broad, depressed ; fore- wings rudimentary ; hind- wings, when present, large and membra- nous ; fore-legs not raptorial. Resemble sticks, straws, and leaves ; sluggish, solitary, living among low shrubs ; herbivorous. IV. SUB-ORDER. LEAPING-ORTHOPTERA (Sanatoria). Hind-legs long, formed for leaping, four anterior legs short, simple ; wings deflexed at the sides ; females with an exserted ovipositor. 4. FAMILY. Crickets (Achetidse). Antennas very long and slender ; eyes large, round ; ocelli distinct, usually two ; jaws strong, with seve- ral acute transverse teeth ; labium four-lobed ; body robust, somewhat depressed ; wings large, horizontal when at rest ; fore-wings when folded forming a pair of long slender filaments ; abdomen ending in two slender setae ; tarsi 3-jointed, slender, joints simple on under side. The chirping of the Crickets is produced by rubbing the inner edges of the wing-covers together ; the females are mute. 5. FAMILY. Grasshoppers (Gryllidas). Antennse 212 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY very long and slender ; head short, vertical ; upper lip rounded, entire ; body rather ro- bust ; wings large, delicate ; wing-covers and wings deflexed in repose ; mandibles strongly toothed ; ovipositor of female long, sword- shaped ; tarsi 4-jointed, joints dilated and obed. The chirping of the Grasshoppers is produced, like that of the Crickets, by rub- bing the bases of the wing-covers rapidly together, these organs being furnished with a round talc-like plate, and strong rough ribs serving as a sort of drum. 6. FAMILY. Locusts (Locustidse). Antennae short, filiform, cylindric ; ocelli three, distinct ; upper lip notched on front edge ; jaws strong, very much toothed; body robust, laterally compressed ; wings and wing-covers de- flexed in repose, the latter not furnished with a talc-like plate for stridulation ; ovi- positor short, not exserted ; tarsi 3-jointed. Leap with great force ; flight continuous ; associate in numbers. Herbivorous. The noise made by the Locusts is produced dif- ferently from that of the Crickets and Grasshoppers, and is owing to the friction of the hinder thighs against the sides of the wing-covers. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 213 NET-WINGED INSECTS. Many of the insects which compose this Order live, during the earlier stages of their existence in the water, where some spend the greater portion of their lives, for no sooner is the nuptial garb as- sumed, and do their fairy sports commence, than death closes their career, and in the stream which gave them birth they find a grave. Others, as the Dragon-flies, enjoy an serial existence for a longer period, and pass as rapacious a life in the air as they did before in the water ; with powerful flight they course the marsh, the meadow, and the river-bank in search of food, which consists of other insects both in their larval and perfect states. The White- Ants are universally known for the remarkable nests which they construct, wonderful both for size and form ; they live mostly either a terrestrial or an arboreal life, possessing wings for a short period only, during the season of courtship, which after that period, fall or are bitten off, leaving them to complete the objects of their existence on foot. The tiny Thunder-Flies which we often find during the summer in countless multitudes, are notorious for the injury they occasionally do to particular plants, and though individually small, the results of their combined operations assume a degree of importance which we cannot pass unnoticed, add- ing another instance tending to shew, that little 214 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. objects passed without a thought by thousands, are often those which produce imperceptibly, yet not less certainly, most important changes around us. IY. OKDER. NET-WINGED INSECTS (Neuroptera). Wings four, long, membranous, transparent, tra- versed by a net-work of nervures, lie flat on the back, carried erect or horizontally when at rest, ante- rior and posterior pairs often of equal size, posterior pair sometimes very small ; antennae variable, mi- nute, and setiform, or long, filiform or setaceous ; legs moderate ; abdomen more or less lengthened, cylindrical or depressed, sometimes terminated by filaments. 1. FAMILY Day-Flies (Ephemeridae). Head small; eyes large and oval ; antennae very short ; body long, slender, soft, terminated by long filaments ; wings carried erect when at rest, posterior pair small or wanting; tarsi 5-jointed. 2. FAMILY. Hammer-headed Dragon-Flies (Agri- onidse). Head hammer-shaped ; eyes round, lateral, widely separated ; mandibles and maxillae well developed ; antennae very short ; abdomen long, slender, cylindrical ; wings of equal size, gradually increasing in breadth from the base to near the apex, meeting each other, and carried erect when at rest. Flight feeble and heavy. 3. FAMILY. Dragon- Flies (Libellulidae). Head large ; eyes very large, approximate on top of head ; mandibles and maxillaa well deve- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 215 loped, powerful, toothed ; antennse very short ; abdomen long, cylindrical or depressed ; wings long, of equal size, carried separately and horizontally when at rest. Flight quick and powerful. 4 FAMILY. Willow-Flies (Perlidse). Head broad; eyes prominent, wide apart; antennse long, filiform, composed of many joints ; body de- pressed ; abdomen sometimes terminated by two slender filaments ; wings longer than abdomen, recumbent, posterior pair largest, and folded when at rest. 5. FAMILY. White- Ants (Termitidse). Head and body depressed, abdomen flat and composed of narrow segments ; mandibles strong and horny, toothed ; maxillae terminated by hook- ed teeth ; antennse of moderate length, mo- niliform ; legs rather short ; wings narrow, of equal size, nearly twice the length of body, not much reticulated, semi-transparent. Only males and females have wings, neuters are apterous, and have the head large and the mandibles very long. 6. FAMILY. Book-Insects (Psocidse). Size small ; head large ; eyes rather prominent ; antennae long and setaceous ; body short, soft, ovate ; anterior wings larger than posterior, which are slightly folded, deflected when closed. Often found among books and old papers. 7. FAMILY. Thunder-Flies (Thripidae). Head ob- long; eyes large, distant, placed forward; 216 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEVT. antennae of moderate length, moniliform ; body long, linear, depressed ; wings four, similar, long, narrow, membranous, very little veined, fringed with silky hairs, laid along the back when at rest ; tarsi 2-jointed, vesi- cular at the tip. KOOF-WINGED INSECTS. These insects, in their larval and pupa state, are met with in various situations ; some search the stems of plants for Aphides, some lurk beneath the bark of trees, others are found in moist earth. The Ant-Lions attract attention from the singular form and habits of their larvae, which dig pitfalls in the sand, at the bottom of which they lie in wait until some unfortunate insect falls in, when they imme- diately seize their victim with the long forceps-like mandibles with which they are provided, or, fail- ing in this, and their prey attempts to escape, cast after it a shower of sand, which probably causes it to fall again within their reach ; their form contrasts strangely with that of the imago, being somewhat spider-like, the body thick and fleshy, and beset with bundles of stiff hairs, and by no means pleasing, while the perfect insect is of grace- ful figure, with a long slender body and beautiful reticulated wings. The Water-Moths and their larvae are well known to the angler as bait, under the names of Caddice- Flies and Caddice- Worms. These latter construct MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 217 for themselves a curious little house of shells, small pieces of stick, and other such materials, kept toge- ther by threads similar to those spun by caterpillars ; in this tube-like home they dwell, at the bottom of streams, and in it undergo their metamorphosis into the pupa, state ; when about to assume the perfect form they crawl out of the water up the stem of some plant, cast their exuvia, and become denizens of the air. Thus, from forms singular, grotesque, and most unlike, proceed those which can scarcely fail to ar- rest our gaze and excite our admiration. Y. ORDER. ROOF-WINGED INSECTS (Stegoptera). Wings four, large, membranous, often beautifully reticulated, frequently dissimilar, deflexed when not in use, never carried erect, seldom porrected, ante- rior pair sometimes hirsute, posterior generally folded when at rest ; antennae more or less lengthened, filiform, multiarticulate, sometimes pectinate, occa- sionally shorter and clavate ; abdomen usually of moderate length and cylindrical; legs often long and slender. 1. FAMILY. Scorpion-Flies (Panorpidse). Head produced into an elongated deflexed rostrum ; eyes prominent ; antennae long, slender, many jointed ; anterior segment of thorax forming a narrow collar ; body slender, posterior seg- ments of abdomen narrowed, the last segment in the males sometimes armed with a pair of forceps ; wings variable, sometimes porrected 218 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. when at rest, with posterior pair much lengthened and linear, sometimes large, simi- lar, and roof-like when at rest, sometimes rudimentary. 2. FAMILY Snake-Flies (RaphidiidaB). Head flat- tened ; eyes prominent ; antennae slender, many jointed ; anterior segment of thorax narrow and much lengthened (whence their English name) ; mandibles strong, corneous ; abdomen of moderate length, terminated, in the females, by a long sabre-like ovipositor ; wings rather large, posterior-pair rather smaller than the anterior, strongly veined. 3. FAMILY. Mantis -Flies (Mantispidas). Head broad, flat ; eyes prominent ; antennas short, sub-moniliform ; anterior segment of thorax narrow and much lengthened, often trans- versely furrowed ; fore-legs long, attached close to the head, and formed as in Mantis, having the thighs large, compressed and armed with spines, and the tibiaB curved ; abdomen of moderate length ; wings of nearly equal size, beautifully reticulated. 4. FAMILY. Ant -Lions (MyrmeleonidaB). Head rather small, transverse ; eyes prominent ; antennae usually of moderate length, hard, thickened and curved at tip, sometimes longer and nearly filiform; abdomen long, slender and cylindrical, sometimes terminated by two filiform appendages ; wings long, of equal size, delicately reticulated. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 219 5. FAMILY. Lace -Wings (Heinerobiidae). Head small; eyes prominent, often of a brilliant metallic lustre ; antennae long, filiform, com- posed of many joints ; first segment of thorax small ; abdomen soft, of moderate length ; wings large, very delicate, posterior pair ra- ther smaller than anterior. 6. FAMILY. May-Flies (Sialidae). Head moderate, transverse ; antennae long, filiform, sometimes pectinated and many jointed ; first segment of thorax as large as the head ; abdomen not long ; anterior wings very large, posterior a little smaller, carried horizontally or deflexed along sides of body, hind-wings folded when at rest. 7. FAMILY. Water-Moths* (Phryganeidae). Head small; eyes prominent; antennae slender, se- taceous or pectinated, generally longer than the body; wings roof-like, membranous, of nearly equal size, nerves simply branching, anterior pair generally pilose, posterior trans- parent and folded when at rest ; abdomen rather soft ; legs long and slender ; tibiae spurred. CLEAR-WINGED INSECTS. This Order is very extensive, comprising about a fourth of the entire insect race ; its members are * Called also "Caddice-Flies." L2 220 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. especially numerous in tropical regions, while, in our own country, we may reckon three thousand species. It is among the hymenopterous tribes that we find those remarkable social communities, where the workers consist of abortive females, where the idle drones are the males, and where one chosen female is elected queen, and made the prolific mother of an entire generation. The nectar of flowers is the fa- vourite drink of these active, bustling, tribes in their perfect state ; but when we see the busy Bees intent upon fresh-blown flowers, we must not imagine the luscious banquet spread for themselves alone, it is for the young of the community, yet unborn, that they labour to collect the honey and the pollen. In the same manner, when we spy out a robber wasp dragging away the dead carcase of a fly bigger than herself, it is for the sustenance of her future progeny that the deed of poisoning was done. The Aphidian cows kept by Ants, and watched with so jealous a care, are valued only for the honey- dew they yield, and with which they nourish their young ones. Belonging to this Order we find the Saw-Flies, which make incisions into the leaves and stems of plants, by means of elaborately-formed saws, placed at the end of their bodies, and the larvae of some species of which live in societies covered over with a tent of leaves, fastened together by silk. The Gall- Flies are another remarkable race, which puncture the surface of plants, by means of a boring instru- ment, and, by depositing their eggs in the punctures, produce " galls" of various kinds ; to the "gall" pro- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 221 duced by one species we are indebted for our ink, that most important fluid in the history of learning and civilization. Here also we find the Ichneumon- Flies, which deposit their eggs in the bodies of other insects, and which are eventually devoured by the parasites. In tropical countries, species of Sphegidw will be observed, forming nests in the corners of the rooms, composed of several earth-cells, in each of which the mother Pelopceus deposits a green cater- pillar. The Velvet- Ants are also numerous in equa- torial regions, and may be seen running briskly about in hot, sandy, situations. Nor must we omit to mention the Ants-proper, those memorable little insects, which live in societies like the social bees ; and the Social- Wasps, which manufacture galleries of hexagonal cells out of paper, and surround their cities with a wall ; and, lastly, the Honey-Bees, those oft-quoted examples of industry, loyalty, and good order, which live gregariously, and form elaborate houses, to the robbery of which we owe our honey and our wax. VI. ORDER CLEAR- WINGED INSECTS (Hymenoptera). Wings four, naked, membranous, hind pair the smallest and few- veined ; mouth with horny jaws, and with a lower lip or tongue sheathed by the maxillae ; abdomen in females armed with an ovi- positor or sting ; tarsi usually five-jointed. Larva usually vermiform, apodal ; pupa inactive, incom- plete. 222 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOBY. I. SUB-ORDER. STINGLESS-HYMENOPTERA (Terebrantia). Abdomen of females furnished with a saw or borer for depositing the eggs. I. TRIBE. SAW-BEARING HYMENOPTEEA (Securifera). Abdomen sessile ; larvae with a well-developed mandibulated mouth. Feeding upon vegetable matter. 1. FAMILY. Saw-Flies (Tenthredinidse). Antennae variable, usually short, of males often pecti- nate, furcate, or flabellate ; mandibles elon- gate, narrow, compressed, toothed; thorax solid, broader than head; abdomen sessile, of female furnished with a pair of saws ; wings ample, with numerous complete cells ; hind-tibiae often spurred. Introduce their eggs by sawing edges of leaves, or by making incisions in their surface. 1. Tenthredinince. Antennae 9 11 -jointed, simple, filiform to tip ; labrum apparent ; saws with parallel sides. 2. Cimbicince. Antennae short, clavate, with notmore than eight joints ; larvae 22-footed, emitting drops of viscid matter. 3. Hylotomince. Antennae 3-jointed, terminal joint greatly elongated ; labrum apparent ; larvae 18 20-footed, not emitting drops of viscid matter. 4. Lydince. Antennae many-jointed, sometimes MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY, 223 strongly pectinate in males ; hind-tibiae often spined in middle ; saws slightly ser- rated at tip ; dilated and elbowed at base ; larvae various. 2. FAMILY. Auger -Flies (Uroceridae). Antennae filiform or setaceous, vibratile ; head rounded, as broad as thorax ; upper lip minute, elon- gated ; mandibles short, strong, horny ; tro- phi irregular ; prothorax and collar elongated ; body elongated, sub-cylindrical ; abdomen sessile, furnished in females with a borer or awl-like ovipositor ; fore-tibiae with a single spur. Females deposit their eggs in timber by means of their powerful boring instru- ment. II. TKIBE. PARASITIC-HYMENOPTERA (Pupivora). Abdomen attached to thorax by a portion only of its transverse diameter; larvae with slightly- developed mandibulated trophi, for the most part feeding parasitically upon other living insects ; ab- domen with an elongate, many-valved oviduct. 3. FAMILY. Gall - Flies (Cynipidae). Antennae straight, inserted in middle of face, long, slender ; labrum minute ; mandibles short, robust, toothed at tip ; maxillae with a broad ciliated lobe ; head small, transverse ; palpi short ; wings with few veins ; abdomen oval, compressed, basal joint largest, the others imbricate ; peduncle short ; ovipositor spiral, retractile when at rest. Females deposit 224 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. their eggs in the tissues of plants and pro- duce the tumours known as " galls/' 4. FAMILY. Thick-legged Ichneumon-Flies (Eva- niidse). Antennae straight, filiform or seta- ceous ; mandibles toothed on inside ; fore- wings with several irregular cells ; hind-wings without veins ; abdomen attached to dorsum of metathorax by a peduncle often arising close to scutellum ; ovipositor straight ; hind- legs elongated, tibiae often thickened. Para- sitic on other insects. 5. FAMILY. Ichneumon - Flies (Ichneumonidse). Antennae straight, usually filiform or seta- ceous ; head small, free ; eyes large, lateral ; mandibles slender, curved, bidentate at tip ; wings veined, anterior with perfect cells ; body long, narrow; abdomen attached at extremity of thorax between base of hind coxss ; ovipositor straight, often exserted ; legs long, formed for running; tarsi long, slender. Pupa enclosed in a cocoon. Usually black, varied with red, yellow, and white. Females deposit their eggs in larvae or pupse of other insects. 1. Ichneumohince. Wings with two recurrent nerves; nerve separating first cubital cell from external discoidal cell nearly or en- tirely obliterated ; an articulation between second and third dorsal segments of ab- domen. 2. Braconince. Wings with only one recur- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 225 rent nerve, which unites with the nerve extending between first cubital and ex- ternal discoid cells ; no articulation be- tween second and third dorsal segments of abdomen. 6. FAMILY. Cuckoo-Flies (Chalcididae). Antennae elbowed, thickened at tips ; palpi short ; man- dibles broad, horny, ending by several teeth ; head transverse ; eyes lateral, often very large ; wings nearly destitute of veins ; ab- domen varied in shape, attached by a pedun- cle, or nearly sessile ; ovipositor usually con- cealed, not longer than abdomen ; hind-legs often toothed and thickened. Pupa naked. Parasitic on other insects. 1. Chalcidince. Collar transverse, quadrate; hind femora thickened. 2. Eurytomince. Collar transverse, quadrate ; hind femora simple. 3. Pteromalince. Abdomen flat, sessile ; an- tennae filiform, fusiform, or clavate; stig- mal branch straight. 4. Eupelmince. Abdomen flat, sessile ; anten- nae filiform, fusiform, or clavate; stigmal branch incurved. 5. Encyrtince. Collar more or less narrowed in front ; antennae with not more than eight joints ; middle legs strongly spurred 6. Eulophince. Collar more or less narrowed in front; antennae with not more than eight joints; tarsi with less than five joints. L 5 226 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOKY. 7. FAMILY. Sharp-tailed Cuckoo-Flies (Procto- trupidse). Antennae more or less elbowed ; palpi long and pendulous ; mandibles long, somewhat sickle-shaped, notched at tip ; eyes entire ; ocelli three ; abdomen usually ovate- conic ; ovipositor elongate, conic, acute, formed of two united pieces, enclosed in a tube, or exposed ; fore-wings veinless, or with few veins; body long and slender; legs long, femora often clavate ; anterior-tibiae with a terminal curved spur. Very active, usually black, varied with brown ; minute ; found in grass, on aquatic plants, or in hot sandy situations. Parasitic. Females deposit their eggs in other insects. 1. Mymarince. Head transverse, areolate ; an- tennae inserted above middle of face, long, slender in males, clavate, elbowed in fe- males ; palpi none ; wings narrowed, densely ciliated. 2. Platygasterince. Abdomen sessile, depressed, first segment not campanulate ; antennae el- bowed, 10~12-jointed, inserted near mouth. 3. Ceraphrontince. Abdomen sub-sessile, cam- panulate; terminal and ventral segment carinated ; antennas elbowed ; wings nearly exareolate. 4. Gonatopince. Abdomen convex, not campa- nulate ; last ventral segment carinated; an- tennae porrected, 10-jointed; hind-wings lobed ; mandibles toothed. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 227 5. Proctotrupince. Abdomen sub-sessile, cam- panulate ; antennae porrected, 12-jointed, inserted beneath front ; maxillary lobe bi- partile. 6. Diapriince. Abdomen petiolated, campanu- late ; antennae 10 15-jointed, inserted in front ; maxillary palpi long, 5-jointed. III. TRIBE. TUBE-BEARING HYMENOPTERA (Tubulifera). End of abdomen tubular, retractile, furnished with a minute sting. Larvae feeding on other insects. Pa- rasitic on other Hymenoptera. 8. FAMILY. Ruby-tailed Flies (Chrysididae). An- tennae filiform, elbowed at end of long basal joint; head transverse above; maxillae end- ing in a large pilose outer lobe ; mandibles long, sub-trigonal ; thorax oblong, metathorax armed on each hind margin with a spine; fore- wings with a single marginal cell ; hind- wings nearly veinless ; abdomen with under side concave, with a very short peduncle, ter- minal segments telescopic, retractile ; ovipo- sitor sting-like, with two styles of the same length. Adorned with brilliant metallic tints ; fly and run in the hot sunshine with great vivacity. II. SUB-ORDER. STINGING-HYMENOPTERA (Aculeate). Abdomen of females armed with a sting connected with a poison reservoir. 228 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. I. TEIBE. HETEROGYNOUS-HYMENOPTERA (Heterogyna). Fore-wings not folded ; larvae social. 9. FAMILY. True- Ants (Formicidae). Antennae elbowed ; eyes distinct ; thorax continuous, more or less contracted in middle ; abdomen without a sting, peduncle composed of a single elevated scale. Males and females with wings ; neuters wingless. Social and gregarious. 10. FAMILY. Stinging-Ants (Myrmicidae). An- tennae elbowed ; eyes distinct ; thorax con- tinuous, more or less contracted in middle ; abdomen armed with a sting, peduncle 2- jointed ; males and females with wings; neu- ters wingless. Social and gregarious. II. FAMILY. Blind-Ants (Poneridae). Antennae elbowed ; eyes of neuters obsolete ; thorax continuous, more or less contracted in middle ; abdomen armed with a sting, peduncle formed of one large scale ; males and females with wings ; neuters wingless. Social and grega- rious. 12. FAMILY. Velvet- Ants (Mutillidse). Antennas inserted in middle of face thorax continuous, the segments soldered together ; ocelli want- ing ; body clothed with hair ; abdomen armed with a sting, peduncle short, simple ; legs robust ; tibiae and tarsi spined and ciliated ; females destitute of wings. Solitary. Males and females, no neuters. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 229 II. TBIBE. FOSSORIAL-HYMENOPTERA (Fossores). Fore-wings not folded; larvae solitary, feeding on other insects. 13. FAMILY. Spine-tailed Wasps (Scoliidae). An- tennae short, thick, more or less serrated and convolute in the females ; collar laterally di- lated, extending as far as bases of wings ; abdomen ovate, peduncle short ; abdomen of males ending in three spines ; legs short, ro- bust ; tibiae thick, spinose, or denticulated ; both sexes winged. Burrow in sand. 14 FAMILY. Parasitic Spine-tailed Wasps (Sapy- gidse). Antennas long, straight, more or less clavate ; collar laterally dilated, extending as far as bases of wings; abdomen ovate; peduncle short ; legs slender ; fore-legs not ciliated in the females ; both sexes winged. Parasitic in nests of bees ; live and burrow in sandy situations. 15. FAMILY. Dark-winged Sand-Wasps (Pompi- lidae). Antennae filiform, often convoluted in females ; collar laterally dilated, extending as far as bases of wings, transversely or longi- tudinally quadrate ; abdomen more or less oval, attached to thorax by a short peduncle ; legs very long ; fore- wings with two or three perfect sub-marginal cells. Burrow in sandy places. 16. FAMILY. True Sand-Wasps (Sphegidae). An- tennae filiform, often convoluted in females ; 230 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. collar laterally dilated, extending as far as bases of wings; abdomen elongate, attached to thorax by a long peduncle ; body narrow ; legs, especially the hind pair, very long; fore- legs strongly ciliated ; hind-tibise spurred in females. Nidificate and burrow in sand. 17. FAMILY. Beaked Sand-Wasps (Bembecidse)- Head transverse ; mandibles acute, with a tooth on inside ; jaws produced into a long beak ; collar minute, not extending to bases of wings ; body elongate, tapering behind ; legs short, fore -legs strongly ciliated. Form burrows in sandy situations. 18. FAMILY. Ichneumon Sand-Wasps (Larridae). Head moderate ; mandibles with a deep notch on outer side near base ; jaws not prolonged into a beak ; collar small, not extending to base of wings ; abdomen sub-conical and not peduncled ; legs moderate, ciliated in females. Perforate the sand, in which they nidificate. 19. FAMILY. Bee-like Sand- Wasps (Nyssonidse). Head moderate ; antennse filiform, basal joint slightly elongated ; mandibles slightly notch- ed on outside of base ; jaws not prolonged into a beak ; abdomen ovoid-conic, broadest at base, not peduncled; fore-tibise with a dilated spur. Nidificate in sandy localities. 20. FAMILY. Predacious Wood-Wasps (Crabro- nidse). Head large, square ; antenna straight or somewhat elbowed, often thickened at tip ; mandibles with outer margin entire ; jaws MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 231 not prolonged into a beak ; abdomen oval, broadest in middle or clavate, peduncled ; fore-tibiae with a dilated spur. Usually bur- row in old wood, and occasionally in sandy places. III. TRIBE. FOLDED-WINGED HYMENOPTERA (Diploptera). Fore-wings folded on themselves. Larvae, in the social species, separately enclosed in cells. 21. FAMILY. Solitary- Wasps (Eumenidae). An- tennae of males curved at tips; eyes notched; mandibles elongate, produced ; labium di- vided into four pilose setee ending in glands ; wings folded when at rest ; abdomen con- tracted, with a long narrow peduncle ; legs not ciliated or spinose. Solitary. Males and females only. Form cells of sand and clay. 22. FAMILY. Social - Wasps (Vespidae). Antennae of males not hooked or recurved at tip ; eyes notched ; mandibles as broad as long, trun- cate at end ; wings folded when at rest ; ab- domen rarely contracted into a peduncle ; hind-tibiae with two spurs. Social. Males, females, and neuters. Form cells of paper arranged in tiers. IV. TRIBE. HONEY-GATHERING HYMENOPTEEA (Mellifera). Basal joint of hind-tarsi dilated, provided with instruments for collecting and carrying pollen; larvae living on honey. 232 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 24. FAMILY. Solitary-Bees (Andrenidse). Labium small or cordate ; jaws moderate, not form- ing an elongated proboscis ; hind-legs gene- rally clothed with hair ; trochanters and femora in the females pollenigerous ; basal joint of hind-tarsi not dilated into an angle. Solitary. Males and females only. 25. FAMILY. Social-Bees (Apidae). Labium long and filiform ; jaws extended into an elon- gated proboscis usually folded up beneath the head ; basal joint of hind-tarsi externally dilated and angled ; the second joint arising from the inner angle of the preceding joint. Social. Males, females, and neuters. II. SUB-CLASS. SUCTORIAL-INSECTS (Haustellata). Mouth produced into a more or less elongated proboscis. SCALY-WINGED INSECTS. The Lepidoptera have been arranged into those that fly by day, or the Butterflies, those that come forth at twilight, or the Hawk-moths, and those that are nocturnal in their flight, as the Moths properly so called. On account, however, of the number of exceptional cases, we have followed M. Boisduval, and thrown them into two divi- sions, or those with clubbed and those with varied antennae. As humble worms, toiling and spinning, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 233 these insects are usually despised ; wrapped in their mummy-clothes, as inert grubs, they are forgotten ; but when they come forth glorious in their Psyche state, " all with admirable beauty deck't," they are admired and sought after ; a fit subject for a moral. It is in this form of beauty, when they add an extra charm to the smiling landscape of summer, and make the glory of the woods yet more attrac- tive, that they become the favourite Order, with many, among all the insects. The illustrious Swede, Linnseus, conceived the poetic idea of naming the butterflies after the heroes and heroines of the Iliad, thus recalling to memory the glorious verse of the " blind old bard of Scio's rocky isle." Those clothed in sombre colours he called Trojans, and those clad in gay attire, he christened Greeks ; and her he re- garded as the greatest beauty, was -Papilio Helena. The night-flyers are no less worthy of consideration than the more highly-coloured lovers of the sun. Some are remarkable for their size and vivid paint- ing, as Saturnia Atlas, which often measures nine inches across the wings; others for the valuable web they spin in their caterpillar state, as the Silk- worm-moth (Bombyx mori) ; some are notorious for the injury they inflict on certain trees, as the Goat- moth (Cossus ligniperda) ; others attract notice by their large size and powerful flight, as the Hawk- moths ; while some, again, present the peculiarity of being infested lay fungi, as the Hepialus vires- cens, or New Zealand Swift-moth, the caterpillar of which is often entirely converted into a fungus 234 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. (Sphc&ria Robertsi}. During the summer time in New Holland, the natives of certain tribes princi- pally subsist upon a species of Butterfly, which then occurs in countless myriads, and which they col- lect, bake, and form into smoked cakes. In their caterpillar or larval condition these insects often assist in the removal of offending substances, and tend also to keep in check the superabundance of vegetation, which might, otherwise, become too luxu- riant in its growth. VII. ORDER SCALY-WINGED INSECTS (Lepidoptera). Wings four, large, extended, membranous, clothed on each side with imbricate scales ; neuration branch- ing ; mouth in form of a spirally-involute proboscis ; thorax ovate, with lateral appendages (patagia and tegulce) ; tibiae spurred. Pupa covered with a skin. I. SUB-ORDER: BUTTERFLIES (Rhopalocera). Antennse slender, elongated, ending in a knob ; wings erect during repose, not connected by a hook and bristle ; hind-tibiae spurred. Chrysalis angu- lated, usually naked. Diurnal. ]. FAMILY. Butterflies-proper (Papilionidse). An- tennse with the club distinct, never hooked at tip; labial palpi with third joint rudi- mentary, or clothed with scales; all four wings elevated in repose ; central cell of hind- wings closed ; tibiae with only one pair of spurs at the end ; all the feet fit for walking and nearly alike ; tarsal claws large. Cater- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 235 pillar nearly cylindrical ; chrysalis girt round the middle as well as attached by tail. 1. Papilioninm. Anal edge of hind- wings hollowed or folded. 2. Pierinoe. Anal edge of hind-wings pro- duced under abdomen, forming a kind of gutter. 2. FAMJLY. Simple -winged Butterflies (Helico- niidae). Antennae with club distinct, never hooked at tip ; labial palpi with third joint rudimentary or scaly ; all four wings elevated in repose ; central cells of hind-wings closed ; tibiae with only one pair of spurs at end ; fore -legs shortened, unfitted fo-r walking, small; tarsal claws large, with a long ap- pendage on each side ; wings entire, often long and narrow, sometimes nearly naked. Caterpillar nearly cylindrical ; chrysalis sim- ply suspended by tail. 3. FAMILY. Tooth-winged Butterflies (Nympha- lidae). Antennae with club distinct, never hooked at tip ; labial palpi with third joint rudimentary or scaly ; all four wings ele- vated in repose, central cell of hind-wings open ; tibiae with only one pair of spurs at end ; fore-legs shortened, unfitted for walk- ing, visible and hairy, or small and conceal- ed ; wings dentate, hinder grooved for abdo- men ; tarsal claws with a brush or pulvillus. Caterpillar nearly cylindrical ; chrysalis sim- ply suspended by tail. 236 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 4. FAMILY. Clawless - Butterflies (Erycinidre). Club of antennae distinct, not hooked at tip ; labial palpi with third joint naked ; all four wings elevated in repose ; anal edge of hind- wings slightly prominent ; discoidal cell open or closed ; tibiae with only one pair of spurs ; fore-legs of males rudimentary ; tarsal claws obsolete. Caterpillars short, hairy ; chrysa- lis girt round middle as well as attached at tail. 5. FAMILY. Eye -winged Butter-flies (Polyomma- tidae). Club of antennae distinct, not hooked at tip ; labial palpi with third joint naked ; all four wings elevated in repose ; anal edge of hind-wings embracing abdomen; discoidal cell closed ; fore-legs fitted for walking ; ti- biae with only one pair of spurs ; tarsal claws minute. Caterpillars like wood-lice ; chry- salids girt, as well as attached by tail. 6. FAMILY. Skippers (Hesperiidae). Antennae ending in a strong hook ; two hind-wings horizontal in repose ; feet of uniform size ; hind-tibiae furnished with two pairs of spurs. Caterpillars cylindrical, roll up leaves ; spin a silken cocoon ; chiysalids without angu- lar prominences. II. SUB-ORDER. MOTHS (Heterocera). Antennae filiform or fusiform, those of the males often pectinated ; wings connected by a hook and bristle ; chrysalids without angular projec- MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOKY. 237 tions, usually enclosed in a cocoon. Mostly night- flyers. 7. FAMILY. Butterfly Hawk -Moths (Uraniidae). Antennae long and variable, not prismatic, nor ending in a brush ; proboscis elongated ; fore-tibiae spurred ; wings expanded in repose. Caterpillar cylindrical, with slender bristles ; chrysalis enclosed in a lax cocoon. Flight diurnal. 8. FAMILY. Hawk-Moths proper (Sphingidae). Antennae prismatic, ending in a little feather or thread ; proboscis greatly elongated ; body long, acute behind ; wings narrow, the hinder small. Caterpillars naked, usually with a horn on hind part of back. 9. FAMILY. Burnet Hawk-Moths (Anthroceridae). Antennae simple, fusiform, pectinated in the males ; wings deflexed in repose ; legs long ; hind - tibiae with four spurs. Caterpillars clothed with short hairs, without any spine. Day-flyers. 10. FAMILY. Clear -winged Hawk-Moths (Mge- riidae). Antennae simple, fusiform, usually ending in a pencil of hairs ; proboscis elon- gated ; wings more or less transparent ; legs elongate, the hinder with long spurs ; abdo- men ending in a dilatable brush. Caterpil- lars naked, without a caudal horn. 1 1 . FAMILY. Swift-Moths (Hepialidae). Antennae short and filiform, not feathered at tip ; proboscis short or obsolete ; wings elongated, 238 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. deflexed in repose ; abdomen produced into a retractile ovipositor. Caterpillars naked, with a few straggling hairs. 12. FAMILY. Lappet-Moths (Bombycidse). An- tennae of males strongly pectinate ; proboscis obsolete ; body thick and hairy ; wings large, extended, or deflexed at the sides, the hind pair extending beyond the costa of the in- terior. Caterpillar with a series of tufted warts. 13. FAMILY. Tiger-Moths (Arctiidae). Antennae of males strongly pectinate or serrated; pro- boscis small or obsolete ; wings deflexed in repose, the hinder not extending beyond the costa of the anterior. Caterpillars naked, tubercled, or hairy. 14 FAMILY. Lackey-Moths (Lithosiidae). AntennaB setaceous ; proboscis elongate, spiral ; thorax not crested ; body slender ; wings elongated, horizontal in repose. Caterpillars cylindri- cal, somewhat hairy. 15. FAMILY. Rustic-Moths (Noctuidae). Antennae simple, rarely pectinate in the males ; body robust ; thorax stout, often crested ; wings deflexed in repose, moderate, the anterior usually with ear -shaped spots; proboscis greatly elongated and spiral. Caterpillars naked. 16. FAMILY. Geometric-Moths (Geometridae). An- tennae variable ; proboscis short, weak, mem- branous ; body slender ; thorax never crest- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 239 ed ; wings large, extended horizontally ; legs slender, fore-tibias armed internally with a spur. Caterpillars naked, looping. 17. FAMILY. Meal -Moths (Pyralidas). Antennas simple or ciliated in the males ; proboscis moderate ; thorax never crested ; body slen- der, elongated ; wings moderate, arranged in a triangle during repose; the anterior angled at tip. Caterpillars long and slightly hairy. 18. FAMILY. Leaf-rolling Moths (Tortricidse). An- tennae simple ; fore-legs with a central spur ; body slender ; fore- wings broad, deflexed at the sides, dilated at the shoulders, forming a triangle in repose. Caterpillars naked, living in cylindric tubes which they form by rolling up leaves. 19. FAMILY. Ermine-Moths (Yponomeutidse). An- tennas long, slender, simple ; labial palpi long and slender; maxillary palpi slightly deve- loped ; body slender, rather depressed, wings entire, long and narrow, the hinder fringed with very long cilia. Caterpillars often living under the parenchyma of leaves. 20. FAMILY. Clothes-Moths (Tineidas). Antennas moderate, slender, simple, pubescent beneath in the males ; proboscis short ; thorax rarely crested ; body long and slender ; wings en- tire, often narrow, mostly convoluted in re- pose. Caterpillars usually living in portable cases, which they form of various materials. 240 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 21. FAMILY. Plume -Moths (Alucitidse). Antennae long, slender, setaceous ; proboscis long and spiral ; body elongated ; wings horizontal in repose, cleft into narrow, feathered rays ; legs long and slender. Caterpillars clothed with long hairs. BUGS. Among the members of this Order many singular and strange forms are to be met with. They abound in gay and lively colours, in which, perhaps, they are exceeded by few of the Insect-Tribes. Green, gold, purple, scarlet, and similar brilliant hues frequently adorn them, as in the Coleoptera, their assemblage, and bold contrasts being very similar in both Orders. Many of these insects live chiefly in the water, having greatly depressed bodies, and their legs formed into natatory organs ; others run upon the surface of the water, as the little Velia currens, which may be seen during the summer months in great numbers about our rivulets and ditches. But it is upon plants that the majority are to be found, and from which they draw their nour- ishment, piercing them and extracting the fluids ; a few attack man, as the common bed-bug (Cimex lectularius), and some suck the juices from other insects. We observe in them a fine adaptation for drawing nourishment in this manner; the mouth MANUAL OF NATUBAL HISTORY. 241 is formed into a long jointed canal enclosing se- veral fine bristle-like lancets, which are used in per- forating the substances on which they feed. When not employed, this rostrum is laid along the ventral surface of the body, and often extends two thirds of its length. These insects arrive at maturity by a series of moultings ; they have no inactive pupa state, but both as larvae and pupae continue lively and feeding, and in general appearance bear a strong resemblance to the perfect insects, the principal difference being the absence of wings in the larva and the possession of these, in an immatured state, and enclosed in cases, on the back of the pupa. When arrived at this stage, one moult completes the tranformation to the imago. Most of them possess the property of emitting a strong, and generally very disagreeable odour when handled or crushed. VIII. ORDER BUGS (Hemiptera). Body depressed ; wings generally horizontal, an- terior pair coriaceous at the base, membranous at the terminal part ; antennae usually long ; mouth in the form of a long jointed canal, which, when unemploy- ed, is laid along the ventral surface of the body. The larvae and pupae differ from the perfect insect only in not possessing wings, at which last state they arrive by a succession of moultings. I. SUB-ORDER. WATER-BUGS (Hydrocorisa). Antennae very short, concealed beneath the eyes ; 242 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. fore-legs fitted for seizing prey, posterior pair cili- ated, and formed for swimming. Aquatic. 1. FAMILY. Boat-Flies (Notonectidse). General form boat-shaped ; head broad ; eyes very large, and so formed that the insect may see both above and below when swimming ; wings generally deflexed ; posterior legs long and broadly ciliated, forming excellent paddles. 2. FAMILY. Water -Scorpions (Nepidae). Head small ; rostrum short ; body depressed ; ab- domen sometimes terminated by two long slender filaments ; fore-legs especially adapted for seizing prey, the thighs being dilated, the tibiae curved, united with the tarsus, and fitting in a channel on the under part of the thighs. II. SUB-ORDER. LAND-BUGS (Geocorisa). Antennae usually long, very seldom concealed, legs fitted for walking. Terrestrial, or only found, in a few cases, on the surface of the water. 3. FAMILY. Sand-Bugs (Galgulidae). Eyes pedun- culated j body short and depressed ; antennae small, placed in a cavity beneath the eyes ; rostrum short. In some the wing cases are soldered together at the suture. L FAMILY. Jumping -Bugs (Acanthiidae). Eyes large ; rostrum long and slender ; body de- pressed, oval ; legs long j antennae long or short. Of small size. MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY 243 5. FAMILY. Water -Measurers (Hydrometridse). Head generally as broad as thorax ; antennae long, 4-jointed; rostrum of moderate length; body long, narrow, clothed on ventral surface with a fine down ; legs long. Found running on the surface of water. 6. FAMILY. Long-necked Bugs (Reduviidse). Head small, narrowed behind into a sort of neck ; eyes prominent ; rostrum rather short, ro- bust ; antennae long, terminal joints very slender ; thorax frequently spined ; body va- riable, long and narrow, short, or abdomen much dilated and very thin at the edges ; legs long. 7. FAMILY. Bed-Bugs (Cimicidse). Body very flat ; wings rudimentary, in the form of small scales ; antennae 4-jointed ; legs slender, of moderate length. 8. FAMILY. Bark-Bugs (Tingidae). Size small ; body very flat and broad ; antennae moderate, of equal thickness throughout, sometimes knobbed ; rostrum very short, 3-jointed ; fore- legs occasionally fitted for seizing prey ; tho- rax sometimes having a membranous dilata- tion in place of a scutellum, which, with the hemelytra, are reticulated. 9. FAMILY. Soft -bodied Bugs (Capsidae). Size small ; body convex ; antennae elongated, second joint thickened at the end, terminal joints slender ; rostrum long, 4-jointed ; legs long and slender, hind-legs sometimes very 244 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. elongate with the femora thickened, fitted for jumping. The females have a rather long sabre -shaped ovipositor which fits into a groove on the under side of the abdomen. 3 0. FAMILY. Painted-Buys (Lygaeidae). Size small or moderate ; body generally narrow ; an- tennae 4-jointed, not thinner at apex ; ros- trum of moderate length ; apical membrane of wing-covers longitudinally nerved, mem- brane sometimes absent ; some have the fore- * legs thickened. Remarkable for their varied colours. 11. FAMILY. Club-horned Bugs (Coreida3). Fre- quently of large size ; form elongate, often slender ; antennae 4-jointed, terminal joint large, thickened or elongate, sometimes one of the intermediate joints dilated ; rostrum rather long; apical membrane of wing-co- vers generally having numerous longitudinal nerves ; legs long, femora sometimes much thickened, curved and spined, tibiae occa- sionally curved and hooked. 12. FAMILY. Shielded-Bugs (Scutelleridse). Size moderate or large ; colours varied, often splen- did ; scutellum generally very large, some- times covering abdomen ; rostrum long, 4- jointed ; antennae long, usually o-jointed ; body generally rather short and oval ; meso- sternum sometimes elevated in the form of a keel, or produced into a spine ; legs moderate. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 245 SIPHON-MOUTHED INSECTS. The Homoptera have also been termed "plant- suckers/' on account of their feeding on the juices of vegetables. The Order comprises many most anoma- lous forms ; some having curved horns on their backs like the Centrotus and Membraces, and others being provided with hollow appendages on their heads as the Lantern-Flies. Some among them, as the Aphides, or plant-lice, have the extraordinary fa- culty of producing living young ones without a pre- vious union with the other sex, which power may be exercised through as many as nine generations. Madam Merian has stated that the Lanthorn-Fly of South America is luminous by night ; the Chinese species kept alive by one of the Authors, shewed however, no signs of luminosity either by night or day. The insects celebrated in the songs of the an- cient Greek and Roman poets (Cicada plebeia), on account of the loud chirping they produce as they sit among the leaves of the trees, belong to this Order. The "Cuckoo-spit/' often seen on the leaves of plants, is produced by the larva of Aphrophora spumaria; and another species, A. Goudotii, a na- tive of Madagascar, has the siugular power of emit- ting a considerable quantity of clear water during the greatest heat of the day. These insects are often highly injurious to vegeta- tion, for example the American blight, Lachnus lani- gcrus, and the species of Coccus that infests the vine 246 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. and other plants in hot-houses. The Cicada septen- decem sometimes appears in America in prodigious numbers, and does great injury to the timber. Their numbers on these occasions are so great as to break the branches of the trees by their weight, and the noise of their discordant drums is heard in the woods from morn to eve. Another instance of the damages occasioned by some of them is seen in the Sugar-cane Fly, Delphax saccharivora, so injurious to the West- Indian plantations. On the other hand, the fine white wax manufactured by the Chinese, and highly prized in the East Indies, is obtained from species of Hata in an immature state. Cochineal is produced from the Coccus cacti ; the "scarlet grain" of Poland, also a valuable dye, from Coccus Polonicus ; lac is derived from Coccus lacca ; the Coccus ceriferus is used in the production of a white wax; and the manna of Mount Sinai is owing to the punc- tures of Coccus manniperus on the Tamarix man- nifera. IX. ORDER. SIPHON-MOUTHED INSECTS (Homoptera). Wings four, entirely membranous, deflexed ; an- terior the largest, not overlapping in repose ; anten- nae short, setigerous ; mouth produced, arising from under hind surface of head; mandibles and max- illae setaceous, enclosed in labium, which forms a jointed siphonal canal ; body convex ; tarsi not more than 3-jointed. Pupa active, semi-complete. Subsist upon vegetable juices which they pump up by means of their siphon-like mouth. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 247 T. SUB-ORDER. TRIMEROUS-HOMOPTERA (Trimera). Tarsi 3-jointed ; antennae minute, setigerous ; wings areolate. 1. FAMILY. Musical Harvest-Flies (Cicadidae). An- tennae 7-jointed, inserted between the eyes ; head short, broad, transverse; eyes large, prominent ; ocelli three, on back of head ; proboscis greatly elongated, 3-jointed ; fore- wings large, membranous, usually transpa- rent, with few nervures ; legs short, with- out spurs, not formed for leaping. Males possess musical powers. 2. FAMILY. Lantern-Flies (Fulgoridae). Antennae 3-jointed ; ocelli two, placed beneath eyes ; head often dilated into hollow appendages varying in form and size ; proboscis variable in length; wings usually thickly reticulated; legs generally fitted for leaping; spurs of hind feet large. Often secrete a white waxy product. 3. FAMILY. Leaping Harvest-Flies (Cercopidae). Antennae 3-jointed, the last joint setiform, inserted between the eyes ; ocelli two, on forehead or face ; head rarely produced into a proboscis ; prothorax variable in form and size ; wings usually strongly veined ; legs fitted for leaping, hind-tibiae often spurred. Varied in colour ; found among plants and on trees. II. SUB-ORDER. DIMEROUS-HOMOPTERA (Dimera). Tarsi 2-jointed ; antennae moderate, filiform, o 10-jointed; wings sub-areolate. 248 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 4 FAMILY. Blight-Flies (Psyllidge). Antennae moderate, filiform, 10-jointed, inserted in front of eyes ; head deeply cleft in front ; eyes lateral, prominent ; ocelli three, on top of head ; proboscis short, 3-jointed ; wings deflexed at sides of body, the fore-wings with three strong, furcate nerves ; hind- legs fitted for leaping, with two strong spurs. Live upon plants; often produce galls. 5. FAMILY. Plant-Lice (Aphididse). Antennae moderate, 7-jointed ; head entire in front ; eyes moderate ; ocelli three, on top of head ; proboscis long, perpendicular or inflexed ; wings greatly deflexed in repose, the hinder with strong nerves ; legs long and slender, formed only for walking. Females often apterous ; body sometimes clothed with a white cottony secretion ; live in society on various plants. 6. FAMILY. Mealy-winged Scale-Insects (Aley- rodidae). Antennae short, 6-jointed; head small ; eyes bipartite ; proboscis short, 2- jointed ; wings broad, oval, of equal size, covered with a white powder, nearly hori- zontal in repose, the anterior with only one strong central nerve ; abdomen simple at tip ; legs short, simple ; larva scale-like. Both sexes with four wings in perfect state ; feed on leaves of plants. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. III. S UB-ORDER. - MONOMEROUS-HOMOPTERA (Monomera). Tarsi 1 -jointed ; antennas 6 25-jointed ; wings not areolate. 7. FAMILY. Scale-Insects (Coccidse). Antennae, in females, short, subsetaceous, inserted befoie eyes, in males, more or less elongated ; mouth in females a short 3-jointed proboscis, in males obsolete; head in males, small, rounded; eyes composed of about ten grains, placed irregu- larly ; ocelli none. Males winged ; fore- wings large, horizontal in repose, hind-wings rudimentary; abdomen with two long anal setae. Females apterous; body ovate, glo- bose or shield-shaped, often densely clothed with a white downy or waxy secretion. In- fect various plants, and do great damage ; some species produce a valuable dye (cochi- neal). BEE-PARASITES. These singular little parasites are found, in the larval state, in the bodies of wasps and bees, and their oval white heads may frequently be observed protruding from between the rings of the abdomen in species of Andrenct and other bees ; in their imago condition they are short-lived, and fly with a vacillating motion, making a sort of humming noise. Their thorax is very long ; their eyes are large and prominent ; their antennae are forked or branched ; M 5 250 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. their wings are large, opaque, and membranous ; and there are two subspiral appendages at the base of the fore-legs. These insects have been placed by some between the Beetles and the Earwigs, while others have considered their natural position to be between the Lepidoptera and the Diptera ; they are, indeed, often termed "Wasp-Flies/' and " Wild- Bee Flies." X. ORDER. BEE-PARASITES (Strepsiptera). Anterior wings in form of short, slender, contorted appendages ; hind-wings very large, folding longitu- dinally, like a fan ; mouth with two slender acute jaws wide apart, and two large 2-jointed palpi ; tarsi 2-3 or 4-jointed. Larva apodal, vermiform, with a flattened head ; pupa coarctate, inactive. 1. FAMILY. Bee-Parasites (Stylopidae). Antennse of few joints, often furcate or branching, aris- ing from between the eyes ; head distinct, ex- posed; eyes large, lateral, prominent, upon the contracted sides of head ; thorax very large ; body long and narrow ; wings opaque, membranous ; legs moderate, weak, two ante- rior pairs with elongate coxse ; tarsal joints with fleshy cushions beneath, without termi- nal claws. Parasitic on bees and wasps. FLIES. Although not so numerous in species as some of the other Orders of Insects, with regard to indivi- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 251 duals the Flies muster in very great force. They surround us, in some form or other, all the year throughout ; and, during the hot weather the whole atmosphere seems filled with the humming sound of their wings. The Flies, in their perfect state, hover over flowers, and sip honey, like the Bees ; but in their larval condition, their habits are very varied. Some among them prefer a vegetable diet, like the Mycetophiloe, which are found on fungi ; some, like the Syrpkidce, feed upon the plant-lice, and help to keep those injurious hordes in wholesome check. The Volucellce deposit their eggs in the nests of the Humble-Bees, that their young may take advan- tage of the food there stored up ; others, as the Gad- Flies, lay their eggs in the skins of Ruminating ani- mals, on which the larvae subsist ; while some devour putrescent bodies dissolved in water, as the Gnat and Mosquito. Some Flies are carnivorous and pre- datory in their perfect state, as the Asilidce, which seize other insects, and suck their blood ; others feed on decaying timber ; others on bulbs, as the Eristalis Narcissi and the Scatophaga Ceparum. The pupi- parous Forest-Flies nourish their offspring in a kind of marsupial pouch, and the Flesh-Flies lay their eggs on dead bodies, which their larvae, when hatched, very soon consume. XI. ORDER. FLIES (Diptera). Mouth suctorial, with a fleshy proboscis enclosing several lancet-like organs (formed by the tongue jaws and mandibles) ; labial palpi obsolete or none ; 252 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. thorax compact, prothorax very short, fixed immov- ably to mesothorax ; wings two, anterior membran- ous, not scaly, variously veined, with produced lobes or winglets at the base ; hind- wings replaced by small clavate appendages or balancers ; tarsi 5- jointed. I. SUB-ORDER. PROBOSCIDEAN-FLIES (Proboscidea). Head distinct from thorax ; legs close, side by side ; claws of tarsi not dentate ; larva not under- going its metamorphosis within body of parent. I. TRIBE. SLENDER-HORNED FLIES (Nemocera). Antennae composed of more than six joints; palpi 4 or 5-jointed ; pupa incomplete. 1. FAMILY. Leaping-Gnats (Mycetophilidae). An- tennae slender, 15 or 16-jointed, longer than head, compressed, never fasciculated ; last joint of palpi not ringed ; ocelli two or three, unequal ; head not rostrate ; coxae elongated ; hind-tibiae spined, mostly with long spurs. Fungivorous ; capable of leaping by means of their hind-legs. 2. FAMILY. Gall-Gnats (Cecidomyidae). Antennae more or less moniliform, of 13 joints, simply ornamented with a few verticillate hairs; eyes lunate ; ocelli wanting ; wings with few nerves, carried flat on the back, or roof-like, when at rest; legs long, not armed with spines. Deposit their eggs in leaves and stems ; producing galls. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 258 3. FAMILY. Sand-Flies (Bibionidae). Antennae sel- dom longer than head, thick, cylindric, moni- liform or perfoliate ; wings large ; ocelli two or three ; pronotum conspicuous ; palpi 4- jointed ; eyes, in males, large, contiguous. Found in marshy places ; very troublesome to man and domestic animals. 4. FAMILY. Black-Flies (Simuliidae). Antennae seldom longer than head, cylindric or moni- liform ; ocelli none ; wings and halteres large ; costal vein ending near tip of wing; tibiae and metatarsi broad, compressed. Found in damp marshy places ; sometimes termed "Mosquitoes"; obnoxious to man and beast. 5. FAMILY. Midges (Chironomidae). Antennae slen- der, filiform, beset with long hairs forming in the males a large plume or brush, longer than head, basal joint very large ; ocelli ob- solete ; eyes lunate, separate ; body long and slender ; legs very long, tibiae simple, not armed with spines ; often assemble in cloud- like swarms, and perform aerial dances. 6. FAMILY. True-Gnats (Culicidae). Antennae slen- der, filiform, plumose ; basal joint sub-globose, tubercular ; palpi very long, pilose at end ; head small; mouth produced into a long slender rostrum ; ocelli obsolete ; eyes lunate ; body long and slender ; wings oblong, round- ed at tip, incumbent, hind margins fringed with scales. Produce irritating bites ; species constitute the true " Mosquitoes/' 25-4 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY 7. FAMILY. Phlebotomists (Phlebotomidae). An- tennae slender, filiform, plumose in the males ; head small ; mouth rostrate ; ocelli none ; wings broad, ovate or lanceolate, deflected or divaricate ; costal vein attenuated round hind margin, veins in their last divisions more than six. Troublesome blood-suckers. 8. FAMILY. Moth-Gnats (Psychodidse). Antennae elongate, composed of globular, verticillate joints ; head small ; wings oblong, rounded at tip, broad, deflexed, hairy, hind margin fringed with hairs. Small moth-like insects ; often found on windows. 9. FAMILY. Crane-Flies (Tipulidse). Antennae longer than head, simple, not plumose, rarely pectinated ; eyes entire, ocelli obsolete; front of head beaked ; proboscis short, ending in two large fleshy lips ; body elongated ; wings long, nervures numerous ; legs long. Found in damp meadows. 10. FAMILY. False Crane-Flies (Rhyphidae). An- tennae longer than head, simple ; eyes entire ; ocelli two or three ; wings and halteres large ; body elongated ; legs long ; discal areolet complete. II. TRIBE. SHORT-HORNED FLIES (Brachocera). Antennae shorter than head, terminal joints indis- tinctly articulated, or soldered together in a mass terminated by a seta ; maxillae and maxillary palpi usually distinct. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 255 11. FAMILY. Chameleon-Flies (Stratiomidas). An- tennae of six or seven joints, usually end- ing in a style or seta ; organs of mouth ru- dimentary scutellum often spined ; body broad, depressed ; wings incumbent when at rest ; terminal veins very slender. Found upon flowers in watery situations. 12. FAMILY. Tree-Flies (Xylophagidae). Antennas 10-jointed, without any seta, the last joints forming a cylindric mass; scutellam unarm- ed ; body narrow, cylindrical ; wings parallel, incumbent or laid upon abdomen in repose. On trees. 13. FAMILY. Breeze-Flies (Tabanidse). Antennas with third joint large, remaining joints 3 7, closely united, tapering to the tip ; proboscis exserted, enclosing lancets, and ending in two fleshy lobes ; eyes large ; scutellum large, elevated ; abdomen triangular, depressed ; wings extended horizontally, winglets large Pierce the skin and suck the blood of man and the lower animals. 14). FAMILY. Humming-Bird Flies (Bombyliidaa). Antennas close together at base, often with a short terminal style ; proboscis long, por- rected in front of head ; thorax much ele- vated ; body short, thick, often clothed with hairs ; wings horizontal, winglets small ; legs very long and slender. Fly with great rapi- dity; hover over flowers without settling ; make a humming noise with their wings. 256 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 15. FAMILY. Mottled -winged Flies (Anthracidae). Antennae short, wide apart, ending in a pear- shaped joint, very slender at tip ; proboscis short ; head nearly spherical ; thorax slightly elevated; abdomen somewhat square, often hairy ; wings variously mottled and spotted ; legs long, slender. Fly in sunshine with great agility. 16. 'FAMILY. Vesicular -Flics (Acroceridse). An- tennae minute, inserted close together ; head minute, nearly all eye ; thorax elevated ; body round, inflated ; wings deflexed, wing- lets very large, covering balancers, wings with the veins often indistinct. Slow-mov- ing ; found upon plants and among flowers. 17. FAMILY. Hornet -Flies (Asilidae). Antennae with third joint clavate, ending in a 2-jointed seta ; head transverse, depressed ; eyes late- ral ; lower part of face bearded ; proboscis moderate, porrect in front ; thorax narrowed in front ; body long, clothed with bristles ; wings incumbent. Predacious ; active in sunshine; make a humming noise. 18. FAMILY. Large-eyed Flies (Hybotidae). Pro- boscis short, horizontal ; head small, globu- lar ; eyes occupying nearly its entire surface ; clypeus slightly hirsute ; thorax greatly ele- vated ; abdomen narrow ; wings with a dis- coidal post-medial cell ; thighs of hind legs often thickened. Active ; prey on other in- sects. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 257 19. FAMILY. Mydas-Flies (Mydasidae). Antennae longer than head, 5-jointed, the two terminal ones large, forming a club ; body elongated ; wings with apical nerves running parallel with posterior margin ; legs strong ; tarsi with two brushes ; hinder thighs thickened. Attack and devour other insects on the wing. 20. FAMILY. Leaf-nosed Flies (Therevidae). Third joint of antennae ovate-conic, ending in a small 3-jointed style ; palpi enclosed in oral cavity ; proboscis ending in a pair of large membranous labial lobes; wings divaricate, apical nervures running to extremity of wing; abdomen conical. Found on trees ; often fly- ing in swarms. 2 1 . FAMILY. Raptorial - Flies (Tachy dromiidae) . Antennae apparently only 2-jointed, the basal being very minute ; palpi incumbent, pro- boscis short ; wings often with coloured bands, without any large cell beyond tlie middle ; fore -legs elongate, thickened, spined, rap- torial. Kun very rapidly on trunks of trees ; rapacious. 22. FAMILY. Spur-legged Flies (Leptidae). Palpi large, external, filiform or conical ; proboscis large, fleshy, ending in two elongate labial lobes ; antennae inserted near base* of head, third joint round or reniform ; wings divari- cate, external nerve furcate ; middle and hind- tibiae with two apical spurs. Wings often spotted ; frequent sunny sides of trees. 258 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 23. FAMILY. Flat-bodied Flies (Scenopinidae). An- tennae with the setae wanting, terminal or dorsal ; labium thick, ending in large lips ; palpi long, thickened at tips ; head hemi- spherical, almost entirely occupied by eyes in males ; body flattened ; wings with few veins ; legs short. Colours obscure. 24. FAMILY. Predatory-Flies (Empidae). Antennae as long as head, tapering to tips ; head small, sub-globose ; eyes large ; proboscis elongate, perpendicular or folded beneath breast ; palpi reflected, usually 2-jointed ; body elongated ; wings incumbent, large. Voracious, seizing on other insects and sucking their juices. 25. FAMILY. Water -loving Flies (Dolichopidae). Antennas short, ending in a small oval or palette-shaped joint emitting a long seta ; labium in females forming a conical muzzle ; abdomen compressed, incurved at tip ; wings incTimbent when at rest ; legs long, slender, armed with bristles. Metallic coloured ; de- light in frequenting the edges of water. 26. FAMILY. Marsh -Flies (Lonchopteridae). Pro- boscis distinct ; cheeks bristly ; eyes wide apart; wings pointed at tip, cubital vein simple, discal areolet wanting, axillary lobe obsolete. Frequent damp and marshy situ- ations. 27. FAMILY. Wood-Flies (Platypezidse), Proboscis distinct ; antennae with last joints forming a slender arista attached to tip of third joint ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 259 wings with axillary lobe rounded, cubital vein simple, brachial vein without a spurious vein. Inhabit damp woods. 28. FAMILY. Hovering-Flies (Pipunculidse). Head large, hemispheric ; eyes large ; ocelli three, in a triangle on vertex ; antennae short, third joint compressed, deflexed, with a 3-jointed arista ; proboscis very short ; thorax globose ; wings long, costal vein not continued round hind margin, cubital simple, axillary lobe rounded ; abdomen cylindric or compressed. Inhabit woods and fields ; often hover in the air. 29. FAMILY. Aphis-eating Flies (Syrphidae). An- tennas with third joint dilated, emitting a seta, jointed at base, sometimes plumose ; head hemispherical ; eyes large ; front of head beaked; proboscis long, membranous, elbowed near base, ending in two lobes, and enclosing four pieces ; abdomen never incurved at tip ; wings with perfect cells. Of variegated co- lours ; fly with rapidity ; hover in the sun. 30. FAMILY. Parasitic-Bee Flies (Conopidae). An- tennae with short setae either dorsal or ter- minal ; palpi minute, without joints ; pro- boscis long, always exserted, elbowed, si- phon-shaped, enclosing two pieces ; abdomen usually incurved at the extremity. Colour varied ; frequenting plants and flowers. 31. FAMILY. Flesh-Flies (Muscidae). Antennae 3-jointed, the last with a dorsal seta or arista; 260 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. proboscis distinct, short, membranous, end- ing in two large labial lobes, entirely retrac- tile, and enclosing only two pieces or setiform organs j body short, robust ; abdomen not in- flexed at end ; wings and legs moderate. Feed on various substances both living and dead. 32. FAMILY. Gad-Flies (GEstridae). Antenngevery short, terminal joint rounded, emitting a seta ; proboscis rudimentary or obsolete, consist- ing of two or three minute fleshy tubercles ; wings divaricate, winglets very large, hiding the balancers, nervures few. Large hairy flies, often coloured in transverse bands ; parasitic on different species of mammals. Larvae termed " bots." III. TEIBE. HYPOCEROUS-FLIES (Hypocera). Antennae near epistome, with a single inconspicu- ous joint, and an arista ; mandibles and maxillae obsolete. S3. FAMILY. Phoridean - Flies (Phoridse). Palpi porrect, without joints ; wings with anterior veins strong, costal ending about middle of rib, posterior very thin, simple, disunited ; coxae and femora thickened, compressed. II. SUB-ORDER. EPROBOSCTDEAN-FLIES (Eproboscidea). Head immersed in thorax ; claws denticulated ; legs distant ; larvae nourished in body of parent until it has passed the pupa state. MANUAL OF NATTTRAL HISTORY. 2,61 34 FAMILY. Spider -Flies (Hippoboscidss). An- tennge immersed in anterior angles of clypeus ; head circular, closely united to thorax ; eyes large ; mouth covered with a membranous plate perforate at end, and with bristly nar- row plates on sides, extended to form a kind of rostrum ; body clothed with bristles, short, depressed, leathery ; wings often rudi- mentary ; head prone, the neck lying on prosternum. Parasitic ; reside on birds and quadrupeds, running about the hairs and feathers with great agility. 35. FAMILY. Bat-Lice (Nycteribiidas). Head turned back and upside down over mesonotum ; an- tennse very short, two-jointed ; mouth with two large lateral setose valves, and a central style, enclosing several setse ; thorax flat ; wings and balancers none, replaced by two comb-like organs; legs very long; claws strong, hooked. Parasitic on the bodies of bats. FLEAS. The insects forming this small Order, though de- prived of wings, yet have a regular metamorphosis, and in their general structure, and especially of that of their mouth, closely approach the Order of Flies, with which indeed they are sometimes associated. They are remarkable for their extraordinary strength, 262 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. sometimes ingeniously tested by making them draw miniature carriages, &c., and by the wonderful agi- lity they display, often exciting the extreme wrath of him who desires to prevent them from enjoying a carousal off his blood. The common Flea (Pulex irritans) is produced from a small white polished egg ; the larvae are without feet, and beset with hairs, the head has short antennae, and there is a pair of curved forks at the end of the tail. When the larva is full-grown, it casts its skin, becomes a grub or pupa ; from which, in twelve days, the per- fect insect emerges, with its sharp proboscis, and its shelly armour. Another troublesome insect be- longing to this Order, is the Chigoe or Jigger (Sarcopsylla penetrans), a small black flea, which penetrates the flesh, and, if neglected, produces troublesome sores on the feet. A very large species of flea is found on the Mole; another species, of yet larger dimensions (Pulex Echidnce), is found on the Australian-Porcupine ; but perhaps the largest known is the Pulex gigas, from some northern animal. XII. ORDER FLEAS (Aphaniptera). Wings four, rudimentary, in form of small scaly plates on sides of body ; antennas minute, lying flat in cavities at sides of head ; mouth formed for suc- tion ; mandibles and lingua setiform ; body com- pressed ; tarsi 5-jointed. Larva vermiform ; pupa inactive, incomplete. 1. FAMILY Fleas (Pulicidae). Head small ; mouth MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 263 a tubular beak formed of the labial palpi ; mandibles elongate, flattened, serrated ; body compressed, covered with a hard shining skin, clothed with rows of sharp bristles ; segments continuous ; fore-legs placed under the head ; hind-legs formed for leaping; coxae very large ; tibise setose ; tarsal claws double. AIOLOPODS. The Aiolopods comprise an extensive group of annulose animals which breathe like the Insects by means of tracheal tubes, but which undergo no regu- lar metamorphosis ; they are distinguished from the Arachnidans by the possession of a distinct head with two antennae, and by the varied nature of their feet ; like the Crustaceans they cast their skin, but are known at once from those animals by the ab- sence of gills or respiratory feet. They are princi- pally terrestrial in their habits, solitary, and usually of uninviting aspect. The Myriapods are distinguished by the absence of a regular metamorphosis, and the large number of nearly equal-sized segments into which their bodies are divided. They comprise an assemblage of curious, though little known, animals, and are found in all parts of the globe. The best known among them are the Centipedes (Scolopendra), dreaded in tropical countries on account of their venomous bite. These Myriapods are easily known 264 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. from others of their Order by means of their long flattened bodies. They are nocturnal in their habits, shunning the light, and usually conceal- ing themselves under logs of wood, among loose stones, under the bark of decayed trees, or in the timbers of buildings. In hot climates they fre- quently attain to a formidable size, and their bite is then considered dangerous. They chiefly inhabit tropical countries, though a few small and harmless species occur in the southern parts of Europe, and one (Lithobius forcipatus) under damp moss, &c., in England. A few slender species are found to ex- hibit a vivid phosphorescent light. The hollow mandibles of the poisonous species end in a sharp hook, which is perforated at the point for the passage of the venomous fluid. The Juli, another group frequently observed, are at once distin- guished from the Centipedes, by their long, slen- der body not being flat but cylindrical. These are perfectly harmless, and feed upon decaying vege- table matter. They are found in the loose earth, among moss, or under stones. Some of the large Asiatic species attain a length of six or seven inches. When they walk they move with a sort of undulat- ing motion like a serpent, and when alarmed coil themselves up in a spiral form. The Spring-tails, including the first part of the ThysanuTdj, are usually found lurking under stones, or in the crevices of the bark of trees. By placing the elastic forked appendage of their tail under the body, and suddenly straightening it, they are MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 265 enabled to leap and spring about. They feed on de- caying animal and vegetable matter. The Sugar- lice, constituting the other section, are little active animals, covered with bright silvery scales. They are often seen running briskly about among old books and boards. They have simple eyes, like those of spiders, on each side of the head ; and, in some respects, resemble Myriapods. Their antennae are setaceous and elongated, and there are three setaceous appendages at the end of the tail. The young Parasites differ from the parent only in size. Nearly every kind of quadruped and bird harbours species of these animals ; and even in the human subject they have been known, by an exces- sive multiplication, perhaps induced by want of cleanliness, to have produced a loathsome disease, from which it is said Herod, Sylla, Antiochus, and Calisthenes perished. These pestiferous insects, in- cluding the Louse and its allies, have six feet formed for walking ; their mouth is furnished with a sucto- rial proboscis; their antennae are as long as the thorax; their abdomen is depressed and formed of several segments ; and their mode of respiration is by tracheal tubes as in the insect races. II. CLASS. AIOLOPODS (Aiolopoda). Animal breathing through stomata by means of respiratory tubes or tracheae ; apterous ; head dis- tinct, with two antennae. Undergoing no regular metamorphosis, but casting their skin like Crusta- ceans. 266 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. I. ORDER. MYRIAPODS (Myriapoda). Eyes compound and granular; mandibles for cutting and bruising their food ; no true jaws ; sometimes two false labial palps ; body elongated, formed of numerous rings, not divided into regions; feet more than six, often very numerous. Animals free. I. SUB-ORDER. CHILOPOVS (Chilopoda). Antennae with four or more joints, tapering to- wards the extremity ; lower lip double ; segments flattened, each with one pair of feet. 1. FAMILY. Shielded - Centipedes (Cermatiidae). Body elongated, linear, depressed, with about eight imbricated coriaceous shield-like plates above, below divided into fifteen segments ; antennae setaceous, many-join ted, much longer than the head ; mandibles two ; palpi slender, exserted, spinulose ; legs very long, slender, tarsi many-jointed. 2. FAMILY. Stone-Centipedes (Lithobiidae). Anten- nae setaceous, a little longer than the head, seven or more jointed; mouth as in Scolo- pendra ; body elongated, linear, depressed, equally divided above and below, the upper dorsal plates alternately larger and smaller ; legs moderate. 3. FAMILY. True - Centipedes (Scolopendridae). Body elongated, linear, depressed, equally divided above and below ; segments nume- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 267 rous, sub-equal, not imbricate ; legs numerous, moderate ; antennas subulate, a little longer than the head, joints short, fourteen or more; eyes two, distinct, granular ; hind lip armed with two strong hooks forming a pincer. 4. FAMILY. Earth-Centipedes (Geophilidae). Body very long and narrow ; legs very numerous ; antennae composed of fourteen cylindrical joints, very slender towards the end; eyes not distinct ; often electrical. II. SUB-ORDER. CHILOGNATHS (Chilognatha). Antennae with seven joints, either equal through- out, or more or less thickened near the end ; lower lip single, without curved hooks ; segments of body annular, each with two pairs of legs. 5. FAMILY. Woodlouse-Millipedes (Glomeridae). Body elongately oval, convex above, arcuate beneath, rolling up in a ball ; segments eleven or twelve, semi-lunar, crustaceous, with a lateral scale, the last segment large, concave, semi-circular; feet 16 20; antennae very short, sub-moniliform, 7-jointed, the sixth enveloping the last. 6. FAMILY. Tufted-Millipedes (Polyxenidse). Body soft, elongated, depressed, furnished at the sides with tufts of piliform scales, the hind segment ending in a pencil of ciliated scales ; antennae very short, moniliform, inserted under the front margin of the head ; palpi none. N 2 268 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 7. FAMILY. True-Millipedes (Julidse). Body elon- gate, cylindrical, smooth, crustaceous, rolling up spirally ; segments formed of three im- bricated parts with simple margins ; antennae short, sub-moniliform, a little thicker towards the tips, 7-jointed ; mandibles two, horny, truncato-dentate at the apex ; palpi none ; lip flattened, with the upper margin crenate. 8. FAMILY. False-Millipedes (Polydesmidae) Body depressed or sub-cylindric, rolling up spirally; segments formed of a single piece with di- lated margins ; antennae slender ; mouth as in Julus. II. ORDER. FRINGE-TAILS (Thysamira). Eyes compound, granular ; mandibles for dividing the food ; sometimes jaws and distinct palpi ; feet six, and other motive organs either on the sides of abdomen, or at its extremity. Free. 1. FAMILY. Sugar-Lice (Lepismatidae). Antennae many-jointed ; palpi distinct, exserted ; ab- domen with moveable appendages on each side of lower part, and with jointed filaments at the extremity. 2. FAMILY. Spring-Tails (Poduridae). Antennae 4-jointed ; no distinct palpi ; abdomen with- out lateral scales, ending in a forked caudal appendage folded under the body when at rest. III. ORDER. PARASITES (Anophira). Eyes smooth, simple ; legs six ; body not scaly ; MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 269 abdomen not furnished with lateral or anal appen- dages ; mouth with a retractile sucker, or in the form of a fissure with two hooked mandibles. I. SUB-ORDER. SUCTORIAL-PARASITES (Suctoria). Mouth tubular, rostrate, enclosing an instrument for suction. 1. FAMILY. Lice-proper (Pediculidse). Antenna filiform, as long as the thorax ; a single eye on each side ; muzzle terminal, short, with a retractile sucker; tarsi of a single joint, ending in a folding hooked claw. II. SUB-ORDER. JAWED-PARASITES (Mandibulata). Mouth composed of two lips and two hooked mandibles, 2. FAMILY. Bird-Lice (Nirmidse). Antennae small, shorter than the head ; eyes one or two on each side ; mandibles two, hook-like ; mouth inferior, sometimes a little below apex of head, sometimes sub-central, rimate, with two lips. ARACHNIDANS. Baron Walckenaer, the greatest authority on this class of animals, justly conceiving the intimate relation that must exist between the organization of these creatures and the webs they spin, has di- vided them into sedentary and wandering Spiders. 270 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. The first, or Sedentaries, are elongated, with slender legs, and construct large nets, in the middle of which they remain motionless, or retire to a side avenue to watch the unfortunates that fall into their snares. Some of these spin geometric webs, composed of con- centric circles crossed by rays which unite in a com- mon centre, and which are suspended vertically. The Spiders which construct these kinds of webs are of brilliant colours, and of singular forms, as Epei- ra, Gasteracantha, Tetragnatha, and Uloborus ; others among them construct large irregular nets of threads crossing each other in all directions, these are formed by little but very industrious spinners, such as Theridion and Episinus ; some, again, com- pose horizontal toils of a closely-woven fabric in the angles of walls and under stones, and furnished with a tubular passage formed of the same material, in which they lie and watch, such as Tegenaria, Agelenar and Nyssus; many again, form toils of compact meshes, suspended horizontally betweeen plants, but without any tubular passages, and with the webs more open and transparent, these cloth- weavers principally compose the genus Linyphia. The Vagabonds, on the other hand, lead a wan- dering and desultory kind of life, and do not spin regular webs ; some of them, however, throw out long single threads to entangle the feet of their vic- tims, while they themselves watch vigilantly in the neighbourhood to take advantage, such are the Drassi, the Dysderce, and the Dolomedes. Others, of these Vagabonds, on the contrary, are hunting MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 271 Spiders, pass their days pleasantly in the chase, and often travel to considerable distances, such are the great powerful Bird-Spiders (Mygale), the Ta- rantulas, the Jumping-Spiders (Attus), and those that move with cautious sidelong pace, as Thomisus and Sparassus. In many tropical countries the threads of gigantic species of Spiders (Nephila) are sufficiently strong to entangle small birds, and even to prove troublesome to the passage of the traveller through the woods. These artful nets of "long- legged spinners" are, moreover, of different colours according to the nature of the weaver, being white, yellow, blue, and green ; and in Mexico there is one composed of red, yellow, and black threads, inter- laced with great and singular ingenuity. Among other remarkable snares constructed by these daughters of Arachne may be mentioned that of the Trap-door Spiders, species of Cteniza, which bore galleries in the ground, coat the walls with mortar, line them with silk, and fit a door with a hinge, to the aperture ; another curious application of their spinning powers is seen in the fabrication of the diving-bell of the Water-Spider (Argyroneta aqua- tica), which is an oval cocoon filled with air, lined with silk, and fastened by lines to plants under the water ; one of the authors presented to the Linnagan Society the habitation of a Madagascar Spider com- posed of grains of quartz- sand united together by a fine web, forming a horn-shaped nest ; these hung from the low shrubs that grow near the shore ride out in safety gales that would destroy ordinary webs. 272 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. The food of the Spiders being entirely insect, they are armed with powerful hollow jaws, which inject a poisonous fluid, by means of which they slay their victims when fairly entangled in their toils. Some, as the Jumping-Spiders, spring upon their prey like the Feline-Mammals ; others hunt it down like the Wolves and Dogs ; while some again patiently await their victims in their artful nets, or lie motionless on the leaves and in the blossoms of plants ; others sit at the mouths of their subterranean tubes and keep a keen look out for stragglers, upon which they pounce, then kill and suck their blood. Some of the pedipalp Arachnidans, as the Scorpions, are pro- vided with a powerful instrument of attack in the form of a sting at the end of their long jointed ab- domen. As Typhon, or the Evil Spirit, the Scor- pion figures as one of the signs of the Zodiac ; some of the species which inhabit the hottest parts of Africa are often five or six inches in length, and produce highly venomous wounds ; one, in fact, has received the generic name of Androctonus or Man- killer. These animals never spin webs but live on the ground, concealing themselves under stones ; they feed on wood-lice, beetles, grasshoppers, and will devour also the eggs and larvae of various Insects. The Mites are found in various situations ; some as the Cheese- Mite (A earns domesticus) in our pro- visions ; some, as the Ticks (Ixodidce), fasten upon horses, cows, and dogs, and suck their blood ; some are parasitic on birds and bats, and others on in^ MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 273 sects ; the Water-Mites (Hydrachnidce), live in the water; while others again are found crawling slowly about the leaves of various shrubs. One species, called the Red-Spider (Gamasus telarius), is a great pest to nurserymen and gardeners, producing much injury to plants in hot-houses ; another well-known member of this tribe is the little Harvest-Bug (Lep- tus autumnalis), the bite of which occasions a pain- ful irritation in those employed in the fields. The Sea-Spiders form the connecting link be- tween the Crustaceans and the Arachnidans ; the Pycnagonidce are parasitic upon Whales ; the Nym- phonidce, harmless, inert, and slow -moving crea- tures, take up their abode among madrepores and branching corals. III. CLASS. ARACHNIDANS (Arachnida). Head and thorax united, forming a cephalothorax ; eyes simple ; antennae none ; feet eight, formed for walking ; no regular metamorphosis. I. S US-CLASS. PULMONARY- ARACHNIDANS (Pulmonaria). Respiration by means of pulmonary sacs ; eyes 612. I. ORDER. SPIDERS (Araiieidse). Palpi simple, pediform ; mandibles armed with a moveable, perforated claw emitting a poisonous liquid ; abdomen not jointed, terminating in spin- nerets. JN 5 274 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. I. S HE-ORDER. QUADRIPULMONARY-SPIDERS (Tetrapneumona). Two pulmonary sacs and two spiracles on each side ; legs robust. 1. FAMILY. Bird-Spiders (Mygalidse). Eyes eight ; spinnerets four, two short and two promi- nent ; hook or moveable claw of chelicerae folded on the lower side, or that of the first joint, moving vertically. 2. FAMILY. Hunting-Spiders (Dysderid^e). Eyes six in many ; spinnerets six, very short ; hook of chelicerse folded transversely or along their inner side, moving laterally. II. SUB-ORDER. BIPULMONARY-SPIDERS (Dipneumona). A single pulmonary sac and spiracle on each side of abdomen. 3. FAMILY True - Spiders (Araneidae). Hook of chelicerse folded transversely or along their inner side, moving laterally. 1. GROUP. Sedentary Spiders (Sedentaria). Eyes arranged transversely on front of cephalo- thorax ; throw out threads for the capture of their prey, and station themselves upon or near their webs. 1. Tapestry -Weavers (Clubioninse). Spin- nerets cylindrical, placed together and directed backwards ; legs robust ; recti- grade. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 275 2. Spinning -Spiders (Theridioninae). Spin- nerets conical, slightly exserted, arranged in a rosette ; legs slender ; maxillae narrow at tip, not dilated ; rectigrade. 3. Geometric -Spiders (Linyphinae). Spinne- rets conical, slightly exserted, arranged in a rosette ; legs slender ; maxillae straight, widened at tip ; rectigrade. 4. Crab - Spiders (Thomisinae). Fore -legs longer than the others ; chelicerae small ; body depressed ; abdomen broad, round or triangular ; not making webs, but throwing out a few solitary threads ; re- main immovable, fixed upon the leaves of plants. 2. GROUP. Wandering-Spiders (Errantia). Eyes arranged lengthwise on the cephalothorax ; do not spin webs but wait for their prey, seize it running or leap upon it. 1. Wolf-Spiders (Lycosinae). Front row of eyes in a curvilinear series; thorax ovoid, narrowed in front, with a central longi- tudinal ridge ; legs only fitted for run- ning ; maxillae straight, rounded at tip. 2. Jumping- Spiders (Salticinae). Front row of eyes extending across the thorax in a straight line ; thorax square, fiat, not nar- rowed in front, sides deflexed; legs fitted for running and leaping. 276 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. II. ORDER. PEDIPALPS (Padipalpi). Palpi produced, cheliform or shaped like pincers ; mandibles furnished with a moveable claw, not emitting a poisonous liquid ; abdomen jointed, with- out spinnerets. 1. FAMILY. Scorpions (Scorpionidse). Stigmata eight, situated along lower and lateral part of abdomen ; mandibles chelate or ending in two digits, the outer of which is moveable ; comb-like organs on inferior part of thorax. 2. FAMILY. Tarentulas (Phrynidse). Stigmata four, situated near origin of abdomen ; man- dibles unguiculate or ending in a moveable claw ; thoracic combs none. II. S UB-CLASS. TRACHEARY-ARACHNIDANS (Trachearia). Respiration by means of ramifying tracheal tubes ; eyes two or four, smooth. I. ORDER. SIMPLE-TRACHEARIANS (Monomerosomata). Body without division, the head, trunk, and ab- domen being united into a single mass ; abdomen not annulated. I. SUB-ORDER. MITES (Errantia). Mouth with distinct mandibles ; palpi always pre- sent. Animals free. 1. FAMILY. True-Mites (Acaridae). Palpi slightly developed, adherent to the lip; mandibles MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 277 cheliforrn ; eyes none ; legs for walking, tarsi ending in a vesicle. 2. FAMILY. Garden -Mites (Trombiidse). Palpi pointed, with a moveable appendage below the tip; feet formed for walking; eyes latero- anterior; chelicergp ending in a moveable claw. 3 FAMILY. Spider-Mites (Gamasidse). Palpi fili- form, incurved, short, free ; mouth with two didactyle chelicerse ; body depressed, skin soft or scaly ; legs formed for walking, tarsi unguiculate. 4. FAMILY. Wood-Mites (Orbitidse). Palpi fusi- form, hid under the head, without hooks ; mouth with didactyle chelicerse ; eyes not distinct ; body hairy or scaly, produced and rostrate in front ; legs formed for walking. II. SUB-ORDER. TICKS (Suctoria). Mouth in form of a sucker, with or without palpi ; no apparent mandibles. Animal attached. 5. FAMILY. True-Ticks (Ixodidae). Palpi valvi- form, enclosing the sucker ; mandibles 3- jointed, the last joint scale-like and denticu- late ; chelicerse none ; eyes none ; legs formed for walking. 6. FAMILY. Plant-Ticks (Bdellidse). Palpi antenni- form ; mandibles unguiculate or cheliform ; eyes distinct ; sucker in form of elongated beak ; body with a corselet ; legs formed for walking. 278 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 7. FAMILY. - Water-Ticks (Hydrachnidas). Palpi with the last joint armed with points, the third and fourth joints larger than the others ; body simple, oval or rounded ; eyes supero- anterior ; legs ciliated, formed for swimming ; parasitic in the young state. Aquatic. 8. FAMILY. Harvest-Ticks (Leptidse), Palpi short ; sucker porrected ; body depressed, coriaceous, ovately rotund ; legs six, two being unde- veloped. II. OKDEE. JOINTED-TRACHEARIANS (Adelarthrosomata).' Body divided into three or four distinct segments; abdomen distinct, annulated ; mouth with conspi- cuous didactyle pincers' or chelicerse. 1. FAMIY. False-Scorpions (Solpugidae). Mandibles in the form of large compressed claws, with a moveable finger ; palpi large, in the form of feet or of cheliferous arms ; body oblong, soft ; abdomen hairy. 2. FAMIY. Book-Scorpions (Cheliferidse). Man- dibles short, didactyle at the ends ; palpi very large, arm-like, with a pincer at the end ; body ovate, depressed, narrowed in front ; legs of equal size, short, ending in two hooks. 3. FAMILY. Shepherd-Spiders (PhalangidaB). Man- dibles very conspicuous, composed of two or three pieces, free, ending in a didactyle pin- cer ; palpi filiform, ending in a hook ; body MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 279 short, rounded ; abdomen segmented ; legs elongated. III. S UB-CLASS. APOROBRANCHIATE- ARACHNIDANS (Aporobranchiata). Body linear, divided into four distinct segments j spiracles none ; feet eight, for locomotion, in the females two false feet for carrying the eggs ; eyes four, smooth, situated on a tubercle. 1. FAMILY. True Sea-Spiders (Nymphonidae). Body small, elongated ; palpi filiform, furnished with a hooked claw at the end ; legs very long. Free. 2. FAMILY. Parasitic Sea-Spiders (Pycnogonidse)- Antennae and palpi obsolete ; legs short and robust. Parasitic on Whales. CRUSTACEANS. These annulose animals differ from the insects in their respiration being performed by means of gills ; their circulation is double, the blood passing through the gills as well as through the body generally; their nervous system forms two ganglionic chains, as in other Annulosa; they have no wings ; and some of their legs are modified to serve as organs of prehen- sion around the mouth. In the Decapods the fore- legs are transformed into arms, with a prehensile pincer at the end, composed of a finger and a move- able thumb, by the help of which strong calcareous 280 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. hands they are enabled to crack the shells of mol- lusks and convey the food to their mouths. In some, as the Mantis-Crabs, these claws are long and prehensile, the moveable thumb being folded in a groove of the tibia. In numerous instances the Crustaceans seem to be the marine representatives of the Insects of the land, the sessile-eyed tribes cor- responding to the Myriapods, and the peduncle-eyed families to the Arachnidans ; the names of others suggest similar analogies, as Spider-Crabs, Scorpion- Crabs, Mantis-Crabs, &c. The habits of these animals are extremely va- ried : thus we find some living on the land, as the Gecarcini; others inhabiting sandy places near the sea, as the Horseman-Crabs, which run very fast, and form deep burrows ; others, also living in holes in similar situations, like the Gelasimi, hold up and snap their great disproportioned claw, appearing to beckon with one hand, and hence have been termed Calling-Crabs. The Hermit- Crabs are true pirates, seizing upon the shells of various mollusks, and using them as houses for them- selves, their abdomens being soft and spiral to adapt them to such a mode of life. The Ccenobitce, which live in wide-mouthed shells, have one claw very large to serve as an operculum ; but the Paguri, which inhabit shells with narrow mouths, have both claws equal. Another genus of this family has the abdomen hard, and lives in holes of the mountains; this, which is the Tree-Lobster (Birgus latro), ascends the Palms and devours the fruit, and is in MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 281 turn pursued by the Climbing-Perch (Anabas testu- dineus) ; thus we have both Crabs and Fishes climb- ing up terrestrial Palm-trees. Some Crustaceans attain a large size when compared with the Insect tribes, the Thorny-Lobster (Palinurus vulgaris) being sometimes nearly three feet in length. The common Lobster (A stacus gammarus) is an especial favourite among epicures, and is easily recognized by its enormous claws. The tribes of Crustacea change their skins or moult regularly, while among insects this takes place only in the larval state ; but in these animals, which continue to grow all their lives, the changing of their coats occurs at regular inter- vals. They have the singular power, moreover, of replacing a lost or mutilated limb by growing another, which reconciles them to parting with their legs when seized by their enemies. Some among them are enabled to leap about, like the Sand- hoppers ((7ammari ' / \ Infusona (pars), Rotatoria, Ehr. Systolides, Sieb.) 4 Ascidian-Polyps (Polyzoa, Thomp. Bryozoa, Ehr. Ciliobrachiata, Farre.) 5 Cavitary-Parasites ...(Coelmintha, Owen. Nematoidea, Entozoa (pars), l Vers-rigidules, Lam.) Polyps (Polypifera, Cfrant. Anthozoa, Ehr. Phytozoa, Brandt. Zoophyta, Gray.) 380 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 7 Class Parenckymatoits-Parasites (Sterelmintha, Owen. Vers-molasses, Lam. Entozoa (pars), Rud.) V. SUB-KINGDOM. ACRITE-ANIMALS. Radiata (pars), Flem. Ciyptoneura (pars), Rudol- phi. Animaux apathiques (pars), Lam. Cycloneura (pars), Grant. Acrita, Macleay. Oozoa, Cams. Protozoa, Oken. 1 Class Infusorial-Animalcules . (Infusoria (pars), Lin. Polygastrica, Ehr. Agastria, Blainv.) 2 Foraminifers (Foraminifera, D'Orb.) 8 Sponges (Spongia, Lin. Porifera, Grant. Amorphozoa, Blainv.} MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 381 PART II. PHYTOLOGY. THE NATURAL FAMILIES OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORGANIZATION. THE extreme importance of the Vegetable King- dom to mankind, the great beauty of some of its members, the graceful proportions, or the singular construction of others, have rendered it an object of engrossing attention from very remote times. As knowledge spread and civilization increased, the rude acquaintance possessed by early races with useful fruits and herbs, gradually increased into a special study for ancient sages and philosophers. Among the Greeks it was pursued by Hippocrates and Aristotle, by Theophrastus and Dioscorides, and in the western world it ranked among the scientific acquirements of the elder Pliny. Nor was it deemed unworthy of the attention of the wisest of men, for it is recorded in Sacred writ that Solo- mon, King of Israel, spoke of trees, from the cedar- tree upon Lebanon, unto the hyssop that sprung out of the wall. Nearer our own times it num- 382 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. bered among its cultivators the industrious Ges- ner, Turner, the father of English Botany, quaint old Gerard the herbalist, the philosophic Ray, the learned Tournefort, and finally it took a lasting stand on a fixed and sure basis under the presiding genius of the illustrious Scandinavian Linnaeus. Since his era it has occupied a high place among the natural sciences, having been further advanced by the labours of such men as Jussieu, Decandolle, and Smith ; while among those still living, it may not be invidious to mention the veteran Robert Brown, " Botanicorum facile princeps." Phytology, or the study of plants and their pro- ducts, embraces the consideration of the whole Ve- getable Kingdom, and treats of the distribution, the conformation, the properties, and the classification of trees, shrubs, and herbs, from the minute lichen, or simple floating weed, to the gracefully waving palm or lofty mountain pine. The latter of these, or classification, which will chiefly engage attention in the following pages, is founded mainly on exter- nal characters, although, more especially of late years, differences in internal structure are likewise taken into account. Omitting mention of earlier more primitive plans, the first division which ob- tained great reputation was the celebrated artificial arrangement of Linnseus, which, from its simplicity, and the comparative facility of its application, gained a wide-spread popularity. But, after a time, when its novelty had worn off, complaints began to be made of its limited nature, as in the absence of MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 383 the parts of fructification, the class or order of a plant could not be determined. Hence arose a cry for a natural classification, which, indicated by Ray, and acknowledged by Linnseus, was first given to the world in a detailed form by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, in 1 789. His system has since been variously modified by different writers, of whom the most recent is Lindley, whose views are here chiefly followed. We have restored to the " orders " of the last named writer, their original designation of families, while his " alliances " are our orders, as it only, we believe, tends to confuse when we find phytological and zoological groups of equal value differing in their mode of nomenclature. In other respects, however, we have adopted nearly through- out, the uniform system of termonology employed in the last edition of the " Vegetable Kingdom." Scarcely any branch can be more universally attended to by the travelling naturalist than that of Phytology. Wherever he bends his way he will almost certainly discover, in some form or another, vegetable existences. Water and land alike teem with herbaceous productions, the former being either marine or fresh-water. Among the latter will be found numerous aquatic species, both floating and submerged, while the scum on the surface of ponds and stagnant pools, will under the microscope, ex- hibit various primitive forms of vegetable life. On the sea-shores, and extending thence outwards to various depths, will be seen numerous varieties of marine Algce, and away from the land, often in the 38 4 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. midst of the ocean, floating masses of sea- weed are frequently met with, which are likewise at times the abodes of pelagic Crustaceans, and other animals. On terra-firma every country has its own peculiar plants, which vary from the luxuriant vegetation of the valleys, to the bleak and barren wilds of alpine regions, or from the thickly-set forests of the tropics to the frigid ice-clad rocks of arctic or antarctic climes. No country is yet known to be entirely destitute of herbage. Melville Island, Novaya Zem- lya, and Spitzbergen, in the far north, as well as Tierra del Fuego, and the lately-discovered lands of the extreme south, alike yield their contributions; even from Kerguelen's-land, that Isle of Desolation, a limited Flora has been compiled by the younger Hooker. Vegetables play a most important part in the economy of our globe. Not only do they yield abundant aliment for man and beast, for insect and worm, but also by absorbing carbon from the atmo- sphere they purify it and render it fit for respiration ; their ashes also, and other debris form the basis of a rich soil, which especially in new countries is of vast importance. Coals and other bituminous minerals, which are the fossilized remains of primeval forests, are too well known as most valuable agents in the hands of man, to be more than mentioned. In short, whether clothing the plain, adding beauty to the landscape, or magnificence to the mountain, whether charming the eye, or pleasing the imagina- tion, affording raiment, food, or medicine, or em- MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. 385 ployed in the arts or sciences, they equally point to the great first cause, whose omniscience renders all his works subservient to good, " Where order in variety we see, And where, though all things differ, all agree." CLASSIFICATION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. I. SUB-KINGDOM. FLOWERING-PLANTS. Phanerogamia, Lin. Yasculares, De Cand. Heteror- gana, Schultz. Sexuales Lindl. 1 Class Exoyens 2 3 4 Endogens ..(Anthophytse, OTcen. Dichorgana, Schultz. Phylloblastse, Reichen. Synechophyta, Schleid. Exogense, Lindl.) . (Synorhizse, Rich.' Gymnospermse, Gymnogense, Lindl) .(Endorhizeae, Rich. Synorgana, Schultz. Teleophyta, Schleid. Endogense, Lindl.) .(Ehizanthese, Blum. Acrobrya (pars), Endl. Evasculares, \ Sporogense, I Lindl.) Ehizogense, ) <1 * CO I H 386 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. II. SUB-KINGDOM. FLOWERLESS-PLANTS. Cryptogamia, Lin. Acotyledones, Juss. Cellu- lares, De Gand. Homorgana, Sckultz. Esexuales, LindL 1 Class Acrogens (Pseudocotyledonese, Agardh. Heteronemea, Fries. Hysterophyta^ 1 ^ Acrobrya (partim), ) Connogense, Lindl. Acrogense, Brongn.} 2 Thallogens (Acotyledoneee, Agardh. Homonomea, Fries. Cryptophyta, Link. Thallo P hyta, ) ^^ Protophyta, ) Amphigense, Brongn. Thallogenae, Lindl.} FLO WERING-PLANTS. Among Vegetables, Sub-kingdoms cannot be defined or limited with the same precision and ac- curacy as among animals, for the nervous system, of which the different modes of distribution serves so well as the basis of primary divisions in the lat- ter, is totally wanting in the other, nor do they possess any other tissue which can adequately sup- ply its place. Some systematical writers, indeed, discard the separation into Sub-kingdoms altogether, and proceed at once to Classes, Sub-classes, and Orders. But without laying too much stress on such divisions, they seem to be naturally indicated, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 387 and are found useful for purposes of study, and ac- cordingly two such have been established, which are determined by the presence or absence of flowers, and of distinct organs of fructification. The first of these, variously named the Flowering, Sexual, or Phanerogamic, is the highest in the scale, and contains all the more important species. As a gene- ral rule, its members attain a much larger size, and are in all respects more fully developed. They pos- sess vascular as well as cellular tissue, or, as these are technically expressed, " parenchyma/" and " an- gienchyma ;" they all have distinct sexual organs, either in the same or in different individuals, that is to say, they are either hermaphrodite or unisexual ; and finally they are propagated by seeds. They compose nearly six-sevenths of the total number of genera and species at present known, the compara- tive proportion being greatest within the tropics, and diminishing towards the poles. Flowers have been arranged according to their colour in three series, viz., white, xanthic, and cya- nic, the first including all the pale coloured kinds, the second comprehending the yellows and scarlets, and the third comprising the blue and the pur- ple varieties. The white abound more in northern situations and alpine regions, the xanthic are more common in the tropics, especially during the autumn, while the cyanic flourish in the congenial climates, and under the clear blue skies of warmer parts of temperate latitudes. Almost all the vegetable products employed by s 2 388 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. man are yielded by this Sub-kingdom, which like- wise affords abundant food for the lower animals, comprehending trees of all kinds, as the Oaks, the Sycamores, the Beeches, the Pines of temperate climes, also the Baobabs, the Palms, the Cycads of the tropics, all fruit-producing species, culinary, and other edible herbs, the tea, coffee, and cocoa plants, the sugar-cane, the cereal grains, and all grasses, and in fine, almost all plants yielding drugs, gums, resins, or other economical agents. 1. SUB-KINGDOM. FLOWERING-PLANTS (Phanerogamid). Flowers (variously modified) present ; fructifica- tion mostly springing from a stem; reproductive organs distinct ; propagate by seeds ; sexes in the same or in different individuals. EXOGENS. Exogenous plants constitute the most numerous class, not only of the Phanerogamia, but of the whole Vegetable Kingdom, comprising upwards of six thousand genera, and not fewer than sixty-six thousand species. They are in all respects the most advanced forms of vegetable life, their organiza- tion being more complex, their vitality more in- tense, and their powers of endurance and length of life more extended. They derive their name from the manner in which the woody tissue is formed, new matter being annually added from MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 389 without, which from year to year gives the look of a series of concentric rings in a transverse section of the trunk. The centre is occupied by a lighter tis- sue, named "pith/" while the exterior is covered with bark, which is renewed annually by fresh matter from within, or on that surface which is in contact with the true wood. The appearance of a cross section of a stem presents, as just mentioned, concentric rings, varying in number according to the age of the individual, which are again crossed at right angles, by lines radiating from the centre. To this, however, there are many exceptions ; in some the radii are wanting, in others there is but a single ring, or there may be irregular layers of cel- lular tissue between the woody zones. These have been proposed by Lindley to be placed in a separate class, to which the name of " Homogens " has been assigned, but this idea, though apparently founded on sound principles, has not yet been worked out. Exogens were by De Candolle styled Dicotyledones, from the seed being composed of two cotyledons. The different parts of the flower are generally either five or some multiple of that number ; occasionally, however, four is the primary number, and in some rare cases three. Various methods have been proposed for arrang- ing this class. Some adopt as the basis of their division the existence or non-existence of distinct floral envelopes, the former being divided into monopetalous and polypetalous. Slightly differ- ing from this is the plan of De Candolle, who 390 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. named his divisions Thalamiflorce, Calyciflorce, Gorolliflorce, and Monochlamydece. In the suc- ceeding pages we shall employ a slight modification of the scheme offered by the learned author of the "Vegetable Kingdom/' who, considering that the parts of fructification are the most important floral organs, has founded his classification on their dis- tribution and relative situation, and accordingly has established four sub-classes, viz., Diclinous, Hypogynous, Perigynous, and Epigynous Exogens. But we consider that the last three, not being equiva- lent in value to the first, must be rejected as sub- classes, and continued merely as inferior divisions. The great distinction among Exogens, being the Hermaphrodite or Unisexual nature of the flowers, indicates two primary sections, the one Diclinous, and the other Monoclinous or bisexual. The latter may be satisfactorily arranged according to the position of the stamens into Hypogynous, Perigy- nous, and Epigynous alliances, which principle might possibly be extended to the other sub-class. Ar- ranged therefore in a diagram they appear, thus, in descending series. 1. Sub-class Bisexual Exogens Monoclinese. 1. Hypogynese. 2. Perigyneae. 3. Epigynese. 2. Unisexual Exogens Diclineae. I. CLASS EXOGENS (Exogeme). A cellular and a vascular system ; stems with MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 391 wood and true bark ; wood arranged in concentric circles, augmented by growth from without, the hardest parts being internal ; bark separable ; epidermis furnished with stomata ; leaves reticulated, usually articulated to stem ; type of fructification quinary or quatenary ; embryo dicotyledonous ; ger- mination exorhizal. I. SUB-GLASS. BISEXUAL-EXOGENS (Monoclines). Male and female organs of reproduction on the same flower. I. ALLIANCE. EPIGYNOUS-EXOGENS (Epigyneae). Flowers commonly hermaphrodite ; stamens grow- ing to the side of either the calyx or corolla ; ovary inferior or nearly so. I. ORDER ASARALS (Asarales). Flowers monochlamydeous ; embryo small, lying in a large quantity of albumen. 1. FAMILY. Birthworts (Aristolochiacese). Herbs or shrubs, often climbing ; wood without concentric zones ; leaves alternate, simple, stalked ; flowers solitary, axillary, of a dull colour; stamens 6-12; ovary 8-6-celled ; ovules 00 ; fruit dry or succulent. Abound in warm parts of South America, rare in North America, Europe, Siberia and India; yield Asarabacca and Virginian Snake-root. 2. FAMILY. Mistletoes (Loranthacese). Shrubs, 392 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. usually parasitic; leaves opposite or alter- nate, veinless, fleshy, exstipulate ; flowers often showy, axillary or terminal; calyx often bracteated ; petals ; ovary unilocular ; ovules definite, nucleus naked ; fruit succulent. Common in equinoctial Asia, and America, rare in Africa, Europe, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Australia. The celebrated mistletoe of the Druids (Viscum album) be- longs to this family. 3. FAMILY. Sandal- Woods (Santalacese). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; leaves exstipulate ; flowers mostly in spikes ; perianth 4-5-cleft ; ovary coherent, 1 -celled; ovules definite,' nucleus coated ; fruit 1 -celled, drupaceous ; seed solitary. Occur as shrubs in Europe, and North America, and as shrubs or small trees in the East Indies, Australia, and Polynesia. Yield Sandal-wood, Oil-nuts, &c. II. OKDER UMBELLALS (Umbellales). Flowers polypetalous, dichlamydeous ; seeds large, solitary; embryo small, in a large quantity of al- bumen. 1. FAMILY. Bruniads (Bruniacese). Shrubs, branched, heath-like; leaves alternate, small, imbricated, entire, exstipulate ; flowers small, often capitate; petals alternate with seg- ments of calyx ; stamens alternate with pe- tals ; anthers turned outwards, 2-celled, dehiscence longitudinal ; fruit 2 or 1-celled, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 393 dicoccous or indehiscent. Natives of the Cape of Good Hope. 2. FAMILY. Witch - Hazels (Hamamelidaceae). Shrubs or small trees ; leaves alternate, feather-veined, stipulate ; flowers small, some- times unisexual; corolla imbricated; anthers turned inwards, 2-celled, with deciduous valves ; fruit capsular, 2-celled, dehiscence loculicidal; seeds pendulous. Occur in North America, Japan, China, Central Asia, Mada- gascar, and Southern Africa. 3. FAMILY. Dogwoods (Cornacese). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; leaves mostly opposite, exstipulate ; flowers capitate, umbellate, or corymbose ; co- rolla valvate ; sepals, petals, and stamens four ; anthers 2-celled ; fruit drupaceous, berried, 2-celled, crowned by limb of calyx ; seed pendulous, solitary. Found in temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and America. 4. FAMILY. Ivy-Worts (Araliacese). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers umbellate or capitate, pentamerous ; corolla valvate ; anthers turned inwards, dehiscence longitudinal ; ovary inferior, 2 or more celled ; fruit mostly succulent, 2-15- celled ; seeds pendulous. Occur both in tro- pical and in cold climes. Among its mem- bers are the common Ivy and other species of Hedera. The Ginseng root of the Chinese is yielded by a species of Panax. 5. FAMILY. Umbellifers (Apiacese). Herbs, often 3 5 394 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. milky ; stems solid or fistular ; leaves mostly alternate, variously divided ; flowers umbel- late, involucrate, white, pink, yellow, or blue ; calyx superior, 5-toothed ; petals and stamens five ; ovary inferior, 2-celled ; ovules pendulous, crowned by a double fleshy disk ; fruit a cremocarp, consisting of two carpels adherent by their face to a common axis ; seed pendulous, usually firmly adherent to pericarp. From its vast extent, amounting to 267 genera, and about 1500 species, it has been subdivided as follows : 1. SUB-FAMILY. Orihospermce. Albumen flat on the inner face, neither involute, nor convolute. 2. SUB-FAMILY. Campylospermce. Albumen curved at the margins. 3. SUB-FAMILY. Ccelospermce. Albumen cur- ved at the ends. The species are also arranged according to their properties into 1, harmless ; 2, those affording a gum-resin ; 3, those yielding a volatile oil ; and 4, the poisonous. Among the first are the Carrot (Daucus), Parsnip (Pastinaca), Celery (Apium), Parsley (Petroselinum), Fennel (Fceniculum), An- gelica (Archangelica), Samphire (Crithmum), and Etrth-Nut (Bunium). The second divison affords many medicinal agents, as the Assafoetida (Narthex), Ammoniac (Dorema), Opoponax (Pastinaca), Gal- banum (Opoidia), and Sagapenum, derived from a species of Ferula. The third also yields numerous MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 395 important substances, as Anise (Pimpinella), Cara- way (Carum), Coriander (Coriandrum), Cumin (Cuminum), and Dill (Anethum). Among the dangerous individuals of the last division may be noted Hemlock (Gonium), Water-Hemlock (Cicuta), Fools-Parsley (jEthusa), and the species of CEnan- the. The distribution of this family, which is the Umbelliferce of authors, is widely extended. III. ORDER CINCHONALS (Cinchonales). Flowers dichlamydeous, monopetalous ; embryo minute, in a large quantity of albumen. 1. FAMILY. Madders (Rubiacese). Herbs, stems square ; leaves whorled, exstipulate ; flowers minute ; corolla 4-6-lobed ; stamens epi- petalous; anthers bursting longitudinally; fruit didymous ; cotyledons leafy. Natives of the Northern Hemisphere, also of moun- tainous parts of Peru, Chili, and Australasia. Madder is the product of the root of several species of Rubia. (Galiacece. Lindley.) 2. FAMILY. Honeysuckles (Caprifoliacese). Shrubs or herbs ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; flowers corymbose, often sweet scented ; calyx 4-5- clefb ; corolla lobed ; stamens epicorolline ; an- thers bursting longitudinally ; fruit fleshy or dry, in dehiscent. Contains two Sub-families, viz., 1, the Lonicerece or Honeysuckles pro- per, with a raphe on inner side of ovule, and 2, the Sambucece or Elders, with a raphe on outer side of ovule. Occur principally in 396 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, also sparingly in Northern Africa. Contains Honeysuckle, Elder, Gueldres-Rose, and the beautiful Linncea borealis. 3. FAMILY. Peruvian-Barks (Cinchonaceae). Trees, shrubs, or herbs; stems rounded; leaves simple, opposite or verticillate, with inter- petiolar stipules ; flowers usually in panicles or corymbs ; calyx adherent ; corolla tubular, lobed; stamens epipetalous ; anthers straight, bursting longitudinally ; ovary crowned with a disk ; fruit 2 or many celled, dry or succulent, indehiscent, or splitting into two mericarps ; cotyledons thin. A most im- portant family, yielding the various " Barks " of commerce and their products Quina, and Cinchonia, also Ipecacuan, Coffee, a variety of Catechu, &c. Divided into two Sub- families, which are, 1, the Coffece, with one or two seeds in each cell of the ovary, and 2, the Cinchonece with a many-seeded ovary. Live almost entirely in tropical regions. 4 FAMILY. Columelliads (Columelliacese). Ever- green shrubs, or trees ; leaves opposite, ex- stipulate ; flowers unsymmetrical, yellow, terminal ; calyx 5-parted ; corolla rotate, 5-8- parted ; stamens two, epipetalous ; anthers sinuous, bursting longitudinally ; fruit cap- sular, bilocular ; cotyledons oval, obtuse. Na- tives of Mexico and Peru. 5. FAMILY. Cranberries (Vacciniaceae). Shrubby MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 397 plants, frequently evergreen, occasionally epiphytic ; leaves alternate, undivided, ex- stipulate ; flowers solitary or racemose ; ca- lyx and corolla usually 4-6-lobed ; stamens 8-12, distinct ; anthers opening by pores ; fruit succulent ; cotyledons very short. Found in temperate regions, often in marshy places. Yield Bilberries, Cranberries, Whortleberries, &c. IY. ORDER. GKOSSALS (Grossales). Flowers dichlamydeous, polypetalous ; seeds nu- merous, minute ; embryo small, in a large quantity of albumen. 1. FAMILY. Barringtoniads (Barringtoniaceae). Trees or shrubs; leaves opposite or verti- cillate, not dotted ; sepals and petals 4-5 ; stamens 00, mostly monadelphous ; anthers oblong ; ovary 2-5-celled ; placentas axile ; fruit fleshy, 1 -celled. Tropical plants in both hemispheres, some found in low, moist situa- tions. 2. FAMILY. Syringas (Philadelphaceae). Shrubs; leaves deciduous, opposite, exstipulate, with- out dots ; flowers white or pink, in tricho- tomous cymes ; calyx valvate ; stamens 00 ; styles distinct, or united into one ; placentae axile; fruit capsular. Occur in Southern Europe, North America, India, and Japan. 3. FAMILY. Escalloniads (Escalloniaceae). Shrubs; evergreen; leaves alternate, simple, resin- 398 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. ously glandular, exstipulate; calyx im- bricated ; petals and stamens five ; ovary 2-5-celled ; style simple ; placentae axile ; fruit capsular ; albumen oily. Occur chiefly in temperate parts of South America, but reach as far as the Straights of Magellan ; found also in Bourbon, South Australia, and New Zealand. 4. FAMILY. Currants (Grossulariacese). Shrubs ; unarmed or spiny; leaves alternate, lobed; vernation plicate ; flowers in axillary racemes; calyx 4~5-cleft ; petals five, perigynous ; stamens 4-5 ; ovary unilocular ; placentae parietal ; fruit a 1 -celled berry, crowned with the remains of the flower. Live in temperate regions in Europe, Asia, and America; unknown in Africa. Yield various edible fruits, as the Gooseberry and the varieties of the Currant. V. ORDER CACTALS (Cactales). Flowers dichlamydeous, polypetalous ; placentae parietal ; embryo with little or no albumen. L FAMILY. Indian - Figs (Cactacese). Shrubs; succulent ; woody matter often arranged in wedges ; stems mostly angular or flattened ; leaves usually wanting, when present, fleshy, smooth, entire, or spinous ; flowers sessile, showy or minute; sepals and petals numer- ous, undistinguishable ; stamens 00 ; anthers MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 399 ovate, versatile ; ovary fleshy, unilocular ; styles confluent ; ovules 00, horizontal ; fruit succulent, 1 -celled, smooth, scaly or tuber- cular ; albumen none. Natives of dry, hot, and exposed situations; almost exclusively American, though numerous species have been introduced into the Eastern Hemisphere. Many produce an edible fruit, which is often refreshing, as the Barbadoes-Gooseberry, and the Prickly-Pear. The principal food of the Cochineal-Insect is obtained from plants of this family, but especially from the Opuntia cochinellifera. 2. FAMILY. Chili-Nettles (Loasacese). Herbaceous; hispid, with stinging hairs ; leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate ; peduncles axillary, 1 -flowered ; calyx 4~5-parted ; petals five ; stamens 00, distinct or polyadelphous ; ovules confluent, pendulous ; fruit capsular or succulent. American plants. Occurring in temperate and tropical regions ; distinguished on account of their stinging properties. 3. FAMILY. Homaliads (Homaliacese). Trees or shrubs; leaves alternate ; stipules deciduous; flowers in spikes, racemes, or panicles; calyx funnel-shaped, 5-1 5 -divided ; petals 5-15 ; stamens opposite petals ; styles 3-5, separate; ovules pendulous ; fruit baccate or capsular. Tropical plants, chiefly African, or Indian ; a few are found in the West Indies and South America. 400 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. VI. ORDER MYKTALS (Myrtales). Flowers dichlamydeous, polypetalous ; placentae axile ; embryo with little or no albumen. 1. FAMILY. Brazil-Nuts (Lecythidaceae). Large trees ; leaves alternate, not dotted ; flowers showy, terminal, solitary, or racemose; calyx valvate or imbricate ; petals 6 ; stamens mona- delphous ; anthers oblong ; ovary plurilo- cular; fruit a woody capsule, either re- maining closed or opening by a lid. Found in Guiana and other hot parts of South America. Yield Brazil-Nuts. 2. FAMILY. Myrtle-blooms (Myrtacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves opposite or alternate, entire, usually dotted, and often with an intrumar- ginal line ; inflorescence variable ; flowers red, white or yellow, never blue ; calyx val- vate, 4-5-cleft ; petals 4-5 ; stamens usually 00 ; anthers oblong, 2-celled ; ovary pluri- locular ; fruit dry or fleshy. Natives of hot countries, both intratropical and extratro- pical. Among the members of this family are the huge Eucalypti of New Holland, one of which produces "Botany-Bay Kino/' the Guava-tree, and the Pomegranate, and among the products are Cloves, Pimento, and Caje- put-OiL 3. FAMILY. Melastomads (Melastomacese). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; leaves opposite, undivided, usually S 9-ribbed, dotless ; flowers terminal ; calyx imbricated, 4-6-lobed ; petals 4-6 ; sta- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 401 mens definite ; anthers rostrate ; ovary pluri- locular; fruit dry or succulent; seeds very numerous. Chiefly tropical plants, some occur in North India, China, Australia, and the United States. The succulent fruit of some species is edible ; that of Melastoma dyes the mouth black, whence the name. 4. FAMILY. Napoleon- Wort s(Belvisiacese). Shrubs; wood soft, whitish ; leaves alternate, coriace- ous, exstipulate ; flowers axillary, in sets of threes ; calyx gamosepalous ; corolla in three monopetalous rings ; stamens indefinite, monadelphous ; ovary plurilocular ; fruit a large, soft, spherical berry ; seeds large, kid- ney-shaped. The two curious genera which, at present, compose this family are from tro- pical Africa. 5. FAMILY. Mangroves (Rhizophoracese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves opposite, simple, occasionally dotted ; stipules deciduous, interpetiolary ; peduncles axillary or terminal; calyx valvate, 4-12-lobed; petals 4-12 ; stamens indefinite; ovary 2, 3, 4-celled ; fruit indehiscent, ad- herent to, and crowned by the calyx ; seed pendulous ; cotyledon flat ; radicle long, piercing the fruit. Occur on muddy shores in the tropics, where they form close thickets. 6. FAMILY. Evening - Primroses (Onagracese). Herbs or shrubs ; leaves alternate or opposite, simple, not dotted; flowers axillary or ter- minal, variously coloured ; calyx valvate, 402 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. tubular ; petals usually four ; stamens mostly four or eight ; ovary 2 4-celled ; ovules hori- zontal or ascending ; fruit baccate or capsular ; cotyledons flat, larger than the radicle. Na- tives of temperate regions, chiefly American. Some as various species of Fuchsia, yielding edible fruit, others, as the Water-Chesnut (Trapa natans), edible seeds. 7. FAMILY. Mares' -Tails (Haloragaceae). Herbs or under-shrubs, often aquatic ; leaves alter- nate, opposite, or whorled ; flowers axil- lary, mostly sessile, occasionally apetalous ; calyx open, minute; stamens definite; ovary plurilocular, adherent to calyx; ovules pen- dulous ; fruit dry, indehiscent ; cotyledons minute. Distribution pretty general in damp places. 8. FAMILY. Fringe- Myrtles (Cbamselauciacese). Shrubs, heath-like ; abound in glandular oily cysts ; leaves evergreen, acerose, flat, opposite, dotted ; flowers racemose or corym- bose, yellow, red, violet or white ; calyx adherent to ovary; ovary 1 -celled; fruit a dry indehiscent pericarp ; embryo homo- geneous. Natives of New Holland. 9. FAMILY. Alangiads (Alangiaceee). Trees or shrubs; branches often spiny; leaves alter- nate, exstipulate, dotless ; flowers fascicled, axillary ; calyx campanulate ; petals 5-10 ; anthers introrse ; ovary globose, 1-2-celled ; ovules pendulous ; fruit oval, fleshy ; cotyle- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY 403 dons flat. Natives of Southern India; one genus (Nyssa) occurs in the United States. 10. FAMILY. Myrobalans (Combretacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate or opposite, entire, dotless; calyx adherent; anthers bursting longitudinally ; ovary 1 -celled ; fruit dru- paceous, baccate or nut-like; seeds pendulous; cotyledons convolute or plicate. Natives of tropical Asia, Africa, and America 11. FAMILY. Illigerads (Illigeracese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves opposite or alternate, ex- stipulate ; calyx adherent ; corolla wanting ; anthers dehiscing by recurved valves ; ovary 1 -celled ; fruit unilocular, indehiscent ; coty- ledons convolute. Occur in inter-tropical regions. VII. ORDER. CAMPANALS (Campanales). Flowers dichlamydeous, monopetalous ; embryo with little or no albumen. 1. FAMILY. Composites (Asteracese). Herbaceous, shrubby, or occasionally arborescent ; leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate, simple, but often much divided ; flowers, named " florets," unisexual or hermaphrodite, collected in dense heads upon a common receptacle, and surrounded by bracts in the form of an invo- lucre ; corolla gamopetalous, ligulate, tubular, or bilabiate, aestivation valvate ; anther^ syngenesious ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovule erect ; 404 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. fruit an achsenium; seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous. One of the largest of the natural families of plants ; divided by Be Candolle into 1 Tubuliflorce, 2 Labiatiflorce, and 3 Liguliflorce ; arrayed by Jussieu into the following Sub-families, viz. : 1. Cynarocephalce. Florets all tubular ; invo- lucre hard, conical, often spiny, 2. Corymbiferce. Florets tubular in the centre, ligulate in the circumference ; involucre hemispherical, leafy or scaly, seldom spiny. 3. Cichoracece. Florets all ligulate. To which has been subsequently added, 4. Bilabiatce. Florets divided into two lips. Of these, the first two correspond to the Tubuli- florce, the third to the Liguliflorce, and the fourth to the Labiatiflorce. The distribution of composite plants is very general, but does not follow any very fixed law ; in northern climates they are shrubs, but in warmer regions they are herbaceous, or even arborescent. Cichoracece are more abundant in cold climes, while Corymbiferce prefer warm countries ; the Bilabiatce are mostly American. Among the plants, &c., employed by man from this family are Wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium), Southern- wood (A. Abrotanum), Moxa (A. Moxa), Tansy (Tanacetum vulgar e), Milfoil (Achillea millefolia), Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis), Feverfew (Pyreth- rum parthenium), Pellitory of Spain (Anacyclus Pyrethrum), Leopard VBane (Arnica montana), Elecampane (InulaHelenium), Jerusalem-Artichoke MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 405 (Helianihus tuber osus), Burdock (Arctium Lappa), Blessed-Thistle (Cnicus benedictus), Safflower (Car- thamus tinctorius), Artichoke (Cynara Scolymus), Chicory (Cichorium Intybus), Endive (G. Endivia), Dandelion (Taraxacum Dens-leonis), Common-Let- tuce (Lactuca sativa), Wild-Lettuce (L. virosa) Scorzonera (Scorzonera Hispanica). (Compositce, De Candolle.) 2. FAMILY. Galycers (Calyceracese). Herbs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate; flowers sessile, capi- tate, surrounded by an involucre ; corolla regular, valvate, infundibuliform ; anthers syngenesious ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovule pendu- lous ; fruit an achsenium ; seeds albuminous. Natives of South America, especially Chili. 3. FAMILY. Teazels (Dipsacacese). Herbs or under- shrubs; leaves opposite or verticillate; flowers capitate or verticillate, surrounded by a many-leaved involucre ; corolla gamopetalous, tubular ; aestivation imbricate ; anthers free ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovule pendulous ; fruit dry, indehiscent ; seeds albuminous. Occur in the South of Europe, the Levant, Barbary, and at the Cape of Good Hope. 4. FAMILY. Valerians (Yalerianacese). Herbs, an- nual or perennial, usually strong-scented; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; inflorescence cymose ; corolla imbricate ; anthers free ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovule pendulous ; fruit dry, indehiscent, with one fertile, and two abortive cells ; seed exalbuminous. Natives of tern- 406 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. perate regions. The root of the Common- Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) is employed medicinally. 5. FAMILY. Style-Worts (Stylidiacese) Herbs or under-shrubs, non-lactescent ; leaves alter- nate, scattered, or somewhat verticillate, exstipulate; flowers in spikes, racemes or corymbs, or solitary and terminal, rarely axillary ; corolla gamopetalous ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens two ; filaments and style united into a column, which is very irritable ; anthers didymous ; ovary 2 or more celled ; fruit a capsule, with 2 valves and 2 cells ; seeds albuminous. Principally inhabit Aus- tralian marshes, but occur also in India, the South of New Zealand, and along the Straits of Magellan. 6. FAMILY. Goodeniads (Goodeniacese). Herbs, rarely shrubs, non-lactescent; leaves scat- tered, exstipulate, usually alternate ; flowers distinct, never capitate, yellow, blue, or pink ; corolla induplicate ; stamens five ; anthers syngenesious or free ; stigma surrounded by a cup-like indusium ; ovary 2 or more celled ; fruit capsular, drupaceous or nut-like ; seeds albuminous. Natives of Australasia and Polynesia, 7. FAMILY. Lobelias (Lobeliacese). Herbs or shrubs, lactescent ; leaves alternate, exstipu- late ; flowers axillary or terminal ; corolla gamopetalous ; aestivation valvate, irregular ; MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 407 anthers syngenesious ; stigma surrounded by a fringe of hairs; ovary 1-3-celled; fruit capsular, dehiscing at the apex; seeds nu- merous, albuminous. Found in the West Indies, Brazil, Chili, on the Himmalayas, at the Cape of Good Hope, in the Sandwich- Islands, and Australia. Some species of Lobelia are medicinal. The plants are ge- nerally acrid. 8. FAMILY. Bell-Flowers (Campanulacese). Herbs or under-shrubs, lactescent ; leaves mostly alternate, exstipulate ; flowers in racemes, spikes, or panicles, or in heads, usually blue or white ; corolla monopetalous ; aestivation valvate ; anthers free or half united ; stigma naked ; ovary 2 or more celled ; fruit cap- sular; seeds albuminous. Occur in the North of Europe, Asia, and America, also in the Canaries, St. Helena, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Juan Fernandez. II. ALLIANCE. PEKIGYNOUS-EXOGENS (Perigynese). Flowers commonly hermaphrodite ; stamens grow- ing to the side of either the calyx or corolla ; ovary superior, or nearly so. I. ORDER BIGNONIALS (Bignoniales). Flowers dichlamydeous, monopetalous, unsym- metrical; fruit capsular or berried, carpels con- solidated ; placentae parietal, free, central, or axile ; embryo with little or no albumen. 408 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1. FAMILY. #u#er-TF(??is(Lentibulariacese). Herbs, aquatic or marshy; leaves radical, sometimes compound, bearing little vesicles ; flowers single, in spikes, or in many-flowered ra- cemes; corolla bilabiate; stamens two; ovary composed of two carpellary leaves ; fruit capsular, dehiscence transverse or apicilar; placentae free, central ; seeds minute, exalbu- minous; cotyledons much smaller than the radicle. Distribution very general, especially abundant within the tropics. 2. FAMILY. Fig-Worts (Scrophulariaceae). Herbs, under-shrubs, or shrubs ; leaves opposite, whorled, or alternate ; flowers mostly axillary or racemose ; corolla bilabiate or personate ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens usually four ; ovary free, 2-celled ; placentas axile ; fruit capsular, rarely fleshy ; seeds albuminous ; cotyledons scarcely larger, or not so large as the radicle. Found in most parts of the world, one species occurs in Melville Island, and several in Tierra del Fuego. Several members of this family have been used in medicine, as Great -Mullein ( Verbascum Thapsus), Knotted-Figwort (Scrophularia nodosct), and especially Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). 3. FAMILY. Acanths (Acanthaceae). Herbs or shrubs ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; in- florescence terminal or axillary; flowers bracteated; stamens 2-4; ovary free, 2-celled; MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 409 placentae axile ; fruit capsular, 2-celled, de- hiscence loculicidal, by two elastic valves ; seeds wingless, exalbuminous, attached to hard, persistent, placental processes; cotyle- dons large, fleshy. Almost entirely a tropical family ; one species occurs in Greece, and a few in the United States. 4. FAMILY. Trumpet - Flowers (Bignoniaceae). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; leaves mostly op- posite, exstipulate ; inflorescence terminal ; calyx sometimes spathaceous ; corolla usually irregular ; stamens five ; ovary 1 -2-celled ; placentae axile ; fruit capsular, 2-celled, 2- valved ; seeds winged, sessile, exalbuminous ; cotyledons large, leafy. Abound in tropical countries, but occur in America, from Penn- sylvania to Chili. 5. FAMILY. Crescentiads (Crescentiacese). Small trees; leaves alternate or clustered, exstipu- late ; flowers growing out of the old stems or branches ; corolla irregular ; aestivation imbricate; stamens four; ovary free; stigma of two lobes ; fruit woody, melon-shaped, succulent, containing numerous large seeds immersed in the pulp of the placentae ; em- bryo exalbuminous; radicle short. Natives of tropical Asia, Africa, and America,. especially abundant in Madagascar and the Mauritius. 6. FAMILY. Gesner-Worts (Gesneraceae). Herbs or shrubs, soft wooded, often springing from scaly tubers ; leaves opposite or whorled, 410 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. rugose, exstipulate ; flowers showy, in ra- cemes or panicles ; corolla tubular, irregular ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens 2-4 ; ovary partly free ; placentae parietal ; fruit capsular or baccate, 1 -celled ; seeds very numerous ; cotyledons minute, radicle long. Occur in tropical countries, but also in Europe, at the Cape of Good Hope, in New Holland, and the Sandwich Islands. 7. FAMILY. PecZa?mcfe(Pedaliacese). Herbs, covered with glandular hairs ; leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate ; flowers usually large, axillary, solitary or clustered ; corolla ir- regular, aestivation valvate ; stamens didyna- mous ; ovary 1 -celled ; placentae parietal ; fruit drupaceous or capsular ; seeds wingless, exalbuminous ; embryo amygdaloid ; radicle short. Distribution general throughout the tropics, but especially in Africa. II. OKDER ECHIALS (EcMales). Flowers dichlamydeous, monopetalous, symme- trical or non-symmetrical; fruit nucamentaceous, consisting of 1 -seeded nuts, or of clusters of them separate or separable ; embryo large, with little or no albumen. I. SUB-ORDER. UNSYMMETEICAL-ECHIALS (Lamianse). Flowers irregular, unsymmetrical. 1. FAMILY. Selagids (Selaginaceae). Herbs or small branched shrubs ; leaves alternate, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOKY. 411 exstipulate ; flowers sessile, bracteate ; calyx spathaceous or tubular ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens four ; anthers 1 -celled ; ovules pen- dulous ; fruit confluent nuts, 2-celled ; seed solitary, pendulous ; radicle superior. Princi- pally natives of the Cape of Good Hope ; one species is found in Siberia, and a few occur in the South of Europe. 2. FAMILY. White -Mangroves (Myoporacese), Shrubs, scarcely pubescent ; leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate, simple ; flowers axillary ; stamens four ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 2-4-celled; ovules pendulous; fruit drupaceous ; seeds pendulous ; radicle su- perior. Occur in the Southern tropical regions of Africa and America, also in Australia, Van Diemen's Land, and New Zealand 5. FAMILY. Vervains (Verbenacese). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; leaves mostly opposite, exstipulate ; flowers usually in opposite corymbs, or alter- nate spikes ; calyx and corolla tubular ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens four; ovary 2- 4-celled; ovules erect; fruit nucamentaceous, sometimes berried ; radicle inferior. Common in tropical and temperate America. Occur also in Europe, and Asia. The most im- portant species is the East Indian Teak (Tec- tona grandis). 4 FAMILY.- M ints (Lamiacese). Herbs or under- shrubs ; stem tetragonal ; leaves opposite, exstipulate, with receptacles of aromatic oil ; T 2 412 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. inflorescence cymose, flowers often in verti- cillasters; corolla bilabiate, the upper lip entire or bifid, lower layer, 3-lobed ; stamens four; ovary free, deeply 4-lobed; ovules four; stigma bifid ; fruit 1 to 4 small achasnia, enclosed within the persistent calyx ; seeds erect ; cotyledons flat ; radicle inferior. Na- tives chiefly of temperate countries. Among the more important species, are Peppermint (Meniha piperita), Spearmint (M. viridis), Pennyroyal (M. Pulegium), Lavender (La- vandula vera), Rosemary (Rosmarinus offici- nalis), Wild-Marjoram (Origanum vulgare), Sweet-Marjoram (Melissa officinalis), White- Horehound (Marrubium vulgare), Sage (Salvia officinalis, S. grandiflora), Thyme (Thymus), and Kretan-Dittany (Origanum Dictammus). (Labiatce, Jussieu.) II. SUB-ORDER. SYMMETRICAL-ECHIALS (Boraginanse). Flowers regular, symmetrical 5. FAMILY. Brunoniads (Brunoniaceae). Herbs, stemless, with simple glandless hairs ; leaves radical, exstipulate ; flowers capitate, on scapes, surrounded by an involucre of en- larged bracts, blue ; calyx free ; "corolla almost regular ; aestivation valvate ; stamens five ; stigma enclosed in an indusium ; fruit a membranous utricle ; seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous ; radicle inferior. Australian species. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 413 6. FAMILY. Borages (Boraginacese). Herbs or shrubs; stems round; leaves alternate, rough, exstipulate ; flowers usually in gyrate cymes ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens five ; ovary usually 4-lobed ; ovules four ; stigma naked, simple or bifid; fruit 2 or 4 distinct nuts; radicle superior. Natives of northern tem- perate regions. Alkanet, the root ofAnchusa tinctoria, is used by dyers. 7. FAINTLY. Nolanads (Nolanacese). Herbaceous or suffruticose, prostrate or erect; leaves alter- nate, exstipulate ; inflorescence straight \ flowers usually showy ; calyx 5-parted, aestivation valvate ; corolla with aestivation plicate ; stamens five ; stigma naked, some- what capitate ; fruit five or more nuts, distinct or partly confluent ; pericarp woody, often a little succulent ; embryo curved. A small family, almost entirely Chilian. 8. FAMILY. Ehretiads (Ehretiaceae). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; pubescence harsh ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers gyrate ; aestivation im- bricated ; stamens five ; ovary quadrilocular, concrete ; style terminal ; fruit drupaceous ; seeds usually albuminous. Occur principally in South America. 9. FAMILY. Heliotropes (Heliotropiaceae). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; leaves alternate, simple, ex- stipulate ; inflorescence circinnate ; stamens five ; stigma naked ; style terminal ; ovary entire or 2-lobed ; fruit dry, separable into 414 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. four achasnia ; seeds exalbuminous. Found in the South of Europe, and in tropical regions. 10. FAMILY. Sacred -Mustards (Salvadoracese). Small trees or shrubs ; stem slightly tumid at the articulations ; leaves opposite, leathery ; flowers minute, in loose panicles ; calyx 4- leaved ; corolla 4-parted ; stamens four ; ovary 1 -celled; stigma naked, sessile; fruit solitary, succulent ; embryo exalbuminous. Contains but one genus, viz., Salvadora, to which the Mustard-Tree of Scripture has been referred by Koyle. The species occur in Syria, India, and North Africa. 11. FAMILY. Jessamines (Jasminaceae). Shrubs ; stems often climbing; leaves opposite or alternate, compound ; flowers opposite, corym- bose, white or yellow ; aestivation twisted or valvate ; stamens two ; ovary free, 2-celled ; stigma naked, 2-lobed ; fruit a double berry, a pyxidium, or a 2-valved capsule ; seeds with little or no albumen; radicle inferior. Chiefly inhabit Tropical India, but occur also in Southern Europe, Africa, South America, and Australia. III. OKDER CORTUSALS (Cortusales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; placentae free, cen- tral ; embryo with much albumen. 1. FAMILY. Malaspinceads(MgicQYSitsice3Q). Shrubs; leaves alternate, undivided ; flowers small, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY, 415 monopetalous ; stamens opposite petals; an- ther-cells cut transversely ; ovary 1 -celled ; stalk of placentae much lengthened during ripening, being converted into a false funi- culus ; fruit fleshy, follicular when ripe; seeds exalbuminous. Composed of a single genus inhabiting tropical shores. 2. FAMILY. Ardisiads (Myrsinacese). Trees, shrubs, or under-shrubs ; stem woody; leaves alternate or opposite, coriaceous, smooth, ex- stipulate ; inflorescence in umbels, corymbs, or panicles, mostly axillary ; flowers small, white or red, occasionally unisexual; calyx and corolla 4-5-cleft ; stamens opposite petals ; anthers sagittate ; ovary free or partially ad- herent ; fruit drupaceous, indehiscent ; seeds angular or roundish. Found in Asia, Africa, and America, in Bourbon, the Isle of France, Madagascar, the Azores, Canaries, and Ma- deira, and in New Zealand. 3. FAMILY. Primroses (Primulacese). Herbaceous, or under-shrubs, annual or perennial ; leaves usually radical, opposite, exstipulate ; flowers on simple or umbellate scapes ; calyx and corolla 5- rarely 4-cleft ; stamens opposite segments; ovary 1-celled; style one; fruit capsular, valvate, many-seeded; seeds nu- merous, peltate. Occur principally in the Northern Hemisphere, in temperate and cold regions ; in the tropics they inhabit sea-shores or lofty situations. Some occur in Australia. 416 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Yield numerous horticultural favourites, as the Auricula, Primrose, Cowslip, Oxlip, fee, 4. FAMILY. Rib-Worts (Plantaginacese). Herbs, often stemless ; leaves radical, ribbed ; flowers hermaphrodite and spiked, or unisexual and solitary ; corolla with a 4-parted limb ; sta- mens alternate with segments ; ovary sessile ; style one j stigma hispid ; fruit capsular, operculate ; seeds sessile, peltate or erect. Distribution very general, but more abundant in temperate regions. 5. FAMILY. Sea-Pinks (Plumbaginacese). Herbs or under-shrubs ; leaves alternate or fasciculate, exstipulate, somewhat sheathing at the base ; calyx tubular ; corolla monopetalous or pen- tapetalous ; stamens opposite petals ; ovary free, 1 -celled; styles five, seldom four or three, each bearing a subulate stigma ; fruit mem- branous, 1 -seeded ; seed inverted. Inhabit salt-marshes, and the sea-shores along the Mediterranean, Southern Russia, also in Affghanistan, Cabul, China, Australasia, the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Horn, and in Greenland. 6. FAMILY. Water-leaves (Hydrophyllacese). Trees, shrubs, or herbs, often hispid; leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate, often lobed ; flowers in gyrate racemes or unilateral spikes, occa- sionally solitary and axillary ; calyx deeply 5-cleft ; corolla shortly 5-cleft ; aestivation plicate or imbricate ; stamens alternate with MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. ' 417 petals ; ovary 1-2-celled ; styles two, long ; fruit capsular, 2-valved, 1-2-celled; placentae parietal or central ; seeds reticulated. Chiefly found in the Northern and Southern pro- vinces of America, but occur sparingly also in the East Indies and the Cape of Good Hope. IY. ORDER SOLANALS (Solanales). Flowers dichlamydeous, monopetalous, symme- trical ; placentae axile ; fruit 2-3-celled ; embryo large, lying in a small quantity of albumen. 1. FAMILY. Phloxes (Polemoniaceae). Herbs, often climbing; leaves opposite or alternate, sim- ple or compound ; calyx 5 -par ted ; corolla 5-lobed; stamens five, free; pollen often blue; ovary superior, 3-celled ; style simple ; stigma trifid ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved ; seeds angular, oval or winged; cotyledons elliptical or cordate, foliaceous. Natives of temperate latitudes, chiefly in North and South America. 2. FAMILY. Dodders (Cuscutacese). Parasitic, leafless, climbing, colourless ; flowers in dense clusters ; calyx 4-5-parted ; corolla 4-5-cleft ; aestiva- tion imbricate ; scales on coralline tube ; sta- mens five, free ; ovary 2-celled ; stigmas two ; placentas basal ; fruit capsular or baccate, 2- celled ; cells l~2-seeded ; embryo spiral, fili- form ; cotyledons inconspicuous. Found in the temperate parts of both hemispheres. 3. FAMILY. Bindweeds (Convolvulaceae). Herbs or T 5 418 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. shrubs, usually twining and milky ; leaves alternate, undivided or lobed, exstipulate ; inflorescence axillary or terminal ; calyx per- sistent, in five divisions, imbricated ; corolla deciduous, limb 5-lobed; aestivation plaited or imbricated; stamens five, alternate with segments of corolla; ovary simple, 2 4-celled ; style one ; placentae basal ; fruit 1 4-celled, succulent or capsular ; cotyledons leafy, doubled up. Abundant in tropical, but rare in cold climes. Roots generally afford an acrid juice ; yield Jalap, Scammony, Sweet Potato, Oil of Rhodium, c. 4. FAMILY. Sebestens (Cordiaceae). Trees; leaves alternate, rough, exstipulate ; flowers pani- cled, bracteate ; calyx 4-^5-toothed ; corolla 4-^5-clefb, imbricated ; stamens five, free ; ovary 4-8-celled ; stigma 4-8-cleft ; fruit drupaceous, 4-8-celled ; seeds exalbuminous ; cotyledons leafy, plaited longitudinally. Mostly tropical species in both worlds. 5. FAMILY. Milk-Weeds (AsclepiadaeeaB). Shrubs, occasionally herbs, usually milky, often twin- ing; leaves mostly opposite, with inter- petiolary cilia in place of stipules ; flowers umbelled, fascicled, or racemose ; calyx 5-di- vided, persistent ; corolla 5-lobed, deciduous ; aBstivation imbricate, rarely valvate; stamens five ; anthers and stigma consolidated into a column ; ovaries two; fruit, two follicles, one sometimes abortive , seeds numerous ; coty- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 4] 9 ledons leafy. Natives chiefly of Southern Africa, but occur also in Tropical India, Aus- tralia, Equinoctial and North America, and in Sicily. Among the species, is the Cow Plant (Gymnema, lactiferum), the juice of which is employed as drink in Ceylon, Some are supposed to yield a kind of Caoutchouc. 6. FAMILY. Deadly - Nightshades (Atropacese). Herbs or shrubs ; leaves alternate ; calyx tubular, 5-divided, persistent ; corolla tubu- lar, o-lobed ; aestivation imbricate or plicate ; stamens five, alternate with lobes of corolla ; anthers bilobed, bursting longitudinally at the margin; ovary 2-celled; ovules usually ascending ; style simple ', stigma bilobed ; fruit baccate or capsular; seeds reniform or compressed ; embryo straight or curved. Distribution extended. Contain Tobacco, Thorn-apple, Henbane, Deadly-Nightshade, Mandrake, &c. Most members of this family are more or less poisonous. 7. FAMILY. Nightshades (Solanacese). Herbs or shrubs ; leaves alternate ; calyx and corolla 5- rarely 4 -partite ; aestivation valvate ; stamens equal to, and alternate with, lobes of corolla; anthers burst by longitudinal slits or pores ; ovary generally 2-celled ; style simple ; stigma bilobed or clavate, often hol- low ; fruit capsular or baccate ; embryo terete. Distribution general Among the species are the Potato, Bitter-sweet, Tomato, 420 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOKY. Capsicum, Brazilian-Quina, &c. This family contains several innocuous plants. 8. FAMILY. Olives (Oleacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves opposite, simple or compound ; flowers in terminal or axillary racemes or panicles, sometimes unisexual ; calyx persistent ; co- rolla 4-cleft ; sestivation somewhat valvate ; stamens 2, rarely 4, free ; ovary simple, 2- celled ; stigma entire or bifid ; fruit drupa- ceous, baccate, or capsular, sometimes winged ; seeds with abundant albumen ; cotyledons leafy. Mostly frequent temperate regions, but a few are tropical. In this family are found the Olive, yielding olive-oil, the Flower- ing-Ash, affording manna ; also the Common- Ash, Common-Lilac, Privet, &c. Y. OEDER. GENTIANALS (Gentianales). Flowers dichlamydeous, monopetalous ; placentse axile or parietal ; embryo minute, or with the coty- ledons much smaller than the radicle, lying in abun- dant albumen. 1. FAMILY. Gentians (Gentianacese). Herbs, sel- dom shrubs ; leaves mostly opposite, exstipu- ]ate, often 3-5-ribbed ; flowers regular, termi- nal or axillary ; calyx and corolla persistent ; aestivation plaited or imbricate-twisted ; ovary of two carpels; style one, continuous; stigmas 1 or 2 ; placentse parietal ; fruit capsular or baccate, 1 -celled, many-seeded. Distribution widely extended. Yields Gentian, Chiretta, Centaury, Marsh-Trefoil, &c. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 421 2. FAMILY. -Broom-rapes (Orobanchaceae). Her- baceous, parasitic, leafless ; stems covered with scales ; calyx divided, persistent ; corolla usually bilabiate, persistent ; aestivation imbri- cated ; stamens four, didynamous ; disk fleshy ; style one ; stigma 2-lobed ; placentae parietal ; fruit capsular, enclosed within the withered corolla, 1 -celled, 2-valved. Inhabit Southern Europe, Barbary, Cape of Good Hope, North- ern and Middle Asia, and North America. 3. FAMILY. Stilbids (Stilbaceae). Shrubs ; leaves whorled, close, leathery, exstipulate ; flowers in dense spikes at the end of the branches ; calyx tubular ; corolla valvate ; stamens equal to, and alternate with, segments of corolla; ovary sessile, 2-celled ; style terminal, ex- serted ; stigma simple ; placentae axile ; fruit dry, 1 -seeded; seeds definite, erect. A small family inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope. 4 . FAMILY. Diapensiads (Diapensiaceae). Under- shrubs, prostrate ; leaves small, densely im- bricated ; flowers solitary, terminal ; calyx of five sepals ; corolla regular ; aestivation im- bricated ; stamens five ; filaments petaloid ; anthers dehiscing transversely ; ovary 3-celled; style simple, continuous ; stigma sessile, with three short decurrent lobes ; placentae axile ; fruit capsular ; seeds indefinite, peltate. Mountain plants ; found in the North of Europe and North America. 5. FAMILY. Cassipoureads (Cassipoureaceae). Trees 422 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or shrubs ; leaves opposite, stipulate ; flowers axillary, solitary, or clustered ; calyx campa- nulate, 4-5 -cleft, valvate ; petals 4-5, fringed; stamens distinct ; ovary 3~5-celled ; style simple ; stigma obtuse ; placentae axile ; fruit berried or capsular. A small tropical family. 6. FAMILY. Poison-Nuts (Loganiaceae). Shrubs, herbs, or trees ; leaves opposite, usually sti- pulate ; flowers racemose, corymbose, or soli- tary ; calyx 4-5-parted ; corolla 4-5- or 10- divided ; aestivation convolute or valvate ; ovary usually 2-celled ; style continuous ; stigma simple ; fruit capsular, drupaceous, or baccate; seeds peltate, sometimes winged- Found in tropical and sub-tropical regions. A poisonous series of plants, yielding False- Angostura Bark, St. Ignatius' Beans, Strych- nia, Brucia, Ourari or Woorali poison, and Carolina-Pink. 7. FAMILY. Dogbanes (Apocynaceae). Trees or shrubs, usually milky ; leaves opposite, exsti- pulate ; flowers large, showy ; inflorescence corymbose ; calyx 5-parted, persistent ; corolla 5-lobed, deciduous ; aestivation contorted ; sta- mens five ; ovaries two, unilocular, or one and bilocular ; styles 2 or 1 ; stigma one, contracted in the middle ; fruit follicular, capsular, drupa- ceous or baccate ; seeds usually pendulous. Chiefly a tropical family, containing many poisonous species, among which are the tree affording Tanghin poison in Madagascar, Ole- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 423 ander, Dogbane ; also the Milk-tree of De- merara, which yields a fluid. Some supply a variety of Caoutchouc. 8. FAMILY. Hollies (Aquifoliacese). Trees or shrubs, evergreen ; leaves alternate or opposite, ex- stipulate ; flowers small, white or greenish, axillary, solitary or clustered ; calyx and corolla 4-6-parted, imbricated ; stamens al- ternate with segments of corolla ; disk none ; ovary fleshy ; stigma nearly sessile, lobed ; placentas axile ; fruit fleshy, indehiscent, with 2-6-stones ; seed pendulous. Found in North and South America, the West Indies, the Cape of Good Hope, one occurs in Europe. Yield Holly, Paraguay-tea, &c. (Ilicinece, Brongniart.) 9. FAMILY. Ebonies (Guaiacaracese). Trees or shrubs ; wood heavy ; leaves alternate, exstipu- late, coriaceous ; inflorescence axillary ; flowers often unisexual ; calyx 3-7-divided, persist- ent ; corolla 3-7-divided, deciduous ; aestiva- tion imbricated ; ovary free, sessile, plurilo- cular ; style usually divided ; stigma sessile, radiating ; fruit fleshy, round or oval ; seed suspended. Chiefly tropical. Occur in India, also in North and South America, Australia, Africa, and Europe. Yield Ebony, Ironwood, the Date-plum, &c. (Ebenacece, Vent.) VI. ORDER KHAMNALS (Khamnales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; carpels consoli- 424 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. dated ; placentae axile ; fruit capsular, berried, or drupaceous ; seeds definite ; embryo amygdaloid ; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Storax- Worts (Styracaceae). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers axillary, solitary or clustered, with scale-like bracts, monopetalous ; calyx persistent ; aes- tivation imbricated ; stamens epipetalous ; ovary 2-5 -celled ; ovules pendulous ; style simple ; stigma capitate ; fruit drupaceous, enclosed in the calyx ; radicle long ; cotyle- dons foliaceous. Chiefly confined to tropical and sub-tropical countries. Among their products are Storax and Benzoin. (Symplo- cinece, Don.) 2. FAMILY. Sappodillas (Sapotacese). Trees or shrubs, often lactescent ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; inflorescence axillary ; flowers bisexual; calyx persistent, aestivation val- vate or imbricate ; corolla monopetalous, deciduous, aestivation imbricate ; stamens epipetalous ; ovary plurilocular ; ovules as- cending ; style one ; stigma sometimes lobed ; fruit fleshy, mostly plurilocular ; cotyledons albuminous or exalbuminous, radiate, short. Natives of tropical India, Africa, and America. Many yield edible fruits, as the Sappodilla- plum, Star-apple, Marmalade, Surinam-Med- lar, &c. ; Gutta Percha is afforded by Isonan- dra Gutta. 3. FAMILY. Stackhousiads (Stackhousiacese). Herbs MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 425 or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers in spikes ; calyx 5-cleft, with an inflated tube ; petals five ; stamens episepalous ; ovary 3-5-celled; styles 3-5; stigmas simple ; fruit of from 3 to 5 indehiscent pieces ; co- tyledons short, obtuse. A small Australian family. 4. FAMILY. Spindle-trees (Celastracese). Small trees or shrubs ; leaves mostly alternate, sti- pules small, deciduous ; flowers in axillary cymes, small, white, green, or purple, occa- sionally unisexual ; sepals and petals 4-5 ; imbricate ; stamens alternate with pe- tals ; ovary 2-5-celled ; fruit 2-5-celled, capsular or drupaceous; radicle short; coty- ledons flat. Inhabit chiefly extratropical countries. Found in Europe, Asia, North and South America, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in New Holland. 5. FAMILY. Hippocrateads (Hippocrateacese). Shrubs, arborescent or climbing, almost al- ways smooth ; leaves opposite, stipules small, deciduous ; flowers in axillary racemes, small ; sepals five, very small ; petals five ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens three, mona- delphous ; style one; stigma 1-3; fruit of three samaroid carpels, or berried. Princi- pally a South American family, but a few occur in Africa, the Mauritius, and the East Indies. Some yield edible fruits. 6. FAMILY. Chailletiads (Chailletiaceae). Trees 426 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or shrubs leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers small, axillary, fasciculate or corym- bose ; sepals and petals five ; aestivation incurved, valvate ; stamens five, alternate with petals ; ovary 2-3-celled ; styles 2-3 ; Btigmas capitate or obscurely 2~lobed ; fruit drupaceous, rather dry, 1, 2, 3-celled ; seeds pendulous. A small family, occurring in Sierra Leone, Madagascar, Timor, and Equi- noctial America. 7- FAMILY. Buckthorns (Rhamnacese). Trees or shrubs, often spiny ; leaves mostly alternate ; stipules when present very minute; flowers small, generally green, axillary or termi- nal, rarely unisexual ; calyx 4-5-clefb, val- vate ; petals distinct, hooded, or convolute ; stamens opposite petals ; ovary 2, 3, 4-celled ; fruit fleshy and indehiscent, or dry and se- parating into three parts ; seeds erect. Found in most parts of the world. Among the spe- cies are the Common-Buckthorn, Black- Alder, the Jujube-plant, the " Lotus" of the ancients, Christ's-thorn, New-Jersey Tea, &c. 8. FAMILY. Aloes-Woods (Aquilariacese). Trees; leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate ; flowers apetalous; perianth coriaceous, im- bricate, or tubular ; stamens 5, 8, or 10 ; ovary 2-celled ; ovules two, anatropal ; stigma usually sessile ; fruit capsular, sessile or sti- pulate, and 2-valved, or drupaceous and inde- hiscent ; seeds two, pendulous. Natives of MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 427 Tropical Asia. The " Aloes" of Scripture is believed to be a species of Aquilaria. 9. FAMILY. Sarcocols (Penaeaceae). Shrubs, ever- green ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; flowers usually red, apetalous ; perianth salver- shaped ; aestivation valvate or imbricate ; stamens 4 or 8 ; ovary 4-celled ; style simple ; stigmas four ; fruit capsular, 4-celled ; cotyle- dons two, consolidated. Natives of the Cape of Good Hope. VII. ORDER SAXIFKAGALS |(Saxifragales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; corolla, if present, polypetalous ; carpels consolidated ; placentae sutural or axile ; seeds 00 ; embryo small, taper ; radicle long ; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Loosestrifes (Lythraceae). Herbs or shrubs ; leaves chiefly opposite, exstipulate, sometimes dotted ; flowers solitary or cluster- ed ; calyx monosepalous, tubular, permanent, valvate; petals very deciduous, sometimes wanting ; ovary 2-6-celled ; placentae axile or dissepimental ; style filiform ; stigma usu- ally capitate ; fruit capsular, dehiscent, mem- branous, surrounded by the calyx ; seeds numerous. Found in Europe, India, North and South America. The Henne' or Henna, used by women in Egypt, &c., for staining the fingers, is obtained from Lawsonia inermis. 2. FAMILY. Brexiads (Brexiaceae). Trees ; leaves 428 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. alternate, stipulate, not dotted ; flowers green, in axillary umbels; calyx 5-parted, aestiva- tion imbricate ; petals five, aestivation twist- ed ; stamens alternate with petals ; ovary 5- celled ; placentae axile ; stigma simple ; fruit drupaceous, 5-celled; seeds with a double integument, exalbuminous (?). A Madagascar family. 3. FAMILY. Cunoniads (Cunoniaceae). Trees or shrubs ; leaves opposite, stipules large, inter- petiolar ; calyx 4-5-cleffc ; petals 4 or 5, some- times wanting ; ovary 2-celled ; styles two, distinct or combined ; fruit 2-celled, capsular or indehiscent. Found at the Cape of Good Hope, in India, Australasia, and South Ame- rica. 4. FAMILY. Hensloviads (Hensloviacese). Trees ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; flowers by abor- tion unisexual ; perianth 5-parted, aestivation valvate; stamens five, alternate with seg- ments ; ovary 2-celled ; stigma obsoletely 2- lobed ; fruit capsular. Consists of a single genus, inhabiting tropical India. 5. FAMILY. Hydrangeads (Hydrangeaceae). Shrubs ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; flowers in cymes, the marginal often sterile and dilated ; calyx 4-6-toothed; petals 4-6, deciduous; stamens 8-12 in two rows, or 00 ; ovary of from 2 to 5 adherent carpels ; styles 2-5, usually dis- tinct ; stigmas simple, reniform ; fruit capsu- lar, crowned by the permanent diverging MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 429 styles. Inhabit temperate parts of Asia and America ; many in China and Japan, 6. FAMILY. Saxifrages (Saxifragacese). Herbs ; leaves alternate, with or without stipules ; calyx superior or inferior, of 4 or 5 sepals, co- hering more or less at their base ; petals 5 or 0, inserted between lobes of calyx ; stamens 5-10 ; ovary usually of two carpels ; placentae sutural ; styles none j stigmas sessile on the tips of the lobes of the ovary ; fruit capsular, membranous, 1- or 2-celled, cells divaricating when ripe ; seeds numerous. Natives of mountainous regions in northern countries. YIII. ORDER EOSALS (Resales.) Flowers inonodichlamydeous ; corolla, when pre- sent, polypetalous ; carpels distinct; placentae su- tural ; seeds definite ; embryo amygdaloid ; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Roses (Rosacese). Herbs or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipulate, often dotted ; flowers occasionally unisexual by abortion ; calyx 4~5-lobed ; petals 5 or ; ovaries solitary or several, sometimes cohering into a plurilocular pistil ; styles lateral ; stigmas usually simple ; fruit 1-seeded nuts, acini, or follicles ; seeds usually suspended. Chiefly occur in temperate and cold parts of the Northern Hemisphere. No species is un- wholesome ; some yield edible fruits, as the 430 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Strawberry, Raspberry, and Blackberry. Some Roses afford a valuable perfume, viz., "Attar of Roses ;" " Kousso," from an Abys- sinian plant named Brayera anthelmintica, is esteemed as the best remedy for Tape- worm. 2. FAMILY. Burnets (Sanguisorbacese). Herbs or under-shrubs, occasionally spiny; leaves al- ternate, stipulate ; flowers small, often capi- tate and unisexual, apetalous ; perianth with a thickened tube ; stamens definite ; ovary solitary ; stigma compound or simple ; nut solitary, enclosed in the tube of the perianth, forming a false pericarp. Found in heaths and exposed places in Europe, North and South America, and at the Cape of Good Hope. 3. FAMILY. Apples (Pyracese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers solitary, or in terminal cymes ; calyx adherent, 5- toothed ; petals five, unguiculate ; stamens indefinite ; ovaries 1-5, fleshy ; styles 1-5 ; stigmas simple; fruit a pome, mostly 1-5- celled. Occur in the Northern Hemisphere, in Europe, Northern Asia, North America; rare in Northern Africa and Madeira. Many afford edible fruits, as the Apple, Pear, Quince, Medlar, &c. ; the seeds yield Hydrocyanic (Prussic) Acid. (Pomacece, Lindley.) 4 FAMILY. Almonds (Amygdalaceae). Trees or shrubs; leaves alternate, stipulate; flowers single or umbellate, white or pink ; calyx 5- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 431 toothed, deciduous ; petals five ; stamens twenty, arising from the throat of the calyx ; ovary 1 -celled; styles terminal, with a fur- row on one side, ending in a reniform stigma ; fruit drupaceous. Natives of cold and tem- perate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Among the species are the Almond, Peach, Nectarine, Plum, Cherry, Laurel; the leaves and kernels yield Hydrocyanic Acid in abundance. (Drupacece, Lindley.) 5. FAMILY. Peas (Fabaceae). Herbs, shrubs, or trees ; leaves alternate, usually compound ; stipules two at base of petiole, and two at base of leaflet ; flowers polypetalous or apeta- lous, frequently papilionaceous; calyx 5- partite, toothed or cleft; petals five or by abortion 4, 3, 2, 1, or none ; stamens definite or indefinite ; pistil simple, 1-celled, 1- or many-seeded ; style simple, proceeding from the upper or ventral suture ; stigma simple ; fruit leguminous or drupaceous ; cotyledons epigeal or hypogeal in germination. A very widely distributed, and most extensive fami- ly, comprising upwards of 6,500 species. It has been divided as follows : 1. Papilionacece. Flowers papilionaceous; petals imbricated in aestivation, upper one exterior. 2. Ccesalpiniece. Flowers irregular, not papi- lionaceous ; petals spreading, imbricate in aestivation, upper one interior. 432 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 3. Mimosece. Flowers regular ; aestivation valvate. Among the species of the first Sub-family, are Clover, Bean, Pea, Pulse, Liquorice, Cowitch, La- burnum, Broom, Whin; and among the products are Balsams of Peru and Tolu, Gum-Tragacanth, Indigo, African and East Indian Kino, Dragon's-blood, Gum-Lac, Red Sandal-wood, Cabbage-tree bark (Andira), Ground-nut, Rose-wood (Trioptolomea), Tonka-bean (Diplerix). In the second division, are Senna, Tamarind, Carob-tree, also Logwood, Brazil- wood (Ccesalpinia), Cane-wood (Baphia), Cassia- pulp, Balsam of Copaiva. The third contains the Sensitive-plants, and the various species of Acacia, yielding Gum-Arabic, Gum-Senegal, and numerous kindred varieties. (Leguminosce, Juss.) 6. FAMILY. Cocoa-plums (Chrysobalanacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers in racemes, panicles, or corymbs, polypetalous or apetalous, nearly regular ; calyx 5-lobed, aestivation imbricate; stamens definite or 00; ovary of a single carpel, 1-2-celled; style single, arising from the base ; stigma simple ; fruit drupaceous, 1-2- celled. Found chiefly in tropical Africa, and America. 7. FAMILY. American-Allspice (Calycanthacese). Shrubs ; stems square ; leaves opposite, ex- stipulate ; flowers axillary, solitary ; sepals and petals confounded, imbricated, combined in a fleshy tube ; stamens indefinite ; ovaries several, 1 -celled; style terminal; fruit con- MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. 4o3 sisting of nuts enclosed in the fleshy tube of the calyx ; cotyledons convolute. Natives of North America and Japan. IX. ORDER DAPHNALS (Daphnales). Flowers monochlamydeous ; carpel solitary ; em- bryo amygdaloidal ; albumen none. 1. FAMILY. Dodder-Laurels (Cassythacese). Para- sitic, climbing, Dodder-like ; scales for leaves ; perianth 6-parted ; stamens twelve, in four rows, petaloid; anthers 2-celled, bursting by recurved valves ; ovary 1 -celled ; style short ; stigma simple ; fruit a nut, embedded in the succulent permanent peri- anth. Found in hot tropical regions. 2. FAMILY. Laurels (Lauracese). Trees; leaves mostly alternate, exstipulate ; flowers in panicles or umbels ; perianth 4-6-cleft ; aesti- vation imbricate ; stamens opposite segments of perianth ; anthers bursting by longitudinal valves; ovary 1 -celled ; style simple; stigma obtuse ; fruit baccate or drupaceous, naked or covered. Occur in tropical Asia and America, rare in Europe and Africa. Most- ly aromatic and fragrant ; among their pro- ducts are Cinnamon and Cassia-bark, True Camphor, Sassafras, Bebeerine (Nectandra), Avocados, Brazilian-Nutmegs. (Laurinece, Ventenat.) 3. FAMILY. Silver-trees (Proteacese). Shrubs or small 434 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. trees ; evergreen ; leaves opposite or alter- nate, exstipulate, hard, dry; perianth 4-leaved or 4-cleft ; aestivation valvate ; stamens four ; ovary 1 -celled ; style simple ; stigma un- divided, discoid ; ovules erect j fruit dehiscent or indehiscent. Natives of Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. 4. FAMILY. Mezereons (Daphnacese). Shrubs, rarely herbs ; leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate ; flowers capitate or spiked, ter- minal or axillary ; perianth tubular, 4-, seldom 5-cleft ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens de- finite ; anthers dehiscing lengthways ; ovary ] -celled ; ovule suspended ; style one ; stigma undivided ; fruit nut-like or drupaceous. Natives of India, North and South America, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, and Europe. The principal species is " Me- zereon." (Thymelacece, Lindley.) X. ORDER FICOIDALS (Ficoidales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; corolla, if present, polypetalous ; placentae central or axile ; embryo external, curved ; albumen mealy, scanty. 1. FAMILY Scleranths (Scleranthacese). Herbs ; small, inconspicuous ; leaves opposite, ex- stipulate ; flowers minute, axillary, sessile ; perianth tubular, 4-5-toothed; stamens 1-10; ovary 1 -seeded ; styles two or one ; fruit a membranous utricle enclosed within the MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 435 hardened perianth. Inhabit barren fields in Europe, Asia, North America, and some extra- tropical regions of the Southern Hemisphere. 2. FAMILY. Aizoons (Tetragoniacese). Herbs or small shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate, succulent ; flowers small, axillary ; perianth 3-5-cleft; stamens definite; ovary 2-9-celled; styles equal to cells of ovary ; fruit woody, indehi scent. Occur chiefly in Polynesia, the Cape of Good Hope, and about the Mediter- ranean. 3. FAMILY. Fig- Marigolds (Mesembryanthemacese). Shrubs or herbs, succulent ; leaves opposite ; flowers terminal, showy ; sepals usually five ; petals indefinite, coloured; stamens inde- finite ; ovary usually plurilocular ; stigmas numerous, distinct ; fruit capsular, mostly many-celled, dehiscence stellate. Natives principally of hot plains at the Cape of Good Hope, but a few occur in Southern Europe, Northern Africa, China, Polynesia, and South America. 4. FAMILY. Basellads (Basellaceae). Herbs or shrubs, climbing, often succulent ; leaves al- ternate, exstipulate ; flowers coloured, naked, sessile or stalked ; perianth imbricated, fleshy ; stamens opposite divisions of peri- anth ; ovary free, 1 -celled ; styles several ; fruit enclosed in the membranous or succulent perianth ; seed erect. All tropical plants, ex- cept one doubtful species, which is Siberian. u 2 436 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Til. ALLIANCE. HYPOGYNOUS-EXOGENS (Hypogynese). Flowers mostly hermaphrodite ; stamens entirely free from calyx and corolla. I. ORDER. PIPERALS (Piperales). Flowers achlamydeous ; embryo minute, at or near the outside of a large quantity of mealy albumen. 1. FAMILY. Lizard' s-tails (Saururacese). Herbs ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers in spikes, bisexual, on a scale or bract; stamens 3-6, clavate ; ovaries 3-4; ovule erect ; stigmas sessile, recurved ; fruit either four fleshy in- dehiscent nuts, or a 1-3-4-celled capsule ; embryo tying in a fleshy vitellus. Natives of marshy places in North America, China, and Northern India. 2. FAMILY. Chloranths (Chloranthacese). Herbs or under-shrubs, aromatic ; stems jointed ; leaves opposite, stipulate ; petioles sheathing ; flowers in terminal spikes, bisexual or uni- sexual, with a supporting scale ; stamens lateral ; ovary unilocular ; ovule pendulous ; stigma simple, sessile ; fruit drupaceous, in- dehiscent ; embryo naked ; cotyledons di- varicate. Natives of India, South America, the West Indies, and the Society Islands. 3. FAMILY. Peppers (PiperaceaB). Shrubs or herbs ; stems articulated ; leaves mostly opposite, with or without stipules ; flowers spiked or racemose, bisexual, supported on a bract ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 437 stamens 2-3-6; ovary 1 -celled ; ovule erect; stigma sessile, rather oblique j fruit fleshy indehiscent, 1 -celled, 1 -seeded ; embryo in a fleshy vitellus. Inhabit chiefly tropical Ame- rica and the Indian Archipelago. Among the products are long, black, and white Pep- pers, Cubebs, Matico, and Betel-Pepper. II. OEDER. CHENOPODALS (Chenopodales). Flowers monochlamydeous ; carpels solitary, or if more than one, distinct ; placentae free, central ; embryo external, either curved round, or applied to the surface of a little mealy or horny albumen. 1. FAMILY. Goose-foots (Chenopodiacese). Herbs or under-shrubs ; leaves mostly alternate, exstipulate ; flowers small, sometimes uni- sexual ; perianth deeply divided ; aestivation imbricated ; stamens opposite segments of perianth; anthers 2-celled; ovary 1 -celled; style 2-4-divided; stigmas simple; fruit membranous, indehiscent, sometimes baccate. Common in waste districts, more abundant in extra-tropical countries. Comprise Spin- age, Beet, Man gold- Wurzel, &c. 2. FAMILY. Amaranths (Amaranthacese). Herbs or shrubs ; leaves opposite or alternate, ex- stipulate ; flowers in spikes or heads, mostly bisexual ; perianth 3-5-partite, scarious, buried in imbricated bracts ; stamens distinct or monadelphous ; anthers usually 1 -celled ; ovary unilocular ; style 1 or ; stigma 438 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. simple or compound; fruit a membranous utricle or caryopsis, rarely baccate. Found chiefly in dry spots in tropical Asia and America ; a few occur also in Africa, Aus- tralia, and Europe. 3. FAMILY. Surianads (Surianaceae). Shrubby ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers race- mose, bisexual ; calyx 5 -partite ; petals five ; stamens indefinite, opposite the sepals ; ovary of five carpels, distinct, 1-celled; stigmas simple ; pericarp woody ; seed solitary, erect, compressed. Contains one genus with a single species. Common on tropical shores. 4. FAMILY. Phytolaccads (Phytolaccacese). Under- shrubs or herbs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate, often dotted ; flowers racemose, variously arranged; perianth 4-5-partite ; stamens indefinite or alternate with divisions of perianth ; ovary of one or several carpels ; styles equal to carpels ; stigmas simple or divided ; fruit baccate or dry, indehiscent. Natives of warm parts of America, Africa, and Asia. 5. FAMILY. Marvels-of-Peru (Mirabilacese). Herbs, shrubs, or trees ; leaves opposite or alternate ; flowers involucrate ; perianth tubular, often coloured, becoming indurated at the base; aestivation plaited ; stamens definite ; ovary 1-celled ; style one ; stigma one ; fruit a caryopsis enclosed within the enlarged tube of the perianth. Occur principally in warm MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 439 regions in both worlds. The roots are usually purgative. (Nyctaginacece, Lindley.) Til. ORDER. SILENALS (Silenales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; placentae free, cen- tral ; carpels several, combined into a compound fruit ; embryo external, curved round a little mealy albumen. 1. FAMILY. Buckwheats (Polygonacese). Herbs, rarely shrubs ; leaves alternate, mostly sti- pulate ; stipules ochreoid ; flowers often unisexual, frequently racemose ; perianth divided, often coloured; aestivation, imbri- cated ; stamens definite ; ovary unilocular, formed of three united carpels ; styles and stigmas three ; ovule orthotropal ; fruit a nut, usually triangular. Distribution very general. Contain much oxalic acid, also nitric, malic, and tannic acids : comprise Sorrel, Buckwheat, and the various species of Rhubarb. 2. FAMILY. Purslanes (Portulacacese). Shrubs or herbs, succulent ; leaves mostly alternate, exstipulate ; flowers axillary or terminal, un- symmetrical, usually ephemeral ; sepals two ; petals five ; stamens variable in number ; ovary formed of three united carpels, 1 -celled ; style single or ; stigmas several ; ovules amphitropal ; fruit capsular, ] -celled, dehiscent, or ] -seeded, and in- dehiscent. Inhabit dry places at the Cape 440 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. of Good Hope and in South America, also in Australia. 3. FAMILY. Knotworts (Paronychiacese). Herbs or under-shrubs; leaves opposite or alternate, stipules, when present, scarious ; flowers minute, symmetrical, with scarious bracts ; sepals 3-5 ; petals minute or ; stamens generally opposite sepals ; ovary usually ] -celled ; styles 2-5 ; ovules amphitropal ; fruit small, dry, 1-, rarely 3-celled, indehiscent or opening by three valves. Principally found in Southern Europe and Northern Africa, also in Mexico and at the Cape of Good Hope. (Illecebracece, Lindley.) 4. FAMILY. Pinks (Dianthaeeae). Mostly herba- ceous ; stems tumid at the articulations ; leaves opposite, exstipulate, often connate; inflorescence usually cymose ; flowers bi- sexual, symmetrical ; sepals 4-5, persistent ; petals 4-5, unguiculate, or ; stamens equal to, or double the number of, the petals ; ovary of two to five carpels ; stigmas 2-5, sessile j ovules amphitropal ; fruit capsular, 2-5-valved, 1- or 2-5-celled. Occupy moun- tainous and waste regions in temperate and cold countries. (Caryophyllece, Juss.) IY. OEDEE. GERANIALS (Geraniales). Flowers monodichlamydeous, symmetrical ; calyx imbricated ; corolla twisted ; stamens definite ; placentae axile ; embryo with little or no albumen. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 441 1. FAMILY. Cranesbills (Geraniacese). Herbs or shrubs ; stems tumid ; leaves opposite, or alter- nate and stipulate ; flowers usually symmetri- cal, white, red, yellow, or purple; sepals five, persistent ; petals five, unguiculate ; stamens monadelphous; ovary of five carpels round an elongated axis ; styles five, cohering round the axis; fruit of shells cohering round the torus, and separable from it. Many are found at the Cape of Good Hope, also in Northern Asia, Europe, North America, and Australia. Yield many favourite species for the florist. 2. FAMILY. Balsams (Impatientacese). Herbs, succulent, usually annual; leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate ; flowers axillary, irregular, unsymmetrical ; sepals five, de- ' ciduous ; petals five, combined into two or three ; stamens five, alternate ; ovary 5-celled ; stigma sessile ; fruit capsular, 5-celled, 5- valved. Natives chiefly of the East Indies. Remarkable for the force with which the seed vessels open at maturity. (Balsaminece, Rich.) 3. FAMILY. Wood-Sorrels (Oxalidaceae). Herbs, under-shrubs, or trees; leaves alternate, usually exstipulate ; flowers symmetrical ; se- pals five, persistent ; petals five, unguiculate, or ; stamens ten, more or less monadelphous ; ovary 3 -5-celled; carpels larger than the torus ; styles 3-5, filiform; stigmas capitate or slightly bifid ; fruit capsular, membranous or fleshy; albumen abundant. Occur in u 5 442 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. hot and temperate parts of the world, espe- cially in North America and at the Cape of Good Hope. 4. FAMILY. Sarcolenads (Sarcolsenacese). Trees or shrubs ; flowers fine, showy, usually red, unsymmetrical ; involucre 1-2-flowered, per- sistent ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; sepals three, small ; petals five, convolute ; stamens " monadelphous ; ovary trilocular ; style one ; stigma trifid ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, or by abortion 1 -celled ; albumen abundant. Na- tives of Madagascar. (Chlcenacece, Lindley.) 5. FAMILY. Flaxes (Linacese). Herbs or small shrubs; leaves alternate or opposite, exsti- pulate ; flowers fugitive ; sepals 3-4-5, persistent ; petals 3 -4-5, fugitive ; stamens equal to, and alternate with, petals ; anthers erect ; ovary with as many cells and styles as the sepals ; stigmas capitate ; ovules pendulous, anatropal; fruit capsular, pluri- locular ; albumen scanty or 0. Most abundant in Europe and Northern Africa, but occur also in America, India, New Zealand, and Australia. Valuable as being the source of the flax of commerce ; yield also Linseed-oil, Linseed-meal, and oil-cake. Y. OKDEK. RUTALS (Rutales). Flowers monodichlamydeous, symmetrical ; calyx and corolla imbricated ; stamens definite ; placentas axile ; albumen little or none. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 443 1. FAMILY. Podostemads (Podostemacese). Herbs; no stomata nor spiral vessels ; leaves capil- lary, linear, lacerated, or minute and imbri- cated ; flowers axillary or terminal, bisexual, naked, or with a more or less perfect perianth, bursting through an irregularly lacerated spathe ; stamens definite or indefinite ; ovary 2-3-celled ; styles or stigmas two or three; fruit slightly pedicellate, capsular,2-3-valved. Floating plants. Found on rocks, in rivers, and still waters, in South America, and some African Islands. 2. FAMILY. Water-peppers (Elatinacese). Herbs, annual ; stems fistular, rooting ; leaves oppo- site, stipulate ; flowers polypetalous ; sepals 3-5 ; petals alternate with sepals; stamens equal to, or twice as many as, the petals ; ovary 3-5-celled ; styles 3-5 ; stigmas capitate ; fruit capsular, 3-5-celled, 3-5 valved. Marshy plants, generally distributed. 3. FAMILY. Beancapers (Fabaginacese). Herbs, shrubs, or trees ; wood very hard ; leaves opposite, stipulate ; flowers solitary, or in pairs, or threes, white, blue, red, or yellow, regular; calyx 4-5-parted, sestivation con- volute ; petals alternate with segments of calyx ; ovary 4-5-celled ; style 4 -5- furrowed; stigma simple, or 4 - 5-lobed ; fruit capsu- lar, rarely fleshy, few-seeded, sarcocarp not separable from the endocarp. Chiefly live in warm extra-tropical climes, in South- 444 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. ern Europe, Africa, India, Australia, and America. (Zygophyllece, Brown.) 4. FAMILY. Quassias (Simarubacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers usually bisexual, whitish, green, or purple ; calyx 4- 5-divided ; petals 4-5 ; stamens double the number of the petals ; ovary 4-5- lobed, 4-5-celled; style simple; stigma 4-5- lobed ; fruit of four or five drupes, arranged round a common receptacle, indehiscent ; seeds exalbuminous. Natives of tropical America, Africa, and Asia. Species of Quas- sia and Simaruba are employed in medicine. 5. FAMILY. Coriariads (Coriariacese). Shrubs ; leaves opposite, entire ; flowers racemose, ter- minal and axillary, unisexual ; calyx 5-par- tite, campanulate ; petals five, small, alternate with calycine divisions ; stamens ten ; ovary of five or six carpels ; stigmas five, subulate ; fruit of five crustaceous carpels, covered by the membranous sepals and fleshy petals, 1- seeded, indehiscent. A small family, inhabit- ing Southern Europe. 6. FAMILY. Ochnads (Ochnacese). Under-shrubs or trees ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers racemose ; sepals five, persistent ; petals 5-10, deciduous ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens 5-1 ; torus prolonged, succulent ; carpels equal in number to petals ; styles united in one ; fruit of as many pieces as there were carpels, succulent, indehiscent. Natives of MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 445 tropical India, Africa, and America ; also of the Cape of Good Hope. 7. FAMILY. Prickly- Ashes (Xanthoxyllaceae). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate or opposite, ex- stipulate, dotted ; flowers axillary or termi- nal, unisexual ; sepals 3-4-5, aestivation imbricate ; petals 3-4-5, rarely 0, aestivation imbricate or convolute ; stamens as many as, or double the number of, the petals ; ovary usually of as many carpels as there are petals, more or less united; ovules sessile, pendu- lous ; styles more or less combined ; fruit baccate or membranous, pericarp separable into distinct layers. Chiefly occur in Ame- rica, but also in Africa, India, China, and Australia. 8. FAMILY. Rueworts (Rutacese). Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs ; leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate, dotted j flowers axillary or ter- minal, bisexual ; calyx of 4- 5 segments, aesti- vation imbricate ; petal equal to, and alter- nate with, calycine divisions, or combined below into a gamopetalous corolla, aestivation convolute or valvate ; stamens equal to pe- tals, or twice or thrice as many, placed round- a cup-shaped disk ; ovary sessile or stalked ; ovules sessile, pendulous ; styles adherent above ; stigmas simple, dilated ; fruit of se- veral carpels, combined partially or com- pletely ; pericarp separable into two layers. Found in Southern Europe, the Cape of Good 446 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Hope, Australia, and in America. Among the species are Rue (Ruta), Bucku (Barosma), also Galidea, which yields Cusparia or An- gostura-bark. 9. FAMILY. Connarads (Omphalobiacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate, not dotted j flowers terminal and axillary, in ra- cemes or panicles, rarely unisexual ; calyx 5-partite, persistent ; petals five ; stamens ten ; ovary of one or more separate carpels ; ovules two, collateral, ascending, orthotropal ; styles terminal ; stigmas dilated ; fruit folli- cular, dehiscent. Zebra-wood is yielded by this family. (Connaracece 3 Brown.) 10. Sumachs (Anacardiacese). Trees or shrubs ; juice resinous, often caustic ; leaves alternate, not dotted ; flowers terminal or axillary, mostly unisexual; calyx usually 5-divided, small, persistent ; petals equal to divisions of calyx ; stamens generally equal to, and alter- nate with, petals ; ovary single ; ovule soli- tary, attached by a funiculus to the base of the cell ; styles or stigmas 1, 3, or 4 ; fruit indehiscent, usually drupaceous. Inhabit tropical parts of America, Africa, and India. Among the products, &c., are Cashew-nuts, Pistachio-nuts, Chian-Turpentine, Mastic, Su- mach, Japan- Varnish, Mango, HogVplums, &c. 11. FAMILY. Margosa-plants (Meliacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves mostly alternate, exstipulate ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 447 flowers usually in loose masses ; sepals 4-5, more or less united, sestivation imbricate ; petals 4-5, connivent at base, sestivation val- vate or imbricate ; stamens mostly double the number of the petals, monadelphous ; disk often large and cup-shaped ; ovary single, plurilocular ; ovules usually anatropal ; style one ; stigmas distinct or combined ; fruit bac- cate, drupaceous or capsular ; seeds few, wingless. Mostly tropical plants, especially in Asia and America. 12. FAMILY. Mahogany-trees (Cedrelacese). Trees; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers in ter- minal panicles ; calyx 4-5-cleft ; petals 4-5 ; sestivation imbricated ; stamens 8-10, mona- delphous or free; ovary 4j-5-celled; ovules anatropal ; style simple ; stigma peltate ; fruit capsular, consolidated ; seeds numerous, winged. Chiefly important as yielding Ma- hogany and Satin-wood. 13. FAMILY. Frankincense-trees (Amyridacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves opposite or alternate, often stipulate and dotted ; flowers axillary or terminal, racemose or panicled, occasion- ally unisexual ; calyx 2-5-divided, persist- ent ; petals 3-5, mostly valvate ; stamens twice the number of the petals ; ovary 1-5- celled ; style solitary; stigmas 1-5; fruit consolidated, dry, hard, indehiscent or val- vular. Inhabit tropical India, Africa, and America, A fragrant balsamic family yield- 448 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. ing Elemi, Olibanum, Arabian- Frankincense, Myrrh, Balm of Mecca, Balm of Gilead, Bdellium, Incense-wood, &c. 14. FAMILY. Orange-plants (Citracese). Trees or shrubs, with numerous receptacles for vo- latile oil; leaves alternate, articulated with a usually winged petiole, dotted; calyx 3-5- toothed, withering ; petals 3-5, imbricated ; stamens mostly equal to, or twice as many as, the petals, distinct or combined; ovary free, many-celled ; style one ; stigma slightly divided ; fruit pulpy, one or more celled, with a separable leathery or spongy rind, with numerous receptacles of volatile oil. Yield many edible and refrigerant fruits, as the Orange, Lemon, Lime, Citron, Bergamot, Shaddock, and Forbidden-fruit ; and among their other products, are Neroli-oil, Napha- water, &c. (Aurantiacece, Corr.) VI. ORDER. ERICALS (Ericales). Flowers dichlamydeous, symmetrical in the ovary ; stamens definite ; placentae axile ; embryo enclosed in abundant, fleshy albumen. 1. FAMILY. Heaths (Ericaceae). Shrubs, under- shrubs, or herbs ; leaves evergreen, verticil- late or opposite, exstipulate; inflorescence variable ; calyx 4-5-cleft, persistent ; corolla monopetalous, 4-5-cleft ; aestivation imbri- cated ; stamens definite ; anthers 2-celled, de- hiscing by pores; ovary plurilocular, sur- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 449 rounded by a disk or scales ; style and stigma one ; fruit capsular or baccate, multilocular ; placentae central. Abound at the Cape of Good Hope, but occur also in Europe, North and South America, Asia, and in the High- lands of Java. Some afford an edible fruit, as the Bear-berry. Among the genera are Erica, Calluna, Menziesia, and Rhododen- dron. 2. FAMILY. Fir-Rapes (Monotropacese). Parasitic on the roots of Pines and other trees ; stems brown or colourless, with scales instead of leaves ; flowers in terminal spikes or racemes ; sepals 4-5; petals 4-5, or monopetalous ; stamens 8-10 ; anthers 2-celled, often dehis- cing longitudinally; ovary 4-5-furrowed ; style short, cylindrical ; stigma succulent, funnel-shaped ; fruit capsular, dry ; seeds 0, loose-skinned or winged. Found in cool places in Europe, Asia, and North America. 3. FAMILY. Francoads (Francoacese). Herbaceous, stemless ; leaves lobed or pinnate, exstipu- late ; inflorescence racemose ; calyx deeply 4-cleft ; petals four, sub-persistent ; stamens free, four times as many as the petals, alter- nately rudimentary ; ovary 4-celled ; stigma sessile, 4-lobed ; fruit capsular, membranous, 4-valved. Natives of Chili. 4. FAMILY. Winter-greens (Pyrolacese). Mostly herbaceous ; flowers terminal and racemose, or solitary ; sepals five, persistent ; corolla 450 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. somewhat monopetalous, 4 - 5 -parted, decidu- ous ; aestivation imbricated ; stamens twice the number of the corolline divisions, free, usually perfect ; anthers 2 - celled, dehiscing by pores ; ovary 4 - 5-celled ; style one ; stigma slightly indusiate ; fruit capsular, 4-5- celled ; seeds 0, loose-skinned ; embryo at the base of the albumen. Occur in Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. The leaves of Chimaphila umbellata are employed in medicine as actively diuretic. 5. FAMILY. Epacrids (Epacridacese). Shrubs or small trees ; leaves alternate, exstipulate, sometimes half- amplexicaul at the base ; flowers in spikes or terminal racemes, or soli- tary and axillary, usually white or purple ; calyx mostly 5-partite, persistent ; corolla monopetalous, 5-divided, deciduous ; aestiva- tion imbricate or valvate ; stamens free, per- fect, equal to corolline divisions ; anthers 1 -celled, opening longitudinally ; ovary usual- ly several-celled ; style one ; stigma simple ; fruit drupaceous, baccate, or capsular ; seeds firm-skinned. Natives of Australasia and Polynesia, where they appear to represent the Heaths. 6. FAMILY. Umiri-Balsams (Humiriacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers in terminal or axillary cymes, or corymbs ; calyx 5-divided ; petals alternate with calycine divisions ; stamens generally MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 451 four times as many as the petals, monadel- phous ; anthers 2-celled, with a long mem- branous connective ; ovary 5-celled ; style simple ; stigma 5-lobed ; fruit drupaceous, 5-celled ; seed with a membranous integu- ment. Natives of tropical America. VII. ORDER. BERBERALS (Berberales). Flowers monodichlamydeous, unsymmetrical in the ovary ; stamens definite ; placenta? sutural, pa- rietal, or axile ; embryo enclosed in abundant, fleshy albumen. 1. FAMILY. Cyrillads (Cyrillacese). Shrubs ; leaves evergreen, exstipulate ; flowers usually race- mose; calyx 4-5-partite ; petals five, distinct; aestivation imbricated ; stamens 5-10 ; ovary 2-3-4-celled ; ovules pendulous ; placentae axile ; style short ; stigmas with as many lobes as there are cells in the ovary ; fruit capsular and succulent, or drupaceous. Na- tives of North America 2. FAMILY. Placads (Olacacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers small, axillary, often fragrant ; calyx gamosepalous, aestivation imbricate ; petals 3-6, aestivation valvate ; stamens some fertile, some sterile, the former 3-10, alternate with the petals, the latter opposite the petals ; ovary 1-3-4- celled ; ovules pendulous ; placentas axile ; style filiform ; stigma simple ; fruit drupa- ceous, indehiscent, often surrounded by the 452 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. enlarged calyx. Mostly confined to the East Indies, Australia, and Africa. 3. FAMILY. Canella-Barks (Winteraniacese). Shrub- by, aromatic ; leaves evergreen, alternate, ex- stipulate ; flowers purple, corymbose ; calyx leathery, sepals three, persistent, imbricate ; petals 5, aestivation twisted ; stamens defi- nite ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules anatropal ; stigma slightly emarginate ; fruit 3-celled(?) Comprises two genera, one of which is Brazilian, the other, Ganella, from the West Indies is officinal. 3. FAMILY. Pittosporads (Pittosporacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers terminal or axillary; sepals and petals 4-5 ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens 5, alter- nate with the petals; ovary single, 2-5-celled; style 1 ; stigmas 2-5 ; ovules ascending or horizontal ; placentas axile and parietal ; fruit capsular or baccate. Chiefly occur in Austra- lasia and Polynesia, also in Japan, China, Africa, and the Madeiras. 5. FAMILY. Vines (Vitaceae). Shrubs, climbing ; wood with numerous dotted ducts ; abound with sap at certain seasons ; lower leaves opposite, upper alternate, stipulate or exsti- pulate ; floral peduncles racemose ; flowers small, green, in thyrses, umbels, or panicles ; calyx small ; petals 4-5 ; aestivation valvate ; stamens 4-5, opposite the petals ; anthers versatile ; ovary 2 - 6-celled ; ovules anatro- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 453 pal ; placenta axile ; style one ; stigma simple ; fruit round, pulpy. Inhabit the temperate and hotter parts of both hemispheres. Valu- able as yielding the Grape- Vine and its vari- ous products, as Grapes, Raisins, Currants, and Wine. (Viniferce, Juss. ; Ampelidece, Kunth.) 6. FAMILY. Berberries (Berberidacese). Shrubs or herbs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers in racemes or panicles ; sepals 3-4-6, decidu- ous ; petals equal to, or twice as many as, sepals ; stamens equal and opposite to petals ; anther-valves recurved; carpel 1 -celled; ovules anatropal ; placentae sutural ; style sometimes lateral ; stigma orbicular ; fruit baccate or capsular. Occur chiefly in moun- tainous districts of northern temperate re- gions, but also in South America. 7. FAMILY. Fumitories (Fumariacese). Herbaceous, with a watery juice ; leaves alternate, multi- fid ; flowers irregular, purple, white, or yel- low ; sepals two, deciduous ; petals four, cru- ciate very irregular ; stamens four, distinct, or six, diadelphous; ovary 1 -celled; ovules amphitropal ; placentae parietal; style fili- form; stigma with two or more points; fruit an achgenium, or capsular and 2-seeded, or a many-seeded pod. Occur principally in northern temperate climes. 8. FAMILY. Sundews (Droseracese). Herbaceous, delicate ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; verna- 454 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. tion circinnate ; sepals five, persistent ; petals five ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens equal to, and alternate with, the petals, or ten, or more; ovary single; styles 3-5; ovules ana- tropal ; placentae parietal ; fruit capsular, 3-5-valved. Inhabit marshy spots in North and South America, South Africa, Mada- gascar, India, China, Australia, and Europe. Some possess irritable hairs on the leaves, as Dioncea muscipula, called Venus' Fly-trap, the opposite laminae of the leaves of which suddenly close when the hairs are touched, enclosing small insects or other rude aggressors. VIII. ORDER RANALS (Kanales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; stamens indefinite ; placentae sutural or axile ; embryo minute, enclosed in abundant fleshy or horny albumen. 1. FAMILY. Poppies (Papaveraceas). Herbs or shrubs ; often milky ; leaves alternate, ex- stipulate ; peduncles long, 1 -flowered ; flowers dimerous or trimerous, never blue ; sepals 2-3, deciduous ; petals usually four, cruciate; anthers dithecal; ovary 1 -celled; placentas parietal ; ovules anatropal ; style short, or none ; stigmas two or many ; fruit pod-shaped with two, or capsular with several parietal placenta?. Chiefly a European family, but occurring also in Siberia, China, Japan, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, and tropical America. The most important MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 455 plant is Papaver somniferum, the concrete milky juice from the unripe capsules of which constitutes opium. 2. FAMILY. American Pitcher-plants (Sarraceni- aceae). Herbaceous, perennial ; leaves radical ; petioles folded and coherent, forming hol- low tubes ; scapes one or more flowered ; sepals and petals five, or perianth 4-6-leaved ; anthers dithecal; ovary 3-5-celled; ovules anatropal ; placentae axile ; style single ; stigma persistent; fruit capsular, 2-5-celled. Occur in North American marshes, and also in Guiana. 3. FAMILY. Cephalotads (Cephalotaceae). Herba- ceous ; stemless ; leaves radical, exstipulate ; scape with a compound, terminal spike ; flowers small ; perianth coloured, 6-parted ; aestivation valvate ; stamens twelve ; carpels six, distinct, 1 -seeded ; ovule erect; fruit con- sisting of membranous achsenia. Contains a solitary Australian genus. 4 FAMILY. Crowfoots (Ranunculaceae). Herbs, rarely shrubs ; leaves alternate or opposite, with dilated, sheathing petioles ; inflores- ence variable ; flowers usually conspicuous ; sepals 3-6, deciduous, aestivation mostly im- bricate ; petals 3-1 5, rarely abortive ; stamens very rarely definite ; carpels numerous, 1- celled, distinct, or united into a single many- celled pistil ; ovary one or more seeded ; ovules anatropal ; styles simple ; fruit dry 456 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. achsenia, or baccate, or follicular ; albumen horny; seeds exarillate. Chiefly occur in Europe, but found also in North America, and sparingly in South America, Africa, In- dia, and New Holland. Most of the plants are more or less poisonous, as the species of Ranunculus, Aconite, Stavesacre, Black- Hellebore, &c. 5. FAMILY. Dilleniads (Dilleniacese). Trees, shrubs, or under-shrubs, rarely herbs ; leaves alter- nate, exstipulate ; flowers in terminal ra- cemes, or in panicles, often yellow ; sepals five, persistent ; petals five, imbricated ; sta- mens distinct or polyadelphous; filaments dilated at the base or apex ; ovaries definite, more or less distinct ; ovules anatropal ; style terminal ; stigma simple j fruit of 2-5-capsular or baccate unilocular carpels, which are dis- tinct or coherent ; albumen fleshy ; seeds arillate. Inhabit Australasia, India, Central America, and also Equinoctial Africa. 6. FAMILY. Custard-Apples (Anonacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers axillary, solitary, or two or three together, green or brown ; sepals 8-4, persistent, often partially coherent ; petals six ; aestivation valvate ; stamens packed closely together ; carpels usually numerous, separate or cohe- rent ; ovules anatropal ; styles short ; stigmas simple ; fruit succulent or dry, the carpels 1- or many-seeded, distinct or united; seeds MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 457 sometimes arillate ; albumen ruminate. In- habit tropical countries in both hemispheres. Some yield edible fruits, as the Custard-apples from species of Anona. Lance-wood is ob- tained in Guiana from Duguetia quitarensis. 7. FAMILY. Magnoliads (Magnoliacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipules deciduous, convolute ; flowers solitary, often odoriferous; sepals 2-6, deciduous ; petals 2-30, imbricate ; stamens distinct ; carpels numerous, 1 -celled; ovules anatropal styles short ; fruit dry or succulent, of numerous carpels, which are dis- tinct or partially cohering ; albumen fleshy ; seeds frequently arillate. Principally inhabit North America, but also South America, the West Indies, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, China, and the East Indies. The most im- portant product is " Winter VBark/' which is used medicinally. IX. OEDER NYMPHALS (Nymphales). Flowers dichlamydeous ; stamens indefinite ; pla- centae axile or sutural; embryo on the outside of abundant albumen, or if exalbuminous, the seeds have a large plumule. 1. FAMILY. Sacred-Beans (Nelumbiacese). Herbs; leaves peltate, floating ; trunk prostrate ; flowers showy; sepals 4-5; petals numer- ous ; stamens in several rows ; filaments pe- taloid ; torus large, fleshy, elevated, enclos- ing in hollows of its surface numerous 1- 458 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. seeded carpels ; style very short ; stigma simple ; ovule anatropal ; nuts numerous, half buried in the hollows of the torus ; albu- men none. Found in quiet waters in tem- perate or tropical regions, especially in India, Said to have disappeared from Egypt, where it was formerly common. The flower of Nelumbium speciosium is supposed to have been the "Lotus" of the ancient Egyptians and Indians, and its fruit to have been the " Egyptian Bean" of Pythagoras. 2. FAMILY. Water-shields (Cabombaceae). Herba- ceous ; leaves floating, peltate j flowers axil- lary, solitary, yellow or purple ; sepals 3-4 ; petals 3-4, alternate with the sepals ; stamens definite or indefinite ; torus inconspicuous ; carpels two, or more; ovules orthotropal; stig- mas simple ; fruit indehiscent, tipped with the indurated styles; albumen abundant. American aquatic plants ; but said to occur also on the coast of New-Holland. 3. FAMILY. Water-lillies (Nymphaeacese). Herbs; trunk prostrate ; leaves fleshy, peltate or cordate ; flowers showy, often sweet-scented ; sepals usually four, persistent, sometimes con- founded with the petals ; petals numerous, deciduous, often passing gradually into sta- mens; stamens numerous; filaments peta- loid ; torus large, fleshy ; ovary many-celled ; ovules anatropal ; placentas dissepimental ; stigmas radiating ; fruit many-celled, inde- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 459 hiscent ; albumen farinaceous. Aquatic, floating plants. Common throughout the northern Hemisphere, but rare in the south- ern ; in South America they are represented by the gigantic Victoria Regina. X. ORDER. GUTTIFERALS (Guttiferales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; calyx imbricated ; corolla imbricated or contorted ; stamens indefinite ; placentae axile ; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Reaumuriads (Reaumuriacese). Shrub- by; leaves alternate, exstipulate, scale-like, glandular ; calyx 5-partite ; petals five, un- equal-sided ; stamens definite or indefinite, monadelphous or polyadelphous ; anthers in- trorse ; carpels free, 2-4-5 ; ovules anatropal ; styles long, distinct ; fruit capsular, 2-5-valved, 2-5-celled ; seeds definite, shaggy. Occur on the coasts of the Mediterranean, and in salt plains in mild parts of Northern Asia. 2. FAMILY. Tutsans (Hypericacese). Herbs, shrubs, or trees ; juice resinous ; leaves usually oppo- site, exstipulate, dotted ; inflorescence vari- able ; flowers yellow, red, or white ; sepals 4-5, persistent, unequal ; petals 4-5, oblique, often with black dots ; aestivation contorted ; stamens usually polyadelphous ; carpels 2-5 ; ovules mostly anatropal ; styles long, usually distinct ; stigmas truncate or capitate ; fruit capsular, dry or fleshy, many-valved, many- x 2 460 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. celled ; seeds numerous, naked. Distribution general. 3. FAMILY. Harcgraaviads (Marcgraaviacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers in umbels, racemes, or terminal spikes, usually bracteate ', sepals 2-7, persistent ; co- rolla of five petals, or gamopetalous ; filaments dilated at the base ; anthers versatile ; ovary 1- or many - celled ; style single ; stigmas simple j fruit succulent, capsular, or coria- ceous, dehiscent or indehiscent ; seeds numer- ous, minute. Natives of Equinoctial America ; a doubtful genus (Antholoma), is found in New Caledonia. 4. FAMILY. Gamboges (Clusiacese). Trees or shrubs ; juice resinous ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; flowers axillary or terminal, articulated with the peduncle, occasionally unisexual, white, pink, or red ; sepals 2-5-6-8, usually persis- tent, often unequal; petals equals to, or a multiple of, the sepals ; stamens rarely defi- nite ; anthers adnate, beakless ; ovary 1- or many-celled ; ovules orthotropal or anatropal ; style none or very short ; stigmas sessile or nearly so, radiate ; fruit dry or fleshy, dehis- cent or indehiscent ; seeds definite. Natives of tropical countries, principally South Ame- rica. The principal products of this family are the various kinds of Gamboge, yielded by species of Hebradendron and Garcinia. (Gut- tiferce, Juss.) MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 461 5. FAMILY. Souari-nuts (Caryocaracese). Large trees ; leaves opposite, exstipulate, digitate ; flowers large, racemose ; sepals 5-6, more or less combined ; petals 5-8 ; aestivation imbri- cate ; stamens slightly monadelphous ; an- thers roundish ; ovary 4-5-celled ; ovules semi-anatropal ; stigmas sessile ; fruit of se- veral indehiscent, 1 -celled, 1 -seeded nuts, with a thick double endocarp ; embryo with a very large radicle. Inhabit warm South American forests. Souari-nuts are produced by Caryocar butyrosum. 6. FAMILY. Tea-plants (Ternstromiacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate, occa- sionally dotted ; peduncles axillary or termi- nal ; flowers usually white ; sepals 5-7, deci- duous ; petals 5-6-9, often combined at the base ; anthers versatile or adnate ; ovary multilocular ; styles 2-7, more or less com- bined ; fruit capsular, 2-7-celled, opening by valves, or coriaceous and indehiscent ; seeds few, large. Abundant in North and South America, India, and China. The principal plant is that affording Tea, now in this coun- try, become quite a necessary of life. It is not quite settled whether the varieties of tea, namely, the green and the black, are the products of one or of different species. (The- acece, Mirbel.) 7. FAMILY. Scrubby-Oaks (Lophiracese). Trees; bark dry ; leaves alternate ; stipules very 462 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. small, deciduous ; flowers axillary and ter- minal, panicled, yellow ; peduncles bracteate ; sepals five, unequal ; petals five ; aestivation contorted ; anthers adnate ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules indefinite ; stigmas two, very small, twisted ; nut coriaceous, 1 -celled, consolidated with the enlarged calyx. Contains one tropical African genus. 8. FAMILY. Borneo-Camphors (Dipterocarpacese). Large trees ; juice resinous; leaves alternate, vernation involute, stipules deciduous ; flowers large, racemes terminal and panicled, or axillary and solitary ; calyx tubular, 5- lobed, unequal, persistent ; petals sessile, often combined at the base, aestivation twisted ; anthers innate, subulate ; ovary 3-celled ; style and stigma simple ; fruit coriaceous, 1 -celled, 3-valved, or indehiscent. Natives of India and the Indian Archipelago. Among the products are Borneo-Camphor, Gum-Animi, Piney- Varnish, Wood-Oil, &c. (Dipteracece, Lindley.) XL ORDER SAPINDALS (Sapindales). Flowers monodichlamydeous, unsymmetrical ; ca- lyx and corolla imbricate ; stamens definite ; pla- centae axile ; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Erythroxyls (Erythroxylaceae). Shrubs or trees ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers small; peduncles axillary, solitary or clus- tered; sepals five, persistent; petals five, with a MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 463 small scale at the base ; stamens ten, mona- delphous; ovary 3-celled; styles three, distinct or united; stigmas three, capitate; ovules sessile, pendulous; fruit drupaceous, 1 -seeded; embryo straight ; albumen sometimes none. Natives of South America and the West Indies ; but occur sparingly also in the East Indies, the Isle of France, Madagascar, and in New Holland. 2. FAMILY. Malpighiads (Malpighiacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves mostly opposite, stipulate ; hairs, when present, peltate ; inflorescence variable ; flowers unisexual or bisexual, mostly red or yellow ', calyx 5-partite, per- sistent, aestivation usually quincuncial; petals five, aestivation convolute ; stamens generally ten, often monadelphous ; ovary of three carpels, more or less combined ; ovules with a long pendulous cord ; styles three, dis- tinct or united ; stigmas three, simple ; fruit drupaceous, nut like, or samaroid ; embyro convolute. Tropical plants, mostly South American and West Indian, occur also in Africa, Arabia,India, China, and Polynesia. 3. FAMILY. Maples (Aceracese). Trees ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; flowers often poly- gamous, axillary, corymbose or racemose; calyx mostly 5-divided ; petals five, or 0; sta- mens generally eight ; ovary 2-lobed, 2-celled ; ovules amphitropal, pendulous j style one ; stigmas two ; fruit samaroid ; seeds exarillate ; 464 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. embryo curved. Occur in Europe, temperate parts of Asia, and North America. Among the species are the Sugar-Maple, and the Sycamore, or Great-Maple. 4. FAMILY. Guinea-hen Weeds (Petiveriacese). Under-shrubsor herbs ; odour often alliaceous ; leaves alternate, stipulate, often dotted ; flowers racemose or panicled, apetalous ; pe- rianth of several distinct leaves ; stamens often indefinite ; ovary 1 -celled; ovule erect; style one; stigma lateral; fruit 1 -celled, inde- hiscent, wingless or winged ; embryo usually straight. Natives of tropical America or the West Indies. 5. FAMILY. Soap-Worts (Sapindacese). Trees, twining shrubs, or rarely herbs ; leaves alter- nate, exstipulate, often dotted ; flowers in racemes or racemose panicles, small, mostly white or pink; calyx 4-5-partite, or 4-5- leaved ; petals 4-5, naked, or with an appen- dage inside ; stamens 8-10, sometimes 5-6-7, rarely 20; disk fleshy; ovary 3-celled; ovules anatropal ; style undivided, or 2-3-cleffc ; fruit capsular, and 2-3-valved, or samaroid, or fleshy and indehi scent ; seeds usually arillate; embryo curved or twisted. Tropi- cal species ; chiefly found in India and South America. Contain many poisonous plants, but yield some edible fruits. Among the products are Soap-berries, Horse-chesnuts, Guarana, &c. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 465 6. FAMILY. Bladder-nuts (Staphyleacese). Shrubs; leaves opposite, stipulate ; flowers racemose, terminal, stalked; sepals five, coloured; petals and stamens five, alternate ; disk large, urceo- late ; ovary 2-3-celled ; ovules usually ascend- ing; styles 2-3, coherent at the base; fruit membranous or fleshy, indehiscent or opening internally ; albumen little or none. Distribu- tion irregular, in Europe, North and South America, the West Indies, India, and Japan. 7. FAMILY. Vochysiads (Vochysiacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves opposite, stipulate ; flowers in terminal panicles or racemes ; sepals 4-5, unequal ; petals 1-2-3-5, alternate, equal ; stamens 1-5, usually opposite, one having an ovate, fertile, 4-celled anther, and the others barren ; ovary 3-celled ; ovules amphitropal or anatropal ; style and stigma 1 ; fruit cap- sular, triquetrous, 3-celled, 3-valved; embryo straight. Inhabit equinoctial America. (Vo- chyacece, Lindley.) 8. FAMILY. Milk-Worts (Polygalacese). Shrubs or herbs ; leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate ; flowers usually racemose ; pedicels with three bracts ; sepals five, distinct, very irregular ; pe- tals three or five, unequal ; stamens usually eight, monadelphous or diadelphous ; anthers 1 -celled, dehiscence by pores ; ovary mostly 2-celled ; ovules anatropal ; style and stigma simple ; fruit indehiscent, or with loculicidal dehiscence ; seeds carunculate ; albumen abun- x 5 466 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. dant ; embryo straight. Distribution general. Among the products are Snake-root (Senega) and Rhatany-root (Kra/meria). (Krameria- cece, Martius.) 9. FAMILY. Pore- Forte (Tremandraceae). Shrubs; slender, heath-like ; leaves alternate or ver- ticillate, exstipulate ; pedicels 1 -flowered ; se- pals 4-5, equal, deciduous, aestivation val- vate ; petals 4-5 ; aestivation in volute ; stamens 8 -10 ; anthers 2-4-celled, dehiscence porous ; ovary 2-celled ; ovules anatropal ; styles and stigmas 1 -2 ; fruit capsular, 2-celled, 2-valved ; embryo cylindrical; albumen fleshy. An Australian family. XII. ORDER MALVALS (Malvales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; calyx valvate ; corolla imbricated or twisted ; stamens definite or indefinite ; placentae axile ; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Linden-blooms (Tiliaceae). Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs ; leaves alternate, stipu- late ; sepals and petals 4-5 ; stamens gene- rally indefinite and distinct ; ovary of 2 - 10 carpels ; style one ; stigmas as many as the carpels ; ovules anatropal ; fruit dry or pulpy, often prickly ; embryo straight ; albumen fleshy. Tropical plants. Russian mats are made from the inner bark of the Linden-tree. 2. FAMILY. Mallows (Malvaceae). Herbs, shrubs, or trees ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; hairs, if present, stellate ; peduncles usually axillary ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 467 flowers showy; sepals five, rarely three or four ; petals equal in number to the sepals ; aestiva- tion twisted ; stamens 0, all perfect ; fila- ments monadelphous ; anthers 1 -celled, dehis- cence transverse ; ovary of several carpels united round a common axis ; styles as many as carpels ; stigmas variable ; fruit capsular or baccate ; embryo curved ; albumen none. Abundant in tropical and in warmer tem- perate climes. Common-Mallow (Malva) and Marsh-Mallow (Althcea) are used medicinally ; but by far the most important genus is Gos- sypium, the source of the cotton of com- merce. 3. FAMILY. Indian-Cresses (Tropseolacese). Her- baceous, smooth; leaves alternate, exstipu- late ; peduncles axillary, 1 -flowered ; flowers showy ; sepals 3-5, the upper spurred ; petals 1-5, more or less unequal; stamens 6-10, distinct ; disk none ; ovary of 3 or 5 carpels ; style single; stigmas 3-5, acute; ovules erect or pendulous ; fruit indehiscent, usually of three pieces ; seeds exalbuminous ; embryo large. Natives of temperate parts of North and South America. 4. FAMILY. Vivianiads (Vivianiacese). Herbaceous or suffruticose; leaves opposite or verticillate, exstipulate, often downy ; flowers in panicles or corymbs ; calyx 10-ribbed, 5-divided ; petals five ; persistent ; sestivation twisted ; stamens ten, distinct ; disk none ; ovary S- 468 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. celled ; stigmas three, sessile ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved ; embryo curved ; albumen fleshy. Natives of Southern Brazil and of Chili. 5. FAMILY. Cacao-plants (Byttneriacese). Trees, shrubs, or under-shrubs ; leaves alternate ; stipules deciduous or ; flowers in clusters, spikes, or panicles ; calyx 4-n-lobed ; petals 4-5, or ; stamens equal to, or some mul- tiple of, the petals, more or less monadelph- ous, some sterile ; anthers 2-celled, introrse ; ovary of 4-10 carpels ; ovules anatropal ; styles terminal, as many as the carpels ; fruit capsular ; embryo straight or curved ; albu- men fleshy. Chiefly tropical or sub-tropical plants in Asia, Africa, America, and Austra- lasia. The principal plant is the Cacao-tree (Theobroma Cacao), yielding chocolate and cocoa. 6. FAMILY. Silk-cotton Plants (Sterculiaceae). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipules decidu- ous ; inflorescence variable ; flowers occasion- ally unisexual ; calyx naked or involucrate, sepals five ; petals five or ; stamens indefinite, perfect, monadelphous ; anthers 2-celled, ex- trorse; pistil of five, rarely three, carpels, dis- tinct or cohering ; ovules orthotropal or ana- tropal ; fruit capsular, follicular, or succulent ; embryo straight or curved ; albumen oily or fleshy. Distribution tropical, extensive. This family boasts of one of the largest trees MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 469 known, namely, the Baobab-tree of Senegal (Adansonia digitata). XIII. ORDER. CISTALS (Cistales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; placentae parietal or sutural ; embryo curved or spiral ; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Gaper-plants (Capparidacese). Herbs, shrubs, or trees ; leaves alternate, exstipu- late, or with spines at the base ; flowers soli- tary or racemose ; sepals four, often partial- ly coherent ; petals 4-8 or 0, usually un- equal ; stamens 4-6 or 0, on an elon- gated hemispherical torus ; ovary 1 -celled ; placentae parietal ; ovules amphitropal or campylotropal ; style 0, or filiform ; stigma generally round ; fruit pod-shaped and de- hiscent, or fleshy and indehiscent ; seeds exalbuminous ; embryo curved. Tropical genera widely distributed, but especially abundant in Africa. Mostly stimulant ; the flower-buds of Capparis spinosa constitute " capers/' 2. FAMILY. Mignonettes (Luteolacese). Herbs, rarely shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipules minute, gland-like ; flowers in racemes or spikes ; calyx many-parted ; petals 4-6, un- equal; torus glandular; stamens 10-24; ovary 3-lobed, 1 -celled ; placentae parietal ; ovules amphitropal or campulitropal ; stigmas three ; fruit dry and membranous, or succu- 470 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. lent, opening at the point ; seeds exalbumin- ous ; embryo taper. Inhabit Europe and Western Asia, also Southern Africa and Cali- fornia. (Resedacece, De Cand.) 3. FAMILY. Cruciferous - plants (Brassicacese). Herbs, rarely under -shrubs j leaves alter- nate ; flowers generally racemose, usually yellow or white ; sepals four, deciduous, val- vate or imbricate ; petals four, cruciate, alter- nate ; stamens six, tetradynamous ; torus glandular ; ovary 1 -celled ; placentae parietal ; stigmas two ; fruit a silique or a silicule, 1- celled, usually dehiscing by two valves ; al- bumen none. Chiefly European, but found also more sparingly in most temperate and sub-tropical countries. Most are anti-scor- butic ; comprise many well-known plants, as the Cabbage, Cauliflower, Turnip, Kadish, Cress, Horse-radish. Mustard, Scurvy-grass, Woad, &c. (Cruciferce, Juss.) 4. FAMILY. Rock -Roses (Cistaceae). Shrubs or herbs ; leaves opposite or' alternate, stipulate or exstipulate ; flowers racemose, white, yel- low, or red, very fugacious ; sepals 3-5, per- sistent, unequal ; petals five, rarely three, caducous, twisted in an opposite way to that of the sepals ; stamens usually indefinite, dis- tinct ; ovary syncarpous, 1- or many-celled ; ovules orthotropal; style single; stigma sim- ple ; fruit capsular, 8-5-10-valved ; embryo inverted, spiral or curved ; albumen horny. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. 471 Chiefly inhabit Southern Europe and North- ern Africa. XIY. ORDER VIOLALS (Violates). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; placentae parietal or sutural ; embryo straight ; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Tiwnerads (Turneraceae). Herbaceous or shrubby ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers axillary; calyx 5-lobed, equal, aestiva- tion imbricate ; petals five, mostly yellowish, perigynous, equal, aestivation twisted ; sta- mens five, alternate; ovary 1 -celled; placentae parietal ; ovules 00, anatropal ; styles more or less coherent, or forked ; stigmas nmltifid ; fruit capsular, 1- celled, 3-valved ; albumen fleshy. Found in South America and the West-Indies. 2. FAMILY House-leeks (Crassulaceae). Herbs or shrubs, often succulent ; leaves entire or pin- natifid, exstipulate ; flowers in cymes ; sepals 3-20; corolla gamopetalous, or petals 3-20; stamens equal to, or twice as many as, petals ; carpels same number as petals ; ovules 00, anatropal ; styles several or combined ; stigmas pointed or 4-cornered j fruit of se- veral follicles ; albumen fleshy. Distribution extended, occurring in very dry situations, as on rocks, walls, &c. 3. FAMILY. Sauvagesiads (Sauvagesiaceae). Shrubs or herbs ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers terminal, in panicles or racemes, light-co- loured ; sepals, five, imbricated ; petals five ; 472 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. aestivation convolute ; stamens definite and fertile, or indefinite, partly fertile and partly petaloid ; anthers extrorse ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules anatropal; placentae parietal; style terminal ; stigma simple ; fruit capsular, 3- valved; albumen fleshy. Natives of South America and the West Indies. 4. FAMILY. Tamarisks (Tamaricacese). Shrubs or herbs ; leaves alternate, scale-like ; flowers racemose or spiked ; calyx 4-5-partite ; petals 4-5 ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens equal to, or twice as many as, the petals, distinct or monadelphous ; anthers introrse ; ovary 1 - celled ; styles three ; ovules anatropal ; fruit capsular, 3-valved, 1 -celled ; seeds numerous, comose ; albumen none. Peculiar to the Eastern half of the Northern Hemisphere. Mount Sinai manna is obtained from Tama- rix mannifera. 5. FAMILY. Frankeniads (Frankeniaceae). Herbs or under-shrubs ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; flowers sessile, terminal ; sepals 4-5, cohering into a furrowed tube; petals 4-5, alternate; stamens usually equal to, and alternate with, petals ; anthers versatile ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules anatropal ; placentae parietal ; style filiform; fruit capsular, 1-celled, 2-3-4- valved; seeds numerous ; albumen fleshy. Natives of Southern Europe and Northern Africa, also of the Cape of Good Hope and Australia. 6. FAMILY. Violets (Violaceae). Herbs or shrubs ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 473 leaves mostly alternate, stipulate ; vernation involute ; inflorescence various ; sepals five, persistent, equal ; aestivation imbricated ; petals five, equal or unequal ; aestivation obliquely convolute ; stamens five, alternate ; anthers introrse ; filaments dilated ; ovary 1 -celled; ovules anatropal; placentae parie- tal ; style single ; stigma oblique-hooded ; fruit capsular, 3-valved ; albumen fleshy. The herbaceous species are more abundant in northern temperate countries, while those which are shrubby inhabit South America and India. 7. FAMILY. Ben-nuts (Moringaceae). Trees ; leaves 2 3-pinnate, stipulate ; flowers irregular, in loose panicles ; calyx 5-partite ; petals five, unequal; stamens 8-10, perigynous ; fila- ments rather petaloid ; anthers 1 -celled ; ovary 1 -celled; placentae parietal ; ovules ana- tropal ; style filiform ; stigma simple ; fruit capsular, pod-like, 1 -celled, 3-valved : seeds numerous ; albumen none. Natives of Arabia and India. The seeds of Noringa ptery- gosperma are the " Ben -nuts " of authors ; they yield a fluid oil named " Oil of Ben/' 8. FAMILY. Crown-worts (Malesherbiaceae). Herbs or half-shrubs ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers axillary or terminal, solitary ; calyx tubular, 5-lobed ; aestivation imbricate ; petals five, alternate, coronetted, persistent, aestiva- tion convolute; stamens 5-10, perigynous; 474 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. anthers versatile ; ovary 1 -celled ; placentae parietal ; ovules anatropal ; styles three, very long, -dorsal; stigmas clavate; fruit capsular, 1 -celled, 3-valved ; seeds exarillate ; albumen abundant. Natives of Peru and Chili. 9. FAMILY Passion-flowers (Passifloraceae). Herbs or shrubs, generally climbing; leaves alter- nate, stipulate ; flowers axillary or terminal ; sepals five ; petals usually five, perigynous ; aestivation imbricate ; stamens five, mona- delphous, surrounding the stalk of the ovary ; anthers extrorse ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules anatropal ; placentae parietal ; styles three, clavate ; stigmas dilated ; fruit stipitate, 1 -celled, often 3-valved; seeds arillate; al- bumen fleshy. Chiefly occur in South America and the West Indies ; found also in North America, Africa, and the East Indies. ] 0. FAMILY. Samyds (Samydaceae). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, evergreen, stipulate, with linear, pellucid dots ; peduncles axil- lary, solitary or numerous ; perianth 4-5- divided, usually coloured inside ; aestivation somewhat imbricate ; stamens arising from tube of perianth, two, three, or four times as many as its divisions, all fertile or the alter- nate ones sterile; filaments monadelphous at the base ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 1-celled ; ovules semi-anatropal ; placentae parietal; style filiform ; stigma capitate or slightly lobed ; fruit coriaceous, capsular, 1-celled, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 475 3-5-valved ; seeds arillate ; albumen oily or fleshy. Principally from tropical America; a few are African or Asiatic. 11. FAMILY. Lacistemads (Lacistemacese). Shrubs or small trees; leaves alternate, exstipulate (?) ; flowers amentaceous, polygamous ; perianth in several narrow divisions, covered by an enlarged bract ; stamen one, unilateral ; anther 2-celled (?) ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules anatropal; placentae parietal; stigmas 2-3, sessile or on a style ; fruit capsular, 1 -celled, 2-3-valved; seed arillate ; albumen fleshy. Natives of Equinoctial America. 12. FAMILY. Bixads (Flacourtiacese). Shrubs or small trees ; leaves alternate, exstipulate, often dotted ; peduncles axillary, many-flowered ; sepals 4-7; petals 4 -7, alternate, or none ; sta- mens equal to, or some multiple of, the petals; ovary sessile or nearly so, 1-or more-celled ; placentae parietal ; style filiform or none ; stigmas several; fruit 1 -celled, fleshy and indehiscent, or capsular and 4-5-valved; albumen fleshy. Chiefly occur in hot parts of the East and West Indies and Africa, also at the Cape of Good Hope, and in New Zealand. " Arnotto " is supplied by the reddish pulp surrounding the seeds of Bixa Orellana. II. SUB-CLASS. DiCLiNOUs-ExoGENS (Diclinese). Flowers unisexual, without any customary ten- dency to hermaphroditism. 476 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. I. ORDER PAPAYALS (Papayales). Flowers dichlamydeous ; carpels superior, con- solidated; placentae parietal; embryo surrounded by abundant albumen. 1. FAMILY. Pangiads (Pangiacese). Trees; leaves alternate; flowers axillary ; sepals and petals mostly five; scales equal to, and opposite, the petals ; male stamens five or 00, sterile stamens equal to the petals ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules indefinite ; fruit capsular, succulent, indehiscent, 1 -celled ; seeds 00. Natives of hot parts of India. 2. FAMILY. Papaws (Papayacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate ; flowers in axillary racemes or solitary ; calyx 5-toothed ; corolla mono- petalous, 5-lobed ; scales in throat of female flowers wanting ; stamens definite ; ovary 1 -celled ; stigma 3 5-lobed j fruit succulent or dehiscent, 1 -celled. Inhabit South Ame- rica, also temperate and tropical parts of the Old World. II. ORDER CUCURBITALS (Cucurbitales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; fruit inferior ; pla- centse parietal ; embryo without albumen. 1, FAMILY. Begoniads (Begoniacese). Herbs or under-shrubs ; leaves alternate ; stipules large, scarious ; flowers cymose, pink ; peri- anth adherent, segments coloured, four in the male, and 4-8 in the female ; stamens inde- finite ; anthers collected in a head ; ovary MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 477 3-celled ; ovules 00, anatropal ; placentae axile ; stigmas three, sessile ; fruit capsular, mem- branous, triangular, winged ; seeds 0. Na- tives of the East and West Indies, South America, and also Africa. 2. FAMILY. Datiscads (Datiscacese). Herbs or trees ; leaves alternate, exstipulate ; flowers in axillary racemes, or terminal panicles ; / male flowers, perianth 3 4-divided, stamens 3-7 ; anthers 2-eelled ; female, perianth ad- herent, 3 4-toothed ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules 0, anatropal \ stigmas 3-4, opposite lobes of perianth ; fruit capsular, 1 -celled ; seeds strophiolate. Distribution scattered over North America, Siberia, Northern India, the Indian Archipelago, and South-Eastern Europe. 3. FAMILY. Gourds (Cucurbitacese). Herbaceous, climbing by tendrils formed of abortive stipules ; leaves alternate, usually palmate ; flowers unisexual, light-coloured ; calyx 5- toothed ; corolla 5-parted ; stamens five, dis- tinct, or variously united ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary adherent, 1 -celled; ovules solitary or 00 ; stigmas very thick ; fruit a pepo ; seeds flat. Natives chiefly of sub-tropical and warm-temperate regions, especially India. Among the products are the melon, cucumber, gourd, pumpkin, vegetable-marrow, also colo- cynth and elaterium. 478 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. III. OKDEK. MENISPERMALS (Menispermales). Flowers monodichlamydeous ; carpels superior, disunited; embryo surrounded by abundant al- bumen. 1. FAMILY. Moonseeds (Menispermacese). Shrubs, sarmentaceous ; wood frequently arranged in wedges ; leaves alternate, entire ; flowers very small, racemose, often dioecious ; sepals and petals undistinguishable, in several rows, deciduous ; stamens usually monadelphous ; anthers extrorse ; carpels solitary or nu- merous ; ovule amphitropal ; fruit drupa- ceous, 1 -seeded, oblique or lunate; embryo large, curved or periphericaL Common in tropical Asia and America, a few also in Africa. Yield Calumba-root, Pareira-brava, and Coculus-indicus. 2. FAMILY. Kadsurads (Schizandracese). Shrubs, scrambling ; leaves alternate, simple, exsti- pulate, often dotted ; flowers small, solitary or axillary ; sepals 3-6 ; petals 3-9, hypo- gynous ; stamens 0, monadelphous or free ; anthers extrorse ; carpels 0, free or adhe- rent, 1 -celled ; ovules 2, pendulous ; stigma sessile; fruit numerous, berried, i-2-seeded; seeds pendulous ; embryo very small. Occur in India and the Indian islands, Japan, and hot parts of North America. 3. FAMILY. Lardizabalads (Lardizabalacese). Shrubs, twining; leaves alternate, exstipu- MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. 479 late, compound; flowers racemose, solitary or clustered ; sepals 3-6, in two rows ; petals six, in two rows, opposite, or ; stamens six, opposite ; anthers mostly extrorse ; rudi- mentary ovaries in male flowers ; female flowers larger, with six imperfect stamens ; carpels mostly 3, 1 -celled ; ovules many ; style short ; stigma simple ; fruit short- stalked, berried, usually many-seeded ; seeds parietal embryo minute. Found in tem- perate parts of South America, and in China. 4. FAMILY. Nutmegs (Myristicacese). Trees ; leaves alternate, exstipulate, not dotted ; inflo- rescence axillary or terminal, in racemes, glomerules, or panicles ; flowers very small, completely unisexual ; perianth trifid, rarely quadrifid, deciduous in the female ; aestiva- tion valvate; stamens 3-12; filaments often united into a cylinder ; anthers extrorse ; ovary of one or more carpels ; ovule anatropal ; style very short ; stigma somewhat lobed ; fruit succulent, 1 -celled, 2-valved ; albumen ruminate; embryo small. Natives of tropical India and America. The chief species is Myristica officinalis, affording mace and nutmegs. 5. FAMILY. Plume-nutmegs (Atherospermacese). Trees; leaves opposite, exstipulate; flowers axillary, racemose, rarely bisexual ; perianth tubular, divided at the top into segments, usually in two rows, the inner petaloid, and 480 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. in the females with scales ; stamens 0, but fewer in the female ; anthers 2-celled, with valvular dehiscence ; ovaries usually ; ovule erect ; style and stigmas simple ; fruit consisting of achsenia, enclosed within tube of perianth ; seed erect ; embryo minute. Natives of Australia and of Chili. 6. FAMILY. Monimiads (Monimiacese). Trees or shrubs, aromatic ; leaves opposite, exstipu- late ; flowers axillary ; perianth somewhat globose, divided at the border ; stamens 0, perigynous ; anthers with longitudinal de- hiscence ; ovaries several, 1 -celled ; ovule anatropal ; fruit of several 1 -seeded achsenia, enclosed within the enlarged perianth ; seed pendulous ; embryo minute, external to the albumen. Mostly occur in South American forests, a few also in Madagascar, the Mau- ritius, Java, Australia, and New Zealand. TY. ORDER GAJIRYALS (Garryales). Flowers monochlamydeous, sometimes amenta- ceous ; fruit inferior ; embryo minute, in a large quantity of albumen. 1. FAMILY. Helwingiads (Helwingiacese). Shrub- by ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers fasci- cled ; perianth 3-4-partite, segments deciduous in the female ; aestivation valvate ; stamens 3-4, alternate ; anthers introrse ; ovary 3-4- celled ; ovules anatropal ; style very short ; stigmas 3-4, subulate ; fruit drupaceous, 3-4- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 481 celled ; seeds pendulous. A single Japanese genus, with but one known species. 2. FAMILY. Garryads (Garryacese). Shrubs ; leaves opposite, exstipulate ; flowers in pen- dulous, amentaceous racemes ; wood without distinct zones ; male perianth 4-partite ; fe- male perianth superior, 2-toothed ; stamens four, alternate with segments of perianth ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules two, pendulous ; styles two ; fruit baccate, indehiscent ; seeds two. Natives of North America and the West Indies. ^ V. ORDER. QUEKNALS (Quernales). Male flowers amentaceous, monochlamydeous ; fruit inferior ; embryo amygdaloid ; albumen none. 1. FAMILY. Walnuts (Juglandacese). Trees ; leaves alternate, not dotted, exstipulate ; flowers her- baceous, inconspicuous ; male flowers amen- taceous ; perianth membranous, irregularly lobed ; stamens 3 or ; anthers erect, 2- celled ; female flowers in terminal clusters or loose racemes; perianth single or double, the outer 3-5-partite ; ovary adherent, ] -celled ; ovule erect, orthotropal ; styles 1-2 ; stigmas 2-4, unequal ; fruit drupaceous, sometimes with an adherent involucre. Chiefly North American, but a few inhabit Persia, and the East and West Indies. Afford the black and common walnuts, and hickory wood. 2. FAMILY. Oaks (Corylacese). Trees or shrubs ; 482 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. leaves alternate, stipulate ; male flowers amentaceous ; perianth membranous, valvate ; stamens 3-20 ; female flowers aggregate or amentaceous; ovary 2- or more celled, crowned by remains of the adherent perianth, seated within a coriaceous involucre ; ovules twin or solitary, peltate or pendulous ; stigmas seve- ral, distinct ; fruit bony or membranous, 1- celled, more or less enclosed in the involucre. Inhabit forests in temperate parts of both hemispheres. A very valuable group, em- bracing the oak, beech, hazel-nut, Spanish- chesnut; and affording, besides excellent timber, cork, gall-nuts, Velonia, Quercitron, nuts, filberts, chesnuts, &c. (Quercinece, Juss. Cupuliferce, Rich.) VI. ORDER. EUPHOKBIALS (Euphorbiales). Flowers monodichlamydeous, scattered; carpels superior, consolidated ; placentae axile ; embryo large, surrounded by abundant albumen. 1. FAMILY. Pitcher-plants (Nepenthacese). Herbs, or half-shrubs ; leaves alternate, slightly sheathing at the base, having a dilated, foli- aceous petiole, pitcher-shaped at the extre- mity, with a lid-like lamina ; inflorescence racemose, terminal, dense ; flowers dioecious ; perianth 4-parted; aestivation imbricate; sta- mens united into a solid column ; anthers about sixteen, extrorse ; ovary 4-cornered, 4-celled ; ovules ; stigma sessile ; fruit capsular, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 483 4-celled, 4-valved ; seeds 0, minute, with a loose testa ; radicle inferior. Natives of swamps in the East Indies and China. 2. FAMILY. Bat Ids (Batidacese). Shrubs ; leaves opposite, exstipulate, succulent ; flowers in spikes ; male flowers, scales of cone 1- flowered ; perianth a scale rolled up with its back next the axis, and the edges united ; female flowers absolutely naked (?), or com- posed of succulent scales arranged in a 4- rowed cone ; stamens four; filamen ts flattened j ovary 5-6-celled; ovules erect; stigma sessile ; fruit succulent. Comprises one genus abun- dant in West-Indian salt marshes. 3. FAMILY. Crowberries (Enipetracese). Shrubs, heath-like ; leaves evergreen, alternate or partially verticillate, exstipulate ; perianth of persistent, imbricated scales, the inner often petaloid ; stamens equal to, and alter- nate with, scales in inner row; anthers 2- celled ; ovary seated on a fleshy disk, 3-6-9- celled ; ovules definite, ascending, anatropal ; style one ; stigma with as many radii as there are ovarian cells ; fruit a nuculanium, within the persistent perianth ; radicle inferior. A small group, inhabiting Europe, North Ame- rica, and the straits of Magellan. The fruit of Empetrum nigrum, the black crowberry, which is not unpleasantly acid, is frequently eaten in Northern Europe. 4. FAMILY. Star-worts (Callitrichacese). Herba- T 2 484 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. ceous, small ; leaves opposite ; flowers axil- lary, very minute, monoecious, naked; stamen hypogynous j filament filiform ; anther reni- form, 1-celled, 2-valved j ovary 4-cornered, 4-celled ; ovules definite, suspended, amphi- tropal ; styles two, subulate ; stigmas simple points ; fruit 4-celled, 4-seeded, indehiscent ; radicle superior. Inhabit still-waters in Europe and North America. 5. FAMILY. Scepads (Scepacese). Trees ; leaves alternate, stipules membranous ; flowers dioe- cious ; male /lowers amentaceous ; perianth 4 5 -leaved, imbricated; stamens 2-5; fila- ments short, not elastic ; anthers 2-celled ; female flowers in short axillary racemes ; perianth of six segments in two whorls ; ovary 2-celled ; style ; stigma with two short emarginate lobes, or four equal fringed ones ; ovules in pairs, pendulous, anatropal ; fruit 2-celled, 4-valved ; radicle superior. Forest trees in tropical India. 6. FAMILY. Gyrostemonads (Gyrostemonaceae). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; male flowers, perianth 6~7-lobed ; stamens inde- finite, distinct ; female flowers, perianth cup- shaped, 6-7-lobed ; carpels 00, round a flat torus, 2-seeded ; ovules pendulous, campy lo- tropal; fruit of several membranous cases arranged in a ring ; radicle inferior. Natives of New Holland. 7. FAMILY. Spurges (Ricinaeese). Trees, shrubs, MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 485 or herbs, often with acrid milk ; leaves oppo- site or alternate, often stipulate ; flowers axillary or terminal, variously arranged, sometimes within an involucre ; perianth in- ferior, with various glandular or petaloid, scaly, internal appendages, sometimes want- ing ; stamens definite or 0, distinct or monadelphous ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary ses- sile or stalked, 1-2-3, or many-celled; ovules definite, suspended, anatropal ; sty las equal to the cells, distinct or combined ; stigma compound, or single with several lobes ; fruit usually tricoccous ; radicle superior. A very extensive family, especially abundant in equinoctial America, but occurring also in India and Africa, North America, and Europe. Among the products are euphorbium, man- chineel, cascarilla, castor and croton oils, tapioca, cassava, bottle India-rubber, gum-lac, boxwood, African teak, turnsole, &c. (Eu- phorbiacece, Juss.) VII. ORDER. URTICALS (Urticales). Flowers scattered, monochlamydeous ; carpels single, superior ; embryo large, in a small quantity of albumen. 1. FAMILY. Planes (Platanacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipules sheathing, scarious, deciduous ; flowers in globose catkins, naked, the sexes in distinct catkins ; stamen one, with scales ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 1 -celled ; 486 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. ovules solitary or in pairs, orthotropal ; style subulate ; fruit of compressed clavate nuts, terminated by a recurved style ; radicle in- ferior ; plumule minute. Inhabit Barbary, the Levant, and North America. 2. FAMILY. Bread-fruit trees (Artocarpacege). Trees or shrubs ; lactescent ; leaves alternate, sti- pules large, deciduous ; flowers in dense heads ; male flowers, perianth 2-4-parted, or ; female flowers variously arranged over a fleshy receptacle, perianth tubular ; stamens opposite, and equal to divisions of perianth ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovule erect and orthotropal, amphitropal and parietal, or pendulous and anatropal ; style lateral or terminal, often bifid ; stigma sometimes radi- ating ; fruit variable, surrounded by a fleshy involucre, or composed of consolidated fleshy calyces, containing numerous nuts ; albumen abundant or scanty ; radicle superior. Tro- pical plants in both hemispheres. Among the members are the bread-fruit tree, the cow-tree of Demerara, and the upas-tree Antiaris toxicaria. 3. FAMILY. Mulberries (Moracege). Trees or shrubs ; lactescent ; leaves often rough ; stipules large, often rolled up ; flowers inconspicuous, in heads, spikes, or catkins ; male flowers, perianth 3-4-parted, or ; female flowers, perianth 3- 4- 5-divided, often in two rows; stamens 3-4, opposite ; anthers 2-celled ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 487 ovary 1 -celled ; ovules solitary, pendulous or amphitropal ; style terminal, bifid ; fruit a sorosis or syconus; embryo hooked, albu- minous ; radicle superior. Natives of tem- perate and tropical climes in both hemi- spheres. Comprise the fig, banyan, common and white mulberry ; and among their pro- ducts are contrayerva-root, fustic, and ca- outchouc, which latter is abundantly supplied by the Ficus elastica. (Sycoidcce, Link.) 4 FAMILY. Hemp-worts (Cannabinacese). Herba- ceous ; juice watery ; leaves alternate, stipu- late ; flowers inconspicuous ; male flowers in racemes or panicles; perianth herbaceous, imbricated ; female flowers in spikes or cones ; perianth single, enwrapping the ovary ; stamens few, opposite ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous^ eampylotropal ; stigmas two, subulate, ses- sile ; fruit indehiscent ; embryo hooked, ex- albuminous ; radicle superior. Occur in northern temperate regions in the eastern hemisphere. Afford hops, hemp, &c. Can- nabis Indica, now much used medicinally, yields various narcotic products, known as haschisch, bhang, gunjah, churrus, &c. 5. FAMILY. Horn-worts (Ceratophyllacese). Herbs, submersed ; leaves dichotomous, verticillate ; flowers monoecious ; perianth 10-16-parted ; stamens 12-20; anthers 2-celled; ovary 1- celled ; ovule pendulous, orthotropal ; style 488 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. filiform ; stigma simple ; fruit a 1 -celled in- dehiscent nut, terminated by the hardened style ; embryo exalbuminous ; plumule large, many-leaved ; radicle inferior. Live in ditches in Europe, North America, Northern Asia, India, Barbary, and Senegal. 6. FAMILY. Elms (Ulmacese). Trees or shrubs ; juice watery ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers in loose clusters, frequently unisexual; perianth inferior, membranous, imbricated-, irregular; stamens definite; filaments erect in aestivation ; ovary superior or 2-celled ; ovules pendulous, anatropal, or amphitropal ; stigmas two ; fruit 1-2-celled, membranous or drupaceous ; albumen scanty or ; coty- ledons foliaceous ; radicle superior. Inhabit northern and mountainous parts of Europe, Asia, and America. The principal genus is that of the elms. 7. FAMILY. Nettles (Urticacese). Trees, shrubs, or herbs ; juice watery ; leaves alternate, sti- pulate, rough, often with stinging hairs ; flowers herbaceous, inconspicuous, scattered, or clustered, or in catkins, or close heads ; perianth membranous, lobed ; stamens defi- nite, distinct, opposite ; filaments elastic, curved in aestivation ; ovary simple ; ovule solitary, erect ; stigma simple ; fruit an in- dehiscent nut ; embryo straight, albuminous ; radicle superior. Widely distributed, many following in the footsteps of man. Remark- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 489 able for the extreme causticity of their juice 8. FAMILY. Antidesmads (Stilaginacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers minute, in axillary, scaly spikes ; perianth 2- 3- 5-partite ; stamens two or more, arising from a swollen receptacle ; filaments capillary ; anthers 2-lobed, cells vertical, opening trans- versely ; ovary 1-2-celled ; ovules two, pen- dulous, anatropal; stigma sessile, 3-5-toothed; fruit drupaceous ; embryo straight, albu- minous ; radicle superior. Natives of the East Indies and of Madagascar. VIII. ORDER. AMENTALS (Amentales). Flowers in catkins, achlamydeous or monochla- mydeous ; carpels superior; embryo small; albumen little or none. 1. FAMILY. Oleasters (Elseagnacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate or opposite, exstipu- late ; flowers axillary, in catkins or panicles, rarely bisexual ; 'male /Lowers amentaceous, with 2-4 leaves forming the perianth ; sta- mens 3- 4- 8 ; anthers introrse ; female and hermaphrodite flowers, perianth tubular ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovule solitary, ascending, anatropal ; style short ; stigma subulate, glan- dular ; fruit a crustaceous achsenium, enclosed within the enlarged succulent perianth ; ra- dicle inferior. Occur throughout the entire northern hemisphere. T 5 490 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 2. FAMILY. Bog-myrtles (Myricaceae). Leafy shrubs or small trees, covered with resinous glands and dots ; leaves alternate, with or without stipules ; flowers amentaceous, achlamydeous ; stamens 2-8, in the axil of a scale ; anthers 2-4-celled ; ovary 1-celled; ovule solitary, erect, orthotropal ; stigmas two, subulate or petaloid; fruit drupaceous, often with a waxy secretion ; seed solitary, erect ; radicle superior; inhabit temperate and tropical regions in North and South America, and India, and at the Cape of Good Hope ; one species is European. 3. FAMILY. Willows (Salicacese). Trees or shrubs; leaves alternate, stipulate; flowers amenta- ceous, naked, or with a membranous cup- shaped perianth ; stamens distinct or mona- delphous ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 1-celled ; ovules 00, erect, anatropal; style 1 or 0; stigmas 24 ; fruit coriaceous, 1-celled, 2- valved ; seeds 00, comose ; embryo erect ; radicle inferior. Inhabit temperate and arctic regions. Comprise the Willow, the Sallow, and the Poplar. 4. FAMILY. Altingiads (Liquidambaracese). Tall trees, balsamic ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers with verticillate bracts or minute scales ; female catkins on longer stalks than the males ; anthers numerous ; ovary 2-celled ; ovules 00, amphitropal ; styles two ; fruit of 2-celled capsules, united into a hard cone; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 491 seeds numerous, winged ; radicle superior. Yield Liquid-Storax. (Altingiacece, Lindl) 5. FAMILY. Birches (Betulacese). Trees or shrubs ; leaves alternate, stipulate ; flowers amenta- ceous, with bracts, which are at times verti- cillate ; stamens distinct, opposite ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 2-celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous, anatropal ; style single or ; stigmas two ; fruit membranous, indehiscent, forming a kind of cone ; seeds pendulous ; albumen none ; radicle superior. Natives of temperate, arctic, and antarctic regions. Comprehend the species of Birch and of Alder. 6. FAMILY. Bee/woods (Casuarinacese). Trees, brandling, weeping; leaves 0, replaced by membranous, toothed sheaths ; flowers bracteate ; 'male flowers in spikes, female flowers in dense heads ; stamen one ; anther 2-celled ; ovary 1 -celled ; ovules one, ob- liquely-ascending, or two side by side ; styles two ; fruit of winged achsenia, collected into a cone ; seed erect ; radicle superior. Natives of Australasia. GYMNOGENS. Gymnogens, called also Gymnosperms, constitute a small Class, in many respects closely allied to the one last under consideration. Their seeds have two 492 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. cotyledons, and their stems are Exogenous, but they are distinguished by the vessels of the wood having large apparent perforations. Their chief peculiarity, however, consists in the naked, uncovered condition of the seed, and in the fertilization of their female organs taking place through the foramen of the ovule, without the aid of either style or stigma. In general appearance they bear a strong resemblance to some flowerless groups, as the Club-mosses and Ferns, so much so as to have been, by Linnaeus and others, classed with the latter. They contain the curious Joint-Firs, the melancholy Yews, the in- valuable Pines, and the feathery Cycads, comprising in all, thirty-seven genera, and upwards of two hundred species. II. CLASS. GYMNOGENS (Gymnogense). A cellular and a vascular system ; stem with wood and true bark ; vessels of wood with large apparent perforations ; wood in concentric zones, augmented by growth from without ; embryo di- cotyledonous ; ovules fertilized by direct contact, without the intervention of style or stigma; ger- mination exorhizal. 1. FAMILY. Joint-Firs (Gnetacese). Small trees very much branched, or sarmentose shrubs; juice watery; stems jointed; leaves opposite, simple, net-veined; flowers in catkins or heads ; male flowers with a perianth ; female flowers naked, or sheltered by a false peri- anth ; anthers 1-4-celled, opening by pores ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 493 ovary ; ovule with a style-like process formed from the inner covering of the nucleus ; seed drupaceous ; embryo with a long, spirally twisted funiculus. Inhabit temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. 2. FAMILY. Yews (Taxacese). Trees or shrubs; branches unarticulated j stems continuous ; leaves alternate or distichous, evergreen, rigid, veinless or fork-veined ; flowers naked, but surrounded by imbricated bracts ; sta- mens several ; filaments monadelphous ; an- thers 2-celled, dehiscence longitudinal ; ovules naked, the outer skin becoming finally hard ; fruit somewhat drupaceous ; embryo straight. Common in mild climates generally, especially in Asia, also in elevated tropical districts ; often resinous. 3. FAMILY. Pines (Pinacese). Trees or shrubs, evergreen ; resinous ; trunk continuous, branched ; leaves simple, acerose or lanceo- late ; flowers naked, male flowers monan- drous or monadelphous ; female flowers in cones ; anthers 2- or many-lobed, dehiscence longitudinal ; ovary spread open, resembling a flat scale without style or stigma ; ovules naked, in pairs or several ; fruit of cones composed of hardened, scale-shaped ovaries ; embryo albuminous. Widely dispersed, but abound more in temperate climes. Among the members are the Fir, Pine, Larch, Cedar, 494 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Cypress, and Juniper. Among the products are Turpentine, Tar, Burgundy-Pitch, Hun- garian Carpathian and Canada Balsams, Essence of Spruce, Sandarach, Savin, &c. (Coniferce, Juss.) 4. FAMILY. Cycads (Cycadacese). Trees or shrubs ; trunks cylindrical, sometimes dichotomous ; leaves pinnate, parellel-veined, vernation cir- cinnate ; flowers unisexual ; male flowers in terminal cones, the scales bearing on their lower sides 1 -celled anthers; female flowers consisting of naked ovules at the base of flat scales, beneath peltate ones, or on the margins of altered leaves ; seeds hard, nut- like j embryos 1-2, suspended ; albumen fleshy or mealy; cotyledons unequal. Occur in temperate and tropical parts of Asia and America, also at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Madagascar. Yield much starchy matter. DICTYOGENS. On examining the structure of some anomalous Monocotyledons, they were ascertained by Lindley to possess, in nearly equal proportions, characters of Endogens and of Exogens. He therefore separated them from the Endogens, with which they had been previously united, and established them as a tran- sition class, which he named " Dictyogens," on account of the reticulated appearance of the leaves. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 495 The wood of the stem is Endogenous, the youngest parts being in the centre, while, on the other hand, the root exhibits concentric zones like an Exogen, with a disposition to a radiated distribution of ves- sels, and in some with a central pith ; the leaves, also, are net-veined, and usually disarticulate with the stem. Dictyogens are far from numerous, about seventeen genera being at present enumerated, con- taining upwards of two-hundred-and-sixty species. They may be divided into two Sub-classes, according to the unisexual or bisexual nature of the flower, the two being united by the Smilaceoe, which con- tain both forms of structure. Some of the families are small, and imperfectly known, but two are of considerable consequence, the one affording the Yam, an important farinaceous article of diet in the Tropics, and the other yielding the Sarsaparilla plants, largely imported into England for medical use. III. CLASS. DICTYOGENS (Dictyogense). Growth of stem endogenous ; root with the wood arranged in solid concentric circles ; foliage broad, net-veined, deciduous ; cotyledon single. I. SUB-CLASS BisEXUAL-DicTYOGENS (Monanthiae). Flowers perfect, each bearing male and female organs. 1. FAMILY. Roxburgh-worts (Koxburghiaceae). Shrubs, twining; roots tuberous; leaves coriaceous ; flowers large, showy, solitary, 496 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. foetid ; perianth with four petaloid divisions ; stamens four, hypogynous ; anthers adnate ; ovary superior, 1 -celled ; placentae basal ; style none ; ovules 00, anatropal ; pericarp 1 -celled, 2-valved, with two clusters of seeds at the base ; embryo taper, albuminous. Natives of hot parts of India. 2. FAMILY. Trilliads (Trilliacese). Herbaceous, simple-stemmed ; leaves verticillate, mem- branous ; flowers large, terminal, solitary ; periahth 6-8-divided, coloured or herbaceous ; stamens 61 ; anthers linear ; ovary free, 3-5-celled ; styles 3-5, distinct ; ovules 00, anatropal ; fruit succulent, 3-5-celled ; seeds 00 ; embryo minute, albuminous. Inhabit temperate parts of Asia, Europe, and North America. (Parisidce, Burnett.) 3. FAMILY. Philesiads (Philesiacese). Shrubs, twining or upright ; leaves coriaceous ; flowers large, showy, solitary, 3-6-petaloid- eous ; stamens six ; anthers linear ; ovary free, ] -celled ; placentae parietal ; style long, club-shaped ; stigmas three ; ovules 00, orthotropal ; fruit succulent. Natives of Chili. 4. FAMILY. Sarsaparillas (Smilacese), Herbs or under-shrubs, often climbing ; stems scarcely woody ; flowers bisexual or polygamous ; perianth petaloid, 6-partite ; stamens six, rarely hypogynous ; ovary 3-celled, cells uni- or multi-ovulate ; ovules orthotropal ; style MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. 497 usually trifid ; stigmas three ; fruit a glo- bular berry ; embryo very small, albuminous. Occur chiefly in temperate and tropical parts of Asia and America. This family yields the different kinds of Sarsaparilla, many of which are much employed in medical practice ; though possessed of valuable properties in their native places, they seem to be much impaired by exportation, and in Europe to have but feeble actions. II. SUB-CLASS. UNISEXUAL-DICTYOGENS (Dianthise). Male and female organs on separate flowers. 1. FAMILY. Yams (Dioscoreacese). Shrubs, twin- ing, tuberous ; leaves mostly alternate ; flowers small, spiked, bracteated ; perianth 6-divided, adherent ; stamens six ; anthers introrse ; ovary adherent, 3 -celled ; ovules anatropal ; style 2-3-fid ; stigmas undivided ; fruit cap- sular, compressed, trilocular ; seeds winged or wingless ; embryo small, albuminous. Mostly inhabitants of tropical countries. Chiefly valuable as affording yams, the tropical sub- stitute for the potato : in Europe, this family is represented by the Black Bryony (Tamus communis). 2. FAMILY. Tail-worts (Triuridacese). Herbs, pe- rennial ; rhizome creeping ; leaves solitary ; flowers regular, with 1 -flowered, bracteate stalks ; perianth free, corolline, 3-6-partite, permanent ; stamens 3-6 (?) ; anthers ex- 498 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. trorse j ovaries 0, sessile ; ovules solitary (?) ; styles subulate, or thickened at the apex. Found in Brazilian woods. ENDOGENS. What is commonly known as the endogenous type of structure characterizes a large assemblage of flowering-plants, forming the class we are now to consider. In importance and extent it approaches the Exogens, and its geographical distribution is quite as varied and general. The most obvious dis- tinctive mark of this division is found in the struc- ture of the stem, new matter being developed in the interior, though, taken in a wide sense, this does not strictly apply. If a cross section be made of an endogenous stem, it will present an irregular, dotted surface, the dots being more numerous towards the circumference, where the wood is also hardest : if cut again vertically, numerous strings or bundles of woody fibres will be seen apparently springing from the centre, and proceeding in a curved direction to- wards the circumference. But the more accurate researches of Schleiden shew that all plants pos- sessing a stem are, to a certain extent, endogenous, and that the true and essential distinction between the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous classes, consists in the mode and degree of development of the woody or fibro-vascular bundles. In the latter, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 499 their growth is unlimited, terminating only with the death of the individual, while among the former it is limited, being arrested at a definite period by a cessation of generative power in the woody cells. Endogens are destitute of true pith, and their stems are seldom hollow, exceptional cases such as in many of the grasses, being caused by the circum- ference growing more rapidly than the centre. The leaves are not reticulated, as among exogens, but are straight-veined, and the parts of the flower are usually arranged in series of threes ; the embryo, too, is composed of but one cotyledon, whence they were, by De Candolle, termed monocotyledones. Their period of vitality, also, is more restricted than it is in the higher class, seldom extending beyond two or three hundred years, though occasional instances of more extended longevity occur, as in a dragon-tree, still existing at Teneriffe, which, more than 450 years ago, was regarded as very aged. The number of genera known at present is up- wards of 1,400, which include about 13,600 species. Among these are numerous plants of the greatest importance io man, as various members of the family of grasses, some yielding him abundant farinaceous aliment, while others afford nutriment for his flocks and his herds. The palms supply wine, sugar, edible fruits, and sago j arrow-root is the produce of species of Maranta; the aromatic root of the Zin- giber constitutes ginger ; while turmeric, obtained from Curcuma longa, forms a valuable dye, and is the basis of some admired condiments. The number 500 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. of hurtful species is comparatively few, these being principally found among the Melanthiacece, and some of the Aracece. IV. CLASS ENDOGENS (Endogense). Wood of stem and of root, arranged in a confused manner, the youngest in the centre ; leaves straight- veined, permanent ; organs of fructification ternary ; embryo monocotyledonous ; germination endorhizal. I. SUB-CLASS. BISEXUAL-ENDOGENS (Diphysese). Flowers hermaphrodite ; perianth present. I. TRIBE. HYPOGYNOUS-ENDOGENS (Phylleleutherse). Flowers free from the ovary, rarely perigynous. I. ORDER. ALISMALS (Alismales). Perianth 3 - 6-divided ; carpels separate ; albumen none. 1. FAMILY. Arrow-grasses (Juncaginacese). Her- baceous ; leaves parallel-veined ; flowers in- conspicuous, scaly, white or green, in spikes or racemes ; sometimes perianth ; stamens six; anthers extrorse ; carpels 3-4-6 ; ovules 1-2 ; placentae axile or basal ; fruit dry, 1-2- seeded; embryo slit on one side; plumule very large. Marshy and aquatic plants, in most parts of the world. 2. FAMILY. Water-plantains (Alismacese). Her- baceous ; leaves narrow or expanded ; flowers in umbels, racemes, or panicles, very rarely MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 501 unisexual ; perianth 6-divided, in two whorls, inner whorl petaloid; stamens definite or 00; anthers introrse ; ovaries several; ovules soli- tary or in pairs ; placentae axile or basal ; fruit dry, 1-2-seeded; embryo curved or hooked. Floating or marsh plants, chiefly in northern temperate regions. 3. FAMILY. Flowering-rushes (Butomacese). Her- baceous ; often lactescent ; leaves very cel- lular ; flowers umbellate or solitary, conspi- cuous ; perianth 6-divided, in two whorls, the outer herbaceous, the inner petaloid ; stamens definite or 00 ; ovaries 3-6, or more, united or distinct; ovules 00, anatropal or campylotropal ; placentae many-seeded, net- ted, and parietal ; fruit of several follicles, distinct and beaked, or united ; embryo often curved. Aquatic and swamp plants, mostly northern. II. ORDER LILIALS (Liliales). Perianth 6-divided ; albumen copious. 1. FAMILY. Pontederiads (Pontederiacese). Herba- ceous ; leaves sheathing, sometimes cordate or sagittate ; flowers solitary, or in spikes or umbels, spathaceous ; perianth tubular, co- loured, circinnate when withering ; stamens 3-6 ; anthers introrse ; ovary free, 3-celled ; ovules numerous, anatropal ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved; seeds 00; embryo straight; albumen mealy. Aquatic species, inhabiting 502 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. North and South America, India, and tro- pical Africa. 2. FAMILY. Lilies (Liliacese). Herbs, shrubs, or trees ; bulbous, tuberous, rhizomatous, or fibrous -rooted ; leaves rarely expanded ; flowers various, from large and showy to small and green ; perianth 6-divided, in two verticils, coloured, flat when withering ; sta- mens six ; anthers introrse ; ovary free, 3- celled ; ovules 00, anatropal or amphitropal ; fruit succulent, or dry and capsular, 3-celled; albumen fleshy. Distribution extended, but more abundant in temperate climates. Con- tain numerous important plants, and yield a variety of valuable products ; among the former are New Zealand flax (P/^ormmm), African hemp (Sanseviera), onion, garlic, leek, eschallot, chives, asparagus, lily, tulip, hyacinth, &c. ; and among the latter, true Dragon's-blood from Dracaena Draco, and Botany Bay gum from species of Xanthor- rhcea. It also affords some active drugs, as aloes, the inspissated juice of various species of Aloe] and squills, the bulb of Squilla maritima. 3. FAMILY. Meadow-saffrons (Melanthiaceee). Herbs ; bulbous, tuberous, or fibrous-rooted ; leaves sheathing ; flowers sometimes poly- gamous ; perianth 6-divided, petaloid, flat when withering ; stamens six ; anthers ex- trorse ; ovary 3-celle'd ; ovules numerous ; MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOKY. 503 style 3-parted ; fruit capsular, 3-celled ; al- bumen dense, fleshy. Distribution exten- sive, more abundant in northern temperate countries. A poisonous family, yielding col- chicum, white hellebore (Veratrum), and sabadilla. 4. FAMILY. Gilliesiads (Gilliesiaceso). Herbs ; bulbs tunicated ; leaves grass-like ; flowers umbellate, spathaceous; perianth 6-partite, in two rows, the outer herbaceous and pe- taloid, the inner smaller and more coloured ; stamens in two whorls, the outer sterile, scale- like, or forming an urceolate, 6-toothed body ; the inner of six stamens, being occasion- ally sterile ; ovary 3-celled ; style one ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved ; embryo curved ; albumen fleshy. Small Chilian plants. III. ORDER. JUNCALS (Juncales). Flowers scaly or scarious ; albumen abundant. 1. FAMILY. Sweet-flags (Orontiacese). Herbaceous; occasionally stemless, or aquatic ; flowers on a spathaceous spadix ; perianth scaly, or ; stamens 4-5-6-8; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 1- or more celled ; ovules erect or pendulous ; stigma sessile, or on a subulate style ; fruit a berry; embryo axile, with a lateral cleft. Natives of tropical and temperate countries. The rhizomes of Calla palustris are used as food in Lapland ; Sweet-flag (A corns cala- mus) is employed in medicine. 504 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 2. FAMILY. Rushes (Juncacese). Herbs ; roots fascicled or fibrous ; leaves fistular, grooved, or flat ; inflorescence often capitate ; flowers umbellate, racemose, spiked or panicled ; perianth 6-parted, glumaceous or cartila- ginous ; stamens 3-6; anthers introrse, 2- celled ; ovary 1 - 3-celled ; ovules 1-3, or many in .each cell ; style one ; stigmas 1 - 3 ; fruit capsular, 3-valved; embryo minute, undivided. Inhabit principally colder climes, reaching as far north as Melville Island. Employed extensively in the manufacture of mats, chair -bottoms, candles, &c. IY. ORDER. XYRIDALS (Xyridales). Perianth mostly 6-divided, the inner whorl peta- loidal ; albumen abundant. 1 . FAMILY. Mayacs (Mayacacese). Herbaceous, moss-like ; leaves very narrow, pellucid ; flowers small ; perianth 6-divided, the outer whorl herbaceous, short ; stamens three ; anthers 1 -celled ; ovary of three carpels ; style filiform ; placentae parietal ; ovules sessile ; fruit capsular, membranous, 1 -celled, 3-valved ; embryo very minute, on the out- side of fleshy albumen. Natives of American marshes. 2. FAMILY. Spider-worts (Commelynaceae). Herbs; leaves flat, narrow, usually sheathing; perianth in two whorls, the outer 3-partite, herbaceous, the inner 3-partite or 3-fid ; stamens 3 - 6 ; MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 505 anthers 2-celled, introrse ; ovary 3-celled ; ovules few in each, cell ; style and stigma one; fruit capsular, 2 -3-celled, 2 -3-valved; embryo pulley-shaped, half-immersed in fleshy albumen. Occur in the East and West Indies, Australia, Africa, and also in North America. 3. FAMILY. Xyrids (Xyridacese). ' Herbs, sedge- like ; fibrous-rooted ; leaves radical, sheath- ing, flowers in terminal, imbricated, scaly heads ; perianth 6-partite, in two whorls, the outer one glumaceous ; stamens six, 3-fertile ; anthers 2-celled, extrorse ; ovary single, 1- celled ; ovules ; placentae parietal ; style 3- fid ; fruit capsular, 1 -celled, 3-valved ; em- bryo minute, on the outside of fleshy albu- men. Natives of tropical Asia, Africa, and America. 4. FAMILY. Water-worts (Philydracese). Herbs ; root fascicled-fibrous ; stems often woolly ; leaves equitant, partly-sheathing; inflores- cence in terminal spikes ; flowers alternate, solitary, sessile, with a spathaceous, persistent bract ; perianth with the outer whorl abor- tive, inner 2-divided, petaloid; filaments three, united at the base ; two lateral sta- mens petaloid and abortive ; ovary superior ; ovules ; placentse parietal or axile ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved ; embryo axile, in fleshy albumen. Found in China, Cochin- China, and Australia. 506 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. II. TKIBE. EPIGYNOUS-ENDOGENS (Phyllosynaptse). Flowers adherent to the ovary. I. ORDER ORCHIDALS (Orchidales). Stamens 1-3; albumen none. 1. FAMILY. Apostasiads (Apostasiacese). Herbs, perennial ; leaves firm, thin, sheathing ; flowers racemose, terminal ; perianth 6-divid- ed; anthers 2-3, sessile on a short column, erect, 2-celled ; style filiform, with a 3-lobed stigma as long as the anthers, and adherent with the filaments into a short column : ovary 3-celled ; placentse three, axile, poly- spermous; fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved; seeds 0. Occur in damp, hot Indian woods. 2. FAMILY. Orchids (Orchidaceae). Herbs or shrubs ; roots fibrous or tubercular; stem long and annual, perennial and woody, or none ; leaves often sheathing ; flowers solitary, clustered, spiked, racemose, or panicled, always sup- ported by a solitary bract ; perianth herba- ceous or coloured, membranous or fleshy, 6-partite, the segments arranged in two rows, the outer, or calycine (but according to Lind- ley the corolla), of three parts ; the inner, or corrolliform (petaloid stamens of Lindley), of three divisions, rarely one, the odd one being the labellwn or lip ; stamens three, the lateral ones usually sterile; anthers 1-2-4- celled ; ovary 1 -celled, of six carpels, three MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 507 only bearing placentae ; style incorporated with the column; fruit capsular, rarely fleshy, 3-6-valved, indehiscent ; seeds 00. Distribution universal, except in the frozen zones, and in extremely dry regions. Chiefly terrestial, but numerous tropical species are epiphytic. The Orchidacece comprise nearly 400 genera, and about 3000 species. 3. FAMILY. Burmanniads(T>urma,mu.a,cQ3d). Herbs; leaves radical or none ; inflorescence ter- minal; perianth coloured, tubular, 6-cleft, the three inner being minute, and the three outer larger and often keeled at the back ; stamens three ; anthers sessile, 2- celled ; ovary 1-3- celled; ovules 00; style simple; stigmas three; fruit capsular, 1-3-celled, S-valved, crowned by the persistent perianth ; seeds 00. Occur in moist grassy spots in tropical countries. II. OBDER. AMOMALS (Amomales), Flowers unsymmetrical ; stamens 1-6, some being abortive ; seeds albuminous. 1. FAMILY. Arrow-roots (Marantacese). Herba- ceous, without aroma ; rhizomes frequently tuberous ; leaves simple, sheathing ; inflores- cence spiked, racemose, or panicled, terminal or radical ; perianth in two whorls, the outer 3-lobed, short, inner 3-partite, elongated; stamens in two verticils, the outer 3-fid, petaloid, sterile, the inner three, petaloid, z 2 508 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. one lateral being fertile ; anther on the margin of the filament ; ovary 1-3-celled ; ovules solitary or numerous ; style petaloid or swollen ; stigma either the naked apex of the style, or hollow, hooded, and incurved ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, or baccate and 1 -celled ; embryo without a vitellus. Found in tropical America and Africa, and in India. The rlii- zomes abound in starch, occuring as " Arrow- root" in species of Maranta, and as "Tous- les-mois " in Ganna. (Cannacece, Agardh.) 2. FAMILY. Gingers (Zingiberacese). Herbaceous ; aromatic ; rhizome creeping ; leaves simple, sheathing; inflorescence and flowers as in Marantacece; stamens in two whorls, the outer 3-partite, sterile, petaloid, the inner of three, the central one being fertile ; anther 2-celled ; ovary 3-celled ; ovules several ; style filiform ; stigma dilated, hollow ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, occasionally berried ; em- bryo with a vitellus. Chiefly tropical plants. Afford Ginger (Zvngiber), Cardamoms, from species of Amomum, Elettaria, and Reneal- mm, and Turmeric from Curcuma longa. (Drymyrhizece, Vent. Scitaminece, R Brown.) 3. FAMILY. Bananas (Musacese). Herbs ; stemless or nearly so, with spurious stems of sheath- ing leaf-stalks, from subterranean root-stocks ; flowers spathaceous ; perianth 6-cleft, peta- loid, in two whorls ; stamens six, some always abortive ; anthers linear, 2-celled, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 509 introrse ; ovary 3-celled ; ovules numerous ; style single ; stigma usually 3-lobed ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, or succulent and inde- hiscent. Natives of warm and tropical countries. Species of Musa yield the Banana and Plantain. III. ORDER. NAECISSALS (Narcissales). Flowers symmetrical; stamens 3-6; seeds al- buminous. 1. FAMILY. Flags (Iridacese). Herbs, rarely under- shrubs ; roots tuberous or fibrous ; leaves mostly equitant or distichous ; inflorescence terminal, in spikes, corymbs, or panicles ; bracts spathaceous ; perianth 6-parted, coloured, in two whorls ; stamens three ; anthers extrorse, 2-celled ; ovary 3-celled ; ovules numerous ; style one ; stigmas three, often petaloid or bilabiate ; fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved ; seeds numerous. Found in warm and temperate regions, especially abundant at the Cape of Good Hope. Yield Saffron and Orris-root. 2. FAMILY. Daffodils (Narcissacese). Herbs or shrubs ; bulbous or fibrous-rooted ; stem at times woody and tall ; leaves ensiform ; flowers spathaceous ; perianth regular, 6-cleft ; stamens six, sometimes partially coherent ; sometimes with additional sterile stamens ; anthers introrse ; ovary 3-celled ; ovules 00 ; style one; stigma 3-lobed; fruit capsular, 510 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 3-celled, and 3-valved, or baccate and 1-3- seeded. Principally Cape species, but occur also in Europe, the East and West Indies, South America, and Australia. Some possess poisonous qualities. Yield many garden- flowers, as the Narcissus, Daffodil, Snow- drop ; the Agave or American Aloe, is also a member. (Amaryllidece, R Brown.) 3. FAMILY. Hypoxids (Hypoxidacese). Herbs ; tuberous or fibrous-rooted ; leaves radical, plicate ; scapes simple or branched ; perianth petaloid, usually 6-partite ; stamens six ; anthers introrse, 2-celled ; ovary 3-celled ; ovules ; style simple ; stigma 3-lobed ; fruit indehiscent, dry or berried, 1-2- 3-celled. Natives of tropical and warm countries. 4. FAMILY. Blood-roots (Hsemodoracese). Herbs, fibrous-rooted ; leaves equitant, distichous ; perianth 6-cleft, petaloid, tubular, more or less woolly ; stamens three or six ; anthers introrse ; ovary 1- 3-celled ; ovules one, two, or many ; style simple ; stigma undivided ; fruit capsu- lar, 3-valved or indehiscent ; radicle remote from the hilum, which is naked. Occur in North and South America, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Australia. Named from the red colour of the roots. 5. FAMILY. Taccads (Taccacese). Herbs, tuberous; leaves radical, stalked ; flowers on the top of a simple taper or angular furrowed scape, umbellate, involucrate ; perianth with a cy- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 511 lindrical ribbed tube ; stamens six ; filaments petaloid ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary of three connate carpels ; placentae three, parietal, polyspermous ; styles three, connate ; stigmas 2-lobed ; fruit baccate, indehiscent ; albumen fleshy. Inhabit woods, and damp maritime spots in tropical Africa, India, and Polynesia. 6. FAMILY. Pine-apples (Bromeliacese). Herbs or shrubs ; stemless or short-stemmed, often epi- phytic ; leaves rigid, channeled, often spiny- edged ; flowers racemose or panicled ; peri- anth 6-divided, in two whorls, outer persist- ent, inner petaloid, marcescent or deciduous, asstivation imbricate ; stamens six ; anthers introrse j ovary 3-celled ; ovules 00; style simple ; stigma 3-lobed, or entire ; fruit cap- sular or succulent, 3-celled ; albumen fleshy. All American species. The most important product is the Pine-apple or Ananas, yielded by Ananassa sativa. II. SUB-GLASS. UNISEXUAL-ENDOGENS (Monaphyseae). Flowers unisexual ; with or without perianth. I. ORDER. HYDRALS (Hydrales). Flowers perfect or imperfect, not arranged on a spadix ; albumen none ; aquatic. 1. FAMILY. Sea-wracks (Zosteracese). Sea-weed like ; leaves grassy, thin, sheathing ; flowers very minute, naked, or surrounded by three scales ; stamens hypogynous ; anthers de- 512 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOKY. finite, sessile, 1-2-celled ; pollen confervoid ; ovary free, 1 -celled ; ovule solitary ; stigmas 1-2 ; fruit drupaceous, 1-seeded ; seed pen- dulous. Marine plants, inhabiting the bottom of the ocean, principally in Northern parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. 2. FAMILY. Pond-weeds (Naiadaceso). Leaves very cellular, stipulate; flowers inconspicuous, often in terminal spikes ; perianth of 2-4- pieces, deciduous, sometimes ; stamens de- finite, hypogynous ; pollen globose ; ovaries one or more, superior; ovule solitary; stigma simple ; fruit dry, 1 -celled, 1-seeded ; seed erect or pendulous. Natives of extra-tropical countries in fresh-water, or on the sea-shores. (Potamece, Juss.) 3. FAMILY. Frog-bits (HydrocharidacesB). Herbs ; leaves sometimes spiny; flowers spathaceous, occasionally* bisexual ; perianth with a 6-par- tite limb, the outer herbaceous, the inner petaloid ; stamens definite or indefinite, epigynous ; ovary adherent, 1- or many- celled; stigmas 3-6; ovules 00; fruit dry or succulent, indehiscent, 1- or many-celled. Fresh-water plants, inhabiting Europe, North America, and India. II. ORDER. PALMALS (Palmales). Flowers perfect, on a branched, scaly spadix ; embryo minute, placed beneath the surface of horny or fleshy albumen ; unisexual or bisexual. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 513 I. S UB-ORDER. ATELESPATHEOUS-PALMS (Atelespathese). Spathes numerous and incomplete. 1. FAMILY. Sago-Palms (Lepidocaryacese). Trees; leaves pinnate or fan-shaped ; inflorescence in amentiform racemes ; perianth 6-divided ; stamens six, rarely 0, hypogynous or peri- gynous ; pistil usually of three carpels, becoming connate, usually 3-locular; ovules generally solitary, erect ; fruit baccate, lori- cate, scales horny, spirally or verticillately arranged, imbricated. To this family belong the Keed-Palms (Calamus), affording Rat- tans, and the Sagus farinifera, supplying Sago. (Calamince, Griff.) 2. FAMILY. Palmyra-Palms (Borassacese). Trees; leaves pinnate or flabelliform ; inflorescence in amentiform racemes; stamens hypogynous ; pistil usually of three connate carpels, which are 3-locular ; ovules solitary, ascending or horizontal ; fruit drupaceous and undivided, lobed and 3-seeded, or baccate and, by abor- tion, 1 -seeded. Among the species are the Doum-palm of Upper Egypt (Hyphcene coria- cea), the Fan-palm, Borassus flabelliformis, yielding a copious vinous sap, and Lodoicea Seychellarum, or the double Coco-nut tree. 3. FAMILY. Date-Palms (Coryphacese). Trees ; leaves clustered, terminal; inflorescence not in amentiform racemes ; stamens hypo- gynous or perigynous, 6-9-1 2 ; pistil of three 514 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. distinct carpels, becoming sometimes connate; ovules solitary, erect, lateral or horizontal; fruit baccate or drupaceous, threefold, deeply lobed, or, by abortion, double or single. Among the members of this division are the Ceylon Talipot-palm (Gorypha umbra- culifera), and the Date-palm (Phoenix dacty- lifera). II. S UB-ORDER. TELESPATHEOUS-PALMS (Telespatheje). Spathes occasionally absent, always complete when present. 4. FAMILY. Betel-nut Palms (Arecacese). Trees; spadix scaly ; spathe often wanting ; stamens hypogynous ; ovary mostly of three connate carpels, which are tri-locular ; ovules erect ; fruit baccate or semi-drupaceous, tri-locular, or deeply 3-lobed, 1 -seeded. Yield the Betel- nut (Areca Catechu), which also supplies Colombo Catechu ; the Cabbage-palm of the West Indies is A. oleracea; Saguerus Rumphii is one of the sources of the Sago of commerce. 5. FAMILY. Oil-yielding Palms (Cocacese). Usual- ly trees ; stems sometimes spiny ; stamens six or more, hypogynous ; filaments some- times conjoined at their base ; pistil of three united carpels, rarely 2- 4- 5- or 6 ; ovules solitary, erect or horizontal; fruit drupace- ous, 1 -seeded, generally uni-locular ; endocarp thick, osseous, or stony ; putamen with its MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 515 cells, when fertile, perforated opposite the seat of the embryo, and, when abortive, indi- cated by coecal foramina ; albumen cartala- ginous or amygdaloid, oleaginous. Among these are the Cocos nucifera, or Coco-nut palm, species of Elais yielding Palm-oil, and Phytelephas macrocarpa, the source of Vegetable Ivory. III. OEDER ARALS (Arales). Petaloidal, or naked-flowered ; spadix simple, naked; embryo in the axis of mealy or fleshy albumen. 1. FAMILY. Screw-pines (Pandanacese). Trees or bushes, often sending down aerial roots ; leaves imbricated, amplexicaul, often spiny- edged, or pinnate or fan-shaped ; floral leaves smaller ; flowers often polygamous, naked or scaly, covering the whole of the spadix ; stamens numerous ; filaments with single an- thers, which are 2-4-celled ; ovaries in par- cels, 1 -celled; ovules solitary or numerous; stigmas sessile ; fruit fibrous-drupes collected into parcels, or baccate and many-seeded ; seeds loose ; embryo minute, solid. Tropical plants. 2. FAMILY. Arads (Aracese). Herbaceous, with a fleshy corm, or shrubs ; leaves sheathing ; spadix generally spathaceous ; flowers naked, on the surface of a spadix ; stamens definite 516 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or indefinite, hypogynous ; anthers sessile, 1- 2- or many-celled, extrorse ; ovary free, most- ly 1 -celled ; stigma sessile \ fruit succulent ; seeds pulpy ; embryo slit, axile. Inhabitants principally of hot countries. Many are poi- sonous ; the corms of some abound in amyla- ceous matter. (Aroidece, Juss.) 3. FAMILY. Bulrushes (Typhacese). Herbaceous ; stems nodeless ; leaves rigid, ensiform ; flowers upon a spatheless spadix ; perianth scaly or hairy ; stamens 3-6 ; anthers wedge-shaped, on long filaments, which are sometimes mona- delphous ; ovary superior, 1-celled ; ovule solitary ; style short ; stigma linear ; fruit dry, 1-celled, 1 -seeded ; seed adherent to its pericarp ; embryo slit. Occur in ditches and marshes in northern countries. 4 FAMILY. Duck-weeds (Pistiacese). Herbaceous ; leaves very cellular ; flowers 2-3, enclosed in a spathe, without a spadix ; stamens definite, often monadelphous ; ovary 1-celled ; style short j stigma simple ; ovules two or more, erect ; fruit membranous or capsular ; embryo slit. Found in ditches in temperate parts of the world. III. SUB-CLASS. SCALE-FLOWERED ENDOGENS (Glumalese). Flower glumaceous, i. e , consisting of imbricated, colourless herbaceous scales or bracts. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 517 I. ORDER. RUSH-LIKE GLUMALS (Skoinoidese). Pistil simple ; ovules pendulous. 1. FAMILY. Pipe-worts (Eriocaulacese). Herba- ceous ; leaves cellular, spongy, sheathing ; flowers unisexual, capitate, bracteate, very minute ; glumes two, unilateral, or three ; stamens 2 - 6 ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary supe- rior, 2 - 3-celled, surrounded by a 2 - 3-dentate or lobed membranous tube ; ovules solitary ; style very short ; stigmas 2 - 3 ; fruit capsu- lar ; seeds pilose ; embryo terminal. Abun- dant in tropical America and Australia, a few occur in North America, and one in Scot- land. 2. FAMILY. Cord-rushes (Restiacese). Herbs or under-shrubs ; leaves narrow or none ; culms naked or sheathed ; flowers in spikes, usually unisexual ; glumes 2-6, seldom wanting ; stamens 1 - 3 ; anthers generally 1 -celled ; ovary 1 - 3-celled, cells monospermous ; styles and stigmas two or more ; fruit capsular or nucamentous ; seeds not pilose ; embryo terminal. Inhabit woods and marshes in South America, South Africa, and Australia. 3. FAMILY. Bristle-worts (CentrolepidaceaB). Her- baceous ; leaves setaceous, sheathing ; scapes filiform, naked ; flowers in a spathe ; glumes one in front, or two opposite each other ; palese 0, or one or two tender scales parallel with the glumes; stamens 1-2; anther 1- 518 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. celled; ovaries 1-18, 1-celled ; fruit 1-18, 1 - seeded, utricles opening longitudinally. Natives of Polynesia and Australasia. (Des- vauxiacece, Lindley.) II. ORDER. PALM-LIKE GLUMALS (Phsenikoidese). Pistil compound ; ovule erect or ascending. 1. FAMILY. Sedges (Cyperacese). Herbaceous, grass- like; stems solid, often without joints ; leaves narrow, sheaths entire ; flowers unisexual or bisexual, generally without a perianth ; each flower with a solitary bract ; bracts imbri- cated on a common axis, the lowermost often empty ; stamens hypogynous, 1-1 2 ; anthers 2-celled ; ovary 1 -seeded, often surrounded by hypogynous bristles ; fruit a crustaceous or bony nut ; embryo enclosed within the base of the albumen. Distribution almost universal. The " Papyrus " of the ancients is the product of Papyrus antiquorum, which inhabits Syria and Egypt. 2. FAMILY. Grasses (Avenacese). Herbaceous, ever- green ; stems sometimes of large size, cylin- drical, hollow, jointed ; leaves narrow, alter- nate, with a membranous expansion at the junction of the stalk and blade called a " ligule/' sheath split ; flowers green, occa- sionally monoecious or polygamous, 1, 2, or more, on a common axis, forming locustce, which are spiked, racemose, or panicled ; the outer bracts, usually two, are named MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 519 glumes, the next, also two, palece or glu- mellce, and the innermost set, consisting of two or three scales, are styled squamulce or glu- mellulce ; stamens 1-6, i^pogynous ; anthers versatile; ovary 1 -celled; styles 2-3, rarely combined ; stigmas feathery or hairy ; fruit a caryopsis ; seed incorporated with the peri- carp ; embryo lateral, naked ; albumen farina- ceous. Distribution universal; are very nu- merous in individuals, and constitute nearly one twenty-second part of known plants; in the tropics they are larger, being often arborescent. Divided into two sub-families, viz. : 1. Pani- dnce, locusta of two flowers, the lower or outer uniformly imperfect, being either sta- miniferous or neuter, and then not unfre- quently reduced to a single valve ; 2. Poince, locusta 1-2- or many-flowered, the outer or lower floret always perfect. Among the species are Wheat (Triticum), Oats (A vena) , Barley (Hordeum), Rye (Secede), Rice (pry- zd), Maize (Zea), and other cereals ; also the grasses-proper, as Phleum, Poa, Festuca, An- thoxanthum, &c. Among remarkable foreign genera are Bamboo (Bambusa), Sugar (Sac- charum), and the Tussac-grass of the Falk- land Islands (Dactylis ccespitosa). One species, Lolium temulentum, or Darnel-grass, is believed to be poisonous. (Graminacece, Lindley.) 520 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. RHIZOGENS. The anomalous plants which compose the class of Rhizogens or Rhizanths, constitute a singular tran- sition series between the two Sub-kingdoms of Vege- tables. Destitute of stems or of true leaves, they present an amorphous appearance, closely resem- bling various Fungi ; but being furnished with flowers containing undoubted organs of fructifica- tion, they are entitled to rank among Phanero- gamia. Their mode of life is parasitic, being attached to the roots or stems of various plants ; they are never green, but are generally brown or some dull colour, and they stain any fluid, in which they are immersed, red. The species have hardly any econo- mical importance ; some which contain an astringent principle have been employed as styptics. The most curious among them is the Brobdignagian Javanese parasite Rafflesia, named in honour of Sir Stamford Raffles, the flower of which can hold about twelve pints of fluid. V. CLASS. RHIZOGENS (Rhizogens). Leafless ; often stemless ; never green ; flowers usually monoecious or dioecious; fructification spring- ing from a thallus. Parasitic. 1. FAMILY. Patma-worts (Rafflesiacese). Stemless ; flowers sessile on the branches of trees, soli- tary ; perianth superior, 5-lobed, with calli in the throat ; anthers attached to a column, 2-celled, dehiscing by pores ; ovary 1 -celled ; MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 521 styles conical ; ovules 0, attached to parietal placentae ; fruit an indehiscent pericarp, poly- spermous. Occur on the stems of Gissi in the East Indies, and in South America on leguminous branches. Among the species are the gigantic Rafflesice of Java, the flowers being occasionally three feet in diameter. 2. FAMILY. Cistus-rapes (Hydnoracese). Flowers bisexual or unisexual, in spikes at the end of a scaly stem, the males uppermost ; perianth 3-6-lobed; anthers sessile on a column, 2- celled, dehiscing by slits ; ovary inferior, 1- celled ; ovules 00, on parietal placentae ; fruit baccate, coriaceous, 1 -celled, polyspermous. Found on roots of Cistus in Southern Europe, also on roots at the Cape of Good Hope. Hydnora Africana, smells like tainted roast beef. 3. FAMILY. Cynomoriums (Balanophoraceae). Fun- goid ; stems amorphous, horizontal; peduncles scaly ; flowers monoecious, spiked ; male flowers pedicellate, perianth 3-parted; sta- mens 1-3, epigynous; anthers and filaments united ; ovary inferior, 1- 2-celled, 1-2-seeded; style one; stigma simple; ovule solitary, pendulous; fruit 1 -celled, 1 -seeded. Inhabit tropical Asia and America, also the Cape of Good Hope ; one species, Cynomorium cocci- neum (Fungus Melitensis), is found in Gozo, near Malta. 522 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. FLOWEKLESS-PLANTS. Flowerless-plants, corresponding with the Crypto- gamia of Linnseus, comprehend all the remaining forms of vegetable life, and are extremely numerous in individuals, and even in species, of which latter, above twelve thousand have been described, included in about twelve hundred genera. They are sepa- rated into two great classes, in one of which an ap- proach is made in general configuration, in struc- ture, and even in the mode of their fructification to the higher forms of vegetation, while the other de- scends to mere aggregations of vital cells. Their principal characteristics consist in the absence of true flowers, and of distinct sexual organs, such as are found in the more highly developed classes, repro- duction being effected by means of acotyledonous, reproductive bodies named spores, which are formed either in their interior, or on their surface, by the union of (at least in acrogens) two differently en- dowed cells. In size they vary from the lofty tree- Fern to the minute Lichen or microscopic fungus. In many leaves are quite wanting, and where a stem exists, it appears to be composed, unlike that of Endogens or Exogens, of a mere junction of the bases of leaves, the growth being Acrogenous, or on the summit. In fossil- or Geo-phytology, Cryptogamic plants occupy an important position, as they appear to have been among the earliest forms of vegetables, their remains being very numerous in palaeozoic strata, MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. 523 especially in the carboniferous series. Those most abundantly met with are Filices, Equisetacece, and Lycopodiacece, the latter of gigantic dimensions ; also a few mosses and sea-weeds. In more recent formations, the proportional numbers of Cryptoga- midj are much lessened ; and in the later deposits, the various classes of fossil vegetables bear nearly the same ratio to each other as in the existing Flora. II. SUB-KINGDOM. FLOWERLESS-PLANTS (Cryptogamia). Flowers wanting ; fructification by means of spores ; sexes wanting or indistinct ; germination heterorhizal. ACROGENS. The more advanced cryptogamic plants, into the composition of which vascular tissue enters, and which, in many respects, approach some Phanero- gamia, have been separated, as a distinct class, under the name of Acrogens, or Cormogens. In them a stem and leaves can be distinguished ; flowers are absent, but they seem to be represented in some instances, by the mode in which the leaves are arranged round the spore-cases of Urn-mosses, or by the involucrate membrane surrounding the thecce of some Liver-worts. Among their reproductive organs two forms are generally present, which many writers distinguish as male and female, under the names of 524 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. Aniheridia, and Pistillidia or Archegonia; and, from late observations by Hofmeister, Suminski, and others, the existence of sexuality among these plants is rendered highly probable. Acrogens comprehend first the Ferns, numbering more than two thousand species, in which the fronds seem to represent branches, and the ramenta true leaves; these are often diminutive and inconspi- cuous in northern regions, but in tropical and sub- tropical climes, they are frequently arborescent, raising, at times, their graceful forms to the height of thirty or forty feet ; next, the Club-mosses and Pepper-worts small herbs, with a world-wide dis- tribution ; and lastly, the True-mosses, including the Liver-worts and Horse-tails, nearly equalling the Ferns in multiplicity of species, some of which are said to form the first appearance of vegetation on a new soil, and to be among the last occupants of exhausted lands or of an inappropriate clime. This class supplies man with but few useful plants. The roots of some Ferns are esculent and one species, Nephrodium (Aspidium) Filix-mas, is employed in medicine. The powdery contents of the spore-cases of some species of Lycopodium are highly inflammable, and, under the name of vege- table-sulphur, or witch-meal, are used in pyro- techny. I. CLASS. ACROGENS (Acrogense). Stem and leaves distinguishable ; surface fur- 'nished with stomata. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 525 I. OEDER FILICALS (Filicales). Vascular; spore-cases marginal or dorsal, 1 -celled, usually surrounded by an elastic ring ; spores of only one kind. 1. FAMILY. Dancea-worts (Danseacese). Occasion- ally arboriform ; spore-cases exannulate, ap- pearing sunk within, or seated upon the back of the leaflets, conjoined more or less by their inner faces, opening irregularly by a central cleft. Tropical species in both hemispheres. 2. FAMILY. Ferns (Polypodiacese). Herbaceous, shrubby, or aborescent ; spore-cases on the back or edge of the fronds, pedicellate or ses- sile, distinct, annulate, bursting irregularly. Inhabit especially moist, insular situations, and are very abundant in tropical islands ; less numerous on continents. Some, as Ne~ phrodium Filix-mas, have been used in medicine. 3. FAMILY. Adder' s-tongues (Ophioglossacese). Herbaceous; spore-cases exannulate, distinct, 2-valved, collected into a spike formed out of the sides of an altered frond. Principally select tropical, insular situations, but occur also in temperate regions. II. ORDER. LYCOPODALS (Lycopodales). Vascular ; spore-cases axillary or radical, 1- or many-celled ; spores of two kinds. 1. FAMILY. Pepper-worts (Marsileacese). Herba- 526 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. ceous ; stemless, creeping or floating ; leaves often stalked ; vernation circinnate ; repro- ductive organs enclosed in an involucre, and of two kinds 1, membranous sacs, clustered, stalked, or sessile, containing minute granules ; 2, membranous sacs, containing cells, which divide into four, only one of which ger- minates. Inhabit ditches and wet places, chiefly in temperate countries. (Rhizocarpce, Agardh.) 2. FAMILY. Club-Mosses (Lycopodiacese). Herba- ceous, moss-like ; stems creeping or corous ; leaves imbricated, sometimes subulate ; spore- cases axillary, sessile, 1-8-celled, dehiscing by valves, or indehiscent ; at times of two kinds, the one enclosing minute, powdery matter, the other containing a cell, which produces four germinating bodies. Most abundant in warm, humid situations, especially in tropical islands ; but occur also in cold climates. III. ORDER MUSCALS (Muscales). Cellular or vascular ; spore-cases either plunged in the substance of the frond, or enclosed in a cap- like hood. I. SUB-ORDER.- OPERCULATE-MOSSES (Musci). Operculum present ; no elaters. 1. FAMILY. Urn-Mosses (Bryacese). Cellular; erect or creeping, terrestrial or aquatic ; leaves mi- nute, imbricated, entire or serrated ; repro- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 527 ductive organs of two kinds, viz., Antheridia and Archegonia ; spore-cases valveless. In- habit damp places all over the world, but are more common in temperate latitudes. 2. FAMILY. Split-Mosses (Andrseacese). Branching, reddish or brown ; leaves imbricated, ribbed or rib-less ; spore-case opening by four equal valves, whose summits are always bound to- gether by the persistent operculum. Found in temperate and cold countries, especially in . bleak and rocky places. II. S UB-ORDEE. INOPERCULATE-MOSSES (Hepaticse). Operculum wanting ; usually furnished with elaters. 3. FAMILY. Horsetails (Equisetacese). Stems sim- ple or branched j fistular, jointed, siliceous ; branches in whorls, at the articulations of the stem ; leaves represented by the green co- loured branches; stomata arranged longitu- dinally on the cuticle ; spore-cases peltate, opening inwards by a longitudinal fissure ; an elater to every spore. Widely distributed ; occur in lakes, ditches, and rivers. 4. FAMILY. Scale-Mosses (Jungermanniacese). Creeping, moss-like ; leaves imbricated, very cellular, round a central axis, or with the leaves and axis fused into one common leafy expansion ; spores opening by four equal valves, mixed with elaters. Distribution ex- 528 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. tended, but abound more in tropical, shady woods. 5. FAMILY. Liver-worts (Marchantiacese). Stem or axis leafless, but bordered by membranous expansions which sometimes unite at their margins, forming a broad lobed frond ; spore- cases in heads, stalked, opening by irregular fissures, or by separate teeth ; spores globose. Inhabit damp, shady places, everywhere. 6. FAMILY. Crystal-worts (Ricciacese). Submerged or floating plants, usually annual ; leaves and stems blended into a cellular frond ; spore- cases membranous, decaying so as to permit the spores to escape; elaters none. Most abundant in Europe, but occur also in most parts of the world. THALLOGENS. With Thallogens we reach the extremes of another primary division of nature, those confines where the vegetable and animal forms of vitality appear to encroach upon each other, where cell-life in its most simple and primitive form puzzles alike the Phyto- logist and the Zoologist. In the great anxiety which has been evinced to come to a determination on this point, it has been alleged that there is an inter- mediate stage, by which the one kingdom passes into the other, and some have fancied that they MANUAL OF .NATURAL HISTORY. 529 have actually traced this strange transformation, so that certain minute existences are, at one portion of their life animal, and at another, vegetable. Such no- vel speculations may, perhaps, be ascribed to the ac- knowledged difficulty of ascertaining what is the essential characteristic which distinguishes two, ap- parently similar, vivified globules, what it is that determines the one to be phytous and the other zoous. And yet that such a primary separation exists in reality, though not easily appreciable to our senses, can hardly be doubted, when we see their varied effects. That many of the simpler orders should at different times be looked upon either as plants or as animals, is easily to be ac- counted for, according to the view of the observer, but that the two are connected by direct transition, seems not probable, as their vitality differs not only in degree, but also in kind. The one more sthenic, more intense, giving tone to the fibres, and irrita- bility to the nerves, capable of producing quicker and more marked effects, but sooner wearing itself out, and therefore less lasting, the other more chronic, more deficient in positive strength, but, often more enduring, and adapted for supporting the more simply constructed members of the Vegetable World. The marks of animal life have already been al- luded to at page 2, so that it is merely requisite to say, in addition, that recent researches have shewn that starch granules form part of the contents of many cells, and when they can be detected, no doubt need be entertained of the vegetable nature 530 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. of the object under investigation. But the present amount of our knowledge, while allowing us gradu- ally to approximate truth, does not enable us finally, as yet, to arrive at the settlement of this important question. In the lowest members of both kingdoms, sexual distinctions are either wanting or extremely obscure, and increase seems to be effected by a spon- taneous multiplication of cells. So far, therefore, both are alike, but here the resemblance ceases ; as we advance upwards in the Zoological series, we first find beings in whom the sexes are united, but afterwards male and female are completely sepa- rated, which is invariable in the higher animals. Among vegetables, again, the existence of the two sexes in distinct individuals is more general, rather low down in the scale, while hermaphroditism seems to be the normal condition of the most advanced plants. A difference in the sources of movements in these two elementary forms is highly probable, and may be further established by ana- logy with the more developed beings of either class. The one seems more the result of internal causes, originating, perhaps, in a kind of instinctive volition, while the other would appear to depend rather on external agents, and to be more allied to irritability. Among Thallogens are ranked, first, the Lichens, denizens of forest, of mountain, and of plain, ranging from the torrid zone to frozen climes ; curious little plants, their gracefully twisted and often sil- very fronds at times giving a venerable appearance to the trees whose trunks they frequently clothe, or MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 531 covering with their stunted forms arctic rocks, and there, in his hour of need, often affording to man a scanty sustenance, enabling the polar traveller somewhat to mitigate the pangs of hunger. Next are the Fungals, often parasitic, or springing from dead or decaying matter, confined within no narrow bounds, sometimes arranging themselves in circles, and popularly known as "Fairy-rings," frequently springing up in a night, increasing in size, and arriving at a short-lived maturity ere noontide, and disappearing with declining day, so as to cause any rapid growth or sudden uprise to be denominated "fungoid/' from its resemblance to these unstable and often noxious plants. Lastly, we have the Algals, mostly aquatic, filling ocean and sea, river and lake, with innumerable individuals, forming sub-marine forests at least equalling in extent those of dry land, or as more minute existences in ponds and still waters, rivalling the sands of the sea-shore in their countless myriads. The " Brittle-worts/' the last division of the Algals, constitute a most perplexing family, whose relations are not easily comprehended, and whose position as vegetables is more influenced by strength of analogy than by positive right. Here it is that we arrive at the debateable land, the disputed territories, a most perplexing question, fruitful in dispute, and until both sides are fully heard, and their respective titles accurately examined, only to be provisionally settled by arbitration between the belligerent naturalists who have ranged themselves with either party. A A 2 532 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. II. CLASS. THALLOGENS (Thallogense). Entirely cellular ; stems and leaves undistin- guishable ; stomata none ; reproduction by spores. I. ORDER. LICHENALS {Lichenales). Live in air ; nourished through their whole surface by the medium in which they vegetate ; propagate by spores, which are usually enclosed in asci, and have always green gonidia in their thallus. 1. FAMILY. Scutiform - Lichens (Parmeliacese). Nucleus bearing asci ; thallus heterogeneous., pulverulent, or cellular. Several yield dyes, as Cudbear, from species ofLecanora; Litmus, from various Roccellce and Variolarice; others afford nutritive matter, as Iceland- Moss (Cetraria Islandica), and some species of Sticta, also Cladonia rangiferina, or Eein deer-Moss. 2. FAMILY. Glutinous - Lichens (CollemaceaB). Nucleus bearing asci ; thallus homogeneous, gelatinous, or cartilaginous. 3. FAMILY. Graphic-Lichens (Graphidacese). Nu- cleus breaking up into naked spores ; apothecia resembling Oriental characters. Some kinds supply a scanty nutriment, as species of Gyrophora, which, under the name of "Tripe de Roche/' is occasionally the principal subsistence of northern hunters and Arctic travellers. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 533 II. ORDER. FUNGALS (Fimgales). Living mostly in air ; nourished through their thallus ; reproduce by spores, which are sometimes enclosed in asci ; green gonidia wanting. I. SUB-ORDER. SPORIFEROUS-FUNGALS (Sporiferi). Reproduction by spores attached externally, and often supported on sporophores. 1. FAMILY Membranous-Fungi (Agaricacese). Hy- menium distinct, naked ; receptacle long or expanded, superior ; spores generally quater- nate, on distinct sporophores. To this family belong many edible species, chiefly Agarici and Boleti ; some, again, as Amanita, are poisonous ; Polyporus and Merulius are the chief agents of destruction in what is termed "dry-rot" in timber. (Hymenomycetes.) 2. FAMILY. Ventricose-Fungi (Lycoperdonacese). Hymenium enclosed in a membrane (peri- dium) ; spores generally in sets of four, on distinct sporophores. The genera Phallus and Bovista, are remarkable for the extreme rapidity of their growth ; Lysurus mokusin is applied by the Chinese to foul ulcers ; Ileodictyon is eaten in New Zealand. (Gas- teromycetes.) 3. FAMILY.- Bligkting-Fungi(UTedmaucesd). Spores single, often partitioned, on more or less dis- tinct sporophores ; flocci of the fruit obsolete or mere peduncles. Puccinia and Uredo 534 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. are popularly known as "smut" in corn. (Goniomycetes, Fries.) 4. FAMILY. Botrylloid-Fungi (Botryacese). Spores naked, often septate ; thallus floccose. Bo- trytis is the cause of a disease in silk-worms '> Penicillium appears on books in the form of blue mould. (HyphomycetesJ) II. SUB-ORDER. SPORIDIOUS-FUNGALS (Sporidiiferi). Reproduction by spores enclosed in asci (sporidia). 5. FAMILY. Follicular-Fungi (Helvellacese). Hy- menium distinct, superior, margined ; recep- tacle urceolate or reflexed, inferior ; sporidia generally eight together. Several are escu- lent, as Hdvella, Tuber, Morchella ; Mylitta is eaten in Australia, and a Cyttaria supplies food to the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego ; the species of Sphceria grow principally upon caterpillars. (Ascomycetes, Berk.) 6 FAMILY. Vesicuiar-Fwngi (Mucoracese). Spores surrounded by a vesicular veil or sporan- gium ; thallus floccose. Species of Mucor enter into the composition of mildew. (Phy- somycetes, Berk.) Many fungi are not yet sufficiently understood to enable them to be classified, among which are Ergot of rye, Spermoedia clavus of Fries, or Ergotcetia abortifaciens of Queckett ; also Mycoderma, found in flour, yeast, &c., and the vegetable crusts appear- ing in some skin-diseases in man, as in Mentagra, and Tinea favosa. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 535 III. ORDER. ALGALS (Algales). Living in water or very damp places ; nourished through their whole surface by the medium in which they vegetate ; propagated by zoospores, coloured spores, or tetraspores. 1. FAMILY. Stone-ivorts (Characese). Aquatic, sub- mersed ; odour fetid ; colour dull-green ; a central stem or axis, often encrusted with carbonate of lime ; branches in regular whorls, symmetrical, tubular ; organs of reproduction round brick-red globules, and axillary oval nucules, the latter containing starch-granules. Occur in salt-water, or in stagnant fresh- water in all parts of the world, but more abundantly in temperate climes. 2. FAMILY. Rose-tangles (Ceramiacese). Sea-weeds ; rose-coloured or purple ; bodies cellular or tubular, unsymmetrical ; reproduction by tetraspores enclosed within a transparent pe- rispore, and collected in bodies of different forms. All marine plants, chiefly inhabiting from 35 to 48 N. lat., diminishing towards the equator and the pole ; rare in the South- ern Hemisphere. Several gelatinous species are employed as food, as Chondrus crispus or Carrageen ; Rhodomenia palmata, or dulse ; and Laurentia pinnatifida, or pepper-dulse ; Plocaria tenax yields a matter used by the Chinese as glue and varnish. 3. FAMILY. Sea-weeds (Fucacese). Bodies cellular 536 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or tubular, unsymmetrical ; fronds of one or many cells, often united by gelatinous mat- ter ; reproduction by single spores, contained in superficial cells, which are scattered through the whole frond, or situated in particular parts of it. Distribution universal ; marine or fresh- water. Some attain a considerable size, as Scytosiphon filum of the North Sea, or Macrocystis pyrifera of the Pacific, the latter said to be occasionally upwards of 1 000 feet in length. ; Sargassum bacciferum, met with in large floating masses, is known as gulf- weed ; "kelp," employed in the manufacture of glass and soap, is composed of the ashes of Fucus vesiculosus, F. serratus, and F. no- dosus, the kind which is used for obtain- ing Iodine and Bromine, is chiefly made from Laminaria digitata, Himanthalia lorea, and Scytosiphon filum. 4. FAMILY. Joint-worts (Confervacese). Bodies vesicular, filamentary, or membranous; co- lour usually green ; cells solitary or many, variously shaped and disposed ; reproduction by zoospores generated in the interior, at the expense of the green matter. Universally found, generally in fresh-, but occasionally in salt-water, also in mud, on rocks, or parasitic. Some occur in such numbers as to colour the waters they inhabit, as Trichodesmium ery- thrceum in the Red Sea, or Oscillatoria ceru- gescens, which gives a green tint to Glaslough MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 537 in Ireland ; the appearance described as "Red Snow " is caused by Protococcus nivalis ; some, as Ulma thermalis, live in hot springs. 5. FAMILY. Bond-weeds (Desmidiacese). Bodies cylindrical, bipartite ; colour green ; highly mucous, destitute of silex ; multiply by spon- taneous separation ; reproduction by bodies analogous to zoospores. Usually found in cloudy masses near the bottom of permanent old boggy pools. The cells of Bond-weeds contain starch granules. 6. FAMILY. Brittle-worts (Diatomacese). Bodies crystalline, angular, fragmentary, very brit- tle ; contain much silex ; composition not binary ; colour dark brown ; multiplication and reproduction as in the last family. In- habit still waters, and boggy places, chiefly in temperate and northern climes. A A 5 538 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. PART III. GEOLOGY. THE STRATA COMPOSING THE EARTH'S CRUST ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR RELATIVE POSITION. I. SECTION. DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY. THAT grand poem has not yet been written where- in the wonders of the changing epochs of the world's early history shall be pourtrayed, as by the pen of some pre-adamite and gifted being, who, having passed unscathed through all the revolutions of our planet, shall record the result of his kosmical expe- riences. I have watched, he might declare, " The proteus shape of nature as it slept," and have seen the sullen ocean heaving waveless over the heated, new-formed crust, and heard no sound save the snap of armour-clad and buckler- headed fishes, as they caught strange floating mol- lusks swarming in the deeps, " their dark nativity/' And, amid these fishes of surprising shapes their bodies covered with enamelled plates were others, shark-like, ravaging the waters of that wide ocean ; while among the fuci and branching zoophytes that MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 539 clothed the heated rocks, were slug-like Nudibranchs, whose forms have now for ever perished. I have traced the habits and development of the curious crab-like Trilobites, and gazed upon the shoals of strange-formed Cephalopods that sported near the surface. I have seen, clothed with darkling vege- tation, islands clustered on the wide expanse, whose shores then teemed with Lily-Encrinites and pon- derous Madrepores. High-rising, in the carbon-laden atmosphere, were Club -mosses eighty feet in height, with leaves of similar proportions ; here nourished also sombre pine-like trees ; Horse-tails, with succulent and jointed stems, surmounted by their scaly catkins, arborescent Ferns, marsh-loving Stigmarice, Mosses, Lichens, and gigantic Fungi. No flowers adorned the scene no insect hordes en- livened the air no gambolling of monkeys was seen among the trees, nor were heard hoarse notes of screaming, gaudy-tinted parrots. I have wit- nessed the burial of these vast primeval forests, and seen them turned to coal. In gloomy swamps I found the home of Archegosaurus that monstrous form, half-toad, half-lizard pursuing awkwardly the insect tribes around it, and followed with a fearful eye those great and sauroid fishes that ravaged with a greedy voracity these ancient waters. Another epoch, and lo ! the waters had subsided, and the flat and muddy shores were tenanted with reptile life. That giant Newt Labyrinthodon, ap- peared to my astonished sight, leaving, as he moved along, lasting imprints of his huge and hand-like feet. 540 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKT. "In contemplation of created things," I have sat beneath the shade of crown-topped Cycads, and heard the oft-repeated plunge, and watched the gnome-like movements of those new- made Saurian forms, the Fish-Lizards, as they gambolled in the turbid waters, or basked along the reeking mud-flats, while, as the day declined, Ptero- dactyles, bat-like Lizards, would flit among the trees above my head, snapping their bird-like jaws. Half-hid among the Horse-tails of the swamps, that "biggest born of earth," the reptile Mosasaurus, waited warily for prey ; on the banks of mighty rivers I saw the colossal Iguanodon, roaming harm- lessly, and browsing on the juicy herbage ; in the shadowy woods, that huge basalisk, Hylceosaurus, lurked and lived ; while long-jawed Crocodiles, and large web-footed Terrapins, usurped the marshes. I observed, too, marsupial mammals, like monstrous Kangaroos, hopping about vast arid plains, cropping the scanty herbage. Another epoch has elapsed, and another tribe of beings enter on the scene, thick-skinned and snouted, "enormous in their gait/' wallowing in estuaries, and seeking their food in jungle and savannah. I saw the Dinotherium tearing up the banks, or suspended by his tusks to the shores of inland lakes ; I watched the fur-clad Mammoth feeding in the arctic wilds ; and admired the proportions of the great Elephant of the Lena ; I gazed with wonder on the moving mass of the shielded Glyptodon; and paused to watch the sloth- like Mylodon seated on its haunches, tearing the MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 541 bark from primeval forest-trees. On vast and soli- tary plains I have encountered the Megatherium, "huge of bulk/' rooting up the herbage with his powerful, his devastating claws ; and again, have watched the rapid paces of the Epyornis as he strode along the grassy valleys, huge, powerful, and ostrich-like. Amidst these changes of organic life, I have wit- nessed, with awe, the throes of nature, as mountains were upheaved, craters belched forth liquid fire, and lava swept along the plains. I saw that mighty torrent moving resistlessly forward, bearing in its course rock-masses, and destroying all those tribes of living forms whose bones are found in caverns at the present day ; and noted, with amaze, the rest- ing-places of those mighty boulders borne by ice- bergs on the bosom of this fearful deluge. I have seen the retiring waters finally leave broad and solid tracks, soon to become verdant with ten thou- sand varied trees, redolent of life, " The breath of nature and her endless bloom." The following pages comprise a simple compila- tion of the chief facts and features of modern Geo- logy ; the strata of the Earth's crust being thrown into several classes of formations, the chief pecu- liarities of which are defined, the geographical dis- tribution mentioned, and their principal organic remains briefly alluded to. 542 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY". I. CLASS. HYPOGENE-FORMATIONS. This class, comprising the Granitic and Trap Rocks, the Gneiss, and Mica-Schist, is composed of hard, compact, crystalline strata, and solid rocks of quartz and mica. Granite, syenite, hornblende, serpentine, together with basalt, chink-stone, and clay-stone, also occur, and organic remains are absent. I. THE GRANITE-BASIS. The unstratified and crystalline granite basis, on which all the other formations rest, is generally believed to have resulted from the gradual cooling of the earth when liquified by intense heat. The crust of solid granite thus formed, is estimated at sixty to one-hundred miles thick, and it is imagined that it will continue to increase in thickness as the process of cooling goes on. This granite crust is flexible, and the expansive force which the fluid nucleus exercises upon it, is believed to occasion the phenomena of earthquakes. Portions of it are found protruding above the other strata in every part of the globe, often rising up in extensive mountain-chains, as in the Andes of South America, the Abyssinian ranges of Africa, the Pyrenees of Spain, the Grampians of Scotland, the Alps of Switzerland, and the Cornwall hills of England. 1. Common Granite is composed of felspar, quartz, and mica; when hornblende is present instead of mica, it is Syenite ; when talc takes the place of mica, it becomes Protogine ; when it is MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 543 formed of quartz and hypersthene, with scattered crystals of mica, it is HyperstTienic-granite ; when it is mottled with chlorite, it is termed Serpentine ; and when larger crystals of felspar are scattered indiscriminately through it, Porphyry is the result. On account of its extreme hardness and dura- bility, granite is chosen for the construction of im- portant works, as bridges, docks, and lighthouses ; the enduring monuments of ancient Egypt, the Pyramids and Colossal Sphynx, are formed of granite ; talc is often used for windows, and de- composed felspar is employed in the manufacture of china. Many Eastern works were formed of Sye- nite, which is harder than granite; and columns, monuments, and ancient antique works are fre- quently of red, brown, green, or black porphyry. The verde antico, or green porphyry of the ancients, is composed of greenstone, with scattered crystals of white and green felspar. Basalt is used in the formation of sea-walls, and for road-stones ; some of the Sphynxes and Lions sculptured by the Egypt- ians, are of this substance. Trachyte, and felspathic lavas, are sometimes employed as building materials, as tufa, used by the Romans at Pompeii ; and Ser- pentine or Ophiolite, a bisilicate of magnesia, has been used extensively in the manufacture of idols, columns, vases, and ornamental work. 2. The Trap Rocks comprise the Basalts and Porphyries, and commonly occur in the shape of veins or dykes, as in the felspar porphyry rising- through the granite which constitutes the base of MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Ben-Nevis, and in the porphyry vein at St. Agnes, Cornwall. The columnar Basalt is well shewn in FingaFs Cave in the Isle of Staffa, and in the Giant's Causeway, in Ireland. No certain traces of organized beings have been detected in these rocks. II GNEISS GROUP. This group is formed by layers of gneiss, syenite, and quartz rocks, alternating with clay-slate, mica- schist, &c., forming the lower portion of the primary stratified rocks. Gneiss is composed of the same elements as granite, but these are arranged in con- torted or undulated layers, appearing as if produced by the disintegration of granite, and then deposited in water. The summits of gneiss mountains are usually rounded, and numerous beds and veins of metals occur in this formation. The ocean which deposited the mica, quartz, felspar, &c., was probably of too great a temperature for the support of animal life, no organic remains having been found in the strata of this group. III. MICA-SCHIST GROUP. This group is composed of mica and quartz, in- terlaminated so as to present the appearance of stratification j crystalline limestone and hornblende also occur ; and the lower strata consist of greenish- coloured slates, with mica and talc, schist, chlorite, and quartz rock. In the mica-schist and other metamorphic rocks, altered by high temperature, metallic ores are found in the greatest abundance. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 545 Swedish iron is procured from rocks of this class, forming mountain-masses in Smoland ; as is also the Elba, or opercular iron. Manganese has been also procured from the rocks of this group ; and in gneiss and mica-schist, the most important copper-ore (or pyrites) occurs on the Continent, and in Cornwall and Ireland ; lead, in the form of galena, or bisul- phuret, is present in these rocks, as well as in the fossilliferous deposits; silver, as a bisulphuret, is found in green-stone, cla,y-slate, and syenite, the veins sometimes extending, as in Mexico and Peru, to the ordinary deposits. Tin, in the shape of binoxide, occurs in granite, and in " killas," a pecu- liar schist in Cornwall, and in other parts of the world; mercury is occasionally detected dispersed in globules in granite, but the rich ore of this metal, cinnabar, is from the primary or grauwacke strata of Almaden, in Spain ; antimony and molybdenum are also found in granite, gneiss, and mica-schist; and gold has been found disseminated in quartzose and chloritic rocks in Brazil, and in various parts of the earth it is extracted from auriferous sands, produced by the decomposition of these strata, as are likewise platinum and diamonds. Flexible asbestus, or amianthus, is found among the mica- schists, as are also garnets; and some of the lime- stones produce valuable marbles. II. CLASS. PALEOZOIC-FORMATIONS. The different groups composing this class have, until of late years, been arranged partly with what 546 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. were formerly called primary rocks, and others with the secondary formations. Some were separated, under the name of " transition- rocks/' but they have since been more accurately defined, and named Palceozoic, from their containing the first remains of organized existence. They comprise the Silu- rian system ; the Devonian, or old Red-Sandstone ; and the carboniferous strata ; to which Murchison has added the Permian, or magnesian- limestone system. I. THE SILURIAN GROUP. This group constitutes a series of marine deposits of vast extent, composed of sandstones, limestones, shales, grits, flagstones, and slates. It derives its name from the Silures, who formerly inhabited those districts of Britain where the strata occur most conspicuously. The Silurian strata extend from the heart of South Wales to that of England, in Russia, in the Falkland Islands, and in North America; they are also found in widely-extended bed? abounding in the remains of fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, and polyps. The deposit termed Cam- brian, the earliest known fossiliferous formation, occurs in North Wales, and is placed under the Silurian strata ; it consists of slaty and gritty beds. The Murchisonian, or Upper Silurian rocks, are composed of gray and bluish limestones, coloured micaceous shales and flagstones. The Lower Silu- rian rocks are formed of impure shelly limestone, mottled sandstones, and dark calcareous flags, and MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 547 occur in Belgium, along the banks of the Rhine, in Westphalia, the North of Germany, the extreme parts of Russia, and in the lake region of North America. In this formation the first traces of organic life are met with. The vegetable remains are few, and chiefly of the lower orders, as algse, ferns, and horse-tails. Eight hundred and forty-five species of animals have been described from the Silurian strata by M. D'Orbigny, and eleven hundred species of In- vertebrata have been discovered in the Silurian system of Bohemia alone, including two hundred and fifty species of Trilobites. Only a few scales and bones of fishes, belonging to the genera Sclero- dus, Pterygotus, Tlielodus, and Onchus, have been detected. In this formation those singular crus- taceans occur, belonging to an extinct tribe, com- prising about six families, and numerous genera. These are the Trilobites, clad in mail, with large shield-shaped heads, and compound, sessile eyes. Among them we notice the Illcenus, of an oval shape, and with the angles of the head rounded, an allied species (Isotelus gigas, Dekay) is eighteen inches in length; Asaphus, with the cephalo- thorax ending in a point on each side ; Bumastus, or the " Barr-Trilobite," covered with undulating imbricated plates, all belonging to the family of Asaphidce, having the power of rolling up their bodies like woodlice ; these are found chiefly in the Lower Silurian group. Here, likewise, we have the 548 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. curious Homalonotus of tlve Ludlow limestones, with its abdomen ending in a long point, and the Caly- mene, or " Dudley-Locust/' with large trilobate head, besides Cyphaspis, Phacops, and (Eonia, other members of the Calymenidce. In the Harpidce, where the sides of the segments are rounded, and the surface of the body is furrowed, we find the Ellipsocephalus, Harpes, and Conchocepkalus, and among the Olenidce, which were unable to roll themselves into a ball, we include, besides Olenus, the singular Paradoxides, with the lateral segments ending in long deflexed spines. Brontes was an- other remarkable form, having the lateral portions of the abdominal sections radiating and forming a fan- shaped expansion; this genus, with ftveOdontopleurce and Arges formed another family (Odontopleuridce), the members of which were also unable to roll them- selves up. Among the Ogygiidce, we find the Trinu- cleus, with the margin of the cephalic segment per- forated, and Ogygia with the same part prolonged on each side into slender spines distinct from the body, and the family of Eurypteridce, which were furnished with antennae. Tentaculites, the tube of an Annelid allied to Serpula, is the only repre- sentative of other annulose animals ; it is found in the Caradoc sandstone of the Lower Silurian strata. Among Cephalopadous Mollusks the genera P/^ra*/- moceras and Lituites have been observed, but these chambered forms are very limited in number and size compared with their abundance, and the gigantic MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 549 forms they assume in strata of the secondary forma- tion. The Gasteropoda, again, are much less numer- ous than the Bivalves. Euomphalus, an extinct genus, is common in the grauwacke limestones, and there are found also about ten species of Turritella, six of Turbo, five of Buccinum, Delphinula, and Patella, and three of Nerita, Capulus, Trochus, aud Phasianella. The bivalve Mollusca are not much more numerous than the spiral Gasteropods ; the great majority of Silurian species appearing to have been either pelagian, like Bellerophon and Ortho- ceras, or inhabitants of deep water, as the Brachio- podous tribes. The bivalve genera of Avicula and Cypricardia occur in the Upper Ludlow strata, and Lingula in the Aymestry limestone. The Brachio- poda constitute about a fourth part of the Silurian Mollusks. Among them we find the Pentamerus, divided into four chambers ; the Spirifer, with long spiral arms ; the Orthis, with straight, narrow hinge ; the A typa, with a short hinge-line ; besides Tere- bratulce, Producti, Gypida, and Chonetes. The only Echinodermatous animal met with, is an Ophiura, belonging to the family Ophiuridce ; and the cup- like Encrinite, belonging to the Crinoid forms, re- markable for the jointed peduncle that supports their bodies. Among the Polypiferous animals, we here find the branched Porites, with rayed cells, and the polymorphous tribe of Favosites ; besides these, the curious Graptolithus, belonging to the family of the Sea-Pens, was an inhabitant of the Silurian Seas. 550 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. II. OLD RED-SANDSTONE GROUP. This is a marine formation, composed of strata of marls, limestone, micaceous and gray sandstones, conglomerates, quartzose grits, crystalline limestone, and green slates ; the prevailing colour of all being a dull red, derived from sesquioxide of iron. In Britain this group is well represented in in the South of Devon, in Orkney, Caithness, and Cromarty ; in Germany in the limestones of Eifel ; in Russia, in a wide area south of St. Petersburgh ; and in the United States, at the Falls of the Ohio. The Tilestone division is composed of finely laminated, hard, reddish, or green, micaceous quartzose sandstones, with occasional beds of red- dish shale. The Cornstone division consists of red and green, argillaceous, and spotted marls, with alternating bands of sandstone, and with irregular courses of mottled, red and green cornstone, or im- pure limestone. The upper portion comprises the Quartzose Conglomerates and Sandstones; com- prising quart zose-grits, and reddish quartzose con- glomerates, passing into reddish coarse - grained sandstones, with alternating layers of red and green argillaceous marls. The Old Red-Sandstone is a marine formation, and is especially remarkable for the fossil fishes it contains, entire skeletons of ga- noid and placoid families having been discovered. A solitary reptile has recently been brought to light by Mr. Duff, from the Elgin Sandstone, which ap- pears to possess a mixed character between the Amphibians and the Saurians ; it is the Telerpeton MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 551 Elginense of Mantell. Among the fossil fishes of this epoch, we may mention the Ptychacanthus, be- longing to the family of Cestracions ; genera of the curious extinct family of Ccelacanthidce, with the rays in the form of hollow tubes, and the tail pro- duced into an elongated style. To these must be added five genera of the family Cephalaspididce, which have the head and front of the body covered with bony plates. The Coccosteus, with an armour of tuberculated bony plates, a round head and elon- gated tail ; the Cephalaspis, or Buckler-head, with its large head with concentric horns, and narrow- jointed body ; the Holoptychius, cased in large, carved scales; the Pterichtkys, or Winged-Fish, with its coat of mail, strong spinous fins, and curi- ous tail with the vertebrae extending as far as the end ; and the Polyphractus and Pamphractus. To another and equally curious family, the Dipteridce, belonged the Dipterus and Diplopterus, with their fins like two pairs of wings ; the Cheirolepis with its scaly pectorals and small, fretted scales ; and the Osteolepis, cased from head to tail in complete ar- mour. To these we may add the Glyptolepis, with its large, sculptured scales ; the Cheiracanthus, or Thorny-hand, with spiny pectoral fins ; the Acan- thodes, with a spine in each fin ; the little Dipla- canthus, covered with extremely minute scales ; and last, not least, the highly interesting Asterolepis, or Star-scale, with its broad, plaited head, and body covered with scales of solid bone, so graphically de- scribed by Hugh Miller. 552 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. The crustaceans of this group comprise several genera of the Trilobite family, as Calymene, Asa- phus, Harpes, Homalonotus, and Brontes. Among the cephalopodic forms of molluscous ani- mals, we find numerous genera of the family Cly- menidce, as the straight Orthoceras, with central siphuiicle ; the Cameroceras, with the siphuncle lateral ; the discoidal Clymenia, with the siphuncle internal ; the Aturia, with a large funnel-shaped siphuncle ; and the curved, compressed, Pliragmo- ceras. Among the cephalopods of this epoch, we also observe several members of the family Ammo- nitidce, with their shells spiral, straight, or variously bent. Here we have the curved Cyrtoceras ; the straight Stenoceras ; the nautiloid Gyroceras, with the whorls disunited ; and the Goniatites, with dis- coidal shell, and lobed sutures ; besides upwards of one hundred and twelve fossil species of Nautilidce, and among them the curious Lituites, with the last chamber produced, besides Aploceras, Gomplioceras, Actinoceras, and other extinct genera. The gas- teropodous tribes are represented by Pleurotomaria, Euomphalus, Bellerophon, Nerita, Natica, Megalo- donj Calceola, and Strygocephalus ; and a little un- known bivalve has been found in this formation in the Orkneys. The zoophytic remains are numerous, among which we may observe the beautiful honey -combed Favosites and the starred Favistella, the cup-shaped Cyathophyllum, the net-like Fenestella, and the elegant chain-coral Catenipora. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 553 III. CARBONIFEROUS GROUP. This most extensive series is composed of shales, sandstones, ironstones, clays, millstone-grit, and limestone, in alternating strata of marine and fresh-water formation, interstratified with seams of coal. The Coal-measures are formed of alternating beds of coal, shale, sandstone, and clay, with seams of no- dulous ironstone. The coal itself consists of ancient plants, altered by chemical agency, and imbedded in sand and mud. Sometimes the plants grew where the coal now exists, or they were washed down into estuaries, forming vast accumulations. The coal- fields of the British islands are very numerous, and are found in South Wales, England, Ireland, and Scotland ; the gross value of the collieries being upwards of nine millions sterling. Three millions five hundred thousand chaldrons are annually brought into London, in nearly ten thousand ships. There are also coal formations in New Holland, in the East Indies, in China and Japan, in Borneo and Labuan ; also in our colonies of Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince Ed- ward's Island, New Zealand, and Port Natal. The position of the beds is often very different, many of the seams of Newcastle being worked under the sea, while at Chipo, which rises above the plain of Santa Fe de Bogota, coal is found 800 feet above the sea, and at Buanco, at 12,800 feet, or bordering on the limits of eternal snow. BB 554 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Iron-ore or clay-ironstone, from which the valu- able product iron is extracted, is also found in this formation, which thus produces the mineral, and the requisite fuel for smelting it. In 1846, two mil- lions two hundred and fourteen thousand tons of iron, of the value of eight millions eight hundred and fifty-six thousand pounds, were produced in England. Igneous Rocks are frequent in the Carboniferous group, sometimes occurring as overlying stratiform masses, alternating with sedimentary deposits, and frequently as dykes, penetrating through the strata. They principally consist of greenstone and basalt or whinstone, in the north of England, the mottled toadstone of Derbyshire, and the basaltic masses of South Staffordshire. The Mountain Limestone, which naturally be- longs to this group, is composed of thick-bedded, grayish limestones, and shales, with layers and no- dules of chert, and ores of lead, zinc, and copper, with baryta, and fluor-spar. It is a marine deposit, abounding in the crinoid forms of Echinoderms, and the shells of cephalopodous and brachiopodous mol- lusks. It is extensively developed in the northern and western parts of England, rising in picturesque peaks and hills, as in Derbyshire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. The mountain limestone of Eng- land is rich in lead, producing annually 30,000 tons, equivalent to about five hundred thousand pounds sterling ; it occurs chiefly in the form of sulphuret of lead, or galena ; manganese is also found in this MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 555 formation, and valuable building-stones and marbles are likewise afforded. Among the organic remains of tlie Carboniferous group, we may observe three species of the curious reptile, Archegosaurus, with the body of a toad and the jaws and teeth of a lizard, and the skin covered with long, narrow, tile-like, horny scales, arranged in parallel rows ; foot-prints of other rep- tiles have been also discovered in the coal strata of the United States. The fishes comprehend Pleu- racanthus, Hybodus, an extinct genus of Placoids, allied to the Sharks, Amblypterus and Palceonis- cus, heterocercal Lepidoids, and Megalichthys, and Acrolepis, great heterocercal Sauroids, with large, pointed, conical teeth, the arch-tyrants of the ancient seas ; also the placoid Deplerus, with scaly armour, and two dorsal, and two ventral, fins. The remains of Annulose animals comprise the fossil King-crab or Limulus, Nebalia, and Apus, with a few Tri- lobites, and several Entomostraca, as Cypridella, Gypridina, and Cyprella. Among Arachnidans, a scorpion (Cyclopthalmus), from the coal formation, near Prague, and among insects, Curculionidce, several Orthoptera, including Cridites and Blatlina, and the neuropterous genus, Corydalus, may be enu- merated. The molluscous forms embrace the cepha- lopodic, chambered shells of the straight, uncoiled Ortlioceras, and the Goniatites, with the borders of the septa simple ; while Euomphalus, divided into chambers, but without siphuncle, and the fragile Bellerophon, with Turbo, Trochus, Turritella, and BB2 556 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Nerita, are the most abundant of the carboniferous gasteropods. Polypi/era of the genera Cyathophyl- lum, Lithodendron, Syringopora, and Catenipora, are numerous in the limestones. The remains of ancient plants are numerous in this formation; the gigantic Tree Ferns, now confined to warm regions, constituted nearly two-thirds of the whole known fossil flora, and seem, at that pe- riod, as in New Zealand at the present day, to have replaced the graminaceous tribes, and to have co- vered extensive tracts with their delicate fronds and arborescent forms. Besides, however, the vast abundance of Ferns, large Coniferous trees related to species of warm climates, gigantic Lycopodiacece, and tribes related to the Cactacece and Ricinacece, were prevalent. Palms, and other monocotyledons, also Catamites, referred by some to the Horsetails, are also noticed. Among the Filices may be discovered the round- leaved Cyclopteris ; twenty-four species of Nerve- leaved fern, Neuropteris ; the elegant Tooth-leaved fern, Odontopteris ; sixty species of Embroidered fern, Pecopteris, with beautiful tripinnate leaves ; the Spear-leaved feYn,Lonchopteris, and the Fissured fern, 8chizopteris. Among the Club-mosses we find the Lycopodites with pinnate branches, the Sala- yinites, with dichotomous stems, and the Lepido- dendron and Ulodendron, with the branches co- vered with scale-like leaves. Besides these, the Lepidostrombus, forming ovate cones of imbricate scales round a woody axis j heart-shaped fruits or MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 557 Cardiocarpa, and Stigmaria with tubercles on the stem, arranged in a spiral manner ; the Asterophyl- lites, with its star-like whorls, the leaves of Flabel- laria and Zeugophyllum, the fruits of Trigonocar- pum and Musocarpum, and about forty species of curious furrowed Sigillarice, most probably the stems of extinct Coniferous plants. IV. PERMIAN, OR MAGNESIAN-LIMESTONE GROUP. This formation is composed of fragments of moun- tain-limestone, coal, shale, &c., cemented together by a base of dolomite, or magnesian-limestone. The organic remains of this group exhibit some resem- blance to those of the Trias, or New Red-Sandstone, but approach more closely to those of the Carboni- ferous. The Permian system is developed fully in Russia, and derives its name from Perm in that country ; in the south-west of England the beds are composed of dolomite ; in the north-east, of a yellow inag- nesian-limestone, passing into slate, marl, and marl with gypsum. The magnesian-limestone is employed for architectural purposes, and was chosen as the best stone for building the New Palace at West- minster. The organic remains at present discovered, com- prise seven species of Nothosaurus, a reptile of the family of Ichthyosauridce, and Protosaurus an ex- tinct genus of Lacertidce, from the Permian stage of 558 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Tubingen. The curious Russian fish Ommotolampes Eichwaldi of Fischer, which is covered with bony shields like a tortoise, and the no less remarkable genus Trachelocanthus, which has a spine in its throat turned backwards, belong to this period. The other fish are remarkable for their heterocercal tails, in which the vertebral column extends into the upper lobe, as seen in the Shark and Sturgeon, which the fossil Palceoniscus probably resembled in its habits. The remains of molluscous animals are referred principally to the brachiopodous genera, Productus and Spirifer. III. CLASS. SECONDARY-FORMATIONS. Secondary formations, as now restricted, are com- posed of various strata of sandstones, aluminous and siliceous beds, and chalky deposits ; they commence with the New Red-Sandstone, and comprehend be- sides the Lias, the Oolitic series, including the Wealden-group, and the Cretaceous system. These rocks occur in all parts of the world, and abound in remains of plants and animals now entirely extinct. I. TEIAS, OR, NEW RED-SANDSTONE GROUP. This is a marine formation, composed of varie- gated marls and sandstones, conglomerates, and limestones, frequently of a red colour, with exten- sive deposits of gypsum and rock salt, and contain- ing numerous brine springs. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 559 The lowest division consists of variegated sand- stone, distinguished by greenish stripes and spots, and containing clay galls. The middle division, or muachelkalk, occurs under several varieties of lime- stones, which alternate with marls and clays, some- times containing gypsum and rock salt. In the upper division, or Keiiper, marls and clays, asso- ciated with gypsum and rock salt, and sometimes an impure coal occur. Deposits of this system are extensively developed in France, Germany, Italy, European Russia, North America ; and it traverses England from south-west to north-east. The organic remains of the New Red-Sandstone are tolerably numerous. A gigantic extinct species of Kangaroo has been found in fis- sures and caves of limestone of this epoch in New Holland, associated with the bones of the Wombat, and another marsupial mammal allied to Didelpliis. In the New Red-Sandstone of Massachusets fossil foot-prints of unknown animals, presumed to have been birds, have been observed. These imprints are of gigantic dimensions, being fifteen inches long and ten inches broad, and from four to five feet apart. Among Reptilian remains, five species of Laby- rinthodon, a kind of gigantic Batrachian, of littoral habits, with the jaws furnished with teeth, have been discovered in the lower stage of the New Red-Sand- stone of England ; it is supposed to have resembled a monstrous toad, and to have left the remarkable foot-prints on the muddy shores, resembling hands, 560 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. which Kaup has referred to a supposed animal called by him Cheirotherium. From the Keiiper of Ger- many are derived the extinct fossil forms Mastodon- saurus, Metopias, and Capitosaurus, belonging to the same family of Labyrinthodontidce, and from the muschelkalk, Diacosaurus, Simosaurus, and Pristosaurus, genera of the extinct family IchtTiyo- sauridce, have also been obtained. Chelonians have left their foot-marks on slabs of New Red-Sandstone in the quarries of Dumfriesshire, which have been referred to Chelichnus and Herpetichnus by Jar- dine ; moreover, the genus Cladeiodon, one of the Lacertidce, is from the Keiiper of Warwickshire, and the Rhynchosaurus, belonging to the same family, is from Grinshill. Phytosaurus, the most ancient Crocodile, is from the trias of Germany ; and from the dolomitic conglomerate of Bristol we have the lacertine genera Thecodontosaurus and PaloBosaurus. The fishes of this formation belong principally to the ganoid family of Pycnodontidce and to the Palceoniscidce, lepidoid fishes, with rhom- boid scales arranged in parallel lines and with heterocercal tails. Among the mollusca the Cepha- lopodic family, AmmontiidcB, made its appearance here under the form of the genus Ceratites ; the bi- valves Posidonia and Avicula also occurred. From the muschelkalk, the echinodermatous Encrinus, or Lily-Encrinite, is obtained. Among plants the epoch of the New Red-Sand- stone formation was characterised by the appearance of a few Cycadacece, and must have resembled in MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 561 its flora somewhat the aspect of that of New Hol- land. The curious arborescent fern, Anomopleris, the coniferous genera Voltzia and Thuia, the pal- maceous Cupressites, and the flowering genera of jfithophyllum, Echinostachys, and Palceoxyris, also occur among the vegetable remains of this period. II. LIAS GROUP. This is a group of marine argillaceous limestones, stratified blue clays, alum shales, marls, and sand- stones. It extends throughout a great part of Europe ; on the Continent, it occurs in the north and south- east of France, in Switzerland, and in Germany ; and it forms a belt across our island, from Lyme- Regis in Dorsetshire to the north of Whitby. The Lias was a marine deposit, of which the epoch was remarkable as the " age of reptiles ;" gigantic saurians having then maintained possession of the shallow ocean, preying on the legions of cephalopods and other mollusks, and swimming around the muddy shores of the half-formed land. The remains of the marine, air-breathing, cold- blooded Ichthyosauridce, organized entirely for an aquatic existence, were especially numerous in the Liasic period of the secondary formations. Among the principal genera may be mentioned the Fish- Lizard, or Ichthyosaurus, with its short neck, great eyes, and reptilian head; and the Plesiosaurus, with crocodile's teeth, serpent's neck, and porpoise's paddles. The fishes comprise many ganoid genera, BB5 562 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. with equal-lobed, or homocercal tails ; also fourteen genera of placoid Gestraciontidce, with elongate bodies and tessellated teeth, of which A crodus is one. The ganoid genera with homocercal tails, are principally Lepidotus, Tetragonolepis, Dapedium, AmblyuruSj and Semionotus ; Chondrosteus, a genus of Acipenseridce, or sturgeons, is also from the Lias of Lyme-Regis. While all the lepidoid and sauroid fishes which inhabited the seas before the deposition of the Lias had the vertebral column prolonged into the upper lobe of the tail, or were heterocercal, the fishes of the Lias group, with the exception of the Coccolepis, have the tail homocercal, like most of the fishes living in the seas of the present era. The anDulose animals found in this formation belong to crustaceans of the genus Coleia; species of Astacus, and minute entomostracous Cyprididce; and, among insects, of coleopterous and orthop- terous genera, including the beautiful neuropterous dragon-fly, jEsTina liassina, and the remains of air- breathing annulose animals, cotemporaries of the gigantic marine saurians. Of molluscous animals, the Cephalopods were most abundant ; vast numbers of Ammonites and Belemnites, several species of Nautilus, and the pens of Loliginidce, have been brought to light. Among the gasteropodous tribes, we only meet with the genera Rotella and Pleuro- tomaria bivalves, belonging to the genera Gry- phcea, Cardini^LimajAvicula, and Hippopodium, have been found in the lower Lias shales ; and MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 563 Crenatula, Corbula, Pholadomya, and Nucula, be- sides an Area, Pinna, Oardium, and Pecten, in the higher beds ; with Posidonia, and a large Pla- giostoma. The brachiopodous genus, Spirifer, ap- pears in the Lias for the last time ; and Leptcena occurs in the neighbourhood of Ilminster. Of Echi- noderms, we find the slender-armed Ophiuri, and elegant plant-like Crinoidea, chiefly belonging to the genus Pentacrinus. The Cidaris, a genus of Sea-Urchins (Echinidce), is also found. The plants of the Lias consist of Zosterites, a monocotyledonous genus ; several Coniferce ; Nill- sonia, and Zamia, of the cycadaceous family ; the Tongue-fern (Glossopteris) ; the Wreath-fern (Tceni- opteris) ; and the Lattice-fern (Clathropteris). III. THE OOLITE, OR JURA GROUP. The Oolite comprises a series of marine strata of enormous extent, consisting of limestones, sand- stones, and clays, with calcareous grits, replete with corals, shells, fish, reptiles, terrestrial plants, and species of mammalia. It occurs in England, com- mencing at the isle of Portland, follows a winding course through several counties, and ends at the sea, near Scarborough. On the Continent, it is developed in Normandy, traverses France, forms the mass of the Jura, ancj part of the Alps ; and is found also in Germany, Poland, Portugal, and Spain. The Bavarian Jura is celebrated for the litho- graphic stone of Solenhofen ; in the lower division of the Oolites the Bath stone occurs so extensively 564 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. used in delicate mouldings in architecture, and which is represented in France by the Caen stone ; and in the upper Oolite the celebrated Portland stone is found, so useful as a building material. With regard to organic remains, the Stonesfield slate has furnished us with three little quadrupeds of the size of a mole, allied to the Australian genus Myrmecobius, and belonging to the extinct genera Amphitherium, and Phascolotherium ; they are of the lowest, or marsupial tribes of mammals : from the same place jaws of other marsupials, species of Thylacotherium, have been received. Reptiles of several descriptions peopled the ancient earth during this epoch, which was also an " age of reptiles." Some, as the Pterodactyles, were organized for flying through the air like so many Vampire-Bats ; others were adapted for frequenting river-banks and marshes, like the Crocodiles and the Monitors ; and others were entirely marine, propelling themselves through the still, warm waters, by means of fin-like paddles. The Pterodactyl^ or Flying-Lizards, were most numerous during the Oolitic period, fourteen species having been discovered in the Oxford stage of So- lenhofen alone; they are also found in the Stones- field slate of Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire. These remarkable beings of a former creation were probably nocturnal, and differed from all living and extinct tribes of Reptiles, in the little finger of the fore-legs being greatly elongated and enlarged, to support a membranous wing, by means of which they were MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 565 enabled to enjoy an arboreal life among primeval forest trees. The head of these curious creatures was prolonged into a muzzle, well furnished with sharp teeth, and their neck was long and bird-like. From the same strata are derived the fossil remains of a gigantic carnivorous Lizard allied to the Moni- tor, having powerful teeth with serrated edges, and which inhabited the banks of the ancient rivers. This colossal saurian (Megalosaurus) appears to have reached the appalling length of thirty feet. The genus Spondylosaurus, an extinct form allied to Ichthyosaurus, is from the Oolite of Moscow ; two species of Pliosaurus, a gigantic reptile of the same family, are from the Oxford clay; the La- certine Geosaurus of Cuvier is from Mannheim ; and from the Oxford clay is derived Idiochelys, a Marsh- Tortoise of the family Emydidce. There are, more- over, several genera belonging to the family Croco- dilidce found in different stages of the Oolite, such as the ^fllodon, Mystriosaurus, Macrospondylus, Gna- thosaurus, Rachceosaurus, Pleurosaurus, Steneo- saurus, and Pelagosaurus ; the Pcecilopleuron, of the same family, is from the great Oolite of Ger- many. From the Oxford stage are derived fishes of the Ray tribe belonging to the genera Asterodermus and Euryarthra. From this formation, also, are pro- cured fourteen extinct genera of Polypteridce, sau- roid fishes with homocercal tails, of which the Po- lypterus of the Nile and the Gambia is the living representative ; lepidoid fishes with homocercal tails, 566 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. belonging to the family Lepidotidce, were also nu- merous. Remains of Crustaceous animals have been found in the lithographic schists of Solenhofen, especially numerous genera of the family Sphcerodermidce, as Alvis, Naranda, Sculda, Norna, Urda, and Recfaur ; several genera also of the Prawn-family, Palcemo- nidce, as Dusa, Blaculla, Saga, Udora, &c. ; and of the Lobster-tribe Astacidce, as Magila, Orphnea, Brisa, Bolina, Aura, &c., have been discovered and described by Count Munster, from the Oxford stage of Bavaria, Among Insects, the elytra of Beetles belonging to the families Prionidce, Blapsidce, and Buprestidce, have been found. More than one hundred and thirty species of Gasteropodous Mol- lusca occur in this group, chiefly belonging to the genera Trochus, Patella, Turbo, Turritella, Actceon, Melania, Natica, Rostellaria, Cerithium, and Ptero- cera, which are recent, and to Nerincea, Cirrus, Pleu- rotomaria and Trochotoma, which are extinct genera. The bivalve Pholadowiya, and the extinct Gryphcea, known from Ostrea by its curved beak and flat upper valve, are found in the Oolite ; in the Kim- meridge-clay the latter shells form entire layers ; species are also common in the Shanklin sand of the Isle of Wight. Some Cephalopods are likewise present, especially longitudinally-striated Nautili; the crosier-shaped Ancyloceras; and the spiral .ZTe^- oceras, with the whorls detached. Besides these, may be mentioned the curious genus Diceras of the Alps, Avicula, Cypricardia, the brachiopodous MANUAL OF NATTJKAL HISTORY. 567 Spirifer, Atryapa, Orthis, Terebratula, Lingula, and Pentamerus, and the cephalopodous genera Orthoceras, Lituites, and Phragmoceras. In the slate of Solenhofen a few impressions re- sembling those of Medusae are the only traces yet discovered of the evanescent, delicate, and fragile Acalephce. One of the limestones of the middle Oolite is named the " coral rag/' from the abundance of corals it contains ; there is also a bed of coral- line limestone upon the freestone of the lower Oolite of the Cotteswold Hills. These remains of Zoo- phytes consist chiefly of the genera of Explanaria; star-like Astrece; fungus-shaped Agaricice; flower- like Caryopliyllice ; cup-shaped Cyathophylla ; and many other forms of the larger lithophytes now confined to equatorial seas. Several genera of Sponges have been identified in the Oolitic rocks, as the reticulate Achilleum ; the turbinated Cnemidium and Siphonia ; and the polypiferous genera Catenipora, Porites, Cystiphyl- Iwm and Graptolithus have also been met with. Belonging to the World of Vegetables we find in the Oolitic epoch the elegant Thick-fern or Pachyp- teris, the Tongue-leaved Fern, Glossopteris, and the Round-leaved Fern, Cyclopteris ; in the family Cy- cadacece ; the winged leaves of Pterophyllum, and a species of Zamia have been detected ; and among the Pinacece, Peuce, Brachyphyllum, Taxites and Thuytes; while in the lower Oolite of Yorkshire, a colossal Horsetail, or Equisetum, has been dis- covered. 568 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY". IV. WEALDEN GROUP. The Wealden is a fresh- water deposit, consisting of beds of clay, argillaceous limestones, and sands, with occasional layers of lignite. It is considered to be the delta of an ancient river, containing land plants, fresh-water mollusks, fishes, tortoises, and enormous saurians. In its geographical distribution this formation extends from Horsham to Hastings, where it dips beneath the sea, forms the bed of the English channel, and re-appears in the valley of Braye in the Department of the Boulonnois ; similar strata occur in Germany and "Westphalia, in the Isle of Bornholm, and at Niederschone in Saxony. In the Wealden formation an extinct genus be- longing to the Order of Wading-Birds (Palceomis), and a natatorial genus, the Cimoliornis, also ex- tinct, have been detected. Large terrestrial and aquatic reptiles abounded during the epoch of the Wealden, among which may be mentioned the Igua- nodon of Mantell, a gigantic, herbivorous saurian, with serrated teeth, and which is calculated to have attained the length of thirty feet ; there were also the Hylceosaurus, with long, bony processes ar- ranged along the back ; the Cetiosaurus, or Whale- Lizard, with the spongy bones of a cetaceous ani- mal, and of the size of the largest Whales ; the Teleosaurus, or slender-nosed Crocodile, with the tapering jaws of the Gangetic Gavial ; the Gonio- pholis, or Swanage Crocodile, with angular plates MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 569 on the skin; the Succhosaurus with biconcave, and the Streptospondylus with convexo-concave ver- tebra-. Besides these, there were several genera of Marsh Tortoises, as Tretosternon, Euryster- non, Trionyx, Platemys and Emys. The fishes of this group comprise the genera Lepidosteus, Lepi- dotus and Hybodus. The remains of the little entomostracous genus Cypris are very abundant in the Wealden of Kent, and of the Isle of Wight, their bivalve carapaces occurring in extensive layers ; the crustaceous genus, Archceoniscus, is also from the Wealden of France and England, and numerous remains of Coleopterous, Neuropterous, Orthop- terous, Dipterous, and Hemipterous insects have likewise been detected. Among mollusca the fresh-water genera Oyclas, Unio, Paludina,a,ndAnodonta, have been met with. V. CRETACEOUS GROUP. The Chalk group comprises a series of marine deposits, composed of chalk, limestone, sandstone, marls, and clays. The lower portion, or gait, con- sists of beds of bluish or black clay, with green sand, containing hardened concretions ; the upper portion, or chalk proper, consists of soft, white chalk, with layers of flint, and hard chalk without flint. The chalk formation composed the bed of an ancient ocean, and contains the organic remains of many marine plants and animals. It extends over portions of the British Islands, various parts of France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and 570 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. America. The group offers varied peculiarities in different parts of the world, as in the green-sand of England ; the beds of flints of Saxony and Bohe- mia ; the indurated chalk of Greece ; the white limestone of the Mediterranean ; the quadersand- stein of Saxony, and the beds of sand and clay in America. In the Chalk of Jersey, United States, a gralla- torial bird of the genus Scolopax has been disco- vered ; a skeleton of a bird, nearly entire has been met with in the slate of the Swiss Alps ; and a bird, allied to the Albatross, in the white chalk of Eng- land. The Lizard of the Meuse, or Mosasaurus, a marine saurian about twenty-five feet long, with a powerful flattened tail, and intermediate in structure between the Monitor and Iguana, has been obtained from the river adjacent to the quarries of St. Peter's mountain, near Maestricht ; and an allied reptile, the Leiodon of Owen, from the Chalk of Norfolk. From the Chalk near Cambridge, the Raphiosaurus, and from the green-sand of the vicinity of Hythe, the remains of a colossal reptile with fold-like mark- ings on the teeth (the Polyptychodori), and a species of Pterodactyle have also been discovered. The fishy tribes of the Cretaceous group, comprise extinct cy- cloid genera allied to the Salmon, Carp, and Pike, and ctenoids allied to the Perch, found in the upper stages of the Chalk of England and Germany \ Osme- roides Mantellii, and many fishes of the Shark- tribe, belonging to the genera Squalus, Galeus, and Isurus, are also found in this formation. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 571 In the Molluscous Sub-Kingdom the genera of the Cephalopodous family Ammonitidce were very numerous in the Chalk ; among which may be no- ticed the straight, chambered Baculites ; the hook- shaped Hamites, the discoidal, open-whorled Crio- ceras, the Ammonites, with the whorls discoid and united, the obliquely- whorled Toxoceras ; the Sea- phites with the last whorl detached, the Ptychoce- ras bent upon itself, the twisted Anciloceras, and the sinistral, turrited, spiral, chambered shell, the Tur- rilites. The ancient Cephalopods seem indeed to have here arrived at their maximum of develop- ment, and to have become gradually extinct. The Gasteropodous forms comprise species belonging chiefly to existing genera, as Rostellaria, Trochus, Turbo, Vermetus, Auricula, and Dentalium, and the fossil genus Cirrus. The bivalves consist prin- cipally of Plagiostoma, a fossil genus allied to Spon- dylus, with the valves beset with spines, and which is very frequent in the Chalk ; the thin fibrous Ino- ceramus ; the spiny Podopsis ; and the extinct ge- nus Gatellus are also found j besides Ostrea, Corbis, Thetis, Perna, Gryphcea, Trigonia, and Gervillia. Pectens are also common, as is also Rhynchonella, one of the same family. .The Chalk-formation is most numerous in the forms of the free Echinoderms, as the fixed, pedun- culated genera were more abundant in the older secondary rocks. Spatangidce prevail in the lower Chalk ; we find Holaster, and smooth Spatangi, and species of Micraster and Ananchytes, or Helmet 572 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Echinite, in the upper strata. There are also found numerous species of Turban-Urchins (Cidaridce), as the elegant Hemicidaris, and others. Species of Clypeus, or Buckler-Echinite, Cyphosoma, and Sa- lenia, are also present. Among the Crinoidea, we find the purse-like Marsupites, and the Pear-Encri- nite (Apiocrinus) from the Bradford clay of Wilt- shire; also the Pentacrinus. A few Asteriidce and Ophiuridce, and a Goniaster, or Cushion-star, are frequent in the white chalk, besides Gonulus and Discoidea of the Cidaridce. Among the Polypi/era, those funnel-shaped bodies, often termed " petrified mushrooms/' occur ; they belong to the genus Ven- triculites, and are very numerous in the Chalk ; Ocel- laria is a beautiful allied genus, and, besides these, Astrece, Fungice, Meandrince, and Caryophyllice prevail. Many Polyzoa also occur, as Eschara, Cri- sia, and Flustra. The shell-like skeletons of Fora- minifera are found in great abundance in the Chalk, thirty genera, comprising two hundred and fifty spe- cies, having been described by M. D'Orbigny. Among these may be observed the crosier-like Lituola, the fan-shaped Flabellina ; the entwined and spiral Tex- tularia ; the globular Xanthidium, and the saucer- shaped Pyxidiculum. The whole mass of the white Chalk, moreover, has been shewn by Ehrenberg almost to consist of the skeletons of Infusoria, or polygastric animalcules, mixed up with well-pre- served Foraminifers. The tabular and nodular masses of Chalk-flints are believed to be composed principally of fossil Sponges, which are often mine- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 573 ralized by pyrites. Among them we may notice the reticulate mass of the genus Manon; the branching Scyphia; the funnel-shaped Chenendopora; the tur- binate Cnemidium ; and the bulbiform Siphonia. Among the few vegetable productions found in the Chalk, we may mention the liliaceous genus Clathraria, and Fucoides from the Glanconite or fire-stone. VI. CLASS. TERTIARY-FORMATIONS. This class consists of an extensive series of strata, marine, lacustrine, fluviatile, and volcanic. The remains of animals and plants abound, comprising extinct and existing species of mammals, shells of the river, lake, and land, and many types altogether extinct. It comprehends all the deposits of marl, clay, sand, and gravel, which occur above the chalk. The creation of races of beings that now people the surface of the globe had its commence- ment in the epoch of these formations. The cities of London and Paris are built on marine and fresh- water beds, which have been deposited during this era, in the form of vast basins ; the tertiary strata are found also on the coast of Africa ; the shores of the Mediterranean, in the form of num- mulite limestone ; in Russia, on the level tract be- tween the Baltic and the Northern Ocean ; in Asia, near the Bay of Bengal; in the east of North America ; and in Equatorial America ; they occur, also, in the soft sandstones of the Swiss lakes ; the 574 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. valleys of the Danube and the Rhone ; and the lacustrine sands and marls of Auvergne ; and also along the southern basis of the Hinirnalaya. I. EOCENE GROUP. This group constitutes the most ancient of the tertiary formations. It is composed of marine and fresh-water beds of blue and plastic clays, thin beds of sand, and shingle mixed with lignite, &c. Here we find about three and a half per cent, of shells which belong to types of existing species. Several Quadrumana have recently been dis- covered in strata of this epoch ; namely a Macacus from the eocene sand of Kyson ; a tail-less monkey or Gibbon (Hylobates) in the South of France ; several species of Semnopitheci in India; and a Callithrix in the basin of the Rio des Velhas, in Brazil. The Mammals of the tertiary formations were principally, however, ponderous vegetable- eating quadrupeds, that loved to frequent the river- banks, marshes, and borders of lakes ; such were the colossal Mastodon, the lofty Sivatherium, the thick-skinned Rhinoceros, the amphibious Hippo- potamus, the long-nosed Tapir, and the Hog. Among Cetaceous mammals, we here find the great- headed Balcena, with its laminated whale-bone, the Ztiphius and Balcenodon, with sharp, conical teeth, and the Zeuglodon, a gigantic cetacean, seventy feet in length. Ziphodon and Adapis are pachyderms from the eocene stage, as is also the singular Chceropotamus. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. 575 The London clay produces an extinct genus allied to the Peccary, the Hyracotherium ; and here, like- wise, occurs a species of extinct bat, belonging to the genus Molossus, from a bed of eocene sand in Suffolk. The extinct, carnivorous genus, Hycenodon, is from the lower tertiary of the Isle of Wight ; and the small, marsupial Didelphys Colchesteri, is from the sand at Kyson. A large mammal, related to the water-mole (Paloeospalax) has been discovered in a lacustrine deposit at Ostend ; arid the Trogon- therium, a large extinct genus, allied to the Beaver, in Russia. The Paris basin, the scene of the illus- trious Cuvier's labours, has furnished numerous extinct mammalian genera. The pachydermatous Paloeotherium, with a short proboscis, like a tapir ; the Anthracotherium, with a still shorter nose ; the Lophiodon, with crested teeth ; and the Anoplothe- rium, with only two toes on its feet, are among his discoveries. From the quarries of Montmarle have been procured three or four species of marsupials, two or three of bats, and, among Insectivora, the remains of a mole ; among Carnivora, several spe- cies of bear, seal, cat, weasel, dog, and fox ; among Rodents, ten or twelve species of beaver, rat, hare, squirrel, and Lagomys ; besides bones of the great thick-skinned Mastodon and Rhinoceros ; also the horse, boar, and tapir, and the ruminant forms of the elk, stag, antelope, and ox. The same vast cemetery of organic remains has supplied us with a list of eocene birds. Fossil genera of Raptores, as Halia- etus, Buteo, and Strix ; species of the rasorial genus, 576 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Perdix; the grallatorial genera of Tantalus, Scolo- pax, and Nume&ius, and the natatorial Carbo, or Cormorant. In the eocene of Sheppey, an extinct raptorial bird, allied to the vultures (Lithornis), and another departed form allied to the King- fishers (Halcyornis) have been discovered ; and in the schists of Glarus, an extinct genus of incessorial birds, the Pyctornis. Among reptilian forms, nearly perfect carapaces of turtles and tortoises have been found in the eocene strata of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight ; an extinct genus of serpents, Palce- ophis, has been discovered in the sand of Kyson, together with species of the fresh -water tortoises, Emys and Platemys. The fishes of this group com- prise seven extinct genera of Placoids, belonging to the family of Chimceridce; a single fossil Diodon ; and several genera, mostly extinct, of the Ostra- ciontidcB. In Mollusca, extinct species of existing genera are very numerous in the marine deposits of the tertiary strata ; two hundred and twenty fossil species of Cerithium alone having been identified, besides numbers of Pleurotomia, Fusus, and Buc- cinum. A few extinct genera also occur, as Pile- olus, Omalaxis, and Pleurotomaria. But few spe- cies of Helicidce have been found ; only ten species of Patella; one Haliotis ; about seventeen Neri- tince; numerous Trochidce; nineteen Cowries; and many species of cones, helmet-shells, rock-shells, and tritons. Among Pteropods, a few extinct forms occur , two fossil species of Cavolina are found in the tertiary beds of Dax and Turin. Nearly a MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 577 thousand fossil species of Bivalves have likewise been discovered in these strata, including the genera Ostrea, Pecten, Venericardia, Cytherea, Lucina, Gorbula, Tellina, Nucula, Crassatella, &c. The fossil oysters often occur in extensive beds, as in the tertiary clays near Woolwich, and in the lower- most sands and clays of the London basin. II. MIOCENE GROUP. The Miocene forms the middle group of tertiary strata ; it is composed of fresh-water and estuary beds of marls, imperfect limestones, and clays, The lower part of this formation in England, con- sisting of a mass of calcareous marls, shells, and small corals, is called the " Coralline Crag of Suffolk;" five hundred species of mollusks have been obtained from it. Out of England, the faluns of Touraine, the beds of Bordeaux, the conglomerate of Piedmont, and part of the molasse of Switzerland, belong to this group. In the Falunian stage, the Metaxyihermm, a cu- rious extinct mammal, allied to the Lamantin and Dugong, has been found. In beds of sand and marl of this group, we see at Darmstadt in Germany thebones of one of the most gigantic mammals yet discovered, the Dinotherium, an animal as large as an elephant, with tusks in the lower jaw curved downwards ; it is allied to the Mastodon and Tapir, and is supposed to have hung by its tusks to the banks of rivers and lakes, like the Walrus to the floating masses of ice in polar seas. Belonging to the Miocene stage are c o 578 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. those extinct Pachyderms, the Hyotherium, Macrau* chenia, and Ckaltcotherittwi, and four species of Rhi- noceros ; a solipede mammal, allied to the Horse, from Eppelsheim, the Hippotherium ; and several species of Trichechus or Walrus, from the middle tertiary beds of France and England, may be alluded to. The extinct genera of digitigrade Carnivora, Machairodus, with its formidable canine teeth, and Amyxodon, are also from these strata, besides nu- merous genera of Rodents, as Trogontherium, Ste- neofiber, Palceomys, Chalicomys, Archceomys, and Chelodus. In the Falunian stage, Insessorial Birds of the genera Gorvus and Fringilla, and the Gralla- torial forms of Ciconia, Scolopax, and Phcenicop- terus, have been identified. Loricated polygastric animalcules are found fossil in the tertiary deposits of Europe and America, such as the simple chain-like Bacillaria; the elegant bi- valved Cocconeis ; the boat-shaped shields of Navi- cula ; the discoid Gaillonella ; the slender, elon- gated Synedra; the cruciform Podosphenia, and the toothed carapace of Eunotia, together with Chcetotyphla and Peridinium. Many of these sili- ceous shields are found in the substance termed " Tripoli/' and in the " Bergmehl/' or fossil farina, used as food, mixed with the ground bark of trees, by the natives of Finland and Lapland. III. PLIOCENE GROUP. This group forms the most recent of the tertiary formations, and is composed of beds of marl, marine MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 579 shells, and gravel, and calcareous conglomerate ; the organic remains consist of species generally resem- bling those of existing forms. The Pliocene epoch is divided into the lower, in- cluding the red crag of Suffolk, in which phospha- tized bones and coprolites occur in great abundance ; and the upper, or newer Pliocene, which includes the red crag of Norfolk, in England, about half the Island of Sicily, the blue clay of the Mediter- ranean, and the argillaceous limestone around the Caspian. The species of Mollusca of the newer Pliocene are nearly identical with the recent species, while many of the mammals belong to forms entirely lost ; the species of fish of the Norfolk crag are mostly refer- able to genera common in tropical seas. The upper tertiary marine deposits exhibit many genera of Polyzoa and of polypiferous animals, such as species of Isis, Madrepora, Eschara, Nullipora, Flustra, Meandrina, Turbinolia, and others. The plants of the tertiary formations consist of Ferns, Pinacece in great numbers, Pa]ms and tropi- cal monocotyledons, Elms, Willows, Poplars, Ches- nuts, and Sycamores; Carpinus, Betula, Compto- nia, and three species of the Walnut tribe. The chief genera of the Pinacece, are Pinus, Taxites, and Podocarpus, and among the family of Palms, leaves of Flahellaria, Phcenicites, and Juniperites, and the fruit of Cocos have been discovered ; and, belonging to the Lily-tribe, those of Amomocarpum and Pandanocarpum. The bodies called " Gyro- cc 2 580 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. gonitea," or fossil fruits of the genus Chara, with spirally twisted valves, are also common. IY. GLACIAL, OR POST-PLIOCENE GROUP. This group, sometimes called the Ancient or Dilu- vial Drift, consists of deposits still in course of formation; beds of rivers, lakes, peat-bogs, coral limestones, volcanic ejections, and calcareous de- posits from mineral springs. These results are com- monly ascribed to the unusual operations of water, or by the passage of diluvial waters over the sur- face of the earth, thus accounting for the gravel, sand, and clay, with boulders, or rounded masses, and water-worn transported materials. What are termed " erratics " also occur in this group ; they con- sist of large, angular masses of rock, distinct from the rounded boulders, and are now believed to have been transported by ice, and so to have preserved their angular forms : they occur only in extra-tro- pical regions. The scratches or grooves on the surface of rocks of this epoch are accounted for by the pebbles moving with, and immersed in, the beds of boulder-clay, which once covered the rocks ; the movements being produced by landslips, and the descent of semi-fluid mud down the sides of moun- tains and along valleys. In this last deposit of the tertiary formations, we find the remains of many large mammals of species both recent and extinct. Ossiferous Sands and Gravel of the valleys of Great Britain, the conti- nent of Europe, and the river-plains of North MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 581 America, contain bones of various mammals, as Ele- phants and Mammoths in Siberia and the North of Europe, and the Mastodons and Megatheriums of the New World. Among Cetaceous mammals, which have been observed in alluvial silt, is a species of Balcenoptera, seventy-two feet in length, em- bedded in clay twenty feet above the highest tide- mark at Alloa in Scotland, besides the bones of a Narwhal, a Manatee, and species of Physeter and Balcena. The remains of colossal Pachyderms are frequently found buried in superficial alluvial de- posits throughout Europe. The Mastodon, with mammillated molar teeth, and without tusks in the adult, resembled the elephant in form. The best known fossil elephant is the Mammoth (ElepTias primogenius). One of these huge Pachyderms was found on the banks of the Lena, nine feet high and sixteen feet long, and with large recurved tusks ; the skin of this Siberian monster was not, however, naked like that of the elephants of the present day, but was covered with a shaggy woollen coat, to guard against the cold of a northern climate. The ElepTias Ganesa of the Sevalik hills must also have been a quadruped of very formidable appearance. Among the Sivalik mountains also formerly roamed that immense Antelope-like creature the Sivathe- rium, which was furnished with a nasal proboscis, and four horns like those of a Giraffe ; here also are entombed the remains of fossil Ruminants, Oxen, and a gigantic species of Camel ; the Dremotherium allied to the Cervidce, has been discovered in the 582 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. sub-apennine stage of Auvergne, and a fossil genus of Camelidce, the Merycotherium, from the glacial regions of Siberia. Besides these, we have the ex- tinct pachydermatous genera Potamohippus, Chce- roiherium, and Elasmotherium, from the sub-apen- nine or newer tertiary deposits of Asia, and the Toxodon, from the Pampas of South America. In the vast alluvial plains of South America, colossal edentate mammals have been floated from the in- terior of the country in a former age, and embedded in the muddy deposits. Among these are the gigan- tic fossil Sloth (Mylodon robustum), eleven feet in length, which uprooted trees with its fore-feet, and fed upon the foliage ; here are also the remains of a gigantic Armadillo (Glyptodon clavipes) covered with a huge, tessellated shield; and the colossal Megatherium, larger than a Rhinoceros, with im- mense hind legs, on which the monster rested while rooting up the trees with the strong claws of the fore-legs. From the Pampas of Buenos Ayres we also have the Glossotherium, an extinct genus al- lied to the Ant-eaters. Besides the huge Glypto- don, these plains furnish us with several other extinct Armadillo-forms, as Chlamydotherium, Eu- ryodon, Hoplophorus, and Pacfiytherium. From the sub-apennine stage of the Pampas, and from the caverns of Brazil, the remains of Platyonyx, Scelidotherium, and Sphenodon, of the family Me- gatheriidce, are collected. The fossil Rodent Lon- chophorus, and the Leptotlierium, an extinct genus of Bovidce, are also from the same locality. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 583 The remains 'of fossil birds are also very numer- ous in these post-pliocene deposits. In the sub- apennine stage of Auvergne, a raptorial vulturine genus, Gathartes, and the natatorial forms of Car- bo, Anas, and Mergus, have been discovered. From the diluvium of New Zealand colossal skeletons have been procured of an extinct genus of Cursorial birds, intermediate in structure between the Ap- teryx and the Cassowary, the Dinornis, one spe- cies of which must have stood twelve feet high ; Notornis, an extinct genus allied to Porphyrio, and the fossil remains of a large and curious parrot related to the genus Nestor, have also been found. From Madagascar an extinct genus named Epy- ornis, of even vaster dimensions than the Dinor- nis, and belonging also to the Cursorial Order, has been lately discovered, together with the remains of its eggs ; and from the Mauritius and the Isle of Rodriguez, enormous extinct species of Colum- bine birds (the Didus ineptus or Dodo), allied to the recent genus Geophaps, have been made known to us by remains of comparatively recent date. The Reptilian tribes are here represented by ex- tinct species of recent genera of Ophidians, Ba- trachians, Crocodilidce and Lacertidce. In the newer tertiary bed of the Himalaya, fragments of an enormous fossil tortoise (Megalochelys) have been discovered, justifying the inference that the carapace must have been twenty feet in length. In the sub-apennine stage of (Eningen, the famous fossil, skeleton of Andreas Scheuchzer, a reptile 584 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. of the family Salamandridce, was found, and which its discoverer mistook for a human skeleton; in the same strata the Palceophilus, an extinct genus of the Ranidce, or Frogs, is found ; and near Bonn, the Palceobatrachus, belonging to the same family. The Paris beds contain an extinct species ofPristis or Saw-fish. In this formation those remarkable ossiferous caves occur filled with the bones of mammals. Among the mud of these ancient caverns in Eng- land, France, Germany, Belgium, the coasts of the Mediterranean, in North America, and in Australia, the carnivorous Tiger, Hyaena, Bear, Wolf, Fox, and Weasel ; the pachydermatous Elephant, Rhi- noceros, Hippopotamus ; the Horse ; and the rumi- nant Ox, and Stag, have been exhumed. Carni- vora are especially frequent in these bone-caves ; as in Kirkdale, Kent's, and Creston Caves ; in Fran- conia, and in parts of the Hartz. Here Bears of the size of large horses, as the Ursus spelceus, Hysenas, Tigers, Otters, Badgers and Polecats, are numerous. Among these are found bones of other animals either of existing species, as the Reindeer, Red-deer, Goat, Wolf, and Fox, or associated with extinct forms of the Ox, Horse, Rhinoceros, Hippo- potamus, and Elephant. In Kent's cavern, a horse- shoe Bat (Rhinolophus) has been discovered. The fossil remains of several birds have also been found in these ossiferous caves, as the rasorial genera Gallus, Phasianus, Numida, and Crypturus ; the grallatorial forms of Otis, Rallus, and Crex ; and MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 585 the natatorial Larus, Anser, and Colymbus, be- sides the raptorial Vultur and Aquila, and the insessorial Motacilla, Anabates, Hirundo, and Ca- primulgus. In the caverns of Brazil remains of scansorial birds, Coccyzus, Picus, and Psittacus, and the cursorial Ehea, a bird allied to the Ostrich, have been discovered. V. CLASS. QUATERNARY-FORMATIONS. In the Drift, or Superficial Accumulations, we find the present era represented ; the beds of gravel, sand, coral-reefs, and peat-moss, being of recent for- mation, by the agency of floods, irruptions of the sea, and the action of rivers, glaciers, and icebergs. When the remains of plants and animals occur, they are found to belong to those of existing species. I. GROUP. ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS. These deposits are produced by the ordinary ac- tion of water, and are formed of sand, gravel, and clay. The study of these recent or alluvial deposits, such as the extension of the deltas at the mouths of rivers ; the receding or encroaching of the sea ; vol- canic disturbances ; the mud and gravel deposited in their course by rivers and torrents, are all im- portant, as shewing the nature of the changes on the earth's surface that occurred in ancient epochs. Raised Beaches are produced by the action of the sea, by depositing new matter so as gradually to increase the coasts, as in Guadaloupe, where human remains have been imbedded ; or they are the re- c c 5 586 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. suits of recent earthquakes, as on the coast of Chili and at the mouth of the Indus. In the Mediter- ranean is a terrace or raised beach fifty feet above the level of the sea, and abounding in shells of the present date. Submarine forests of trees belonging to species still living, are sometimes found below the level of the sea, as on some of the coasts of Great Britain, the estuary of the Tay, and in the North of France. They owe their unusual position either to the encroachment of the sea, or to partial depres- sion of the land Marine Silt comprises those re- cent accumulations of sand, mud, and clay, collected by the tide and waves, and altering the outline of promontaries and bays, or filling up fens and marshes. The Isthmus of Suez has by this means doubled its width since the time of Herodotus ; Tyre and Sidon, once sea ports, are now several miles inland ; and large districts in Holland are modern formations of the existing seas. Submarine accumulations are formed by currents from the poles to the equator, carrying with them rocks and gravel, embedded in icebergs, which gra- dually form strata at the bottom of the sea. The mud, carried out by great rivers, produces the same effect as in the Yellow Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. In the German Ocean enormous shoals are found, as the Dogger-bank, destined, per- haps, in future ages, to form new islands. The various Deltas, as those of the Ganges, Rhine, and Nile, are triangular islands, or mud-flats, formed also by alluvial deposits of mud ; they gradually be- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOKY. 587 coine larger and wider, the apex of the triangle always pointing up the rivers. Estuary deposits are formed by the mud, sand, and vegetable matter brought down by the rivers. The bones of animals, and plants of the interior, are often found in these deposits ; as those of the Elephant and Tiger at the mouth of the Ganges ; those of the Camel and Cro- codile at the mouth of the Nile ; those of the Hippo- potamus, the Rhinoceros, and the Giraffe, at the mouth of the Niger ; and those of the Buffalo and Elk at the mouth of the Mississippi. Lacustrine deposits are beds formed in lakes, morasses, and swamps, producing heaps of shell-marl and peat-moss, clay-slate, and rolled pebbles, with remains of fresh- water fishes. The prairies of North America, the pampas of South America, and the steppes of Europe and Asia, were, most probably, lakes, filled up by these accumulations; bones and horns of deer, horses, bears, beavers, and foxes, are found in these deposits. Mi- neral deposits constitute all aggregations of mineral and saline matter, derived from the action of springs, forming crusts of various substances, as the stalac- tites and stalagmites of Derbyshire, and the grotto of Antiparos. Tufa, or travertine, is a deposition of lime, as in cold springs, where it forms calc-spar, and in hot springs, where it occurs in the form of arra- gonite. These springs are often made to incrust various objects, thus producing false fossils. Hot springs, as those of Iceland and in the Azores, depo- sit silex on cooling, which is called tuff QIC sinter ; opal is also formed in this manner. Ferruginous 588 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. springs, as those of Sweden, deposit sesqui-oxide of iron, which is called bog or marsh iron, and, mixed with sand or gravel, forms sand-ore. In many springs, as in those of Vienna, gypsum and chloride of calcium are thrown down ; several lakes of Russia also deposit a saline crust ; and in Egypt, soda is likewise deposited. The turf-moors at Frauzenbad are coated with sulphate of soda, or " Glauber-salt/' and sulphate of iron ; and the limestone caverns of Brazil and Ceylon are incrusted with nitrate of po- tassa, or saltpetre. In the neighbourhood of the Dead-Sea, and in the island of Trinidad, there are springs of mineral-oil, which, on drying, become Asphalt. Rivers, in passing through rocks rich in ores, often separate particles of these precious substances from their matrix, which are afterwards deposited or thrown down : as shewn in the stream-gold, tin, platinum, and magnetic-iron, found in Wicklow, the Ural Mountains, Brazil, Australia, and California. All platinum, and the greater portion of gold, is pro- cured in this manner; as are likewise the gold of Borneo, the zircon of Bohemia, the hyacinths and chrysoberyls of Ceylon, and the diamonds of Brazil. Turf consists of moss, marsh, and water plants, which have gradually died and become changed into a brown, combustible substance ; turf-formations are extensive in Ireland, where they constitute the great bogs ; and in Hanover, and at San Paulo, in the Brazils, they are likewise developed on a large scale ; a kind of turf is formed on the shores of the MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 589 North-Sea, from accumulations of sea- weed. Shell- beds are formed of dead and drifted shells, heaped together by tides and currents ; the fresh-water species producing beds of marl, and the marine form- ing layers of oysters, mussels, and cockles, which are often silted up and form elevated beds. Landslips are often recent formations, which are produced by a soft stratum being undermined by water, and the harder superjacent earth sliding down, as in the Undercliff of the Isle of Wight. Some recent de- posits are almost entirely composed of polygastric animalcules, as polishing-slate, or tripoli. The Polypi/era also form superficial incrustations on the inequalities of the sea-bottom, caused by lofty moun- tains, or banks near the surface ; the labours of these small animals forming reefs and atolls, alter consi- derably the features of groups of islands. The cir- cular reefs, or atolls, are founded on the summits of submerged volcanoes ; the edges of the crater form- ing a foundation for the reef, and the crater itself constituting the central lagoon, as in the coral islands of the Dangerous Archipelago. Flat or tabular reefs are founded upon an elevated portion of sea-bottom, and form solid islands of coral. Long and narrow reefs are founded on submerged mountain-ridges, and are often of great length, as on the east coast of New Holland and in the Indian Ocean. Reefs en- circling high land, and separated from it by a narrow channel, indicate a submergence of the islands they surround, as at Tahaa and Raiatea. Great masses of limestone are formed by the sea- water dissolv- 590 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. ing these coral-masses, and depositing it in a new form. II. GROUP. SOIL DEPOSITS. The uppermost stratum of the earth's crust is formed of soil, produced by organic agency, and con- sists of decomposed animal and vegetable substances, with an earthy admixture. Inorganic Soil is composed of clay, silex, or sand, with magnesia, saline and metallic compounds, as gypsum, salts of soda, and potassa, and the oxides of iron and manganese. Organic Soils are formed of decayed animal and vegetable matter, with chemical compounds of humus, carbon, and ammonia. II. SECTION. MINERALOGY. Mineralogy treats of those substances, whether simple or compound, which exist naturally in the crust of the earth, forming collectively the rocks and strata which have been already spoken of under the head of descriptive Geology ; and it accordingly de- scribes the form, structure, composition, properties, and uses of inorganic bodies. The term itself is objectionable, being derived from a Latin and a Greek root, a more correct word being " Metallo- logy." Its scope is, at present, tolerably extensive, as it is found convenient to include under it all in- organic natural substances, whether gaseous, liquid, or solid. In pursuing satisfactorily this branch of en- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 591 quiry, a correct knowledge of the laws of crystal- lography is requisite, as minerals were formerly principally classified according to their outward shape; and crystalline form is still of much im- portance, though not of such primary consequence. Other qualities to be particularly attended to, are lustre, colour, transparency, refraction, irides- cence, polarization, phosphorescence, also specific gravity, hardness, state of aggregation, fracture, taste, odour, and especially chemical composi- tion. Those more immediately suitable for our purpose, as generally and more easily applicable, are, 1. Lustre, which may be metallic, vitreous, re- sinous, pearly, silky, or adamantine, while the inten- sity may be splendent, shining, glistening, glim- mering, or dull. 2. Colours, of which eight are accounted as fundamental in mineralogy, namely, white, gray, black, blue, green, yellow, red, and brown, which are termed "non-metallic" colours; others are spoken of as " metallic/' which are cop- per-red, bronze -yellow, brass -yellow, gold-yellow, silver-white, tin-white, lead-gray, steel-gray, and iron-black : these are subdivided into shades, for each of which a natural standard has been esta- blished, which may be found in Syme's "Nomen- clature of Colours/' or in the more recent work of Hay. 3. Transparency ; minerals may be trans- parent, sub-transparent, translucent, sub-translucent, or opaque. 4. Hardness; this is ascertained by comparing the resistance offered to the action of a file or knife by the mineral in question, with certain 592 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. other known mineral bodies, selected as standards, and arranged in a fixed scale, which is as follows : No. 1. Talc. 5'5. Scapolite (crystalline va- 2. Gypsum-Rock-Salt. riety). 2'5. Foliated-Mica. 6. Felspar (cleavable variety). 3. Calcareous-Spar (any cleav- 7. Quartz (transparent). able variety.) 8. Topaz (transparent). 4. Fluor-Spar (any cleavable 9. Sapphire (cleavable va- variety). riety). 5. Apatite (transparent variety). 10. Diamond. 5. State of Aggregation. This may render them brittle, malleable, sectile, flexible, or elastic. 6. Fracture, may be conchoidal, uneven, even, fibrous, splintery, or hackly. 7. Taste, distinguishes some soluble minerals, which may be, 1. Astringent, resembling Vi- 5. Cooling, resembling Salt- triol. petre. 2. Sweetish-Astringent, resem- 6. Bitter, resembling Epsom bling Alum. Salts. 3. Saline, resembling Com- 7. Sour, resembling Sulphu- mon-Salt. ric Acid. 4. Alkaline, resembling Soda. 8. Odour, is applicable only to a few substances, the divisions are, 1. Alliaceous, like Garlic. 5. Fetid, like Sulphuretted- 2. Horse-Radish, like the De- Hydrogen. caying root. 6. Argillaceous, like moist- 3. Sulphureous. ened clay. 4. Bituminous. The other characters, though often of great im- portance, can be only properly examined at home, and not being applicable for travelling purposes, need not here be more than alluded to. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 593 Kegarding the classification of minerals, great diversity of opinion has prevailed at various periods. Formerly they were, like most other natural objects, arranged almost entirely according to their external characteristics and crystalline affinities. But of late years, in this, as in other branches of natural sci- ence, internal constitution and arrangement have been allowed gradually to assume a more important part, until it has been admitted by most modern writers, that a truly natural system of classification must be entirely based on chemical composition. That this is the most correct view, according, at least, to the present amount of our knowledge, can scarcely be doubted, as by trusting to form only, substances of very opposite qualities and structure may be placed side by side ; and yet there certainly is a considerable connection between external and internal properties, but exceptional cases are very numerous, and are very puzzling to the systematic mineralogist. The first general approach to an ar- rangement of this nature, included salts under the heads of their acids instead of their bases, thus bring- ing together all sulphates, nitrates, carbonates, &c., and binary compounds were placed according to their electro-negative element, making groups of sulphurets, phosphurets, &c. To a strictly chemi- cal system there are, at present, several obstacles, some arising from the phenomena of isomorphism, others from the difficulty of selecting the essential element in compound minerals, or those containing several bases, but more especially from the complex 594 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. nature of siliceous minerals, in which the acid appears to have more influence than the base in de- termining their general physical properties, so that in most books, even in the recent works of Dana and ADS ted, they are grouped together as a distinct set. So long, however, as such classes are admitted, the system into which they enter, though possibly convenient for study or reference, must remain thus far artificial. In the following pages an attempt has been made to follow a classification strictly che- mical, principally according to a scheme suggested in the last part of Professor Dana's work, in which minerals are proposed to be arranged according to the elementary bodies principally entering into their composition, salts being placed with their metallic bases. It is perfectly impossible within such a nar- row compass to do more than indicate the heads of such a plan, the details requiring much working out, and possibly considerable modification. In each family a few of the chief genera are mentioned, as illustrations ; those of more importance have their more striking properties alluded to ; and, as che- mistry must for the future be an indispensable in- gredient in mineralogical analysis, the more simple and applicable general reactions of the compounds of each metal, or their action under the blow-pipe are noted ; the symbols, also, of each element, as now usually understood and employed, are appended for reference, and to enable the reader more easily to understand the formulae employed in most recent treatises on this subject. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 595 In the following arrangement the letter H signi- fies hardness, and the specific gravity is denoted by sp. gr. I. ORDER HYDKOGENEXIDES. Hydrogen, either pure or combined with other substances ; liquid or gaseous. 1. FAMILY. Hydrogenides. Characters as in Order. Occur as 1, Pure Hydrogen ; gaseous, colourless, inflammable, sp. gr. 0*0694; escapes in volcanic districts, from coal beds and stag- nant pools ; 2, as Sulphuretted Hydrogen, or "Hydro-sulphuric acid m " gaseous, sp. gr. 1*177, smelling like rotten eggs, contained in mineral springs or issuing in volcanic vicini- ties ; 3, as Water: liquid, sp. gr. 1., limpid, colourless, inodorous, tasteless when pure, or combined with various substances, as salts of sodium and magnesium in the sea, or with other compounds in mineral springs, which are variously denominated according to the temperature and the prevalent ingredient as cold or thermal, acidulous, alkaline, saline, sulphureous, siliceous, calcareous, or chaly- beate ; 4, as Hydrochloric or Muriatic acid, gaseous, sp. gr. 1*284, colourless, pungent, taste acid ; escaping from volcanic crevices ; 5, as Phosphuretted - Hydrogen, gaseous, sp.gr. 1*761, odour alliaceous, taste bitter, often inflaming on coming in contact with atmospheric air, given off in churchyards and marshes, and popularly known as " Jack 596 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. wi' the Lantern/' or " Will wi' the Wisp ; " 6, as Light Carburetted-Hydrogen, gaseous, sp. gr. 0*5555, colourless, inflammable, odour empyreumetic, escaping from bituminous deposits, and known in coal-mines as " Fire- damp ;" and 7, as Olefiant-Gas, gaseous, colourless, inflammable, giving off much smoke, often accompanying the last-named in coal-mines, and entering into the compo- sition of " Fire-damp/' Symb. H. II. ORDER. CHRYSEXIDES. Metals of the gold series, either native or alloyed ; solid. 1. FAMILY. Chry sides. Minerals consisting of, or containing principally, gold. Occur 1, native; H. 2'5-3, sp. gr. 19*3, in quartz in metamor- phic palaeozoic rocks, or in resulting tertiary alluvial or diluvial drifts, especially in Hun- gary, the Ural mountains, in Africa at Kor- dofan, Senegal, and Zanzibar, in some Asiatic islands, and in Japan and China, in Australia, in Brazil, Chili, Peru, Mexico, the United States, and in California ; 2, combined with Tellurium as " Graphic Gold ;" H. 1 -5-2, sp. gr. 5'73, in Transylvania ; 3, in the same locality with silver, antimony and tellurium as " Aurotellurite," soft, sp. gr. 8 ; 3, as Gold- Amalgam, united with mercury and silver, in Columbia ; 4, as Electrum combined with silver, in Siberia and Hungary. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 597 A rock supposed to contain gold is tested by a portion being powdered and washed in a shallow iron pan, upon which most of the gold will subside, this process is repeated until the principal impurities are carried off, when mercury is added, which forms an amalgam with the gold ; this is strained, to carry off any excess of quicksilver, and the remainder is expelled by the application of heat, leaving the pure gold. Gold is soluble only in Nitro-hydrochloric acid (aqua regia), from which it may be precipitated pure by sulphurous acid gas, and by a solution of sulphate of iron (green vitriol) ; as a Sul- phuret by sulphuretted-hydrogen gas ; or as Purple of Cassius, by solution of protochlo- ride of tin. Symb. Au. 2. FAMILY. Platinides. Minerals consisting of, or containing principally, Platinum. Almost always combined with other precious metals; often in gold alluvial or diluvial washings ; H. 4~4'5 ; sp. gr. 173, or 21'5 when pure; resembling silver, but less lustrous ; soluble in nitro-hydrochloric acid, from which a so- lution of chloride of ammonium (sal-ammo- niac) throws down a yellow, insoluble com- pound. Symb. Pt. 3. FAMILY. Palladiides. Minerals containing Pal- ladium. This metal occurs in Brazilian pla- tinum-ore, as small flattened grains, also in auriferous sand; H. 4*5-5; sp. gr. ITS Symb. Pd. 598 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 4. FAMILY. Rhodiides. Minerals containing Rho- dium. Occurs in platinum-ore ; extremely insoluble, brittle ; sp. gr. 11. Symb. R. 5. FAMILY. Rutheniides. Minerals containing Ruthenium. Occasionally present in pla- tinum-ore, also in " Iridosmine ;" when pure, brittle ; sp. gr. 8 '6. Symb. Ru. III. ORDER ARGYREXIDES. Metals of the silver series, either native, alloyed, or in combination with other substances-; solid or liquid. 1. FAMILY. Argyrides. Minerals consisting of, or containing chiefly, silver. Occurs 1, native, either massive, or in cubical or octohedral crystals, H. 2*5-3, sp. gr. when pure, 10'51 ; 2, in combination with sulphur, as " Silver Glance," H. 2-2-5, with antimony as " Anti- monial -Silver/' H. 3*5-4, or with both as "Miargyrite" and " Pyrargy rite/' H. 2-2*5, with bismuth as " Bismuth-Silver/' and in various other states. Found mostly in cal- careous-spar or quartz veins, in gneiss and early slate rocks. Silver is soluble in nitric acid, from which hydrochloric acid, or a so- luble chloride, as common salt, throws down a white insoluble chloride of silver. Symb. 2. FAMILY. Hydrargyrides. Minerals consisting of, or containing chiefly, mercury. Occurs 1 , native, liquid, sp. gr. 13 - 545, in Carniola and MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 599 at Almaden in Spain ; 2, united with silver as "Native Amalgam/' brittle, H. 3--3'5, sp. gr. 14 ; 3, combined with sulphur, as " Cinna- bar/' its most important ore, H. 2--2'5, sp. gr. 8, in small red, six-sided prisms, massive, granular and steel-gray, or in fine red powder (" Native Vermilion"), mostly in slate rocks and also in coal formations in China and Japan, in Idria, and in Spain, in Brazil, Peru, Mexico, and California. Symb. Hg. 3. FAMILY, Kuprides, Minerals consisting of, or containing principally, copper. Occurs 1, na- tive, in amorphous masses, or octohedral crys- tals, H. 2-5-3, sp. gr. 8'667, in most copper mines ; dissolves in nitric acid, giving off orange fumes of nitrous acid gas, the solution strikes a deep blue with ammonia ; 2, as Sulphuret, trimetric, dark-gray, H. 2 '5-3, sp. gr. 57, or "Copper-glance" hexagonal, dark-blue, sp. gr. 3-8, or " Indigo Copper" dimetric, brass-yellow, sp. gr. 4-2, or " Copper- pyrites," known from iron-pyrites by being able to be cut by a knife ; 3, as Oxide, mono- metric, red, brittle, H. 3'5-4, sp. gr. 5 - 99, or " Bed-Copper ;" 4, as Silicate, rhombohedral, emerald-green, transparent, H. 5, sp. gr. 3*278 or " Dioptase ;" 5, as Carbonate, H. 3'5-4, in oblique prisms, azure, transparent, brittle, sp. gr. 3-7, or " Blue-Malachite," massive, bright green, sub-translucent or opaque, sp. gr. 3-9, or " Green-Malachite ;" 6, as Sulphate, triclinic, 600 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. blue, sub- transparent, sp. gr. 2 -21, or " Blue- Vitriol, " and many other less important forms. Found in Siberia, at Fahlun in Sweden, in Cornwall, in Australia, and in various parts of America. Symb. Cu. 4. FAMILY. Ammoniides. Minerals containing compounds of Ammonium. Occur 1, as Oxide or "Ammonia," in small quantities in the atmosphere, smell pungent ; sp. gr. - 0'589 ; 2, as Chloride or "Sal-ammoniac/" as an efflorescence; H. = 1-5-2, sp. gr. = T52; whitish ; 3, as Sulphate of Ammonia or " Mascagnine/' about volcanoes ; 4, also as Phosphate, Bicarbonate, and combined with with Phosphate of Soda or " Salt of Phos- phorus \" compounds of Ammonium vola- tize with heat, when triturated with mois- tened Hydrate of Calcia (lime) ammonia is given off. Symb. Am. 5. FAMILY. Natrides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Sodium. Occur 1, as Sulphate, or "Glauber-Salt," in right prisms, H. 1-5-2, sp. gr. 1-481, white, efflorescent, in thermal springs, &c. ; 2, with Sulphate of Lime, as " Glauberite," in oblique prisms, H. 2*5-3, sp. gr. 28, gray, brittle, with rock-salt ; 3, as Nitrate, or "Soda Nitre/' rhombohedral, H. l'5-2, sp. gr. 2*1, white, efflorescent, in Chili ; 4, as Chloride, or " Common Salt/' cubical, H. 2'5, sp. gr. 2'25, white, somewhat brittle and deliquescent, in the ocean, in some MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 601 inland seas, in brine springs, or in beds, prin- cipally in New Ked-Sandstone ; 5, as Biborate, or "Borax/' in oblique prisms, H. 2-2'5, sp. gr. l'7l, grayish-blue, rather brittle, in Thibet, Peru, and Ceylon ; 6, as Carbonate, or " Na- tron/' the Nitre of Scripture, in rhombic octo- hedrons, H. 1-1 '5, sp. gr. 1*423, effervesces with acids, in Egypt ; and 7, as Sesquicar- bonate, or " Trona," in rhomboid prisms, H. 2*5 3, sp. gr.2'11, gray, translucent, in Mara- caibo and at Fezzan. Salts of Soda tinge flame of a deep yellow colour. Symb. Na. 6. FAMILY. Kaliides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Potassium. Occur as Sulphate, or " Aphthitalite/' trimetric, H. 2-3, sp. gr. 173, whitish, translucent, on Vesuvian lava ; 2, as Nitrate, or " Nitre/' in rhombic prisms, H. 2, sp. gr. 1*93, white, sub-transparent, brittle, deflagrescent, in crusts on the earth in various places ; 3, as Chloride or " Sylvine/' cubical, H. 2, sp. gr. 2, white, vitreous, on Vesuvius. Salts of potassa colour flame violet. Symb. K 7. FAMILY. Lithiides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Lithium. Occur sparingly as Oxide in some Siliceous minerals, as " Lepi- dolite," "Petalite," " Spodumene," and "Li- thion-mica." Lithia and its salts give a red tinge to flame. Symb. Li. IV. OEDER MOLIBDEXIDES, Minerals containing metals of the lead series, in various states of combination ; solid. 602 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1. FAMILY. Molibdides. Minerals containing lead, either native or in combination. Occurs 1, native, monometric, H. 1-5, sp. gr. 11 -381 ; very rarely ; 2, as Sulphuret or " Galena," monometric, H. 2 '5, sp. gr. 7'5, colour and streak lead-gray, easily fused, frangible, in beds and veins in crystalline and uncrystalline rocks ; 3, as Oxide or " Minium/' pulverulent, in minute rhombic prisms ; sp. gr. 4 '6, in veins of galena and calamine ; 4, as Car- bonate or "Cerusite," in right rhombic prisms, H. 3-3 '5, sp. gr. 6 '4, lustre adaman- tine, colour white or gray, very brittle, in many lead mines ; 5, as Phosphate or "Pyro- morphite," in hexagonal prisms, H. 3-5-4, sp. gr. 7 ; colour green, yellow, or brown ; lustre resinous, brittle, in veins with other lead ores ; 6, also less frequently combined with selenium, tellurium, antimony, arsenic, va- nadic, chromic, molybdic, and tungstic acids. Metallic lead fuses at 612F., its soluble salts give a black precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid. Symb. Pb. 2. FAMILY. Baryides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Barium. Occur 1, as Sulphate of Baryta or "Heavy-spar," tabular, H. 2 -5-3 '5, sp. gr. 4'7, white or grayish -blue, in metallic beds, or in distinct veins in secondary limp.- stone ; 2, as Carbonate or " Witherite," trimetric, in large masses, H. 3'5, sp. gr. 4'30, white, brittle, with lead ore, in coal formations. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 603 Salts of baryta tinge flame yellow, sulphuric acid throws down a heavy white precipitate with those which are soluble. Symb. Ba. 3. FAMILY. Strontiides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Strontium. Occur, 1, as Sulphate of Strontia or " Celestine/' in right rhombic prisms, H. 3-3*5, sp. gr. 3'9, bluish-white, very brittle ; 2, as Carbonate or " Strontia- nite," trimetric, often fibrous or granular, H. 3*5-4, sp. gr. 3*6, greenish, brittle ; 3, combined with Baryta, as "Barystrontianite," in Orkney. Salts of strontia colour flame deep red, those which are soluble act with sulphuric acid like those of Baryta. Symb. Sr. 4. FAMILY. Calciides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Calcium. Occur 1, as Sulphate of Calcia (lime) or "Gypsum/' in right rhombic prisms, sp. gr. 2*3, H. = T5 2 ; when tran- sparent it is Selenite, when massive Alabaster, when fibrous Satin-spar, and when an- hydrous, H. = 3 3*5, it is Anhydrite ; 2, as Carbonate, rhombohedral, sp. gr. 2*6, H. = 2*5 3*5, when in transparent crystals it is Calcareous-spar or Iceland-spar; when massive, Limestone; when compact and finely crystallized, Marble; when bituminous, Stink- stone; when earthy, Chalk; when projecting from the roof, or on the floor of caverns, &c., Stalactites or Stalagmites; when encrusting Calcareous-tufa, and when in rhombic-prisms, H. = 3 5 4, it is Arragonite; 3, as Phosphate DD 2 604 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or "Apatite/' hexagonal, sp.gr. 3*1, H. = 5, greenish or bluish, brittle, in crystalline rocks ; 4, as Fluoride of Calcium or " Fluor- spar/' octahedral, sp.gr. 3-1, H. = 4, bright coloured, brittle, in veins intersecting gneiss, mica and clay slate, and some secondary rocks ; 5, as Silicate combined with magnesia, in oblique rhombic prisms, sp. gr. 3-1, H. = 5-6; when dark coloured, it is Hornblende; with felspar, it is Greenstone; with "albite," Diorite; when fibrous, Asbestus or Amian- thus; with very fine fibres, Mountain-leather; when spongy and elastic, Mountain-cork Salts of calcia tinge flame brownish-red ; when soluble they throw down a white pre- cipitate with oxalate of ammonia. Symb. Ca. 5. FAMILY. Magnesiides. Minerals containing compounds of Magnesium. Occur 1, rarely as Oxide or "Periclase," cubical and octohedral, sp. gr. 3-67, H = 6, grayish; 2, as Sulphate or " Epsomite/' in four-sided prisms, sp. gr. 1 4 75, H. = 2-2, soluble, white, taste bitter, in mineral springs, as an efflorescence on rocks, &c. ; 3, as Carbonate or " Magnesite/' rhom- bohedral, sp. gr. 2-9, H. = 3-4, grayish, in magnesian rocks ; 4, with Carbonate of Cal- cmas "Dolomite/' or "Magnesian-limestone," rhombohedral, sp.gr. 2'9, H. = 3*5-4, generally whitish, brittle, often forming beds ; 5, as Borate or " Boracite," hemihedral, sp. gr. 2*9, H. = 7, whitish, pyro-electric, in beds of MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 605 gypsum or salt; 6, as Silicate, 1, "Talc/ 7 "Steatite" or "Soapstone," generally in foliated masses, sp. gr. 2 - 7, H. = 1 - 1 -5 , greenish, sectile, greasy, when the texture is somewhat granular, it is " French-chalk ; " 2, " Meers- chaum/' compact, H. = 2-2*5, grayish- white, dry and harsh, in alluvial deposits ; 3, " Ser- pentine/' trimetric, sp. gr. 2'2-2'5, H. = 3-4, greenish, sectile, often forming mountain masses ; 4, combined withlron as " Chrysolite/' trimetric, usually in small transparent grains, sp. gr. 3-3-3-5, H. = 6'5-7, greenish yellow, in basaltic rocks. Magnesian compounds if moistened with solution of nitrate of cobalt, and heated before the blow-pipe, afford a clear rose-red colour. Symb. Mg. 6. FAMILY. Zincides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Zinc. Occur 1, as Sulphuret or "Zinc-blende," in rhomboidal -dodecahedrons, sp. gr. 4, H. = 3*5-4, yellowish or brownish, brittle, often with Galena; 2, as Oxide or "Red Zinc Ore/' hexagonal, in lamellar masses or grains, sp. gr. 5 -4, H. = 4-4'5, red, brittle, in iron ore ; 3, Silicate or "Electric-Calamine," trimetric, crystalline, fibrous or stalactitic, sp. gr. 3'4, H. = 4-5-5, whitish, brittle, pyro- electric, with zinc ores ; 4, as Carbonate or " Calamine," rhombohedral, sp. gr. 4-4*4, H. = 5, grayish, brittle, effervescent, in cal- careous rocks; 5, as Sulphate or "White- Vitriol," trimetric, in four-sided prisms, sp. gr. 606 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. 2, H. = 2-2-5, white, brittle, soluble, formed by the decomposition of Zinc blende. Zinc compounds form a clear glass with borax ; with soda or charcoal, they give a bluish flame; with cobalt solution, a green colour. Syrtib. Zn. 7. FAMILY. Cadmiides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Cadmium, 1, as Sulphuret or " Greenockite," hexagonal, sp. gr. 4-8, H,=3-3'5, yellowish, nearly transparent, rare, in por- phyritic trap ; 2, as Ooride, with many ores of zinc. Compounds of Cadmium, when heated on charcoal, deposit a reddish-brown powder. Symb. Cd. 8. FAMILY. Nickelides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Nickel. Occur 1, as Sulphur et or " Millerite," rhombohedral, sp. gr. 5-4, H. . - 3-3 '5, brass-yellow, brittle ; 2, as Arseni- uret or "Arsenical-Nickel," hexagonal, me- tallic, sp. gr. 7-4, H. == 5-5-5, reddish, brittle, with various metallic ores ; 3, as Arseniate or "Nickel-Ochre," pulverulent, soft, apple- green, with Copper-Nickel ; 4, with Sulphur and Arsenic, as " Nickel-glance," hemihe- dral, compact or lamellar, sp. gr. 6, H. = 5-5, whitish, with galena, quartz, &c. ; 5, with Sulphur and Bismuth, or " Bismuth-Nickel," in octohedrons and cubes, sp. gr. 5, H. -- 4-5, grayish, brittle, with quartz and copper py- rites. Oxide of Nickel forms a clear, yel- lowish glass with borax, becoming blue on MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 607 the addition of nitre ; solutions of its salts are green. Symb. Ni. 9. FAMILY. Cobaltides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Cobalt. Occur 1, as Sulphur et, or " Syepoorite," massive, sp. gr. 5-4, yellowish steel-gray, with magnetic pyrites at Syepoor ; 2, with Sulphur and Arsenic, or " Cobalti- glance," hemihedral, sp. gr. 6-29, H. = 5'5, metallic, reddish, brittle, often with copper pyrites ; 3, as Arseniate, or " Cobalt-bloom/' 'in oblique prisms, or botryoidal and fibrous, sp. gr. 2'9, H. = 2-2-5, reddish, sectile, with other cobalt ores. Oxide of cobalt forms with borax a deep blue glass ; solutions of the salts are bright red, when anhydrous they are blue. Symb. Co. 10. FAMILY. Manganides. Minerals containing compounds of Manganese. Occur, 1 , rarely as Sulphuret or Arseniuret 2, as Oxide, 1, Anhydrous peroxide or "Pyrolusite," trime- tric, sp. g. 4-8, H. = 2-2-5, blackish, metallic ; 2, Sesquioxide or " Hausmannite," dimetric, sp. gr. 4'7, H. = 5-5-5, sub-metallic, brownish- black ; 3, Hydrated Sesquioxide or " Man- ganite," trimetric, sp. gr. 4*3, H. = 4, iron- black, sub-metallic ; 3, combined with Baryta or " Psilomelane/' massive and botryoidal, sp. gr. 4-4, H. = 5-6, sub-metallic, brownish- black ; 4, with iron, cobalt, or copper, as "Wad," "Earthy Cobalt," or " Cupreous - Manganese," amorphous, sp. gr. 3-3'7, 608 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. H. = 0'5-3'5, dull black; 5, also as Silicate, Carbonate, or Phosphate. Manganese com- pounds form with borax in the outer flame of the blovy-pipe a clear violet-red glass, which becomes colourless on being exposed to the inner flame ; with soda or platinum, the oxide gives a green colour. Symb. Mn. 11. FAMILY. Siderides. Minerals containing iron or its compounds. Occur, 1, native, mono- metric, sp. gr. 7 '3-7*8, H. = 4-5, ductile, mag- netic, rarely in veins, more frequently in masses of meteoric origin on the surface ; 2, as Sulphuret, 1, Cubic-pyrites, monometric, cubical, sp. gr. 4'8-5, H. = 6-6'5, bronze-yel- low, brittle, strikes fire with steel, in rocks of all ages ; 2, White iron-pyrites, trimetric, in tabular crystals, sp. gr. 4'6-4'8, H. = 6-6*5, pale-yellow, brittle, in coal formations ; 3, Magnetic-pyrites, hexagonal, sp. gr. 4'4-47, H. 3*5 -4*5, reddish-bronze, brittle, magnetic, in fissures of crystalline rocks ; 3, as Arse- niuret or "Arsenical-pyrites," in rhombic prisms, sp. gr. 6'1, H. = 5-5-6, metallic, white, brittle, in crystalline rocks ; 4, as Oxide, 1 , Peroxide, "Specular-Iron" or "Red-Hsema- tite," rhombohedral, sp. gr. 4-5-5 '3, H. = 5'5- 6 '5, metallic or earthy, steel-gray or red, in crystalline or secondary rocks ; 2, Hydrous- peroxide or " Brown-Haematite," stalactitic and botryoidal,or mammillary, or massive and earthy, sp. gr. 3 '6-4, H. = 5-5'5, sub-metallic MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 609 or earthy, brown, in crystalline and second- ary rocks ; 3, " Magnetic Iron Ore/' octahe- dral or dodecahedral, sp. gr. 4'9-5'2, H. = 5'5- 6*5, metallic or sub-metallic, iron-black, mag- netic ; 5, as Chromate, in octohedrons, sp. gr. 4-3, H. = 5-5, sub- metallic, brown, sometimes magnetic, in serpentioe ; 6, with Silica, Mag- nesia and Alumina, as " Green-Earth '" 7, as Carbonate or " Spathic-Iron/' rhombohedral, sp. gr. 37, H. = 3-5-4-5, grayish, brittle, in gneiss, mica and clay-slate, and in coal strata ; 8, as Sulphate or " Green Vitriol/' in oblique rhombic prisms, sp. gr. I '8, H. = 2, green, so- luble, taste inky, from decomposition of "Iron- pyrites ;" 9, as Phosphate or " Vivianite," in oblique prisms, sp. gr. 2-6, H. = 1-5-2, blue or green, sectile. Salts of protoxide of iron give a bluish-white precipitate with solution of ferrocyanide of potassium (prussiate of po- tassa), and a deep blue with the ferricyanide (red prussiate of potassa) ; salts of the per- oxide give a deep blue precipitate with the ferrocyanide ; with borax iron salts form a dark red glass in the oxidizing name, becom- ing yellow in the reducing flame. Symb. Fe. 10. FAMILY. Ghromiides. Minerals containing compounds of chromium. Occur 1, as Sul- phuret or " Shepardite/' in meteoric stones, prismatic, H. = 4, brownish-black ; 2, as Hy- drous-Silicate or " Wolckonskoite," amor- phous, greenish, resinous, fragile ; 3, with D D 5 610 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. silica and alumina as "Chrome ochre/' clayey, greenish. Oxide of chromium colours the emerald, and a variety of chrysoberl. Chromic solutions are green or violet, with borax a green glass is formed, becoming of a deeper shade when cool. Symb. Cr. 11. FAMILY. - Stypteriides. Minerals containing compounds of Aluminium. Occur 1, as Oxide, " Sapphire/' " Corundum/' or " Eme- ry," rhombohedral, sometimes massive, sp. gr. 4, H. = 9, colour various, in crystalline rocks, river beds, &c. ; 2, as Hydrous- oxide or " Diaspore," trimetric, sp. gr. 3'4, H. = 6 -6'5 ; grayish, very brittle ; 3, as Sulphate, in combination with sulphates of other metals, usually of potassa, soda, or magnesia, " Na- tive alum," octahedral, soluble, astringent ; 4, as Phos2Jhate, with silica, calcia. copper, &c., or " Turquois," reniform, stalactitic or en- crusting, sp. gr. 2'6-2'8, H. -- 6, bluish-green, in Persia ; 5, as Hydrous-Silicate in nume- rous forms, as " Collyrite," " Halloysite," " Allophane," " Finite/' or combined with an alkali, as the " Zeolites," which swell before the blowpipe; 6, as Anhydrous -silicates, also various, as "Kyanite," " Andulusite /' with an alkali, forming the Felspars which oc- cur in granite, gneiss, mica-slate, porphyry, pumice, basalt, obsidian, &c. ; with silicates of calcia,oxides of iron and manganese, dodeca- hedral, or "Garnet," sp.gr. 3'5-4-3, H.=6'5-7'5, MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 611 colour various, in rhombic or hexagonal scales or plates, or " Mica /' 7, with silica, boracic acid, and various bases or "Tourmaline/' rhombohedral, sp. gr. 3 3 '3, H. = 7 7'5, generally dark-coloured, pyro-electric, in pri- mary rocks ; 8, as Fluosilieate or " Topaz " in right rhombic prisms, sp. gr. 3'4 3'6, H. = 8, yellow or blue, in cavities and veins of granite rocks ; 9, with silica, sulphuric acid, soda, calcia and oxide of iron, or " Lapis lazuli," or when powdered, " Ultra- marine/' in dodecahedrons, sp. gr. 2 '3 2-4, H. = 5'5, in granite or crystalline limestone; 1 0, with magnesia or " Spinel/' octahedral, sp. gr. 3'5 4*9, H. = 8, colour shades of red, among granitic and micaceous debris. Alu- mina forms the chief part of all clays, and is the basis of the manufacture of porcelain. Compounds of alumina, if heated to redness before the blowpipe, then moistened with solution of protonitrate of cobalt, and again strongly heated, yield a sky-blue unfused mass, the colour becoming more distinct on cooling, and appearing violet by candle-light. Symb. Al. 1 2. FAMILY. Glucinides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Glucinum. Occur 1, as Silicate, coloured with oxide of chromium or " Eme- rald/' or with oxide of iron or " Beryl/' in hexagonal prisms, sp. gr. 27, H. = 7*5 8, green or blue, brittle, in dolomite, granite 612 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. and gneiss rocks ; 2, with alumina or " Chry- soberyl," in right rectangular prisms, sp. gr. 3-5 3*8, H. = 8*5, yellowish-green, in alluvial fluviatile deposits in Brazil and Ceylon. Glu- cina is precipitated from its salts by pure potassa or soda ; it is soluble in a cold solu- tion of sesqui-carbonate of ammonia. Symb. G., sometimes Be. 13. FAMILY. Zirconiides. Minerals containing compounds of Zirconium. Occur 1, as Sili- cate, or " Zircon " or " Hyacinth/' in square prisms, sp. gr. 4*5 4*7, H. = 7*5, red, brown, yellow, or gray, in fluviatile sand and allu- vial deposits in Ceylon, also in Syenite. Zir- conia is precipitated from solutions of its salts as an insoluble sub-sulphate on being boiled with sulphate of potassa. Symb. Zr. 14. FAMILY. Noriides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Norium. Symb. Nr. 15. FAMILY. Yttriides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Yttrium. Occur 1, as Silicate, or " Gadolinite," monoclinic, sp. gr. 4--4'5, H. =6'5 7, blackish, in Sweden; 2, as "Tan- talate " or " Yttrotantalite," not crystalline, brownish-black, sp. gr. 5 '3 =5*8, H. = 4'5 5 '5. Yttria is precipitated from solutions of its salts by ferrocyanide of potassium. Symb. Y. ] 6. FAMILY. Erbiides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Erbium. Symb. Eb. 17. FAMILY. Terbiides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Terbium. Symb. Tb. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 613 18. FAMILY. Didymiides. Minerals containing compounds of Didymium. Occurs with cerium in " Parisite," also in " Tschewki- nite/' Symb. D. 19. FAMILY. Lanthaniides. Minerals containing compounds of Lanfchanium. Occur as Car- bonate or " Lanthanite," in thin 4-sided plates, H. =2'5--3, grayish, coating "cerite" in Sweden ; also in " Cerium-ochre/' in "Monazite," and in "Mosandrite." Symb. La. 20. FAMILY. Ceriides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Cerium. Occur 1, as Silicate or "Cerite," in short 6-sided prisms, H. =5'5 ; sp. gr. 4'9 ; also in " Gadolinite," " Mosan- drite," "Muromontile," &c. Symb. Ce. V. ORDER. URANEXIDES. Minerals containing metals of the Uranium series, either native or in different states of composition ; solid. 1. FAMILY. Uraniides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Uranium. Occur 1, as Oxide, or " Pitch-blende/' octahedral, H. = 5-5, sp. gr. = 67, black ; also in " Urinite," " Medjidite," " Liebigite," &c. Compounds of the peroxide afford permanent yellow colours. Symb. U. 2. FAMILY. Columbiides. Minerals containing compounds of Columbium. Occur ], as Co- lumbic acid, with Yttrium in " Yttro-tanta- lite," H. = 4'5 5-5, greenish-black, or with 614 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. iron in " Ferro-tantalite," H. 5 6 ; sp. gr. = 7'5 ; black, brittle. Symb. Ta. 3. FAMILY. Niobiides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Niobium. Occur as Niobic acid in "Polycrase," also in "Niobite." Symb. Nb. 4. FAMILY. Pelopiides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Pelopium. Occur as Pelopic acid in " Polycrase," also in " Columbite." Symb. PP. 5. FAMILY. Ilmeniides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Ilmenium. Supposed to exist in "Samarskite." Symb. II. 6. FAMILY. Kassiterides. Minerals containing Tin, either native, or in combination. Occur 1, pure or " Native Tin/' in grains with Siberian gold, sp. gr. 7'2 ; 2, as Binoxide or " Cas- siterite" or "Tin Ore," H. = 6'5, sp. gr. = 6 '8, crystallised, massive, or in grains, brown or black ; 3, as Sulphuret or " Tin- pyrites," in cubes, H. 4 ; sp. gr. 4 '4, steel- gray. Oxide of tin before the blowpipe, with soda, yields metallic tin, and with borax an opal white enamel. Symb. Sn. 7. FAMILY. Titaniides. Minerals containing Tita- nium, either native or in combination. Oc- cur 1, pure as " Native Titanium," in copper- red cubes, in Cornwall, H. = 7, sp. gr. = 5 '3 ; 2, as Titanic acid or " Rutile," prismatic, H. = 6, sp. gr. = 4*2, reddish brown, also combined with oxide of iron or some other MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 615 bases. Titanic acid if fused with an alkali is soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, in which a solution of gall-nuts causes an orange red colour. Symb. Ti 8. FAMILY. Tungstenides. Minerals containing principally compounds of Tungsten. Oc- cur 1, as Oxide or "Tungstie acid," with iron and manganese as " Wolfram/' trimetric, H. = 5, sp. gr. = 7'3, dark brown ; 2, with calcia (lime) as " Scheelite," in square octa- hedrons, H. = 4-5, sp. gr. = 6, white. Wolfram readily fuses before the blowpipe into a mag- netic globule studded with crystalline points. Symb. W. 9. FAMILY. Molybdenides. Minerals principally composed of compounds of Molybdenum. Occur 1, as Oxide or " Molybdic-ochre," an earthy yellow powder, yielding a yellow glass with Microcosmic salt ; 2, as Molybdic-acid with lead or " Wulfenite," in square octo- hedrons, or very short prisms, H. = 2 -8, sp. gr. = 6'5, yellow; 3, as bisulphuret or " Molybdena," hexagonal, H. = 1 1*5, sp. gr. = 4-5, feel unctuous, lustre metallic, lead-gray. Symb. Mo. VI. ORDER. IRIDEXIDES. Minerals containing metals of the Iridium series. 1. FAMILY. Iridiides. Minerals containing Iri- dium. Occur 1, alloyed with Osmium as " Iridosmine," H. = 6-7, sp. gr. = 19-21, 616 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. light steel-gray; 2, with Platinum as " Platin-Iridium," in small grains, sp. gr. = 16-17, white. Fusible only before the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. Solutions of its salts present varied colours. Symb. Ir. 2. FAMILY. Osmiides. Minerals containing Os- mium. Occur with ores of Iridium, and Platinum, sp. gr. = 7. Fusible before the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. Forms with oxy- gen a volatile acid, with a pungent smell resembling that of chlorine. Symb. Os. 3. FAMILY. Vanadiides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Vanadium. Occur as Vanadic acid combined, 1, with lead or "Vanadinite," hexagonal, H. = 2*5 3, sp. gr. = 6'9, brown- ish-yellow ; 2, combined with iron or with copper. Dissolves in Nitro-hydrocliloric acid ; forms coloured solutions. Symb. V. 4*. FAMILY. Telluriides. Minerals containing Tellurium, either native or in combination. Occur 1, pure as "Native Tellurium/' lamellar or granular, H. = 2 2'5, sp. gr. = 6'2, white; 2, in combination with other metals as gold or " Graphic Tellurium/' prismatic, H.= 1/5-2, sp. gr. 5'7 8*2, gray; also with bismuth, silveTj and lead. Tellurium volatizes before the blowpipe, emitting no odour. Symb. Te. 5. FAMILY. Bismuthides. Minerals containing Bismuth either native or variously combined. Occur 1, pure or "Native Bismuth," rhom- bohedral, H. = 2 2 '5, sp. gr. = 9 '7, reddish- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 617 white ; 2, as oxide with carbonate of iron or "Bismuth-ochre;" 3, as Sulphuret or "Bis- muth-glance/' in acicular crystals, H. 2 2'5, sp. gr. 6 '5, grayish, fusible in the flame of a candle ; 4, as Silicate or " Bismuth-blende/' Compounds of bismuth with carbonate of soda under ihereducing flame of the blowpipe yield brittle grains of bismuth. Symb. Bi. 6. FAMILY. Stimmiides. Minerals containing Antimony either native or in combination. Occur ] , pure as " Native Antimony/' rhom- bohedral, H. = 3 3'.~, sp. gr. = 67, silver- white ; 2, as oxide or " White Antimony/' in small lamellar masses, H. = 2-5 3, sp. gr. = 5-5, fuses in the flame of a candle ; 3, as Sulphuret or " Antimony-glance, in rhombic or six-sided prisms, H. = 2, sp. gr. = 4'5, lead- gray, volatizes before the blowpipe ; 3, as oxide and Sulphuret combined, or " Ked Antimony " (Kermes mineral), in red acicular crystals, H. = 1 1-5, sp. gr. 4'5, fuses on charcoal ; also with silver, lead, and arsenic. Compounds of antimony with carbonate of soda before the reducing flame of the blow- pipe yield metallic globules, which at the same time volatize. Symb. Sb. 7. FAMILY. Arsenicides. Minerals containing Arsenic, either native or in combination. Occur 1, pure or "Native Arsenic/' rhombo- hedral, H. = 3 '5, sp. gr. = 5 '7, tin-white, 2, as oxide or "Arsenious acid/' in powder or 618 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. small compact masses, H. To, sp. gr. 37, white ; 3, as Sulphuret or " Realgar," in small granular masses, H. = 1*5 2, sp. gr. = 3 '7, red, also "Orpiment,"in lamellar masses, H. = 1*5 2, sp. gr. 3 '4, lemon-yellow. Ar- senical compounds before the blowpipe give off a very peculiar odour resembling garlic. Symb. As. 8. FAMILY. Phosphorides. Minerals containing compounds of Phosphorus. Occurs combined with metals forming " Phosphurets," or as Phosphoric acid with metallic oxides forming phosphates, as "Phosphate of Calcia," or "Apatite/' also phosphates of magnesia, alu- mina, iron, lead, copper, &c. Symb. P. 9. FAMILY. Nitrogenides. Mineral substances containing nitrogen. Occurs 1, pure in the waters of many springs, as at Bath, Chelten- ham, &c., also given off from the soil in some districts in the United States ; 2, combined with oxygen as "Nitric acid," forming with bases "Nitrates;" 3, mechanically mixed with oxygen, forming atmospheric air, gaseous, colourless, inodorous, sp. gr. ^-9722, other characters principally negative. Symb. N. VII. ORDER. ANTHKAKEXIDES. Minerals containing elementary substances of the carbon series. 1. FAMILY. Anthrakides. Minerals composed of, or containing, Carbon. Occur 1, pure as 1, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 619 Diamond, octahedral or dodecahedral, H. = 10, sp. gr. =3'5, white, or at times variously tinted ; found in beds of streams, with sand and quartz pebbles, often with gold and platinum ; 2, Mineral coal, H. = 1 2'5, sp. gr. = 1 -2 1 75, black or brown, opaque, brittle or sectile ; sometimes with a small proportion of silica, alumina, oxide of iron, or bitumen ; divided into bituminous and non- bituminous, the forming being the more abundant and valuable, comprising all the commercial varieties ; 3, as Carbonate of Iron or " Graphite/' or " Black Lead/' hexagonal, H. 1 2, sp. gr. 2 2 -3, dark steel-gray, sectile, greasy, soils paper, in gneiss, mica- slate, and primitive-limestone ; 4, combined with oxygen or "Carbonic acid/' sp. gr. 1 *524, contained in many springs, and evolved from some volcanoes ; also with bases forming " Carbonates." Symb. C. 2. FAMILY. Halicides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Silicon. Occur 1, with oxygen as "Silica/' rhombohedral, H. = 7, sp. gr. = 2*6, forms three varieties, 1, the vitreous or "Quartz," or "Rock-crystal," when tinted purple by oxide of iron, it is "Amethyst/' when smoky-brown it is " Cairngorm-stone /' 2, the sub-vitreous, or " Chalcedony," or " Flint," when coloured with oxide of iron it is "Carnelian," when variegated, "Agate," or "Onyx;" 3, the dull, or "Jasper," when 620 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. green with minute red spots it is "Blood- stone '" silica is held in solution by the hot waters of the Geysers ; quartz is distin- guished by its hardness, infusibility, inso- lubility, and uncleavability ; 2, as Hydrate, or "Opal/' amorphous, H. = 5'5 6'5, sp. gr. = 2 2-21, variously tinted, frequently opalescent; 3, as Silicic acid, united with bases, forming " Silicates/' Symb. Si. 3. FAMILY. Boronides. Minerals containing com- pounds of Boron. Occur 1, with oxygen as " Boracic acid/' in yellowish, pearly scales ; H. = 1; sp. gr. = 1*48; whitish; 2, united with bases forming borates. Boracic acid and borates, tinge flame green. , Symb. B. VIII. ORDER OXYGENEXIDES. Minerals containing elementary substances of the oxygen series. 1. FAMILY. Oxygenides. Minerals containing prin- cipally compounds of oxygen. This the most abundant element in nature seldom, if ever, occurs pure. It unites with all the other elementary bodies, except Fluorine, forming oxides, which act the part of bases ; mecha- nically mixed with Nitrogen it is atmospheric air, of which it composes one-fifth ; with Hy- drogen it forms water sp. gr. = T1026, colourless, supports combustion. Symb. O. 2. FAMILY. Theionides. Minerals containing Sul- phur, either pure, or in combination. Occur MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 621 1, pure or "Native Sulphur/' massive, or in acute octahedral crystals, H. = 1-5 25, sp. gr. = 2-072, yellow, lustre resinous, brittle, found in volcanic regions, also in beds of gypsum ; 2, as binoxide or " Sulphurous acid/' gaseous, colourless, sp. gr. 2'222, destroys colour, evolved from active volcanoes ; 3, as hydrated teroxide or " Sulphuric acid/' liquid, colourless, extreme!} 7 acid, sp. gr. TS5 1-86, occurs in a diluted state in some volcanic districts. Symb. S. 3. FAMILY. Seleniides. Minerals containing Sele- nium or its compounds. Occurs native in sub- metallic incrustations, grayish- or brownish- black, sp. gr. = 4-3, with metals it forms " Seleniurets." Compounds of this metalloid when heated, give off an odour resembling that of horse-radish. Symb. Se. 4. FAMILY. Fluoriniides. Minerals containing chiefly compounds of Fluorine. Occur in com- bination with metals forming " Fluorides/' Symb. F. 5. FAMILY. Chloriniides. Minerals containing principally compounds of Chlorine. Occur with Hydrogen as " Hydrochloric acid/' or with metals forming chlorides. Symb. CL 6. FAMILY. Brominiides. Mineral substances con- taining principally compounds of Bromine. Occur with metals as " Bromides," in various waters, as in the Dead Sea, and in salt water. Symb. Br. 622 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 7. FAMILY. lodiniides. Mineral substances con- taining mostly compounds of Iodine. Occur combined with, metals as " Iodides/' in some springs, but especially in the sea. Symb. I. IX. ORDER. RHETINEXIDES. Resins and other organic compounds. 1. FAMILY Asphaltides. Mineral substances prin- cipally composed of bituminous compounds, contain Carbon and Hydrogen. Occur as Bitumen, Naptha, Petroleum, Asphalte, Mineral Oil, &c., issuing from rocks in coal formations, also in lakes, and on the shores of the Dead Sea. 2. FAMILY. Electrides. Mineral substances prin- cipally composed of resinous compounds, con- tain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Occur as Amber, Retinite, Fossil-copal, Mountain- tallow, Mellite, &c. MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. 623 PART IV. DIRECTIONS FOE COLLECTING AND PRESERVING OBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. I. ZOOLOGY. THE following suggestions are offered with the view of affording to collectors and others, an insight into the different methods which may be adopted for pro- curing and preserving the various forms of animals which will probably be met with during their wan- derings ; as although, at times, good specimens have been obtained unexpectedly, or almost acci- dentally, yet a systematic plan of procedure will, undoubtedly, better reward the labours of the Naturalist, augment the chances of the traveller, and aid in securing to science valuable materials to be used in the elucidation of that great and marvellous scheme which Omnipotence and Omniscience have designed. The equipment of a travelling naturalist should consist of, 1st. A rifle, a double-barrelled and a small single- barrelled gun, with spare nipples, &c., a good supply of percussion caps, the best powder in canisters, shot of different sizes (dust-shot, Nos. 8, 6, 4, 1, and 624 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. swan-shot will prove most serviceable), some of Elley's wire cartridges, and balls for the rifle. 2nd. An ordinary dissecting case will be found to contain the instruments necessary for the usual purposes of the collector, for skinning, &c. ; in addi- tion to which, one or two larger and stronger knives, similar to butchers' knives, will be required for large quadrupeds ; or, to mention the contents in detail, three or four scalpels, of different sizes ; a good strong knife for cleaning the heads of the larger quadru- peds, &c. ; three pairs of scissors, a moderately small short-bladed pair, a larger and stronger pair, and a pair with long blades ; two chain hooks, which will be found useful in skinning some specimens ; two forceps, a pair of round pliars, a pair of barber's curling-tongs for stripping the tails of quadrupeds (the mode of using which will be mentioned here^ after) ; one or two long quills to be cut as scoops, or one made of metal for removing the brains of animals ; the large knives previously mentioned ; a small hatchet, and a hone and strap for sharpening instruments. 3rd. Preservative preparations compounded in the following manner, viz. : No. 1. Take of Prepared Chalk . . 31b. Tannic acid (Tannin) . 2 oz. Corrosive sublimate and Camphor, of each . 8 oz. These are to be well mixed together in a mortar, and then kept in glass bottles until required for use. No. 2. A solution of corrosive sublimate in alco- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 625 hol, in the proportion of a teaspoonful of the former to a pint of the latter, is also very good when em- ployed as a preservative for skins, and is particu- larly useful for applying to the bills, the bare skin about the head, and the feet of birds. Or, No. 3. Arsenical-paste, made thus : Take of Camphor . . . 3 oz. Powdered Arsenic . 1 Ib. White Soap . . . 1 Ib. Carbonate of Potassa . 6 oz. The soap should be cut into thin slices, put into an earthen crock, with a small quantity of water, placed over a gentle fire, and frequently agitated ; when it is dissolved add the carbonate of potassa, then remove the vessel from the fire and add the arsenic, at the same time stirring the whole, and lastly mix the camphor, previously well pounded, with the other ingredients. The paste should be of good consistence, and may be preserved in tin boxes for future use. The first preservative is that which we should use and would recommend. 4th. A quantity of plaster of Paris should be provided for applying to stains and blood -spots on the plumage of birds. 5th. A canvas knapsack. 6th. Store- and pocket-boxes lined with cork for insects. The boxes made by Mr. Robert Downie, will be found as good as any. A number of these say eight might be placed in a strong outer case, the corners of which should be strengthened with EE 626 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOET. iron clamps, and the lid grooved to receive a fillet from the lower part, made for additional protection, and partitioned into spaces for the store-boxes to slide into. These cases should not be made incon- veniently large, as it would be better to have two or more of them of moderate dimensions, that they may be perfectly portable. 7th. A plentiful supply of solid-headed pins, of all sizes, for insects, &c. 8th. Nets and other implements for the capture of insects. The simplest is the hoop- net, consisting of a ring of strong wire, with a socket to fit on the end of a rod, which latter might, with advantage, have an additional piece provided with a socket, or a screw-ferrule, if preferred, to enable the collector to use a longer or shorter handle, as required. Three or more hoops, ten inches or a foot in diameter, might be adapted to the same rod, one hoop to have a bag-net of gauze twenty inches deep for catching insects on the wing, particularly Lcpidoptera ; an- other of cheese-cloth, fourteen inches deep, for sweep- ing, and for Coleoptera ; a third of muslin, of the same or even less depth, for obtaining aquatic insects ; and a fourth of fine net, to be used as a kind of landing-net in seeking for water insects, small fish, and crustaceans. The same rod might serve as a handle for the scoop and nets requisite for obtaining shells from the bottoms of pools and streams. The fly-net is another much used, and is perhaps the best for some purposes, particularly " mothing." In form it resembles that used by bat-fowlers, and MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 627 is composed of two light slender rods, five or six feet long, bent at the top, and connected by a piece of leather, which serves as a hinge ; on this frame-work is placed a net of gauze (green is perhaps the best colour) which extends to within about six inches of the lower extremity, and falls in a bag, to prevent the escape of any insect folded in it. Another instrument, the forceps, will prove very useful, particularly for the capture of Hymenoptera. The handles are somewhat like those of curling- irons, having at their tips a frame, which should be of brass ; over the frame is fastened a piece of gauze, strained tight, and round the rim should be sewn a piece of calico, or thin leather, as a protection to the gauze. A supply of gauze should be provided, to re-cover the frames when needed. A strong knife and a digger are requisite, for raising the bark of trees in searching for such in- sects as lurk there, and for exploring the burrows of those which inhabit subterranean retreats. For collecting - bottles, common wide -mouthed phials, fitted with corks, will be found to answer ; one should contain camphorated spirit, which does not injure some insects ; and in another, bruised laurel-leaves may be put, when they can be obtained ; or a collecting-bottle can be simply made thus : into the cork of the bottle tightly fix a small glass tube open at each end, containing a piece of sponge, the outer extremity of the tube to be fitted with a cork ; a few drops of chloroform, allowed, from time to time, to fall on the sponge, will speedily kill any EE2 628 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. insects placed in the bottle. For Moths the chloro- form-bottle is almost indispensable, and a more than ordinary wide-mouthed one should be selected for the purpose. Add to these things, forceps, a pocket lens, a lantern with safety oil-cap and bull's-eye reflector for " mottling," a setting-needle, which may be made by forcing the blunt end of a common needle into a piece of wood ; a small and sharp-pointed pair of scissors for opening large insects, phials, chip boxes, braces made of slips of card-board, or, where they can be conveniently used, slips of glass, for extend- ing the wings of moths ; if the collector is for any time stationary, breeding-cages might be employed for rearing larvae and watching the transformation of such insects as may be procured in their early stages. A cage may be made for this purpose two feet in length, the same in height, and from eight inches to a foot in breadth ; the lower part, to the height of five or six inches, must be of wood, to contain earth for such larvae as bury themselves previously to their metamorphosis, and the upper part covered with gauze stretched over a frame. It may be di- vided into several compartments, each provided with a door. The entomologist's equipment will now only want the setting-box. This, especially in tropical countries, should be covered, to exclude de- structive foes, but at the same time so as to allow a current of air to pass through it and over the insects which are placed in it to dry. To accomplish this, a frame must be made eighteen inches long, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 629 fourteen inches high, and about the same in width, having a solid bottom and accurately fitting door opening in front ; the whole should be covered with wire-gauze, and the interior fitted with three or four sliding, corked setting-boards, including the bottom, for spreading out insects. By this means the specimens within will be protected from those pests of the Naturalist, the cock-roaches and other destructive insects, which would otherwise, in an incredibly short time, destroy the results of a long period of labour. 9th. A strong iron-clamped chest, with the lid grooved to receive a fillet, and made to contain a number of thin and shallow boxes with lids simi- larly constructed, should be provided for the smaller and more delicate bird skins, while for the larger skins, similar chests without the small ones would be sufficient. A collection thus protected, though not so numerous in species, would prove far more valu- able than a more extensive one received in such a condition that little or no use could be made of it. Such disheartening instances are of too frequent occurrence. What was intended to be a noble col- lection, from being consigned to common packing- cases, has, after the lapse of a considerable interval, sometimes arrived from a distant country almost totally destroyed. 10th. A good store of chip boxes, both round and oval, of various sizes, and nests of pill-boxes, should be provided for delicate shells, eggs, large Coleoptera, Crustaceans, Echinoderms, &c. 630 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. llth. For procuring shells the collector should be furnished with one or two strong knives ; a hammer and chisel for those which dwell in rocks ; tin boxes and calico bags for specimens ; a large iron ladle perforated at the bottom, or a strong hoop with a shallow bag of wire-gauze, made with a socket to fit on the end of a rod, for examining the bottoms of streams for small shells ; a hoop net of coarse canvas for similar purposes ; and a kind of dredge to fit, by means of a socket, on the end of a pole or jointed handle, might be added for such species as lie imbedded in mud. 12th Large-mouthed, stoppered glass jars fitted in cases for specimens to be preserved in spirits, or wide-mouthed pickle-jars, which when well corked and coated with cement, will be found very useful for the same purpose ; and a good supply of small stoppered bottles for Annelids, and other delicate objects, which should, as far as practicable, be pre- served separately. Lastly. One or two additional pairs of scissors might, with advantage, be added, also the following articles, viz., needles, thread, silk, twine of different sizes, a few brushes both of camelVhair and of bristle, card-board, coarse brown and thin white paper, calico, common muslin, bags of the two last named materials of different sizes for fish, &c. Chloroform for killing insects, a good supply of spirits, camphor, a quantity of alum, some pieces of cork, bungs ; and finally a quantity of tow and cotton, to be regulated by the destination of the collector. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 631 This equipment will of course require to be modi- fied, reduced, or augmented according to circum- stances and the locality fixed upon for exploration. Before entering into the details of the methods to be pursued in the preservation of the different groups, it may not be amiss to allude to sketching, the utility of which is undoubted, when, as often happens, some rare or new object met with is, from a variety of causes, not preservable. A Zoologi- cal sketch to be of service to the Naturalist, must be something more than the mere contour of the specimen ; it must contain the essential charac- teristics of the object ; or, in other words, those points which Zoologists make use of in denning an order or a species. Thus, in Mammals, the form and number of the teeth, and of the claws, toes, or hoofs, should be represented ; the form of the bill, position of the nostrils, length, size, and appearance of the feet and claws, form of the wings, &c., in Birds; and the parts of the mouth, form and size of the antenna, and of the legs of Insects. These will serve as ex- amples ; for with different classes, different characters must of course be selected, and to those already mentioned others might be added ; but with prac- tise the eye will learn to fix upon, and a little con- sideration will suggest, the important points to be attended to. 632 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. MAMMALIA. Here the rifle will be found especially service- able, as by it alone most of the large quadrupeds can be procured ; while the gun, loaded with large shot, will not be less so in procuring many of the smaller antelopes and deer ; a charge of shot being found to produce a greater shock at the moment than a rifle ball, and the creature may thus be secured before it has time to recover, otherwise the almost invariable impulse, when an animal finds itself wounded, is, to seek the seclusion of some retired spot, probably in dense cover, and thus be totally lost. A small gun with lighter shot will of course be required for the smaller species. In all cases natives must, if possible, be secured as guides, to afford information and to assist in procuring specimens. Every opportunity should be embraced of ac- quiring information relative to the several breeds of domestic cattle ; indeed, the vast group of Rumi- nants, Wild Antelopes, Deer, &c., are all well worthy of attention, many of their habits being but imperfectly understood. The range of species should, if possible, be ascertained, and the extent and kind of influence exerted by local conditions in producing varieties traced. Care should likewise be taken to observe the changes produced by age in individual species, and to note the development of the horns of deer at different periods of life. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 633 The Rodentia are another class well worthy of study, and any light thrown upon their habits and peculiarities will prove very serviceable. The Cttacea likewise should be carefully ob- served, and no opportunity omitted of taking accu- rate notes and drawings, and of preserving parts, or the whole, of any individuals met with, excepting, of course, common and well known species. The country to be visited will influence the col- lector's mode of procedure ; and it is advisable to endeavour to obtain information, and to seek for suggestions from competent authorities as to what particular localities afford, and what should be espe- cially observed. Skinning. First attend to wounds and staunch the flow of blood, if any, by introducing a plug of cotton, or otherwise absorb it. Suppose, for ex- ample, the animal to be a monkey, place it on its back with the head from you ; cleanse the mouth and put in some cotton or tow, to prevent blood or any moisture from flowing out ; separate the hairs down the middle of the belly to the right and the left, then make an incision from the sternum to the pubic arch, and if the skin be thin and delicate, let it be continued to near the arms ; and here it will be necessary to state, that as the process of skinning proceeds, dry plaster of Paris should be laid on the exposed muscle, to absorb any blood, and to render the stripping easier by prevent- ing the adhesion of the skin. Care must be taken not to cut through the abdominal muscles ; and E E 5 634 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. we would also add, to prevent unpleasant con- sequences, that if the operator is performing on one of the weasel tribe, or any other animal pos- sessing mephitic glands about the posterior ex- tremity, great caution is requisite to avoid punc- turing these with the scalpel. When the incision has been made, let the skin be separated from the muscles of the belly on either side, far enough back tox expose the outer part of the thigh, then bend the leg, push it forward, and separate it at the knee- joint, or, if preferred, at its articulation with the pelvis ; this being accomplished on both sides, re- move the skin from the anus, being careful not to cut through too close to the anal orifice, dissect the skin back a short distance from the base of the tail, fasten a piece of string round that organ close to the rump, attach it to some fixed object, and with the curling-tongs before-mentioned, grasp the exposed part of the tail, pull with a steady strain and the skin will be pushed off, with perfect ease, to its apex. To strip the skin from the back is a sim- ple operation, and may frequently be done, as far as the shoulders, without the aid of the scalpel, which point being reached, expose the arms to the elbow- joint, where the separation may be made, or at the shoulder, according to inclination ; continue the process by drawing the skin over the head, being especially particular to cut through the ears close to the skull ; dissect carefully round the eyes, and avoid injuring the skin at the corners of the mouth ; proceed with caution as far as the nose ; it then only MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 635 remains to separate the skull at its articulation with the neck, at the same time withdrawing the tongue. Clean the muscles from the skull, remove the eyes, and scoop out the brain through the occipital foramen, carefully preserving entire the base of the skull, as after the skin is mounted it may, perhaps, be removed for comparison. Now skin the legs down to the toes, though small animals will not require it farther than the feet ; remove the muscles, .apply the preservative to the bones, the skull, and the skin in general; wrap tow, or some other material round the bones of the legs, to compensate for the muscle taken away, and replace them as before ; pad the skull with tow where the muscle has been removed, fill the orbits with cotton, and return the skin over it ; turn the skin, and if the animal is not too large fill it out with some soft material, but carefully avoid unnatural distension ; sow up the opening, and the work will be nearly complete. It will be requisite, before putting the specimen aside to dry, to anoint the bare parts of the skin with the solution of corrosive sublimate, and to repeat it twice or thrice Attach a little ticket, with a number to the specimen, and against a cor- responding number in the note-book let all the particulars be placed ; viz., the colour of the exposed portions of the skin, the locality where obtained, habits, whether or not the skins are articles of .com- merce, &c. When animals are very large it will be necessary to cut the skin from the chin to the arms, and even 636 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. to the end of the tail, and likewise down the inside of each leg. In the case of horned quadrupeds, such as deer, antelopes, &c., the incision along the belly must be continued to the chin, in order to skin the head and remove the muscle from the skull. Ani- mals possessing peculiar tails, such as the beaver, will require to have a longitudinal cut made beneath to effect the skinning process. The ears of large quadrupeds, or of any animals which may have those organs much developed, should be skinned, and card-board substituted for the cartilage removed ; this is a difficult operation, but it ought to be done if for no other reason than to retain their natural form and appearance. It may frequently happen that means are wanting to preserve more than a part of an animal, par- ticularly of large ones ; in such cases the skulls, and if horned, the skulls and horns entire, accompanied with a full account of the entire dimensions, the probable age, colour of the hair, &c., will be found very useful. The horns of rhinoceri should accom- pany the skulls. The skulls of cetaceous animals should be secured, and if possible the entire skeleton. Directions for preparing skulls and bones for trans- port will be given under a separate heading. It will be requisite to scrape the skins of some animals, as for instance, the seals, after their removal from the carcase, and before applying the pre- servative, in order to remove the fat. For preserving the skins of large animals, a nearly saturated solution of alum, washed repeatedly over MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 637 the inner surface will answer the purpose. A strong infusion of catechu is also very good. The skin should be spread out and hung up to dry, and when that has been properly effected, it may be rolled up and put away for transport ; but if that is not done at the time, a careful examination should be made before it is finally packed up, to ascertain if it has been attacked by insects, in which case the injured parts must be washed with the solution of corrosive- sublimate, or with turpentine. When, from want of means, an animal cannot be preserved, or, from its peculiar nature, its proper hue cannot be retained, which latter always happens with the Cetacea, an accurate drawing ought, if pos- sible, to be made of it in its fresh state. In skinning Bats it is not necessary, except in large species, to strip any part of the arms or legs. After skinning one of these animals, when the skin has been properly distended, the wings should be stretched out on a board with pins, and left to dry expanded ; this is much better than allowing them to dry folded, as the specimens pack equally well, and the necessity is obviated of softening them be- fore they are finally set up. Birds. The peculiar clothing of this class renders it of the highest importance that every precaution should be taken to prevent its being soiled, or its delicacy injured, both when procuring and when preserving the specimens. A double-barrelled gun will prove extremely ser- viceable, and, if requisite, the barrels may be loaded 638 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. with shot of different sizes; but although it has been frequently recommended to kill small birds with dust shot, we would suggest the employment of a larger size, inasmuch as specimens shot with the former are often found, on inspection, to be exten- sively mutilated, the shafts of the large feathers being frequently split and broken, and other inju- ries done to the toes and tarsi, from the quantity of shot which strike the object, while with the latter a bird will often be killed by a single lead drop, and the laceration of the skin is of far less consequence than injury to the feathers. The early morning is the best time to procure specimens, and next to that the evening ; for at these periods the birds are in a greater state of activity, being busied in seeking their repast ; it is then, also, that their songs are chiefly heard. During the heat of the day, again, in Summer and in hot climates, they usually repair to quiet retreats, and are little seen. Crepuscular and nocturnal birds must, of course, be sought for after sun-set, when their time of activity commences. In all cases specimens which have been snared are preferable to those which ha,ve been shot, and the assistance of natives will generally be found very serviceable in this particular, from their knowledge of the haunts of different species, and the peculiari- ties of their habits. The collector should have a light box in which to deposit specimens procured ; and if a number of paper cones, of different sizes, be made of cartridge- paper, before starting, and kept in the game box, it MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 039 will save much time and trouble. When a bird has been shot, the flow of blood from the wound should be stopped by putting a little dry powder or a piece of cotton over it ; and if a wing be broken, a piece of soft paper should be placed between it and the body, to prevent injury to the plumage ; the bill should be opened, and a piece of cotton thrust into the mouth to absorb, and partly prevent the flow of, any moisture : the plumage should be put straight, and the wings closed on the sides, when the speci- men may be put into one of the paper cones and deposited in the collecting box. Skinning. It will first be necessary to attend to wounds, and prevent the escape of blood from them, by sprinkling a little plaster of Paris, or covering the place with cotton ; if an eye has been wounded, a piece of cotton should be applied, and a plug of cotton must also be put into the mouth ; a thread should now be passed by the aid of a needle through the nostrils, and tied beneath the lower mandible, from which a loop is then to be formed proportionate to the size of the bird and the length of its neck, which is to be used in returning the skin to its proper position on the completion of the operation of skin- ning. If the bird be large, of delicate plumage, and much blood has flowed from the wound, which is frequently the case with water birds, as for example, the gulls, it will be necessary before commencing the skinning to sponge the soiled feathers first with lukewarm water, then with water having a little alum in it, and afterwards to dry them with plaster 640 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. of Paris. Next, presuming the above directions have been attended to, place the bird on its back, with the head to the left, and if a small species, it is advisable to break the bones of the wings close to the shoulder ; separate the feathers down the breast, turning them on either side ; make an incision from the upper part of the sternum downwards to near the vent, but avoid cutting through the abdominal muscles ; dissect away the skin from the body on either side, which can generally be effected by raising the skin with the fingers or with forceps, and sepa- rating it from the muscle with the handle of the scalpel, thus avoiding the possibility of cutting the skin. As the skinning goes on, a little plaster of Paris, or other powder, should be shaken over the exposed muscle, to prevent the feathers from adhering to it, by which means the process is facilitated, while the plumage is at the same time protected from im- purities. When the thigh is exposed on one side, cut through the leg at the knee-joint, which, when the bird is not larger than a crow, can readily be done with scissors, then turn the bird round and proceed in like manner with the other side. When both legs are separated, continue to detach the skin backwards and downwards to the rump ; raise, with the left hand, the bird by the tail, holding close to the rump, bend the tail back and with the scissors or knife cut through the coccyx or bones of the tail, leaving a part adherent to the skin to keep the tail feathers firm. As it frequently happens that at this point of the operation some fcecal matter will escape, MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 641 it is better to prevent it by putting a piece of cotton into the rectum. The bird should now be suspended by the rump with a chain hook, and the stripping continued down to the wings, which may be sepa- rated from the body by cutting through the bone with scissors, except in large birds when they must be separated at the shoulder-joint ; skin the neck and the head beyond the eyes, taking especial care on arriving at the ears not to pierce the skin, and in dissecting round the eyes not to injure the orbits ; separate the head from the trunk at the first joint of the neck, at the same time draw out the tongue from the mouth and keep it in connexion with the trachea which should be removed entire and either dried or preserved in spirit. Scoop out the brain through the occipital foramen, and remove the eyes carefully, as the feathers of the head are frequently soiled by their bursting. The muscle should be removed from the base of the skull and from between the mandibles ; preservative must then be applied to all parts of the skull, after which a little tow ought to be thrust into the cavity, and some cotton into the orbits ; a thread somewhat longer than the body should now be fastened to the base of the skull, the use of which will be made known pre- sently. In large birds the wings should be skinned down to the elbow on the inside, and the bone separated at that joint, thence down to the wrist ; an opening ought to be made on the under side of the wing, the muscle removed, preservative applied to the 642 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. bones, cotton inserted, and the skin sewed up again; and further, a thread should be attached to each wing at the point where the bones have been sepa- rated, in order that they may be tied to the proper width across the back when the skin has been turned. The legs are now to be skinned nearly to the top of the tarsi, the muscle removed, preserva- tive applied, and tow wound round the bones, when the legs may be drawn out naturally. Preservative must be applied to all parts of the skin, after which the process of returning the head through the neck is to be commenced by gently pushing the skull up, at the same time drawing the skin down with the fingers ; and when it has been brought back to the base of the skull, turning the body partly over, and letting it lie flat on the table ; then take the loop which is attached to the bill in one hand, place the other on the skin, and with a gentle strain draw the head out. Great caution and some skill are re- quired to pass the large skulls of some birds, as the Owls, through the neck Dress the feathers of the head with a long needle, and the cotton which re- placed the eyes should be loosened up, and drawn sufficiently far through the orbits to keep them of the natural size ; open the bill and pass some cotton into the mouth, to keep the chin and upper part of the throat properly distended ; and with a thread confine the mandibles for drying. Tie the wings at the proper width across the back ; pass the thread which was previously fastened to the lower part of the skull, with a needle, through the base of the MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. 643 tail, and draw the neck down to its proper length ; with some soft material fill out the skin to the proper size ; close the opening by bringing the edges together with a few stitches ; tie the feet together, and retain the wings in close contact with the body by a paper band. Apply some solution of corrosive-sublimate to the bill and feet, and when the skin is dry a specimen thus prepared is fit to be packed for transportation. The foregoing instructions apply to the ordinary birds ; but it will be necessary to allude to the methods to be pursued with peculiar species. Long-necked birds with large heads, such as the Flamingo. When half the neck has been skinned it should be cut across, and the remainder removed, and the skull exposed by an incision made in front of the neck from the throat, extending it sufficiently low down for the skinning to be effected without difficulty. It sometimes happens that the bird has a sort of crest, in which case a transverse cut may be made, if preferred, across the occiput, and the remaining portion of the neck taken away by first separating it from the skull. The incision down the neck is sometimes made on the side which is intended to be hid from view. The large skulls of some Parrots frequently oblige the operator to skin their necks by some such method ; and some of the Ducks and Geese likewise require it. Birds with large tarsi, as the Screamers. It is not only of importance to attend to the feet of such specimens, in order to prevent the loss of the epi- 644 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. dermis, but it is also requisite to retain the size and shape of the tarsi which in those birds, form a very prominent character. To preserve them, an opening must be made down the back of the tarsis, and the tendrons, &c., removed; some preservative is then applied and the space filled up with cotton. The edges of the skin need not be sewn together, but if simply brought in contact, and the tarsi bandaged with broad tape until they are dry, it will retain its proper place and unsightly stitches be avoided. Birds with flesliy caruncles. Such species are numerous, and the caruncles vary much in form, so that the operator must exercise his judgment in pre- paring and stuffing them, of course endeavouring to keep the opening as much out of sight as possible. It will also be requisite to take accurate notes of the colour of the naked skin, which in life is often very intense, strongly contrasted and beautiful, but which rapidly fades after death. Birds with tumid nostrils, as Pigeons. As in this Order the nostrils form a prominent feature, care must be taken to preserve them of the proper size and form. Make an incision from beneath into the soft and tumid portion, and after applying a little preservative, fill it out with cotton. Birds with fat skins. Most water-birds, Petrels especially, have a quantity of very oily fat beneath the skin, which, without the greatest care, will seriously soil the feathers ; to avoid which, the olea- ginous matter must be absorbed as the skinning process proceeds by using plaster of Paris, or placing MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 645 cotton, rag, or bibulous paper, so as to protect the plumage. When the body has been removed it is still requisite to take away as much as possible of the fat from the skin by scraping it off, and absorbing the remainder with plaster of Paris ; not only to preserve the feathers clean, but also to prevent the skin from becoming rotten. Birds which are clothed on the breast with very delicate and satin-like feathers, such as the Grebes, are frequently skinned from the back, the incision being made from below the shoulders to the rump. The advantage derived from this is, that the purity of the plumage on the breast can be better preserved, and the appearance of a seam, which it is difficult to conceal, avoided ; while the opening on the back is of less consequence, as there the seam can be better disguised by the difference in colour and arrange- ment of the feathers. Some time should elapse after a specimen has been killed before attempting to skin it ; but if from any cause it is found necessary to skin a bird immediately after death, which, from the rapidity of putrefaction, as well as from other causes, will some- times happen in very hot climates, care must be taken to injure as few as possible of the large vessels, and some cotton should be at hand to staunch the flow of blood. The blood will be found to flow freely from most water birds even at a considerable time after death, so that the same precautions are neces- sary. When the skins are dry they should be examined, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. and, if found free from the attacks of insects, packed with camphor in the boxes intended to receive them. Long-necked birds are sometimes stowed with the neck folded down beneath one wing, which practice has been recommended by some ; but, if possible, it should be avoided, as some of the feathers dry in an unnatural position, which it is impossible afterwards properly to rectify. Notes should be made of the colour of the irides of the specimens procured, and of the bill and feet. The alimentary canal should be kept either dried and inflated or preserved in spirits, or an accurate sketch should be made. The sterna of the different birds skinned should likewise be kept ; the mode of preparing which will be given with the directions for bones and skeletons for transportation. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS. The assistance of the inhabitants of the places visited will, perhaps, be found of fully as much ser- vice in this as in any branch of Zoology, not only in obtaining specimens, but in furnishing native names, and making known the haunts of different species, many of which, especially some of the Amphibians, lurk in obscure places, and thus might be overlooked by the collector ; nor is this all, for information may MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 647 be procured relating to those species which should be avoided in combat, and which should be captured with care. A very slight blow across the spine of a snake will sufficiently paralize it to stop its progress ; when secured, with a small and sharp-pointed pen- knife, or some such instrument, wound the spinal- cord immediately between the base of the skull and the first vertebrae, which, without injuring the spe- cimen, will instantly put an end to its power to escape or to do harm ; this can readily be managed, supposing the species to be a venomous one, by placing a stick on its head while the operation of pithing is performed. A little noose of fine copper wire fastened to the end of a rod may sometimes be serviceable for capturing specimens. All small species are best preserved in spirits, and it is only the larger ones which should be skinned. When a specimen is put into spirit, care should be taken to allow some of the fluid to get into the intestinal canal which can most certainly be effect- ed by injecting it into the mouth with a syringe; the neglect of this precaution often causes the loss of the epidermis about the lower part of the abdo- men, even when specimens are placed singly in strong spirit. When collecting for transportation, too many specimens should not be put together into one jar, as the quality of the spirit frequently becomes so deteriorated as to destroy its preservative properties. Skinning. Turtles may be prepared by sepa- rating the plastron from the carapace, which can 648 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. be very readily done by cutting it through at the sides with a strong knife ; but for tortoises it will be necessary to use a saw, in order to separate one side, when the plastron may be elevated and forced from its connexion with the other side, where the bones unite, but before it is raised, let the skin around the legs, tail, and neck, be separated from it. When the specimen is opened all muscle and fat can be easily removed, and the neck, feet, &c., skinned as in other quadrupeds ; which being accomplished, and the preservative applied, these parts should be filled with cotton, to keep them distended to the natural size. The plastron may be confined to the carapace by a piece of twine tied round them, which will answer the purpose until the specimen is finally A l&zards may be opened and skinned like other quadrupeds, .but especial caution must be observed \^Dj skinning the tail, which operation is rendered ex- tremely difficult by the brittleness of that member ; and in such species as possess very long and slender tails it is better not to attempt it. When filling out the skin of such species as possess a gular pouch, attention should be paid to that part, so as to keep its proper size and form ; and when a specimen pos- sesses a dorsal or other crest, it will be well to keep it properly stretched with pins, upon cork, until it is dry, in order to avoid the necessity of relaxing it when the skin is set up. In filling out the skins of such species as have very depressed bodies, the operator should carefully preserve the natural form. MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 649 Snakes. In skinning snakes, an incision of three or four inches in length should be made on one side of the neck, commencing from behind the jaw ; the skin must be laid back and the head separated from the first cervical vertebra ; if a piece of twine be then made fast to the neck and tied to some fixed object, the skinning may be speedily accomplished, by drawing it back and dissecting with the scalpel a little beyond the vent, when it will be sometimes necessary to make another incision along the side of the tail, towards the tip, in order to skin it. The entire skeleton may be very easily preserved along with the skin, by dissecting the skull out instead of detaching it from the vertebrce. When the skin has been removed and preservative applied, it may be allowed to dry without being distended, and when perfectly dry it can be rolled up and packed away in small compass. Amphibians. Whenever it may be desirable to skin any large toads or frogs, the process can be effected as with other quadrupeds ; the skin, after the application of the preservative, should be filled with sand, or some such material, as it enables the operator to mould the form into the natural shape much better than if any other stuffing was used. FISHES. Whenever practicable, fish should be preserved in spirits, a quantity of which should be forced into the abdominal cavity of each specimen, before it is 650 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. placed in the collecting-jar ; it is advisable also to enclose each individual in a calico or muslin bag, to prevent injury from rubbing against other objects. Delicate species ought not to be placed indiscrimi- nately with tougher kinds, but should be kept in small numbers by themselves, and be preserved in camphorated spirit. Each, when placed in the col- lecting-jar, should have a tally attached to it cor- responding with a number in the note-book, where all necessary particulars should be recorded. Skinning. Extreme caution is sometimes neces- sary in skinning fish to prevent the loss of scales ; those species, therefore, which have this covering loosely attached, should have a piece of tissue or other thin paper pasted over them, or be covered over with mucilage before the operation is commenced. Fish, such as the Perch, may be preserved either entire or as sections. For the former method, an opening is made along the abdomen extending the entire length of the fish, or along the lateral line ; in either case, the skin is to be turned back on both sides, the head separated from the vertebras, the fins cut through with scissors, and, when the whole body has been skinned, the fleshy portion and spine are to be divided at the tail ; the different parts of the head, where there is muscle, should then be attended to ; and although it is always difficult, and frequently impossible, to remove this, yet an opening in it may be made with a blunt scalpel, to enable some preservative to be applied, and more particularly in order that stuffing may be thrust in, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 651 to compensate for the contraction of the muscle in drying. After the application of the preservative, the skin should be filled out, the form of the fish being carefully preserved on one side, after which the opening may be sewn up. It is recommended that, when circumstances permit, the fins should be stretched with pins on cork, as they can seldom be so well expanded after having once been dried. To prepare sections of fish, the skin must be cut all round along the base of the fins on one side, separating it from the head, which, however, must be left entire ; that part of the skin is next to be taken away, and the body may then be removed in the usual manner. The proper form and convexity are to be given to the section by pinning it upon a thin piece of soft wood and stuffing it, at the same time expanding the fins. When the skin is dry, it may be removed from the board and packed. In preparing the skins of fish the gills should, as a ge- neral rule, be allowed to remain ; but when, from their size, they are likely to retain too much mois- ture, they ought to be carefully removed, and dried separately. The palatal bones and other parts of the mouth should never be mutilated. Sharks. The whole of the body and head must be removed in skinning these animals, leaving the jaws attached ; and as the skin is closely and firmly connected to the muscle it will be necessary to dis- sect with much caution ; if the skin be filled out, the natural form, especially of the head, should be accurately retained. FF 2 652 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. Rays. These should be opened on the ventral sur- face by a semilunar incision; in small specimens little more can or need be done than to remove the viscera, and detach the skin, by the handle of the scalpel, from the more muscular parts, to enable the operator to apply preservative and insert stuffing. More will be required in large specimens, but the skinning cannot be carried to the edge of the fins. Flat-fish should be preserved entire, the opening being made on the ventral edge and carried along the fin on the colourless side. Eels may be skinned in the same manner as snakes, an opening being made in the skin for a short distance along the neck, when the head may be separated and the body removed. The skin may be filled with sand to distend it, which will facili- tate the operation of moulding to the proper form, and, when dry, the sand may be allowed to fall out. Trunk-fishes. These being enveloped in a hard and solid covering, a different process is necessary. A portion of the external coat, of an oval form, must be cut out from the belly, by which means the viscera, &c., can be removed ; the vertebrse and muscle from the tail may generally also be taken away by the same opening, but if not, an incision should be made along the skin of the tail to effect it, in order that stuffing may be introduced, and thus prevent the shrinking of that part. It will not be necessary to do more than apply preservative to the inside of these fish, as they will retain their proper form when dry. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 653 Fish-skins should be packed in comparatively shallow boxes, to avoid too great pressure on the lower specimens, and each one should be covered with thin paper, and have the fins properly pro- tected with cotton. Tow, or some soft material, should be placed between the layers of skins, and camphor should be placed in the box. Directions for Collecting Bones and Skeletons. The preservation of bones and skeletons has been generally much neglected by collectors, and while the skins of peculiarly interesting animals are often very common, their skeletons are extremely rare, or altogether unknown ; and yet skulls, bones, and entire skeletons of animals can be, in most cases, prepared for transportation as readily as skins. Skulls may be prepared by removing the principal part of the muscle, and allowing the remainder to dry ; or, where convenient, they may be boiled first, which will greatly facilitate the cleaning process, and, when thoroughly dry, they may be separately wrapped in paper and packed ; small skulls, in cold climates, may be dried with the whole of the .muscle attached; but in all cases the brain should be re- moved. Separate bones may be prepared in the same way, and the long bones of large animals should be bored at each end to permit the escape of the medullary matter, but the holes should not be very large. 654 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Skeletons. To prepare the skeletons of large mammals, the muscle should be removed, and the bones boiled, or they may be dried at once, but the former method is preferable, though, perhaps, not often practicable ; in either case the bones should be separated, as, by so doing, they will not only dry more quickly, but can also be packed in smaller compass. In separating the bones, the cartilages of the ribs which are attached to the sternum should be separated with it, the disunion being made at the end of each rib. When a skeleton is boiled, the sternum and cartilages of the ribs should not be in- cluded ; the cartilages of the scapulae should likewise be kept above the water. The paddles of the Cetaceans should not be boiled, but the skin and fat be removed with the knife, and the bones, with their natural attachments and what- ever else may adhere to them, be allowed to remain until the final preparation. The skeletons of smaller animals may, in cold cli- mates, be very easily preserved by removing a few of the larger muscles and allowing the remainder to dry. In warm or temperate climates it will be necessary to dissect away more of the muscle before drying them. The viscera must always be removed. The skeletons of Birds may be prepared in a simi- lar way, and it will serve as an additional protection from injury if the primary wing feathers are allowed to remain attached, so that when the head is bent down along the side of the body, and the legs folded up, the wings may be closed and confined with a MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 655 piece of twine, while the quill feathers serve to en- close the whole within a small and safe package. It will be requisite to remove only the viscera and pectoral muscles of small species before drying them. The sterna of such birds as have been skinned may be preserved by removing the large pectoral muscles, and drying them. The furcula, clavicles, and scapulae, should be allowed to remain attached to each sternum ; all the rest can be separated. Reptiles and Amphibians may be prepared as the Mammalia, the large species having the bones sepa- rated, and either boiled or dried at once, and the small species having the chief part of the muscle removed and dried entire ; with some it will be sufficient to remove the viscera only, and then dry them. Turtles and tortoises may be preserved by removing the plastron from the carapace as directed for skinning, dissecting the muscle from the neck and extremities, and taking away the viscera and fat from the interior of the shell. Most of the small species of Reptiles, and particularly the Amphibians, which are intended for skeletons, will be best pre- served in spirits. Fish. The heads of fish may generally be pre- served by removing some of the muscle from the cheeks and drying them, or where rapid dessication can be effected, they may be dried entire. The whole fish may frequently be preserved for a skeleton by removing the viscera and drying it; or when it is too large, or, where, from other causes it cannot be dried with sufficient speed, the muscle may be removed 656 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. from the back and the sides of the tail en masse, commencing by making an incission along each side of the dorsal fin, from the back part of the skull to the caudal fin, and continuing it round to the an- terior part of the anal fin, when the greater portion of the muscle can be dissected away on either side separately, taking particular care not to interfere with the ribs, or the styles which branch off from them, and which are sometimes continued along the vertebrae nearly to the end of the tail. In some fishes, such as the eels, it will not be so easy to remove the muscle, on account of the number of small bones which pierce it. Such specimens as are intended for skeletons and cannot be otherwise prepared, will be better preserved in spirits pro- vided it is of good quality, that too many specimens are not placed together in it, and especially that it may have free communication with the abdominal cavity, otherwise the ribs will lose their attachments to the vertebrae. Skeletons and bones preserved according to the foregoing instructions and carefully stowed in boxes with soft packing, can be as well prepared afterwards as fresh specimens, provided they are not allowed to get wet after being packed. MOLLUSKS. In collecting Hollusca the dredge is the important instrument, a single scrape of which, in deep water in an unknown portion of the bed of the sea, is worth hours searching along the strand. " Having MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTOEY. 657 arrived at the fishing-ground, ascertain the depth of the water and the nature of the bottom with a sounding lead ; register these data, which are of the greatest importance, in a pocket journal ; drop the dredge overboard, allowing one-third more line than the ascertained depth, and drag the dredge along by sailing or rowing ; when full, let it be dragged into the boat. Let the Nudibranchiate- Mollusks, Holothurians, and other soft animals, de- mand your first attention ; make a sketch of all rare and curious forms, and wrap each specimen in a piece of tin-foil before putting it into a bottle of alcohol, or, if you desire to study their habits to advantage, place it in a bottle of sea- water. The remainder of the contents is thrown into a tub, and the dredge lowered whilst it is being sorted/' When the con- tents of the dredge are muddy, they must be placed in wire sieves and water poured on them till the shells remain visible at the bottom. The best grounds for dredging are those of sand, smooth stones, sandy mud, and sea- weed bottoms ; rocky and coral bottoms often tear the bag and break the line of the dredge. The greater the depth dredged, the more important the results ; and the objects secured, though few in number, will frequently be either new or very rare. The best description of dredge is that invented by Mr. Ball, of Dublin, the cost of which is only about seven shillings, its weight seven or eight pounds, and which may be stowed in a carpet bag of mode- rate size. In this dredge "the two scrapers are each twenty inches in length by two inches in FF 5 658 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. breadth ; parallel with their lower edges, fourteen holes are pierced equidistant from each other, to receive the laces of the bag. These two plates, or scrapers, are joined by means of two cross-bars, so as to form an angle of about forty-five degrees with the plane of this position ; each bar is five inches in length by three-and-a-half-eighths in diameter. The arms are each sixteen inches in length by three eighths-and-a-half in diameter, and play upon the cross-bars by means of double swivel-joints. Their anterior extremities are beaten flat, so as to meet closely and vertically, and are pierced, for the recep- tion of the bolt, which at the same time passes through the extremities of what may be termed the bridle-ring, to which the rope is affixed/' By draw- ing the bolt and folding the arms inwards the dredge is readily stowed away. " In no case should the bag exceed eighteen inches in depth ; one may be best made of twine, with meshes half-an-inch apart, and another of cheese-cloth or serge for fine work/' The net may also be formed of a raw hide, with holes punched in it. The strength of the rope must be regulated by the depth at which the dredge is used, but in all cases a fourteen pound weight should be attached to the rope at the distance of six inches from the dredge. Small hand-nets made of cheese-cloth and fixed to an iron ring with a socket, for a walking stick, will be useful, or a circular tin spoon pierced with holes, will answer the same purpose, namely, for scraping the bottoms of pools for small delicate shells. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 659 Several moderate-sized sieves are also requisite for sifting mud and sand, and for washing the contents of the dredge. These may be four or five inches high, and the meshes of their brass or copper bot- toms should be one-tenth of an inch apart. These sieves should be filled, and the contents frequently washed by pouring water on them, or by repeated dipping in the sea, by attaching three strings to the sides, which are held in the hand. When the ship is at anchor " fishing " for Mollusks may be carried on by dropping a fine line with a small hook baited with a bit of flesh. In this manner Olives, Mar- ginellas, Harps, and Volutes may be taken. The same method may be adopted among rocks, and coral-banks, where the dredge cannot be used. The ship's anchor will sometimes bring up shells sticking to the mud on the palms. Where divers are em- ployed valuable species may often be obtained from the stones, sponges, madrepores, &c., they may bring up, and in the middle of which they are con- cealed. The stomachs of fishes of all descriptions should be carefully examined, many among them, especially the ground-feeders, being excellent Con- chologists. Acquaintance should be made with the fishermen of the place, who often procure rare shells in fine condition ; these men are often acquainted with the localities and habits of Hollusca, and must be questioned. The markets must be frequented and searched, many interesting species of Mollusks being used in different countries for food, lamps, and other econo- 660 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. mical purposes. The Malays and Chinese collect great heaps of shells for the purpose of burning them into lime for mixing with their betel-nut and sirih-leaf for chewing. Fluviatile shells must be obtained by the spoon and the water-net, except in lakes, where the dredge may be employed. Many species are found adhering to the under surface of dead-floating leaves, or clinging to old trees and logs in the water, or crawling on the stones partially out of the water, or along the oozy banks ; while many again will be discovered partially or entirely buried in the mud. Land shells are taken in the greatest abundance after showers and early in the morning, or during the evening and night ; they are found crawling on the leaves of plants or on the the ground among damp moss and dead vegetable matter, under heaps of stones or loose bark of trees, or in holes of their trunks and fissures of the bark, or along pathways, and in fields, woods, and heaths. Many of the smaller kinds may be taken by sweeping the bushes with a net. The littoral species of Mollusca are found on the reefs and rocks which the sea leaves uncovered on the receding of the water, and where they hide under the stones until the tide returns. They are often most numerous after a storm ; stones must be turn- ed, the heaps of sea-weed raised and their roots examined, the little pools must be explored, fis- sures of rocks peeped into, and coral-masses broken and uprooted. Starfishes, and other Echinoderms and Sponges must be very carefully examined for MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 61 parasitic species which bury themselves in the skin, and which may be detected by the tumours they produce, or by the holes they inhabit. The rocks must be keenly searched for Limpets and Chitons, which frequently assume the colour of their habitat, and require a practised eye to detect them ; they must be taken by surprise, and sud- denly lifted off by the point of a knife before they can fix themselves firmly. The internal parts of the Limpets can be simply removed, but the Chitons must be placed in fresh water, their inside carefully removed, and then strapped down upon thin strips of wood ; tied to layers of talc and placed in spirits is the very best mode, taking care, however, not to injure the gills or margins of the mantle.* When the sea bathes the roots of trees, as the Mangroves, which it does in many parts of tropical shores, Littorince, Ostrece, Neritince, and Auriculce, will be found on their trunks, and among the branches and roots that are out of the water. Bubbles of air will shew where shells are hid in the mud or sand, as will little hillocks, grooves, holes, and ver- micular-formed heaps of excrement. The bur- rowers in the sand must be turned out promptly by a digging implement of some sort, taking care not to crush the valves by the pressure of the soil arouod them. The Pholades, and other bivalves that live in calcareous rocks, may be detected by the * Chitons placed in salt-water on a piece of slate will adhere naturally, and may then be removed, and their backs held to the fire, when they will dry nicely in situ. 662 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. holes and tubes they form ; the shells must be care- fully broken out, and, when a tube is attached, it must also be preserved with a portion of the rock Most Mollusca are killed by plunging them into hot water ; when, however, they are very delicate, the water should be added gradually. The animal, when dead, is removed with a pin or piece of crooked wire, or, if a bivalve, with the point of a knife. The operculum, when present, must be carefully wrapped up in paper and placed in the mouth of the shell ; the bivalves must be tied together with string or thread. The marine shells may be soaked in water before being put away, to extract the salt, but no cleaning process, or oiling of the specimens, should ever be attempted. Shells are best packed in shallow boxes of mode- rate size, so as to contain but a single layer, these shallow boxes may then be packed in bulk with saw-dust or shavings between them. In packing the boxes, cotton must be placed between the spe- cimens, and very fragile individuals must be placed separately in pill-boxes, and the pill-boxes stowed in the shallow boxes. When the animal is removed from a large shell, ifc is sufficiently valuable for pre- servation. If for anatomical purposes, it should be placed in spirits, to which a little ammonia has been added, to keep it soft ; if for zoological obser- vation, simple alcohol will answer the purpose. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 663 INSECTS. No spot should be overlooked by the collector in searcliing for Insects, as the places in which they lurk are as numerous and diversified as the forms of these creatures themselves. The thick wood and the sandy plain, the hedge-row, and the mouldering bank, the flowers which bedeck the fields and perfume the atmosphere, as well as the putrid carcase which fills the air with repulsive odours, must each be care- fully explored ; the bark of trees must be raised, and decaying timber broken up, in search of the species which inhabit such localities ; and old banks and sand-pits must be closely examined for the Hymenop- tera, which burrow in them. The Entomologist must sometimes patiently turn the stones on the shore ; at others, he must dabble in the dark still pool ; at all times and in all places he must be on the alert, for he may extract a Carrion-beetle from a filthy mass, or capture a Bee as it sips the nectar from the flowers ; he may net a Butterfly in the brilliant sunshine, or secure a Moth as it flits about his midnight lamp. When it can be made convenient, the collector will find it advantageous to prolong his visit in any place he may select for exploring, as by such means a better knowledge can be obtained of what the locality affords, and much information may be glean- ed relative to the habits of species ; if he reside for any length of time in a particular spot, he should 664 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. not fail to employ a breeding-cage, not merely be- cause many rare species are seldom to be procured except in this way, but also on account of the light which the breeding of insects throws on their meta- morphoses ; all the observations made should be carefully recorded, and it will likewise prove of great service if drawings are taken of larvse and pupae, and of the plants on which the former feed. Preservation of Insects for transportation. In preserving Coleoptera for transport many may be kept in camphorated spirit ; but such as are hairy had better be pinned down and dried, the pin being always thrust through the right elytron, and if time permit, the legs and antennae should be placed in their natural positions at once ; but, if inconvenient, that can be left for a future time, when the speci- mens are reset for the cabinet. Large species of Coleoptera may be killed by immersion in hot water or spirit, or by chloroform, the legs and antennae can then be folded up, and the specimens dried and placed in separate card- or chip-boxes, with cotton to protect them from injury. All species large enough to be fastened with pins, can be so done and dried, but more time and space are requisite, and the speci- mens are more likely to receive injury ; very small species must be put on little slips of card with gum- tragacanth. Euplexoptera and Orthoptera may be preserved in spirits, but they are better set out at once and dried. The pin should be put through the thorax, the wings kept closed, and large species must be MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 665 opened along the under side of the abdomen, the viscera must be removed, and the cavity filled with cotton. Neuroptera and Stegoptera should be set up at once and dried, the wings being kept in that posi- tion which is natural to the species when at rest ; the pin being inserted through the thorax. They are most easily killed by chloroform. Some may be better preserved in small glass tubes. Hymenoptera are preferably to be pinned through the thorax, and set at once with the wings ex- panded ; small species must be put on card. Chloro- form is the best mode of killing these insects, and when dead they should be removed from the col- lecting-bottle, and put into a dry box, otherwise the soft hairy covering of some species becomes much disfigured by moisture. Lepidoptera. The delicacy and beauty of this Order demand that the utmost care should be taken in preserving the specimens, as the slightest touch is sufficient to remove some of the scales which cover the wings, and at every such loss some colours disappear ; it is, therefore, necessary that some speedy method of killing them should be adopted, and the best and most effectual agent for Moths is chloroform, as it immediately stupifies them, prevents their fluttering, and quickly terminates their exist- ence ; Butterflies can be instantaneously killed by compressing the thorax. Specimens should be put out at once by being transfixed through the thorax, the wings being expanded and kept in that position 666 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. until dry, by means of braces of card or slips of glass ; the latter are best when they can be conve- niently used, as their weight is sufficient to retain the wings in any position ; and the smoothness of the surface and transparency of the material, afford advantages which are not possessed by any other, so that the operator is enabled to see whether the wings are properly placed, and he can alter and ad- just them without removing the slips. Moths are best set by pinning them to cork, grooved so as to receive their bodies. Large-bodied species must be opened and filled with cotton, as described for the Orthoptera. Hemiptera should generally be set out at once and dried, the pin being thrust through the thorax, and the wings closed. Some may be preserved in spirits, others placed on card. Homoptera. Some of these may be preserved in spirits, but they are better when put out at once, a pin being run through the thorax, and the wings kept closed. Some are better kept in small glass tubes. Strepsiptera may be put on card or preserved in small tubes. Diptera should be preserved dry, the pin piercing the thorax, and the wings being expanded. Small species must be put upon card. Apkaniptera should be preserved in small glass tubes, or they may be put upon card. Caterpillars are best preserved in spirits ; but as the colours of the smooth-bodied ones are very eva- nescent, they should be noted at the time, or, as previously mentioned, drawings should be made. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 667 Whenever mould makes its appearance on insects preserved in boxes, they should be touched with camphorated spirit applied with a camers-hair pen- cil ; the same thing should be done when mites are observed, or they may be touched with a weak solu- tion of corrosive sublimate in alcohol. Camphor should always be kept in the boxes. Aiolopoda. The greater number of these will be best preserved in spirits, though some, such as the Sugar-lice, should be kept in small glass tubes. Arachnida. These are all best preserved inspirits. Crustacea and Epizoa. Some are best kept in spirits, but many may be preserved in a dry state, to effect which, the specimens must first be placed in fresh-water for two or three hours, to remove the salt, when they may be opened by removing the carapace in Brachyurous, and by separating the tail from the thorax in Macrourous Crustaceans, and taking out the soft parts, at the same time, the muscle from the large chelae of Crabs and Lobsters should be drawn out by means of a crooked wire, and if the specimens are very large, it should also be taken from the other legs ; a little preservative may then be applied, the separated parts reunited, and the specimens set aside to dry, after placing the legs and antennae in their proper positions. Cirrhopoda. Many of these are best kept in spirits, indeed some specimens of all species should be so preserved. To preserve them in a dry state, they must first be put into fresh water, as mentioned for the Crustaceans, the pedunculated species should 668 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. then have the peduncle stuffed with cotton, to keep it of the natural size and form when dry, the valves should also be kept apart by the same material, and the arms of the animal allowed to dry protruded. Sessile species should be emptied of the soft parts of the animal, the shell filled with cotton, the opercular portions placed in their natural position on the cot- ton and fastened to it with gum, and when the specimens are in groups, the arms of some of the animals should appear through the openings. Specimens of Crustaceans and Cirrhopods ought to be packed very carefully in soft materials, par- ticularly the former, and, as far as practicable, they should be placed separately in chip-boxes, and have camphor put with them. In case of their becoming mouldy or infected with mites, they may be treated after the manner described for insects. Annelida. All the species are best preserved in spirits, and for those which are not liable to be cor- rugated by it, undiluted spirit is preferable. The specimens should, as far as possible, be kept separate in small bottles. RADIATA AND ACRITA. Star-fishes, Sea-urchins, Sea-cucumbers, and other Echinoderms are best preserved in camphorated spirits. If any specimens are required for subsequent dissection, they should be preserved in alcohol, to which a little ammonia has been added. The Brittle-stars, however, must be suddenly MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 669 plunged into fresh-water to prevent them from throw- ing off their arms, and then transferred to the spirit ; to preserve them dry, they should be dipped for a moment in boiling-water, dried in a current of air and packed in paper. The Sea-urchins or Echinidce, after the inside has been carefully removed, pre- serv ing, however, the skeleton of the " lanthorn" or jaws, should be sewed up separately in muslin bags, to preserve their spines, previously having sub- mitted them, for several hours, to a bath of fresh- water. When parasites are found, such as Cavitary or Parenchymatous Entozoa, the part to which the animal is attached should be removed along with it, in order to preserve the mouth, hooks, or sucking disk by which it adheres. These kinds of animals will be found in the intestines, liver, &c., of many animals which are opened, and also adhering to the gills and noses of fish. They should all be carefully collected and placed in alcohol diluted with about a third of fresh- water. Coloured drawings should be made of Sea-nettles or Acalephce, as the beauty of their forms is never preserved after death, even in spirits; they must be placed in tumblers of sea- water, and drawn while in their living state. After placing them in the spirit it must frequently be changed after the specimens have remained in it for some time, as a very large amount of fluid exudes from their gelatinous bodies, and weakens its preserv- ative power. Fleshy-polyps, Sea-anemones, and similar forms 670 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY, of invertebrate animals, must be preserved in diluted spirits. By gradually adding the alcohol to the sea- water containing the living specimens, the animals may die in an expanded state, when they should be transferred to some fresh spirit. The same thing may occur if a minute portion of corrosive sublimate is added to the water. To capture Infusorial-animalcules or minute phos- phorescent forms, and other microscopic creatures floating near the surface of the sea in calms, sheets of stout bibulous paper should be lowered, raised in a horizontal manner, and afterwards dried and pre- served in a book with the little invisible animals adherent to the papers. Sponges and horny and calcareous Corals, should be steeped for a considerable time in fresh-water, to extract the salt, and then dried in a current of air. II. PHYTOLOGY. As the collection and preservation of plants, and of vegetable products, are subjects of much importance to the travelling phytologist, it may be advantageous to insert for his use some brief directions when to gather, what to choose, and how to prepare, as the value, both scientific and intrinsic, of an herbarium depends far less on multiplicity of objects, than on the careful selection, and the state of perfection MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 671 of its contents. The instruments and apparatus required by the itinerant botanist are by no means so bulky as those of the zoologist, nor is the preparations of his specimens so complex or so tedi- ous. His equipment should com- prise, 1. A digger, which is a kind of minature spade ; that usually em- ployed, is from seven to eight inches in length, the spud being two inches and-a-half long, the same in width at the upper part, but slightly narrowed across the bottom, and with the lower angles rounded. Another form which we would more particularly recommend, is the one here represented, which is more trowel-shaped, the spud being five inches long, and concave in front. These should be constructed of sufficient strength for digging out plants in hard or stony ground. It will be found convenient when using these instruments to have them attached to the wrist by means of a loop of cord passed through the handles. 2. A Botanical-box or Vasculum ; this which is indispensable for long excursions, and particularly in hot climates, is made of tin and usually japanned. Two or three different sizes are required, the largest being twenty or twenty-one inches in 672 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. length, from nineteen to twenty inches in circum- ference, and five inches in depth, of an oblong de- pressed form, convex externally, the curves of the opposite sides being similar. It should have a strong handle at one end, and open on the upper surface by a lid thirteen inches long, fastened, when shut, by means of two hooked wires sliding into tin sheaths. It is generally advantageous to have a small com- partment at one end, about an inch and-a-half in depth, in which labels may be kept ready for attach- ing to plants, or small specimens may be preserved separately. This case should have a couple of tin bands placed along one of the sides, to permit a leather strap to be passed through, for the purpose of of slinging it across the back. The next size which is useful for ordinary walks, or for short excursions, and is adapted for being carried in the hand, is fbur- fourteen inches long, five inches wide, and two and- a-half inches deep, and has only a handle at one end. The third should be small enough to go into the pocket, and the upper surface may be concave. 3. A Field-book, which is merely a portable port- folio containing absorbent paper, and secured by a couple of straps. Flaps of oiled-silk or other thin water-proof material, should be attached to either end, and along the inner edge of one side, for the purpose of protecting the contents from wet. This is employed for preserving small and very delicate plants, or flowers which are deciduous or fade quickly, which may thus be spread out and pressed immediately on being gathered. MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 673 4. An instrument, which will be better under- stood by the ac- companying outline than by description. The upper edge a, is sharp, and fitted for cutting specimens from the trunks or large branches of trees ; the curved edge b, is for cut- ting branches out of ordinary grasp ; and c, is a blunt curve for hooking them down for the sake of any particular part. It may be fitted to a long handle by a ferule, and secured by a thumb-screw d. 5. A portable Bill-hook, with a hatchet edge along the back ; this may be carried in a curved scabbard, which can be attached by a but- ton or similar con- trivance to a belt, or otherwise slung at the side. The handle should be made of two pieces of rough leather secured to a central plate by rivets. 6. Two or three good strong jack-knives, and a smaller sharp-pointed knife. 7. A pocket-lens ; one with two glasses is prefer- able, and it is safer to carry it in a breast pocket, attached by a piece of ribbon or small cord to a 674 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. button inside the pocket, so that when not in use the whole is quite out of the way. 8. Paper. The kind chiefly required is " drying- paper/' which is now manufactured expressly for botanical purposes ; in Scotland, by Weir, Queen street, Glasgow ; and in England, by Bentall, whose London agent is Mr. Newman, No. 9, Devonshire- street, Bishopsgate. The most convenient size for general use is 18 inches long by 11 inches broad, which sells at 18s. a-ream. This should be kept in fasciculi of three sheets passed within each other, ex- cept for very succulent plants, when four will be ne- cessary ; also a small quantity of thin white paper, usually known as " Crown tea-paper," which is used for holding some delicate plants, before being placed in the " drying-paper/' In damp countries nothing answers better than coarse brown paper. For some Algce a very bibulous paper, such as ordinary blot- ting-paper, is preferable. A quantity of common writing-paper for cutting into small slips, for attach- ing to specimens, should likewise be provided. 9. Pieces of thin unglazed Calico are frequently placed next to such plants as are apt to adhere to the drying-paper. 10. A Press. For travelling purposes the most convenient method of pressing plants, is by placing the bundles of drying-paper containing them, be- tween two stout boards, which should be larger than the paper by a quarter of an inch each way, of an inch and-a-half in thickness, and each having two bars or batons of two inches in breadth, and five- eighths of an inch in depth, and rabbited, let into MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 675 them across the grain, to prevent their warping. To equalize the pressure the heap must be divided by thinner boards, of from a quarter to three-eighths of an inch in thickness, inserted at intervals. On the top of the whole a weight should be placed, varying from 901bs. to ISOlbs. When stationary for a time, the most simple mode of applying pressure is by means of stout duck or canvass bags contain- ing sand, or fine gravel, which can be filled and emptied at pleasure ; but while moving, the best means of securing the parcel, and at the same press- ing the plants, is by a rope run twice round the boards and tightened by a rack-pin. 11. A pair of botanical-forceps, or, where these cannot be procured, a pair of surgeon's forceps with rather fine points. 12. A setting-needle, employed in spreading out delicate plants, and especially Algce, easily made by inserting a stout needle into a wooden handle : a porcupine's bristle answers this purpose well. ] 3. A small saw will frequently be serviceable for cutting off portions of branches or sections of small trunks for specimens. 14. A small drag for searching the bottoms of pools for fresh-water species ; this can be made by fastening four or five stout fish-hooks together, after the fashion of a boat's grapnel. 15. Bottles and jars for preserving moist speci- mens. The bottles we would recommend as well adapted for such purposes are similar to those now made for containing pickles, &c., with a rim around 676 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. the outer edge of the mouth, and which we have here figured. Inside the mouth of the bottle is a rim of cork about an inch in depth, and an eighth of an inch in thickness, into which is inserted a stout, solid, plug - shaped glass stopper, the top of which is flattened and made of ~*- *" exactly the same diameter as the neck of the bottle. This, when put well in, is kept tight by means of the cork-rim, yet not so much as to prevent its being easily extracted. When full they may be covered over with moistened bladder, or better, by putting on a slip of thin sheet Vulcan- ized India-rubber, which is made to adhere hy the previous application of a little " Caoutchouc-varnish" along the edges, and further secured by a piece of twine. Bottles of this construction could be made with the mouths of any convenient size, and would form excellent travelling companions. 1 6. A quantity of 'twine, some thread, and & pocket measuring -tape. 1*7. One or two pairs of scissors. 18. When it is intended to transmit living plants Ward's plant-cases, which are simply miniature green-houses, must be procured. General Directions for Dry Specimens. 1. Selection of Specimens, &c. Whenever it is pos- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 677 sible, specimens should be gathered in fine weather. If not too large, the whole plant should be taken ; but if otherwise, attention should be paid to pre- serve all the characteristic parts. Hoots should be carefully washed : if the root-leaves or lower stem- leaves differ much from the upper leaves, the former should be kept with the root or lower portion of the stem. Flowers and fruit should, if practicable, both be retained ; and in Monoeciousand Dioecious plants both male and female flowers are requisite ; in some, as in many Salicacece, the young shoot, with its fully developed leaves, are desirable. Bad speci- mens should not be kept, even as duplicates, unless the plant is a rare one. In short, the rule should be, to bring away as much as can conveniently be managed, and in as perfect a condition as circum- stances will permit. 2. Size and Carriage of Specimens. In general no specimens should exceed 16 inches in length by 9-| inches in breadth ; when under this size, the root should be kept attached. Many Grasses, Sedges, and slender Ferns, which should be kept entire, may, when longer than this, be preserved by folding them once or twice backwards and forwards, according to their dimensions. In collecting Filices, two fronds are required to make one complete specimen. Where roots cannot be easily obtained, the stem should be separated below the insertion of the root-leaves. When plants are gathered they should be retained in the hand as short a time as possible, but should be immediately placed in the vasculum, a small slip of 678 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. paper mentioning the locality being attached ; this is especially requisite in warm countries, as plants begin to fade very rapidly, and their value as speci- mens is thereby much deteriorated. If the heat is very great, it is advisable to line the inside of the collecting-box with large leaves, and from time to time to sprinkle a little water on its contents. De- ciduous flowers, or those with fugitive colours, should be placed at once in the " Field Book/' 3. Drying. The different apparatus being placed at hand take a plant from the vasculum, and opening one of the fasciculi of drying-paper place it within the centre sheet, with the root or lower part downwards, and proceed to lay it out, not displaying the parts artificially, but, as far as can be, retaining its natural form and appearance. This must then be placed under pressure between the boards, and after every ten or twelve such parcels one of the thin boards should intervene. When plants are likely to adhere to the drying-paper they should be laid out in a sheet of tea- paper, which should then be placed within the ab- sorbent-paper. After an interval of from twelve hours to two days the plants should be removed into dry paper, and the damp sheets hung up to dry. This process must be repeated twice or thrice until the specimens are thoroughly dried, when they may be transferred, with a piece of paper mentioning all particulars, or better, with a number referring to an entry in the note-book, into a sheet of common gray paper, and be laid aside. 4. Points of inquiry. These should comprehend MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 679 the nature and size of the plant, its native name, the date, locality, soil, geological formation, elevation above the level of sea, its ascertained properties and uses, also the colour of the recent flowers, if odorous, &c. 5. Rules for particular plants. Specimens col- lected in moist situations, or in damp weather, and water-plants should be freed from external moisture before being laid out. Succulent plants require long continued pressure. Sometimes they are scari- fied to facilitate the escape of the juices, at others they are plunged for a moment into hot water be- fore being pressed. Orchidacece should be laid out in warm paper and dried rapidly. Many Heaths and Pines, and other plants with fine rigid leaves require to be killed by being plunged for an instant into boiling water. Mosses should be selected in fructification ; they may be gathered in tufts, which, if dried by gentle pressure, can afterwards be sepa- rated, moistened, and again dried. Fleshy Fungi are best kept in spirits ; some of the smaller species may be occasionally dried entire, by having holes pierced in them by fine pins, and then being exposed to a warm dry atmosphere ; others, as many Agarici are prepared by taking a thin slice " from the centre, extending from the top of the pileus to the base of the stipe/' which portion is dried separately ; " the inner cellular portion of the pileus and stipe is then removed, and these parts are dried so as to give the form." Such Lichens as admit of pressure may be treated like mosses; when closely encrusting* rocks, 680 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. stones, old wood, trunks of trees, &c., a portion of the material on which they grow must be kept with them, and each specimen be separately wrapped up in soft paper. Minute specimens of Cryptogamia may be dried at once, and placed on white paper with a little gum-tragacanth mucilage. Marine Algce are collected along the sea-shore, especially after a storm, but are more abundantly procured by dredging, or by closely examining nets, fishing lines, &c., when hauled up ; fine varieties should be kept in a bottle of sea-water until prepared. Fresh-water Algce are obtained by searching ponds, lakes, streams, &c. Ma- rine species are most easily and most quickly pre- pared for transmission, by drying them quickly and thoroughly, without previously washing them, and then packing them loosely in bags or boxes. Small and delicate specimens must, however, be put up at once. This is effected by washing them first in salt water, next in a little fresh water, and then also in fresh water floating them one by one in a shallow- dish ; under the specimen a piece of white paper is now introduced, and carefully raised to the surface ; then, with any pointed instrument, display the various parts, remove it from the water, complete the setting out, place it between folds of bibulous paper, and proceed as for other plants ; a piece of calico laid over the specimens will prevent their sticking to the paper. Corallines should be roughly dried, like the larger sea- weeds. Parasitical Cryptogamic plants should be preserved adherent upon a portion of the substance on which they exist. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 681 Varieties should be always carefully kept, nor should monstrosities or abnormal deviations be dis- regarded. Directions for Moist Specimens. Flowers, leaves, many fruits, fleshy roots, various parasites, and some Fungi are at times preferably pre- served moist. For this purpose many fluids have at different periods been employed. None is more cer- tain in its effect than alcohol, but it labours under the disadvantage of usually changing the colours to a nearly uniform brown ; it is, nevertheless, the best preservative for subjects kept for minute dissection. Acetic acid, diluted to the density of 1008, answers well for a limited period, as does also sometimes a solution of kreosote. Professor Christison recom- mends a saturated solution of common salt, made with the aid of a boiling heat, as more generally applicable than any other antiseptic, and especially for purposes of transmission it is very serviceable. Pulpy fruits, such as those of the Citracece, must be immersed in diluted acetic acid. The bottles we have already alluded to will answer exceedingly well for such purposes, or, when the objects are larger, earthen jars, which should have first a cover or stopper of the same material, and then have a piece of thin vulcanized caoutchouc secured over all. In this manner large Orchids, flowering branches of Palms, or the large flowers of the gigantic Victoria regia, may be safely kept. From some trials we have lately made, turpentine seems to answer as a preservative for some delicate Fungi. 682 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. Directions for Living Plants. 1. Entire Plants. These can generally be suc- cessfully transported only in "Wardian cases," in which they should be placed some days before being fastened down, and then well watered. Some small Cactuses, Aloes, Orchids, and various epiphytes may be transmitted by being removed by the roots, and packed in boxes with paper or straw. 2. Cuttings. Certain plants only can be thus pro- pagated, such as many Cactuses, Aloes, Sponges, Fig- marigolds, Pine-apples, &c. Cuttings should be re- moved at an articulation, the wound dried in the sun, and they should then be packed in boxes with paper. 3. Seeds and Fruits. Seeds should be gathered when quite ripe, and preserved, if possible, in the entire seed-vessel. Pine-cones should be tied round with a little thread to prevent the escape of the seeds from the bursting of the valves. Seeds should be made up in parcels, with brown or cartridge- paper, and kept in airy, well ventilated places. De Candolle advises seeds, gathered in a moist season or country, to be packed in charcoal. Large and oily seeds, as those of the Tea and Coffee plants, also those of various Laurels and Myrtles, must be placed in sandy earth ; boxes may be packed up contain- ing alternate layers of earth and seeds, pressed closely together. 4. Bulbs, Tubers, and Rhizomes. These should be procured when the foliage has withered, be well MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 683 dried, and then packed in boxes with dry moss, sand, peat-mould, or saw-dust. Directions for Vegetable Productions. 1. Woods. Specimens should be procured when- ever practicable, especially of such as seem adapted for economical purposes. They should be portions of branches, or sections of trunks, and should not be too small. 2. Gums and Resins. The plants whence pro- cured, specimens of different varieties, or in various stages, should be sought after, also noting native names, method of preparation or collection, mode of transmission, &c. 3. Dye-stuffs. As for the last, carefully inquiring after such as are in use by natives, but are not com- mercial. 4. Medicinal-agents present a wide field for in- vestigation, as the true sources of many drugs in every day use are still matters of obscurity, such are various Catechus and Kinos, Cassia-buds, Rhubarb, Socotrine-Aloes, Balsams of Peru and Tolu, many varieties of Cinchona, &c. 6. General commercial, and other products. Examples of which are innumerable, and to be met with everywhere, yet many are of exceeding inte- rest and importance. 6. Vegetable -poisons, especially those used by savage tribes for poisoning their spears and arrows, ought always to be investigated. Many most viru- lent substances are as yet but barely known ; one 684 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. of these, the " Ordeal Bean/' of the old Calabar, the fruit of one of the Fabacece has been lately received and examined by Dr. Christison. All dried specimens should be packed with cam- phor, to keep off attacks of insects, and should be placed during transmission in cool, dry places. Living specimens require to be kept in dry, airy situations. When specimens cannot be brought away, or if they are likely to lose their natural form during transmission, accurate drawings should be made, the tints also of colours which alter much in drying, should be shaded in. When objects are too bulky, such as trunks and branches of large trees, their dimensions should be measured and carefully noted. Ill GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. The Geologist or Mineralogist, before setting forth on his travels, should furnish himself with the fol- lowing articles : 1. Hammers. A large one, of about two pounds weight, compressed in form, both extremities wedge- shaped, the one end being sharp-edged longitudi- nally, and the other end truncate ; also a small one, of which the sharp edge may be horizontal, for trimming specimens. 2. Iron chisels, of these three or four should be provided, about 7 inches in length, like those used by stone-cutters. 3. A set of small boring instruments. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 685 4. A small pickaxe, for fossils. 5. A stout jack-knife and a file, for ascertaining the streak and hardness. 6. A pocket lens, with two or three glasses. 7. A bag for carrying specimens, of stout, flexible leather, in shape resembling a game-bag. 8. An accurately graduated compass. 9. A klinometer, that of Prof. Henslow is one of the most simple. 10. A portable level. 1 1 . A mountain-barometer, or a sympiesometer. 12. A magnet 13. A chemical test-chest. These are now kept, ready-fitted, by some chemists and philosophical-in- strument dealers in the principal cities ; but for those who cannot procure such, or who are desirous of making one up themselves, we shall enumerate the various necessary apparatus and re-agents, which can easily, by a little ingenuity, be adapted to any portable chest. This we are the more inclined to do, as we would recommend a somewhat larger and more extended set than is usually prepared, so that the traveller may be enabled to make rough analyses of soils, or a general qualitative examination of mineral springs. I. APPARATUS. 1. Small scales and weights ; 2, an agate pestle and mortar ; 3, a platinum crucible with ground cover ; 4, a platinum spoon ; 5, pla- tinum wire and holder ; 6, fine-pointed forceps tipped with platinum; 7, small porcelain capsules ; 8, test-tubes (of German glass) ; 9, a pipette; 10, some glass rods: 11, a small graduated measure; 12, $86 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. small filtering funnel; 13, filtering-paper; 14, a mouth blow-pipe ; 15, a spirit lamp and wick; 16, density-beads; 17, charcoal, for sup- porting ores before the blow-pipe ; 18, pieces of copper and iron- wire. II. CHEMICAL- AGENTS. 1, Carbonate of soda, as a flux ; 2, biborate of soda (borax), as a flux; 3, phosphate of soda and ammonia (microcosmic salt), as a flux; 4, nitrate of potassa (saltpetre), as an oxidizing agent; 5, borax-glass, for the determination of phosphoric acid; 6, solution of nitrate of cobalt, to distinguish alumina, magnesia, and oxide of zinc ; 7, oxide of copper, for determining small quantities of chlo- rine ; 8, fluoride of calcium (fluor-spar), to recognise lithia and bo- racic acid; 9, metallic lead; and 10, bone-ashes, for separating silver from some of its ores; 11, sulphuric acid, as a solvent for detecting baryta, strontia, and lead, &c.; 12, nitric acid, as a solvent, and an oxidizing agent; 13, hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, as a solvent, for detecting oxides of lead and silver, protoxide of mercury, free am- monia, &c. ; 14, ammonia, as an alkaline agent, and a solvent; 15, solution of sulphuret of ammonium (hydrosulphuret of ammonia), for distinguishing various solutions by precipitation ; 16, solution of nitrate of baryta, to detect sulphates ; 17, solution of oxalate of am- monia, to detect calcia (lime) ; 18, solution of nitrate of silver, to distinguish chlorides ; 16, solution of calcia (lime-water), to precipi- tate carbonates ; 20, solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, to detect oxide of copper and peroxide of iron; 21, solution of acetate of lead, to distinguish hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted-hydrogen) ; 22, alcohol; 23, test-papers, blue and red litmus, or turmeric and Georgina papers. These substances should all be kept in bottles, of which those containing fluids, or substances acted on by exposure, should have glass stoppers ; and those with acids or caustic alkalies should likewise be capped. Phials of from one to two ounces will supply abundant materials for numerous minia- ture analyses. This list comprises every thing re- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 687 quisite for a general examination of rocks and soils, or for testing mineral springs. A few other proper- ties of minerals may be attended to, as the streak, hardness, fusibility, colour, transparency, fracture, &c., but the study of their other physical and optical qualities must be reserved for the return home. For travelling purposes, collections of type mi- nerals for illustrating different properties, are now prepared. Among the more useful are sets exhibit- ing degrees of hardness, fusibility, and cleavage, which can be procured at a very reasonable rate from Mr. S. Highley, 32, Fleet-street, London, where may likewise be obtained models in wood or glass illustrative of crystallographic forms, and shewing the principal geometric shapes assumed by simple minerals. Isolated specimens of rocks are of little or no value, while, on the other hand, series of examples are highly instructive and important. It is of very great consequence that the locality be known, there- fore the collections of one day should not be allowed to interfere with those of the next, but should be carefully labelled and packed up on the same evening. Specimens should not be too small, those of rocks should be about two or three inches square, but when any gems or precious minerals are discovered, they should always be secured irrespective of size. With regard to fossil remains, however, the case is quite different, as every fragment should be secured, as most valuable to science, species and genera having been established on almost a single bone. 688 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Being in a state of decay should not preclude an attempt at least to bring away the parts, as by various processes, such as those mentioned by the late Dr. Mantell, in his "Medals of Creation/' re- newed stability and firmness may be given to bones which, when first discovered, will scarcely bear being touched. Not merely should actual remains of plants and animals be enquired for, but the marks of footsteps, &c., of the latter, or impressions of the former, should be sought after and carefully recorded, and when practicable, casts should be taken of these most interesting tokens. Thus, long before the dis- covery of the actual remains of the Labyrinthodon, its existence was inferred and demonstrated from an examination of its footsteps indelibly impressed on the New Red-Sandstone. All traces of man should be most carefully at- tended to, as being of more than ordinary in- terest. Mineralogical specimens should be wrapped, first in fine paper, then in cotton or tow, and lastly in stout paper. Mineral-waters should be preserved in bottles completely filled, and carefully covered to prevent the access of atmospheric air. Fossils should be packed with some soft material, attention being paid to keep together fragments of the same bone in one spot. Geology is a science the study of which may be commenced practically with but little previous reading. Mineralogy and Palaeontology, again, re- quire much patient consideration and enquiry, and for MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 689 the successful cultivation of the former, considerable chemical and mathematical knowledge are neces- sary. For those who wish to pursue these subjects, the best works in English are, "LyelFs Principles of Geology/' Sir H. De la Beche's " How to observe ; Geology/' Ansted's " Elementary Course of Geo- logy, &c./' MantelFs " Medals of Creation/' Rich- ardson's " Geology/' Dana's "Mineralogy;" and for an acquaintance with the principles of chemical ana- lysis, Bullock's translation of Fresenius's " Chemical Analysis." IV. METEOROLOGY. Although we have been precluded by the length to which this volume has already extended, from treating of Meteorology somewhat in detail, still it may prove of service if we simply mention the pre- parations which ought to be made by any traveller desirous of attending to this very important branch of science, and give some indications of the chief points to which his attention should be directed. The meaning of the term is frequently misunder- stood, thereby frequently preventing its full value from being appreciated ; it is by many looked upon as merely the study of aerial curiosities, whereas, it strictly comprehends an enquiry into the nature, the changes, and the influences exerted by, or upon, our atmosphere ; including, amongst its varied topics, the winds, rain, hail, snow, and electrical phenomena, as 690 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOEY. well as all those appearances in the heavens, of more or less frequent occurrence, such as the rainbow, waterspout, halos," mock-suns by day, or the fleeting aurora by night. The instruments and apparatus which will be requisite for such enquiries, are, 1. A Barometer. A portable one is the most generally useful, but where it can be managed it is advisable to carry also a standard one for comparison. The lately invented "Aneroid Barometer" is, for many purposes, very appropriate ; it bears carriage well, and is not injured by being shaken ; it is also extremely sensitive, more so than the mercurial in- strument ; we have ourselves frequently watched the index falling as a squall or heavy cloud was passing overhead, and rising immediately after- wards, indeed a good one will distinctly indicate the difference in the atmospherical pressure for every altitude of eight or ten feet ; we have seen the height of mountains varying from 3000 to 4000 feet, ascer- tained by its means, and its correctness afterwards checked by trigonometrical measurement. 2. Thermometers. Of these, several should be provided. One, well tested and minutely graduated, should be carefully kept for comparison; metallic frames are preferable to wooden ones, as the latter warp. One thermometer, for ascertaining the tem- perature of fluids, should have the bulb projecting an inch and-a-half beyond the foot of the scale, and be carefully packed up in a soft padded case. For very cold climates alcohol must be used instead of MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 691 mercury. The most convenient register -thermo- meter is that of Sykes, in which the extremes of heat and cold are recorded by a single instrument. 3. Hygrometer. One of the most delicate is the instrument usually known as the " Wet and dry bulb thermometer," which, being rather fragile, must be carried in a soft padded, carefully adapted case. 4 A good Compass. Other apparatus, &c. may be added according to op- portunity or inclination, such as the "Anemometer/' for calculating the force of the wind ; the " Actino- meter/' for studying solar radiation; a "Rain-guage," for measuring the fall of rain ; a " Cyanometer/' for estimating the depth of blue colour of the skies; or, where circumstances permit, and previous acquaint- ance qualify, "Magnetical Instruments." The most important point to be attended to is daily general observation, carefully entering in the columns of a register particulars of the following items, viz. : Pressure, Temperature, Moisture, Wind (direction and force), Weather, Clouds, Rain, and other observations as may be necessary. The proper hours for daily observation are 3 A.M,, 9 A.M., 3 P.M., and 9 P.M. ; and, where it can be managed, two addi- tional hours should be added, namely, 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. Occasional hourly observations should be made, for which purpose Sir J. Herschell recom- mends the 21st of each month to be appropriated, or at least in the months of March, June, September, and December. The great things, however, to be kept in view, are regularity and accuracy. Occa- 692 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. sional observations include notice of such pheno- mena as are not of regular occurrence, such as un- usual barometric disturbance, electric storms and other appearances, squalls, hurricanes, hail-storms, fogs, water-spouts, halos, mock-suns, zodiacal light, the aurora, shooting stars, meteors, &c. Should it be the lot of the traveller to encounter one of those terrible circular storms, named "Cyclones/' he should carefully note his position, the direction of wind, or any sudden changes which may occur, on which points much information may be obtained from the works of Colonel Reid or Mr. Piddiiigton. IN conclusion, there are several instruments and tools which, if provided, may very probably be found of extreme service to the travelling naturalist, among which we would particularly mention the " Micro- scope," as being nearly indispensable. Those we espe- cially recommend are made by Oberhause, of Paris, and they excel all others in portability, cheapness, and general efficiency. One magnifying from 30 to 450 diameters maybe obtained for 5 in France, or about 6 in this country ; these contain three eye- pieces, two or three object-glasses, and a micrometer, which, with the stand, &c., are packed in a box 8f in. long, 5 in. broad, and 3J in. deep. It is a pity that this maker does not establish an agency in Britain, as his microscopes are now much employed here, and are excelled by none in the facility of their application, or the correctness of their revelations. Another very MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 693 essential addendum is a pocket-telescope, which is mostly conveniently and safely carried in a leather case, slung over the shoulder. A few simple carpen- ter's tools, such as a hammer, saw, chisel, gimlet, and a few nails, will often be found of great value. Among other miscellanea are balls of twine of different sizes, thread, a box of colours, stationery, and finally an apparatus for instantaneous light, which last will often add much to the comfort of the wanderer. The most certain plan is by a flint and steel with German, tinder, but we have ourselves found the matches made by R Bell, 1 6, Basing-lane, or by Bell and Black, 15, Bow-lane, Cheapside, London, and which appear to be tipped with a composition containing chlorate of potassa, to resist damp well, and to be fit for ser- vice long after all other forms of Congreves and Lu- cifers had become quite useless. THE END. T. E. METCALF, Printer, 63, Snow Kill, London INDEX. Page Page ABRANCHIA . 77 Acid, tungstic . . 615 Acacia . . 432 vanadic . . 616 Acalephse . 5, 321, 337, 379 Acipenseridse . 93 preserving .666 Aconite . 456 Acanthacese . 408 Acontias . 63 Acanthiidte . 242 Acontiidse . ib. Acanthocephala . 360 Acorus calamus . 503 Acanthocephalidse . 361 Acotyledonese . . 386 Acanthodes 285, 551 Acotyledones . . ib. Acanthonyx . 283 Acramphibrya . . 385 Acanthopteri . 95 Acrita . . 6, 366, 380 Acanths . 408 preserving . 665 AcanthuridsB . 97 Acrobrya 385, 386 Acaridse . 276 Acroceridse . 256 Acarus domesticus . 271 Acrocinus . 174 Acasta . . 302 Acrogente . 386, 5 U Accipitres . 35 Acrogeus 386, 523, 52* diurni . ib. Acrolepis . 555 nocturni . 36 Actseon, fossil . . 566 Acephalophora . . 378 Acteonidse 140, 556 Aceracere . . 463 Actinise . 353 Achatininse . 114, 145 Actiniidse . 355 Acheta domestica . 209 A ctinoceras . 552 Achetidse . 211 Actinozoa . 379 Achillea millefolia . 404 Aculeata . 227 Achilleum . . 567 Acusidse . 129 Achrocordus . 67 Adansonia digitata . 469 Acid arsenious . 617 Adapis . . 574 boracic . 620 Adder' s-Tongues . 525 carbonic . . 619 Adelarthrosomata . 278 columbic . . 613 Adelopneumona . 143 hydrochloric 595, 621 Adelopneumons . ib. hydrocyanic 430, 431 Adephaga . 176 hydrosulphuric . 595 ^Egeriidee . 237 molybdic . 615 ^Egiceratacese . . 414 muriatic . . 595 j^Elodon . 565 niobic . 614 JEqiioreidse . 338 nitric . 618 -^Eshna liassina . 562 ,, pelopic . 614 Jitheria . 114 ,, phosphoric . 618 ^Ethophyllum . . 561 prussic . 430 ^Ethusa . 395 silicic . 620 Agamidse . 65 sulphuric . 621 Agaricacese . 533 sulphurous . 621 Agaricise . 567 titanic . 614 Agariciidse . 357 H H 696 INDEX. Page I 'age Agastria . 380 Alope .... 2K4 Agate . 619 Alopeciidse 89 Agathidiidse . 181 Alpheidse . . 284, 292 Agave . 510 Althsea 437 Agelenar . 270 Altingiacese 491 Agonidse . 102 Altingiads 490 Agrionidse . 214 Alucitidse 240 Aiolobranchiata . 141 Alum, native . 610 Aiolobranchs . . ib. Aluminium, mineral compounds Aiolopoda 265, 378 of,. 610 Ailopods 263,265 378 Alvis .... 566 ,, preserving . 667 Amalgam, native . 599 Aiolopygia . 331 Amanita 533 Aiolopygians . ib. Amaranthacese . 437 Aizoons . 435 Amaranths ib. Akropygia . 332 Amaryllidese . .. . 510 Akropygians . ib. Amber .... 622 Alabaster . 603 Amblyopsidse . ' . " 82, 109 Alaugiaceso . 402 Amblypterus . *. 555 Alangiads - ib. Amblyuridse 351 Albatross . 34 Amblyurus 562 Alcedinidse . 38 Ambulatoria (Isopoda) 296 Alcidte . . 51 (Orthoptera) 210 AlcippidsB 303, 304 Amentales ] . 489 Alcynoes . 339 Amentals ib. Alcynoidre . 339 American- Allspice 432 Alcyonians . 357 Amethyst 619 Alcyonidiidse . 343, 347 Amianthus . . , 604 Alcyoniidse 352, 357 Amias 94 Alder . . 491 Amiidae ib. black . . 426 Ammonia . 600 Alepas minuta . . 303 Ammoniac 394 parasita . ib. Ammoniides . 600 Alepisauridse . 99 Ammonitidffi 117, 552, 560, 562, 571 Aleyrodidae . 248 Amcebidse 370 Algales . 535 Amomales 507 Algals . . ib. Amomals . . ib. Alkanet . 413 Amomocarpums . 579 Alligatoridse . 71 Amomum 508 Alligators 56, 71 Amorphozoa . . 6, 380 Alismacea? . 500 Ampelida? 41 Alismales . ib. Ampelideee 453 Alismals . ib. Amphibia . . 4, 75, 377 Allophane . 610 of Linnaeus . ib. AUotreta . 371 Amphibians . 4, 72, 75, 377 Allotretans . ib. anguiform . 77 Alluvial silt . 581 , gill-less ib. Almonds . 430 , gill-lunged . 76 Aloe . . 502 , long-tailed . ib. Aloe, American . 510 , tail-less 75 Aloes-Woods . . 426 , fossil 549, 583, 584 INDEX. 697 Page Page Amphibians, preserving Amphibola . 646 . 115 Anatinellida3 . . .150 Anchusa tinctoria . . 41 3 Amphibolans . . 146 Ancient drift . . .580 Amphibolida3 . . ib. Ancylobrachiata . .162 Amphibrya . 385 Ancyloceras . . 566, 571 Amphigense . 386 Ancylopoda . . .162 Amphinomes . . 314 Andira .... 432 Amphinomida} . . ib. Andrseacea3 . . .527 Amphioxidse . . Ill Andreas Scheuchzer, Fossil ske- Amphiperatidse . 132 leton of . . . 583 Amphipneurta . . 76 Andrenidaa . . . 232 Amphipoda 285, 295 Androctonus . . . 272 Amphipods . 295 Andulusite . . .610 Amphiporina . . 320 Anemometer . . . 691 Amphiporines . . . ib. Anentera . . .369 Amphisbsenia . . 71 Anethum . . .395 Amphisbsenians 53,71 Angel-Fishes . . .89 Amphisbsenidse . ib. Angelica . . .394 Amphisterea . 319 Angostura-Bark . . 446 Amphistereans . . ib. false . . 422 Amphitherium . 564 Anhydrite . . .603 Amphitrites . 316 Animal, definition of, . .2 Amphitritidse . . ib. flowers . . 355 Amphiumas . 77 kingdom . . 1 Amphiumida? . . ib. classification of the, 4, 377 Amphorida? .282 mosses . . 342 Ampullarise . 114 Animalcules, bell . . 370 AmpullariidsQ . . 133 boat . . 371 Amygdalacese . . 430 box . . ib. Amyridacese . 447 breast . . ib. Amyxodon . 578 capsule . . 370 Anabas testudineus 83, 281 disk . . ib. Anabates . 585 globe . .369 Anabatida3 . 99 hackle . . 371 Anablepidaa 82, 107 infusorial 367, 368 Anacanthida3 . . 87 loricated bell . 371 Anacanthini . 104 neck . . ib. apodes . 105 parasitic . 369 thoracici . . 104 protean . .370 Anacardiaceaj . . 446 rolling . . 371 Anacyclus Pyrethrum . . 404 shield . . ib. Anadias . 59 swan . . ib. Anadiidse . ib. thread . . 369 Ananas . . 511 wheel . .340 Ananassa sativa . ib. wreath . . 370 Ananchytes . 571 Animals, acrite, 6, 363, 366, 380 Anarrhichadidro . 97 annulose, 5, 168, 170, 378 Anas, fossil . 583 molluscous, 5, 111,115,377 Anatidaj . 50 radiate, 5, 320, 323, 379 Anatiferida} . 304 vertebrate, 4, 6, 7, 377 Auatinellas . 150 Animaux apathiques . 379, 380 698 INDEX. Page 1 D age Animi, gum . 462 Anthracotherium 575 Anise . . 395 Anthrakexides . 618 AnisotomidsB . . 182 Anthrakides ib. Annelida 5, 313, 379 Anthroceridae . 237 Annelids . 5, 311. 313, 379 Antiaris toxicaria ./ . , 486 antennate . 314 Antidesmads . ..'. ' 489 apodal . 317 Antimonial-silver 598 exantennate . 315 Antimony-glance . 617 free . . 313 ., native , . ^ ib. helminthoid . 319 red . ib. molluscoid . 318 white . . ib. neinertoid . ib. Antiopas . . , 141 polypod . 313 Antipathidae . . ,. 358 sedentary . 316 Antliobrachiophora 377 suctorial . 317 Ant-lions . ... 218 fossil . 548 Ants, blind . , . , 228 preserving , .668 stinging . ib. Annellidea . 379 true . . , ib. Annulata . . . 379 velvet . ib. Annulida , 5, 379 white 215 Annulosa , .5, 170, 378, 379 Apatite . . 604, 618 fossil . 562 Apes . . 11 ,13 Anodonta 115, 569 Aphaniptera . ... . , 262 Anomiidae .159 Aphides . . .. 245 Anomopteris . .561 Aphididse . , ,> , 248 Anomoura . . 289 Aphodiidaa . . , 188 Anonaceae . 456 Aphroditidaa . .,, ,; 314 Anopisthia . . 370 Aphrodite hispida . . 312 Anopisthians . . ib. Aphrophora . , 245 Anoplognathidse . 190 Aphthitalite . 601 Anoplotherium . 575 Apiaceaa 393 Anoplura . 268 Apidse . . 232 Anoura . 75 Apiocrinus . 572 Anser, fossil . 585 Apium .... 394 Anseres .50 Aplacentalia . . 28 Anteaters 12, 25 Aplocerad . ^ . 552 Antedon 321, 325 Aplustridaa . .- * 140 Antedonidae . 334 Aplysiidaa \ . . . 139 Antelopes 11, 23 Apocynaceae 422 Antelopinaa . 23 Apoda . . . . , 378 Antennata (Annelida) . 314 (amphibia) 77 Anthemis nobilis . 404 (anuelida) 317 Antheridia . 524 (holothuria) 329 Anthobranchiata . 140 Apodidae . . 298 Anthobranchs . . ib. Aporobranchiata 377 Antholoma . 460 (arachnida) 279 Anthophytse . 385 Aporrhaidae 131 Anthoxanthum . 519 Apostasiaceae . 506 Anthozoa . 379 Apostasiads . ib, Anthribidae . 201 Appendicularians . 165, 167 Anthracidse . 256 Appendiculariidas 167 INDEX. 699 Page Page Apples . . 430 Arions . . . . ib. Aprasias . 62 Aristolochiaceae . . 391 Aprasiidee . ib. Arks . . . .155 Aptera . . 378 cockle . . .156 ApterygicUe . 48 pearly . . . ib. Apuses . 298, 555 solen . . . ib. Araceae. . 515 Armadillos . . 25, 582 Arachnida . 5, 273, 378 Arnica montana . .404 errantia . 275 Arnotto . '" . . 475 sedentaria . 274 Aroidese . " . .516 Arachnidans . 5, 269, 273, 378 Arragonite . . 587, 603 aporobranchiate . 279 Arrow-grasses . . . 500 pulmonary . 273 Arrow-roots . . . 507 tracheary . . 276 Arsenic, native " .617 fossil . 555 Arsenical-nickel . . 606 Arachnides . . 378 Arsenicides . . .617 Arachnodermata .-'.' . 379 ArtamidsD . . .37 Arachnoida . 378 Artemisia Abrotanum . . 404 Arads . . .< . 515 Absinthium . . ib. Arales . . 515 Moxa . ., ib. Araliaceao * . . 393 Artichoke . . . 405 Araneidse j . . 274 Articulata . . 5, 378 Area, fossil . L . '' . 563 (polyzoa) . . 344 Arcellidae . 370 Artocarpaceae . . .486 Archaeomys * . : ' . 578 Arvicolidse . . .26 Archaeoniscus . . 569 Aquifoliaceae . . . 423 Archangelica . 394 Aquilariaceas . . .426 Archegonia . ?/'- . 524 Asaphus . . 547, 552 Archegosaurus . . . 555 Asarabaca . . .391 Architectonicidae . 130 Asarales . . . ib. Arcidae . . * . 155 Asarals . . . . ib. Arctiidae . 238 Asbestus . . .604 Arctium Lappa . . . 405 Ascarididae . . 349, 351 Ardeidae . 49 Ascidia .... 378 Ardisiads . . '" . 415 Ascidians . . 164, 166 Areca Catechu . . . 514 compound . .166 ,, oleracea . . ib. ,, social . . ib. Arecacese . . ib. Ascidian-polyps, 5, 342, 343, 379 Arenicolidse . 316 , alternate-celled, . 345 Argalias . 59 , bicellular . . 345 Argaliidae . ib. cellular . 344, 346 Arges . . 548 , chain-like . . 344 Argonautidae . 118 club-celled . 345 Argonauts . ib. , confervoid . 347 Argulidae . 307 , crested . . 348 Argyrexides . . ' . 598 fleshy . . 347 Argyrides . 598 , foliaceous . .346 Argyroneta aquatica . 271 , fresh-water . 348 Aricians . 316 , fringe-mouthed . 347 Ariciidae . 316 , honey-comb . 346 Arionidse . 144 jointed . . 344 H H 3 700 INDEX. Page Page Ascidian-polyps, jointless . 345 Atalants . 124, 143 Up-mouthed . 344 Atelecyclua . 284 marine . ib. Atelespathese . . 513 marsh . 848 AtherospermacesB . 479 membranous . 346 Atlantidse . 143 opposite-celled . 345 Atmospheric air . 618 pedicellate . 347 Atolls . . 589 plumose . . 348 Atropace88 . , . 419 round-mouthec 1 . 346 Atryapa . ' . 567 salicornian . 344 Atteiabidse . 201 sponge-like . 347 Attus . .271 tentacular . 345 Aturia . \.^ . 552 tubular . 346 Atypa . . 549 vesicular . . 347 Auger-shells . 131 Ascidiidse . 166 Auks . """. ! 34, 51 Asclepiadacese . . 418 Aura . . . 566 Ascomycetes . '. , . 534 Aurantiacese ., . 448 Asellidse . 296 Auricula . . 416 Ash, common . . 420 AuriculidsD 115, 145, 571 flowering . , , f . ib. A vena . . 519 Asilidge . . 251, 256 Avenacaae .518 Asparagus . . . 502 Aves . 4, 35, 377 Asphalt 588, 622 Aviculidse 158, 549, 560, 562, 566 Asphaltides . 622 Avocados . 433 Aspidiscidae . 371 Awl-shells . 129 Aspidium Filix-mas 524, 525 Axolotl . 74 Aspidocotylus . . 310 Aspidogasteridse . ib. BACILLARIA .578 Aspredinidse . 107 Baculites . 571 Assafoetida . 394 Balsena, fossil . . 574. 581 AstacidaB 292, 566 Balsenidae . 18 Astacus 283, 562 Balasnodon . . . 574 gammarus . 281 Balsenopteron . . 581 Astartes . 155 Balanidae 302, 304 AstartidsB . ib. Balaninus . , . 174 Astasians . 369 Balanophoracese ;. . 521 sheUed . 370 Balistidse , .95 Astasiidse . 369 Balsam, Canada . 494 Asteracese . 403 Carpathian . ib. Asterias . 325 Hungarian . ib. Asteriidse . 325, 333, 572 Balsaminese . . . 441 Asterinidaa 325, 332 Balsams . ib. Asterodermus . . 565 Bamboo. . 519 Asteroida . 357 Bambusa . ib. Asterolepis . 551 Bananas . 508 Asterophyllites . 557 Bandicoots . 29 Astrese . 567, 572 Banxrings . 15 Astrodermidoe . . 98 Banyan . . 487 Astrolepas laevis . 302 Baobab-tree . 469 Astropectinids9 Astrophyton 333 . 326 Baphia . Barbadoes-Gooseberry . 432 . 399 INDEX. 701 Page. Page. Barbets . . 43 Beetles, broad-bodied rove . 185 Barium, mineral compounds burrowing ground . 177 of, . 602 burrowing rove . . 185 "Barks" . 396 burrowing shore . 195 Barley . . 519 carrion . . 182 Barnacles, burrowing . . 304 clavicorn . 186 coral . ib. ., club-horned snout . 201 proper . 303 cuckoo . . 193 ramphidian . . 304 , darkling . . 195 whale . . 305 , diving . . 179 Barometers . -> . 690 , dung . 188 Barosma . ... . 446 , elongate bark . 183 Barringtoniaceaa . 397 , elongate snout . . 201 Barringtoniads . . ib. excrement . 181 Baryides i . 602 false ground . 177 Barystrontianite , . 603 false snout . 199 Basalt . . 543 ,, flabellicorn . 192 Basellacese . 435 flat bark . 184 Basellads . ib. flea . 205 Basilisk . . . . 54 flower . . 190 Batidacese . 483 ,. fungivorous . 196 Batids . ." . f . ib. garden . . ib. Batrachia . 377 goat . 203 Batrachians . . 72 golden . . 205 palmate *_,. - . 75 grain-eating snout . 201 Batrachidee . 96 hairy fungus . 183 Bats . . .: 9,14 hard-skinned serricorn . 190 fossil . 584 herbivorous water .181 frugivorous . 14 heteromerous . . 195 insectivorous . >. . ib. hooded wood-boring . 194 Bdellidte . 277 insectivorous flower . 193 Bdellium . 448 kangaroo . 189 Beaches, raised. . 585 lamellicorn . 187 Beadstcnes . *> . 327 large-eyed rove . . 185 Bean . \ . 432 , leaf-rolling snout . 201 Beancapers . ,* . 443 , leaping bark . 197 Bears . . 17 , lily . 204 Bebeerine . . . 433 , long-horned flower . 203 Bee-eaters . 38 , long. legged herbivorous 204 Bee-parasites 249, 250 , longicorn . 202 Beech . . 482 , marsh . . 178 Beefwoods . 491 , meal . 195 Bees, social . 232 , mimic . . 187 solitary . ib. ,, mimic flower . 198 Beet . 437 moss-loving rove . 186 Beetles . 174, 176 mud-burrowing . . 180 ,, adephagous . 176 musk , 203 armadillo . 181 narrow-winged flower . 197 blistering . 198 nocturnal wood . . 184 bombardier . 176 oak . 191 bone . 183 parasitic flower . . 198 702 INDEX. Page Page Beetles, parasitic wood. 199 Bellerophon . 549, 552, 555 pill 187 Bell-flowers . 407 ,, pond 180 Belvisiaceaa . 401 predaceous ground 176 Bembecidae . 230 , predaceous water 179 Bembidiidae . 178 , pseudotetramerous 200 Ben-nuts . " . i* . 473 , reed 192 Ben, oil of . . . ib. , rhinoceros 189 Benzoin . 424 , rove 184 Berberales V V . 451 , rypophagous . . 179 Berberals . . ib. , sacred . '- . 188 Berberidaceae . . * ' . 453 , sailor . ' . 193 Berberries . ib. sand 188 Berenia . . 285 , scavenger . ' . 182 Bergamot . . . 448 , sexton . ' ^ . 195 Bergmehl . 365 , 368, 578 , shard 188 Beroes . . 322, 336, 339 , shield 196 winged. . 339 , short-legged herbivorous 204 Beroida9 . . . ib. , skin . . 184 Beryl . . 611 small-headed rove 186 Betulaceae 491, 579 , smooth fungus . 183 Bhang . . . . 487 , social grass . , . 199 Bibionidae . 253 soft-skinned serricorn . 192 Bicellariidse . . . 345 soldier . ;. . 198 Bichirs . . 93 spiny tortoise 205 Bignoniaceee . . 409 springing 191 Bignoniales . 407 stag . . 188 Bignonials . ib. ,, straight-horned snout . 200 Bilabiatss . . ' . 404 stenelytrous 196 Bilberries . - ". . 397 , stream . . . 180 Bindweeds . - . 417 , sub-aquatic 178 Birches . . 491 , sun 190 Birds 4, 3 1, 35, 377 , taxicorn . - . 196 aquatic . 50 , thick-legged flower 197 conirostral . 41 , ' thick-legged lily. 204 dentirostral . 40 , tortoise . 205 fissirostral . 36 , trachelidan 197 diurnal . 37 , true carrion 182 nocturnal . 36 , true ground 177 gallinaceous . 45 , true rove 185 game ^ . ib. , true wood-boring 194 perching . . 36 , unicorn . 199 rapacious . . < . 35 , varicorn . 186 diurnal . ib. , water 181 nocturnal . 36 , water-loving 180 running . . 48 wood-eating snout 202 scansorial . . . 43 Begoniacese 476 tennirostral . 38 Begoniads . . ib. wading . 48 Belemnites . . 1 1 7, 562 footprints of . 559 Belemnophora . 120 fossil 568, 570, 578, 583, 584 Belemnophores . ib. preserving . 637 INDEX. 703 Birgus . Birtheworts Bismuth-blende Bismuth-glance . Bismuth, native Bismuth-nickel . Bismuth-ochre . Bismuth-silver . Bismuthides Bitter-sweet Bitumen Bivalves bismuscular unimuscular fossil, 5 569, 571, 577 Bixa Orellana . Bixads . Blackberry Black-lead Blaculla Bladder-nuts Blapsidae . Blatlina . Blatla orientalis Blattidee Blennies slender-rayed . Bleniidse Blenny-bullheads Blenny, viviparous Blessed-thistle . Blind-fishes Blind-newts Blind-snakes Blood-roots Bloodstone Boas Boatbills Bog-iron Bog-myrtles Boidae . Boleti . Bolina . Boltenia Bombycidse Bombyliidse Bombyx mori . Bond- weeds Bones and skeletoi for collecting Page. Page. . 280, 284 Bonito . . . .79 . 391 Bonnelliidse . . .328 . 617 Bonnet-shells . . .133 . ib. Bony-pikes . . .93 . 616 Book-insects . . .215 . 606 Bopyridse . . .298 . 617 Boracite . . .604 . 598 Borages. . . .413 . 616 Boraginacese . . .413 . 419 Boraginanse , . .412 . 622 Borassacese . . .513 5, 147,148,378 Borassus nabelliformis . .513 r . .148 Borates . . . .620 r . .158 Borax . . . .601 562, 566, Borers . . . .151 . Borneo-camphors . . 462 . 475 Boronides . . .620 . ib. Bostrichidre . . .194 . 430 Botanical apparatus . . 671 . 619 Bothryocephalidse . . 361 . 566 Botryaceae . . .534 . 465 Botryllidaj . . .166 . 195, 566 Botryllinse . 164,165,167 . 555 Botrytis . . .534 . 208 Boulders . . .580 . 209 Bovidse . . . .23 .96 Boviuse . . . .24 3d . .97 Bovista. . . .533 . 96 Bower-birds . . .35 . ib. Bowerbankia . . . 342 . 86 Box wood . . .485 . 405 Brachelytra . . .184 . 109 BrachinidsB . . -176 . 77 Brachionidse . . .342 . 53 Brachiopoda . . 5, 162, 378 . 510 Brachiopods . 5, 160, 162, 378 . 620 ancylobrachiate . 162 . 67 ancylopod . , ib. . 32 cryptobrachiate . ib. . 588 helictopod . . 163 . 490 sarcicobrachiate . ib. . 67 sclerobrachiate . ib. . 533 Fossil549, 558, 563, 566 . 566 Brachocera . . .254 . 165 . 238 Brachyphyllum . .567 Brachypodidse . . .59 . 255 Brachyura . . .286 . 233 Braconinse . . .224 . 537 Bradypodidse . . .24 5, directions Branchellionidre . 313,318 . 653 Branchiopods . . .298 704 INDEX. Page Page Branchiopoda . . 298 Bugs, long-necked . 243 Branchipi . 282 painted . 244 Branchipidae . 299 sand . 242 Brassicaceae . 470 shielded . 244 Brayera anthelmintica . . 430 soft-bodied . . 243 Brazil-nuts . 400 water . 241 Brazil wood . 432 Bulimi 115, 124 Bread-fruit trees . 486 Buliminao . 144 Breams . 82 Bullas, cylindric . 140 sea . . . 100 long-tailed . 139 BrenthidaB . 201 Bullseas . . . . ib. Brexiaceae . 427 Bullheads . 102 Brexiads . ib. mailed . ib. Briareidae . . - . 358 Bullia . . 125 Brisa . 566 Bulrushes . 516 Bristle-worts . 517 BuUidse . 139 Brittle-worts . 537 Bumastus ; . . 547 Bromeliacese . 511 Bunium . 394 Brominiides . 621 Buprestidse . . "^ 191, 56(5 Brontes . 548, 552 Burdock . . . 405 Broom . . 432 Burgundy-pitch . 494 Broom-rapes . 421 BurmanniacesD . ; . : . 507 Brosmiidae . 104 Burmanniads . . ib. Brotulidae . . . ib. Burnets. . . . 430 Bruchidae . 201 Bustards . 48 Brucia . . 422 Butcher-birda . . 41 Bruniacese . 392 Butomaceae . . . . . . 501 Bruniads . ib. Butterflies . 234 Brunoniaceae . 412 clawless . 236 Brunoniads . ib. eye-winged . . ib. Bryaceae . 526 proper . 234 Bryony, black . . 497 simple- winged . 235 Bryozoa . . 5, 342, 379 tooth-winged . ib. Bubble-bearers . . 337 Butter-worts . 408 Bubble-sheUs . . 139 Byrrhidae 175, 187 banded . . 140 Byttneriaceae . . 468 Buccinidse . 126, 549, 576 Bucerontidse . 43 CABBAGE . 470 Buckler-echinite . 572 Cabbage-tree bark . 432 "Buckler-head" . 551 Cabereidae . 345 Buckthorns . 426 Cabombaceae . 458 Bucku . . 446 Cacao-plants . 468 Buckwheats. . 439 Cactaceae . . 398 Bufonidae . 75 Cactales . ib. Bug, harvest . 273 Cactals . .1. . ib. Bugs 240-241 Caddice-worms . . 216 bark . 243 Cadmiides . 606 bed ?6. Csecidae . . 133 ,, club-horned . 244 Caeciliidse . 77 jumping . . 242 Caesalpinieae . 431 land . ib. Cairngorm-stone . 619 INDEX. 705 Cajeput-oil Calamaries, hook-armed long-armed. Calaminae Calamine Calamites Calamus . 400 . 119 . ib. . ib. . 605 . 556 . 513 Calappidte . 283, 284, 288 'Calcareous-spar. . 587, 603 tufa . . . ib. Calceola . . .552 Calciides . . .603 Calcium, mineral compounds . ib. Caligidee . . .307 Calla palustris . . .503 Callianiridse . ] . .339 Callionymidae . . .96 Callithrix . . .574 Callitrichacese . . .483 Calluna . . 449 Caltetepons . . .58 Calumba-root . . . 478 Calycanthaceae . . 432 Calyceraceas . . .405 Calycers . . . ib. Calyciflorae . . .390 Calymene ' . . 548, 552 Calyptridte " . . 115. 132 Cam-wood . . . 432 Cambrian-rocks . . 546 Camels . . 10, 22, 581 Cameleopardalidse . .23 Camelidae Camoceras . . . 552 Camphor, true . . 433 Campanales . . . 403 Campanals . . . ib. Campanulacese . . .407 CampanulariidcD . .354 Campontias . . .315 Campontiidse . . ib. Campylospermse . .394 Cancellariidae . . .131 Cancer pagurus . .283 Canceridge . 2S3, 285, 286 Cane-wood . . .432 Canella-barks . . .452 Canidse . . .16 Canna .... 508 Cannabinacesc . . .487 Cannabis Indica . ib. Cannacese Cantharididas . Caoutchouc !aper-plants Capitonidee Capitosaurus Capparidacese . Capparis spinosa Caprellidse CaprifoliaceaG . Caprimulgidse . Caprinee Capsicum Capsidse Capulidse Carabidte Caraway 508 . 198 419, 423, 487 . 469 . 43 . 560 . 469 . ib. . 295 . 395 37, 585 . 24 . 310 . 420 . 243 . 133 . 177 395 Carbon, minerals containing . 618 Carbonates . . .619 Carboniferous-group . .553 Carcinus mamas . . 283 Cardamoms . . . 508 Cardiidse . . .154 Cardiuia . . . 562 Cardiscarpa . . .557 Carditidre . . .154 Cardium, fossil . . .563 Carinarias . 114, 124, 142 Carnelian . . .619 Carnivora 16, 575, 578, 584, 587 Carob-tree . . . 432 Carolina-pink . . .422 Carpinus . . .579 Carps .... 108 Carrageen . . .535 Carriers . . .132 Carrot .... 394 Carthamus tinctorius . . 405 Carum .... 395 Caryocar butyrosum . . 461- Caryocaracese . . . ib. Caryophyllese . . .440 Caryophylliso, fossil . 567, 572 Caryophyllidte . . . 362 Caryophylliidaj . . .356 Cascarilla . . .485 Cashew-nuts . . .446 Cassava . . .485 Cassia-bark . . .433 Cassia-pulp . . . 432 706 INDEX. Page Page Cassididse (Coleoptera) . . 204 Cephalophora . . 377 (Gasteropoda) . 129 Cephalotacese . . 455 Cassidinae . 282 Cephalotads . ib. Cassipoureaceae . . 421 Cephalopteridae . . 86 Cassipoureads . . ib. Cerambicidae . 203 Cassiterite , . 614 Ceramiaceae . 535 Cassythaceae . . 433 Ceraphrontinae . . 226 Castor-oil . . 485 Cerataspidae . 293 Casuarinaceae ( . 491 Ceratites . . 560 Cats 9,16 Ceratophyllacese . . 487 Catophracta . . 69 Cercariidae . . 362 Catechu 396, 514 Cercopidae . 247 Catellus t . 571 Cercosauridae . . 60 Catenicellidse 9 . . 344 Ceriides . . 613 Catenipora 552, 556, 567 Cerite . . ib. Caterpillars, pre serving . 666 Cerithiidse 135, 566, 576 Cathartes . . 583 Cerithiopsidse . . 130 Catophragmus , . 302 Cerium-ochre . 613 Cauliflower , . 470 Cermatiidae . 266 Cavies . . 27 Certhiidae . 39 Caviidse. , . ib. Cerusite . , . ; . 602 Cavolinidse t 122, 576 Cervidae . . 22 Cebidaa . - . 13 Cestoidea . 361 Cebrionidae : . 192 Cestracions . 90 Cecidomyidae t . 252 Cestraciontidae . 90, 562 Cedar . , . 493 Cestum Veneris . 322, 336 CedrelacesB . 447 Cetacea. , . 18 Celastracese . . 425 herbivora .19 Celery . . 394 carnivora . ib. Celestine , . 603 Cetaceans 12,18 Celleporidse . 346 carnivorous . 18 Cellulares . . 386 herbivorous . 19 Cellulariidse . 344 Cetiosaurus . 568 Centaury , . 420 Cetoniida3 . 190 Centipedes, earth . 267 Cetopirus . 302 sea (annelids) . 314 Cetraria Islandica . 532 (crustacean j) . 296 Chaeropotamus . . 574 shielded . . 266 Chaetodons 81, 101 stone . ib. Cha3todontidae . . 101 true 263, 266 Ohaetopteridae . . 316 Centriscidae . 97 Chaffers, false . . 190 Centrolepidaceae . 517 true . . 189 Centronise . 379 Chailletiaceaa . . 425 Centronotidae . 98 Chailietiads . ib. Centrotus . 245 Chalcedony . 619 Cephalaspididae . 551 Chalcidida3 . 225 Cephalidae . 95 Chalcidinse . ib. Cephalopoda . 5, 117, 377 Chalicomys . 578 Cephalopods 5, 115, 117, 377 Chalicotherium . . ib. fossil 548, 552, 555, 562, Chalk . . 603 566, 567, 571. Chalk-proper . 569 INDEX. 707 Page Page Chambered-shells . 132 Chinchillas . 27 Chamaolauciacese . 402 Chinchillidse . ib. Chamseleonidse . . 65 Chionidge . 47 Chamsesauridse . . 61 Chiretta . . 420 Chamas . . 154 Chiridse . 97 Chameleons 54,65 Chirocoles . 60 Chamidse . 154 Chironectidse . . 96 Chamomile . 404 Chironomidse . . 253 Chamostrea . 115 Chirotes . 72 Chara, fossil fruits of, . . 580 Chirotidse . ib. Characefe . 535 Chitonidse . 138 Charadriidas . 49 Chitons 115, 125, 138 Chatterers . 41 Chives . . 502 Cheiracanthidse . 350 Chlamyderidse . . 41 Cheiracanthus . . 551 Chlamydotherium . 582 Cheirateuthidae . 119 Chlsenacese . 442 Cheirolepis . 551 Chlseniinse . 178 Cheiroptera . 14 Chloranthacese . . 436 Cherotherium . . 560 Chloranths . ib. Chelichnus . ib. Chloriniides . 621 Cheliferidse . 278 Chloroform . 627 Chelodina . 54 Choerotherium . . 582 Chelodus . 578 Chondracanthidse . 308 Chelonia . . 69 Chondrostei . 93 Chelonians 69, 560 Chondrosteus . . 562 Cheloniidse . 70 Chondrus crispus . 535 Chelostomata . . 344 Chonetes . 549 Chelydidaa . 69 Christ's-thorn . . 426 Chelysoma . . 164 Chrome ochre . . 610 Chenendopora . . 573 Chromididse . 106 Chenopodales . . 437 Chromiides . 609 Chenopodals . ib. Chrysexides . 596 Chenopodiacese . ib. Chrysides . ib. Cherry . . 431 Chrysididse . 227 Chesnut, Spanish . 482 Chrysobalanacese . 432 Chesnuts, fossil . 579 Chrysoberyl . 612 Chetotyphla . . 578 Chrysolite . 605 Chian-turpentine . 446 Chrysomelidse . . 205 Chicory . 405 Churrus . 487 Chigoe . Chili-nettles . 262 . 399 Cicada plebeia . ,, septendecem . 245 . 246 Chilinse . 115 Cicadidse . 247 Chilognatha . 267 Cichoracese . 404 Chilognaths . ib. Cichorium Endivia . 405 Chilophorina . 319 Intybus . ib. Chilopoda . 266 Cicindelidse . 176 Chilopods . ib. Ciconia . . 578 Chimseras . 91 Cicuta . 395 Chimscild83 91, 576 Cidaridge. 321, 326, 332, 563, 572 Chimaphila umbellata . . 450 Ciliobrachiata . . 379 China shells . 127 Ciliogradoe . 339 i i 708 INDEX. Page Page Cimbicinse . 222 Closteriana . 369 Cimex lectularius . 240 Closteriidse . ib. Cimicidse . 243 Clover . 432 Cimoliornia . 568 Cloves . 400 Cinchonacese . 396 Club-mosses . 526 Cinclionalea . 395 Club-shells, false . 130 Cinchonals . ib. fresh-water . 135 Cinchonese . 396 salt-water . . ib. Cinchonia . ib. Clubioninae . 274 Cinnabar . 599 Clupeidae . V;; . 109 Cinnamon . 433 Clusiacese . 460 Cionacineta . 334 Clymenia . 552 Cirrhigrada . . . 332 Clypeaster . 321, 325 Cirrhodermata . . 379 Clypeus . 572 Cirrhopoda . . 5, 303, 378 Cnernidium . :;* 567, 573 Cirrhopods . 5, 301, 303, 378 Cnicus benedictus . 405 burrowing . . 304 Coalfish . 84 pedunculate . 303 Coal-measures . . 553 sessile . 304 Coal, mineral . . 619 preserving . . 667 Cobalt-bloom . 607 Cirrho-spinigrada . 331 Cobaltiglance . . ib. Cirrhostomi . . . Ill Cobaltidea . 607 Cirrho-vermigrada . 329 Cobitidse - . . 107 CirrigradsB . '>" . 338 Cocacese . 514 Cirripeda . . 378 Coccidse . . 249 Cirripedes " . 5, 378 Coccolepis ' . . 562 Cirrus . . . 566, 571 Cocconeis . . 578 Cistacese ' . 470 Coccosteus . 551 Cistales . . . 469 Cocculus-Indicus . 478 Cistals . . ib. Coccus cacti . 246 Cistelidse . 197 ceriferus . ib. Cistus-rapes - 521 lacca . ib. Citracese . 448 manniperus . ib. Citron . ib. Polonicus . . ib. Civet Cats . 16 Coccyzus . . 585 Cladeiodon . 560 Cockles . . 147 Cladonia rangiferina . 532 false . . 154 Cladopoda . 151 heart . . ib. Cladopods . ib. Cockroaches . ' . 209 Clams 147, 158 Coco-nut tree, double . . 513 water . 159 Cocoa plums . 432 Clabhraria . 573 Cocos, fossil . . . 579 Clathropteris . . 563 Cod fishes 81,84,104 Clausilia . 114 anguilliform . . ib. Clavellinidae . 166 Ccelacanthidse . . 551 Clavulariidae . 358 Ccelelmintha . 5, 322, 350, 379 Cla y> . . 611 Ccelospermse . 394 Clay-iixrastone . . 554 CoenobitsD . 280 Climbing Fishes . 99 Coenurus cerebralis . 360 Clionidse . . . 123 Ccesalpinia . 432 Clios . . ib. Coffee . . 396 INDEX. 709 Coleia . Tage . 562 Copper, red JPage . 599 Colchicum . 503 Coraciadidae . 37 Coleoptera . 176 Coracines. . 106 Colepidae . 371 " Coral-rag*' . 567 Colies . . 42 Coral-reefs . 589 Coliidae . . ib. CoralliidEe . 357 Collecting and preservin g, direc- Corallium rubrum . 353 tions for, . . 623 Corallines . ib. Collemacese . 532 Corals, arragonite . 358 Collyrite . 610 brainstone . 356 Colocynth . 477 calcareous . 357 Colpodidae . 371 dendritic . 356 Colubridae . 68 eyed . . ib. Colubrina Colurnbse . 67 . 44 glass-rope horn-like . 358 . 359 Columbidae . ib. horny ^. . 358 Columbiides . 613 incrusting . ib. Columbite . 614 mushroom . 357 Columelliaceae . . 396 organ . . 358 Columelliads . . ib. starred . . 356 Colymbidae . 51 umbellate . 357 Colymbus, fossil . 585 preserving . 670 Comatula . . . 334 Corbiculidae . 149 Combretaceae . . 403 Corbis . . 571 Commelynaceee . . 504 Corbulas . 153 Compositae . 405 Corbulidae 53,563,577 Composites . 403 Cord-rushes . 517 Comptonia . 579 Cordiaceae . 418 Conchifera 5, 148, 378 Cordyles . 58 Conchocephalus . 548 Coreidae . 244 Conchophora . . 378 Coriander . 395 Conchotrya . 303 Coriandrum . ib. Cones . . . 131, 576 Coriariaceaa . 444 Confervaceae . 536 Coriariada . ib. Conidae . 131 Coriocellaa . 129 Coniferae .494 Cork . . 482 Conirostres . 41 Cormogena9 . 386 Conium . 395 Cormogens . 523 Connaraceae . 446 Cornaceae . 393 Connarads . . ib. Cornstone . 550 Conopidae . 259 Cornulariidae . . 359 Conoplea . 302 Corolliflorae . 390 Contrayerva-root . 487 Coronellidae . 68 Conulus . . 572 Coronulidse . 305 Convolulaceae . . 417 Coronula denticulata . 303 Copaiva, Balsam of, . 432 testudinarius . 302 Copepoda . 300 Cortusales . 414 Copepods . ib. Cortusals . ib. Copper-glance . . 599 Corundum . 610 Copper indigo and native . ib. Corvidae 41, 578 pyrites. . . ib. Corydalus . 555 n2 710 INDEX. Page Page Corylacese . 481 Crane . . 34 Corymbiferao . 404 Cranesbills . 441 Corynidse Corypha umbraculifera . 354 . 514 Crangonidae . . ' Craniidse 282, 292 161, 163 Coryphaenidae . . 98 Crassatellidaa . . 155 Corystidae . 288 Crassatellas 155, 577 Cossus ligniperda . 233 Crassulacese . 471 Cottidae . 102 Cray-fish . 283 Cotton . . 467 Creepers ... ; ti 33, 39 Cow-plant of Ceylon . 419 Crenatula . .. . 563 Cow-tree of Demerara . . 486 Crescentiacese . . . ', . 409 Cowitch . 432 Crescentiads . .- . < . ib. Cowries . 125, 132, 576 Cress . ; . . . ( . 470 Cowslip . 416 Cretaceous-group . 569 Crabs, angular . . 288 Creusia . , . . 302 calling . 280, 285 Crickets . . . r. . 211 china . 285,288 noise of . .< . 212 common . 283 Cridites . . . . 555 ., crested . 283, 288 Crinoideans, fixed ?.' . . 334 edible . . 283 free . #1* . ib. freshwater . 287 Crioceridse . , .. '.< . 204 frog . 289 Crioceras . . . 571 false . 290 Crisiidae . . . . . 347 globular . 288 Cristateffidse . . .**. 343, 348 hermit . 280, 283, 290 Crithrnum . 394 horseman 284, 287 Crocodiles . . >2, 56, 71 king . 281, 300 slender-nosed . 568 land . 287 Swanage . t . ib. lobster . . 290 Crocodilidae . . :' . i 71, 565 long-armed . 286 Crossfish, common . 325 ,, mantis . 280, 294 spiny . ib. painted . 284, 288 Crotalidse . 66 pea . 287 Croton-oil . 485 porcellanous . 283 Crowberries . 483 sailor . . 282 Crowfoots . 455 , sand . 287 Crows . . .. 33, 41 , scorpion . 280 Crown-worts . . . a* . 473 , shielded . 289 Cruciferae . . . . 470 , spectre . . 293 Cruciferous-plants . . < . ib. , spider . 280, 283, 286 Crustacea . . 5, 285, 378 , spiny . 283, 286 Crustaceans . 5, 279, 285, 378 , sponge . . 289 fossil 547,552, 555,562 ,566,569 , stone 282, 289 peduncle-eyed . 285 , swimming 283, 284, 287 sessile-eyed . 294 , telescope-eyed . . 284 preserving . 667 , true 283, 286 Cryptobrachiata . 162 Crabronidae . 230 Cryptogamia 386, 523 Cracidte . 45 Cryptomonadidae . 369 Cranberries . 396 Cryptoneura 6, 380 Cranchias . 119 Cryptophyta . . 386 Cranchiidse . ib. Crypturus . 584 INDEX. 711 Page Page Crystal-worts . 528 Cycloidians . 81 Crystallography 591 Cyclogangliata 5, 377 Cteniza 271 Cycloneura . , 379, 380 Cteno-Labridse 105 Cyclopidaa 285, 300 Ctenoidians 81 Cyclopses . 300 Ctenostomata . 347 Cyclopteridse . . 96 Cubebs 437 Cyclophoridae . . 146 Cuckoos 44 Cyclopthalmus . , 555 Cucujidaa 184 Cyclopteris 556, 567 Cuculidse 44 Cyclosauria . 57 CucullanidsB 350 Cyclosaurians . . ib. Cucumber 477 Cyclostomata (Gasteropoda ) . 115 Cucurbitacese . ib. (Polyzoa) . 346 Cucurbitales 476 Cyclostomes 125, 146 Cucurbitals ib. Cyclostomi . Ill Cudbear 532 Cydippe . 336 Culex molestus 173 Cylichnidse . 140 Mosquito ib. Cylmdrellse . . 115 Culicidaa 253 Cymbuliidse . 123 Cuma 282 Cymodoceas . 124 Cumin . 395 Cymodoceidse . . ib. Cuminum . . ib. Cymothoidse 285, 297 CunoniacesB 428 Cynara Scolymus . 405 Cunoniads ib. CynarocephaJae . . 404 Cuprella 282 Cynomorium coccineum 521 Cupreous-Manganese . 607 Cynomoriums . . ib. Cupressites 561 Cynipidse . 223 Cupuliferse 482 Cyperaceae . 518 Curassows 45 Cyprasidse . 132 Curculionidw . . 202 555 Cyprella . 555 Curculioninee . 202 Cypress . 494 Curcuma longa 508 Cyphaspis . 548 Curlew 33 Cyphonidse . 192 Cursoria 209 Cypricardia 549, 566 Currants (Grossulariaceae) 398 Cypridse . 300 (VitaceaB) 453 Cypridella . 555 Curtonotus 285 Cyprididse . 562 Cuscutacese 417 Cypridina . 555 Cusparia 446 Cyprinas . 149 Custard-apples Cuttles 456 120 Cyprinidse (Conchifera) (Pisces) . ib. . 108 Cuvieria 322 Cyprinodontes . . ib. Cuvieriidse 330 Cyprises . 281, 300, 569 Cyaniidae 295 Cyrenoidse . 149 CyathophyUum . 552, 556 567 Cyrenoids . ib. Cycadacese 494 Cyrillacese . 451 Cycads . 494, 560, 563 567 Cyrillads . ib. Cyclas . 569 Cyrtoceras . 552 Cyclidiidae 370 Cystica . 361 Cyclica . 204 Cysticercus tenuicollis . . 359 Cyclo-Labridse . 105 Cystiphyllum . . 567 712 INDEX. Page Page Cytherea, fossil . 577 Deposits, soil . . 590 Cyttaria . 534 Derrnestidae . 184 Deroplatys . 208 DACTYLETHKID.& . 75 Derostomatidae . 319 Dactylis csespitosa . 519 Desmidiaceae . 537 Daffodils . 509 Desvauxiaceae . . 518 Damans . 21 Diacosaurus . 560 Danaea-worts . 525 Diadema . . 302 Danseacese . ib. DiademninsD . 167 Dandelion . 405 Diamond , . 619 Dapedium . 562 Diamond-fishes . . 93 Daphnaceae . 434 Dianthaceae . 440 Daphnales . 433 Dianthise . ; a . 497 Daphnals . ib. Diapensiacese . . 421 Daphniidae . 299 Diapensiads . . ib. Darnel-grass . 519 Diaperidae . 196 Dasypodidae . 25 Diapriinaa -;'.- . 227 Dasyures . 29 Diaspore . . 610 Dasyuridse . ib. Diatomacese . 537 Date-plum . 423 Diazona - . . 165 Datiscacea9 . 477 Diceras . . 566 Daticscada . ib. Dichelestiidae . . 308 Daucus . 394 Dichorgana . '<> ; . 385 Daw . 32 Diclinese 390, 475 Day-flies . 214 Dicotyledones . . 335, 389 Deal-fish . 82 Dictyogenae ; 385, 495 Death-watches . 194 Dictyogens 385, 494, 495 Decapoda (Cephalopoda) . 118 bisexual . ' . 495 (Crustacea) . . 286 unisexual . 497 Decapods (Cephalopods) . 118 Didelphidae . 28 (Crustaceans) . 286 Didelphys Colchesteri . 575 long-tailed . 290 Didus ineptus . 583 short-tailed . 286 Didymiides . 613 varied-tailed . 289 Digitalis purpurea . 408 Deer . .22 Dill . 395 Delphax saccharivora . 246 Dilleniaceae . . . 456 Delphinidse . 19 Dilleniads s . . ib. Delphinula . 549 Diluvial drift . . . 580 Deltas . . 586 Dimera . 247 Dendrocoela . 318 Dinornis . 583 Dendrophidae . . 68 Dinotherium . . 577 Dendrophylliidse . 356 Diodons 82, 576 Dendrosauria . . 65 Dionaea muscipula . -s . 454 Dendrosaurians . ib. Dioptase . 599 Dentaliidae 138, 571 Diorite 1* . . 604 Dentirostrea . 40 Dioscoreaceas . . 497 Deplerus . 555 Diphydae . 339 Deposits, alluvial . 585 Diphyds-proper . ib. estuary . 587 Diphyseas , . . 500 lacustrine . ib. Diplacanthus . . 531 mineral . ib. Diplerix . 432 INDEX. 713 Diplodontidse . Fage . 155 Dotonidse Jfage . 141 Diplogangliata . 5, 378 Dotos . ib. Diploneura . 5, 378,379 Double-walkers . 71 Diploptera . 231 Dracoana Draco . 502 Diplopterus . 551 Draconidse . 65 DiplostomidaD . . 362 Dragon . . 54 Diplozoonidse . 306, 309 Dragonets 82, 96 Dipneumona . 274 Dragon-flies . 214 Dipnoa . 377 hammer-headed . ib. Dipsacaceae . 405 Dragon's-blood . . 432 Dipsadidaa . 68 ,, true . 502 Diptera . 251 Drassi . 270 Dipteracese . 462 Dredges . 656 Dipterocarpacese . , . ib. Dreissenidse . 157 Dipterus . 551 Dremotherium . 581 Discinidse 161, 163 Dromiidee . 289 Discoidea . 572 Droseraceae . 453 Discorbidse . 373 Dmm-fish . 83 Disk shells . 163 Drupacese . 431 Distachiata . 333 " Dry rot " . 533 Distoma . 165 Drymyrhizeae . . 508 Dithyra . 378 Duck-bills 12, 31 Ditrachyceratidse . 363 Duck-weeds . 516 Dittany, Kretan . 412 Ducks .- 34, 50 Divers 34, 51 " Dudley-locust" . 548 Doclea . . 284 Dugongs . 19 Dodder-laurels . . 433 Duguetia quitarensis . . 457 Dodders S . . 417 Dulse . . 535 Dodo . . . . 583 pepper . . ib. Dogbanes . 422 Dusa . . 561 Dog-fishes, piked . 90 Dynastidae . 189 spotted . ib. Dysderidae 270, 274 Dogs . 11, 16 Dyticidse 174, 179 Dogwoods . 393 EAR-SHELLS . 125 Dolichopidae . 258 dwarf . 128 Doliida) . 128 false .137 Doloruedes . 270 sea . ,. ib. Dolomite 557, 604 Earwigs 206,207 Dolphins . 19 Earth-hogs . 25 fish . . 98 Earth-nut . 394 star-scaled . ib. Earthy-cobalt . . 607 Donacidae . 150 Ebenaceae . 423 Douzelles . 105 Ebonies . ib. Doracia . 302 Echeneidse . 97 Dorema . 394 Echiales . 410 Dorids . 140 Echials . ib. clubbed . . ib. symmetrical . . 412 false . ib. unsymmetrical . 410 Dorididse . ib. Echidnidse 12, 30 Dories . . 98 Echimyidae . 27 Dorippidjc . 289 Echinarachnius . 326 714 INDEX. Page Page Echinidse . 321,325,332,563 Empetraceae . . 483 Echinocardium . . 325 Empidse . . 258 Echinocyamus . . . ib. Empusa . .208 Echinodermata. . 5, 328, 379 Emydidse ' 69, 565, 569, 576 Ediinoderms . 5,321,324,328,379 Emydosauria . .70 slug-like . . 329 Emydosaurians . . ib* true . . 331 Enantiotreta . .371 worm-like . 328 Enantiotretans . . ib. fossil 549, 560, 563, 571 Encephalata . 4 preserving . 668 Enchelidte . . 371 Echinometra . . 325 Encrinites 321, 327, 560 EchinorhynchidEe . 360 Encyrtinse . . 225 Echinostachys . . 561 Endive . . .405 Echinus esculentus . 327 Endogenae . 385, 500 lividus . 328 Endogens 385, 498, 500 Ectophthalmata . 146 bisexual . . 500 Ectophthalmians . ib. epigynous . . 506 Edentata . 24 hypogynous . . 500 Edentates 24, 582 scale-flowered .516 Edriophthalmata . 294 unisexual . .511 Eels . 81, 110 Endorhizeae . . .385 electric . 109 Engidse . . . .183 ,, sub-branchial . 110 Enterodela . . .370 Egeria . . 284 Entomoidea . . 5, 378 Egg-shells . 132 Entomostraca . .. . 299 " Egyptian-bean" . 458 Entomostracans . . . ib. Ehretiaceae . 413 Eutomozoa , . .378 Ehretiads . ib. Entozoa . 349, 379, 380 Elais . . 515 cavitary , , . 5 Elaphridae . 178 parenchymatous . ib. Elasmotherium . 582 Eocene-group . . .574 Elateridae . 191 Eolididaa . . 124, 341 Elaterium . 477 Epacridaceae . . . 450 Elatinacese . 443 Epacrids . . . ib. Elders . . 395 Epeira .... 270 Elecampane . 404 Ephemeridae . . .214 Electric-calamine . 605 Epialtus . . .284 Electrides . 622 Epigynese - ' . 330, 391 Electrum . 596 Epipyxididee . , .370 Elemi . 448 Episinus . , /*:, . 270 Elephantidse . . 20 Epitricha . . :, . 370 Elephants 9, 20, 581 Epitrichans . . . ib. Elephas Ganesa . 581 Epizoa . . .5, 807, 379 ,, primogenius . ib. preserving . .667 Elettaria . 508 Eproboscidea . , .260 Ellipsocephalus . 548 Epsomite . . . 604 Elms . 488, 579 Epyornis - . . .583 Elysias , . 142 Equidse. . . .22 Elysiidae . ib. EquisetacesB . . 527, 567 Emerald 610, 611 Erbiides . . . 612 Emeiy . . 610 Eremiaphila . . .208 INDEX. 715 Page Page Ergasilidse . 308 Evaniidse . 224 Ergot of rye . 534 Evascularea . 385 Ericaceae . 448 Evening-Primroses . 401 Ericales . ib. Exantennata . 315 Ericals . . ib. Exogense . 385, 390 Ericthidse .294 Exogens 385, 388, 390- Erinaceidse . 15 bisexual 390, 391 Eriocaulaceae- . . 517 diclinous . 475 Eriocheir . 285 epigynous . 391 Eristalis Narcissi . 257 hypogynous . 436 Erotylidae . 183 perigynous . 407 Errantia . 313 unisexual . 390 Erratics . . 580 Explanaria . 567 Erycinidse . 236 Erythroxylacese . 462 FABACE.E . 431 Erythroxyls . ib. Fabaginaceas . 443 Escalloniacese , . 397 Falconidaa . 36 Escalloniads . ib. Falcons . ' . ib.. Eschallot . 502 Farcimenariidse . 345 Escharidae- 342, 346, 279 FasciolariidsB . . 127 Esexuales . 386 FasciolidaB . 360, 362 Esocidae . 108 Favistella . 552 Etheriidfe . 157 Favosites 549, 552 Eucalypti . 400 Felidae . . 16 Euchlanids& . 342 Felspars . 610 Eucnemidaa . 191 Fenestella . 552 Eucratea . . . 343 Fennel . . 394 Eudoridse- - *. . . . 338 Ferns . . 525 Eulimas . . . 130 fossil 556,561, 563, 567, 579 Eulimidse - i' . ib. Feroniinse . 178 Euloph.ing& . 225 Ferro-tantalite . . 614 Eumenidse . . *>; . 231 Ferula . . 394 Eunices . ..<, . 314 Festuca . 519 Eunicidse . k . ib. Feverfew . 404 Eunotia . 578 Ficoidales . 434 Euomphalus 549, 552, 555 Ficoidals . ib. Eupelminse . 225 Ficula . . 128 Euphorbiacese . . 485 Fig . 487 Euphorbiales . 482 Fig-marigolds . . 435 Euphorbials . ib. Fig-shells . 128 Euplexoptera . 207 Fig-worts . 408 Euplaea . . 368 Filariidaa 349, 351 Euplotida3 . 371 Filberts . 482 Eupoda . . 204 File-fishes 82, 95 Euryalidse . 334 Filicales . 525 Euryarthra . 565 Filicals . . ib. Euryodon . 582 Finches . 42 Eurypodius . 284 Fir . 492 Eurypteridse . 548 Fir-rapes . 449 Eurysternon . 569 "Fire-damp" . .596 Eurytominse . 225 Fish-lizard . 561 716 INDEX. Fishes amphibian ganoid Page. 4, 78, 86, 377 . 91 . 92 a . 93 ,, osseous . . ib. pharyngeal . .105 soft-fumed . 105 M M spiny . 105 soft-finned . . 106 ,, abdominal . ib. apodal . 109 soldered-jaw . .94 epine-less . .104 apodal . .105 thoracic . . .104 spiny . . .95 suctorial . .110 fringed-mouthed 111 ,. round-mouthed ib. tufted-gill . . 94 wide-mouthed . .86 fossil 550, 551, 555, 562, 565, 589, 570, 576, 584 Fishing-frogs . . 82, 95 Fissirostres . . .36 Fissure-shells . . .128 Fissurellidae . . 115, 138 Fistulariidae . . .97 Fkbellaria . . 537, 579 FlabeUina . . .572 Flacourtiacese . . .475 Flags . . . .509 Flat-fishes . . .104 Flat-heads . . .102 Flax, New Zealand . . 502 Flaxes . . . .442 Fleas . . . 261,262 water . . 282, 299 beaked . . 299 whale . . . 295 Flies . . . 250, 251 aphis-eating . . 259 auger . . . 223 black . . .253 blight . . .248 boat . . . 242 breeze . . . 255 chameleon . . 255 crane . . . 254 false . . ib. , cuckoo . 225 Page Flies, cuckoo, sharp-tailed . 226 eproboscidean . .260 flat-bodied . . 258 flesh . . .259 gad ... 260 gall /.: . . . 223 hornet . . .256 hovering . . . 259 humming-bird . .255 hypocerous . . 260 ichneumon . . 224 thick-legged, ib* lantern . . .247 large-eyed . . . 256 leaf-nosed . . 257 leaping-harvest . . 247 mantis . . . 218 marsh . . . 258 mottled- winged . .256 musical harvest . . 247 mydas . . 257 parasitic bee . .259 phoridean . . . 260 predatory ,> . 258 proboscidean . . 252 ruby-tailed . i . 227 sand . . .253 saw . . . 222 scorpion . . 217 short-horned . . 254 slender-horned . . 252 snake . . .218 spider . . .261 spur-legged . . 257 thunder . . .215 tree . . ; . . 255 vesicular . . -. .256 wasp . / . . 250 water-loving . 258 willow . . .; .215 wood . .-. ; . 258 Flint . . . .619 Flounders . , ^ .82 Flosculariidse . . .341 Flukes, diplostome . . 362 eared . . . ib. fringed . . . ib. polystome . . 363 proboscidean . . 362 proper . . . ib. tailed . . ib. INDEX. 717 Page Page Fluor-spar . . 604 Fungi, ventricose . ib. Fluoriniides . . 621 vesicular . 534 Flustrid 342, 346, 579 Fungise . 572 Flute-mouths . .97 " Fungus Melitensis" . 521 Fly-catchers . . 33, 40 Fustic . . 487 Flying-fishes . .83 Foeniculum . .394 GADIDJJ . 104 Fool's-parsley . . 395 Foraminifera 6, 365, 373, 380, 572 Gadiniidaa Gadolinite . 138 612, 613 Foraminifers 6, 372, 373, 380 Gaillonella . 578 alternating . 373 Galathea . 114 compound . ib. Galatheidse . 291 imbricated . ib. Galaxiatid83 . 108 pelagic . 374 Galaxies , ib. spiral . . 373 Galbanum . 394 straight . ib. Galeids6 . 89 Forbidden-fruit . 448 Galena . . 602 Forficula macropyga . 206 Galeommas , 153 parallela . ib. Galeommidse . ib. Forficulidse . 207 Galeopithecidae . , 14 Forked-beards . . 104 Galeritidse . 331 Formicidae . 228 Galerucidse . 205 Fossil-copal . 622 Galgulidse . 242 Fossils, collecting . 687 GaliacesB . 395 Fossores . 229 Galidea . . 446 Foxglove . 408 Gall-nuts , 482 Francoacese . 449 Gallinse , 45 Francoads . ib. Gait . . 565 Frankeniaceae . . 472 Gamasidse . 277 Frankeniads . ib. Gamasus telarius . 273 Frankincense-trees . 447 Gamboges . 460 French-chalk . . 605 Gammaridse 281, 295 Fringe-myrtles . . 402 Ganoidei . 92 Fringe-tails . 268 Ganoidians . 81 Fringillidso 42, 578 Gapers 148 152 Frog-bits . 512 Arctic . 152 Frogs . 74,75 pearly . ib. Fucacese . 535 pod ib. Fuchsia . 402 Garcinia 460 Fucoides . 573 Garlic . 502 Fulgoridae . 247 Garnet . 610 Furnariacece . 453 Garryace 481 Fumitories . ib. Garry ads ib. Fungales . 533 Garryales 480 Fungals . ib. Garryals ib. ,, sporidious . 534 Gasteracantha . 270 sporiferous . 533 Gasteromycetes 533 Fungi, blighting . ib. Gasteropoda 5, 12C 377 botrylloid . 534 Gasteropods . 5,124,126,377 follicular . ib. heteropodous 142 membranous . 533 pulmoniferoua 143 718 INDEX. Page Page Gasteropoda, fossil, 549, 5.52, 562 Glomeridae . 267 566,571, 576 Glossidae . 154 Gasteropodophora . 377 Glossopteris 563, 567 Gasterosteidae . . 100 Glossotherium . . 582 Gasterozoa . 377 Glow-worms . 193 Gastrochaenidae . . 151 Glumaleae . 516 Gavialidae . 70 Glumals, palm-like . 518 Gavials . . ib. rush-like . 517 Gebiaa . . 285 Glucinides . 611 Geese . . 34 Glutinous-hags . Ill Gecarcinidae 280, 287 Glycimeridae . 152 Geissosauria . 61 Glyptodon clavipes . 582 Geissosaurians . . ib. Glyptolepis . 551 Gekkoes . 64 Gnathosaurus . . 565 Gekkonidae . ib. Gnats, gall . 252 Gelasimi . 280, 285 leaping . . ib. Gemellariidse . 345 moth . 254 Gentianaceae . 420 true . 253 Gentianales . 6. Gneiss-group . 544 Gentianals . ib. Gnetaceae . 492 Gentians . ib. Goats . . 24 Geocorisa . 242 Goatsuckers 32, 37 Geodephaga . 176 Gobies . . 96 Geological specimens, collec- Grobiidae . ib. tions of, . 687 Gold amalgam . . 596 Geology . 538 graphic . . ib. Geometridae . 238 native . ib. Geophila . 143 testing supposed ores of, . 597 . ib. Iceland-moss . . . 532 Hydradephaga . . , .179 Iceland-spar . . . 603 Hydrargyrides . . . 598 Ichneumonidae . . . 224 Hydridaj . . 352, 354 Ichneumoninae . . . ib. Hydrina . . .66 Ichthydiidaa . . . 341 Hydrocharidaceae . .512 Ichthyosauridae 55, 557, 560, 561 Hydrocorisa . . .241 Idiochelys . . . 565 Hydrogen, light carburetted . 596 Idoteidae . . 282,296 phosphuretted . 595 Iguanas . , .64 pure & sulphuretted . ib. Iguanidae . . . ib. Hydrogenexides . . ib. Iguanodon . . 55, 568 Hydrogenides . . . ib. Ileodictyon . . . 533 Hydroida . . .353 Ilicinese . . .423 722 INDEX. Page Page Ulecebracese . 440 Isopods . 295 niigeraceae . 403 ambulatory . 296 Tlligerads . ib. natatory . 297 llloenus . 547 sedentary . ib. Ilmeniidea . 614 Isotelus gigas . . 547 ImpatientacejB . 441 Ivy-worts . - r --<- . 393 Inachidse . 286 Ixa . ... ..*- : . 284 Inarticulata . 345 IxodidsB . x . 272, 277 Incense-wood . . 448 India rubber, bottle . . 485 JACAMAKS . 32 Indian cresses . . 467 " Jack-wi'-the-lantern" . . 595 Indian figs . 398 Jalap . , . ' . 418 Indigo . . 432 Japan- Varnish . . 446 Infundibulata . . 344 Jasminacese . . . . 414 Infusoria 6, 379, 380, 572, 578 Jasper . - . . . . 619 collecting . . 670 Jelly-Fishes . 335 Infusorial-animalcules 367, 368, 380 , pedunculate . 338 Infusorials, anenterous . 369 , proboscis . . ib. enterodelous . 370 proper . ib. Inoceramus . . . 571 , root-mouthed . ib. Insect-Feeders . . . 15 , simple . --" . ib. Insecta . . 5, 173, 378 , tentacular . . ib. Insectivora 15, 575 Jerboas . 26 Insects . 5, 170, 173, 378 Jerboidse . . . ib. biting . . 173 Jerusalem- Artichoke . 404 clear-winged . 219, 221 Jessamines . 414 net-winged 213,214 Jigger . - . .1. . 262 roof-winged 216,217 Joint-firs , . . 492 scaly-winged . 232, 234 Joint-worts . * . 536 ,, siphon-mouthed 245, 246 Juglandaceae . . 481, 579 straight-winged 208, 209 Jujube-plant . 426 suctorial . 232 Julidge - . 264, 268 fossil . 555,562,566,569 Juncacese . . 504 preserving . 663 Juncaginaceae . . 500 Inula Helenium . 404 Juncales . ;*' . 503 Invertebrates . . 4 Juncals . . . ib. lodiniides . 622 Jungermanniaceas . 527 lonidse . 298 Juniper *. . 494 Ipecacuan . 396 Juniperites . .- . 579 Iphisas . 60 Jura-group . 563 Iphisidae . ib. Iridacese . 509 KADSUKADS . 478 Iridexides . 615 Kaliides . . . . 601 Iridiides . ib. Kalotretans . 371 Iridosmine 598, 615 Kangaroos 30, 559 Iron-wood . 423 Kassiterides . 614 Iron, chromate of . 609 "Kelp" . 536 native . 608 Kermes mineral . 617 Isis . 579 Keiiper . 559 Isonandra Gutta . 424 Kingfishers . 38 Isopoda . 295 Kino . 400, 432 INDEX. 723 Ki-wis . Knot-worts Kousso Kraken Krameriaceae . Kuprides Kyanlte , L&BIATM Labiatiflorse Labyrinthici Labyrinthodon . Laburnum Lac, Gum Lace-wings Lacertidse Lachnus lanigerus Lacistemacese . Lacistemads Lactuca sativa . virosa . Laomodipoda Lccmodipods Lagomys Lagriidae Lambri Lamellariidee Lamellibranchiata Lamellicornes . Larniaceae : ; " Lamianae Lamiuaria digitata Lampshells beaked Lampasidaa Lampreys Lampyridae Lance-wood Lancelots Lancet-fishes Landslips Laniidae Lanistes LamniidaB Lantern-shells . Lanthaniides Lanthanite Lapis lazuli Larch . Lardizabalaceae Lardizabalads . Page Page . 48 Laridpe . 51, 585 . 440 Larridae . 230 . 430 Laseas . . 153 . 117 Laseidae . ib. . 466 Laternulidae . 152 . 599 Lattice shells . . 131 . 610 Lauraceae . 433 Laurels . 433 . 412 Laurentia pinnatifida . . 535 . 404 Laurinese . 433 . 100 Lavandula vera . . 412 . 559 Lavender . ib. . 432 Lawsonia inermis . 427 432, 485 Lead, native . 602 . 219 Leaf insects . 210 58, 565 Lecanora . 532 . 245 Lecythidacese . . 400 . 475 Leeches, branchiferous para- . ib. sitic . 318 . 405 horse . . 312 . ib. medicinal . ib. . 295 simple parasitic . 318 . ib. true . . 317 . 575 Leek . . 502 . 198 Leguminoss3 . 432 . 284 Leiodon . 570 . 129 Lemon . . 448 . 378 Lemurs . 14 . 187 flying . . ib. . 411 Lernuridse . ib. . 410 Lentibulariacese . 408 . 536 . 162 Leodicea gigantea Leopards-bane . . 312 . 404 . 163 Lepadidae . 303 . ib. Lepas . . 378 . Ill Lepetidae . 138 . 193 LepidocaryaceEe . 513 . 457 Lepidodendron . . 556 82, 111 Lepidolite . 601 . 97 Lepidoptera . 234 . 589 Lepidotus . 569 . 41 Lepidosirenidae . 91 . 114 Lepidosirens . ib. . 89 Lepidosomatidae *. . 101 . 152 Lepidosternidae . 71 . 613 Lepidosternons . -ib. . ib. Lepidosteus . 569 . 611 Lepidostrombus . 556 . 493 Lepidotidae 562, 566 . 478 Lepismatidae . 268 . ib. Lepisosteidse . 93 K K3 '24 INDEX. Page Page Leporidae . 28 Lime (fruit) . 448 Lepralia . 343 Lime . . . . 603 Leptidse (Arachnida) 273, 278 Limestone . . ib. (Diptera) . 257 Limniidae . - . . 180 Leptoconchus . . 126 Limnophila . ; s -- . 145 Leptoena . 563 Limpets, blind . . 138 Leptoglossata . . 57 cup and saucer . 125 Leptonidae . 153 duck-biUed . . 163 Leptoplanas . 319 false . . . . 138 Leptoplanidse . . ib. grooved . ib. Leptotherium . . 582 proper . ib. Lepturidse . 203 Limnaeidae . . < 114, 145 Lernseidae . 309 Limulidao , 285, 300, 555 Lerneans, brachial . 308 Linaceae . 442 hook-jawed . ib. Linden-blooms . . 466 proper . 309 Linguatulidae . . 309 Lerneida . 308 Lingulidse . 163, 549, 567 Lerneopodidae . . ib. Linuaea borealis . 396 Lettuce, common . 405 Linseed . 442 wild . . ib. Linyphinae . . 270, 275 Leucippe . 284 Liorhynchidae . . . 350 Leucosiidae . ' . 285, 288 Liquidamberaceaa . 490 Lialisidae . . ' . 62 Liquorice . 432 Lias-group . 561 Lithiides . 601 Libellulidae . 214 Lithion mica . . ib. Liberida . 334 Lithobiidae -. . 264, 266 Lice, bat . 261 Lithodendron . ; . 556 , bird . 269 Lithodes . . 282 , fish . 297 Lithosiidae . . 238 , plant . 248 Lithornis . 576 , proper . 269 Lithotrya . 303 , sugar . 268 Litiopidae . 1 . 135 , tailed crab . 298 Litmus . ' . . ' . 532 , tail-less crab . ib. Littorinidae . 134 Lichenales . 532 Lituites . 548, 552, 567 Lichenals . ib. Lituola . . . 572 Lichens, glutinous . ib. Liver worts . 528 graphic . . ib. Lizard, green . . 53 scutiform . ib. of the Meuse, . . 570 Liebigite . 613 viviparous . 56 Ligulidae . 361 whale . . 568 Liguliflorae . 404 Lizards . 52, 57 Lilac, common . . 420 , African blind, . . 63 Liliaceae " . . 502 , anguine . 61 Liliales . . 501 , blind . . 63 Lilials . . ib. , crested . . 65 Lilies . 502 , flying . . 564 Lima . 562 , proper . . 58 Limacidae . 144 , ring-tailed . 60 Limacinidae 122, 123 , scaly-cheeked . . 62 Limapontiidae . . 142 , short-legged . 59 INDEX. 725 Page Page Lizards, slender-tongued . 57 Lucinas, false . . 155 snake . , . 62 Lucinidse . 155 spinous . 65 Luidia . . 326 thick-tongued . . 64 Lumbricidae . 315 Lizard's tails . 436 Lupa 283, 284 Loaches, double-eyed, . . 107 Lusciuiidae . 40 proper . it>. Luteolaceae . 469 . thick bodied . . ib. Lycoperdonacete . 533 Loasaceae . 399 Lycopodales . 525 Lobeliacese . 406 Lycopodals . ib. Lobelias . ib. Lycopodiaceae . 526, 556 Lobster, common 281, 283 Lycopodites . 556 Norway . ;. . 283 Lycosinse . . . 275 thorny . 281 Lydinae . 222 tree . 280 Lygaeidse . 244 Lobsters, locust . 291 Lygiidee . 296 plaited . ib. Lymexylonidse . . 194 scorpion . ib. Lynceidse . 299 ,, thorny . ib. Lysurus Mokusin . 533 ,_. ' true . . 292 Lythracese . 427 ' J Locustidae . 212 Locusts . ib. MACE . . 479 I noise of, . ib. Macgillivrayias . . 136 \ sea . 283 Macgillivrayiidaa . ib. Lodoicea Seychellarum. . 513 Machairodus . 578 Loganiaceae . 422 Mackarels . 80, 84, 99 Logwood . . 432 scaleless . 99 Loliginidse 120, 562 spiny . . 98 Loligopsidae . .' . . 119 Macrauchenia . . 578 Lolium temulentum . 519 Macrobiotidae . . 342 Lonchophorus . . 582 Macrocystis pyrifera . 536 Lonchopteridse . . 258 Macrophthalrnus . 284, 285 Lonchopteris . . 556 Macropodidae . . 30 Longicornes . 202 Macroscelididae . . 15 Lonicereae .- . . 395 Macrospoudylus . 565 Loosestrifes . ;< . 427 Macroura . 290 Lophiidae , . 95 Mactras . 150 Lophiodon . 575 mud . ib. Lophiracese . 461 Mactridas . ib. Lophobranchii . . 94 Madders . 395 Lophocercidse . . 139 Madrepores . 352, 355 Lophyropoda . . 299 Madreporidae 355, 579 Lophyropods . ib. Magila . . 566 Lorauthacete . 391 Magilus . 126 Loricariidse . 106 Magnesian limestone . 604 " Lotus " of the ancients . 426 Magnesian limestone group . 557 of the Egyptians . 458 Magnesiides . 604 Lucanidae . 188 Magnesite . ib. Lucernarians . 355 Magnetic iron ore . 609 Luceruariidse . ib. Magnoliaceae . 457 Lucinas 155, 577 Magnoliads . ib. 726 INDEX. Mahogany trees . 447 Maples . . 463 Maigres . 100 Maranta . 508 Maiidae . 283, 286 Marantaceae . 507 Maize . 519 Marble . . 603 Malachite, blue . . 599 Marcgraaviacese . 460 green . ib. Marcgraaviads . . ib. Malacoderma . . 377 Marchantiaceae . . 528 Malacodermata . . 192 Mare's-tails . 402 Malacopteri . 106 Margin ellidae . . 128 abdominales . ib. Margosa plants . . 446 apodes . 109 Marine silt .586 Malactinia 5,379 Marjoram . 412 Malacozoa . 377 Marmalade .424 Malapterurus . . 107 Marsileaceae . 525 Malaspinseads . . 414 Marrubium vulgs ire . . 412 Malesherbiacese . 473 Marsh trefoil . . 420 Mallows . 466 Marsipobranchii . Ill Malpighiaceae . . 463 Marsupialia 28, 559, 564, 575 Malpighiads . ib. Marsupials 12/28 Malvaceae . 466 Marsupites . 572 Malvales . ib. Marvels of Peru .438 Malvals . . ib. Mascagnine . 600 Mammalia 4, 13, 377 Mastic . . 446 Mammals . 4, 8, 13, 377 Mastodons 574, 575, 581 aplacental . 28 Mastodonsaurus .560 four-handed . . 13 Matico . . / > . 437 placental . ib. Matuta . .. . . 284 preserving . 632 Mayacaceae .504 rapacious . 16 Mayacs . . ib. single-hoofed . . 22 Meadow saffrons . 502 Mammifera 4, 377 Meandrinidae 356, 572, 579 Mammoth . 581 Mecca, balm of, . . 448 Man . 13 Medjidite . 613 Manatees 19, 581 Medlar . . 430 Manatidae . 19 Medusidae 322, 336, 338, 567 Manchineel . 485 Meerschaum . 605 Mandibulata, (Aiolopoda) . 269 Megalichthys .555 (Insecta) . . 173 Megalochelys . . 583 Mandrake . 419 Megalodon . 552 Manganides . 607 Megalosaurus . 55, 565 Manganite . ib. Megalotrochidae . 341 Mango . . 446 Megapodiidae . 45 Mangold wurzel . 437 Megatherium . 582 Mangroves . 401 Megatrema . 302 white . . 411 Melandryidse . 197 Manna . 420 Melaniidae 114, 135, 566 ,, Mount Sinai . 472 Melanthiaceae . . 502 Manon . . 573 Melasomata . 195 Mantidse 209, 210 Melastomaceae . . 400 Mantises, sea, . . 283 Melastomads . ib. Mantispidse . 218 Meleagridas . 46 INDEX. 727 Page Page Meliacese . 446 Millerite . 606 Meliphagidse . 39 Mimoseae . 432 Mellifera . 231 Mineral oil . 622 Melissa officinalis . 412 Mineralogical specimens, collec- Mellite . . 622 tion of, . 692 Melolonthidse . . 189 Mineralogy . 590 Melon . . 477 Minium . . 602 Melyridsa . 193 Mints . . 411 Membraces . 245 Miocene group . . 577 Membraniporidoe . 346 Mirabilacese . 438 Men . 13 Mistletoes . 391 Mensethius . 284 Mites . . 276 Mendoles . 101 cheese . 272 Menispermacese . . . 478 garden . 277 Menispermales . . ib. true . 276 Menispermals . , .. . ib. water . 273 Menopomas . 77 wood . 277 Mentagra . 534 Mithrax . 283 Mentha . . 412 Mitres . . 127 Menziesia . 449 Mitridse . ib. Mephitidse . 17 Moenidse . 101 Mercury, native . 598 Mole-rats . 26 Mericotherium . . 581 Moles . 9, 15 Merlucciida9 . 104 Molgidee . 76 MeropidsQ . 38 Molibdexides . . 601 Merulius . 533 Molibdides . 602 Mesenibryanthemacese . . 435 Mollia . . 377 Metallology . 590 Mollusca 5, 115, 377 Metaxytherium . . 577 Molluscoids, aquatic . 318 Meteorology . 689 ,, terrestrial . . ib. Metopias . . . 560 Molluscous animals 5,377 Mezereons . 434 Mollusks 111, 115 Miargyrite . , . . 598 preserving . 653 Mica schist group . 544 Moloch horridus . . 53 Mice, elephant, . . 15 Molossus . 575 sea . 314 Molybdena . 615 Micraster . 571 Molybdenides . . ib. Micropoda . 158 Molybdic-ochre . . 615 Micropods . ib. Monadidse . 369 Microscope . 687 Monads . . ib. Micruridge . 319 shelled . ib. Mignonettes . 469 Monanthiee . 495 Milfoil . . 404 Monaphysese . 511 Miliolidse . 373 Monazite . 613 Milk tree of Demerara . . 423 Monimiaceso . 480 Milk weeds . 418 Monimiads . ib. Milk worts . 465 Monitoridse . 57 Millepedes, false . 268 Monitors . ib. true . ib. Monkeys, American . 13 tufted . 267 Monochlamydese . 390 woodlouse . . 267 Monoclinese 390, 391 728 INDEX. Page Page Monocotyledones . 385 Mouse . . 12 Monomera . 249 Moxa . 404 Monomerosomata . 276 Mucoracese { 534 errantia . ib. Mud-bores . 285 suctoria . 277 Mugilidae \ . . 100 Monomyaria . 158 Mulberries . 486 Monosterea . 319 Mullein, Great . , . 408 Monostereans . . . ib. Mullets, gray . . 100 Monotremata . 30 Mullida? . . . 102 Monotremes . ib. Muramidae . 110 Monotrocha . 341 Murchisonian-rocks . 546 Monotrochians . . ib. Murex . . 125 Monotropaceae . . 449 Muricidae . 126 Moonseeds . 478 Muridse , . >, . 26 Moraceae . 486 Muromontile . . . 613 Morchella . 534 Musacese ^. . 508 Morchellidae . . . 174, 198 Muscales > . 526 Moringaceae . - . . 473 Muscals . . ib. Mormolyce . . . 174 Muschelkalk . 559 Mormyridae . . . 108 Musci . . . 526 Mosandrite . \ . . 613 Muscicapidse . 40 Mosasaurus . . . 570 Muscidae . 259 Mosquitoes . . . 253 Musks . . 23 Mosses, inoperculate . 527 Musocarpum . 557 operculate . 526 Musophagidse . . 42 scale . . 527 Mussels 148, 157 split . ib. fresh-water . ib. urn . 526 Nile . 156 Moths . . 236 pond . ib. Burnet hawk . 237 Mustard . 470 butterfly-hawk . ib. Mustards, Sacred . 414 , clear- winged hawk . ib. Mustelidse . 17 clothes . . 239 Mutelidae . 156 ermine . ib. Mutillidae , . 228 geometric . 238 Mycetophagida6 . 183 hawk, proper . 237 Mycetophilidae . . 252 lackey . 238 Mycetopidae , 157 lappet . ib. Mycoderma . 534 leaf-rolling . 239 Myctiridae . 287 , meal . ib. Mydasidae . 257 plume . 240 Myelencephala . 4,377 rustic . 238 Mygalidae 271, 274 swift . 237 Myidae . . . 152 tiger . 238 Myletidae . . . 108 Motmots . 32 Myliobatidae . 87 Mound-birds 34,45 Mylitta . 534 Mountain- cork . . 604 Mylodon robustum . 582 leather . ib. Mymarinae . 226 limestone . 554 Myochama . 115 pirate . 284 Myoporacese . 411 tallow . 622 Myriapoda 5, 266 INDEX. 729 Page Page Myriapods . 5,263,266 Nemertina . 317 Myricacese . 490 Nemocera . 252 Myristicaceee . 479 Nepenthacese . . 482 MyrmicidcD . 228 Nephila . 271 Myrmecobius . . 564 Nephrodium Filix-ma 3 524, 525 Myrmecophagidso . 25 Nephrops . 283 Myrmeleonidse . . 218 Nepidse . 242 Myrobalans . 403 Nereidse . 312, 314 Myrrh . . 448 Nerinsea . . 566 Myrsinacese ., .415 Nerites . . , 125, 137 Myrtacese .400 Neritidaj . 137 ,549,552,556 Myrtales , . ib. Neroli-oil . 448 Myrtals . ib. Nettles . . 488 Myrtle-blooms . ,,..;...-. . ib. Neuroptera . 214 Mysidss , . 293 Neuropteris . 556 Mystriosaurus . .565 New-Bed Sandstone . 558 Mytilidse . 157 Nickel-glance . . 606 Myxinidse 82, 111 Nickel-ochre . ib. Nickelides . ib. NAID^E . . 315 Nightshades . 419 Naiadacese . 512 deadly . ib. Nanina . 115,124 Nillsonia . 563 Napha-water . 448 Niobiides . 614 Naphtha . 622 Niobite . ib. Napoleon-worts . 401 Nirmidog . 269 Naranda . 566 Nitidulidse . 183 Narcissacea3 . 509 Nitre . . 601 Narcissales . ib. Nitrogen, pure . . > . 618 Narcissals . ib. Nitrogenides . . ib. Naricacea ^ :J . 133 Noctuidse . 238 Narthex . . 394 Nolanacese . 413 Nassas . 125 Nolanads . ib. Natatoria . 297 Noriides ~, . . 612 Naticidse 125,129,552,566 Norna . . 566 Natrides . 600 Nothosaurus . 557 Natron . . . 601 Notidanidse . 90 Nautilidsell5,117 ,121,552,562,566 Notocanthidae . . 99 Nautilograpsus . . jf . 282 Notonectidse . 242 Navicula . 368, 578 Notornis . 583 Naxia . . 285 Notoxidaa . 199 Nebalias . 298, 555 Nuculidse 156, 563, 577 NebaliidcC . 298 Nudibranchiata . 140 Necrophaga . 182 Nudibranchs . ib. Nectandra . 433 Nullipora . 579 Nectarine . 431 Nutmegs . 479 Nelumbiacese . 457 plume . . ib. Nematoidea 5, 379 Brazilian . 433 Nematoneura . . ib. Nyctaginacea3 . . 439 Nematopoda Nemertidae . 378 . 320 Nycteribiidaa Nyctisauria . 261 . 64 Nemertides . 320 Nyctisaurians . . ib. 730 INDEX. Page Page Nymphseaceae . . 458 Onchidorididae . . 140 Nymphales . 457 Onchus . . 547 Nymphalidae . 235 Onion . . . 502 Nymphals . 457 Oniscidse . 296 Nymphonidae . . 279 Onustidae . 132 Nyssa . . 403 Onychoteuthidse . 119 Nyssonidae . 230 Onyx . 619 Nyssus . 270 Oolite-group . 563 Oozoa . 6, 380 OAKS . . 481 Opal . . ' ;** . 620 Oats . 519 Ophidia . 66 Oceaniidse . 338 Ophidiaster . 325 Ocellaria . 572 Ophidiidae . 105 Ochnaceae . 444 Ophioglossacese . . ;- . 525 Ochnads . ib. Ophiolepis . 324 Octobothriidse . . 310 Ophiolite - . . i . 543 Octopoda . 118 Ophiomoridae . 62 Octopodidae . 116, 117, 118 Ophiopholis . .324 Octopods . 118 Ophiostoma . 349 pelagian 116, 118 Ophiothrix . 324 Oculinidae . 356 Ophrydiidae . 371 Ocypodidae 284, 287 OphiuridsB 321, 333, 549, 563, 572 Odontopleurse . . 548 Opisthobranchiata . 139 Odontopteris . 556 Opisophthalmata . 146 CEcistidae . 341 Opisophthalmians \** . ib. CEdemeridae . 197 Opium . . 455 Oeidia . . 285 Opoidia . 394 OZnanthe . ' . 395 Opoponax . ib. CEonia . . 548 Opossums . 28 CEstridae . 260 Opuntia cochinellifera . - * .399 Ogygia . . 548 Orange-plants . . 448 Oil-cake . 442 Orbiculinidse . 373 Oil-nuts . 392 Orbitidae ^ . . < .277 Olacacese . 451 Orchidacese . - . 506 Old Red Sandstone group . 550 Orchidales . ib. Olacacese . 420 Orcliidals . ib. Oleander . 422 Orchids '-.- . ib. Olefiant gas . 596 Organ-fish " . . 83 Olenus . . 548 Origanum . 412 Olibanum . 448 Ornithorynchidae . .31 Oligodontidae . . 68 Orobanchaceae . .421 Olives . 125,127 Oroiitiacese . . 503 ft * * * . 420 Orphnea . 566 Olividse . 127 Orpiment . 618 Omalaxis . 576 Orris-root . , . 509 Omaliidae . 185 Orthis . 549, 567 Ommastrephes . . 116 Orthoceras . 549, 552, 555, 567 Ommotolampes Eichvvaldi . 558 Orthocerata . 200 Omphalobiaceae . 446 Orthoptera . 209 Onagraceae . 401 leaping . 211 Onchidiidse 125, 144 Orthoptera, rapacious . 210 INDEX. 731 Page Page Orthoptera, running . 209 PalaooniscidaB . 555, 558, 5tiO walking . 210 Palaeophilus . 584 Orthospermae . . 394 Palaeophis . 576 Orthostylus . 115 Palseomis . 568 Orycteropodidse . 25 Palseosaurus . 560 Oryza . . 519 Palaeospalax . 575 Oscillatoria scrugescens . 536 Palseotherium . . ib. Osmeroides Mantellii . 570 Palseoxyris . 561 Osmiides . 616 Palaeozoic formations . . 545 Ossiferous caves . 584 Palinuridse 281, 291 Ossiferous sands and grave] . 580 Palliobranchiata 5,378 Osteolepis . 551 Palladiides . 597 Osteozoa . 377 Balm, Doum . 513 Ostraceontidaa . w\ 95, 576 fan . ib. Ostracoda , . 300 Ceylon Talipot . . 514 Ostracods . . ib. cabbage . . ib. Ostreidse , . r 159, 571, 577 coco-nut . . 515 Ostriches . 48 Palmales . 512 Otinidse * . . 128 Palmals . ib. Otididae . 48 Palmipes 321, 325 Otis . 584 Palms, atelespatheous . . 513 Oxalidacece , . 441 betel nut . 514 Oxen . . 23, 581, 582 date . . ib. Oxlip . . 416 . fossil . 536, 561, 579 Oxygen exides . . 620 . oil yielding . 514 Oxygenides . . ib. Palmyra . 513 Oxyrhynchi . 283 reed . ib Oxytelidre . 185 sago . . ib. Oxytrichidae. . 371 ,, telespatheous . . 514 Ourari poison . 422 Paludicellidaa . . 348 Ovinae ... ! 24 Paludina . 569 Owls . 32, 36 Paludinacea . 134 Oyster-catchers . . 49 Pampas . 587 Oysters . 147, 159 Pamphractus . . 551 pearl . 148,158 Panax . .393 perforated . 159 Pandanaceae . 515 river . . 157 Pandanocarpum . 579 window , . 159 Pandaridae . 307 Pandoras . 153 Pachycephala . . . 308 Pandoridas . ib. Pachydermata . . 20 Pangiacese . 476 Pachyderms 10, 20, 574, 578, Pangiads . ib. 581, 582, 584, 587 Panicinae . 519 Pachyglossata . . 64 Panorpidse . 217 Pachypteris . . . 567 Papaveracess . . . . 454 Pachytherium . . 582 Papaws . 476 Paguridae 280, 290 Papayacese . ib. Palamedidoa . 50 Papayales . ib. Palaeobatrachus. . 584 Papayals . ib. Palremonid . 283, 292, 566 Paphians . 150 Palscomys . 578 Paphiidse . ib. L L 732 INDEX. Page Page Papilionacea9 . , . .413 Pectinibranchs, rostriferous . 130 Papilionidse . . .234 Pectinida3 . . 159 Papilioninse . . . 235 Pedaliacese . . .410 Papyrus antiquorum . .518 Pedaliads . . ib. Paradoxides. . . .548 Pedicellariidse . . 306,310 Paraguay tea . . . 423 Pedicellinidaa . . .347 Parisidse . . .496 Pediculariida* . . .132 Parisite . . .613 Pediculidse . . .269 Parasites . . .268 Pedionomidse . . .46 starfishes . . 130 Pedipalpi . . .276 cavitary 322, 348, 350, 379 Pedipalps . . . ib. coral . . .132 Pedunculata 303 , elytroidfish . . 307 Pegasidse . . . 83,94 fish . 5,305,307,379 Pelagosaums . . .565 , proper . .307 Pelicanidse . .52 , fresh- water fish . ib. Pelicans ... . ib. , jawed . . 269 Pellitory of Spain . . 404 , ~ lernean fish . . 308 Pelonaians . . 165, 167 , parenchymatous 323, Peloniidge . . .167 359, 360, 380 Pelopiides - . . .614 , pincer-bearing fish .308 Pelopjeus . . .221 shield-headed fish . 307 Peltocephala . . .307 , suctorial . . 269 Penaeacese . . * 427 , thick-headed fish . 308 Penseidse . . .293 , tufted fish . . ib. Penguins . . .34 , worm-like fish . 309 Penicillium . . . 534 Pareirabrava . . . 478 Penuatulidse . . . 357 Parinsc . . . .40 Pennyroyal . . .412 Parmeliacese . . . 532 Pentacerotidse . . . 333 Parnidae . . . 180 Pentacrinitidse 326, 334, 563 572 Paronychiacese . . . 440 Pentactidje . .325 330 Parrots . . ,43 Pentamerus- . . 549 567 Parrot fishes . . .105 Peppers 438 Parsley. . . .394 Pepper, betel . 437 Pai'snip. . . . ib. black . ib. Parthenopidse . . 286 long. . ib. Partula . . .115 white . ib. Passeres , . .36 Pepper worts 525 Passifloracese . . .474 Peppermint 412 Passion flowers . . . ib. Peramelidae. 29 Pastmaca . . .394 Perches 103 Patellidse 114, 138, 5-19, 566, 576 naked-headed . tf. Patma worts ... .520 ,, sea and serpeutiform ib. Paussidse . . .184 , r spiny-headed . ib. Peach . . . .431 Percidse ib. Pear , . . .430 Percophida) . ib. Peas . . . .431 Pecicera 284 Pectens, fossil . . 563, 571, 577 Perielase 604 Pectinibranchiata . .126 Peridiniidse - 370 Pectinibranchs ... . ib. Perigynese . . 390,407 proboscidiferous . ib. Peripatidse - . . .315 INDEX. 733 Page Peripatiens . . 315 Periwinkles . . 125, 134 Perlidee. 215 Permian group . 557 Perna .... 571 Peru, balsam of, 432 Peruvian barks . 396 Petalite 601 Petiveriacese 464 Petrels 51 Petricolidae 149 " Petrified mushroms" 572 Petroleum 622 Petromyzontidge 111 PetroseHnum . 394 Peuce ... 567 Phacops 548 Phalangers 29 Phalangidse . ... 273 Phalangistidae . 29 Phallus . ... 533 Phaneropneumona 146 Phaneropneuinons ib. Phanerogamia . .885, 388 Pharidge . . 151 Pharyngobranchii 111 Pharyngoguathi 105 acanthopterygii tf. malacopterygii 106 Phascolomyidae 30 Phascolomys 28 Phascolotherium 564 Phasianella . . 549 Phasianidas 46 Phasmidao . . 208, 210 Pheasants . . . 46 Philadelphaoege . 397 Philesiaceee ... 496 Philesiads ib. Philhydridae . 180 Philinidse . 139 Philonexidse . . 116, 118 Philydraceae 505 Phlebotomidae . 254 Phlebotomists . ib. Phleum ... 519 Phloxes 417 Phocidse 17 Phoenicites 579 Phoenicopterus . 578 Phoenikoidese . 518 Page Phoenix dactylifera . .514 Pholadidse . .148, 151 Pholadomyidse . 152, 563, 566 Phoridge (Diptera) . . 260 (Gasteropoda) . .132 Phormium . . . 502 Phosphorides . . . .618 Phosphorus, Salt of, . . 600 Phragmoceras . ' 548, 552, 567 Phryganeidse . , .219 Phrynidge . . .276 Phycidge . . .104 Phylleleutherae . . .500 Phyllidians . . .142 Phyllidiidge . . . ib. Phyllinidse . . . . 313 Phyllirrhoidge . . .142 Phylloblastee . ... 385 PhyUopoda (Conchifera) .148 (Crustacea) . 293 Phyllopods (Bivalves) . . 1,48 (Crustaceans) . 28 Phyllopteryx ... .82 Phyllosomatida) . . 293 Phyllosynaptge . . . 506 Physaliidaj . 322, 336, 337 Physeteridaa . . 18,581 Physograda?. . . .337 Physomycetes . . . 534 Physophoridfe . . .357 Phytelephas macrocarpa . 515 Phytolaccacege . . .438 Phytolaccads . . . ib. Phytological equipment . 671 Phytology . . .381 Phytosaurua . . . .560 Phytozoa . . 5, 379 Picidge . . . .44 Pieringe. . . .235 Pigeons . -. .44 Pikes, . ... .108 sea . ' . ., 100 small-mouthed . . 108 Pilchard ... .84 Pileolus . . .576 Pimeliidse . .195 Pimelodidse . . .106 Pimento . . .400 Pimpinella . , . 395 Pinacese . .493 fossil 556,561,563,567,579 734 INDEX. Page Page Pine-apples . . .511 -"latygasterinco . . 226 Pines . . 493 D latylepas . 302 Piney-varnish . . 462 D latyonyx . 582 Finite . . . . 610 D latypezide . 258 Pinks . . . . 440 D lectognathi . 94 Pinnas . 148,158,563 Plesiosaurus 54, 55, 561 Pinnidae . 158 Plethodontidse . . 77 Pinnigrada . . 334 Pleuracanthus . . 555 Pinnotheridse . . 287 Pleurobranchidre . 139 Pipe-fishes . 94 Pleuronectidse . . 104 Pipe-worts . 517 Pleurophyllidian s . 141 Piperacese . 436 PleurophyllidiidcG . ib. Piperales . ib. Pleurosaurus . 565 Piperals . ib. Pleurotomaria . 552,562,566,576 " Pipers" . 326 Pleurotomidse . . 128 Pipidse . . 75 Pliocene-group . . 578 Pipunculidse .259 Pliosaurus . 565 Pisa . . 283,284 Plocaria tenax . . 535 Pisces . . 4, 86, 377 Plovers . 33,49 Pistachio-nuts . . 446 Plover-quails . 46 Pistiacese . 516 Plum . . 431 Pistillidia . 524 Plumatellidee . 343, 348 Pitch-blende . . 613 Plumbaginacese . . 416 Pitcher-plants . . 482 Pneumod ermonidse . 124 American . 455 Pneumoderms . . ib. Pittosporacese . . 452 Poa . . . 519 Pittosporads . ib. Pocillopores . 355 Placads . 451 Pocilloporidse . . ib. Placentalia . 13 Pod-shells . . 151 Placoidians . 81 Podocarpus . 579 Placunidse . 159 Podophthahnata (Crustacea) .285 Plagiostoma . 563,571 (Gasteropoda). 136 Plagiostoini . 86 Podopsis . 571 Planariidse . 313, 318 Podosphenia . 578 Planaxidee . 134 Podostemaceae . . 443 Planes . . 485 Podostemads . ib. Plantaginacese . . 416 Poduridse . 268 Plantain . 509 Pceciliidse . 107 Plantain-eaters . . 42 Pcecilopleuron . . 565 Plants, collecting and preserv- Pogonias . 83 ing ^ . . 670 Pogonopoda . 157 flowering 385, 386, 388 Pogonopods . ib. flowerless 386, 522, 523 Poinse . . 519 fossil 556, 573 Poison-nuts . 422 Platanacesa . 485 "Poissons" of Lacepede . 377 Platycarcinus . . 284 Polemoniaceae . . 417 Platycephalidse . . 102 Pollicipedidse . 304 Plateinys 569, 576 Polyclininse 165, 166 Platin-Iridium . . 616 Polycotyla . 305 Platinides . 597 Polycrase . 614 Platinum- ore . 597, 598 Polydesmidse . . 268 INDEX. 735 Page Polygalacese . . .469 Polygastric-animalcules . 6 Polygastrica . . 6, 380 Polygonaceae . . .439 Polynoes . . . .314 Polynoidae . . . ib. Polyodontidse . . .93 Polyphemidse . . .299 Polyphemuses . . . ib. Polyphractus . . .551 Polypifera , . 5,323,353,379 Polypoda (Annelida) . .313 (Cephalopoda) . 121 Polypodiacese . . .525 Polypods ... .121 Polyporus . . . 533 Polyps . . 5,351,353,379 asteroid . . .357 bell-bearing . .354 clavate fleshy . . ib. fistular . . ib. fresh-water . ib. hydroid . plant-like zoanthoid fossil Polypteridse Polyptychodon . Polystomatidae . Polytomes Polytomdas Polyxenidae Polyzoa . Pomacege Pomegranate Pomfrets Pompilidne Pond-weeds Poneridse Pontederiaceca Poutederiads Pontias . Pontiidae Poplars . Poppies . Porania . Porbeagles Porcelain ... Porcellauidao (Crustacea) (Gasteropoda) Porcupine Ant-eaters . . 653 . 354 549,552,572,579 93, 565 . 570 . 363 . 339 . ib. . 267 5, 322, 343, 379, 572, 579 > 430 . 400 . 98 . 229 . 512 . 228 . 501 . ib. . 300 . ib. . 490, 579 . 454 611 290 127 30 Porcupines . Pore-worts Porifera Porites . Poritidae Porphyry Porpita . Portland-stone Page 10, 27 . 466 . 6, 375, 380 355, 549, 567 . 355 . 543 . 336 . 564 Portuguese men-of-war . 336, 337 Portulacaceae . . . 439 Portunidje . . 285, 287 Posidouia . , . 500, 563 Post pliocene group. . .580 Potamese . .512 Potamohippiis . . . 582 Potassiuni,mineral compounds of 601 Potato . . . .419 Potato, sweet, . . .418 Prairies . . .587 Pranisians . . . .297 Pranizidae . . . ib. Prawns . . . 283, 292 Preservative preparations 624, 625 Priapulidse . . .328 Prickly-ashes . . .445 Prickly-pear . . .399 Primary rocks . . .546 Primates . . .13 Prionidse . . 203,566 Pristidse . . 88, 584 Pristosaurus . . . 560 Primroses . . .415 Primulacese . . ib. Privet . . . .420 Proboscidea . . .252 Proboscidifera . . .126 Procellariidse . . .57 Proctonectidse . . .141 Proctotrupidae . . .226 Proctotrupinae . . .227 Productus . . 549, 558 Promeropidoe . . .39 Prosobranchiata . .126 Prosobranchs . . . ib. Proteaceae . . . 433 Proteans . . .76 Proteideo . . 73, 76 Proteus. . . .367 Protococcus nivalis . .537 Protogine . . . 543 Protonopsidae . ... .77 L L 3 736 INDEX. Page Page Protophyta . . . 386 Pulmonaria . . 273 Protopteri . . . .91 Pulmonea . 377 Protopterus . . .92 Pulse . ... . 432 Protosaurus . . . 557 Pumpkin . 477 Protozoa . . . 6, 380 Pupivora . 223 Pselaphidse . . .186 Purple shells . . 125 Pseudocarcinus . . 284, 285 Purslanes . 439 Pseudocotyledones . . 386 PycnodontidsB . . 560 Pseudopoda . . . 370 Pycnogonidae . 279 Pseudopods, . . . ib. Pyctornis . 576 Pseudotetramera . . 200 Pygopodes . 61 Psilomelane . . . 607 Pygopodidse . ib. Psittacidse . . 43,585 Pyraceae . 430 Psocida) . . .215 Pyralidae . 239 Psoiidao. . . .330 Pyramid shells . . 130 Psolinus . . . 325 Pyramidellidse . . ib. Psychodidae . . .254 Pyrargyrite . 598 Pysllidse . . .248 Pyrethrum parthenium . 404 Pterichthys . . .551 Pyrgomatidae . . 304 Pterodactylus . . 55,564 Pyrites, arsenical . 608 Pteromalinse . . .- 225 cubic . . ib. Pteronotidse . . .107 magnetic . ib. Pterophyllum . . . 567 tin . 614 Pteropoda . . 5, 112, 377 white iron . 608 Pteropods 5, 121, 122, 377, 576 Pyrgoma . 302 naked . 123 Pyrochroid83 . 198 shell bearing 122 Pyrolaceoe . 449 slipper shaped 123 Pyrolusite ... . 607 spiny . 122 Pyromorphite . . 602 spiral . 123 Pyrosomes 165, 167 subulate . ib. Pyrosomatidaa . . 166 Pterosomata . 143 Pyxidiculum . 572 Pterosomes . ib. Pterotracheidse . 142 QUADRUMANA . 13,574 Pterygia . 377 Quadrupedes ovipari . . 377 Pterygotus . 547 vivipari . ib. Ptilota . . 378 Quassias . 444 Ptinidse . 194 Quarternary formations . 585 Ptychacanthus . 551 Quartz . . 619 Ptychoceras . 571 Quartzose conglomerates . 550 Puccinia . 533 Quercineae . 482 Puff birds . 32 Quercitron . ib. Pule?: irritans . 262 Quernales . 481 gigas . ib. Quernals . ib. Echidnae . ib. Quina . . 396 Pulicidse . ib. Brazilian . 420 Pulmonifera . . 143 Quince . . 430 Pulmonifers, fresh- water 145 Quoyias . 134 marine . ib. Rachaeosaurus . . 565 terrestrial 143 Radiata . . 5, 323, 379, 380 Pulmonigradae . . 337 preserving . 668 INDEX. 737 Eadiate animals 5, 320, 323, 370 Rhatany-root . . 466 Eadish . .470 Rhetinexides . 622 Rafflesiacese . 520, 521 Rhinobatidge . 88 Raiidae . . 87 Rhinoceri 21, 574, 575 Raiinae . . 86 Rhinocerotidse . .21 Rails . 33, 50 Rhinocryptis . 92 Raisins . . 453 Rhinolophus . 584 Rallidas . . 50 Rhizocarpse . 526 Ramphidionidae . 305 Rhizogense . 385, 520 Ranales . . 454 Rhizpgens . ib. Ranals . . ft. Rhizophoracese . . 401 Ranidae . ,, , . 74, 75 RhizostomatidaB 322, 338 Raninidse 284, 289 Rhizanthese . 385 Ranunculaceae . . 455 Rhizanths . 520 Raphidiidae . 218 Rhodiides . 598 Raphiosaums . . 570 Rhodium, oil of, . 418 Raptoria . 210 Rhododendron . . 449 Raspberry . 430 Rhodomenia palrnata . 535 Rats . 26 RhodophysidsB . . 337 Rattle-snakes . . 66 Rhopaiocera . 234 Rays 82, 86 Rhopalodinidse . 327, 329 beaked . . 88 Rhubarb . 439 eagle . 87 Rhynchoeninae . . 202 horned . 86 Rhyuchonella . . 571 sting . 87 Rhynchonellidae . 163 stingless . . ib. Rhyncophora . . 200 Razor-fish . 148, 151 Rhynchosaums . 560 Realgar . 618 Rhyphidae . 254 Reamuriacese . . 459 Rib-worts . 416 Reamuriads . ib. Riband fishes . . 98 Reckur . . 666 Rice . 519 " Red snow " . 537 Ricinacese . 484 Reduviidse . 243 Ricciaceae . 528 Reindeer-moss . . 532 Rissoas . . , . 134 Reptilia 4, 52, 56, 377 Rissoellas . 135 Reptiles . 4, 56, 377 Rissoellidae . id. fossil 550,555, 564,568, 570, Rissoidse . 134 575, 583, 587 Roccellae . 532 scaly . shielded . 56 . 69 Rock-borers Rock-crystal . 149 . 619 preserving . 646 Rock-shells . 126 Renealmia . 508 Rodentia . 25 Resedaceae . 470 Rodents . 9, 25, 575, 578, 582 RestiaceaB . 517 Rollers . . 37 Retinite . 622 Rosacese . 429 RetosEe . . 385 Rosales . . ib. Rhabdoccela . 319 Rosals . . ib. Rhamnaceae . 426 Rose-tangles . 535 Rhamnales . 423 Rosewood . 432 Rhamnals . ib. Rosemary . 412 Rhamphastididse . 43 Roses, attar of, . . 430 738 IXDEX. Page Page Rostrifera . 130 Sagriidae 204 Rostellaria 666, 571 Saguerus Ruraphii 514 Rotatoria . 379 Sagus farinifera 513 Rotella . . 562 St. Boniface's pennies . 327 Rotifera . . 5, 341, 379 St. Cuthbert's beads . ib. Rotiferidse . 342 St. Ignatius' beans 422 Rotifers . 322, 340, 341, 379 Sal ammoniac . ... 600 bristle . . 341 Salaginites ... 556 crab . 342 Salamanders 76 fish . 341 cross-toothed 77 large-wheeled . . ib. smooth 76 pellucid . ib. Salamandridae . ib. proper . . 342 Salicacea) ... 490 social . . 341 Salicoruariidie . . 343, 344 tardigrade . 342 Sallow .... 490 tortoise . ib. Salmonidae 109 Rough-tails . 63 Salmon, deep-bodied 108 Roxburgh- worts . 495 true . . 31,84, 109 Roxburghiaceaa . ib. wide-mouthed 108 Rubia . . 395 Salpaa .... 336 Rubiaceae . ib. Salpians . 104, 165, 167 Rue worta . 445 Salpidae . . . ib. Ruininantia . 22 Salpiugidae 199 Ruminants . . . ib. Salt, common . 600 fossil 575, 581, 584, 587 Saltatoria 211 hollow-horned . 23 Salticinae 275 Rushes . . 504 Saltpetre 588 flowering . 501 Salvadoraceae . 414 Rutacese . . 445 Salvia .... 412 Rutalea . . 442 Samarskite 614 Rutals . . i6. Sambuceaa 395 Rutelidse . 189 Samphire ... 394 Rutheniides- . 598 Sarnydacese . - 474 Rutile . . 614 Samyds. ... ib. Rye . 519 Sand-ore 587 Rynehopina& . 52 Sandal- wood, red 432 Rypoghaga . 179 Sandal-woods 392 Rytinidae . 20 Sandarach 494 Sandhoppers . . .281, 295 SABADILLA . 503 Sanguisorbaceae 430 Sabellas . . . 317 Sanguisuga - 312 Sabellidaj . ib. Sanseviera 502 Saccharum . . . . 519 i Santalacese ... 392 Sacred beana . 457 Sapindaceae. ... 464 Safflower . 405 Sapindales 462 Saffron . . 509 Sapindals ... tf Saga- . 566 Sapotacese ... 424 Sagapenum . 394 Sapphire ... 610 Sage . 412 Sappodillas ... 424 Sagittidae . 142 \ Sapygidaa . 229 Sago - . 513, 514 Sarcocols - . 427 INDEX. 739 Page Page Sarcollaenaceae . . 442 Scleroderma . 377 Sarcolenads . ib. Sclerodus . 547 Sarcopsylla penetrans . . 262 Scolecidae . 362 Sargassa-shells . . 135 Scoliidao . 229 Sargassum bacciferum . . 536 Scolopacidao 49, 578 Sarsaparillas . 496 Scolopendridae . 263, 266 SarraceniaceD3 . . 455 Scolytidae . 202 Sassafras . 433 Scomberesocidae . 106 Satin-spar . 603 Scomberidse . . . 99 Satin-wood . 447 Scopelidae . 108 Saturnia Atlas . 173, 233 Scorpaenidae . 101 Sauria . 57 Scorpionidae . 276 Saurians . , . . 55 Scorpions . ib. Saururaceae . 436 book . . . 278 Saury pikes . 106 false . . ib. Sauvagesiaceae . . 471 water . . 242 Sauvagesiads . ib. Scorzonera . 405 Savin . . 494 Screamers . 50 Saw fish . 88 Screw-shells . 135 Saxifragaceae . 429 Screw-pines . 515 Saxifragales . 427 Scrobiculariidae . 150 Saxifragals . ib. Scrophulariaceae . 408 Saxifrages . 429 Scrubby-oaks . . 461 Scabbard-fishes . . 98 Scrupariidae . 345 Scale-bearers . 337 Sculda . . 566 Scale-insects . 249 Scurvy-grass . 470 mealy-winged . 248 Scxitelleridae . 244 Scale-shells . 153 ScuteDidae . 331 Scalidae . 129 Scutibranchiata . 136 Scallops 148, 159 Scutibranchs . ib. Scammony . 418 peduncle-eyed . ib. Scansores . 43 sessile-eyed . 137 Scaphidiidae . 182 Scydmaenidae . 199 Scaphites . 571 Scyllaridae '283,291 Scarabaeida? . 188 Scylliidae . 90 Scaridae . 105 Scymniidae . 89 Scaritidae . 177 Scyphia . 573 Scatophaga Ceparum . . 251 Scytosiphon filum . 536 Sceh'dotherium . . 582 Sea-anemones . 353, 355 Scenopinida3 . 258 Sea-arrows . 142 Scepaceae . 484 Sea-blubbers . 335 Scepads . ib. Sea-cactusses . 330 Scheelite . 615 Sea-cucumbers . . ib. Schizandraceac . . 478 Sea-fans . 358 Sclizopteris . 556 Sea-gourds . 329 Sciaenidae . 100 Sea-hares . 157 Scincidae . 62 Sea-horses . 94 Scitamineae . 508 winged 83,94 Sciuridae . 26 Sea-melons . 330 Scleranthaceae . . 434 Sea-nettles . 5, 335 337, 379 Sclerantha . ib. ciliograde . 339 740 INDEX. Page Page Sea-nettles, cirrigrade . . 338 Serranidse . 103 diphydian . . 339 Sertulariids . 354 physograde. . 337 Sersarmso . 284 pulmonigrade . ib. Sessilia . 304 Sea-pens . 357 Sexuales . 385 Sea-scorpions . . 101 Shaddock . 448 Sea-serpent . 55 Sharks . 82,83 Sea-snails . 129 false . 90 Sea-snipes 82, 97 fox . 89 Sea-pinks . 416 gray . 90 Sea-stars . 324 Greenland . 89 Sea-urchins . ib. hammer-headed 82, 89 Sea-weeds . 535 true . 89 Sea-wracks . 511 Sheep . 12, 24 Seals . 10, 12, 17 Sheat-fishes, flat-headed . 107 Sebestens . 418 long-headed . ib. Secale . . 529 mailed . 106 Secondary formations . . 558 naked . ib. Securifera . 222 true . 107 Sedentaria (Arachnida) . 274 Sheath-bills . 47 (Crustacea) . . 297 Shell-beds . 589 Sedges . . 518 Shepardite . 609 Selagids . 410 Shrimps, clicking . 292 Selaginacese . ib. glass . . 294 Seleniides . 621 horned . 293 Selenite . 603 opossum . ib. Selenium, native . 621 penaan . ib. Seleniurets . ib. pond . . 299 Semionotua . 562 proper 282, 292 Senega . . 466 skeleton . 295 Senna . . 432 spiny. . 282 Sensitive plants . ib. Sialidse . . 219 Seps . 63 Siderides . 608 Sepidge . . ib. Sigillariae . 557 Sepiidse . 120 Silenales . 439 Sepiophora . ib. Silica . 619 Sepiophores . ib. Silicon, mineral compounds of, 619 Serpentine . 543 Silk-cotton plants . 468 Serpents 56, 66 Silphidse . 182 crown . 68 Siluridse . 107 fluviatile . 67 Silver-glance . 598 forest . . 68 Silver, native . . ib. harmless . 67 Silver-trees . 433 proper . 68 Silurian group . . 546 salt-water . 67 Simarubacese . . 444 short-headed . . 68 Siiniidae . 13 tree . . ib. Simosaurus . 560 venomous 60 Siinuliidae . 253 water . . ib. Sinter . . 587 wood . . 68 Siphon shells . . 145 Serpulidse 811, 317 Siphonariidse . ib. INDEX. 741 Page' Page Siphonia 567, 573 Solibranchia . 377 Siphonostomata . 379 Solipedes 22 Siphostomes . 305 | Solpugidae 278 Sipunculidae 321, 329 Sorotrochians . 341 Sirenidae . 76 Sorotrocha ib. Sirens . . ib. Sorrel . 439 Sivatherium 574, 581 Souari-nuts 461 Skates . 84, 87 Southernwood . 404 Skimmers . 52 Spalacidse 26 Skinks . 53, 62 Sparassus 271 gape-eyed . 61 Sparidse 100 Skippers . 236 Spatangidae . 321, 325, 331, 571 Skoinoideae . 517 Spathic-iron . 609 SkuU shells . 163 Spearmint . . 412 Skunks . 17 Specular-iron . . 608 Sloths . . 11, 12, 24, 582 Spermoedia clavus . 534 Slugs, burrowing . 144 Sphaeria . ib. oceanic . . 142 Sphaerodermidas . 566 sea . ib. Sphaeromatidae . 282, 297 true . 144 Spaeromids . 297 water-boring . ib. Sphegidae . 229 Smilacese 496 Sphenodon . 582 " Smut " in corn . 534 Spheridiida8 . 181 Snipes . 33,49 Sphingidse . 237 Snails . . 144 Sphyraenidso . 100 apple . 133 Spider-worts . 504 looping . . 146 Spiders . 273 oceanic . . 136 bipulmonary . . 274 pond . 145 bird 271, 274 river . 134 crab . . 275 Snake-root ... . 466 geometric . . ib. Snowdrop . 510 hunting . 274 Soap-berries . 464 jumping 271, 275 Soapstone . 605 parasitic sea . 279 Soap-worts . 464 quadripulmonary . 274 Soda . . 588 red . 273 Soda nitre . 600 sea . ib. Sodium, mineral compounds of, 600 . sedentary . 274 Soil, inorganic, . . 590 , sheph< rd . 278 organic . . ib. , spinning . 275 Solanaceje . 419 , trap-door . 271 Solanales . 417 , true . 274 Solanals . . . ib. , true sea . 279 " Solarium " . 130 , wandering . 275 Solaster . . . 325 , water . . 271 Solenhofen, lithographic stone , wolf . 275 of, . . . 563 SpinacidaD . . 90 Solenidae . . . 151 Spinage . 437 Solenellidse . - . 156 Spindle-trees . 425 Solenomyidae . 152 Spine-backs . 99 Solens, river . 157 Spinel . . 611 742 INDEX. Page Page Spinicerebrata . 4, 377 Star-fishes, true . . 332 Spinigrada . 333 Starlings 33,42 Spiny-rats . 27 ,, corvine . 41 Spirifer . 549, 558, 563, 567 Stars, bird's-foot sea . 325 Spirobrachiophora . 378 brittle . 324, 333 Spirulas . 120 cushion . . 325 Spirulidse . ib. feather . , . 334 Spodumene . 601 lily . 327 Spondylidse . . 159 membranous-sea . . 332 Spondylosaurus . 565 pedunculated lily . 334 Sponges . 6, 366, 374, 375. 380 porous sea . 333 calcareous .' 376 sand . 325 of commerce . 374 sea proper . 333 fossil . 567, 572 , sessile lilly . , . 335 grantian . 376 tubercular sea . . 333 horny . . 375 Star-worts . 483 preserving . 670 Stavesacre . 456 proper . . 375 Steatite . . 605 siliceous . 376 Stegoptera . 217 thethyan . ib. Stellerines . 20 Spongia . 380 Stenelytra . 196 Spongiidse , . 375 Steneo-fiber . 578 Spoonbill t . 34 Steneosaurus . 565 Sporidiiferi . 534 Stenidaa . 185 Sporiferi . 533 Stenoceras . 552 Sporogen83 . 385 Steppes . 587 Spring-tails 264,268 Sterelmintha 5, 323, 359, 360, 380 Spruce, essence of . 494 Sterculiacese . 468 Spurges , . 484 Sternoxi . 190 Squalidae j . 89 Stickle-backs . . 100 Squalinae . 88 Stick-insects . 210 Squamata . . 56 Sticta . . 532 Squatinidae Squids . . 89 . 120 Stigmaria Stilaginacese . 557 . 489 false . 119 Stilbaceae . 421 Squillidae 283, 294 Stilbids . ib. Squills . . 502 Stimmiides . 617 Squirrels . . 26 Stinkstone . 603 Stackhousiaceae . . 424 Stomapoda . 293 Stackhousiads t . ib. Stomapods . ib. Staircase-shells . 130 Stomatellidse . 137 Stalactites . 603 Stomatopterophora . 377 Stalagmites , . ib. Stone-worts . 535 Staphyleacese . . 465 Storax, liquid . . 491 Staphylinidse . . 185 Storax-worts . 424 Star-apple , . 424 Strati omidae . 255 Star-fishes t . 324 Strawberry . 430 distachian . 332 Stream-gold . 588 pinnate armed . 334 StrephonidaB . 127 spinous . 333 Strepsiptera . 250 totrastachian . ib. Streptospondylus . 569 INDEX. 743 Page Page Strigidaa . . 36 Sylvine . 601 Strobilosauria . . 6'. Symplocinese . . 424 Strobilosaurians . ib Synanchiidae . 102 Stromateidse . 98 Synaptidse . 329 Strombidae . 125 Symbranchii . 110 StrongylidsB . 350 Synbranchidee . . ib. Strontianite . 603 Synechophyta . . 385 Strontiides . ib. Synedra . 578 Struthiolaria . 115 Syngamidse 349, 351 Struthiones . 48 Syngnathidae . . 94 Struthionidae . . ib. Synorgana . 385 Strychnia . 422 Synorhizse . ib. Strygocephalus . . 552 Syringas . 397 Sturgeons 81, 93 Syringopora . 556 spoonbill . 93 Syrphidge 257, 259 Sturnidae . 42 Systolides . 379 StylasteridgQ . 355 Stylasters . ib. TABANID.E . 255 Style-worts . 406 TaccacesQ . 510 Stylidiaceae . ib. Taccads . ib. Stylinidas . 130 Tachydromiidae . 257 StylopidaB . 250 Tachyporidae . 186 Stypteriides . 610 Taeniidae 360, 361 StyracaceaB . 424 Tail-worts . 497 Submarine accumulatio s . 586 Talc . . 605 forests . ib. Talegallidse . 45 Succhosaurus . . 569 Talpidae . 15 Suckers . 96 Tamaricacese . 472 Sucking-fishes . . 97 Tamarind . 432 Suctoria (Aiolopoda) . 269 Tamarisks . 472 (Annelida) . 317 Tamus communis . 497 Sugar . . 519 Tanacetum vulgare . 404 Suidse . . 21 Tanghin-poison . 422 Sulphur, native . 621 Tansy . . 404 Sumachs . 446 Tantalus . 576 Sun-birds 33, 39 Tapestry-weavers . 274 Sun-dews . 453 Tapioca . 485 Sun-fishes . 95 Tapiridae . 21 Surianaceae . 438 Tapirs . 21, 574 Surianads . ib. iff ; . . 494 Surinam-medlar . 424 Taraxacum Dens-leonis . 405 Surmullets . 102 Tarentulas . 276 Swallows 32, 37 Faxaceae . 493 Swedish-earth . . 368 Taxites 567, 579 Sweet-flags Sword-fishes . 503 82,99 Tea, New Jersey plants . 426 . 461 Sycamore 464, 579 Peak, African . . 485 Sycoideae . 487 East Indian . 411 Sycotypidaa . 128 Teazels . . 405 Syenite . 542 Tectibranchiata . . 139 Syepoorite . 607 Fectibranchs . . ib. N N 744 INDEX. Page Page Tectona grandis . 411 Thallogenae 386, 532 Tecturidae . 138 Thallogens . 38 6, 528, 532 Tegenaria . 270 Thallophyta . . 386 Teguexins . 58 Theaceae . 461 Teidse . . ib. Thecidseidse . 162 Teleophyta . 385 Thecidians . ib. Teleosaurus [. . 568 Thecodontosaurus . 560 Telephoridae . 193 Thecosomata . . 122 Telerpeton Elginense . . 550 Theionides . 620 Telespathese . . 514 Thelodus . 547 TeUens . . 150 Thelphusidae . . 287 Tellinidse 150/577 Theobroma Cacao . 468 Telluriides . (816 Therevidse . 257 Tellurium, Graphic . ib. Theridioninae . 270, 275 native . ib. Thethyidae . 376 Tenebrionidae . . 195 Thethys fimbriata . 360 Tentaculites 548 Thetis . . 571 Tenthredinidae . . 222 Theutyes . 97 Tenthredininae . . ib. ThinocoridaB . . ' . 47 Tenuirostres . 38 Thomisinse 271, 275 Terbiides . 612 Thorn-apple . 419 Terebellas . 317 Thripidae . 215 Terebellidae (Annelida) 311, 317 Thrushes ' . . 40 (Gasteropoda) . 131 Thuia . . 561 Terebrantia (Cirrhopoda) . 304 Thunder flies . 213, 215 (Hymenoptera) . 222 Thuytes . 567 Terebratulidse 161, 162, 549, 567 Thylacotherium . 564 Terebridse . 129 Thyme . 412 Terebrina . ib. Thymelaceso . 434 Teredines . 148 Thyonidse . 330 Termitidse . 215 Thysanura 264, 268 Ternstromiacese . 461 Ticks . . 277 Tertiary-formations . 573 harvest . . 278 Testacea . 377 plant . 277 Testacellida) . . 144 true 272, 277 Testudinidse . 69 water . 278 Tetragnatha . 270 Tilestone . 550 Tetragoniaceae . . 435 Tiliaceaa . 466 Tetragonolepis . . 562 Tin, native . 614 Tetraonidse . 46 Tin-ore . . ib. Tetrapneumona . 274 Tinamidae . 47 Tetrarhynchidae . 362 Tinamous . ib Tetrastachiata . . 333 Tinea favosa . 534 TextulariidsQ 373, 572 Tineidae . 239 Thalamiflorae . . 390 Tingidaa . 243 Thalamita . 284 Tipulidae . 254 Thalassematidse . 316 Tit-mice . 40 Thalassemidge . . 328 Titaniides . 614 Thalassicollidae . 374 Titanium, native . ib. Thallassinidse . . 291 Toads . . 75 Thallassophila . . 145 cell-backed . . ib. INDEX. 745 Page Page Tobacco 419 Tricuspidariidae . 361 Todies . 32 Tridacnidae . 158 Tolu, balsam of, 432 Triglidae . 101 Tomato 419 Trigoniidse . 115 ,156,571 Tonka-bean 432 Trigonocarpum . 557 Tooth-shells . 138 Trigonophes . 71 false 133 Trigonophidae . . ib. Top-shells 125, 137 Trilliaceae . 496 Topaz . . 611 Trilliads 1 ib. Topes . . 89 Trilotes . 547 Torpedinidse . 87 " Trilobite, barr" . ib. Torpedos 84, 87 Trimera . 247 Torsks . . 54 Trinucleus . 548 Tortoises . 54 Trionycidae 70, 569 land . 69 Triopidae . 140 long-necked . . ib. Trioptolomea . . 432 river ib " Tripe de Roche" . 532 soft . . 70 Tripoli 578,589 Tortricidse . 239 Tripteridae . 123 Toucans . 43 Triticum . 519 Tourmaline Tritonias 144 "Tous-les-mois" .' 508 Tritonidae 126 Toxoceras . 571 Triuridaceae 497 Toxodon 582 Trochidaa 137,549,555,566 571, 576 Trachearia . 276 Trochilidae 39 Trrachearians, jointed . . 278 Trochotoma 566 simple . . 276 Trogidae 188 Trachelides . '. ; . 197 Trogonidae 27 Tracheliidae . 371 Trogous 32, 37 Trachelipoda . . . : . 377 Trogontherium . 575, 578 Trachelocanthus .-- . 558 Trombiidie 277 Trachelocercidse . 371 Trona 601 Trachinidae . 102 Tropseolacese 467 Trachyte . .t: . 543 Tropiopoda 376 Tragacanth, gum . 432 Truncatellidae 146 Trap-rocks . . 543 Trunk fishes 82,95 Trapa natans . . 402 Trumpet-fish 82 Trapeziae . 283 Trumpet-flowers . 409 Travertine . 580 Trygonidae 87 Tree-climber . 82 Tschewkinite 613 Tremandraeeae . . 466 Tube shells 151 Trematoda . 362 Tuber 534 Trepangidse . 330 Tubicinella 302 Trepangs 327, 330 Tubicola 311, 316 Tretosternon . 569 Tubiporidse . 358 Trias . 558 Tubulariidae 354 Trichina spiralis . 360 Tubulifera 327 Trichiuridae . 98 Tubuliflorae 404 Trichocephalidae . 351 Tubuliporidae 343, 346 Trichodesmium erythrseum . 536 Tufa 543, 587 Trichotropidae . . 132 Tuff 587 NN 2 746 INDEX. Tulip . -age . 502 Uranexides Fage . 613 Tulip shells . 127 Uraniidee . 237 Tun-shells . 128 Uraniides . 613 Tungstenides . . 615 Uranoscopus .82 Tunicaries 5, 164. 166, 378 Urchins, cake . . 326 Tunicata . 5, 166, 378 egg . . 325 Tupaiidse . 15 heart . 325, 331 Turbellas . 319 helmet . 331 Turbinidfe 136, 549, 555, 566, 571 pea . . 325 Turbinolia . 579 shield . 331 Turbots . 82 sea . . 332 Turdidae . 40 turban . ib. Turf . . 588 Urda . . 566 Turkeys . 46 Uredinaceae . 533 brush . . 45 Urinite . 613 Turmeric . 508 Uroceridae .223 Turned shells . . 140 Urodela . 76 Turneracege .471 Uropeltidse . 63 Turnerads . . . ib. Ursidee . . 17,584 Turnip . . 470 Urticaceae .488 Turnsole . 485 Urticales .485 Turpentine .494 Urticals . ib. Turquois . 610 Turrilites . 571 VACCINIACE^: . . 396 Turritellidaj 135, 549, 555, 566 Vaginulidse .373 Turritidge . 128 Valerianacese . . 405 Turtles 54, 70 Valerians . ib. Tussac grass . 519 Valvatidae . 134 Tutsans . 459 Valve-shells . . ib. Typhacese . 516 Vanadiides .616 Typhlinidae . 63 Vanadinite . . ib. Typhlopidaa . ib. Vauicoridae : . .133 Varicornes . 186 UDOEA . . 566 Variolariae . 532 Ulma thermalis . 537 Varuna . . 284 Ulniacese . 488 Vasculares .385 Uloborus . 270 Vegetable Ivory . 515 Ulodendron . 556 Vegetable kingdom, classifica- Ultramarine . 611 tion of . 385 Umbellales . 392 Vegetable-marrow .477 Umbellals . ib. Velellidss 322, 336, 338 Umbelliferae . 395 Velia currens . .240 Umbellifers .393 Velonia . 482 Umbellulariidas . 357 Velutinidse . 128 Umbrella shells . 139 Velvet ears . ib. Umiri balsams . . 450 Venericardia . 577 Unionidce 115, 156, 569 Veneridae . 149 Univalves . ' . 5 Venus' Fly-trap . 454 Unogata . 378 Venuses . 147, 149 Upas tree . 486 fresh-water . 149 Upupidae . 38 Ventriculites . 572 INDEX. 747 Page Page Veratrum . 503 Volutes, marsh . . 145 Verbenaceae . 411 proper 125, 127 Verde antico . 543 Volutidae . 127 Vermes . 377, 378, 379 Volvocidae . 369 Vermetidae 133, 571 Vorticellidae . 370 Vermigrada . 328 Vorticidae . 319 Vermilion, native . 599 Vultures . 35 Vers cavitaires . . 348 Vulturidae . ib. molasses . . 380 parenchymateaux . 349 WAD , . 607 rigidules . &fe . 379 Walnuts . 481 Vertebrata 4, 7, 377 Warblers . 40 Vertebrate animals 4,377 Wasps, beaked sand . 230 Vertebrates 4,6,7 bee-like sand . ib. Verte'bres allantoidiens . 377 dark-winged sand . 229 anallantoidiens . ib. ichneumon sand . 230 Vertumnus thethydicola . 360 parasitic . 229 Veronicella . 125 predacious wood . 230 Vervains . 411 social . 231 VesieulariidaG . . 347 solitary . ib. Vespertilionidae 14, 15 spine-tailed . 229 Vespidae . 231 true sand . ib. Vibrionidae . 369 Water . . 595 Victoria Kegina . 459 Water-chesnut . . 402 Vines . . 452 Water-hemlock . . 395 Viniferae . 453 Water-leaves . 416 Violaceae . . 472 Water-lillies . . 458 Violales . 471 Water-measurers . 243 Violals . . ib. Water-moths 216, 219 Vipers . . 66 Water-shields . . 458 Viperidse . > .. . ib. Water-peppers . . 443 Viperina . ib. Water-plantains . 500 Virginian Snake-root . . 391 Water-worts . 505 Viscum album . . 392 Wealden-group . . 568 Vitaceae . . 452 Weasels . 17 Vitrininae . 145 Wedge-shells . . 150 Vitriol, blue . 600 Weevers . 102 green . . 609 Weevils . 202 white . . 605 Wentle-traps . 129 Viverridae . 16 Whales . 9, 12 Vivianaceae . 467 baleen . . 18 Vivianads . ib. sperm . . ib. Vivianite . 609 Wheat . . 519 Viviparidae Vochyaceae . 134 . 465 Wheel-animalcules Whelks . 5 . 126 Vochysiaceae . ib. Whin . . 432 Vochysiads . ib. Whirlwigs . 179 Voles . . 26 White ears . 133 Voltzia . . 561 Whortleberries . . 39T Volucellae . 251 " Will-wi'-the-wisp" . 596 Volutes, false . . 127 Willows 490,579 748 INDEX Page Wine . . 453 Worms, suctorial Wing-shells . 125, 131 syphon false . 131 tailed . Whiter-greens . . 449 tape . Winteraniacese . . 452 tongue . Winter 's-bark . . 457 tricuspid Witch-hazels . . 393 true tape Witherite . 602 tube . Woad . . 470 vesicular Wolckonskoite . . 609 Worm-shells Wolf-fishes . 97 Wormwood Wolfram . 615 Wrasses, ctenoid Wombats . 30 cycloid Woodlice-proper . 296 Wreath sheUs . sea . . ib. Wrynecks fork-tailed . ib. Wulfenite Wood-oil . 462 Woodpeckers . . 44 XANTHIDIUM . Wood-sorrels . . 441 Xantho Wood-swallows . . 37 Xauthorrhaea . Woorali-poison . . 422 Xanthoxyllaceae Worms, armed tape . 361 Xenophoracea . bristle . . 316 Xiphiidae cestoid . . 361 Xylophagidae cotyloid disk . 351 . ib. Xyphosura Xyridaceae double . . 309 Xyridales . earth . 312, 315 Xyridals . fork-nosed . 328 Xyrids . fresh-water . 315 Guinea . . 351 YAM . *. hermaphrodite . ib. Yews . hooded . 350 Yponomeutidee hook . . 360 Yttriides hook-tailed . 390 Yttrotantalite . larval . . 851 Yuncinae lob . 816 long-mouthed . . 819 ZAMIA . pedicellate . 810 Zea plaited . . ib. Zebra-wood proboscidean . . 350 Zeidae . red-blooded . 311 Zeolites round . . 351 Zeuglodon shore . . 316 Zeugophyllum . short-tailed . 319 Zinc-blende , t slender-headed . 351 Zinc-ore, red ,-, spiniferous . 350 Zincides spiny-headed . . 361 Zingiberacese . spoon . . 328 Ziphius . star-mouthed . . 350 Ziphodon strap . . 361 Zircon . 362 . 329 . 328 . 360 . 309 . 361 . ib. 311,317 . 363 . 133 . 404 . 105 . ib. . 125 . 44 . 615 . 572 . 285 . 502 . 445 . 132 . 99 . 255 . 300 . 505 . 504 . ib. , 505 . 497 . 493 . 239 . 612 612, 613 . 44 563, 567 . 519 . 446 . 98 . 610 .1574 . 557 . 605 . ib. . ib. . 598 . 574 . ib. . 612 INDEX. 749 Zirconiides Zoanthidae Zoanthoida Zoarces viviparus Zonuridse Zoological equipment Zoology Page . 612 . 355 . 354 . 86 . 58 . 623 Zoophyta Zootoca vivipara Zosteraceso Zosterites Zygaenidse Zygophyllese Page 5,379 . 56 . 511 . 563 . 89 . 444 ADDENDUM. While this work has been passing through the press, the following Sub-Order of Gasteropodous Pectinibranchs has been proposed by Dr. Gray to embrace the family of the Cones (Conidce), and pos- sibly also the Fissure-shells (Turridce). S US-ORDER TOXIFEROUS-PECTINIBRANCHS (Toxifera). Head with a tubular expansion of the veil between the tentacles ; proboscis retractile, furnished with a fleshy tube, having a bundle of subulate barbed teeth at the end, instead of the usual lingual riband. Carnivorous. ;r 7 rmaKgpeare's jTiarna^e. J / The gleanings of tradition excepted, the first owledge that has reached us of the poet, af- his baptism, has reference to his marriage, we states that ' he thought fit to marry while was yet very young,' and that his wife was 3 daughter of one Hathaway, said to have 2n a substantial yeoman, in the neighborhood Stratford ; and later disclosures prove that iwe must of had access to good sources of infor- ition. The marriage took place in the fall of 32,* when the poet was in his nineteenth year. L the twenty-eight of November, that year, Ik Sandels and John Kichardson subscribed a id whereby they became liable in the sum of ty pounds sterling, to be forfeited to the 'hop of Worcester, in case there should be ind any lawful impediment to the marriage of illiam Shakspeare and Anne Hathaway, of atford ; the object being to procure such a pensation from the Bishop as would author- the ceremony after once publishing the bans, e original bond is preserved at Worcester, ;h the marks and seals of the two bondsmen xed, and also bearing a seal with the initials H., as to show that the bride's father, Rich- [ Hathaway, was also present and consented the act. ["he parish books all about Stratford and ?rcestcr have been ransacked, but no registry the marriage has been discovered. The pro- ilty seems to be, that the ceremony took place one of the neighboring parishes, perhaps jston, or Billesday, or Luddington, where the isters of that period have not been preserved, ne Hathaway was of Shottery, a pleasant age situated within an easy walk of Stratford, I belonging to the same parish. No registry her babtism has come to light ; but the bap- nal register of Stratford did not commence 1558. She died on the sixth of August, 3, and the inscription on her monument in- ns us that she was sixty-seven years of age. r birth therefore, must have occurred in 1556, tit years before that of her husband. LF, 63, SNOW HILL. >o OBWOINO BY HAT.F._A very particular Friend " ww Smith, and a very decided enemy to all worldly *,a9 anybody m Philadelphia knows : but a fcisiuesa * r ^ S Uth dida ' t kn W> Aud " thereb ? m correspondent had directed his letter to Amo* h, Asqrnre." Friend Amos replied punctually and despatching business matters, added the following .e H K-U FT 6 - to , illf ? rirt y u *, *<% a merahe? Society of Fnends, 1 am not free to use worldly n,fl ?r iag , my fneuds ' and wlsh them to refrain them to me. Tiwu wilt, therefore, please t ' the end of rri ^ nftra ^ * , without any Mi! " WORKS PUBLISHED >IR. VAN VOORST DURING 1853. A NATURALIST'S RAW 3S ON THE DEVONSHIRE COAST. By P. H. GOSSE, A.L.S., ith Twenty-eight Lithographic Plates, some coloured, post 8vo., . ;i Is. PALM TREES OF THE AMAZON, AND THEIR USES. By ALFRED R. WALLACE. Post 8vo., with Forty-eight Plates, 10s. 6d. PRIMITIVE ET NOVITLE FAUN.E ET FLOR.E MADER.E ET PORTUS SANCTI. Two Memoirs on the Ferns, Flowering Plants, and Land Shells of Madeira and Porto Santo. Reprinted (by permission) from the Transactions of the Cambridge Philoso- phical Society, with an Appendix. By R. T. LOWE, M.A. With two Plates, 12mo., price 6s. 6d., boards (150 Copies printed). THE SEA-WEED COLLECTOR'S GUIDE; containing plain In- structions for Collecting and Preserving; and a List of all the known Species and Localities in Great Britain. By J. COCKS, M.D. Fcap. 8vo., 2s. 6d. PRODROMUS FAUNAE ZEYLANIC^E, being Contributions to the Zoology of Ceylon. By E. F. KELAAKT, M.D., Edinburgh. F.L.S., F.Z.S., Stan 7 Surgeon, Ceylon. 8vo., price 10s. 6d. THE GENERA OF RECENT MOLLUSCA, arranged according to their Organization. By HENRY and ARTHUR ADAMS. Parts 1 to 8, with each 4 Plates of the Shells and Animals. 8vo., 2s. 6d., or royal Svo., with the Animals coloured, 5s. About twenty-four Parts will complete this Work. A SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH DIATOMACEJE; with remarks on their Structure, Functions, and Distribution ; and Instructions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens. By Rev. WM. SMITH, F.L.S. The Plates by Tufien West. In 2 vols. royal Svo. Vol.1., 1 Is. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE EASTERN BORDERS. By G. JOHNSTON, M.D., Author of " A History of the British Zoo- phytes," &c. Svo. Vol. I., embracing the Topography and Botany, 10s 6d. COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS, with Descriptions of Eggs, Nests, &c. By WM. C. HEWIT- SON. Second Edition. Parts 1 to 8, 2s. 6d. each. About Thirty- six Parts will complete this work. THE POWERS OF THE CREATOR DISPLAYED IN THE CREATION ; or, Observations on Life amidst the various forms of the Humbler Tribes of Animated Nature; with Practical Comments and Illustrations. By Sir JOHN GRAHAM DALYELL, Knt. and Bart. In two volumes 4to., centaining numerous Plates of Living Subjects, finely coloured. Vol. II., comprehending Forty-six Plates, price 4 4s. WORKS PUBLISHED BY MR. VAN VOORST DURING 1853. NEREIS BOREALI-AMERICANA ; or, Contributions towards a History of the Marine Alga? of the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of North America, by W. H. HARVEY, M.D., M.R.I.A., &c. Part II., Rhodosperma, with Twenty-four Coloured Plates. Royal 4to.. 1 10s. EXOTIC BUTTERFLIES ; being Illustrations of New Species selected chiefly from the Collections of W. WILSON SAUNDERS and WM. C. HEWITSON. Parts 5 to 8, at 5s. each. Each Part contain- ing Three Coloured Plates and Descriptions. INSTRUMENTA ECCLESIASTICA. 4to., Second Series, Part IX., 2s. 6d. THESAURUS CONCHYLIORUM ; or, Figures and Descriptions of Recent Shells. Edited and Illustrated by G. B. SOWERBY, Jun., F.L.S. Imperial 8vo. Part 14, price 1 5s. coloured. THE PHYTOLOGIST. Nos. 140 to 151. Is. each. THE ZOOLOGIST. Nos. 122 to 134. Is. each. A HISTORY OF BRITISH MOLLUSCA AND THEIR SHELLS. By "Professor EDWARD FORBES, F.R.S., &c., and SYLVANUS HANLEY, B.A., F.L.S. Illustrated by a Figure of each known Animal and of all the Shells. Engraved on 203 copper plates. Four Vols. 8vo., 6 10s. Royal 8vo., with the Plates Coloured, 13. A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH STALK-EYED CRUSTACEA. By THOMAS BELL, Sec. R.S., F.G.S.,F.Z.S., President of the Linmean Society. 8vo. Illustrated by 174 Wood Engravings, 1 5s., or royal 8vo., 2 10s. WORKS IN PREPARATION. A SUNDAY BOOK FOR THE YOUNG; or, HABITS OF PA- TRIARCHAL TIMES IN THE EAST. 16mo. THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF EUROPE. By Professor EDWARD FORBES, F.R.S. Fcap. 8vo. MINERALOGY AND MINING IN EUROPE. By WARRINGTON SMYTH, M.A., F.G.S. Fcap. 8vo. THE GEOLOGY OF EUROPE. By ROBT. AUSTIN, F.R.S., F.G.S. CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY OF LABUAN. By JAS. MOTLEY, of Labuan, and LEWIS LLEWLYN DILLWYN, F.L.S., etc. Illustrated. In 8vo. parts, at 10s 6d each. A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL CATALOGUE OF BOOKS PRIVATELY PRINTED. Second Edition with additions. By JOHN MARTIN, Librarian to his Grace the Duke of Bedford, K.G. JOHN VAN VOORST, 1, PATERNOSTFR ROW. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THF, LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW OCT 21 1915 324 T970 INTER-LIBRARY LOAN FEB4 FEB 2 7 197G MAY 02 1990 ^ UC BERKELEY SENT ON ILL UUL 1 5 2005 1 MONTH LOAN 30m-l,'15 U-C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY