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 PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS F O R^ 
 
 Coal Age v Electric Railway Journal 
 Electrical World v Engineering News-Record 
 American Machinist v Ingenieria Internacional 
 Engineering g Mining Journal ^ Power 
 Chemical 6 Metallurgical Engineering 
 Electrical Merchandising
 
 PHYSICS FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS 
 
 MECHANICS 
 
 AND 
 
 HEAT 
 
 BY 
 WILLIAM BALLANTYNE ANDERSON, PH. D. 
 
 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OP PHT8IC8, IOWA STATE COLLEGE 
 
 FIRST EDITION 
 SIXTH IMPRESSION 
 
 McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. 
 NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE 
 
 LONDON: 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4 
 1914
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY THE 
 MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 /n 
 
 The present volume is the outgrowth of mimeograph notes 
 which the author has used in connection with a course of lectures 
 given during the past six years. Since the author has also con- 
 ducted the recitations for several sections during this time, the 
 
 1 successive revisions of the notes have been made by one viewing 
 the work from two angles, that of class instructor, as well as that 
 of lecturer. It is believed that in this way a keener realization 
 
 >^ of the student's difficulties, and a better appreciation of what 
 parts should be revised, have been obtained than would have 
 
 fc. been possible without this two-fold contact. 
 
 ^{ We now have a large and rapidly increasing number of students 
 who are interested primarily in the practical side of education. 
 
 ^ With the needs of these students in mind, the practical side of the 
 subject has been emphasized throughout the book. This 
 method, it is believed, will sustain interest in the subject by 
 showing its application to everyday affairs, and will, it is hoped, 
 be appreciated by .both students and instructors in Agriculture 
 and Engineering. In this connection, attention is directed to 
 sections 18, 19, 20, 29, 30, 39, 44, 54, 56, 60, 62, 63, 76, 80, 83, 
 108, 109, 111, 134, 138, 170, 185, 189, 190, 195, 200, 204, 205, 
 206, 218 and Chapters VII, XII, XVII, and XVIII. 
 
 More space than usual has been devoted to the treatment of 
 Force, Torque, Translatory Motion, and Rotary Motion. It is 
 felt that the great importance of these topics, which underlie 
 so much of the subsequent work of the student, warrants such 
 treatment. Probably everyone who has taught the theory of 
 electrical measuring instruments, for example, has realized that 
 the student's greatest handicap is the lack of a thorough grasp of 
 the fundamental principles of mechanics. The student who has 
 '^thoroughly mastered elementary mechanics has done much 
 toward preparing himself for effective work in technical lines. 
 
 The sketches, which are more numerous than is usual in such a 
 text, are chosen with special reference to the help they will be in 
 enabling the student to readily grasp important or difficult 
 principles. Wherever possible, every principle involved in the 
 
 v 
 
 443914
 
 vi PREFACE 
 
 text is brought up again in a problem; so that in working all of 
 the problems a review of practically the entire book is obtained. 
 For a complete course, the text should be accompanied by lectures 
 and laboratory work. 
 
 In the treatment of many of the subjects, the author is indebted 
 to various authors of works in Physics, among whom may be 
 mentioned Professors Spinney, Duff, Watson, and Crew. The 
 order in which the different subjects are treated is that which 
 seems most logical and most teachable, and was given much 
 thought. 
 
 Thanks are due Professor G. M. Wilcox, of the Department of 
 Physics, Armour Institute, and Professor W. Weniger, of the 
 Department of Physics at Oregon Agricultural College, for their 
 careful reading of the original mimeograph notes and for the 
 numerous suggestions which they offered. I wish also to thank 
 my colleagues, Professor H. J. Plagge and Professor W. Kunerth, 
 for reading of the manuscript and proofs, and for valuable sug- 
 gestions. Thanks are also due to Professor W. R. Raymond of 
 the English Department of this College for reading much of 
 the manuscript during revision, and to Professor J. C. Bowman 
 of the same department, for reading practically all of the manu- 
 script just before it went to press. 
 
 IOWA STATE COLLEGE, W B A 
 
 March, 1914. W.J5. A.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 PREFACE v 
 
 PART I 
 
 MECHANICS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 MEASUREMENT 1 
 
 Section 1. The three fundamental quantities. 2. Units and 
 numerics. 3. Fundamental units. 4. Standards of length, mass, 
 and time. 5. The metric system. 6. Conversion of units. 7. 
 Measurement of length. 8. The vernier caliper. 9. The mi- 
 crometer caliper. 10. The micrometer microscope. 11. Meas- 
 urement of mass, inertia. 12. Measurement of time. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 VECTORS 11 
 
 Section 13. Scalars and vectors denned. 14. Representation of 
 vectors by straight lines. 15. Addition of vectors, resultant. 
 16. The vector polygon. 17. Vectors in equilibrium. 18. The 
 crane. 19. Resolution of vectors into components. 20. Sailing 
 against the wind. 21. Sailing faster than the wind. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 23 
 
 Section 22. Kinds of motion. 23. Speed, average speed, velocity 
 and average velocity. 24. Acceleration. 25. Accelerating force. 
 26. Uniform motion and uniformly accelerated motion. 27. 
 Universal gravitation. 28. The law of the inverse square of the 
 distance. 29. Planetary motion. 30. The tides. 31. Accelera- 
 tion of gravity and accelerating force in free fall. 32. Units of 
 weight and units of force, compared. 33. Motion of falling 
 bodies; velocity initial, final and average. 34. Distance fallen 
 in a given time. 35. Atwood's machine. 36. Motion of projec- 
 tiles; initial velocity vertical. 37. Motion of projectiles; initial 
 velocity horizontal. 38. Motion of projectiles; initial velocity 
 inclined. 39. Time of flight and range of a projectile. 40. 
 Spring gun experiment. 41. The plotting of curves. 42. New- 
 ton's three laws of motion. 43. Action and reaction, inertia
 
 viii CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 force, principle of d'Alembert. 44. Practical applications of 
 reaction. 45. Momentum, impulse, impact and conservation of 
 momentum. 46. The ballistic pendulum. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 ROTARY MOTION 59 
 
 Section 47. Kinds of rotary motion. 48. Torque. 49. Resultant 
 torque and an tiresultant torque. 50. Angular measurement. 51. 
 Angular velocity and angular acceleration. 52. Relation between 
 linear and angular velocity and acceleration. 53. The two condi- 
 tions of equilibrium of a rigid body. 54. Moment of inertia and 
 accelerating torque. 55. Value and unit of moment of inertia. 56. 
 Use of the flywheel. 57. Formulas for translatory and rotary 
 motion compared. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION, SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 72 
 
 Section 58. Central and centrifugal forces and radial acceleration. 
 59. Bursting of emery wheels and flywheels. 60. The cream 
 separator. 61. Efficiency of cream separator. 62. Elevation of 
 the outer rail on curves in a railroad track. 63. The centrifugal 
 governor. 63a. The gyroscope. 64. Simple harmonic motion. 
 65. Acceleration and force of restitution in S.H.M. 66. Period 
 in S.H.M. 67. The simple gravity pendulum. 68. The torsion 
 pendulum. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER 89 
 
 Section 69. Work. 70. Units of work. 71. Work done if the line 
 of motion is not in the direction of the applied force. 72. Work 
 done by a torque. 73. Energy potential and kinetic. 74. Trans- 
 formation and conservation of energy. 75. Value of potential and 
 kinetic energy in work units. 76. Energy of a rotating body. 77. 
 Dissipation of energy. 78. Sliding friction. 79. Coefficient of 
 friction. 80. Rolling friction. 81. Power. 82. Units of power. 
 83. Prony brake. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 MACHINES 110 
 
 Section 84. Machine defined. 85. Mechanical advantage and 
 efficiency. 86. The simple machines. 87. The lever. 88. The 
 pulley. 89. The wheel and axle. 90. The inclined plane. 91. 
 The wedge. 92. The screw. 93. The chain hoist or differential 
 pulley. 94. Center of gravity. 95. Center of mass. 96. Stable, 
 unstable and neutral equilibrium. 97. Weighing machines.
 
 CONTENTS ix 
 
 PART II 
 PROPERTIES OF MATTER 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 PAGE 
 THE THREE STATES OF MATTER AND THE GENERAL PROPERTIES OP 
 
 MATTER 137 
 
 Section 98. The three states of matter. 99. Structure of matter. 
 100. Conservation of matter. 101. General properties of matter. 
 102. Intermolecular attraction and the phenomena to which it 
 gives rise. 103. Elasticity, general discussion. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 144 
 
 Section 104. Properties enumerated and defined. 105. Elasticity, 
 elastic limit and elastic fatigue of solids. 106. Tensile stress, and 
 tensile strain. 107. Hooke's law and Young's modulus. 108. 
 Yield point, tensile strength, breaking stress. 109. Strength of 
 horizontal beams. 110. Three kinds of elasticity of stress and of 
 strain; and the three moduli. 111. The rigidity of a shaft and the 
 power transmitted. 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 THE PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 155 
 
 Section 112. Brief mention of properties. 113. Hydrostatic pres- 
 sure. 114. Transmission of pressure. 115. The Hydrostatic 
 paradox. 116. Relative densities of liquids by balanced columns. 
 117. Buoyant force. 118. The principle of Archimedes. 119. 
 Immersed floating bodies. 120. Application of Archimedes' 
 principle to bodies floating upon the surface. 121. Center of 
 buoyancy. 122. Specific gravity. 123. The hydrometer. 124. 
 Surf ace tension. 125. Surface a minimum. 126. Numerical value 
 of surface tension. 127. Effect of impurities on surface tension of 
 water. 128. Capillarity. 129. Capillary rise in tubes, wicks, and 
 soil. 130. Determination of surface tension from capillary rise in 
 tubes. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 177 
 
 Section 131. Brief mention of properties. 132. The earth's atmos- 
 phere. 133. Height of the atmosphere. 134. Buoyant effect, 
 Archimedes' principle, lifting capacity of balloons. 135. Pressure 
 of the atmosphere. 136. The mercury barometer. 137. The 
 aneroid barometer. 138. Uses of the barometer. 139. Boyle's 
 law. 140. Boyle's law tube, isothermals of a gas. 141. The 
 manometers and the Bourdon gage.
 
 x CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 194 
 
 Section 142. General discussion. 143. Gravity flow of liquids. 
 144. The siphon. 145. The suction pump. 146. The force pump. 
 147. The mechanical air pump. 148. The Sprengel mercury 
 pump. 149. The windmill and the electric fan. 150. Rotary 
 blowers and rotary pumps. 151. The turbine water wheel. 152. 
 Pascal's law. 153. The hydraulic press. 154. The hydraulic 
 elevator. 155. The hydraulic ram. 156. Diminution of pressure 
 in regions of high velocity. 157. The injector. 158. Ball and 
 jet. 159. The curving of a baseball. 
 
 PART III 
 HEAT 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 217 
 
 Section 160. The nature of heat. 161. Sources of heat. 162. 
 Effects of heat. 163. Temperature. 164. Thermometers. 165. 
 The mercury thermometer. 166. Thermometer scales. 167. 
 Other thermometers. 168. Linear expansion. 169. Coefficient 
 of linear expansion. 170. Practical applications of equalities and 
 differences in coefficient of linear expansion. 171. Cubical expan- 
 sion; Charles's law. 172. The absolute temperature scale. 173. 
 The general law of gases. 174. The thermocouple and the 
 thermopile. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 243 
 
 Section 175. Heat units. 176. Thermal capacity. 177. Specific 
 heat. 178. The two specific heats of a gas. 179. The law of 
 Dulong and Petit. 180. Specific heat, method of mixtures. 181. 
 Heat of combustion. 182. Heat of fusion and heat of vaporiza- 
 tion. 183. Bunsen's ice calorimeter. 184. The steam calorimeter. 
 185. Importance of the peculiar heat properties of water. 186. 
 Fusion and melting point. 187. Volume change during fusion. 
 188. Regelation. 189. Glaciers. 190. The ice cream freezer. 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 VAPORIZATION 260 
 
 Section 191. Vaporization defined. 192. Evaporation and ebulli- 
 tion. 193. Boiling point. 194. Effect of pressure on the boiling 
 point. 195. Geysers. 196. Properties of saturated vapor. 
 197. Cooling effect of evaporation. 198. Wet-and-dry-bulb 
 hygrometer. 199. Cooling effect due to evaporation of liquid
 
 CONTENTS xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 carbon dioxide. 200. Refrigeration and ice manufacture by 
 the ammonia process. 201. Critical temperature and critical 
 pressure. 202. Isothermals for carbon dioxide. 203. The Joule- 
 Thomson experiment. 204. Liquefaction of gases. 205. The 
 cascade method of liquefying gases. 206. The regenerative 
 method of liquefying gases. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 283 
 
 Section 207. Three methods of transferring heat. 208. Convec- 
 tion. 209. Conduction. 210. Thermal conductivity. 211. Wave 
 motion, wave length and wave velocity. 212. Interference of 
 wave trains. 213. Reflection and refraction of waves. 214. 
 Radiation. 215. Factors in heat radiation. 216. Radiation and 
 absorption. 217. Measurement of heat radiation. 218. Trans- 
 mission of heat radiation through glass, etc. 219. The general 
 case of heat radiation striking a body. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 METEOROLOGY 302 
 
 Section 220. General discussion. 221. Moisture in the atmos- 
 phere. 222. Hygrometry and -hygrometers. 223. Winds, trade 
 winds. 224. Land and sea breezes. 225. Cyclones. 226. Tor- 
 nadoes. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 311 
 
 Section 227. Work obtained from heat thermodynamics. 228. 
 Efficiency. 229. The steam engine. 230. Condensing engines. 
 231. Expansive use of steam, cut-off point. 232. Power. 233. 
 The slide valve mechanism. 234. The indicator. 235. The steam 
 turbine. 236. Carnot's cycle. 237. The gas engine fuel, carbu- 
 retor, ignition and governor. 238. Multiple-cylinder engines. 
 239. The four-cycle engine. 240. The two-cycle engine. 
 
 INDEX . . 335
 
 PART I 
 MECHANICS
 
 
 
 
 \> 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 _\J 
 
 < 

 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 MEASUREMENT 
 
 1. The Three Fundamental Quantities. The measurement 
 of physical quantities is absolutely essential to an exact and scien- 
 tific study of almost any physical phenomenon. For this reason, 
 Measurement is usually the topic first discussed in a course in 
 Physics. The popular expressions, "quite a distance," a "large 
 quantity," etc., are too indefinite to satisfy the scientific mind. 
 A physical quantity may be defined as anything that can be 
 measured. The measurement of length, mass, and time are of 
 special importance and will therefore be considered first. 
 Indeed, almost all physical quantities may be expressed in 
 terms of one or more of these three quantities, for which reason 
 they are called the fundamental quantities. In the case of some 
 physical quantities this is at once apparent. Thus, to measure 
 the area of a piece of land, it is, as a rule, only necessary to 
 measure the distance across it north and south (say LI) and then 
 east and west (L 2 ). The product of these two dimensions, Z/iL 2 , 
 is then an area. If it is required to find how many "yards" of 
 earth have been removed in digging a cellar, not only the length 
 and width must be known, but also the depth (L 3 ). The result 
 evidently involves a length (i.e., distance) only, since volume = 
 LiL 2 L 3 . Coal, grain, etc., are measured in terms of mass. If 
 the quantity involved is the time between two dates it is, of 
 course, measured in terms of time. If a train goes from one city 
 to another in a known time T, its average velocity is the distance 
 between the two points (i.e., a length) divided by the time 
 required to traverse that distance, or 
 
 Velocity =| 
 
 A force may be measured in terms of the rate at which it 
 changes the velocity of a body of known mass upon which it acts. 
 Velocity, as we have just seen, is a quantity involving both 
 
 1
 
 2 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 length and time; hence, force must be a quantity involving all 
 three fundamental quantities. In like manner it may be shown 
 that other physical quantities, e.g., power, work, electric 
 charge, electric current, etc., are expressible in terms of one or 
 more of the three fundamental quantities length, mass, and 
 time. 
 
 2. Units and Numerics. In order to measure and record 
 the value of any quantity, it is necessary to have a unit of that 
 same quantity in which to express the result. Thus if we meas- 
 ure the length of a board with a foot rule and find that we must 
 apply it ten times, and that the remainder is then half the length 
 of the rule, we say that the length of the board is 10^ ft. If 
 this same board is measured with a yard stick, 3| yds. is the 
 result; while, if the inch is the unit, 126 inches is the result. 
 Here the foot, the yard, or the inch is the Unit, and the 10^, 
 3^, or 126 is the Numeric. Evidently the larger the unit, the 
 smaller the numeric, and vice versa. Thus, in expressing a 
 weight of 2 tons as 4000 Ibs., the numeric becomes 2000 times 
 as large because the unit chosen is 1/2000 as large as before. 
 
 3. Fundamental Units. In the British System of measure- 
 ment, which is used in practical work in the United States and 
 Great Britain, the units of length, mass, and time are respec- 
 tively ihefoot, the pound, and the second. It is often termed the 
 foot-pound-second system, or briefly the " F.P.S." system. Since, 
 as has been pointed out, nearly all physical quantities may be 
 expressed in terms of one or more of the above quantities, the 
 above units are called Fundamental Units. (The fundamental 
 units of the metric system are given in Sec. 5.) 
 
 4. Standards of Length, Mass, and Time. If measurements 
 made now are to be properly interpreted several hundred years 
 later, it is evident that the units involved must not be subject 
 to change. To this end the British Government has had made, 
 and keeps at London, a bronze bar having near each end a fine 
 transverse scratch on a gold plug. The distance between these 
 two scratches, when the temperature of the bar is 62 Fahren- 
 heit, is the standard yard. At the same place is kept a piece of 
 platinum of 1 Ib. mass. This bar and this piece of platinum 
 are termed the Standards of length and mass respectively. 
 The standard for time measurement is the mean solar day, and 
 the second is then fixed as the 1/60X1/60X1/24, or 1/86400 
 part of a mean solar day.
 
 * ' 
 
 MEASUREMENT 3 
 
 The Day Sidereal, Solar, and Mean Solar. Very few things so com- 
 monplace as the day, are so little understood. The time that elapses 
 between two successive passages of a star (a true star, not a planet) 
 across the meridian (a north and south line), in other words the time 
 interval from "star noon" to "star noon," is a Sidereal Day. From 
 "sun noon" to "sun noon" is a Solar Day. The longest solar day is 
 nearly a minute longer than the shortest. The average of the 365 solar 
 days is the Mean Solar Day. The mean solar day is the day commonly 
 used. It is exactly 24 hours. The sidereal day, which is the exact 
 time required for the earth to make one revolution on its axis, is 
 nearly four minutes shorter than the mean solar day. 
 
 The cause for the four minutes difference between the sidereal day and 
 the solar day may be indicated by two or three homely illustrations. If 
 a silver dollar is rolled around another dollar, without slipping, it will be 
 found that the moving dollar makes two rotations about its axis, 
 while making one revolution about the stationary dollar. The moon 
 always keeps the same side toward the earth, and for this very reason 
 rotates once upon its axis for each revolution about the earth. Compare 
 constantly facing a chair while you walk once around it. You will find 
 that you have turned around (on an axis) once for each revolution about 
 the chair. If, now, you turn around in the same direction as before, 
 three times per revolution, you will find that you face the chair but 
 twice per revolution. For exactly the same reason the earth must 
 rotate 366 times on its axis during one revolution about the sun, in order 
 to "face" the sun 365 times. Consequently the sidereal day is, using 
 round numbers, 365/366 as long as the mean solar day, or about four 
 minutes shorter. 
 
 Variation in the Solar Day. If the orbit of the earth around the sun 
 were an exact circle, and it, further, the axis of rotation of the earth 
 were at right angles to the plane of its orbit (plane of the ecliptic), then 
 all solar days would be of equal length. The orbit, however, is slightly 
 elliptical, the earth being nearer to the sun in winter and farther from it 
 in summer than at other seasons; and the axis of the earth lacks 23. 5 
 of being at right angles to the plane of the ecliptic. 
 
 Let S, (Fig. 1) represent the sun, E, the earth on a certain day, and E', 
 the earth a sidereal day later (distance EE' is exaggerated). Let the 
 curved arrow indicate the rotary motion of the earth and the straight 
 arrow, the motion in its orbit. When the earth is at E, it is noon 
 at point A; i.e., AS is vertical; while at E', the earth having made 
 exactly one revolution, the vertical at A is AB, and it will not be noon 
 until the vertical (hence the earth) rotates through the angle 0. This 
 requires about four minutes (0 being much smaller than drawn), causing 
 the solar day to be about four minutes longer than the sidereal day. 
 The stars are so distant that if AS points toward a star, then AB, 
 which is parallel to it, points at the same star so far as the eye can detect. 

 
 4 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Hence the sidereal day gives, as above stated, the exact time of one 
 revolution of the earth. 
 
 When the earth is nearest to the sun (in December) it travels fastest; 
 i.e., when AS is shortest, EE' is longest. Obviously both of these 
 changes increase and hence make the solar day longer. The effect 
 of the above 23.5 angle, in other words, the effect due to the 
 obliquity of the earth's axis, is best explained by use of a model. 
 We may simply state, however, that due to this cause the solar day in 
 December is still further lengthened. As a result it is nearly a minute 
 longer than the shortest solar day, which is in September. 
 
 When the solar days are longer than the mean solar day (24 hour day) 
 the sun crosses the meridian, i.e., "transit" occurs, 
 later and later each day; while when they are 
 shorter, the transit occurs earlier each day. In 
 February, transit occurs at about 12:15 mean so- 
 lar time (i.e., clock time), at which date the alma- 
 nac records sun "slow" 15 minutes. In early 
 November the sun is about 15 minutes "fast." 
 These are the two extremes. 
 
 6. The Metric System. This system is in common use in 
 most civilized countries except the United States and Great 
 Britain, while its scientific use is universal. The fundamental 
 units of the Metric System of measurement are the centimeter, 
 the gram, and the second. It is accordingly called the centimeter- 
 gram-second system, or briefly the "C.G.S." system. This 
 system far surpasses the British system in simplicity and facility 
 in computation, because its different units for the measurement 
 of the same quantity are related by a ratio of 10, or 10 to some 
 integral power, as 100, 1000, etc. The centimeter (cm.) is the 
 1/100 part of the length of a certain platinum-iridium bar when at 
 the temperature of melting ice. This bar, whose length (between 
 transverse scratches, at 0C.) is 1 meter (m.), is kept at Paris by 
 the French Government. The gram is the 1/1000 part of the mass 
 of a certain piece of platinum (the standard kilogram) kept at the 
 same place. The milligram is 1/1000 gm., and the millimeter 
 (mm.) is 1/1000 meter. The second is the same as in the British 
 system. The above meter bar and kilogram mass are respectively 
 the Standards of length and mass in the Metric System. 
 
 6. Conversion of Units. In this course both systems of 
 units will be used, because both are frequently met in general 
 reading. Some practice will also be given in converting results 
 expressed in terms of the units of one system into units of the
 
 MEASUREMENT 5 
 
 other (see problems at the close of this chapter). To do this it 
 is only necessary to know that 1 inch = 2.54 cm. and 1 kilogram 
 ( = 1000 gm.) = 2.2046 Ibs., or approximately 2.2 Ibs. These two 
 ratios should be memorized, and perhaps also the fact that the 
 meter = 39.37 in. From the first ratio it will be seen that the 
 numeric is made 30.48 (or 12X2.54) times as large whenever a 
 certain length is expressed in centimeters instead of in feet. The 
 relation between all other units in the two systems can readily 
 be obtained if the above two ratios are known. 
 
 7. Measurement of Length. The method employed in 
 measuring the length of any object or the distance between any 
 two points, will depend upon the magnitude of the distance to 
 be measured, and the accuracy with which the result must be 
 determined. For many purposes, either the meter stick or the 
 foot rule answers very well; while for other purposes, such as 
 the measurement of the thickness of a sheet of paper, both are 
 obviously useless. For more accurate measurements, several 
 instruments are in use, prominent among which are the vernier 
 caliper, the micrometer caliper, and the micrometer microscope. 
 
 8. The Vernier Caliper. In Fig. 2 is shown a simplified 
 form of the vernier caliper from which the important principle 
 of the vernier may be readily comprehended. This vernier cali- 
 
 r 
 n 
 
 L J 
 
 \ 
 
 > 
 
 
 . ... 
 
 -F 
 
 1, , i ! 5 , C i , , fl 
 
 C 
 
 Ul 1 1 1 1 1 I I f | 1 1 1 1 1 7 
 
 a 5 ,4 Jo hfe do \ 
 
 $ 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 per consists of a bar A, having marked near one edge a scale in 
 millimeter divisions Rigidly attached to A is the jaw B, 
 whose face F is accurately perpendicular to A, and parallel to 
 the face of jaw D, attached to bar C. C may be slid along A 
 until D strikes B, if there is nothing between the jaws. While 
 in this position, a scale of equal divisions is ruled upon C having 
 its zero line in coincidence with the zero line of A, and its tenth 
 line in coincidence with the ninth line on A. The scale on C is 
 called the vernier scale and that on A, the main scale. Obvi- 
 ously, the vernier divisions are 1/10 mm. shorter than the main
 
 6 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 scale divisions; i.e., they are 9/10 as long, since 10 vernier divi- 
 sions just equal 9 scale divisions. 
 
 To measure the length of the block E, place it between the 
 jaws D and B, as shown. Since the two zero lines coincide when 
 the jaws are together, the length of the block must be equal to 
 the distance between the two zeros, or 3 mm., plus the small dis- 
 tance a. But if line 2 on the vernier coincides with a line on the 
 main scale, as shown, then a is simply the difference in length 
 between 2 vernier divisions and 2 main scale divisions, or 0.2 
 mm. The length of E is then 3.2 mm. 
 
 If C were slid to the right 1/10 mm., line 3 on the vernier 
 would coincide with a main scale line, and a would then equal 0.3 
 mm.; so that the distance between the jaws would be 3.3 mm. 
 Evidently, the above 1/10 mm. is the least motion of C that can 
 be directly measured by the vernier. This distance (1/10 mm.) 
 is called the sensitiveness of this vernier. If the divisions on A 
 had been made 1/20 inch, and 25 vernier divisions had been 
 made equal to 24 main scale divisions, then the sensitiveness or 
 difference between the length of a main scale division and a ver- 
 nier division would be 1/500 inch. For the vernier divisions, 
 being 1/25 division shorter than the main scale divisions (i.e., 
 24/25 as long), are 1/25X1/20 or 1/500 inch shorter. 
 
 This arrangement of two scales of slightly different spacing, 
 free to slide past each other, is an application of the Vernier 
 Principle. This principle is much employed in making measur- 
 ing instruments. Instead of having 10 vernier spaces equal to 
 9 spaces on the main scale, the ratio may be 25 to 24 as men- 
 tioned, or 50 to 49, 16 to 15, etc., according to the use that is to 
 be made of the instrument. In the case of circular verniers 
 and scales on surveying instruments, the above-mentioned ratio 
 is usually 30 to 29 or else 60 to 59, because they are to be read in 
 degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc. If the vernier principle is 
 thoroughly understood, there should be no difficulty in reading 
 any vernier, whether straight or circular, in which a convenient 
 ratio is employed. 
 
 9. The Micrometer Caliper. The micrometer caliper (Fig. 
 3) consists of a metal yoke A, a stop S, a screw B whose threads 
 fit accurately the threads cut in the hole through A, and a sleeve 
 C rigidly connected to B. When B and S are in contact, the 
 edge E of C is at the zero of scale D; consequently the dis- 
 tance from S to B, in other words the thickness of the block F
 
 MEASUREMENT 7 
 
 as sketched, is equal to the distance from this zero to E. If 
 the figure represents the very common form of micrometer cali- 
 per in which the "pitch" of B (i.e., the distance B advances for 
 each revolution) is 1/2 mm., D is a scale of millimeter divi- 
 sions, and the circumference of C at E is divided into 50 equal 
 divisions; then the thickness of F is 4.5 mm. plus the slight dis- 
 tance that B moves when E turns through 6 of its divisions, 
 or 6/50 of a revolution. But 6/50X1/2 mm. = 0.06 mm.; so 
 that the thickness of E is 4.5+0.06 or 4.56 mm. It should be 
 explained that if the instrument is properly adjusted, then, when 
 B and S are in contact, the zero of E and the zero of D coincide. 
 Accordingly if the zero of E were exactly in line with scale D, 
 then 4.5 would be the result. As sketched, however, it is 6/50 
 of a revolution past the position of alignment with D, which 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 adds 0.06 mm. to the distance between B and S as already 
 shown. 
 
 If C were turned in the direction of arrow a through 1/50 revo- 
 lution, then line 7 of E, instead of line 6, would come in line 
 with D, and B would have moved 1/50X1/2 mm., or 0.01 mm. 
 farther from S. This, the least change in setting that can be 
 read directly without estimating, is called the Sensitiveness of 
 an instrument (see Sec. 8). Thus the sensitiveness of this 
 micrometer caliper is 0.01 mm. 
 
 10. The Micrometer Microscope. The micrometer micro- 
 scope consists of an ordinary compound microscope, having 
 movable crosshairs in the barrel of the instrument where the 
 magnified image of the object to be measured is formed. These 
 crosshairs may be moved by turning a micrometer screw similar 
 to B in Fig. 3. 
 
 If it is known how many turns are required to cause the cross- 
 hairs to move over one space of a millimeter scale, placed on
 
 8 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 the stage of the microscope, and also what part of a turn will 
 cause them to move the width of a small object also placed on 
 the stage, the diameter of the object can be at once calculated. 
 
 11. Measurement of Mass, Inertia. Consider two large pieces 
 of iron, provided with suitable handles for seizing them, each one 
 resting upon a light and nearly frictionless truck on a level steel 
 track, and hence capable of being moved in a horizontal direc- 
 tion with great freedom. If a person is brought blindfolded and 
 permitted to touch only the handles, he can very quickly tell 
 by jerking them to and fro horizontally, which one contains the 
 greater amount of iron. If one piece of iron is removed and 
 replaced by a piece of wood of the same size as the remaining 
 piece of iron, he would immediately detect that the piece of 
 wood moved more easily and would perhaps think it to be a very 
 small piece of iron. The difference which he detects is certainly 
 not difference in volume, as he is not permitted either to see or 
 to feel them; neither is it difference in weight, since he does not 
 lift them. It is difference in Mass that he detects. Hence 
 Mass may be denned as that property of matter by virtue of which 
 it resists being suddenly set into motion, or, if already in motion, 
 resists being suddenly brought to rest. 
 
 Inertia and Mass are synonymous; inertia being used in a 
 general way only, while mass is used in a general, qualitative 
 way and also in a quantitative way. Thus we speak of a large 
 mass, great inertia, a 5-lb. mass, etc., but not of 5 Ibs. inertia. 
 
 If it were possible, by the above method, for the person to 
 make accurate determinations, and if he found that one piece 
 had just twice as much mass as the other, then upon weighing 
 them it would be found that one piece was exactly twice as 
 heavy as the other. In other words, the Weight of any body is 
 proportional to its Mass. The weight of a body is simply the 
 attractive pull of the earth upon it; hence we see that the pull of 
 the earth upon any body depends upon the mass of the body, and 
 therefore affords a very convenient, and also very accurate 
 means of comparing masses. 
 
 Thus the druggist, using a simple beam balance, "weighs 
 out" a pound mass of any chemical by placing a standard pound 
 mass in one pan and then pouring enough of the chemical into 
 the other pan to exactly "balance" it. That is, the amount of 
 chemical in one pan is varied until the pull of the earth on the 
 chemical at one end of the beam is made exactly equal to the
 
 MEASUREMENT 9 
 
 pull of the earth on the standard pound mass at the other end. 
 He then knows, since the pull of the earth on each is equal, 
 that their weights, and consequently their masses, are equal. 
 Weights, and hence masses, may be compared also by means 
 of the steel-yard, the spring balance, and the platform scale. 
 These devices will be discussed later in the course. 
 
 The mass of a body is absolutely constant wherever it is 
 determined, while its weight becomes very slightly less as it is 
 taken up a mountain or taken toward the equator. This is 
 due partly to the fact that the body is slightly farther from the 
 earth's center at those points, and partly to the rotary motion of 
 the earth (see centrifugal force, Sec. 58). The polar diameter of 
 the earth is about 27 miles less than its equatorial diameter. 
 A given object weighed at St. Louis and then at St. Paul with 
 the same spring balance should show an increase in weight at 
 the latter place; whereas if weighed with the same beam balance 
 at both places, there should be no difference in the weights 
 read. The weight of the object actually does increase, but the 
 weight of the counterbalancing standard masses used with the 
 beam balance also increases in the same proportion. 
 
 12. Measurement of Time. A modern instrument for 
 measuring time must have these three essentials: (1) a device 1 
 for measuring equal intervals of time, i.e., for time "spacing," 
 (2) a driving mechanism, (3) a recording mechanism. In 
 the case of the clock, (1) is the pendulum, (2) is the mainspring or 
 weights, train of wheels and escapement, and (3) is the train of 
 wheels and the hands. In the watch, the balance wheel and 
 hairspring take the place of the pendulum. 
 
 The necessity for the pendulum or its equivalent, and the 
 recording mechanism, is obvious. Friction makes the driving 
 mechanism necessary. The escapement clutch attached to the 
 pendulum is shaped with such a slant that each time it releases 
 a cog of the escapement wheel it receives from that wheel a 
 slight thrust just sufficient to compensate for friction, which 
 would otherwise soon bring the pendulum to rest. If the 
 pendulum, as it vibrates, releases a cog each second, and if 
 the escapement wheel has 20 cogs, the latter will, of course, 
 make a revolution in 20 seconds. It is then an easy matter to 
 design a connecting train of geared wheels and pinions between 
 it and the post to which the minute hand is attached, so that 
 the latter will make one revolution in an hour. In the same
 
 10 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 way the hour hand is caused to make one revolution in twelve 
 hours. 
 
 In the hourglass of olden times, and in the similar device, the 
 clepsydra or water dropper of the Ancient Greeks, only the time 
 "spacing" is automatic. The observer became the driving 
 mechanism by inverting the hourglass at the proper moment; 
 and by either remembering or recording how many times he had 
 inverted it, he became also the recording mechanism. 
 
 Other time measurers, in which only time spacing is present, 
 are the earth and the moon. The rotation of the earth about 
 its axis determines our day, while its revolution about the sun 
 determines our year. The revolution of the moon about the 
 earth determines our lunar month, which is about 28 days. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 jr. 
 
 1. What is the height in feet and inches of a man who is 1 m. 80 cm. tall? 
 Reduce 5 ft. 4.5 in. to centimeters. 
 
 2. What does a 160-lb. man weigh in grams? In kilograms? Reduce 
 44 kilograms 240 grams to pounds. 
 
 3. Reduce 100 yds. to meters. What part of a mile is the kilometer? 
 
 4. A cubic centimeter of gold weighs 19.3 gm. Find the weight of 1 cu. 
 ft. of gold in grams. In pounds. 
 
 5. One cm. 3 of glycerine weighs 1.27 gms. How many pounds will 1 
 gaUon (231 in. 3 ) weigh? 
 
 6. If a man can run 100 yds. in 10 sec., how long will he require for the 
 100 meter dash? Assume the same average velocity for both. 
 
 7. If, in Fig. 2, the main scale divisions were 1/16 inch, and 20 vernier 
 divisions were equal to 19 divisions on the main scale, other conditions being 
 as shown, what would be the length of El 
 
 8. The pitch of a certain micrometer caliper is 1/20 inch and the screw 
 head has 25 divisions. After setting upon a block and then removing it, 
 7 complete turns and 4 divisions are required to cause the screw to advance 
 to the stop. What is the thickness of the block? 
 
 9. Between the jaws of a vernier caliper (Fig. 2) is placed a block of such 
 length that line 5 of the vernier scale coincides with line 10 of the main scale, 
 and consequently the zero of the vernier scale is a short distance to the right 
 of line 5 of the main scale. If the main scale divisions are 1/2 mm., and 25 
 vernier divisions are equal in length to 24 main scale divisions, what is the 
 length of the block? 
 
 10. What is the sensitiveness (see Sec. 8) of the vernier caliper in problem 
 7? In problem 9? What is the sensitiveness of the micrometer caliper in 
 problem 8?
 
 * 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 <\ V r 
 
 VECTORS 
 
 13. Scalars and Vectors Defined. All physical quantities 
 may be divided into two general c\asses f ^Scalars and Vectors. 
 A scalar quantity is one that is fully specified if its magnitude 
 only is given; while to specify a vector quantity completely, 
 not only its magnitude, but also its direction must be given. 
 Hence vectors might be called directed quantities. 
 
 Such quantities as volume, mass, work, energy, and quantity 
 of heat or of electricity, do not have associated with them any 
 idea of direction, and are therefore scalars. Force, pressure, 
 and velocity, must have direction as well as magnitude given or 
 they are not completely specified; therefore they are vectors. 
 Thus, if the statement is made that a certain ship left port at a 
 speed of 20 miles per hour, the motion of the ship is not fully 
 known. The statement that the ship's velocity was 20 miles an 
 hour due north, completely specifies the motion of the ship, and 
 conveys the full meaning of velocity. This distinction between 
 speed and velocity is not always observed in popular language, 
 but it must be observed in technical work. 
 
 If two forces FI and F 2 act upon a body, say a boat in still 
 water, they will produce no effect, if equal and opposed; i.e., 
 if the angle between the two forces is 180. If this angle is zero, 
 i.e., if both forces act in the same direction, their Resultant F 
 (Sec. 15), or the single force that would produce the same effect 
 upon the boat as both FI and F z , is simply their sum, or 
 
 F = F 1 +F Z (1) 
 
 If FI is greater than FZ, then when the angle between them is 
 180, that is when ^i and F 2 are oppositely directed, we have 
 
 F=F,-F 2 (2) 
 
 The resultant F has in Eq. 1 its maximum value, and in Eq. 2 
 its minimum value. It may have any value varying between 
 these limits, as the angle between F\ and F 2 varies from zero to 
 180. 
 
 o {
 
 12 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 In contrast with the above statements, observe that in scalar 
 addition the result is always simply the arithmetical sum. 
 Thus, 15 qts. and 10 qts. are 25 qts.; while the resultant of a 
 15-lb. pull and a 10-lb. pull may have any value between 5 Ibs. 
 and 25 Ibs. and it may also have any direction, depending upon 
 the directions of the two pulls. 
 
 Note that such physical objects as a stone or a train are neither 
 scalars nor vectors. Several physical quantities relating to a 
 stone are scalars; viz., its mass, volume, and density; while 
 some are vectors; viz., its weight, and, if in motion, its velocity. 
 
 14. Representation of Vectors by Straight Lines. A very 
 simple and rapid method of calculating vectors, called the 
 Graphical Method, depends upon the fact that a vector may be 
 completely represented by a straight line having at one end an 
 arrow head. Thus to represent the velocity of a southwest 
 
 " 
 
 
 wind blowing at the rate of 12 miles an hour, a line (a) 2 
 cm. long, or (6) 4 cm. long, or (c) 2 inches long, may be used as 
 shown at A, Fig. 4. In case (a), 1 cm. represents 6 miles an 
 hour; while in case (6) it represents 3 mi. an hour. In case 
 (c) the scale is chosen the same as in case (a), except that lin., 
 instead of 1 cm., represents 6 miles an hour velocity. Any con- 
 venient scale may be chosen. In each case the length of the 
 line represents the magnitude of the vector quantity; and the 
 direction of the line represents the direction of the vector 
 quantity. 
 
 15. Addition of Vectors, Resultant. The vector sum or 
 Resultant (see Sec. 13) of two or more forces or other vectors 
 differs in general from either the arithmetical or the algebraic 
 sum. By the Graphical method, it may be found as follows. 
 Choose a suitable scale and represent the first force ^i by a line
 
 VECTORS 
 
 13 
 
 having an arrow head as shown at B, Fig. 4. Next, from 
 the arrow point of this line, draw a second line representing the 
 second force F 2 , and from the arrow point of F z draw a line 
 representing F s , etc. Finally connect the beginning of the first 
 line with the arrow point of the last by a straight line. The 
 length of this line, say in inches, multiplied by the number of 
 pounds which one inch represents in the scale chosen, gives the 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 magnitude of the resultant force R. The direction of this line 
 gives the direction of the resultant force. Obviously, the same 
 scale must be used throughout. An example involving several 
 velocities will further illustrate this method of adding vectors. 
 Although in this course we shall apply the graphical method to 
 only force and velocity, it should be borne in mind that it may 
 be, and indeed is, applied to any vector quantity. 
 
 A steamboat, which travels 12 miles an hour in still water, is
 
 14 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 headed due east across a stream which flows south at the rate of 
 5 miles an hour. Let us find the velocity of the steamboat. 
 In an hour, the boat would move eastward a distance of 12 
 miles due to the action of the propeller, even if the river did not 
 flow; while if the propeller should stop, the flow of the river alone 
 would cause the boat to drift southward 5 miles in an hour. 
 Consequently, if subjected to the action of both propeller and 
 current for an hour, the steamboat would be both 12 miles far- 
 ther east and 5 miles farther south, or at D (case A, Fig. 5). By 
 choosing 1 cm. to represent 4 miles per hr., the " steam" 
 velocity would be represented by a line a, 3 cm. in length; 
 while the "drift" velocity of 5 miles an hour to this same 
 scale, would be represented by a line 6, 1.25 cm. in length. The 
 length (3.25 cm.) of the line OD or R represents the magnitude 
 of the steamboat's velocity, and the direction of this line gives 
 the course of the boat, or the direction of its velocity. The 
 velocity is then 4X3.25 or 13 miles an hour to the south of east 
 by an angle 6 as shown. This velocity R, of 13 miles per hour, is 
 the resultant or vector sum of the two velocities a and 6, and is 
 evidently the actual velocity of the steamboat. 
 
 By the analytical method, the magnitude of the resultant 
 velocity is given by the equation 
 
 # = \/(12) 2 +(5) 2 
 and its direction is known from the equation 
 
 tan 5 = 5/12 = 0.417 
 from which = 22.38. 
 
 If the steamboat is headed southeast, then a\ and &i (case 
 B, Fig. 5) represent the "steam" and "drift" velocities re- 
 spectively, and the magnitude of the resultant velocity R\, 
 in miles per hr., will be found by multiplying the length of 
 #1 in centimeters by 4. If the analytical method is employed, 
 we have from trigonometry, 
 
 -Ri 2 = ai 2 +&i 2 +2a 1 &i cos 
 
 Suppose, further, that it is required to find the actual velocity 
 of a man who is walking toward the right side of the steamboat 
 at the rate of 2 miles an hour, when the boat is headed as shown 
 in case B. Let a\, b\, and Ci represent the "steam," "drift," 
 and "walking" velocities respectively; then R 2 represents the
 
 
 
 
 VECTORS 15 
 
 actual velocity of the man as shown in case C, Fig. 5. If the man 
 walks toward the left side of the boat, his "walking" velocity is 
 c 2 and his actual velocity is R 3 . In these cases his velocity could 
 also be found by the analytical method, but not so readily. 
 
 16. The Vector Polygon. In cases A and B (Fig. 5), the 
 vector triangle is used in determining the resultant; while in 
 case C, the vector polygon, whose sides are a\, bi, c\ and R z , is 
 
 ? so used. In general, however, many vectors are involved, the 
 closing side of the polygon represents the re- 
 sultant of all the other vectors. 
 
 If a man were to run toward the left and 
 rear end of the steamboat in the direction R f 
 at the speed of 13 miles per hour (case A), he 
 would appear to an observer on shore to be 
 standing still with respect to the shore. 
 Hence his actual velocity is zero. Since R' 
 is equal to R and oppositely directed, we see 
 that the three vectors a, 6, and R' would form 
 exactly the same triangle as a, b, and R, but FlG 5a 
 
 for the fact that the arrow head on R' points 
 
 in the opposite direction to that on R. Thus vectors forming I f 
 a closed triangle have a resultant equal to zero. 
 
 Again, suppose that the man while walking toward the right 
 side of the ship, case C (Fig. 5), and therefore having an actual 
 velocity R 2 , should throw a ball with an equal velocity R' z in a 
 direction exactly opposite to that of R 2 (i.e., jR' 2 = # 2 ). It 
 will be evident at once that the ball under these circumstances 
 would simply stand still in the air as far as horizontal motion is 
 concerned. It will be seen that there are four horizontal 
 velocities imparted to the ball. First, the "steam" velocity 
 ai (Fig. 5a), second, the "drift" velocity 61, third, the "walking" 
 velocity Ci, and fourth, the "throwing" velocity R' 2 . These four 
 velocities, however, form a closed polygon and the actual velocity 
 of the ball is zero. Hence we may now make the general state- 
 ment that when any number of velocities (or forces or any other 
 vectors) form a Closed Triangle or a Closed Polygon, their resultant 
 is zero. This fact is of great importance and convenience in the 
 treatment of forces in equilibrium and will be made use of in 
 some of the problems at the close of this chapter. 
 
 17. Vectors in Equilibrium. The method of the preceding 
 sections applies equally well if the vectors involved are any other
 
 16 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 quantities; e.g., forces, instead of velocities; and the construc- 
 tions are made in the same way. This method has many impor- 
 tant applications in connection with forces, among which is the 
 calculation of the proper elevation of the outer rail on a curve 
 (Sec. 62) in order that the weight, or better, the thrust of a train 
 shall be equal upon both rails; and the calculation of the proper 
 strength for the different parts of bridges and other structures. 
 In Sec. 16 it was shown that to find in what direction and with 
 what speed the man must throw the ball in order to make its 
 actual velocity zero, a line R' z must be drawn equal to R 2 , 
 but oppositely directed. R 2 is the resultant of the three veloci- 
 
 ; 
 
 d 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 ties ai, bi, and Ci, while R' z is the Antiresultant (anti = opposed 
 to) or Equilibrant. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that in the graphical method the anti- 
 resultant of any number of velocities is represented by a line 
 drawn from the arrow point of the last velocity to the beginning 
 of the first velocity. In other words, it is represented by the 
 closing side of the vector polygon. Observe that in this case the 
 arrow heads all point in the same way around the polygon; 
 while, if the closing side is the resultant, its arrow head is directed 
 oppositely to all the others. 
 
 The case of several forces in equilibrium, or so-called "bal- 
 anced forces," is of special importance. The construction is 
 the same as that shown in Fig. 5a. Suppose that a body floating 
 in still water is acted upon by four horizontal forces, whose
 
 
 VECTORS 17 
 
 values are represented both in magnitude and direction by the 
 lines a, b, c, and d of A (Fig. 6). Let it be required to find the 
 magnitude and direction of a fifth force e', which applied to the 
 body will produce equilibrium, so that the body will have no 
 tendency to move in any direction; in other words, let us find 
 the antiresultant of a, b, c, and d. From B (Fig. 6) we find 
 the resultant e, or that single force which would exactly replace 
 a, b, c, and d; i.e., which alone would move the body in the same 
 direction, and with the same speed as would these four forces. 
 The construction C shows how e' is found. Obviously, e' 
 and e alone (D, Fig. 6) would produce equilibrium, and since 
 e is exactly equivalent to a, b, c, and d, it follows that a, b, c, d, 
 and e' produce equilibrium. From E (Fig. 6) it will be seen that 
 the resultant is the same if the vectors a, b, c, and d are taken in 
 a different order. 
 
 This is true for the reason that wherever, in the construction 
 of the polygon, we choose to draw d, say, the pencil point will 
 thereby be moved a definite distance to the left. Likewise 
 drawing 6 moves the pencil a definite distance to the right and 
 downward. Consequently the final position of the pencil after 
 drawing lines a, b, c, and d, which position determines the 
 resultant e, can in no wise depend upon the order of drawing 
 these lines. 
 
 18. The Crane. The crane, in its simplest form, is shown in 
 Fig. 7. B is a rigid beam, pivoted at its lower end and fastened 
 at its upper end by a cable C to a post A. D is the "block and 
 tackle" for raising the object L whose weight is W. After the 
 object is raised, the beam B may be swung around horizontally; 
 and then, by means of the block and tackle, the object may be 
 lowered and deposited where it is wanted. By shortening the 
 cable C it is possible to raise the weight higher, but the "sweep" 
 of the crane is of course shortened thereby. 
 
 The traveling crane, used in factories, is mounted on a " car- 
 riage" which may be run back and forth on a track sometimes 
 extending the entire length of the building, so that a massive 
 machine weighing several tons may readily be picked up and 
 carried to any part of the building. 
 
 In choosing the size of the cable and the beam for a crane as 
 sketched, it is necessary to know what pull will be exerted on C, 
 and what end thrust on B when the maximum load is being 
 lifted. These two forces, c and 6, we shall now proceed to find.
 
 18 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 In Sec. 17 it was shown that any number of forces or any other 
 vectors in equilibrium are represented by a closed polygon. 
 Three forces in equilibrium will accordingly form a closed tri- 
 angle. The point 0, at the upper end of the beam B, is obviously 
 in equilibrium and is acted upon by the three forces W, c, and 
 6; which forces, graphically represented, must therefore form a 
 closed triangle. The directions of 6 and c are known but not 
 their magnitudes. W, however, is fully specified both as to 
 direction and magnitude. Hence the forces acting upon 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 may be represented as in E (Fig. 7), or as in F, since a thrust 6 
 will have the same effect as an equal pull 6. If L weighs 1 ton, 
 or 2000 Ibs., its weight W, using as a scale 2000 Ibs. to the cm., 
 will be represented by a line 1 cm. in length (G, Fig. 7). 
 From the lower end of W draw a line b parallel to the beam, and 
 through the other end of W draw a line c parallel to the cable. 
 The intersection of these two lines at X determines the magni- 
 tude of both & and c. For the three forces have the required 
 directions, and they also form a closed triangle, thus represent- 
 ing equilibrium. The length of 6 in centimeters times 2000 Ibs.
 
 VECTORS 
 
 19 
 
 gives the thrust on the beam. The value of c is found in the 
 same way. The construction may also be made as shown in H. 
 
 The problem will be seen to be simply this: Given one side W 
 of a triangle, both in direction and length, and the directions only 
 of the other two sides b and c; let it be required to construct the 
 triangle. 
 
 19. Resolution of Vectors into Components. The resolution 
 of a vector V into two components, consists in finding the magni- 
 tude of two vectors, Vi and Vz, whose directions are given, and , 
 whose vector sum shall be the given vector V. It is thus seen to be 
 the converse of vector addition. The method will be best under- 
 stood from one or two applications. We shall here apply it 
 to velocities and forces, but it applies equally well to any other 
 vector quantity. 
 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 
 A ship is traveling with a uniform velocity of 20 mi. per hr. in a 
 direction somewhat south of east. An hour later the ship is 
 18 mi. farther east and 8.7 mi. farther south than when first 
 observed. Under such circumstances the velocity of the ship 
 may be resolved into an eastward component of 18 mi. per hr. 
 and a southward component of 8.7 mi. per hr. Had the ship 
 been headed nearly south, the southward component would 
 have been the larger. We shall next resolve a force into two 
 components. 
 
 Consider a car B (Fig. 8) of weight W, held by a cable C 
 from running down the inclined track A. Let it be required to 
 find the pull c that the car exerts upon the cable, and also the 
 force b that it exerts against the track. The latter is of course 
 at right angles to the track, but it is not equal to the weight of 
 the car, as might at first be supposed. In fact, the weight of the 
 car W, or the force with which the earth pulls upon it, gives 
 rise to the two forces, b and c. The directions of 6 and c are 
 
 
 Lxiv
 
 20 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 known, but not their magnitudes. In order to find their mag- 
 nitudes, first draw W to a suitable scale. Then, from the arrow 
 point of W, draw two lines, one parallel to b and intersecting c, 
 the other parallel to c and intersecting b. These intersections 
 determine the magnitudes of both 6 and c, as shown. We may 
 also determine b and c by the method used in the solution of the 
 crane problem. 
 
 If the cable is attached to a higher point, the construction is as 
 shown in Fig. 9. It will be noticed that under these conditions 
 the c component has become larger, and the 6 component smaller, 
 than in Fig. 8. If the cable is fastened directly above the car, 
 the 6 component is zero; that is, the car is simply suspended by 
 the cable. 
 
 In case a force is resolved into two components at right angles 
 to each other, their values may be readily 
 found by the analytical method. Thus in 
 Fig. 8, c = W sin 8, and 6 = W cos 6. Note 
 that 0i = 6. 
 
 20. Sailing Against the Wind. Al- 
 though sailing "into the wind" by "tack- 
 ing" has been practised by sea-faring peo- 
 ple from time immemorial, it is still a puz- 
 zle to many. Let AB (Fig. 10) represent a 
 sailing vessel, CD its sail, CE the direction 
 in which it is headed, and W the direction 
 of the wind. If the sail CD were friction- 
 less and perfectly flat, the reaction of the 
 
 air in striking it would give rise to a force F strictly at right angles 
 to the sail. A push (force) against a frictionless surface, whether 
 exerted by the wind or by any other means, must be normal to 
 the surface; otherwise it would have a component parallel to 
 the surface, which is impossible if there is no friction. This 
 force F may be resolved into the two components 'F\ and F 2 as 
 shown. Although as sketched, F 2 is greater than the useful 
 component FI, nevertheless the sidewise drift of the ship is small 
 compared with its forward motion, because of its greater resist- 
 ance to motion in that direction. Making slight allowance for 
 this leeward drift, we have CE' for the course of the ship. 
 Obviously, in going from C to ", the ship goes the distance 
 CH "into" the wind. 
 
 In case the boat is moving north at a high velocity, the wind, to 
 
 FIG. 10.
 
 VECTORS 21 
 
 a person on the boat, will appear to come from a point much more 
 nearly north than it would to a stationary observer. In other 
 words, the angle between the plane of the sail and the real direc- 
 tion of the wind, is always greater than the angle between this 
 plane and the apparent direction of the wind as observed by an 
 occupant of the boat. It is, however, the apparent direction or, 
 perhaps better, the relative velocity of the wind, that determines 
 the reacting thrust upon the sail. Hence strictly, W (Fig. 10) 
 should represent the apparent direction of the wind. It is a 
 matter of common observation that, to a man driving rapidly 
 north, an east wind appears to come from a point 
 considerably north of east. 
 
 Because of the very slight friction of the wind 
 on the sail, F' is more nearly the direction of the 
 push on the sail. The useful component of F', 
 which drives the ship, is obviously slightly less 
 than FI as found above for the theoretical case of 
 no friction. 
 
 21. Sailing Faster Than the Wind. It is pos- 
 sible, strange though it may seem, to make an 
 iceboat travel faster than the wind that drives p IG 
 it. Let AB (Fig. 11) represent the sail (only) 
 of an iceboat which is traveling due north, and v the velocity of 
 the wind. If the runner friction were zero, so that no power would 
 be derived from the moving air, the air would move on unchanged 
 in both direction and speed. Considering the air that strikes at A, 
 this would evidently require the sail to travel the distance A A ' 
 while the wind traveled from A to B'. Hence the velocity v' of 
 the boat would be AA'/AB' times that of the wind, or v'/v = 
 AA'/AB'. The slight friction between the runners and the ice 
 reduces this ratio somewhat; nevertheless, under favorable cir- 
 cumstances, an iceboat may travel twice as fast as the wind. 
 Velocities as high as 85 mi. per hr. have been maintained for 
 short distances. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. A balloon is traveling at the rate of 20 miles an hour due southeast. 
 Find its eastward and southward components of velocity by both the graph- 
 ical and analytical methods. 
 
 2. Find the force required to draw a wagon, which with its load weighs 
 2500 Ibs., up a grade rising 40 ft. in a distance of 200 ft. measured on the grade. 
 Neglect friction, and use the graphical method.
 
 
 22 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 4 
 
 3. Find R lt case B (Fig. 5) if 0=60. (Cos 60 =0.5). Use the ana- 
 lytical method. 
 
 4. A boat which travels at the rate of 10 mi. an hr. in still water, is headed 
 S.W. across a stream flowing south at the rate of 4 mi. an hr. A man on the 
 deck runs at the rate of 7 mi. an hr. toward a point on the boat which is due 
 east of him. Find the actual velocity of the man with respect to the earth, 
 and also that of the boat. Use graphical method. 
 
 6. By the graphical method, find the resultant and antiresultant of the 
 following four forces: 10 Ibs. N., 12 Ibs. N.E., 15 Ibs. E., and 8 Ibs. S. 
 
 6. If the beam B (Fig. 7) is 30 ft. in length and makes an angle of 45 with 
 the horizontal, and the guy cable C is fastened 15 ft. above the lower end of 
 B, what will be the thrust on B and the pull on C if the load L weighs 3000 
 Ibs. ? Use the graphical method. 
 
 7. After a man has traveled 4 miles east, and 4 miles N., how far must he 
 travel N.W. before he will be due north of the starting place, and how far 
 will he then be from the starting place? Solve by both the graphical method 
 and the analytical method. 
 
 8. A certain gun, with a light charge of powder, gives its projectile an 
 initial (muzzle) velocity of 300 ft. per sec. when stationary. If this gun is 
 on a car whose velocity is 100 ft. per sec. north, what will be the muzzle 
 velocity of the projectile if the gun is fired N.? If fired S.? If fired E.? 
 
 9. A south wind is blowing at the rate of 30 mi. per hr. Find, by the 
 graphical method and also by the analytical method, the apparent velocity 
 of the wind as observed by a man standing on a car which is traveling east 
 at the rate of 40 mi. per hr. 
 
 10. The instruments on a ship going due north at the rate of 20 miles an 
 hour record a wind velocity of 25 miles per hour from the N.E. What is the 
 actual velocity of the wind? Use the graphical method. 
 
 11. A tight rope, tied to two posts A and B which are 20 ft. apart, is pulled 
 sidewise at its middle point a distance of 1 ft. by a force of 100 Ibs. By two 
 graphical methods (Sec. 18 and 19) find the pull exerted on the posts. Solve 
 also by the analytical method. 
 
 12. Neglecting friction, find the pull on the cable and the thrust on the 
 track in drawing a 1000-lb. car up a 45 incline. The cable is parallel to the 
 track. 
 
 13. Find the pull and the thrust (Prob. 12) if the cable is (a) horizontal; 
 (6) inclined 30 above the horizontal. 
 
 '
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 22. Kinds of Motion. All motion may be classed as either 
 translatory motion or rotary motion, or as a combination of these 
 two. A body has motion of translation only, when any line 
 (which means every line) in the body remains parallel to its 
 original position throughout the motion. It may also be defined 
 as a motion in which each particle of the body describes a path 
 of the same form and length as that of every other particle, and 
 at the same speed at any given instant; so that the motion of 
 any one particle represents completely the motion of the entire 
 body. Thus if A, B, C, and D represent the positions of a 
 
 FIG. 12. 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 triangular body (abc) at successive seconds, it will be noted that 
 in case a moves a greater distance in the second second 
 than it does in the first that 6 and c and all other particles do 
 also. 
 
 In pure rotary motion there is a series of particles, e.g., those 
 in the line AB (Fig. 13) which do not move. This line is called 
 the axis of rotation of the body. All other particles move in 
 circular paths about this axis as a center, those particles farthest 
 from the axis having the highest velocity. 
 
 Having obtained a clear notion of rotary motion, we may con- 
 sider a body to have pure translatory motion if it moves from 
 one point to another by any path, however straight or crooked, 
 without any motion of rotation. The rifle ball has what is 
 
 23
 
 24 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 termed Screw motion. The motion of a steamship might seem to 
 be pure translatory motion, and indeed it closely approximates 
 such motion when the sea is calm. In a rough sea its motion is 
 very complicated, consisting of a combination of translatory 
 motion, with to-and-fro rotation about three axes: In the "roll- 
 ing" of a ship, the axis is lengthwise of the ship or longitudinal. 
 The "pitching" of a ship is a to-and-fro rotation about a trans- 
 verse axis. As the ship swerves slightly from its course, it 
 rotates about a vertical axis. 
 
 Both translatory and rotary motion may be either uniform, 
 or accelerated; that is, the velocity may be either constant or 
 changing. Accelerated motion is of two kinds, uniformly accel- 
 erated and nonuniformly accelerated. Thus there are three types 
 each of both translatory and rotary motion. Before discussing 
 these types of motion, it will be necessary to define and discuss 
 velocity and acceleration. 
 
 23. Speed, Average Speed, Velocity, and Average Velocity. 
 As already mentioned (Sec. 13), speed is a scalar quantity and 
 velocity is a vector quantity. Both designate rate of motion; 
 but the former does not take into account the direction of the 
 motion, whereas the latter does. 
 
 Average speed, which may be designated by s (read " barred s ") 
 is given by 
 
 D 
 "J (3) 
 
 in which D is thejtotal distance traversed by a body in a given 
 time t. Average velocity v is given by the equation 
 
 - ^ ft\ 
 
 v = y (4) 
 
 in which d is the distance from start to finish measured in a 
 straight line, and t is the time required. Observe that d has, 
 in addition to magnitude, a definite direction, and is therefore a 
 vector; whereas D is simply the distance as measured along the 
 path traversed, which may be quite tortuous, and is therefore a 
 scalar. The Speed of a body at any given instant is the distance 
 which the body would travel in unit time if it maintained that 
 particular rate of motion; while the Velocity of the body at that 
 same instant has the same numerical value as the speed, and 
 is defined in the same way except that it must also state the
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 25 
 
 direction of the motion. An example will serve to further illus- 
 trate the significance of the above four quantities. 
 
 Suppose that a fox hunt, starting at a certain point, termi- 
 nates 10 hrs. later at a point 20 miles farther north. Suppose 
 further that during this time the dog travels 100 miles. Then 
 d (Eq. 4) is 20 miles due north (a vector), D (Eq. 3) is 100 miles 
 (scalar), ~v is 2 miles an hour north (vector), and is 10 miles an 
 hour (scalar). If the dog's speed s at a given instant is 15 miles 
 an hour (often written 15 mi./hr. and called 15 mi. per hr.), 
 then an hour later, if he continues to run at that same speed, he 
 will be 15 miles from this point as measured along the trail; 
 whereas if the dog's velocity at that same instant is 15 miles per 
 hour east, then, an hour later, if he maintains that same velocity, 
 he will be at a point 15 miles farther east. 
 
 If the hunter travels 40 miles, while a friend, traveling a 
 straight road, travels only 20 miles in the ten hours, then the 
 hunter's average speed is twice that of his friend and only two- 
 fifths that of the dog; whereas the average velocity ID is the same 
 for all three, viz., 2 miles an hour. We thus see that the aver- 
 age velocity of a body is that velocity which, unchanged in 
 either magnitude or direction, would cause the body to move from 
 one point to the other in the same time that it actually does 
 require. 
 
 24. Acceleration. If a body moves at a uniform speed in a 
 straight line it is said to have uniform velocity, and its velocity 
 is the distance traversed divided by the time required. If its 
 speed is not uniform its velocity changes (in magnitude), and 
 the rate at which its velocity changes is called the acceleration, a. 
 If the velocity of a body is not changing at a uniform rate, then 
 the change in velocity that occurs in a given time, divided by 
 that time, gives the average rate of change of the velocity of 
 the body, or its average acceleration for that time. Since the 
 second is the unit of time usually employed, we see that the 
 average acceleration is the change (gain or loss) in velocity per 
 second. The acceleration of such a body at any particular 
 instant is numerically the change in velocity that would occur 
 in 1 sec. if the acceleration were to have that same value for 
 the second; i.e., if the velocity were to continue to change at 
 that same rate for the second. 
 
 If the velocity is increasing, the acceleration is positive; if 
 decreasing, it is said to be negative. Thus the motion of a train
 
 
 26 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 when approaching a station with brakes applied, is accelerated 
 motion. As it starts from the station it also has accelerated 
 motion, but in this case the acceleration is positive, since it is in 
 the direction of the velocity; while in the former case, the 
 acceleration is negative. 
 
 If the acceleration of a body is constant, for example if the body 
 continues to move faster and faster, and the increase in velocity 
 each succeeding second or other unit of time is the same, its 
 motion is said to be uniformly accelerated. Thus if the velocity 
 of a body expressed in feet per second, e.g., the velocity of a 
 street car, has the values 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, etc., for successive 
 seconds; then the acceleration a for this interval is constant, 
 and has the value 2 ft. per sec. per sec., or 
 
 a = 2 ft. per sec. per sec. (also written 2 ^,) 
 
 sec. 2 
 
 If a certain train is observed to have the above velocities for 
 successive minutes, then the motion of the train is uniformly 
 accelerated, since its acceleration is constant; but it is less than 
 above given for the street car, in fact, 1/60 as great, or 2 ft. per 
 sec. per min. ; that is, 
 
 2 ft 
 
 a = 2 ft. per sec. per min. (also written , ) 
 
 sec. mm. 
 
 This means that the gain of velocity each minute is 2 ft. per sec. 
 A freely falling body, or a car running down a grade due to its 
 weight only, are examples of uniformly accelerated motion. In 
 order that a body may have accelerated motion, it must be acted 
 upon by an applied or external force differing from that required 
 \ to overcome all friction effects upon the body. 
 
 25. Accelerating Force. Force may be defined as that which 
 produces or tends to produce change in the velocity of a body, to 
 which it is applied; i.e., force tends to accelerate a body. A force 
 may be applied to a body either as a push or a pull. It has been 
 shown experimentally that it requires, for example, exactly twice 
 as great a force to give twice as great an acceleration to a given 
 mass which is perfectly free to move; and also that if the mass be 
 doubled it requires twice as much force to produce the same ac- 
 celeration. In other words, the force (F) is proportional to the 
 resulting acceleration (a), and also proportional to the mass
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 27 
 
 (M) of the body accelerated. These facts are expressed by the 
 equation 
 
 F = Ma (5) 
 
 For, to increase a n-fold, F must be increased n-fold; in other 
 words, the resulting acceleration of a body is directly propor- 
 tional to the applied force, and is also inversely proportional to 
 the mass of the body. 
 
 Eq. 5 is sometimes written F = kMa. If the units of force, 
 mass, and acceleration are properly chosen (see below), k becomes 
 unity and may be omitted. 
 
 Units of Force. Imagine the masses now to be considered, to 
 be perfectly free to move on a level frictionless surface, and let 
 the accelerating force be horizontal. Then the unit force in the 
 metric system, the Dyne, is that force which will give unit mass 
 (1 gm.) unit acceleration (1 cm. per sec. per sec.); while in the 
 British system, unit force, the Poundal, is that force which will 
 give unit mass (1 Ib.) -unit acceleration (1 ft. per sec. per sec.). 
 Thus, to cause the velocity of a 10-gm. mass to change by 4 cm. 
 per sec. in 1 sec.; i.e., to give it an acceleration of 4 cm. per sec. 
 per sec., will require an accelerating force of 40 dynes, as may be 
 seen by substituting in Eq. 5. 
 
 The relation between these units and the common gravita- 
 tional units, the gram weight and the pound weight, will be ex- 
 plained under the study of gravitation (Sec. 32) ; but we may here 
 simply state without explanation that 1 gram weight is equal to 
 980 dynes (approx.), and that 1 pound weight is equal to 32.2 
 poundals (approx.). 
 
 In general, only a part of the force applied to a body is used 
 in accelerating it, the remainder being used to overcome friction 
 or other resistance. The part that is used in producing accelera- 
 tion is called the Accelerating Force. It should be emphasized 
 that Eq. 5 holds only if F is the accelerating force. Thus if a 
 stands for the acceleration in the motion of a train, and M for 
 the mass of the train, then F is not the total pull exerted by the 
 drawbar of the engine, but only the excess pull above that needed 
 to overcome the friction of the car wheels on axle bearings and 
 on the track, air friction, etc. If an 8000-lb. pull is just sufficient 
 to maintain the speed of a certain train at 40 miles an hour on a 
 level track, then a pull of 9000 Ibs. would cause its speed to in- 
 crease, and 7000 Ibs., to decrease. The accelerating force, i.e.,
 
 28 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 the F of Eq. 5, would be 1000 Ibs., i.e., 32,200 poundals, in each 
 case. 
 
 In the case of a freely falling body, the accelerating force is 
 of course the pull of the earth upon the body, or its weight; while 
 in the case of a lone car running down a grade, it is the component 
 of the car's weight parallel to the grade (see Fig. 8), minus the 
 force required to overcome friction, that gives the accelerating 
 force. We may now make the statement that when a body is in 
 motion its velocity will not change if the force applied is just suffi- 
 cient to overcome friction; while if the force is increased, the 
 velocity will increase, and the acceleration will be positive and 
 proportional to this increase or excess of force. If the applied 
 force is decreased so as to become less than that needed to 
 overcome friction, then, of course, the velocity decreases, and the 
 acceleration is negative and proportional to the deficiency of 
 the applied force. 
 
 " 26. Uniform Motion and Uniformly Accelerated Motion. 
 This subject will be best understood if discussed in connection 
 with a specific example. Suppose that a train, traveling on a 
 straight track and at a uniform speed from a town A to a town B 
 20 miles north of A, requires 30 minutes time. In this case its 
 velocity 
 
 _ distance traversed _ d _20 miles 
 time required = t = 30 min. 
 
 or 2/3 of a mile per min. north. Since the velocity is constant, 
 the train is said to have Uniform Motion. If the track is level, 
 the pull on the drawbar of the engine must be just sufficient to 
 overcome friction, since there is no acceleration and hence no 
 accelerating force. Thus, uniform motion may be defined as 
 the motion of a body which experiences no acceleration. This 
 train would have to be a through train; for if it is a train that 
 stops at A, its velocity just as it leaves A would be increasing; 
 i.e., there would be an acceleration. Consequently there would 
 have to be an accelerating force; that is, the pull on the drawbar 
 would have to be greater than the force required to overcome 
 friction. In this case the motion would be accelerated motion. 
 
 In case the accelerating force is constant, for example, if the 
 pull on the drawbar exceeds the force required to overcome 
 friction by, say 4000 Ibs. constantly for the first minute, then the 
 acceleration (a) is constant or uniform, and the motion for this
 
 TRANSLATOR? MOTION 29 
 
 first minute would be Uniformly Accelerated Motion. For, from 
 F = Ma (Eq. 5), we see that if the accelerating force F (here 
 4000 Ibs.) is constant, a will also be constant; i.e., the velocity of 
 the train will increase at a uniform rate. As a rule, this excess 
 pull is not constant, so that the acceleration varies, and the train 
 has nonuniformly accelerated motion. 
 
 Let us further consider the motion of the above train if the 
 accelerating force is constant, and its motion, consequently, 
 uniformly accelerated. Suppose that its velocity as it passes a 
 certain bridge is 20 ft. per sec. and that we represent it byy ; 
 while its velocity 10 seconds later (or t sec. later) is 34.6 ft. per 
 sec., represented by v t . Its total change of velocity in this time 
 t is v t v u , hence the acceleration 
 
 v t -Vo 34.6-20 
 a = -. = 10 = 1.46 ft. per sec. per sec. (6) 
 
 It is customary to represent the velocity first considered by v a , 
 and the velocity t seconds later by v t , as we have here done. If 
 we first consider the motion of the train just as it starts from A, 
 i.e., as it starts from rest, then v is zero, and v t is its velocity t 
 seconds after leaving A. If t is 60 sec., then v t is the velocity of 
 the train 60 seconds after leaving A. 
 
 Let us suppose that one minute after leaving A (from rest) 
 the velocity of the train is 60 miles per hour. This is the same 
 as 1 mile per min. or 88 ft. per sec. The total change in velocity 
 in the first minute is then 60 miles per hour, and hence the accel- 
 eration is 60 miles per hour per minute, or 
 
 a = 60 miles per hr. per min. 
 This same acceleration is 1 mile per minute per minute or 
 
 a = l mi. per min. per min. 
 It is also 88 ft. per second per minute, or 
 
 QO 
 
 a = 88 ft. per sec. per min. =77^ ft. per sec. per sec. 
 
 OU 
 
 = 1.46 ft. per sec. per sec. 
 
 This equation states that the change of velocity in one minute 
 is 88 ft. per sec., while in one second it is of course 1/60 of 
 this, or 1.46 ft. per sec. Ten seconds after the train leaves A,
 
 30 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 its velocity is 10X1.46 or 14.6 ft. per sec. Observe that when 
 v is zero, Eq. 6 may be written 
 
 v t = at (7) 
 
 27. Universal Gravitation. Any two masses of matter exert 
 upon each other a force of attraction. This property of matter is 
 called Universal Gravitation. Thus a book held in the hand 
 experiences a very feeble upward pull due to the ceiling and other 
 material above it; side pulls in every direction due to the walls, 
 etc.; and finally, a very strong downward pull due to the earth. 
 This downward pull or force is the only one that is large enough 
 to be measured by any ordinary device, and is what is known as 
 the weight of the body. 
 
 That there is a gravitational force of attraction exerted by 
 every body upon every other body, was shown experimentally 
 by Lord Cavendish. A light rod with a small metal ball at 
 each end was suspended in a horizontal position by a vertical 
 wire attached to its center. A large mass, say A, placed near 
 one of these balls B and upon the same level with it, was found 
 to exert upon the ball a slight pull which caused the rod to rotate 
 and twist the suspending wire very slightly. Comparing this 
 slight pull on B due to A, with the pull of the earth upon 5, i.e., 
 with B's weight, Cavendish was able to compute the mass of the 
 earth. In popular language, he Weighed the Earth. 
 
 From the mass of the earth and its volume Lord Cavendish 
 determined the average density of the earth to be about 5.5 
 times that of water. The surface soil and surface rocks 
 sandstone, limestone, etc. have an average density of but 2.5 
 times that of water. Hence the deeper strata of the earth are 
 the more dense, and consequently as a body is lowered into a 
 mine and approaches closer and closer to the more dense mate- 
 rial, its weight might be expected to increase. The upward 
 attraction upon the body exerted by the overlying mass of earth 
 and rocks should cause its weight to decrease. The former more 
 than offsets the latter, so that there is a slight increase in the 
 weight of a body as it is carried down into a deep mine. 
 
 Newton's Law of Gravitation. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to express 
 clearly the law of universal gravitation by means of an equation. He 
 made the very logical assumption that the attractive gravitational 
 force (F) exerted between two masses MI and M 2 , when placed a distance
 
 
 <r W* ^ 
 
 - frKtt 
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 31 
 
 d apart, would be proportional to the product of the masses, and 
 inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them (Sec. 
 28), i.e., 
 
 F _ k MM* 
 d* 
 
 If, in this equation, MI and M 2 are expressed in grams, the distance in 
 centimeters, and F in dynes, then k, the proportionality constant or 
 proportionality factor (Sec. 28) is shown by experiment to be 
 0.0000000666. If Mi, M z , and d are all unity, then F = k. In other 
 words, the gravitational attraction between two 1-gm. masses when 1 cm. 
 apart is 0.0000000666 dynes. Since the dyne is a small force, this will 
 be seen to be a very small force. Lord Cavendish used this equation in 
 computing his results. 
 
 28. The Law of the Inverse Square of the Distance. This 
 law is one of the most important laws of physics and has many 
 applications, a few of which we shall now consider. We are 
 all familiar with the fact that as we recede from a source of light, 
 for example a lamp, the intensity of the light decreases. That 
 the intensity of illumination at a point varies inversely as the 
 square of the distance from that point to the light source, has 
 been repeatedly verified by experiment, and it may also be dem- 
 onstrated by a simple line of reasoning as follows: Imagine a 
 lamp which radiates light equally in all directions, to be placed 
 first at the center of a hollow sphere of 1 ft. radius, and later at 
 the center of a similar hollow sphere whose radius is 3 ft. 
 In each case the hollow sphere would receive all of the light 
 emitted by the lamp, but in the second case this light would be 
 distributed over 9 times as much surface as in the first. Hence, 
 the illumination would be 1/9 as intense, and we have therefore 
 proved that the intensity of illumination varies inversely as the 
 square of the distance from the lamp. 
 
 An exactly similar proof would show that the same law applies 
 in the case of heat radiation, or indeed in the case of any effect 
 which acts equally in all directions from the source. This 
 law has been shown to hold rigidly in the case of the gravita- 
 tional attraction between bodies, for example between the differ- 
 ent members of the solar system. 
 
 Proportionality Factor. In all cases in which one quantity is propor- 
 tional to another, the fact may be stated by an equation if we introduce 
 a proportionality factor (k). Thus the weight of a certain quantity of
 
 32 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 water is proportional to its volume; i.e., 3 times as great volume will 
 have 3 times as great weight, and so on. We may then write 
 
 WV, but not W=V 
 We may, however, write 
 
 W = kV 
 
 in which k is called the proportionality factor. In this case k (in the 
 English system) would be numerically the weight of a cubic foot of 
 water, or 62.4 (1 cu. ft. weighs 62.4 Ibs.), V being the number of cubic 
 feet whose weight is sought. 
 
 We may add another illustration of the use of the proportionality 
 factor. We have just seen that the illumination (/) at a point varies 
 inversely as the square of the distance from the source. We also know 
 that it should vary as the candle power (C.P.) of the source. Hence we 
 may write 
 
 . C.P. .CP. 
 
 /---, or 7 = *-^- 
 
 A third illustration has already been given at the close of Sec. 27. 
 
 29. Planetary Motion. The earth revolves about the sun once 
 a year in a nearly circular orbit of approximately 93,000,000 
 miles radius. The other seven planets of the solar system have 
 similar orbits. The planets farthest from the sun have, of course, 
 correspondingly longer orbits, and they also travel more slowly; 
 so that their "year" is very much longer than ours. Thus 
 Neptune, the most distant planet, requires about 165 years to 
 traverse its orbit, while Mercury, which is the closest planet to 
 the sun, has an 88-day "year." The moon revolves about the 
 earth once each lunar month in an orbit of approximately 240,000 
 miles radius. Several of the planets have moons revolving 
 about them while they themselves revolve about the sun. 
 
 If a stone is whirled rapidly around in a circular path by means 
 of an attached string, we readily observe that a considerable pull 
 must be exerted by the string to cause the stone to follow its 
 constantly curving path (Sec. 58). In the case of the earth and 
 the other planets, it is the gravitational attraction between planet 
 and sun that produces the required inward pull. Our moon is 
 likewise held to its path by means of the gravitational attraction 
 between the earth and the moon. The amount of pull required 
 to keep the moon in its course has been computed, and found to 
 be in close agreement with the computed gravitational pull that
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 33 
 
 the earth should exert upon a body at that distance. In comput- 
 ing the latter it was assumed that the inverse square law (Sec. 
 28) applied. 
 
 Since the moon is approximately 60 times as far from the center 
 of the earth as we are, it follows that the pull of the earth upon a 
 pound mass at the moon is (I/GO) 2 or 1/3600 pound. By means 
 of the formulas developed in Sec. 58, the student can easily show 
 that this force would exactly suffice to cause the moon to follow 
 its constantly curving path if it had only one pound of mass. Since 
 the mass of the moon is vastly greater than one pound, it requires 
 a correspondingly greater force or pull to keep it to its orbit, but 
 its greater mass also causes the gravitational pull between it and 
 the earth to be correspondingly greater so that this pull just 
 suffices. 
 
 30. The Tides. A complete discussion of the subject of tides 
 is beyond the scope of this work, but a brief discussion of this 
 important phenomenon may be of interest. Briefly stated, the 
 
 a ^^_ 
 
 /" Moon "~^\ 
 
 FIG. 14. FIG. 15. 
 
 $% &< 
 
 main cause of tides is the fact that the gravitational attraction of (> t 
 the moon upon unit mass is greater for the ocean upon the side of 
 the earth toward it, than for the main body of the earth; while , VL J 
 for the ocean lying upon the opposite side of the earth, it is less. 
 This follows directly from a consideration of the law of inverse 
 squares (Sec. 28). 
 
 This difference in lunar gravitational attraction tends to heap 
 the water slightly upon the side of the earth toward it and also 
 upon the opposite side; consequently if the earth always presented 
 the same side to the moon, these two "heaps" would be perma- 
 nent and stationary (Fig. 14). As the earth rotates from west 
 to east, however, these two "heaps" or tidal waves travel from
 
 34 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 east to west around the earth once each lunar day (about 24 hrs. 
 50 min.), tending, of course, to keep directly under the moon. 
 Due to the inertia of the water, the tidal wave lags behind 
 the moon; so that high tide does not occur when the moon is 
 overhead (Fig. 14), but more nearly at the time it is setting, and 
 also when it is rising (Fig. 15). Since the moon revolves about 
 the earth from west to east in approximately 28 days, we see 
 why the lunar day, moonrise to moonrise, or strictly speaking, 
 "moon noon" to "moon noon," is slightly longer than the solar 
 day (Sec. 4). 
 
 Every body of the solar system, so far as known, except Nep- 
 tune's moon, revolves in a counterclockwise direction both about 
 its axis and also in its orbit as viewed from the North Star. Hence 
 the arrows a, b, c, and d respectively represent the motion of the 
 moon, rotation of the earth, motion of the tides, and apparent 
 motion of the moon with respect to the earth. Consequently, 
 according to this convention, the moon rises at the left and sets 
 at the right, which is at variance with the usual geographical 
 convention. 
 
 Although the sun has a vastly greater mass than the moon, its 
 much greater distance from the earth reduces its tidal effect to 
 less than half that of the moon. During new moon, when the 
 sun and moon are on the same side of the earth, or at full moon, 
 when on opposite sides, their tidal effects are evidently additive, and 
 therefore produce the maximum high tides known as Spring 
 tides. During first quarter and last quarter their tidal effects are 
 subtractive, giving the minimum high tides or Neap tides. For 
 if the sun were in the direction S (Fig. 14) it would tend to pro- 
 duce high tide at e and/, and low tide at c and h. 
 
 On small islands in mid-ocean, the tidal rise is but a few feet; 
 while in funnel-shaped bays facing eastward, such as the Bay of 
 Fundy, for example, it is from 40 to 50 feet. 
 
 If the earth were completely surrounded by an ocean of uniform depth, 
 the above simple theory would explain the behavior of the tides. Under 
 such circumstances tides would always travel westward. The irregular 
 form and varying depth of the ocean make the problem vastly more 
 complex. Thus the tide comes to the British Isles from the south- 
 west. (Ency. Brit.). This tide, which is simply a large long wave pro- 
 duced by the true tidal effect in a distant portion of the open ocean, first 
 reaches the west coasts of Ireland and England, and then, passing 
 through the English Channel, reaches London several hours later.
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 35 
 
 31. Acceleration of Gravity and Accelerating Force in Free 
 Fall. Since the earth exerts the same pull upon a body whether 
 at rest or in motion, it will be evident that the accelerating force 
 in the case of a falling body is simply its weight W, and hence we 
 have from Eq. 5, Sec. 25. 
 
 W = Ma, or W=Mg (8) 
 
 in which M is the mass of the falling body, and g is its accelera- 
 tion. It is customary to use g instead of a to designate the 
 acceleration of gravity, i.e., the acceleration of a freely falling 
 body. From Eq. 8 we see that g = W/M, and since a mass n 
 times as large has n times as great weight, g must be constant; 
 i.e., a 10-lb. mass should fall no faster than a 1-lb. mass, neglect- 
 ing air friction. If it were not for air friction, a feather would fall 
 just as fast as a stone. This has been demonstrated by placing 
 a coin and a feather in a glass tube ("guinea and feather" ex- 
 periment) and then exhausting the air from the tube by means 
 of an air pump. Upon inverting the tube, it is found that the 
 coin and the feather fall equally fast; hence they must both ex- 
 perience the same constant acceleration. From Eq. 8 it follows 
 that g varies in value with change of altitude or latitude just 
 as does the weight W of a body (Sec. 11). 
 
 Since the acceleration of gravity, g, represents the rate at 
 which any falling body gains velocity, it is at once evident that 
 it is a very important constant. Its value has been repeatedly 
 determined with great care, and it has been found that 
 
 = 980.6 cm. per sec. per sec. (9) 
 
 for points whose latitude is about 45. For points farther north 
 it is slightly greater than this (983.2 at pole); and for points 
 farther south, slightly less (978 at equator.) The above equa- 
 tion states that in one second a falling body acquires an addi- 
 tional velocity of 980.6 cm. per sec. Since 980.6 cm. per sec. = 
 32.17 ft. per sec., we have 
 
 gr = 32.17 ft. per sec. per sec. (9a) 
 
 We may define the Acceleration of Gravity as the rate of change 
 of velocity of a freely falling body; hence it is numerically the 
 additional velocity acquired by a body in each second of free 
 fall. If it were not for air friction, a body would add this 32.17 
 ft. per sec. (980.6 cm. per sec.) to its velocity every second, h<?w-
 
 36 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 ever rapidly it might be falling. Though a close study of the 
 effects of air friction upon the acceleration is beyond the scope 
 of this course, we readily see that when a falling body has ac- 
 quired such a velocity that the air friction resisting its fall is 
 equal to one-third of its weight, then only two-thirds of its weight 
 remains as the accelerating force. Its acceleration would then, 
 of course, be only two-thirds g. When a falling body, for exam- 
 ple a hailstone, has acquired such a velocity that the air friction 
 encountered is just equal to its weight, then its entire weight is 
 used in overcoming friction, the accelerating force acting upon 
 it has become zero, and its acceleration is zero; i.e., it makes no 
 further gain in velocity. 
 
 32. Units of Weight and Units of Force Compared. From 
 Eq. 5 (Sec. 25) we see that the logical unit of force is that force 
 which will give unit mass unit acceleration, or unit change of 
 velocity in unit time. Hence, in the metric system, unit force, 
 or the Dyne (See also "Units of Force," Sec. 25), is that force 
 which will give one gram mass an acceleration of 1 cm. per sec. 
 per sec., i.e., a change in velocity of 1 cm. per sec. in a 
 second. In the case of a gram mass falling, the accelerating force 
 is a gram weight, and the velocity imparted to it in one second 
 is found by experiment (in latitude 45) to be 980.6 cm. per sec. 
 (Sec. 31); whence g equals 980.6 cm. per sec. per sec. It 
 follows at once, then, that a gram weight equals 980.6 dynes, 
 since it produces when applied to a gram mass 980.6 times as 
 great an acceleration as the dyne does. Likewise in the British 
 system, unit force (the Poundal) is that force which will give unit 
 mass (the pound) unit velocity (1 ft. per sec.) in unit time (the 
 second). But in the case of a pound mass freely falling, the 
 accelerating force is one pound weight, and this force, as experi- 
 ment shows, imparts to it a velocity of 32.17 ft. per sec. in one 
 second. It follows at once that one pound force, or one pound 
 weight, equals 32.17 poundals, since it produces 32.17 times 
 as great acceleration with the same mass (see Eq. 5). 
 
 The poundal and the dyne are the absolute units of force. The 
 pound, ton, gram, kilogram, etc., are some of the units of force in 
 common use. Forces are measured by spring balances and 
 other weighing devices. 
 
 In Eq. 8, the weight is expressed in absolute units; in which 
 case W = Mg. If W is expressed in grams weight or pounds 
 weight, then we have simply W = M (numerically), i.e., a 100-
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 37 
 
 gm. mass weighs 100 grams, or 98,060 dynes. Likewise a 10-lb. 
 mass weighs 10 Ibs., or 321.7 poundals (latitude 45). 
 
 The Engineer's Units of Force and Mass. In engineering work 
 the pound is used as the unit of force instead of the poundal. 
 Transposing Eq. 8, Sec. 31, we have M = W/g. Now in physics, 
 W is expressed in poundals, M being in pounds, while in engi- 
 neering work W is expressed in pounds. Since the pound is 32.17 
 times as large a unit as the poundal, M must be expressed in 
 the engineering system in a unit 32.17 times as large as the 
 pound mass (close approximation). This 32.17-lb. mass is 
 sometimes called the Slug. 
 
 As a summary, let us write the equation F = Ma, and the simi- 
 lar equation restricted to gravitational acceleration; namely, 
 W = Mg, indicating the units for each symbol in all three sys- 
 tems the Metric, the British, and the Engineering systems. 
 
 Metric System: 
 
 F = Ma and W = Mg, i.e., F'or W (dynes) 
 
 = M (gm.) X or g (cm. per sec. per sec.). 
 
 British System: 
 
 F = Ma and W = Mg, i.e., F or W (poundals) 
 
 = M(lbs.) Xa or g (ft. per sec. per sec.). 
 
 Engineering System: 
 
 W 
 F = a=(Ma) and W = Mg, i.e., F or W (pounds) 
 
 {/ 
 
 = Af(slugs) X or g (ft. per sec. per sec.). 
 
 Thus, practically, the engineering system differs from the 
 British system in that the units of mass, force, and weight are 
 32.17 times as large as the corresponding units in the British system. 
 
 Some regret that the engineering system was ever introduced. 
 It is now firmly established, however, and the labor involved in 
 mastering this third system is very slight, indeed, if the British 
 system is thoroughly understood. Furthermore, this system 
 has in some cases certain advantages. 
 
 Observe that the word "pound" is used for the unit of mass 
 and also for one of the units of force. Having defined the pound 
 force as the weight of a pound mass, we may (and frequently do) 
 use it (the pound force) as the unit in measuring forces which 
 have absolutely nothing to do with either mass or weight. Thus 
 in stretching a clothes line with a force of, say 50 Ibs., it is clear 
 that this 50-lb. force has nothing to do with the mass or weight 
 of the clothes line, or post, or anything else. The pound force 
 
 443914
 
 38 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 is used almost exclusively as the unit of force in engineering 
 work. Objection to its use as a unit is sometimes made because 
 of the fact that the weight of a 1-lb. mass varies with g. Since 
 g varies from 978 at the equator to 983.2 at the poles (Sec. 31), 
 we see that the weight of a 1-lb. mass (or any other mass) is about 
 1/2 per cent, greater at the poles than at the equator. This 
 slight variation in the value of the pound force may well be 
 ignored in practically all engineering problems. If the standard 
 pound force is defined as the weight of a 1-lb. mass in latitude 45 
 (g = 980.6), it becomes as definite and accurate as any other unit 
 of force. 
 
 33. Motion of Falling Bodies; Velocity Initial, Final, and 
 Average. The initial velocity of a body is usually represented by 
 v (Sec. 26), and the final velocity by v t . An example will serve 
 the double purpose of illustrating exactly what these terms mean 
 as applied to falling bodies, and also of showing how their numer- 
 ical values are found. 
 
 Suppose that a body has been falling for a short time before we 
 observe it and that we wish to discuss its motion for the succeed- 
 ing eight seconds of fall. Suppose that its initial velocity v , 
 observed at the beginning of this eight-second interval, is 20 ft. 
 per sec. Its final velocity v t at the close of this eight-second 
 interval would be found as follows. It will at once be granted 
 that the final velocity v t will be equal to the initial velocity plus the 
 acquired velocity. But by definition (Sec. 31), g is numerically 
 the velocity acquired or gained in one second of free fall. Hence 
 in two seconds the acquired velocity would be 2g, in 3 seconds 3g, 
 and in t seconds the velocity acquired would be gt. Accordingly 
 
 Vt = v +gt (10) 
 
 In the present problem v t = 20+32.17X8 = 277. 36 ft. per sec. 
 
 Average velocity is commonly represented by (read "barred 
 v"), and in the case of falling bodies it is equal to half the sum of 
 the initial and final velocities. Hence 
 
 _ Vo+vt v +(vo+gt) 1 
 
 v = ^ = ^ '2 =v +wt (11) 
 
 In general, the average velocity of a train would not be even 
 approximately equal to half the sum of the initial and final 
 velocities. We ought therefore to prove the validity of Eq. 11.
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 
 
 39 
 
 We readily see that the average value of all numbers from 40 to 
 100 is 140-^2 or 70. If the velocity of a train is 10 feet per sec., 
 and each succeeding minute it gains 2 feet per second, then its 
 velocities for the succeeding minutes are respectively 10, 12, 14, 
 16, 18, 20, 22 feet per second, and its average velocity would 
 be, under these special circumstances, one-half the sum of 
 the initial and final velocities. Adding all these numbers and 
 dividing by 7 gives an average of 16, but one-half the sum of the 
 first and last is also 16. 
 
 We may now make the general statement that one-half the 
 sum of the first and last of a series 
 of numbers gives a correct value for 
 the average, provided the successive 
 values of the numbers in the series 
 differ by a constant amount. Now 
 the velocity each successive second is 
 g feet per second (approximately 32 
 feet per second) greater than for the 
 preceding second; consequently, in all 
 cases of falling bodies, the average veloc- 
 ity is half the sum of the initial and 
 final velocities, as given in Eq. 11. 
 
 The above facts are shown graph i- \ 
 
 cally in Fig. 16, in which the succes- 
 sive lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . t repre- 
 sent the velocities of a body after 
 falling 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . t seconds re- p IQ 16 
 
 spectively. Observe that the velocity 
 
 at any time, e.g., after 6 seconds, consists of two parts; that 
 above the horizontal dotted line being the initial velocity v a , 
 and that below, the acquired velocity (or gt), at that instant. 
 It will be evident, as the figure shows, that the average velocity 
 will be attained when half of the time, viz., 4 seconds, has 
 elapsed, and hence v = v +%gt; whereas the final velocity v t is 
 attained after the whole time t has elapsed, and is therefore 
 v +gt, as given above (Eq. 10). 
 
 In case the body falls from rest, v is zero, and the conditions 
 would be represented by only the portion of Fig. 16 below the 
 dotted line. In this case the entire velocity v t at any instant 
 would be merely gt or that acquired previous to that instant, and 
 the average velocity 1 for a given time t would be %gt.
 
 40 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 34. Distance Fallen in a Given Time. In general, the distance 
 d traversed by any body in a given time is its average velocity v 
 times this time, or d = jjt. Introducing the value of v from Eq. 
 11 gives, 
 
 d = vt=(v -\ n-)t = v t-}-%gt~ (12) 
 
 If v = Q, i.e., if the body falls from rest, and the distance it falls 
 in seconds is wanted, then, from Eq. 12, 
 
 d = $gt 2 (13) 
 
 If v = Q, Eq. 10 may be written t = . Substituting this value 
 of t in Eq. 13, we obtain 
 
 v t = V2gd = V2gh 
 
 (14) 
 
 In this equation, v t is the velocity acquired by a body in falling 
 from rest through a distance d (or k). 
 
 It will be observed that v t of Eq. 12 is the distance which the 
 body with initial velocity v would 
 travel in t seconds if there were no 
 acceleration; while %gt* is the dis- 
 tance it would travel in this same 
 time if there had been no initial ve- 
 locity, i.e., had it fallen from rest. 
 The distance it actually does travel, 
 since there are both initial velocity 
 and acceleration, is simply the sum 
 (vector sum) of these two. If a 
 person throws a stone vertically up- 
 ward with a velocity v , then the 
 distance from that person's hand 
 to the stone after t seconds will be 
 v t % gt 2 . For evidently the dis- 
 tances the stone would go, due to 
 its initial velocity alone, and due to 
 
 falling alone, are directly opposite as indicated by the minus 
 sign. Finally, if a person on a high cliff throws a stone at an 
 angle of 45 (upward) from the horizontal with a velocity of 
 20 ft. per second, let us find the distance from his hand to the 
 stone 3 seconds later. Due to its initial velocity alone, it would 
 be 60 ft. distant, represented by line a (Fig. 17), while due to 
 
 FIG. 17.
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 41 
 
 falling alone it would be approximately 144 ft. distant, repre- 
 sented by line b. Hence due to both, we have, by vector con- 
 struction, HS (about 100 ft.) as the distance from his hand to the 
 stone after 3 seconds of its flight. The actual path of the stone 
 is HCS. 
 
 Distance Traversed in a Given Time. Equations 10, 11, 12, 13, 
 and 14, which are derived from a consideration of a particular 
 kind of uniformly accelerated motion, namely, that of falling 
 bodies, become perfectly general by substituting in them the 
 general symbol a in place of the particular symbol g to represent 
 the acceleration. Making this substitution, these equations, 
 taken in order, become 
 
 v t = v +at ClOo) 
 
 (lla) 
 (12a) 
 
 d = \at z (13a) 
 
 v t =V2ad=V2ah 4*S *-''* (I4a) 
 > 
 
 The equations just given apply to the motion of a car when 
 coasting on a uniform grade, or to the motion of any body when 
 acted upon by a constant accelerating force. In the case of a 
 car on a uniform grade, the accelerating force is, barring friction, 
 the component of the car's weight which is parallel to the grade 
 (Fig. 8, Sec. 19), and is therefore constant. 
 
 Aside from the motion resulting from gravitational attraction, 
 there are very few examples of uniformly accelerated motion. 
 Such motion, however, is very roughly approximated by many 
 bodies when starting from rest; e.g., by a train, a steamship, a 
 sailboat, or a street car. In all these cases the accelerating force, 
 that is, the amount by which the applied force exceeds friction, 
 decreases rapidly as the speed increases; consequently the accel- 
 eration decreases rapidly, and the motion is then not even 
 approximately uniformly accelerated. ^ 
 
 35. Atwood's Machine. If we attempt to make an experi- 
 mental study of the motion of freely falling bodies we find that 
 the time of fall must be taken very small, or the distance fallen 
 will be inconveniently large. Thus in so short a time as three 
 seconds, a body falls somewhat more than 144 feet. Hence, in 
 all devices for studying the laws of falling bodies and verifying
 
 42 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 experimentally the equations expressing these laws, the rapidity 
 of the motion is reduced. Thus a wheel or a marble rolling 
 down an inclined plane experiences an acceleration much smaller 
 than if allowed to fall freely. For in the latter case the acceler- 
 ating force is the full weight of the marble or the wheel; 
 while in the former case it is only the component of the weight 
 parallel to the incline. This reduction of the acceleration makes 
 it possible to study the motion for a period of several seconds. 
 In the Atwood Machine, shown in its simplest form in Fig. 18, 
 the reduction in the acceleration is attained in an en- 
 tirely different way. A and B are two large equal 
 masses connected by a light cord passing over a light 
 wheel as shown. If a small additional mass C is 
 placed on A, it will cause A to descend and B to ascend. 
 Suppose that A and B are each 150-gm. masses and 
 that C is a 10-gm. mass. If we neglect the slight mass 
 and opposing friction of the wheel, it is clear that the 
 weight of C is the accelerating force that must accel- 
 erate A, B, and C an aggregate mass equal to 31 
 ' timfcs the mass of (7; while if C were permitted to fall 
 freely, its weight would have to accelerate itself only. 
 Hence the acceleration under these circumstances is 
 1 1/31 of that of free fall or g, or 1/31 X980 = 31.6 cm. 
 fci per sec. per sec., which is about 1 ft. per sec. per 
 FIG. 18. sec. With this value for the acceleration, we see 
 from Eq. 13a that A would "fall" only about 4.5 
 feet in 3 seconds. By experiment also we find that A "falls" 
 4.5 feet in 3 seconds, thus verifying Eq. 13a. 
 
 The above acceleration may also be calculated by means of the 
 equation F = Ma, in which F is the weight of C in dynes and M is 
 the combined mass of A, B, and C in grams. A pendulum or 
 other device beating seconds is an essential auxiliary. If by 
 means of an attached thread, C is removed after one second of 
 "fall," A's velocity, since no accelerating force is then being 
 applied, will be constant, and will have the value 31 cm. per 
 sec. (see above) ; while if in another test C remains 3 seconds, A's 
 velocity at the end of the 3 seconds will be 93 cm. per sec., as 
 may easily be observed. This verifies the equation v t = at 
 (Eq. 7, Sec. 26). 
 
 36. Motion of Projectiles: Initial Velocity Vertical. If a 
 rifle ball is fired vertically upward, it experiences a downward
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 43 
 
 force (its weight) which slows it down, giving rise to a negative 
 acceleration. This decrease in velocity each second is of course 
 32.17 ft. per sec.; so that if the muzzle velocity is 1000 ft. per sec., 
 the velocities after 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., to t seconds are, respectively, 
 1000 g (or 968), 1000 -20, 1000-30, 1000-40 (or 872 ft. per sec.), 
 etc., to 1000 gt. Since the velocity of the bullet is zero when 
 it reaches its highest position, the number of seconds CO that 
 the bullet will continue to rise is found by placing 1000 gt 
 equal to zero and solving for t. CCompare Sec. 39.) This gives 
 2 = 31 sec., approximately. The bullet requires just as long to 
 fall back, so that its time of flight is 62 seconds. To get the 
 height to which it rises, which is obviously the distance it falls 
 in 31 seconds, let t be 31 in Eq. 13 and solve for d. We may also 
 use the relation v = \/2gh (Eq. 14) to find h if v is known, or 
 vice versa. Here v = 1000 ft. per sec., since, neglecting air fric- 
 tion, the bullet, in falling, strikes the ground with the same 
 velocity with which it was fired. 
 
 Throughout the discussion of projectiles no account will be 
 taken of the effect of air friction, which effect is quite pronounced 
 on very small projectiles (Sec. 39). In approximate calcula- 
 tions, the distance a body falls in the first second will be taken as 
 16 ft. instead of 16.08, and will be taken as 32 instead of 32.17 
 ft. per sec. per sec. If a rifle ball is fired vertically downward, 
 e.g., from a balloon, with a velocity v , its velocity will increase by 
 32 ft. per sec. every second (ignoring air friction), so that t 
 seconds later its velocity will be v -\-gt. In this case the distance 
 traversed in the first t seconds is v t+^gt 2 (Eq. 12); while if 
 the initial velocity is upward, the distance from the rifle to the 
 rifle ball after t seconds is v t %gt 2 , as explained in Sec. 34. 
 
 37. Motion of Projectiles: Initial Velocity Horizontal. If 
 a projectile is fired horizontally, it experiences, the instant it 
 leaves the muzzle A of the gun (Fig. 19), a downward pull (its 
 weight) which gives it a downward component of velocity of 32 
 ft. per sec. for every second of flight. This causes it to follow the 
 curved path AB'C' . . . F'. If it were not for gravitational 
 attraction, the bullet at the end of the first, second, third, . . . 
 etc., seconds would be at the points B, C, D, . . . etc., respec- 
 tively (AB = BC = CD = 1000 f t.) , instead of at B', C', etc. . . . 
 
 To find the velocity of the bullet at any time t, say when at 
 F' 5 sec. after leaving the muzzle of the gun, we simply find the 
 vector sum v' of its initial velocity and its acquired velocity, as
 
 44 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 shown in Fig. 19 (left lower corner). The downward velocity 
 acquired in 5 sec. would of course be gt, or 160 ft. per sec. 
 (that is, 32X5), and we will assume 1000 ft. per sec. as the initial 
 horizontal muzzle velocity. 
 
 It will be evident that the horizontal component of velocity 
 (1000 ft. per sec.) must be constant, for the pull of gravity has no 
 horizontal component to either increase or decrease the horizontal 
 component of velocity. This, of course, is true whether the initial 
 velocity is vertical, horizontal, or aslant. Hence, neglecting 
 friction, it is always only the vertical component of velocity of a 
 projectile that changes. 
 
 To find the distance that the bullet will "fall" in going the first 
 1000 ft., i.e., its distance BB' (Fig. 19) from the horizontal line 
 of firing AF, apply Eq. 13. From this equation we see that a 
 body falls approximately 16 ft. in one second, 64 ft. in two sec., 
 and 144 ft. (i.e., 16 X3 2 ) in 3 sec. Hence 55' = 16 ft., CC" = 64ft., 
 
 FIG. 19. 
 
 and DD' = 144 ft., etc. To correct for this falling of the bullet, 
 the rear sight is raised, causing the barrel to point slightly above 
 the target. The greater the distance to the target, the more the 
 sight must be raised; the settings for the different distances being 
 marked on it. 
 
 In accordance with the above statements, it follows that if a 
 bullet is dropped from a tower erected on a level plain, and another 
 bullet is fired horizontally from the same place at the same in- 
 stant, then the two bullets will reach the ground at the same 
 instant, whether the second one is fired at a high or low speed. 
 This fact can be verified experimentally (Sec. 40). 
 
 38. Motion of Projectiles : Initial Velocity Inclined. If a rifle 
 ball is fired from a point A (Fig. 20), in a direction AQ making an 
 angle 8 with the horizontal, it describes a curved path which may 
 be drawn as follows. Since distance is a vector, to find where the 
 projectile will be after a time t, we simply obtain the vector sum 
 of the distance traversed in t seconds due to its initial velocity 
 and the distance traversed in t seconds of free fall from rest, as
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 45 
 
 was done in Sec. 34 (Fig. 17). Hence on the line AQ, which has 
 the direction of the initial velocity, lay off the distances AB, BC, 
 CD, DE, etc., each representing 1000 ft. (for a muzzle velocity 
 of 1000 ft. per sec.). From B, C, D, E, etc , draw the lines BB', 
 CC r , DD', EE', etc., representing respectively the distances fallen 
 in 1, 2, 3, 4, sec. Then here, just as in Fig. 19, we have BB' = 16 
 ft., CC' = 64 ft., DD' = U4 ft., etc. The curve AB'C'D'E', 
 etc., represents the path of the projectile. For consider any 
 point, e.g., K'. Due to its initial velocity alone, the projectile 
 would go from A to K (10,000 ft.) in 10 seconds. Due to gravity 
 alone it would fall a distance KK', or 1600 ft., in 10 seconds. 
 Hence, due to both, it covers the distance AK', the vector sum of 
 the distances AK and KK', as shown. 
 
 Note that the straight line AK' gives not only the magnitude 
 but also the direction of the distance from A to the projectile 
 
 
 FIG. 20. 
 
 after ten seconds of flight. Note also that AK is the v t, and 
 that KK' is the %gt z of Eq. 12 (Sec. 34). 
 
 39. Time of Flight and Range of a Projectile. The Range is 
 the horizontal distance A Q' (Fig. 20), or the distance from the point . 
 from which the projectile is fired to the point at which it again 
 reaches the same level. The Time of Flight is the time required 
 to traverse this distance. 
 
 To find how long the projectile will continue to rise, in other 
 words, to find the time ti that will elapse before its vertical com- 
 ponent of velocity (v v ] will be zero, place v v gti = Q (i.e., ti = v v /g 
 = v sin 6/g} and solve for ti (compare Sec. 36). It was shown in 
 Sec. 37 that only the vertical component of velocity changes. 
 Since the vertical component of velocity is zero at this time ti, 
 the projectile must be at the middle of its path (/', Fig. 20). 
 Therefore the time of flight. 
 
 T = 2t t (15)
 
 46 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 The vertical component of velocity v v = v sin 6, and the hori- 
 zontal component of velocity Vh = v cos 6 (see left upper corner 
 Fig. 20). If y =1000 ft. per sec., then, as the projectile leaves 
 the gun, v v = about 240 ft. per sec., and VH = about 970 ft. per sec. 
 If the angle 6 is known, these two components of the velocity may 
 be accurately found by the use of tables of sines and cosines. 
 The graphical method may also be used. When =1 sec., i.e., 
 1 sec. after the projectile leaves the gun (see Fig. 20), v v = 208 ft. 
 per sec. Another second later v v is 32 ft. per sec. less, and when 
 t = 240/32, or approximately 8 sec. after the gun is fired, the 
 vertical component of velocity is zero. That is, in 8 sec. the bul- 
 let reaches the horizontal part of its path at /', at which point 
 its vertical component of velocity is clearly zero. Since ti is 
 8 sec., the time of flight T CEq. 15) is 16 sec. 
 
 Obviously, the range (R) is given by the equation, 
 
 ft = Vh XT = v cos ex2ti = v cos 9X2v sin B/g (16) 
 
 Here the range is 15,520 (i.e., 16 X 970) ft. The Maximum Height 
 reached, or /'/", is %gt z , in which t is the ti of Eq. 15. For at 
 /' the path is horizontal, and it was pointed out in Sec. 37 
 that a bullet fired horizontally would reach the ground in the 
 same time as would a bullet dropped from the same point. 
 Hence I' I" = 16 X 8 2 = 1024 ft. 
 
 Effect of Air Friction on Velocity and Range. Thus far, in the study of 
 the motion of projectiles, we have neglected the effects of air friction; 
 so that the resulting deductions apply strictly to a projectile traveling 
 through a space devoid of air or any other substance, i.e., through a 
 vacuum. The theoretical range so found is considerably greater than the 
 actual range, since the friction of the air constantly decreases the veloc- 
 ity of the projectile (see table below), and therefore causes it to strike 
 the earth much sooner than it otherwise would. Below is given the ve- 
 locity of an Army Rifle projectile in feet per second at various distances 
 from the muzzle. 
 
 Distance 
 in yds. 
 
 Velocity in ft. 
 per sec. 
 
 Distance 
 in yds. 
 
 Velocity in ft. 
 per sec. 
 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 400 
 600 
 800 
 
 1780 
 1590 
 1420 
 1265 
 1044 
 923 
 
 1000 
 1200 
 1400 
 1600 
 1800 
 2000 
 
 830 
 755 
 690 
 630 
 575 
 530
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 47 
 
 The angle (0, Fig. 20) which the barrel of the gun makes with the 
 horizontal is called the Angle of Elevation. Obviously, if the angle of 
 elevation is small, increasing it will increase the range. It can be shown 
 by the use of calculus that the theoretical maximum range is obtained 
 when this angle is 45. The trigonometric proof is given below. For 
 heavy cannon (12-in. guns), the angle of fire for maximum range is 
 nearly the same as the theoretical, namely, 43; while for the army rifle 
 it is about 31. This difference is due to the greater retarding effect of 
 air friction upon the lighter projectile. 
 
 In firing at targets 1/4 mi. distant or less, such as is usually the case 
 in the use of small arms, there is not a very marked difference between 
 the theoretical and the actual path of the projectile. The maximum 
 range of the new army rifle is about 3 miles. It may be of interest to 
 note that its range in a vacuum (angle of elevation 45) would be about 
 24 miles, and that the bullet at the middle of its flight would be about 
 6 miles above the earth, and would strike the earth with its original 
 muzzle velocity. 
 
 The artillery officer who directs the firing at moving ships at a distance 
 of 5 miles or more, especially during a strong wind, must make very 
 rapid and accurate calculations or he will make very few "hits." Many 
 other things concerning the flight" of projectiles, which are of the utmost 
 importance to the artillery man, must be omitted in this brief discussion. 
 
 Angle of Elevation for Maximum Range. Since sin 20 = 2 sin cos 
 (trigonometry), Eq. 16 may be written 
 
 2 sin0cos0_ 2 sin 20 
 
 g ~ v g 
 
 Now the maximum value of the sine of an angle, namely, unity, occurs 
 when the angle is 90. Therefore when 20 = 90, i.e., when = 45, 
 sin 20 is a maximum; hence the range R is also a maximum, which was 
 to be proved. 
 
 40. Spring Gun Experiment. From the discussion given in 
 Sec. 38, it is seen that if a target at B, or at C, or at D, or at any 
 other point on AQ (Fig. 20), is released at the instant the trigger 
 is pulled, it will by falling reach B' (or C' , or D', etc., as the case 
 may be) just in time to be struck by the bullet. This may be 
 shown experimentally by the use of a spring gun, using wooden 
 balls for both projectile and target. The target ball is held by an 
 electrical device which automatically releases it just as the 
 projectile ball leaves the muzzle of the gun. The two balls meet 
 in the air whether the projectile ball is fired at a high or low veloc- 
 ity. If the target is placed at the same height as the spring gun,
 
 48 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 and the latter is fired horizontally, the two balls will reach the 
 floor at the same instant. 
 
 41. The Plotting of Curves. The graphical method of presenting 
 data is found very useful in all cases in which a series of several observa- 
 tions of the same phenomenon has been made. Coordinate or cross 
 section paper is used for this purpose. Usually a vertical line at the 
 left of the page is called the axis of ordinates, and a horizontal line at 
 the bottom of the page is called the axis of abscissae. To construct a 
 curve, plot as abscissae the quantity that is arbitrarily varied, and as 
 ordinates the corresponding values of the particular quantity that is 
 being studied. This can be best illustrated by an example. 
 
 To plot the results given in the table, Sec. 39, choose a suitable scale 
 and lay off 200, 400, etc., upon the axis of abscissae (Fig. 21) to represent 
 
 800 1000 1200 
 
 DISTANCE IN YARDS 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 1400 1GOO 1300 2000 
 
 the distance (from muzzle of gun) in yards, and 400, 800, etc., on the axis 
 of ordinates to represent the velocity of the bullet in feet per second. 
 From the table we see that the velocity for a range of 100 yds. is 1780 
 ft. per sec. A point A at the center of a small circle (Fig. 21) gives this 
 same information graphically, for the abscissa of A is 100 and its ordi- 
 nate is 1780. Point B, whose abscissa is 200 and whose ordinate is 
 1590, fully represents the second pair of values (200 and 1590) in the table. 
 In like manner the points C, D, etc., are plotted. Through these points 
 a smooth curve is drawn as shown. 
 
 Use of the Curve. It will be observed that the smooth curve passing 
 through all of the other points does not pass through D'. The fact that 
 a point does not fall on the curve indicates a probability of error either 
 in taking the data or in plotting the results. In this case a defective 
 cartridge may have been used at the 500-yd. distance. A second trial
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 49 
 
 from that same distance with a good cartridge would probably give a 
 velocity of 1130 ft. per sec. as we would expect from the curve. 
 
 To find the velocity at a distance of 900 yds., note that the vertical 
 line at 900 strikes the curve at H. But the ordinate of H is 850. Hence 
 we know without actually firing from that distance, that the velocity of 
 the projectile when 900 yds. from the muzzle is 850 ft. per sec. This 
 method of finding values is called Interpolation. Such use of curves for 
 detecting errors and for interpolating values makes them very valuable. 
 They also present the data more forcibly than does the tabulated form, 
 for which reason debaters frequently use them. In the physical labora- 
 tory and in engineering work curves are almost indispensable. 
 
 If there were also negative velocities to be plotted, i.e., velocities 
 having a direction opposite to that of the bullet, they would be desig- 
 nated by points at the proper distance below the axis of abscissae. This 
 axis would then be near the middle of the coordinate sheet instead of 
 at the bottom as shown. 
 
 42. Newton's Three Laws of Motion. Sir Isaac Newton, the 
 great English mathematician and physicist, formulated the fol- 
 lowing fundamental laws of motion which bear his name. 
 
 1. A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion con- 
 tinues to move in the same direction and at the same speed, 
 unless acted upon by some external force. 
 
 2. The acceleration experienced by a given mass is propor- 
 tional to the applied force (accelerating force), and is hi the 
 direction of the applied force. 
 
 3. Action and reaction are equal, and oppositely directed. 
 
 The first law refers to the inert character of matter, the prop- 
 erty of inertia by virtue of which any body resists any change in 
 velocity, either in magnitude or direction. It is really impossible 
 to have a body perfectly free from the effects of all external 
 forces, but the more we eliminate these effects by reducing fric- 
 tion, etc., the more readily do we observe the tendency of a body 
 to keep in motion when once started. The second law states 
 the fact with which we have already become familiar in the dis- 
 cussion of the equation F = Ma (Sec. 25). The third law is a 
 statement of the fact that whenever and wherever a force is applied 
 there arises an equal and oppositely directed force. This law will 
 be further considered in the next section. 
 
 43. Action and Reaction, Inertia Force, Principle of d'Alem- 
 bert. If we press with the hand upon the top, bottom, or side 
 of a table with a force of, say 10 Ibs., we observe that the table 
 exerts a counter push or force exactly equal to the applied force, 
 

 
 50 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 but oppositely directed. If the applied force is increased, the 
 counter force, or Reaction, is inevitably increased. If, in order to 
 push a boat eastward from a bank, the oarsman exerts a west- 
 ward thrust (force) upon a projecting rock by means of his oar, 
 the eastward reacting thrust of the rock that arises dents the oar 
 and starts the boat eastward. If an eastward pull is exerted on a 
 telephone pole, the guy wires to the westward tighten. 
 
 If a horse exerts a 300-lb. pull or force FI upon the rope at- 
 tached to a canal boat a moment after starting, then the backward 
 pull that the canal boat exerts upon the other end of the rope 
 cannot possibly be either more or less than 300 Ibs. Many peo- 
 ple cling tenaciously to the erroneous belief that the forward 
 pull of the horse must be at least slightly greater than the back- 
 ward pull of the boat or the latter would not move. Many 
 people also think that the winning party in a tug-of-war contest 
 must exert a greater pull on the rope than does the losing party, 
 which is certainly not the case. For this reason, we shall discuss 
 very carefully the problem of the horse and canal boat. The 
 applied force FI in this case overcomes two forces; one, the fric- 
 tion resistance, say 100 Ibs., encountered by the boat in moving 
 through the water, the other (200 Ibs.), the backward pull exerted 
 by the boat because, by virtue of its inertia, it resists having its 
 speed increased. Note that we are here dealing with four forces. 
 The 100 Ibs. of the forward pull exerted by the horse just balances 
 the 100-lb. backward pull of water friction on the boat; while the 
 other 200 Ibs. of forward pull or force /i exerted by the horse, 
 just balances the resisting pull or force / 2 that the boat offers to 
 having its speed increased. Obviously the accelerating f orce/i = 
 /2 = Ma, in which M is the mass of the canal boat and a is its 
 acceleration. The minus sign indicates that the forces are oppo- 
 sitely directed. 
 
 From this discussion, we arrive at the conclusion that the for- 
 ward pull exerted upon any body is exactly equal in magnitude 
 to the backward pull or resisting force exerted by the body. Thus 
 here, if the horse had exerted a 400-lb. pull, we cannot escape the 
 conclusion that the backward pull of the boat would have been 
 400 Ibs.; 100 Ibs. being the pull of water friction resistance as 
 before, and 300 Ibs. backward pull arising from the resistance the 
 boat offered to having its speed increased. Since the accelerating 
 force would be 300 Ibs. in this case, instead of 200 Ibs. as before, 
 the acceleration would be 1/2 greater than before.
 
 b' 
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 51 
 
 The above backward pull or force that any body, by virtue 
 of its inertia, exerts in resisting change of velocity, has been very 
 appropriately called Inertia Force. The inertia force is always 
 numerically equal to the accelerating force that gives rise to it, 
 and is always oppositely directed. If the canal boat were to run 
 onto a sand bar, the friction would produce a large negative 
 accelerating force, and the resistance the boat offered to decrease 
 of speed would develop an equal forward, or Driving Inertia 
 Force, that would carry the boat some distance onto the bar, even 
 though the horse had ceased to pull. Had the sand bar been 
 more abrupt, then both the negative accelerating force and the 
 driving inertia force would have been greater than before, but 
 they would still have been exactly equal. 
 
 The above fact, that all the forces exerted both upon and by 
 any body under any possible circumstances are balanced forces, 
 i.e., that the vector sum of all the forces exerted upon and by a body 
 is invariably zero, is known in mechanics as the Principle of 
 d'Alembert. In common language, we frequently speak of 
 unbalanced forces. In physics, even, it is frequently found 
 convenient to use the term, but in such cases we are simply 
 ignoring the inertia force. Strictly speaking, then, there is no 
 such thing as unbalanced forces, if all forces, including inertia 
 force, are taken into account. In the above case of the canal 
 boat, the only external forces acting upon the boat to affect its 
 motion are the forward pull exerted by the horse, and the back- 
 ward pull exerted by the water friction. These external forces 
 are clearly unbalanced forces. In this sense, and in this sense 
 only, may we correctly speak of unbalanced forces. 
 
 44. Practical Applications of Reaction. A horse cannot draw 
 a heavy load on a slippery road unless sharply shod. In order to 
 exert a forward pull on the vehicle, he must exert a backward 
 push on the ground. A train cannot, by applying the brakes, 
 stop quickly on a greased track because of the inability of the 
 wheels to push backward on the axle, and therefore on the car, 
 without pushing forward on the track. The wheels cannot, 
 however, exert much forward push on a greasy rail. 
 
 A steamship, by means of its propellers, forces a stream of 
 water backward. The reaction on the propellers pushes the ship 
 forward. One of the best suggestions to give a person who is 
 learning to swim is to tell him to push the water backward. The 
 reaction forces the swimmer forward.
 
 52 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 An aeroplane, by means of its propellers, forces a stream of air 
 backward. The reaction on the propellers forces the aeroplane 
 forward. The forward edge of each plane or wing is slightly 
 higher than the rear edge. This causes the planes to give the 
 air a downward thrust as the machine speeds horizontally through 
 it. The reaction to this thrust lifts on the planes and supports 
 the weight of the machine. 
 
 Suppose that an aeroplane, traveling 50 miles per hour, sud- 
 denly enters a region in which the wind is blowing 50 miles per 
 hour in the same direction. Under these circumstances the air 
 in contact with the planes, having no horizontal motion with 
 respect to the planes, fails to give rise to the upward reacting 
 thrust just mentioned, and the aeroplane suddenly plunges 
 downward. Such regions as these, described by aeronauts as 
 "holes in the air," are very dangerous. It is interesting to note 
 in this connection that birds face the wind, if it is blowing hard, 
 both in alighting and in starting, thus availing themselves of the 
 maximum upward thrust of the air through which their wings 
 glide. 
 
 45. Momentum, Impulse, Impact, and Conservation of Momen- 
 tum. The Momentum of a moving body is denned as the product 
 of the mass of the body and its velocity, or 
 
 Momentum = Mv (17) 
 
 The impulse of a force is the product of the force and the time 
 during which the force acts, or 
 
 Impulse =Ft (18) 
 
 An impulse is a measure of the ability of a force to produce 
 motion or change of motion. We readily see that a force of 100 
 Ibs. acting upon a boat for 2 sec. will produce the same amount 
 of motion as a force of 200 Ibs. acting for 1 sec. The term 
 " impulse" is usually applied only in those cases in which the 
 force acts for a brief time, e.g., as in the case of collision or 
 impact of two bodies, the action of dynamite or powder in blast- 
 ing, the firing of a gun, etc., and the force is then called an 
 impulsive force. 
 
 We shall now show that an impulse is numerically equal to 
 the momentum change which it produces in a body, i.e., Ft = Mv. 
 Observe that a "bunted" ball loses momentum (mainly), while 
 a batted ball loses momentum and then instantly acquires even
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 53 
 
 greater momentum in the opposite direction, due to the impulse ap- 
 plied by the bat. Obviously, the total change in the momentum 
 of the ball, in case it returns toward the pitcher, is the product 
 of the mass of the ball and the sum of its "pitched" and "batted" 
 velocities. If a force F acts upon a certain mass M, it imparts 
 to the mass an acceleration, determined by the equation F = Ma', 
 while if this force acts for a time t, the impulse Ft = Mat. But 
 the acceleration of a body multiplied by the time during which 
 it is being accelerated gives the velocity acquired. Hence 
 
 Ft = Mat = Mv (19) 
 
 It should be emphasized that v here represents the change in 
 velocity produced by the impulse Ft. 
 
 We shall next show that when two free bodies are acted upon 
 by an impulse, for example in impact or when powder explodes 
 between them, then the change of momentum of one body is 
 exactly equal but opposite in sign to the change in momentum of 
 the other. In other words the total momentum of both bodies is, 
 taking account of sign, exactly the same before and after impact. 
 This law is very appropriately called the law of the Conservation 
 of Momentum. 
 
 Theoretical Proof of the Conservation of Momentum. Let us now 
 study the effects of the impact in a rear end collision, caused by 
 a truck A of mass M a and velocity v a overtaking a truck B of 
 mass Mb and velocity Vb. Let v' a and v'b be the velocities after 
 impact. During the brief interval of impact t, truck A pushes 
 forward upon B with a variable force whose average value may 
 be designated by F b . During this same time t, truck B pushes 
 backward upon A with a force equal at every instant to the 
 forward push of A upon B (action equals reaction). Conse- 
 quently the average value F a of this backward push must equal 
 Fb, and therefore 
 
 F b t=-F a t (20) 
 
 The minus sign in this equation indicates that the forces are 
 oppositely directed. In fact F a , being a backward push, is 
 negative. 
 
 Since an impulse is equal to the change in momentum which it 
 produces, and since the change in velocity of A is v' a v a , and that 
 of B is v'b Vb, we have 
 
 F a t = M a (v' a - v a ) and F b t = M b (v' b - v b )
 
 54 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Hence, from Eq. 20, we have 
 
 M b (v' b -v b ] = -M a (v' a -v a ), 
 or 
 
 M b (v' b -v b }+M a (v' a -v a }=Q (21) 
 
 From the conditions of the problem, we see at once that v b is less 
 than v'b, and that v a is greater than v' a . Accordingly, in Eq. 21, 
 the first term, which represents the momentum change of 
 truck B, is positive; while the second term, which represents 
 the momentum change of truck A (momentum lost), is negative. 
 Since these two changes are numerically equal but opposite in 
 sign, the combined momentum of A and B is unchanged by the 
 impact, thus proving the Conservation of Momentum. 
 
 Observe in equation 21 that the changes in velocity vary 
 inversely as the masses involved. Thus if B had 3 times as 
 great mass as A, its change (increase) in velocity would be only 
 1/3 as great as the change (decrease) in the velocity of A. 
 
 Briefer Proof. The above concrete example has been used in 
 the proof for the sake of the added clearness of illustration. We 
 are now prepared to consider a briefer, and at the same time more 
 general proof. In every case of impact of two bodies, whatever 
 be their relative masses, or their relative velocities before impact, 
 the impulsive force acting on the one, since action is equal to 
 reaction, is equal to, but oppositely directed to that acting upon 
 the other. Since these two forces are not only equal but also act 
 for the same length of time, the two impulses are equal, and they 
 are also oppositely directed. But, since an impulse is equal to 
 the change in momentum (Mv) produced by it, it follows that 
 the momentum changes of the two bodies are equal but oppositely 
 directed, and that their sum is therefore zero. In other words, 
 the momentum before impact is equal to the momentum after impact, 
 thus proving the Conservation of Momentum. 
 
 Experimental Proof. Consider two ivory balls A and B of 
 equal mass suspended by separate cords of equal length. Let 
 A be displaced through an arc of say 6 inches and then be released. 
 As A strikes B it comes to rest and B swings through an equal 
 6-inch arc. This shows that the velocity of B immediately after 
 impact is equal to the velocity of A immediately before impact. 
 But A and B have equal mass, hence the total momentum is the 
 same before and after impact, as is required by the law of the 
 conservation of momentum.
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 
 
 55 
 
 46. The Ballistic Pendulum. The ballistic pendulum affords 
 a simple and accurate means of determining the velocity of a rifle 
 ball or other projectile. It consists essentially of a heavy block 
 of wood P (Fig. 22), of known mass M, suspended by a cord of 
 length L. In practice, four suspending cords so arranged as to 
 prevent all rotary motion are used. 
 
 As the bullet b of mass m and velocity v strikes P, it imparts to 
 P a velocity V which causes it to rise through the arc AB, thereby 
 raising it through the vertical height h. After impact, the mass 
 of the pendulum is M + m. From the conservation of momentum 
 we know that the momentum of the bullet before impact, or mv, 
 
 '/////////, 
 
 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 will be equal to the momentum of the pendulum (with bullet 
 embedded) after impact, or (M+m)V, i.e., 
 
 (M+m)V 
 
 (22) 
 
 The values of m and M are found by weighing, and V is found 
 from V=^2gh (Eq. 14). For, as we shall presently prove, the 
 velocity which enables the pendulum to swing through arc AB, 
 or the equal velocity which it attains in returning from B to A, 
 is that velocity which it would acquire in falling through the 
 vertical height h. All other quantities being known, Eq. 22 may 
 then be solved for v, the velocity of the bullet. 
 
 Velocity Dependent upon Vertical Height Only. We shall now show 
 that the velocity acquired by a body in descending through a given 
 vertical height h by a frictionless path, is independent of the length or 
 form of that path. Thus, if it were not for friction, the velocity of a 
 sled upon reaching the foot of a hill of varying slope would be exactly 
 that velocity which a body would acquire in falling through the vertical 
 height of the hill. 
 
 

 
 56 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 In Fig. 22 (upper right corner) let DE be an incline whose slant height 
 is, say, four times its vertical height DE' or h', i.e., DE = 4h'. Let the 
 body C, starting from rest, slide without friction down the incline, and 
 let C", also starting from rest, fall without friction. Let us prove that 
 the velocity (v t ) of C as it reaches E is equal to the velocity (v't) that C' 
 acquires in falling to E'. Note that the vertical descent is the same 
 for both bodies. 
 
 The component FI of C"s weight W is the accelerating force acting 
 upon C. From similar triangles we have 
 
 and therefore C"s acceleration a is 0/4. From Eq. 14a we have for 
 the velocity of C at E, v t = \ / 2od = \^X4/i= ^2^ But from Eq. 
 
 14 we have, for the velocity v' t of C" as it reaches E', v' t = X/20/j'; 
 therefore Vt = v't, which was to be proved. 
 
 Further, it is obvious that the same reasoning would apply had h' been 
 chosen larger, say equal to DF'. Accordingly, the velocity of C upon 
 reaching F, would equal the velocity of C" upon reaching F'. This shows 
 that the increase in C"s velocity while going from E to F is equal to the 
 increase in the velocity of C' in going through the equal vertical distance 
 E'F' (or EH). 
 
 Let us now consider the path a b c . . . k, Fig. 22 (lower right corner), 
 whose slope is not uniform. By subdividing this path into shorter and 
 shorter portions, in the limit each portion ab, be, cd, etc., would be straight, 
 and therefore abdi, etc., become triangles similar to triangle EFH in the 
 figure just discussed. From the discussion of triangle EFH already 
 given, we see that the velocities acquired by a body in sliding without 
 friction through the successive distances ab, be, cd, etc., are equal respect- 
 ively to the velocities that would be acquired by a body falling through 
 the corresponding successive distances hi, h 2 , h 3 , etc. But the sum of 
 one series is the distance ok, while the sum of the other series is h", 
 the vertical height of ok. 
 
 Consequently the total velocity acquired by a body in sliding 
 from a to k, or in general down any frictionless path, is equal to 
 the velocity that would be acquired in free fall through the dis- 
 tance h", or in general through the vertical height of the path. 
 
 We now see that V of Eq. 22 is given by the relation V = ^2gh. 
 If h is measured, V is known, and therefore v of Eq. 22 is deter- 
 mined. In practice, h is too small to be accurately measured and 
 is therefore expressed in terms of d and L (see figure) .
 
 TRANSLATORY MOTION 57 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. The distance by rail from a town A to a town B, 120 miles east of A, 
 is 240 miles. The speed of a train going from A to B is 30 miles an hour 
 for the first 120 miles, and 20 miles an hour for the remainder. Find the 
 average speed and average velocity of the train for the run. 
 
 2. A train starts from rest at a town A and passes through a town B 
 5.5 miles to the eastward at full speed. The excess pull upon the drawbar 
 above that required to overcome friction (i.e., the accelerating force) is 
 kept constant, so that the motion from A to B is uniformly accelerated. 
 The train requires 22 minutes to make the trip. Find its average velocity 
 and maximum velocity in mi. per min.; mi. per hr.; and ft. per sec. 
 
 3.' Express the acceleration of the train (Prob. 2) in miles per hr. per 
 min.; miles per min. per min.; and feet per sec. per sec. 
 
 4. 1 What is the velocity of the train (Prob. 2) 15 sec. after leaving A? 
 2 min. after leaving A? 
 
 ^ 5. How long will it take a 2-ton pull to give a train of 40 cars, weighing 
 50 tons each, a velocity of 1 mi. per min. (i.e., 88 ft. per sec.) on a level 
 track? Neglect friction. 
 
 6. Compare the intensities of illumination due to an arc lamp at the 
 two distances, 1/2 block, and 2 blocks. 
 
 7. A 50-lb. stone falls 16 ft. and sinks into the earth 1 ft. Find its 
 negative acceleration, assuming it to be constant for this foot. Find 
 the force required to penetrate the earth. Suggestion: Since the velocity 
 of the stone during fall changes uniformly from zero to its "striking" 
 velocity, and during its travel through the earth from striking velocity 
 to zero, it follows that its average velocity in air and its average velocity 
 in earth are the same, and that each is equal to 1/2 the striking velocity. 
 See Sec. 33 and Sec. 45. 
 
 y 8. If an elevator cable pulls upward with a force of 1200 Ibs. on a 1000- 
 Ib. elevator, what is the upward acceleration? How far will it rise in 2 
 sec.? Suggestion: Find the accelerating force and express it in poundals, 
 not pounds (see Sec. 32). Neglect friction. 
 
 9. How much would a 1 50-lb. man weigh standing in the above eleva- 
 tor if the pull on the cable were increased so as to make the acceleration 
 the same as in problem 8? 
 
 10. A car that has a velocity of 64 feet per sec. is brought to rest in 10 
 sec. by applying its brakes. Find its average negative acceleration; and 
 by comparing this acceleration with g, show graphically at what average 
 slant a passenger standing in the car must lean back during this 10 sec. 
 
 11. If the car (Prob. 10) weighs 30 tons, what is the forward push exerted 
 by its wheels upon the rails while it is being brought to rest? 
 
 12. Prove that the weight of a gram mass is 980.6 dynes, and that a 
 force of 1 pound is equal to 32.17 poundals of force. 
 
 13. Reduce 2.5 tons to poundals; to dynes. 
 
 14. How far does a body travel in the first second of free fall from rest? 
 In the second? In the third? In the fifth? 
 
 16. What is the gravitational pull of the earth upon a mass of 1 ton at 
 the moon?
 
 58 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 16. How far will a body fall in 7 sec.; and what will be its average and 
 final velocities? 
 
 17. A car on a track inclined 30 to the horizontal is released. How 
 far will it travel in the first 7 sec.; and what will be its average and final 
 velocities (neglecting friction) ? Compare results with those of problem 16. 
 
 18. How long will it take a body to fall 400 meters? 
 
 19. If a rifle ball is fired downward from a balloon with a muzzle 
 velocity of 20,000 cm. per sec., how far will it go in 4 sec. ? If fired upward, 
 how far will it go in 4 sec.? 
 
 20. A baseball thrown vertically upward remains in the air 6 sec. 
 How high does it go? Observe that the times of ascent and descent are 
 equal, neglecting friction. 
 
 21. A stone is thrown upward from the top of an 80-ft. cliff with a 
 velocity whose vertical component is 64 ft. per sec.' What time will 
 elapse before it strikes the level plain at the base of the cliff? 
 
 22. With what velocity does a body which has fallen 2000 ft. strike the 
 ground? 
 
 23. A man 500 ft. south of a west-bound train which has a velocity of 
 60 miles per hour, fires a rifle ball with a muzzle velocity of 1000 ft. per 
 sec. at a target on the train. Assuming the aim to be accurate, how much 
 will the bullet miss the mark if the rifle sight is set for close range? 
 
 24. A stone is dropped from a certain point at the same instant that 
 another stone is thrown vertically downward from the same point with 
 a velocity of 20 ft. per sec How far apart are the two stones 3 sec. later? 
 
 25. A rifle ball is fired at an angle of 30 above the horizontal with a 
 muzzle velocity of 1200 ft. per sec. Neglecting air friction, find the range 
 and time of flight. 
 
 26. If the rifle ball (Prob. 25) is fired horizontally from the edge of the 
 cliff (Prob. 21), when and where will it strike the plain on the level of the 
 base of the cliff ? 
 
 27. If a 20-ton car A, having a velocity of 5 mi. an hr., collides with and 
 is coupled to a 30-ton car B standing on the track, what will be their com- 
 mon velocity after impact? 
 
 28. If the above car A when it strikes B rebounds from it with a 
 velocity of 1 mile per hour, find the velocity of B after collision. Observe 
 that the total change of A's velocity is 6 miles per hour. Will B'B change 
 be more or less, and why? 
 
 29. A 2-gram bullet fired into a 2-kilo ballistic pendulum of length 2 
 meters produces a horizontal displacement d=10 cm. (Fig. 22). Find the 
 velocity of the bullet in cm. per sec. and ft. per sec. 
 

 
 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 ROTARY MOTION 
 
 47. Kinds of Rotary Motion. As has previously been stated 
 (Sec. 22), a body has pure rotary motion if a line of particles, 
 called the axis of rotation, remains stationary, and all other 
 particles of the body move in circular paths about the axis as a 
 center. Familiar examples are the rotation of shafts, pulleys, 
 and flywheels. Rotary motion is of the greatest importance in 
 connection with machinery of all kinds, since it is much more 
 common in machines than reciprocating motion. The study 
 of rotary motion is much simplified by observing the striking 
 similarity in terms to those that occur in the discussion of trans- 
 latory motion. 
 
 Translatory motion, as we have seen (Sec. 22), may be either 
 uniform or accelerated; and the latter may be either uniformly ac- 
 celerated or nonuniformly accelerated motion. The accelera- 
 tion may also be either positive or negative. Likewise there 
 are three kinds of rotary motion: (a) uniform rotary motion, 
 e.g., the motion of a flywheel or line shaft after it has acquired 
 steady speed; (6) nonuniformly accelerated motion, e.g., the 
 usual motion of a flywheel when the power is first turned on (or 
 off); and (c) uniformly accelerated rotary motion, e.g., the 
 motion which a flywheel would have if the torque (Sec. 48) 
 furnished in starting had the proper value to cause its increase of 
 rotary speed to be uniform. 
 
 48. Torque. Torque may be defined as that which produces, 
 or tends to produce, rotary motion in a body, just as force is 
 that which produces, or tends to produce, motion of translation 
 in a body. The magnitude of a torque is force times "lever 
 arm" (Eq.25), and its direction depends upon both the direction 
 and the point of application of the force. A torque is not simply 
 a force, for it is readily seen that any force directed either 
 toward or away from the axis, e.g., force a (Fig. 23a), has no 
 tendency to produce rotation. A torque tending to produce 
 rotation in a counterclockwise direction is called a positive 
 
 59 

 
 60 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 torque, while a torque which is oppositely directed is called 
 negative. 
 
 Fig. 23a represents the grindstone shown in Fig. 23 as viewed 
 from a point in line with the axle. The torque due to the force 
 a alone is zero. The torque due to the force b alone is bXOP 
 (i.e., b.OP), and is negative. The torque due to force c alone is 
 also negative, and its magnitude is c.OE. For the thrust c 
 equals the pull c f , which may be thought of as exerted upon a 
 cord c'P. Evidently the pull of such a cord would be just as 
 effective in producing rotation, at the instant shown, if attached 
 to E on a crank OE, as if attached to P on the crank OP. Thus 
 when we define torque as force times "lever arm," or 
 
 T = Fr (25) 
 
 we must interpret the "lever arm" r to mean the perpendicular 
 distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force. 
 
 FIG. 23. 
 
 FIG. 23a. 
 
 The force may be expressed in dynes, poundals, pounds, etc., 
 and the lever arm in centimeters, inches, feet, etc.; so that 
 torque may be expressed in dyne-centimeter units, or in poundal- 
 feet, or pound-feet units, etc. If several torques, some positive 
 and some negative, act simultaneously upon a flywheel, the fly- 
 wheel will start (or, if in motion, increase its speed) clockwise, 
 provided the negative torques exceed the positive torques; 
 whereas it will start, or, if in motion, increase its speed counter- 
 clockwise, provided the positive torques are the greater. If the 
 positive and negative torques just "balance," then the fly- 
 wheel will remain at rest; or if already in motion, its speed will 
 not change.
 
 
 ROTARY MOTION 61 
 
 7 7 Ae Couple. Two equal and oppositely directed forces 
 which do not have the same line of action (F and/' 1 ', upper sketch, 
 Fig. 24) constitute a Couple. The torque developed by this 
 couple is equal to the product of one of the forces, and the dis- 
 tance AC between them, and is entirely independent of the posi- 
 tion (in the plane of the figure) of the pivot point about which 
 the body rotates. The torque due to this particular couple is 
 also counterclockwise (positive) whether the pivot point is at 
 A, B, C, D, or at any other point. If A is the pivot point, then 
 the force F produces no torque, while F f produces the positive 
 torque F'XAC (i.e., F'.AC). If B is the pivot point, then both 
 forces produce positive torques; but, 
 since the lever arm for each is then 
 only \ AC, the total torque is the 
 same as before. If D is the pivot 
 point, then F' produces a negative 
 torque, and F, a positive torque; but, 
 since F acts upon a lever arm which 
 is longer than that of F' by the dis- 
 tance AC, it follows that the sum of 
 these two torques about D is F.AC as 
 before, and is also positive. 
 
 If three men A, B, and C by pushing Fio. 24. 
 
 with one hand and pulling with the 
 
 other apply respectively upon the wheel E (Fig. 24) the cou- 
 ples represented by FI and Ft, F 3 and F 4 , and F 6 and F 6 , then 
 each man will contribute an equal positive torque helping to 
 rotate the wheel. For, as sketched, the forces are all equal, 
 and the distances a, b, and c are equal; consequently the three 
 torques are equal. But from the above discussion we see that 
 the torques due to these three similar couples will be equal about 
 any point in the plane of the wheel, and hence about its axis. 
 
 49. Resultant Torque, and Antiresultant Torque. Let the 
 forces a, b, c, and d, Fig. 23a, be respectively 20, 12, 14, and 40 
 pounds, and let OP = 1 ft., OE = 8 in., and OF = 4 in. The torque 
 due to a is zero; that due to b is 12X1 or 12 lb.-ft., or 144 lb.-in., 
 negative; the torque due to c is 14X8 or 112 lb.-in., negative, and 
 that due to d is 40 X4 = 160 lb.-in. positive. The sum of all these 
 torques, that is the one torque that would be just as effective in 
 producing rotation as all of these torques acting simultaneously, 
 is 96 lb.-in. or 8 lb.-ft., a negative torque. Consequently, one
 
 62 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 force, say h, acting in the direction 6, but of magnitude 8 Ibs., 
 would produce just as great a torque as would all four forces, 
 a, b, c, and d acting together. This torque may be called the 
 Resultant of the other four torques. If the force h is reversed 
 in direction, it produces a positive torque of 8 lb.-ft., called the 
 Antiresultant torque. This antiresultant torque, acting with the 
 torques due to a, b, c, and d, would produce equilibrium. Ob- 
 viously, this antiresultant torque, instead of being an 8-lb. force 
 on a 1-ft. arm, might, for example, be a 4-lb. force on a 2-ft. arm, 
 or a 16-lb. force on a 6-in. arm. 
 
 50. Angular Measurement. Angles may be measured in 
 degrees, minutes, and seconds, in revolutions, or in radians. In 
 circular measure, an angle is found by dividing the subtended 
 arc by the radius, that is, 
 
 If the arc equals the radius, then the angle is of course unity, and 
 is called one Radian. Thus angle AOC (Fig. 25) is one radian 
 because arc ABC equals the radius r. The 
 angle AOB, or 8, is 1/2 radian because the 
 arc AB is 1/2 the radius r. Since the cir- 
 cumference of a circle is 2nr, it follows that 
 there are 2ir radians in 360, or the radian 
 equals 57.3. In the study of Mechanics, 
 angles, angular velocity, and angular ac- 
 FIG. 25. celeration are almost always expressed in 
 
 terms of radians instead of degrees. 
 
 61. Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration. Angular 
 velocity is the angle traversed divided by the time required; or, 
 since the unit of time is usually the second, it is numerically the 
 angle turned through in one second. If a certain flywheel makes 
 600 revolutions per min. (written 600 R.P.M.), its angular 
 velocity 
 
 w = 10 rev. per sec., or 62.8 (i.e., 10X27r) radians per sec. 
 
 If the rotary speed of the flywheel is constant during the one 
 minute, the above 62.8 radians per sec. is its actual angular 
 velocity at any time during that minute; whereas if its speed 
 fluctuates, then 62.8 radians per sec. is simply the average angular 
 velocity co (read "barred omega") for the minute considered.
 
 ROTARY MOTION 63 
 
 Again, suppose that the above flywheel, starting from rest and 
 uniformly increasing its speed, makes 600 revolutions in the first 
 minute. Its average angular velocity w is 62.8 rad. per sec. as 
 before; but, since its initial velocity is zero, its angular velocity 
 oj t at the close of the first minute must be twice the average, or 
 125.6 rad. per sec. (Compare v of Sec. 33.) Since this angular 
 velocity is acquired in one minute, the angular acceleration (a) is 
 given by the equation 
 
 CO* 
 
 a = = 125.6 radians per sec. per min. 
 
 In one second the wheel will acquire 1/60 as much angular veloc- 
 ity as it does in 1 min.; hence we may also write 
 
 a = 2.09 radians per sec. per sec. 
 
 which means that in one second the increase in angular velocity 
 is 2.09 radians per sec. Evidently, at a time t seconds after 
 starting, the angular velocity <a t =od. Thus 5 seconds after 
 starting co = 10.45 radians per sec. 
 
 To summarize (see also Sees. 52 and 57), we have, in transla- 
 tory motion, 
 
 distance traversed d 
 
 Average velocity - time required > or V = T 
 
 In rotary motion 
 
 angle traversed _ 
 Average angular velocity = ^time required > or " = J ( 27 > 
 
 . gain in velocity 
 
 Acceleration (trans, motion) = r. ^rm or a 
 
 time required ' t 
 
 gain in angl. velocity co, co ,, 
 
 Angular aceelerat.on = time r quired p*. or - -y- (28) 
 
 52. Relation between Linear and Angular Velocity and 
 Acceleration. If, due to a constant accelerating torque, a body 
 starts from rest with a constant angular acceleration a, and, in a 
 time t, rotates through an angle 6 and acquires an angular veloc- 
 ity w, then it will be true that any mass particle in this body at a 
 distance r from the axis travels, in this time t , a distance d = rd 
 (note that arc = r0, Eq. 26), acquires in this time a linear velocity 
 v = rw, and experiences during this same time a linear accelera- 
 tion a = ra. 
 
 Proof: Dividing both sides of the equation d = r6 by t, gives 
 
 .
 
 64 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 r\ 
 
 v = r-. = ru. If a body starts from rest with uniform acceleration, 
 
 its average velocity v is of course only half as great as its final 
 velocity v; hence v = 2v. Likewise w = 2co. Hence, since v = ro>, 
 it follows that v = rw. Now a = v/t; therefore, dividing both 
 sides of the equation v = rco by t, gives a = ru/t = ra. Accordingly 
 
 d = rd, v = rw, and a = ra (29) 
 
 If 6 is given in radians, co in radians per second, and a in 
 radians per second per second, then if r is given in feet, d will be 
 expressed in feet, v in feet per second, and a in feet per second per 
 second. From Eq. 29, we see (1) that the distance which a belt 
 travels is equal to the product of the radius (?) of the belt wheel 
 over which it passes, and the angle 6 (in radians) through which 
 this wheel turns; (2) that the linear velocity of the belt is equal 
 to r times the angular velocity of the wheel in radians per second, 
 and (3) that the linear acceleration which the belt experiences in 
 starting, is equal to r times the angular acceleration of the belt 
 wheel expressed in radians per second per second. 
 
 Let it be required to find the angular velocity co of the drivers 
 of a locomotive when traveling with a known velocity v. From 
 Eq. 29 we have co = y/r; hence, dividing the linear velocity of the 
 locomotive expressed in feet per second by the radius of the driver 
 in feet, we obtain co in radians per second. 
 
 53. The Two Conditions of Equilibrium of a Rigid Body. 
 If the resultant of all of the forces acting upon a body is zero, 
 the First Condition of Equilibrium is satisfied (Sec. 17), and the 
 body will remain at rest, if at rest, or continue in uniform motion 
 in a straight line if already in motion. If, in addition, the result- 
 ant of the torques acting upon the body is zero, the Second Con- 
 dition of Equilibrium is satisfied, and the body will remain at rest, 
 if at rest, or if already rotating its angular velocity will neither 
 increase nor decrease. Forces which satisfy the first condition 
 of equilibrium may not satisfy the second. The general case of 
 several forces acting upon various points of the body, and in 
 directions which do not all lie in the same plane, is too complex 
 to discuss here. The simpler but important case of three forces 
 all lying in the same plane will now be considered. 
 
 A body acted upon by three forces which lie in the same plane 
 is in equilibrium if (a) the three forces when represented graphic- 
 ally form a closed triangle (first condition of equilibrium); and
 
 ROTARY MOTION 65 
 
 (&) if the lines of action of these three forces meet in a point 
 (second condition of equilibrium). Thus the body A (Fig. 26) 
 is in equilibrium, since the three forces a, b, and c, form a closed 
 triangle as shown, and they also (extended if necessary) meet 
 at the point E. 
 
 The three forces a', &', and c' which act upon the body B (Fig. 
 27), when graphically represented form a closed triangle and 
 therefore have zero resultant. Consequently they have no tend- 
 ency to produce motion of translation in the body, but they do 
 tend to produce rotation. For the forces b' and c' meet at D, 
 about which point the remaining force a' clearly exerts a clock- 
 wise torque; hence the second condition of equilibrium is not 
 fulfilled. 
 
 That forces a, b, and c (Fig. 26) produce no torque about E is 
 
 FIG. 26. FIG. 27. 
 
 evident, since all three act directly away from E. It may not 
 be equally evident that they produce no torque about any other 
 point in A, such as F. That such is the case, however, may be 
 easily shown. The two forces a and b have a resultant, say c", 
 which is equal to c but oppositely directed (since the three force 
 a, 6, and c are in equilibrium); hence a and b may be replaced 
 by c" acting downward at E. But obviously c and c" would 
 produce equal and opposite torques about F, or about any other 
 point that may be chosen. Hence three forces which form a closed 
 triangle and also meet in a point have no tendency to produce either 
 translation or rotation of a body. 
 
 Applications to Problems. A ladder resting upon the ground at 
 the point A (Fig. 28) and leaning against a frictionless wall at B, 
 supports at its middle point a 200-lb. man whose weight is
 
 66 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 represented by W. Neglecting the weight of the ladder, let us 
 find the thrusts a and b. Since the ladder is in equilibrium, the 
 three forces a, b, and W which act upon it must meet at a point 
 and must also form a closed triangle. The thrust b must be 
 horizontal, since the wall is frictionless, and it therefore meets 
 W produced at C. The upward thrust of the ground on the 
 ladder must also pass (when extended) through C; i.e., it must 
 have the direction AC. To find the magnitude of a and of 6, 
 draw W to & suitable scale, and through one end of W draw a line 
 parallel to 6, and through the other end draw a line parallel to a. 
 The intersection of these two lines determines the magnitude of 
 a and of 6, as explained under Fig. 7, 
 Sec. 18. 
 
 Since the crane beam in the problem 
 at the close of this chapter is acted 
 upon by three forces, and since it is 
 also in equilibrium, the problem may 
 be solved by the method of this sec- 
 W tion. 
 
 54. Moment of Inertia and Accel- 
 erating Torque. The mass of a body 
 may be defined as that property by vir- 
 tue of which the body resists a force 
 tending to make it change its velocity. 
 The Moment of Inertia of a body, e.g., of a flywheel, is that property 
 by virtue of which the flywheel resists a torque tending to make 
 it change its angular velocity. Consider a steam engine which is 
 belted to a flywheel connected with a buzz saw, as in the case of a 
 small saw mill. The difference between the tension on the tight 
 belt and the slack belt, times the radius of the pulley over which 
 the belt passes, gives the applied torque. If the applied torque 
 is just sufficient to overcome the opposing torque due to friction of 
 bearings, and the friction encountered by the saw, then the speed 
 remains uniform; while if the applied torque exceeds this value, 
 the angular velocity increases, and its rate of increase, that is, the 
 angular acceleration, is proportional to this excess torque. If the 
 applied torque is less than the resisting torque, the angular accel- 
 eration is negative, that is, the flywheel slows down, and the 
 rate at which it slows down is proportional to the deficiency in 
 torque. Compare with accelerating force, Sec. 25. 
 
 The relation between the moment of inertia 7 of a flywheel, th<3 
 
 28.
 
 ROTARY MOTION 67 
 
 accelerating torque, and the resulting angular acceleration a, is 
 given by the following equation, 
 
 Accelerating torque = la, i.e., T = Ia (30) 
 
 Compare with F = Ma (Eq. 5, Sec. 25). If we apply a known 
 torque and determine a experimentally, we may find the numer- 
 ical value of I from Eq. 30. If the torque is expressed in dyne- 
 centimeters (i.e., the force in dynes and the lever arm in centi- 
 meters) and a in radians per sec. per sec., then I will be.expressed 
 in C.G.S. units (see also Sec. 55). From Eq. 30 we see that unit 
 torque will give a body of unit moment of inertia unit angular 
 acceleration; while from Eq. 5, we see that unit force will give 
 unit mass unit linear acceleration. 
 
 The moment of inertia of two similar wheels is found to be 
 proportional to the products of the mass and the radius squared 
 for each (Eq. 31, Sec. 55). Hence we find fly 
 wheels made with large mass and large radius, 
 and with the greater part of the mass in the 
 rim, for which part the radius is largest. 
 
 65. Value and Unit of Moment of Inertia. 
 We shall now determine the relation between 
 the C.G.S. unit of moment of inertia (Sec. 
 54) and the mass and radius of the rotating 
 body, say a wheel. We shall first determine FIG. 29. 
 
 the expression for the moment of inertia of a 
 particle of mass mi at a distance r\ from the axis of rotation 
 (Fig. 29). Let us consider only this mass mi, ignoring, for the 
 time being, the mass of the rest of the wheel. To further sim- 
 plify the discussion, let the force F\ that produces the accelerating 
 torque T\, act upon m\ itself, so that 
 
 miari 
 
 AirM, -jj\crC 
 since a = ria (Eq. 29, Sec. 52). 
 
 But this same accelerating torque = /ia (Eq. 30), in which I\ 
 is the moment of inertia of nil about the axis through 0, and a 
 is its angular acceleration about the same axis. 
 Consequently 
 
 or /i = Wxri 2 (31)
 
 68 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Likewise, the moment of inertia 7 2 of ra 2 (see Fig. 29) can be 
 shown to be ra 2 r 2 2 , and that of m 3 to be W 3 r 3 2 , etc. Now if we 
 add together the moments of inertia of all the mass particles of 
 the wheel we have for the moment of inertia of the entire wheel 
 
 This may be briefly written 
 
 I=2mr 2 (32) 
 
 in which Zrar 2 (read sigma mr 2 ) signifies a summation of rar 2 for 
 all of the mass particles in the wheel. 
 
 If, in Eq. 31, all quantities are expressed in C.G.S. units, 
 then m will be expressed in grams, r in centimeters, and hence 
 7 will be expressed in gm.-cm. 2 units. If units of the F.P.S. 
 system are used, 7 will be expressed in lb.-ft. 2 units. Thus a 
 2000-lb. flywheel having practically all of its mass in the rim of 
 mean radius 5 feet, would have a moment of inertia I = Mr 2 
 (approx.) = 50,000 (i.e., 2000 X5 2 ) lb.-ft. 2 For the r of Eq. 32 
 is practically the same (i.e., 5 ft.) for every mass particle in the 
 wheel, and the combined mass of all these particles is M or 
 2000 Ibs. 
 
 The moment of inertia of an emery wheel or grindstone of 
 radius r and mass M is obviously less than Mr 2 ; for in this case 
 the mass is not mainly concentrated in the "rim," since many of 
 the mass particles move in circles of very small radius r. It can 
 be shown by the use of higher mathematics that the moment of 
 inertia of such disc-like bodies is 
 
 (33) 
 For a sphere of radius r and mass M 
 
 I = %Mr 2 (34) 
 
 66. Use of the Flywheel. The purpose of a flywheel, in 
 general, is to "steady" the motion. Thus, in the above- 
 mentioned case of the saw mill (Sec. 54), if the applied torque 
 furnished by the steam engine is greater than all the resisting 
 friction torques, this excess torque, or accelerating torque, 
 causes the speed of the flywheel to increase; while if the saw 
 strikes a tough knot, so that the friction torques exceed the 
 applied torque, then the flywheel helps the engine to run the saw,
 
 ROTARY MOTION 69 
 
 and in so doing is slowed down. Indeed the flywheel, when its 
 speed is increasing, is storing up energy, which is again handed 
 on to the saw when its speed decreases. 
 
 It is a matter of common observation that a heavy wheel, 
 when being set in motion with the hand, offers an opposing 
 backward inertia torque; while if we attempt to slow down its 
 motion, it offers an opposing forward inertia torque, or Driving 
 Inertia Torque. It is just this driving inertia torque, developed 
 by the flywheel when slowing down, that helps the engine to run 
 the saw through the tough knot. Compare this with the driving 
 inertia force that pushes the canal boat onto the sand bar (Sec. 
 43). If one were to shell some corn with the ordinary hand corn 
 sheller, both with and without the flywheel attached, he would be 
 very forcibly impressed with the fact that, at times, the flywheel 
 assists with a driving torque. 
 
 In the case of "four cycle" gas engines (Chap. XVIII) which 
 have one working stroke to three idle strokes (i. e., the three 
 strokes during which the gas is not pushing upon the piston), 
 it must be clear that the flywheel runs not only the machinery, 
 but also the engine itself, during these three strokes. Doing 
 this work, i.e., supplying the driving torque during the three 
 idle strokes, necessarily slows down the flywheel, but this lost 
 speed is regained during the next stroke, or working stroke, 
 when the explosion occurs. If the flywheel is too light, this 
 fluctuation in speed is objectionably great. Since, in the case 
 of steam engines, every stroke is a working stroke, lighter fly- 
 wheels suffice than for gas engines of the same horse power and 
 speed. 
 
 The flywheel of a high speed gas engine need not have so 
 great moment of inertia as is required for a lower speed engine 
 furnishing the same horse power. In each case, to be sure, the 
 flywheel "carries" the load during the three idle strokes, but 
 the time for these three idle strokes is shorter for the high speed 
 engine. (Flywheel design will be considered in Sec. 76). 
 
 57. Formulas for Translatory and Rotary Motion Compared. 
 Below will be found a collection of formulas applied to 
 translatory motion, and opposite them the corresponding for- 
 mulas for rotary motion. The similarities and differences in 
 these two sets of formulas should be observed. All of these 
 formulas should be thoroughly understood, and most of them 
 may be memorized with profit. 

 
 70 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Translatory Motion Rotary Motion 
 d 6 
 
 --T 
 
 v t = at or, v -\-at u t = 
 
 -v =v +%at w = 
 
 N Vt V Vt Wj co w t 
 
 a(oTg) = j OTJ a= ^ ory 
 
 d = v~t B = ut 
 
 d =t* 9 = %at 2 
 
 F =Ma T =Ia 
 
 F is accelerating force. T is accelerating torque. 
 
 Kinetic energy = \Mv i Kinetic energy = |/co 2 
 
 (Energy is discussed in Chap. VL.) 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Reduce 2.5 revolutions (a) to radians; (6) to degrees. Express the 
 angle between north and northeast in (c) radians; (d) degrees J and (e) 
 revolutions. 
 
 2. A shaft makes 1800 R.P.M. Find in radians per sec.; in degrees 
 per sec. 
 
 3. Through how many degrees will a shaft rotate in 3 min., if w=20 
 radians per sec.? 
 
 4. A flywheel, starting from rest with uniformly accelerated angular 
 motion, makes 15 revolutions in the first 10 sec. What is its average 
 angular velocity (a) in revolutions per sec.? (b) In radians per sec.? 
 (c) In degrees per sec.? (d) What is its velocity at the close of the first 
 10 sec.? 
 
 6. What is the angular acceleration of the flywheel of (problem 4) (a) in 
 radians per sec. per sec.? (b) In radians per sec. per min.? 
 
 6. A belt which travels at the rate of 30 ft. per sec. drives a pulley whose 
 radius is 3 in. What is the angular velocity for the pulley ? 
 
 7. A small emery wheel acquires full speed (1800 R.P.M.) 5 sec. after 
 starting. Assuming the angular acceleration to be constant, find its 
 value for this 5 sec. 
 
 8. Through what angle does the emery wheel rotate (Prob. 7) in the 
 first 5 sec.? 
 
 9. Find the total torque produced by the forces a, b, c, and d (Sec. 49) if 
 o and b are both reversed in direction. 
 
 10. A locomotive has a velocity of 30 miles per hr. one minute after 
 starting, (a) What is its average acceleration for this minute? (b) 
 What is the average angular acceleration of its drivers, which are 6 ft. in 
 diameter? 
 
 11. A crane (Fig. 7, Sec. 18) is lifting a load of 2400 Ibs. Find the 
 thrust of the beam B against the post A and the pull on cable C due to this
 
 ROTARY MOTION 
 
 71 
 
 load, if B is 30 ft. in length and inclines 30 to the vertical, and if C is 
 attached to B at a point 10 feet from O, and to A at a point 20 feet 
 above the foot of B. Use the graphical method and compare with the 
 ladder problem, Sec. 53. 
 
 12. The arms AO and OB of the bell crank (Fig. 30) are equal. Find 
 the pull F, and also the thrust of on its bearings. 
 
 13. Find the required pull and thrust (Prob. 12) if F has the direction BC. 
 Compare ladder problem, Sec. 53. 
 
 14. The belt which drives a 1600-lb. flywheel, whose rim has an average 
 radius of 2 feet (assume mass to be all in the rim), passes over a pulley of 
 1-ft. radius on the same shaft as the flywheel. The average pull of the 
 tight belt exceeds that of the slack belt by 100 Ibs. Neglecting friction, 
 how long will it take the flywheel to acquire a velocity of 600 R.P.M. 
 First find /, then a, etc.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION, SIMPLE HARMONIC 
 MOTION 
 
 58. Central and Centrifugal Forces, and Radial Acceleration. 
 If a body moves in a circular path with uniform speed, it is said 
 to have Uniform Circular Motion. If a stone, held by a string, 
 is whirled round and round in a horizontal circular path, it has 
 approximately uniform circular motion. In order to compel 
 the stone to follow the curved path, a certain inward pull must be 
 exerted upon the string by the hand. This pull is termed the 
 Centripetal or Central force. The opposing pull or force exerted 
 by the stone by virtue of its inertia (which inertia in accordance 
 with Newton's first law tends to make it move in a straight line 
 tangent to the circle), is exactly equal to this central force in mag- 
 nitude, and is termed the Centrifugal force. 
 
 If the string breaks, both the central and centrifugal forces 
 disappear, and the stone flies off in a straight line tangent to its 
 path at that instant. The pull upon the string causes the stone 
 to change its velocity (not in magnitude but in direction) and is 
 therefore an accelerating force and equal to Ma, in which M is 
 the mass of the stone and a, its acceleration. Hence to find the 
 pull upon the string it will be necessary to weigh the stone to get 
 M, and also to compute the acceleration a. Observe that the 
 applied accelerating force is the pull of the string; while the cen- 
 trifugal force is really the inertia force that arises due to the resist- 
 ance the stone offers to having its velocity changed (in direction). 
 
 Here, as in all possible cases that may arise, the accelerating 
 force and the inertia force are equal in magnitude but oppositely 
 directed, and they disappear simultaneously (Sec. 43) . The simul- 
 taneous disappearance of the central and centrifugal forces at the 
 instant the string breaks, is in complete accord with the behavior 
 of all reactions. Thus, so long as we push down upon a table, 
 we experience the upward reacting thrust; but the instant we 
 cease to push, the reacting thrust disappears. 
 
 Centrifugal force has many important applications, for 
 example, in the cream separator (Sec. 60), the centrifugal gov- 
 
 72
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 
 
 73 
 
 ernor (Sec. 63), the centrifugal pump, and centrifugal blower 
 (Sec. 150). It is this force which causes too rapidly revolving 
 flywheels and emery wheels to "burst" (Sec. 59), and it is also 
 this force which necessitates the raising of the outer rail on curves 
 in a railroad track (Sec. 62). The centrifugal clothes dryer 
 used in laundries, and the machine for separating molasses from 
 .sugar, used in sugar refineries, both operate by virtue of this 
 principle. The centrifugal force due to the velocity of the earth 
 in its orbit prevents the earth from "falling" to the sun (Sec. 
 29), while the centrifugal force due to its rotation about its axis 
 causes the earth to flatten slightly at the poles and bulge at the 
 
 "^ . 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 
 equator. The polar diameter is about 27 miles less than the 
 equatorial diameter. 
 
 To find the Radial Acceleration a, construct a circle (Fig. 31) 
 whose radius r represents the length of the string. Let S repre- 
 sent the stone at a certain instant ( = 0), at which instant it is 
 moving west with a velocity v . After a time t (here t is chosen 
 about 1/2 sec.), the stone is at Si, and its velocity v t is the same 
 in magnitude as before, but is directed slightly south of west. 
 Its velocity has evidently changed, and if this change is divided 
 by the time t in which the change occurred, the result is by 
 definition (Sec. 24) the acceleration a. 

 
 74 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 This change in velocity, or the velocity acquired, is readily 
 found by drawing from S (Fig. 31, upper sketch) two vectors, 
 SA and SB, to represent v and v t respectively, and then con- 
 necting A and B. Obviously the acquired velocity is that velocity 
 which added (vectorially) to v gives v t ; consequently it is repre- 
 sented by the line AB. Acquired velocity, however, is always 
 given by the product of acceleration and time, or at; hence, 
 the velocity AB = at. 
 
 The triangles OSSi and SAB are similar, since their sides are 
 perpendicular each to each; and if 6 is very small, arc SS\ may be 
 considered equal to chord SSi. But SSi is the distance the stone 
 travels in the time t, or v t. Hence, from similar triangles, 
 
 at v t v z 
 
 Since F = Ma, the central force, usually designated as F c , is 
 given by the equation 
 
 F,=^ (36) 
 
 As already stated, the centrifugal force and the central force are 
 equal in magnitude but oppositely directed, hence, F c (Eq. 36) 
 may stand for either. If M is the mass of the stone S in pounds, 
 v its velocity in feet per second, and r is the length of the string 
 in feet; then F c is the pull on the string in poundals, not pounds 
 (see Sees. 25 and 32). If Mis given in grams, v in centimeters 
 per second, and r in centimeters, then F c is the pull in dynes, 
 not grams of force. By means of this equation we may compute 
 the forces brought into play in the operation of the centrifugal 
 clothes dryer, cream separator, steam engine governor, or in the 
 case of a fast train rounding a curve. 
 
 In many cases it is found more convenient to use a formula 
 involving angular velocity in revolutions per second instead of 
 linear velocity. If a body, e.g. a wheel, makes n revolutions per 
 second, its ''rim" velocity, or the distance traversed in one second 
 by a point on the rim of the wheel, is n circumferences or 2irrn. 
 Substituting this value for v in Eq. 36 we have 
 
 (37) 
 
 For, since one revolution is 2r radians, w = 2,irn, and o> 2 =
 
 . 
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 75 
 
 Central Force Radial. That F c is radial is apparent in the 
 above case, since the force must act in the direction of the string. 
 That this is equally true in the case of a flywheel or cream separa- 
 tor, or in all cases of uniform circular motion, may be seen from 
 a discussion of Fig. 32. For if the central force F c acting upon a 
 particle P which is moving to the left in the circle, had the direc- 
 tion a, there would be a component of this force, a', acting in the 
 direction of the motion, and hence tending to increase the 
 velocity; if, on the other hand, F c acted in the direction b, there 
 would be a component of the force, b', acting in such a direction 
 as to decrease the velocity. But if 
 P has uniform circular motion, its 
 velocity must neither increase nor 
 decrease; hence neither of these com- 
 ponents, a' and &', can be present, and 
 F c must therefore be radial. 
 
 That the acceleration is radial can 
 be shown in another way. As point 
 Si (Fig. 31) is taken closer and closer 
 to S (i.e., as t is chosen smaller and 
 smaller) v t becomes more nearly par- 
 allel to v a , and AB (see upper sketch, JP IQ- 32. 
 Fig. 31) becomes more nearly per- 
 pendicular to v . In the limit, as Si approaches S, AB 
 becomes perpendicular to v , and therefore parallel to r. But 
 the acceleration has the direction AB, hence it is radial. It 
 should also be emphasized that the acceleration is linear (not 
 angular), and is therefore usually expressed either in feet per 
 second per second or in centimeters per second per second 
 (Sec. 24). 
 
 69. Bursting of Emery Wheels and Flywheels. The central 
 force F c required to cause the material near the rim of a revolving 
 emery wheel to follow its circular path, is usually enormous. 
 If the speed is increased until F c becomes greater than the strength 
 of the material can withstand, then the material pulls apart, 
 and we say that the emery wheel "bursts." It is evident that 
 it does not burst in the same sense that it would if a charge of 
 powder were exploded at its center. In the latter case the 
 particles would fly off radially; while in the former they fly off 
 tangentially. Indeed, the instant the material cracks so that 
 the central force disappears, the centrifugal force also disappears
 
 76 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 (Sec. 58), and each piece moves off in a straight line in the 
 direction in which it happens to be moving at that instant. 
 
 60. The Cream Separator. The essentials of a cream separator 
 are, a bowl A (Fig. 33), attached to a shaft B, and surrounded by 
 two stationary jackets C and E. When B is rapidly revolved 
 by means of the "worm" gear, as shown, the fresh milk, enter- 
 ing at G, soon acquires the rotary motion of the bowl, and, due 
 to its inertia which tends to make it move in a straight line, it 
 crowds toward the outside of the bowl with a force F c . 
 
 Both the cream and the milk particles tend to crowd outward 
 from the center of the bowl, but the milk particles being heavier 
 than cream particles of the same size, 
 experience the greater force, and a sepa- 
 ration takes place. In the figure the 
 cross-hatched portion c represents the 
 cream, and the space between this and 
 the bowl, marked m, represents the 
 milk. Small holes marked a permit the 
 cream to fly outward into the stationary 
 jacket E, from which it flows through 
 the tube F into the cream receptacle, the 
 holes marked 6, farther from the center 
 of the bowl than holes a, permit the 
 skim-milk to fly outward into the sta- 
 tionary jacket C, from which it flows 
 through the tube D into the milk re- 
 ceptacle. 
 
 The bowls of many of the commercial 
 
 separators contain numerous separating chambers designed to 
 make them more effective. This simple form, however, illus- 
 trates the features common to all. With a good cream sepa- 
 rator about 98 or 99 per cent, of the butter fat is obtained; i.e., 
 1 to 2 per cent, remains in the skim-milk. In the case of 
 "cold setting" or gravity separation and skimming as usually 
 practised, 5 per cent, or more remains in the skim-milk. 
 
 61. Efficiency of Cream Separator. In fresh milk, the cream is 
 distributed throughout the liquid in the form of finely divided par- 
 ticles. If allowed to stand for several hours the cream particles, 
 being slightly lighter than the milk particles, slowly rise to the sur- 
 face. Thus a separation of the cream from the milk takes place, 
 and, since it is due to gravitational force, it is termed "gravita- 
 
 FIG
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 77 
 
 tional" separation. Calling the mass of one of these cream par- 
 ticles mi and the mass of an equal volume of milk m, the pull of 
 the earth (in dynes, Sec. 32) on the cream particles is m\g and 
 the pull on the milk particles is m^g. The difference between these 
 two pulls, m 2 g mig, or g(m?.m\) constitutes the separating force. 
 This slight separating force is sufficient to cause the cream par- 
 ticle to travel from the bottom of a vessel to the top, a distance of 
 one foot or so in the course of a few hours. 
 
 In the case of the centrifugal separator, the force with which m z 
 crowds toward the outside of the bowl is 47r 2 w 2 rm 2 (Eq. 37) while 
 for the cream particle it is 4ir 2 n 2 rmi. The difference between < \ 
 these two forces, or 4?r 2 n 2 r (mz mi), is, of course, the separating 
 force which causes the cream particle to travel toward the center. 
 The ratio of this separating force to the separating force in the 
 case of gravity separation is sometimes called the separator effi- 
 ciency. Hence 
 
 , 
 Efficiency = --- ~ (38) 
 
 In the above equation, if the gram and the centimeter are used 
 throughout as units of mass and length respectively, the separat- 
 ing force will be expressed in dynes; while if pounds and feet are 
 used, the force is expressed in poundals, not pounds (see Sec. 58). 
 The word efficiency is used in several distinctly different ways 
 the more usual meaning brought out in Sec. 85, being quite 
 different from that here given. 
 
 62. Elevation of the Outer Rail on Curves in a Railroad Track. 
 Let B (Fig. 34) represent a curve in the railroad track ABC. 
 Suppose that for a short distance this curve is practically a circle 
 of radius ri with center of curvature at E. Let it be required to 
 find the "proper elevation" d of the outer rail in order that a car, 
 when passing that particular part of the curve with a velocity Vi, 
 shall press squarely against the track, so that its "weight," so- 
 called, shall rest equally on both rails. 
 
 On a level, straight track, the thrust of the car against the 
 track is simply the weight of the car, and is vertical; whereas on 
 a curve, the thrust T 7 ! (lower sketch, Fig. 34), is the resultant of 
 the weight of the car W and the centrifugal force F c which the 
 car develops in rounding the curve (Eq. 36, Sec. 58). These 
 forces should all be considered as acting on the center of mass 
 of the car (Sec. 95). If the velocity of the car is such that
 
 78 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Mvi 2 /r (i.e., F c ), has the value shown, then the total thrust T\ 
 will be perpendicular to the track, and consequently the thrust 
 will be the same on both rails. 
 
 If the car were to pass the curve at a velocity twice as great as 
 that just mentioned (or 2z>0, the centrifugal force would be quad- 
 rupled, and would therefore be represented by the line OH. 
 This force, combined with W, would give a resultant thrust 7" 
 directed toward the outer rail. The inner rail would then bear 
 no weight, while the thrust T r on the outer rail would be about 
 one-half greater than the entire weight W of the car, as the figure 
 
 FIG. 34. 
 
 shows. The least further increase in velocity would cause the 
 car to overturn. This theoretical limiting velocity could never be 
 reached in practice, because either the wheel flanges or the rail 
 would give way under the enormous sidewise thrust. Indeed 
 whenever the above-mentioned velocity v\, which may be called 
 the "proper" velocity, is exceeded, the wheel flanges push out on 
 the outer rail. If this sidewise push is excessive, a defective 
 
 flange may give way and cause a wreck, 
 velocity should not be much exceeded. 
 
 Hence the "proper'
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 79 
 
 From the figure it may be seen that 
 
 From the figure we also have 
 
 -fi = sin 0i, or di = D sin 0i (40) 
 
 Observe that the two angles marked 0i are equal (sides perpen- 
 dicular each to each). Knowing the values of v\ t g, and r\ we 
 may determine tan 0i from Eq. 39. Having found the value of 
 tan 0i, we may obtain 0i by the use of a table of tangents. If 
 the width of the track D is also known, the proper elevation di 
 of the outer rail may be found from Eq. 40. All quantities in- 
 volved in Eqs. 39 and 40 must be expressed either in F.P.S. 
 units throughout, or else in C.G.S. units throughout. Observe 
 that for radius r\ we use v\, T\, Q\, and di respectively for the 
 "proper" velocity, thrust, angle, and elevation. 
 
 In practice the curvature is not made uniform, but decreases 
 gradually on both sides of the place of greatest curvature until 
 the track becomes straight; while the elevation of the outer rail 
 likewise gradually decreases until it becomes zero, where the 
 straight track is reached. This construction eliminates the 
 violent lurching of the car, which would occur if the transition 
 from the straight track to the circular curve were sudden. 
 
 63. The Centrifugal Governor. The essential features of the 
 centrifugal governor, or Watt's governor, used on steam engines, 
 are shown in the simplest form in 
 Fig. 35. The vertical shaft S, 
 which is driven by the steam engine, 
 has attached to its upper end two 
 arms c and d supporting the two 
 metal balls A and B as shown. 
 
 It will readily be seen that the 
 weight of the balls tends to bring 
 them nearer to the shaft, while the 
 centrifugal force tends to make F IQ> 35. 
 
 them move farther from the shaft. 
 
 If, then, the speed of the engine becomes slightly greater than 
 normal, the balls move farther out, c and d rise (see dotted posi- 
 tion), and by means of rods e and / cause collar C to rise. By
 
 80 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 means of suitable connecting levers, this upward motion of C 
 partially closes the throttle valve. The supply of steam being 
 reduced, the speed of the engine drops to normal. If, on the 
 other hand, due to a sudden increase in load, the speed of the 
 engine drops below normal, then the balls, arms c and d, and 
 collar (7, all lower. This lowering of C opens the throttle wider 
 than normal, thereby supplying more steam to the engine, and 
 restoring the normal speed. 
 
 In some engines, when the speed becomes too low, the governor 
 automatically adjusts the inlet valve so that steam is admitted 
 during a greater fraction of the stroke. This raises the average 
 steam pressure on the piston, and the normal speed is regained. 
 This subject will be further considered under "cut off point" 
 in the chapter on the steam engine. 
 
 63a. The Gyroscope. Just as a body in linear motion resists change 
 in direction (Sec. 58), so a rotating flywheel resists any change in direction 
 of rotation, i.e., it resists any shifting in direction of its axis. By virtue 
 of this principle, a rapidly rotating flywheel, properly mounted, will 
 greatly reduce the rolling of a ship, as has been shown by tests. This 
 principle may also yet be successfully applied in securing greater stability 
 for aeroplanes. 
 
 The Gyroscope in its simplest form is shown in Fig. 35a. This device, 
 until recent years, was merely an interesting, perplexing scientific toy. 
 The wheel W rotates as indicated by arrow c at a high speed and with 
 very little friction on the axle AB. If, now, the end of the axle A is 
 rested upon the supporting point P, the end B, which is without support, 
 does not drop in the direction d as it would if the wheel were not rotat- 
 ing, but moves horizontally round and round the point of support as 
 indicated by arrow e. 
 
 The mathematical treatment of the gyroscope is very difficult; so that 
 we shall here simply state a few facts with regard to its motion. The 
 angular velocity w of the wheel W is a vector, and may be represented 
 at a given instant by the arrow co , called a rotor. Observe that if W 
 were a right-handed screw, a rotation in the direction indicated by arrow 
 c would advance the screw in the direction of arrow w . 
 
 Following this same convention we see that the torque produced by the 
 weight of the wheel would tend to produce rotation, i.e., would produce 
 an angular acceleration about the horizontal axis indicated by the rotor 
 a, and further that the direction of this angular acceleration would be 
 properly represented by placing the arrow head on the end of a away 
 from the reader. Note that rotor a lies in the axis of torque. The 
 rotation of B in the direction of arrow e (horizontal) with a constant 
 angular velocity ' about a vertical axis through P, is, by this same con-
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 81 
 
 vention (right-handed screw) properly represented by the rotor '. 
 From the figure, we see that w lies in the axis of spin, and a in the 
 axis of torque. The vertical axis in which lies a' is called the Axis of 
 Precession. The change in direction of the axis AB is called Precession. 
 
 As an aid to the memory, using the right hand, place the middle finger 
 at right angles to the forefinger and the thumb at right angles to both. 
 Next point the forefinger in the direction of rotor u a and the middle finger 
 in the direction of a. It will then be found that the thumb points in 
 the direction of the rotor ' (i.e., down, not up). 
 
 Cause of Precession. Since rotors are vectors, they may be added 
 graphically. In the figure, <, represents the angular velocity of W at 
 a given instant. Its angular velocity a short time t later would be 
 given by the equation u t =u +(a, in which w is the angular velocity 
 acquired in the short time t. But angular velocity acquired (gained) 
 is at (Eq. 28, Sec. 51). Therefore ut = w + at as shown graphically in 
 Fig. 35a, in which the rotor at is drawn from the arrow point of rotor w . 
 The resultant is the closing side, or the new angular velocity w, which 
 
 FIG. 35a. 
 
 differs from only in direction. In other words, during this short time 
 t, the axis has changed in direction through the angle 0, and B has 
 moved in the direction e. Clearly 6 is the angle of precession in this 
 time t, and e/t is the precessional angular velocity w'. 
 
 Compare this change in direction (not in magnitude) of rotary motion 
 with the change in direction of linear motion (centrifugal force, Sec. 58). 
 Observe in the vector diagram given in Fig. 35a that u , at, and u t 
 correspond respectively to v , at, and v t of the vector diagram shown in 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 The Reeling (precession of axis of rotation) of a top when its axis is 
 inclined, is due to this gyroscopic action. In fact if B is considerably 
 higher than A (Fig. 35a) when A is placed uponP, the gyroscope becomes 
 essentially a reeling top. 
 
 Due to the rotation of the earth (centrifugal force), the equatorial 
 diameter is 27 miles greater than the polar diameter. Since the axis of 
 the earth inclines to the normal to the plane of its orbit around the sun 
 ("Plane of the Ecliptic") by an angle of 23.5, the gravitational pull of
 
 82 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 the sun (and also the moon) on this equatorial protuberance produces a 
 torque about an axis perpendicular to the earth's axis of spin, just as 
 the weight of the top (when inclined) produces a torque about an axis 
 lying on the floor and at right angles to the spindle of the top (axis of 
 spin). 
 
 Thus thf earth reels like a great top once in about 26,000 years. The 
 earth's axis if extended would sweep, each 26,000 years, around a circle 
 of 23. 5 radius with a point in the sky in the direction normal to the plane 
 of the ecliptic as center of this circle. Consequently, 13,000 years 
 from now the earth's axis will point in a direction 47 from our present 
 pole star, Polaris. This reeling of the earth causes the Precession of the 
 Equinoxes around the ecliptic once in 26,000 years. 
 
 Monorail Car. One of the most wonderful recent mechanical achieve- 
 ments is the successful operation of a car which runs on a track consisting 
 of only one rail. By a clever adaptation of the gyroscopic principle of 
 precession of two wheels having opposite rotation (the "Gyrostat"), the 
 car is balanced, whether in motion or at rest. In rounding a curve, 
 the "Gyrostat" causes the car to "lean in" just the right amount 
 (Sec. 62). 
 
 If the passengers move to one side of the car, that side of the car rises, 
 paradoxical though it may seem, and the equilibrium is maintained. As 
 the passengers move to the side, a "table " presses on the axis of the wheel , 
 which axis is transverse to the car, and through the friction developed 
 by the rotation of the axis, against the table, the end of the axis is caused 
 to creep forward (or backward) thus developing a torque about a vertical 
 axis, and precession about an axis at right angles to both of these, namely, 
 an axis lengthwise of the car. This precession gives rise to the torque 
 that raises higher the heavier loaded side of the car. For an extended 
 discussion of the gyroscope and numerous illustrations and practical 
 applications, consult Spinney's Textbook of Physics, or Franklin and 
 MacNutt's Mechanics and Heat. 
 
 64. Simple Harmonic Motion. Simple harmonic motion 
 (S.H.M.) is a very important kind of motion because it is quite 
 closely approximated by many vibrating bodies. Thus if a 
 mass, suspended by a spiral spring, is displaced from its equilib- 
 rium position and then released, it will vibrate up and down for 
 some time, and its motion will be simple harmonic motion. 
 Other examples are the vibratory motions of strings, and reeds 
 in musical instruments, the vibratory motion of the air (called 
 sound) which is produced by strings or other vibrating bodies, 
 and the motion of the simple pendulum. 
 
 The vibrations of the string of a musical instrument consist, 
 as a rule, of a combination of vibrations of the string as a whole,
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 83 
 
 and vibrations of certain portions or segments. Consequently 
 the motion of a vibrating string is usually a combination of several 
 simple harmonic motions. We shall here restrict ourselves to 
 the study of the simpler case of uncombined S.H.M. 
 
 The piston of a steam engine executes approximately S.H.M.; 
 while in the motion of the shadow of the crank pin cast upon a 
 level floor by the sun when over head, we have a perfect example 
 of S.H.M. Observe that the motion of the crank pin itself is 
 not S.H.M., but uniform circular motion. An exact notion of 
 what S.H.M. is, and a simple de- 
 duction of its important laws, are 
 most readily obtained from the fol- 
 lowing definition, which, it will be 
 seen, accords with the statement 
 just made with regard to the crank 
 pin. S.H.M. is the projection of 
 uniform circular motion upon a di- 
 ameter of the circle described by the 
 moving body. 
 
 To illustrate the meaning of the 
 above definition, let A (Fig. 36) be 
 a body traveling with uniform speed 
 in the circular path as shown. Let 
 
 DC be any chosen diameter, say a horizontal diameter. From 
 A drop a perpendicular on DC. The foot B of this perpendicular 
 is the "projection" of A. Now as A moves farther toward D, B 
 moves to the left at such a rate as always to keep directly below 
 A. As A moves from D back through F to C, B constantly 
 keeps directly above A. Under these conditions the motion of 
 B is S.H.M. 
 
 In the position shown it will be evident that B, in order to 
 keep under A, need not move so fast as A. When A reaches 
 E, however. B will be at and will then have its maximum speed, 
 which will be equal to A's speed. As A and hence B approach 
 D, the speed of B decreases to zero. In case of the vibrating 
 mass supported by a spring (mentioned at the beginning of the 
 section) it is evident that its velocity would be zero at both ends 
 of its vibration and a maximum at the middle, just as we have 
 here shown to be the case with B. 
 
 66. Acceleration and Force of Restitution in S.H.M. If the 
 two bodies A and B move as described in Sec. 64, it is clear that
 
 
 84 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 they both have at any and every instant the same horizontal 
 velocities. Thus, in the position shown in Fig. 36, we see that 
 
 B's velocity (horizontal) must be equal to the horizontal com- 
 ponent of A's velocity. An instant later, A's horizontal compo- 
 nent of velocity will have increased, and since B always keeps 
 directly below (or above) A, we see that B's velocity must have 
 increased by the same amount. In other words, the rate of 
 change of horizontal velocity, or the horizontal acceleration, is the 
 same for both bodies. 
 
 Similar reasoning shows that as A passes from E to D, and 
 consequently B passes from to D, the leftward velocity de- 
 creases at the same rate for both bodies. As A passes from D 
 to F and then from F to C, we see that B passes from D to with 
 ever increasing velocity, and then from to C with decreasing 
 velocity. To summarize, we may state that at every instant 
 the horizontal components of A's velocity and acceleration are equal, 
 respectively, to the actual (also horizontal} velocity and acceleration 
 of B at that same instant. 
 
 We have seen that whenever B moves toward 0, its velocity 
 increases, while as it moves away from 0, its velocity decreases; 
 i.e., its acceleration is always toward 0. To impart to B such 
 motion, obviously requires an accelerating force always pulling 
 B toward O. We shall presently show that this force, called the 
 Force of Restitution F r , is directly proportional to the distance 
 that B is from 0. This distance is called the Displacement x. 
 
 The central force required to cause A to follow its circular 
 path is 
 
 and the horizontal component of this, or Fh, has the value 
 shown in Fig. 36. Note that if the vector x, directed to the 
 right, is positive, then F h , when directed to the left, is negative. 
 Now Fh is the accelerating force that gives A its horizontal 
 acceleration, while F r is the accelerating force that gives B its 
 horizontal acceleration; but these two horizontal accelerations 
 have been shown to be always equal. Hence if A and B are of 
 equal mass M, it follows from F = Ma (Eq. 5) that F r =F h . 
 From similar triangles (Fig. 36) we have 
 
 -F h /F c = x/r, i.e., -F h or -F T = X F C = 4^n 2 Mx (41) 
 

 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 85 
 
 Eq. 41 shows that the force of restitution, acting upon B at any 
 instant, is proportional to the displacement of B at that same 
 instant. Accordingly B's accelerating force, and hence its 
 acceleration or rate of change of velocity, is a maximum when at 
 C or D, at which points its velocity is zero, and a minimum (in 
 fact zero) at 0, at which point B has its maximum velocity. 
 The minus sign indicates that the force of restitution is always 
 oppositely directed to the displacement. Thus when B is toward 
 the left from 0, x is negative, but Fh is then positive. 
 
 If, then, a body is supported by a spring or otherwise, in such 
 a manner that the force required to displace it varies directly 
 as the displacement, we know at once that the body will execute 
 S.H.M. if displaced and then released. Thus it can easily be 
 shown, either mathematically (Sec. 67) or experimentally, that 
 the force required to displace a pendulum bob is proportional 
 to the displacement, provided the latter is small. Hence we 
 know that when the bob is released it will vibrate to and fro in 
 S.H.M. 
 
 66. Period in S.H.M. Solving Eq. 41 for n gives 
 
 If a body makes n vibrations per second, its period of vibration, 
 or the time P required for one complete vibration (a swing to 
 and fro), is 1/n; hence 
 
 P = 2Tr-^ (42) 
 
 Eq. 42 gives the period of vibration for any body executing 
 S.H.M., i.e., for any body for which the force of restitution is 
 proportional to the displacement x, and in such a direction as to 
 oppose the displacement. In this equation, M is the mass of 
 the vibrating body in grams, P the period of vibration in seconds, 
 and F r the force of restitution in dynes, when the displacement 
 is x centimeters. See remark on units below Eq. 36, Sec 58 and 
 also Sec. 32. Since x and F r always differ in sign, the expression 
 under the radical sign is intrinsically positive. 
 
 If a heavy mass suspended by a spiral spring requires a force 
 of 1 kilogram to pull it downward, say, 1 cm. from its equilib- 
 rium position, it will require a force of 2 kilograms to displace 
 it (either downward or upward) 2 cm. from its equilibrium posi- 
 

 
 86 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 tion. This shows that the force of restitution is proportional 
 to the displacement; hence we know that if the mass is pulled 
 down and suddenly released, it will vibrate up and down and exe- 
 cute S.H.M. Here F r or 2 X 1000 X 980 = 1,960,000 dynes when x = 
 2 cm. Suppose that the mass is 3 kilograms. We may then 
 find its period of vibration, without timing it, by substituting 
 these values in Eq. 42. Thus, neglecting the mass of the spring, 
 
 = 0.346 sec. 
 
 67. The Simple Gravity Pendulum. The following discussion 
 applies, to a very close degree of approximation, to the physical 
 simple pendulum having a small bob 
 B (Fig. 37) suspended by a light cord 
 or wire. The length L of the pendu- 
 lum is the distance from the center 
 of the bob to the point of suspension. 
 Consider the force upon the bob at 
 some particular point in its path. Its 
 weight, W, or Mg (Fig. 37), may be 
 resolved into two components, 7^1 in 
 the direction of the suspending wire, 
 and F T in the direction of motion, i.e,. 
 toward A. For small values of 6, A 
 approaches 0, so that CA may be 
 called equal to CO, i.e., equal to L, 
 and F r may be called the force of 
 restitution. From similar triangles, 
 
 FIG. 37. 
 
 F T -X F T -X 
 
 W = CA or approx ' 'Mg = ~L or 
 
 -Mgx 
 L 
 
 (43) 
 
 Eq. 43 shows that the force of restitution F r is proportional 
 to the displacement, and oppositely directed. Hence the pen- 
 dulum executes S.H.M. ; and we may therefore substitute the 
 value of F r from Eq. 43 in Eq. 42, and obtain the period P of 
 the pendulum, 
 
 - 
 
 2ir\ 
 \ - 
 
 -MX 
 
 jrr- 
 Mgx 
 
 (44)
 
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 87 
 
 The maximum value of x, i.e., the distance from to the bob 
 when at the end of the swing, is called the Amplitude of vibration. 
 Since x and M cancel out in Eq. 44, the period of a pendulum is 
 seen to be independent of either its mass or its amplitude. The 
 latter is true only for small amplitudes. If x is large, CA and 
 CO are not approximately equal, as is assumed in the above 
 derivation. A pendulum vibrates somewhat more slowly if 
 the amplitude is large than if it is small, since CA appreciably 
 exceeds L when 6 is large, thus making F r smaller than given 
 by Eq. 43. 
 
 68. The Torsion Pendulum. The torsion pendulum usually 
 consists of a heavy disc suspended from its center by a steel 
 wire, and hence free to rotate in a horizontal plane. When the 
 disc is rotated from its equilibrium position through an angle 
 6, it is found that the resisting torque is proportional to the angle 
 0. In this case, the torque of restitution, or the returning torque, 
 is (a) proportional to the displacement angle 0, and (6) opposes 
 the displacement. These are the two conditions for S.H.M. of 
 rotation. In the case of the balance wheel of a watch, the torque 
 of restitution due to the hair spring, is proportional to the angle 
 through which the balance wheel is rotated from its equilibrium 
 position. Hence the balance wheel of a watch executes S.H.M. , 
 and therefore its period is independent of the amplitude of its 
 rotary vibration. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. If a 2-lb. mass is whirled around 240 times per minute by means of a 
 cord 4 ft. in length (a) what is the pull on the cord? (6) What is the radial 
 acceleration experienced by the mass? 
 
 2. A mass of 1 kilogram is whirled around 180 times per minute by 
 means of a cord 1 meter in length. What is the pull on the cord? (a) 
 in dynes? (6) in grams force? (c) What is tbe radial acceleration? 
 
 3. How many times as large does the central force become when the 
 velocity (Prob. 2) is doubled? When r, the length of the cord, is doubled, 
 the number of revolutions per second, and also the mass, remaining 
 the same? 
 
 4. An emery wheel 12 in. in diameter makes 2400 R.P.M. Find the 
 force (in poundals, and also in pounds), acting upon each pound mass of tbe 
 rim of the wheel tending to "burst" it. 
 
 6. At a point where the radius of curvature r (Fig. 34) is 2000 ft., what 
 is the "proper" elevation of the outer rail for a train rounding the curve 
 at a velocity of 30 miles per hr., i.e., 44 ft. per sec.? Distance between 
 rails is 4 ft. 8 in. 
 
 6. An occupant of a ferris wheel 20 ft. from its axis observes that he 

 
 88 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 apparently has no weight when at the highest point. Find his linear 
 velocity and radial acceleration, and also the angular velocity of the 
 wheel. 
 
 7. Find the maximum velocity of the occupant of a 20-ft. swing if the 
 pull he exerts upon the swing at the instant the ropes are vertical is one- 
 half more than his weight. 
 
 8. The diameter of a cream separator bowl is 20 cm. Find its 
 "efficiency" when making 4800 R.P.M. 
 
 9. A 4000-gm. mass, when suspended by a spring, causes the spring to 
 elongate 2 cm. What will be the period of vibration of the mass if 
 set vibrating vertically? Neglect the mass of the spring. 
 
 10. A sprinter passing a turn in the path, where the radius of curvature 
 is 60 ft., at a speed of 10 yds. per sec., leans in from the vertical by an angle 
 e. Find tan 6. 
 
 11. What is the period of a pendulum (in Lat. 45) which has a length 
 of 20 cm.? 100 cm.? 
 
 12. What is the length of a pendulum (Lat. 45) that beats seconds, 
 i.e., whose full period of vibration is 2 sec.? 
 
 13. A pendulum 30 ft. in length has a period of 6.0655 sec. at 
 London. What is the value of g there? 
 
 14. A pendulum whose length is 10 meters makes 567.47 complete 
 vibrations per hour at Paris. Find the value of g at Paris. 
 
 
 v 
 
 v< 
 
 
 

 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 
 
 69. Work. Work is defined as the production of motion 
 against a resisting force. The work done by a force in moving a 
 body is measured by the .product of the force, and the distance 
 the body moves, provided the motion is in the direct-ion of the 
 force (see Sec. 71). Hence work W may always be expressed by 
 the equation 
 
 W=Fd (45) 
 
 Thus the work done by a team in harrowing an acre of ground is 
 equal to the product of the average force required to pull the 
 harrow, and the distance the harrow moves. To harrow two 
 acres would require twice as much work, because the distance 
 involved would obviously be twice as great. If the applied force 
 is not sufficient to move the body, it does no work upon the body. 
 Thus if a man pushes upon a truck, it does not matter how hard 
 he pushes, nor how long, nor how tired he becomes; he does no 
 work upon the truck unless it moves in response to the push. 
 
 In case F and d are oppositely directed, i.e., in case the body, 
 due to previous motion or any other cause, moves a distance d 
 against the force, then work is said to be done by the body against 
 the force. Thus if a stone is thrown upward, it rises a certain 
 height because of its initial velocity, and in rising it does work 
 (Fd) against the force of gravity. As it falls back the force of 
 gravity does work (Fd) upon the stone in accelerating it. 
 
 From the above discussion, we see that work may be applied 
 in three general ways; viz., (a) to move a body against friction, 
 (6) to move it against some force other than friction, e.g., as in 
 lifting a body, and (c) to accelerate a body, i.e., to impart velocity 
 to it. Observe that in all three cases the applied force does work 
 against some equal opposing force. In case (a) it is the friction 
 force F f , in case (6) the weight W (or a component of the weight), 
 and in case (c) the inertia force Fi, against which the applied 
 force does work. 
 
 89
 
 90 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 As a train starts upgrade from a station and traverses a distance 
 d, the pull FI upon the drawbar of the locomotive does work in 
 each of these three ways. Calling the average total friction 
 force on the train F f , the component of the weight of the train 
 which tends to make it run down grade F w (see Fig. 8, Sec. 19), 
 and the average inertia force or resistance which the train offers 
 to being accelerated F i} we have 
 
 Total work F l d=F f d+F w d+F i d (46) 
 
 If, at the above distance d from the station, the drawbar of the 
 locomotive becomes uncoupled from the train while going full 
 speed up grade, and if the train comes to rest after going a distance 
 d', it is clear that the driving inertia force F'i of the train (Sec. 43) 
 does work F'jd' in pushing the train up the grade against F/ and 
 F w , so that the work 
 
 F i 'd'=F f d'-\-F w d f (47) 
 
 Observe that d and d' and also Ft and F'i would, in general, be 
 quite different in value, while the values of F/ and F w would be 
 practically the same before and after uncoupling; hence these 
 same symbols are retained in Eq. 47. 
 
 70. Units of Work. Since force may be expressed in dynes, 
 grams, poundals, pounds, or tons, and distance in centimeters, 
 inches, or feet, it follows that work, which is force times distance, 
 may be expressed in dyne-centimeters or ergs, gram-centimeters, 
 foot-poundals, foot-pounds, foot-tons, etc. Thus, if a locomotive 
 maintains a 1-ton pull on the drawbar for a distance of one mile, 
 the work done is 5280 ft.-tons, or 10,560,000 ft.-lbs. If a 20-lb, 
 mass is raised a vertical distance of 5 ft., the work done against 
 gravitational attraction is 100 ft.-lbs. If a force of 60 dynes 
 moves a body 4 cm., it does 240 ergs (dyne-centimeters) of work. 
 In scientific investigations, the erg is the unit usually employed; 
 in engineering calculations, on the other hand, the unit is the foot- 
 pound. The work done by an electric current is usually com- 
 puted in joules. One joule is 10 7 ergs. 
 
 In changing from one work unit to another, it must be observed 
 that work contains two factors. For example, let it be required 
 to express the above 100 ft.-lbs. of work in terms of ergs. This 
 may be done in two ways: (1) by reducing the 20-lb. force to 
 dynes and the 5 ft. to centimeters, and then multiplying the two 
 results together; or (2) by finding the number of ergs in a foot- 

 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 91 
 
 pound and then multiplying this number by 100. The foot- 
 pound is larger than the erg for two reasons : first, 1 foot = 30.48 
 centimeters, and second, the pound being approximately 453 
 grams, and the gram force being 980.6 dynes, it follows that the 
 pound force = 445,000 dynes. The foot-pound is therefore 
 30.48 X445,000 or 13,563,000 ergs. Therefore 100 ft.-lbs. of work 
 is 1,356,300,000 or 1.356X10 9 ergs. 
 
 71. Work Done if the Line of Motion is not in the Direction of 
 the Applied Force. In Sec. 69 it was shown that work = Fd 
 provided F and d have either the same direction or opposite direc- 
 tions, i.e., provided the angle between the applied force and the 
 direction of motion is either zero or 180. If this angle is zero, 
 then work is done by the force; while if it is 180, work is done 
 against the force. If this angle is 90, no work is done either by 
 or against the force. Thus if a team is pulling a wagon westward, 
 it is perfectly obvious that a man, walking along side the wagon 
 and pushing north upon it, neither helps nor hinders the team. 
 
 FIG. 38. 
 
 If he pushes directly forward, the above angle is zero, and in 
 traveling a distance d while pushing with a force F he helps the 
 team by an amount of work Fd; while if he pulls back the angle 
 is 180, and he adds Fd to the work the team must do. 
 
 If he pulls slightly to the south of west with a force F (Fig. 38, 
 top view of wagon) he does an amount of work which is less than 
 Fd. Resolving F into components FI and F z , respectively 
 parallel and perpendicular to the line of motion, we see that F 2 
 simply tends to overturn the wagon, while FI is fully effective 
 in helping the team. The work done by F is then Fid, but 
 Fi=F cos e, hence 
 
 W=F l d=Fdcose (48) 
 
 As 6 approaches 90, cos 6, and hence the work done, approaches 
 zero. As decreases, i.e., as the man pulls more nearly west, 
 cos B approaches its maximum value, unity (when = zero), and 
 the maximum work (Fd) is obtained. Since cos 180= 1, we
 
 92 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 see that when F is a backward pull on the wagon, then W= Fd. 
 The negative sign indicates that the work instead of being done 
 by the man, is added work done by the team. 
 
 72. Work Done by a Torque. If the force F (Fig. 39) pushes 
 the crank through an arc AB, the work done is force times dis- 
 tance, or W=FXAB. But by definition 
 
 , arc AB , ... 
 
 6 = = , from which AB = rd; 
 
 hence 
 
 W=FXAB=Fr6 
 
 But since torque (T) equals force times radius, 
 
 W=Td (49) 
 
 In rotary motion, it is usually more convenient to compute 
 work by means of Eq. 49 than by means of Eq. 45. If F is ex- 
 pressed in pounds and r in feet, i.e., if 
 the torque is expressed in pound-feet, 
 and B in radians, then Td gives the work 
 done in foot-pounds. Thus, for example, 
 if F is 10 Ibs., r is 2 ft., and 6 is 0.6 radi- 
 ans, the work done is 12 ft.-lbs. If T6 
 is expressed in C.G.S. units (dyne, cen- 
 p on timeter, and radian), the resulting work 
 
 is given in ergs. 
 
 73. Energy Potential and Kinetic. The energy of a body 
 may be denned as the ability of the body to do work. The 
 potential energy of a body is its ability to do work by virtue of its 
 position or condition. The Kinetic Energy of a body is its ability 
 to do work by virtue of its motion. 
 
 The weights of a clock have potential energy equal to the work 
 they can do in running the clock while they descend. Likewise 
 the main spring of a clock or watch, when wound, has potential 
 energy equal to the work it can do as it unwinds. The water in a 
 mill pond has potential energy. Powder and coal have potential 
 energy before ignition. A bended bow has potential energy. 
 When the string of the bow is released and the arrow is in flight, 
 the energy then possessed by the arrow is kinetic. Any mass in 
 motion has kinetic energy. 
 
 The immense amount of kinetic energy possessed by a rapidly 
 moving train is appreciated only in case of a derailment or a
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 93 
 
 collision. The kinetic energy of a cannon projectile enables it to 
 do work in piercing heavy steel armor plate even after a flight 
 of several miles, during all of which flight it does work against 
 the air friction upon it. The work done upon the armor plate 
 of the target ship is Fd; in which F is the enormous force (average 
 value) required to push the projectile into the plate, and d is 
 the distance to which it penetrates. 
 
 74. Transformation and Conservation of Energy. Energy 
 may be transformed from potential to kinetic energy and vice 
 versa, or from kinetic energy into heat, or by a suitable heat 
 engine, e.g., the steam engine, from heat to kinetic energy; but 
 whatever transformation it experiences, in a technical sense, none 
 is lost. In practice, energy is lost, as far as useful work is con- 
 cerned, in the operation of all machines, through friction of bear- 
 ings, etc. This energy spent in overcoming friction is not actually 
 lost, but is transformed into heat energy which cannot be profit- 
 ably reconverted into mechanical energy. In all cases of energy 
 transformation, the energy in the new form is exactly equal in 
 magnitude to the energy in the old form. This fact, that energy 
 can neither be created nor destroyed, is referred to as the law of 
 the Conservation of Energy. This law is of great importance, as 
 will appear from time to time. It condemns as visionary all 
 perpetual motion machines purporting to furnish power without 
 having a source of energy. Further, since it is impossible to 
 entirely eliminate friction, a perpetual motion machine neither 
 using nor furnishing power is seen to be an impossibility. The 
 kinetic energy of the moving parts of such a machine would soon 
 be transformed by friction into heat, and no longer exist as visible 
 motion. 
 
 The conservation of energy is one of the well-established laws 
 of Physics, and is frequently used as a basis in the derivation of 
 equations, and in various lines of reasoning such as just given 
 with regard to perpetual motion machines. From the conserva- 
 tion of energy, we see that to give a body a certain amount of 
 energy, whether potential or kinetic, an exactly equivalent 
 amount of work must be done on the body. 
 
 We may now state in slightly different form than that used in 
 Sec. 69, the fact that the work done upon a body may be used in 
 three ways: (a) to move the body against friction; (6) to give the 
 body potential energy; and (c) to give the body kinetic energy. 
 These three amounts of work done by the locomotive upon the 

 
 94 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 train (Sec. 69) are represented respectively by the three terms of 
 the right-hand member of Eq. 46. Since F^d is the work done by 
 the locomotive in accelerating the train, i.e., in giving it its veloc- 
 ity and hence its kinetic energy, it follows, from the conservation 
 of energy, that Ffd is the kinetic energy of the train just as it 
 reaches the point at the distance d from the station. Hence, 
 when uncoupled at this point, this kinetic energy does an equal 
 amount of work F'4' in forcing the train on up the grade. Eq. 47 
 shows that this work is used partly (F/d') in driving the train on 
 against friction, and partly (F w d') in giving the train more 
 potential energy. 
 
 It should be emphasized, that in the transformation of kinetic 
 energy into potential energy, and vice versa, work is always done. 
 To illustrate, suppose that a gun of length d feet fires a projectile 
 of weight W pounds vertically to a height h feet. Designating by 
 F the average force (in pounds) with which the powder, upon 
 exploding, pushes upon the projectile, and ignoring all friction 
 effects (see Dissipation of Energy, Sec. 77) we have Fd foot-pounds 
 for the work done in giving the projectile its kinetic energy, and 
 Wh foot-pounds (force times distance) for the work done by the 
 kinetic energy of the projectile in raising itself to the height h, in 
 which position its potential energy (E p ) is a maximum and has 
 the value Wh foot-pounds. This maximum potential energy (E p 
 max.) is the ability the projectile has to do work by virtue of 
 its elevated position, and it does this work Wh (force times 
 distance) while descending, in causing the velocity of the pro- 
 jectile to increase, thereby increasing its kinetic energy. This 
 kinetic energy (E k ) at the instant of striking is of course a 
 maximum (E k max.), and, by the conservation of energy, it 
 must be equal to the work Wh done by gravitational attraction 
 in giving it this energy. 
 
 To summarize, we have, in accordance with the conservation 
 of energv, the following successive energy transformations: 
 Fd (work done by powder) = E max. (at muzzle) = work Wh 
 (done while rising) = E p max. or Wh (at highest point) = work 
 Wh (done while descending) = E k max. (at striking). 
 
 As the projectile rises, its kinetic energy decreases, while its 
 potential energy increases; but, from the conservation of energy, 
 we see that at any instant, E p -\-E k = Wh = E p max. Thus, when 
 the projectile is at a height \h, it is evident that E p = \Wh; 
 hence, at that same instant, it must be that E k = %Wh. If h
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 95 
 
 were 10,000 ft., and d, 10 ft., then F would be 1000 times the weight 
 of the projectile (since Fd= WK). Likewise, if a 1-ton pile driver 
 falls 20 ft. (19 ft. before striking) and drives the pile 1 ft., the 
 average force on the pile is, barring friction effects, 20 tons. The 
 above discussion applies to the similar energy transformations 
 that occur in the operation of a pile driver, and in the vibration of 
 a pendulum. 
 
 76. Value of Potential and Kinetic Energy in Work Units. 
 From the preceding sections, we see that the potential energy, or \ 
 the kinetic energy possessed by a body, is equal to the work (Fd) \ 
 required to give it that energy. Accordingly, the equation express- 
 ing the potential energy, or the kinetic energy of a body is very 
 simply obtained by properly expressing this work (Fd). In 
 deriving the equation for potential energy, it is customary to take 
 for this work, the work (WK) done in raising a mass M a certain 
 distance against gravitational force; while for the kinetic energy 
 equation, use is made of the work done by gravitational force on 
 a mass M in falling a certain distance. This is done for two 
 reasons: first, because gravitational potential energy is the kind 
 of potential energy with which we have to deal very largely in 
 calculations, while the kinetic energy of falling bodies is of prime 
 importance; and second, because of the fact that the gravitational 
 force upon a body, i.e., its weight, is sensibly constant regardless 
 of change of height or velocity of the body, which fact very much 
 simplifies the derivations. 
 
 The Potential energy of a mass M, when raised a height h 
 (Fig. 40), is equal to the work done in raising it, or force times 
 distance. Here the force is W or Mg, and the distance is h, so 
 that 
 
 E p = Mgh (50) 
 
 Since Mg expresses the force either in dynes or poundals (Sec. 
 32) and h is the distance either in centimeters or feet, depending 
 upon which system is used, the work, and hence the potential 
 energy, is expressed in either ergs or foot-poundals. If the work 
 is wanted in foot-pounds, the weight must be expressed in 
 pounds and the distance in feet. The potential energy is then 
 given by 
 
 E p = Mh (50a) 
 
 Note that a mass of M pounds weighs M pounds, not Mg pounds 
 (Sec. 32). 

 
 96 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 The Kinetic energy of a moving body would naturally be 
 expected to depend upon the mass of the body and upon the rapid- 
 ity of its motion, i.e., upon its velocity. Suppose that the body of 
 mass M (Fig. 40) falls the distance h. Its kinetic energy after 
 having fallen that height must, according to the law of con- 
 servation of energy, be equal to the work done upon it by gravity 
 while falling, or force Mg times the distance h. Its kinetic energy 
 is then Mgh, which, by Eq. 50, is just the potential energy that 
 it has lost during its fall. Substituting for h its value for falling 
 bodies given in Eq. 13, Sec. 34, namely, h = %gt 2 , gives 
 
 Wv z (51) 
 
 If the English system is used, since the weight or force is expressed 
 in poundals, the result obtained by substituting the mass and 
 velocity of the moving body, in Eq. 51, 
 is expressed in foot-poundals, not foot- 
 pounds. If M is the mass of the body in 
 grams, then Mg is the force in dynes, and if 
 h is expressed in centimeters, Mgh, and 
 hence the kinetic energy %Mv 2 , is expressed 
 in dyne-centimeters or ergs. 
 
 76. Energy of a Rotating Body. Any 
 mass particle of a rotating body, e.g., a fly- 
 wheel, has the kinetic energy %mv 2 , in 
 which m is the mass of the particle and v its 
 velocity. Hence the kinetic energy of the 
 
 niE 
 
 , . \~E k ^ 2 -Mv* entire wheel is the sum of all the quantities 
 77M% \mv i for each and all of its mass particles. 
 FIG. 40. Now the particles near the rim of the fly- 
 
 wheel have much higher velocities and hence 
 
 much greater amounts of kinetic energy than those near the axis, 
 so that the actual summation of the kinetic energy for all particles 
 cannot be effected without the use of higher mathematics. We 
 readily see, however, that two wheels of equal mass M, having 
 equal angular velocity co, will possess different amounts of kinetic 
 energy if the mass is mainly in the rim of one and in the hub of 
 the other. Here, as in so many other cases, a very simple method 
 of deriving the expression for the kinetic energy comes from the 
 use of the law of the conservation of energy. 
 
 From this law we know that the kinetic energy Ek of the fly- 
 wheel, when it has acquired the angular velocity co, must be
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 97 
 
 equal to the work T6 (Eq. 49, Sec. 72) done by the applied torque 
 in giving it this kinetic energy, i.e., in imparting to it this angular 
 velocity w. Hence E k =T8, which, by a few simple substitu- 
 tions, may be brought into a form involving only the moment of 
 inertia / of the wheel, and its angular velocity w. From Eq. 
 30, Sec. 54, T = la, 
 
 also a= y (Sec. 51), 8= at (Eq. 27, Sec. 51), and w = | 
 
 Since the wheel starts from rest with uniform acceleration, its 
 average angular velocity w must be one-half its maximum 
 angular velocity u>, as explained in Sec. 52. Making successively 
 these substitutions, we have 
 
 E k =T9 = Iad = %Iu z (52) 
 
 If we use C.G.S. units exclusively, then Td (Eq. 52) gives the 
 work in ergs (Sec. 72) required to produce the kinetic energy 
 l/co 2 , which energy must therefore also be expressed in ergs. I 
 is then, of course, expressed in C.G.S. units or gm.-cm. 2 units 
 (Sec. 55), and co in radians per second. If we use the F.P.S. 
 system throughout, then Td is expressed in foot-poundals (Sec. 
 72), /a; 2 in foot-poundals, o> in radians per second, and / in 
 lb.-ft. 2 units (Sec. 55). 
 
 Let us now apply Eq. 52 to find the kinetic energy of the 1-ton 
 flywheel mentioned in Sec. 55, when co = 20 radians per sec., i.e., 
 when the flywheel is making slightly more than 3 revolutions per 
 second. The moment of inertia of the wheel was found in 
 Sec. 55 to be 50,000 lb.-ft. 2 , whence, from Eq. 52, we have E k = 
 | 50,000 X20 2 = 10,000,000 foot-poundals or 310,000 ft.-lbs. 
 Dividing this energy (310,000 ft.-lbs.) by 550 (550 ft.-lbs. per 
 sec. is one horse power, Sec. 82) gives 562, which shows that the 
 above flywheel, when rotating at the rate of 20 radians per second, 
 has enough kinetic energy to furnish 1 horse power (H.P.) in 
 driving the machinery for 562 seconds, or nearly 10 minutes, 
 before coming to rest. 
 
 In case the angular velocity of a flywheel, connected with a 
 gas engine, decreases from wi just after an explosion stroke, to 
 co 2 just before the next explosion stroke, then the energy E k 
 which it gives up in carrying the load during the three idle strokes 
 (Sec. 56) is 
 
 #* = $/wi 2 -iW, or -|/( Wl 2 -co 2 2 ) (53)
 
 98 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 If the wheel makes 2 revolutions per sec., i.e., if the piston makes 
 4 strokes per sec., then the 3 idle strokes will last 3/4 second; so 
 that if the engine were a 10-H.P. engine, the work W which the 
 flywheel would have to do in this 3/4 second would be 550 X 
 10X3/4 or 4125 ft.-lbs. Evidently this work W equals E of Eq. 
 53, or 
 
 TF = I/Can 2 -co 2 2 ) (54) 
 
 Eq. 54 is usually employed in computing the proper moment of 
 inertia / for a flywheel working under certain known conditions. 
 Thus, if we know the horse power of a certain gas engine, the aver- 
 age angular velocity co of its flywheel shaft, and the permis- 
 sible speed variation a>i w a , we can compute both W (in foot- 
 poundals) and coi 2 co 2 2 ; then, substituting these two quantities 
 in Eq. 54, we may solve for /. Having found the value of / in 
 lb.-ft. 2 units, we may, by using the equation I = Mr 2 (Sec. 55), 
 choose a certain value for the radius r of the flywheel and then 
 solve for its mass M; or we may choose a value for M and then 
 find the proper value for r in order to make the wheel meet the 
 above requirements. 
 
 If a small car and a hoop of equal mass are permitted to run down the 
 same incline, it will be found that upon reaching the bottom of the 
 incline the velocity of the hoop will be about 7/10 that of the car. 
 Suppose that these velocities are 7 ft. per sec. for the hoop and 10 ft. 
 per sec. for the car. The potential energy at the top of the incline was 
 the same for both bodies, hence the kinetic energy upon reaching the 
 bottom must be the same for both (conservation of energy). The hoop 
 has kinetic energy of both translation and rotation, while the car, 
 neglecting the slight rotational energy of its wheels, has only energy of 
 translation. Consequently we have 
 
 in which the left member is the energy of the hoop, and the right member 
 that of the car. Solving, we find that half of the energy of the hoop is 
 rotational energy, that is, experiment shows that %Iw* = %Mv 2 for the 
 hoop. 
 
 Mathematical Proof. Since I = Mr 2 (the mass M of the hoop considered 
 to be all in its "rim" of radius r (see below, Eq. 32, Sec. 55), and 
 since v = ru (Eq. 29, Sec. 52), we have 
 
 which was to be proved.
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 99 
 
 A sphere, or a wheel with a massive hub, would travel more nearly as 
 fast as the car, because in such case the mass would not be all concen- 
 trated in the "rim," and consequently the moment of inertia, and 
 therefore the rotational energy, would be less than for the hoop. 
 
 77. Dissipation of Energy. The fact that the energy of a body, 
 whether potential or kinetic, always tends to disappear as such, 
 is a matter of common observation, and is referred to as the prin- 
 ciple of the Dissipation of Energy. Thus a body, for example a 
 stone, in an elevated position has potential energy. If released, 
 the stone falls, and at the instant of striking the ground its 
 energy is kinetic. An instant later the stone lies motionless upon 
 the ground, both its potential energy and kinetic energy having 
 disappeared. 
 
 The results of many carefully performed experiments lead to 
 the conviction that in the above case no energy has been lost (see 
 conservation of energy) ; but that, due to air friction while falling, 
 and friction against the ground as it strikes, the stone has slightly 
 warmed itself, the air, and the ground; and that the amount of 
 heat energy so developed is exactly equal to the original potential 
 energy of the stone. This example illustrates the general trend 
 of energy change throughout nature; viz., the potential energy of 
 a body tends to change to kinetic energy., and its kinetic energy tends 
 to change into heat energy. The relation between heat and other 
 forms of energy will be further considered in the study of heat, but 
 it might here be mentioned that 778 ft.-lbs. of work used in 
 stirring 1 pound of water will warm it 1 F. Attention is also 
 called to the fact that the hands may be warmed by rubbing them 
 together, and that primitive man lighted his fires by vigorously 
 rubbing one piece of wood against another. 
 
 A vibrating pendulum, a rotating flywheel, or a moving train 
 soon loses its motion if no power is applied. These are good 
 examples of the dissipation of energy. In all such cases, the 
 potential energy or the kinetic energy of the body is transformed 
 into heat through the work done by the body against friction. 
 
 78. Sliding Friction. If one body is forced to slide upon 
 another, the rubbing together of the two surfaces gives rise to a 
 resisting force which always opposes the motion and is called 
 friction. It may also be called the force of friction. Either sur- 
 face may be that of a solid, a liquid, or a gas. Thus in drawing a 
 sled on a cement walk, the friction is between two solids, steel and 
 cement, In the passage of a. boat through water, the friction is be-
 
 100 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 tween a solid and a liquid, i.e., between the sides and bottom of 
 the boat and the water. In the case of the aeroplane, there is fric- 
 tion between the canvas planes or wings and the air through which 
 they glide. If the wind in the higher regions of the atmosphere 
 has either a different velocity or a different direction than the 
 surface wind, there will be friction between them. In all cases, 
 the work (Fd) done against friction is the product of the frictional 
 force and the distance of sliding, and is transformed into heat 
 energy (Sec. 77). Bending a piece of wire back and forth rapidly, 
 heats it because of the Internal Friction between its molecules, 
 which are thereby forced to slide past each other. Internal 
 friction in liquids causes them to become heated when stirred, 
 and also gives rise to viscosity. The greater viscosity or molecu- 
 lar friction of syrups makes them flow much more slowly than 
 water. 
 
 A smooth board or iron plate appears rough under the micro- 
 scope due to innumerable slight irregularities. The cause of 
 friction is the fitting together or interlocking of these irregularities 
 of one surface with those of the other over which it slides. It is 
 easily observed that it takes a greater force to start the sliding of 
 a body than to maintain it. The former force must overcome the 
 backward drag of Static Friction; the latter, that of Kinetic 
 Friction. The greater value of static friction is probably due to 
 the better interlocking of the irregularities of the two surfaces 
 when at rest than when in motion relatively to each other. This 
 view is supported by the fact that when the velocity of sliding is 
 very small the kinetic friction differs very little from the static. 
 
 The so-called "Laws of Friction" are: (a) the friction is directly 
 proportional to the force pressing the surfaces together; (6) it is 
 independent of the area of the surfaces in contact; and (c) it is 
 independent of the velocity of sliding. These laws are approxi- 
 mately true between wide limits. Thus the force required to 
 draw a sled will be approximately doubled by doubling the load, 
 will be very little affected by change in the length of runner 
 (within reasonable limits), and will remain about the same though 
 the velocity is varied from 1 mile per hour or less, to several times 
 that value. 
 
 To reduce the waste of power and also the wearing of ma- 
 chinery due to friction, lubricating oils are used. The film of 
 oil between the two rubbing surfaces prevents their coming into 
 such intimate contact, and thus prevents, in a large measure, the
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 101 
 
 interlocking of the above-mentioned irregularities. During the 
 motion, the particles of oil in this film glide over each other with 
 very little friction, and the total friction is thus reduced by sub- 
 stituting, in part, liquid friction for sliding friction. The resist- 
 ance which a shaft bearing offers to the rotation of the shaft, is 
 evidently sliding friction, and is therefore reduced by proper oiling. 
 
 In general, friction is greater between two surfaces of the same 
 material than it is between those of different materials. Thus 
 bearings for steel shafts are sometimes made of brass, and fre- 
 quently of babbitt, to reduce friction. Babbitt metal is an alloy 
 of tin with copper and antimony, as a rule. Sometimes lead is 
 added. On the other hand, iron brake shoes are used on iron 
 wheels to obtain a large amount of friction, and pulleys are 
 faced with leather to prevent belt slippage. 
 
 The wasteful effects of friction are usually apparent, but the 
 beneficial effects are probably not so generally appreciated. If 
 it were not for friction, it would be impossible to transmit power 
 by means of belts, or to walk upon a smooth surface. Further- 
 more, all machinery and all structures which are held together 
 by nails, screws, or by bolts (unless riveted), would fall to pieces 
 instantly if all friction were eliminated. 
 
 79. Coefficient of Friction. The Coefficient of Kinetic Friction 
 is defined as the ratio of the force required to move a body slowly 
 and with uniform velocity along a plane, to the force that presses 
 it against the plane. Thus, if a force of 30 Ibs. applied in a hori- 
 zontal direction is just sufficient to move a body of mass 100 Ibs. 
 slowly and with uniform velocity over a level surface, then the 
 coefficient of kinetic friction of that particular body upon that 
 particular surface is 30/100 or 0.3. 
 
 A very simple piece of apparatus for finding the coefficient of 
 friction is shown in Fig. 41. B is a board, say of oak, which 
 may be inclined at such an angle that the block C, say of walnut, 
 will slide slowly down the plane due to its weight. Let this angle 
 be 6. Resolving W, the weight of the block C, into two compo^. 
 nerits, one component Fi urging it along the plane, and the other 
 F 2 pressing it against the plane, we have by definition F\/Fz as 
 the coefficient of friction. Fi/F z , however, is also tan 6, hence 
 for this type of apparatus the 
 
 Coeff. of f riction =Fi/F = tan 6. 
 From the figure it is seen that h/d is also tan 6; so that if in this
 
 102 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 particular case h/d = 1/3, the coefficient of friction for walnut on 
 oak is 0.33 for the particular specimens tested. 
 
 The coefficient of friction of metal on metal is, as a rule, some- 
 what greater than 0.2 for smooth, dry surfaces. Oiling may 
 reduce this to as low as 0.04. 
 
 If the coefficient of friction between the locomotive drivers and 
 the rail is 0.2, then the maximum pull, or "tractive effort," which 
 the locomotive can exert upon the drawbar, is about 0.2 of the 
 weight carried by the drivers. Any attempt to exceed this, 
 results in the familiar spinning of the drivers. For the same 
 reason, the maximum resistance to the motion of a car that can 
 be obtained by setting the brakes, is about 0.2 of the weight of 
 the car. Any attempt to exceed this force results in sliding, with 
 the production of the so-called "flat" wheel. 
 
 The Coefficient of Static Friction is defined as the ratio between 
 the force required to start a body to slide, and the force pressing it 
 
 FIG. 41. 
 
 against the plane. Since it requires a greater force to start 
 sliding than to maintain it, the coefficient of static friction is 
 larger than the coefficient of kinetic friction for the same materials. 
 The probable reason for this difference is the better interlocking 
 of the surfaces in the case of static friction (Sec. 78). 
 
 80. Rolling Friction. It is a matter of common knowledge 
 that to draw a 1000-lb. sled, having steel runners, along a steel 
 track would require a much greater force than to draw a 1000-lb. 
 truck, having steel wheels, along the same track. In the former 
 case sliding friction must be overcome; in the latter case, rolling 
 friction. The fact that rolling friction is so much smaller than 
 sliding friction has led to the quite common use of ball bearings 
 in machinery. Thus the wheel of a bicycle or of an automobile 
 supports the axle by means of a train of very hard steel balls of 
 uniform size, which are free to roll round and round in a groove
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 103 
 
 on the inside of the hub as the wheel turns. The axle rests with 
 a similar groove upon these balls and is thereby prevented from 
 direct rubbing (sliding friction) against the hub. Recent Ameri- 
 can practice favors rollers instead of balls for automobile "anti- 
 friction" bearings. By means of ball bearings, the coefficient 
 of friction, so-called, may be reduced to about 1/2 per cent. 
 
 In drawing the above truck on the steel track, the resistance 
 encountered is due to the fact that the steel wheel makes a. slight 
 depression in the rail, and is itself slightly flattened by the weight. 
 Since the material in the rail is not perfectly elastic, the minute 
 " hill " in front of the wheel is larger than the one behind it. The 
 wheel is constantly crushing down a small "hill" A in front of it 
 (shown greatly exaggerated in Fig. 42), and the energy required to 
 do this is always greater than the 
 energy applied by the small "hill" 
 B that is springing up behind it. 
 
 Since the thrust a, due to "hill" 
 A, is greater than the thrust 6, due 
 to B, the general upward thrust of 
 the rail against the wheel inclines 
 very slightly backward from the 
 vertical as shown. If the weight 
 W, and the pull F necessary to J? IQ 42 
 
 make the wheel roll, are both 
 
 known, the thrust T can easily be determined For, since 
 the wheel is in equilibrium, the three forces W } F, and T, 
 acting upon it must form a closed vector triangle. If, then, W 
 and F are drawn to scale as shown, the closing side T of the tri- 
 angle represents the required thrust. In the case of car wheels 
 on a steel track, F is about 1 per cent, of W, so that the angle 
 is really much smaller than shown. In the case of a rubber wheel 
 rolling on a steel rail, the depression of the rail would be prac- 
 tically zero; but in this case there would be a "bump" on the 
 wheel itself just in front of the flat portion, which would have to 
 be crushed down as the wheel advanced. To be sure, the spring- 
 ing out of the rubber "bump" just behind the flat portion would 
 help the wheel forward just as the rising of the minute hill on 
 the rail just behind the wheel would help it forward (in case the 
 rail is depressed). Since rubber is not perfectly elastic, the 
 energy required to crush the one "bump" is greater than that 
 obtained from the other formed by the rubber in springing out
 
 104 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 again behind the wheel. The difference between these two 
 amounts of energy is the energy used in overcoming rolling 
 friction. 
 
 If the wheel and the rail are made of very hard steel, friction is 
 reduced, because the depression made is less; but the danger of 
 accidents from the breaking of brittle rails is increased. In the 
 case of a wagon being drawn on the level along a soft spongy 
 road, the conditions are the same as those just discussed, except 
 that the "hill" is more marked in front of the wheel, and the ris- 
 ing of the hill behind the wheel is extremely sluggish indeed. For 
 this reason, rolling friction is a vastly greater factor in wagon 
 traffic than in railway traffic, and for the same reason, slight 
 grades, which would be prohibitive in railway traffic, are in wagon 
 traffic of small importance as compared with the character of the 
 road bed. 
 
 The friction upon the axle of the car is simply sliding friction, 
 but the amount of energy required to overcome it is very much 
 less than if the sliding were directly upon the rail itself, by 
 means of a shoe, for example. If the diameter of the axle is 1/10 
 that of the wheel, the distance of sliding between the axle and the 
 hub is clearly 1/10 the distance traversed by the car. Hence 
 we see that the work required to overcome this friction is only 
 1/10 as much as it would be if the sliding were directly upon the 
 rail, and if oil were sufficiently cheap to maintain as good lubrica- 
 tion between rail and shoe as is maintained on axles. 
 
 81. Power. Power is denned as the rate of doing work; con- 
 sequently average power is the work done divided by the time 
 required to do the work, or, proper units being chosen, 
 
 P = W/t (55) 
 
 If the work done in t seconds is divided by t, the result is the work 
 done in one second. Hence power is numerically the work done 
 per unit time (usually the second). Thus if a man lifts a 50-lb. 
 weight to a height of 6 ft. in 2 sec., he does 300 ft.-lbs. of work. 
 Dividing this amount of work by the time required to do it 
 gives the power or 150 ft.-lbs. per sec. Also multiplying the 
 force, 50 Ibs., by the velocity, 3 ft. per sec., gives likewise 150 
 ft.-lbs. per sec. For, since distance d = vt, we have
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 105 
 
 or power is equal to the force applied multiplied by the velocity of 
 motion of the body to which it is applied, provided the motion 
 is in the direction of the force. Thus, multiplying the pull on the 
 drawbar of a locomotive in pounds, by the velocity of the loco- 
 motive in feet per second, gives at any instant the power de- 
 veloped by the locomotive in foot-pounds per second. 
 
 82. Units of Power. Since power is the rate of doing work, it 
 must be expressed in terms of work units and time units, e.g., 
 ergs per second, foot-pounds per second, foot-pounds per minute, 
 etc. The horse power (H.P.) is one of the large power units in 
 common use. 
 
 1 H.P. = 550 ft.-lbs. per sec. =33,000 ft.-lbs. per min. 
 
 Since the pound force or pound weight increases with g, it 
 follows that the horse power becomes a larger unit with increase of 
 g. Strictly, the standard H.P. is 550 ft.-lbs. per sec. at latitude 
 45 (g = 980.6) . At latitude 60, e.g., in central Sweden and Nor- 
 way, g is about 1/10 per cent, greater than at latitude 45, so 
 that the H.P. there used is about 1/10 per cent, larger unit than 
 the standard H.P., unless corrected. Such correction is not made 
 in practice, because it is small in comparison with the fluctuations 
 in power that occur during a test of an engine or motor. 
 
 If a 140-lb. man ascends a stairway at the rate of 4 ft. (verti- 
 cally) per sec., the work done per second, i.e., the power he de- 
 velops, is 560 ft.-lbs. per sec., or slightly more than 1 H.P. 
 
 If a span of horses, pulling a loaded wagon weighing 2 tons up 
 a hill rising 1 ft. in 10, travels at the rate of 5 ft. per sec., then, 
 since the load rises 1/2 ft. per sec., the power developed by the 
 two horses in working against gravity alone is, 
 
 4000X0.5 ft.-lbs. per sec., or 3.63 H.P. 
 
 Considering also the work done against friction, it will be seen 
 that each horse would probably have to develop more than 2 H.P. 
 The above unit (550 ft.-lbs. per sec.) expresses the power which 
 a horse can develop for long periods of time, e.g., for a day. It 
 is^a rather high value for the average horse. On the other hand, 
 for very short periods (1/2 min. or so), a horse may develop 6 or 
 8 H.P. This accounts in part for the fact that a 30-H.P. auto- 
 mobile, stalled in the sand, may readily be drawn by a 4-horse 
 team. It may be mentioned in passing that the French H.P. 
 of 75 kilogram-meters per sec. is 541 ft.-lbs. per sec.
 
 106 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Other units of power are the watt (one joule per sec.), and the 
 kilowatt (1000 watts). These units are used extensively in 
 expressing electrical power. The H.P. equals approximately 746 
 watts, or in round numbers, 3/4 kilowatt. 
 
 From Eq. 55 we see that work equals power times time. A 
 span of horses working at normal rate for ten hours does 20 H.P.- 
 hours of work. A good steam engine will do 1 H.P.-hour of 
 work for every 1.5 Ibs. of coal burned. If the lighting of a certain 
 building requires 2 kilowatts (K.W.) then the energy used in five 
 hours is 10 K.W.-hours. This energy is recorded by the watt- 
 hour meter, commonly called a recording wattmeter, and costs 
 usually about ten cents per K.W.-hour. A 32-candle-power 
 "carbon" lamp (i.e., a lamp whose filament is made of carbon) 
 requires about 100 watts, while a "tungsten" lamp having the 
 same candle power requires only about 40 watts. Observe 
 in this connection that it is not power that is bought or sold, but 
 energy, which is the product of the power and the time. 
 
 83. Prony Brake. Various devices have been used to test the 
 power of steam engines and motors. With some of them the test 
 may be made while the engine is doing its regular work, while 
 others require that the regular work cease during the test. The 
 Prony Brake, in fact all brakes, are of the latter class, and are 
 known as absorption dynamometers. The former devices are 
 termed transmission dynamometers. 
 
 Since W =Td (Eq. 49), and $=ut, 
 
 P = W/t=T ut/t = Tu (57) 
 
 Hence to find the power of a motor, for example, it is merely nec- 
 essary to find what torque it exerts, and then multiply this by its 
 angular velocity co, or 2-irn, in which n is the number of revolu- 
 tions per second as determined by a speed indicator held against 
 the end of the motor shaft. A strap pressed against the pulley of 
 the motor shaft would be pulled in the direction of rotation with a 
 certain force F. If r is the radius of the pulley, then Fr gives 
 the torque of Eq. 57. Multiplying this torque by w, as above 
 found, would give the power of the motor in foot-pounds per 
 second, provided n is given in revolutions per second, F in pounds, 
 and r in feet. Dividing this result by 550 would then give the 
 power of the motor in H.P. If n were given in revolutions per 
 minute (R.P.M.), it would be necessary to divide by 33,000 in- 
 stead of by 550.
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 
 
 107 
 
 A simple form of the Prony Brake, suitable for testing small 
 motors or engines, is shown in Fig. 43. The pulley A of the motor 
 shaft is clamped between two pieces of wood, B and C, as shown. 
 The end D of C is attached to a spring balance E. As the pulley 
 turns, it tends to rotate the brake with it, but is prevented by 
 the upward pull F exerted by E on D. The force, say FI, re- 
 quired to make the surface of the pulley slide past the wood, 
 times the radius r\ of the pulley, gives the driving torque F\TI 
 tending to rotate the brake in a clockwise direction. Since the 
 brake does not rotate, we see that the opposing torque, that is, 
 the above pull F times its lever arm r, or Fr, must equal the 
 torque Ftfi. Accordingly the former torque (Fr), which is easily 
 found, may be used in Eq. 57. 
 
 Fia. 43. 
 
 If B and C are lightly clamped together, this torque will be 
 very small, making the power small (Eq. 57); while if clamped 
 too tightly, the motor may be so greatly slowed down that the 
 power is again too small. The proper way to make the test is 
 to gradually tighten the clamp until the electrical instruments 
 show that the motor is using its rated amount of electrical power, 
 and then take simultaneous readings of E and the speed indicator. 
 From these readings the H.P. of the motor is found as above out- 
 lined. Likewise in testing a steam engine, the clamp should 
 be tightened until both the speed and the steam consumption are 
 normal. 
 
 In testing large engines or motors with the Prony Brake, D 
 rests on a platform scale, and pulley A, in some cases, has a rim 
 projecting inward which enables it to hold water when revolving,
 
 108 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 due to the centrifugal force thereby developed. Water applied 
 in this or some other way prevents undue heating. The clamp 
 also differs slightly from that shown. 
 
 A convenient form of brake for testing small motors is the 
 Strap Brake. A leather strap attached to one spring balance is 
 passed down around the motor pulley and then up and attached 
 to another spring balance. Evidently when the motor is running, 
 the two spring balances will register different forces. The 
 difference between these two forces multiplied by the radius of the 
 pulley, is the opposing torque. But this torque is equal to the 
 driving torque. This driving torque, multiplied by the angular 
 velocity w, gives the power (Eq. 57). 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. How much work is required to pump a tank full of water from a 
 40-ft. well, the tank being 10 ft. long, 5 ft. wide, and 8 ft. deep, and resting 
 upon a platform 20 ft. above the ground? The pipe enters at the bottom of 
 the tank. Assume that half of the work is done against friction, the other 
 half against the force of gravity. 1 cu. ft. of water weighs 62.4 Ibs. Sketch 
 first. 
 
 2. A horse drawing a sled exerts a pull of 120 Ibs. upon the sled at an 
 angle of 20 with the road bed. How much work is required to draw the 
 Bled 1/4 mile? Cos. 20 =0.94. 
 
 3. A 10-lb. force applied to an 18-in. crank turns it through 4000. 
 How much work is done? 
 
 4. A plow that makes 12 furrow widths to the rod, i.e., which makes 
 16.5-in. furrows, requires an average pull of 300 Ibs. How much work, 
 expressed in ft .-Ibs., is done in plowing one acre? 
 
 6. What is the potential energy of a 20-kilogram mass when raised 3 ft.? 
 Express the result in ft.-lbs. and also in ergs. 
 
 6. What is the kinetic energy of a 200-lb. projectile when its velocity is 
 1600 ft. per sec.? 
 
 7. If a force of 1961.2 dynes causes an 8-gm. mass to slide slowly and 
 with uniform velocity over a level surface, what is the coefficient of fric- 
 tion? 
 
 8. A sled and rider, weighing 100 Ibs., reaches the foot of a hill 64 ft. 
 high with a velocity of 50 ft. per sec. How much work must have been 
 done against friction on the hill? 
 
 9. At the foot of the hill (Prob. 8) is a level expanse of ice. Neglecting 
 air friction, how far will the sled (vel. 50 ft. per sec.) travel on this ice 
 before coming to rest, assuming the coefficient of friction to be 0.03? 
 
 10. How much coal would be required per acre in plowing the land 
 (Prob. 4) with a steam plow? Assume that 6 Ibs. of the coal burned can 
 do 1 H.P.-hour of work, and that half of this work is done in pulling the 
 engine, and the other half in pulling the plow. 
 
 11. A 200-lb. car A and a 50-lb. car B when at rest on the same level
 
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 109 
 
 track are connected by a stretched spring whose average tension for 3 
 seconds is 2 Ibs. greater than that necessary to overcome the friction of 
 running the cars. Find the momentum and the kinetic energy of each 
 car at the close of the 3-sec. interval. 
 
 12. What is the average H.P. developed by the powder, if the projectile 
 (Problem 6) takes 0.02 sec. to reach the muzzle, i.e., if the pressure pro- 
 duced by the powder acts upon the projectile for 0.02 sec.? 
 
 13. What is the average force pushing the projectile (Prob. 6) if the 
 cannon is 20 ft. in length? 
 
 14. A runaway team, pulling 200 Ibs., develops 10 H.P. How fast must 
 they travel? 
 
 15. How fast must a 400-lb. bear climb a tree in order to develop 2 H.P.? 
 
 16. What is the kinetic energy of a 3-ton flywheel when making 180 
 R.P.M., if the average diameter of its rim is 12 ft.? Assume the mass to 
 be all in the rim. 
 
 17. What is the cost of fuel for a locomotive for each ton of freight 
 that it hauls 1000 miles? Assume that the average pull per ton of the 
 loaded train is 30 Ibs., that the train itself weighs as much as its load, and 
 that the locomotive develops 1 H.P.-hr. from each 4 Ibs. of coal. The 
 coal costs $4.00 per ton. 
 
 18. A horse, drawing a sulky and occupant at the rate of 1 mile in 2 
 min., exerts a 10-lb. pull upon the sulky. How much more power must the 
 horse furnish than if it were to travel at the same rate without sulky or 
 rider? 
 
 19. A steam engine being tested with a Prony Brake makes 300 R.P.M. 
 and exerts at the end of the brake arm, 4 ft. from the axis, a force of 500 
 Ibs. Find its H.P. 
 
 20. Assuming that 20 per cent, of the energy can be utilized, how many 
 H.P. can be obtained from a 20-ft. waterfall in a river whose average width, 
 depth, and velocity at a certain point, are respectively 50 ft., 4 ft., and 5 ft. 
 per sec.? 
 
 21. It is desired to reduce the speed fluctuation between successive 
 explosions of the 10-H.P. gas engine (Sec. 76) to 1 per cent, of the average 
 speed. If the average radius of the rim of the flywheel is 3 ft., how heavy 
 must the flywheel be? Assume the mass to be all in the rim. Also assume 
 in Eq. 54 that coi is 1/2 per cent, greater than u, and that co 2 is 1/2 per 
 cent, less than .
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 MACHINES 
 
 84. Machine Defined. A machine is usually a device for 
 transmitting power, though it is sometimes (e.g., the dynamo) a 
 device for transforming one kind of energy into another. Many 
 machines are simply devices by means of which a force, applied at 
 one point, gives rise at some other point to a second force which, 
 in general, differs from the first force both in magnitude and direc- 
 tion. The force applied to the machine is called the Working 
 Force, and the force against which the machine works is called 
 the Resisting Force. 
 
 It is at once apparent that whatever power is required to over- 
 come friction in the machine itself, is power lost in transmission. 
 Nevertheless, transmission of power through the machine may be 
 profitable. Thus, in shelling corn with a corn sheller, the power 
 required to separate the kernels, to mutilate the cobs more or less, 
 and to overcome friction of the bearings, must be furnished by the 
 applied power; while if the corn were shelled directly by hand, 
 only the power required to separate the kernels would have to be 
 applied. Since power is force times velocity (Eq. 56), it is readily 
 seen that a person's hand can apply a great deal more power to a 
 crank than it can if pressed directly on the kernels. For both the 
 force and the velocity may easily be much greater in case the 
 crank is used. Again, though a block and tackle may transmit 
 only 60 per cent, of the applied power, it is profitable to use it in 
 lifting heavy masses that could not be lifted directly by hand. In 
 the case of the threshing machine, the power applied by the belt 
 from the steam engine is transmitted by the threshing machine to 
 the cylinder, to the blower, and to numerous other parts of the 
 machine. 
 
 We shall here study only what are known as the Simple 
 Machines. The most complicated machines consist almost 
 entirely in a grouping together of the various simple machines 
 described in the following sections. The study of the simple 
 machines consists mainly in learning the meaning of the efficiency 
 
 no
 
 MACHINES 
 
 111 
 
 and the two mechanical advantages of each machine, and in find- 
 ing their numerical values from data given. Hence the necessity 
 for first having a clear definition of each of these three terms. 
 
 85. Mechanical Advantage and Efficiency. The Actual Me- 
 chanical Advantage of a machine is the ratio of the resisting or 
 opposing force F , to the force F a applied to the machine, or 
 
 Act. Mech. Adv. = F /F a 
 
 The Theoretical Mechanical Advantage is the ratio of the dis- 
 tance d through which F a acts, to the distance D through which 
 Fo acts, or 
 
 Theor. Mech. Adv. = d/D 
 
 The Efficiency (E) of a machine is the ratio of the useful work 
 W (i.e., F D) done by the machine, to 
 the total work W a (i.e., F a d) done upon 
 the machine, or 
 
 R 
 
 E = 
 
 F a d 
 
 (57a) 
 
 FIG. 44. 
 
 To illustrate the meaning of the 
 above terms, consider the common 
 windlass for drawing water from a 
 well (Fig. 44). Let the crank, whose 
 length (K) is 2 ft., rotate the drum of 
 6-in. radius (r) upon which winds the 
 rope that pulls up the bucket of water. 
 The hand, applying the force F a 
 through the distance d, does the work 
 F a d upon the machine; while the 
 
 bucket, resisting with a force F (its weight) through a distance 
 D, has an amount of work FoD done upon it by the machine (the 
 windlass). 
 
 From inspection we see that, since R=4r, d must equal 4Z), 
 and the theoretical mechanical advantage is therefore 4. While 
 the theoretical mechanical advantage may be found from the 
 dimensions as here done, the actual mechanical advantage must 
 always be found from actual experiment. If the hand must apply 
 a 10-lb. force to lift a 30-lb. bucket, the actual mechanical advan- 
 tage is 3. If the hand applying this 10-lb. force moves 2 ft., 
 the bucket would rise 6 inches or 1/2 ft., and the work done upon
 
 112 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 the machine would be 20 f t.-lbs. ; while that done by the machine 
 would be 15 f t.-lbs. (30X1/2). The efficiency (Eq. 57 a) would 
 then be 15/20, or 75 per cent. 
 
 Observe that the efficiency is also equal to the ratio of the two 
 mechanical advantages, the actual to the theoretical. This is 
 always true. For, since there is friction, the work done by the 
 machine is less than that done upon it; i.e., the efficiency 
 F D/F a d, or E, is less than one. F D/F a d = E may be put in the 
 form 
 
 F /F a = EXd/D '| 5 (58) 
 
 The left member of this equation is the actual mechanical advan- 
 tage, while the right member is E times the theoretical mechanical 
 advantage (note that E is never more than unity) ; whence the 
 efficiency E is the ratio of the two mechanical advantages, which 
 was to be proved. If it were possible to entirely eliminate 
 friction, then the work done "upon" and "by" the machine would 
 be equal (from the conservation of energy), and therefore E would 
 be unity. Consequently the efficiency would be 100 per cent., and 
 the theoretical mechanical advantage d/D would be equal to 
 the actual mechanical advantage F /F a . In other words, the 
 theoretical mechanical advantage is the ratio that we would find 
 for F /F a from the dimensions of the machine, neglecting friction. 
 This condition of zero friction is closely approximated in some 
 machines. 
 
 86. The Simple Machines. The Simple Machines are devices 
 used, as a rule, to secure a large force by the application of a 
 smaller force. These machines are the lever, the pulley, the 
 wheel and axle, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw. 
 Throughout the discussion of the simple machines the symbols 
 F a , F , d, and D will be employed in the same sense as in Sec. 85. 
 It may be well to now reread the last three sentences of Sec. 84. 
 Observe that the theoretical mechanical advantage of any simple 
 machine, or any combination of simple machines for that matter, 
 is d/D. Thus, if in the use of any combination of levers and pul- 
 leys, it is observed that the hand must move 20 ft. to raise the load 
 1 ft., we know at once that the theoretical mechanical advantage 
 is 20. 
 
 87. The Lever. The lever is a very important and much used 
 simple machine. Indeed, as will be shown later, all simple ma- 
 chines may be divided into two types: the lever type and the
 
 MACHINES 113 
 
 inclined-plane type. Though the lever is usually a straight bar 
 free to rotate about a support P, called the fulcrum or pivot point, 
 it may take any form. Thus a bar bent at right angles and 
 having the pivot at the angle as shown at N(Fig. 45), is a form of 
 lever that is very widely used for changing a vertical motion or 
 force to a horizontal one and vice versa. 
 
 There are three general classes of levers, sometimes called 1st 
 class, 2nd class, and 3rd class, depending upon the relative posi- 
 tions of the fulcrum or pivot P, and the points A and B, at which 
 are applied F a and F respectively (see Fig. 45). In the class 
 shown at K, P is between the other two points; in the class 
 shown at L, F is between; and in the class shown at M, F a is 
 between. In all three cases, the applied torque about P is 
 F a XAP, and, since the lever is in equilibrium (neglecting its 
 
 P^ ,~-.~-yP Fg\}d ~~B~7D~ P 
 
 A 
 
 FIG. 45. 
 
 weight and also neglecting friction), this torque must equal the 
 opposing torque due to F , or F XBP. Hence F a XAP = 
 F XBP, from which, noting that for zero friction the two me- 
 chanical advantages are equal (see close of Sec. 85), we have 
 
 F AP 
 Theor. Mech. Adv. = F = gp (59) 
 
 The theoretical mechanical advantage may be found in another 
 way. Let the force F a move point A a distance d (all three classes) . 
 The point B will then move a distance D, and from similar trian- 
 gles the theoretical mechanical advantage d/D is seen to be equal 
 to AP/BP, just as in Eq. 59. By measuring AP and BP, the 
 theoretical mechanical advantage is known. Thus if in any case 
 AP equals 3XBP, it is known at once and without testing, that,
 
 114 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 neglecting friction, 10 Ibs. applied at A will lift 30 Ibs. resting at 
 B. Friction in levers is small, so that the actual mechanical 
 advantage is almost equal to the theoretical, and the efficiency 
 is therefore nearly 100 per cent. 
 
 Obviously, in using a crowbar to tear down a building, the 
 resisting force F is not in general a weight or load. Nevertheless, 
 since the simple machines are very commonly used in raising 
 weights, it has become customary to speak of F as the "load," 
 or the weight lifted, and F a as the "force," although both are 
 of course forces. "Resistance" seems preferable to "load" 
 and we shall call BP (for all three classes) the "resistance arm," 
 and AP the "force arm." The latter is sometimes called the 
 "power arm," but this seems objectionable inasmuch as we are 
 dealing with force, not power. 
 
 From the figure, it will be seen that the force arm may be either 
 equal to, greater than, or less than the resistance arm in levers of 
 the type shown at K; while in the type shown at L, it is either 
 equal to, or greater than the resistance arm; and in the type shown 
 at M , it is either equal to, or less than, the resistance arm. Conse- 
 quently the theoretical mechanical advantage (AP/BP) may 
 have for the first-mentioned type (K) any value; for the next type 
 (L), one or more than one; and for the last type (AT), its value 
 is one or less than one. Observe that the theoretical mechanical 
 advantage is always given by the ratio of the force arm to the 
 resistance arm (AP/BP}, whatever the type of lever may be. 
 The lever arm of a force is always measured from the pivot point. 
 
 The crowbar, in prying up a stone, may be used as a lever 
 either as shown at K or at L. A fish pole is used as a lever of the 
 type shown at M, if the hand holding the large end of the pole 
 remains at rest, while the other hand moves up or down. A 
 pump handle is usually a lever of the type shown at K. The 
 forearm is used as a lever of type M when bending the arm, and 
 type K when straightening it. A pair of scissors, a pair of nut- 
 crackers, and a pair of tweezers represent, respectively, classes 
 K, L, and M . 
 
 88. The Pulley. The theoretical mechanical advantage of 
 the pulley when used as shown in Fig. 46 is unity. For evi- 
 dently F a must equal F (neglecting friction) in order to make the 
 two torques equal. But the theoretical mechanical advantage, 
 if we neglect friction, is F /F a (see last three sentences of Sec. 
 85). From an actual test in raising a load, it will be found that
 
 MACHINES 
 
 115 
 
 F a exceeds F , hence the actual mechanical advantage is less 
 than one. Again, if F a moves its rope downward a distance d, 
 the weight W will rise an equal distance D, and d/D, or the theo- 
 retical mechanical advantage, from this viewpoint is also seen 
 to be one. 
 
 Such a pulley does not move up or down, and is called a fixed 
 pulley. Observe that this pulley may be looked upon as a lever 
 of the class shown at K (Fig. 4.5) with equal arms r and r' . Al- 
 though with such a pulley F is less than the applied force F a , the 
 greater ease of pulling downward instead of upward more than 
 compensates for the loss of force. 
 
 The movable pulley is shown in Fig. 47. With this arrangement 
 
 FIG. 46. 
 
 FIG. 47. 
 
 the pulley rises with the lifted weight. Since both ropes A and B 
 must be equally tight (ignoring friction), F = 2F a , or F /F a , the 
 theoretical mechanical advantage, is 2. This may be seen in 
 another way by considering point C as the fulcrum for an instant, 
 and 2r as the lever arm for F a , and only r as the lever arm for 
 F . It is also evident that if rope B is pulled up 1 ft. the weight 
 W will rise only 1/2 ft., i.e., d/D, the theoretical mechanical advan- 
 tage, is 2. 
 
 A group of several fixed and movable pulleys arranged as 
 shown in Fig. 48 with a rope passing over each pulley is called a 
 Block and Tackle. In practice, the pulleys A and B are placed 
 side by side on the same axle above; in like manner C and D are
 
 116 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 placed on one axle below. The slightly different arrangement 
 shown in the sketch is for the purpose of showing more clearly 
 the separate parts of the rope. The rope abcde is continuous, 
 one end being attached to the ring E and the other end being 
 held by the hand. 
 
 If the applied force F a on rope a is say 10 Ibs., and the pulleys 
 are absolutely frictionless, then the parts of the rope b, c, d, and 
 e would all be equally tight, and hence each would exert an up- 
 ward lift on W of 10 Ibs., giving a total of 40 Ibs. 
 The theoretical mechanical advantage is then 
 (neglecting friction), F /F a = 40/W = 4, or the 
 number of supporting ropes. Again, if W is 
 raised 1 ft. (D), each rope b, c, d, and e will have 
 1 ft. of slack, so that a will have to be pulled 
 down a distance 4 ft. (d) to take up all of the 
 slack. In other words, the hand must move 4 
 ft. to raise W 1 ft. Hence the theoretical mechani- 
 cal advantage from this viewpoint is 4 (i.e. 
 d/D=4). Observe that here, with a theoretical 
 mechanical advantage of 4, the weight moves 
 1/4 as far, and hence 1/4 as fast as the hand. 
 This general fact concerning simple machines is 
 epitomized in the following statement: "What is 
 gained in force is lost in speed, and vice versa." 
 
 If friction causes each pulley A, B, C, and D to 
 require 1 Ib. pull to make it revolve, then if the 
 pull applied to a were 10 Ibs., the tension on 6 
 would be only 9 Ibs. ; on c, 8 Ibs. ; on d, 7 Ibs. ; and 
 on e, 6 Ibs. The total lift exerted on W, i.e., F , 
 would therefore be 9+8+7+6, or 30 Ibs.; hence 
 the actual mechanical advantage F /F a would be 3. 
 Since the efficiency is the ratio of the actual to the 
 theoretical mechanical advantage, it is here 3/4, or 
 75 per cent. The efficiency may readily be found 
 in another way. If the hand moves downward a distance of 4 ft. 
 while exerting a force of 10 Ibs., then the work done upon the ma- 
 chine is 40 ft.-lbs., but it has been shown that, due to friction, this 
 force can raise only 30 Ibs. one ft., i.e., the work done by the ma- 
 chine is only 30 ft.-lbs. The efficiency is then 4Q . ' , =75 per 
 cent, as above. A considerably higher efficiency than this may 
 
 FIG. 48.
 
 MACHINES 
 
 117 
 
 be obtained if the rope is very flexible, and if the pulley bearings 
 are smooth and well oiled. 
 
 89. The Wheel and Axle. The Wheel and Axle (Fig. 49) con- 
 sists of a large wheel A of radius R rigidly attached to an axle B 
 of radius r. A rope a is attached to the rim of the wheel and 
 wound around it a few turns. Another rope, attached to the axle, 
 is secured to the weight W that is to be lifted. 
 
 Viewed as a lever with the axis as pivot, the theoretical mechan- 
 ical advantage is clearly the ratio of the two lever arms, or R/r. 
 If this ratio is, say 5, the rope a will have 
 to be pulled down a distance (d) of 5 ft. 
 to lift the weight a distance (D) of 1 ft., 
 giving a theoretical mechanical advantage 
 (d/D) of 5. If from a test, the load lifted 
 is only 4 times as great as the applied force, 
 then the actual mechanical advantage is 4, 
 and the efficiency (by Eq. 58) is 4/5 or 80 
 per cent. 
 
 Observe that the wheel and axle and the 
 windlass (Fig. 44) are exactly alike in prin- 
 ciple. It may also be added that practi- 
 cally the only difference between the cap- 
 stan and the windlass is that the drum is 
 vertical in the capstan and horizontal in the windlass. 
 
 90. The Inclined Plane. Let a rope, pulling with a force F a , 
 draw the block E of weight W up the Inclined Plane AC (Fig. 50). 
 Resolving W into two components (Sec. 19), the one (Fi) normal, 
 the other (Fz) parallel to the plane, and noting that F a equals 
 Fz (if we ignore friction), we have for the theoretical mechanical 
 advantage 
 
 = I/sin 8 
 
 Fia. 49. 
 
 Again, if F a draws the block from A to C, it lifts the block only 
 the vertical height BC, and the theoretical mechanical advantage, 
 d/D, is AC/BC, or I/sin 6, as before. Observe that 
 
 AC slant height 
 -- - 
 
 mi_ TVT 
 Theo. M. 
 
 The less steep the grade, the greater the theoretical mechanical 
 advantage, but the block must be drawn so much the farther in 
 order to raise it a given vertical distance.
 
 118 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 If the pull F a urging the block up the incline, is horizontal, 
 then, as the block travels from A to C (Fig. 51), F a acts in its 
 own direction through distance AB (i.e., d) and the weight W is 
 raised the distance BC (i.e., D). Hence in this case 
 
 Theo. M. Adv. = 
 
 AB 
 
 hor. distance 
 
 r^-r = cot =1 /tan0 
 
 BC vert, height 
 
 The equation just given may be derived in another way. 
 From Fig. 51 we see that the pull on the rope, or F' a , must be of 
 such magnitude that its component F a parallel to AC shall equal 
 the force F a of Fig. 50. Drawing F 3 equal to F' a but in the oppo- 
 site direction, we have 
 
 Theo. M. Adv. ---- 
 
 AB 
 coie= BC 
 
 The inclined plane is frequently used for raising wagon loads 
 and car loads of material, for example, at locomotive coaling 
 
 FIG. 50. 
 
 FIG. 51. 
 
 stations, and for many other purposes. A train in ascending a 
 mountain utilizes the inclined plane, by winding this way and that 
 to avoid too steep an incline. On a grade rising 1 ft. in 50, the 
 locomotive must exert upon the drawbar a pull equal to 1/50 part 
 of the weight of the train in addition to the force required to over- 
 come friction. 
 
 91. The Wedge. In Fig. 52 the wedge is shown as used in 
 raising the corner of a building. F a represents the force exerted 
 upon the head of the wedge by the hammer, and F the weight of 
 the corner of the building. If F a acts through the distance d 
 (the length of the wedge), i.e., if F a drives the wedge "home," 
 then the building will be lifted a distance D (the thickness of 
 the wedge), and F will resist through a distance D. Hence 
 
 Theo. M. Adv. = 
 
 length of 
 
 D thickness of wedge
 
 MACHINES 
 
 119 
 
 If the hand exerts a force of 20 Ibs. upon a sledge hammer 
 through a distance of 40 inches, and the hammer drives the wedge 
 1 inch, i.e., F a acts through 1 inch, then F a (average value) equals 
 20X40 or 800 Ibs. For, in accordance with the conservation of 
 energy, the work done (force times distance) in giving the ham- 
 mer its motion must be equal to the work it does upon the wedge, 
 and, since the distance the wedge moves in stopping the hammer is 
 1/40 as great as the distance the hand moves in starting it, the 
 force involved must be 40 times as great, or 800 Ibs. as already 
 found. If the wedge is 1 in. thick and 8 in. long it could, neglect- 
 ing friction, lift 8X800 or 6400 Ibs. In practice, friction is very 
 great in the case of the wedge, so that the weight lifted would be 
 very much less than 6400 Ibs., say 1600 Ibs. Accordingly, if the 
 weight resting upon this particular wedge were 1600 Ibs., then 
 
 FIG. 52. 
 
 each blow of the hammer would drive the wedge 1 inch and raise 
 the building 1/8 in. 
 
 The actual mechanical advantage of the wedge would then be 
 1600 Ibs. -f- 800 Ibs. or 2, the theoretical mechanical advantage 
 8 in.-i-l in. or 8, and consequently the efficiency would be 2-r-8 
 or 25 per cent. For wedge and hammer combined, the actual 
 mechanical advantage would be 1600 Ibs. -7-20 Ibs. or 80, and 
 the theoretical mechanical advantage, 40 in. -^ 1/8 in., or 320. 
 Observe that the latter ratio (320) is the distance that the hand 
 (not the wedge) moves, divided by the distance that the building 
 is raised. Thus we see that the great value of the mechanical 
 advantage is due to the great force developed in suddenly stopping 
 the hammer when it strikes the wedge, rather than to the wedge
 
 120 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 itself. A wedge would be of little or no value, if used directly, 
 that is, if pushed "home" by the hand. 
 
 If the weight on the wedge were 5 times as great (5 X 1600 Ibs.) 
 it would require 5 times as much force to drive it, and the hammer 
 would be stopped more suddenly in furnishing this force. In 
 fact, the same blow would drive the wedge 1/5 as far as before, or 
 1/5 inch. 
 
 92. The Screw. The screw consists of a rod, usually of metal, 
 having upon its surface a uniform spiral groove and ridge, the 
 thread. It is a simple device by which a torque may develop a 
 very great force in the direction of the length of the screw. For 
 
 example, by using a wrench to 
 turn the nut on a bolt which 
 passes through two beams, the 
 bolt draws the two beams for- 
 cibly together. The principle of 
 the screw will be readily under- 
 stood from a discussion of the 
 jackscrew, a device much used 
 for exerting very great forces, 
 such as in raising buildings. 
 
 The Jackscrew (Fig. 53) con- 
 sists of a screw S, free to turn in 
 a threaded hole in the base A, 
 and having at its upper end a 
 hole through which the rod BC 
 
 may be thrust as shown. Consider a force F a applied at C at 
 right angles to the paper and directed inward (i.e., away from the 
 reader). Let it be required to find the weight F that the head 
 of the jackscrew will lift. The distance which the screws rise for 
 each revolution is called the pitch p of the screw. Evidently 
 for each revolution of the point C, the weight lifted, i.e., the 
 corner of the building, rises a distance p. In doing this, however, 
 the force F a applied to C acts through a distance 2nr. Hence 
 
 o_ r 
 Theo. M. Adv. = (d/D) = 
 
 In the jackscrew, friction is large, consequently the actual 
 mechanical advantage is much less than the theoretical. The 
 actual mechanical advantage would be found by dividing the 
 
 FIG. 53.
 
 MACHINES 
 
 121 
 
 weight of the corner of the building (i.e., F ) by the force F a 
 necessary to make C revolve. 
 
 Both the wedge and the jackscrew involve the principle of the 
 inclined plane. This is obvious in the case of the wedge. In the 
 case of the jackscrew, the thread in the base is really a spiral 
 inclined plane up which the load virtually slides. The long rod 
 BC makes the mechanical advantage much greater than it is for 
 the inclined plane. Observe that all other simple machines 
 involve the principle of the lever. Thus there are two types of 
 simple machines, the inclined-plane type and the lever type. 
 
 93. The Chain Hoist or Differential Pulley. The Chain 
 Hoist or Differential Pulley (Fig. 54) is a very convenient and 
 
 FIG. 54. 
 
 FIG. 55. 
 
 simple device for lifting heavy machinery or other heavy objects. 
 It consists of three pulleys A, B, and C, connected by an endless 
 chain of which the portions c and e bear the weight and a and 6 
 hang loose. The two upper pulleys A and B, which differ slightly 
 in radius, are rigidly fastened together, and each has cogs which 
 mesh with the links of the chain. Designating the radius of A 
 by r and that of B by r', let us find the expression for the theo- 
 retical mechanical advantage.
 
 122 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Evidently if rope a is pulled down by F a a distance 2irr (i.e., d), 
 A will make one revolution, e will be wound upon A a distance 
 2irr, and c will be unwound from B a distance 27rr'. Now the 
 latter distance is slightly smaller than the former, so that the 
 total length of e and c is shortened, causing pulley C, and conse- 
 quently the load W, to rise the distance D. The above shortening 
 is2irr 2-nr r , or27r(r r'), and Crises only 1/2 this distance. Hence 
 
 Theo. M. Adv. = d/D = ^^ = ^75 (60) 
 
 Eq. 60 shows that if r and r f are made nearly equal, then D 
 becomes very small and the mechanical advantage, very large. 
 In practice, a ratio of 9 to 10 works very well, i.e., having, for 
 example, 18 cogs on B and 20 on A. In such case, the above- 
 mentioned shortening would be two links per revolution (i.e., per 
 20 links of pull), and the rise D would be one link, giving a theo- 
 retical mechanical advantage of 20/1 or 20. 
 
 In the chain hoist there is sufficient friction to hold the load 
 even though the hand releases chain a. This is a great conven- 
 ience and safeguard in handling valuable machinery. Likewise 
 in the case of either the wedge or the jackscrew, friction is great 
 enough to enable the machine to support the load though the 
 applied force F a is withdrawn. This convenience compensates 
 for the low efficiency which, we have seen, is the direct result 
 of a large amount of friction. 
 
 The Differential Wheel and Axle is very similar in principle to the chain 
 hoist. It differs from the wheel and axle shown in Fig. 49, in that the 
 axle has a larger radius at one end than at the other. 
 
 If the force F a (Fig. 55) pulls rope a downward a distance (d) of 
 2irR (R being the radius of the large wheel), then, exactly as in the 
 chain hoist, rope e is wound onto the large part of the axle a distance 
 2irr and rope c is unwound from the smaller part of the axle a distance 
 27i-r'. The shortening of ropes c and e is 2*r 2*r' or 2w(r r'), and the 
 weight rises a distance (D) equal to 1/2 of this distance, or ir(rr'). 
 
 We thus have 
 
 rrtl. -n/r A 1 d 2irR 2R /ni\ 
 
 Theo. M. Adv. = D = ir(r - r ^= r ^ (61) 
 
 94. Center of Gravity. The Center of Gravity (C.G.) of a 
 body may be defined as that point at which the entire weight of 
 the body may be considered to be concentrated, so far as the torque 
 developed by its weight is concerned. This is equivalent to the
 
 MACHINES 
 
 123 
 
 statement that the C.G. of a body is the point at which the body 
 may be supported in any position without tending to rotate due 
 to its weight. For its entire weight acts at its C.G., and hence, 
 under these circumstances, at its point of support, and therefore 
 develops no torque. The conditions that obtain when a body is 
 supported at its C.G. will now be discussed. 
 
 Let Fig. 56 represent a board whose C.G. is at X. Bore a small 
 hole at X and insert a rod as an axis. Through X pass a vertical 
 plane at right angles to the plane of the paper as indicated by the 
 line AX. Now the positive torque due to a mass particle mi 
 is its weight m\g times its lever arm r\. Proceeding in the same 
 way with m* and all other particles 
 to the left of the line AX, and adding 
 all of these minute torques, we ob- 
 tain the total positive torque about X. 
 In the same way we find the total 
 negative torque about the same point 
 due to m 3 , w 4 , etc. Since the body 
 balances if supported at X, the total 
 positive torque must equal the total 
 negative torque, and for this reason, 
 the entire weight behaves as a single 
 downward pull W acting at its C.G. 
 This concept greatly simplifies all dis- 
 cussions and problems relating to the 
 
 C.G. of bodies, and will be frequently used. For example, if 
 the rod is withdrawn from X and inserted at A, we see at 
 once that the downward pull W, and the reacting upward pull 
 of the supporting rod, will produce no torque, since they lie 
 in the same straight line. If, however, the rod is inserted at B, 
 the negative torque would be TFr, in which r is the horizontal 
 distance between X and B. If free to do so, the board would 
 rotate until B and X were in the same vertical line. In other 
 words, a body always tends to rotate so that its C.G. is directly 
 below the point of support. 
 
 This tendency suggests a very simple means of finding the C.G. 
 of an irregular body, such as C (Fig. 56) . Supporting the body at 
 some point as D, determine the plumb line (shown dotted). 
 Next, supporting it at E, determine another plumb line. The 
 intersection X of these two lines is the C.G. of the body. Why? 
 
 Effect of C.G. on Levers. If the center of gravity of the lever 
 
 FIG. 56.
 
 124 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 AB (sketch K, Fig. 45) of weight W, is to the left of P a distance r, 
 then the weight of the lever produces a positive torque Wr, 
 which torque added to that due to F a , which is also positive, must 
 equal that due to F , which is negative. Thus we see that in 
 ignoring the weight of the lever we introduce into Eq. 59 a slight 
 error. This error is negligibly small in the case of lifting a heavy 
 load with a light lever. In any given case it can be seen at a 
 glance whether this torque due to the weight of the lever helps or 
 opposes F a , remembering that all torques should be computed 
 from the fulcrum P. 
 
 95. Center of Mass. The center of mass (C.M.) of any body is 
 ordinarily almost absolutely coincident with its C.G. Indeed the two 
 terms are frequently used interchangeably. That the two points may 
 differ widely under some circumstances, may be seen by considering two 
 bodies of equal mass, one on the surface of the earth, the other 1000 
 miles above the surface. Since the two masses are equal, their common 
 center of mass would be half way between the bodies, or 500 miles above 
 the earth. Although the two masses are equal, the weight of the lower 
 body would be roughly 3/2 times that of the upper one (inverse square 
 law), and the center of gravity of the two, which is really the "center 
 of weight," would be nearer the lower body. In fact, since the weight 
 of the lower body is 3/2 times that of the upper one, its '-lever arm," 
 measured from it to the C.G., would be 2/3 as great as for the upper 
 body. The C.G. would therefore be 400 miles above the earth, or 100 
 miles lower than the center of mass. As a rule, however, the C.M. of a 
 body is practically coincident with its C.G. 
 
 Center of Population. The center of population of a country is very 
 closely analogous to the center of mass of a body, and is also a matter of 
 sufficient interest to warrant a brief discussion. To simplify the discus- 
 sion, let us use an illustration. Suppose that we have found that the 
 center of population of the cities (only) of the United States is at Cin- 
 cinnati. Through Cincinnati draw a north and south line A, and an 
 east and west line B. Now multiply the population of each city east of 
 line A by its distance from A and find the sum of these products. Call 
 this sum Si. Next find the similar sum, say $ 2 , for all cities west of A. 
 Then 81 = 82. Proceed in exactly the same way for all cities north of 
 line B, obtaining S 3 ; and finally for all cities south of B, obtaining 84- 
 
 It may be of interest to know that the center of population of the 
 United States, counting all inhabitants of both city and country, was 
 very close to Washington, D. C., in 1800. It has moved steadily west- 
 ward, keeping close to the 39th parallel of latitude, until in 1900 it was 
 in Indiana at a point almost directly south of Indianapolis and west of 
 Cincinnati.
 
 MACHINES 125 
 
 The mass particles of a body bear the same relation to its center of 
 mass as does the population of the various cities to the center of popu- 
 lation of them all. The subject is further complicated, however, by the 
 fact that we are dealing with three dimensions in the case of a solid 
 body, so that the distances must be measured from three intersecting 
 planes (compare the corner of a box) instead of from two intersecting 
 lines. 
 
 If a rod of negligible weight connecting a 4-lb. ball M and a 1-lb. 
 ball m (Fig. 57) receives a blow F a at a point 1/5 of its length from the 
 larger ball, which point is the center of mass, it will be given motion of 
 translation, but no rotation. For, since the two 
 "lever arms" (distance from ball to C.M.) are inver- ~ ~ , 
 sely proportional to their respective masses, the balls, 
 due to their inertia, produce equal (but opposing) 
 torques about their common C.M. when experiencing 
 equal accelerations. But if the balls experience equal 
 acceleration, the rod does not rotate. If such a 
 body were thrown, the two balls would revolve about 
 their common center of mass, which point would , 
 trace a smooth curve. We may extend this idea to $0= i 
 any body of any form. That is to say, any free body 
 is not caused to rotate by a force directed toward (or FIG. 57. 
 away from) its center of mass. 
 
 Let us again look at the problem in a slightly different way: Evi- 
 dently the two torques about the point (C.M.) which receives the blow 
 (Fa) must be equal and opposite. These torques are produced by the 
 inertia forces F and F' which M and m, respectively, develop in oppos- 
 ing acceleration. Since F' acts upon 4 times as long a lever arm (meas- 
 ured from C.M.) as does F , it must be 1/4 as large as that force to 
 produce an equal torque, and it will therefore impart to the 1-lb. mass 
 m an acceleration exactly equal to that imparted by F to the 4-lb. mass 
 M. If, however, the balls experience equal accelerations the rod will 
 not rotate. 
 
 The mass of the earth is about 80 times that of the moon, so that the 
 moon's "lever arm" (about their common C.M.) is 80 times as long 
 as that of the earth, and the C.M. of the two bodies is therefore at a 
 point 1/81 of the distance between them (about 3000 mi.), measured 
 from the earth's center toward the moon. Since the radius of the earth 
 is about 4000 miles, we see that the C.M. of the earth and the moon is 
 about 1000 miles below the surface of the earth on the side toward the 
 moon. This point travels once a year around the sun in a smooth 
 elliptical path; while the earth and the moon, revolving about it (the 
 C.M.), have very complicated irregular paths. 
 
 96. Stable, Unstable, and Neutral Equilibrium. The Equi- 
 librium of a body is Stahk if a slight rotation in any direction
 
 126 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 raises its center of gravity; Unstable if such rotation lowers its 
 C.G.; and Neutral if it neither raises nor lowers it. The cone, 
 placed on a level plane, beautifully illustrates these three kinds 
 of equilibrium. 
 
 When standing upon its base, the cone represents stable 
 equilibrium, for tipping it in any direction must raise its C.G. 
 To overturn it with A as pivot point, its C.G. must rise a distance 
 h as shown (Fig. 58), and the work required (in foot-pounds) 
 A would be the entire weight of the 
 
 cone in pounds times h in feet, since 
 its weight may be considered to be 
 concentrated at its C.G. If the cone 
 'is inverted and balanced upon its 
 apex, its equilibrium is unstable; for 
 the least displacement in any di- 
 rection would lower its center of 
 p iG g 8 gravity and it would fall. Finally, 
 
 the cone (also the cylinder) lying 
 
 on its side is in neutral equilibrium, for rolling it about on a 
 level plane neither raises nor lowers its C.G. 
 
 The equilibrium of a rocking chair is stable if the C.G. of the 
 chair and occupant is below the center of curvature of the rockers. 
 For in such case rocking either forward or backward raises the 
 C.G. Accordingly a chair with sharply curved rockers is very apt 
 to upset, since the center of curvature is then low. To guard 
 against this, a short portion of the back end of the rockers is 
 usually made straight, or better still, given a slight reverse 
 curvature. 
 
 Equilibrium on an Inclined Plane. To avoid circumlocution in 
 the present discussion let us coin the phrase "Line of Centers" 
 to indicate the plumb line through the C.G. of a body. If the 
 plane (Fig. 58) is inclined, the cone will be in stable equilibrium 
 so long as the line of centers falls within its base. The instant the 
 plane is tipped sufficiently to cause the line of centers to fall 
 without its base, the cone overturns. 
 
 A loaded wagon on a hillside is in stable equilibrium so long 
 as the line of centers (Fig. 59) falls within the wheel base. 
 Because of lurching caused by the uneven road bed, it is unsafe 
 to approach very closely to this theoretical limit. A load of hay 
 is more apt to upset on a hillside than is a load of coal, for two 
 reasons. The C.G. is higher than in the case of the coal, and
 
 MACHINES 
 
 127 
 
 also the yielding of the hay causes the C.G. to shift toward the 
 lower side, as from C to D, so that the line of centers becomes 
 DE (Fig. 59). 
 
 If the line of centers falls well within the base, a body is not 
 easily upset, whether on an incline or on a level surface. Manu- 
 facturers recognize this fact in making broad bases for vases, 
 lamps, portable machines, etc. Ballast is placed deep in the 
 hold of a ship in order to lower its C.G. and thereby make it more 
 stable in a rough sea. 
 
 FIG. 59. 
 
 97. Weighing Machines. The weighing of a body is the 
 process of comparing the pull of the earth upon that body with 
 the pull of the earth upon a standard mass, e.g., the kilogram or 
 the pound, or some fraction of these, as the gram or the ounce, 
 etc. This comparison is not made directly with the pull of the 
 earth upon the standard kilogram mass kept at Paris, or with the 
 standard pound mass kept at London, but with more or less ac- 
 curate copies of these, which may be called secondary standards. 
 We shall here discuss briefly the beam balance, steelyard, spring 
 balance, and platform scale. Each of these weighing devices, 
 except the spring balance, consists essentially of one or more 
 levers, and in the discussion of each a thorough understanding 
 of the lever will be presupposed. 
 
 The Beam Balance consists essentially of a horizontal lever or 
 beam, resting at its middle point on a "knife-edge" pivot of 
 agate or steel, and supporting a scalepan at each end, also on
 
 128 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 knife-edges. Usually a vertical pointer is rigidly attached to the 
 beam. The lower end of the pointer, moving over a scale, serves 
 to indicate whether the load in one scalepan is slightly greater 
 than that in the other. The body to be weighed is placed, 
 say, in the left pan, and enough standard masses from a set of 
 "weights" are placed in the right pan to "balance" it. If too 
 much weight is placed in the right pan, the right end of the beam 
 will dip. Obviously if the balance is sensitive, a very slight excess 
 weight will produce sufficient dip, and consequently sufficient 
 motion of the pointer to be detected. The Sensitiveness of the 
 balance depends upon two factors, the position of the C.G. of 
 
 the beam and pointer, and 
 the relative positions of the 
 three knife-edges. 
 
 These factors will now be 
 discussed in connection with 
 Fig. 60, which is an exagger- 
 ated diagrammatic sketch of 
 the beam and pointer only. 
 
 If the C.G. of the beam and 
 GO. pointer is far below the cen- 
 
 tral knife-edge as shown, then 
 
 a slight dip of the right end of the beam will cause the C.G. to 
 move to the left a comparatively large distance r, and there- 
 fore give rise to a rather large opposing restoring torque equal 
 to the weight W of the beam and pointer times its lever arm r, 
 or a torque Wr. Observe, as stated in Sec. 94, that so far as the 
 torque due to the weight of the beam and pointer is concerned, 
 their entire weight may be considered to be at their C.G. From 
 the figure, we see that if the C.G. were only 1/2 as far below the 
 knife-edge, then r would be 1/2 as great, and 1/2 as great ex- 
 cess weight in the right pan would, as far as this factor is con- 
 cerned, produce the same dip, and hence the same deflection 
 of the pointer as before. Accordingly, a sensitive balance is de- 
 signed so that the C.G. is a very short distance below the cen- 
 tral knife-edge, and the smaller this distance, the more sensitive 
 the balance. 
 
 Let us now consider the second factor in determining the sensi- 
 tiveness of a beam balance. If the end knife-edges are much 
 lower than the middle one, as in the figure, then the slight dip 
 shortens the lever arm r\ upon which the right pan acts by an
 
 MACHINES 129 
 
 amount a while at the same time the length of r 2 is very slightly 
 increased. Consequently, under these circumstances, a compara- 
 tively large restoring torque arises, and therefore a comparatively 
 large excess weight in the right pan will be required to produce a 
 perceptible dip of the beam or deflection of the pointer. Hence 
 sensitive balances have the three knife-edges in a straight line, or 
 very nearly so. 
 
 We shall now slightly digress in observing that if the three 
 knife-edges represent in position the three holes in a two-horse 
 " evener," and if the horse at each end of the evener be represented 
 in the figure as pulling downward, then the "ambitious" horse 
 would have the greater load, for, as just pointed out, the lower 
 end has the shorter arm. If the horses are represented as 
 pulling upward in the figure, then the horse that is ahead pulls 
 on the longer lever arm and hence has the lighter load. This is 
 
 i 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 >. 
 
 b / 15 A 25 3JO ) 
 
 FIG. 01. 
 
 the usual condition; since the middle hole in the evener is usually 
 slightly farther forward than the end ones. 
 
 The Steelyard consists of a metal bar A (Fig. 61), supported in 
 a horizontal position on the knife-edge B near the heavy end, and 
 provided with a sliding weight S, and a hook hanging on knife- 
 edge C for supporting the load W to be weighed. The supporting 
 hook // is frequently simply held in the hand. In weighing, the 
 slider is moved farther out, thus increasing its lever arm, until it 
 "balances" the load. The weight of the load is then read from 
 the position of the slider on the scale. 
 
 The scale may be determined as follows: Remove W and slide 
 back and forth until a "balance" is secured. Mark this posi- 
 tion of the slider as the zero of the scale. Next put in the place of 
 W a mass of known weight, say 10 Ibs., and when a balance is 
 again secured mark the new position of the slider "10 Ibs." Lay 
 off the distance between these two positions into ten equal spaces 
 and subdivide as desired the pound divisions thus formed. The
 
 130 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 pound divisions should all be of the same length. For, if moving 
 S one division to the right enables it to balance 1 Ib. more at W, 
 then moving it twice as far would double the additional torque due 
 to S, and hence enable it to balance 2 Ibs. more at W. The same 
 scale may be extended to the right end of the bar. 
 
 The steelyard is made more sensitive by having its C.G. a 
 very small distance below the supporting knife-edge B, for reasons 
 already explained in the discussion of the beam balance. This is 
 accomplished by having the heavy end of the bar bent slightly 
 upward, thereby raising its C.G. 
 
 The Spring Balance consists essentially of a spiral steel spring, 
 having at its lower end a hook for holding the load to be weighed. 
 Near the lower end of the spring a small index moves past a scale, 
 and indicates by its position the weight of the load. Since the 
 spring obeys Hooke's Law (Sec. 107), that is, since its elongation 
 is directly proportional to the load, a scale of equal divisions is 
 used just as with the steelyard. 
 
 The Platform Scale. In the platform scale two results must 
 be accomplished; first, a small "weight" must "balance" the 
 load of several tons; and second, the condition of balance must 
 not depend upon what part of the platform the load is placed. 
 The first result is accomplished by the use of the Compound 
 Lever. A Compound Lever consists of a combination of two or 
 more levers so connected that one lever is actuated by a second, 
 the second by a third, and so on. It is easily seen that the 
 mechanical advantage of a compound lever is equal to the product 
 of the mechanical advantages of its component levers taken 
 separately. Thus, if there are three component levers whose 
 mechanical advantages are respectively x, y, and z, then the 
 mechanical advantage of the compound lever formed by combin- 
 ing them is xyz. The second result, namely, the independence 
 of the position of the load on the platform, is attained by so ar- 
 ranging the levers that the mechanical advantage is the same for 
 all four corners, and therefore for all points of the platform. 
 
 The system of levers (only) of a common type of platform scale 
 is shown in Fig. 62 as viewed cornerwise from an elevated posi- 
 tion. The four levers EA, ED, FB and GC are beneath the plat- 
 form (indicated by dotted lines). These levers are supported 
 by the foundation on the knife-edges A, B, C, D, and they, in 
 turn, support the platform on the knife-edges A', B' , C', and D'. 
 The point E is connected by means of the vertical rod EH with
 
 MACHINES 131 
 
 the horizontal lever U, which lever is supported at 7 as indicated. 
 Finally, J is connected by means of the vertical rod JK with the 
 short arm KL of the horizontal lever (scalebeam) KM. A 
 "weight," which if placed on the hanger N would "balance" 
 1000 Ibs. on the platform, is stamped 1000 Ibs. To facilitate 
 "balancing," the "slider" S (compare the steelyard) may be 
 slid along the suitably graduated arm LM. If the "dead load" 
 on N balances the platform when empty, then an additional 
 pound mass on N will balance 1000 Ibs. mass resting on the plat- 
 form, provided the mechanical advantage of the entire system of 
 levers is 1000. 
 
 and if also FA=FB=GC=GD, then 
 
 FIG. 62. 
 
 the downward force at E, and hence the reading of the scale- 
 beam above, will not depend upon where the load is placed on the 
 platform. This independence of the position of the load will be 
 easily seen by assigning numerical values to the above distances. 
 Let the first four distances each be 6 in. and the second four be 
 each 6 ft., and let EA and ED be each 18 ft., then if E rises 1 in. 
 (equals d), F and G will each rise 1/3- in., and A', B', C', and D' 
 each 1/12 times 1/3, or 1/36 in. (i.e., D). Consequently, the 
 mechanical advantage d/D is 1 -r- 1/36 or 36, and has the same 
 value for all four knife-edges A', B', C"'and D', showing that the 
 recorded weight is independent of the position of the load on the 
 platform, which was to be proved.
 
 132 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 If JI = SHI, then, since the mechanical advantage obtained by 
 lifting at E is 36, the mechanical advantage at / will be 3 times 
 36 or 108. Finally, if LM=10LK, then a downward pull at N 
 has a mechanical advantage of 10 times 108, or 1080. In other 
 words, 1 Ib. at N will balance 1080 Ibs. placed anywhere on the 
 platform. 
 
 In small platform scales, E connects directly to the scalebeam 
 above. In practice, the knife-edges are supported (or support 
 the load, as the case may be) by means of links, which permit 
 them to yield in response to sudden side wise jarring, and thus 
 preserves their sharpness and hence the accuracy of the scale. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. It is found that with a certain machine the applied force moves 20 ft. 
 to raise the weight 6 in. What weight will 100 Ibs. applied force lift, assum- 
 ing friction to be zero? If the efficiency is 60 per cent, what will the 100 
 Ibs. lift? What is the theoretical mechanical advantage of the machine? 
 What is its actual mechanical advantage? 
 
 2. If the distance AB (sketch L, Fig. 45) is 36 in., BP is 6 in., and F a is 
 100 Ibs., what is F ? That is, what weight can be lifted at Bl 
 
 3. A 6-ft. lever is used: (a) as shown in sketch K (Fig. 45), and again (6) as 
 shown in sketch L, PB being 1 ft. in each case. Find the applied force nec- 
 essary to lift 1000 Ibs. at B for each case. Explain why the answers differ. 
 
 4. What is the theor. m. adv. of the block and tackle (Fig. 48) ? What 
 would it be if inverted, in which position pulley A would be below and rope 
 a would be pulled upward? 
 
 5. Sketch a block and tackle giving a theor. m. adv. of 3, of 6, and of 7. 
 
 6. What applied force would raise 1000 Ibs. by using a wheel and axle, 
 if the diameter of the wheel were 4 ft., and that of the axle 6 in., (a) neglect- 
 ing friction, (6) assuming 90 per cent, efficiency? 
 
 7. A hammer drives a wedge, which is 2 in. thick and 1 ft. in length, a 
 distance of 1/2 in. each stroke. The wedge supports a weight of 1 ton and 
 the hand exerts upon the hammer an average force of 20 Ibs. through a dis- 
 tance of 3 ft. each stroke. What is the theor. m. adv. of the wedge? Of 
 both wedge and hammer? 
 
 8. Find the theoretical and also the actual mechanical advantage of a 
 jackscrew of 30 per cent, efficiency, whose screw has 10 threads to the inch 
 and is turned by a rod giving a 2-ft. lever arm. 
 
 9. Neglecting friction, what pull will take a 200-ton train up a 1 per cent, 
 grade (i.e., 1 ft. rise in 100 ft.)? 
 
 10. What is the value of the actual m. adv., and also what is the efficiency 
 of the combination mentioned in problem 7? 
 
 11. If the jackscrew (Prob. 8) is placed under the lever at A (sketch L, 
 Fig. 45), what lift can be exerted at B (of the lever) by applying a 50-lb. 
 pull at the end of the jackscrew lever? Let lever arm BP be 2 ft. and BA, 3 ft.
 
 MACHINES 133 
 
 12. What H.P. does the locomotive (Prob. 9) develop in pulling the train, 
 if its velocity is 40 ft. per sec., and if the work done against friction equals 
 that done against gravity? 
 
 13. In a certain chain hoist the two upper pulleys, which are rigidly 
 fastened together, have respectively 22 and 24 cogs, (a) What is its 
 theoretical mechanical advantage? (6) What load could a 150-lb. man lift 
 with it, assuming an efficiency of 30 per cent.? 
 
 14. Let two levers, which we shall designate as G and H, be represented 
 respectively by the sketches K andL (Fig. 45), except that G is Shifted to the 
 right so that B of G comes under A of H, thus forming a compound lever. 
 Neglecting friction (a) what downward force at A of lever G will lift 1 ton 
 at B of lever H, provided AB and PB are respectively 6 ft. and 1 ft. for 
 both levers? (6) What is the theoretical mechanical advantage of G, and 
 of H, and also of both combined? Sketch first. 
 
 15. A barrel is rolled up an incline 20 ft. in length and 6 ft. in vertical 
 height by means of a rope which is fastened at the top of the incline, then 
 passes over the barrel, and returns from the upper &ide of the barrel in a 
 direction parallel to the incline. What theoretical mechanical advantage is 
 obtained by a man who pulls on the return rope? 
 
 16. A man, standing in a bucket, pulls himself out of a well by means of 
 a rope attached to the bucket and then passing over a pulley above and re- 
 turning to his hand. What theoretical mechanical advantage does he have? 
 
 17. The drum of an ordinary capstan for house moving is 16 in. in diame- 
 ter, and the sweep, to which is hitched a horse pulling 200 Ibs., is 12 ft. 
 long. Find the pull on the cable, assuming no friction in the drum bearings. 
 
 18. If in the lever BP, sketch M, Fig. 45, AB=AP, what weight can be 
 lifted at B if the block and tackle shown in Fig. 48 lifts on A of the lever, 
 and if the pull on rope a of the block and tackle is 100 Ibs.? Neglect friction. 
 
 19. The weight of a 24-ft. timber is to be borne equally by three men who 
 are carrying it. One man is at one end of the timber while the other two 
 lift by means of a crossbar thrust under the timber. How far from the end 
 should the crossbar be placed? 
 
 20. If the lever AB (sketch K, Fig. 45) be a plank 20 ft. long and weigh- 
 ing 100 Ibs., and if PB be 2 ft., what downward force at A will lift 1000 Ibs. 
 at B, (a) if we consider the weight of the plank? (&) If we neglect it? 
 
 21. A 20-ft. plank which weighs 120 Ibs. lies across a box 4 ft. in width, 
 with one end A projecting 7 ft. beyond the box. How near to the end A of 
 the plank can a 60-lb. boy approach without upsetting the plank? How 
 near to the other end may be approach? 
 
 22. How far from the end of the timber should the crossbar be placed 
 (Prob. 19) if there are two men lifting on each end of it; one man lifting on 
 the end of the timber as before? 
 
 23. In Fig. 62, let BB' (etc.) equal 4 in., BF (etc.) equal 5 ft., AE (and 
 DE) equal 15 ft., HI = 5 in., JI =20 in., LK = 1 . 5 in., and LM = 30 in. What 
 weight at N will balance 2 tons on the platform of the scale?
 
 PART II 
 PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE THREE STATES OF MATTER AND THE GENERAL 
 PROPERTIES OF MATTER 
 
 98. The Three States of Matter. Matter exists in three dif- 
 ferent states or forms: either as a solid, as a liquid, or as a gas. 
 Liquids and gases have many properties in common and are some- 
 times classed together as fluids. 
 
 We are familiar with the general characteristics which distin- 
 guish one form of matter from another. Solids resist change of 
 size or shape; that is, they resist compression or extension, and 
 distortion (change of shape). Solids therefore have rigidity, 
 a property which is not possessed by fluids. Liquids resist com- 
 pression, but do not appreciably resist distortion or extension. 
 For these reasons a quantity of liquid assumes the form of the 
 containing vessel. Gases are easily compressed, offer no resist- 
 ance to distortion, and tend to expand indefinitely. Thus a 
 trace of gas introduced into a vacuous space, for example, the 
 exhausted receiver of an air pump, will immediately expand and 
 fill the entire space. Most substances change from the solid to 
 the liquid state when sufficiently heated; thus ice changes to 
 water, and iron and other metals melt when heated. If still 
 further heated, most substances change from the liquid state to 
 the gaseous state; thus, when sufficiently heated, water changes 
 to steam, and molten metals vaporize. Indeed, practically all 
 substances may exist either in the solid, the liquid, or the gaseous 
 state, depending upon the temperature and in some cases upon the 
 pressure to which the substance is subjected. 
 
 We commonly speak of a substance as being a solid, a liquid, or 
 a gas, depending upon its state at ordinary temperatures. Thus 
 metals (except mercury), minerals, wood, etc., are solids; mercury, 
 water and kerosene are liquids; and air and hydrogen are 
 gases. Mercury may be readily either vaporized or frozen, and 
 air can be changed to a liquid, and this liquid air has been frozen 
 to a solid. Some substances, e.g., those which are paste-like or 
 jelly-like, are on the borderline and may be called semifluids, or 
 
 137
 
 138 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 semisolids. It is interesting to note that mercury and bromine 
 are the only elements which are liquid at ordinary temperature. 
 
 99. Structure of Matter. All matter, whatever its form, is 
 supposed to be composed of minute particles called molecules. 
 Thus iron (Fe) is composed of iron molecules, chlorine (Cl) of 
 chlorine molecules, and iron chloride (FeCl 2 ) of iron chloride 
 molecules. These molecules are composed of atoms like 
 atoms in the case of an element, for example, iron, and unlike 
 atoms in the case of compounds. Thus, the iron chloride mole- 
 cule (FeCl 2 ) consists of one atom of iron (Fe) and two atoms of 
 chlorine (Cl). 
 
 Molecular Freedom. In the case of a solid, the molecules that 
 compose it do not easily move with respect to each other. This 
 gives the solid rigidity which causes it to resist any force tending 
 to make it change its shape. In liquids, the molecules glide 
 readily over each other, so that a liquid immediately assumes the 
 shape of the containing vessel. In gases, the molecules have even 
 greater freedom than in liquids, and they also tend to separate 
 so as to permeate the entire available space as mentioned in the 
 preceding section. 
 
 Divisibility of Matter. Any portion of any substance may be 
 divided and subdivided almost without limit by mechanical 
 means,(but so long as the molecule remains intact, the substance is 
 unchanged chemically. Thus common salt (NaCl), which is a 
 compound of the metal sodium (Na) and chlorine, may be ground 
 finer and finer until it is in the form of a very fine dust, and still 
 preserve the salty taste. This powdered salt may be used for 
 curing meats, and chemically it behaves in every way like the 
 unpowdered salt. If, however, through some chemical change the 
 molecule is broken up into its separate atoms, namely, sodium and 
 chlorine, it no longer exists as salt, nor has it the characteristics 
 of salt. Hence we may say that the molecule is the smallest 
 portion of a substance which can exist and retain its original 
 chemical characteristics. Certain phenomena indicate that the 
 molecule is very small probably a small fraction of one-mil- 
 lionth of an inch in diameter. 
 
 The Kinetic Theory of Matter. According to this theory, which 
 is generally accepted, the molecules of any substance, whether in 
 the solid, the liquid, or the gaseous state, are in continual to-and- 
 fro vibration. In solids, the molecule must remain in one place 
 and vibrate; in liquids and gases it may wander about while 
 
 .
 
 
 THE THREE STATES OF MATTER 139 
 
 maintaining its vibration. This vibratory motion of translation 
 is supposed to give rise to the diffusion of liquids and gases (Sees. 
 112 and 131). 
 
 Form certain experimental facts, a discussion of which is 
 beyond the scope of this work, the average distance through which 
 a hydrogen molecule vibrates, or its "mean free path,'! is esti- 
 mated to be about 7/1,000,000 inch, if the hydrogen is under ordi- 
 nary atmospheric pressure, and at the temperature of melting 
 ice. This distance is smaller for the molecules of other gases, 
 and presumably very much smaller in the case of liquids and solids. 
 As a body is heated, these vibrations become more violent. This 
 subject will be further discussed under "The Nature of Heat" 
 (Sec. 160), and the "Kinetic Theory of Gases" (Sec. 171). 
 
 Brownian Motion. About 80 years ago, Robert Brown dis- 
 covered that small (microscopic) particles of either organic or 
 inorganic matter, held in suspension in a liquid, exhibited slight 
 but rapid to-and-fro movements. In accordance with the ki- 
 netic theory of matter, these movements may be attributed to 
 molecular bombardment of the particles. 
 
 100. Conservation of Matter. In spite of prolonged research 
 to prove the contrary, it still seems to be an established fact that 
 matter can be neither created nor destroyed. If several chemicals 
 are recombined to form a new compound, it will be found that, 
 the weight, and therefore the mass, of the compound so formed, is 
 the same as before combination. When a substance is burned, 
 the combined mass of the substance and the oxygen used in com- 
 bustion is exactly equal to the combined mass of ash and the 
 gaseous products of combustion. When water freezes, its den- 
 sity changes, but its mass does not change. Matter then, 
 like energy, may be transformed but neither destroyed nor 
 created. 
 
 101. General Properties of Matter. There are certain proper- 
 ties, common to all three forms of matter, which are termed 
 General Properties. Important among these are mass, volume, 
 density, gravitational attraction, intermolecular attraction, and 
 elasticity. 
 
 As a rule, any portion of matter has a definite mass and a defi- 
 nite volume. Dividing the mass of a body by its volume gives its 
 Density, i.e.,
 
 140 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 In the case of a solid of regular form, its volume may be deter- 
 mined from measurement of its dimensions. Its mass, whatever 
 its shape, would be obtained by weighing. (For the method of 
 obtaining the density of an irregular solid see Sec. 122.) Below 
 are given the densities of several substances in the C.G.S. 
 system, i.e., in grams per cubic centimeter. The density of 
 water is practically 1 gm. per cm. 3 , or, in the British system, 62.4 
 Ibs. per cu. ft. Densities are usually expressed in the C.G.S. 
 system. 
 
 AVERAGE DENSITIES OF A FEW SUBSTANCES 
 
 Solids (gm 
 
 per cm. 3 ) Liquids (gm. 
 
 per cm. 3 ) 
 
 Gases (gm. per cm. 3 ) 
 
 Gold 
 Lead 
 
 .. 19.30 
 11 36 
 
 Mercury 
 Bromine 
 Glycerine. . . . 
 Milk (whole) . 
 
 Sea-water 
 Water, 4 C.. 
 Cream, about 
 Alcohol . . . 
 
 ... 13.60 
 ... 3.15 
 . .. 1.26 
 1.028 to 
 1.035 
 ... 1 . 025 
 . .. 1.00 
 ... 1.00 
 . 0.80 
 
 Chlorine 
 Carbon dioxide. 
 Oxygen 
 Air 
 Nitrogen 
 Marsh gas 
 Steam, 100 C.. 
 Hydrogen 
 
 0.0032 
 0.002 
 0.0014 
 0.0013 
 0.00125 
 .0.0007 
 . 0006 
 0.00009 
 
 Silver 
 Iron 
 Marble.... 
 Aluminum. 
 Ice 
 Cork 
 
 .. 10.53 
 
 .. 7.80 
 .. 2.75 
 . . 2 . 60 
 .. 0.917 
 .. 0.25 
 
 In general, metals are very dense, as the table shows. Liquids 
 are less dense, and gases have very small densities. Ice floats in 
 water, from which it appears that the density of water decreases 
 when it changes to the solid state. Paraffine, on the contrary, 
 becomes more dense when it solidifies. The densities of different 
 specimens of the same substance usually differ slightly. The 
 approximate values of those in italics should be memorized. With 
 the exception of steam, the densities given for the gases refer in 
 each case to the density of the gas when at C. and under stand- 
 ard atmospheric pressure (Sec. 136). 
 
 Solids, liquids, and gases all have weight, which shows that 
 gravitational attraction acts between them and the earth. The 
 other two general properties, inter molecular attraction and elastic- 
 ity, will be discussed in the following sections. 
 
 102. Intermolecular Attraction and the Phenomena to Which 
 1 gives Rise. It requires a very great force to pull a metal bar 
 in two, because of the Intermolecular Attraction of its molecules. 
 If, however, the ends of the bars are now carefully squared and 
 then firmly pressed together, it will be found upon removing the 
 pressure that a very slight force will separate them. This ex- 
 periment shows that this molecular force, which is called Cohesion,
 
 THE THREE STATES OF MATTER 141 
 
 and which gives a metal or any other substance its tensile 
 strength, acts through very small distances. Two freshly cleaned 
 surfaces of lead cohere rather strongly after being pressed firmly 
 together. The fact that lead is a soft metal, permits the two 
 surfaces to be forced into more intimate contact, so that the 
 molecular forces come into play. 
 
 By gently hammering gold foil into a tooth cavity, the dentist 
 produces a solid gold filling. Gold is not only a fairly soft metal 
 but it also does not readily tarnish. Because of these two proper- 
 ties, the molecules of the successive layers of foil are very readily 
 brought into intimate contact, and therefore unite. 
 
 Welding. In welding together two pieces of iron, both pieces 
 are heated to make them soft, and they are then hammered to- 
 gether to make them unite. The "flux" used prevents oxidation 
 in part, and also floats away from between the two surfaces what- 
 ever scale or oxide does form, thus insuring intimate contact 
 between them. 
 
 At is cohesion that enables the molecules of a liquid to cling 
 jfogether and form drops. This will be further considered under 
 \/" Surface Tension" (Sec. 124). If a clean glass rod is dipped into 
 water and then withdrawn, a drop of water adheres to it. Obvi- 
 ously the weight of the drop of water is sustained by the molecular 
 attraction between the glass molecules and the water molecules. 
 This force is called Adhesion, whereas the force which holds the 
 drop together is Cohesion as already stated. That is, the force 
 of cohesion is exerted between like molecules, adhesion between 
 unlike molecules. 
 
 Two pieces of wood may be held firmly together by means of 
 glue. One surface of the thin layer of glue adheres to one piece 
 of wood, and the opposite surface adheres to the other. When 
 the two pieces of wood are torn apart, the line of fracture will .'> 
 occur at the weakest place. If the fracture occurs between glue 
 and wood in such a way that no glue adheres to the wood, then 
 the adhesion between glue and wood is weaker than the cohesion 
 of either substance. If the layer of glue is torn apart so that 
 a portion of it adheres to each piece of wood, then cohesion 
 for glue is weaker than adhesion between glue and wood. Fi- 
 nally, if portions of the wood are torn out because of adhering to 
 the glue, which often happens, it shows that the adhesion be- 
 tween glue and wood is stronger than the cohesion of wood (at 
 that point). 
 
 '
 
 142 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 As a rule, cohesion is stronger than adhesion. The adhesion 
 between the layer of gelatine and the glass of a photographic 
 plate furnishes a striking exception to this rule. Sometimes, in 
 becoming very dry, this gelatine film shrinks with sufficient force 
 to tear itself loose from the glass at some points, while at other 
 points bits of the glass are torn out, leaving the glass noticeably 
 rough to the touch. A thin layer of fish glue spread upon a 
 carefully cleaned glass plate produces, as it dries, a similar and 
 even more marked effect. 
 
 103. Elasticity, General Discussion. When a force is applied 
 to a solid body it always produces some change either in its length, 
 .; its volume, or its shape. The tendency to resume the original 
 condition upon removal of the applied force is called Elasticity. 
 When a metal bar is slightly stretched by a force, it resumes its 
 original length upon removal of the force, by virtue of its Tensile 
 Elasticity. If the bar is twisted, its recovery upon removal of 
 the applied torque is due to its Elasticity of Torsion, Rigidity, or 
 Shearing, as it is variously termed. If the bar is subjected to 
 enormous hydrostatic pressure on all sides, its volume decreases 
 slightly. Upon removal of the pressure, the tendency to imme- 
 diately resume its original volume is due to the Volume Elasticity 
 of the metal of which the bar is made. 
 
 If, upon removal of the distorting force, the body regains 
 immediately and completely its original shape or size, it is said 
 to be perfectly elastic. Liquids and gases are perfectly elastic, 
 but no solids are. Ivory, glass, and steel are more nearly per- 
 fectly elastic than any other common solid substances. Such 
 substances as putty have practically no tendency to recover from 
 a distortion and are therefore called inelastic. They are also 
 called plastic, which distinguishes them from brittle inelastic 
 substances such as chalk. 
 
 Through wide ranges, most elastic substances are distorted in 
 proportion to the applied or distorting force, e.g., .doubling the 
 force produces twice as great stretch, twist, or shrinkage in 
 volutne, as the case may be. Such substances are said to obey 
 Hooke's law (Sec. 107). 
 
 Any change in the shape of a body must entail a change in the 
 relative positions of its molecules, hence elasticity of shape or 
 rigidity may be considered to be due primarily to the tendency 
 of the molecules to resume their former relative positions. The 
 resistance which the molecules offer to being crowded more closely
 
 THE THREE STATES OF MATTER 143 
 
 together, or rather their tendency to again spring apart, gives 
 rise to volume elasticity. 
 
 Elasticity is one of the most important properties of substances, 
 and for this reason it has been very much studied. The subject 
 will be taken up more in detail in subsequent chapters, especially 
 under "Properties of Solids." For a more complete study the 
 reader is referred to advanced works on Physics or Mechanics, 
 some of which are mentioned in the preface. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. By the use of the table, find the densities of air, sea-water, mercury, 
 and gold in the British system 
 
 2. A rectangular block of wood 4 in. X 2 in. X 1/2 in. weighs 44 gm. Find 
 its density. 
 
 3. Find the weight of 1/2 mi. of 1/8-in. iron wire. 
 
 4. A cylindrical metal bar 1 cm. in diameter and 20 cm. in length weighs 
 165.3 gm. Of what metal is it composed? What is its density? 
 
 6. Find the mass of a cubic yard of each of the following substances: 
 hydrogen, air, water, ice. A cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 Ibs. . 
 
 6. How many cubic feet of ice will 50 gal. of water form upon freezing? 
 Water weighs very closely 62.4 Ibs. per cu. ft., or 8 . 33 Ibs. per gal. 
 
 7. A hollow iron sphere 10 cm. in diameter weighs 3 kilos. What is the 
 volume of the cavity within it? 
 
 8. Apiece of brass has a density of 8.4 gm. per cm. 3 Assuming that the 
 volume of the brass is exactly equal to the sum of the volumes of copper and 
 zinc that compose it, what percentage of the brass, by volume, is zinc? 
 Density of copper is 8.92, zinc 7.2 gm. per cm. 3 Suggestion: Represent 
 by x the fractional part that is zinc. 
 
 9. From the answer to problem 8, find what percentage of the brass by 
 weight is zinc.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 
 
 104. Properties Enumerated and Defined. The following 
 properties are obviously peculiar to solids: hardness, brittleness, 
 malleability, ductility, tenacity or tensile strength, and shearing 
 elasticity. 
 
 Hardness and brittleness often go hand in hand. Thus steel 
 when tempered "glass hard" is brittle. Glass is both hard and 
 brittle. Chalk, however, is brittle but not hard. Brittleness 
 may be defined as the property of yielding very little before 
 breaking. Thus glass or chalk cannot be bent, twisted, or 
 elongated appreciably before breaking, and are therefore brittle. 
 
 If a substance may be made to scratch another, but cannot be 
 scratched by it, then the former substance is Harder than the latter. 
 Ten substances, with diamond at the head of the list, sapphire 
 next as 9, and talc at the bottom of the list as 1, have been used 
 as a " scale of hardness." If a certain substance may bescratched 
 by diamond as readily as it can be made to scratch sapphire, 
 then the substance is 9.5 in the scale of hardness. 
 
 Malleability is that property of a solid by virtue of which it may 
 be hammered into thin sheets. Gold is very malleable, indeed 
 it is the most malleable known substance. By placing a thin 
 sheet of gold between two sheets of "gold beater's skin" it 
 may be hammered into foil about 1/200000 inch thick. Lead 
 is malleable. Iron becomes quite malleable when heated to 
 a white heat. Wrought iron is slightly malleable at ordinary 
 temperatures. 
 
 Ductility is that property of a metal which enables it to be 
 drawn out into the form of a fine wire. Brass, copper, iron and 
 platinum are very ductile. Although lead is malleable, it is not 
 strong enough to be very ductile. 
 
 The Tenacity or tensile strength of a metal or other substance, 
 depends, as stated in Sec. 102, upon the cohesive force between its 
 molecules. Iron has a large tensile strength from 40,000 to 
 60,000 Ibs. per sq. in. Copper and lead have relatively low ten- 
 sile strengths. 
 
 144
 
 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 145 
 
 106. Elasticity, Elastic Limit, and Elastic Fatigue of Solids. 
 If several balls, made of different metals, are successively dropped 
 upon an anvil from a height of a few inches, it will be found that 
 the first rebound carries the steel ball nearly to the height from 
 which it was dropped. The brass ball rebounds less, and the iron 
 one still less than the brass one. The lead ball does not rebound, 
 but merely flattens slightly where it strikes the anvil. Ivory 
 rebounds better than steel. The sudden stopping of the ball by 
 the anvil requires a large force (F = Ma), which flattens the 
 ball in each case. If the material is elastic, however, the flat- 
 tened portion springs out again into the spherical form as soon as 
 the motion of the ball is stopped, and in so doing throws the ball 
 into the air. If the ball and anvil were both perfectly elastic the 
 first rebound would bring the ball back to the point from which 
 it was dropped. This is a very simple, rough test of elasticity. 
 If the ball were perfectly elastic, the average force required to 
 flatten it would be exactly equal to the average force with which 
 it would tend to restore its spherical shape. Obviously, these 
 two forces would each act through the same distance, hence, the 
 work of flattening and the work of restoring would be equal. 
 But the former work is equal to is in fact due to the potential 
 energy of the ball in its original position, and the latter work is 
 used in throwing the ball back to the height of the first rebound. 
 Accordingly, this height should be equal to the distance of fall. 
 Because of molecular friction, the above restoring force is smaller 
 than the flattening force even in the case of the ivory ball, which 
 accounts for its failure to rebound to the original height. 
 
 If a straight spring is moderately bent for a short time and is 
 then slowly released (to prevent vibration), it returns to its 
 original straight condition. If, however, it is moderately bent 
 and left for years in this bent condition and is then slowly released, 
 it will immediately become nearly straight, and then very slowly 
 recover until it becomes practically straight. It might be said 
 that the steel becomes "fatigued" from being bent for so long a 
 time. Accordingly, it is said to be Elastic Fatigue of the steel 
 (see also Sec. 108) which in this case prevents the immediate 
 return of the spring to its straight condition. Again, if the spring 
 is very much bent and then released it will remain slightly bent, 
 i.e., it will have a slight permanent " set." In such case, the steel 
 is said to be "strained" beyond the Elastic Limit. All solids 
 are more or less elastic. Even a lead bar if very slightly bent will
 
 146 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 recover; but the elastic limit for lead is very quickly reached, so 
 that if the bar is appreciably bent, it remains bent upon removal 
 of the applied force. 
 
 106. Tensile Stress and Tensile Strain. In Sec. 103 a 
 brief discussion of elasticity was given, in which it was shown that 
 solids possess three kinds of elasticity. We shall now discuss 
 more in detail the simplest of these, namely, Tensile Elasticity, 
 and consider the other two in subsequent sections. Before a 
 systematic study of the elastic properties of a substance can be 
 made, it is necessary to understand clearly the meaning 
 of each of the terms, Stress, Strain, and Modulus. 
 
 Whenever an elastic body is acted upon by a force 
 tending to stretch it, there arises an equal internal 
 force tending to shorten it. See Principle of d'Alem- 
 
 bert (Sec . 43). Thus, in Fig. 63, let B be a steel bar 
 of length L, say 10 ft., and of cross section A, say 2 
 sq. in. When an external force F of 20,000 Ibs. is ap- 
 plied, the bar stretches a distance e (elongation), say 
 0.04 in. It is at once evident that in this stretched 
 te condition, which is also an equilibrium condition, the 
 internal forces due to which the bar tends to resume 
 its normal length must just equal the 20,000 Ibs. 
 FIG. 63. which tends to make the bar lengthen; otherwise the 
 weight W would move downward causing the stretch 
 of the bar to be still further increased. This internal force di- 
 vided by the cross section of the bar, in other words, the force 
 per unit cross section, is called the Tensile Stress. But, since 
 the internal force that arises is always equal to the applied 
 force, we have 
 
 (62) 
 
 . 
 
 cross section A 
 
 20000 
 which here is or 10,000 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 
 The increase in length, or the elongation e of the bar, divided 
 by its original length, in other words, the stretch per unit length, 
 is called the Tensile Strain. Accordingly, we here have 
 
 Tensne 
 
 A column, in supporting a load, is subjected to a stress and 
 suffers a strain, both of which are denned essentially as above.
 
 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 147 
 
 The stress is the load divided by the cross section of the column, 
 and the strain is the decrease in length divided by the original 
 length of the column. It is an observed fact that a column, in 
 supporting a load in the usual way, is decreased in length by an 
 amount exactly equal to the stretch that it would experience if 
 its upper end were fastened to a support and the same load were 
 suspended from its lower end. In other words, within certain 
 limits, the elasticities of extension and compression are alike. 
 It appears, then, that within certain limits, the molecules of an 
 elastic solid resist having their normal spacing decreased with the 
 same force that they resist having it increased a like amount. 
 
 107. Hooke's Law and Young's Modulus. If the bar B 
 (Fig. 63) supports twice as large a load it will stretch twice as 
 much, and so on for still larger loads, so long as it is not strained 
 beyond the elastic limit. A glance at the above equations shows 
 that both the stress and the strain must, then, increase directly 
 as does the load. This being true, it follows that 
 Stress 
 
 which is known as Hooke's law. If a substance is strained beyond 
 the elastic limit it does not obey Hooke's law; conversely, if an 
 elastic body does not obey Hooke's law, it must be strained 
 beyond the elastic limit. 
 
 A spiral spring of steel obeys Hooke's law, i.e., the elongation 
 is proportional to the load it supports. This property is utilized 
 in the ordinary spring balance used in weighing. If a certain 
 torque twists a rod or shaft through an angle of 20, and if 
 doubling the torque twists it 40, then the rod or shaft follows 
 Hooke's Law for that torque. If 5 times as great a torque twists 
 the rod say 130 (instead of 100), it shows that it is strained be- 
 yond the elastic limit, since for this larger torque it does not 
 follow Hooke's Law. 
 
 The constant of Hooke's Law is called the Stretch Modulus 
 or Young's Modulus for the substance, when applied to tensile 
 stress and tensile strain, or 
 
 , tensile stress F/A FL . 
 
 Young s Modulus ^ = tensile^traln = "e/L = Ae 
 
 Substituting the values used in Eqs. 62 and 63, we have 
 
 lbs - <* itt -
 
 148 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 The above assumed stretch is about what would be found by 
 experiment if the bar were very good steel. Hence Young's 
 modulus for good steel is 30,000,000 Ibs. per sq. in. In the metric 
 system, the force would usually be expressed in dynes (sometimes 
 in kilograms), the distance in centimeters, and the cross section 
 in square centimeters. Young's modulus for steel as expressed 
 in this system is 1.9X10 12 dynes per cm. 2 For most substances 
 Young's modulus is very much smaller than for steel; in other 
 words, most substances offer less resistance to stretching than 
 steel does. 
 
 If, in Eq. 64, A were unity, and if e were equal to L, i.e., if B had 
 unit cross section and were stretched to double its original length (assum- 
 ing that to be possible), then the equation would reduce to E = F. 
 Hence Young's modulus E is numerically equal to the force that would be 
 required to stretch a bar of unit cross section to twice its original length, 
 provided it continued to follow Hooke's law. Although a bar of steel, 
 or almost any other substance except rubber, would break long before 
 reaching twice its original length, still this concept is useful. For, by 
 its use in connection with the above data, we see at once, since a force 
 of 30,000,000 Ibs. would double the length of a bar of 1 sq. in. cross 
 section (assuming Hooke's law to hold), that a force of 30,000 Ibs., for 
 which force Hooke's law would hold, would increase its length 1/1000 as 
 much, or 1 part in 1000. 
 
 108. Yield Point, Tensile Strength, Breaking Stress. If the 
 bar B (Fig. 63) is made of steel, it will be found that as the load 
 is increased the bar will stretch more and more, in accordance 
 with Hooke's law, until the stress is about 60,000 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 Upon further increasing the load, it will be found that the bar 
 begins to stretch very much more perhaps 50 times more 
 than for previous increases of like magnitude. This change in 
 the behavior of the steel, this very great increase in the strain 
 produced by a slight increase in the stress, is due to a yielding 
 of the molecular forces, which yielding permits the molecules 
 to slide slightly with reference to each other. We may say for 
 this specimen of steel, that a stress of 60,000 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 strains it to the elastic limit, and that a slightly greater stress 
 brings it to the Yield Point. 
 
 As soon as the yield point is reached, further increase of load 
 causes the bar to stretch until the elongation is 25 or 30 per cent, 
 of the original length, in the case of soft steel. The maximum 
 elongation for hard steel may be as small as 1 per cent. If the
 
 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 149 
 
 load is removed after the yield point has been passed, the bar 
 remains permanently elongated, i.e., it has a Permanent Set. 
 This elongation is accompanied by a decrease in cross section. 
 The maximum load required to cause breaking, divided by the 
 original cross section, gives the Breaking Stress or Tensile Strength 
 of the Steel 
 
 A slight difference in the amount of carbon in steel, changes its elastic 
 behavior very much. Thus, a certain specimen of steel containing 0.17 
 per cent, carbon had an elastic limit of 51,000 Ibs. per sq. in. and a 
 breaking stress of 68,000 Ibs. per sq. in. For another specimen, contain- 
 ing 0.82 per cent, carbon, the elastic limit was 68,000 Ibs. per sq. in., and 
 the breaking stress was 142,000 Ibs. per sq. in. The annealing or tem- 
 pering of steel is also an important factor in determining its elastic 
 properties. 
 
 In addition to iron and carbon, steel may contain various other sub- 
 stances, important among which are nickel, silicon, and manganese, 
 which greatly influence its elastic properties and its hardness, e\en 
 though present in very small quantities (1 to 5 per cent, more or less). 
 A piano wire, having the enormous tensile strength of 340,000 Ibs. per 
 sq. in., or 170 tons per sq. in., was found upon analysis to contain 0.01 per 
 cent, sulphur, 0.018 per cent, phosphorous, 0.09 per cent, silicon, 0.4 per 
 cent, manganese, and 0.57 per cent, carbon. Because of the great com- 
 mercial importance of steel, this brief statement concerning its composi- 
 tion and elastic properties is made here. For further discussion consult 
 some special engineering work on the subject, or an encyclopedia, such 
 as "Americana" or "Britannica." 
 
 Factor of Safety. If steel is subjected to a great many repeti- 
 tions of stresses which are well below its tensile strength, or even 
 below its elastic limit, it is greatly weakened thereby, and it may 
 finally break with a load which it would have easily carried 
 at first. This weakening of material by a great number (several 
 millions) of repetitions of a stress is said to be due to Elastic 
 Fatigue. (See also Sec. 105.) Of course in any structure the 
 stress should always be well below the elastic limit for the material 
 used. Thus steel whose elastic limit is 50,000 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 would rarely be subjected to stresses greater than 25,000 Ibs. 
 per sq. in. In such case the Factor of Safety is 2. Structures or 
 machine parts which are exposed to vibrations and sudden 
 stresses or shocks, especially if constructed of very hard steel 
 or other relatively brittle material, require a much higher factor 
 of safety. The factor of safety also guards against breakage 
 (rom flaws in the material.
 
 150 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 109. Strength of Horizontal Beams. If a straight beam of wood or 
 metal (Fig. 64) of length L, having a rectangular cross section of depth 
 h and width a, is supported at each end and loaded in the middle as 
 shown, it will bend slightly. Obviously, in the process of bending, the 
 material near the upper portion of the beam is compressed, while that 
 below is stretched. The horizontal layer of particles through the 
 middle of the beam, that is, through the line, BCD, is called the Neutral 
 Plane, because this portion is neither compressed nor stretched. The 
 material at G is stretched only 1/2 as much as that at H, because it is 
 only 1/2 as far from the neutral plane. Hence if the load is made too 
 
 FIG. 64. 
 
 great the material at H, called the "outer fiber," is the first to be strained 
 to the yield point, and when fracture occurs, it starts at this point. 
 It can be shown by means of advanced mathematics that 
 
 <> 
 
 in which d is the deflection of the middle of the beam produced by the 
 load W, and E is Young's modulus for the material of the beam. Eq. 
 65 shows that the beam will deflect less, and hence be stronger if placed 
 on edge than if flatwise. 
 
 As an illustration, consider a 2-in. by 6-in. joist such as is sometimes 
 used to support floors. In changing the joist from the flat to the edge- 
 wise position, we treble h and make a 1/3 as large. Trebling h makes 
 h 3 27 times as large, consequently ah 3 is 1/3 times 27, or 9 times as large 
 as before. This makes d 1/9 as large. In other words, the beam would 
 require 9 times as large a load to give the same amount of bend, which 
 means that the Stiffness of the beam is made 9 times as great by turning 
 it on edge. 
 
 In the edgewise position, however, the distance of the "outer fiber" 
 (Fig. 64) from the neutral plane is three times as large as before, and 
 consequently a given bend or deflection produces 3 times as great a 
 strain on this fiber as before, so that the Strength of the beam is not 9 
 times as great, but only 3 times as great on edge as flatwise.
 
 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 151 
 
 Next consider the effect on d of variation in length, all other quantities 
 remaining the same. If the beam is made 3 times as long, L 3 and hence 
 also d become 27 times as great as before. If the beam is three times as 
 long, it must bend 9 times as much (i.e., d must be 9 times as great) to 
 produce the same strain in the material. For to produce the same strain 
 in the longer beam, it must bend to an arc of the same radius of curvature 
 as the shorter beam. But, for small arcs, the distance d from the middle 
 point of the chord to the middle point of its arc varies approximately 
 as the square of the length of the chord. Consequently, the strain is 3 
 (not 27) times as great as before, and the beam will therefore support 
 only 1/3 as great a load as before. This relation will be clearly seen 
 from an application. Suppose that a pine beam 4 ft. long and 2 in. by 
 4 in. in cross section, will support 1000 Ibs. at its center. Then if twice 
 as long it will support 1/2 as much, or 500 Ibs. If 3 times as long it will 
 support 1/3 as much, and so on. 
 
 To summarize, we may state that for rectangular beams supported at 
 the end and loaded in the middle (or supported in the middle and loaded 
 at the ends, which amounts to the same thing), the strength varies directly 
 as the first power of the width and as the second power of the depth; while it 
 varies inversely as the first power of the length. For such beams, the stiff- 
 ness varies directly as the first power of the width, and as the cube of the depth 
 (other things not being varied); while it varies inversely as the cube of 
 the length. 
 
 110. Three Kinds of Elasticity, of Stress, and of Strain; and 
 the Three Moduli. In Sec. 103 it was stated that a solid, for ex- 
 ample a metal bar, may be acted upon by forces in three distinct 
 ways bringing into play its three elasticities. Thus the metal bar 
 B (Fig. 65) of length L and cross section A, is acted upon by a force 
 F which produces an elongation e. Upon removal of this force 
 it returns to its original length due to tensile elasticity. Bi 
 illustrates the same bar acted upon by forces from all sides, i.e., 
 over its entire surface of area A\. Let us suppose these forces to 
 be due to hydrostatic pressure, which pressure causes a decrease 
 V in the original volume (F) of the bar. As soon as the pressure 
 is removed, the bar returns to its original volume by virtue of its 
 volume elasticity. B 2 illustrates the same bar again, this time with 
 its lower surface fixed. Consequently the force F applied to its 
 upper surface of area A 2 makes it slide or shear a distance s with 
 respect to the lower surface. The distance between the two sur- 
 faces we shall call d. Upon removal of the force F the shear 
 disappears due to shearing elasticity. In all three cases, recovery 
 upon removal of the force is practically immediate and complete, 
 provided the bar has not been strained beyond the elastic limit.
 
 152 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 The Three Moduli. The stress to which a certain material is 
 subjected, divided by the resulting strain, is constant (Hooke's 
 Law), and this constant is called the Modulus of Elasticity. 
 Since there are three kinds of stress and three kinds of strain, it 
 follows that there must be three moduli. 
 
 Stress is always the total applied force F divided by the area 
 to which it is applied. Thus in the first case (B), tensile stress is 
 F/A, in the second case (Bi), the hydrostatic stress or volume 
 
 stress is F/Aij while in the third 
 z), the shearing stress is 
 In the first case, the ten- 
 sile strain is the change in 
 length divided by the original 
 length or e/L; in the second 
 case, the volume strain is the 
 change in volume divided by the 
 original volume, or V'/V; while 
 in the third case, the shearing 
 strain is the distance sheared 
 divided by the distance be- 
 tween the two shearing surfaces, 
 or s/d. 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 tensile stress F/A 
 
 (64 bis) 
 
 Summarizing, then, we have: 
 
 , . _ ,,, , , x 
 
 The mod. of Tension (Young s modulus) = 
 
 mi TT i . . hydrostatic pressure 
 
 The Volume modulus (bulk mod.) = -j-- = ^ 
 
 (66) 
 
 mi . / ., \ shearing stress 
 
 The Shearing modulus (mod. of rigidity) = snearing strain = 
 
 (67) 
 
 Observe that if s is very small with respect to d, then s/d = 6. 
 The angle d is called the angle of shear. For this reason the 
 shearing strain is usually called the angle of shear. To illustrate 
 shearing, the bar B 2 may be considered to be made up of a great 
 number of horizontal layers of molecules, a few of which layers 
 are indicated in the sketch. Evidently, when the force F is applied, 
 and the bar is changed from the rectangular form to the sheared 
 position, each layer is shifted to the right a slight distance, s for
 
 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 153 
 
 the top layer, \ s for the middle layer, and so on. Further- 
 more, each layer is shifted or displaced very slightly with respect 
 to the next layer below it, thereby causing a slight change in 
 the relative positions of the molecules of successive layers. If 
 F is decreased, the tendency of the molecules to resume their 
 original relative positions reduces the relative shift between 
 successive layers, and hence reduces the angle of shear. If F 
 is removed the angle of shear becomes zero, i.e., the molecules 
 completely return to their normal relative positions, and the bar 
 again becomes rectangular, provided it has not been strained, 
 beyond the elastic limit. 
 
 111. The Rigidity of a Shaft and the Power Transmitted. If 
 one end A of a shaft is clamped and the other end B is turned 
 through one revolution by some applied torque, the shaft is 
 said to be twisted through an angle of 360. Evidently the layer 
 of molecules on the end B has been displaced or sheared through 
 1 revolution with respect to the layer at end A, through 1/2 
 revolution with respect to the transverse layer through the middle 
 of the shaft, through 1/4 revolution with respect to the layer 1/4 
 way from B to A, and so on. Indeed every transverse (circular) 
 layer in the shaft is sheared slightly with respect to its neighbor. 
 Obviously this shear is greatest for the particles farthest from the 
 axis of the shaft. Accordingly it is the "outer fibers" (on the 
 surface of the shaft) which first give way when it is twisted in 
 two. Observe that when a bolt is twisted in two, the central 
 fibers are the last to break. Observe also that fracture in this 
 case consists in a shearing apart of adjacent layers. 
 
 By knowing the values of the shearing modulus and the 
 shearing strength for the steel used, and with the aid of certain 
 formulas, the derivation of which requires a knowledge of ad- 
 vanced mathematics, the engineer can readily compute the 
 proper size of shaft for a specified purpose. The shaft must be 
 of such size that the maximum torque to which it is to be sub- 
 jected shall not strain the outer fibers beyond the "safe" limit. 
 Although the mathematical treatment of this topic is too com- 
 plicated for an elementary work, it may be stated that the 
 strength of a shaft, that is the maximum torque which it can 
 safely transmit, varies as the cube of its radius, while the "stiff- 
 ness" varies as the 4th power of the radius. Thus a 2-inch shaft 
 can transmit 8 times as great a torque as a 1-in. shaft; while, if 
 the length of the shaft and the applied torque are the same for
 
 154 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 both, the smaller shaft will be twisted through 16 times as great 
 an angle as the larger. 
 
 Since power is torque multiplied by the angular velocity 
 (P=Ta>, Sec. 83), it follows that a given amount of power 
 can be transmitted by 1/4 as great a torque, and hence by 
 1/4 as strong a shaft by making the angular velocity 4 times 
 as great. We may also add that the power which a belt of given 
 strength can transmit varies directly as the speed of the belt. 
 For, in this case, P=Fv, in which v is the belt speed, and F is 
 the difference in tension between the tight and the slack belt. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. A certain steel bar 10 ft. in length and 2 sq. in. in cross section is 
 elongated 0.22 in. by a 50-ton pull. What is Young's modulus E for this 
 specimen? 
 
 2. A steel wire 3 meters in length and 2 mm. in diameter supports a load 
 of 10 kilos. How much will the wire elongate under this load, if Young's 
 modulus for the wire is 1.9X10 12 dynes per cm. 2 ? 
 
 3. How much will a copper wire 10 meters in length and 2 sq. mm. in cross 
 section stretch under a load of 3 kilos? Young's modulus for copper is 1.2 
 X10 12 dynes per cm. 2 
 
 4. A certain shaft A can safely transmit 50 H.P. What power can be 
 transmitted by a shaft of the same material having twice as great a di- 
 ameter and 3 times as great an angular velocity as A? 
 
 6. An oak timber 3 in. by 12 in. rests edgewise upon two supports which 
 are 8 ft. apart. How much will the beam bend (deflect at the middle) under 
 a load of 1000 Ibs. applied midway between the supports? Young's Modulus 
 for oak is 1,500,000 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 
 6. How much would the 1000-lb. load bend the timber (Prob. 5) if the 
 timber rested flatwise upon the supports?
 
 CHAPTER X 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 
 
 112. Brief Mention of Properties. Some of the properties 
 of liquids in addition to the general properties of matter (Sec. 
 101), are Viscosity, Solvent Action, Diffusion, Osmosis, Pressure 
 Production, Pressure Transmission, and Surface Tension. 
 
 Elasticity. The only kind of elasticity that liquids or gases 
 can have is of course volume elasticity (Sec. 110). Liquids (also 
 gases) are perfectly elastic, that is, however much a liquid is 
 compressed, upon removing the pressure the liquid expands to 
 exactly its former volume. There is no such thing as elastic 
 fatigue or elastic limit for liquids. It requires very high pressure 
 to produce appreciable compression of a liquid. Thus a pres- 
 sure of 100 Ibs. per sq. in. applied to a volume of water causes a 
 shrinkage of only 1 part in 3000. 
 
 Viscosity. If a vessel filled with syrup has a small hole made 
 near the bottom, the syrup will flow slowly through the hole. 
 If the vessel were filled with water instead, it would be found that 
 the water, having less viscosity, would flow much more quickly 
 through the hole. Syrup is said to be viscous, and water mobile. 
 Water, however, has some viscosity. Glycerine has greater 
 viscosity than water but less than molasses. Viscosity arises 
 from internal friction, that is, friction between the molecules 
 of the liquid. The greater viscosity of glycerine as compared 
 with that of water is then due to the fact that glycerine molecules 
 do not glide over each other so readily as do water molecules. 
 
 It may easily be observed that the water on the surface of a 
 river moves more rapidly than that near the bottom, and also 
 that the water near the center of the stream moves more rapidly 
 than that near the shore. This difference in velocity is due to 
 friction upon the bed of the river (and upon its shores), which 
 causes the layers very near the bottom to move very slowly. 
 These slowly moving layers of water, due to friction of water 
 on water, i.e., due to the viscosity of water, tend to retard the 
 motion of the layers above. The greatest retarding effect is 
 
 155
 
 156 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 exerted upon the nearest layers, and the least upon the surface 
 layer. Hence the velocity of flow gradually increases from the 
 bottom up. 
 
 Solvent Action. Some solids when placed in certain liquids 
 slowly disappear. Thus salt readily "dissolves" in water, form- 
 ing a solution. Paraffine dissolves in kerosene, but not in water; 
 while salt dissolves in water but not in kerosene. When water 
 has dissolved all of the salt it is possible for it to hold in solution, 
 the brine thus formed is said to be a saturated solution of salt. 
 Solution is usually attended by either evolution or absorption 
 of heat; i.e., by either heating or chilling action. 
 
 Gold, zinc, and some other metals dissolve to a certain extent 
 in mercury, forming gold amalgam, zinc amalgam, etc. These 
 amalgams are really solutions of the metals in mercury. 
 
 Some liquids dissolve in other liquids. Thus, if some ether 
 and water are thoroughly stirred together in a vessel and then 
 allowed to stand a moment, the water, being the heavier, settles 
 to the bottom and the layer of ether rests upon it. Upon ex- 
 amination it will be found that there is about 10 per cent, ether 
 in the water, and about 3 per cent, water in the ether, which 
 shows that a saturated solution of ether in water is about 10 per 
 cent, ether, while a saturated solution of water in ether is about 
 3 per cent, water. 
 
 Some liquids dissolve certain gases. Thus water dissolves 
 air to a slight extent, and at room temperature and atmospheric 
 pressure, water dissolves 450 times its volume of hydrochloric 
 acid gas (HC1), or 600 times its volume of ammonia gas (NH 3 ). 
 What is known commercially as ammonia or as hydrochloric acid 
 is simply an aqueous solution of the one or the other of these 
 gases. Pure liquid ammonia is used in ice manufacture (Sec. 
 200). Hydrochloric acid gas can be condensed to a liquid, 
 thus forming pure liquid hydrochloric acid, by subjecting it to 
 very high pressure and low temperature. A given volume of 
 water will dissolve about an equal volume of carbon dioxide 
 (CO 2 ) at ordinary pressure and temperature. Under greater 
 pressure it dissolves considerably more, and is then called soda 
 water. When drawn from the fountain, the pressure upon it 
 is reduced, and the escaping CO 2 produces effervescence. 
 
 Diffusion. Many liquids if placed in the same vessel, mix 
 even though of quite different densities. Thus, if some ether is 
 very carefully introduced onto the surface of some water in such
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 157 
 
 a way as to prevent mixing when introducing it, it will be found 
 after a time that the heavier liquid (water) has diffused upward 
 into the ether until the latter contains about 3 per cent, water, 
 while the ether, although lighter, has diffused downward into the 
 water. 
 
 Osmosis. Osmosis is the mixing or diffusing of two different 
 liquids or gases through a membrane that separates them. 
 Membranes of animal or plant tissue readily permit such diffu- 
 sion of certain substances through them. Thus a bladder filled 
 with water does not leak, but if lowered into a vessel of alcohol 
 it slowly collapses. This shows that the water passes readily 
 through the bladder; the alcohol less readily, or not at all. 
 On the other hand, if a rubber bag is filled with water and is 
 then lowered into a vessel of alcohol, it becomes more and more 
 distended, and may finally burst. In this case it is the alcohol 
 which passes most readily through the separating membrane. 
 
 If a piece of parchment or other such membrane is tied tightly 
 across the mouth of an inverted funnel filled with sugar solution, 
 and the funnel is placed in water, it will be observed that the 
 solution slowly rises in the stem. By prolonging the stem a 
 rise of several feet may be obtained. Obviously the pure water 
 passes more readily through the membrane than does the 
 sweetened water, or sugar solution. If the solution is 1 . 5 per 
 cent, sugar (by weight), it will finally rise in the stem about 34 
 ft. above the level of the water outside. 
 
 Since a column of water 34 ft. in height exerts a pressure of 
 about one atmosphere (Sec. 136), which pressure in this case would 
 tend to force the solution through the membrane into the water, 
 it follows, when equilibrium is reached, i.e., when no further rise 
 of the column occurs, that the Osmotic Pressure developed by the 
 tendency of the water to pass through the membrane into the solu- 
 tion, must be one atmosphere for a 1 . 5 per cent, sugar solution. 
 
 With weak solutions, the osmotic pressure varies approxi- 
 mately as the strength of the solution. Thus a 3 per cent, sugar 
 solution would develop an osmotic pressure of about 2 atmos- 
 pheres. The osmotic pressure also differs greatly for different 
 solutions. Thus, for example, if a solution of common salt is 
 used the osmotic pressure developed will be much more than for 
 the same strength (in per cent.) of sugar solution. 
 
 In accordance with the kinetic theory of matter (Sec. 99) 
 we may explain osmotic pressure by assuming, in the case cited
 
 158 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 above, that the water molecules in their vibratory motion, pass 
 more readily through the animal membrane (the bladder) than 
 do the more complicated and presumably larger alcohol mole- 
 cules. This is the commonly accepted explanation. The fact, 
 however, that substituting a rubber membrane reverses the ac- 
 tion, makes it seem probable that something akin to chemical 
 affinity between the membrane and the liquids plays an impor- 
 tant role. From this standpoint, we would explain this reversal 
 in osmotic action by stating that the rubber membrane has 
 greater affinity for alcohol than for water; while in the case of 
 animal tissue the reverse is true. Osmosis plays an important 
 part in the physiological processes of nutrition, secretion by 
 glands, etc., and in the analogous processes in plant life. Gases 
 also pass in the same way through membranes. In this way 
 the blood is purified in the capillary blood-vessels of the lungs 
 by the oxygen in the adjacent air cells of the lungs. 
 
 In chemistry, Dialysis, the process by which crystalloids, such 
 as sugar and salt are separated from the colloids starch, gum, 
 albumin, etc., depends upon osmosis. Crystalloids pass readily 
 through certain membranes; colloids, very slowly, or not at all. 
 In case of suspected poisoning by arsenic or any other crystal- 
 loid, the contents of the stomach may be placed on parchment 
 paper floating on water. In a short time the crystalloids (only) 
 will have entered the water, which may then be analyzed. 
 
 Pressure and its Transmission. Liquids exert and also trans- 
 mit pressure. In deep-sea diving the pressure sustained by the 
 divers is enormous. By means of our city water mains, pressure 
 is transmitted from the pumping station or supply tank to all 
 parts of the system. (This property will be fully discussed in 
 Sees. 113 and 114. Surface Tension will be considered in Sec. 
 124.) 
 
 113. Hydrostatic Pressure. The study of fluids at rest is 
 known as Hydrostatics, and that of fluids in motion, as Hydraulics. 
 From their connection with these subjects we have the terms 
 hydrostatic pressure and hydraulic machinery such as hydraulic 
 presses, hydraulic elevators, etc. 
 
 A liquid, because of its weight, exerts a force upon any body 
 immersed in it. This force, divided by the area upon which 
 it acts, is called the Hydrostatic Pressure, or 
 
 TT , total force 
 
 Hydrostatu pressure (average) = -
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 159 
 
 Note that pressure, like all stresses (Sec. 110), is the total force 
 applied divided by the area to which it is applied. The unit 
 in which to express pressure will therefore depend upon the 
 units in which the force and the area are expressed. Some units of 
 pressure are the poundal per square inch, the pound per square inch, 
 the pound per square foot, and the dyne per square centimeter. 
 Let it be required to find the pressure at a depth h below the 
 surface of the liquid of density d in the cylindrical vessel of 
 radius r, Fig. 66. The formula for the pres- 
 sure on the bottom of the vessel is, by defi- 
 nition, 
 
 total force on the bottom 
 Pressure = - 
 
 The force on the bottom is obviously the 
 
 weight W of the liquid, and the area A is 
 
 Trr 2 ; so that the pressure is W/irr 2 . We may 
 
 express W in dynes, poundals, or pounds 
 
 force, and Trr 2 in square centimeters, square 
 
 inches, etc. The weight in dynes is Mg, p IG gg 
 
 but the mass M in grams is the product of 
 
 jrr 2 h, the volume of the liquid in cubic centimeters, and d its 
 
 density in grams per cubic centimeter. Hence 
 
 force W Mg irrVidg , 
 
 Pressure p = -- = -r- = sr = - ^ = hag dynes per cm. (68) 
 area A Trr 2 Trr 2 
 
 In the British system, -irr 2 h would be the volume of the liquid 
 column in cubic feet, and d the density in pounds per cubic foot; 
 so that irr^hd would be the weight in pounds, and irr^hdg would 
 be the weight in poundals. Note that 1 Ib. = g poundals, i.e., 
 32.17 poundals (Sec. 32). Accordingly, the pressure produced by 
 a column of liquid whose height is h feet is hdg poundals per 
 square foot, or hd pounds per square foot. 
 
 114. Transmission of Pressure. If a tube A (Fig. 67) with 
 side branches B, C, D and E, is filled with water, it will be 
 found that the water stands at the same level in each branch 
 as shown. Further, if A contains four small holes, a, b, c, and 
 d, all of the same size and at the same level, and covered by valves 
 a', b', c', and d' } respectively, it will be found that it requires the 
 same amount of force to hold the valve a' closed against the 
 water pressure as to hold &', c', or d' closed. 
 
 If the branch tube B were removed, everything else being left
 
 160 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 just as before, it is evident from symmetry that a small valve 
 at e in order to prevent water from coming out would have to 
 resist an upward pressure at e (say p%) equal to the upward 
 pressure at c, d, etc. With B in place, however, the water does 
 not come out of e, but is at rest; hence the downward pressure 
 at e (say pi) due to the column of water in B must just balance 
 the above-mentioned pressure p 2 . The pressure, pi, however, 
 is equal to hdg (Eq. 68). If the pressure at a, 6, c, and d, is 
 represented by p a , pb, p c , and Pd respectively, we have 
 
 The experiment shows, then, that in liquids the pressure (a) 
 is exactly equal in all directions at a given point (see also experi- 
 ment below); (6) is transmitted undiminished to all points at the 
 
 
 FIG. 67. 
 
 same level; and (c) is numerically hdg, in which h is the vertical 
 distance from the point in question to the upper free surface of 
 the liquid causing the pressure. 
 
 The above three facts or principles (a), (&), and (c) are funda- 
 mental to the subjects of hydrostatics and hydraulics. They 
 are utilized in our city water systems, in hydraulic mining, and 
 in all hydraulic machinery. They must be reckoned with in 
 deep-sea diving and in the construction of mill dams and coffer- 
 dams. In these and hundreds of other ways these principles 
 find application. 
 
 The greater pressure in the water mains in the low-lying por- 
 tions of the city as compared with the hill sections, is at once ex- 
 plained by (c), noting that the vertical distance from these points 
 to the level of the water in the supply tank is greater for these 
 places than it is on the hills. 
 
 An exceedingly simple experimental proof of the principle 
 (a) may be arranged as follows: A glass jar containing water
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 
 
 161 
 
 has placed in it several glass tubes which are open at both ends. 
 Some of these tubes are bent more or less at the lower end, so 
 that the lower opening in some cases faces upward, in others 
 downward, and still others horizontally or at various angles of 
 inclination. If these openings are all at the same depth, the 
 fact that the water stands at the same height in all of the tubes, 
 that is, at the general level of the water in the vessel, shows that 
 the outward pressure at each lower opening must be the same. 
 Consequently, since no flow takes place, the inward pressure at 
 each opening, which is due to the general pressure of the main 
 body of water, and which is exerted in various directions for the 
 different tubes, must be the same for all. 
 
 Pressure Perpendicular to Walls. The pressure exerted by a 
 liquid, against the wall of the containing vessel at any point 
 is always perpendicular to the wall at that point. For if the 
 pressure were aslant with reference to the wall at any point, it 
 would have a component parallel to the wall which would tend 
 to move the liquid along the wall. We know, however, that the 
 liquid is at rest; hence the pressure can have no component 
 parallel to the wall, and is therefore perpen- 
 dicular to the wall at all points. 
 
 115. The Hydrostatic Paradox. A small 
 body of liquid, for example the column in 
 tube B (Fig. 68), may balance a large body 
 of liquid, such as the column in tube A. 
 This is known as the Hydrostatic Paradox. 
 From the preceding sections, we see that the 
 pressure tending to force the liquid through C 
 in the direction of arrow 6, is hdg, due to the 
 
 column of liquid B, while the pressure tending to force it in the 
 direction of arrow a is likewise hdg due to the column of liquid A. 
 Evidently the liquid in C will be in equilibrium and will not tend 
 to move either to the right or left when these two pressures are 
 equal, i.e., when h is the same for both columns. Thus, viewed 
 from the pressure standpoint, we see that there is nothing para- 
 doxical in the behavior of the liquid. If A contained water and 
 B contained brine, then the liquid level in A would be higher 
 than in B (Sec. 116). 
 
 116. Relative Densities of Liquids by Balanced Columns. A 
 very convenient method of comparing the densities of two liquids, 
 is that of balanced columns, illustrated in Fig. 69. A U-shaped 
 
 F IG - 68.
 
 162 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 glass tube, with arms A and B, contains a small quantity of, 
 mercury C, as shown. If water is poured into the arm A and 
 at the same time enough of some other liquid, e.g., kerosene, is 
 poured into the arm B to just balance the pressure of the water 
 column A, as shown by the fact that the mercury stands at the 
 same level in both arms; then it is evident that the pressure p 2 
 due to the kerosene, which tends to force C to the left, must 
 be equal to the pressure p\ due to the water, which tends to force 
 C to the right. But the former pressure is h 2 d 2 g 
 while the latter pressure is hidig, in which hi and 
 h 2 are the heights of the water and the kerosene 
 columns respectively, and d t and d 2 the respective 
 densities of the two liquids. Hence 
 
 hidig = h 2 d 2 g 
 
 d 2 hi hi 
 
 or-r = T-, or d 2 = ^-d l 
 
 FIG. 
 
 The density d\ of water is almost exactly 1 gm. 
 per cm. 3 ; therefore if hi is found to be 40 cm., and 
 h 2 is found to be 50 cm., then the density of kero- 
 sene is 4/5 that of water or practically 0.8 gm. per cm. 3 
 
 117. Buoyant Force. Any body immersed in a liquid experi- 
 ences a certain buoyant force. This force, if the body is of 
 small density compared with the liquid, causes the body to rise 
 rapidly to the surface. Thus cork floats on water, and iron on 
 mercury. This buoyant force is due to the fact that the upward 
 pressure on the body is greater than the downward pressure on it. 
 
 Let B, Fig. 70, be a cylindrical body immersed in a vessel of 
 water. Let AI and A 2 be the areas of the lower and upper ends 
 respectively, and let pi and p 2 be the corresponding pressures. 
 If AI is 3 times as far below the surface as A 2 , then pi will equal 
 3p 2 . The forces on the sides of B will of course neutralize each 
 other and produce neither buoyant nor sinking effect. The 
 entire Buoyant Force of the water uponZ? is, then, FiF 2 , in which 
 FI is the upward push or force on AI, and F 2 the much smaller 
 downward push on A 2 . Force, however, is the pressure multi- 
 plied by the area; i.e., 
 
 I, and F 2 = p 2 A 2 , or, since 
 
 Buoyant
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 163 
 
 If this buoyant force, which tends to make the body rise, is 
 (a) greater than the weight W of B, which of course tends to 
 make it sink, the body will move upward rapidly if much 
 greater, and slowly if but little greater. (6) If the buoyant 
 force is equal to W , then B will remain in equilibrium and float 
 about in the liquid. Finally (c), if W is greater than the buoy- 
 ant force, then B will sink to the bottom, and the rapidity with 
 which it sinks depends upon how much its weight exceeds the 
 buoyant force. 
 
 If the body were of irregular shape such as C, it would be 
 very difficult to find its area, and also difficult to find the average 
 vertical components of pressure on the upper 
 and lower surfaces. It is, nevertheless, ob- 
 vious that the average downward pressure on 
 the body would be less than the average up- 
 ward pressure, and it is just this difference 
 in pressure that gives rise to the buoyant 
 force whatever shape the body may have (see 
 Sec. 118). The horizontal components of 
 pressure would, of course, have no tendency J^Q 79. 
 
 to make the body either float or sink. 
 
 118. The Principle of Archimedes. If any body, whatever 
 be its shape, e.g., A (Fig. 71), is immersed in a vessel of water, it 
 will be found to be lighter in weight than if it were weighed in air. 
 This difference in weight is referred to as the "Loss of Weight" 
 in water, and is found to be equal to the weight of the water that 
 would occupy the space now occupied by A. In other words, 
 the loss of weight in water is equal to the weight of the water dis- 
 placed. This principle, of course, holds for any other liquid, 
 and also for any gas (Sec. 134), and is known as the Principle 
 of Archimedes, so called in honor of the Grecian mathematician 
 and physicist Archimedes (B. C. 287-212) who discovered it. 
 
 Theoretical Proof of Archimedes' Principle. Imagine the body 
 A (Fig. 71) to be replaced by a body of water A' of exactly the 
 same size and shape as A and enclosed in a membranous sack 
 of negligible weight. It is evident that A' would have no tend- 
 ency either to rise or to sink. It then appears that this particular 
 portion of water loses its entire weight, hence it must be true that 
 the buoyant force exerted upon A' is exactly equal to its weight. 
 Since this buoyant force is the direct result of the greater average 
 pressure upon the lower side than upon the upper side of the
 
 164 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 body, it can in no wise depend upon the material of which the 
 body is composed. Consequently, the body A must experience 
 this same amount of buoyant force, and therefore must lose this 
 same amount of weight, namely, the weight of the water displaced. 
 Experimental Proof of Archimedes' Principle. A small cylin- 
 drical bucket B is hung from the beam of an ordinary beam 
 balance, and a solid metal cylinder C (Fig. 72) which accurately 
 fits and completely fills the bucket is suspended from it. Suf- 
 ficient mass is now placed in the pan at the other end of the beam 
 to secure a " balance. " Next a large beaker of water is so placed 
 that the solid cylinder is immersed. This, of course, buoys it 
 up somewhat and destroys the "balance." Finally the bucket 
 is filled with water, whereupon it will be found that exact "bal- 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 
 FIG. 72. 
 
 ance" is restored, i.e., Fi=F z . This fact shows that the weight 
 of the water in the bucket just compensates for the buoyant 
 force that arises from the immersion of the cylinder. In other 
 words the loss of weight experienced by the cylinder is equal to 
 the weight of the water which fills the bucket, and is therefore 
 equal to the weight of the water displaced by the cylinder. 
 
 119. Immersed Floating Bodies. In case the body A (Fig. 
 71) is denser than water, it will weigh more than the water which 
 it displaces and will therefore tend to sink. If, however, it has 
 the same density as water, the buoyant force will be just equal 
 to its weight, and it will therefore lose its entire weight and float 
 about in the liquid. 
 
 If a tall glass jar is about one-third filled with strong brine 
 and is then carefully filled with water, the two liquids will mix
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 165 
 
 slightly, so that the jar will contain a brine varying in strength, 
 and hence in density, from that which is almost pure water at 
 the top, to a strong dense brine at the bottom. If pieces of resin, 
 wax, or other substances which sink in water but float in brine 
 are introduced, they will sink to various depths, depending upon 
 their densities. Each piece, however, sinks until the buoyant 
 force exerted upon it is equal to its weight, that is, until the 
 weight of the liquid displaced is equal to its own weight. 
 
 Occasionally the query arises as to whether heavy bodies such 
 as metals will sink to the bottom of the ocean. They certainly 
 do, regardless of the depth. To be sure, the enormous pressure 
 at a great depth compresses the water slightly, making it more 
 dense, and hence more buoyant. The increase in density due 
 to this cause, however, even at a depth of one mile amounts 
 to less than 1 per cent, (closely 3/4 per cent). Since the compres- 
 sibility of metals is about 1/100 as great as that of water, its 
 effect in this connection may be ignored. Substances, however, 
 which are more readily compressed than water, e.g., porous sub- 
 stances containing air, actually become less buoyant at great 
 depths. 
 
 120. Application of Archimedes' Principle to Bodies Floating 
 Upon the Surface. If a piece of wood that is lighter than water 
 is placed in water, it sinks until the weight of the 
 water displaced is equal to its own weight. If 
 placed in brine it will likewise sink until the weight 
 of the liquid displaced is equal to its own weight; 
 but it will not then sink so deep. A boat, which with 
 its cargo weighs 1000 tons, is said to have 1000 tons 
 "displacement," because it sinks until it displaces 
 1000 tons of water. As boats pass from the fresh FIG. 73. 
 water into the open sea they float slightly higher. 
 
 If a wooden block B (Fig. 73) is placed in water and comes to 
 equilibrium with the portion mnop immersed, then the volume 
 mnop is the volume of water displaced, and the weight of this 
 volume of water is equal to the entire weight of the block. 
 Further, if d is 9/10 c, we know that the block of wood displaces 
 9/10 of its volume of water, hence its density is 0.9 gm. per cm. 3 
 (since a cm. 3 of water weighs almost exactly 1 gm.). 
 
 Ice is about 9/10 as dense as sea water; consequently icebergs 
 float with approximately 9/10 of their volume immersed and 1/10 
 above the surface. If some projecting points are 100 ft. above
 
 166 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 the sea, it does not follow, of course, that the iceberg extends 900 
 ft. below the surface. 
 
 121. Center of Buoyancy. If a rectangular piece of wood is placed in 
 water in the position shown at the left in Fig. 74, the center of gravity of 
 the displaced water mnop is at C. This point C is called the Center of 
 Buoyancy. It is the point at which the entire upward lift or buoyant 
 force F, due to the water, may be considered as concentrated. The center 
 of gravity, marked G, is the point at which the entire weight W of the 
 block of wood may be considered as concentrated. The block in this 
 position is unstable, since the least tipping brings into play a torque (as 
 
 shown at the right in Fig. 74) tending to tip it still 
 farther. Consequently the block tips over and 
 floats lengthwise on the water. For the same rea- 
 son logs do not float on end, but lie lengthwise 
 on the water. 
 
 If a sufficiently large piece of lead were fastened 
 to the bottom of the block of wood so as to bring 
 FIG. 74. its center of gravity below its center of buoyancy, 
 
 the block would then be stable when floating on end. 
 Ballast is placed deep in the hold of a vessel in order to lower the center 
 of gravity. It does not necessarily follow, however, that the center of 
 gravity of ship and cargo must be below the center of buoyancy of 
 the ship. For, as the ship rolls to the right, say, the form of the hull is 
 such that the center of buoyancy shifts to the right, and therefore gives 
 rise to a righting or restoring torque. 
 
 122. Specific Gravity. The Specific Gravity (S) of a substance 
 is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water 
 at tne same temperature. Representing the density of water 
 by d", and the density of the substance referred to by d, we have 
 
 S = d/d f (69) 
 
 Since the value of d' is very nearly one (i.e., one gm. per cm. 3 ) 
 at ordinary temperatures, it follows that the Specific Gravity 
 of a substance and its density have almost the same value, but 
 they must not be considered as identical. 
 
 Density, however, is mass divided by volume, so that if we 
 consider equal volumes of the substance and of water, and repre- 
 sent the mass of the former by M and that of the latter by M' , 
 Eq. 69 may be written 
 
 S = d/d' = ~ = M/M' = Mg/M'g = W/W (70)
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 167 
 
 in which W is the weight of a certain volume of the substance 
 and W the weight of the same volume of water. Hence the 
 specfic gravity of a substance might be denned as the ratio of 
 the weight of a certain volume of that substance to the weight of 
 an equal volume of water. 
 
 Specific Gravity of a Liquid. If a bottle full of liquid, say 
 kerosene, weighs Wi, and the same bottle full of water weighs 
 W 2 , while the empty bottle weighs W 3 , then W\ W 3 is the weight 
 W of the kerosene in the bottle, and Wz W s is the weight W 
 of an equal volume of water; hence from Eq. 70 we have for the 
 specific gravity of kerosene 
 
 W _Wi_-TF 3 
 -W'~W 2 -W S 
 
 If a piece of metal which has first been weighed in air, is then 
 immersed in water and again weighed, it will be found to be 
 lighter. This "loss of weight" in water, i.e., its weight in air 
 minus its weight in water, is of course due to the buoyant force 
 and is equal to the weight of the water displaced. If the piece 
 of metal is again weighed while immersed in brine, the loss of 
 weight will be equal to the weight of the brine displaced. This 
 loss of weight will be greater than the former loss. Dividing 
 it by the former loss we obtain the specific gravity of the brine. 
 
 Specific Gravity of a Solid. Evidently the volume of any body 
 immersed in water is exactly equal to the volume of water which 
 it displaces. Consequently its specific gravity is the ratio of the 
 weights of these two volumes, or the weight of the body in air 
 divided by its loss of weight in water. This is a convenient 
 method for determining the specific gravity of irregular solids, 
 such as pieces of ore. 
 
 If a stone weighs 30 gm. in air and 20 gm. in water, then the 
 weight of the water it displaces must be 10 gm. ; so that the stone 
 weighs 3 times as much as the same volume of water and its 
 specific gravity is, therefore, 3. Since the density of water d' 
 (Eq. 69) is very slightly less than 1.0 at room temperature, the 
 density d of the stone would be very slightly less than its specific 
 gravity. 
 
 123. The Hydrometer. The hydrometer, of which there are 
 several kinds, affords a very rapid means of finding the specific 
 gravity of a liquid. It is also sufficiently accurate for most 
 purposes. The most common kind of hydrometer consists of a
 
 168 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 glass tube A (Fig. 75), having at its lower end a bulb B contain- 
 ing just enough mercury or fine shot to properly ballast it when 
 floating. From Sec. 120 we see that such an instrument will 
 sink until it displaces an amount of water equal to its own weight. 
 To do this it will need to sink deeper in a light liquid than in a 
 heavy liquid; hence the depth to which it sinks indicates the 
 specific gravity of the liquid in which it is placed. From a 
 scale properly engraved upon the stem of the hydrometer, the 
 specific gravity of the liquid in which it is floating may be read 
 by observing the mark that is just at the surface. 
 Thus, if the hydrometer sinks to the point a in a given 
 liquid, we know that the specific gravity of the liquid 
 is 1.12, i.e., it is 1.12 times as dense as water. The 
 scale shown is called a Specific Gravity Scale, because 
 the specific gravity of the liquid is given directly. It 
 will be observed that it is not a scale of equal divisions. 
 The Beaume Scale. The Beaume Scale, which is 
 very much used, has on the one hand the advantage 
 of having equal scale divisions; but on the other hand 
 it has the disadvantage that it is entirely arbitrary, 
 and that its readings do not give directly the specific 
 gravity of the liquid. There are two Beaume scales, 
 one for liquids heavier than water, the other for liq- 
 uids lighter than water. 
 
 To calibrate a hydrometer for heavy liquids it is 
 placed in water, and the point to which it sinks is 
 marked 0. It is next placed in a 15 per cent, brine 
 (15 parts salt and 85 parts water, by weight) and the 
 point to which it sinks is marked 15. The space be- 
 tween these two marks is then divided into 15 equal spaces and 
 the graduation is continued down the stem. If, when placed 
 in a certain liquid, the hydrometer sinks to mark 20, the spe- 
 cific gravity of the liquid is 20 Beaume heavy. 
 
 For use in light liquids, the point to which the instrument sinks in a 
 10 per cent, brine is marked 0, and the point to which it sinks in water 
 is marked 10. The space between these two marks is divided into 
 10 equal spaces, and the graduation is extended up the stem. If, when 
 placed in a certain liquid, the hydrometer sinks to mark 14, the specific 
 gravity of the liquid is 14 Beaume light. 
 
 124. Surface Tension. Small drops of water on a dusty or 
 oily surface assume a nearly spherical shape. Small drops of 
 
 FIG. 75.
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 169 
 
 mercury upon most surfaces behave in the same manner. Dew- 
 drops and falling raindrops are likewise spherical. When the 
 broken end of a glass rod having a jagged fracture is heated until 
 soft, it becomes smoothly rounded. These and many other 
 similar phenomena are due to what is called Surface Tension 
 (denned in Sec. 126). 
 
 Surface tension arises from the intermolecular attraction ^or 
 cohesion) between adjacent molecules. Some of the effects of 
 this attraction have already been discussed in Sec. 102. Certain 
 experiments indicate that these molecular forces do not act ap- 
 preciably through distances greater than about two-millionths 
 of an inch. A sphere, then, of two-millionths inch in radius 
 described about a molecule may be called its sphere of influence, 
 or sphere of molecular attraction. 
 
 Let A, B, and C (Fig. 76) represent respectively a molecule of 
 water well below the surface, one very near the surface, and one 
 
 FIG. 76. FIG. 77. 
 
 on the surface; and let the circles represent their respective 
 spheres of molecular action. Evidently A, which is completely 
 surrounded by water molecules, will be urged equally in all 
 directions and hence will have no tendency to move. It will 
 therefore, barring friction, not require any force to move it about 
 in the liquid; but, as we shall presently see, it will require a 
 force to move it to the surface. Accordingly, work is done in 
 increasing the amount of surface of a liquid (Sec. 126), e.g., as 
 in inflating a soap bubble. Part of B's sphere of molecular 
 attraction projects above the surface into a region where there 
 are no water molecules, and hence the aggregate downward pull 
 on B exerted by the surrounding molecules is greater than the 
 upward pull upon it. In the case represented by C, there is no 
 upward pull, except the negligible pull due to the adjacent mole- 
 cules of air. Consequently B t and C, and all other molecules 
 on or very near the surface, are acted upon by downward (inward)
 
 170 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 forces. The nearer a molecule approaches to the surface, the 
 greater this force becomes. 
 
 In Fig. 77, A represents a small water drop and a, b, c, d, etc., 
 surface molecules. Since every surface molecule tends to move 
 inward, the result is quite similar to uniform hydrostatic pressure 
 on the entire surface of the drop. But such pressure would 
 arise if the surface layer of molecules were a stretched mem- 
 branous sack (e.g., of exceedingly thin rubber) enveloping the 
 drop. This fact, that the surface layer of molecules of any 
 liquid behaves like a stretched membrane, i.e., like a membrane 
 under tension, makes the name Surface Tension very appro- 
 priate. Although there is no stretched film over the drop, the 
 surface molecules differing in no sense from the inner molecules 
 except that they are on the surface, it is, nevertheless, very conven- 
 ient to regard the phenomenon of surface tension as arising from 
 the action of stretched films, and in the further discussion it will 
 be so regarded. It must be kept in mind, however, that this 
 is merely a matter of convenience, and that the true cause of sur- 
 face tension is the unbalanced molecular attraction just discussed. 
 
 When certain insects walk upon the water, it is easily observed 
 that this "membrane" or ''film" sags beneath their weight. 
 A needle, especially if slightly oily, will float if carefully placed 
 upon water. We may note in passing that the weight of the 
 water displaced by the sagging of the surface film is equal to 
 the weight of the needle (Archimedes' Principle). 
 
 125. Surface a Minimum. Evidently a stretched film enclosing 
 a drop of liquid would cause the drop to assume a form having 
 the least surface, i.e., requiring the least 
 area of film to envelop it. The sphere 
 has less surface for a given volume than 
 JT IG yg any other form of surface. Hence drops 
 
 of water are spherical. For the same 
 
 reason soap bubbles, which are merely films of soapy water en- 
 closing air, tend to be spherical. A large drop of water, or 
 mercury, or any other liquid is not spherical if resting upon a 
 surface, but is flattened, due to its weight (see Fig. 78). Quite 
 analogous to this is the fact that a small rubber ball filled with 
 water and resting upon a plane surface will remain almost spher- 
 ical; while a large ball made of equally thin rubber would flatten 
 quite appreciably, due to its greater weight. 
 
 If the effect of the weight of the drop is removed, this flatten-
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 171 
 
 ing does not take place even for very large drops. Thus, if a 
 mixture of alcohol and water having the same density as olive 
 oil is prepared, it will be found that a considerable quantity of 
 this oil retains the spherical form when carefully introduced well 
 below the surface of the mixture. 
 
 That a film tends to contract so as to have a minimum area, 
 and that in so doing it exerts a force, is beautifully illustrated 
 by the following experiment. If the wire loop B (Fig. 79), to 
 which is attached a small loop of thread a, is dipped into a soap 
 solution and withdrawn, it will have stretched across it a film 
 in which the loop a "floats" loosely as indicated. Evidently 
 the film, pulling equally in all 
 directions on a, has no tendency 
 to stretch it. If, however, the 
 film within a is broken, the in- 
 ward pull disappears, whereupon 
 the outward pull causes the loop Fi^ 79 
 
 to assume the circular form 
 
 shown at the right (Fig. 79). A loop has its maximum area when 
 circular; consequently, the annular film between the thread and 
 the wire must have a minimum area when the thread loop is 
 circular. 
 
 If a piece of sealing wax with sharp corners is heated until 
 slightly plastic, the corners are rounded, due to surface tension 
 of the wax; and in this rounding process the amount of surface is 
 reduced. Glass and all metals behave in the same way when 
 sufficiently heated. All metals when melted, indeed all sub- 
 stances when in the liquid state, exhibit surface tension. This 
 property is utilized in making fine shot by dropping molten lead 
 through the air from the shot tower. During the fall, the drops 
 of molten lead cool in the spherical form produced by surface 
 tension. 
 
 126. Numerical Value of Surface Tension. The Surface 
 Tension T of a liquid is numerically the force in dynes with which 
 a surface layer of this liquid one centimeter in width resists being 
 stretched. There are several methods of finding the surface 
 tension, in all of which the force required to stretch a certain 
 width of surface layer is first determined. This force, divided 
 by the width of the surface layer stretched, gives the value of 
 the surface tension. 
 
 The simplest method of finding the surface tension is the follow-
 
 172 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 ing: An inverted U of fine wire 1/2 cm. in width is immersed 
 in a soap solution (Fig. 80) and then suspended from a sensitive 
 Jolly balance. (The Jolly balance is practically a very sensitive 
 spring balance.) Since the film across the U has two surfaces, 
 one toward and one away from the reader, it is evident that in 
 raising the U, a surface layer 1 cm. in width must be stretched. 
 Hence the reading of the Jolly balance (in dynes) immediately 
 before the film breaks minus the reading after, gives the surface 
 tension for the soap film in dynes per centimeter. For pure 
 water, T is approximately 80 dynes per cm. Its value decreases 
 due to rise in temperature, and also due to the presence of im- 
 purities (Sec. 127.) Observe that T is numerically the force re- 
 quired to keep stretched a surface layer having 
 a width (counting both sides) of 1 cm. 
 
 In raising the wire (Fig. 80) a distance of 1 
 cm., a force of 80 dynes (for pure water) must 
 be exerted through a distance of 1 cm., that is, 
 80 ergs of work must be done. But 1 cm. 2 of 
 surface has been formed; showing that 80 ergs of 
 work are required to form 1 cm. 2 of surface. In 
 
 FIG 80 other words, 80 ergs of work are -required to 
 
 cause enough molecules to move from position 
 A to that of C (Fig. 76) to form 1 cm. 2 of additional surface. 
 
 Observe that a soap bubble has an outer and an inner surface. 
 Between these two surfaces is an exceedingly thin layer of soapy 
 water. This soapy water, as it flows down between the two 
 surfaces, forms the drop which hangs below the bubble and at 
 the same time causes other portions of the bubble to become 
 thinner and thinner until it finally bursts. The greater vis- 
 cosity of soapy water, as compared with pure water, causes the 
 downward flowing to be much slower than with pure water, and 
 therefore causes a soap bubble to last much longer than a water 
 bubble. 
 
 In blowing a soap bubble, work is done upon the film in in- 
 creasing its area; on the other hand, if the film is permitted to 
 contract by forcing air out through the pipestem, work is evi- 
 dently done by the film. Barring friction, these two amounts 
 of work must be equal. 
 
 In another method of determining surface tension, quite similar 
 in principle to the one just given, a wire ring suspended in a hori- 
 zontal position from a Jolly balance is lowered until it rests flat
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 173 
 
 upon the water, and is then raised, say 1/16 inch. In this posi- 
 tion it would be found that a film tube of water, having the di- 
 ameter of the ring and a length of 1/16 inch, connects the ring 
 with the water and exerts upon the ring a downward pull. The 
 reading of the Jolly balance just before this film breaks, minus 
 the reading after (or F\, say), gives this downward pull. The 
 width of surface layer that is stretched is twice the circumference 
 of the ring, or 4irr. Note that a tube has an outer and an inner 
 surface. Hence 
 
 which may be solved for T. 
 
 127. Effect of Impurities on Surface Tension of Water. 
 Most substances when dissolved in water produce a marked 
 decrease in its surface tension. For this reason, parings of cam- 
 phor move rapidly over the surface of water if 
 
 dropped upon it. Let A, B, and C, Fig. 81, be 
 
 three pieces of camphor upon the surface of 
 
 water. The piece A dissolves more rapidly from 
 
 the point a than elsewhere, so that the surface 
 
 tension on the end a is reduced more than on the 
 
 opposite end, and the piece moves in the direc FIG. 81. 
 
 tion of the stronger pull, as indicated by the ar- 
 
 row. In the case of C, this same effect at c gives rise to a rotary 
 
 motion, as shown; while B describes a curved path due to the 
 
 same cause. 
 
 128. Capillarity. If a glass A, Fig. 82, contains water, and 
 another glass B contains mercury, it may easily be observed that 
 most of the surface of each is perfectly flat, as shown, but that 
 near the edge of the glass, the water surface curves upward, while 
 the mercury surface curves downward. If the glass A were made 
 slightly oily, the water would curve downward; while if B were 
 replaced by an amalgamated zinc cup, the downward curvature 
 of the mercury would disappear. Thus the form of the surface 
 depends upon both the liquid and the containing vessel. 
 
 If a clean glass rod is dipped into water and then withdrawn, it 
 is wet. This shows that the adhesion between glass and water 
 exceeds the cohesion between the water particles. For the water 
 that wets the glass rod must have been more strongly attracted 
 by the glass than by the rest of the water, or it would not have 
 come away with the rod. If the glass rod is slightly oily it will
 
 174 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 FIG. 82. 
 
 not be wet after dipping it into the water. If a clean glass rod 
 is dipped into mercury and then withdrawn, the fact that no 
 mercury comes with it shows that the cohesion between mercury 
 molecules exceeds the adhesion between mercury and glass mole- 
 cules. It is, indeed, the relative values of cohesion and adhesion 
 that determine surface curvature at edges. If the cohesion of 
 the liquid molecules for each other just equals their adhesion for 
 the substance of which the containing vessel is made, the sur- 
 face will be flat from edge to edge. If greater, the curvature is 
 downward (B, Fig. 82), while if smaller, it is 
 upward (A, Fig. 82). Thus, in the latter 
 case, the water at the edge rises above the 
 general level, wetting the surface of the 
 glass, simply because glass molecules at- 
 tract water molecules more strongly than 
 
 other water molecules do. This phenomenon is most marked 
 in the case of small tubes (capillary tubes) and is therefore 
 called capillarity. 
 
 129. Capillary Rise in Tubes, Wicks, and Soil. If clean glass 
 tubes a and b (Fig. 83) are placed in the vessel of water A, and 
 c and d in the vessel of mercury B, it will be found that the capil- 
 lary rise in a and 6, and the capillary depression in c and d is 
 greater for the tube of smaller bore. Indeed, it will be shown in 
 the next section, and it is eas- 
 ily observed experimentally 
 with tubes of different bore, 
 that a given liquid rises n times 
 as high in a tube of 1/n times 
 as large bore. 
 
 Any porous material produces 
 a marked capillary rise with any 
 liquid that wets it. There are FIG. 83. 
 
 numerous phenomena due to 
 
 capillary action, many of which are of the greatest importance. 
 If one corner of a lump of sugar, or clod of earth, touches the water 
 surface, the entire lump or clod becomes moist. Due to capil- 
 larity, the wick of a lamp carries the oil to the flame where it is 
 burned. If the substratum soil is moist, this moisture, during a 
 dry time, is continually being carried upward to the roots of plants 
 by the capillary action of the soil. Capillarity is probably an 
 important factor, in. connection with osmosis (Sec. 112), in the
 
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AT REST 175 
 
 transference of liquid plant food from the rootlets to the topmost 
 parts of plants and trees. 
 
 Cultivating the soil to the depth of a, few inches greatly reduces 
 the amount of evaporation, and hence helps retain the moisture 
 for the use of the plants. For, stirring the ground destroys, in a 
 large measure, the continuity, and hence the capillary action, 
 between the surface soil and the moist earth a few inches below. 
 Consequently the surface soil dries more quickly, and the lower 
 soil more slowly, than if the ground had not been stirred. 
 
 130. Determination of Surface Tension from Capillary Rise 
 in Tubes. In Fig. 84, B represents a capillary tube having a 
 bore of radius r cm., and giving, when placed 
 in water, a capillary rise of h cm. It may be 
 considered to be the upward putt of the sur- 
 face layer / that holds the column of water 
 in the capillary tube above the level of the 
 water in the vessel. The weight of this col- 
 umn is Trr'hdg (see Eq. 68, Sec. 113). The 
 hemispherical surface layer that sustains this 
 weight, however, is attached to the bore of FIG. 84. 
 
 the tube by its margin abc (as shown at A), so 
 that the "width of surface" (see Sec. 126) that must support this 
 weight is 2irr, consequently 
 
 T = \rhdg dynes per cm. (71) 
 
 The above method is the one most frequently used for deter- 
 mining surface tension. It is usually necessary first to clean the 
 tube with nitric acid or caustic soda, or both, and then carefully 
 rinse before making the test. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. What is the pressure at a depth of 2 mi. in the ocean? 
 
 2. A water tank has on one side a hole 10 cm. in diameter. What force 
 will be required to hold a stopper in the hole if the upper edge of the hole is 
 4 meters below the water level? 
 
 3. What horizontal force will a lock gate 40 ft. in width exert on its sup- 
 ports if the depth of the water is 18 ft. above the gate, and 6 ft. below it? 
 
 4. Express a pressure of 15 Ibs. per in. 2 in dynes per cm. 2 
 
 5. The right arm of a U-tube, such as shown in Fig. 69, contains mercury 
 only and the left arm some mercury upon which rests a column of brine 60
 
 176 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 cm. in height. The mercury stands 5.2 cm. higher in the right arm than 
 in the left. What is the density of the brine? Sketch first. 
 
 6. The weight of a stone in air is 60 gm., in water 38 gm., and in a certain 
 oil 42 gm. What is the sp. gr. (a) of the stone? (6) of the oil? 
 
 7. Two tons increase in cargo makes a boat sink 1.2 in. deeper (in fresh 
 water). What is the area of a horizontal section of the boat at the water 
 line? 
 
 8. A marble slab (density 2 . 7 gm. per cm. 3 ) weighs 340 Ibs. when immersed 
 in fresh water. What is its volume? 
 
 9. How much lead must be attached to 20 gm. of cork to sink it in fresh 
 water? Consult table of densities, Sec. 101. 
 
 10. What capillary rise should water give in a tube of (a) 1 mm. bore, 
 (b) 2 mm. bore? 
 
 11. A wire ring of 5 cm. radius is rested flat on a water surface and is then 
 raised. The pull required to raise it is 5 gm. more before the "film" breaks 
 than it is after. What value does this give for the surface tension?
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 
 
 131. Brief Mention of Properties. Gases have all the prop- 
 erties of liquids that are mentioned in Sec. 112 (to which section 
 the reader is referred) except solvent action and surface tension. 
 Gases have also properties not possessed by liquids, one of which 
 is Expansibility. 
 
 Viscosity. The viscosity of gases is much smaller than that of 
 liquids, but it is not zero, nor is it even negligible. In order to 
 force water to flow rapidly through a long level pipe, the pressure 
 upon the water as it enters the pipe must be considerably greater 
 than the pressure upon it as it flows from the pipe. This differ- 
 ence in pressure is known as Friction Head. It requires a pressure 
 difference or pressure drop to force water through a level pipe 
 because of the viscosity of water. To produce the same rate of 
 flow through a given pipe would require a much greater pressure 
 drop if the fluid used were molasses instead of water, and very 
 much smaller drop if the fluid used were a gas. This difference is 
 due to the fact that the viscosity of water is less than that of 
 molasses and greater than that of the gas. The slight viscosity 
 of illuminating gas necessitates a certain pressure drop to force 
 the required flow through the city gas mains. 
 
 Usually in ascending a high tower there is a noticeable, steady 
 increase in the velocity of the wind; which shows that the higher 
 layers of air are moving more rapidly than those below (compare 
 with the flowing of a river, Sec. 112). Indeed, just as in the case 
 of the layers of water in the river, each layer experiences a forward 
 drag due to the layer above it and a backward drag due to the 
 layer below it, and therefore moves with an intermediate velocity. 
 The lower layers are retarded by trees and other obstructions. 
 
 It is probable that the viscosity of gases should not be attrib- 
 uted to molecular friction but rather to molecular vibration (see 
 Kinetic Theory of Matter, Sec. 99). Consider a rapidly moving 
 stratum of air gliding past a slower moving stratum below. As 
 molecules from the upper stratum, due to their vibratory motion, 
 
 177
 
 178 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 wander into the lower stratum, they will, in general, accelerate 
 it; whereas molecules passing from the lower stratum to the upper 
 will, in general, retard the latter. Thus, any interchange of 
 molecules between the two strata results in an equalization of the 
 velocities of the portions of the strata near their surface of separa- 
 tion. Of course sliding (molecular) friction would produce this 
 same result, but the fact that a rise in temperature causes the 
 viscosity to decrease in liquids and increase in gases, points to a 
 difference in its origin in the two cases. As a gas is heated, the 
 vibrations of its molecules, according to the Kinetic Theory of 
 Gases (Sec. 171), become more violent, thus augmenting the above 
 molecular interchange between the two layers and thereby 
 increasing the apparent friction between them. 
 
 Diffusion. Diffusion is very much more rapid in the case of 
 gases than with liquids, probably( because of greater freedom of 
 molecular vibration. Thus if some carbon dioxide (CO2) is 
 placed in the lower part of a vessel and some hydrogen (H) in the 
 upper part, it will be found after leaving them for a moment that 
 they are mixed due to diffusion; i.e., there will be a large percent- 
 age of carbon dioxide in the upper portion of the vessel, notwith- 
 standing the fact that it is more than twenty times as dense as 
 hydrogen. Escaping coal gas rapidly diffuses so that it may soon 
 be detected in any part of the room. An example of gas Osmosis 
 has already been given (see Sec. 112). 
 
 Since gases have weight, they produce pressure for the same 
 reason that liquids do (Sec. 113). Thus the air produces what is 
 known as atmospheric pressure, which is about 15 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 In the case of illuminating gas, we have an example of Transmis- 
 sion of Pressure by gas from the gas plant to the gas jet. Another 
 example is the transmission of pressure from the bicycle pump to 
 the bicycle tire. 
 
 Elasticity. Gases, like liquids, are perfectly elastic, i.e., 
 after being compressed they expand to exactly their original 
 volume upon removal of the added pressure. Gases are very 
 easily compressed as compared with liquids. Indeed, if the pres- 
 sure upon a given quantity of gas is doubled or trebled, its volume 
 is thereby reduced very closely to 1/2 or 1/3 its original volume, 
 as the case may be. The fact that doubling the pressure on a 
 certain quantity of gas halves the volume, or, in general, increas- 
 ing the pressure n-fold reduces the volume to \/n the original 
 volume provided the temperature is constant, is known as Boyle' 's
 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 179 
 
 Law. This very important gas law will be further considered in 
 Sec. 139. It may be stated that Boyle's law does not apply 
 rigidly to any gas, but it does apply closely to many gases, and 
 through wide ranges of pressure. 
 
 Expansibility. Gases possess a peculiar property not possessed 
 by solids or liquids, namely, that of indefinite expansibility 
 (Sec. 98). A given mass of any gas may have any volume, 
 depending upon the pressure (and also the temperature) to which 
 it is subjected. If the pressure is reduced to 1/10 its original 
 value the volume expands 10-fold, and so on. A mass of gas, 
 however small, always (and instantly) expands until it entirely 
 fills the enclosing vessel. 
 
 The expansibility and also the compressibility of a gas may be 
 readily shown by the use of the apparatus sketched in Fig. 85. 
 A is a circular brass plate which is perfectly 
 flat and smooth on its upper surface. B is 
 a glass bell jar turned open end down 
 against A . The lower edge D of B is care- 
 fully ground to fit accurately against the 
 upper surface of A, over which some vase- 
 line is spread. A and B so arranged con- ^ 
 stitute what is called a receiver. The re- 
 ceiver forms an air-tight enclosure in which 
 is placed a bottle C, across the mouth of 
 which is secured a thin sheet of rubber a, thus enclosing some air 
 at ordinary atmospheric pressure. 
 
 By means of the pipe E leading to an air pump, it is possible 
 to withdraw the air from the space H within the receiver, or to 
 force air into the space H. In the former case the air pressure 
 in H is reduced so as to be less than one atmosphere, and the thin 
 membrane of rubber stretches out into a balloon-like form a\ ; 
 while in the latter case, that is, when the air in H is com- 
 pressed, this increased pressure, being greater than the pressure 
 of the air confined in C, causes the membrane to assume the form 
 a 2 . The process by which the air pump is able to withdraw from 
 H a portion of the air, also depends upon the property of expansi- 
 bility. A reduction of pressure is produced in the pump, where- 
 upon the air in H expands and rushes out at E. (This process 
 will be further considered in Sees. 145 and 147.) 
 
 Gas Pressure and the Kinetic Theory. According to the 
 Kinetic Theory of Gases (Sec. 171), the pressure which a gas
 
 180 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 exerts against the walls of the enclosing vessel is due to the bom- 
 bardment of these walls by the gas molecules in their to-and-fro 
 motion. The fact that the ratio of the densities of any two gases, 
 e.g., carbon dioxide and hydrogen, when subjected to the same 
 pressure and temperature, is the same as the ratio of their mo- 
 lecular weights, shows that a certain volume of hydrogen contains 
 the same number of molecules as does the same volume of carbon 
 dioxide or any other gas under like conditions as to pressure and tem- 
 perature. This is known as Avogadro's Law. It will be recalled 
 that momentum change is equal to the impulse required to pro- 
 duce it (Eq. 19, Sec. 45). Consequently, since the hydrogen 
 molecule is 1/16 as heavy as the oxygen molecule, it will need to 
 have 4 times as great velocity as the oxygen molecule to produce 
 an equal contribution toward the pressure. For each impulse 
 of the hydrogen molecule would then be 1/4 as great as those of 
 the oxygen molecule, but, because of the greater velocity of the 
 former, these impulses would occur 4 times as often. 
 
 Knowing the density of the gas, it is comparatively easy to 
 compute the molecular velocity required to produce the observed 
 pressure. The average velocity of the hydrogen molecule at C. 
 is, on the basis of this theory, slightly more than 1 mi. per sec., 
 while that of the oxygen molecule is 1/4 as great, as already 
 explained. 
 
 The very rapid diffusion of hydrogen as compared with other 
 gases would be a natural consequence of its greater velocity, and 
 therefore substantiates the kinetic theory. The observed 
 increase in pressure resulting from heating confined gases is 
 attributed to an increase in the average velocity of its molecules 
 with temperature rise. The kinetic theory of gas pressure 
 affords a very simple explanation of Boyles' law (close of Sec. 
 139). 
 
 132. The Earth's Atmosphere. Because of the importance and 
 abundance of the mixture of gases known as air, the remainder of 
 the chapter will be devoted largely to the study of it. It may 
 be remarked that most of the gases are very much like air with 
 respect to the properties here discussed. 
 
 The term "atmosphere" is applied to the body of air that sur- 
 rounds the earth. Dry air consists mainly of the gases nitrogen and 
 oxygen about 76 per cent, of the former and 23 per cent, of the 
 latter, by weight. The remaining 1 per cent, is principally argon. 
 In addition to these gases there are traces of other gases, impor- 

 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 181 
 
 tant among which are carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and water vapor. 
 The amount of carbon dioxide in the air may vary from 1 part in 
 3000 outdoors (not in large cities), to 10 or 15 times this amount in 
 crowded rooms. The oxygen of the air in the lungs (see Osmosis, 
 Sec. 112) is partially exchanged for carbon dioxide and other 
 impurities of the blood; as a result the exhaled air contains 4 or 
 5 per cent, carbon dioxide. If the breath is held for an instant 
 and then carefully and slowly exhaled below the burner of a lamp 
 (the hands being held in such a position as to exclude other air 
 from the burner), the flame is quickly extinguished. The air in 
 this case does not have enough oxygen to support combustion. 
 Through repeated inhalation, the air in crowded, poorly venti- 
 lated rooms becomes vitiated by carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide 
 escapes from fissures in the earth and forms the deadly "choke 
 damp" of mines. It also results from the explosion of "fire 
 damp," or marsh gas (CH 4 ), as it is known to the chemist. If a 
 candle when carefully lowered into a shaft is extinguished upon 
 reaching the bottom, the presence of choke damp is indicated. 
 
 In nature, even in deserts, air never occurs dry. The amount 
 of water vapor in the air varies greatly, sometimes running as 
 high as 1/2 oz. per cubic yard (about 1.5 per cent.) in hot, sultry 
 weather. As moist air is chilled, its ability to retain water vapor 
 decreases rapidly and precipitation (Sec. 221) occurs. Conse- 
 quently during extremely cold weather the air is very dry. 
 
 133. Height of the Atmosphere. As meteors falling toward 
 the earth strike the earth's atmosphere, the heat developed by 
 them through air friction as they rush through the upper strata 
 of rarefied air causes them to become quite hot, so that they 
 shine for an instant. Suppose that one is seen at the same in- 
 stant by two observers 40 or 50 miles apart. The meteor will 
 appear to be in a different direction from one observer than from 
 the other. This makes possible the calculation of the height of 
 the point at which the meteor began to glow. But it could not 
 glow before striking the earth's atmosphere; hence the earth's 
 atmosphere extends to at least that height. 
 
 The duration of twilight after sunset also enables the calcula- 
 tion of the height of the atmosphere. Fine dust particles float- 
 ing in the upper regions of the air are, of course, flooded with 
 sunlight for a considerable time after sunset. The general glow 
 from these particles constitutes twilight. If an observer at A 
 (Fig. 85a) looking in the direction AX observes the last trace of
 
 182 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 twilight when it is sunset at B, then the intersection X of the 
 tangents at A and B is the highest point at which there are enough 
 dust particles to give appreciable twilight effect. 
 
 Knowing the angle and the radius of the earth, the height of 
 X above the earth is readily found. Since twilight lasts until 
 the sun is 15 or 20 degrees below the horizon, we see that 9 is 15 
 or 20 degrees. If 6 is 18, X is about 50 miles above the earth. 
 Extremely rare air, almost free from dust particles, doubtless 
 extends far above this height. Estimates of the height of the 
 atmosphere range from 50 to 200 miles. 
 
 The upper strata of air are very rare and the lower strata 
 comparatively dense due to compression caused by the weight 
 of the air above; so that upon a mountain 3.5 miles high about 
 half of the weight of the atmosphere is above and half below. 
 The entire region above 7 miles contains only 1/4 of the earth's 
 atmosphere. 
 
 FIG. 85a. 
 
 134. Buoyant Effect, Archimedes' Principle, Lifting Capacity of 
 Balloons. Since air has weight, it produces a certain buoyant effect 
 just as liquids do, but since it is about 1/800 as dense as water, 
 the buoyant effect is only 1/800 as great. That air has weight 
 may easily be shown by weighing a vessel, e.g., a brass globe, 
 first with air in it, and then weighing it again after the air has 
 been partially pumped out of it by means of an air pump. The 
 difference in weight is the weight of the air withdrawn. Galileo 
 (1564-1642) weighed a glass globe when filled with air at atmos- 
 pheric pressure, and again after forcing air into it. The observed 
 increase in weight he rightly attributed to the additional air 
 forced in. 
 
 Archimedes' Principle (Sec. 118) applies to gases as well as to 
 liquids; therefore any body weighed in air loses weight equal to 
 the weight of the air displaced by the body. Thus a cubic yard
 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 183 
 
 of stone, or any other material, weighs about two pounds less in 
 air than it would in a Vacuum, i.e., in a space from which all air 
 has been removed. The buoyant force exerted by the air upon a 
 150-lb. man is about 3/16 lb., i.e., 1/800X150 lb.; since his body 
 has about the same density as water. Observe that he would 
 lose practically his entire weight if immersed in water; hence, since 
 air is about 1/800 as dense as water, he loses 1/800 of his weight 
 by being immersed in air. 
 
 The lifting capacity of a balloon, if it were not for the weight 
 of the balloon itself and the contained gas, would be the weight of 
 the air displaced, or approximately 2 Ibs. for each cubic yard of 
 the balloon's volume. If a balloon is filled with a light gas, e.g., 
 with hydrogen, its lifting capacity is much more than if filled 
 with a heavier gas. The car or basket attached to a balloon 
 contains ballast, which may be thrown overboard when the 
 aeronaut wishes to rise higher. When he wishes to descend he 
 permits some of the gas to escape from the balloon, thereby 
 decreasing the volume and hence the weight of the air displaced. 
 
 135. Pressure of the Atmosphere. Since the air has weight, 
 the atmosphere must inevitably exert pressure upon all bodies 
 with which it comes in contact. This pressure at sea level is 
 closely 14.7 Ibs. per sq. in., and at an altitude of 3.5 miles, 
 about half of this value. Ordinarily the atmospheric pressure 
 is not observable. It seems hard to believe that the human body 
 withstands a pressure of about 15 Ibs. on every square inch of 
 surface, which amounts to several tons of force upon the entire 
 body, without its even being perceptible. It is certain, however, 
 that such is the case. We may note in this connection that the 
 cell walls in the tissues of the body do not have to sustain this 
 pressure, since the cells are filled with material at this same pres- 
 sure. Thus, the atmospheric pressure of about 15 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 has no tendency to crush the lung cells when they are filled with 
 air at this same pressure. Sudden changes in pressure, however, 
 such as accompany rapid ascent or descent in a balloon, or in a 
 diving bell, produce great discomfort. 
 
 The pressure exerted by water at a depth of about 34 ft. is one 
 atmosphere (Sec. 136), so that a diver 34 ft. below the surface of a 
 lake experiences a pressure of 2 "atmospheres," one atmosphere 
 due to the air, and one due to the water. Divers can work more 
 than 100 ft. beneath the surface of water, and must then experi- 
 ence a pressure of 4 or 5 atmospheres, i.e., 60 or 75 Ibs. per sq.
 
 184 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 in. The air which the diver breathes must, under these circum- 
 stances, be also under this same high pressure. 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere acts in a direction which is at 
 all points perpendicular to the surface of a body immersed in it. 
 Compare the similar behavior of liquids (Sec. 114). That the 
 atmospheric pressure may be exerted vertically upward, and that 
 it may be made to lift a heavy weight, is forcibly shown by the 
 following experiment. 
 
 A cylinder A, having a tight-fitting piston P to which is 
 attached the weight W, is supported as shown (Fig. 86). If, 
 by means of an air pump connected to the tube C, the air is 
 partly withdrawn from the space B, it will be found 
 that P will rise even if W is very heavy. If it were 
 possible to remove all of the air from B, producing 
 in the cylinder a perfect vacuum, the pressure within 
 the cylinder, and hence the downward pressure on P 
 would be zero. The upward pressure upon P, be- 
 ing atmospheric pressure or about 14.7 Ibs. per sq. 
 ^ c \. in., would enable it to lift 147 Ibs., provided it had 
 
 an area of 10 sq. in. 
 
 If only part of the air is withdrawn from B, so 
 that the pressure within the cylinder is say 5 Ibs. 
 per sq. in., P would then exert a lifting force of 14.7 
 minus 5, or only 9.7 Ibs. for each square inch of its 
 surface. The pressure of the atmosphere cannot 
 be computed by use of the formula p = hdg; because 
 the height is uncertain, and also because the density d varies, be- 
 ing much less at high altitudes. The pressure is very easily 
 obtained, however, by means of the barometer described in the 
 next section. 
 
 136. The Mercury Barometer. There are several different 
 kinds of barometers. The simplest, and also the most accurate 
 form is shown in Fig. 87. Various devices found in the practical 
 instrument for making adjustments, and for determining very 
 accurately the height of the mercury column (vernier attach- 
 ment), are omitted in the sketch for the sake of simplicity in 
 showing the essentials and in explaining the principle involved. 
 A glass tube A, about 1/3 in. in diameter and 3 ft. in length, 
 and closed at the end a, is filled with mercury, and then, a 
 stopper being held against the open end to prevent any mercury 
 from escaping, it is inverted and placed open end down in a vessel 
 
 FIG. 86.
 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 
 
 185 
 
 of mercury B, as shown. Upon removing the stopper, it might 
 be expected that the mercury would run out until it stood at the 
 same height inside and outside the tube. Indeed it would do this 
 if there were at a the slightest aperture to admit the air to the 
 upper portion of the tube, for then the pressure inside and out- 
 side the tube would be exactly the same, namely, atmospheric 
 pressure. If a is perfectly air-tight, it will be found that some 
 mercury runs out of the tube until the upper surface sinks to a 
 point c. The height h of the mercury column c to 6, is called 
 the Barometric Height, and is usually about 30 in. near sea level. 
 Evidently the space a to c contains no air nor 
 anything else. Such a space is called a Vacuum. 
 The downward pressure on the surface of the mer- 
 cury at c is then zero. 
 
 This experiment was first performed in 1643 
 by Torricelli (1608-1647) and is known as Tarri- 
 celli's experiment. A few years later the French 
 physicist Pascal (1623-1662) had the experiment 
 performed on a mountain, and found, as he had 
 anticipated, that the column be was shorter there 
 than at lower altitudes. 
 
 Consider the horizontal layer of mercury particles 
 6 within the tube and on the same level as the sur- 
 face s outside the tube. The downward pressure 
 on this layer is hdg in which h is the height of the 
 column be, and d is the density of mercury (13.596 
 gm. per cm. 3 ). But the upward pressure on this 
 layer 6 must have this same value, since the layer is 
 in equilibrium. The only cause for this upward 
 pressure, however, is the pressure of the atmosphere upon the 
 surfaces of the mercury, which pressure is transmitted by the 
 mercury to the inside of the tube. Hence the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere is equal to the pressure exerted by the mercury column, 
 or hdg. The barometric height varies greatly with change of 
 altitude and also considerably with change of weather. Stand- 
 ard atmospheric pressure supports a column of mercury 76 cm. 
 in height, at latitude 45 and at sea level (0 = 980.6); hence 
 Standard Atmos. Pr. =hdg = 76X13.596X980.6= 1,000,000 dynes 
 per sq. cm. (approx.). 
 This is approximately 14.7 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 
 Quite commonly the pressure of the atmosphere is expressed 
 
 FIG. 87.
 
 186 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 simply in terms of the height of the barometric column which it 
 will support, as "29.8 in. of mercury," "74 cm. of mercury." At 
 sea level the pressure of the atmosphere is usually about 30 in. 
 of mercury; at an altitude of 3.5 mi., about 15 in. of mercury; 
 while aeronauts at still higher altitudes have observed as low a 
 barometric height as 9 in. 
 
 Unless great care is taken in filling the tube (Fig. 87), it will 
 be found that some air will be mixed with the mercury, and that 
 therefore the space from a to c, instead of containing a vacuum, 
 will contain some air at a slight pressure. This counter pressure 
 will cause the mercury column to be somewhat shorter than it 
 otherwise would be, and the barometer will accordingly indicate 
 too low a pressure. If the mercury is boiled in the tube before 
 inverting, the air will be largely driven out and the error from this 
 source will be greatly reduced. It will be evident that this slight 
 counter pressure of the entrapped air, in case a trace of air is left 
 in the space ac, plus hdg for the column of mercury be, gives the 
 total downward pressure at b. But this total pressure must equal 
 the upward pressure at 6, due to the atmosphere as shown. 
 Hence hdg will give a value for the atmospheric pressure, which is 
 too small by exactly the amount of pressure on c, due to the 
 entrapped air. 
 
 Since water is only 1/13.6 times as dense as mercury, it follows 
 that atmospheric pressure will support 13.6 times as long a col- 
 umn of water as of mercury, or about 13.6X30 in., which is 
 approximately 34 ft. Accordingly, the pressure required to 
 force water through pipes a vertical height of 340 ft. is approxi- 
 mately 10 atmospheres, or 150 Ibs. per sq. in., in addition to the 
 pressure required to overcome friction in the pipes. 
 
 137. The Aneroid Barometer. The Aneroid Barometer con- 
 sists of an air-tight metal box of circular form having a corrugated 
 top and containing rarefied air. As the pressure of the atmos- 
 phere increases, the center of this top is forced inward, and when 
 the pressure decreases the center moves outward, due to the 
 elasticity of the metal. This motion of the center is very slight 
 but is magnified by a system of levers connecting it with a pointer 
 that moves over the dial of the instrument. The position of this 
 pointer upon the dial at a time when the mercury column of a 
 simple barometer is 75 cm. high is marked 75, and so on for 
 other points. This type of barometer is light, portable, and 
 easily read.
 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 187 
 
 138. Uses of the Barometer. Near a storm center the atmos- 
 pheric pressure is low (Sec. 225), consequently a falling barom- 
 eter indicates an approaching storm. Knowing the barometric 
 readings at a great number of stations, the Weather Bureau can 
 locate the storm centers and predict their probable positions a 
 few days in advance. Thus this Bureau is able to furnish infor- 
 mation which is especially valuable to those engaged in shipping. 
 
 Due to the capricious character of the weather, these predic- 
 tions are not always fulfilled. Although the forcasting of the 
 weather a year in advance is absolute nonsense, there are many 
 who have more or less faith in such forcasts. Of course one is 
 fairly safe in predicting "cold rains" for March, "hot and dry" 
 for August, etc., but to fix a month or a year in advance the date 
 of a storm from the study of the stars (which certainly have 
 nothing to do with the weather), is surely out of place in this 
 century. 
 
 As stated in Sec. 136, the barometric height decreases as the 
 altitude increases. Near sea level the rate of this decrease is 
 about 0.1 in. for each 90 ft. of ascent. At higher altitudes this 
 decrease is not so rapid because of the lesser density of air in those 
 regions. A formula has been developed, by the use of which the 
 mountain climber can determine his altitude fairly well from the 
 readings of his barometer. An "altitude scale" is engraved on 
 many aneroid barometers, by means of which the altitude may be 
 roughly approximated. 
 
 139. Boyle's Law. The volume of a given mass of gas, mul- 
 tiplied by the pressure to which it is subjected, is found to be 
 nearly constant if the temperature remains unchanged. This 
 is known as Boyle's Law and may be written 
 
 pV (temp, constant) =K (72) 
 
 This important law was discovered by Robert Boyle (1627- 
 1691) and published in England in 1662. Fourteen years later 
 it was rediscovered by the French physicist Marriotte. This 
 illustrates the slow spread of scientific knowledge in those days. 
 In France it is called Marriotte's Law. 
 
 From the equation it may be seen that to cause a certain vol- 
 ume of gas to shrink to 1/n its original volume will require the 
 pressure to be increased n-fold, provided that the temperature 
 remains constant. The equation also shows that if we permit 
 a certain mass of confined gas to expand to, say, 10 times its 

 
 188 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 original volume, then the new pressure will be 1/10 as great as 
 the original pressure. By original pressure and volume we mean 
 the pressure and volume before expansion occurred. As already 
 stated, Boyle's Law applies closely to many gases, rigidly to 
 none. 
 
 To illustrate Boyle's Law by a problem, let P (Fig. 88) be 
 an air-tight, frictionless piston of, say, 10 sq. in. surface and of 
 negligible weight, enclosing in vessel A a quantity of air at atmos- 
 pheric pressure, say 15 Ibs. per sq. in.' Let it be required to find 
 how heavy a weight must be placed upon P to force it down to 
 position PI, thereby compressing the entrapped air to 1/3 its 
 original volume. 
 
 From Eq. 72, we see that the pressure of the entrapped air in 
 the latter case will be increased 3-fold and hence will exert upon P 
 when at PI, an upward pressure of 45 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 The outside atmosphere exerts a pressure of 15 Ibs. 
 per sq. in. on P; consequently the remaining 30 
 Ibs. pressure required to hold P down must be 
 furnished by the added weight. A pressure of 30 
 Ibs. per sq. in. over a piston of 10 sq. in. surface 
 amounts to 300 Ibs. force; hence the added weight 
 required is 300 Ibs. 
 
 I t 
 
 FIG. 88. We may explain Boyle's Law in full accord with 
 
 the Kinetic Theory of gas pressure (Sec. 131). For 
 when the volume of the air in the vessel represented in Fig. 88 is 
 reduced to 1/3 its original volume, the molecules, if they con- 
 tinue to travel at the same velocity, would strike the piston 
 three times as frequently, and experience each time the same 
 amount of momentum change, as in the original condition. 
 They would therefore produce three times as great pressure 
 against the piston as they did in the original condition, which, 
 it will be noted, accords with experimental results. 
 
 140. Boyle's Law Tube, Isothermals of a Gas. A bent glass 
 tube A (Fig. 89), having the short arm closed at e, and the long 
 arm open and terminating in a small funnel at 6, is very conven- 
 ient to use in the verification of Boyle's Law. The method of 
 performing the experiment is given below. 
 
 A few drops of mercury are introduced into the tube and ad- 
 justed until the mercury level c in the long arm is at the same 
 height as the mercury level d in the short arm. As more mer- 
 cury is poured into the tube at 6, the pressure on the air enclosed
 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 
 
 189 
 
 in de is increased, which causes a proportional decrease in its 
 volume. 
 
 If now we plot these values of the pressure as ordinates (Sec. 
 41) and the corresponding values of the volume as abscissae, 
 we obtain, provided the room temperature is 20, the curve 
 marked 20 in Fig. 90. This is called the Isothermal for air at 
 20 C. 
 
 Method in Detail. If the barometer reads 75 cm., that is, if 
 the atmospheric pressure is 75 cm. of mercury, then, since c and 
 d are at the same level, it follows that the pressure on the en- 
 trapped air is 75 cm. of mercury. If the tube has 1 sq. cm. cross 
 
 \dt 
 
 FIG. 89. 
 
 section and de is 20 cm., then the corresponding volume of the 
 air is 20 cm. 3 Accordingly the point marked A on the curve 
 (ordinate 75, abscissa 20) represents the initial state of the 
 entrapped air. Next, mercury is poured into 6 until it stands at 
 Ci and di in the tubes. If the vertical distance from c\ to d\ is 
 25 cm., the pressure upon the air in d\e\ will be 25 cm. more than 
 atmospheric pressure, or a total of 100 cm. Since this is 4/3 
 of the initial pressure, the corresponding volume should be 3/4 
 of the initial volume, or 15 cm. 3 Measurement will show that 
 dtfi is 15 cm. 3 Hence point B (ordinate 100 and abscissa 15)
 
 190 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 represents the new state of the entrapped air as regards its pres- 
 sure and volume. When still more mercury is poured in, the 
 mercury stands at, say, c 2 and d%, the vertical distance c 2 c? 2 being 
 75 cm. The pressure upon the entrapped air (d z ez) is now this 
 75 cm. plus atmospheric pressure, or a total of 150 cm. Since 
 this pressure is twice the initial pressure, the corresponding vol- 
 ume is, as we should expect, one-half the original volume, or 
 10 cm. 3 Hence the point on the curve marked C (ordinate 150, 
 abscissa 10) represents this, the third state of the entrapped air. 
 To obtain smaller pressures than one atmosphere, a different 
 form of apparatus shown at the right in Fig. 89 is more conven- 
 
 60 80 100 
 
 VOLUME IN CM.' 
 FIG. 90. 
 
 ient. A small tube B of, say 1 sq. cm. cross section, is filled with 
 mercury to within 20 cm. of the top and then stoppered and 
 inverted in a large tube C which is nearly filled. with mercury. 
 Upon removing the stopper and pressing the tube down until the 
 mercury in both tubes stands at the same height, it will be seen 
 that the volume of the entrapped air (which is now at atmospheric 
 pressure) is 20 cm. 3 If, now, tube B is raised until the mercury 
 within it stands at d 3 , and if d 3 f is 25 cm., then the pressure upon 
 the entrapped air is 50 cm. ; for this pressure plus the pressure of 
 the column of mercury d 3 f must balance the atmospheric pressure 
 of 75 cm. Since this pressure (50 cm.) is 2/3 of the initial pres-
 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 191 
 
 sure, the corresponding volume in accordance with Boyle's Law 
 must be 3/2 of the original volume, or 30 cm. 3 Measurement 
 will show that d&z is 30 cm. Hence the point on the curve 
 marked D (ordinate 50, abscissa 30) represents this state of the 
 air. If tube B is raised still farther until the mercury within it 
 stands 50 cm. higher than in C, then the pressure of the entrapped 
 air is 25 cm., or 1/3 of the initial pressure, and its volume will be 
 found to be three times the initial, or 60 cm. 3 Hence point E 
 (ordinate 25, abscissa 60) represents this, the fifth state of the 
 entrapped air. In the same way points F, G, etc., are determined. 
 Drawing a smooth curve through these points A, B, (7, etc., 
 gives the isothermal for air at 20 C. When we take up the study 
 of heat we will readily see that the 100 isothermal would be 
 drawn about as shown (see dotted curve). 
 
 Observe that the three rectangles, A-75-0-20, D-50-0-30, 
 and #-25-0-60 all have the same area and that this area repre- 
 sents the product of the pressure 75, 50, or 25 as the case may 
 be, and the corresponding volumes of the entrapped air for the 
 three different states which are represented respectively by the 
 points A, D, and E on the curve. Thus the curve verifies Boyle's 
 Law as expressed in Eq. 72, and shows that the constant K in 
 this equation is, for this particular amount of gas, 1500; for 75 X 20, 
 50X30, and 25X60, each gives 1500. 
 
 141. The Manometers and the Bourdon Gage. Manome- 
 ters are of two kinds, the Open Tube Manometer, usually used 
 
 FIG. 91. 
 
 for measuring small differences in pressure, and the Closed 
 Tube Manometer which may be used to measure the total pres- 
 sure to which a gas or a liquid is subjected. 
 
 The Open Tube Manometer (Fig. 91) consists of a U-shaped 
 glass tube T, open at both ends and containing some liquid, 
 frequently mercury. If, when the manometer is connected with 
 the vessel A containing some gas, it is found that the mercury 
 stands at the same height in both arms, namely, at a and b, then
 
 192 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 FIG. 92. 
 
 the pressure of this gas which acts upon a, must be equal to the 
 pressure of the atmosphere which acts upon 6. If the mercury 
 meniscus 61 is higher than a\ by a distance hi cm., then the pres- 
 sure in B is 1 atmosphere + hidg dynes per cm. 2 , in which d is 
 the density of the mercury. The pressure of the gas in C is 
 evidently less than one atmosphere by the amount h z dg. If very 
 small differences in pressure are to be meas- 
 ured it is best to employ a light liquid for 
 the manometer. 
 
 The Closed Tube Manometer (Fig. 92) may 
 be used for measuring high pressures, such 
 as the pressure of steam in steam boilers, 
 city water pressure, etc. Let D represent 
 a steam boiler containing some water, and 
 
 T, an attached closed tube manometer. If the mercury stands 
 at the same height in both arms a and 6 when valves leading 
 from D to the outside air are open, it shows that the entrapped 
 air in the manometer is at one atmosphere pressure. If, upon 
 closing these valves and heating the water in D, the pressure of 
 the steam developed forces the mercury down to a' in the left 
 arm and up to 6' in the right arm, 
 thereby reducing the volume of the 
 entrapped air to 1/3 its original 
 volume, it follows from Boyle's Law 
 that the pressure on it is increased 
 3-fold and is therefore 3 atmospheres. 
 The steam in D is then at 3 atmos- 
 pheres pressure. It is really slightly 
 more than this, for the mercury 
 stands a distance h higher in the 
 right arm than in the left. The 
 correction is clearly hdg. That is, 
 the pressure upon the enclosed air 
 above b' would be, under these cir- 
 cumstances, exactly 3 atmospheres 
 
 while the steam pressure in the boiler would be 3 atmospheres 
 plus the pressure hdg due to the mercury column of height h. 
 
 The Bourdon Gage. The essentials of the Bourdon gage, which 
 is widely used for the measurement of steam pressure and water 
 pressure, are shown in Fig. 93. The metal tube T, which rs 
 closed at B, is of oval cross section, CD being the smaller diameter. 
 
 FIG. 93.
 
 PROPERTIES OF GASES AT REST 193 
 
 If A is connected to a steam boiler, the pressure of the steam 
 causes the cross section of the tube to become more nearly cir- 
 cular, i.e., it causes the smaller diameter CD to increase. Ob- 
 viously, pushing the sides C and D of the tube farther apart will 
 cause the tube to straighten slightly, thereby moving B to the 
 right and causing the index 7 to move over the scale as indicated. 
 By properly calibrating the gage, it will read directly the steam 
 pressure in pounds per square inch. Most steam gages are of 
 this type. The same device may be used to measure the pressure 
 of water, or the pressure of any gas. 
 
 The Vacuum Manometer or Vacuum Gage. If the space above b in 
 tube T (Fig. 92) were a perfect vacuum (e.g., if that arm of the tube were 
 first entirely filled with mercury), and if nearly all of the air were 
 pumped out of D, then T would be a "vacuum" gage. If, under these 
 circumstances, meniscus 6 stood 0.05 mm. higher than a, it would show 
 that the pressure of the remnant of the air in D was only equal to that 
 produced by a column of mercury 0.05 mm. in height. If the " vacuum " 
 in D were perfect, then a and 6 would stand at the same height. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. What is the pressure of the atmosphere (in dynes per cm. 2 ) when the 
 mercury barometer reads 74.2 cm.? 
 
 2. What is the pressure of the atmosphere (in Ibs. per in. 2 ) when the ba- 
 rometer reads 28.2 in.? 
 
 3. If, in Fig. 89, d 3 / = 30 cm. and the barometer reads 74 cm., what is the 
 pressure on the entrapped air in centimeters of mercury? In atmospheres? 
 
 4. An aneroid barometer, at a certain time, reads 29.9 in. at sea level and 
 29.35 in. on a nearby hill. What is the approximate altitude of the hill? 
 (Sec. 138.) 
 
 6. The liquid (oil of density 0.9 gm. per cm. 3 ) in an open tube manometer 
 stands 4 cm. higher in the arm which is exposed to the confined gas than it 
 does in the other arm. What is the pressure exerted by the gas? The 
 barometric reading is 29 in. 
 
 6. A closed tube manometer contains an entrapped air column 8 cm. in 
 length when exposed to atmospheric pressure, and 3.2 cm. in length when 
 connected to an air pressure system. What is the pressure of the system? 
 The mercury stood at the same level in both arms in the first test. 
 
 7. If a 1000-lb. weight is rested upon P (Fig. 88), what will be the new 
 volume of the enclosed air in terms of the old? 
 
 8. A certain balloon has a volume equal to that of a sphere of 15-ft. 
 radius. What weight, including its own, will it lift when the density of the 
 air is (a) 2 Ibs. per cubic yard? (b) 0.0011 gm. per cm. 3 ? Express the 
 weight in pounds in both cases. 
 
 9. Plot a curve similar to that shown in Fig. 90 and explain how it is 
 obtained.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 
 
 142. General Discussion. The steady flow of a fluid, either a 
 liquid or a gas, at a uniform velocity through a level pipe from one 
 point to another, is always due to a difference in pressure main- 
 tained between the two points (friction head, see footnote). This 
 difference in pressure multiplied by the cross section of the pipe 
 gives the total force which pushes the column of fluid through the 
 pipe. Since the velocity of this column is neither increasing nor 
 decreasing, there is no accelerating force, and the above pushing 
 force must be just equal to the friction force exerted upon the 
 column by the pipe. If at any point the fluid is increasing in 
 velocity, an accelerating force F must be present, and part of the 
 pressure difference (velocity head) 1 is used in producing this 
 accelerating force. F is equal to the mass M of the liquid being 
 accelerated, multiplied by its acceleration a (Sec. 25, F = Ma), 
 
 Just as the canal boat (Sec. 43), by virtue of its inertia, develops 
 a forward driving inertia force (F = Ma) which pushes it onto the 
 
 1 Head of Water. In hydraulics, the pressure at a point, or the difference 
 in pressure between two points, is called pressure head, and is measured in 
 terms of the height (in feet) of the column of water required to produce 
 such pressure, or pressure difference. To illustrate, suppose that in certain 
 hydraulic mining operations, the supply reservoir is 600 ft. above the hose 
 nozzle, and that the velocity of the water as it leaves the nozzle is 100 ft. 
 per sec. Since a body must fall about 150 ft. to acquire a velocity of 100 ft. 
 per sec., the head required to impart this velocity to the water would be 
 150 ft. (see Sec. 143). Consequently the Velocity Head required is 150 ft. 
 The remainder of the 600-ft. head, namely 450 ft., is used in overcoming 
 friction in the conveying pipes and hose, and is called Friction Head. As 
 the water from the reservoir enters the conveying pipes it must acquire 
 velocity. As the water passes from the pipe into the much smaller hose, 
 and again as it passes from the hose into the tapering nozzle, it must ac- 
 quire additional velocity. Thus the total head of 600 ft. is equal to the sum 
 of the velocity heads of the pipe, the hose, and the nozzle, in addition to 
 the friction head for all three. If the size of the conveying pipe or hose 
 changes abruptly (either increases or decreases) eddies will be formed which 
 cause considerable friction and consequent loss of head. To reduce this 
 loss, the pipe should flare as it enters tie reservoir. 
 
 194
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 
 
 195 
 
 sand bar; so also a moving fluid (e.g., water, steam, or air) exerts 
 a driving inertia force (F = Ma) against any body that changes 
 its velocity. It is this inertia force which drives the wind mill, 
 the steam turbine, and the turbine water wheel, or any other water 
 wheel which utilizes the velocity of the water. 
 
 A thorough understanding of the above principles and their 
 applications gives one a fair elementary knowledge of the subject 
 of Hydraulics. A discussion of Fig. 94 will aid in securing such an 
 understanding. 
 
 Let B be a level water pipe communicating with the vertical 
 pipes C, E, and F, and with the tank A. If B is closed at G, so 
 that no water flows through it, the water will stand at the same 
 level, say at a-d-e-f, in the tank and in the vertical pipes. If 
 G is removed the water will at first flow out slowly, for it will 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 C j 
 
 E j 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 'd 
 
 c 
 
 e 
 
 Y 
 
 HH 
 
 
 jf 
 
 * c' 
 
 
 
 Pipii 
 
 
 = 
 
 :i .^S- 
 
 e' 
 
 
 -=--= 
 
 - 
 
 i 
 
 | 
 
 
 C 
 
 t **"- ^. 
 
 L ^-.^ 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 FIG. 94. 
 
 take the force at i, due to the tank pressure, a short interval of 
 time to impart to all of the water in pipe B a high velocity. After 
 a few seconds the water will be flowing rapidly and steadily at G, 
 and the water in the vertical pipes will stand at the different 
 levels c', d, e', and /'. Observe that c', e', f, and G all lie 
 in the same straight line. This uniform pressure drop or friction 
 head loss is due to the fact that the friction is the same in all 
 parts of B. If the pipe B between c" and e" were rusty ' and 
 rough, or smaller than elsewhere, the friction head between these 
 two points would be greater than elsewhere, causing e' to be 
 lower than shown. In such case c', e' ', and f would not lie 
 in a straight line. 
 
 Observe that removing G has not lowered the level in pipe D, 
 but has produced a decided drop in C. This difference in level 
 (hz), corresponding to a difference in pressure of h^dg, cannot be
 
 196 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 due to friction head in the short distance ic". This difference in 
 pressure is mainly due to the pressure head (velocity head) 
 required to accelerate the water as it passes from the tank, where 
 it is almost without motion, to the pipe B, where it moves rapidly. 
 If the pipe B were nearly closed at G, the flow would be slow, 
 and the friction head small, so that the water would stand nearly 
 as high in C, E, and F as in the tank A. Just as the heavy flow 
 from G lowers the water pressure at /" and hence in pipe F, so, 
 during a fire, when many streams of water are thrown from the 
 same main, the heavy flow lowers the available pressure at the 
 hose. 
 
 143. Gravity Flow of Liquids. In the last section, where the 
 flow of water in level pipes was discussed, it was shown that a 
 pressure difference sufficient to overcome the friction of the water 
 on the pipes is always necessary to maintain 
 such flow. In the case of pipes which are not 
 level, but have a slight slope, such as tile 
 drains and sewer pipes, friction between the 
 water and the pipe is overcome, not by differ- 
 ence in pressure, but by a component of the 
 weight of the water itself. The weight of a 
 car on a grade may be resolved into two 
 components, one of which is parallel to the 
 FIG. 95. grade and therefore urges the car down the 
 
 grade (Sec. 19). Likewise, the weight of the 
 water in the tile drain may be resolved into two components, one 
 of which is parallel to the drain and therefore urges the water 
 along the drain. If the slope of the drain is increased, the com- 
 ponent parallel to the drain becomes larger, and the flow becomes 
 more rapid. The other component which is perpendicular to 
 the drain does not interest us in the present discussion. 
 
 The flowing of the water in a river is maintained in the same 
 way as in a tile drain. The bed of the river has a certain average 
 slope down stream. The component of the weight of the water 
 in the river which is parallel to the bed, constitutes the driving 
 force that overcomes the friction on the shores and on the bot- 
 tom. At points where the slope is great this force is great and 
 "rapids" exist. 
 
 Velocity of Efflux, Torricclli's Theorem. As the water in A (Fig. 
 95), of depth hi, flows from the orifice B it acquires a velocity v, givea 
 by the equation v = \/ /c lghi.
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 197 
 
 Proof: As M pounds of water pass through orifice B, the water level 
 in A is lowered slightly, and the potential energy of A is reduced by 
 Mhi foot-pounds or Mghi foot-poundals. The kinetic energy of the 
 M Ibs. of flowing water is %Mv* (Eqs. 50 and 51, Sec. 75). From the 
 conservation of energy it follows that this kinetic energy must be equal 
 to the potential energy lost by the tank; i,e., %Mv z = Mghi, from which 
 we have v z = 2gh } OTV = \/2gh^. From Eq. 14, Sec. 34, we see that \/2gh 
 is the velocity acquired by a body in falling from rest through a height 
 h. By this proof, known as Torricelli's theorem, we have shown that the 
 velocity oifree efflux produced by a given head h is equal to the velocity 
 of free fall through this same height h. If a pipe were connected to B of 
 a length such as to require a friction head of %hi to maintain the flow in 
 it, then the velocity head would be f hi, and the velocity of flow in the 
 pipe would be \/2g X |Ai or that acquired by a body in falling a distance 
 
 144. The Siphon. The siphon, which is a U-shaped tube T 
 (Fig. 96), may be used to withdraw water or other liquids from 
 tanks, etc. If a siphon is filled with water and stoppered and 
 then inverted and placed in a vessel of water A, as shown, it 
 will be found that the water flows from A through T to B. 
 There must be an unbalanced pressure that forces this water 
 through T. This pressure may be readily found. 
 
 Imagine, for a moment, a thin film to be stretched across the 
 bore of the tube at C. The pressure tending to force this film 
 to the right, minus the pressure tending to force it to the left 
 is evidently the unbalanced pressure which causes the flow in 
 the actual case. The former pressure is the atmospheric pres- 
 sure, frequently called B (from barometer) minus hidg, or 
 B hidg, while the latter is B h 2 dg. The unbalanced pressure 
 is, therefore, 
 
 Unbalanced pressure = (B hidg) (B h z dg) = (h 2 hi) dg = h 3 dg 
 
 From this equation we see that the difference of pressure is 
 proportional to the difference in level (h 3 ) of surfaces Si and St. 
 In addition to this difference in level, the factors that determine 
 the rate of flow are the length of the tube, the smoothness and 
 size of its bore, and the viscosity of the liquid. 
 
 Since atmospheric pressure cannot support a column of water 
 which is more than 34 ft. in height (Sec. 136), it follows that hi 
 (Fig. 96) must not exceed this height or the atmospheric pressure 
 on Si will not force the water up to C, and the siphon will fail to
 
 198 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 operate. In case mercury is the liquid used, hi must not be more 
 than 29 or 30 inches. If made greater than this, a vacuum will 
 be formed at C and no flow will take place. Since a partial 
 vacuum is formed at C, the siphon walls must not easily collapse. 
 
 Observe that the water flows from point a to point 6, both 
 points being at the same pressure, namely, atmospheric pressure. 
 In Sec. 143 it was shown that pressure difference is not the only 
 thing which may maintain a steady flow, but that in sloping 
 pipes a component of the weight of the liquid overcomes the fric- 
 tion resistance. In vertical pipes the full weight of the liquid 
 maintains the flow. Hence, in the case of 
 the siphon we may consider that it is the ex- 
 cess weight of the right column over that of 
 the left which provides the force that over- 
 comes the friction between the flowing column 
 and the tube T. 
 
 145. The Suction Pump. The common 
 " suction pump " used for cisterns and shallow 
 wells, is shown in Fig. 97 in three stages of 
 operation. The "cylinder" C is open at the 
 top and closed at the bottom, except for a 
 valve a which opens upward. Within C is a 
 snug-fitting piston P, containing a valve 6 also 
 opening upward. D is a pipe extending below 
 the surface of the water. As P is forced down- 
 ward by means of the piston rod R attached to 
 the pump handle, valve a closes, and as soon as the air in E is 
 sufficiently compressed it lifts the valve 6 and escapes (left 
 sketch). As the piston rises again, 6 closes, and the remnant of 
 air in E expands to fill the greater volume, thereby having its 
 pressure reduced (according to Boyle's Law) below one atmos- 
 phere. The pressure of the air in D is, of course, one atmosphere. 
 Hence the pressure above the valve a is less than the pressure 
 below it, causing it to rise and admit some air into E from D. 
 As air is thus withdrawn from D the pressure of the remaining 
 air is reduced to below atmospheric pressure, consequently the 
 water in the cistern, which is exposed to full atmospheric pressure, 
 is forced up into the tube D (middle sketch, Fig. 97). Another 
 stroke of the piston still further reduces the air pressure in E and 
 D, and the water is forced higher, until it finally passes through 
 valve a into the cylinder. As P descends, valve a closes, and the 
 
 FIG. 96.
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 
 
 199 
 
 water in the cylinder is forced through 6, and finally, as P again 
 rises fright sketch), it is forced out through the spout d. 
 
 Atmospheric pressure will support a column of water about 34 
 ft. in height (Sec. 136), provided the space above the column is a 
 vacuum. Hence we see that the theoretical limiting vertical 
 distance from the cylinder to the water in the cistern, or well, is 
 
 
 R 
 H 
 
 ' 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 --P- 
 
 :*: 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ti 
 
 FIG. 97. 
 
 34 ft. Suppose this distance to be 40 ft. Then, even if a per- 
 fect vacuum could be produced in E, the water would still be 6 ft. 
 below the cylinder. In practice, the cylinder should not be 
 more than 20 or 25 ft. above the water. For this reason, pumps 
 for deep wells have the cylinder near the bottom, the piston rod 
 in some cases being several hundred feet in length.
 
 200 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 146. The Force Pump. The force pump is used when it is 
 desired to pump water into a tank which is at a higher level than 
 the pump. The pump described in the last section is sometimes 
 provided with a tight-fitting top at H (right sketch, Fig. 97) 
 
 having a hole just large enough 
 to permit the piston rod R to 
 | pass through it. By connecting 
 
 spout d with a hose, the pump 
 may then be operated as a force 
 pump. 
 
 The other type of force pump 
 (Fig. 98)"lifts"the water from the 
 well on the upstroke, and forces 
 it up to the tank on the down- 
 stroke, thus making it run more 
 evenly, since both strokes are 
 working strokes. In this type 
 the piston has no valve. As 
 the piston P rises, valve b closes 
 and valve a opens, permitting 
 water to enter the cylinder. As 
 P descends, a closes and 6 opens, 
 and the water is forced up into 
 the tank. During the down- 
 stroke of P, some of the water 
 rushes into the air chamber A 
 and further compresses the en- 
 closed air. During the upstroke 
 (valve 6 being then closed) this 
 air expands slightly and expels 
 some water. Thus, by the use 
 of the air chamber, the flow of 
 water from the discharge pipe 
 is made more nearly uniform. 
 The fact that the descending 
 piston may force some water into 
 
 A instead of suddenly setting into motion the entire column 
 of water in the vertical pipe, causes the pump to run more 
 smoothly. 
 
 147. The Mechanical Air Pump. The mechanical air pump 
 operates in exactly the same way as the suction pump (Fig. 97). 
 
 D 
 
 FIG. 98.
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 201 
 
 In fact, when first started, the suction pump withdraws air from 
 D, that is, it acts as an air pump. To withdraw the air from an 
 inclosure (e.g., from an incandescent lamp bulb), the tube 
 D would be connected to the bulb instead of to the cistern. The 
 process by which the air is withdrawn from the bulb is the same 
 as that by which it is withdrawn from D (Sec. 145), and need not 
 be redescribed here. As exhaustion proceeds, the air pressure 
 in the bulb and in D becomes too feeble to raise the valves. 
 Hence the practical air pump must differ from the suction water 
 pump in that its valves are operated mechanically. The valves 
 and piston must also fit much more accurately for the air pump 
 than is required for the water pump. 
 
 The upper end of the cylinder of an air pump has a top in 
 which is a small hole covered by the outlet valve. If a pipe 
 leads from this valve to an enclosed vessel the air will be forced 
 into the vessel. In such case tube D would simply be opened 
 to the air, and the pump would then be called an Air Compressor. 
 Such air compressors are used ' to furnish the compressed air 
 for operating pneumatic drills, the air-brakes on trains, and for 
 many other purposes. It will be observed that such an air 
 pump, like practically all pumps (see Fig. 98), produces suction 
 at the entrance and pressure at the exit. 
 
 Let us further consider the process of pumping air from a bulb 
 connected to the tube D. Assuming perfect action of the piston and 
 valve, and assuming that the volume of the cylinder is equal to the 
 combined volume of the bulb and D, we see that the first stroke would 
 reduce the pressure in bulb and D to 1/2 atmosphere. For as P rises 
 to the top of the cylinder, the air in bulb and D expands to double its 
 former volume, and hence the pressure, in accordance with Boyle's Law, 
 decreases to 1/2 its former value. A second upstroke reduces the pres- 
 sure in bulb and D to 1/4 atmosphere, a third to 1/8 atmosphere, a 
 fourth to 1/16 atmosphere, etc. Observe that each stroke removes only 
 1/2 of the air then remaining in the bulb. 
 
 The Geryk Pump. In the ordinary mechanical air pump there is a 
 certain amount of unavoidable clearance between the piston and the 
 end of the cylinder. The air which always remains in this clearance 
 space at the end of the stroke, expands as the piston moves away, and 
 produces a back pressure which finally prevents the further removal of 
 air from the intake tube, and therefore lowers the efficiency of the pump. 
 In the Geryk pump, air is eliminated from the clearance space by the 
 use of a thin layer of oil both above and below the piston. 
 
 148. The Sprengel Mercury Pump. The Sprengel pump exhausts
 
 202 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 very slowly, but by its use a very much better vacuum may be obtained 
 than with the ordinary mechanical air pump. It consists essentially 
 of a vertical glass tube A (Fig. 99) about one meter in length and of 
 rather small bore, terminating above in a funnel B into which mercury 
 may be poured. A short distance below the funnel a side tube leads Irom 
 the vertical tube to the vessel C to be exhausted. As the mercury drops, 
 one after another, pass down through the vertical tube into the open 
 dish below, each drop acts as a little piston and pushes ahead of it a 
 small portion of air that has entered from the side tube. Thus any 
 vessel connected with this side tube is exhausted. 
 
 Obviously, to obtain a good vacuum, the aggregate length of the little 
 mercury pistons below the side tube must be greater 
 than the barometric height, or the atmospheric 
 pressure would prevent their descent. The funnel 
 must always contain some mercury, or air will en- 
 ter and destroy the vacuum. A valve at a is ad- 
 justed to permit but a slow flow of mercury, 
 thereby causing the column to break into pistons. 
 
 149. The Windmill and the Electric Fan. 
 The common Windmill consists of a wheel 
 I A whose axis lies in the direction of the wind and 
 
 FIG. 99. 
 
 FIG. 100. 
 
 is therefore free to rotate at right angles to the direction of the 
 wind. This wheel carries radial vanes which are set obliquely 
 to the wind and hence to the axis of the wheel. In Fig. 100, 
 AB is an end view of a vane which extends toward the reader 
 from the axis (CD) of the windmill wheel. From analogy to 
 the problem of the sailboat (Sec. 20), we see at once that the 
 reaction of the wind w against the vane AB gives rise to a thrust 
 F normal to the vane. This force may be resolved into the two 
 components F\ and F 2 . Fz gives only a useless end thrust on 
 the wheel axle; while FI gives the useful force which drives the 
 vane in the direction FI. When the vane comes to a position 
 directly below the axis of the wheel, FI is directed away from
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 203 
 
 the reader. Thus in these two positions, and indeed in all other 
 positions of the vane, FI gives rise to a clockwise torque as 
 viewed from a point from which the wind is coming. Every 
 vane gives rise to a similar, constant, clockwise torque. 
 
 The ordinary electric fan is very similar to the windmill in 
 its operation, except that the process is reversed. In the case 
 of" the windmill, the wind drives the wheel and generates the 
 power; while with the fan, the electric motor furnishes the power 
 to drive the fan and produce the "wind." In the former, the 
 reaction between the vane and the air pushes the vane; while in^. 
 the latter it pushes the air. 
 
 150. Rotary Blowers and Rotary Pumps. Blowers are used 
 for a great variety of purposes. Important among these are 
 the ventilation of mines; the production of the forced draft for 
 forges and smelting furnaces; the production of the "wind" for 
 fanning mills and the wind-stackers on threshing mchines; and 
 for the production of "suction," as in the case of tubes that suck 
 up shavings from wood-working machinery, foul gases from 
 chemical operations, and dust as in the Vacuum Cleaner. All 
 blowers may be considered to be pumps, and like all pumps^ 
 they are capable of exhausting on one side and compressing on 
 the other, as pointed out in Sec. 147. Hence the above blowers 
 that produce the "wind" do not differ essentially from those 
 that produce "suction." Indeed many of the large ventilating 
 fans used in mines may be quickly changed so as to force the 
 air into the shaft, instead of "drawing" it from the shaft. 
 
 Blowers commonly produce a pressure of one pound per 
 square inch or less (i.e., a difference from atmospheric pressure 
 of 1 Ib. per sq. in.), although the so-called "positive" blowers 
 may produce eight or ten pounds per square inch. For the 
 production of highly compressed air, such as used in the air- 
 brakes on trains, the piston air pump is used (see Air 
 Compressor, Sec. 147). 
 
 Rotary Blowers. Rotary blowers are of two kinds, disc blowers 
 and centrifugal blowers. A disc fan has blades which are radial 
 and set obliquely to its axis of rotation; while the fan proper 
 has its blades parallel to its axis and usually about radial (like 
 the blades of a steamboat paddle wheel). The common electric 
 fan is of the former type, and the fan used in the fanning mill is 
 of the latter type. If a disc fan is placed at the center of a tube 
 with its axis parallel to the tube, it will, when revolved, force a
 
 204 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 stream of air through the tube. The diameter of the fan should 
 be merely enough less than that of the tube to insure " clearance." 
 Such a blower will develop at the intake end of the tube a slight 
 suction and at the other end a slight pressure. This type is 
 widely used for ventilation purposes. 
 
 The essential difference between the Turbine Pump and the 
 blower just described is that the fan is stronger and propels" a 
 stream of water instead of a stream of air. The turbine pump is 
 useful in forcing a large quantity of water up a slight grade for 
 a short distance. It is not a high pressure pump. 
 
 The Screw Propeller, universally used on ocean steamships and 
 also used on gasoline launches, is essentially a turbine pump. 
 The propeller forces a stream of water backward and the reacting 
 thrust forces the ship forward. 
 
 The Centrifugal Blower is similar in its action to the centrifugal 
 pump described below. 
 
 The Centrifugal Pump. One type of centrifugal pump, shown 
 in section in Fig. 101, consists of a wheel W, an intake pipe A 
 
 FIG. 101. 
 
 which brings water to the center of the wheel, and an outflow 
 pipe B, which conveys the water from the periphery of the wheel. 
 The direction of flow of the water at various points is indicated 
 by the arrows. By means of an electric motor or other source 
 of power, the wheel is rotated in the direction of arrow a, and the 
 centrifugal force thereby developed causes the water to flow 
 radially outward through the curved passages in the wheel as 
 indicated by the arrows. In this way, it is feasible to produce 
 a pressure of 20 or 30 Ibs. per sq. in. in the space C, which is 
 sufficient pressure to force water to a vertical height of 50 or 60 
 ft. in a pipe connected with B.
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 205 
 
 If it is desired to raise water to a greater height than this, 
 several pumps can be used in " series." In such a series arrange- 
 ment, the lowest pump would force water through outlet pipe B 
 to the intake of a similar pump, say 50 ft. above. This second 
 pump would force the water on to the next above, and so on. 
 
 151. The Turbine Water Wheel. The Turbine Water Wheel 
 operates on the same general principle as the windmill; a stream 
 of water driving the former, a stream of air the latter. Since 
 water is much more dense than air, turbine water wheels develop 
 a great deal more power than windmills of the same size. At 
 the Niagara Falls power plant, water under about 150 ft. verti- 
 cal head rushes into the great turbines, each of which develops 
 5000 H.P. Turbines of 10,000 H.P. each are used in the power 
 plant at Keokuk, Iowa. 
 
 There are several kinds of water turbines. In the "Axial Flow 
 Turbines" in which the water flows parallel to the axis, the ac- 
 tion of the windmill is practically duplicated; so that Fig. 100 and 
 the accompanying discussion would apply to a vane of such a 
 turbine, provided w were to represent moving water instead of 
 moving air. In the "Radial Flow Turbines" the water flows in a 
 general radial direction either toward or away from the axis. 
 
 If water under considerable pressure is forced in at pipe A 
 (Fig. 101) through wheel W, and out at pipe B, it will drive W 
 in the direction of arrow a. For, as the water flows outward 
 through the curved radial passages, it would, by virtue of its 
 inertia, produce a thrust against the concave wall of the passage. 
 This thrust would clearly produce a positive (left-handed) 
 torque. Under these circumstances, the wheel would develop 
 power, and would be called a radial flow turbine water wheel. 
 
 The Steam Turbine, used to obtain power from steam, is similar 
 to the water turbine in principle, but greatly differs from it in 
 detail. The development of the light, high power, high efficiency 
 steam turbine is among the comparatively recent achievements 
 of steam engineering. The steam turbine is further considered 
 in Sec. 235. 
 
 152. Pascal's Law. The fact that liquids confined in tubes,, 
 etc., transmit pressure applied at one point to all points, has 
 already been pointed out (Sec. 114). This is known as Pascal's 
 Law. Pascal's Law holds with regard to gases as well as liquids. 
 
 This law has many important applications, among which are 
 the transmission of pressure by means of the water mains to all
 
 206 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 parts of the city, and the operation of the hydraulic press and 
 the hydraulic elevator. 
 
 153. The Hydraulic Press. The hydraulic press (Fig. 102) 
 is a convenient device for securing a very great force, such as 
 required for example in the process of baling cotton. It con- 
 sists of a large piston or plunger P, fitting accurately into a hole 
 in the top of a strong cylindrical vessel B. As water is forced 
 into B by means of a force pump connected with pipe D, the 
 plunger P rises. As P rises, the platform C compresses the 
 cotton which occupies the space A. By opening a valve E, the 
 water is permitted to escape and P descends. 
 
 In accordance with Pascal's Law, the pressure developed by 
 the force pump is transmitted through D to 
 the plunger P. It will be observed that since 
 the pressure on the curved surface of the 
 plunger is perpendicular to that surface (Sec. 
 114), it will have no tendency to lift the 
 plunger. The lifting force is pAi, in which 
 AI is the area of the bottom end of the 
 plunger, and p, the water pressure. 
 
 If the area of the piston of the force pump is 
 A 2 , then, since the pressure below this piston 
 FIG. 102. is practically the same as that acting upon 
 
 plunger P, it follows that the lift exerted by P 
 will be greater than the downward push upon the piston of the 
 force pump in the ratio of AI to A z . In other words, the theo- 
 retical mechanical advantage is Ai-i- A%. 
 
 Instead of using a force pump, the pipe D may be connected 
 to the city water system. If this pressure is 100 Ibs. per in. 2 , 
 and if ^li = 100 in. 2 , then P will exert a force of 10,000 Ibs. or 
 5 tons. With some steel forging presses a force of several 
 thousand tons is obtained. 
 
 154. The Hydraulic Elevator. The simplest form of hydraulic 
 elevator, known as the direct-connected or direct-lift type, is 
 the same in construction and operation as the hydraulic press 
 .(Fig. 102), except that the plunger is longer. If the elevator, 
 built on platform C, is to have a vertical travel of 30 ft., then the 
 plunger P must be at least 30 ft. in length. 
 
 In another type of hydraulic elevator, the plunger and con- 
 taining cylinder lie in a horizontal position in the basement of 
 the building. The plunger is then connected with the elevator
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 
 
 207 
 
 by means of a system of gears or pulleys and cables in such a 
 way that the elevator travels much farther, and hence also much 
 faster than the plunger. This type is much better than the 
 direct-connected type for operating elevators in high buildings. 
 In both types the valves that regulate the flow of water to and 
 from the cylinder are controlled from the elevator. 
 
 155. The Hydraulic Ram. The hydraulic ram (shown in 
 Fig. 103) depends for its action upon the high pressure developed 
 when a moving stream of water confined in a tube is suddenly 
 stopped. It is used to raise a small percentage of the water 
 from a spring or other source to a considerable height. 
 
 The valve C is heavy enough so that the water pressure lidg 
 (see figure) is not quite sufficient to keep it closed. As it sinks 
 slightly, the water flows rapidly past above it; while at the 
 same time the water below it is practically still. In the next 
 
 FIG. 103. 
 
 section it will be shown that the pressure on a fluid becomes 
 lower the faster it moves; accordingly, the pressure above the 
 valve is less than the pressure below, and the valve rises and 
 closes. The closing of this valve suddenly checks the motion 
 of the water in pipe B. But suddenly stopping any body in 
 motion requires a relatively large accelerating force (negative), 
 hence here a considerable pressure is developed in pipe B. This 
 "instantaneous," or better brief, pressure opens the valve D 
 and forces some water into the air chamber E and also into 
 pipe F. Valve C now sinks, and the operation is repeated, forc- 
 ing still more water in E, until finally the water is forced through 
 F into a supply tank which is on higher ground than the source 
 A. The action of the air chamber is explained in Sec. 146. 
 
 If the hydraulic ram had an efficiency of 100 per cent., then, 
 from the conservation of energy, we see that it would raise 1/n
 
 208 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 of the total amount of water to a height nh. Its efficiency, how- 
 ever, is only about 60 per cent.; hence it will force l/n of the 
 total water used to a height 0.6 nh. 
 
 156. Diminution of Pressure in Regions of High Velocity. If 
 a stream of air is forced rapidly through the tube A (Fig. 104), 
 it will be found that the pressure at the restricted portion B is 
 less than elsewhere, as at C or D. If the end D is short and 
 open to the air, manometer F will indicate that D is practically 
 at atmospheric pressure. The pressure at C will be slightly 
 above atmospheric pressure, as indicated by manometer E. 
 That the pressure at B is less than one atmosphere, and hence 
 less than at either C or D, is evidenced by the fact that the liquid 
 stands higher in tube than in the vessel H. 
 
 H 
 
 FIG. 104. 
 
 That the pressure at B should be less than at C or D is ex- 
 plained as follows: Since the tube has a smaller cross section 
 at B than at C or D, it is evident that the air must have a higher 
 velocity at B than at the other two points, as indicated in the 
 figure by the difference in the length of the arrows. As a particle 
 of air moves from C to B its velocity, then, increases. To cause 
 this increase in velocity requires an accelerating force. Conse- 
 quently the pressure behind this particle tending to force it to 
 the right must be greater than the pressure in front of it, tending 
 to force it to the left. As the particle moves from B to D it 
 slows down, showing that the backward pressure upon it must 
 be greater than the forward pressure. Thus B is a" region of 
 lower pressure than either C or D simply because it is a region 
 of higher velocity. The reduction in pressure at B is explained
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 
 
 209 
 
 by means of Bernoulli's theorem under "Venturi Water Meter" 
 (see below). 
 
 The Atomizer. If the air rushes through B still more rapidly, 
 the pressure will be sufficiently reduced so that the liquid will 
 be " drawn" up from vessel H and thrown out at I as a fine spray. 
 The tube then becomes an atomizer. 
 
 The Aspirator or Filter Pump. A similar reduction in pressure 
 occurs at B if water flows rapidly through the tube. Thus, if 
 the tube is attached in a vertical position to a faucet, the water 
 rushing through B produces a low pressure and consequently 
 "suction," so that if a vessel is connected with G the air is 
 withdrawn from it, producing a partial vacuum. Under these 
 circumstances the tube acts as a filter pump or aspirator. 
 
 The "forced draft" of locomotives is produced by a jet of 
 steam directed upward in the smoke stack. 
 
 The Jet Pump. If a stream of water from a hydrant is directed 
 through B, a tube connected with G may be employed to "draw" 
 
 FIG. 105. 
 
 water from a cistern or flooded basement. Such an arrangement 
 is a jet pump. In Fig. 105 a jet pump is shown pumping water 
 from a basement B into the street gutter /. Pipe A is con- 
 nected to the hydrant. 
 
 Bernoulli's Theorem. Bernoulli's Theorem, first enunciated 
 in 1738 by John Bernoulli, is of fundamental importance to some 
 phases of the study of hydraulics. We shall develop this theorem 
 from a discussion of Fig. 95. 
 
 Let water flow into A at the top as rapidly as it flows out at 
 B, thus maintaining a constant water level. Let us next con- 
 sider the energy possessed by a given volume V of water in the
 
 210 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 different stages of its passage from the surface S to the out- 
 flowing stream at B. Its energy (potential energy Ep) when 
 at S is Mghi CEq. 50, Sec. 75), and, since M=Vd (volume times 
 density, Sec. 101), we have 
 
 As this given volume reaches point 6 at a slight distance h above 
 the orifice, it has potential energy Mgh, or Vdgh, and, since it 
 now has appreciable velocity v, it has kinetic energy %Mv*, 
 or %Vdv 2 . In addition to this it has potential energy, because 
 of the pressure (p) exerted upon it by the water above, which 
 energy, we shall presently prove, is pV. Consequently, its total 
 energy when at b is 
 
 E=Vdgh+pV+$Vdv* (73) 
 
 Eq. 73 is the mathmetical statement of Bernoulli's theorem. 
 If C.G.S. units are used throughout (i.e., if V is given in cm. 3 , 
 p in dynes per cm. 2 , v in cm. per sec., etc.), then E will be the 
 energy in ergs. If the volume chosen is unity, the equation re- 
 duces to E = dgh-\-p+%dv 2 , a form frequently given. 
 
 Observe that when the volume V is at S, p and v are zero, hence 
 E= Vdghi as already shown; while when this volume reaches the 
 flowing stream, p and h are zero, hence E = %Vdv 2 (i.e., \Mv*}. 
 From the law of the conservation of energy we know that these 
 two amounts of energy must be equal, i.e., Vdghi = %Vdv*, 
 which reduces to v= '\l2ghi, an equation already deduced (Sec. 
 143) from slightly different considerations. When the volume 
 is half way down in vessel A, Vdgh = pV, and the third term 
 \Vdv z is practically zero, since v at this point has a small value. 
 It should be observed that when the volume under consideration 
 is below the surface, then the height measured from the volume 
 up to the surface determines the pressure; whereas the height 
 measured from the volume down to the orifice, determines the 
 potential energy due to the elevated position. Obviously the 
 energy due to elevation decreases by the same amount that 
 the energy due to pressure increases, and vice versa, and the 
 sum of these two amounts of energy is constant so long as the 
 velocity v (last term Eq. 73) is practically zero. 
 
 We shall now prove that the potential energy of the above 
 volume V, when subjected to a pressure p, is pV. Let the volume 
 V, as it passes out at B, slowly push a snug-fitting piston in B a
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 211 
 
 distance di such that diAi = V, in which Ai is the cross section 
 of the orifice. The work done by the volume V on the piston 
 is pAiXdi (force times distance), which shows that the potential 
 energy of V immediately before exit was pXAidi or pV. 
 
 The Venturi Water Meter. The Venturi water meter, used 
 for measuring rate of flow, differs from the apparatus sketched 
 in Fig. 104 in that the medium is water instead of air, and the 
 pressure is measured by ordinary pressure gages instead of 
 as shown. If pipe A were 6 ft. in diameter at C, it would taper 
 in a distance of 100 ft. or so to a diameter of about 2 ft. at B. 
 
 Let the pressure, area of cross section, and velocity of flow 
 at C and B, respectively, be p e , A c , v c , and p b , A b , v b . Now the 
 energy of a given volume V when at C must be equal to its 
 energy when at B; hence, from Eq. 73, we have 
 
 Vdgh + PC V + 1 Vdv c * = Vdgh + p b V + Vdv b * 
 from which we get 
 
 . f ) (74) 
 
 Since in unit time equal volumes must pass B and C, we have 
 
 e 
 
 n-b 
 
 Substituting in Eq. 74 this value of v b gives 
 
 or v b = -T^v e (74a) 
 
 If the pressure is reduced to poundals per square foot, the 
 cross section to square feet, and if the density of the water is 
 also expressed in the British system (i.e., 62.4 Ibs. per cu. ft.), 
 then v c will be expressed in feet per second. Multiplying v c 
 by Ac (in square feet) gives, for the rate of flow, v c A c , in cubic 
 feet per second. 
 
 157. The Injector. Injectors are used for forcing water into 
 boilers while the steam pressure is on. Their operation depends 
 upon the decrease of pressure produced by the high velocity of 
 a jet of steam, coupled with the condensation of the steam in 
 the jet by contact with the water spray brought into the jet by 
 the atomizer action (Sec. 156). Some of the commercial forms 
 of the injector are quite complicated. 
 
 The injector shown diagrammatically in Fig. 106 is compara-
 
 212 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 tively simple. If valves a and d are opened, b being closed, the 
 steam from the boiler B rushes through D, E and e and out at 
 a into the outside air. The steam, especially at the restricted 
 portion E of the tube, has a very high velocity, and hence, from 
 Sec. 156, we see that a low pressure exists at E. The pressure 
 at E being less than one atmosphere, the atmospheric pressure 
 upon the water in the tank forces water up through the pipe 
 P into E, where it passes to the right with the steam which 
 quickly condenses. This stream of water, due to its momentum, 
 raises check valve b and passes into the boiler against the boiler 
 pressure. As soon as the flow through b is established, valve a 
 should be closed. In many injec- 
 tors, the suction due to the par- 
 tial vacuum at e automatically 
 closes a check valve opening down- 
 ward at a. 
 
 It should be pointed out that in 
 the action of the injector, by which 
 steam under a pressure p forces 
 supply water (and also the con- 
 densed steam) into the boiler against 
 this same steam pressure plus a 
 FIG. 106. slight water pressure (see figure), 
 
 there is no violation of the law of 
 
 the conservation of energy The energy involved is pressure 
 times volume in both cases, but the volume of water forced into 
 the boiler in a given time is much less than the volume of steam 
 used by the injector. 
 
 158. The Ball and Jet If a stream of air B, Fig. 107, is 
 directed as shown against a light ball A, e.g., a ping pong ball 
 or tennis ball, the ball will remain in the air and rapidly revolve 
 in the direction indicated. 
 
 The explanation is simple. There are three forces acting 
 upon the ball, namely, W, F\, and F 2 , as shown. The force FI 
 arises from the impact of the stream of air B. The force F z is 
 due to the fact that the air pressure at a is less than at b. The 
 pressure at 6 is one atmosphere, while at a it is slightly less be- 
 cause a is a region of high velocity. W represents the weight 
 of A. If it is desired to determine the magnitude of F\ and F z , 
 the magnitude of W may be found by weighing A, and then, 
 since the ball is in equilibrium, these three forces W, FI, and
 
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS IN MOTION 
 
 213 
 
 FIG. 107. 
 
 Fz, acting upon it must form a closed triangle, as explained in 
 Sec. 18. 
 
 Card and Spool. If a circular card, having a pin inserted 
 through the center, is placed below a spool through the center of 
 which a rapid stream of air is blown, it will be found that the card 
 will be supported in spite of the downward rush of air upon it 
 which might be expected to blow 
 it away. The air above the card 
 is moving rapidly in all directions 
 away from the center; consequent- 
 ly the region between the spool and 
 card, being a region of high veloc- 
 ity, is also a region of low pressure 
 lower, in fact, than the pressure 
 below the card. This difference in 
 pressure will not only support the 
 weight of the card, but also addi- 
 tional weight. 
 
 159. The Curving of a Baseball. 
 The principle involved in the 
 pitching of "in curves," "out 
 
 curves, " etc., will be understood from a discussion of Fig. 108. 
 Let A represent a baseball rotating as indicated, and moving to 
 the right with a velocity v. If A were perfectly frictionless, the 
 air would rush past it equally fast above and below, i.e., v v 
 and # 2 would be equal. (We are familiar with the fact that a 
 person running 10 mi. per hr. east through still air, faces a 10 mi. 
 per hr. breeze apparently going west.) If the surface of the ball 
 
 is rough, however, it will be evi- 
 dent that where this surface is 
 moving in the direction of the 
 rush of air past it, as on the 
 upper side, it will not retard that 
 rush so much as if it were mov- 
 ing in the direction opposite to 
 the rush of air, as it clearly is 
 The air, then, rushes more read- 
 ily, and hence more rapidly, past the upper surface than past 
 the lower surface of the ball; hence, as the ball moves to the 
 right, the air pressure above it is less than it is below, and an 
 "up curve" results. 
 
 FIG. 108. 
 
 on the lower side of the ball.
 
 214 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 The "drop curve" is produced by causing the ball to rotate 
 in a direction opposite to that shown; while the "in curve" and 
 "out curve" require rotation about a vertical axis. 
 
 A lath may be made to produce a very pronounced curve by 
 throwing it in such a way as to cause it to rotate rapidly about 
 its longitudinal axis, the length of the lath being perpendicular 
 to its path. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. A force pump, having a 3-ft. handle with the piston rod operated by a 
 6-in. "arm," (i.e., with the pivot bolt 6 in. from one end of the handle), and 
 having a piston head 2 in. in diameter, is used to pump water into an hydrau- 
 lic press whose plunger is 1.5 ft. in diameter. What force will a 100-lb. 
 pull on the end of the pump handle exert upon the plunger of the press? 
 
 2. An hydraulic press whose plunger is 2 ft. in diameter is operated by water 
 at a pressure of 600 Ibs. per sq. in. How much force does it exert? Express 
 in tons. 
 
 3. An hydraulic elevator operated by water under a pressure of 100 Ibs. 
 per in. 2 has a plunger 10 in. in diameter and weighs 2.5 tons. How much 
 freight can it carry? 
 
 4. If /n = 10 ft., and h 2 = lS ft. (Fig. 96), what will be the pressure at C 
 (a) if the left end of the siphon is stoppered? (6) If the right end is stop- 
 pered? Assume the barometric pressure to be equal to that due to 34 ft. 
 depth of water. 
 
 6. What pressure will be required to pump water from a river into a tank 
 on a hill 300 ft. above the river, if 20 per cent, of the total pressure is needed 
 to overcome friction in the conveying pipes? 
 
 6. How long will it take a 10-H.P. pump (output 10 H.P.) to pump 
 1000 cu. ft. of water into the tank (Prob. 5)? 
 
 7. If the water in pipe B (Fig. 94) flows with a velocity of 4 ft. per sec., 
 what will be the value of & 2 ? Neglect friction head in the portion i to c" 
 (Sees. 142 and 143). 
 
 8. What would be the limiting (maximum) distance from the piston to 
 the water level in the cistern (Fig. 97) at such an altitude that the baro- 
 metric height is 20 in.?
 
 PART III 
 HEAT
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 
 
 160. The Nature of Heat. As was pointed out in the study 
 of Mechanics, a portion of the power applied to any machine 
 is used in overcoming friction. It is a matter of everyday ob- 
 servation that friction develops heat. It follows, then, that 
 mechanical energy may be changed to heat. In the case of the 
 steam engine or the gas engine the ability to do work, that is 
 to run the machinery, ceases when the heat supply is withdrawn. 
 Therefore heat is transformed into mechanical energy by these 
 engines, which on this account are sometimes called heat engines. 
 
 Heat, then, is a form of energy, a body when hot possessing 
 more energy than when cold. Cold, it may be remarked, is not 
 a physical quantity but merely the comparative absence of heat, 
 just as darkness is absence of light. The heat energy of a body 
 is supposed to be due to a very rapid vibration of the molecules 
 of the body. As a body is heated to a higher temperature, 
 these vibrations become more violent. 
 
 It has been proved experimentally, practically beyond ques- 
 tion, that both radiant heat and light consist in waves in the 
 transmitting medium (ether). To produce a wave motion in 
 any medium requires a vibrating body. As a body, for example 
 a piece of iron, becomes hotter and hotter it radiates more heat 
 and light. Hence, since the iron does not vibrate as a whole, 
 the logical inference is that the radiant heat and light are pro- 
 duced by the vibrations of its molecular or atomic particles. 
 
 Until about one hundred years ago heat was supposed to be 
 a substance, devoid of weight or mass, called Caloric, which, 
 when added to a body caused it to become hotter, and when 
 withdrawn from a body left the body colder. In 1798, Count 
 Rumford showed that an almost unlimited amount of heat could 
 be taken from a cannon by boring it with a dull drill. The heat 
 was produced, of course, by friction. In the process a very small 
 amount of metal was removed. As the drilling proceeded and 
 more "caloric" was taken from the cannon, it actually became 
 217
 
 218 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 hotter instead of colder as the caloric theory required. Further- 
 more, the amount of heat developed seemed to depend upon 
 the amount of work done in turning the drill. The result was 
 the complete overthrow of the caloric theory. 
 
 In 1843, Joule showed by experiment that if 772 ft.-lbs. of 
 work were used in stirring 1 Ib. of water, its temperature would 
 be raised 1 F. This experiment showed beyond question that 
 heat is a form of energy, and that it can be measured in terms 
 of work units. Later determinations have given 778 ft.-lbs. 
 as the work necessary to raise the temperature of 1 Ib. of water 
 1 F. The amount of heat required to warm 1 Ib. of water 1 F. 
 is called the British Thermal Unit (B.T.U.); so that 1 B.T.U. = 
 778 ft.-lbs. 
 
 161. Sources of Heat. As already stated, Friction is one 
 source of heat. Rubbing the hands together produces noticeable 
 warmth. Shafts become quite hot if not properly oiled. Primi- 
 tive man lighted his fires by vigorously rubbing two pieces of 
 wood together. The shower of sparks from a steel tool held 
 against a rapidly revolving emery wheel, and the train of sparks 
 left by a meteor or shooting star, show that high temperatures 
 may be produced by friction. In the latter case, the friction 
 between the small piece of rock forming the meteor, and the 
 air through which it rushes at a tremendous velocity, develops, 
 as a rule, sufficient heat to burn it up in less than a second. 
 
 Chemical Energy. Chemical energy is an important source 
 of heat. The chemical energy of combination of the oxygen of 
 the air with the carbon and hydrocarbons (compounds of car- 
 bon and hydrogen) of coal or wood, is the source of heat when 
 these substances are "burned," .that is, oxidized. In almost 
 every chemical reaction in which new compounds are formed, 
 heat is produced. 
 
 The Main Source of heat is the Sun. The rate of flow of heat 
 energy in the sun's rays amounts to about 1/4 H.P. for every 
 square foot of surface at right angles to the rays. Upon a high 
 mountain this amount is greater, since the strata of the air below 
 the mountain peak absorb from 10 to 20 per cent, of the energy 
 of the sun's rays before they reach the earth. On the basis of 
 1/4 H.P. per sq. ft., the total power received by the earth from 
 the sun is easily shown to be about 350 million million H.P. 
 This enormous amount of power is only about 1/2,000,000,000 
 part of the total power given out by the sun in all directions.
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 219 
 
 Obviously a surface receives more heat if the sun's rays strike 
 it normally (position AB, Fig. 109) than if aslant (position A Bi), 
 for in the latter case fewer rays strike it. Largely for this 
 reason, the ground is hotter under the noonday sun than it is 
 earlier. The higher temperature in summer than in winter is 
 due to the fact that the sun is, on an average, more nearly over- 
 head in summer than in winter. The hottest part of the day 
 is not at noon as we might at first expect, but an hour or two 
 later. This lagging occurs because of the time required to warm 
 up the ground and the air. A similar lagging occurs in the sea- 
 sons, so that the hottest and the coldest weather do not fall re- 
 spectively on the longest day (June 21) and the shortest (Dec. 
 22), but a month or so later as a rule. 
 
 The above-mentioned sources are the three main sources of 
 heat. There are other minor sources. An electric current heats 
 a wire or any other substance solid, liquid, or gas through 
 
 FIG. 109. 
 
 which it passes. This source is of great commercial importance. 
 The condensation of water vapor produces a large amount of 
 heat, and this heat is one of the greatest factors in producing 
 wind storms as explained in Sec. 223. 
 
 162. The Effects of Heat. The principal effects of heat are : 
 (a) Rise in temperature. 
 (6) Increase in size. 
 
 (c) Change of state. 
 
 (d) Chemical change. 
 
 (e) Physiological effect. 
 CD Electrical effect. 
 
 (a) With but very few exceptions a body becomes hotter, 
 i.e., its temperature rises, when heat is applied to it. Excep- 
 tions : If water containing crushed ice is placed in a vessel on a 
 hot stove, the water will not become perceptibly hotter until 
 practically all of the ice is melted. Further application of heat
 
 220 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 causes the water to become hotter until the boil'ng point is 
 reached, when it will be found that the temperature again ceases 
 to rise until all of the water boils away, whereupon the contain- 
 ing vessel becomes exceedingly hot. In this case, the heat energy 
 supplied, instead of causing a temperature rise (a), has been used 
 in producing a change of state (c), i.e., it has been used in changing 
 ice to water, or water to steam. 
 
 (6) As heat is supplied to a body, it almost invariably produces 
 an increase in its size. It might readily be inferred that the 
 more violent molecular vibrations which occur as the body be- 
 comes hotter, would cause it to occupy more space, just as a 
 crowd takes more room if the individuals are running to and fro 
 than if they are standing still or moving less. Exception to 
 (6) : If a vessel filled with ice is heated until the ice is melted, 
 the vessel will be only about 9/10 full. In this case heat has 
 caused a decrease in size. This case is decidedly exceptional, 
 however, in that a change of state (c) is involved. It is also 
 true that most substances expand upon melting instead of 
 contracting as ice does. 
 
 (d) To ignite wood, coal, or any other substance, it is neces- 
 sary to heat it to its "kindling" or ignition temperature, before 
 the chemical change called "burning" will take place. In the 
 limekiln, the excessive heat separates carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 
 from the limestone, or crude calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ), leaving 
 calcium oxide (CaO), called lime. There are other chemical re- 
 actions besides oxidation which take place appreciably only at 
 high temperatures. Slow oxidation of many substances occurs 
 at ordinary temperatures. All chemical reactions are much less 
 active at extremely low temperatures such as the temperature 
 produced by liquid air. 
 
 (e) Heat is essential to all forms of life. Either insufficient 
 heat or excessive heat is exceedingly painful. 
 
 (/) The production of electrical effect by heat will be discussed 
 under the head of the Thermocouple (Sec. 174). 
 
 163. Temperature. The temperature of a body specifies its 
 state with respect to its ability to impart heat to other bodies. 
 Thus, if a body A is at a higher temperature than another body 
 B, it will always be found that heat will flow from A to B if they 
 are brought into contact, or even if brought near together. The 
 greater the temperature difference between A and B, other things 
 being equal, the more rapid will be the heat transfer. The tern-
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 221 
 
 perature of a body rises as the heat vibrations of its molecules 
 become more violent. 
 
 The temperature of a body cannot be measured directly, but it 
 may be measured by some of the other effects of heat, as (6) 
 and (/) (Sec. 162), or it may be roughly estimated by the physi- 
 ological effect or temperature sense. Heat of itself always passes 
 from a body of higher temperature to one of lower tempera- 
 ture. The temperature sense serves usually as a rough guide 
 in determining temperature, but it is sometimes very unre- 
 liable and even misleading, as may be seen from the following 
 examples. 
 
 If the right hand is placed in hot water and the left hand in 
 cold water for a moment, and then both are placed in tepid water, 
 this tepid water will feel cold to the right hand and warm to the 
 left hand. Under these conditions heat flows or passes from the 
 right hand to the tepid water. The tepid water being warmer 
 than the left hand, the flow is in the opposite direction. Hence 
 if heat flows from the hand to a body, we consider the body to be 
 cold, while if the reverse is true, we consider it to be warm. 
 If A shakes B's hand and observes that it feels cold we may be 
 sure that B notices that A's hand is warm. 
 
 If the hand is touched to several articles which have been 
 lying in a cool room for some time, and which are therefore at 
 the same temperature, it will be found that the articles made of 
 wool do not feel noticeably cool to the touch. The cotton articles, 
 however, feel perceptibly cool, the wooden articles cold, and the 
 metal articles still colder. The metal feels colder than wood 
 or wool, because it takes heat from the hand more rapidly, due 
 to its power (called conductivity) of transmitting heat from the 
 layer of molecules in contact with the hand to those farther 
 away. Wood is a poor conductor of heat and wool is a very 
 poor conductor; so that in touching the latter, practically only 
 the particles .touching the hand are warmed, and hence very 
 little heat is withdrawn from the hand and no sensation of cold 
 results. 
 
 One of the most accurate methods of comparing and measur- 
 ing temperatures, and the one almost universally used, makes 
 use of the fact that as heat is supplied to a body, its temperature 
 rise, and its expansion, or increase in size, go hand in hand. 
 Thus if 10 rise in temperature causes a certain metal rod to be- 
 come 1 mm. longer, then an increase of 5 mm. in length will
 
 222 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 show that the temperature rise is almost exactly 5 times as 
 great, or practically 50. This principle is employed in the use 
 of thermometers. 
 
 164. Thermometers. From the preceding section it will be 
 seen that any substance which expands uniformly with tempera- 
 ture rise can be used for constructing a thermometer. Air or 
 almost any gas, mercury, and the other metals meet this require- 
 ment and are so used. Alcohol is fairly good for this purpose 
 and has the advantage of not freezing in the far north as mercury 
 does. Water is entirely unsuitable, because its expansion, as 
 its temperature rises, varies so greatly. When ice cold water 
 is slightly heated it actually decreases in volume (see Maximum 
 Density, Sec. 185) ; whereas further heating causes it to expand, 
 but not uniformly. 
 
 The fact that in the case of alcohol, the expansion per degree 
 becomes slightly greater as the temperature rises, makes it neces- 
 sary to gradually increase the length of the degree divisions 
 toward the top of the scale. In the case of mercury, the expan- 
 sion is so nearly uniform that the degree divisions are made of 
 equal length throughout the scale. 
 
 Mercury is the most widely used thermometric substance. 
 It is well adapted to this use because it expands almost uni- 
 formly with temperature rise; has a fairly large coefficient of 
 expansion; does not stick to the glass; has a low freezing point 
 ( -38.8 C.) and a high boiling point (357 C.) ; and, being opaque, 
 a thin thread of it is easily seen. 
 
 165. The Mercury Thermometer. The mercury thermometer 
 consists of a glass tube T (Fig. 110) of very small bore, termi- 
 nating in a bulb B filled with mercury. As the bulb is heated, 
 the mercury expands and rises in the tube (called the stem), 
 thereby indicating the temperature rise of the bulb. In filling 
 the bulb, great care must be taken to exclude air. 
 
 Briefly, the method of introducing the mercury into the bulb 
 is as follows: The bulb is first heated to cause the air contained 
 in it to expand, in order that a portion of it may be driven out of 
 the open upper end of the stem. This end is then quickly placed 
 in mercury, so that when the bulb cools, and consequently the air 
 pressure within it falls below one atmosphere, some mercury is 
 forced up into the bulb. If, now, the bulb is again heated until 
 the mercury in it boils, the mercury vapor formed drives out all 
 of the air; so that upon again placing the end of the stem in the
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 
 
 223 
 
 mercury and allowing the bulb to cool, thereby condensing the 
 vapor, the bulb and stem are completely filled with mercury. 
 
 Let us suppose that the highest temperature which the above 
 thermometer is designed to read is 120 C. The bulb is heated 
 to about 125, expelling some of the mercury from 
 the open end of the tube which is then sealed off. 
 Upon cooling, the mercury contracts, so that a vacuum 
 is formed in the stem above the mercury. It will 
 be evident that as the mercury in B is heated and ex- 
 pands, its upper surface, called its meniscus m, will 
 rise; while if it is cooled its contraction will cause 
 the meniscus to fall. Attention is called to the fact 
 that if mercury and glass expanded equally upon be- 
 ing heated, then no motion of m would result. Mer- 
 cury, however, has a much larger coefficient of expan- 
 sion than glass (see table, Sec. 171). If heat is sud- 
 denly applied, for example by plunging the bulb into 
 hot water, the glass becomes heated first, and m 
 actually drops slightly, instantly to rise again as the 
 mercury becomes heated. 
 
 The position of the meniscus m, then, except in the 
 case of very sudden changes in temperature such as 
 just cited, indicates the temperature to which the bulb 
 B is subjected. In order, however, to tell definitely 
 what temperature corresponds to a given position of 
 m, it is necessary to "calibrate" the thermometer. 
 To do this, the thermometer is placed in steam in an 
 enclosed space over boiling water. This heats the 
 mercury in B, thereby causing it to expand, and the 
 meniscus m rises to a point which may be marked 
 a. The thermometer is next placed in moist crushed 
 ice which causes the mercury to contract, thereby low- 
 ering the meniscus to the point marked 6. We have U B 
 now determined two fixed points, a and b, corresponding 
 respectively to the boiling point of water and the F 
 melting point of ice. It now remains to decide what 
 we shall call the temperatures corresponding to a and 6, which 
 decision also determines how many divisions of the scale there 
 shall be between these two points. Several different "scales" 
 are used, two of which will be discussed in the next section. 
 
 Thermometers should not be calibrated until several years
 
 224 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 B 
 
 after filling. If calibrated immediately, it will be found after 
 a short time that because of the gradual contraction that has 
 taken place in the glass, all of the readings are slightly too high. 
 166. Thermometer Scales. The two thermometer scales in 
 common use are the Centigrade and 
 Fahrenheit scales. To calibrate a 
 thermometer, according to the cen- 
 tigrade scale, the point 6 (Fig. 110) 
 is marked 0, and the point a is 
 marked 100, which makes it nec- 
 essary to divide ab into 100 equal 
 parts in order that each part shall 
 correspond to a degree. Accord- 
 ingly we see that ice melts at zero 
 degrees centigrade, written C., 
 and that water boils at 100 C. In- 
 creasing the pressure, slightly lowers 
 the melting point of ice (Sec. 186) 
 and appreciably raises the boiling 
 point of water (Sec. 194). To be 
 accurate, ice melts at C. and 
 water boils at 100 C. when sub- 
 jected to standard atmospheric 
 pressure (76 cm. of mercury). If 
 the pressure differs from this, cor- 
 rection must be made, at least in 
 the case of the boiling point. 
 
 The Fahrenheit scale is in com- 
 mon use in the United States and 
 Great Britain. To calibrate the 
 thermometer (Fig. 110) according 
 to the Fahrenheit scale, the "ice 
 point" 6 is marked 32, and the 
 boiling point a is marked 212. 
 The difference between these two 
 points is 180 so that ab will have 
 to be divided into 180 equal spaces 
 
 in order that each space shall correspond to a degree change of 
 temperature. Using the same space for a degree, the scale may 
 be extended above 212 and below 32. 
 
 The Fahrenheit scale has the advantage of a low zero point 
 
 FIG. 111.
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 225 
 
 which makes it seldom necessary to use negative readings, and 
 small enough degree division that it is commonly unnecessary 
 to use fractional parts of a degree in expressing temperatures. 
 The Reaumer scale ("ice point" 0, "boiling point" 80), used for 
 household purposes in Germany, has nothing to recommend it. 
 
 It is frequently necessary to change a temperature reading 
 from the Fahrenheit scale to the centigrade or vice versa. For 
 convenience in illustrating the method, let A and B (Fig. Ill) 
 represent two thermometers which are exactly alike except that 
 A is calibrated according to the centigrade scale, and B accord- 
 ing to the Fahrenheit. If both are placed in crushed ice, A will 
 read C. and B, 32 F.; while if placed in steam, A will read 
 100 C. and B, 212 F. If both thermometers are placed in 
 warm water in which A reads 40 C., then the temperature / 
 that thermometer B should indicate may be found as follows: 
 The fact that the distance between the ice point and boiling point 
 is 100 on A, and 180 on B, shows that the centigrade degree 
 is 180/100 or 9/5 Fahrenheit degrees. From the figure it is 
 seen that / is 40 C. above ice point or 40X9/5 = 72 F. above 
 32 F., or 104 F. Next, let both thermometers be placed in 
 quite hot water in which B reads 140 F., and let it be required 
 to find the corresponding reading c of A. Since 140 32 = 108, 
 the distance be corresponds to 108 F., or 108X5/9 = 60 C. 
 Hence 140 F. = 60 C. In the same way any temperature 
 reading may be changed from one scale to the other. 
 
 167. Other Thermometers. There are several different kinds of 
 thermometers, each designed for a special purpose, which we shall now 
 briefly consider. 
 
 Maximum Thermometer. In the maximum thermometer of Negretti 
 and Zambra there is, near the bulb, a restriction in the capillary bore of 
 the stem. As the temperature rises, the mercury passes the restriction, 
 but as the temperature falls, and the mercury in the bulb contracts, the 
 mercury thread breaks at the restriction and thus records the maximum 
 temperature. To reset the instrument, the mercury is forced past the 
 restriction down into the bulb by the centrifugal force developed by 
 swinging the thermometer through an arc. 
 
 The Clinical Thermometer. The clinical thermometer, used by phy- 
 sicians, differs from the one just described in that it is calibrated for but 
 a few degrees above and below the normal temperature of the body 
 (98. 6 F.). It also has a large bulb in comparison with the size of the 
 bore of the stem, thus securing long degree divisions and enabling more 
 accurate reading.
 
 226 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Six's Maximum and Minimum Thermometer. In this thermometer 
 the expansion of the alcohol (or glycerine) in the glass bulb A (Fig. 112), 
 as the temperature rises, forces the mercury down in tube B and up in 
 the tube C. As the mercury rises in C it pushes the small index c 
 
 (shown enlarged at left) before it. 
 When the temperature again falls, c 
 is held in place by a weak spring and 
 thus records the maximum tempera- 
 ture. The contraction of the alco- 
 hol in A as the temperature decreases 
 causes the mercury to sink in C and 
 rise in B. As the mercury rises in B 
 it pushes index b before it and thus 
 records the minimum temperature. 
 This thermometer is convenient for 
 meteorological observations. The 
 instrument is reset by drawing the 
 indexes down to the mercury by 
 means of a magnet held against the 
 glass tube. 
 
 The Wet-and-dry-bulb Thermom- 
 eter, also used in meteorological 
 work, is discussed in Sec. 198 and 
 Sec. 222. 
 
 The Gas Thermometer. There are 
 two kinds of gas thermometers, the 
 constant-pressure and the constant- 
 volume thermometers. A simple 
 form of Constant-pressure Thermom- 
 eter is shown in Fig. 113. As the 
 gas in B is heated or cooled, the 
 accompanying expansion and con- 
 traction forces the liquid index / to 
 the right or left. The fact that for 
 each degree of rise or fall in tem- 
 perature, the volume of a given 
 quantity of gas (under constant pres- 
 sure) changes by 1/273 of its volume 
 at C. (Sec. 171), makes possible 
 the accurate marking of the degree 
 
 division on the stem, provided the volume of B and the cross section of 
 the bore of the stem are both known. 
 
 A simple form of the Constant-volume Gas Thermometer is shown in 
 Fig. 114. The stem A of the bulb B which contains the gas is connected 
 with the glass tube C by the rubber tube T which contains the mercury. 
 
 FIG. 112.
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 
 
 227 
 
 When a quantity of gas is heated and not permitted to increase in 
 volume, its pressure increases 1/273 of its pressure at C. for every 
 degree (centigrade degree) rise in temperature (Sec. 171). If, when B 
 is at C., and meniscus mi is at mark a, the meniscus m 2 is at the same 
 level as mi, then it is known that the pressure of the gas in B is one atmos- 
 phere. If, now, the temperature of .B rises, mi is pushed down; but by 
 
 raising C until m 2 is at the proper height h above mi, the mercury is 
 forced back to mark a, thus maintaining the constancy of the volume 
 of air in B and A. Suppose that the required height h is 10 cm. The 
 excess pressure of the gas in B above atmospheric pressure will then be 
 10/76 or 36/273 atmospheres, and the temperature of B, according to the 
 gas law just stated, must be 36 above zero, that is 36 C. 
 
 The Constant-volume Hydrogen Ther- 
 mometer is by international agreement 
 the standard instrument for tempera- 
 ture measurements. This instrument 
 differs in detail, but not in principle, 
 from the one shown in Fig. 114. 
 
 The Dial Thermometers. If the tube 
 of the Bourdon Gage (Sec. 141) is filled 
 with a liquid and then plugged at A, 
 the expansion of the liquid upon beir.g 
 heated will change the curvature of 
 the tube and actuate the index just as 
 explained for the case of steam pressure. 
 
 The Metallic Thermometer. A spiral 
 made of two strips of metal a and 
 b soldered together (Fig. 115) will un- 
 wind slightly with temperature rise if 
 the metal b expands more rapidly than 
 a. As the spiral unwinds it causes 
 the index I to move over the scale and indicate the temperature. 
 
 Recording Thermometer. If the scale in Fig. 115 were replaced by a 
 drum revolving about a vertical axis and covered by a suitably ruled 
 sheet of paper, and if, further, the left end of the index 7 were provided 
 with an inked tracing point resting on the ruled sheet, we would then 
 have represented the essentials of the recording thermometer or Thermo- 
 graph. The drum is driven by a clock mechanism and makes (usually) 
 
 FIG. 114.
 
 228 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 one revolution per week. If the temperature remains constant, the trac- 
 ing point draws a horizontal line on the drum as it rotates under it. As 
 the temperature rises and falls, the tracing point rises and falls and 
 traces on the revolving drum an irregular line which gives a permanent 
 and continuous record of the temperature for the week. Obviously the 
 days of the week, subdivided into hours, would be marked on the sheet 
 around the circumference of the drum; while the temperature lines, 
 properly spaced, would run horizontally around the drum and be num- 
 bered in degrees from the bottom upward. 
 
 FIG. 115. 
 
 168. Linear Expansion. When a bar of any substance is 
 heated it becomes slightly longer. In some cases, especially 
 with the metals, allowance must be made for this change in 
 length, called linear expansion. Thus, a slight space is left between 
 the ends of the rails in railroad construction. If this were not 
 done, the enormous force or end thrust exerted by the rails upon 
 expansion during a hot day would warp the track out of shape. 
 The contraction and expansion of the cables supporting large 
 suspension bridges cause the bridge floor to rise and fall a dis- 
 tance of several inches as the temperature changes. A long 
 iron girder bridge should have one end free to move slightly 
 lengthwise (on rollers) on the supporting pier to permit its ex- 
 pansion and contraction without damage to the pier. 
 
 In the familiar process of "shrinking" hot iron tires onto 
 wooden wagon wheels, use is made of the contraction of the tire 
 that takes place when it cools. Cannons are constructed of 
 concentric tubes, of which the outer ones are successively heated 
 and "shrunk" onto the inner ones. This extremely tight fitting
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 229 
 
 of the outer layers insures that they will sustain part of the stress 
 when the gun is fired. 
 
 169. Coefficient of Linear Expansion. When a bar, whose 
 length at C. is L , has its temperature raised to 1 C., its length 
 increases by a certain fraction a of its original length L . This 
 fraction a, which is very small for all substances, is called the 
 coefficient of linear expansion for the material of which the bar is 
 composed. The actual increase in length of the bar is then L a. 
 When heated from to 2, the increase in length is found to 
 be almost exactly twice as great as before, or L 1a; while if 
 heated from to t, it is very closely L at. Consequently the 
 length of the bar at any temperature t, which length may be 
 represented by L t , is given by the equation. 
 
 L t =Lo+L at=L (l + a) (75) 
 
 whence 
 
 in which L t L is the total increase in length for a change of t 
 degrees, and hence (L t L ) divided by t is the total change for 
 one degree. If this total change is divided by the length L of 
 the bar (in cms.) we have the increase in length per centimeter 
 of length (measured at C.) per degree rise of temperature, 
 which by Eq. 75a is a. Thus a may also be defined as the increase 
 in length per centimeter (i.e., per cm. of the length of the bar 
 when at C.) produced by 1 C. rise in temperature, or the 
 increase in length per centimeter per degree. 
 
 To illustrate, suppose that two scratches on a brass bar are 
 1 cm. apart when the bar is at C. Then, since a for brass is 
 0.000019 (approx., see table), it follows that at 1 C. the 
 scratches will be 1.000019 cm. apart; at 2 C., 1.000038 cm.; at 
 10 C., 1.00019 cm. apart, etc. Since the length L t of a metal 
 bar at a temperature t differs very little from its length at 0, 
 i.e., L , we may for most purposes consider that its increase in 
 length when heated from a temperature t to i+1 is L t a instead 
 of L a. Consequently, when heated from a temperature t to 
 a still higher temperature t', the increase in length is approx- 
 imately L t a (t' t). We then have the length L/ at the higher 
 temperature expressed approximately in terms of L t by the 
 equation
 
 230 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 This equation is accurate enough for all ordinary work and it 
 is also a very convenient equation to use in all problems involv- 
 ing two temperatures, neither of which is zero. Strictly speak- 
 ing, a is not constant, but increases very slightly in value with 
 temperature rise. 
 
 AVERAGE COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION OF A FEW SUBSTANCES 
 
 Substance 
 
 Coeff. of Exp. a 
 
 Substance 
 
 Coeff. of Exp. a 
 
 Brass 
 
 0000185 
 
 Oak, with grain. 
 
 000005 
 
 Copper 
 Glass 
 Ice 
 
 0.0000168 
 0.0000086 
 000050 
 
 Platinum 
 Quartz, fused .... 
 Silver 
 
 0.0000088 
 0.000005 
 000019 
 
 Iron 
 
 0.000012 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.000029 
 
 It is perhaps well for the student to memorize a for plati- 
 num and note that for oak it is less than for platinum and 
 for most metals about twice as great. In the case of glass, a 
 varies considerably for the different kinds. 
 
 The French Physicist Guillaume recently made the interest- 
 ing discovery that the coefficient of expansion of a certain nickel- 
 steel alloy (36 per cent, nickel), known as Invar, is only about 
 one-tenth as large as that of platinum, or 0.0000009. From these 
 figures we see that the length of a bar of this metal increases 
 less than 1 part in 1,000,000 when its temperature is raised 
 1 C. Steel tapes and standards of length are quite commonly 
 made of Invar. 
 
 170. Practical Applications of Equalities and Differences in 
 Coefficient of Linear Expansion. In the construction of incan- 
 descent lamps it is necessary to have a vacuum in the bulb, or 
 the carbon filament that gives off the light will quickly oxidize 
 or "burn out." The electric current must be led through the 
 glass to the filament by means of wires sealed into the glass 
 while hot. If the glass and wire do not expand alike upon being 
 heated, the glass will crack and the bulb will be ruined. Plati- 
 num wire is used for this purpose because its coefficient of ex- 
 pansion is almost exactly the same as that of glass. 
 
 The differences between the coefficients of expansion for any 
 two metals, for example, brass and iron, has many practical 
 applications. Important among the devices which utilize these 
 differences in expansion are the automatic fire alarm, the thermo- 
 stat, and the mechanism for operating the "skidoo" lamp used in 
 signs. Another very important application of this difference
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 
 
 231 
 
 in expansion of two metals is in the temperature compensation 
 of clock pendulums and the balance wheels of watches. By 
 means of these compensation devices, timepieces are prevented 
 from gaining or losing time with change of temperature. 
 
 The Fire Alarm. The operation of the fire alarm will be 
 understood from a study of Fig. 116. An iron bar I and a brass 
 bar B are riveted together at several points and attached to a 
 fixed support D at one end, the other end C being free. Since 
 the coefficient of expansion for brass is greater than for iron, it 
 will be evident that the above composite bar will curve upward 
 upon being heated, and downward upon being cooled. Conse- 
 quently the end C will rise when the temperature rises, and fall 
 when the temperature falls. If such a device is placed near the 
 
 Battery 
 
 FIG. 116. 
 
 ceiling of a room, and if by suitable wiring, electrical connections 
 are made between it and an electric bell, it become a fire alarm. 
 For if a fire breaks out in the room, both bars / and B will be 
 equally heated, but B will elongate more than 7, thus causing 
 C to rise until it makes contact with P. This contact closes the 
 electrical circuit and causes the electric bell to ring. 
 
 The Thermostat. If the room above considered becomes too 
 cold, C descends and may be caused to touch a suitably placed 
 point Pi, thereby closing another electrical circuit (not shown) 
 connected with the mechanism that turns on more heat. As 
 soon as the temperature of the room rises to its normal value, C 
 again rises enough to break connection with P lf and the heat 
 supply is either cut off or reduced, depending upon the adjust- 
 ment and design of the apparatus. When so used, the above 
 bar, with its connections, is called a thermostat.
 
 232 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 In a common form of thermostat, the motion of C, when the 
 room becomes too cold, opens a "needle" valve to a compressed 
 air pipe. This pipe leads to the compressed air apparatus, 
 which is so arranged that when the air escapes from the above- 
 mentioned valve, more heat is turned on. 
 
 The "Skidoo Lamp." This device is very much used in 
 operating several lamps arranged so as to spell out the words 
 of a sign. Such a sign is much more noticeable if the lamps 
 flash up for an instant every few seconds than if they shine 
 steadily. The arrangement (using only one lamp) is shown in 
 Fig. 117. The binding posts E and F are connected to the light- 
 ing circuit. Bars / and B are arranged just as in Fig. 116, ex- 
 cept that the brass bar is above the iron bar instead of below. 
 
 When these bars are not touching the point p, the electric 
 current passes from E to a, at which point the wire is soldered 
 
 5 
 
 FIG. 117. 
 
 to the bars, then on through the coil D of very many turns of 
 fine wire wrapped about the bars, to point P, where the wire is 
 again soldered, and finally through the lamp, back to the binding 
 post marked F. 
 
 Since coil D offers very great resistance to the passage of cur- 
 rent, only a small current flows, and the lamp does not glow. 
 This small current, however, heats coil D and therefore bars B 
 and /; and, since B expands more rapidly than /, point C moves 
 down until it touches point P as explained in connection with 
 Fig. 116. The instant that point C touches P, practically all 
 of the current flows directly from a through the heavy bars to 
 P and then through the lamp as before. The fact that the 
 current does not have to flow through coil D when C and P are 
 in contact produces two marked changes which are essential to 
 the operation of the lamp. First, since the electrical resistance 
 of the bars is small, the current is much greater than before and
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 
 
 233 
 
 the lamp glows; and second, the coil now having practically 
 no current, cools down slightly, thus permitting the bars to cool 
 down, thereby causing C to rise. The instant C rises, the current 
 is obliged to go through the coil, and is therefore too weak to 
 make the lamp glow, but it heats the coil, causing C to descend 
 again and the cycle is thus repeated indefinitely. If the contact 
 screw S is screwed down closer to P, the lamp "winks" at 
 shorter intervals. 
 
 The Balance Wheel of a Watch. The same principle discussed 
 above is used in the "temperature compensation" of the balance 
 
 E 
 
 wheel of a watch, due to which compensation its period does not 
 change with change of temperature. When an uncompensated 
 wheel is heated the resulting expansion causes its rim to be 
 farther from its axis, thereby increasing its moment of inertia. 
 As its moment of inertia increases, the hairspring (H.S., Fig. 
 118) does not make it vibrate so quickly and the watch loses 
 time. To make matters worse, the hairspring becomes weaker 
 upon being heated. 
 
 It will be noticed in the balance wheel, sketched in Fig. 118, 
 that the expansion produced by a rise in temperature causes the 
 masses C and D (small screws) to move from the center; while
 
 234 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 at the same time it causes E and F to move toward the center. 
 For the brass strip B forming the outside of the rim expands 
 more than the iron strip I inside. If the watch runs faster 
 when warmed it shows that it is overcompensated; whereas if 
 it runs slower when warmed it is undercompensated. Over- 
 compensation would be remedied by replacing screws E and F 
 by lighter ones, at the same time perhaps replac- 
 ing C and D by heavier ones. 
 
 The Gridiron Pendulum. From the sketch of 
 the gridiron pendulum shown in Fig. 119, it will 
 be seen that the expansion of the steel strip a, 
 and the steel rods b, d, and/, causes the pendulum 
 bob B to lower, thereby increasing the period of 
 the pendulum; whereas the expansion of the zinc 
 rods c and e evidently tends to raise B, thereby 
 shortening the pendulum and also its period 
 By having the proper relation between the lengths 
 of the zinc and the iron rods, these two opposing 
 tendencies may be made to exactly counterbal- 
 ance each other. In this case the period of the 
 pendulum is unaffected by temperature changes, 
 that is, exact temperature compensation is ob- 
 tained. If rods c and e were brass, their upward 
 expansion would not compensate for the down- 
 ward expansion of the iron rods. It would then 
 be necessary to have four rods of brass and five 
 of iron. 
 
 171. Cubical Expansion and the Law of 
 Charles. When a given quantity of any sub- 
 stance, say a metal bar, whose volume at C. is 
 V , has its temperature raised to 1 C., its volume increases by 
 a certain small fraction of its original volume V . This fraction 
 (8 is called the coefficient of cubical expansion of the substance in 
 question. The actual increase in volume is then F /3. If the 
 bar is heated from to t, i.e., through t times as great a range, 
 the increase in volume is found to be almost exactly t times as 
 great, or V ftt. Accordingly, the volume at t, which may be 
 represented by Vt, is given by the equation 
 
 V t = V + V &t = V (1 +00 (76) 
 
 whence V t V 
 
 FIG. 119. 
 
 V t 
 
 (77)
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 
 
 235 
 
 In Eq. 77, V t V is the total increase in volume; (V t V )-*- 
 t is the total increase per degree rise in temperature; and divid- 
 ing the latter expression by V gives (Vt F )-5- Vj, or the in- 
 crease per degree per cubic centimeter. But (V t V ) + VJt> 
 is /3 from Eq. 77. Hence /3 is numerically the increase in volume 
 per cubic centimeter of the "original" volume per degree rise in 
 temperature. By "original" volume is meant the volume of the 
 bar when at C. 
 
 Equations 76 and 77 apply to volumes of solids, liquids, or 
 gases. The values of 0, however, differ widely for different sub- 
 stances, as shown in the table below. These equations apply 
 to gases only if free to expand against a constant pressure when 
 heated. 
 
 When a solid, e.g., a metal bar, expands due to temperature rise, it 
 increases in each of its three dimensions length, breadth, and thick- 
 ness. For this reason, it may be shown that the coefficient of cubical 
 expansion is 3 times the coefficient of linear expansion for the same 
 substance; i.e., /3=3. For, consider a cube of metal, say, each edge 
 of which has a length L at C. Then, by Eq. 74, the length of 
 each side at a temperature t will be L (l + aO. The volume at 0, or 
 V , is L 3 ; while the volume V at 1 is 
 
 V>L 
 
 (78) 
 
 Expanding (1 + aO 8 , we have !+3aZ-(-3a 2 2 +a 3 J 3 . Now, since a is 
 very small, a 2 and a 3 will be negligibly small (observe that (1/1000) 2 = 
 1/1,000,000), and the terms 3aH* and <* 3 t 3 may be dropped. Eq. 78 
 then becomes 
 
 V t =V (1+3 at) 
 
 (79) 
 
 By comparing Eq. 79 with Eq. 76 we see at once that /3=3a. which 
 was to be proved. In like manner it may be shown that the coefficient 
 of area expansion of a sheet of metal, for example, is 2 a. 
 
 Accordingly, the fractional parts by which the length of a bar of iron, 
 the area of a sheet of iron, and the volume of a chunk of iron increase 
 per degree, are respectively 0.000012, 0.000024, and 0.000036. 
 
 COEFFICIENT OF CUBICAL EXPANSION OF A FEW SUBSTANCES 
 
 Substance 
 
 Substance 
 
 Alcohol 
 Ether 
 
 0.00104 
 0017 
 
 Air, and all gases 
 Iron 
 
 0.00367 
 000036 
 
 Mercury 
 Petroleum 
 
 0.00018 
 0.00099 
 
 Zinc 
 Glass 
 
 0.000087 
 0.000026
 
 236 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 r 
 
 Gas 
 
 The Law of Charles. If a quantity of gas which is confined 
 in a. vessel A (Fig. 120) by a frictionless piston P, at atmospheric 
 pressure and C., is heated to 1 C. it will expand 1/273 (or 
 0.00367) of its original volume; so that its volume becomes 
 1.00367 times as great. The fact that this value of /3 (Eq. 77) 
 is practically the same for all gases was discovered by Charles 
 and is known as the Law of Charles. 
 
 If, now, the piston is prevented from moving, then, as the gas 
 is heated it cannot expand, but its pressure will increase 1/273 
 for each degree rise in temperature, as might be detected by the 
 attached manometer M; while if cooled 1, its pressure will de- 
 crease 1/273. If cooled to 10 below zero its pressure will de- 
 crease 10/273 of its original value, etc. Hence the inference, 
 that if it were possible to cool a gas 
 to 273 C. it would exert no pressure 
 whatever. 
 
 Absolute Zero and the Kinetic Theory 
 of Gases. According to the Kinetic 
 Theory of Gases, a gas exerts pressure 
 because of the to-and-fro motion of 
 its molecules (Sec. 131). These mole- 
 cules are continually colliding with 
 each other, and also bombarding the 
 walls of the enclosing vessel. The impact of the molecules 
 in this bombardment gives rise to the pressure of gases, just 
 as we know that a ball, thrown against the wall and then re- 
 bounding from it, reacts by producing a momentary thrust 
 against the wall. Millions of such thrusts per second would, 
 however, give rise to a steady pressure. Under ordinary con- 
 ditions the average speed of the air molecules required to pro- 
 duce a pressure of 15 Ibs. per sq. in. is about 1400 ft. per sec. 
 But a body is supposed to have heat energy due to the motion 
 of its molecules. It may therefore be said : (a) that at 273 C. 
 a gas would exert no pressure (see above) ; hence (6) that its molec- 
 ular motion must cease; and therefore (c) that it would have no 
 heat energy at this temperature. When a body has lost all of 
 its heat energy, it cannot possibly become any colder. This 
 temperature of 273 C. is therefore called the Absolute Zero, 
 It is interesting to note that extremely low temperatures, 
 within a few degrees of the absolute zero, have been produced 
 artificially. By permitting liquid helium to evaporate in a par- 
 
 FIG. 120.
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 237 
 
 tial vacuum, Kammerlingh-Onnes (1908) produced a temperature 
 of 270 C., or within 3 of the absolute zero. 
 
 172. The Absolute Temperature Scale. If the above absolute 
 zero is taken as the starting point for a temperature scale, then 
 on this scale, called the Absolute Centigrade Scale, ice melts at 
 +273; water boils at 373 (373 A.); a temperature of 20 C.= 
 293 A., and -10 C. = 263 A., etc. This absolute scale is of 
 great value from a scientific point of view. Its use also greatly 
 simplifies the working of certain problems. 
 
 It will now be shown that if the pressure upon a gas is kept 
 constant while its temperature is increased from T\ to T 2 , then its 
 volume will be increased in the ratio of these two temperatures 
 expressed on the absolute scale. In other words, 
 
 in which Vi and F 2 represent the volume of the gas at the lower 
 and higher temperatures respectively, and TI and Tz, the cor- 
 responding temperatures on the absolute scale. 
 
 Proof: Obviously 7 7 i = i+273, and 7 7 2 = < 2 +273; i.e., the 
 centigrade readings t\ and t z are changed to absolute tempera- 
 ture readings by adding 273, which is the difference between the 
 zeros of the two scales. From Eq. 76, since ft is 1/273, we have 
 
 and likewise V z = V (l +073 
 
 (1+ ** } 
 V z IV ^273/ 
 
 = ~ " 
 
 V T 
 
 i.e., =? = z (pressure being kept constant) (80) 
 
 V\ i i 
 
 Eq. 80 shows that if the absolute temperature of a certain 
 quantity of gas is made say 5/4 as great, its volume becomes 
 5/4 as great; while if the absolute temperature is doubled the 
 volume is doubled, etc. It must be borne in mind that Eq. 80 
 holds only in case the gas, when heated, is free to expand against 
 a constant pressure. A discussion of Fig. 121 will make clear
 
 238 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 the application of Eq. 80. Let A be a quantity of gas of volume 
 Fi and temperature 27 C. confined in a cylinder by a frictionless 
 piston of negligible weight. Let the upper surface of the piston 
 be exposed to atmospheric pressure. The gas in A will then also 
 be under atmospheric pressure regardless of temperature change. 
 For, as the gas is heated, it will expand and push the piston up- 
 ward; the pressure, however, will be unchanged thereby, i.e., 
 the pressure will be constant, and therefore Eq. 80 will apply. 
 Next let the gas in A be heated from 27 C. to 127 C., i.e., from 
 300 A. to 400 A. Since the absolute temperature is 4/3 as 
 great as before, we see from Eq. 80 that 
 
 _t o - *__ 
 
 21 C. 
 
 P, will be raised to a position PI such 
 that the volume of the gas will be 4/3 of 
 its former volume. Experiment will 
 show that the new volume is 4/3 times 
 the old, thus verifying the equation. Let 
 J us again emphasize the fact that the two 
 
 ? volumes are to each other as the corre- 
 sponding absolute temperatures, not centi- 
 grade temperatures. 
 
 Since, as above stated, the pressure of 
 
 I a body of gas that is not permitted to 
 
 JP IG 121 expand increases i/273 of its value when 
 
 the gas is heated from to t C., it fol- 
 lows that the pressures p\ and p 2 corresponding to the tempera- 
 tures ti and 2 , are given in terms of p (the pressure when the 
 temperature is zero) by the equations 
 
 p l = p (l+2j^ and ?*"^ 1 "hj7a) 
 from which (see derivation of Eq. 80) we have 
 
 rn 
 
 = TTT I volume constant) (81) 
 
 Pi L i 
 
 This equation shows that if any body of gas, contained in a rigid 
 vessel to keep its volume constant, has its absolute temperature 
 increased in a certain ratio, then its pressure will be increased in 
 the same ratio. . 
 
 Boyle's Law is expressed in Eq. 72 as pV = K. Consequently 
 if the pressure on the gas in question is increased to p\ the volume 
 will decrease to Fi, but the product will still be K; i.e., p\V\ = K. 
 Likewise pzVi = K, and therefore p\V\ = pzVz or Vz/V\ =
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 239 
 
 Summarizing, we may write the three important gas laws, 
 namely Boyle's, Charles's, and the one referring to pressure 
 variation with temperature, thus: 
 
 (E-), < 72bis > 
 
 Observe that the subscript T indicates that Eq. 72 is true only 
 if the gas whose pressure and volume are varied is maintained at 
 a constant temperature. The subscript p of Eq. 80 indicates that 
 the pressure to which the gas is subjected must not vary, and V 
 of Eq. 81, that the volume must not vary. 
 
 Attention is called to the fact that the three important variables 
 of the gas, namely pressure, volume, and temperature, might 
 all change simultaneously. If the temperature of the gas is kept 
 constant, Boyle's Law (Eq. 72) states that the volume varies 
 inversely as the applied pressure. Eq. 80 states that if the pressure 
 upon the gas is kept constant, then the volume varies directly 
 as the absolute temperature; while Eq. 81 states that if the volume 
 of the gas is kept constant, then the pressure varies directly as 
 the absolute temperature. 
 
 The General Case. In case both the temperature of a gas and 
 the pressure to which it is subjected change, then the new volume 
 (note that all three variables change) may easily be found by 
 considering the effect of each change separately; i.e., by suc- 
 cessively applying Boyle's Law and Charles's Law. To illus- 
 trate, let the volume of gas in A (Fig. 121), when at atmospheric 
 pressure and 20 C., be 400 cm. 3 , and let it be required to find its 
 volume if the pressure is increased to 2| atmospheres, and its 
 temperature is raised to 110 C. The new pressure is 5/2 
 times the old; hence, due to pressure alone, in accordance with 
 Boyle's Law, the volume will be reduced to 2/5X400 cm. 3 The 
 original temperature of 20 C. is 293 A., and the new tempera- 
 ture is 383 A.; hence, due to the temperature change alone, the 
 volume would be 383/293X400 cm. 3 Considering both effects, 
 the new volume would then be 
 
 2 ^8*3 
 
 7 = ^X00^X400 cm. 3 
 o ^yo
 
 240 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 We may proceed in a similar manner if both the volume and the 
 temperature are changed, and the new pressure that the gas will 
 be under is required in terms of the old pressure. 
 
 173. The General Law of Gases. We shall now develop the 
 equation expressing the relation between the old and the new 
 values of pressure, volume, and temperature of some confined 
 gas when all three of these quantities are changed. Let 1, 2, 
 and 3, respectively, be the initial, second, and final positions 
 of the piston A (Fig. 122). In the initial state, A confines a 
 certain quantity of gas of volume V , 
 pressure p (say 1 atmosphere), and tem- 
 perature To (say C. or 273 A). 
 
 The second state is produced by heat- 
 ing the gas from T to T, in which T/T 
 ' expressed in the absolute scale is, say, 
 r about 3/2. This change in temperature 
 causes the gas to expand against the 
 constant pressure p until A is at 2, the 
 new volume V being about f V . In 
 this second state of the gas, its condition 
 V, and T as indicated in the sketch, and, 
 
 FIG. 122. 
 
 is represented by p 
 from Eq. 80, we have 
 
 _ _ 
 
 Vo~T ' ~2V 
 
 The third state of the gas, represented by p, V, and T, is pro- 
 duced by placing a weight on A, thereby increasing the pres- 
 sure from p to p (as sketched p/p = 5/4 approx.), and push- 
 ing the piston from position 2 to its final position at 3, and 
 consequently reducing the volume from V to V (as sketched 
 V/V = 4/5 approx.). From Boyle's Law (Eq. 72 bis, just given), 
 
 Substituting in this equation the value of V given above, 
 we have 
 
 -TT -TT ' 
 
 poV ' = ~T7 T= ~^ [ 
 
 that is, 
 
 (82)
 
 THERMOMETRY AND EXPANSION 241 
 
 PoV 
 
 in which R is equal to ^-o' an ^ * s therefore a known constant 
 
 Zi o 
 
 if p and V are known. Obviously, if twice as great a mass 
 of the same gas, or an equal mass of some other gas half 
 as dense, were placed under the piston, the constant R would then 
 become twice as large. 
 
 Eq. 82 expresses the General Law of Gases, and is called the 
 General Gas Equation. From this general equation, we see (a) 
 that for a given mass of gas the volume varies inversely as the pres- 
 sure if the temperature is constant (Boyle's Law) ; (6) that the 
 volume varies directly as the absolute temperature T if the pres- 
 sure p is constant (Law of Charles); and (c) that the pressure 
 varies directly as the absolute temperature if the volume V is 
 constant. The law embodied in (c) has not received any name. 
 
 Let us now use Eq. 82 to work the problem given under the 
 heading "The General Case" (Sec. 172). Let us represent the 
 first state by p t Vi = RTi and the second state by p 2 V 2 
 
 . 
 
 Pi p* 
 
 Consequently 
 
 V 2 RT 2 . RTi 
 
 Vi~ p 2 ' pi 
 or 
 
 7^X^,0^x11x400 
 Pz i i 5 293 
 
 as before found. Let us again emphasize the fact that T, T\, 
 and T 2 represent temperatures on the absolute scale. 
 
 174. The Thermocouple and the Thermopile. If a piece of 
 iron wire / (Fig. 123) has a piece of copper wire C fastened to 
 each end of it as shown, it will be found that if one point of con- 
 tact of these two dissimilar metals, say, B is kept hotter than the 
 other junction A, an electric current will flow in the direction 
 indicated by the arrows. This current might be measured by 
 the instrument D. If B is, say, 60 hotter than A, the electric 
 current will be about 6 times as large as if it is only 10 hotter. 
 Two such junctions so used constitute a Thermocouple. Any two 
 different metals may be used for a thermocouple. Antimony 
 and bismuth give the strongest electrical effect for a given dif- 
 ference of temperature between junctions. 
 
 One hundred or so thermocouples, made of heavy bars and
 
 242 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 properly connected, form a Thermobattery of considerable strength. 
 The greatest usefulness of thermocouples, however, is in delicate 
 temperature measurements by means of the thermopile. 
 
 The Thermopile. By observing 
 the readings of D while the tem- 
 perature difference between A and 
 B is varied through a considerable 
 range (Fig. 123), in other words, 
 by calibrating the thermocouple, it 
 becomes a thermometer for meas- 
 uring temperature differences. A 
 large number of such thermocouples 
 properly connected constitute a 
 FIG. 123. Thermopile, which will detect ex- 
 
 ceedingly small differences of tem- 
 perature. The thermopile readily detects the heat radiated from 
 the hand, or from a lighted match, at a distance of several feet. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Express 60 C. and -30 C. on the Fahrenheit scale, and also on the 
 absolute scale. 
 
 2. Express 200 A. on the Fahrenheit scale, and also on the centigrade 
 scale. 
 
 3. An iron rail is 32 ft. long at C. How long is it on a hot day when at 
 40 C.? 
 
 4. A certain metal bar, which is 3 meters in length at 20 C., is 0.30 cm. 
 longer at 100 C. Find a for this metal. 
 
 6. If the combined lengths of the iron rods a, b, and d (Fig. 119) is 100 cm., 
 how long must c and e each be to secure exact temperature compensation? 
 
 6. How many H.P. does the sun expend upon one acre at noon? Assume 
 the sun to be directly overhead. 
 
 7. The cavity of a hollow brass sphere has a volume of 800 cm. 3 at 20 C. 
 What is the volume of the cavity at 50 C.? 
 
 8. If 600 cm. 3 of gas, at 20 C. and atmospheric pressure, is heated to 
 40 C., and is free to expand by pushing out a piston against the pressure of 
 the atmosphere, what will be its new volume? 
 
 9. If 6 cu. ft. of air, at 20 C. and atmospheric pressure, is compressed 
 until its volume is 2 cu. ft., and is then heated to 300 C., what will be its 
 new pressure?
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 
 
 175. Heat Units. Before taking up the discussion of the 
 measurement of quantity of heat, it will be necessary to define 
 the unit in which to express quantity of heat. The unit most 
 commonly used is the Calorie. The calorie may be roughly 
 defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature 
 of one gram of water 1 C. To be accurate, the actual tempera- 
 ture of the water should be stated in this definition, since the 
 quantity of heat required varies with the temperature. Thus, 
 the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram 
 of water through a range of 1 is greater at than at any other 
 temperature, and almost 1 per cent, greater than it is at 20, at 
 which point it is a minimum. 
 
 Some authors select this range from C. to 1 C., others 
 3.5 C. to 4.5 C., 4 C. to 5 C., etc., which gives of course 
 slightly different values for the calorie. In selecting 15 C. to 
 16 C. as the range, we have a calorie of such magnitude that 100 
 calories are required to raise the temperature of one gram of 
 water from C. to 100 C. Hence the calorie is perhaps best 
 defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 
 one gram of water from 15 C. to 16 C. 
 
 In the British system, unit quantity of heat is the quantity 
 required to raise the temperature of 1 Ib. of water 1 F., and is 
 called the British Thermal Unit, or B.T.U. Since heat is a form 
 of energy, it may be expressed in energy or work units. One 
 B.T.U. =778 ft.-lbs. This means that 778 ft.-lbs. of work 
 properly applied to 1 Ib. of water, for example, in stirring the water, 
 will raise its temperature 1 F. From the above statement, 
 since 1 Ib. of water in falling 778 ft. develops 778 ft.-lbs. of 
 energy, we see that if a 1-lb. mass of water strikes the ground after 
 a 778-ft. fall, and if it were possible to have all of the heat developed 
 by the impact used in heating the water, then this heat would 
 raise its temperature 1 F. In fact this temperature rise is in- 
 dependent of the quantity of water, and depends solely upon the 
 height of fall. For, while the heat energy, developed by, say 3 
 
 243
 
 244 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Ibs. of water, due to impact after a 778-ft. fall, would be 3 times as 
 much as above given, the amount of water to be heated would 
 also be 3 times as much, and the resulting temperature rise 
 would therefore be 1 F. as before. The calorie is 4.187 X10 7 
 ergs. That is, if 4.187 XlO 7 ergs of energy are used in stirring 
 one gram of water, its temperature will rise 1 C. This 4. 187 X 
 10 7 ergs is often called the Mechanical Equivalent of heat. The 
 mechanical equivalent in the English system is 778 ft.-lbs. 
 
 176. Thermal Capacity. The thermal capacity of a body is 
 denned as the number of calories of heat required to raise the 
 temperature of the body 1 C., or it is the amount of heat the 
 body gives off in cooling 1 C. It is clear that a large mass would 
 have a greater thermal capacity than a small mass of the same 
 substance. That mass is not the only factor involved is shown by 
 the following experiment. 
 
 If a kilogram of lead shot at 100 C. is mixed with a kilogram of 
 water at C., the temperature of the mixture will not be 50, 
 but about 3. The heat given up by the kilogram of lead in 
 cooling 97 barely suffices to warm the 1 kilogram of water 3. 
 In fact the thermal capacity of the water is about 33 times as 
 great as that of the lead; consequently, if 33 kilos of lead had been 
 used in the experiment the temperature of the mixture would have 
 been 50. The very suggestive and convenient term "water 
 equivalent" is sometimes used instead of thermal capacity. 
 Multiplying the mass of a calorimeter by its specific heat gives 
 its thermal capacity or the number of calories required to warm it 
 one degree. Suppose that this number is 60. Now 60 calories 
 would also heat 60 grams of water one degree; hence the "water 
 equivalent" of the calorimeter is 60; i.e., the calorimeter requires 
 just as much heat to raise its temperature a given amount as 
 would 60 gm. of water if heated through the same range. 
 
 177. Specific Heat. -The Specific Heat (s) of a substance may 
 be defined as the number of calories required to heat 1 gm. of the 
 substance 1 C. It is therefore the thermal capacity per gram of 
 the substance. This, we see from the definition of the calorie, is 
 practically equal to the ratio of the heat required to heat a given 
 mass of the substance through a given ran^e of temperature, to 
 the heat required to heat an equal mass of water through the 
 same range. Thus, the specific heat of lead is 0.031. This means 
 that it would require 0.031 calorie to heat a gram of lead one 
 degree; which is only 0,031 times as much heat as would be re-
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 245 
 
 quired to heat a gram of water one degree. The specific heat of a 
 substance is sometimes defined as the ratio just given. Since the 
 specific heat (calorie per gram per degree) of water varies with the 
 temperature (Sec. 175), this definition lacks definiteness as 
 compared with the one we are here using. 
 
 The table below gives the specific heat of a few substances. 
 From the values given, we see that one calorie of heat imparted 
 to a gram of glass would raise its temperature 5 C., while the 
 same amount of heat imparted to a gram of lead would raise its 
 temperature 1/0.031, or about 32.5. In popular language it 
 might be said that lead heats 6.5 times as easily as glass, and 32.5 
 times as easily as water. 
 
 The specific heat of a substance is usually expressed in calories 
 per gram per degree. Thus, the specific heat of lead is 0.031 cal. 
 per gm. per deg. It may also be written 0.031 B.T.U.'s per Ib. 
 per degree, the degree in this case, however, being the Fahrenheit 
 degree. The proof that the numeric (0.031) is the same in both 
 cases may be left as an exercise for the student. 
 
 The specific heat of most substances varies considerably with 
 the temperature. In some cases there is a decrease in its value 
 with temperature rise, while in others there is an increase. In 
 the case of water the specific heat decreases up to 20 C. and then 
 increases. The values given in the table for the different sub- 
 stances are average values, taken at ordinary temperatures (ex- 
 cepting in the case of ice and steam). 
 
 Substance 
 
 Sp. heat in 
 cal. per 
 gm. per deg. 
 
 Substance 
 
 Sp. heat in 
 cal. per 
 gm. per deg. 
 
 Brass 
 Copper 
 Glass 
 
 0.088 
 0.093 
 200 
 
 Ice 
 Steam 
 Water 
 
 0.504 
 0.4 approx. 
 1 000 (15 to 16) 
 
 Lead . 
 Iron 
 
 0.031 
 0.11 
 
 Alcohol 
 Petroleum 
 
 0.60 
 0.51 
 
 To heat a gram of any substance of specific heat s sufficiently 
 to cause a temperature rise of t degrees requires st calories, 
 i.e., t times as much heat as to cause a rise of 1 degree. Further, 
 to heat M grams t degrees requires M times as much heat as to heat 
 one gram t degrees, or Mst calories; hence, the general expression 
 for the heat H required to heat a body of mass M and specific 
 heat s from a temperature t\ to a temperature t z , is 
 
 td (83)
 
 246 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 If the substance cools through this same range, then H is the heat 
 given off. 
 
 178. The Two Specific Heats of a Gas. In general, a body 
 when heated, expands, and in expanding it does work in pushing 
 back the atmosphere. This work makes it require additional 
 heat energy to warm the body, and therefore makes the specific 
 heat of the body larger than it would have been had expansion not 
 occurred. In case a compressed gas is permitted to expand 
 into a space at lower pressure, the above heat energy is taken from 
 the gas itself and chills it greatly. This fact is utilized in the 
 manufacture of liquid air (Sec. 205). 
 
 In the case of solids and liquids, this expansion upon being heated 
 is inappreciable, but with gases it is very great. Consequently 
 the specifice heat of a gas, i.e., the number of calories required to 
 heat one gram one degree, is less if the gas is confined in a rigid 
 vessel than if it is allowed to expand against constant pressure 
 when heated. The latter is called the specific heat at constant 
 pressure, and is 0.237 for air; while the former is called the specific 
 heat at constant volume, and is 0.168 for air. The ratio of the two 
 specific heats of air is 0.237/0.168, or 1.41. This ratio differs for 
 the various gases. 
 
 179. Law of Dulong and Petit. Dulong and Petit, in 1819, found by 
 experiment that for thirty of the elements, the product of the atomic 
 weight and the specific heat (in the solid state) is approximately constant. 
 This so-called constant varies from about 6 to 6.6. For a considerable 
 number of the elements it is 6.4. For gases this constant is about 3.4. 
 This law does not hold for liquids, and there are a few solids that do not 
 follow it at all closely. 
 
 Let us now utilize this law in finding the specific heat of iron and gold, 
 whose atomic weights are respectively 56 and 196. The mathematical 
 statement of the law of Dulong and Petit is: 
 
 Sp. heat X atomic weight =6.4 (approximately) (84) 
 
 Whence the specific heat of gold is 6.4/196 or 0.0326, and that of iron 
 6.4/56 or 114. These computed values of the specific heat are almost 
 exactly the same as those found experimentally for iron and gold. 
 
 The above law shows that it takes the same amount of heat to warm an 
 atom one degree whether it be a gold atom, an iron atom, or an atom of 
 any other substance which follows this law. For, from Eq. 84, it is 
 obvious that if the atomic weight of one element is three times a great 
 as that of another (compare gold with iron), then its specific heat must 
 be 1/3 as great in order to give the same product 6.4. But if the
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 247 
 
 atomic weight is three times as great for the first metal as for the second, 
 then the number of atoms per gram will be 1/3 as great, which accounts 
 for the first having 1/3 as great specific heat as the second, provided we 
 assume the same thermal capacity for all atoms. 
 
 180. Specific Heat, Method of Mixtures. A method which is 
 very commonly used for determining the specific heat of sub- 
 stances is that known as the method of mixtures. The method 
 can be best explained in connection with the apparatus used, one 
 form of which is shown in section in Fig. 124. H is a heater con- 
 taining some water and having a tube T passing obliquely through 
 it as shown. This tube contains the substance, e.g., the shot, the 
 specific heat of which is to be determined. D is a calorimeter, 
 usually of brass, containing some water E. 
 
 FIG. 124. 
 
 First, the shot, the calorimeter D, and the water E, are weighed. 
 Let these masses be M , M i, and M 2 , respectively. Next the water 
 in H is heated to the boiling point and kept boiling for a few 
 minutes. The steam surrounding T soon warms it and the 
 contained shot to 100 C., which may be determined by thermom- 
 eter C, thrust through cork B. The cork A is now withdrawn, 
 and the hot shot is permitted to fall into the water E to which it 
 rapidly imparts its heat until D, E, and the shot are all at the 
 same temperature. Let this temperature be t', and let the tem- 
 perature of E before the shot was introduced be t. The heat 
 Hi, which the shot loses in cooling from 100 to t', is evidently
 
 248 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 equal to the heat H% which the calorimeter and water gain in 
 rising in temperature from t to t 1 ', that is 
 
 #1 = H Z (85) 
 
 provided no heat passes from the calorimeter to the air or vice 
 versa during the mixing process. 
 
 This interchange of heat between the calorimeter and the air 
 cannot be totally prevented, but the error arising from this cause 
 is largely eliminated by having D and E a few degrees lower than 
 the room temperature at the beginning of the mixing process and 
 a few degrees higher than room temperature at the end; i.e., 
 after D, E, and the shot have come to the same temperature. 
 During the mixing process, the contents of the calorimeter should 
 be stirred to insure a uniform temperature throughout. 
 
 Almost always in calorimetric work, it is assumed that the 
 heat given up by the hot body is equal to the heat taken up by 
 the cold body; so that Eq. 85 is the starting point for the deriva- 
 tion of the required equation in all such cases. It is much better 
 to learn how to apply this general equation than to try to mem- 
 orize special forms of it. One such application will be made here. 
 
 If s, si, and s 2 represent the specific heats of the shot, calorim- 
 eter, and water repectively, then from Eq. 83, the heat given 
 up by the shot is Jlfs(100 t') ; that taken up by the calorimeter is 
 MiS^t' t); and that taken up by the water is MzSz(t r t). 
 Since s 2 is unity it may be omitted, and we have from Eq. 85 
 
 (t'-t) (85a) 
 
 The quantities M, MI, and M% are determined by weighing, and 
 the three temperatures are read from thermometers, so that the 
 one remaining unknown, s, may be solved for. 
 
 181. Heat of Combustion. Chemical changes are, in general, 
 accompanied by the evolution of heat; a few, however, absorb 
 heat. Most chemical salts when dissolved in water cool it, in 
 some cases quite markedly. In still other cases solution is at- 
 tended by the development of heat. A complete study of these 
 subjects is beyond the scope of this volume, but the particular 
 chemical change known as combustion is so all-important in 
 connection with commercial heating and power development 
 that a brief discussion of it will be given. 
 
 Combustion is usually denned as the violent chemical combina- 
 tion of a substance with oxygen or chlorine, and is accompanied
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 249 
 
 by heat and light. In a more restricted sense it is what is popu- 
 larly known as "burning" which practically amounts to the 
 chemical combination of oxygen with hydrogen or carbon. 
 
 In scientific work, the Heat of Combustion of any substance is 
 the number of calories of heat developed by the complete com- 
 bustion of 1 gram of that substance. In engineering practice 
 it is the number of B.T.U.'s developed by the complete combus- 
 tion of 1 pound of a substance. The latter gives 9/5 as large a 
 number as the former for the same substance. Hence it is neces- 
 sary in consulting tables to determine whether the metric, or 
 the British system is used. Obviously, the burning of one 
 gram of coal would heat just as many grams of water 1 C. as 
 the burning of a pound of coal would heat pounds of water 1 C. 
 But to heat a pound of water 1 C. takes 9/5 B.T.U.'s, since 
 1 C. equals 9/5 F. In the following table, in which the approxi- 
 mate values of the heat of combustion are given in both sys- 
 tems, it will be observed that the numerical values are in the above 
 ratio of 9 to 5. 
 
 HEAT OF COMBUSTION WITH OXYGEN 
 
 Substance 
 
 Product 
 
 Calories per 
 gram 
 
 B.T.U.'s per 
 pound 
 
 Hydrogen(H) 
 
 H 2 O 
 
 34,000 
 
 61,000 
 
 Carbon (C) 
 
 CO 2 
 
 7,800 
 
 14,000 
 
 Marsh gas (CH 4 ) 
 
 CO 2 and H 2 O 
 
 13 100 
 
 23 600 
 
 Alcohol (ethyl) 
 Petroleum 
 Soft coal | 
 
 CO 2 andH 2 O.. 
 CO 2 andH 2 O.. 
 
 Mainly CO 2 , 
 
 7,200 
 11,000 
 7,500 to 8,500 
 7 800 
 
 13,000 
 20,000 
 Ave. 14,500 
 Ave 14 000 
 
 Wood j 
 
 H 2 O and ash. 
 
 4,000 to 4 500 
 
 Ave 7 600 
 
 Dynamite 
 
 
 1,300 
 
 
 Iron . ... 
 
 Fe 3 O 4 
 
 1,600 
 
 
 Zinc 
 
 ZnO 
 
 1,300 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 CuO 
 
 600 
 
 
 Hydrogen, it will be seen, produces far more heat per gram 
 than any other substance, indeed over four times as much as its 
 nearest rival, carbon. Coal averages about the same as carbon. 
 Petroleum contains hydrogen combined with carbon (hydrocar- 
 bons) and gives, therefore, a higher heat of combustion than pure 
 carbon does. The main gases that are produced in the com- 
 bustion of all substances known as fuels are water vapor (H 2 O) 
 and carbon dioxide (CO2). 
 
 It would be well to memorize the values in the last column for
 
 250 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 petroleum, coal, and wood. Observe that dynamite has a sur- 
 prisingly low heat of combustion. Its effectiveness as an ex- 
 plosive depends upon the suddenness of combustion due to the 
 fact that the oxygen is in the dynamite itself, and not taken from 
 the air as in ordinary combustion. 
 
 To find how much chemical potential energy in foot-pounds 
 exists in 1 Ib. of coal, multiply 14,500 by 778; i.e., multiply the 
 number of B.T.U.'s per pound by the number of foot-pounds 
 in one B.T.U. To reduce this result to H.P.-hours, divide by 
 550X3600 (1 hr. equals 3600 sec.). Due to various losses of 
 energy in the furnace, boiler, and engine (Chap. XVIII), a steam 
 engine utilizes only about 5 or 10 per cent, of this energy, so that 
 the H.P.-hours above found should be multiplied by 0.05 or 0.10 
 (depending upon the efficiency of the engine used) to obtain the 
 useful work that may be derived from a pound of coal. With 
 a very good furnace, boiler, and engine, about 1.5 Ibs. of coal 
 will do 1 H.P.-hr. of work. Thus it would require about 150 
 Ibs. of coal to run a 100-H.P. engine for an hour. 
 
 182. Heat of Fusion and Heat of Vaporization. As stated in 
 Sec. 162, considerable heat may be applied to a vessel contain- 
 ing ice water and crushed ice without producing perceptible 
 temperature rise until the ice is melted, whereupon further 
 application of heat causes the water to become hotter and hotter 
 until the boiling point is reached, when the temperature again 
 ceases to rise. Other substances behave in much the same way 
 as water. These facts show that heat energy is required to 
 change the substance from the solid to the liquid state, and from 
 the liquid to the vapor state. This heat energy is supposed to 
 be used partly in doing internal work against molecular forces. 
 In case the change of state is accompanied by an increase in 
 volume, part of this heat energy is used in doing external work in 
 causing the substance to expand against the atmospheric pressure. 
 
 The Heat of Fusion of a substance is the number of calories 
 required to change a gram of that substance from the solid to 
 the liquid state without causing a rise in temperature. The 
 Heat of Vaporization is the number of calories required to change 
 a gram of the substance from the liquid to the vapor state at a 
 definite temperature and at atmospheric pressure. These two 
 changes absorb heat while the reverse changes, that is from vapor 
 to liquid and from liquid to solid, evolve heat. The amounts of 
 heat evolved in these reverse changes are the same respectively
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 251 
 
 as the amounts absorbed in the former changes. This equality 
 should be expected, of course, from the conservation of energy. 
 
 For water, the heat of fusion is 79.25 calories per gram (also 
 written 79.25 cal./gm.), and the heat of vaporization is 536.5 
 cal. pergm.; which means that to change one gram of ice at 
 C. to water at C. requires 79.25 calories, and to change 1 gm. 
 of water at 100 to steam at 100 and atmospheric pressure 
 requires 536.5 cal. The value of the latter depends very much 
 upon the temperature. To change a gram of water at 20 to 
 vapor at 20 requires 585 cal., in other words, the heat of vapori- 
 zation of water at 20 C. is 585 cal. per gm. 
 
 From reasoning analogous to that used in changing the heat of 
 combustion from the metric to the British system (Sec. 181), we 
 see that the above heat of vaporization multiplied by 9/5 gives 
 the heat of vaporization in the British system, namely, 966 
 B.T.U.'s per pound. That is to say, 966 B.T.U.'s are required 
 to change 1 Ib. of water at 212 F. to steam at the same tempera- 
 ture. The heat of fusion is rarely expressed in the British 
 system. 
 
 HEAT OF FUSION OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES 
 
 Substance 
 
 Melting 
 tem- 
 perature 
 
 Calories 
 per gram 
 
 Substance 
 
 Melting 
 tem- 
 perature 
 
 Calories 
 per gram 
 
 Ice 
 
 0C. 
 
 79 25 
 
 Silver . . . 
 
 960 C. 
 
 21 
 
 Ice 
 Nitrate of soda. . . 
 Paraffin 
 
 -6 
 306 
 52 
 
 76 
 65 
 35 
 
 Cadmium 
 Sulphur 
 Lead 
 
 315 
 115 
 325 
 
 13.7 
 9.37 
 5.86 
 
 Zinc 
 
 415 
 
 28 
 
 Mercury 
 
 -38.8 
 
 2.82 
 
 HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES 
 
 Substance 
 
 Tem- 
 perature 
 
 Calories 
 per gram 
 
 Substance 
 
 Tem- 
 perature 
 
 Calories 
 per gram 
 
 Water . 
 
 0C. 
 100 
 17 
 
 78 
 448 
 
 595 
 536.5 
 295 
 206 
 362 
 
 Ether 
 Mercury 
 
 35 C. 
 357 
 
 61 
 
 30.8 
 
 90 
 62 
 58.5 
 56 
 3 72 
 
 Water 
 Ammonia (NH 3 ).. 
 Alcohol (ethyl) . . . 
 Sulphur 
 
 Chloroform 
 Carbon dioxide. 
 Carbon dioxide. 
 
 183. Bunsen's Ice Calorimeter. A very sensitive form of ice 
 calorimeter is that of Bunsen, in which the amount of ice melted is 
 determined from the accompanying change of volume. It con-
 
 252 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 sists of a bulb A (Fig. 125), with a tube B attached, and a test 
 tube C sealed in as shown. The space between A and C is 
 completely filled with water except the lower portion, which 
 contains mercury as does also a portion of B. 
 
 By pouring some ether into C and then evaporating it by forcing 
 a stream of air through it (Sec. 197), some ice E is formed about 
 C. As this ice forms, expansion occurs, which forces the mercury 
 farther along in B to, say, point a. Next, removing all traces of 
 ether from C, drop in a known mass of hot substance D at a 
 known temperature i' . The heat from D melts a portion of the 
 ice E, and the resulting contraction 
 causes the mercury to recede, say to 
 a'. The volume of the tube between 
 a and a' is evidently the difference be- 
 tween the volume of the ice melted by 
 D and that of the resulting water 
 formed; and hence, if known, could be 
 used to determine the amount of ice 
 melted. Multiplying this amount by 
 79.25 would give the number of cal- 
 ories of heat given off by D in cooling 
 to C. 
 
 A simpler method, however, is to 
 calibrate the instrument by noting the 
 distance, say aa" , that the mercury col- 
 umn recedes when one gram of water at 
 100 is introduced into C. Suppose 
 
 this is two inches. Then, since the gram of water in cooling to 
 C. would impart to the ice 100 calories, we see that a motion 
 of one inch corresponds to 50 calories. Accordingly, the distance 
 aa' in inches, multiplied by 50, gives the number of calories 
 given off by D in cooling from t' to zero. This enables the cal- 
 culation of the specific heat of the substance D. 
 
 184. The Steam Calorimeter. Dr. Joly invented a very sen- 
 sitive calorimeter, known as the Joly Steam Calorimeter, in which 
 the amount of heat imparted to a given specimen in raising its 
 temperature through a known range, is determined from the 
 amount of steam that condenses upon it in heating it. A speci- 
 men whose specific heat is sought, e.g., a piece of ore A (Fig. 126), 
 is suspended in an inclosure B by a wire W passing freely through 
 a small hole above, and attached to one end of the beam of a sensi- 
 
 FIG. 125.
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 253 
 
 tive beam balance. Weights are added to the other end of the 
 beam until a "balance" is secured. As steam is admitted to the 
 inclosure, it condenses upon the ore until the temperature of the 
 ore is 100, whereupon condensation ceases. The additional 
 weight required to restore equilibrium, multiplied by 536.5, gives 
 the number of calories required to heat the ore and pan from a 
 temperature t (previously noted) to 100. For it is evident that 
 each gram of steam that condenses upon the ore imparts to it 
 536.5 calories. If the mass of the ore is known, its specific heat 
 can readily be computed (Eqs. 83 and 85). 
 
 The pan in which the ore is placed catches the drip, if any. 
 Obviously the amount of steam that would condense upon the 
 pan in the absence of the ore must be found, either by calculation 
 or by experiment, and be subtracted from the total. By the use 
 
 FIG. 126. 
 
 of certain refinements and modifications which will not be 
 discussed here, the instrument may be employed for very delicate 
 work, such as the determination of the specific heat of a com- 
 pressed gas contained in a small metal sphere. 
 
 185. Importance of the Peculiar Heat Properties of Water. 
 The fact that the specific heat, heat of fusion, and heat of 
 vaporization of water are all relatively large is of the utmost 
 importance in influencing the climate. It is also of great 
 importance commercially. From the conservation of energy it 
 follows that if it takes a large amount of heat (heat absorbed) to 
 warm water, to vaporize it, or to melt ice; then an equally large 
 amount of heat will be given off (evolved) when these respective 
 changes take place in the reverse sense that is, when water 
 cools, vapor condenses, or water freezes,
 
 254 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Specific Heat. In connection with the subject of specific heat, 
 it is seen that the amount of heat a given mass absorbs in being 
 warmed through a given range of temperature depends upon its 
 specific heat. From this fact it is evident that a body of water 
 would change its temperature quickly with change of tempera- 
 ture of the air, if its specific heat were small. The specific 
 heat of water is much larger than for most other substances, as 
 may be seen from the table (Sec. 177). Note also that water 
 has about twice as large a specific heat as either ice or steam. 
 Because of the large specific heat of water it warms slowly and 
 cools slowly; so that during the heat of the day a lake cools the 
 air that passes over it, while in the cool of the night, it warms the 
 air. This same effect causes the temperature on islands in mid- 
 ocean to be much less subject to sudden or large changes than 
 it is in inland countries. 
 
 Heat of Fusion. It requires 79.25 calories to melt 1 gram of 
 ice; hence, according to the conservation of energy, a gram of 
 water must give off approximately 80 calories of heat when it 
 changes to ice. If the heat of fusion were very small, say 2 
 calories per gram, a river would not need to give off nearly so 
 much heat in order to change to ice, so that it might, under those 
 conditions, freeze solid in a night with disastrous consequences 
 to the fish in it, and to the people dependent upon it for water 
 supply. Under these circumstances, it would also be necessary 
 to buy about 40 tunes as much ice to get the same cooling effect 
 that we now obtain. 
 
 Heat of Vaporization. Since it requires about 600 calories 
 to change a gram of water at ordinary temperatures to vapor, 
 it follows, from the conservation of energy, that when a gram of 
 vapor condenses to water it gives off about 600 calories of heat. 
 This heat, freed by the condensation of vapor, is one of the main 
 causes of winds. The heat developed causes the air to become 
 lighter, whereupon it rises, and the surrounding air as it rushes 
 in is called a wind (Sec. 223). 
 
 If the heat of vaporization of water were much smaller, 
 evaporation and cloud formation would be much more rapid, 
 resulting ultimately in dried rivers and ponds, alternating 
 with disastrous floods. 
 
 The increase in volume which accompanies the freezing of water 
 is of the utmost importance in nature. If ice were more dense 
 than water, it would sink to the bottom when formed, and our
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 255 
 
 shallow ponds and our rivers would readily freeze solid. As it is, 
 the ice, being less dense, remains at the surface, and thus forms a 
 sheath that protects the water and prevents rapid cooling. 
 
 The Maximum Density of water occurs at 4 C. If water at 
 this temperature is either heated or cooled it expands, and con- 
 sequently becomes less dense. Hence in winter, as the surface 
 water of our lakes becomes cooler and therefore denser, it settles 
 to the bottom, and other water that takes its place is likewise 
 cooled and settles, thus establishing convection currents (Sec. 
 208). Through this action the temperature of the entire lake 
 tends to become 4 C. At least it cannot become colder than 
 this temperature, for as soon as any surface water becomes colder 
 than 4 it becomes less dense, and therefore remains on the sur- 
 face and finally freezes. As soon as the convection currents 
 cease, the chilling action practically ceases, so far as the deeper 
 strata of water are concerned, for water is a very poor conductor 
 of heat. 
 
 186. Fusion and Melting Point. The Fusion of a substance 
 is the act of melting or changing from the solid to the liquid state, 
 and the Melting Point is the temperature at which fusion occurs. 
 The melting point of ice is a perfectly definite and sharply defined 
 temperature; for which reason it is universally used as one of the 
 standard temperatures in thermometry. Amorphous or non- 
 crystalline substances, such as glass and resin, upon being heated, 
 change to a soft solid or to a viscous liquid, and finally, when 
 considerably hotter, become perfectly liquid. Such substances 
 have no well-defined melting point. 
 
 Solutions of solids in liquids have a lower freezing point than the 
 pure solvent, and the amount of lowering of the freezing point is, 
 as a rule, closely proportional to the strength of the solution. 
 It might also be added that the dissolved substance also raises 
 the boiling point. For example, a 24 per cent, brine freezes at 
 22 C. and boils at about 107. Many other substances dis- 
 solved in water produce the same effect, differing in degree only. 
 Solvents other than water are affected in the same way. 
 
 Alloys, which may be looked upon as a solution of one metal in 
 another, behave like solutions with regard to lowering of the melt- 
 ing point. Thus Rose's metal, consisting by weight of bismuth 
 4 parts, lead 1, and tin 1, melts at 94 C. and consequently melts 
 readily in boiling water. Wood's metal bismuth 4, lead 2, 
 tin 1, and cadmium 1 melts at 70. Solder, consisting of lead
 
 256 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 37 per cent., and tin 63 per cent., melts at 180 C. Using either 
 a greater or smaller percentage of lead raises the melting point 
 of the solder. In all these cases, the melting point of the alloy 
 is far lower than that of any of its components, as may be seen 
 by consulting the accompanying table. 
 
 TABLE OF MELTING POINTS 
 
 Substance 
 
 Temperature 
 
 Substance Temperature 
 
 Hydrogen 
 Nitrogen 
 
 -255 C. 
 -210 
 
 Lead 
 Zinc 
 
 325 C. 
 415 
 
 Mercury 
 Ice 
 
 - 38.8 
 
 
 Salt (NaCl) 
 Silver 
 
 800 
 960 
 
 Phosphorus 
 Tin 
 Bismuth 
 Cadmium. . . 
 
 44 
 233 
 267 
 315 
 
 Gold 
 Iron 
 Platinum 
 Iridium. . . 
 
 1064 
 1200 to 1600 
 1755 
 2300 
 
 Supercooling. It is possible to cool water and other liquids 
 several degrees below the normal freezing point before freezing 
 occurs. Thus water has been cooled ten or twenty degrees below 
 zero, but the instant a tiny crystal of ice is dropped into the water, 
 freezing takes place, and the heat evolved (79.25 cal. per gm. of 
 ice formed) rapidly brings its temperature up to zero. Dufour 
 has shown that small globules of water, immersed in oil, may 
 remain liquid from 20 C. to 178 C. Some other substances, 
 e.g., acetamid and "hypo" (sodium hyposulphite), are not so 
 difficult to supercool as is water. 
 
 Pressure. Some substances when subjected to great pressure 
 have their melting point raised, while others have it lowered. 
 Clearly, if a substance in melting contracts (e.g., ice, Sec. 187), we 
 would expect pressure to aid the melting process, and hence 
 cause the substance to melt at a lower temperature than normal. 
 It has been determined, both by theory and by experiment, that 
 ice melts at 0.0075 C. lower temperature for each additional 
 atmosphere of pressure exerted upon it. This effect is further 
 discussed under Regelation (Sec. 188) and Glaciers (Sec. 189). 
 
 187. Volume Change During Fusion. Some substances 
 expand during fusion, while others contract. Thus, in changing 
 from the liquid to the solid state, water expands 9 per cent., and 
 bismuth 2.3 per cent.; while the following contract, silver 
 (10 per cent.), zinc (10 per cent.), cast iron (1 per cent.). Obvi- 
 ously silver and zinc do not make good, clear-cut castings for the 
 reason that in solidifying they shrink away fiom the mold. Silver
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 257 
 
 and gold coins have the impressions stamped upon them. Iron 
 casts well because it shrinks but slightly. The importance in 
 nature of the expansion of water upon freezing has already been 
 discussed (Sec. 185). 
 
 188. Regelation. If a block of ice B (Fig. 127) has resting 
 across it a small steel wire w, to each end of which is attached a 
 heavy weight, it will be found that the wire slowly melts its way 
 through the ice. The ice immediately below the wire is subjected 
 to a very high pressure and therefore melts even if slightly below 
 zero (Sec. 186). The water thus formed is very slightly below 
 C., and flows around above the wire where it again freezes, due 
 to the fact that it is now at ordinary pressure, and that the sur- 
 rounding ice is also a trifle below C. Thus 
 
 the wire passes through the ice and leaves the 
 block as solid as ever. The refreezing of the 
 water as it passes from the region of high pres- 
 sure is called Regelation. Since every gram of 
 ice melted below the wire requires about 80 cal- 
 ories of heat, and since this heat must come 
 from the surrounding ice, we see why the ice 
 above the wire and the water and ice below 
 are cooled slightly below C. 
 
 If two irregular pieces of ice are pressed to- 
 gether, the surface of contact will be very small 
 and the pressure correspondingly great; as a 
 result of which some of the ice at this point will 
 melt. The water thus formed, being at ordinary atmospheric 
 pressure and slightly below zero as just shown, refreezes and 
 firmly unites the two pieces of ice. A similar phenomenon occurs 
 in the forming of snow balls by the pressure of the hand. 
 
 In skating, regelation probably plays an important role, as 
 pointed out by Dr. Joly. With a sharp skate, the skater's weight 
 bears upon a very small surface of ice, which may cause it to melt 
 even though several degrees below zero. Thus the skate melts 
 rather than wears a slight groove in the ice. If the ice is very 
 cold the skate will not "bite," i.e., it will not melt a groove, 
 unless very sharp. Friction is also probably much reduced by the 
 film of water between the skate and the ice. 
 
 189. Glaciers. Glaciers are great rivers of ice that flow 
 slowly down the mountain gorges, sometimes (in the far north) 
 reaching the sea, where they break off in huge pieces called ice- 
 
 FIG. 127
 
 258 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 bergs, which float away to menace ocean travel. Glaciers owe 
 both their origin and their motion, in part, to regelation. Due 
 to the great pressure 'developed by the accumulated masses of 
 snow in the mountains or in the polar regions, part of the snow is 
 melted and frozen together as solid ice, forming glaciers, just as 
 the two pieces of ice mentioned above were frozen together. 
 
 As the glacier flows past a rocky cliff that projects into it, the 
 ice above, although at a temperature far below zero, melts because 
 of the high pressure, flows around the obstacle, and freezes again 
 below it. The velocity of glaciers varies from a few inches a day 
 to ten feet a day (Muir Glacier, Alaska), depending upon their 
 size and the slope of their beds. The mid-portion of a glacier 
 flows faster than the edge and the top faster than the bottom, 
 evidencing a sort of tar-like viscosity. 
 
 Glaciers in the remote past have repeatedly swept over vast 
 regions of the globe, profoundly modifying the soil and topogra- 
 phy of those regions. The northern half of the United States 
 shows abundant evidence of these ice invasions (see Geology). 
 At present, glaciers exist only in high altitudes or high latitudes. 
 
 190. The Ice Cream Freezer. Experiments show that ice, 
 in the presence of common salt, may melt at a temperature far 
 below C. (-22 C. or -7.4 F.). This fact makes possible 
 the production of very low temperatures by artificial means. 
 The most familiar example of the practical application of this 
 principle is the ice cream freezer. The broken ice, mixed with 
 salt, surrounds an inner vessel which contains the cream. The 
 rotation of the inner vessel serves the two-fold purpose of agitat- 
 ing the cream within, and mixing the salt and ice without. The 
 revolving vanes within aerate the cream, thus making it light and 
 "velvety." The freezing would take place, however, without 
 revolving either vanes or container, but the process would require 
 more time, and the product would be inferior. As the ice melts, 
 the water thus formed dissolves more salt, and the resulting brine 
 melts more ice, and so on. One part (by weight) of salt to 
 three parts of crushed ice or snow gives the best results. This 
 is the proper proportion to form a saturated brine at that low 
 temperature. 
 
 The theory of the production of low temperatures by freezing 
 mixtures, such as salt and ice, is very simple. Every gram of ice 
 that melts requires 79.25 calories of heat to melt it. If this heat 
 is supplied, by a flame for example, the temperature remains at
 
 HEAT MEASUREMENT, OR CALORIMETRY 259 
 
 C. until practically all of the ice is melted. If the melting of 
 the ice is caused by the presence of some salt or other chemical, 
 the requisite 79.25 calories of heat for each gram melted must come 
 from the freezing mixture itself, and from its surroundings, mainly 
 the inner vessel of the freezer, thus causing a fall of temperature. 
 Still lower temperatures may be obtained with a mixture of cal- 
 cium chloride and snow. The cheapness of common salt, and the 
 fact that 22 C. is sufficiently cold for rapid freezing, accounts 
 for its universal use. In fact, while being frozen, that is, while 
 being agitated, the cream should be but a few degrees below 
 zero to secure the maximum "lightness." 
 
 > PROBLEMS 
 
 1. How much heat would be required to change ^.Q^m. of ice at. 10 C 
 to water at 20 C.? 
 
 2. Now much heat wcyuld be^equired to change 40 gm. of water at 30 C. 
 to steam at 140 C.? Ae heat of vaporization at 140 C. is about 510 cal. 
 per gm. 
 
 3. If 40 gm. of water at 80 C. is mixed with 30 gm. of water at 20 C., 
 what will be the temperature of the mixture? Neglect the heat capacity of 
 the calorimeter. Suggestion: Call the required temperature t, and then 
 solve for it. 
 
 4. Find the "water equivalent" of a brass calorimeter that weighs 150 
 gm. 
 
 6. Same as problem 3, except that the heat capacity of the calorimeter 
 containing the cold water is considered. The weight of the calorimeter is 
 60 gm., and the specific heat of the material of which it is composed is 0.11. 
 
 6. A certain calorimeter, whose water equivalent is 20, contains 80 gm. of 
 water at 40 C. When a mass of 200 gm. of a certain metal at 100 C. is 
 introduced, the temperature of the water and the calorimeter rises to 55 C. 
 Find the specific heat of the metal. 
 
 7. How many B.T.U.'s would be required to change 100 Ibs. of ice at 12 F. 
 to water at 80 F.? (Sees. 181 and 182.) 
 
 8. How many B.T.U.'s would be required to change 100 Ibs. of water at 
 80 F. to steam at 320 F.? When the water in the boiler is heated to 320 F. 
 the steam pressure is about 90 Ibs. per sq. in., and the heat of vaporization, 
 in the metric system, is about 495 cal. per gm. 
 
 9. How many pounds of soft coal would be required to change 100 Ibs. of 
 water at 70 F. to steam at 212 F.? 
 
 Assume that 10 per cent, of the energy is lost through incomplete combus- 
 tion, and that 30 per cent, of the remaining heat escapes through the smoke- 
 stack, or is lost by radiation, etc. See table, Sec. 181. 
 
 10. How high would the energy obtainable from burning a ton of coal 
 raise a ton of material, (a) assuming 12.5 per cent, efficiency for the steam 
 engine? (b) assuming 100 per cent, efficiency?
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 ^^i,..-,- - VAPORIZATION 
 
 191. Vaporization Denned. Vaporization is the general term 
 applied to the process of changing from a liquid or solid to the 
 vapor state. Vaporization takes place in three different ways, 
 evaporation, ebullition (Sec. 192), and sublimation. The first two 
 refer to the change from liquid to vapor, the^last, from solid to 
 vapor. If aisolid passes directly 'iSo the vapor state without 
 first becoming aflTJtfid, it is said to sublime, and the process is 
 sublimation. Snow sublimofr slowlyV disappearing when per- 
 fectly dry and far below zero. Other substances besides snow 
 sublime; notably camphor, iodine, and arsenic. 
 
 In whatever manner the vaporization occurs, it requires heat 
 energy to bring it about, and when the vapor condenses an equal 
 amount of heat (the heat of vaporization, Sec. 182) is evolved. 
 Hence a molecule must contain more energy when in the vapor 
 state than when in the liquid state, due, according to the kinetic 
 theory (Sec. 171), to the greater rapidity of its to-and-fro motion. 
 The above absorption and evolution of heat which accompany 
 vaporization and condensation, respectively, are of the utmost 
 importance in nature (Sec. 185) and also commercially. In 
 steam heating, the heat is evolved about 540 calories for each 
 gram of steam condensed at the place where the condensation 
 occurs, namely, in the radiator. Note the similar absorption of 
 heat in the melting of ice (utilized in the ice-cream freezer, Sec. 
 190) and the evolution of heat in the freezing of water. Thus, 
 vaporization and melting are heat-absorbing processes; while 
 the reverse changes of state, condensation and freezing, are 
 heat-liberating processes. 
 
 192. Evaporation and Ebullition. The heat energy of a body 
 is supposed to be due to its molecular motion (Sec. 160), which, 
 as the body is heated, becomes more violent. The evaporation 
 of a liquid may be readily explained in accordance with this 
 theory. Let A (Fig. 128) be an air-tight cylinder containing 
 some water B, and provided with an air-tight piston P. Suppose 
 
 260
 
 VAPORIZATION 
 
 261 
 
 this piston, originally in contact with the water, to be suddenly 
 raised, thereby producing above the water a vacuum. As the 
 water molecules near the surface of the water move rapidly to 
 and fro some of them escape into the vacuous space above, where 
 they travel to and fro just as do the molecules of a gas. After a 
 considerable number of these molecules have escaped from the 
 water, many of them in their to-and-fro motion will again strike 
 the water and be retained. Thus we see that there is a continual 
 passage of these molecules from the water to the vapor above, 
 and vice versa. The vapor above is said to be saturated when, in 
 this interchange, equilibrium has been reached; i.e., when the 
 rate at which the molecules are returning to the water is equal to 
 the rate at which they are escaping from it. 
 
 The saturated water vapor above the water in A exerts a pres- 
 sure due to the impact of its molecules against the walls, just as 
 
 
 -A 
 
 FIG. 128. 
 
 any gas exerts pressure. This vapor pressure is about 1/40 
 atmosphere when the water is at room temperature and becomes 
 1 atmosphere when the water and the cylinder are heated to the 
 boiling point. 
 
 Ebullition. When water is placed in an open vessel (C, Fig. 
 128) evaporation into the air takes place from the surface, as 
 already described for vessel A. When heated to the boiling point 
 (D, Fig. 128), bubbles of vapor form at the point of application 
 of heat and rise to the surface, where the vapor escapes to the air. 
 When vaporization takes place in this manner, i.e., by the forma- 
 tion of bubbles within the liquid, it is called Ebullition, or boiling; 
 while when it takes place simply from the surface of the liquid, 
 it is called Evaporation. 
 
 As has already been stated, the pressure of saturated water
 
 262 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 vapor at 100 C. is one atmosphere. This will be evident from the 
 following considerations. In the formation of the steam bubble 
 E below the surface of the water in the open dish D, it is clear 
 that the pressure of the vapor in the bubble must be equal to the 
 atmospheric pressure or it would collapse. Indeed it must be a 
 trifle greater than atmospheric pressure, because the pressure 
 upon it is one atmosphere plus the slight pressure (hdg) due to 
 the water above it. We are now prepared to accept the general 
 statement that any liquid will boil in a shallow open dish when it 
 reaches that temperature for which the pressure of its saturated 
 vapor is one atmosphere. This temperature, known as the boiling 
 point at atmospheric pressure or simply the boiling point, differs 
 widely for the various substances. 
 
 193. Boiling Point. Unless otherwise stated, the Boiling Point 
 is understood to be that temperature at which boiling occurs at 
 Standard Atmospheric Pressure (760 mm. of mercury). For pure 
 liqufds, this is a perfectly definite, sharply defined temperature, 
 so definite, indeed, that it may be used in identifying the sub- 
 stance. Thus if a liquid boils at 34. 9 we may be fairly sure that 
 it is ether; at 61, chloroform; at 290, glycerine. The boiling 
 points for a few substances are given in the following table. 
 
 BOILING POINTS AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 
 
 Substance Temperature 
 
 Substance Temperature 
 
 Helium 
 
 -267 C. 
 
 Alcohol (wood) . . 
 
 66 C. 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 -253 
 
 Alcohol (ethyl)... 
 
 78.4 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 194 
 
 Water 
 
 100 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 184 
 
 Glycerine 
 
 290 
 
 Carbon dioxide 1 . . . 
 Ammonia 
 
 - 80 
 - 38.5 
 
 Mercury 
 Sulphur 
 
 357 
 
 448 
 
 Ether 
 
 34.9 
 
 Zinc 
 
 about 930 
 
 Chloroform 
 
 61 
 
 Lead.... 
 
 about 1500 
 
 Solutions of solids in liquids have a higher boiling point, as well 
 as a lower freezing point (Sec. 186) than the pure solvent. Thus 
 a 24 per cent, brine, which we have seen freezes at 22 C., boils 
 at about 107 C. The elevation of the boiling point is approxi- 
 mately proportional to the concentration for weak solutions. 
 A 24 per cent, sugar solution boils at about 100. 5 C. 
 
 194. Effect of Pressure on the Boiling Point. When a change 
 of state is accompanied by an increase in volume, we readily see 
 
 1 Carbon dioxide (COz) sublimes at 80 C. and atmospheric pressure. 
 Under a pressure of 5.1 atmospheres it melts and also boils at 57 C.
 
 VAPORIZATION 
 
 263 
 
 that subjecting the substance to a high pressure will oppose the 
 change; while if the change of state is accompanied by a decrease 
 in volume, the reverse is true, i.e., pressure will then aid the proc- 
 ess. Consequently, since water expands in changing to either 
 ice or steam, subjecting it to high pressure makes it "harder" 
 either to freeze or boil it; i.e., pressure lowers the freezing point, 
 (Sec. 186) and raises the boiling point. The latter volume change 
 is vastly greater than the former; accordingly the corresponding 
 temperature change is greater. Thus, when the pressure changes 
 from one atmosphere to two, the change of boiling point (21) is 
 much greater than the change of freezing point (O.0075). When 
 the steam gauge reads 45 Ibs. per sq. in. or 3 atmospheres, the 
 absolute steam pressure on the water in the boiler is 4 atmospheres 
 and the temperature of the water is 144 C. When the steam 
 gauge reads 200 Ibs., a pressure sometimes used, the temperature 
 of the boiler water is 194 C. On the other hand, to make water 
 boil in the receiver of an air pump at room temperature (20), the 
 pressure must be reduced to about 1/40 atmosphere. (See 
 table below.) 
 
 BOILING POINT OF WATER AT VARIOUS PRESSURES 
 
 Tempera- 
 ture 
 
 Pressure in 
 cm. of mer- 
 cury 
 
 Tempera- 
 ture 
 
 Pressure in 
 atmos- 
 pheres 
 
 Tempera- 
 ture 
 
 Pressure in 
 atmos- 
 pheres 
 
 0C. 
 
 0.46 
 
 70 C. 
 
 0.3 
 
 140 C. 
 
 3.5 
 
 10 
 
 0.92 
 
 80 
 
 0.46 
 
 150 
 
 4.7 
 
 20 
 
 1.74 
 
 90 
 
 0.70 
 
 160 
 
 6.1 
 
 30 
 
 3.15 
 
 100 
 
 1.00 
 
 170 
 
 7.8 
 
 40 
 
 5.49 
 
 110 
 
 1.40 
 
 180 
 
 10.0 
 
 50 
 
 9.20 
 
 121 
 
 2.00 
 
 190 
 
 12.4 
 
 60 
 
 14.88 
 
 130 
 
 2.67 
 
 200 
 
 15.5 
 
 Franklin's Experiment on Boiling Point. Benjamin Franklin 
 discovered that if a flask partly filled with water is boiled until 
 the air is all expelled (Fig. 129, left sketch) , and is then tightly 
 stoppered and removed from the flame (right sketch), then pour- 
 ing cold water (the colder the better) upon the flask causes the 
 water to boil, even after it has cooled to about room temperature. 
 The explanation is simple. When the temperature of the water 
 is 50 C. the vapor pressure in the flask is 9.2 cm. of mercury. 
 
 1 This is also a table of the saturated vapor pressure of water at various 
 temperatures. (See close of Sec. 192, also Sec. 196.)
 
 264 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 (See table above.) Suppose that under these conditions cold 
 water is poured upon the flask. This chilling of the flask con- 
 denses some of the contained vapor, thereby causing a slight 
 drop in pressure, whereupon more water bursts into steam. 
 Indeed, so long as the temperature is 50, the vapor pressure will 
 be maintained at 9.2 cm.; hence the colder the water which is 
 poured on, the more rapid the condensation, and consequently 
 the more violent the boiling. The flask should have a round 
 bottom or the atmospheric pressure will crush it when the pressure 
 within becomes low. Inverting the flask and placing the stopper 
 under water, as shown, precludes the possibility of air entering 
 the flask and destroying the vacuum. 
 
 This lowering of the boiling point as the air pressure decreases 
 is a serious drawback in cooking at high altitudes. At an altitude 
 
 FIG. 129. 
 
 of 10,000 ft. (e.g., at Leadville, Colorado), water boils at about 
 90 C., and at the summit of Pike's Peak (alt. 14,000 ft.), at 
 about 85 C. At such altitudes it is very difficult to cook (by 
 boiling) certain articles of food, (e.g., beans), requiring in some 
 cases more than a day. It will be understood that when water 
 has reached the boiling point, further application of heat does 
 not cause any further temperature rise, but is used in changing 
 the boiling water to steam. In sugar manufacture, the "boiling 
 down" is done in "vacuum pans" at reduced pressure and re-
 
 VAPORIZATION 265 
 
 duced temperature to avoid charring the sugar. By boiling 
 substances in a closed vessel or boiler so that the steam is con- 
 fined, thereby raising the pressure, and consequently raising the 
 boiling point, the cooking is more quickly and more thoroughly 
 done. This method is used in canning factories. 
 
 Superheating, Bumping. After pure water has boiled for some 
 time and the air which it contains has been expelled, it sometimes 
 boils intermittently with almost explosive violence known as 
 "bumping." A thermometer inserted in the water will show 
 that the temperature just previous to the "bumping" is slightly 
 above normal boiling point; in other words the water is Super- 
 heated. A few pieces of porous material or a little unboiled water 
 added will stop the bumping. We have seen (Sec. 186) that water 
 may also be supercooled without freezing. Dufour has shown 
 that water in fine globules immersed in oil may remain liquid 
 from -20 to 178 C. 
 
 195. Geysers. The geyser may be described as a great hot 
 spring which, at more or less regular intervals, spouts forth a 
 column or jet of hot water. Geysers are found in Iceland, New 
 Zealand, and Yellowstone National Park. One of the Iceland 
 geysers throws a column of water 10 ft. in diameter to a height 
 of 200 ft. at intervals of about 6 hours. Grand Geyser, of the 
 National Park, spouts to a height of 250 ft. Old Faithful, in 
 the National Park, is noted for its regularity. 
 
 Geysers owe their action to the fact that water under great 
 pressure must be heated considerably above 100 before it boils, 
 and perhaps in some cases also to superheating of the lower parts 
 of the water column just before the eruption takes place. A deep, 
 irregular passage, or "well," filled with water, is heated at the 
 bottom by the internal heat of the earth to a temperature far 
 above the ordinary boiling point before the vapor pressure is 
 sufficient to form a bubble. When this temperature is reached 
 (unless superheating occurs) a vapor bubble forms and forces 
 the column of water upward. At first the water simply flows 
 away at the top. This, however, reduces the pressure on the 
 vapor below, whereupon it rapidly expands, and the highly 
 heated water below, now having less pressure upon it, bursts 
 into steam with explosive violence and throws upward a column 
 of boiling water. This water, now considerably cooled, flows 
 back into the " well." After a few hours the water at the bottom 
 of the well again becomes heated sufficiently above 100 to form
 
 266 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 steam bubbles under the high pressure to which it is subjected, 
 and the geyser again "spouts." 
 
 Bunsen, who first explained the action of the natural geyser, 
 devised an artificial geyser. It consisted of a tin tube, say 4 ft. 
 in length and 4 in. in diameter at the lower end, tapering to 
 about 1 in. in diameter at the top, with a broad flaring portion 
 above to catch the column when it spouts. If filled with water 
 and then heated at the bottom, it spouts at fairly regular intervals. 
 If constructed with thermometers passing through the walls of 
 the tube, it will be found that the thermometers just previous to 
 eruption read higher than 100, and that the lowest one reads 
 highest. 
 
 In the case of steam boilers under high pressure, the water may 
 be from 50 to 80 hotter than the normal boiling point, and if 
 the boiler gives way, thereby reducing the pressure, part of this 
 water bursts into steam. This additional supply of steam no 
 doubt contributes greatly to the violence of boiler explosions. 
 
 196. Properties of Saturated Vapor. If, after the space above 
 the water in A (Fig. 128) has become filled with saturated vapor, 
 the piston Pis suddenly forced down, there will then be more mole- 
 cules per unit volume of the space than there were before. Con- 
 sequently, the rate at which the molecules return to the water will 
 be greater than before, and therefore greater than the rate at 
 which they are escaping from the water. In other words, some of 
 the vapor condenses to water. This condensation takes place 
 very quickly and continues until equilibrium is restored and the 
 vapor is still simply saturated vapor. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the piston P had been suddenly moved 
 upward instead of downward, the vapor molecules in the space 
 above the water, having somewhat more room than before, would 
 not be so closely crowded together and hence would not return to 
 the water in such great numbers as before. In other words, the 
 rate of escape of molecules from the water would be greater than 
 their rate of return; consequently the number of molecules in 
 the space above the water would increase until equilibrium was 
 reached, i.e., until the space was again filled with saturated vapor. 
 
 In the case of a saturated vapor above its liquid, we may con- 
 sider that there are two opposing tendencies always at work. 
 As the temperature of the liquid rises, the tendency of the liquid 
 to change to vapor increases, i.e., more liquid vaporizes. The 
 effect of increasing the external pressure applied to the vapor is,
 
 VAPORIZATION 
 
 267 
 
 on the other hand, to tend to condense it to the liquid state. At 
 all times, and under all circumstances, the pressure applied to 
 the vapor is equal to the pressure exerted by the vapor. Referring 
 to Fig. 128, it may readily be seen that if the vapor pressure act- 
 ing upward upon P is equal to, say 5 Ibs. per sq. in. at any instant, 
 that the downward pressure exerted by the piston upon the vapor 
 below it, is likewise 5 Ibs. per sq. in. Of course this would be 
 equally true for any other pressure. 
 
 C D E F 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 i: 
 
 FIG. 130. 
 
 These characteristics of a saturated vapor above its own liquid 
 are beautifully illustrated in the following experiment. A ba- 
 rometer tube T (Fig. 130, left sketch) is filled with mercury, 
 stoppered, and carefully inverted in a mercury "well" A about 80 
 cm. deep. Upon removing the stopper, the mercury runs out of 
 the tube, leaving the mercury level about 76 cm. higher in the 
 tube than in the well, as explained in Sec. 136. Next, without 
 admitting any air, introduce, by means of an ink filler, sufficient 
 ether to make about 1 cm. depth in the tube. This ether rises
 
 268 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 and quickly evaporates, until the upper part of the tube is filled 
 with its saturated vapor, whose pressure at room temperature is 
 about 2/3 atmosphere. Consequently, the mercury drops until 
 it is about 25 cm. (1/3 of 76) above that in the well. 
 
 Now, as the tube is quickly moved upward more ether evapo- 
 rates, maintaining the pressure of the saturated vapor con- 
 stantly at 2/3 atmosphere, as evidenced by the fact that the level 
 of the mercury still remains 25 cm. above that in the well. If the 
 tube is suddenly forced downward, some ether vapor condenses, 
 and the mercury still remains at the same 25-cm. level. After the 
 tube has been raised high enough that all of the ether is evapor- 
 ated, further raising it causes the pressure of the vapor to de- 
 crease (in accordance with Boyle's Law), as shown by the fact 
 that the level of the mercury in the tube then rises. 
 
 Finally, if the tube and contents are heated to 34.9 C., the 
 boiling point for ether, its saturated vapor produces a pressure of 
 one atmosphere, and the mercury within and without the tube 
 comes to the same level, and remains at the same level though the 
 tube be again raised and lowered. If the tube is severely chilled, 
 the mercury rises considerably higher than 25 cm. This shows 
 that the pressure of the saturated vapor, or the pressure at which 
 boiling occurs, rises rapidly with the temperature. (See table 
 for Water, Sec. 194.) 
 
 Saturated Vapor Pressure of Different Liquids. The pressure of 
 the saturated vapor of liquids varies greatly for the different 
 liquids, as shown by the experiment illustrated in Fig. 130 (right 
 sketch). The four tubes C, D, E, and F are filled with mercury 
 and are then inverted in the mercury trough G. The mercury 
 then stands at a height of 76 cm. in each tube. If, now, a little 
 alcohol is introduced into D, some chloroform into E, and some 
 ether into F, it will be found that the mercury level lowers by the 
 amounts hi, hz, and h 3 , respectively. The value of hi is 4.4 cm., 
 which shows that at room temperature the pressure of the sat- 
 urated vapor of alcohol is equal to 4.4 cm. of mercury. Since 
 h 2 /hi = 4: (approx.), we see that at room temperature the pressure 
 of the saturated vapor is about 4 times as great for chloroform 
 as for alcohol. 
 
 197. Cooling Effect of Evaporation. If the hand is mois- 
 tened with ether, alcohol, gasoline, or any other liquid that evapo- 
 rates quickly, a decided cooling effect is produced. Water pro- 
 duces a similar but less marked effect. We have seen that it
 
 VAPORIZATION 269 
 
 requires 536.5 calories to change a gram of boiling water to steam. 
 When water is evaporated at ordinary temperatures it requires 
 somewhat more than this, about 600 calories. If this heat is not 
 supplied by a burner or some other external source, it must come 
 from the remaining water and the containing vessel, thereby 
 cooling them below room temperature. 
 
 There are two factors which determine the magnitude of the 
 cooling effect produced by the evaporation of a liquid. One of 
 these is the volatility of the liquid; the other, the value of its 
 heat of vaporization. From the table (Sec. 182) we see that the 
 heat of vaporization is about 3 times as great for water as for 
 alcohol. Consequently, if alcohol evaporated 3 times as fast as 
 water under like conditions, then alcohol and water would pro- 
 duce about equally pronounced cooling effects. Alcohol, how- 
 ever, evaporates much more than 3 times as fast as water, and 
 therefore gives greater cooling effect, as observed. 
 
 If three open vessels contain alcohol, chloroform, and ether, 
 respectively, it will be found that a thermometer placed in the 
 one containing alcohol shows a temperature slightly lower than 
 room temperature; while the one in chloroform reads still lower, 
 and the one in ether the lowest of all. A thermometer placed in 
 water would read almost exactly room temperature. The main 
 reason for this difference is the different rates at which these 
 liquids evaporate, although, as just stated, the value of the heat 
 of vaporization is also a determining factor. Ether, being by far 
 the most volatile of the three, gives the greatest cooling effect. 
 Observe that the more volatile liquids are those having a low 
 boiling point, and consequently a high vapor pressure at room 
 temperature. In some minor surgical operations the requisite 
 numbness is produced by the chilling effect of a spray of very 
 volatile liquid. Other practical uses of the cooling effect of 
 evaporation are discussed in Sees. 198, 199, and 200. The 
 converse, or the heating effect due to condensation, is utilized in 
 all heating by steam (Sec. 191), and it also plays an important role 
 in influencing weather conditions. 
 
 198. The Wet-and -dry-bulb Hygrometer. The 'cooling 
 effect of evaporation is employed in the wet-and-dry-bulb 
 hygrometer, used in determining the amount of moisture in the 
 atmosphere. It consists of two ordinary thermometers which 
 are just alike except that a piece of muslin is tied about the bulb 
 of one. The muslin is in contact with a wick, the lower end of
 
 270 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 which is in a vessel of water. By virtue of the capillary action of 
 the wick and muslin, the bulb is kept moist. This moisture 
 evaporating from the bulb cools it, causing this thermometer to 
 read several degrees lower than the other one. 
 
 If the air is very dry, this evaporation will be rapid and the 
 difference between the readings of the two thermometers will be 
 large; whereas if the air is almost saturated with moisture, the 
 evaporation will be slow and the two thermometer readings will 
 differ but slightly. Consequently, if the two readings differ but 
 little, rain or other precipitation may be expected. The method 
 of finding the amount of water vapor in the air by means of these 
 thermometer readings, is discussed in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 As a mass of air m comes into contact with the wet (colder) bulb it 
 gives heat to the bulb, and as it absorbs moisture from the bulb it also 
 takes heat from it. A few moments after the apparatus is set up, equi- 
 librium is reached, as shown by the fact that the temperature of the wet 
 bulb is constant. It is then known that the amounts of heat "given" 
 and "taken" by the bulb are equal. This fact is utilized in the deriva- 
 tion of certain theoretical formulas for computing the amount of 
 moisture in the air directly from the two thermometer readings. The 
 practical method, however, is to use tables (Sec. 222) compiled from 
 experiments. 
 
 199. Cooling Effect due to Evaporation of Liquid Carbon 
 Dioxide. Carbon dioxide (COa) is a gas at ordinary tempera- 
 tures and pressures, but if cooled to a low temperature and then 
 subjected to high pressure it changes to the liquid state. If 
 the pressure is reduced it quickly changes back to the vapor state. 
 We have seen that the pressure of water vapor is about 1/40 
 atmosphere at room temperature. Liquid carbon dioxide is so 
 extremely volatile, that is, it has so great a tendency to change 
 to the vapor state, that its vapor pressure at room temperature 
 has the enormous value of 60 atmospheres. It follows then, that 
 when an air-tight vessel is partly filled with liquid carbon dioxide 
 at room temperature, a portion of it quickly changes to vapor 
 until the pressure in the space above the liquid becomes 60 atmos- 
 pheres. Carbon dioxide is shipped and kept in strong sealed 
 iron tanks to be used for charging soda fountains, etc. 
 
 If such a tank is inverted (Fig. 131) and the valve is opened, 
 a stream of liquid carbon dioxide is forced out by the 60-atmos- 
 phere pressure of the vapor within. As soon as this liquid carbon 
 dioxide escapes to the air, where the pressure is only one atmos- 
 phere, it changes almost instantly to vapor, and takes from the
 
 VAPORIZATION 
 
 271 
 
 air, from the nozzle, and from the remaining liquid, its heat of 
 vaporization, about 40 calories per gram at room temperature. 
 This abstraction of heat chills the nozzle to such an extent that 
 the moisture of the air rapidly condenses upon it as a frosty 
 coating. It also chills, in fact freezes, part of the liquid jet of 
 carbon dioxide, forming carbon dioxide "snow." This snow is 
 so cold ( 80 C.) that mercury surrounded by it quickly freezes. 
 
 200. Refrigeration and Ice 
 Manufacture by the Ammonia 
 Process. There are several sys- 
 tems or methods of ice manufac- 
 ture, in all of which, however, the 
 chilling effect is produced by the 
 heat absorption (due to heat of 
 vaporization) that accompanies 
 the vaporization of a volatile 
 liquid. The most important of 
 these liquids are ammonia (NH 3 ) 
 and carbon dioxide (CO2). Econ- 
 omy demands that the vapor be 
 condensed again to a liquid, in 
 order to use the same liquid re- 
 peatedly. 
 
 In the Compression System, the 
 vapor is compressed by means of 
 an air pump until it becomes a 
 
 liquid. The heat evolved in this process (heat of vaporization) 
 is disposed of usually by flowing water, and the cooled liquid 
 (e.g., ammonia) is again allowed to evaporate. Thus the cycle, 
 consisting of evaporation accompanied by heat absorption, and 
 condensation to liquid accompanied by heat evolution, is repeated 
 indefinitely. Since the former occurs in pipes in the ice tank 
 (freezing tank), we see that the heat is literally pumped from the 
 freezing tank to the flowing water. 
 
 Ammonia is a substance admirably adapted to use in this way. 
 Its heat of vaporization is fairly large (295 cal. per gm.), and it is 
 very volatile that is, it evaporates very quickly, its vapor 
 pressure at room temperature being about 10 atmospheres. At 
 38. 5 C. its vapor pressure is one atmosphere; hence it would 
 boil in an open vessel at that low temperature. The liquid com- 
 monly called ammonia is simply water containing ammonia gas 
 
 FIG. 131.
 
 272 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 which it readily absorbs. Ammonia is a gas at ordinary tempera- 
 tures, but when cooled and subjected to several atmospheres' 
 pressure it changes to a liquid. If carbon dioxide is used instead 
 of ammonia, the cost of manufacturing the ice is somewhat 
 greater. The greater compactness of the apparatus, however, 
 coupled with the fact that in case of accidental bursting of the 
 pipes, carbon dioxide is much less dangerous than ammonia, has 
 resulted in its adoption on ships. 
 
 The essentials of the Ammonia Refrigerating apparatus are 
 shown diagrammatically in Fig. 132. A is the cooling tank which 
 receives a continual supply of cold water through pipe c.;B is an 
 air pump; C is a freezing tank filled with brine; D is a pipe filled 
 with liquid ammonia; and E is a pipe filled with ammonia vapor. 
 
 FIG. 132. 
 
 If valve F were slightly opened, liquid ammonia would enter E 
 and evaporate until the pressure in E was equal to the vapor 
 pressure of ammonia at room temperature or about 10 atmos- 
 pheres. Whereupon evaporation, and therefore all cooling action , 
 would cease. If, however, the pump is operated, ammonia gas 
 is withdrawn from E through valve a and is then forced into pipe 
 D through valve 6 under sufficient pressure to liquefy it. This 
 constant withdrawal of ammonia gas from pipe E permits more 
 liquid ammonia to enter through F and evaporate. The am-
 
 VAPORIZATION 273 
 
 monia, as it evaporates in E, withdraws from E and from the sur- 
 rounding brine its heat of vaporization (about 300 cal. per gm.); 
 while each gram of gas that is condensed to a liquid in D imparts 
 to D and to its surroundings about 300 calories. Thus we see 
 that heat is withdrawn from the very cold brine in C and imparted 
 to the much warmer water in A. This action continues so long 
 as the pump is operated. Brine is used in C because it may be 
 cooled far below zero without freezing. 
 
 The Refrigerator Room. The cold brine from C may be pumped 
 through d into the pipes in the refrigerator room and then back 
 through pipe e to the tank. The brine as it returns is not so cold 
 as before, having abstracted some heat from the refrigerator 
 room. This heat it now imparts to pipe E. Thus, through the 
 circulation of the brine, heat is carried from the cooling room to 
 the tank C, and we have just seen that due to the circulation of 
 the ammonia, heat is carried from the brine tank C to the water 
 tank A. 
 
 The pipe E, instead of passing into the brine, may pass back 
 and forth in the refrigerator room. The stifling ammonia vapor, 
 which rapidly fills the room, in case of the leaking or bursting of 
 an ammonia pipe, makes this method dangerous. 
 
 In the Can System of ice manufacture, the cans of water to be 
 frozen are placed in the brine in C, and left there 40 or 50 hours 
 as required. In the Plate System, the pipe E passes back and forth 
 on one face of a large metal plate, chilling it and forming a sheet 
 of ice of any desired thickness upon the other face, which is in 
 contact with water. For every 8 or 10 tons of ice manufactured, 
 the engine that operates the pump uses about one ton of coal. 
 
 Observe that in "pumping" the heat, as we may say, from the 
 cold freezing tank to the much warmer flowing water, we are 
 causing the heat to flow "uphill," so to speak; for heat. of itself 
 always tends to flow from hotter to colder bodies, that is, "down- 
 hill." Observe also that it takes external applied energy of the 
 steam engine that operates the pump to cause this "uphill" flow 
 of heat. 
 
 201. Critical Temperature and Critical Pressure. In 1869, 
 Dr. Andrews performed at Glasgow his classical experiments on 
 carbon dioxide. He found that when some of this gas, confined 
 in a compression cylinder at a temperature of about 32 or 33 C., 
 had the pressure upon it changed from say 70 atmospheres to: 80 
 atmospheres, then the volume decreased, not by 1/8 as required
 
 274 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 by Boyle's Law (Sec. 139), but much more than this. He also 
 found that carbon dioxide gas cannot be changed to the liquid 
 state by pressure, however great, if its temperature is above 31 C. 
 This temperature (31) is called the Critical Temperature for 
 carbon dioxide. 
 
 If carbon dioxide gas is at its critical temperature, it requires 
 73 atmospheres' pressure to change it to the liquid state. This 
 pressure is called the Critical Pressure for carbon dioxide. If 
 the temperature of any gas is several degrees lower than its 
 critical temperature, then the pressure required to change it to 
 the liquid state is considerably less than the critical pressure. 
 Below is given a table of critical temperatures and critical pres- 
 sures for a few gases. 
 
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES AND CRITICAL PRESSURES FOR A FEW 
 SUBSTANCES 
 
 Substance 
 
 Critical temperature 
 
 Critical pressure in 
 atmospheres 
 
 Hydrogen 1 (H) 
 Nitrogen (N) 
 
 -241 C. 
 -146 
 
 14 
 34 
 
 Air (O and N) 
 
 -140 
 
 39 
 
 Oxygen (O) 
 
 118 
 
 50 
 
 Ethylene (C 2 H 4 ) 
 Carbon dioxide (CCh) 
 Ammonia (NHs) 
 
 10 
 30.92 
 130 
 
 52 
 73 
 115 
 
 Water vapor (H,O) 
 
 364 
 
 194.6 
 
 202. Isothermals for Carbon Dioxide. In Fig. 134, the isothermals 
 which Andrews determined for carbon dioxide are shown. For the 
 meaning of isothermals and the method of obtaining them, the student 
 is referred to "Isothermals for Air" (Sec. 140). 
 
 The essential parts of the apparatus used by Andrews are shown in 
 section in Fig. 133. A glass tube A about 2.5 mm. in diameter, terminat- 
 ing in a fine capillary tube above, was filled with carbon dioxide gas and 
 plugged with a piston of mercury a. This tube was next slipped into 
 the cap C of the compression chamber D. A similar tube B, filled with 
 air, and likewise stoppered with mercury, was placed in the compression 
 chamber E. 
 
 As S was screwed into the compression chamber D, the pressure 
 
 1 The values 234.5 C. and 20 atmospheres, sometimes given as the 
 critical temperature and critical pressure, respectively, for hydrogen, are 
 incorrect; the first, because of extrapolation error in the readings of the resist- 
 ance thermometer, the second, because of manometer error in the original 
 determination.
 
 VAPORIZATION 
 
 275 
 
 on the water in the two chambers, and consequently the pressure on 
 the mercury and gas in the two tubes A and B, could be increased as 
 desired. Of course, as the pressure was increased, the mercury rose 
 higher and higher in tubes A and B to, say, mi and m 2 . Knowing the 
 original volume of air in B and also the bore of the capillary portion of 
 tube B, the pressure in the chamber could be determined. Thus, if 
 the volume of air in tube B above m 2 were 1/50 of the original volume, 
 then the pressure in both chambers would be approximately 50 atmos- 
 pheres. At such pressures there is a deviation from Boyle's law, which 
 was taken into account and corrected 
 for. Knowing the bore of A , the volume 
 of carbon dioxide above mi could be 
 found. 
 
 Plotting the values of the volumes so 
 found as abscissa, with the correspond- 
 ing pressures as ordinates, when the 
 temperature of the apparatus was 48.1 
 C., the isothermal marked 48.1 (Fig. 
 134) was obtained. The form of the 
 48. 1 isothermal shows that at this tem- 
 perature the carbon dioxide vapor fol- 
 lowed Boyle's law, at least roughly. 
 
 When, however, the experiment was 
 repeated with the apparatus at the tem- 
 perature 31. 1 C., it was found that when 
 the pressure was somewhat above 70 
 atmospheres (point a on the 31.1 isother- 
 mal) a slight increase in pressure caused a 
 very great decrease in volume, as shown by 
 a considerable rise in mi. As the pres- 
 sure was increased slightly above 75 at- 
 mospheres, as represented by point 6 on 
 
 the curve, a further slight reduction of volume was accompanied by a 
 comparatively great increase in pressure, as shown by the fact that the 
 portion be of the isothermal is nearly vertical. Note also that the por- 
 tion ab of the isothermal is nearly horizontal. 
 
 If the experiment were again repeated at, say 30 C., then as the pres- 
 sure reached about 70 atmospheres, liquid carbon dioxide would collect 
 on mi, and this liquid would be seen to have a sharply defined meniscus 
 separating it from the vapor above. At 31.1 no such meniscus appears. 
 The limiting temperature (30.92 C.) at which the meniscus just fails 
 to appear under increasing pressure, is called the Critical Temperature. 
 
 Let us now discuss the 21.5 isothermal, which isothermal was deter- 
 mined by keeping the apparatus at 21.5 while increasing the pressure. 
 As the volume was decreased from that represented by point A to that 
 
 FIG. 133.
 
 276 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 represented by point B, the pressure increased from about 50 atmospheres 
 to 60. Now as S was screwed farther into the chamber, the volume 
 decreased from point B to point C with practically no increase in pressure 
 (note that BC is practically horizontal). During this change the satu- 
 rated carbon dioxide vapor was changing to the liquid state, as shown 
 by the fact that the liquid carbon dioxide resting on mi could be seen to 
 be increasing. At C the gas had all been changed to liquid carbon 
 dioxide, and since liquids are almost incompressible, a very slight com- 
 pression, i.e., a very slight rising of meniscus mi, was accompanied by a 
 very great increase of pressure, as evidenced by the nearly vertical direc- 
 tion of CD. 
 
 It will be observed, that while the volume is reduced from that rep- 
 resented by point B to that represented by point C, the carbon dioxide 
 100 
 
 Volume 
 
 FIG. 134. 
 
 is changing to the liquid state, and therefore gaseous and liquid carbon 
 dioxide coexist in tube A. Likewise at 13.1 the two states, or phases, 
 coexist from B^ to Ci, while if the temperature were, say 28 C., the two 
 phases would coexist for volumes between B 2 and C 2 . Accordingly, the 
 region within the dotted curve through B, BI, B z , C, Ci, C 2 , etc., represents 
 on the diagram all possible corresponding values of pressure, volume, 
 and temperature at which the two phases may coexist. Thus, if the 
 state of the carbon dioxide (temperature, pressure, and volume) is rep- 
 resented by a point anywhere to the right, or to the right and above 
 this dotted curve, only the gaseous phase exists; to the left, only the 
 liquid phase. We may now define the Critical Temperature of any sub- 
 stance as the highest temperature at which the liquid and gaseous phases 
 of that substance can coexist.
 
 VAPORIZATION 277 
 
 This definition suggests the following simple method of determining 
 critical temperatures. A thick-walled glass tube is partly (say 1/4) 
 filled with the liquid, e.g. water, the space above being a vacuum, or 
 rather, a space containing saturated water vapor. The tube is then 
 heated until the meniscus disappears. The temperature at which the 
 meniscus disappears is the critical temperature (364 C. for water), and 
 the pressure then tending to burst the tube, is termed the critical pressure. 
 It will be noted that as the water is heated, its vapor pressure becomes 
 greater, finally producing the critical pressure (194.6 atmospheres) 
 when heated to the critical temperature. 
 
 The Distinction between a Vapor and a Gas. When a gas is cooled 
 below its critical temperature it becomes a vapor. Conversely, when a 
 vapor is heated above its critical temperature it becomes a gas. A 
 vapor and its liquid often coexist; a gas and its liquid, never. 
 
 203. The Joule-Thomson Experiment. In 1852, Joule and Thomson 
 (Lord Kelvin) performed their celebrated "Porous Plug" experiment. 
 They forced various gases under high pressure through a plug of cotton 
 or silk into a space at atmospheric pressure. In every case, except when 
 
 FIG. 135. 
 
 hydrogen was used, the gas was cooler after passing through the plug 
 than it was before. Hydrogen, on the contrary, showed a slight rise 
 in temperature. We may note, however, that at very low temperatures 
 (below 80 C.) hydrogen also experiences a cooling effect. 
 
 The principle involved in this experiment will be explained in connec- 
 tion with Fig. 135. Let P be a stationary porous plug in a cylinder con- 
 taining two pistons C and D. Let piston C, as it moves (slowly) from 
 Ai to BI against a high pressure p lt force the gas of volume Vi through 
 the plug, and let this gas push the piston D from A 2 to 5 2 , and let it 
 have the new volume Vz and the new pressure p z (1 atmosphere). 
 Now, from the proof given in Sec. 156, we see that piston C does the work 
 p\Vi upon the gas in forcing it through the plug; while the work done 
 by the gas in forcing D from A* to B 2 is p 2 V 2 . Accordingly, if p 2 V z = 
 piVi, i.e., if the work done by the gas is equal to the work done upon it, 
 then the gas should (on this score at least) be neither heated nor cooled 
 by its passage through the plug. All gases, however, deviate from 
 Boyle's law, and for all but hydrogen the product pV at ordinary tem- 
 peratures increases as p decreases. Hence here p 2 V 2 >piFi (> = is 
 greater than), which means that the work done by the gas (which tends 
 to cool it) exceeds the work done upon the gas (which tends to heat it).
 
 278 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 As a result, then, the gas is either cooled or else it abstracts heat from the 
 piston, or both. 
 
 Cooling Effect of Internal Work. From the known deviation from 
 Boyle's law exhibited by air, it can be shown that the temperature of 
 the air in passing through the plug should drop about O.l C. for each 
 atmosphere difference in pressure between pi and p 2 . Thomson and 
 Joule found a difference of nearly 1 C. per atmosphere. This addi- 
 tional cooling effect is attributed to the work done against intermolec- 
 ular attraction (internal work done) when a gas expands. The work 
 done by the gas in expanding is due, then, in part to the resulting in- 
 crease in pV (deviating from Boyle's law), and in part to the work done 
 against intermodular attraction in increasing the average distance be- 
 tween its molecules. Both of these effects, though small, are more 
 marked at low temperatures, and by an ingenious but simple arrange- 
 ment for securing a cumulative effect, Linde has employed this prin- 
 ciple in liquefying air and other gases (Sec. 206). In Linde's apparatus, 
 the gas passes through a small opening in a valve instead of through a 
 porous plug. 
 
 204. Liquefaction of Gases. -About the beginning of the 
 present century, one after another of the so-called permanent 
 gases were liquefied, until now there is no gas known that has not 
 been liquefied. Indeed most of them have not only been lique- 
 fied, but also frozen. 
 
 In 1823, the great experimenter Faraday liquefied chlorine and 
 several other gases with a very simple piece of apparatus. The 
 chemical containing the gas to be liquefied was placed in one end 
 of a bent tube, the other end of which was placed in a freezing 
 mixture producing a temperature lower than the critical tempera- 
 ture of the gas. The end of the tube containing the chemical 
 was next heated until the gas was given off in sufficient quantity 
 to produce the requisite pressure to liquefy it in the cold end of 
 the tube. 
 
 In 1877, Pictet and Cailletet independently succeeded in 
 liquefying oxygen. Later Professor Dewar and others liquefied 
 air, and in 1893 Dewar froze some air. A few years later (1897) 
 he liquefied and also (1899) froze some hydrogen. Subsequently 
 (1903) he produced liquid helium, a substance that boils at 6 
 on the absolute scale or at 267 C. He also invented the Dewar 
 flask (Sec. 206), in which to keep these liquids. 
 
 In liquefying air and other gases having low critical tempera- 
 tures, the great difficulty encountered is in the production and 
 maintenance of such low temperatures. To accomplish this, the
 
 VAPORIZATION 
 
 279 
 
 cooling effect of the evaporation of a liquid and the cooling effect 
 produced when a gas expands (Sec. 178) have both been utilized. 
 
 There are two distinctly different methods of liquefying air, 
 known as the "Cascade" or Series Method, due to Raoult Pictet 
 (Sec. 205), and the "Regenerative Method," due to Linde and 
 others (Sec. 206). 
 
 205. The Cascade Method of Liquefying Gases. In Fig. 136 is 
 shown a diagrammatic sketch of the apparatus of Pictet, as modified 
 and used with great success in the latter part of the 19th Century by 
 Dewar, Olszewski, and others. It consists of three vessels A, B, and C, 
 the two air pumps D and E, and the carbon dioxide tube F, together 
 with the connecting pipes as shown. 
 
 The pump D forces ethylene through pipe K, valve G, and pipe M 
 into the vessel B from which vessel the ethylene (now in the vapor state) 
 returns to the pump through pipe N. Pump E maintains a similar 
 
 FIG 136 
 
 counterclockwise circulation of air through L, H, 0, C, and P, as is 
 indicated by the arrows. 
 
 The vaporization of the carbon dioxide in A produces a temperature 
 of 80 C. (Sec. 199). This cold gas, coming in contact with the spiral 
 pipe K (shown straight to avoid confusion), cools it enough that the 
 ethylene within it liquefies under the high pressure to which it is sub- 
 jected. As this cold liquid ethylene vaporizes at M, it cools the air in 
 L to such an extent that it in turn liquefies under the high pressure pro- 
 duced by pump E. As this liquid air passes through valve H and 
 vaporizes in C, it produces an extremely low temperature. As pointed 
 out in the discussion of the ammonia refrigerating apparatus, the main- 
 tenance of a partial vacuum into which the liquid may vaporize, as in 
 B and C, causes more rapid vaporization, and therefore enhances the 
 chilling effect. The liquid air may be withdrawn at I, and fresh air may 
 be admitted at J to replenish the supply.
 
 280 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 In liquefying air by this method, it is necessary to use ethylene, or 
 some other intermediate liquid which produces a very low temperature 
 when vaporized. For if L simply passed through vessel A, no pressure, 
 however great, would liquefy the air within it, since 80 C. is above the 
 critical temperature for air. Gases have, however, been liquefied when 
 at temperatures considerably above the critical temperatures, by sub- 
 jecting them to enormous pressures and then suddenly relieving the 
 pressure. 
 
 206. The Regenerative Method of Liquefying Gases. The 
 regenerative method of liquefying gases employs the principle 
 (established by Thomson and Joule, Sec. 203) that a gas is chilled 
 
 200 Atmospheres Cold 
 
 as it escapes through an orifice from a region of high pressure to 
 a region of low pressure. This method has made possible the 
 liquefaction of every known gas, and also the production of liquid 
 air in large quantities and at a greatly reduced cost. From about 
 1890 to 1895 Dr. Linde, Mr. Tripler, and Dr. Hampson were all 
 working along much the same line, in accordance with a suggestion 
 made by Sir Wm. Siemens more than thirty years before; namely, 
 that the gas, cooled by expansion as it escapes through an orifice, 
 shall cool the oncoming gas about to expand, and so on, thus giving 
 a cumulative effect. Dr. Linde, however, was the first to produce 
 a practical machine. 
 
 The essential parts of Linde's apparatus are shown in Fig. 137. 
 A is an air pump which takes in the gas (air, e.g.) through valve
 
 VAPORIZATION 281 
 
 E at about 16 atmospheres, and forces it under a pressure of 
 about 200 atmospheres through the coiled pipes in the freezing 
 bath B. From B, the air passes successively through the three 
 concentric pipes or tubes F, G, and H in the vessel C, as indicated 
 by the arrows. A portion of the air from G returns again through 
 pipe I and valve E to the pump, thus completing the cycle. The 
 cycle is repeated indefinitely as long as the pump is operated. It 
 will be understood that the freezing bath B cools the air which has 
 just been heated by compression. It also "freezes out" most of 
 the moisture from the air. The pump D supplies to the pump A, 
 under a pressure of 16 atmospheres, enough air to compensate for 
 that which escapes through J from the outer tube H, and also for 
 that which is liquefied and collects in the Dewar flask K. 
 
 Explanation of the Cooling Action. The three concentric tubes 
 F, G, and H (which it should be stated are, with respect to the rest 
 of the apparatus, very much smaller than shown, and in practice 
 are coiled in a spiral within C), form the vital part of the appa- 
 ratus. The air, as it passes from the central tube F through valve 
 L, has its pressure reduced from 200 atmospheres to about 16 
 atmospheres. This process cools it considerably. The valves are 
 so adjusted that about 4/5 of this cooled air flows upward, as 
 indicated by the curved arrow, through G (thereby cooling the 
 downflowing stream in F) and then flows through 7 back to the 
 pump A. The remaining 1/5 flows directly from valve L through 
 valve M. As this air passes through valve M its pressure drops 
 from 16 atmospheres to 1 atmosphere, producing an additional 
 drop in temperature. At first all of the air that passes through 
 valve M passes up through the outer tube H and escapes through 
 J. We have just seen that the downflowing air in F is cooled by 
 the upflowing air in G, and as this downflowing air passes through 
 valve L it is still further cooled (by expansion), and therefore as it 
 passes up through G it still further cools the downflowing stream in 
 F, and so on. Thus both streams become colder and colder until 
 so low a temperature is reached that the additional cooling pro- 
 duced by the expansion at M causes part (about 1/4) of the air that 
 passes through M to liquefy and collect in the Dewar flask K. 
 From K, the liquid air may be withdrawn through valve N. 
 
 Quite recently liquid air has been manufactured at the rate of 
 about one quart per H.P.-hour expended in operating the pumps. 
 
 Properties and Effects of Liquid Air. Liquid air is a clear, bluish 
 liquid, of density 0.91 gm. per cm. 3 . It boils at a temperature of
 
 282 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 191.4 C. and its nitrogen freezes at 210, its oxygen at 
 227. It is attracted by a magnet, due to the oxygen which it 
 contains. If liquid air is poured into water it floats at first; but, 
 due to the fact that nitrogen (density 0.85, boiling point 196 C.) 
 vaporizes faster than oxygen (density 1.13, boiling point 183), 
 it soon sinks, boiling as it sinks, and rapidly disappears. Felt, 
 if saturated with liquid air, burns readily. 
 
 At the temperature of liquid air, mercury, alcohol, and indeed 
 most liquids, are quickly frozen. Iron and rubber become almost 
 as brittle as glass; while lead becomes elastic, i.e., more like steel. 
 
 The Dewar Flask. If liquid air were placed in a closed metal 
 vessel it would vaporize, and quickly develop an enormous pres- 
 sure. Even if this pressure did not burst the container, the air 
 would soon be warmed above its critical temperature and cease to 
 be a liquid, so that a special form of container is required. Pro- 
 fessor Dewar performed a great service for low-temperature 
 research when he devised the double-walled flask (K, Fig. 137). 
 In such a container, liquid air has been kept for hours and has 
 been shipped to a considerable distance. The space between the 
 walls is a nearly perfect vacuum, which prevents, in a large meas- 
 ure, the passage of heat into the flask. Silvering the walls reflects 
 heat away from the flask and therefore improves it. These 
 flasks must not be tightly stoppered even for an instant or they 
 will explode, due to the pressure caused by the vaporization of 
 the liquid air. The constant but slow evaporation from the liquid 
 air keeps it cooled well below its critical temperature, in fact at 
 about 191 C., the boiling point for air at atmospheric pressure. 
 
 The Thermal Bottle The Thermal Bottles advertised as "Icy 
 hot/' etc., are simply Dewar flasks properly mounted to prevent 
 breakage. They will keep a liquid "warm for 12 hours," or 
 "cold for 24 hours." Observe that a liquid when called "warm" 
 differs more from room temperature than when called "cold."
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 
 
 207. Three Methods of Transferring Heat. Heat may be 
 transferred from one body to another in three ways; viz., by 
 Convection, by Conduction, and by Radiation. 
 
 When air comes in contact with a hot stove it becomes heated 
 and expands. As it expands, it becomes lighter than the sur- 
 rounding air and consequently rises, carrying with it heat to 
 other parts of the room. This is a case of transfer of heat by 
 convection. Obviously, only liquids and gases can transfer heat 
 by convection. 
 
 If one end of a metal rod is thrust into a furnace, the other end 
 soon becomes heated by the conduction of heat by the metal of 
 which the rod is composed. In general, metals are good con- 
 ductors, and all other substances relatively poor conductors, 
 especially liquids and gases. 
 
 On a cold day, the heat from a bonfire may almost blister the 
 face, although the air in contact with the face is quite cool. In 
 this case, the heat is transmitted to the face by radiation. The 
 earth receives an immense amount of heat from the sun, although 
 interplanetary space contains no material substance and is also 
 very cold. This heat is transmitted by radiation. These three 
 methods of heat transfer will be taken up in detail in subsequent 
 sections. 
 
 208. Convection. Heat transfer by convection is utilized in 
 the hot-air, steam, and hot-water systems of heating. In these 
 systems the medium of heat transfer is air, steam, and water, 
 respectively. It will be noted in every case of heat transfer by 
 convection, that the heated medium moves and carries the heat with 
 it. Thus, in the hot-air system, an air jacket surrounding the 
 furnace is provided with a fresh-air inlet near the bottom; while 
 from the top, air pipes lead to the different rooms to be heated. 
 As the air between the jacket and the furnace is heated it be- 
 comes lighter and rises with considerable velocity through the 
 pipes leading to the rooms, where it mingles with the other air 
 of the room and thereby warms it. 
 
 283
 
 284 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 The convection currents produced by a hot stove, by means of 
 which all parts of the room are warmed, are indicated by arrows 
 in Fig. 138. As the air near the stove becomes heated, and there- 
 fore less dense, it rises, and the nearby air which comes in to take 
 its place is in turn heated and rises. As the heated air rises and 
 flows toward the wall, it is cooled and descends as shown. 
 
 Fig. 139 illustrates the convection currents established in a 
 vessel of water by a piece of ice. The water near the ice, as it is 
 cooled becomes more dense and sinks. Other water coming in 
 from all sides is in turn cooled and sinks, as indicated by the 
 arrows. 
 
 In steam heating, pipes lead from the steam boiler to the steam 
 radiators in the rooms to be heated. Through these pipes, the 
 
 1 
 vj 
 
 \ / 
 
 tM 
 
 -^ 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 " fS: 
 
 FIG. 139. 
 
 hot steam passes to the radiators, where it condenses to water. 
 In condensing, the steam gives up its heat of vaporization and 
 thereby heats the radiator. The water formed by the condensa- 
 tion of the steam runs back to the boiler. 
 
 In the hot-water heating system, the heated water from the boiler 
 (B, Fig. 140) rises through pipes leading to the radiators (C, D, 
 E, and F) where it gives up heat, thereby warming the radiators, 
 and then descends, colder and therefore denser, through other 
 pipes (G and H] to the boiler, where it is again heated. This 
 cycle is repeated indefinitely. The current of water up one pipe 
 and down another is evidently a convection current, established 
 and maintained by the difference in density of the water in the 
 two pipes. The rate of flow of the water through the radiators, 
 and hence the heating of the rooms, may be controlled by the 
 valves c, d, e, and/. Hot water may be obtained from the faucets 
 /, /, K, and L. The tank M furnishes the necessary pressure, 
 allows for the expansion of the water when heated, and provides
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 
 
 285 
 
 a safeguard against excessive pressure should steam form in the 
 boiler. 
 
 If the boiler B were only partly filled with water, steam would 
 pass to the radiators and there condense, and the system would 
 become a steam-heating system. In this case it would be necessary 
 to provide radiators of a type in which the condensed steam would 
 not collect. Usually B consists of water tubes surrounded by 
 the flame. 
 
 In heating a vessel of water by placing it upon a hot stove, the 
 water becomes heated both by conduction and convection. The 
 
 FIG. 140. 
 
 heat passes through the bottom of the vessel by conduction and 
 heats the bottom layer of water by conduction. This heated 
 layer is less dense than the rest of the water and rises to the 
 surface, carrying with it a large quantity of heat. Other water, 
 taking its place, is likewise heated and rises to the surface. In 
 this way convection currents are established, and the entire body 
 of water is heated.
 
 286 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Winds are simply convection currents produced in the air by 
 uneven heating. The hotter air rises, and the cooler air rushing 
 in to take its place is in turn heated and rises. This inrush of 
 air persists so long as the temperature difference is maintained, 
 and is called wind (Chapter XVII). 
 
 209. Conduction. If one end A of a metal rod is heated, the 
 other end B is supposed to become heated by conduction in the 
 following manner. The violent heat vibrations of the molecules 
 at the end A cause the molecules near them to vibrate, and in 
 like manner these molecules, after having begun to vibrate, 
 cause the layer of molecules adjacent to them on the side toward B 
 to vibrate, and so on, until the molecules at the end B are vibrat- 
 ing violently; i.e., until B is also hot. 
 
 This vibratory motion is readily and rapidly transmitted from 
 layer to layer of the molecules of metals; therefore metals are 
 said to be good conductors. 
 
 Brick and wood are poor conductors of heat, which fact makes 
 them valuable for building material. Evidently it would require 
 a great deal of heat to keep a house warm if its walls were com- 
 posed of materials having high heat conductivity. Asbestos 
 is a very poor conductor of heat, for which reason it is much used 
 as a wrapping for steam pipes to prevent loss of heat, and also 
 as a wrapping for hot air flues to protect nearby woodwork from 
 the heat which might otherwise ignite it. 
 
 Clothing made of wool is much warmer than that made of 
 cotton, because wool is a much poorer conductor of heat than 
 cotton, and therefore does not conduct heat away from the body 
 so rapidly. 
 
 Liquids, except mercury, are very poor conductors. That 
 water is a poor conductor of heat may be demonstrated by the 
 following experiment. A gas flame is directed downward against 
 a shallow metal dish floating in a vessel of water. After a short 
 time the water in contact with the dish will boil, while the water 
 a short distance below experiences practically no change in tem- 
 perature, as may be shown by thermometers inserted. It will 
 be observed that convection currents are not established when 
 water is heated from above. A test tube containing ice cold 
 water, with a small piece of ice held in the bottom, may be heated 
 near the top until the top layers of water boil without apprecia- 
 bly melting the ice. 
 
 Gases are very poor conductors, pf heat much poorer even than.
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 287 
 
 liquids. The fact that air is a poor conductor is frequently made 
 use of in buildings by having "dead air" spaces in the walls. 
 It is well known that if a slight air space is left between the 
 plaster and the wall, a house is much warmer than if the plaster 
 is applied directly to the wall. If a brick wall is wet it conducts 
 heat much better than if dry, simply because its pores are filled 
 with water instead of with air. From the table of Thermal 
 Conductivities given below, it will be seen that water conducts 
 heat about 25 times as well as air. Fabrics of a loose weave are 
 warmer than those of a dense weave of the same material (except 
 in wind protection), because of the more abundant air space. 
 A wool-lined canvass coat protects against both wind and low 
 temperature. 
 
 Davy's Safety Lamp. If a flame is directed against a cold metal 
 surface, it will be found that the metal cools below the combustion 
 point the gases of which the flame is composed, so that the flame does 
 
 FIG. 141. FIG. 141a. 
 
 not actually touch the metal. This fact may be demonstrated by pasting 
 one piece of paper on a block of metal, and a second piece on a block 
 of wood, and thrusting both into a flame. The second piece of paper 
 quickly ignites, the first does not. A thin paper pail quickly ignites 
 if exposed to a flame when empty, but not when filled with water. 
 
 If a piece of wire gauze is held above a Bunsen burner or other gas 
 jet, the flame will burn above the gauze only (Fig. 141), if lighted above, 
 and below only (Fig. 141a), if lighted below. The flame will not "strike 
 through" the gauze until the latter reaches red heat. Evidently, the 
 gas (Fig. 141a) as it passes through the wire gauze is cooled below its 
 ignition temperature. If a lighted match is now applied below the gauze 
 (Fig. 141), or above it (Fig. 141a), the flame burns both above and below 
 as though the gauze were absent. 
 
 The miner's Safety Lamp, invented by Sir Humphry Davy, has its 
 flame completely enclosed by iron gauze. The explosive fire-damp 
 as it passes through the gauze, burns within, but not without, and thus 
 gives the miner warning of its presence. After a time the gauze might 
 become heated sufficiently to ignite the gas and cause an explosion. 
 
 Boiler "Scale." The incrustation of the tubes of tubular 
 boilers with lime, etc., deposited from the water, is one of the
 
 288 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 serious problems of steam engineering. The incrusted material 
 adds to the thickness of the walls of the tubes, and is also a very 
 poor conductor of heat in comparison with the metal of the tube. 
 Consequently it interferes with the transmission of the heat from 
 the heated furnace gases to the water, and thereby lowers the 
 efficiency of the boiler. Furthermore, the metal, being in con- 
 tact with the flame on the one side and the "scale" (instead of the 
 water) on the other, becomes hotter, and therefore burns out 
 sooner than if the scale were prevented. 
 
 210. Thermal Conductivity. If three short rods of similar 
 size and length, one of copper, one of iron, and one of glass, are 
 held by one end in the hand while the other 
 ^f^i^s. f F ld end is thrust into the gas flame, it will be found 
 that the copper rod quickly becomes unbear- 
 ably hot, the iron rod less quickly, while the 
 glass rod does not become uncomfortably hot, 
 however long it is held. This experiment 
 shows that copper is a better conductor than 
 iron, and that iron is a better conductor than 
 glass; but it does not enable us to tell howmany 
 FIG 142 times better. To do this we must compare 
 
 the thermal conductivities of the two metals, 
 from which (see table) we find that copper conducts about five 
 times as well as iron, and over 500 times as well as glass. The 
 fact that glass is such a very poor conductor explains why the 
 thin glass of windows is so great a protection against the cold. 
 
 If one face of a slab of metal (Fig. 142) is kept at a higher 
 temperature than the other face, it will be evident that the num- 
 ber of calories of heat Q which will pass through the slab in 
 T seconds will vary directly as the time T, as the area A of the 
 face, and also directly as the difference in temperature between 
 the two faces (i.e., tit 2 , in which the temperature of the hotter 
 face is t\ and the colder, 2 ). It is also evident, other things 
 being equal, that less heat will flow through a thick slab than 
 through a thin one. Indeed, we readily see that the quantity Q 
 will vary inversely as the thickness (d) of the slab. Accordingly 
 
 we have Q cc A T (t l ~-^- - KA T^j (85) 
 
 in which K is a constant, whose value depends upon the character 
 of the material of which the slab is composed, and is called the 
 Thermal Conductivity of the substance. 

 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 
 
 289 
 
 Since Eq. 86 is true for all values of the variables, it is true if 
 we let A, T, (titz), and d all be unity. This, however, would 
 reduce the equation to K = Q. Hence, K is numerically the num- 
 ber of calories of heat that will flow in unit time (the second) through 
 a slab of unit area and unit thickness (i.e., through a cubic centi- 
 meter) if its two opposite faces differ in temperature by unity (1C.). 
 
 Temperature Gradient. Observe that -5 is the fall in temperature 
 
 per centimeter in the direction of heat flow. This quantity is called 
 the Temperature Gradient. The heat conductivity, then, is the rate of 
 flow of heat (calories per sec.) through a conductor, divided by the product 
 of the cross-sectional area and the temperature gradient. It is better in 
 determining the heat conductivity for materials which are good con- 
 ductors, such as the metals, to use a rod instead of a slab. 
 
 The rod is conveniently heated at one end by steam circulation, and 
 cooled at the other end by water circulation. The temperature of the 
 water as it flows past the end of the rod rises from 3 to 4. If M 
 grams of water flows past in T seconds, then Q = M(tt 3), and the 
 
 Two thermometers 
 
 are inserted in the rod at a distance d apart, one near the hot end, the 
 other near the cold end. Let the former read ti and the latter, t 2 . 
 
 The temperature gradient is, then, -^~. The remaining quantity 
 
 A of Eq. 86, which must be known before K can be calculated, is the 
 cross-sectional area of the rod. If the rod is of uniform diameter and 
 is packed in felt throughout its length to prevent loss of heat, then the 
 rate of heat flow, and also the temperature gradient, will be the same at 
 all points in the rod. 
 
 The temperature gradient may be thought of as forcing heat along the 
 rod, somewhat as the pressure gradient forces water along a pipe. A 
 few thermal conductivities are given in the table below. 
 
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES 
 
 rate of How of heat through the rod is IT 
 
 Substances 
 
 Thermal 
 conductivity 
 K 
 
 Substance 
 
 Thermal 
 conductivity 
 K 
 
 Silver 
 
 1 006 
 
 Marble 
 
 0014 
 
 Copper 
 Aluminum 
 Iron .* 
 
 0.88 to 0.96 
 0.34 
 0.16 to 0.20 
 016 
 
 Water 
 Hydrogen.... 
 Paraffine. . . . 
 Air 
 
 0.0014 
 0.00033 
 0.00025 
 000056 
 
 Glass.. . 
 
 0.0015 
 
 Flannel. . . 
 
 0.000035 
 
 The value of the thermal conductivity varies greatly in some 
 cases for different specimens of the same substance. Thus, for 
 
 19
 
 290 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 hard steel, it is about one-half as large as for soft steel, and 
 about one-third as large as for hard steel. Different kinds of 
 copper give different results. The values given in the table are 
 approximate average values. 
 
 211. Wave Motion. The kinds of wave motion most com- 
 monly met are three in number, typified by water waves, sound 
 waves, and ether waves. The beautiful waves which travel over 
 a field of grain on a windy day, are quite similar to water waves in 
 appearance, and similar to all waves in one respect; namely, 
 that the medium (here the swaying heads of grain) does not move 
 forward, but its parts, or particles simply oscillate to and fro 
 about their respective equilibrium positions. 
 
 Water Waves. There are many kinds of water waves; varying 
 in form from the smooth ocean "swell" due to a distant storm, to 
 the "choppy" storm-lashed billows of the tempest; and varying 
 in size from the large ocean waves 20 ft. or more in height, to the 
 tiny ripples that speed over a still pond before a sudden gust of 
 wind. The Tide (Sec. 30) consists of two wave crests on opposite 
 sides of the earth, which travel around the earth in about 25 hrs. 
 Consequently, at the equator, the wave length is over 12,000 miles, 
 and the velocity about 1000 miles per hour. 
 
 Restoring Force. In all cases of wave motion, at least in 
 material media, there must be a restoring force developed which 
 acts upon the displaced particle of the medium in such a direction 
 as to tend to bring it back to its equilibrium position. As the 
 head of grain sways to and fro, the supporting stem, alternately 
 bent this way and that, furnishes the restoring force. As the 
 vibrating particle reaches its equilibrium position, it has kinetic 
 energy which carries it to the position of maximum displacement 
 in the opposite direction. Thus the swaying head of grain 
 when the stem is erect is in equilibrium, but its velocity is then a 
 maximum and it moves on and again bends the stem. 
 
 In the case of large water waves, the restoring force is the gravi- 
 tational pull which acts downward on the "crest," and the buoy- 
 ant force which acts upward on the "trough" of the wave. These 
 waves are often called gravitational water waves. In the case 
 of fine ripples, the restoring force is mainly due to surface tension. 
 The velocity of long water waves increases with the wave length 
 (distance from crest to crest), while with ripples, the reverse is 
 true; i.e., the finer the ripples are, the faster they travel. 
 
 Sound Waves. As the prong of a tuning fork vibrates to and
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 291 
 
 fro, its motion in one direction condenses the air ahead of it; 
 while its return motion rarefies the air at the same point. These 
 condensations and rarefactions travel in all directions from the 
 fork with a velocity of about 1100 ft. per sec., and are called 
 Sound Waves. Obviously, if the tuning fork vibrated 1100 times 
 per sec., one condensation would be one foot from the tuning 
 fork when the next condensation started; while if the fork 
 vibrated 110 times per sec. this distance between Condensations, 
 called the wave length X, would be 10 ft. In other words the 
 relation v = n\ is true, in which v is the velocity of sound, and n, 
 the number of vibrations of the tuning fork per second. Sound 
 waves are given off by a vibrating body, and are transmitted by 
 any elastic medium, such as air, water, wood, and the metals. 
 The velocity varies greatly with the medium, but the relation 
 v = n\ always holds. 
 
 Ether Waves. Ether waves consist in vibrations of the Ether 
 (Sec. 214), a medium which is supposed to pervade all space and 
 permeate all materials. These vibrations are produced, in the 
 case of heat or light waves, by atomic vibrations in a manner not 
 understood. The ether waves used in wireless telegraphy are 
 produced by special electrical apparatus which we cannot discuss 
 here. 
 
 Ether waves are usually grouped in the following manner. 
 Those which affect the eye (i.e., produce the sensation of light) 
 are called light waves, while those too long to affect the eye are 
 called heat waves. Those waves which are too short to affect the 
 eye do affect a photographic plate, and are sometimes called 
 actinic waves. It should not be inferred that light waves do not 
 produce heat or chemical (e.g., photographic) effects, for they do 
 produce both. Certain waves which are still longer than heat 
 waves, and which are produced electrically, are called Hertz 
 waves. These waves are the waves employed in wireless teleg- 
 raphy. They were discovered in 1888 by the German physicist, 
 H. R. Hertz (1857-94). 
 
 The longest ether waves that affect the eye are those of red 
 light (X = 1/35000 in. approx.). Next in order of wave length are 
 orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet light. The wave length 
 of violet light is about one-half that of red, while ultra-violet 
 light of wave length less than one-third that of violet has been 
 studied by photographic means. An occupant of a room flooded 
 with ultra-violet light would be in total darkness, and yet with a,
 
 292 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 camera, using a short exposure, he could take a photograph of the 
 objects in the room. The wave lengths longer than those of red 
 light, up to about 1/500 inch, have been much studied, and are 
 called heat waves, or infra-red. It is interesting to note that the 
 shortest Hertz waves that have been produced are but little longer 
 than the longest heat waves that have been studied. If this 
 small "gap" were filled, then ether waves varying in length from 
 several miles to 1/200000 in. would be known. 
 
 Since the velocity v for all ether waves is 186,000 miles per sec., 
 the frequency of vibration n for any given wave length X is quickly 
 found from the relation v = n\. Thus the frequency of vibration 
 of violet light for which X = 1/70000 in. is about 800,000,000,- 
 000,000. This means that the source of such light, the vibrating 
 atom, or atomic particle (electron) sends out 800,000,000,000,000 
 vibrations per second! 
 
 Direction of Vibration. A water wave in traveling south, let 
 us say, would appear to cause the water particles to vibrate up 
 and down. Careful examination, however, will show that there is 
 combined with this up-and-down motion a north-and-south 
 motion; so that any particular particle is seen to describe approxi- 
 mately a circular path. A sound wave traveling south causes 
 the air particles to vibrate to and fro north and south; while an 
 ether wave traveling south would cause the ether particles to 
 vibrate up and down or east and west, or in some direction in a 
 plane which is at right angles to the direction in which the wave is 
 traveling. For this reason, the ether wave is said to be a Trans- 
 verse Wave and the sound wave, a Longitudinal Wave. The 
 phenomena of polarized light seem to prove beyond question 
 that light is a transverse wave. 
 
 212. Interference of Wave Trains. A succession of waves, following 
 each other at equal intervals, constitutes a wave train. A vibrating 
 tuning fork or violin string, or any other body which vibrates at a 
 constant frequency, gives rise to a train of sound waves. Two such 
 wave trains of different frequency produce interference effects, known 
 as beats, which are familiar to all. 
 
 Interference of Sound Waves. Let a tuning fork A of 200 vibrations 
 per second be sounded. The train of waves from this fork, impinging 
 upon the ear of a nearby listener, will cause the tympanum of his ear 
 to be alternately pushed in and out 200 times per sec., thus giving 
 rise to the perception of a musical tone of uniform intensity. If, now, 
 a second fork B of, say 201 vibrations per second, is sounded, the train
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 293 
 
 of waves from it, let us say the " B train," will interfere with the "A 
 train" and produce an alternate waxing and waning in the intensity 
 of the sound, known as "beats." In this case there would be 1 beat 
 per sec. For, consider an instant when a compressional wave from the 
 A train and one from the B train both strike the tympanum together. 
 This will cause the tympanum to vibrate through a relatively large dis- 
 tance, i.e., it will cause it to have a vibration of large amplitude, and a 
 loud note (maximum) will be heard. (The amplitude of a vibration is 
 half the distance through which the vibrating body or particle, as the 
 case may be, moves when vibrating; in other words, it is the maximum 
 displacement of the particle from its equilibrium position.) One-half 
 second later, a compressional wave from the A train and a rarefaction from 
 the B train will both strike the tympanum. Evidently these two dis- 
 turbances, which are said to be out of phase by a half period, will produce 
 but little effect upon the tympanum, in fact none if the two wave trains 
 have exactly equal amplitudes. Consequently, a minimum in the tone 
 is heard. Still later, by 1/2 sec., the two trains reach the ear exactly in 
 phase, and another maximum of intensity in the tone is noted, and so on. 
 Obviously, for a few waves before and after the maximum, the two trains 
 of waves will be nearly in phase, and a fairly loud tone will be heard. 
 This tone dies down gradually as the waves of the two trains get more 
 and more out of phase with each other, until the minimum is reached. 
 
 Had the tuning forks differed by 10 vibrations per second, there would 
 have been 10 beats per second. To tune a violin string to unison with 
 a piano, gradually increase (or decrease) the tension upon it until the 
 beats, which come at longer and longer intervals, finally disappear 
 entirely. If increasing the tension produces more beats per second, 
 the string is already of too high pitch. 
 
 Interference of Light Waves. By a proper arrangement, two trains of 
 light waves of equal frequency and equal amplitude maybe produced. 
 If these two trains fall upon a photographic plate from slightly different 
 directions, they will reinforce each other at some points of the film, 
 and annul each other at other points. For certain portions of the plate, 
 the two trains are constantly one-half period out of phase. Such 
 portions are in total darkness, and therefore remain clear when the 
 plate is "developed," producing, with the alternate "exposed" strips, a 
 beautiful effect. We here have the strange anomaly of light added to 
 light producing darkness, for either beam alone would have affected 
 the entire photographic plate. 
 
 213. Reflection and Refraction of Waves. In Fig. 143, let 
 AB be a stone pier, and let abc, etc., be water waves traveling in 
 the direction bO. Then a'b'c', etc. (dotted lines), will be the 
 reflected water waves, and will travel in the direction Ob', such 
 that bO and Ob' make equal angles 0i and 2 with the normal
 
 294 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 (NO) to the pier. This important law of reflection is stated thus: 
 The angle of reflection (0 2 ) is equal to the angle of incidence (0i). 
 
 If AB is a mirror and abc, etc., light waves, or heat waves, 
 then the construction will show accurately the reflection of light 
 or heat waves, as the case may be. 
 
 Proof: If the reflected wave has the same velocity as the inci- 
 dent wave, which is strictly true in the case of heat and light, 
 then, while the incident light (let us say) travels from a\ to a 2 , 
 the reflected light will travel from c\ to c 2 . The triangles 
 and c^ttzCi will be not only similar, but equal. Therefore 63 
 But 63 = 61 and 4 = 02, hence 0i = 2 , which was to be proved. 
 
 Refraction. Let abc (Fig. 144) represent a light wave or a 
 heat wave, traveling in the direction 60. Then, as the portion a 
 reaches a', portion c will have reached c' instead of c". The ratio 
 cc'/cc" is about 3/4, since light and heat radiation travel about 
 3/4 as fast in water as in air. The reciprocal of this ratio, i.e., 
 the velocity in air divided by the velocity in water, is called the 
 index of refraction for water. The index of refraction for glass 
 varies with the kind of glass and the length of the wave, from 
 about 1.5 to 2. Since the ray is always normal to the wave 
 front, the ray Ob' deviates from the direction 60 by the angle 
 a, called the angle of deviation. The fact that the ray bends 
 sharply downward as it enters the water, accounts for the apparent 
 sharp upward bending of a straight stick held in a slanting 
 position partly beneath the surface of the water.
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 295 
 
 The fact that light and heat radiation travel more slowly in 
 glass than in air, thus causing all rays which strike the glass 
 obliquely to be deviated, makes possible the focusing of a bundle 
 of rays at a point by means of a glass lens, and therefore makes 
 possible the formation of images by lenses. Since practically all 
 optical instruments consist essentially of a combination of lenses, 
 we see the great importance of the refractive power of glass and 
 other transparent substances. Indeed were it not for the fact 
 that light travels more slowly through the crystalline lens of the 
 eye than through air, vision itself would be ii 
 
 FIG. 144. 
 
 The production of the rainbow and prismatic colors in general 
 depends upon the fact that the velocity of light in glass, water, 
 etc., depends upon the wave length, being greatest for red and 
 least for violet. Consequently red light is deviated the least, the 
 violet the most. 
 
 214. Radiation. If a glowing incandescent lamp is placed 
 under the receiver of an air pump, it will be found that it gives off 
 heat and heats the receiver, whether the receiver contains air or 
 a vacuum. It is evident, then, that the air is not the medium 
 of transfer of heat by radiation. Likewise, in the case of heat 
 and light received from the sun, the medium of transfer cannot be 
 air. Since the transmission of a vibratory motion from one point 
 to another requires an intervening medium, physicists have been 
 led to postulate the Ether as such a medium, and have ascribed to 
 it such properties as seem best to explain the observed phenomena. 
 The ether is supposed to fill all space and also to permeate all 

 
 296 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 materials. Thus we know that the heat of the sun passes readily 
 through glass by radiation. This is effected, however, by the 
 ether in the glass and not by the glass itself. Indeed the glass 
 molecules prevent the ether from transmitting the radiation so 
 well as it would if the glass were absent. 
 
 While immense quantities of heat are transferred from the sun 
 to the earth by radiation, it is well to call attention to the fact 
 that what we call radiant heat or heat radiation, is not strictly heat, 
 but energy of wave motion. Radiant heat does not heat the 
 medium through which it passes (unless it is in part absorbed), 
 but heats any body which it strikes a good reflector least, a lamp- 
 black surface most. Both heat radiation and light may be re- 
 flected, and also refracted (Sec. 213). The moon and the planets, 
 in the main, shine by reflected sunlight. We see all objects 
 which are not self-luminous, by means of irregularly (scattering) 
 reflected light. At South Pasadena, Cal., a 10-H.P. steam engine 
 is run by a boiler which is heated by means of sunlight reflected 
 from a great number of properly placed mirrors. 
 
 215. Factors in Heat Radiation. It has been shown experi- 
 mentally that the higher the temperature of a body becomes, the 
 faster it radiates heat energy. Obviously, the amount of heat 
 radiated in a given time will also be proportional to the amount 
 of heated surface. It has also been found that two metal spheres, 
 A and B, alike as to material, size and weight, but differing in 
 finish of surface, have quite different radiating powers. Thus if 
 A is highly polished, so as to have a mirror-like surface, while B 
 is coated with lamp black, it will be found that B radiates heat 
 much faster than A. This is easily tested by simply heating A 
 and B to the same temperature and then suspending them to cool. 
 It will be found that B cools much more rapidly than A, which 
 shows that B parts with its heat more quickly, i.e., radiates better, 
 than A. A lamp-black surface is about the best radiating surface, 
 while a polished mirror surface is about the poorest. The radiat- 
 ing powers of other substances lie between those of these two. 
 From the above discussion, we see that the high polish of the 
 nickel trimmings of stoves decreases their efficiency somewhat. 
 
 Prevost's Theory of Heat Exchanges. According to this theory, 
 a body radiates heat to surrounding bodies whether it is warmer 
 than they or colder. In the former case it radiates more heat to 
 the surrounding bodies than it receives from them, and its tempera- 
 ture falls; while in the latter case it radiates less heat than it
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 297 
 
 receives, and its temperature rises. The fall in temperature 
 experienced by a body when placed near ice, a result which would 
 at first seem to indicate that cold can be radiated and that it is 
 not therefore merely the absence of heat, is easily explained by 
 this exchange theory. The body radiates heat no faster to the ice 
 than it would to a warmer body, but it receives less in return, and 
 therefore becomes colder. 
 
 Laws of Cooling. Newton considered that the amount of heat 
 H, radiated from a body of temperature t, to its surroundings of 
 temperature t', was proportional to the difference in temperature; 
 i.e., 
 
 H = K(t-t') 
 
 in which K is a constant, depending upon the size and character 
 of the surface. This law is very nearly true for slight differences 
 in temperature only. Thus a body loses heat almost exactly 
 twice as fast when 2 warmer than its surroundings as it does when 
 1 warmer. Experiment, however, shows that if this tempera- 
 ture difference is, say, 20, the amount of heat radiated is more 
 than 20 times as great as when it is 1. 
 
 The quite different law, expressed by the equation 
 
 is due to Stefan, and is known as Stefan's Law. In this equation 
 T and T' are the temperatures of the body and its surroundings, 
 respectively, on the absolute scale. Stefan's law, applied to 
 radiation by black bodies, accords with experimental results. 
 
 216. Radiation and Absorption. It has been found experi- 
 mentally that surfaces which radiate heat rapidly when hot, 
 absorb heat rapidly when cold. Thus if the two metal spheres 
 mentioned in Sec. 215 were placed in the sunshine, B would be 
 warmed very much more quickly than A. Evidently the same 
 amount of solar heat radiation would strike each, but A reflects 
 more and consequently absorbs less than B, which has smaller 
 reflecting power. There is a close proportionality between radia- 
 tion and absorption. For example, if B, when hot, loses heat by 
 radiation twice as fast as A does when equally hot, then if both are 
 equally cold and are placed in the sunshine, B will absorb heat 
 practically twice as fast as A. That is, good absorbers of heat 
 (when cold) are good radiators of heat (when hot). If two 
 thermometers, one of which has its bulb smoked until black, 

 
 298 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 are placed side by side in the sunshine, the one with the blackened 
 bulb will indicate a higher temperature than the other. 
 
 217. Measurement of Heat Radiation. By means of the 
 thermopile (Sec. 174), and other sensitive devices, such as the 
 bolometer, many measurements of intensity of heat radiation 
 have been made. When white light, e.g., sunlight, passes through 
 a prism, the different colors of light take slightly different direc- 
 tions, and a "spectrum" of the colors, red, orange, yellow, green, 
 blue, and violet, is produced. 
 
 By exposing the bolometer successively in the violet, blue, 
 green, yellow, orange and the red, and then moving it still farther, 
 into the invisible or infra-red part of the spectrum, it is found that 
 the radiant energy increases with the wave length, and reaches a 
 maximum in the infra-red. In other words, the wave length of 
 the sun's radiation which contains the most energy is slightly 
 greater than that of the extreme red. It has been found by experi- 
 ment, using various sources of known temperature for producing 
 the light, that the wave length of maximum energy is shorter, the 
 hotter the source. From these considerations the temperature of 
 the sun is estimated to be about 6000 C. In such experiments, a 
 rock-salt prism must be used, since glass absorbs infra-red radia- 
 tions to a great extent. 
 
 218. Transmission of Heat Radiation Through Glass, Etc. 
 Just as light passes readily through glass and other transparent 
 substances, so heat radiation passes readily through certain sub- 
 stances. In general, substances transparent to light are also trans- 
 parent to heat radiation, but there are some exceptions to this rule. 
 
 A thin pane of glass gives very little protection from the sun's 
 heat, but if held between the face and a hot stove it is a great 
 protection. It may be remarked that in the former case, the 
 glass is not noticeably warmed, while in the latter case it is 
 warmed. It is apparent, then, that the glass transmits solar 
 radiation better than it does the radiation from the hot stove. 
 This selective transmission of radiation is really due to "selective 
 absorption." The glass absorbs a greater percentage of the ra- 
 diation in the latter case than in the former, which accounts not 
 only for the fact that it transmits less heat in the case of the radia- 
 tion from the stove, but also for the fact that it is heated more. 
 
 In this connection, we may state that it has been shown by 
 experiment that a body, say a piece of iron, when heated to a white 
 heat, gives off simultaneously heat waves varying greatly in
 
 
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 299 
 
 length. As it is heated more and more, it gives off more and more 
 energy of all wave lengths; but the energy of the shorter wave 
 lengths increases most rapidly. Accordingly, the wave length of 
 maximum energy becomes shorter the hotter the source, as stated 
 in Sec. 217. 
 
 Just before the iron reaches "red heat" the heat waves are all 
 too long to be visible. As it becomes hotter, somewhat shorter 
 waves, corresponding to red light, are given off, and we say that 
 the iron is "red hot." If heated to a still higher temperature, so 
 as to give off a great deal of light, in fact light of all different wave 
 lengths, we say that it is "white hot." A hot stove, then, gives 
 off, in the main, very long heat waves; while the sun, which is 
 intensely heated, gives off a great deal of its heat energy in the 
 short wave lengths. 
 
 The above-mentioned fact, that glass affords protection from 
 the heat radiation from a stove, and no appreciable protection in 
 the case of solar radiation, is explained by saying that glass trans- 
 mits short heat waves much better than long heat waves, i.e., 
 glass is more transparent to short than to long heat waves. More 
 strictly, it might be said that glass does not prevent the trans- 
 mission of short heat waves by the ether permeating it, to so great 
 an extent as it does the long heat waves. 
 
 The "Hotbed. " The rise in temperature of the soil in a Hotbed, 
 when the glass cover is on, above what it would be if the glass 
 were removed, is in part due to this behavior of glass in the trans- 
 mission of heat radiation. The greater part of the solar heat that 
 strikes the glass, being of short wave length, passes readily 
 through the glass to the soil, which is thereby warmed. As the 
 soil is warmed, it radiates heat energy, but in the form of long 
 heat waves which do not readily pass through the glass, and hence 
 the heat is largely retained. The fact that the glass prevents a 
 continual stream of cold air from flowing over the soil beneath it, 
 and still permits the sun to shine upon the soil, accounts in large 
 part for its effectiveness. 
 
 "Smudging" of Orchards. Very soon after sunset, blades of 
 grass and other objects, through loss of heat by radiation, usually 
 become cool enough to precipitate part of the moisture of the air 
 upon them in the form of Dew (Sees. 220, 221). It is well known 
 that heavy dews form when the sky is clear. If the sky is over- 
 cast, even by fleecy clouds, a portion of the radiated heat is 
 reflected by the clouds back to the earth, and the cooling of 

 
 300 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 objects, and consequently the formation of dew upon them, is 
 less marked. 
 
 Many fruit growers have placed in the orchard, a thermostat, 
 so adjusted that an alarm is sounded when the freezing point is 
 approached. As soon as the alarm is sounded, the "smudge" 
 fires (coal, coal oil, etc.) are started. These fires produce a thin 
 veil of smoke, which hovers over the orchard and protects it from 
 frost, somewhat as a cloud would. In addition to the protection 
 afforded by the smoke, the considerable amount of heat developed 
 by the fires is also important. If the wind blows, such protec- 
 tion is much less effective. Frosts, however, usually occur during 
 still, clear nights. 
 
 219. The General Case of Heat Radiation Striking a Body. 
 Heat radiation, e.g., solar radiation, when it strikes a body, is 
 in general divided into three parts: the part (a) which is reflected; 
 the part (6) which is absorbed and therefore tends to heat the body; 
 and the part (c) which is transmitted, or passes through the body. 
 The sum of these, i.e., a+6-f-c, is of course equal to the original 
 energy that strikes the body. In some cases, the part reflected 
 is large, e.g., if the body has polished surfaces. In other cases, 
 the part absorbed is large, e.g., for lamp black or, in general, for 
 dull surfaces, and also for certain partially transparent substances. 
 The part transmitted is large for quartz and rock salt; much 
 smaller for glass, water and ice, and absent for metals unless 
 they are in the form of exceedingly thin foil. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. If a piece of plate glass 80 cm. in length, 50 cm. in width, and 1.2 cm. 
 in thickness, is kept 20 C. hotter on one side than on the other, how many 
 calories of heat pass through it every minute by conduction alone? 
 
 2. A copper vessel, the bottom of which is 0.2 cm. thick, has an area of 
 400 cm. 2 , and contains 3 kilograms of water. What will be the temperature 
 rise of the water in it in 1 minute, if the lower side of the bottom is kept 
 3 C. warmer than the upper side of the bottom? 
 
 3. Assuming the sun to be directly over head, what power (in H.P.) 
 does it radiate in the form of heat upon an acre of land at noon. See Sec. 
 161. 
 
 4. A wall 10 in. thick is made of a material, the thermal conductivity of 
 which is 0.001 12. The wall is made "twice as warm" by rebuilding it with 
 an additional thickness of "dead air" space. Find the thickness of the air 
 space. (In practice, convection currents diminish considerably the effective- 
 ness of so-called "dead air" spaces.)
 
 TRANSFER OF HEAT 301 
 
 5. How many pounds of steam at 140 C. (heat of vap. 509 cal. per gm.) 
 will a boiler furnish per hour if it has 1000 sq. ft. of heating surface of iron 
 (thermal conductivity 0.16) 0.25 in. in thickness, which is kept 5 hotter 
 next the flame than next the water? Note that the heat of vaporiza- 
 tion and the conductivity are given in C.G.S. units. 

 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 METEOROLOGY 
 
 220. General Discussion. Meteorology is that science which 
 treats, in the main, of the variations in heat and moisture of the 
 atmosphere, and the production of storms by these variations. 
 Although the earth's atmosphere extends to a height of a great 
 many miles, the weather is determined almost entirely by the 
 condition of the lower, denser strata, extending to a height of 
 but a few miles. 
 
 Clouds. Clouds have been divided into eight or ten important 
 classes, according to their appearance or altitude. Their altitude 
 varies from -1/2 mile to 8 or 10 miles, and their appearance varies 
 from the dense, gray, structureless rain cloud, called Nimbus, to 
 the interesting and beautiful "wool-pack" cloud, known as 
 Cumulus, which resembles the smoke and "steam" rolling up 
 from a locomotive. All clouds are composed either of minute 
 droplets of water or tiny crystals of snow, floating in the air. 
 Fog is merely a cloud at the surface of the earth. Thus, what is 
 a cloud to the people in the valley, is a fog to the party on the 
 mountain side enveloped by the cloud. The droplets in a fog 
 are easily seen. The upper clouds may travel in a direction 
 quite different from that of the surface wind, and at velocities 
 as high as 200 miles per hour. 
 
 221. Moisture in the Atmosphere. The constant evaporation 
 from the ocean, from inland bodies of water, and from the ground, 
 provides the air with moisture, the amount of which varies 
 greatly from time to time. Although the water vapor seldom 
 forms as much as 2 per cent, of the weight of the air, never- 
 theless, water vapor is the most important factor in determining 
 the character of the weather. When air contains all of the mois- 
 ture it will take up, it is said to be saturated. If saturated air 
 is heated, it is capable of taking up more moistufe; while if it is 
 cooled, it precipitates a portion of its moisture as fog, cloud, 
 dew, or rain. If still further cooled, it loses still more of its 
 water vapor. Indeed the statement that the air is saturated with 
 
 302
 
 METEOROLOGY 303 
 
 water vapor does not indicate how much water vapor it contains, 
 unless the temperature of the air is also given. 
 
 When unsaturated air is cooled more and more, it finally 
 reaches a temperature at which precipitation of its moisture 
 occurs. This temperature is called the Dew Point. If air is 
 nearly saturated, very little cooling brings it to the dew point. 
 After the dew point is reached, the air cools more slowly, because 
 every gram of water vapor precipitated, gives up nearly 600 
 calories of heat (its heat of vaporization) to the air. Thus, if 
 on a clear chilly evening in the fall, a test for the amount of 
 water vapor in the air shows the dew point to be several degrees 
 below zero, then frost may be expected before morning; while 
 if the dew point is well above zero, there is little probability of 
 frost. This might be taken as a partial guide as to whether or 
 not to protect delicate plants. The fact should be emphasized, 
 that if the moisture in the air is visible, it is in the form of drop- 
 lets, since water vapor, like steam, is invisible. 
 
 222. Hygrometry and Hygrometers. Hygrometry deals with 
 the determination of the amount of moisture in the atmosphere. 
 The devices used in this determination are called hygrometers. 
 Only two of these, the chemical hygrometer and the wet-and- 
 dry-bulb hygrometer, will be discussed. 
 
 The Chemical Hygrometer consists of a glass tube containing 
 fused calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ), or some other chemical having 
 great affinity for water. Through this tube (previously weighed) 
 a known volume of air is passed. This air, during its passage, 
 gives up its moisture to the chemical and escapes as perfectly 
 dry air. The tube is again weighed, and the gain in weight 
 gives the amount of water vapor in this known volume of air. 
 
 The Wet-and-dry-bulb Hygrometer. From the two temperature 
 readings of the wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer (Sec. 198), in 
 connection with a table such as given below, the dew point 
 may be found. Having found the dew point, the amount of 
 moisture per cubic yard is readily found from the second table. 
 
 The manner of using these tables will be best illustrated by an 
 example. Suppose that when a test is made, the dry-bulb 
 thermometer reads 60 F., and the wet-bulb thermometer 52 F., 
 or 8 lower. Running down the vertical column (first table) for 
 which i t' is 8 until opposite the dry-bulb reading 60, we find 
 the dew point 45.6 F. This shows that if the temperature of the 
 air falls to 45.6 F., precipitation will commence. Opposite to
 
 304 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 dew point 45 (the nearest point to 45.6) in the second table, 
 we find 0.299 and 0.0133; which shows that every cubic yard of 
 air contained approximately 0.0133 Ibs. of water vapor on the 
 day of this test, and that the water vapor pressure was 0.299 
 inches of mercury. 
 
 DEW POINTS FROM WET-AND-DRY-BULB HYGROMETER READINGS 
 Dry bulb temperature t. Wet bulb temperature t'. Difference t -t'. 
 
 t-r 
 
 = 2 
 
 8 | 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 F. 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 F. 
 
 36.2 
 
 30.8 
 
 25.6 
 
 20.8 
 
 16.0 
 
 11.2 
 
 6.4 
 
 45 
 
 41.4 
 
 35.8 
 
 31.2 
 
 27.0 
 
 22.1 
 
 17.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 50 
 
 45.8 
 
 41.6 
 
 37.4 
 
 33.0 
 
 29.0 
 
 24.8 
 
 20.6 
 
 55 
 
 51.0 
 
 47.0 
 
 43.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 35.2 
 
 31.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 60 
 
 56.4 
 
 52.8 
 
 49.2 
 
 45.6 
 
 42.3 
 
 38.4 
 
 34.8 
 
 65 
 
 61.6 
 
 59.2 
 
 55.0 
 
 51.4 
 
 48.0 
 
 44.6 
 
 41.0 
 
 70 
 
 67.0 
 
 64.0 
 
 61.0 
 
 58.0 
 
 55.3 
 
 52.0 
 
 49.0 
 
 75 
 
 72.0 
 
 69.0 
 
 66.0 
 
 63.0 
 
 60.6 
 
 57.0 
 
 54.0 
 
 80 
 
 77.0 
 
 74.0 
 
 71.0 
 
 68.0 
 
 65.0 
 
 62.0 
 
 59.0 
 
 DEW POINTS AND THE CORRESPONDING PRESSURES AND 
 DENSITIES OF WATER VAPOR 
 
 Dew point 
 
 Pressure in inches of 
 mercury 
 
 Density in Ibs. per cu. yd 
 
 20 F. 
 
 0.102 
 
 0.0051 
 
 25 
 
 0.130 
 
 0.0066 
 
 30 
 
 0.161 
 
 0.0076 
 
 35 
 
 0.200 
 
 0.0091 
 
 40 
 
 0.252 
 
 0.0111 
 
 45 
 
 0.299 
 
 0.0133 
 
 50 
 
 0.358 
 
 0.0159 
 
 55 
 
 0.433 
 
 0.0196 
 
 60 
 
 0.512 
 
 0.0223 
 
 65 
 
 0.617 
 
 0.0255 
 
 70 
 
 0.732 
 
 0.0306 
 
 223. Winds, Trade Winds. Winds originate in the uneven 
 heating of the earth's atmosphere at different points. This 
 heating is in part due to the direct action of the sun, and in part 
 to the heat of vaporization given off when a portion of the mois- 
 ture in the air changes to the liquid state. When air is heated 
 it expands, and therefore becomes lighter and rises with con- 
 siderable velocity. The current of colder air, rushing in to take 
 its place, is called Wind. This effect is easily noticed with a 
 large bonfire on a still day. The violent upward rush of the 
 heated air above the fire carries cinders to a great height. The
 
 j METEOROLOGY 305 
 
 cool air rushinp; in to take its place produces a "wind" that 
 blows toward the fire from all directions. 
 
 The Trade Winds. An effect similar to that produced by the 
 bonfire, as above described, is constantly being produced on a 
 grand scale in the tropical regions. The constant high tempera- 
 ture of the equatorial regions heats the air highly and causes it 
 to rise. The air north and south of this region, rushing in to 
 take the place of this rising air, constitutes the Trade Winds. 
 
 On account of the rotation of the earth, trade winds do not 
 blow directly toward the equator but shift to the westward. 
 Thus in the West Indies, the trade winds are N. E. winds, i.e., 
 they blow S. W. The trade winds south of the equator are S. E. 
 winds, i.e., they blow N. W. 
 
 The westward deviation of the trade winds, both north and 
 south of the equator, may be accounted for as follows. Objects 
 near the equator describe each day, due to the rotation of the 
 earth, paths which are the full circumference of the earth; 
 while objects some distance either north or south of the equator 
 describe shorter paths in the same time, and therefore have 
 less velocity. Consequently, as a body of air moves toward the 
 equator, it comes to points of higher eastward velocity, and 
 therefore "falls behind," so to speak; that is, it drifts somewhat 
 to the westward. 
 
 Between the trade winds of the two hemispheres lies the 
 equatorial "zone of calms." This zone, which varies from 
 200 to 500 miles in width, has caused sailing vessels much trouble 
 with its prolonged calms, violent thunder storms, and sudden 
 squalls. 
 
 Since a rising column of air is cooled by expansion, it precipi- 
 tates its moisture; whereas a descending column, warmed as it 
 is by compression, is always capable of absorbing more moisture 
 and is, therefore, relatively dry. In the zone of calms, the air 
 from the two trade winds which meet in this region must rise. 
 As it rises, it is cooled and precipitates its moisture in torrents 
 of rain. Wherever the prevailing wind blows from the sea 
 across a mountain range near the coast, the rain will be ex- 
 cessive on the mountain slope toward the sea, where the air 
 must rise to pass over the mountain. As the air descends upon 
 the opposite side of the range, it is very dry and produces a region 
 of scant rain and, in many cases, a desert. The rainfall on por- 
 tions of the southern slope of the Himalaya Mountains is about
 
 306 MECHANICS AND 
 
 30 ft. per year; while to the north of the range lie large arid or 
 semi-arid districts. 
 
 224. Land and Sea Breezes. Near the seashore, especially 
 in warm countries, the breeze usually blows toward the shore 
 from about noon until shortly before sunset, and toward the 
 sea from about midnight until shortly before sunrise. The 
 former is called a Sea Breeze; the latter, a Land Breeze. 
 
 These breezes are due to the fact that the temperature of the 
 land changes quickly, while the temperature of the ocean is 
 nearly constant (Sec. 185). Consequently, by noon, the air 
 above the land has become considerably heated, and is therefore 
 less dense than the air over the ocean. This heated air, there- 
 fore, rises, and the air from the ocean, rushing in to take its 
 place, is called the sea breeze. The rising column of air becomes 
 cooler as it rises, and flows out to sea. Thus, air flows from 
 sea to land near the earth, and from land to sea in the higher 
 regions of the atmosphere. Toward midnight the land and the 
 air above it have become chilled. This chilled, and therefore 
 dense air flows out to sea, as a land breeze; while the air from 
 the ocean flows toward the land in the higher region. It will 
 be observed, then, that the convection circulation at night is 
 just the reverse of the day circulation. 
 
 It is observed that the sea breeze first originates some distance 
 out at sea and blows toward the land. A feasible explanation 
 is this: As the air over the land first becomes heated it expands 
 and swells up like a large blister. The air above, lifted by the 
 "blister," flows away out to sea in the higher regions of the 
 atmosphere, thereby causing an excess pressure upon the air 
 there. The air then flows away from this region of excess pres- 
 sure toward the land, where the deficit in pressure exists. 
 
 225. Cyclones. Strictly, the term cyclone applies to the 
 periodical rotary storms, about 1000 miles or so in diameter, 
 which occur in various parts of the earth. Every few days 
 they pass across the central portion of the United States, 
 in a direction somewhat north of east. Their courses may 
 be followed from day to day by means of the U. S. weather 
 maps. The barometric pressure is usually about one-half 
 inch of mercury less at the center ("storm center") of a cyclone, 
 than at the margin. This region of low pressure, called a "low 
 area," is due, at least in part, to the condensation of water 
 vapor that occurs in cloud formation, and the consequent
 
 METEOROLOGY 307 
 
 heating of the air by the heat of vaporization thereby evolved. 
 This heated air rises, and the surrounding air, rushing in, 
 produces wind. Due to the rotation of the earth, these winds, 
 instead of blowing straight toward the storm center, are, in 
 general, deflected to the right of the storm center. Occasionally, 
 due so some local disturbance, the wind may blow in a direction 
 nearly opposite to that which would be expected from the above 
 rule; but, in general, the surrounding air moves toward the storm 
 center in a spiral path. The rotation is counterclockwise 
 (viewed from above) in the Northern hemisphere, and clockwise 
 in the Southern. Any body in motion (e.g., a rifle ball) in the 
 Northern hemisphere tends to deviate to the right from its path, 
 and in the Southern hemisphere to the left. 1 This fact accounts 
 for the rotatory motion of these storms, as explained below. 
 
 Cause of the Rotary Motion of Cyclones. Let Fig. 145 represent 
 a top view of a level table A upon which rests a heavy ball B 
 loosely surrounded by a very light frame C to which is attached 
 a string DD\. Evidently, if the table is at rest and the lower end 
 of the string Z>i, which passes through a hole in the center of the 
 table, is pulled, ball B will roll in a straight path to the center. 
 If, however, the string is pulled while the table, and consequently 
 the ball, are rapidly revolving in the direction indicated by the 
 arrow a, then the ball will follow a left-handed spiral path as in- 
 dicated by the broken line. For, as the ball moves nearer to 
 the center, it reaches portions of the table of smaller and smaller 
 radius, and consequently portions having less tangential velocity 
 than its own. Therefore, the ball rolls "ahead," i.e., to the right, 
 of the straight line D as shown. If the table and the ball were 
 rotated in the opposite direction (clockwise), similar reasoning 
 would show that the ball would then travel toward the center in 
 a right-handed spiral path. 
 
 It will next be shown that any area of the globe, having a diameter 
 of, say, a few hundred miles, may be considered to be a flat surface, 
 
 Although this tendency of a moving body to drift to the right in the 
 Northern hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere is of 
 such great importance in determining the motion of storms, its effe.ct on 
 projectiles is very slight indeed. Thus, in latitude 40, due to this cause, 
 an army rifle projectile veers to the right (no matter in what direction it 
 is fired) by only about 3 in. on a 1000-yd. range. Due to the same cause, a 
 heavy locomotive, when at full speed on a level track, bears only about 
 50 Ibs. more on the right rail than on the left.
 
 308 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 rotating about a vertical axis at its center, and that consequently, air 
 which tends to move toward the center of the area, as it does in cyclones, 
 will trace a spiral path similar to that traced by the ball (Fig. 145). 
 That an area about the north pole has such rotation, with the pole as 
 axis, is evident. Since the earth rotates from west to east, this rotation 
 viewed from above, is counterclockwise the same as shown in Fig. 
 145. The rotational velocity, say wi, is of course one revolution per 
 day. 
 
 Such an area at the equator would revolve once a day about a hori- 
 zontal (N. and S.) axis, but would obviously have no rotation about a 
 
 FIG. 145. 
 
 vertical axis. This fact accounts for the absence of cyclones near the 
 equator. 
 
 It can be shown that such an area, in latitude 0, has an angular 
 velocity o> about the vertical axis, given by the equation 
 
 w = wi sin 6 
 
 The rotation of the area is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere 
 (see rotation at the north pole above) and clockwise in the southern. 
 Consequently, the air moves (i.e., the wind blows) toward the center of 
 a cyclone in a left-handed spiral path in the former case, and in a right- 
 handed spiral path in the latter case, as explained above for the ball. 
 
 Hurricanes and Typhoons. The hurricanes of the West Indies, and 
 the Typhoons of China, might be called the "cyclones" of the tropical 
 and sub-tropical regions. They are more violent and of smaller diameter 
 than cyclones, their diameter rarely exceeding 400 miles, though they 
 sometimes gradually change to cyclones and travel long distances through 
 the temperate zones.
 
 METEOROLOGY 309 
 
 226. Tornadoes. Tornadoes resemble hurricanes, but are 
 much smaller, and usually more violent. Because of the terrific 
 violence, narrow path, brief duration, and still more brief warning 
 given, tornadoes have not been very satisfactorily studied, and 
 much difference of opinion exists with regard to them. The 
 visible part of a tornado consists of a depending, funnel-shaped 
 cloud, tapering to a column which frequently extends to the 
 ground. Due to the centrifugal force caused by the rapid 
 rotation of the column, the air pressure within it is considerably 
 reduced. Consequently as moist air enters the column it is 
 cooled by expansion and its moisture condenses, forming the 
 cloud which makes the column visible. At sea, tornadoes are 
 called Water Spouts. The column is not water, however, but 
 cloud and spray. 
 
 Origin. Tornadoes usually develop to the southeast of the 
 center of a cyclone. Sometimes several may rage simultaneously 
 at different points in the same cyclone. Occasionally con- 
 ditions of the atmosphere arise which are especially favorable 
 to the formation of tornadoes. These conditions are a warm 
 layer of air saturated with moisture next to the earth, with a 
 layer of much cooler air above it. As, due to local disturbance, 
 some of this heated moist air rises to the cooler regions, it pre- 
 cipitates part of its moisture, thus freeing a considerable amount 
 of heat. This heat prevents the rising air from cooling so rapidly 
 as it otherwise would, and consequently helps to maintain its 
 tendency to rise. As this air rises, it is followed by other satu- 
 sated air, which in turn receives heat by condensation of its water 
 vapor. Thus the action, when once started, continues with 
 great violence. The air rushing in from the surrounding country 
 to take the place of the ascending air current acquires a rotary 
 motion, just as already explained in connection with cyclones 
 As the tornado advances it is constantly furnished with a new 
 supply of hot, damp air and it will continue just so long as this 
 supply is furnished, i.e., until it passes over the section of country 
 in which these favorable conditions exist. Tornadoes travel 
 across the United States in a direction which is usually about 
 east. A tornado may be likened to a forest fire, in that the one 
 requires a continuous supply of moist air, the other, a continuous 
 supply of fuel. 
 
 Tornadoes sometimes do not reach to the earth, which indicates 
 that the favorable stratum of air upon which they "feed" is, at
 
 310 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 least sometimes, at a considerable altitude. Some think it is 
 always at a high altitude. This, the writer doubts. The moist 
 stratum is probably very deep. 
 
 Extent. The destructive paths of tornadoes vary in width 
 from 100 ft. to 1/2 mile, and in length from less than a mile to 
 200 miles. A tornado which wrecks weak buildings over a 
 path 1/8 mile in width may leave the ground practically bare 
 for a width of 100 ft. or so. 
 
 Velocity. The velocity of tornadoes varies from 10 to 100 
 miles per hour. It is estimated, however, that the wind near 
 the center sometimes attains a velocity of 200 or 300 miles per 
 hour, or even greater. 
 
 Judging by the effects produced, the velocity must be very 
 great. An iron bed rail has been driven through a tree by a 
 tornado. A thin-bladed shovel has been driven several inches 
 into a tree. Such a shovel would not withstand driving into a 
 tree with a sledge hammer. Splintered boards are frequently 
 driven deep into the ground, and, by way of contrast, mention 
 may be made of a ladder which was laid down, at a considerable 
 distance from the path, so gently as to scarcely leave a mark on 
 the ground. Shingles and thin boards have been found in great 
 numbers 6 or 7 miles from the path, and probably 10 or 15 miles 
 from where they began their flight. 
 
 The rapid rotational velocity at the center, tends to produce 
 a vacuum, as already mentioned. It is conjectured that the 
 pressure at the center of the tornado may be as much as 3 or 4 
 Ibs. per square inch less than normal. If this be true, then, as 
 the tornado reaches a building filled with air at nearly normal 
 pressure, there will be an excess pressure within the building of 
 say 3 Ib. per square inch, or over 400 Ibs. per square foot, tending 
 to make the building explode. The position of the wreckage 
 sometimes indicates that this is just what has taken place. 
 
 In spite of the great violence of tornadoes, few people are killed 
 by them, because of their infrequency and limited extent. If a 
 man were to live a few hundred thousand years he might reason- 
 ably expect to be caught in the path of a tornado, and if immune 
 from death except by tornadoes he could not reasonably expect 
 to live more than a few million years.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 
 
 227. Work Obtained from Heat Thermodynamics. Thermo- 
 dynamics deals with the subject of the transformation of heat 
 into mechanical energy, and vice versa, and the relations that 
 obtain in such transformation under different conditions. No 
 attempt will be made to give more than a brief general treatment 
 of this important subject. 
 
 What is known as the First Law of Thermodynamics may be 
 stated as follows: Heat may be transformed into mechanical 
 energy, and likewise, mechanical energy may be transformed into 
 heat, and in all -cases, the ratio of the work done, to the heat so 
 transformed, is constant. Conversely, the ratio of the work 
 supplied, to the heat developed (in case mechanical energy is 
 changed to heat energy by friction, etc.), gives the same constant. 
 This constant, in the British system, is 778. Thus, if one B.T.U. 
 of heat is converted into mechanical energy, it will do 778 ft.-lbs. 
 of work; conversely, if 778 ft.-lbs. of work is converted into heat, 
 it produces one B.T.U. For example, if 778 ft.-lbs. of energy is 
 used in stirring 1 Ib. of water, it will warm the water 1 F. The 
 similar relation in the metric system is expressed by the state- 
 ment that 1 calorie equals 4.187X10 7 ergs. 
 
 Illustrations of the First Law of Thermodynamics. By means of 
 the steam engine and the gas engine, heat is converted into mechan- 
 ical energy. In bringing a train to rest, its kinetic (mechanical) 
 energy is converted into heat by the brakes, where a shower of 
 sparks may be seen. In inflating a bicycle tire, work is done in 
 compressing the air, and this heated air makes the tube leading 
 from the pump to the tire quite warm. In the fire syringe, a 
 snug-fitting piston, below which some tinder is fastened, is 
 quickly forced into a cylinder containing air. As the air is com- 
 pressed it is heated sufficiently to ignite the tinder. In gas en- 
 gines, preignition may occur during the compression stroke, due 
 in part to the heat developed by the work of compression. 
 
 311
 
 312 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics. The second law of 
 thermodynamics is expressed by the statement that heat will 
 not flow of itself (i.e., without external work), from a colder to a 
 warmer body. In the operation of the ammonia refrigerating 
 apparatus, heat is taken continuously from the very cold brine 
 and given to the very much warmer cooling tank; but the work 
 required to cause this "uphill" flow of heat is done by the steam 
 engine which operates the air pump. 
 
 Lord Kelvin's statement of the second law amounts to this: 
 Work cannot be obtained by using up the heat in the coldest 
 bodies present. Carnot (Sec. 236) showed that when heat passes 
 from a hotter to a colder body (through an engine) the maximum 
 
 m rp 
 
 fraction of the heat which may be converted into work is ^ 2 ' 
 
 in which TI and 7 7 2 are, respectively, the temperatures of the 
 two bodies on the absolute scale. 
 
 228. Efficiency. While it is possible to convert mechanical 
 energy, or work, entirely into heat, thereby obtaining 100 per 
 cent, efficiency, it is impossible in the reverse process to trans- 
 form more than a small percentage of heat energy into mechanical 
 energy. It is, indeed, a very good steam engine that changes 
 into work 1/5 of the heat energy of the steam furnished it by 
 the boiler. Considering the large amount of heat that radiates 
 from the furnace, and also the heat that escapes through the 
 smoke stack, there is a further reduction in the efficiency. The 
 total efficiency of a steam engine is the product of three efficien- 
 cies; that of the furnace, that of the boiler, and that of the engine. 
 
 The furnace wastes about 1/10 of the coal due to incomplete 
 combustion, through escape of unburnt gases up the smoke 
 stack, and unburnt coal into the ash pit. The furnace efficiency 
 is, therefore, about 9/10 or 90 per cent. About 4/10 of the heat 
 developed by the furnace escapes into the boiler room or up the 
 smoke stack; so that the boiler efficiency is about 6/10 or 60 per 
 cent. A good "condensing" engine converts into work about 
 1/5 of the heat energy furnished it by the boiler, in other words, 
 its efficiency is about 20 per cent. The total efficiency E of 
 the steam engine, which may be defined by the equation 
 
 work done 
 
 energy of fuel burned 
 has, then, the value 1/5X6/10X9/10, or about 11 per cent.
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 313 
 
 Calculation of Efficiency. The efficiency of the steam engine 
 varies greatly with the care of the furnace, and the type and 
 size of the boiler and engine. Few engines have a total efficiency 
 above 12 per cent., and many of the smaller ones have as low as 
 4 or 5 per cent, efficiency, or even lower. Coal which has a heat 
 of combustion of 14,000 B.T.U. per lb., contains 14,000X778 ft.- 
 Ibs. of energy per pound. One H.P.-hr. is 3600X550 ft.-lbs. 
 ,. , 3600X550 ., . . . t .. ., , . 
 
 Accordingly ^QQQ x 773 *"., or approximately 1/5 lb. of coal 
 
 would do 1 H.P.-hr. of work if the efficiency of the engine were 
 100 per cent. If an engine requires 4 Ibs. of coal per H.P.- 
 hr., its efficiency is approximately 1/4X1/5, or 5 per cent. In 
 order to make an accurate determination of the efficiency, the 
 heat of combustion would have to be known for the particular 
 grade of coal used. 
 
 Limiting, or Thermodynamic Efficiency. Carnot (Sec. 236) 
 showed that the efficiency of an ideal engine, which, of course, 
 cannot be surpassed, is determined by the two extreme tempera- 
 tures of the working fluid (steam or gas) . If heat (say in steam) 
 is supplied to the engine at 127 C. or 400 A., and the engine 
 delivers it to the condenser at 27 C., or 300 A., then the maxi- 
 
 .. , ~ . . 400-300 
 
 mum theoretical efficiency is TQ~ , or 25 per cent. Ob- 
 viously, then, a gain in efficiency is obtained by using steam at 
 a very high pressure, and consequently at a high temperature. 
 The high efficiency of the gas engine is due partly to the great 
 temperature difference employed, and partly to the fact that 
 the "furnace" is in the cylinder itself, thereby reducing heat 
 "losses." 
 
 Some gas engines (Sec. 237) have more than 30 per cent, ef- 
 ficiency. Gas engines are usually more troublesome than steam 
 engines and also less reliable in their operation; nevertheless, 
 because of their greater economy of fuel, they are coming into 
 very general use. 
 
 The lightness of gas engines recommends them for use on 
 automobiles, motorcycles, and flying machines. Engines weigh- 
 ing about 2.5 Ibs. per H.P. have been made for use on aero- 
 planes. Indeed, the lightness of the gas engine has made 
 possible the development of the aeroplane. 
 
 229. The Steam Engine. A modern steam engine, fully
 
 314 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 equipped with all of its essential attachments, is a very compli- 
 cated mechanism. 
 
 In order to bring out more clearly the fundamental principles 
 involved in the action of the steam engine, it seems best to omit 
 important details found in the modern engine, since these de- 
 tails are confusing to the beginner, and therefore serve to obscure 
 the underlying principles. In accordance with this idea, an ex- 
 ceedingly primitive engine is shown in Fig. 146. In Fig. 147, 
 an engine is shown which is essentially modern, although certain 
 details of construction are purposely omitted or modified, espe- 
 cially in the indicator mechanism, and in the valve mechanism. 
 
 In Fig. 146, A is a pipe which carries steam from the boiler to 
 the cylinder B, through either valve a or valve b, depending upon 
 which is open. P is the piston, and C is the piston rod, which 
 
 FIG. 146. 
 
 passes through the end of the cylinder (through steam-tight 
 packing in a "stuffing box") to the crosshead D. As the piston 
 is forced back and forth by the steam, as will be explained below, 
 the crosshead moves to and fro in "guides," indicated by the 
 broken lines. The crosshead, by means of the connecting rod 
 E attached to the crank pin F, causes the crank G to revolve as 
 indicated. The crank G revolves the crank shaft 0, to which is 
 usually attached a very heavy fly wheel H in order to "steady" 
 the motion. 
 
 If valves a and c are open, and b and d closed, the steam passes 
 from the boiler into the cylinder, and forces P to the right. 
 The exhaust steam to the right of P (remaining from a former 
 stroke) is driven out through c to the air. When P reaches the
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 315 
 
 right end of the cylinder, valves a and c are closed, and 6 and d 
 are opened, thus permitting steam to enter at 6 and force P to the 
 left end again; whereupon the entire operation is repeated. 
 These valves are automatically opened and closed at just the 
 right instant by a mechanism connected with the crank shaft 
 (Sec. 233). In practice, valve a would be closed when P had 
 traveled to the right about 1/3 the length of the cylinder (Sec. 
 231). 
 
 Speed Regulation. A Centrifugal Governor, driven by the 
 engine, controls the steam supply, and hence the speed, by open- 
 ing wider the throttle valve (valve not shown) in A if the speed 
 is too low, and by partially closing it when the speed is too high, 
 as explained in Sec. 63. It may be mentioned that some gover- 
 nors control the speed by regulating the cut-off (Sec. 231); that 
 is, by admitting steam to the cylinder during a small fraction of 
 the stroke, in case the speed becomes too high. 
 
 Compound and Triple Expansion Engines. In the Compound 
 Engine, the exhaust steam from cylinder B passes through pipe 
 / to a second cylinder, where it drives the piston to and fro, 
 just as the steam from pipe A drives the piston shown in the 
 figure. If the exhaust steam from this second cylinder operates 
 a third cylinder we have a Triple Expansion Engine so-called 
 because the steam expands three times. Obviously, because of 
 this expansion, the second cylinder must be larger than the first, 
 and the third larger than the second. By using steam at very 
 high pressure (about 200 Ibs. per sq. in.), and expanding it 
 successively in there different cylinders, a much higher efficiency 
 is obtained than with a single-cylinder engine. It will be evi- 
 dent, that the more the steam condenses on the walls of the 
 cylinder, the more rapidly its pressure drops with expansion. It 
 may be mentioned that the greater efficiency of the triple expan- 
 sion engine is due principally to a reduction of this condensation. 
 
 Superheating. Another method of reducing condensation is 
 to superheat the steam. If the steam is conducted from the 
 boiler to the engine through coiled pipes surrounded by moder- 
 ately hot flame, it may thereby have its temperature raised as 
 much as 200 F., and is then said to be superheated 200. Super- 
 heated steam does not so readily condense upon expansion in the 
 engine as does ordinary steam, and consequently gives a higher 
 efficiency. 
 
 Increasing the Efficiency. The efficiency of the steam engine
 
 316 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 has been increased, step by step, by means of various improve- 
 ments, prominent among which are, the expansive use of steam 
 in the cylinder (Sec. 231), the expansion from cylinder to cylinder 
 as in triple expansion engines, and the condensation of the ex- 
 haust steam ahead of the piston (Sec. 230) to eliminate "back 
 pressure." To these may be added the use of higher steam pres- 
 sure, and also the use of superheated steam. 
 
 230. Condensing Engines. It will be observed, that in the 
 above noncondensing engine, the steam from the boiler has to 
 force the piston against atmospheric pressure (15 Ibs. per sq. in). 
 By leading the exhaust pipe / to a "condenser," which condenses 
 most of the steam, this "back pressure" is largely eliminated. 
 The Condenser consists of an air-tight metal enclosure, kept cool 
 either by a water jet playing inside, or by cold water circulating 
 on the outside. The former is called the Jet Condenser and the 
 latter, the Surface Condenser. A pipe from an air pump leads to 
 the condenser, and by means of this pipe, the air pump removes 
 the water and air, maintaining in the condenser a fairly good 
 vacuum. Assuming that the boiler pressure is, say, 60 Ibs. per 
 sq. in. (i.e., 60 Ibs. per sq. in. above atmospheric pressure), and 
 that the condenser maintains in the cylinder, "ahead" of the 
 piston, a partial vacuum of 2 Ibs. per sq. in. pressure; it will be 
 evident that the available working pressure will be increased 
 to 73 Ibs. per sq. in. (15-2= 13, and 60+13 = 73), and that there- 
 fore the efficiency will be increased in about the same ratio. 
 
 231. Expansive Use of Steam, Cut-off Point. If, when the 
 piston shown in Fig. 146 has moved to the right 1/4 the length 
 of the cylinder, i.e., when it is at 1/4 stroke, valve a is closed, 
 then only 1/4 as much steam will be used as would have been 
 used had valve a remained open to the end of the stroke. But the 
 work done by the piston during the stroke will be more than 1/4 
 as much in the first case as in the second, hence steam is econo- 
 mized. If a is closed at 1/4 stroke, the Cut-off Point is said to 
 be at 1/4 stroke. 
 
 The work done per stroke, if the valve a remains open during 
 the full stroke, is FL (or Fd, since Work=Fd), in which F is the 
 force exerted on the piston (its area A times the steam pressure 
 p), and L is the length of the stroke. Consequently, the work 
 done per stroke is pAL. If the cut-off is set at 1/4 stroke, then 
 the full pressure is applied for the first quarter stroke only, and 
 therefore the work done by the steam in this quarter stroke
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 317 
 
 is pAL/4. During the remaining 3/4 stroke, the enclosed steam 
 expands to four times as great volume, and because of the cool- 
 ing effect of expansion, it has its pressure reduced at the end of 
 the stroke to less than p/4, the value which Boyle's Law would 
 indicate. Assuming the average pressure during the last 3/4 
 stroke to be even as low as p/3, we have for the work of this 3/4 
 stroke 
 
 We see, then, that by using the expansive power of the steam 
 during 3/4 of the stroke, we obtain the work \ pAL, which, 
 added to | pAL obtained from the first 1/4 stroke, gives 
 \ pAL for the total work. But the work obtained per stroke by 
 keeping the valve a open during the full stroke was pAL. Hence 
 the total work per stroke, using the cut-off, is 1/2 as great as 
 without, and the steam consumption is only 1/4 as great; there- 
 fore, the Efficiency is doubled, in this instance, by the use of the 
 cut-off. 
 
 232. Power. Since power is the rate of doing work, or, in 
 the units usually employed, the amount of work done per second 
 (Sec. 81), it will be at once evident that the product of the work 
 per stroke, or PAL (Sec. 231), and the number of strokes (to the 
 right) per second, or N, will give the power developed by the 
 steam, which enters at the left end of the cylinder. That is, 
 power PALN, in which P is the average difference in pressure 
 upon the two sides of the piston during the entire stroke. The 
 average pressure is easily found from the indicator card (Sec. 
 234). As an aid to the memory, the symbols may be rearranged 
 so as to spell the word PLAN. 
 
 If P is expressed in pounds per square inch, and A in square 
 inches, then the average force PA exerted by the piston will be in 
 pounds. If L is the length of the cylinder in feet, then PAL, the 
 work done per stroke, will be expressed in foot-pounds. Finally, 
 since N, the number of revolutions per second, is also the number 
 of strokes to the right per second, the power, PLAN, developed 
 by the left end of the cylinder, is given in foot-pounds per second. 
 Dividing this by 550 gives the result in horse power; i.e., 
 
 H.P. (one end) = (87)
 
 318 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 If N represents the speed of the engine in revolutions per minute 
 (R.P.M.), then, since 1 H. P. -33000 ft.-lbs. per min., we have 
 
 H.P. (one end) = (87a) 
 
 If the cut-off point for the stroke to the left does not occur 
 at exactly the same fraction of the stroke as it does for the 
 stroke to the right, then the average pressure pushing the pis- 
 ton to the left will not be the same as that pushing it to the right, 
 and the power developed by the right end of the cylinder will 
 differ from that developed by the left end. This difference usu- 
 ally amounts to but a few per cent, of the total power. 
 
 233. The Slide Valve Mechanism. The slide valve V (Fig. 
 147) is operated by what virtually amounts to a crank of length 
 00', called, however, an Eccentric. The eccentric consists of a 
 circular disc /. whose center is at 0', attached to the crank shaft 
 whose center is at 0. Over J passes the strap K connected with 
 the eccentric rod L. As the crank shaft revolves clockwise, 0', 
 which is virtually the right end of rod L, moves in the small 
 dotted circle as indicated. This circular motion causes L to 
 move to and fro, thus imparting to the slide valve V a to-and-fro 
 motion. By adjusting the eccentric until the angle between 
 00' and the crank G has the proper value, the valve opens and 
 closes the ports at the proper instants. 
 
 With the valve in the position shown, the steam from the 
 boiler, entering the steam chest S through pipe A, passes through 
 steam port a into the cylinder. The exhaust steam, from the 
 preceding stroke, escapes through steam port 6 and exhaust port 
 c into the exhaust pipe, which conducts the steam in the direc- 
 tion away from the reader to the condenser (not shown). An 
 instant later, port a will be closed (cut-off point), and the steam 
 then in the left end of the cylinder will expand (expansion period, 
 Sec. 231) and push, the piston to the right. As the piston ap- 
 proaches the right end, the valve V will close port b and at the 
 same time open port a into the exhaust port c. This releases the 
 steam in the left end of the cylinder, and is called the release point. 
 Since b is closed before the piston reaches the right end of its 
 stroke, there still remains some exhaust steam in the right end of 
 the cylinder. This steam acts as a "cushion" and reduces the jar- 
 ring. During the last part of the stroke, then, the piston is 
 compressing exhaust steam. This is called the compression
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 
 
 319 
 
 period. About the time the piston reaches the right end of its 
 stroke, valve V has moved far enough to the left to open port 
 b to the steam chest, thus admitting "live" steam to the right 
 end of the cylinder, and the return stroke, similar in all respects 
 to the one we have just described, occurs. 
 
 234. The Indicator. The essentials of the indicator are shown 
 in Fig. 147 (left upper corner). / is a small vertical cylinder 
 containing a piston N, and is connected by pipes with the ends 
 of the engine cylinder, as shown. If valve e is closed and valve 
 d is open, it will be evident that, as the pressure in the left end 
 of the cylinder rises and falls, the piston N, which is held down 
 by the spring s, will rise and fall, and cause the pencil p at the end 
 of the lever Q to rise and fall. 
 
 M is a drum, to which is fastened a "card" W. This drum is 
 free to rotate about a vertical axis when the cord T, passing over 
 pulley U, is pulled to the right. As the pull on T is released, a 
 spring (not shown) causes the drum to rotate in the reverse 
 direction. 
 
 It will therefore be seen that the to-and-fro (horizontal) 
 motion of the crosshead D, by means of lever R and string T, 
 causes the drum to rotate to and fro, and consequently move 
 the card to and fro under the pencil p. If the pencil were station- 
 ary it would trace a straight horizontal line on the card.
 
 320 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 Thus we see that the change of pressure in the cylinder causes 
 the pencil to move up and down, while the motion of the drum 
 causes the card to move horizontally under the pencil. In prac- 
 tice, both of these motions take place simultaneously, and the 
 pencil traces over and over the curve shown. It will be seen 
 that the motion of the card under the pencil exactly reproduces, 
 on a reduced scale, the motion of the piston and crosshead. 
 That is to say, when the piston P has moved to the right, say 1/4 
 the length of the cylinder, or is at "quarter stroke," the pencil 
 p is 1/4 way across the indicator card, and so on. 
 
 The indicator card is shown, drawn to a larger scale, in the 
 upper, right corner of Fig. 147. At the instants that the piston, 
 in moving to the right, passes points 1, 2, 3, 4, the pencil p 
 traces respectively, the corresponding points 1, 2, 3, 4, on the 
 indicator card. As the piston moves back to the left from 
 4 to 5, pencil p traces from 4 to 5 on the curve. The indicator 
 card shows that full steam pressure acts on P during its motion 
 from 1 to 2; that at 2 the inlet valve at the left closes (i.e., cut- 
 off occurs, see slide valve, Sec. 233) ; and that the pressure of 
 the enclosed steam, as it expands and pushes the piston through 
 the remainder of the stroke, decreases, as indicated by the points 
 2, 3, and 4. 
 
 As the piston, on the return stroke, reaches the point marked 
 5, port a is closed and the compression period (Sec. 233) begins. 
 This is shown on the indicator diagram by the rounded corner 
 at 5. At the point marked 6, steam is again admitted through 
 port a, and the pencil p rises to point 1 on the diagram. The 
 different periods shown on the indicator diagram are, then, ad- 
 mission of steam from 1 to 2, expansion from 2 to 4, exhaust 
 from 4 to 5, and compression from 5 to 6. 
 
 If the back pressure of the exhaust steam were entirely elimi- 
 nated by the condenser, the pencil on the return stroke would 
 trace a lower line than 4-5, say, ii' . The distance j is then a 
 measure of the back pressure, which would be about 2 or 3 
 Ibs. per sq. in. when using a condenser, and about 15 Ibs. per sq. 
 in. without a condenser. 
 
 To obtain the indicator diagram for the other end of the 
 cylinder (shown in broken lines in the figure), valve d is closed 
 and valve e is opened. This curve should be (frequently it is 
 not) a duplicate of the curve just discussed, in the same sense 
 that the right br\nd is a duplicate of the left.
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 321 
 
 Use of the Indicator Card. The indicator card enables the 
 operator to tell whether the engine is working properly; e.g., 
 whether the admission or the cut-off are premature or delayed, 
 requiring valve adjustment; or whether or not the "back pres- 
 sure" is excessive due to fault of the condenser, and so on. 
 
 Another use of the indicator card is in determining the average 
 working pressure which drives the piston. By subjecting the 
 indicator piston to known changes of pressure as read by a steam 
 gauge, we may easily determine how many pounds pressure per 
 square inch corresponds to an inch rise of the pencil p. Having 
 thus calibrated the indicator, suppose we find that an increase of 
 40 Ibs. per sq. in. causes p to rise 1 in. Let the vertical dotted 
 line through 3 across the indicator curve be 1 . 5 in. in length. We 
 then know that at 1/2 stroke the available working pressure on 
 the piston, or the difference between the pressure on the left and 
 the exhaust pressure on the right side of the piston, is 60 Ibs. 
 per sq. in. Further, suppose that when we divide the total area 
 of the curve by its horizontal length we obtain 2 in. for its 
 average height. We then know that the average working pressure 
 P for the entire stroke is 80 Ibs. per sq. in. This average value 
 of p, thus found, is the P of Eq. 87, which gives the horse power 
 (H.P.) of the engine. 
 
 Since the average height of the indicator diagram gives the 
 average working pressure on the piston, and since its length is 
 proportional to the length of the stroke of the piston, we see that 
 its area is proportional to, and is therefore a measure of, the 
 work done per stroke, and hence a measure of the power. Ac- 
 cordingly, any adjustment of valves or other change which in- 
 creases this area without altering the speed, produces a propor- 
 tional increase in power. If, further, the same amount of steam 
 is used as before, then there is a proportional increase in efficiency. 
 
 235. The Steam Turbine. In recent years, some large and 
 very efficient steam turbines have been installed. Because of 
 their freedom from jarring, which is so great in the reciprocating 
 steam engines, and also because of their high speed, they are 
 being used more and more for steamship power. 
 
 In the steam turbine, a stream of steam impinges against 
 slanting vanes and makes them move just as air makes windmill 
 vanes move (Sec. 149). It differs from the windmill, however, 
 in that the stream of steam must be confined, just as water is in 
 the water turbine. Note that the windmill might be called an 
 21
 
 322 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 air turbine. The steam turbine differs from the windmill also 
 in that each portion of steam must pass successively several 
 movable vanes alternating with fixed vanes, as indicated in 
 Fig. 148. The rotor vanes, attached to the rotating part called 
 the rotor, are indicated by heavy curved lines. The stator vanes 
 are stationary and are attached to the tubular shell which sur- 
 rounds the rotor and confines the steam. The stator vanes are 
 indicated in the sketch by the light curved lines. It will be 
 understood that the reader is looking toward the axis of the 
 rotor, which is indicated by the horizontal line. 
 
 As the steam passes to the right, the fixed vanes deflect 
 it somewhat downward, and the movable vanes, somewhat up- 
 
 FIG. 148. 
 
 ward, as indicated by the light arrows. The reaction to this up- 
 ward thrust exerted upon the steam by the movable vanes causes 
 these vanes to move downward (as explained in connection 
 with Fig. 100, Sec. 149, and as indicated by the heavy arrows) 
 with an enormous velocity, and with considerable force. 
 
 To allow for the expansion of the steam, the above-mentioned 
 tubular shell increases in diameter to the right, and the rotor 
 vanes increase in length to the right. The stator vanes are also 
 longer at the right. 
 
 If the steam, as it passes to the right from the turbine, enters 
 a condenser, the effective steam pressure and likewise the ef- 
 ficiency, will be increased just as is the case with the reciprocating 
 ^team engine.
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 
 
 323 
 
 236. Carnot's Cycle. Nearly a century ago, the French physicist, 
 Sadi Carnot, who may be said to have founded the science of thermody- 
 namics, showed by a line of reasoning in which he used a so-called "ideal 
 engine" (Fig. 149), that by taking some heat HI, from one body and giv- 
 ing a smaller amount H 2 , to a colder body, an amount of heat HiH 2 
 may be converted into work, and that the percentage of the heat that 
 may be so converted depends only upon the temperatures of the two 
 bodies. 
 
 In Fig. 149 (Sketch I-II), let a cylinder with non-conducting walls, 
 a non-conducting piston, and a perfect conducting base in contact with 
 
 7-77 
 
 III-IV 
 
 FIG. 149. 
 
 the perfect conducting "source" S, contain some gas at a temperature T\. 
 (Parts that are perfect non-conductors of heat are shown crosshatched.) 
 Let the gas be a perfect gas, i.e., one which obeys Boyle's law and 
 Charles's law. Let 7 be a perfectly non-conducting slab; R, the perfectly 
 conducting "refrigerator," and let S be kept constantly at the tempera- 
 ture TI, and R, at the temperature T 2 on the absolute scale. 
 
 We shall now put the gas through four different stages, I, II, III, and 
 IV. In Fig. 149, we shall indicate the four processes of changing from 
 stages I to II, II to III, III to IV, and from IV back to I, by the four 
 sketches marked respectively, I-II, II-III, III-IV, and IV-I. The pis-
 
 324 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 ton, in the four stages, assumes successively the positions A, B, C, and 
 D, and the corresponding pressures and volumes of the gas are indicated, 
 respectively, by the points A, B, C, and D on the pressure- volume 
 diagram (Fig. 150). 
 
 Process 1: As the gas is permitted to change from stage I to II 
 (sketch marked I-II) by pushing the piston from A to B, it does work 
 on the piston (force X distance or pressure X volume, Sec. 203), and 
 therefore would cool itself were it not in contact with the perfect con- 
 ductor S. This contact maintains its temperature at TV A., i.e., the 
 gas takes an amount of heat, say HI, from source S, and its expansion is 
 
 L Q M N 
 
 Volume 
 
 FIG. 150. 
 
 represented in Fig. 150 by the portion AB of an isothermal. Since work 
 is the product of the average pressure and the change in volume LM 
 (Sec. 203), we see that the work done by the gas is proportional to, and 
 is represented by, the shaded area ABML. 
 
 Process 2: The cylinder is next placed on the non-conducting slab 7, 
 and the gas is permitted to expand and push the piston from B to C. In 
 this process (sketch II-III), since the gas is now completely surrounded 
 by non-conductors of heat, the work of expansion is done at the 
 expense of the heat of the gas itself, and its temperature is thereby lowered. 
 Consequently, as the volume increases, the pressure decreases more 
 rapidly than for the previous isothermal expansion. In case the energy 
 (heat) of expansion must come from the gas itself, as in this instance, 
 the expansion is Adiabatic. AB is an isothermal line and BC is an Adia- 
 latic line. The gas is now at stage III, and the work done by the gas
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 325 
 
 in expanding from B to C is represented by the area BCNM which lies 
 below the curve BC (compare Process 1). 
 
 Process 3: The cylinder is next placed upon the cold body or "refrig- 
 erator" R (sketch III-IV), and the gas is compressed from C to D. 
 Since R is a perfect conductor, this will be an isothermal compression, 
 and, as the volume is slowly reduced, the pressure will gradually increase 
 as represented by the isothermal CD. The gas is now at stage IV, and 
 is represented by point D on the diagram. The work done upon the 
 gas in this process is, by previous reasoning, represented by the area 
 CDQN. The work of compressing the gas develops heat in it, but this 
 heat, say HI, is immediately given to the refrigerator. 
 
 Process 4: Finally, the cylinder is again placed upon the non-conduct- 
 ing slab 7, and the piston is forced from D back to the original position 
 A. Since the gas is now surrounded by a perfect non-conductor, the 
 heat of compression raises its temperature to T\. As the volume is 
 gradually decreased, the pressure increases more rapidly than before, be- 
 cause of the accompanying temperature rise, which accounts for the fact 
 that DA is steeper than CD. In this case, of course, we have an Adia- 
 batic Compression and the line DA is an adiabatic line. The work 
 done upon the gas in this process is represented by the area DALQ. 
 
 Efficiency of Carnot's Cycle. From the preceding discussion, 
 we see that the work done by the gas during the two expansions 
 (Processes 1 and 2) is represented by the area below ABC; 
 while the work done upon the gas during the two compressions 
 (Processes 3 and 4) is represented by the area below ADC. 
 Consequently, the net work obtained from the gas is represented 
 by the area A BCD. 
 
 It has just been shown (Process 1) that the gas as it ex- 
 pands from A to B, does work represented by the area ABML, 
 and since its temperature remains constant, it must take from 
 the source S, an amount of heat energy equal to this work. 
 Let us call this heat Hi. Similar reasoning shows that when com- 
 pressed from C to D, the gas gives to the refrigerator an amount 
 of heat Hz represented by the area CDQN. During the other two 
 processes (adiabatic processes) the gas can neither acquire nor 
 impart heat. Accordingly, for this cycle, the efficiency is given 
 by the equation 
 
 F _ work done _ ABC D _ ABML CDQN ( >,_#! #? 
 
 ' "heat received ~ ABML " ABML H l 
 
 (88) 
 
 Now, the heat contained by a gas, or any other substance, is
 
 326 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 proportional to the temperature of the substance (assuming that 
 the body has a constant specific heat). Consequently, 
 
 This equation shows (as mentioned in Sec. 228) that if the ab- 
 solute temperature TI of the "live" steam as it enters the 
 cylinder from the boiler is 400 A. and the temperature T 2 of 
 the condenser is 300 A., then the maximum theoretical efficiency 
 
 . . 400-300 oe 
 of the engine is TQX or 25 per cent. For a rigorous, and 
 
 more extended treatment of this topic consult advanced works. 
 
 237. The Gas Engine Fuel, Carburetor, Ignition, and Gover- 
 nor. In the gas engine, the pressure which forces the piston along 
 the cylinder is exerted by a hot gas, instead of by steam as in the 
 case of the steam engine. The gas engine also differs from the 
 steam engine in that the fuel, commonly an explosive mixture 
 of gasoline vapor with air, is burned (i.e., explosion occurs) 
 within the cylinder itself. For this reason, no furnace or boiler 
 is required, which makes it much better than the steam engine 
 for a portable source of power. Gas engines may be made very 
 light in proportion to the power which they will develop. The 
 weight per H.P. varies from several hundred pounds for station- 
 ary engines, to 10 Ibs. for automobiles. As has already been 
 mentioned, the lightness of the gas engine (as low as 2.5 Ibs. 
 per H.P. for aeroplanes) has made aeroplane flight possible. 
 
 The fact that a gas engine may be started in an instant (i.e., 
 usually), and that the instant it is stopped the consumption of 
 fuel ceases, makes it especially adapted for power for automo- 
 biles, or for any work requiring intermittent power. The fact 
 that the power can be instantly varied as required is also a point 
 in its favor. 
 
 Fuel. Gasoline is the most widely used fuel for gas engines. 
 It is readily vaporized, and this vapor, mixed with the proper 
 amount of air as it is drawn into the cylinder, is very explosive 
 and is therefore readily ignited. Complete combustion is 
 easily obtained with gasoline; so that it does not foul the cylinder 
 as some fuels do. Kerosene is much less volatile than gasoline, 
 but may be used after the cylinder has first become heated by the 
 use of gasoline. Alcohol may also be used. Crude Petroleum 
 is used in some engines. Illuminating Gas, mixed with air, may
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 327 
 
 be used as a fuel. Natural gas, where available, forms an ideal 
 fuel, and is used in some large power plants. The use of "Pro- 
 ducer" Gas requires considerable auxiliary apparatus, but be- 
 cause of its cheapness, it is profitably used by stationary engines. 
 
 Briefly, producer gas is formed by heating coal while re- 
 stricting the air supply, so that the carbon burns to carbon 
 monoxide (CO) which is a combustible gas, instead of to carbon 
 dioxide (CO 2 ), which is incombustible. If some steam (H 2 O) 
 is admitted with the air, the steam is decomposed into oxygen 
 (O) which combines with the carbon and forms more carbon 
 monoxide (CO). The remaining hydrogen constituent (H) of 
 the steam is an excellent fuel gas. All of these gases pass from 
 the coal through various cooling and purifying chambers, either 
 directly into the gas engine, or into a gas tank to be used as 
 required. 
 
 The Carburetor. The carburetor is a device for mixing the 
 vapor of the gasoline, or other liquid fuel, with the air which 
 passes into the cylinder, thus forming the "charge." The ex- 
 plosion of this charge develops the pressure which drives the 
 piston. As the air being drawn into the engine rushes past a 
 small nozzle connected with the gasoline supply (see C, Fig. 
 153, left sketch), the gasoline is "drawn" out of the nozzle (see 
 atomizer, Sec. 156) in the form of a fine spray, which quickly 
 changes to vapor, and is thereby thoroughly mixed with the air 
 to form the "charge." This thorough mixing is essential to 
 complete combustion. If kerosene is used, the air must be pre- 
 viously heated in order to vaporize the spray. It is well to pre- 
 heat the air in any case. 
 
 Ignition. The charge is usually ignited electrically, either 
 by what is called the "jump spark" from an induction coil, or 
 by the " make-and-break " method. An induction coil consists 
 of a bundle of iron wires, upon which is wound a layer or two of 
 insulated copper wire, called the primary coil. One end of this 
 primary coil is connected by a wire directly to one terminal of 
 a battery, while the other end is connected to the opposite ter- 
 minal of the battery through a vibrator or other device, which 
 opens and closes the electrical circuit a great many times per 
 second. On top of the primary coil, and, as a rule, carefully in- 
 sulated from it, are wound a great many turns of fine wire, called 
 the secondary coil. When the current in the primary circuit is 
 broken, a spark will pass between the terminals of the second-
 
 328 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 ary, provided they are not too far apart. The "spark distance" 
 of the secondary varies from a small fraction of an inch to several 
 feet, depending upon the size and kind of induction coil. For 
 ignition purposes, only a short spark is required. By means of a 
 suitable mechanism, this spark is made to take place between 
 two points in the " spark plug" (B, Fig. 153) within the cylinder 
 at the instant the explosion should occur. 
 
 In the "make-and-break" method of ignition, neither the 
 secondary nor the vibrator is needed. One terminal of the 
 primary coil, which, with its iron wire "core," is called a "spark 
 coil," is connected directly to the firing pin which passes through 
 a hole into the cylinder. The other terminal of the primary is 
 connected to one pole of a battery. From the other pole of the 
 battery a wire leads to a metal contact piece which passes into 
 the cylinder from which it is insulated, at a point near the firing 
 pin. By means of a cam, this firing pin is made to alternately 
 touch and then move away from the metal contact piece within 
 the cylinder. Consequently, by proper adjustment of the cam, 
 the circuit is broken by the firing pin and the gas is ignited at 
 the instant the explosion is desired. If the spark occurs when 
 the piston is past dead center it is said to be retarded, if before, 
 advanced. Engines running at very high speed require the spark 
 to be advanced, or the flame will not have time to reach all of 
 the gas until rather late in the stroke. The indicator card will 
 tell whether or not advancing the spark increases the power in 
 a given instance. If the spark is advanced too far "back-firing" 
 results, with its attendant jarring and reduction of power. 
 
 The electric current may be produced by a "magneto." The 
 magneto generates current only when the engine is running; so 
 that a battery must be used when starting the engine, after which, 
 by turning a switch, the magneto is thrown into the circuit and 
 the battery is thrown out. 
 
 Cooling. To prevent the cylinder from becoming too hot, a 
 "water jacket" is provided. The cylinder walls are made 
 double, and the space between them is filled with water. This 
 water, as it is heated, passes to the "radiator" and then returns 
 to the water jacket again. The water circulation is maintained 
 either by a pump, or by convection. The radiator is so con- 
 structed, that it has a large radiating surface. A fan is frequently 
 used to cause air to circulate through the radiator more rapidly. 
 In some automobiles air cooling is used entirely, the cylinder
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 329 
 
 being deeply ribbed so as to have a large surface over which the 
 air is forced in a rapid stream. 
 
 The Governor. Commonly some form of the Centrifugal Gover- 
 nor (Sec. 63) is used to control the speed. In the " hit-or-miss " 
 method no "charge" is admitted when the speed is too high. 
 This causes fluctuations in the speed which are readily noticeable. 
 In other methods of speed control, either the quantity of "rich- 
 ness" (proportion of gas or gasoline vapor to air) of the charge 
 is varied to suit the load. If the load is light, the governor re- 
 duces the gas or gasoline supply; or else it closes the intake 
 valve earlier in the stroke, thereby reducing the quantity of the 
 charge. 
 
 238. Multiple-cylinder Engines. With two-cycle engines 
 (Sec. 240), an explosion occurs every other stroke; while in the 
 four-cycle engine (Sec. 239) explosions occur only once in four 
 strokes (i.e., in two revolutions). It will be seen that the applied 
 torque is quite intermittent as compared with that of the steam 
 engine. If an engine has six cylinders, with their connecting 
 rods attached to six different cranks on the same crank-shaft, 
 then, by having the cranks set at the proper angle apart and by 
 properly timing the six different explosions, a nearly uniform 
 torque is developed. The six-cylinder engine is characterized 
 by very smooth running. The four-cylinder engines, and even 
 the two-cylinder engines, produce a much more uniform torque 
 than the single-cylinder engines. 
 
 239. The Four-cycle Engine. In the so-called four-cycle en- 
 gine, a complete cycle consists of four strokes, or two revolu- 
 tions. The four strokes are, suction or charging, compression, 
 working, and exhaust. The stroke, at the beginning of which 
 the explosion occurs, is the working stroke. With this engine, 
 every fourth stroke is a working stroke; whereas, in the steam 
 engine, every stroke is a working stroke. The operation of this 
 engine will be understood from a discussion of Fig. 151. In 
 the upper sketch, marked I (Fig. 151), valve a is open and valve 
 6 is closed, so that as the piston moves to the right the "suction" 
 draws in the charge from the carburetor. This is the charging 
 stroke. On the return stroke of the piston (Sketch II), both 
 valves are closed and the charge is highly compressed. 
 
 As the piston reaches the end of its stroke, the gas then oc- 
 cupying the clearance space, or "combustion chamber," is ignited 
 by means of either the " firing pin " c or a " spark plug," depending
 
 330 
 
 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 upon which method of ignition is used. Ignition may occur 
 either at, before, or after "dead center." (See Ignition, Sec. 
 237.) The "explosion," or the burning of the gasoline vapor, 
 produces a very high temperature and therefore, according to 
 
 FIG. 151. 
 
 FIG. 152. 
 
 the law of Charles, a very high pressure. This high pressure 
 pushes the piston to the right. This stroke is called the working 
 stroke (Sketch III). As the piston again returns to the left, 
 valve b is open, and the burned gases escape. This is the exhaust
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 
 
 331 
 
 stroke. The exhaust is very noisy unless the exhaust gases are 
 passed through a muffler. 
 
 In many engines there is no piston rod, the connecting rod 
 being attached directly to the piston as shown. The valves 
 are operated automatically by cams, or other devices connected 
 with the crank shaft so that by proper adjustment, exact timing 
 may be obtained. 
 
 Indicator Card. An indicator mechanism may be connected 
 with the cylinder just as with the steam-engine cylinder (Sec. 234). 
 In Fig. 152, is shown the indicator card from a four-cycle engine. 
 The line marked 1 shows the pressure corresponding to the 
 charging stroke (Sketch I, Fig. 151). Line 2 shows the pressure 
 during the compression stroke (Sketch II, Fig. 151). At point 
 
 FIG. 153. 
 
 e, the explosion has occurred, and the pressure has reached a 
 maximum. Line 3 represents the pressure during the working 
 stroke (Sketch III), showing how it varies from the maximum 
 down to /. Line 4 shows the pressure during the exhaust stroke 
 (Sketch IV, Fig. 151). 
 
 240. The Two-cycle Engine. The operation of the two-cycle 
 engine will be understood from a discussion of Fig. 153. As 
 the piston moves upward, compressing a previous charge, it 
 produces suction at port a (left sketch), and draws in the charging 
 gas from the carburetor C into the crank case A, which is air- 
 tight in this type of engine. As the piston reaches the top of its
 
 332 MECHANICS AND HEAT 
 
 stroke, the charge is ignited by the spark plug B, and explosion 
 occurs. As the piston now descends it is driven, with great force, 
 by the high pressure of the heated gases. This is the working 
 stroke. As soon as the piston passes below the exhaust port 
 6 (right sketch) the exhaust gas escapes, in part. An instant 
 later, the piston is below port c, and part of the gas in the crank 
 case, which gas is now slightly compressed by the descent of 
 the piston, rushes through port c. As this charge enters port 
 c, it strikes the baffling plate D, which deflects it upward, thus 
 forcing most of the remaining exhaust gas out through port 6. 
 As the piston again rises, it compresses this charge preparatory 
 to ignition, and the cycle is completed. 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 1. If all of the energy developed by a mass of iron in falling 778 ft. is 
 used in heating it, what will be its temperature rise? 
 
 2. If the complete combustion of 1 Ib. of a certain grade of coal develops 
 13,000 B.T.U.'s of heat, how much work (in ft.-lbs.) would it perform if 
 it is used in a heat engine of 10 per cent, efficiency? 
 
 3. How many H.P.-hours of potential energy does a pound of coal 
 (13,500 B.T.U.'s per Ib.) possess, and how many H.P.-hours of work can a 
 good steam engine (say of 12.5 per cent, efficiency) obtain from it? Note 
 that one horse-power for one second is 550 ft.-lbs. 
 
 4. How long would a ton of coal, like that mentioned in Problem 2, run a 
 10-H.P. steam engine of 6 per cent, total efficiency? 
 
 6. How high would the heat energy (14,000 B.T.U.'s per Ib.) from a given 
 mass of coal lift an equal mass of material, if it were possible to convert all 
 of the heat of the coal into mechanical energy? 
 
 6. Find the H.P. of a noncondensing steam engine supplied during full 
 stroke with steam at 80 Ibs. per sq. in. pressure (80 Ibs. is the available 
 working pressure), when making 120 R.P.M. (4 strokes per sec.) ; the length 
 of stroke being 2 feet and the cross section of the piston being 150 sq. in. 
 
 7. How many pounds of water at 70 F. will be changed to steam at 212 
 F. for each pound of coal (Prob. 2) burned in a furnace of 90 per cent, 
 efficiency, heating a boiler of 70 per cent, efficiency. 
 
 8. An engine whose speed is 150 R.P.M., has a piston 15 in. in diameter 
 which makes a 2-ft. stroke. The indicator diagram is 4 in. long and has an 
 area of 9 sq. in. The indicator spring is a ''50-lb. spring," i.e., a rise of 
 1 in. by the indicator pencil indicates a change in pressure of 50 Ibs. per sq. 
 in. What is the power of the engine? 
 
 9. Find the. H. P. of the engine (Prob. 6) with cut-off set at one-quarter 
 stroke, the average pressure during the remaining 3/4 stroke being 30 Ibs. 
 per sq. in. 
 
 10. Find the H.P. of the engine (Prob. 6) with cut-off at half stroke, the 
 pressure during the last half of the stroke being 30 Ibs. per sq. in.
 
 STEAM ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES 333 
 
 11. How many B.T.U.'s will a 1/2-oz. bullet develop as it strikes the target 
 with a velocity of 1800 ft. per sec.? If this heat were all absorbed by the 
 bullet (lead) what would be its temperature rise? 
 
 12. What is the limiting theoretical efficiency (thermodynamic efficiency) 
 of a steam engine whose boiler is at 180 C., and whose condenser is at 
 50 C.?
 
 INDEX 
 
 The numbers refer to pages. 
 
 Absolute temperature scale, 237 
 
 zero, 236 
 
 Absorption of heat, 297 
 Accelerated motion, uniform, 26, 28 
 Accelerating force, 26, 49, 50, 51 
 in circular motion, 72 
 in free fall, 35 
 in simple harmonic motion, 
 
 83,84 
 Accelerating torque, 66, 68 
 
 equation for, 67 
 Acceleration, angular, 62 
 
 with Atwood's machine, 41 
 of gravity, 35 
 
 variation of, 35 
 linear, 25, 29 
 
 and angular compared, 63 
 radial, 73 
 in simple harmonic motion, 83, 
 
 84 
 
 uniform and nonuniform, 26, 29 
 Action and reaction, 49 
 applications of, 51 
 Actual mechanical advantage, 111 
 Addition of vectors, 12 
 Adhesion and cohesion, 141 
 fish glue for glass, 142 
 Adiabatic, compression and expan- 
 sion, 324 
 line, 324 
 
 and isothermal processes, 324 
 Air compressor, 201 
 Air friction, on air, 177, 178 
 
 effect on falling bodies, 36 
 on meteors, 181 
 on projectiles, 46 
 Air, liquefied and frozen, 278 
 liquid, 278, 279, 280 
 
 properties and effects of, 
 281 
 
 Air pump, mechanical, 200 
 
 mercury, 201 
 Alloys, melting point, 255 
 Altitude by barometer, 187 
 Amalgams, 156 
 Ammonia, 156 
 
 refrigerating apparatus, 272 
 Amplitude, 87, 293 
 Andrews, work on critical tempera- 
 ture, 273 
 
 isothermals of carbon dioxide, 
 
 274 
 
 Aneroid barometer, 186 
 Angle of elevation, 47 
 
 of shear, 152 
 
 unit of, 62 
 
 Angular acceleration and velocity, 
 62 
 
 and linear velocity and accel- 
 eration compared, 63 
 
 measurement, 62 
 
 velocity, average, 63 
 Antiresultant force, 16 
 Aqueous vapor, pressure of, 262, 304 
 Archimedes' principle, 163 
 
 application to gases, 182 
 
 and floating bodies, 165 
 
 experimental proof of, 164 
 Army rifle, range and velocity of 
 
 projectile, 46 
 Artificial ice, 272 
 Aspirator, or filter pump, 209 
 Atmosphere, composition of, 180 
 
 height of, 181 
 
 moisture of, 302 
 
 pressure of, 183, 184, 197, 199 
 
 standard, 185 
 Atomic heat, Dulong and Petit's 
 
 law, 246 
 Atomizer, 209 
 
 335
 
 336 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Attraction, gravitational, 30 
 Atwood's machine, 41 
 Avogadro's law, 180 
 Axis of rotation, 23 
 
 Balance wheel, of watch, tempera- 
 ture compensation of, 233 
 Balanced columns, density by, 162 
 
 forces, so-called, 51 
 Ball and jet, 212 
 
 bearings, 102 
 Ballast, use and placing of, in ships, 
 
 127 
 Ballistic pendulum, and velocity of 
 
 rifle bullet, 55 
 
 Balloon, lifting capacity of, 183 
 Barometer, aneroid, 186 
 
 mercury, 184 
 
 uses of, 187 
 Barometric height, 185 
 Baseball, curving of, 213 
 Beam balance, 127, 128, 129 
 Beams, horizontal, strength and 
 
 stiffness of, 150 
 Bearings, ball, 102 
 
 roller, 103 
 
 babbitt in, 101 
 Beats, in sound, 293 
 Belt speed and angular speed, 64 
 Bernoulli's theorem, 209, 210, 211 
 Black body radiation, 297 
 Block and tackle, 115 
 Blood, purification of, 158 
 Blowers, rotary, 203 
 Boiler explosions and superheating, 
 266 
 
 "scale," 287 
 Boiling, 261 
 Boiling point, defined, 262 
 
 at high altitudes, 264 
 
 effect of dissolved substance on, 
 262 
 
 effect of pressure on, 262 
 
 tables of, 262 
 Boyle's law, 179, 187, 192, 317 
 
 deviation from, 277 
 
 and kinetic theory, 188 
 Brake, Prony, 106, 107 
 Breaking stress, 149 
 
 British system of units, 2 
 
 thermal units, or B.T.U., 218, 
 
 243, 311 
 Brittleness, 144 
 Brownian motion, 139 
 Bulk or volume modulus, 152 
 Bullet, determination of velocity, 55 
 
 velocity at different ranges, 46 
 '"Bumping," due to superheating of 
 
 water, 265 
 Buoyancy, center of, 166 
 
 of gases, 182 
 
 of liquids, 162 
 Buoyant force, 162 
 
 Cailletet, liquefaction of gases, 278 
 Calibration of thermometer, 223 
 Caliper, micrometer, 7 
 
 vernier, 5 
 
 Calms, zone of, 305 
 Caloric theory of heat, 218 
 Calorie, 243 
 Calorimeter, Bunsen's ice, 251 
 
 Joly's steam, 252 
 
 water equivalent of, 244 
 Calorimetry, 243 
 
 Camphor, effect of, on surface ten- 
 sion, 173 
 Canal boat, discussion of inertia 
 
 force, 51 
 
 Cannon, "shrinking" in construc- 
 tion of, 228 
 
 Capacity, thermal, 244 
 Capillarity, 173 
 
 Capillary rise, in tubes, wicks and 
 soils, 174 
 
 tubes, 174 
 
 Car and hoop on incline, 98 
 Carbon dioxide, cooling effect of, 270 
 
 isothermals of, 274, 276 
 
 "snow," 271 
 Carburetor, 327 
 
 Card and spool experiment, 213 
 Carnot, Sadi, French physicist, 323 
 
 cycle, 323, 324 
 
 efficiency of, 325 
 
 Carnot's "ideal" engine, 313, 323 
 Cascade method of liquefying gases, 
 279
 
 INDEX 
 
 337 
 
 Castings, when clear-cut, 256 
 Cavendish, gravitational experiment 
 
 of, 30 
 
 Center of buoyancy, 166 
 of gravity, 122 
 
 effect on levers, 123 
 of mass, 124 
 of population, 124 
 Centigrade scale of temperature, 224 
 Centimeter, denned, 4 
 Centimeter-gram-second (C. G. S.) 
 
 system, 4 
 Central force, 72 
 
 radial, 75 
 
 Centrifugal blowers, 203 
 cream separator, 76 
 dryer, 73 
 force, 72 
 
 effect on shape of earth, 73 
 practical applications of, 73, 
 
 76, 77, 79 
 governor, 79, 315 
 pump, 204 
 Centripetal force, 72 
 Chain hoist, 121 
 Change of state, 219, 220, 250 
 Charles' law, 236 
 Chemical hygrometer, the, 303 
 Choke damp, 181 
 Circular motion, acceleration radial 
 
 in, 75 
 
 uniform, 72 
 
 Circulation of air due to stove, 284 
 Clepsydra, 10 
 Clinical thermometer, 225 
 Clock, essentials of, 9 
 Clouds, height, character and veloc- 
 ity, 302 
 Coefficient of cubical expansion, 234 
 
 table, 235 
 of friction, 101 
 
 determination of, 101 
 limits maximum pull of loco- 
 motive, 102 
 of linear expansion, 229 
 
 differences in, and applica- 
 tions of, 230-234 
 table of, 230 
 Cohesion, 141 
 
 Cold denned, 219 
 
 produced by evaporation, 268 
 by expansion of gas, 246, 278, 
 
 280 
 Combustion, defined, 248 
 
 heats of, table, 249 
 Compensated balance wheel, 233 
 
 pendulum, 234 
 Components of forces and velocities, 
 
 19, 20 
 Compressibility of gases, 178, 179 
 
 of water, 155, 165 
 Compressor, air, 201 
 Compound lever, 130 
 Condenser, jet, 316 
 
 surface, 316 
 
 Condensing steam engine, 316 
 Conditions of equilibrium, the two, 
 
 64 
 
 Conduction of heat, 286 
 Conductivity, thermal, 288 
 
 table, 289 
 
 Cone, equilibrium of, 126 
 Conservation of energy, 93, 210, 251 
 
 of mass, 139 
 
 of matter, 139 
 
 momentum, three proofs of, 53, 
 
 54 
 
 Convection, 283, 285 
 Conversion of units, 4 
 Cooling effect of evaporation, 268, 
 
 270 
 
 of internal work, gases, 278 
 Cooling, Newton's law of, 297 
 
 Stefan's law of, 297 
 Cornsheller, fly wheel on, 69 
 Couple, the, 61 
 Crane, the, 17 
 Cream separator, the, 76 
 Crew, Henry. See Preface. 
 Critical temperature, and critical 
 pressure, 273 
 
 simple method of determining, 
 277 
 
 table of, 274 
 
 Cubical expansion, coefficient of, 234 
 Curves, plotting of and use, 48 
 
 elevation of outer rail at, 77 
 Curving of baseball, 213
 
 338 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Cut-off point, steam engine, 316 
 controlled by governor, 315 
 
 Cyclones, 306 
 
 cause of rotary motion, 307 
 
 d'Alembert, principle of, 49, 51 
 
 Davy's safety lamp, 287 
 
 Day, the siderial and mean solar, 3 
 
 "Dead air" space in buildings, 287 
 
 Density, defined, 139 
 of earth, average, 30 
 of liquids by balanced columns, 
 
 161 
 
 of solids, liquids and gases, 140 
 not specific gravity, 166 
 of some substances, table of, 140 
 of water, maximum, 255 
 
 Deserts, cause of, 305 
 
 Dew, 302 
 
 point, 303 
 and frost, 303 
 
 Dewar flask or thermal bottle, 282 
 liquefaction of gases, 278 
 
 Dialysis, 158 
 
 Differential pulley, 121 
 Wheel and axle, 122 
 
 Diffusion of gases, 178, 180 
 of liquids, 156 
 
 Diminution of pressure in regions of 
 high velocity, 208 
 
 Disc fan, 203 
 
 Displacement, in simple harmonic 
 
 motion, 84 
 of a ship, 165 
 
 Dissipation of energy, 99 
 
 Distance, fallen in a given time, 40 
 law of inverse squares of, 31 
 either scalar or vector, 24 
 traversed in a given time, 41 
 
 Drains, flow in, 196 
 
 Driving inertia force, 51 
 
 work of, 90 
 torque, 69 
 
 Ductility, 144 
 
 Dufour, superheating of water, 256 
 
 Dulong and Petit's law, 246 
 
 Dynamometers, absorption and 
 transmission, 106 
 
 Dyne, the, 27, 36 
 
 Earth, atmosphere of, 180 
 
 attraction on the moon, 33 
 
 average density of, 30 
 
 path of, 3, 4, 32, 34 
 
 weight of, 30 
 
 Earth's rotation, effect on shape of, 
 73 
 
 effect on moving train, 307 
 
 and trade winds, 305 
 Ebullition and evaporation, 260 
 Eccentric, the, 318 
 Effects of heat, 219 
 Efficiency of Carnot's cycle, 325 
 
 of cream separator, 76 
 
 of gas engine, 313 
 
 of simple machines, 111, 112 
 
 of steam engine, boiler, and 
 furnace, 312 
 
 of steam engine, calculation of, 
 
 313 
 
 Efflux, velocity of, 196 
 Elastic fatigue, 145, 149 
 
 limit, 145 
 
 rebound, explanation of, 145 
 Elasticity, general discussion of, 142 
 
 of gases, 178 
 
 of shearing, or of torsion, 151, 
 152 
 
 of tension or of elongation, 146 
 
 of volume or of compression, 
 151, 152 
 
 perfect, 142 
 
 three kinds of, 151 
 Electric fan and windmill, 202 
 
 fire alarm, 231 
 Electrical effect of heat, 242 
 Elements and compounds, 138 
 Elevation of outer rail on a curve, 77 
 Elevator, hydraulic, 206 
 Energy, chemical, 218 
 
 conservation of, 93, 94 
 
 defined, 92 
 
 dissipation of, 99 
 
 heat, a form of, 217, 243, 244 
 
 kinetic, 92, 96 
 
 potential, 92, 95 
 
 of a rotating body, 96, 97, 98 
 
 of sun, 218 
 
 sources of, 218
 
 INDEX 
 
 339 
 
 Energy, transformation of, 93, 94 
 
 transformation of involves work, 
 93, 94 
 
 units of, 95 
 Engineer's units of mass and force, 
 
 37 
 
 Equilibrant, 16 
 
 Equilibrium of rigid body, two con- 
 ditions of, 64 
 
 on inclined plane, 126 
 
 of rocking chair, 126 
 
 in vaporization, 266 
 
 of wagon on hillside, 127 
 
 stable, unstable, and neutral, 
 
 126 
 
 Erg, 90 
 Ether, the, 295 
 
 waves in, 291 
 Evaporation, cooling effect of, 268 
 
 and ebullition, 260 
 Evener, two-horse, 129 
 Expansibility of gases, 177, 179 
 Expansion, apparent, of mercury, 
 223 
 
 of solids, 230 
 
 and temperature rise, 221 
 Expansive use of steam, 316 
 
 Factor of safety, 149 
 
 Fahrenheit's thermometric scale, 224 
 
 Falling bodies, laws of, 38-48 
 
 maximum velocity in air, 36 
 Fan, two kinds, 203 
 Faraday, Michael, liquefaction of 
 
 gases, 278 
 ''Film," width of, 172, 173 
 
 work in forming, 172 
 Fire alarm, electric, 231 
 
 damp, 181 
 
 syringe, 311 
 
 Fish glue, adhesion to glass, 142 
 Fleuss or Geryk pump, 201 
 Flight of aeroplane, 52 
 
 of birds when starting, 52 
 Floating bodies, 165 
 
 immersed, 164 
 
 Flow of liquids, gravitational, 196 
 Fluids, in motion, properties of, 194 
 Flux, use of, 141 
 
 Flywheel, bursting of, 75 
 
 calculation of, 98 
 
 design, 98 
 
 kinetic energy of, 97 
 
 speed regulation by, 98 
 
 use of, 97 
 
 Foot-pound and foot-poundal, 90 
 Force, accelerating, 26, 49, 50 
 
 "arm," levers, 114 
 
 buoyant, 162 
 
 central, 72 
 
 centrifugal, 72 
 
 centripetal, 72 
 
 defined, 26 
 
 driving inertia, 51 
 
 impulsive, 52 
 
 resisting, 110 
 
 resolution of into components 
 19, 101 
 
 of restitution in simple har- 
 monic motion, 83, 84, 85, 
 86 
 
 units of, 27, 36 
 
 working, 110 
 
 Forced draft, locomotive, 209 
 Forces, addition of, 11, 16 
 
 balanced, 16, 51 
 
 graphical representation of, 12 
 
 in planetary motion, 32 
 
 polygon of, 16 , 
 
 resolution of, 19 
 
 torque due to, 60 
 Four-cycle gas engine, 329 
 Franklin, Benjamin, experiment on 
 
 boiling point, 263, 264 
 Freezing mixtures, 258, 259 
 
 point of solutions, 255 
 
 lowering of by pressure, 256 
 Friction, cause of, 100 
 
 beneficial effects of, 101 
 
 coefficient of, 101 
 
 head, 177, 194, 196 
 
 internal, 100 
 
 kinetic, 100 
 
 laws of, 100 
 
 of air on projectiles, 46 
 
 rolling, 102, 103 
 
 sliding, 99 
 
 static, 101
 
 340 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Friction, useful, 101 
 
 work of, 90, 103, 104 
 
 produces heat, 99 
 Fulcrum, 113 
 Fundamental quantities, 1 
 
 units, 2 
 
 Furnace, efficiency of, 312 
 Fusion of alloys, 255 
 
 and change in volume, 256 
 
 heat of, 250 
 
 and melting point, 255 
 
 Gas, general law, 240 
 
 laws, summary of three, 239 
 
 thermometer, 226 
 Gases, compressibility of, 179 
 table of densities of, 140 
 
 diffusion of, 178, 180 
 
 general law of, 240 
 
 kinetic theory of, 179, 236 
 
 two specific heats of, 246 
 
 thermal conductivity of, 289 
 
 and vapors, distinction between, 
 277 
 
 average velocity of molecules, 
 
 180 
 Gas engine, 326 
 
 carburetor, 327 
 
 combustion chamber, 329 
 
 efficiency of, 313 
 
 four-cycle, 329 
 
 fuel, 326 
 
 governor, 329 
 
 ignition, 327 
 
 indicator card of, 331 
 
 "make-and-break" ignition, 328 
 
 multiple cylinder, 329 
 
 "richness" of charge, 329 
 
 six-cylinder, 329 
 
 spark plug, 328 
 
 two-cycle, 331 
 
 very light, for aeroplanes, 313 
 
 water jacket, 328 
 
 Gelatine film, adhesion to glass, 142 
 Geryk or Fleuss pump, 201 
 Geysers, 265 
 
 artificial, 266 
 Glaciers, explanation of motion, 257 
 
 location of, 258 
 
 Glaciers, origin of, 258 
 
 velocity of, 258 
 Gold filling of teeth, 141 
 
 foil, 144 
 
 Governor, the centrifugal, 79, 315 
 Gram mass, defined, 4 
 
 weight, defined, 36 
 Graphical method and vectors, 12 
 
 representation, of space passed 
 over by a falling body, 39 
 of force, 16 
 of velocity, 12, 13 
 Gravitation, Newton's laws of, 30 
 
 units of energy, why chosen, 95 
 
 universal, 30 
 Gravity, acceleration of, 35 
 
 center of, 122 
 
 flow of liquids, 196 
 
 pendulum, the simple, 86 
 
 separation of cream, 76 
 Gridiron pendulum, 234 
 Guillaume, 230 
 "Guinea and feather" experiment, 
 
 35 
 Gyroscope, 80, 81 
 
 Hardness, scale of, 144 
 Harmonic motion, simple, 82 
 Heat, absorption of, 297 
 
 a form of energy, 217, 243, 244 
 
 of combustion, 248 
 
 conduction of, 286 
 
 conductivity, 288 
 
 effects of, 219 
 
 evolution, 260 
 
 exchanges, Prevost's theory, 296 
 
 from electricity, 219 
 
 of fusion, 250 
 
 measurement of, 243 
 
 mechanical equivalent of, 244 
 
 nature of, 217 
 
 properties of water, 253 
 
 quantity, equation expressing, 
 245 
 
 radiation, general case of, 300 
 determining factors in, 296 
 through glass, 298 
 
 reflection, transmission, and ab- 
 sorption, by glass, 300
 
 INDEX 
 
 341 
 
 Heat, sources of, 218 
 
 specific, 244 
 
 transfer, three methods of, 283 
 
 units, calorie and B.T.U., 243 
 
 uphill flow of, 273, 312 
 
 of vaporization, 250 
 
 applications, 269, 270, 271 
 
 278, 279, 284 
 Heating system, hot-air, 283 
 
 hot-water, 284 
 
 steam, 285 
 
 High altitudes, boiling point at, 261 
 " Hit-or-miss " governor, 329 
 "Holes" in the air, aeroplane, 52 
 Hooke's law, 147 
 
 Hoop, kinetic energy of translation 
 and rotation are equal, 98 
 Horizontal beams, strength of, 150 
 Horse power, of engines, 106, 107 
 
 French, 105 
 
 hour, 106 
 
 value of, 105 
 Hotbed, the, 299 
 Hot-water heating system, 284 
 Hourglass, the, 10 
 Hurricanes and typhoons, 308 
 Hydraulic elevator, 206 
 
 press, 206 
 
 ram, 207 
 Hydraulics, general discussion, 194, 
 
 195 
 
 Hydrogen thermometer, 227 
 Hydrometers, 167 
 Hydrostatic paradox, 161 
 
 pressure, 158 
 Hygrometer, chemical, 303 
 
 wet-and-dry-bulb, 269, 303 
 Hygrometric tables, 304 
 Hygrometry, 303 
 
 Icebergs, origin of, 258 
 
 flotation, 165 
 
 Ice calorimeter, Bunsen's, 251 
 density of, 140, 165 
 -cream freezer, 258 
 lowering of melting point by 
 
 pressure, 256 
 
 manufacture of, ammonia proc- 
 ess, 271 
 
 Ice, manufacture of, can system, 273 
 
 plate system, 273 
 
 "Ideal" engine, Carnot's, 313, 323 
 Ignition temperature, 220 
 Immersed floating bodies, 164 
 Impact of bodies, 52 
 Impulse equal to momentum, 52 
 Impulsive force, 52 
 Inclined plane, 117 
 
 mechanical advantage of, 118 
 Indicator, 319 
 
 card, gas engine, 330, 331 
 use of, 321 
 
 diagram or "card," 320 
 Induction coil, gas engines, 327 
 Inertia force, 49 
 
 torque, driving, 69 
 
 work done against, 89, 93 
 Injector, steam boilers, 211, 212 
 Interference of sound waves, 292 
 
 of light, 293 
 
 Intermolecular attraction, work 
 against, surface tension, 172 
 Internal work done by gas in expand- 
 ing, 278 
 
 Interpolation, 49 
 Invar, 230 
 
 Inverse square, law of, 31 
 Isothermal compression and expan- 
 sion, 324, 325 
 
 lines, Carnot's cycle, 324 
 Isothermals of a gas, 188, 190 
 
 of carbon dioxide, 274, 276 
 
 Jackscrew, the, 120 
 Jet and ball, 212 
 
 condenser, 316 
 
 pump, 209 
 
 Joly's steam calorimeter, 252 
 Joule, James P., 277 
 
 unit of energy, 90 
 Joule's determination of mechanical 
 
 equivalent of heat, 218 
 Joule-Thomson experiment, 277 
 
 Keokuk, water power, 205 
 Kilogram, 4 
 Kilowatt-hour, 106 
 Kilowatt, the, 106
 
 342 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Kindling or ignition temperature, 
 
 220 
 Kinetic energy, 92, 96 
 
 and perpetual motion, 93 
 
 units of, 95 
 Kinetic theory of evaporation, 260, 
 
 261 
 of gases, 236 
 
 and Boyle's law, 188 
 of gas pressure, 179, 188 
 of heat, 217 
 of matter, 138 
 Lamp, Davy's safety, 287 
 
 the "skidoo," 232 
 Land and sea breezes, 306 
 Law, of Boyle, 187, 192 
 of Charles, 236 
 of cooling, Newton's, 297 
 
 Stefan's, 297 
 Dulong and Petit's, 246 
 of gases, general, 240 
 of gravitation, Newton's, 30 
 of inverse square of distances, 31 
 of Pascal, 205 
 
 Laws, of falling bodies, 38-48 
 of friction, 100 
 of gases, three, 239 
 Newton's three, of motion, 49 
 Length, measurement of, 5 
 standard of, 2, 4 
 unit of, 2, 4 
 Lever, "arm," 60 
 
 "resistance arm" and "force 
 
 arm," 114 
 three classes of, 113 
 the compound, 130 
 Light, visible, ultra-violet, and infra- 
 red, 291 
 
 interference of, 293 
 Linde's liquid air machine, 280 
 Linear expansion, 228 
 coefficient of, 229 
 relation to coefficients of cubical 
 expansion and area ex- 
 pansion, 235 
 "Line of centers," 126 
 Liquefaction of gases, 278-282 
 
 "cascade" or series method, 279 
 regenerative method, 280 
 
 Liquid air, 279, 280 
 
 properties and effects of, 281 
 Liquids, density of, 140, 161 
 
 elasticity of, 155 
 
 high velocity low pressure, 208 
 
 properties of, 155 
 
 specific gravity of, 167 
 
 transmission of pressure by, 159 
 
 velocity of efflux, 196 
 Locomotive, maximum pull of, 102 
 "Loss of weight" in water, Archi- 
 medes' principle, 163 
 Low "area," in cyclones, 306 
 
 Machine, defined, 110 
 
 efficiency of, 111, 112 
 
 liquid air, 279, 280 
 
 perpetual motion, 93 
 
 simple, 112 
 
 theoretical and actual mechan- 
 ical advantage of, 111 
 Malleability, 144 
 Manometer, closed-tube, 191 
 
 open-tube, 191 
 
 vacuum, 193 
 
 Marriotte's or Boyle's law, 187 
 Mass, center of, 124 
 
 definition of, 8 
 
 and inertia, 8 
 
 measurement of, 8 
 
 and weight compared, 8 
 Matter, conservation of, 139 
 
 divisibility of, 138 
 
 general properties of, 139 
 
 kinetic theory of, 138 
 
 structure of, 138 
 
 three states of, 137 
 Maximum density of water, 255 
 
 and minimum thermometer, 
 Six's, 226 
 
 thermometer, 225 
 
 Mean free path, of gas molecules, 
 139 
 
 solar day, 3 
 
 Measuring microscope, or microm- 
 eter microscope, 7 
 
 Mechanical advantage, actual and 
 theoretical, 111 
 
 equivalent of heat, 244
 
 INDEX 
 
 343 
 
 Melting point, 255 
 
 of alloys, 255 
 
 effect of pressure on, 256 
 
 table of, 256 
 Meniscus, 223, 277 
 Mercury, air pump, 201 
 
 barometer, the, 184 
 
 boiling point, 222 
 
 freezing point, 222 
 
 merits for therm ometric use, 
 
 222 
 Mercury-in-glass thermometer. 222 
 
 calibration of, 223 
 
 filling of, 222 
 
 fixed points on, 223 
 Metal thermometer, 227 
 Meteorology, 302 
 Meteors, cause of glowing, 181 
 
 and height of atmosphere, 181, 
 Method of mixtures, specific heat 
 
 determination by, 247 
 Metric system, the, 4 
 Micrometer caliper, 6 
 
 microscope, 7 
 Moduli, the three, 152 
 Modulus, of shearing or rigidity, 152 
 
 of tension, Youngs, 147 
 
 of volume or bulk, 152 
 Moisture in the atmosphere, 302 
 Molecular freedom, solids, liquids 
 and gases, 138 
 
 motion, kinetic theory of gases, 
 
 236 
 
 in heat, vibratory, 217 
 Molecules and atoms, 138 
 
 of compound, 138 
 
 "surface" and "inner," 169 
 Moment of inertia, defined, 66 
 
 of disc and sphere, 68 
 
 of flywheel, approximate, 68 
 practical applications of, 68 
 
 value and unit of, 67 
 Momentum, conservation of, 52, 53, 
 54, 55 
 
 defined, 52 
 
 equals impulse, 52 
 Monorail car, 82 
 
 Moon, gravitational attraction on 
 the earth, 33 
 
 Moon, path of, 32 
 
 production of tides by, 33 
 Motion, accelerated, 28 
 
 of falling bodies, 38 
 
 heat, a form of, 217 
 
 Newton's laws of, 49 
 
 non-uniformly accelerated, 29 
 
 perpetual versus the conserva- 
 tion of energy, 93 
 
 planetary, 32 
 
 of projectiles, 42, 43, 44 
 
 rotary, 59-71 
 
 screw, 24 
 
 of a ship in a rough sea, 24 
 
 simple harmonic, 82 
 
 translatory, 23-58 
 
 uniform, 28, 29 
 circular, 72 
 
 uniformly accelerated, 28, 29 
 
 wave, 290 
 
 Nature of heat, 217 
 Negative acceleration, 25 
 
 torque, 60 
 Neutral equilibrium, 126 
 
 layers, strength of beams, 150 
 Newton's gravitational constant, 31 
 
 law of cooling, 297 
 of gravitation, 30 
 
 laws of motion, 49 
 Nickel-steel alloy, invar, 230 
 Nimbus, or rain cloud, 302 
 Numeric and unit, 2 
 
 Olzewski, liquefaction of gases, 279 
 Onnes, low temperature work of, 237 
 Orchards, "smudging of" during 
 
 frost, 299 
 Osmosis, 157, 158 
 Osmotic pressure, 157 
 "Outer fiber, " strength of beams, 150 
 
 Pascal, French physicist, 185 
 Pascal's law, 205 
 Pendulum, ballistic, 55 
 
 compensated, 234 
 
 gridiron, 234 
 
 simple gravity, 86 
 
 torsion, the, 87
 
 344 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Period of pendulum, 86 
 
 in simple harmonic motion, 85 
 Permanent set, elasticity, 149 
 Perpetual motion, 93 
 Physical quantity, definition of, 1 
 Physiological effect of heat, 219, 
 
 222 
 
 Pictet, liquefaction of gases, 278 
 Pitch, in music, 293 
 
 of a screw, 7 
 Planetary motion, 32 
 
 direction of rotation, 34 
 Plastic substances, 142 
 Platform scale, 130, 131 
 Platinum, why used in sealing into 
 
 glass, 230 
 
 Plotting of curves, 48 
 Polygon of forces, 12, 16 
 
 vector, closed, 15 
 
 Porous plug experiment, the Joule- 
 Thomson, 277 
 Potential energy, 92, 95 
 Pound mass, and pound weight, 2, 
 
 27,36 
 
 Poundal, 27, 36 
 Power, denned, 104 
 
 of engines and motors, by brake 
 
 test, 107 
 
 in linear motion, 104 
 in rotary motion, 106, 107 
 of steam engine, 317 
 transmitted by a shaft, 154 
 units of, 105, 106 
 Precession of equinoxes, 82 
 
 in gyroscope, 81 
 
 Precipitation, rain, snow, etc., 302 
 Pressure, atmospheric, 183, 199 
 
 diminution of in regions of high 
 
 velocity, 208 
 effect on boiling point, 262 
 
 on freezing point, 256 
 exerted by a gas, kinetic theory, 
 
 179 
 
 gage, Bourdon, 192 
 gradient, and temperature gra- 
 dient compared, 289 
 perpendicular to walls, 161, 
 
 184 
 steam gage, 192 
 
 Pressure of saturated vapor, 262 
 aqueous vapor, table, 263 
 
 transmission by liquids, 159 
 Prevost's theory of heat exchanges, 
 
 296 
 Principle of Archimedes, 163 
 
 of d'Alembert, 49, 51 
 Projectiles, drift due to earth's 
 rotation, 307 
 
 maximum height reached, 46 
 
 motion of, 42, 43, 44 
 
 range, and maximum range, 47 
 
 velocity and air friction, 46 
 Projection, meaning of, 83 
 Prony brake, 106, 107 
 Properties of fluids in motion, 194- 
 214 
 
 of gases at rest, 177-193 
 
 of liquid air, 281 
 
 of liquids at rest, 155-176 
 
 of matter, general, 139 
 
 of saturated vapor, 266, 267, 
 268 
 
 of solids, 144-154 
 Pulley, the, 114 
 Pulleys, "fixed" and "movable," 
 
 115 
 Pump, air, 200 
 
 centrifugal, 204 
 
 force, 200 
 
 Geryk, 201 
 
 jet, 209 
 
 rotary, 203 
 
 Sprengel, 201 
 
 suction, 198 
 
 turbine, 204 
 
 Quantity of heat, measurement of, 
 
 unit of, 243 
 physical, defined, 1 
 
 Radial acceleration, 73 
 Radian, the, 62 
 Radiant heat, 296 
 Radiation, 295 
 
 and absorption, 297 
 Rainfall, where excessive, 305 
 Rain, snow and other precipitation, 
 302
 
 INDEX 
 
 345 
 
 Range of projectiles, 45 
 Reaction, of aeroplane, 52 
 of birds, wings, 52 
 practical applications of, 51, 
 
 202 
 
 of propeller, 51 
 in swimming, 51 
 in traction, 51 
 
 Reaumer thermometric scale, 225 
 Receiver, the, 179 
 Recording thermometer, 227 
 Reflection and refraction of waves, 
 
 293 
 Refraction, 294 
 
 makes vision possible, 295 
 produces rainbow and prismatic 
 
 colors, 295 
 Refrigerating apparatus, ammonia, 
 
 271, 272 
 
 Refrigerator room, 273 
 Regelation, 257 
 Regenerative method, of liquefying 
 
 gases, 280 
 
 "Resistance arm," of levers, 114 
 Resisting force, F , simple machines, 
 
 110 
 Resolution, forces into components, 
 
 19, 101 
 of vectors, 19 
 
 Restitution, force of in simple har- 
 monic motion, 83, 84, 85, 86 
 Resultant of several forces, 11, 12, 
 
 13, 16 
 defined, 11 
 torque, 61 
 Rifle ball, velocity at various ranges, 
 
 46 
 velocity by ballistic pendulum 
 
 method, 55 
 flight of, 44, 45, 46 
 Rigid body, two conditions of 
 
 equilibrium of, 64 
 Rigidity, modulus of, 152 
 
 of shafts 
 
 Rocking chair, equilibrium with, 126 
 Rolling friction, 102, 103 
 Rose's metal, 255 
 Rotary blowers and pumps, 203 
 motion, 59 
 
 Rotary motion, uniformly acceler- 
 ated, and non-uniformly 
 accelerated, 59 
 and translatory motion, for- 
 mulae compared, 70 
 
 Rotor and stator vanes, steam 
 turbine, 322 
 
 Rumford, Count, cannon-boring 
 experiment, 217 
 
 Safety lamp, Davy's, 287 
 Sailing against the wind, 20 
 faster than the wind, 21 
 Saturated solution, 156 
 vapor, 261 
 
 pressure, 262, 268 
 properties of, 266 
 
 table of, 263 
 Scalars and vectors, 11 
 
 addition of, compared, 12 
 Scale, platform, 130, 131 
 Screw, the, 120 
 
 propeller, 204 
 Sea breeze, 306 
 Second, defined, 2 
 Sensitiveness of beam balance, 128 
 defined, 7 
 
 of micrometer caliper, 7 
 of vernier caliper, 6 
 Shafts, rigidity of, 153 
 
 power they can transmit, 153 
 Shearing stress, strain and elasticity, 
 
 151, 152 
 
 Ship, motion of in a rough sea, 24 
 Shrinking on, or setting of wagon 
 
 tires, 228 
 Sidereal day, 3 
 Simple harmonic motion (S. H. M.)i 
 
 82 
 
 Simple machines, the, 112 
 efficiency of, 111, 112 
 inclined plane type and lever 
 
 type, 121 
 
 mechanical advantage of, 111 
 Simple gravity pendulum, 86 
 Siphon, the, 197 
 
 Six's maximum and minimum ther- 
 mometer, 226 
 Skate, "bite" of, 257
 
 346 
 
 INDEX 
 
 "Skidoo"lamp, 232 
 
 Slide valve, steam engine, 318 
 
 Slug, the, 37 
 
 "Smudging" of orchards, protection 
 
 against frosts, 299 
 Snow, rain and other precipitation, 
 
 302 
 Soap films tend to contract, 171, 
 
 172 
 Solar day, mean, 3 
 
 variation of, 3 
 heat, power of per square foot, 
 
 218 
 
 motor, S. Pasadena, Cal., 296 
 Solids, thermal conductivity of, 288 
 density of, 140 
 elasticity of, 145-151 
 properties of, 145-154 
 Solution, boiling point of, 255 
 freezing point of, 262 
 of solids, liquids and gases, 156 
 of metals, amalgams, 159 
 saturated, 156 
 Sound waves, 290 
 
 interference of, 292 
 Sources of heat, 218 
 "Spark" coil, 328 
 
 Specific gravity, by balanced col- 
 umns, 162 
 defined, 166 
 hydrometer scale, 168 
 of liquids, 167 
 of solids, 167 
 Specific heat, defined, 244 
 
 method of mixtures, 247 
 
 table of, 245 
 
 the two of gases, 246 
 
 the ratio of the two of gases, 
 246 
 
 of water, 243 
 Speed, average, 24 
 
 and velocity compared, 24 
 Sphere of molecular attraction, 169 
 Spinney, L. B. See Preface. 
 Sprengel air pump, 201 
 Spring balance, 130 
 
 gun experiment, 47 
 Stable, unstable and neutral equi- 
 librium, 126 
 
 Standards of length, mass and time, 
 
 2,4 
 
 kilogram, 4 
 meter, 4 
 pound, 2 
 yard, 2 
 Steam boiler, efficiency of, 312 
 
 calorimeter, Joly's, 252 
 Steam engine, 311, 314, 319 
 compound, 315 
 condensing, 316 
 efficiency of, 312, 313 
 governor, 315 
 indicator card, 319, 321 
 methods of increasing effi- 
 ciency of, 315 
 power of, 317 
 thermodynamic efficiency of, 
 
 313 
 
 triple expansion, 315 
 work per stroke, 316 
 Steam pressures and temperatures, 
 
 table of, 274 
 Steam turbine, 205, 321 
 
 advantages of, 321 
 Steel, composition of and elastic 
 
 properties of, 149 
 Steelyard, the, 129 
 Stefan's law of cooling, 297 
 Stiffness of beams, 150 
 Strain, three kinds of, 151 
 
 tensile, 146 
 Strap brake, 108 
 Stress, tensile, 147 
 
 three kinds, 151 
 
 Stretch modulus, or Young's modu- 
 lus, 147 
 
 Sublimation, 260 
 Suction pump, 198 
 Supercooling, 256 
 Superheating, 256, 265, 266 
 
 of steam, 315 
 
 Surface condenser, steam, 316 
 Surface a minimum, surf ace tension, 
 
 170, 171 
 Surface tension, and capillarity, 168- 
 
 175 
 
 defined, 171 
 effects of impurities on, 173
 
 INDEX 
 
 347 
 
 Surface tension, methods of measur- 
 ing, 172,173, 175 
 value for water, 172 
 Systems of measurement, British, 2 
 metric, 4 
 
 Table of boiling points, 262 
 
 coefficient of linear expansion, 
 
 230 
 
 of cubical expansion, 235 
 of critical temperatures and 
 
 critical pressures, 274 
 of densities, 140 
 of heats of combustion, 249 
 of heats of fusion, 251 
 of heats of vaporization, 251 
 hygrometric, 304 
 of melting points, 256 
 of saturated vapor pressure of 
 
 water, 263 
 of specific heat, 245 
 of thermal conductivity, 289 
 Temperature, absolute, 236 
 
 compensation, watch and clock, 
 
 233, 234 
 critical, 273 
 defined, 220 
 gradient, 289 
 sense, 221 
 of the sun, 298 
 scales, absolute, 237 
 centigrade, 224 
 Fahrenheit, 224 
 Reaumer, 225 
 sense, 221 
 
 Tensile strength, 144, 148 
 Theorem of Bernoulli, 209 
 
 of Torricelli, 196 
 Theoretical mechanical advantage, 
 
 111 
 
 Thermal capacity, 244 
 conductivity, 288 
 conductivities, table of, 289 
 bottle, Dewar flask, 282 
 Thermobattery, 242 
 Thermocouple, the, 241 
 Thermodynamic or limiting effi- 
 ciency, engines, 313 
 
 Thermodynamics, 311 
 
 first law, statement of, 311 
 
 illustration of first law, 311 
 
 second law, statement of, 312 
 Thermograph, 227 
 Thermometer, calibration of, 223 
 
 centigrade, 224 
 
 clinical, 225 
 
 dial, 227 
 
 gas, constant pressure, 226 
 constant volume, 226 
 
 hydrogen, constant volume, a 
 standard, 227 
 
 maximum, of Negretti and 
 
 Zambra, 225 
 and minimum, Six's, 226 
 
 metallic, 227 
 
 mercury-in-glass, 222 
 
 recording, 227 
 
 wet-and-dry-bulb, 269 
 Thermometry and expansion, 217 
 Thermopile, 242 
 Thermostat, 231, 300 
 Thomson, Sir Wm. (Lord Kelvin), 
 plug experiment, 277 
 
 statement of second law of 
 
 thermodynamics, 312 
 Three states of matter, 137 
 Tides, cause, spring and neap, 34 
 
 lagging of, 34 
 
 in Bay of Fundy, 34 
 Time, of flight and range, 45 
 
 measurement of, 9 
 
 measurer, essentials of, 9 
 
 spacing and spacers, 9, 10 
 
 standard of, mean solar day, 3 
 
 unit of, 2, 4 
 Tornadoes, 309 
 
 extent, 310 
 
 origin, 309 
 
 pressure in, 310 
 
 velocity of, 310 
 Torque, 59, 60, 61 
 
 accelerating, 66 
 
 driving inertia, 69 
 
 positive and negative, 60, 61 
 
 resultant, 61 
 Torricelli's experiment, 185 
 
 theorem, 196
 
 348 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Torsion pendulum, 87 
 Trade winds, 305 
 
 Transfer of heat, three methods, 283 
 Transformation of energy, 93 
 Transmission of heat radiation 
 through glass, 298 
 
 of pressure, 159 
 Transverse wave, 292 
 Triple expansion engine, 315 
 "Tug of war," forces in, 50 
 Turbine pump, 204 
 
 water wheel, 205 
 Twilight, cause of, 181, 182 
 Typhoons, 308 
 
 Uniform circular motion, 72 
 central force of, 72 
 centrifugal force of, 72, 74 
 radial acceleration of, 73, 74 
 Uniform motion, linear, 28 
 
 rotary, 59 
 Units, absolute, or C. G. S. system, 4 
 
 of acceleration, 26 
 
 British system, 2 
 
 conversion of, 4 
 
 of force, 27, 36 
 and weight, 36 
 
 fundamental, 2 
 
 of heat, 243 
 
 of mass, 2, 4 
 
 of moment of inertia, 67 
 
 and numerics, 2 
 
 of power, 105 
 
 of time, 2, 4 
 
 of work, 90 
 Universal gravitation, 30 
 
 Vacuum, 185 
 
 cleaner, 203 
 
 gage, 193 
 
 pans, 264 
 Vapor and gas, distinction between, 
 
 277 
 
 Vapor pressure of water at different 
 temperatures, table, 263 
 
 saturated, 261 
 Vaporization, cooling effect of, 268 
 
 denned, 260 
 
 heat of, 250 
 
 Vaporization table, 251 
 
 two opposing tendencies in, 266 
 theory of, 261 
 Vector addition, 12 
 defined, 11 
 equilibrium, 15, 18 
 graphical representation of, 12 
 polygon, closed, represents equi- 
 librium, 15 
 resolution of into components, 
 
 19 
 
 scale for, 12 
 triangle, closed, 15 
 Velocity, acquired, 38, 39 
 angular, 62 
 
 and linear compared, 63, 70 
 dependent upon vertical height 
 
 of descent only, 55 
 average, 24, 38, 39, 40 
 of efflux, 196 
 of falling bodies, 38 
 head, 194, 196 
 
 initial, final and average, 38, 39 
 of rifle ball, at different ranges, 
 
 46 
 
 by ballistic pendulum, 55 
 versus speed, 11, 24, 25 
 Velocities, addition of, 13 
 polygon of, 15 
 relation of in impact, 53 
 resolution of into components, 19 
 resultant of, 13, 14 
 "steam," "drift," and "walk- 
 ing," 14, 15. 
 
 Venturi water meter, 211 
 Vernier caliper, 5 
 
 principle, 6 
 Vibration, direction of in wave 
 
 motion, 292 
 in simple harmonic motion, 82, 
 
 83 
 
 Viscosity of liquids, 155 
 of gases, 177 
 
 and the kinetic theory, 177 
 Volume, change of with change of 
 
 state, 256 
 elasticity of, 151 
 modulus, 152 
 strain, 152
 
 INDEX 
 
 349 
 
 Wagon, hillside, 127 
 
 Water, compressibility of, 155, 165 
 
 critical temperature of, 273 
 
 density of in British system, 140 
 
 freezing point variation with 
 pressure, 256 
 
 maximum density of, 255 
 
 meter, Venturi, 211 
 
 peculiar thermal properties of, 
 253, 254 
 
 waves, 290 
 
 reflection of, 294 
 Watson, W. See Preface. 
 Watt, unit of power, 106 
 Watt-hour-meter, 106 
 Watt's centrifugal governor, 79, 315 
 
 indicator card or indicator dia- 
 gram, 320 
 
 Wave length of ether waves, 291, 
 292 
 
 motion, 290 
 
 direction of vibration in, 292 
 longitudinal and transverse 
 vibrations in, 292 
 
 trains, interference of, 292 
 Waves, actinic, 291 
 
 ether, 291 
 
 heat, 291 
 
 Hertz, 291 
 
 light, 291 
 
 reflection, 293 
 
 refraction, 294 
 
 sound, 290 
 
 water, 290 
 Weather bureau, service of, 187 
 
 predictions, 187 
 Wedge, the, 118 
 
 and sledge, 119 
 Weighing machines, 30, 127 
 
 the earth, 30 
 
 Weighing, process of, 127 
 Weight compared with mass, 8 
 
 in a mine, 30 
 
 variation of with altitude and 
 latitude, 9, 35 
 
 units of, 36 
 Welding, 141 
 
 Wet-and-dry bulb hydrometer, 296 
 Wheel and axle, 117 
 Windlass, 111 
 Windmill, reaction in, 202 
 Winds, 304 
 Wood's metal, 255 
 Work, defined, 89 
 
 done by a torque, 92 
 
 of driving inertia force, 90 
 
 in forming liquid film, 172 
 
 against friction produces heat, 
 99, 311 
 
 involved in all energy transfor- 
 mations, 93, 94 
 
 if motion is not in the direc- 
 tion of force, 91 
 
 obtained from heat, 311 
 
 from water under pressure, 
 210 
 
 per stroke of steam engine, 316 
 
 units of, 90 
 
 used in three ways, 89, 90, 93 
 Working force, 110 
 
 Yard, standard, 2 
 Yield-point, 148, 150 
 Young's modulus, 147 
 
 Zero, absolute, 236 
 
 change of, with age of thermom- 
 eter, 224 
 Zone of calms, 305
 
 
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