REESE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Accessions No.fyy^^ '? . Class No. UJ .'. O - z - UJ Q r 55 H. UJ ^ < = UJ J? oo ~=- < I MODERN CARPENTRY AND ,;fr BUILDING. GIVING METHODS OF OBTAINING THK VARIOUS CUTS IN CARPENTRY. ** -1 | ALSO, STAIR BUILDING, BUILDERS' ESTIMATES, SLIDE RULE, STEEL SQUARE, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, MATHEMATICAL RULES, ETC. ALSO GIVING A NITMKKIt OF HALF-TONE VIEWS OF BEAUTIFUL MODERN RESIDENCES, TOGETHER WITH CONVENIENT MODERN FLOOR PLANS; ALSO, A COMPLETE SET OF FRAMING PLANS, SHOWING MOST APPROVED METHOD OF . MODERN CONSTRUCTION. BY W. A. SYLVESTER. II Copy right, 1896. ALLEN SYLVESTER, PUBLISHER, BOSTON. OoPTRIGHf, 1896, BT W. A. SYLVESTER, INTRODUCTION Fourteen years ago THE MODERN CARPENTERS' COM- PANION AND BUILDERS' GUIDE was issued, and has since met with a sale of ten thousand copies ; which, consider- ing the fact that it has been advertised but very little indeed, shows that it met a want. Some complaint has been made that the illustrations did not always come opposite the descriptions, and many have expressed a de- sire for a much larger number of floor plans of modern residences, accompanied by elevations or perspectives to show the general style of exterior finish ; others wanted complete framing plans and specifications. For many reasons it has been deemed best to remodel and add to this book, thus bringing it up to date, and meet- ing most of the above mentioned requirements, and to distinguish this revised book from the former one, it has been decided to call it MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Jt must not be inferred that this is a thorough, com- plete and exhaustive work 'on carpentry, dealing with framing odd shaped structures, groined arches, and the like. There are a number of excellent works of that kind already in the market, although their prices are a little beyond the reach of some, and a college education in the VI INTRODUCTION. higher mathematics seems almost a requisite in order to thoroughly master some of them. This book is intended as an aid to the workman in the numerous instances that are daily or constantly occurring, either where some detail has slipped his mind in some of the methods of laving out work, or suggestions in doing kinds of work with which he may not have had experience, or in making up estimates, etc., etc., a veritable handy book to be carried in his coat pocket or in his box of tools, ready for instant reference, not left at home- Some workmen seem to consider it a sign of ignorance for a man to buy a book on carpentry, and they will say with a sneer that they did not learn their trade from a book, (some of them by their work giving ample evidence that they never learned their trade at all) ; while doctors, lawyers and ministers, college graduates, who have had special training to fit them for their duties, are constantly referring to their books, the ignorant workman feels- affronted when offered a work treating on his line of busi- ness; but the intelligent, wide-awake, up-to-date workman is always on the watch for new points short cuts in doing work, and doing it right the first time, and he had just as soon learn new points from a book (if it is written by a practical workman one who knows what he is talk- ing about) as to learn it through another man, (and per- haps the other man may be a "back number" and has forgotten some of it himself) . We have thought best to scatter the views of residences throughout the book (possibly some will not like this), and while some of the floor plans in the back part of this book may not exactly match some of the elevations, they INTR OD UC TION. v ii will give a very fair idea from which such additions or alterations can be made as customers or builders may de- sire, they are offered more as suggestions than as work- ing plans, although they can be used to build from by any intelligent workman. If it is desired to ascertain dimensions of details of finish from the photographs of residences shown in this book, a scale can be marked off easily with a pencij on a strip of paper or cardboard, using as a basis the height of a riser on outside steps, which is generally about 7 inches, or use the width of an ordinary window which usually is about 3 feet, or the width of clapboards, shingles, or bricks. A scale made from a riser or window on front, can be used for all vertical measurements and all horizon- tal measurements on the front, but on a side, a separate scale will be needed for horizontal measurements owing to the fore-shortening of the perspective, and for this scale use the width of a window on the side, as a basis. To the thoughtful, intelligent workman, doubtless other methods may suggest themselves. Some of the floor plans we show are reversed, or opposite handed from some of the views shown by the photographs, but any plan can be instantly reversed by holding it before a mirror, so that it is not absolutely nec- essary to have them drawn both ways, in order to judge which way is most desirable for any given location. There have also been inserted elevations, floor plans, and framing plans complete, giving exhaustive details of a modern 2-story house of approved design and construc- tion', together with Building Specifications and Contract for erection of a moderate-priced dwelling. We believe this feature will be greatly appreciated by our readers. viii INTRODUCTION. We have had a great many inquiries for a French and German edition, dealers in the West saying they could sell almost as many of those as of the English edition, but to all such we would say that the English edition is all we shall issue, and those who come to this country to earn their living, ought to learn this country's language, and they can use this book to practise reading. W. A. SYLVESTER. BOSTON, June, 1896. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE 13 13 Plate 1. Fig. 1. To bisect a given line Fig". 2. To bisect an angle Fig". 3. Given a tangent to a circle, to find tbe exact point of contact 13 Plate 2. Fig. 4. To describe an ellipse with a cord or thread . 17 Fig. 5. To describe an ellipse with the compasses . . 17 Fig. 6. To describe an ellipse with a square and trammel 17 Plate 3. Fig. 7. To describe an elliptic arch by finding points through which to spring a lath .... 21 Fig. 8. To describe a curve of great radius ... 21 Fig. 9. Given a segment of a circle, to find the centre . 21 Plate 4. Fig. 1O. To find how far apart to saw kerfs to spring a board or moulding 23 Fig. 11. To describe a spiral 23 Fig. 12. Given one side to construct an equilateral triangle. To describe a Gothic arch 23 Plate 5. Fig. 13. Given one side, to construct a polygon of nuy num- ber of equal sides ....... 27 Fig. 14. Given the distance across, to construct a six or eight sided polygon 27 Fig. 15. To construct an octagon from a square figure . 27 Plate 6. Fig. 16. On a given diagonal to construct a square . . 29 Fig. 17. To inscribe a circle in a triangle; also to describe a circle around a triangle 29 Fig. 18. To inscribe an equilateral triangle in a circle . 29 Plate 7. Fig. 19. To inscribe a square in a circle .... 31 Fig 2O. To inscribe a hexagon in a circle ... - 31 Fig. 21. To describe the envelope of a cone ... 31 Plate 8. Fig. 22. Scale of degrees, or protractor .... 37 Plate 9. Figs. 23, 24, 25, and 26. Splices for timbers . . 38 Fig. 27. Bridging for floors' 38 Fig. 28. Two timbers tied together and supported by a braced pot 3S Plate 1O. Plan for floorings, etc 39 Plate 11. Elevation of end frame of house 41 Plate 12. Elevation of side frame of house 42 Plates 13 and 14. Pitch-roof framing, etj 44, 48 Plates 15 and 16. Hip-roof framing 50,53 Views of fine modern residences frontispiece, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65,75, 85,95, 105, 115, 125, 135, 145 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGB, Plate 17. Valley-roof framing ... 57 Plate 18. French and mansard roofs 61 Plate 19. To describe the corner rafti-r on French roofs, etc. . . 63 Plates 2O and 21. --Trusses for roof and bridges 69,70 Plate 22. The framing ol a small spin; 71 Plates 23 and 24. Boarding dome roofs 73,74 Plates 25 and 26. Rake mouldings 78, 80 Plates 27, 28, 29, and 3O. Stairs 83-89 Plate 31. Fig. 74. Eight-squaring a stick of square timber . . 91 Fig. 75. To cut down a threshold 91 Plate 32. Mitring straight and circular mouldings .... 93 Plate 33. To find the bevels for a hopper-box with butt joints . . 97 Plate 34. To find the bevels for a hopper-box with mitre joints . . 100 Plate 35. To describe the form of board for the finish at the top of a splayed circular-top window 101 BUILDERS' ESTIMATES 102 Table of brace measure 107 Table of hoard, plank, and scantling measure 108-110 Table of sizes and weights of window-sash, etc 113,114 Bins for grain and rule for estimating 117 Bins for apples, potatoes, etc., and rule for estimating .... 118 Rule for estimating the size of tank to hold a given number of gallons 118 Bins for coal and rule for estimating 119 Miscellaneous: table of weights of various materials . . . 119,120 Plate 36. Miscellaneous 123 Plate 37. Illustrations of the markings on rules and squares . 128, 129 The slide rule and how to use it 138 Glueing and Veneering 148 Table of strength of materials, and rules for estimating the sizes of tim- hers, columns, beams, etc 151-160 MATHEMATICS: 160-174 Mensuration; also table of diameter, circumference, and area of circles, and table of -decimal parts of feet and inches, with their fractional equivalents 174 to 177 The metric system of weights :>nd measures, giving the tables author- ized by Congress 178, 179 Building specifications 180-191 Building contract 192-193 How to Plan Houses 194-195 Remarks on our Illustrations 196-198 Criticisms of House Plans 199-204 Remarks on P^lans for W. A. Sylvester's house .... 205-208 Framing plans of same 209-221 Twenty floor plans 222-241 Glossary of architectural terms 242-254 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Plate 1. Fig. 1. To bisect a given line. Let ab be the given line. With a radius somewhat more than half of the length of this line, and using the points a and b for centres, describe arcs intersect- ing above and below the given line, through which points of intersection draw the line c d. Plate 1. Fig. 2. To bisect an angle. Let a b c be the given angle. With b as a centre, and with any radius, describe the arc de. Then, using d and e for centres, and with a radius somewhat more than half of the length of de, describe arcs intersecting at/. Then draw a line from b through the inter- section at/. Plate 1. Fig. 3. Given a tangent t a circle, to find the exact point of contact. Let .b be a tangent 11 12 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUJLDING. to the circle^ the centre of which is at c. Draw a line from c to any point on the tangent, as at d. From , the centre of this line, and with a radius equal to ce, describe an arc. The point where this arc crosses the tangent at / is the exact point of contact. I "late 2. Fig. 4. To describe an ellipse with a cord or thread. Draw the line a b representing the length of the required, ellipse. Bisect this line (see Plate 1, Fig. 1); which gives the line cd, the length of which must be equal to the width of the required ellipse. With a pair of compasses, take the length of ae. Then, with c as a centre, describe arcs intersecting the line a b at / and at g : at each of these three places, /, g, and , stick in a pin. Now pass a piece of cord or thread around these pins, draw it taut, and tie it. Now remove the pin from c, and, holding a pencil in the bight of the cord, draw it around through c, >, c?, and a, keeping the thread at a uniform tension. A notch made in the side of the pencil- lead, near the point, will prevent the thread from slipping off. A wire thread about the size of No. 40 or 60 linen thread would be better to use, as it will not stretch. It would be a good plan for the work- man to keep about twenty-five or thirty feet of it in his chest, rolled up on a spool, the same as a Plate 1. 13 14 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. chalk-line. It would als'j be very convenient to use in describing a circle of great radius. Plate 2. Fig. 5. To describe an. ellipse with the com- passes. Draw the line a 5, which represents the length of the required ellipse. Bisect this line (see Plate 1, Fig. 1), which gives ce. Make the length of ed equal to half the width of the re- quired ellipse. ' Divide c d into three equal parts, the points of division being at / and g. Measure off from , and also from 5, the length of two of these parts; which gives the points i and i 2. Joiv / and g. Bisect this line, continuing the bisecting line until it intersects with the line ce. At e is the centre from which to describe the f-'ide of the ellipse, and the points i and i 2 are the centres from which to describe the ends. A line drawn from e, through the points i and i 2, will show where the curve of the sides and the curve of the ends meet, as seen at j and k. Plate 2. Fig. 6. To describe an ellipse with a two- foot square. Draw a line al in the direction of the length of the required ellipse. Lay the square on the liii j so that the inside edge of the blade will be on die line, and the inside corner e will be 111 the centre of the ellipse. Then, with any strip of board, form a trammel as follows : an inch or so from one end drive a brad through at /, letting it OF THB UNIVERSITY Plate 2. 17 18 MODERN CARPENTRY AND Bl'ILUIXti. project through about an eighth OL- an inch. From this point, measure off one-half the width of the ellipse. At this point, bore a small hole, and insert a piece of pencil, g, which must project down far enough to mark when the trammel is laid down on the square. Then, from this point, measure off one-half the length, of the ellipse, and drive through a brad, A, letting it project below the same, as at /. Then, by sliding down on />, and letting / move to the left, all the while keeping h and / hard up against the edge of the square, the pencil g will describe one-quarter of an ellipse. Then turn the square over so that the end a will be in the direction of &, keeping the inside corner of the square on the point e, and describe the other quarter in the same manner, thus forming half of an ellipse, the other half of which may be described in the same manner, by reversing the end i. This rule applies when the sum of half the length and half the width of the ellipse does not exceed the length of the tongue of the square. For larger ellipses, two straight-edged pieces of board might be used, one being a c and the other e z, which could be fastened to the work at right angles with each other. Plate 3. . Fig. 7. To describe an elliptic arch by find- ing points through which to spring a lath. Let a b be the span or chord of the required arch, MODERX CAlll'EXTHY AXD BUILDIXG. 19 and cd be tlie rise. At a and at b, draw perpen- dicular lines, a e and b /, to the height of c d. Also draw a line joining e and /. Divide d f }u\d f b each into any number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 8, 4, and 5, G, 7, 8. Draw lines joining d and 5, 1 and 6, 2 and 7, 3 and 8, and 4 and 6. Then through the points of intersection, d, y, h, i,j\ and />, spring a thin strip of board, and mark around it. Repeat the operation on the other side. This method is very much used by builders, but we prefer the method described in Plate 2, Fig. 4. Plate 3. Fig. 8. To describe a curve of great ra- dius. It is sometimes desired to describe a curve of great radius. The usual method is to use a line (for a radius to strike the curve), but a line stretches so as to give an irregular curve ; and then, again, there is not always room to use a sufficiently long radius. The method described in Fig. 8 is the best way in such cases, when the rise and span are known , it being very quickly f board four or five inches wide, and six or eight inches longer than the span of the required curve. Joint straight one edge of each. Lay one piece with the straight edge in against a c, and lay the other piece with the straight edge in against b c, letting * When the rise is not known, and only the radius is given, see p. l'J4 to find rise- 20 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. the ends lap at c, and drive in a nail. Also fasten a stay across, so that when the sides are against the nails at a and 5, the corner of the frame will be at c. Then, keeping this frame against the nails at a and ft, slide the frame around, holding a pencil at c: the pencil will describe a true curve, as shown in the dotted line. A piece of one-eighth inch round wire, two or three inches long, would be better than nails to tack in at a and I. Plate 3. Fig. 9. Given a segment of a circle, to find the centre. Mark off any three points on the segment, as a, 5, c. With a and also with b for a centre, and a radius somewhat more than half of a c, describe the arcs d e and fg. Then, with c for a centre, describe arcs intersecting these, as shown in the cut. Through the points of inter- section at d e and/*^, draw lines, continuing them until they intersect at /*, which point is the centre from which the segment a b was described. When the segment is very large, or when it is desired to be very exact, the quickest and best way is to figure out the centre, which may be clone as follows : Square half of the span ; to this add the square of the rise, which sum divide by the rise : the quotient is the diameter of the circle, of which the given segment is a part. Thus, sup- pose the span a b is GO inches, the rise, 10 inches : Plate 3 J 4 ft 9.9. 21 22 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. then half of the span is 30 inches, the square of which is 30 x 30-900. The square of the rise, 10 inches, is 10 x 10 = 100, which, added to 900 r the square of half the span, makes 1,000; which,, divided by the rise, 10, gives 100 inches that is,. 8 feet, 4 inches as the diameter. 1 Plate 4. Fig. 10. To find how far apart to saw kerfs to spring a board or moulding. Let a b be the curve, around which it is desired to spring a piece of stock. Take a piece of stock d g of the thick- ness which is to be used; lay it down so that the edge shall pass through the centre c, and mark from c to g, and also at e. Now, with the saw which is to be used, make a kerf nearly through the piece of stock at c. Now, keeping this piece on the line eg, spring down the end d until the kerf is closed, then mark the point /; ef will be the distance apart to saw kerfs. Plate 4. Pig. 11. To describe a spiral. Draw a line a b, on which, near the centre, locate two points, d and e, which must be placed just half as far apart as it is desired to have the lines of the spiral. Midway between these two points is c^ the centre of the circle from which the spiral be- gins. Place one point of the compasses in e, and with a radius of e 1, describe the semicircle 1, 2. 1 When the diameter is given, to find the rise for any chord or span, see p. 124. Plate 4. 23 24 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Then, using d for a centre, and with a radius of d 2, describe the semicircle 2, 3. Then, again, with e for a centre, and with a radius of e 3, describe the semicircle 3, 4, and so on. This rule does not give a true spiral, although it answers in most cases. To describe a perfect spiral, turn out a piece of wood, an inch long, of such size that the circumference of this piece shall be equal to the length of space between the lines of the spiral ; that is, the diameter of this piece shall be about one-third of the distance between the lines of the spiral. Fasten this turned piece in the centre of the intended spiral, and fasten one end of a piece of thread to this piece. Wind the thread around this piece, and make a loop in the last end of the thread. Now, holding a pencil plumb in this loop, swing the pencil around so as to un- wind the thread, letting the pencil mark as the thread unwinds. The pencil will describe a true spiral Plate 4. Fig. 12. Given one side to construct an equilateral triangle. Let a b be the given side. First with a, and then with />, for centres, and with a radius equal to a 6, describe arcs intersecting at . 30 MODERX CAKFEXTHY AXD BUILD I XU. lines cross this circle: and the result is the required polygon. This method is used when part of a piece of turned work is to be six or eight squared, and the distance across the squares is given. Plate 5. Fig. 15. To construct an octagon from a square. Let , l>, c, d, be the given square. Join a and d. With c for a centre, and a radius tan- gent to this line, describe an arc intersecting the sides of the given square. Then, with the points #, 5, and d for centres, and with the same radius, describe other arcs in the same manner. Join the points of intersection as shown in the cut. The result is the required octagon. Plate 6. Fig. 16. On a given diagonal to construct a square. Let a b be the given diagonal. Bisect al (see Plate 1, Fig. 1), getting the line c d. Take the point of intersection, e, for a centre, and with a radius equal to a e, cut c and d. Join a d, cb, ac, and d 6, and we have the required square. Plate 6. Fig. 17. To inscribe a circle in a triangle ; also to describe a circle around a triangle. To in- scribe a circle in a triangle, bisect any two of the angles ^see Plate 1, Fig. 2), continuing the bisect- ing lines until they meet, which point is the centre from which to strike an inscribed circle. Plate 7. J MODERN CARPJSXTRY AXD JiVTLDIXG. To describe a circle around a triangle, bisect any two of the sides, continuing the bisecting lines until they meet, which point is the centre from which to describe a circle around the triangle 1 . Plate 6. Fig 18. To inscribe an equilateral tri- angle in a circle. Through the centre of the circle, draw the vertical line a b. With b for a centre, and a radius the same as used to describe the given circle, describe an arc intersecting at d and e. Join a d, a e, and d e, which forms an inscribed triangle. Plate 7. Fig. 19. To inscribe a square in a circle. Through the centre of the circle, draw the line a b at an angle of 45 degrees. (See Plate 8, Fig. 22.) Bisect this line, producing the line c d. Join a d, c b, a c, and d 5, which forms the inscribed square. Plate 7. Fig. 2O. To inscribe a hexagon in a circle. The radius used to describe the circle will space around the circumference just six times: and, by joining these points, the required inscribed hexagon is formed. Plate 7. Fig. 21. To describe the envelope of a cone. Let A be the apex of the cone, and B C be the base. The rule commonly given is, to use MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 33 A for a centre, and with a radius of A C describe an arc, as shown at C D. Then, with the radius used to describe the plan of the base, the diame- ter of which is B C, lay off six spaces. (The cut, for lack of room, shows only half of them.) Draw lines joining the first and the last of these spaces to A. This is not exact. Lay off on each side of the cone the thickness of the envelope, which gives a b c, which is to be considered as the cone. Then, with a for a centre, and a radius of a c, describe an arc the same as previously described. Then find the circumference of the base of the cone, the diameter of which is b c. This is found by multi- plying the diameter b c by 3.1416, or 3f . This length is to be measured around the curve of the base of the envelope, which determines the length of the envelope. Then join these ends to , which gives the form of the envelope. If the cone is truncated, that is, the top cut off, as shown at x y, then y z shows the top of the envelope. Plate 8. Fig. 22. We give here a scale of degrees, commonly called a Protractor, which we believe will be found quite convenient. The various mi- tres and angles may be taken from this protractor by placing a bevel with the stock on the line, as shown in the cut, and running the tongue from the 34 MODERN CARPENTRY AXD BUILDING. point a to the number of degrees required. The degrees continue on from 90 to 180 ; although we have not divided or numbered them, as we have those from up to 90. The angles of an equilateral triangle are 60 ; the mitre is 30. The angles of a square figure are 90 ; the mitre is 45. The angles of a hexagon are 120 ; the mitre is 60. The angles of an octagon are 135 ; the mitre is 67 . The sills of window-frames are usually set at an angle of 10 degrees. A feAv builders set them steeper. We have seen some set at an angle of nearly 20 degrees. Plate 9. Figs. 23, 24, 25, and 26, illustrate different methods of splicing timbers. Fig. 26 is a keyed diagonal splice, the shoulders being cut square with the slant of the splice. The shaded part is a hard-wood key. Fig. 27 is bridging for floors. Common strap- ping 1x3 inches is generally used ; although for heavy floors 11x3 or 4 inches may be used, being fastened with two good nails at each end. Fig. 28 represents two timbers tied together, and supported by a braced post. The notching in the post and timbers for the braces should be cut square with the slant of the braces, as shown in the cut. Plate 9. fl 'a. Z1. Plate W. Fig.Z.9. 39 40 MODERN CARPKXTHY AXD BUILDING. Plate 1O. Fig. 29 shows a plan for floorings. The timbers are usually gained into the sills 2 inches, and down 4 inches, so as to bring the top of the timbers even with the top of the sills. The plan shows an opening for stairs. The headers b b, and the trimmer #, which is also shown in Fig. 30, are made of extra thickness : where the floorings are 2 inches thick, the headers and trimmer should be 3 inches thick. The end sills should be 7 or 8 inches wide, so as to get a good nailing for the ends of the upper floor-boards, as shown in Fig. 31 ; while if the sills are narrow, as seen in Fig. 32, the ends of the upper floor-boards have no timber to nail into. Plate 11. Fig. 33. An end elevation of a tivo and one-half story dwelling-house. The dotted lines at g y show the position of the girts or ledger-boards on the side of the building, being put down so that the floorings may set on them, and come even with the top side of the end girt. Plate 12. Fig. 34. The side elevation of the same house as Fig. 33, being represented with side girts. Another way, and in some respects to be preferred to this way, is to use ledger-boards instead of girts, which allows the studding to run whole length from the sill to the plate. Braces may be put from the sills to the posts, and from the plates to the posts. With girts there are more chances to put braces. Plate 11. 41 Plate 12. 1 I i i VA \ MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 4tf Plate 13. Fig. 35 shows the method of finding the bevels of rafters for pitcli roofs. Let a b be the width of the building, which may be drawn to the scale of one and one-half inches to the foot, each one-eighth inch of the drawing representing one inch, and c d be the rise. Join a and c, which gives the pitch of the roof. At c is seen the bevel for the top of the rafter, and at a is seen the bevel for the rafter where it rests on the plate as shown at a e, Fig. 36. Fig. 36 shows the manner of laying out a rafter. The crowning edge of the timbers should always be the outside edge of the rafters. Having laid out and made off one rafter, use it as a pattern with which to lay out the others, keeping them even at 5, and at the top end c. When there is a ridge- piece, cut off from the end of the rafter half of the thickness of the ridge-piece, measured square from c d. (See also Plate 14, Fig. 38.) Fig. 37 shows a way of getting the length and bevels of rafters with a two-foot square. Have the outside edge of the rafter next to you. Suppose that the width of the building is 20 feet, and the rise of the roof is 7 feet. Let inches on the square represent feet on the building. Take half the width of the building 10 inches on the blade of the square, and take the rise 7 inches on the tongue. Hold the square as shown in the cut, having these points even with the top edge Plate 13. MODEliX CARPEXTKY A\D HU1LDIXG. 47 of the rafter. The bevel on the rafter at the blade of the square is the bevel of the rafter where it sets 011 the plate as seen at a <\ Fig. 8(3. The bevel on the rafter at the tongue of the square is the down bevel for the top of the rafter. Now, as the measures on the square were in inches, while those on the building were in feet, it follows that the diagonal from 10 inches on the blade to 7 inches on the tongue of the square is -jV of the length of the rafter: so, by measuring off 1:2 times this length, we have the length of the rafter. Where there is a ridge-piece, do as directed in Fig. 36. > Piate 14. Fig. 38 represents the rafters of a pitch roof. Fig. 39 represents the rafters of a hip roof. If the rafters on a pitch roof are 2 x 6 inches, they should be notched for the plate so as to leave the rafter 4 or 4 inches at the narrowest point; then measure the perpendicular width at this point, as indicated by the line A a. Subtract this amount from the rise of the roof, and it gives the rise to use in getting the bevels for the rafters as described in Fig. 35, Plate 13. In framing the rafters for hip roofs, Fig. 39, there is not usually so much stock in the rafter above the plates as there is in rafters for pitch roofs ; the lower end of the rafter being dropped in order to have sufficient stock to form a crow-foot. 1 The lengths and bevels of braces may be found in a similar manner. Sup. pose the run is 36 inches by 48 inches, we may take any fractional part of the run on the square, say, for' instance, one-third, which will be 12 inches on th? tongue, and Iti inches on the blade of the square: then three times tht d'^otia] thcs ob^n^i vill be the length of the brace. Plate 14. 48 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 49 Fig. 40 shows the three pitches in common use. The pitch at e is called the square pitch, the slant of one side of the roof being at right angles to the slant of the other side, the pitch of the roof being 45 degrees. The pitch at d is f pitch, the length of the rafters being of the width of the build- ing. The pitch at c is called \ pitch, the rise being $ of the width of the building, t There is also the Gothic pitch where the length of the rafters is equal to the width of the building. Plate 15 shows the method of getting the lengths and finding the bevels of rafters for hip roofs. Fig. 41 is the elevation of the roof, a b being the width of the building, and c d being the rise of the roof ; a d and b d are the length of the com- mon rafters, the bevels of which are found in the same manner as the bevels of rafters for pitch roofs. Fig. 42. a b c d is the plan of the building ; ej is the plan of the ridge-piece ; a/, >/, c e and d e, is the plan of the hip rafters. Draw the line g h, the length of the common rafter a d, square with the line a c ; and, passing through e, join c and A, which gives the length of the hip rafter ; draw the line op through h parallel to ef; the edge bevel of the hip rafter is shown at h* and the edge bevel of the jack rafters is shown at j ; the lengths of the jack rafters are m n, kl, and ij\ the down * First buck off the upper edge of the hip rafter, then use this bevel. The rafter will not fit if this bevel is used before the rafter is backed off. t We believe this is the proper method to designate the pitch, instead of the other method. Plate 15. . if. 50 MODE11X CAHPEXTin' AXD BUILDING. 51 Levels being the same as the down bevels of the common rafters. To find the down bevels for the hip rafter, Plate 16, Fig. 43, make a h equal to the length of the plan of the hip rafter (a/, Fig. 42), and make g h equal to the rise of the roof, c d ; join a .and #, which gives the elevation of the hip rafter;- the bevel for the foot being shown at , and the , Fig. 41, as e; draw & line through this point, square with the slant of the roof, as seen at ef. Take the distance from a to e (Fig. 41), and lay it off from a to r, and from a to s (Fig. 42). Join r and s. Take the distance from e to / (Fig. 41), and set it off from t to u (Fig. 42). Join ru and s u; then rus is a sec- tion of the roof cut across the corner at r s, and K edge at the top, and are fastened to the piece C by wooden pins, giving chance to bore down through C for a vane or finial. This is a much simpler way than to mitre the rafters together at the top. The backing (shown at <) is found as described in Plate 15, Fig. 42. Plate 23 shows the method of finding the forms of the boards for boarding a dome roof horizon- tally. Fig. 57 is a plan of the boarding of the dome, and Fig. 58 is the elevation of the same. As will be seen in Fig. 58, the principle is the same as finding the envelopes of truncated cones. (See Plate 7, Fig. 21.) Plate 24 shows the method of finding the form of the boards for boarding a dome roof vertically. Fig. 59 shows the elevation of the dome ; and Fig. 60 is the plan of the same, the circumference of which we divide into spaces equal to the width of the boards to be used, a b C (Fig. 60) is the plan of one of these boards. The length of one of these boards is B C, Fig. 59, which we divide into any number of equal parts. Then from a 6, Fig. 60, lay off the same number of these spaces to e. Then, from these points of division in Fig. 59, drop lines to the line A B, Fig. 60. Then, with C for a centre, carry these lines across the plan of the board, as seen at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Then take the Plate 23. Plate 24. 74 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 77 width of the board on the plan at 1, and lay it off at 1 a. Take the width on the plan at 2, and lay it off at 2 a, and so on. Then draw a curved line from c through these points to , and also from c through these points to b. The result gives the shape of the boards. Plate 25 shows the method of finding the rake moulding to fit any gutter ; also the method of finding the level moulding to fit the rake. Fig. 61 represents the gutter, Fig. 62 is the rake moulding, and Fig. 63 is the level moulding. To find the shape of the rake moulding: From the gutter to be used, saw off a piece half an inch long ; lay this piece on a smooth board, and mark around it, as seen in Fig. 61. Then, from the upper, outer point of the gutter, draw the line a a, giving the pitch of the roof. Then through sever- al prominent points in the outline of the gutter, draw lines parallel to the first line, as b , c c, etc. Then from the face of the fillet draw the ver- tical line A B. Then for the rake draw the line A B, Fig. 62, at right angles with the pitch of the roof. Take the distance from a to the line A B, Fig. 61, measured square across, as indicated by the dotted line, and lay it off from the line A B, Fig. 62, parallel with the slant of the roof. Do the same with the other points. Then draw a line through these points, which gives the shape of the MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 79 rake moulding. Then, to get the shape of the level moulding, take the distance from a to the line A B, Fig. 61, and lay it off square from the line A B, Fig. 63, as indicated by the dotted lines. Do the same with the other points. Then draw a line through these points, which gives the shape of the level moulding. Plate 26 shows mitre boxes for rake mouldings. Fig. 64 shows a box with cuts for mitring the rake moulding to the gutter. The angle across the top of the box is the mitre. (See Plate 36.) The angles on the sides of the box are the same as the down bevel at the top of the rafters. In sawing, keep nearest you the side of the boxes shown in the cut. Place the moulding upside down in the box, keeping the moulded side toward you, as shown in Fig. 65 ; taking care to have the bevel of the moulding at c fit well against the side of the box. Let a 5, Fig. 64, represent a piece of rake moulding ; cut the mitre at #, in the end of the box just above it, letting the moulding lay the same as the line a b. The mitre on the end a will fit the mitre of the gutter on the right-hand side of the gable. Cut the mitre at c?, in the end of the box just above d, holding the moulding as before described. The mitre on the end d will fit the mitre of the gutter on the left side of the gable. To mitre the rake mouldings together at 80 MODERN CARPENTltY AND BUILDING. 81 the top, the box shown in Fig. 66 is used. The angles on the top of the box are the same as the down bevel at the top of the rafters, the sides being sawed down square. Place the moulding in the box, as shown in Fig. 67, keeping the bevel at c flat on the bottom of the box, and having the moulded side toward you. The moulding a b, Fig. 64, is turned end for end, which brings it the other edge up, a 5, Fig. 66 ; and the mitre for the top is cut on the end b in the end of the box just above it, which completes the moulding for the right-hand side of the gable. The mitre for the top of the moulding for the left side of the gable is cut on the end c of the moulding c d, in the end of the box just above c. When the rake moulding is made of the proper form, these boxes are very convenient ; but a great deal of the machine-made mouldings are not of the proper form to fit the gutter. In such cases, the moulding should be altered to the proper form if they come very bad ; although many use the mouldings as they come, and trim the mitres so as to make them do. Plate 27. Pig. 68 represents a plan of a flight of stairs, with a wind at the top. Plate 28, Fig. 69, is a more detailed plan of the wind ; and Plate 29, Fig. 71, is an elevation of the winding posts show- ing the position of the mortises and risers. The 82 MODEItX CARPENTKX AND BUILDING. lettering on these different cuts is the same for each part of the work : b is the face stringer, or carriage ; a is the newel post ; c is the winding post; e is the post at. the upper landing, and is cut away so as to hook on to the upper floor, as seen in Fig. 69; d is a short piece of stringer, connecting the two posts c and e ; f is the skirt- ing-board, which is fastened ,to the trimmer, and makes a finish of the well-room. The risers 1 and 4 are tenoned into the post c, as shown in Fig. 68. Suppose, for instance, that the rise is seven inches : then the top of riser 1 is seven inches above the mortise, for the face-stringer b. (See also Fig. 71.) The top of riser 4 is twenty-one inches above riser 1. The top of riser 4, and the piece of stringer d, are even. The top of riser 5 is seven inches above c?, or riser 4. The width of the winding steps are alike, when measured on a cir- cle, struck from the winding post c, as shown in Fig. 68 at 1, 2, 3, 4. The face and centre stringers are usually made of two-inch plank. The wall- stringer is often made of a good stout inch board. The winding risers are made four or five inches wider than the others ; the extra width projecting below the preceding riser, so as to afford a good nailing for the pieces of plank, 1 a, 2 a, 3 a, some- times called chocks, and the piece of stringer d 2. . The bottom step is frequently, as it is in this case, made a couple of inches wider than the rest of Plate 27. Plate 28. 84 { UNIVERSITY ] MODKJiX CAHPE \T11Y AXD JWJLD/XU. 87 the steps. The risers are mitred into the face- stringer (and in laying out the face-stringer do not forget to allow for this), and are grooved to receive the tongue of the steps, as seen in Plate 30, Fig. 72. The ends of the steps are returned on the face-stringer, and a scotia moulding is mitred around beneath. The steps and risers are generally grooved to receive the base, which is tongued to fit; but a very cheap flight of stairs might be built with the wall-stringer nailed to the base, the steps and risers being butted against the base. Fig. 70 shows the manner of laying out a stair- stringer, by taking the width of the step on the blade of the square, and taking the rise on the tongue of the square ; r being the risers, and * being the steps. Steps will generally finish three- fourths of an inch wider than the width of step on the stringer. Plate 3O. Fig. 73 shows how to find the length of opening in the floor, to give sufficient head- room for the stairs. Suppose that the story is 9 feet in the clear, and the upper flooring, lathing, and plastering, etc., is 13 inches: then the stairs must be 9 feet + 13 inches = 10 feet 1 inch, from top to bottom, that is, 121 inches. Now, if we assume 7 inches for the rise, we have 17| risers. Since we must have a whole number of risers, we Plate 29. Plate 30. f J Fij.73. ( JO MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. will adopt 17 as the number of risers, then the exact width of riser is 121 -=- 17 = 7-^y inches, practically, 7J inches. We will make our steps inches on the stringer ; but they will finish nearly an inch wider, owing to their projecting beyond the riser. Now the rise being 7 \ inches, we rind that when we have ascended 3 risers, that is, 21 1 inches, we have 7 feet 2| inches head-room. Now counting out from the top of the stairs, we find that this point is the width of 14 steps from the top, which is 14x9 inches = 126 inches = 10 feet 6 inches. So with an opening of 10 feet 6 inches, we have 7 feet 2 1 inches head-room. If we can do with o less head-room, we ascend another riser, which takes us up 28^ inches, leaving us still a head- room of 6 feet 11 inches ; this is at a point the width of 13 steps from the top, which is 13x9 inches =: 117 inches = 9 feet 9 inches : so that, with an opening 9 feet 9 inches in length, we still have 6 feet 7^- inches head-room. The opening might be still further reduced in length, if neces- sary, by narrowing the steps an inch or so. We have said nothing about hand-rails, as there are firms of stair-builders in every large city who can furnish rails, posts, and balusters by sending them a sketch of the stairs (similar to Plate 27, in this book), giving the width of the staircase, and the widtli of the riser and step, measured on the 92 MODEKX CARPEXTHY AXD HVILDIXG. stringer a great deal cheaper than an inexperi- enced man can make them. Plate 31. Fig. 74 shows a method of eight-squaring a stick of square timber. Lay a two-foot square or rule on the side of the timber, keeping both ends of one edge even with the edges of the timber; mark off at 7 and 17 inches , gauge off on all sides of the timber the distance in that these points come from the edge, and it gives the lines to hew by. At a is shown the end of the timber. A board may be divided into any number of equal parts in a similar manner. If it is desired to divide the board into 10 equal parts, have the corner of the square even with one edge of the board, and have 20 inches come even with the other edge ; then mark off every 2 inches. If 7 parts were desired, make 21 inches even with the other edge, instead of 20 inches, and mark off every 3 inches instead of every 2 inches. Figs. 75 and 76 illustrate a very simple and also a very accurate method of fitting down thresholds. Take any board 5 or 6 inches wide, as 6, Fig. 75, and 2 or 3 inches longer than the width of the doorway d. Lay this board on the floor, keeping the edge of the board one inch from the door-frame ; lay a short straight-edge (2 feet square) against the door-jamb, and mark on the board where it crosses ; also lay it against the 1)4 MODERN CARPENTRY A XI) BUILDING. rebate of the jamb, and mark on the board where it crosses; repeat the operation on the other door- jamb. Now draw back this board, and substitute the threshold in the place of the door-frame, keep- ing the upper corner of the threshold one inch from the edge of the board, as seen in the shaded section in Fig. 76 ; and continue the lines from the board b on to the threshold t. Now all that remains to be done is to gauge on to the threshold the depth of the rebate. If carefully done, the threshold will be a perfect fit every time. A hard pencil sharpened fine, or, better still, a knife, should be used in marking. Fig. 77 represents a round chimney or flagstaff, a, passing through a slanting roof: the shape of the opening in the roof will be oval, as shown at c. Plate 32 shows the mitring of straight and circular mouldings. Fig. 78 shows four circular mould- ings, mitred together so as to form one mould- ing, as shown at A. The centres of all these mouldings come together at a. The mitre joint where 1 and 2 come together is a straight line, b a. The mitre where 2 and 4 come together is a curved line, one end of which is at the inter- section of the edges of the moulding at c; the other end is at the intersection of the centre lines at a; the amount of curvature is found by the intersection of lines e and /, running midway be- Plate 33 98 MODERN CARPENTRY AND KVILDINtt. tween the centres and the outsides of these mould- ings, the intersections being at d. Now, with these three points, , d, and Ill'ILDIXU. 99 AB c f it //. Join f/c; at g is the bevel to cut the edges, the stock being jointed square on the edges. Plate 34 shows the method of finding the bevels for a hopper-box with mitre joints. Fig. 84 : a b c d is the plan of the top of the box, and efgh is the plan of the bottom. Fig. 85: Let a b c be one corner of the plan of the box, and b d be the slant of the side. Draw the line df at right angles with the slant of the side b d. Bisect the angle a b c, getting the line b e, which would be the mitre for the edges if the sides were perpen- dicular ; but as the sides slant, the correct mitre is found by erecting a perpendicular on the line b ?, as at 7i, continuing it until it intersects the line b e. Now, with h as a centre, and a radius tangent to b f, cut b c at g. Join y e. At y is the mitre for the edge. Then with h as a centre, and a radius tangent to b d, cut the line b c at c. Now join c e. At e we have the bevel to cut the sides. Plate 35. Fig. 86 is an elevation of a splayed cir- cular-top window. Fig. 87 shows the method of finding the form of a board to spring around the splayed circular top on the inside, the princi- ple being the same as finding the envelope of a truncated cone (See Plate 7, Fig. 21) ; the bevel of the sides being continued till they intersect at , which is the point to use as a centre, to describe the form of the board. Plate 34. 100 Plate 35. BUILDER'S ESTIMATES. Stone-work is estimated by the perch ; 24f cubic feet making one perch. An 18-inch wall, 1 foot high, and 16 J feet long, contains one perch. Brick-icork. Bricks are usually estimated at 25 to the cubic foot. They usually lay 5 courses to each foot in height. For an 8-inch wall, allow 17 bricks for each square foot of surface. For a 12-inch wall, allow 25 bricks for each square foot of surface. For a 16-inch wall, allow 34 bricks for each square foot of surface. Chimneys. SIZE OF CHIMNEY. NO. OF FLUES. SIZE OF FLUES. NO. OF BRICKS PER FOOT IN HEIGHT. 1C X 10 inches 1 8X8 inches 30 16 X 24 1 8X1G " 40 16 x 28 " 2 8X8 " 50 16 x 40 3 SX 8 70 16 x 52 4 SX 8 " 90 20 X 20 1 12X12 " 40 20 X 24 " 1 12X16 " 45 102 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 103 The above does not include waste, which must be allowed. Mortar for Brick-work. One cask of good lime to a load (about 20 bushels) of sand is sufficient for 1,000 or 1,100 bricks. Cement for Cellar Bottoms should be mixed in the pro- portion of 1 of cement to 3 of gravel, and should be laid 3 inches thick. One cask of cement will cover 5 or 6 square yards. Plasterers' Mortar. One cask of lime to a load (20 bushels) of sand, and 2 bushels of hair, will cover about 50 square yards of surface ; and J cask of lime will skim the same. In estimating the surface to be covered, plas- terers deduct only half the area of openings, such as doors and windows, from the square yards in the walls. TIMBERS. Timbers for a Light Frame. Sills, 4x6 or 6x6 inches. Flooring-timbers, 2x6 inches, put from 16 to 22 inches apart. Posts, 3x5 inches. Ledger-boards, 1x6 inches, well fitted and nailed. Studding, 2x3 inches, put 16 inches to centres. Plates, 3x4 inches. Rafters, 2x5 inches, put 2 feet apart. Partition stud- ding, 2x3 and strapping 1x3 inches, put 16 inches to centres. Timbers for a Medium Frame. Sills, 6x7, 7x8, or 8x8 inches. Flooring timbers, 2x8. 9, or 10 inches, 104 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. put 1C or 18 inches apart, and bridged. Posts, 4x6 or 4x8 inches. Studding, 2x4 inches, put'16 inches to centres. Window and door studs, 3x4, or 4 x 4 inches. Ledger-boards, 1 x 7 or 8 inches, well fitted and nailed, or girts 4 or 5x7 or 8 inches. Plates, 3x4 inches. Rafters, 2xG inches, put 2. feet apart. Main partition studs 2x4 inches; other partitions, 2x3 inches, put 12 or 16 inches to centres. Timbers for a Good Heavy Frame for Dwelling- House. Sills, 8x8 or 8x10 inches. Flooring timbers, first story, 2x12 inches; second story, 2x10 inches; third story, 2x8 inches, put 16 or 18 inches apart, and well bridged. Side girts, 5x8 inches. End girts, 6 x S inches. Outside studding, 2x5 inches, put 12 or 16 inches to centres. Window and door studs, 3x5 inches. Rafters, 2x8 inches, put 20 or 24 inches apart. Main partitions, 2x5 inches ; other partitions, 2x4 inches, put 12 or 16 inches to centres. To square the sills of a house, make a mark on the upper outside edge of the side sill 8 feet from the corner of the house, and 6 feet from the corner of the house on the 'end sill ; when the sills are square, a 10- foot pole will just reach across from point to point. Framing and Boarding. To estimate the number of square feet of boards required to board a building, and lay the under floors, double the length, and also the width of the building ; add these amounts, which gives the length around the building ; multiply this by the length of the outside studding, which gives the square MODKHX CARPENTJIY AXJJ r.riLDIXtr. 107 feet in the walls of the house. If the house has a pitch roof, multiply the width of the house by the rise of th roof: the result will be the square feet in 2 gables. Then, to find the square feet in the roof : to the length of the house, add the amount of projection at both ends (generally about 18 inches at each end, which makes 3 feet to be added), which amount multiply by twice the total length of the rafters, which gives the square feet in the roof. Then for the floors, multiply the length of the building by the width, and multiply this by the number of floors, which gives the square feet in all of the floors. Add together these different amounts, and add for waste, which will give the number of square feet required. In estimating the labor in framing and boarding, some builders reckon eight or ten dollars per thousand feet. TABLE OF BRACES. UUN. LENGTH OF BRACE. 2ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. 3in 3 ft. 2,^ in. 2ft. Gin. x 2ft. 6 in 3ft. 6^- in. 2ft, Din. X2 ft. 9 in 3 ft. lOf & in. 3ft. in. X 3ft. in 4ft. 2 - ; & in 3ft. 3 in. X 3 ft. 3 in 4ft. 7i & in 3ft. Gin. x 3 ft. 6 in 4ft. Hi in. 3ft, U in. x 3 ft. 9 in 5ft. 3^ in. 4ft. in. X4 ft. Oin 5ft. 75 in. 4ft. 3 in. x 4 ft. 3 in 6ft. Oi in. 4ft. 6 in. x 4ft. G in 6ft. 4| in. 4ft. 9 in. x 4 ft. 9 in 6ft. Sin. oft. Oin. x 5 ft Oin 7ft. OH! ih in. 1ft, 6 in. x 2 ft. Oin 2ft. 6 in. 3 ft. in. X4 ft. in. . . . 5 ft. in. 108 MODEJ1X CARPENTRY AXD BUILDING. BOARD, PLANK, AND SCANTLING MEASURE. Width. lln. 2 In. 3 In. 4 In. 5 In. 6 In. 7 In. 8 In. 9 In. 2X2 2X3 2X4 oX3 Ft. f 1 Ft. In. 1 Ft. In. 2 Ft. In. 3 Ft. In. 4 Ft. In. 5 Ft. In. 6 Ft. In. 7 Ft. In. 8 Ft. In. 9 2 2 4 6 8 10 1 1 2 1 4 1 6 3 3 6 9 1 3 1 6 1 9 2 2 3 3 3 7 10 2 1 5 1 9 2 2 4 2 7 4 4 8 4 1 8 2 2 4 2 8 3 4* 4 9 1 6 1 10 2 3 2 7 3 3 4 5 5 10 3 8 2 1 2 6 2 11 3 4 3 9 5| 5 11 4 10 2 3 2 9 3 2 3 8 4 1 6 6 1 6 2 2 6 3 3 6 4 4 6 6 6 1 1 7 2 2 2 8 3 3 3 9 4 4 4 10 7 7 1 2 9 2 4 2 11 3 6 4 1 4 8 5 3 7* 7 3 10 2 6 3 1 3 9 4 4 5 5 7 8 8 4 2 2 8 34 40 4 8 5 4 6 i 8 5 2 1 2 10 36 43 4 11 5 8 6 4 9 9 6 2 3 3 3 9 4 6 5 3 6 6 9 9 9 7 2 4 3 2 3 11 4 9 5 6 6 4 7 1 10 10 8 2 6 3 4 4 2 5 5 10 6 8 7 6 a 10 10 9 2 7 3 6 4 4 5 3 6 1 7 7 10 ! 11 11 10 2 9 3 8 4 7 5 6 6 5 7 4 8 3 j 111 11 11 2 10 3 10 4 9 5 9 6 8 7 8 8 7 M 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12* 1 2 1 3 1 4 2 5 2 6 3 7 3 8 4 9 4 13 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 13 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 6 5 7 6 9 7 10 9 10 1 14 1 2 2 4 3 6 4 8 5 10 7 8 2 9 4 10 6 141 1 2 2 5 3 7 4 10 6 7 3 8 5 9 8 10 10 15 1 3 2 6 3 9 5 6 3 7 6 8 9 10 11 3 15| 1 3 2 7 3 10 5 2 6 5 7 9 9 10 4 11 7 16 1 4 2 8 4 5 4 6 8 8 9 4 10 8 12 16 1 4 2 9 4 1 5 6 6 10 8 3 9 7 11 12 4 17 1 5 2 10 4 3 5 8 7 1 8 6 9 11 11 4 12 9 174 1 5 2 11 4 4 5 10 7 3 8 9 10 2 11 8 13 1 18 1 6 3 4 6 6 7 6 9 10 6 12 13 6 18 1 6 3 1 4 7 6 2 7 8 9 3 10 9 12 4 13 10 19 1 7 3 2 4 9 6 4 7 11 9 6 11 1 12 8 14 3 19 1 7 3 3 4 10 6 6 8 1 9 9 11 4 13 14 7 120 1 8 3 4 5 6 8 8 4 10 11 8 13 4 15 If it be desired to find the square feet in a board which is longer than 20 feet, take the square feet in two s iorter boards, the added lengths of which are equal to the ength of the board which you wish to measure; for in- stance, if the board be 26 feet ong by 19 inches wide, add together the square feet in a 20-foot and a 6-foot mard, each 19 nches wide : 31 feet 8 inches + 9 feet 6 inches = 41 feet 2 inches. M Ol) ERX < 'A RPEX 7 7,' Y AXD B I '1L 109 BOARD, PLANK, AND SCANTLING MEASURE Continued. ! Wi.lth. 10 In. 11 In. 12 In. lain. 14 In. lf> In. It, In. 17 In. 18 In. 2X5 2X6 3X-* 2X7 3X5 2X8 4X4 2 X 9 3X6 Ft. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. f 1 10 11 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 14 15 1 15 2 i 1 8 1 10 2 2 2 2 4 2 G 28 2 10 3 3 -J r, 2 9 3 3 3 3 6 3 9 40 43 4 6 34 2 11 3 2 3 6 3 9 4 1 4 4 48 4 11 .") 3 4 :\ 4 3 8 4 4 4 4 8 5 54 58 I) 44 3 9 4 1 4 6 4 10 5 3 .5 7 6 6 4 6 9 5 4 2 4 7 5 5 5 5 10 6 3 6 8 7 1 7 6 5J 4 7 f> 5 6 5 11 6 5 6 10 74 79 8 3 6 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 6 80 86 9 6| 5 5 5 11 6 6 7 7 7 8 1 8 8 ! 9 2 9 9 5 10 6 5 7 7 7 8 2 8 9 '. 4 9 11 10 6 7i 6 3 6 10 7 6 8 1 8 9 9 4 10 10 7 11 3 8' 6 8 7 4 8 8 8 9 4 10 ID s 11 4 12 8J 7 1 7 9 8 6 9 2 9 11 10 7 11 4 12 12 9 9 76 83 9 9 9 10 6 11 :J 12 12 9 13 6 9 7 11 88 9 6 10 3 11 1 11 10 12 s 13 f, 14 :j 10 S 4 9 2 10 10 10 11 8 12 6 l:j 4 14 2 If) U JS I-JJ 89 97 10 6 11 4 12 3 13 1 14 14 10 15 9 &. 11 ; 9 2 10 1 11 11 11 12 10 13 9 14 8 15 7 16 6 3 11 9 7 10 6 11 6 12 5 13 5 14 4 lo 4 16 3 17 3 11 12" 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 12$ 10 5 11 5 12 6 13 6 14 7 15 7 It) 8 17 S 18 9 13 10 10 11 11 13 14 1 15 2 16 3 17 4 18 5 19 6 li 11 3 12 4 13 6 14 7 15 9 16 10 18 19 1 20 3 14 1 11 8 12 10 14 15 2 16 4 17 6 18 8 19 10 21 141 12 1 13 3 14 6 15 8 16 11 18 1 19 4 20 6 21 9 15 12 6 13 9 15 16 3 17 6 18 9 20 21 3 22 6 14 12 11 14 2 15 6 16 9 18 1 19 4 20 8 21 11 23 3 16 13 4 14 8 16 17 4 18 8 20 21 4 22 8 24 16J 13 9 15 1 16 6 17 10 19 3 20 7 22 23 4 24 9 17 14 2 15 7 17 18 5 19 10 21 3 22 8 24 1 25 6 17A 14 7 16 17 6 18 11 20 5 21 10 23 4 24 9 26 3 18 15 16 6 18 19 6 21 22 6 24 25 6 27 18i 15 5 I 16 11 18 6 20 21 7 23 1 24 8 26 2 27 9 19 15 10 17 5 19 20 7 22 2 23 9 25 4 26 11 28 6 i 191 16 3 17 10 19 6 21 1 22 9 24 4 26 27 7 29 3 1 20' 16 8 18 4 20 21 8 23 4 25 26 8 28 4 30 I To reckon the square feet in a board, multiply the width in inches by the length in feet, and divide this result by 12, which gives the number of square feet it contains. 110 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. BOARD, PLANK, AND SCANTLING MEASURE- Concluded. Width. 19 In. 20 In. 2] In. 22 In. 23 In. 24 In. 25 In. 26 In. 2X10 3X7 2X11 2 X 12 5X5 2X13 4X5 3X8 4X6 Ft. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. r i 1 7 1 8 1 9 1 10 1 11 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 4 3 6 3 8 3 10 4 4 2 4 4 3 4 9 5 5 3 5 6 5 9 6 6 3 6 6 3? 5 6 5 10 6 1 6 5 6 8 7 7 3 7 7 4 6 4 6 8 7 7 4 7 8 8 84 88 4 7 1 7 6 7 10 8 3 8 7 9 94 99 5 7 11 8 4 8 9 9 2 9 7 10 10 5 10 10 5i 8 8 9 2 9 7 10 1 10 6 11 11 5 ! 11 11 6 9 6 10 10 6 11 11 6 12 12 6 13 6i 10 3 10 10 11 4 11 11 12 5 13 13 6 14 1 7 11 1 11 8 12 3 12 10 13 5 14 14 7 15 2 yi 11 10 12 6 13 1 13 9 14 4 15 15 7 16 3 8 12 8 13 4 14 14 8 15 4 16 16 8 17 4 85 13 5 14 2 14 10 15 7 16 3 17 17 8 18 5 9 14 3 15 15 9 16 6 17 3 18 18 9 19 6 9i 15 15 10 16 7 17 5 18 2 19 19 9 20 7 10 15 10 16 8 17 6 18 4 19 2 20 20 10 21 8 a 1Q1 16 7 17 6 18 4 19 3 20 1 21 21 10 22 9 5>, 11* 17 5 18 4 19 3 20 2 21 1 22 22 11 23 10 fj Hi 18 2 19 2 20 1 21 1 22 23 23 11 24 11 M 12 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 121 19 9 20 10 21 10 22 11 23 11 25 26 27 1 13 i 20 7 21 8 22 9 23 10 24 11 26 27 1 28 2 21 4 22 6 23 7 24 9 25 10 27 28 1 29 3 14* 22 2 23 4 24 6 25 8 26 10 28 29 2 30 4 22 11 24 2 25 4 26 7 27 9 29 30 2 31 5 15* 23 9 25 26 3 27 6 28 9 30 31 3 32 6 24 6 25 10 27 1 28 5 29 8 31 32 3 33 7 16* 25 4 26 8 28 29 4 30 8 32 33 4 34 8 26 1 27 6 28 10 30 3 31 7 33 34 4 35 9 17* 26 11 28 4 29 9 31 2 32 7 34 35 5. 36 10 17i 27 8 29 2 30 7 32 1 33 6 35 36 5 37 11 18 28 6 30 31 6 33 34 6 36 37 6 39 18^ 29 3 30 10 32 4 33 11 35 5 37 38 6 40 1 19 30 1 31 8 33 3 34 10 36 5 38 39 7 41 2 19i 30 10 32 6 34 1 35 9 37 4 39 40 7 42 3 120* 31 8 33 4 35 36 8 38 4 40 41 8 43 4 To reckon the square feet in timber, multiply the width in inches by the thickness, and this result by the length in feet. This result divided by 12 gives the number of square feet contained in the piece of timber. MODEliX C Alt l*E \T11Y A\D IH'ILI>IX<1. Ill Shingles. A bundle of shingles, if full size, should have 25 courses on each end, and be 20 inches wide ; or else have 22 courses on one end, and 23 courses on the other, and be 22 inches wide. Four such bundles con- tain 1 ,000 shingles, each supposed to be 4 inches wide. They are usually 10 inches long; sometimes in the nicest class of shingles, they come 18 inches long. It is poor economy to use an inferior quality of shingles ; it costs rather more to lay them than it does good ones, and they make a leaky roof, almost from the first. Spruce shingles are used considerably by some, but are not suita- ble to make a good roof, as they warp and twist, and very quickly split to pieces. Some soft pine or cedar shingles, best quality, are the cheapest in the end : but even bundles of the best quality will contain some hard, glassy shingles, which will act almost as badly as spruce ; they should be thrown out. It takes about 5 pounds of four-penny nails per thou- sand shingles ; or 3 or 4 pounds of three-penny coarse, which we think are preferable. One thousand shingles, laid 4 inches to the weather, will cover 111 square feet. One thousand shingles, laid 4J inches to the weather, will cover 125 square feet. One thousand shingles, laid 5 inches to the weather, will cover 139 square feet. One thousand shingles (18-inch shingles only, except on walls), laid 5J inches to the weather, will cover 153 square feet. The above does not include waste, which must be allowed. Laths are 4 feet Ions:, and come in bundles of 100 each. 112 MODERN CAMPENTliY AND F>UILDING. (We have seen some lots, the bundles of which were short some 20 or 30 laths.) Ten bundles make 1.000, which will cover about 60 square yards, which requires about 7 pounds of three-penny fine nails. Clapboards are usually 4 feet long, and come 25 in a bundle ; 4 bundles making a hundred, which requires about 3J pounds of five-penny nails. One hundred clapboards, laid 4 inches to the weather, will cover 133 square feet. One hundred clapboards, laid 4J inches to the weather, will cover 150 square feet. This does not include waste, which must be allowed. Sandpaper. No. 00, too fine. No. 0, too fine. No. i, fine enough for rubbing down paint or shellac. No. 1, fine for carpenters. No. 1J, generally used. No. 2, too coarse. Sheet Lead and Zinc for Flashings. Sheet lead -fa inch thick weighs 2 pounds per square foot ; -f inch thick, weighs 3 pounds per square foot (generally used) ; T ^ inch thick, weighs 4 pounds per square foot ; -fa inch thick, weighs G pounds per square foot ; inch thick, weighs 8 pounds per square foot. Sheet zinc comes in sheets 3x7 feet. A sheet of No. 9 zinc (commonly used) weighs 14 pounds, that is, about f pounds per square foot. To bend a Gooseneck. Fill the lead pipe full of sand, ram it in well and plug up both ends, bend it carefully over your knee, or around a barrel or smooth tree. To bend Brass or Copper Pq)es. Fill them with melted rosin, bend carefully, and then melt out the rosin. MODE11N CAKPENTJtY AND BUILDING. 113 WINDOWS. These are the sizes made by Boston door, sash, and blind manufacturers. Weight, Weight, Weight, Line for 12 Lights. 4 Lights. Width. Height. IJin. Thick. 11 in. Thick. Hin. Thick. each Weight. Inches. Inches. Ft. In. Ft. In. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Feet. 7x () 104X18 2 Of 3 5 3 - - 2i _ 10^X22 2 Of 4 1 - 2j 8X10 12 X20 2 3| 3 9 3;i 34 4 i 24 SX12 12 X24 2 3 4 5 4 4* 44 3 _ 12 X25 2 3| 4 7 - 3i 9X11 134X22 2 6| 4 1 _ 44 9X12 134X24 2 6 4 5 4- 44 42 3 i 9X13 9 X 14 13| X 26 134X28 2 6 2 6l 4 9 5 1 9 5* 5 4 if 9X15 134X30 2 6| 5 5 4 3| 9X16 134 x 32 2 6 5 9 _ 6 4 - 14 X26 2 7g 4 9 - 4f 5 3i 14 X28 2 7| 5 1 5 5 34 _ 14 X30 2 7$ 5 5 - ! 5 9 4 5 4 1 31 4 IS X 30 9| 18X32 9 5 5 5 9 4s 4J 3| 15 X26 15 X28 6J 4 9 5 1 3| 31 3A 18 X 34 9 IS X 36 94 6 1 6 5 5 51 4 1 4 5 15 X30 6| 5 5 4 31 20 X 28 11 5 1 4 3i 15 X32 * i ', 5 9 4^ 4 20 X 30 11 5 5 41 3f 15 X34 6* 6 1 4 2 41 20 X 32 11 5 9 5 4 15 X36 64 6 5 43 4^ 20X34 11 6 1 51 41 16 X28 7* 5 1 4 8l 20 X 36 11 6 5 fii 4^ 16 X30 74 55 4$ 3jj CELLAR WINDOW SASH. Size of Glass. Thick- ness. No. of Lights. He ght. Size of Glass. Thick- ness. No. of Lights. Heiglit. 6X 8 in. 1 in. 3 lights 1 It. high 9X13in. 11 in. 4 lights. 2 It. high fiX 8 1 4 1 '* 9X14 " 1 " 3 " 1 " ^ 6X 8 1 4 2 9 X 15 " > ' 3 " " 7X9 1 2 9X 16 " i < 3 " 7X 9 1 3 9X1" " ^ ' 3 " " 7X 9 1 4 9X18 " 1 3 " 7X 9 1 4 10 X 8 " ^ ' 3 " : " 8X10 1 2 10 X 12 " ' 3 ' ' 3 ' 1 i4 9 X 12 1 3 1 11 X 1 Q ' ' 3 ' i " 9X12 1 4 j 1 11X17 ' ' 3 ' 1 *' 9X12 1 4*2 11 X18 " 3 ' i " 9X13 9X13 1 1 ' 3 ' 1 ' 4 < ! < 12 X 16 " 12X18" ' 3 ' 3 i " i " Blinds .are the same width as windows, and are one-half inch longer. There are usually about 75 feet of line in a hank. Skylight* c >r Hotbed Sash. Outside measures, 3 feet X 6 feet; 3 feet X 5 feet; 1\ feet X 4 feet; 2^ feet X 3| feet; 2 feet X 3 feet. NOTE. Frames for cellar-window sash. For 1 light high, and for 2 lights wide, make frame 31 inches larger than glass. For 2 lights high, and for 3 lights wide, make frame 3 inches larger than glass. MODE It X CAEPEXTRY AXD BUILDIXd. 117 Bins for Grain. A Winchester bushel is 18^ inches in diameter by 8 inches deep, and contains 2,150.4*2 cubic inches, nearly 2,15(H cubic inches, and is used for measur- ing fine stuff like grain, beans, etc. To estimate the size of a box or bin to hold a certain number of bushels, multiply the number of cubic inches in one bushel by the number of bushels which the bin is to hold : this will give the number of cubic inches which the bin will contain. Now assume any two of the three di- mensions of the bin, say the length and the width ; multi- ply the number of inches in length by the number of inches in width ; divide the number of cubic inches to be contained in the bin by this product : the result will be the number of inches in depth of the bin. A cubic foot con- tains about | of a bushel. A box 9 inches X 9 inches x 6| inches deep will contain 1 peck. A box 12 inches x 12 inches x 7 inches deep will contain i bushel. A box 14 inches x 14 inches X 11 inches deep will contain 1 busbel. 5-bushel box or bin : 30 inches x 30 inches x 12 inches deep, or 25 inches x 25 inches x 17-,^ inches deep. 10-busbel bin : 30 inches x 30 inches x 24 inches deep, or 2 feet x 3| feet X 21-ft inches deep, or 3 feet x 3 feet x 12, 3 b inches deep. 15-bushel bin : 3 feet X 3 feet X 1S inches deep, or 3 feet x 4 feet x 18 inches deep. 20-bushel bin : 3^ feet x 3 feet x 24| inches deep, or 3 feet x 4 feet X 21tV inches deep, or 3 feet x 4 feet x 24| inches deep. 25-bnsbel bin : 3 feet x 4 feet x 31 inches deep, or 3 feet x 4 feet x 23H inches deep, or 3 feet x 5 feet x 24| inches deep. 30-bushel bin : 3 feet X 4 feet x 2S inches deep, or 3 feet x 5 feet x 29 inches deep. 118 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 40-bushel bin : 4 feet X 5 feet X 29f inches deep, or 4 feet X 6 feet X 24| inches deep. 50-bushel bin : 4 feet X 6 feet X 31 inches deep, or 4 feet x 7 feet X 23[ inches deep, or 5 feet X 6 feet x 24| inches deep. A common flour-barrel will hold about 3| bushels of grain or other fine stuff. Bins for Apples, Potatoes, etc. In measuring coarse stuff, like apples, potatoes, etc., the bushel is heaped so that the cone, formed by the stuff being heaped, shall be not less than 6 inches in height. A heaped bushel con- tains 2,747.7 cubic inches, about 2,747f cubic inches. 5-bushel box or bin : 30 inches x 30 inches x 15 inches deep, or 2 feet x 3 feet x 151 inches deep. 10-bushel bin: 2 feet x 3 feet x 2l inches deep, or 3 feet x 4 feet x 16 inches deep. 15-bushel bin : 3 feet x 4 feet x 23| inches deep. 20-bushel bin: 3 feet x 4 feet x 32 inches deep, or 3 feet x 4 feet X 27^ inches deep. 25-bushel bin: 3-i feet x 4 feet x 34 inches deep, or 3 feet x 5 feet x 31| inches deep, or 3 feet x 5 feet x 27| inches deep. 30-bushel bin: 3 feet x 5 feet x 38 inches deep, or 3| feet x 5 feet x 32f inches deep. 40-bushel bin : 3 feet x 6 feet x 36 inches deep, or 4 feet x 6 feet x 31| inches deep. 50-bushel bin : 4 feet x C feet x 39f inches deep, or 5 feet x 5 feet x 3S inches deep, or 5 feet by C feet x 31 f inches deep. A common flour-barrel will hold about 2 bushels of apples or potatoes. To estimate the Size of a Tank to hold a certain Num- ber of Gallons. A gallon contains 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot contains about 7^ gallons. Multiply the num- ber of cubic inches in one gallon by the number of gallons, which will give the number of cubic inches which the tank MODERN CARPENTRY AND KVILDIXU. 119 will contain ; now assume any two of the three dimen- sions of the tank, say the length and the breadth ; multi- ply the number of inches in length by the number of inches in breadth ; divide the number of cubic inches contained in the tank by this product : the result will be the number of inches in depth of the tank. A barrel contains 31^ gallons. To estimate the Size of a Bin to hold a certain Num- ber of Tons of Coal. A cubic foot of anthracite coal weighs from 50 to 55 pounds : so a ton will occupy a space of 36 or 40 cubic feet (3G cubic feet is usually considered correct). Multiply the number of tons which the bin is to contain by the number of cubic feet contained in one ton, which will give the number of cubic feet which the bin is to contain ; assume any two of the three dimensions of the bin, say the length and breadth ; multiply the length, in feet, by the breadth, also in feet ; divide the number of cubic feet contained in the bin by this product : the re- sult will be the depth of the bin in feet. If a ton of coal occupies 36 cubic feet, then a bin 4 feet x 4 J feet will hold a ton of coal for each 2 feet in depth ; a bin 4 feet x 6 feet will hold a ton of coal for each 18 inches in depth ; a bin 6 feetx 6 feet will hold a ton of coal for each 12 inches in depth. Miscellaneous. In painting, all knots and sappy places should have one or two coats of shellac varnish previous to the first coat of paint. In nice houses, the entire wood- work of the inside is given one or two coats of shellac previous to painting. This prevents the knots and sap from staining the paint yellow. 120 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Window runs should never be varnished. To help drawers and window sashes slide easily, rub the running parts with a piece of bayberry tallow or paraffiue wax. This, however, is not a substitute for easing them with a plane. A good thing to use in patching small scars in plaster- ing is calcined plaster (sometimes called plaster-of -Paris ), mixed with common flour paste. If the plaster is mixed with water it sets almost instantly ; but when mixed with paste it sets quite slowly, giving time to use it as may be desired. A flour-bairel is 28 to 30 inches high, and 20 or 21 inches in diameter at the largest part. This note may be of use in fitting up closets and pantries. Weights of Various Materials. These are taken from various sources, and are generally considered as practi- cally correct, although different pieces of the same mate- rial will vary considerably : especially is this true of wood ; one piece of dry pine will sometimes weigh nearly double as much as another. The weights given are per cubic foot, except when otherwise stated : Ash, 43 to 50 Ibs ; Babbitt metal, 456.32 (cubic inch, .263) ; beech, 43 ; birch, 37 to 44 ; brick and mortar, 115 ; boxwood, 80; cast brass, 537.75 (cubic inch, .31) ; ce- dar, 35 ; chalk, 145 to 162 ; charcoal. 18 ; chestnut, 38 ; cork, 15 ; cast copper, 537.3 (cubic inch, .31) ; cannel coal, 79.5 : bituminous coal, 45 to 55 ; anthracite coal, 50 MO DEUX CAItPEXTHY AND BUILDING. 121 to 55 ; grindstone, 1:33.93; granite, 180; ebony, 74; English elm, :34 to 36 : freestone, 150 ; flint glass, 192 (cubic inch, .111) ; crown and common green glass, 158 (cubic inch, .091) ; plate glass, 172 (cubic inch, .099) ; hornbeam, 47 ; cast iron, 451 (cubic inch, .26) ; wrought iron, 485 (cubic inch. .281) ; iron-wood, 71 ; ivory, 114; lignumvitae, 83; cast lead, 708.5 (cubic inch, .41); sheet lead, 711. G; marble, 145 to 170; mercury, 848 (cubic inch, .49) ; Honduras mahogany, 55 ; Nassau mahogany, 42 ; Spanish mahogany, 53 ; ma- ple, 42 ; white oak, 45 to 50 ; live oak, 70 ; white pine, 27 to 34 ; yellow pine, 32 to 40 ; rubber, 58 ; spruce, 29 ; silver, 653.8 (cubic inch, .377); steel, 499 (cubic inch, .288); dry sand, 117; sandstone, 140; water. 62.5 ; sea water, 64.18; cast zinc, 437 to 450 (cubic inch, .25) ; gold, 1,203 Ibs. 10 ounces. To distinguish Right-hand from Left-hand Loose Butts. Take one in your hands, and open it so that the side having the countersunk holes for the screws will be up ; then draw it apart, having the pintle pointing from you ; then, if the part containing the pintle is in your right hand, it is a right-hand butt; if it is in your left hand, it is a left-hand butt. (See Plate 36. Fig. 91 shows a right-hand loose butt drawn apart, and Fig. 92 shows a left-hand loose butt.) The part of the butt containing the pintle belongs on the door-jamb, or door-frame. Right-hand butts go on right-hand doors, left-hand butts on left-hand doors. A door opening from you to the right is a right-hand door : one opening from you to the left as a left-hand door. 122 MODERN CARPENTRY AXD BUILDING. To find the Proper Angle to cut the Mitre of a Rake- moulding Mitre-box. If the building is square, or has square corners, the mitre for the rake-moulding will be an angle of 45 let fall perpendicularly, when the moulding sets at the same slant as the roof. If the building is not square, then the angle for each corner of the building may be found by bisecting the angle formed by the side and end of the building (see Plate 1, Fig. 2) : then the mitre for the rake-moulding will be the angle, found as above, let fall perpendicularly. Set a bevel to the angle found, and mark the angle on the top of the mitre-box, as shown in Plate 36, Fig. 90, >, representing the angle : then draw a line square from b to c. (If the building is square, the distance from a to c will be equal to the width of the box from outside to outside, from b to c.) In Fig. 89 we have shown the mitre-box set at the same slant as the roof, so that the angle on the side of the box stands perpendicularly ; then lay off a c at right angles with a 6, making the length of a c the same as the length of a c in Fig. 90 ; then draw the line c d with the bevel used to draw the down bevel at ab (which is the same as the down bevel of the rafters) ; then, to lay out the mitre on the box, make a c, Fig. 90, the same length as a d, Fig. 89 ; then square across from c to 6, join a and &, which gives the actual angle to cut the mitre, so that, if the building is square, an angle of 45 let fall perpendicu- larly would describe this angle on the box, when the box is set on the same slant as the roof, as shown in Fig. 89. For convenience of workmen, we have laid out the mitres to cut rake-moulding mitre-boxes. They are as follows, and bevels can be set to the required number of degrees . by the use of the protractor on Plate 8 : Plate 36. 123 124 MODERN CARPE \TJtY AND BUILDING. The angle of the mitre for pitch is about 40. The angle of the mitre for pitch is about 37. The angle of the mitre for square pitch is about 35. These are the angles for square buildings, and will not answer for other than square buildings. Given the Diameter, to find the Rise for any Chord or Span. It sometimes occurs, that it is desired to describe a segment of a circle of great radius ; but the amount of rise is not known. For example : A building of brick or stone is to be constructed on part of a street which is curving ; the radius of the curve being, say, 150 feet. The stone-cutter wants a pattern made to use for shaping the underpinning, the window-sills, etc. : he wants the pattern 8 feet long, so as to do for all the stone- work. Now, here we have an 8-foot segment of a 300-foot circle. It is impossible to make any thing like a true curve of that size by means of a line used as a radius. If we knew the amount of rise, we could describe the curve by means of the triangular frame described in Plate 3, Fig. 8 ; but, although the amount of rise is not known, it is a very easy matter to figure it out. The rule is as follows : Sub- tract the square of the chord or span from the square of the diameter, and extract the square root of the remain- der. Subtract this root from the diameter, and halve the remainder, which gives the rise. To illustrate. The diameter being 300 feet, the square of the diameter is 300 x 300 feet, which is 90,000 feet. The square of the chord or span (8 feet) is 8 x 8 feet, which is 64 feet, which, subtracted from the square of the diameter, leaves 89,936 remainder, the square root of which is MODEHX CABPEXTliY AXD BUILDIX<+. 127 299.893+, which, subtracted from the diameter (300 feet), leaves .107 remainder, half of which gives .053") feet as the rise, which we multiply ly 12 to get the num- ber of inches, which gives .042 indies. By referring to our table of decimal parts of an inch with fractional equivalents, we find that this is practically | of an inch rise. Now, knowing the rise, and the chord or span, we can describe the curve by means of the frame arrange- ment described in Plate 3, Fig. H. Descriptions and Uses of the Various Markings on Rules and Squares, including the Slide-rule, and how to use it. Although the markings on rules and squares were made for the express convenience of workmen, yet but very few understand the uses of them. Every workman ought to be perfectly familiar with all of them, so as to avail him- self of every advantage they afford. On Plate 37 will be found illustrations of the most important markings. Fig. 93 is the board- measure commonly found on the back of the blade of ordinary 2-foot squares. To find the num- ber of square feet in a board, find the number represent- ing the length of the board in feet in the column under 12 inches, then in the same line find the number of square feet under the number of inches in width. For instance : Suppose a board is 14 feet long, and G inches wide, in the column under 12 inches we find 14, the length of the board in feet : then on the same line, under 6 inches (the width) , we find 7, which is the number of square feet con- tained in the board. Again, suppose the board is 8 feet long, and 5J wide, under 12 inches we find 8 (the length of the board in feet) : then on the same line we find that 128 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 5J comes of the space beyond 3, which shows that the board contains 3f square feet, or 3 feet 8 inches. If the board is 12 feet long, then the number of inches in width will be the number of square feet contained in the board ; or, if the board is 12 inches wide, then the number of feet in length will be the number of square feet contained in the board. Instead of finding the length in feet in the column under 12 inches, we may find the inches in width, then in the same line we will find the number of square feet under the number of inches that the board is feet in length. For instance : Suppose the board is 16 feet long, and 9 inches wide, under 12 inches we find 9, the width in inches: then under 1(3 inches, which repre- sents 16 feet (the length), we find 12, which is the num- ber of square feet which the board contains. If either the length or the width exceeds the figures on the square, find the square feet in a board of half the length or half the width, and double the result. Some say that this kind of board-measure is not exact, that it only approximates. This statement is not true. The whole number of square feet is found exactly where it occurs. For instance : A board 8 inches wide, which will contain 5 square feet, must be exactly 1\ feet long ; and it will be seen, by an inspection of the square, that the 5 occurs exactly under 7^ inches on the square. It is not approximate: it is EXACT. Fig. 94 exhibits what is called "The Essex Board- measure," which is adopted by some makers. In this style of board-measure the number of square feet and inches, or square feet and twelfths, are found under every inch in length of the square. The number of square feet MODERN CARPENTR ijj'iy'iU'm'iyMiU'iyM^i^ t HSE ffi g lie lay 3 jgg ar 33.95||? 38.19 |j 42.43 |gj 46.67 |6 50 . 91 |3| 55 . 16 1-0- . .2*0' 2 I 6 ' ' D 24 8 . , .16 V4 . .1.1 i 2| 3 l 6 6 7 8| 9 i|o a 1 1)2 __ ^_ i,| nil i In 1 2 3 4 5 S ..I..I,. ^^ 1 *^- 3 2 IWCH 1V4 i i i i H i i 1 i i , | i i | T-r-l 1 1 1H i i i l i -i 1 1 98 99 JO 20 30 40 5O 60 7O ui nUmt: iiiiiiiiiiiiniinmiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimmmmm 130 COP' AND BUILDING. PLATE 37. 14 IS II 4==^ L2 13 14 13 _ 10 1? 18 12 , 13 14 ^ 15 _ii 12 13_ 93 1 Rio fl i ai i 10 aj. aa 1910 ai 213 221 6 1 04 67.90 7. 37 84.85 ||| 30. ( 95 96 10 ' e' ' 6 i . i . i . r . 97 4 S 5g5 7 8 iiiiiiiii|iiiinii 101 o 7, a a>, i.o P jW p'm'l'm'm IL T 100 W.A.8. Del. See pp. 127 to 148. 131. 3HT. MOD Elf .V CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 133 iii a board is found in the same manner with this kind of board-measure as with the former kind. Suppose a board is 10 inches wide, and 14 feet long, under 12 inches we find 14 (the length in feet) : then in the same line, under 10 inches (the width), we find 11-8, which represents 11 T % square feet. Fig. 95 shows the brace-measure, which is marked on the tongue of squares. The two numbers at the left, one above the other, represent the runs in inches. The num- ber and decimal at the right is the length of the brace in inches and hundredths. Thus, where the run is 57 by 57 inches, the length of the brace is 80.61 inches. Fig. 96 shows the octagonal scale, which is found on the tongue of 2 -foot squares. This scale is used to work from centre lines. If we desire to 8-square a stick of 10-inch timber, we first centre the width of each side, then, with a pair of compasses, take the distance from division 1 to division 10, and set it off on each side of the centre line ; and by laying out both ends, and snap- ping a line, we have a guide to hew by. If the timber is 15 inches square, we take the distance from division 1 to division 15, and set it off on each side of the centre line as before. In many cases we are obliged to work from centre lines ; as, for instance, when we 8-square a log, preparatory to rounding it, as in the case of mast and spar making, after having four sides flat, there is no corner to gauge from. Fig. 97 shows the octagonal scales usually found on rules. The scale marked M is the same as the octagonal scale found on 2-foot squares, only it is sub-divided finer, and works from the centre in the same manner. The 134 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. scale marked E works from the edge or corner. If f stick of timber is 12 inches square, we gauge on from the edge the distance from division 1 to division 12 on the scale E ; or, if it is 14 inches square, we gauge on from the corner the distance from division 1 to division 14. Fig. 98 is a draughting-scale, full size, with six different scales marked off on it. The first one is \ inch to the foot, or J inch = 1 foot : then comes -| inch to the foot, f inch to the foot, 1 inch to the foot, and also l and 1^ inches to the foot. The first foot of the scale J inch to the foot is divided into 6 parts, each part representing 2 inches. All the other scales have the first foot divided into inches. In using these scales to draw by, we begin to count the number of feet from the second foot, which is numbered 1, and count to the right: then, to get inches, we count to the left. For instance : If we are drawing with the scale of f inch to the foot, and we want to get 2 feet 5 inches, we set one point of a pair of compasses to 5 inches, counting from the right hand toward the left, then extend the other point of the compasses to the right till it reaches the 2 feet, which gives us the required 2 feet 5 inches, which we transfer to our drawing. These scales are usually scattered around when put on to the 3-jointed rules, but on single- jointed rules they are often all put together the same as seen in Fig. 98. Fig. 99 represents a scale of degrees, which is found on several draughting implements. To use this scale, we first draw a horizontal line (a b) a couple of inches long (see Plate 36, Fig. 88) ; set one point of a pair of com- passes at the left-hand end (a) of this line, and, using the distance from C to 60 for a radius, describe part of a -n z ^ f s i g c- m Si ! S en i 5 00 O MOD'ERX CARPEXTItY AXD BUILDING. 137 circle (6 c) ; then using b as a centre, and with a radius equal to the length from C to any number of degrees desired, cut the segment be, as seen at d; draw a line joining a and d, and we have an angle of the desired number of degrees. Fig. 100 shows a diagonal scale for obtaining hun- dredths of an inch, which is found on some 2-foot squares, and on some draughting-scales. It is merely 1 square inch, divided vertically into 10 parts by horizontal lines. The upper and lower edges are divided into ten parts each : then a line is drawn from the upper left-hand corner to the first division on the bottom edge, another line from the first division at the upper edge to the second division on the lower edge, and so on. The space between the vertical line at the left, and the first diagonal line, is y^ of an inch on the first line down from the top ; each space to the right on this line is T x o ff more ; so that from the vertical line to the second diagonal line is T y ff on this same line, to the third diagonal line is yVff and so on. From the vertical line to the first diagonal line is T Q of an inch on the second line down from the top, and every space to the right on this line is y 1 ^ more ; so that from the vertical line to the second diagonal line is y^, and so on. From the vertical line to the first diagonal hue is y$Q on the third line down from the top, T JQ on the fourth line down, y^ on the fifth line down, and so on. To mark off any number of inches and hundred ths, measure off the desired number of inches, less 1 and the decimal, then, with a pair of compasses, take 1 inch and the required number of hundredths, and add it to the length already measured off. For instance : If we want to measure off 138 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 35.58 inches, we first measure off 34 inches ; then on the eighth line clown from the top, from the vertical line to the first diagonal line, is yf^y, then to each of the others is y 1 ^ more ; so we take five of these spaces, which, with the first space, makes y 5 ^- ; so we set a pair of compasses from the preceding inch to this point, and add it to the 34 inches already marked off, and it gives us the desired 35.58 inches. THE SLIDE-RULE. FIG. 101. The slide-rule consists of four lines, viz., A, B, C, D ; A being on the upper edge of the rule, B being on the upper edge of the slide, C being on the lower edge of the slide, and D being on the lower edge of the rule. The lines A and B work together, and the lines C and D work together. The divisions and numbers on A and B are exactly alike ; and, when closed, they stand thus : A 1 2345 etc. B 1 2345 etc. But, if 1 on the slide B is set to 2 on the rule A, then the numbers will stand thus : A 1 2 4 G 8 etc. B 1234 etc. It will be seen that the proportion of 2 to 1 runs throughout, each number on A being the product of the number immediately underneath, on B, multiplied by 2 ; or, inversely, each number on B being the result of divid- ing the number immediately above, on A, by 2. If 1 on the slide B is set to 3 on the rule A, the num- bers will stand thus : A 1 3 G 9 32 etc. B 1284 etc. CARFENTHY AXD liriLDiyd. 139 It will be seen that the proportion f runs throughout, each number on A being the product of the number imme- diately underneath, on B, multiplied by 3 ; or, inversely, each number on B being the result of dividing the num- ber immediately above, on A, by 3. The C and D lines are relatively different, each num- ber on the slide C being the square or self multiple of the number immediately underneath, on the rule D ; or, inversely, each number on D being the square root of each number immediately above it, on C.* The numbers and divisions are to be read decimally ; for the spaces are, or are supposed to be, divided and sub- divided into tens and tenths. The ordinary reading of the divisions on the lines A, B, and C, is, beginning at the left, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, G, 7, 8, 9, 10, which is marked 1 ; 11, which is not numbered; 12; then the intermediate num- bers, 13, 14, 15, etc., which are not numbered, up to 20, which is marked 2 ; then the intermediate numbers, 21, 22, 23, etc., up to 30, which is marked 3 ; then continu- ing on to 40, which is marked 4 ; 50, which is marked 5 ; 60, marked 6 ; 70, marked 7 ; 80, marked 8 ; 90, marked 9 ; and 100, which is marked 10. Between 1 and 2 are 10 principal divisions, which indicate 1 plus any number of tenths. The first principal division beyond 1 indicates I T \J-, the second division indicates 1^, and so on up to 2. Each of these principal divisions between 1 and 2 are subdivided into 5 parts, each part representing T f ^ : so * The square of any number is the result obtained by multiplying that num- ber by itself : thus the square of25s2x2=4; the square of 3 is 3x3 = 9. The square root of any number is that number which, when multiplied oy itself, will produce the given number: thus the square root of 4 is 2, since 2x24; the square root of 9 is 3, since 3x3 = 9. 140 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. the first division beyond 1 is IY^, the second is ly^ , the fifth is 1 T W, or l T \j ; the division next to 2 is 1 T %%, etc. Between 2 and 3 the divisions are tenths and half- tenths, a half- tenth being T ^. From 3 to 10 the divisions are nil teiiths ; from 10 to 20 each subdivision represents -f^; the first division beyond 20 represents 20 T % ; the second division represents 21 ; the third division represents 21^; the fourth represents 22, and so on up to 30 ; from 30 up to 100 each division represents 1. These numbers, marked 1, 2, 3, etc., are arbitrary, and have no fixed values ; for, beginning at the left, 1 might represent 10 ; 2 would represent 20 ; each of the principal divisions between 1 and 2, which in the ordinary reading represented tenths, would represent 1 ; each of the sub- divisions, which in the ordinary reading represented T f ^, would represent T 2 F ; 3 would represent 30 ; the number which formerly represented 10 would represent 100 ; the number which formerly represented 12 would represent 120 ; the number formerly representing 20 would represent 200, and so on, the value of the whole line being increased tenfold ; or, 1 at the left might represent 100, 2 would represent 200, and so on, the value of the whole line being increased one hundred-fold. On different lines, 1 may bear different values in working out a problem. For example : Multiply 40 by 5. We set 1 , which is on the line B, to 5, on the line A : above 4, which we will call 40, on the line B, we find 20 on the line A ; but, since we have increased the value of one of the divisions tenfold its ordinary value, we must increase the result the same, which gives us 200 as the answer. The line D is divided the same as A, B, and C are, from 1 to 10, only on a MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDINd. 141 larger scale; and 1 on this line may represent 1, 10, or 100, the same as the other lines. It will require consid- erable practice to readily and correctly read the numbers and tenths or huudredths on the slide-rule, with the differ- ent values which 1 may bear ; and, in practising, it would be well for the beginner to compare the answers he obtains with some printed tables that are correct. If his answers do not agree with the tables, he has made an error somewhere, which must be rectified. By consid- erable and careful practice he will become expert in the use of the slide-rule. Multiplication by the Slide-rule. RULE. Set 1 on the line B to the number on A, which is used as the multi- plier : then above the number on B, which is used as a multiplicand, find the answer on the line A. P^xamples. To multiply 4 by 5, we set 1 on the line B to 4 on the line A : then above 5 on the line B we find the answer 20 on the line A. To multiply 3J by 2, we set 1 on the line B to 2 on the line A : then above 3| on the line B we find the an- swer 8J on the line A. To multiply 30 by 4, we set 1 on the line B to 4 on the line A : then above 3, which we will call 30, on the line B, we find 12 on the line A. Now, as we have increased the value of three tenfold over its ordinary value, we must increase the result tenfold to get the answer: 10 times 12 equal 120, the required answer. To multiply 35 by 25, we set 1 on the line B to 2J (2.5, or 2 T 5 o), which we will call 25, on the line A : then above 3J (3.5, or 3 T 5 o), which we will call 35, on the line B, 142 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUJLDlNd. we find 8.75 (8-^ = 8^) on the line A. Now, as we have increased the value of 2| tenfold, and also have increased the value of 3^ to tenfold its ordinary value, we must increase the result ten times tenfold, which is one hundred-fold: one hundred times 8.75 (8 T 7 Q 5 ^j) is 875, the required answer. Division by the Slide-rule. RULE. Set the number indicating the divisor on the line B under the number indicating the dividend on the line A : then above 1 on the line B find the answer on the line A. Examples. To divide 24 by 6, we set 6 on the line B under 24 on the line A : then above 1 on the line B we find the answer 4 on the line A. To divide 260 by 13, we set 13 on the line B under 26, which we will call 260, on the line A : then over 1 on the line B we find 2 on the line A. But, since we have in- creased the value of 26 tenfold its ordinary value, we must increase the result tenfold : ten times 2 equal 20, the required answer. To divide 3,500 by 50, we set 5, which we will call 50, on the line B under 35, which we will call 3,500, on the line A : then above 1 on the line B we find 7 on the line A. Now, to find how many fold to increase this result, we divide the number of times we increased the value of 35, which we increased one hundred-fold, by the number of times we increased the value of 5, which was tenfold ; 100 divided by 10 equals 10, so we must increase the result tenfold ; ten times 7 equal 70, the required answer. Proportion by the Slide-rule. Example 1. As 3 is to MODEEX CAUPENTRY AXD BUILDING. 143 12, so is 5 to the answer. We set 3 on the line B under 12 on the line A : then above 5 on the line B we find the answer, 20, on the line A. Example 2. As 2J is to 5J, so is 3 to the answer. We set 2| on the line B under 5-} on the line A : then above 3 on the line B we find the answer, 6 T 3 ( 4,000 Cedar . 11 400 " " (safe-load) . to ( 5,000 Chestnut, sweet . . Cypress 10,500 6,000 " wrought . . . (55,000 1 to Deal, Christiana . . Elm 12,400 13,400 (65,000 Lance 2:3,000 " " (safe-l'd), ( 8,000 1 to Lignum-vitae . . . . Locust 11,800 20 500 " bolts .... Lead, cast .... (10,000 52,250 1 800 Mahogany .... " Spanish . a t. 21,000 12,000 8000 Steel, mean .... " maximum . . Tin, cast block . . . " Bauca .... Yellow metal . . . Zinc 88,657 142,000 5,000 2,122 48,700 3,500 Maple Oak, American white, " English . . . "' (seasoned) " African . . . Pear ...... 10,500 11,500 10,000 13,600 14,500 9,800 " sheet .... 16,000 Pine, pitch .... " larch .... " American white, Poplar 12,000 9,500 11,800 7,000 Spruce, white . . . Sycamore 10,290 13,000 Teak .... 14 000 Walnut . . 7 800 Willow 13,000 152 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF WROUGHT-IRON TIE-RODS.* COMMON ENGLISH IKON, Ift INCHES IN DIAMETER. DESCRIPTION OF CONNECTION. Breaking- Weight. Semicircular hook fitted to a circular anil welded eye . . Two semicircular liooUs liooked together . Ibs. 14,000 16,220 29,120 48,160 56,000 Right-angled hook, or gooseneck, fitted into a cylindrical Two links, or welded eyes, connected together .... Straight rod without any connection articulation . . . TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. When one end is fixed, and the other projecting, the strength is inversely as the distance of the weight from the section acted upon ; and the strain upon any section is directly as the distance of the weight from that section. When both ends are supported only, the strength is 4 times greater for an equal length, when the weight is ap- plied in the middle between the supports, than if one end only is fixed. When both ends are fixed, the strength is 6 times greater for an equal length, when the weight is applied in the middle, than if one end only is fixed, or one-half stronger than if both ends were merely supported. | When the weight or strain is uniformly distributed, a beam will sustain double the weight that it would bear if the load was all at the centre. * From one-fourth to one-seventh of the breaking-weight is a safe-load. t If a beam is supported two or three feet from each end, a weight applied in the centre would cause the ends to tip up as the middle went down ; but if the ends were fixed, say, for example, built into a brick wall, the beam would sustain one-half more weight than if the ends were merely supported. MODERN CAEPEXTJiY AND KUILDJXG. 153 TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.* REDUCED TO THE UNIFORM MEASURE OF ONE INCH SQUARE, AND ONE FOOT IN LENGTH, EXTENDING HORIZONTALLY, FIXED AT ONE END, AVEIGIIT SUSPENDED FROM THE OTHER. METALS. Breaking- Weight. J -1 WOODS. Breaking- Weight, i J A Ibs. i 507 Ibs. ( 125 Ash . . ,.. 168 ". Oast-iron \ to 1 to Beech 130 32 i 772 ( 250 Birch 160 40 !170 Chestnut 160 53 " " nu'Hii 681 to *>25 Deal (Christiana) . . Elm .... 137 125 45 30 ( 600 ( 160 Hickory 250 65 ' to < to 295 80 / 700 ( 200 Maple 202 65 Steel (greatest) . . " puddled (per- ) mancnt bent) ) 1,918 800 ( 350 j to ( 450 ( 170 to | 225 55 Norway Pine .... Oak, African .... " American white . live . " English .... 123 208 230 245 !140 to 188 40 50 50 55 {*' ( 45 Brass 58 160 50. Riga Fir 94 30 Teak . . . l> 06 60 STONES (American). Flagging (blue) . . Freestone (Conn.) " (Dorches- ter 31 13 10 8 10 4 3 5 White Pine (Amer.) . Whitewood .... 130 116 45 38 Freestone (N.Jersey) Freestone (N.York) , Granite, blue, coarse, " (Quincy, Mass.) ( 17.8 to ( 20.1 24 18 26 ( 8 to ( 6.5 8 6 8 5 * The safe-load of any material is from one-fourth to one-seventh of its breaking-weight. 154 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. TO COMPUTE THE TRAVERSE STRENGTH OF A RECTANGULAR BEAM OR BAR. When the Beam or Bar is fixed at One End, and loaded at the Other. RULE. Multiply the safe-load given in the table by the breadth and the square of the depth in inches,, and divide the product by the length in feet.* If the Dimensions are required of a Beam or Bar, sup- ported at one End to sustain a Given Weight at the Other End. RULE. Divide the product of the weight and the length in feet by the safe-load given in the table, and the result is the square of the depth multiplied by the breadth or thickness : so by dividing this result by the breadth, and extracting the square root of the quotient, we have the depth in inches. When a Beam or Bar is fixed at Both Ends, and loaded in the Middle. RULE. Multiply the safe-load given in the table by G times the breadth, and by the square of the depth in inches, and divide the product by the length in feet. If the Dimensions of a Beam or Bar are required to support a Given Weight in the Middle, between the Fixed Ends. RULE. Divide the product of the weight and the length in feet by 6 times the safe-load given in the table, and the quotient will be the square of the depth multiplied by the breadth or thickness in inches : so we divide this result by the breadth, and extract the square root of the quotient, which gives the depth ; or, divide * When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout its length, the result must be doubled. MODEHX CAHPEXTUY AXD BUlLDlMi. 155 the result by the square of the depth, and the quotient is the breadth or thickness. When a Beam or Bar is supported at Both Ends, and loaded in the Middle. RULE. Multiply the safe-load given in the table by 4 times the breadth, and by the square of the depth in inches, and divide this product by the length in feet.* If the Dimensions are required to support a Given Weight. RULE. Divide the product of the weight and the length in feet by 4 times the safe-load given in the table ; the result is the square of the depth multiplied by the breadth or thickness : so we divide this result by the breadth, and extract the square root, which gives the depth ; or, divide the result by the square of the depth, and the quotient is the breadth or thickness in inches. In all uses, such as in buildings and bridges, where the structure is exposed to sudden impulses, the load or stress to be sustained should not exceed from J- to -J of the breaking-weight of the material employed ; but when the load is uniform, or the stress quiescent, it may be increased to ^ or J of the breaking-weight. In churches, buildings, etc., the weight to be provided for should be estimated at that which at any time may be placed thereon, or which at any time may bear upon any portion of their floors. Where the weight of people alone is to be provided for, an estimate of 1 75 pounds per square foot of floor-surface is sufficient to provide for the weight of flooring and the * When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout its length, the result must be doubled. 15G MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. load upon it. The usual allowance for stores and facto- ries is 280 pounds per square foot of floor-surface. When a beam has four or more supports, its condition as regards a stress upon its middle is that of a beam fixed at both ends. I WROUGHT-IRON BEAMS.* (TisExrox IRON WORKS, COOPER, HEWITT, & Co., NEW YORK.) g 3 = ^e o 53.5 . I? J, -^H) Safe-Load. ^ ^8, -^-5 Safe-Load. ^ 3*3 'S.S Sf i I .2*0 T;^: .SP JJ g* ^fc*i-5 4) 1 ^^ *- in. in. in. Ibs. Ibs. in. in. in. Ibs. Ibs. 6 4 3 13.3 76,000 9 ^ 4 30 246,000 6 -nr 3{- 16.6 92,000 9 f 5| 50 448,000 7 3 8* 20 124,000 12t tb r 4^ 40 390,000 9 a 3? 23.3 192,000 15 A 4-r6 51.6 640,000 9 A 4 28 240,000 15 A 8 5| 66.6 908,000 To find the Safe-load for any of the Above Beams for a Gil-en Length, Weight to be uniformly distributed. RULE. Divide the safe-load of the beam given in the table by the length in feet'. Illustration. What is the weight, uniformly distrib- uted, that may be borne with safety by an iron beam G inches deep, web T 5 F thick, flanges 3J inches wide, and 10 feet long? We find the safe-load given in the above table to be 92,000 pounds, which, divided by ten, the length in feet, gives 9,200 pounds. : Load uniformly distributed, beam resting upon two supports. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 157 CKUSHING-STKEXGTH OF MATERIALS. DEDUCED TO A VXIFOIIM MKASUKE OF ONE Scjt'AIJK IXCII. MATERIAL. Crutshing- Wcight. MATERIAL. Crushinsr- \Veiglu. METALS. Cast-iron, American, mean . Wrought-iron, American " " mean, 11.8. 129,000 127,720 83,500 164 800 STONES, ETC. Common brick masonry Freestone, Belleville . . . " Caen .... Ibs. ( 500 to ( 800 3,522 1,088 117,000 " Connecticut . 3,919 295 000 " Dorchester . 3,069 Cast-tin 15,500 " Little Falls . . 2,991 Lead 7 730 Granite, Patapsco .... 5,340 WOODS. Ash 6,663 ' Quincy .... Ma ble, Baltimore, large . " small . East Chester* . . Hastings N.Y. 15,300 8,057 18,061 13,917 18,941 Beech 6 963 Italian 19 624 Birch 7 969 Lee Ma*s . . . 22,702 Box 10,513 Montgomery Co., Cedar red 5 968 8,950 Chestnut 5,350 Stockbridge f 10,382 Elm 6 831 11,156 8,925 " fine q 113 18,248 Mahogany, Spanish . . . Maple 8,198 8 150 " Symington, strata 10,124 Oak, American white . Pine, pitch " white 6,100 8,947 5.775 " Symington, strata vertical . . . 9,324 ( 120 S '200 Mortar to ft 350 ( 240 7,Og-> Sandstone, Adelaide . 2.800 Teak 12,100 " Aquia Creek J . 5,340 Walnut 6,645 " Seneca ... 10,762 * Same as that of the General Post-office, Washington. t Same as that of the City Hall, New York. t Same as that of the Capitol, Treasury Department, and Patent Office, 'Washington, D.C. Same as that of the Smithsonian Institute. 158 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. The Orushing-strengtJi of any body is in proportion to the area of its section, and inversely as its height. In tapered columns the strength is determined by the least diameter. With cast-iron, a pressure beyond 20,680 pounds per square inch is of little, if any, use in practice. The safe-load that may be borne by a column of cast- iron, independent of any considerations, regarding the operation of its ends, as to their being flat or rounded, etc., is from 5,000 to 8,000 pounds per square inch for short or stable bodies. MODERN CAltPEXTliY AND BVILD1XU. 15i> i; w M PQ 5 i ' 1 1 2? 1 x ^1 3^ 60 t- o i S 5 i 00 '^ - Cl >.'7' | 1 111 CM CC 11 c M i K * % t c? ? ! = s . S -t c? 111 1 t2 111 I ^ a (M O CD i i f S S co i^ ~ 1 i! o 1 X CC g 1 i 1 ?j 2 -iF -* OS j- III 1 1 1 i s CM CM C? CM 00 3 ill 1 Tt^ ^t* (7^ ;? O co CO CO CM 1 1 i~ 3 III i 1 882 01 ?l 1-1 3 2 e 1 i 1 1 S 1 S 3 P g 26 3 CO ^^ ^f CO s 8 3 S ^ 1 o a 1 38 S S ' 1 1 = 3 C? O? CM i 00 i i i 1 1 Jj V cs t^ I ' i i i 1 1 1 1- 0) 01 01 -t CO O |2 160 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. For tubes or hollow columns, subtract the weight that may be borne by a column of the size of the internal diameter of the tube or column. The thickness of metal should not be less than one-twelfth the diameter. MATHEMATICAL RULES, ETC., FOR THE CONVENIENCE OF MECHANICS. Indicative Characters or Signs. The sign + (plus) between two numbers indicates that they are to be added together. The sign (minus) indicates that the number placed after it is to be subtracted from the number placed before it. The sign x (times) indicates that one number is to be multi- plied by another. The sign -f (divided by) indicates that the number on the left hand is to be divided by the number on the right hand. The sign = (equal to) indicates that the result of the figures before it amounts to the number placed after it. The sign ^ is called the radical sign ; and, if it has a figure 2 placed over it, it signifies that the square root of the number before which it is placed is required. If it has the figure 3 placed over it, then it is the cube rout which is required. In figuring drawings, feet are usually indicated by a single index, and inches are indicated by two indices, thus : 12' 8^" is 12 feet 8f inches. Prime Numbers. A prime number is a number that cannot be divided by any other number without leaving a remainder. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 161 TABLE OF PRIME NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 1,000. 1 59 139 233 1 337 439 557 653 769 883 2 01 149 239 347 443 563 659 773 887 3 07 151 241 349 449 569 661 787 907 5 71 157 251 353 457 571 673 797 911 7 73 163 257 359 461 577 677 809 919 11 79 167 263 367 463 587 683 811 929 13 83 173 269 373 467 593 691 821 937 17 89 179 271 379 479 599 701 823 941 19 97 181 277 383 487 601 709 827 947 23 101 191 | 281 389 491 607 719 829 953 29 103 193 283 397 499 613 727 839 967 31 107 197 293 401 503 617 733 853 971 37 109 199 307 409 509 619 739 857 977 41 113 211 311 419 521 631 743 859 983 43 127 223 313 421 523 641 751 863 991 47 131 227 317 431 541 643 757 877 997 53 137 229 331 433 547 647 761 881 Long-Measure Table. 12 inches make 1 foot 3 feet make 1 yard 5i yards, or 16| feet, make ...... 1 rod or pole 40 rods make 1 furlong 8 furlongs make 1 mile One mile contains 5,280 feet, or 1,760 yards, or 320 rods; 3 miles make 1 league; 6 feet=l fathom. 162 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Surface, or Square Measure. 144 square inches make 1 square foot 9 square feet make 1 square yard 80j square yards make ........ 1 square rod 160 square rods make 1 acre 040 acres make 1 square mile Lathing and plastering are usually reckoned by the square yard. Of flooring, slating, etc., a square is 100 square feet. Cubic, or Solid Measure. 1728 cubic inches make 1 cubic foot 27 cubic feet make 1 cubic yard 16 cubic feet make 1 cord foot 8 cord feet, or 128 cubic feet, make . 1 cord of wood A pile of wood 8 feet long, 4 feet broad, and 4 feet high c'ontains a cord. A cord foot is 1 foot in length of the above pile. A perch of masonry is 16 feet long, 1 foot high, and 18 inches thick : or 242 cubic feet. To reduce Several Fractions to their Least Common De- nominator. The numerator of a fraction is the number above the line ; the denominator is the number below the line. Rule. 1. Find the least common multiple of the denomi- nators for a new denominator. 2. Divide the least common denominator by each given de- nominator, and multiply the quotient by the corresponding numerator, for the new numerators. MODEL' X CAHPKXTIiY A\D BUILDING, 163 EXAMPLE. Reduce 7, :[, , , and V to the least common de- nominator. 2.2 4 3 6 8 2 2 X 2 X 3 x 2 = 24, the least common denominator. 131 2)24 = i$ 4)24 -J = J,S 3)24 i=A 12X1 = 12 X 3 = 18 8X1=8 _5 J. 6)24 = i? S)24_ i = -& 4X5 = 20 3X1=3 Explanation. We first find the least common multiple ot the denominators, 2, 4, 3, 6, and 8, by dividing them by a num- ber which is contained in one or moie of them; and this quo- tient we divide again in the same manner, and so on until the division is complete ; then multiply together the divisors, and the result is the least common multiple of these denominators, which we use for the new denominator. Then divide this new denominator by each of the others, and multiply this quotient by the given numerators. To reduce a Fraction to a Given Denominator. It sometimes happens in figuring out work that the frac- tions come diiferent from any marking of the rule. For in- stance, it may come in ninths, or in fourteenths ; the workman wants to know how many eighths and sixteenths a certain num- ber of ninths or fourteenths may be. Suppose we have \\ of an inch, we want to know how many sixteenths that represents. Rule. Multiply the required denominator by the numera- tor, and divide the product by the denominator of the given fraction : the result will be the required numerator. 164 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Thus 16, the required denominator, multiplied by 11, the numerator, gives 17C; which, divided by 14, the denominator of the given fraction, gives 12W, the new numerator: so that 11 12 A 3 4 14 W=4 8tr ng - To reduce Fractions to Decimals. Rule. 1. Annex ciphers to the numerator, and divide by the denominator. 2. Point off in the quotient as many, decimal places as there- have been ciphers annexed. EXAMPLE. Reduce i to a decimal. Ans. .125 (125 thousandths). 8)1.000 .125 Simple Proportion, or Rule of Three. Simple Proportion is an equality between two simple ratios. Ratio is the relation, in respect to magnitude or value, which one quantity or number has to another of the same kind ; or the quotient arising from the division of one number by another : thus, the ratio of 8 to 4 is 2, since 8 is 2 times 4 ; the ratio of 4 to 8 is |, since 4 is \ of 8. Rule. Make that number the third term which is. of the same kind as the answer; and if, from the nature of the ques- tion, the third term must be greater than the fourth term, or answer, make the greater of the two remaining terms the first term, and the smaller, the second; but, if the third term must be less than the fourth, make the less of the two remaining terms the first, and the greater, the second; then multiply the second and third terms together, and divide their product by the first term : the quotient will be the fourth term, or answer. MODERN CARPENTRY AND PUILDING. 165 EXAMPLES. If a man receives $15 for a week's work, how much shall he have for 7 days' work? da. da. $ $ 6 : 7 : : 15 : ( ) _7 6)105 $17| = $17.50. Ans. If 5 men can build a house in 45 days, how long will it take 8 men? in. in. da. da. 8 : 5 : : 45 : ( ) 5 8) 25 28i days. Ans. Compound Proportion. Compound Proportion is an expression of equality between a compound and a simple ratio. Rule. Make that number the third term which is of the same kind as the answer ; of the remaining numbers, take any two that are of the same kind, and consider whether an answer depending upon these alone would be greater or less than the third term, and place them as directed in simple proportion. Then take any other two of the same kind, and consider whether an answer depending only upon them would be greater or less than the third term, and arrange them accordingly ; and so on until all are used. Multiply the product of the second terms by the third term, and divide the result by the product of the first terms : the quotient will be the fourth term, or answer. Example. If 6 men can build an 8-inch brick wall, 95 feet long and 15 feet high, in 3 days, how long will it take 5 men to build a 12-inch wall, 40 feet long and 9 feet high, the days being 10 hours long in both cases ? 166 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 5 men : 6 men 1 8in ' :12in ' ::3da. if**') 95 long : 40 long 15 high : 9 high j 5 X 8 X 95 X 15 = 57000 6 x 12 X 40 x 9 x 3 = 77760 ~ 57000 = 1.36+ days = 1 day 3 hours 36 + minutes. Example. I paid $35 for the labor of 2 men for 6 days, they working 12 hours daily. How much ought I to pay 4 men for 7 days' work, 10 hours being reckoned a day's work, and paying at the same rate per hour as I paid the first men ? 2 men : 4 men ^ $ 6 da. : 7 da. : : $35 : ( ) 12 h. : 10 h. J 2 x 6 x 12 = 144 4 x 7 x 10 x 35 == 9800 -M44 = 68.05. Ans. $68.05. Square Root. The Square Root of any number is that number which, mul- tiplied by itself, will produce the given number. Rule for extracting the Square Root. 1. Point off the given number into periods of two figures each ; counting from units' place toward the left in whole numbers, and toward the right in decimals. 2. Find the greatest square number in the left-hand period, and write its root for the. first figure in the root; subtract the square number from the left-hand period, and to the remainder bring down the next period for a dividend. 3. At the left of the dividend write twice the first figure of the root, and annex one cipher for a trial divisor ; divide the dividend by the trial divisor, and write the quotient for a trial figure in the root. 4. Add the trial figure of the root to the trial divisor for a complete divisor; multiply the complete divisor by the trial UODKRX CARPENTRY AND BUILD1XG. 167 figure in the root, and subtract the product from the dividend; and to the remainder bring down the next period for a new dividend. .">. To the last complete divisor add the last figure of the root, and to the sum annex one cipher for a new trial divisor, with which proceed as before. Xote 1. If at any time the product be greater than the dividend, diminish the trial figure of the root, and correct the c r ro neons work. Note 2. The left-hand period may contain but one figure. Note 3. If the dividend does not contain the divisor, a cipher must be placed in the root, a4 also at the right of the divisor ; then, after bringing down the next period, this last divisor must be used as the divisor of the new dividend. Note 4- When there is a remainder after extracting the root of a number, periods of ciphers may be annexed; and the figures of the root thus obtained will be decimals. Note 5. The square root of a fraction may be obtained by extracting the square roots of the numerator and denominator separately, providing the terms are perfect squares; otherwise the fractions must first be reduced to decimals. EXAMPLES. What is the square root of 406457.2516? OPEIIATIOX. 40,64,57.25,16(637.54. Am. 36 Trial divisor, Complete divisor, Trial Complete " Trial Complete " Trial Complete " 120 123 464 369 1260 1267 9557 8869 1274.0 1274.5 688.25 637.25 1275.00 1275.04 51.0016 51.0016 168 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. What is the square root of 2 ? 2. ( 1 Trial divisor, 20 Complete divisor, 24 100 96 Trial " 280 Complete " 281 400 281 Trial " 2820 Complete " 2824 11900 11296 Trial " 28280 Complete " 28282 60400 56564 ( 1.4142 +. Ans. Application of Square Root. A Triangle is a figure having three sides and three angles 01 corners. A Rifjlit-angled Triangle is a figure having three sides and three angles, one of which is a right angle. In every right-angled triangle, the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the base and perpendicu- lar. Base. Given the base and perpendicular, to find the hypothenuse. Rule. Add the square of the base to the square of the perpendicular, and extract the square root of the sum: the result is the hypothenuse. Given one side and the hypothenuse, to find the other side. Rule. Subtract the square of the given side from the MODERN CAEPKXTRY AND BUILUING. 169 square of the hypothec use, and extract the square root of the "emainder : the result will be the other side. Examples. 1. Measure off on the end sill 6 feet from the corner of the louse, and on the side sill 8 feet from the same corner: what .mist be the length of a pole that shall just reach the outside of the sills at those points, when the sills are square? Axs. 10 feet. The square of one side is 6 x 6 = 36 ; the square of the other side is 8 x 8 = 64 + 36=100, the square root of which is 10. 2. A brace has a run of 4 feet x 3 feet 6 inches. What is the length of the brace ? Reduce the feet and inches to inches, in this case ; square the length of each run and extract the square root of their sum : the result will be the length of the brace in inches. 3. A square measures 6 feet on a side. What will be the diameter of a circle that shall just enclose it? The diagonal of the square will be the diameter of the circle. All circles are to each other as the square* of their radii, diame- ters, or circumferences. To find the diameter or circumference of a circle which shall contain a certain number of times the area of a given circle : Rule. Square the given diameter or circumference, and state the question as in proportion ; and the fourth term is the square of the required answer, extracting the square root of which gives the answer. Examples. 1. If a one-inch rope will sustain a weight of 500 Ibs., how Tiiuch will a two-inch rope sustain? 1x1 : 2x2 : : 500 Ibs.: (answer). Axs. 2,000 Ibs. 2. If a f-inch pipe will empty a cistern in 1 hour 17 min- utes, how long will it take a 1^-inch pipe to do it ? | x f : x f : : 77 minutes : (answer). ANS. 19^ minutes. 170 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 3. If a one-inch rope will sustain 500 Ibs., what is the size of a rope to sustain 1,000 Ibs. ? 500 : 1,000 : : 1 x 1 : (the square of the answer) = 2, the square root of which is 1|-+. Axs. If + inches. 4. If a chain made of ^-inch round iron will sustain a weight of 1 tons, of what sized iron should a chain be made to sustain a weight of 3 tons ? 1 J : : : -J x J : (the square of the answer) = |, the square root of which is .353+ = almost f inch: therefore a chain made of f-inch round iron is rather more than twice as strong as one made of J-iuch iron. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 171 TABLE OF SQUARE ROOTS FKOM 1 TO 100, INCLUSIVE. Num- ber. Square Root. Num- ber. Square Root. Num- ber. Square Root. Num- ber. Square Root. 1 1.0 26 5.09902 51 7.14143 76 S. 7 1779 2 1.41421 27 5.19615 52 7.2111 77 8.77496 3 1.73205 28 5.2915 53 7.28011 78 8.83176 4 2.0 29 5.38517 54 7.34847 79 8.88819 5 2.23607 30 5 . 47723 55 7.4162 80 8.944 G 2.44948 31 5.56776 56 7.48332 81 9.0 1 2.64575 32 5.65685 57 7.54983 82 9.05538 8 2.82843 33 5.74456 58 7.61577 S3 9.11043 9 3.0 34 5.83095 59 7.68115 84 9.16515 10 3.16228 35 5.91608 60 7.74597 85 9.21955 11 3.31663 36 6.0 61 7.81025 86 9.27362 12 3.4641 37 6.08276 62 7.87401 87 9.32738 13 3.60555 38 6.16441 63 7.93725 88 9.38083 14 3.74166 39 6.245 64 8.0 89 9.43398 15 3.87298 40 6.32456 65 8.06226 90 9.48683 16 4.0 41 6.40312 66 8.12404 91 9.53939 17 4.12311 42 6.48074 67 8.18535 92 9.59166 18 4.24264 43 6.55744 68 8.24621 93 9.64365 19 4.3589 44 6.63325 69 8.30662 94 9.095.% 20 4.47214 45 6.7082 70 8.3666 95 9.74679 21 4.58258 46 6.7823 71 8.42615 96 9.79796 22 4.69042 47 6.85566 72 8.48528 97 9.84886 23 4.79583 48 6.9282 73 8.544 98 9.89949 24 4.89898 49 7.0 74 8.60233 99 9.94987 25 i . 5.0 50 7.07107 75 8.66025 100 10.0 172 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Cube Root. The Cube Root is the root of a third power : it is called cube root because the cube or third power of any number represents the contents of a cubic body of which the cube root is the length or breadth of one of the sides. Rule for extracting the Cube Root. 1. Point off the given num- ber into periods of three figures each, counting from units' place toward the left in whole numbers, and toward the right in deci- mals. 2. Find the greatest cube in the left-hand period, and write its root for the first figure in the required root ; subtract the ^ube from the left-hand period, and to the remainder bring iown the next period for a dividend. 3. At the left of the dividend write three times the square of the first figure of the root, and annex two ciphers for a tria? divisor ; divide the dividend by the trial divisor, and write the quotient for a trial figure in the root. 4. Annex the trial figure to three times the former figure, and write the result in a column marked 1, one line below the trial divisor ; multiply this term by the trial figure, and write the product on the same line in a column marked 2 ; add this term as a correction to the trial divisor, and the result will be the complete divisor. 5. Multiply the complete divisor by the trial figure, and sub- tract the product from the dividend ; and to the remainder bring down the next period for a new dividend. 6. Add the square of the last figure of the root, the last term in column 2, and the complete divisor together, and annex two ciphers for a new trial divisor, with which obtain another trial figure in the root. 7. Multiply the unit figure of the last term in column 1 by 3, and annex the trial figure of the root, for the next term of column 2 ; add this term to the trial divisor for a complete divisor, with which proceed as before. MODERN CARPENTRY AND HUILDJNG. 173 Note 1. If at any time the product be greater than the divi- dend, diminish the trial figure of the root, and correct the erro- neous work. Note. 2. If a cipher occur in the root, annex two more ciphers to the trial divisor, and another period to the dividend ; then proceed as before with column 1, annexing both ciphers and trial figure. EXAMPLE. What is the cube root of 79.112 ? OPERATION. 79.112 (4.2928+. Ans. 04. No. 1. 122 No. 2. 244 4800 5044 15112 10088 1269 11421 529200 540621 5024000 4865589 12872 25744 55212300 55238044 158411000 110476088 128768 1030144 5526379200 5527409344 47934912000 44219274752 3714637248 rein. Application of the Cube Root. I wish to make a box, the length, breadth, and depth of which are to be equal, to hold 50 bushels of grain. What is the length of one side of this box ? We first find the number of cubic inches in 50 bushels, then extract the cube root : the result is the length or depth of the box in inches. Cubes are to each other as the cubes of their sides. Spheres (round balls) are to each other as the cubes of their diameters or circumferences. To find the side, diameter, circumference, or altitude of any .solid which is similar to a given solid : 174 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Rule. State the question as in proportion, and cube the- given sides, diameters, circumferences, or altitudes : the cube root of the fourth term of the proportion is the required answer. Example. If a two-inch ball weighs 2 pounds, what is the diameter of a ball that weighs twice that ? 2 pounds : 4 pounds : : 2x2x2 inches : (the cube of the answer). To find the cubical contents or weight of any solid which is similar to a given solid. Rule. State the question as in proportion, and cube the given sides, diameters, circumferences, or altitudes : the fourth term of the proportion is the required answer. Examples. If a ball 4 inches in diameter weighs 50 pounds, what is the weight of a ball 6 inches in diameter? 4x4x4: 6x6x6:: 50 pounds : (the answer). If a three-inch cube weighs 7 pounds, what is the weight of a four-inch cube ? 3x3x3: 4x4x4:: 7 pounds : (the answer). Mensuration. To find the Area of a Square or Parallelogram. Multiply the length by the breadth. To find the Area of a Tapering Board. Multiply the length in feet, by the breadth of the middle in inches, and divide by 12; or add together the width of the ends in inches, and multi- ply the length by half of this sum, and divide by 12 : the result is the number of square feet contained in the board. To find the Area of a Rhombus or Rhomboid. Multiply the length of the side, by the breadth measured square across. To find the Area of any Triangle. Multiply the base by half of the perpendicular, or multiply half the base by the perpen- dicular. To find the Area of a Circle. Multiply the square of the; diameter by .7854. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING, 175 To find the Circumference of a Circle. Multiply the diameter by 3.1416. To find the Surface Area of a Globe. Multiply the circum- ference by the diameter. To find the Solid Contents of a Globe. Multiply the surface area by * of the diameter. To find tlte Area of a Riny. Multiply the sum of the inside and the outside diameters by their difference, and multi- ply the product thus obtained by .7854. To find the Side of a Square containing the Same Area as a Gicen Circle. Multiply the diameter by .886227. To find the Side of an Inscribed Square. Multiply the diameter by .707. To find the Area of an Ellipse. Multiply the longer diame- ter by the shorter, and multiply this product by .7854. To find the Solid Contents of a Cylinder (as a log). Multi- ply the area of the end by the length. To find the. Solid Contents of Pyramids or Cones. Multiply the area of the base by of the height. To find the Cubical Contents of (he Frustum of a Cone (prac- tical application, find the cubical contents of a tapering, round log). Multiply together the diameters of the large and of the small ends, and to the product add of the square of the dif- ference of the diameters; then multiply this sum by .7854, which will give the average area; multiply this area by the length, and the product will be the cubical contents. 176 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING CIRCLES. Diain. Circuinf. Area. Diain. Circumf. Area. Diain. Circuinf. Area. /4 .049 .00019 42 1492 17.72 14} 46.33 170.87 .0981 .00076 5 15.7 19.635 15 47.12 176.71 X .1963 .00306 f> 16.49 21.647 15* 47.9 182.65 * .3927 .01227 5* 17.27 23.758 48.69 188.69 A .589 .02761 5} 18.06 25.967 15- 4948 194.82 .7854 .04908 6 18.84 28.274 16 50.26 201.06 Tt> .9817 .07669 6* 19.63 30.679 16* 51.05 207.39 .2 1.178 .1104 6* 20.42 33.183 16* 51.83 213.82 ~rb 1.374 .1503 21.2 35.784 16$ 52.62 220.35 4 1.57 .1963 *7 21.99 38.484 17 53.4 22(5.98 "^ 1.767 .2485 7* 22.77 41.282 17* 54.19 233.7 1.963 .3067 7* 23.56 44.178 17* 54.97 240.52 11 2.159 .3712 7* 24.34 47.173 17} 55.76 247.45 f 2.356 .4417 8 25.13 50.265 18 56.54 254.46 2.552 .5184 8* 25.91 53.456 18* 57.33 261.58 I 2.748 .6013 8* 26.7 56.745 18* 58.11 268.8 H 2.945 .6902 8f 27.48 60.132 ISr 58.9 276.11 3.1416 .7854 9 28.27 63.617 19 59.69 283.52 1 3,534 .994 9* 29.05 67.2 19* 60.47 291.03 1 3.927 1.227 9* 29.84 70.882 19* 61.26 298.64 3. 4.319 1.484 9r 30.63 74662 62.04 306.35 1 4.712 1.767 10 31.41 78.539 20 4 62.83 314.16 5.105 2.073 10* 32.2 82.516 20* 63.61 322.06 3 5.497 2.405 10* 32.98 86.59 20* 644 330.06 7 5.89 2.761 10} 33.77 90.762 65.18 338.16 2 6.283 3.141 11 34.55 95.033 21 4 65.97 346.36 21 6.675 3.546 11* 35.34 99.402 21* 66.75 354.65 21 7.068 3.976 11* 36.12 103.86 21* 67.54 363.05 21 7.461 4.43 11- 36.91 108.43 21} 68.32 371.54 2* 7.854 4.908 12 37.69 113.09 22 69.11 380.13 2 1 8.246 5.411 12* 38.48 117.85 22* 699 388.82 2 4 8.639 5.939 12* 39.27 122.71 22* 70.68 397.6 2* 9.032 6.491 12 3 - 40.05 127.67 22f 71.47 406.49 3 9.424 7.068 13 40.84 132.73 23 72.25 415.47 3* 10.21 8.295 13} 41.62 137.88 23* 73.04 424.55 3* 10.99 9.621 13* 42.41 143.13 23* 73.82 433.73 33 11.78 11.044 135 43.19 148.48 23| 74.61 443.01 4 12.56 12.566 14 43.98 153 93 24 75.39 452 39 4* 13.35 14.186 14* 44.76 159.48 14 13 15.904 14* 45.55 165.13 MODERN CAEPENTKY AND BUILD JX(r. Ill DECIMAL PARTS OF INCHES. u n,\si*Lfi.ij j. -tt.ivj.i3 \jc Ai^v^nj^o. JXi\JiaiAijo Ur JJ / 1. Dec. Frac. Dec. Frac. Dec. Frac. Inches. .03125 A .53125 i A .01041 & i inch. .0625 A .5625 i A- .02083 iV i *< 4 : 09375 A .59375 i & .03125 A f " .125 i .625 t .04166 A 7 " .15625 i & .65625 f 'a'-/ .05208 ^* i 8 .1875 i A .6875 * A .0625 A 3 4 .21875 i A .71875 1 A .07291 A 7 .25 i .75 I .0833 A 1 U ' .28125 -I' A .78125 I A .1666 i 2 inches. .3125 i A .8125 t A- .25 i 3 " .34375 -i A .84375 } A .3333 i 4 " .375 1 .875 7 8 .4166 A 5 " .40625 I 3V .90625 I A .5 'i 6 " .4375 1 A .9375 s A .5833 i'-j 7 " .46875 1 & .96875 X & .6666 3 8 " .5 i 1. i. .75 QOOO i 5 9 " 1/-V .OOOO .9166 "l> tt 1U 11 " 1. 1. 12 " 178 MODERN CANPENTEY AND BUILDING. THE METRIC SYSTEM. TABLES AUTHORIZED BY CONGRESS. MEASURES OF LENGTH. Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in Use. 10,000 metres 6.2137 miles. ( 0.62137 mile, or 3,280 feet I 10 inches. 328 feet and 1 inch. 393.7 inches. 39.37 inches. 3.937 inches. 0.3937 inch. 0.0394 inch. Kilometre 1,000 metres Hectometre 100 metres METRE Decimetre I-Q of a metre Millimetre Y QQ-Q of a metre MEASURES OF SURFACES. Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in Use. 10,000 square metres 100 square metres 2.471 acres. 119.6 square yards. 1550 square inches. A. re . CENTARE MEASURES OF CAPACITY. Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in Use. Names. No. of litres. Cubic Measure. Dry Measure. Liquid or Wine Measure. Kilolitre, or stere, Hectolitre Decalitre 1,000 100 10 1 iV y ToSU 1 cubic metre yL of a cubic metre . . . 10 cubic decimetres . . 1 cubic decimetre YQ of a cubic decimetre, 10 cubic centimetres. . 1 cubic centimetre. . . . 1.308cu.yd.. 2bu. 3.35 pk. 9.08 quarts . . 0.908 quart . . 6.1022 cu. in.. 0.6102 cu.in.. 0.061 cu.in... 264.17 gallons. 26.417 gallons. 2.6417 gallons. 1.0567 quarts. 0.845 gill. 0.338 fluid oz. 0.27 fluid dr. LITRE Decilitre ... . Centilitre Millilitre . . MODKRX CAHPENTRY AXD UU1LD1NG. 179 WEIGHTS. Metric Denominations ami Values. Equivalents in Denominations in Use. Names. No. of grammes. Weight of what quantity of water at maximum density. Avoirdupois Weight. Millier, or tonneau. . Quintal 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 t YTT TTJ1HT 1 cubic metre 2204.6 pounds. 220.46 pounds. 22.046 pounds. 2.2046 pounds. 3.5274 ounces. 0.3527 ounce. 15.432 grains. 1.5432 grain. 0.1543 grain. 0.0154 grain. 1 hectolitre Myriagramrne 10 litres Kilogramme, or kilo, 1 litre 10 cubic centimetres 1 cubic centimetre y*j of a cubic centimetre . . . 1C cubic millimetre* ORAMME Decigramme Milligramme / SPECIFICATIONS FOR A HOUSE. SPECIFICATIONS FOR A HOUSE TO BE ERECTED FOR JOHN SMITH, ESQ., AT PLEASANTVILLE, MASS. This house is to be set so that the bay window (or piazza) shall be 15 feet from the line that divides the lot of land from the street or sidewalk, and so that no part shall be nearer than 12 feet from the eastern boundary line (piazza and steps not included). Remove the loam from the place where the house is to stand, and also from a space 8 feet wide all around out- side, and stack it up where it will be out of the way, and convenient to replace after grading is done. The highest point of cellar bottom is to be 5 feet below the highest point of sidewalk grade abreast of the house, and is to slope 6 inches deeper at one corner so it can be drained if necessary. The cellar wall is to be laid dry (starting in a trench 6 inches below cellar bottom), and afterwards well pointed with mortar. The top of underpinning is to be 3 feet above highest point of sidewalk (making cellar 8 feet deep in least place) ; * and the final grading is to be done so as to * This is none too much for a furnace. 180 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 181 show 2 feet of underpinning,* thus giving a slope of 1 foot in 15. CELLAR BOTTOM. Level off the cellar bottom, settle it thoroughly and cover it flush and smooth throughout with cement concrete, in three parts of clean, coarse, sharp gravel and one part of good cement, three inches deep, and finished with true and even surface. DRAINS. All underground drain pipes to be of the best quality vitrified pipe, any exposed drains to be 4-inch iron pipe ; in sizes, etc., as marked on plans. These pipes to be properly trapped, graded and the joints cemented tight. The roof leaders and all necessary waste and soil pipes of the building as shown by the drawings, to be con- nected ; also build all grease traps and catch basins which must have stone covers, where shown by ans ; put in all traps where shown ; use bends and curves for all crooks, whether vertical or horizontal. Make all joints clean and tight, of cement, and make perfectly smooth on inside at same ; supply each trap with an opening or trap screw on top so that it can be cleaned out easily if necessary. All pipe to be laid on a true and ven grade with as much fall given them as possible, and all junctions to be in one piece and of such shape as is necessary to make all the different connections required. CISTERN. Build a cistern as shown, 5 feet in diameter and 6 feet deep, lay the walls of hard brick 4 inches thick, and pack the earth against them when dry, arch and neck 4 inches thick ; bottom to be laid in two courses of brick, laid flat, the whole laid in and smoothly coated on the inside with cement. Lay a strong, rough flag over man- * This allows for good sized cellar -windows. 182 MODERN CAEPENTBY AND BUILDING. hole in the neck; connect the cistern with house leaders through 6-inch vitrified pipe, laid down clear of frost. Lay a 6-inch drain overflow connected closely with the cistern near its top and on a proper and sufficient grade? trap it and connect with drain to its individual cesspool at the most convenient point for its proper operation. CESSPOOLS. Construct a cesspool 8 feet in diameter and 10 feet deep in the clear, to be properly stoned up: draw in on top in a substantial manner ; leave man-hole with cover of heavy flag-stone. Make the necessary con- nections with all drains to the same. When there is a cistern, build a separate cesspool with stone walls laid dry and 5 feet in diameter and 6 feet deep for the over- flow from the same. Cesspools to be located where shown . * PRIVY VAULT. Build a privy vault 4 feet by 4 feet in size and 4 feet deep, laid up with good hard bricks laid in cement, f SIZES OF TIMBERS. Sills 6x8 inches. First and sec- ond story floor timbers 2x8 inches, 16 inches apart. Attic floor timbers and rafters 2x6 inches, 18 inches and 24 inches apart respectively. Posts and girts 4x8 inches. Window and door stud- ding and braces 3x4 inches. Outside studding and main partitions 2x4 inches, 16 inches apart. Other partition studding 2x3 inches. Plates 2x4 inches, doubled. All to be best quality of spruce. * If there are sewers, omit cesspools and properly connect to the sewers. t If there are sewers, it is preferable to omit privy and put in water closets ; and even though there are no sewers, water closets can be connected to the cesspool. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 183 Boardings to be best quality spruce or hemlock, square edges ; attic boarding to have planed side turned inwards. SHINGLES. Roof is to be covered with the best clear pine or cedar shingles laid 4 inches to the weather with wide flashings of 4 Ib. lead or 14 oz. copper wherever needed. CLAPBOARDS. To be best quality of clear pine. The walls are to be covered with a good thickness of water proof paper (not tarred) before clapboarding, and all window tops, water cants, etc., are to be properly flashed. TIN ROOFS to have very best quality of tin, put on in best manner, and soldered with rosin. LATHING AND PLASTERING. All walls, partitions and ceilings to be lathed and plastered, two coats, excepting ceiling of cellar, which is to have only one coat of plaster. COLD AIR DUCT FOR FURNACE. Construct a frame of 2 inch plank, (same as cellar window frames) to be built in underpinning to admit the cold air, and cover with coarse wire netting; construct cold air passages from this open- ing to furnace, and make it air tight, and to suit the requirements; put in a wooden slide damper inside of cellar wall, and make the whole complete to suit the require- ments of the furnace man. COAL BINS to be built as shown. PRIVY. Construct privy 4x5 feet, allowing vault to project 1J or 2 feet on back for convenince of cleaning out. Privy to be framed of planed and chamfered joists, and boarded with selected boards having planed surface put inside. The outside to be properly trimmed with corner boards, etc., and covered with a good quality of clapboards, fastened on with large shingle nails, so as not to spall off the inside of the boarding. 184 MODERN CARPENTRY AND WILDING. Projecting part of vault to have a slanting hinge cover. PLUMBING. Furnish all materials and perform all labor requisite and necessary for putting up and complet- ing all the plumbing work, in a good and thoroughly work- manlike manner, according to the drawings and these specifications and their full intent and meaning. Where the specifications vary or conflict with the drawings, the contractor is to be governed by the specifications. All local laws to be complied with, even if they conflict with anything in these specifications. All the cutting for the pipes will be done by the carpenter, and then only close to bearings. All horizontal and vertical pipe connections to be made with iron hooks, braces or hangers, all Y branches and one-eighth bends. All cast iron pipes to be properly supported and secured with large joints made with oakum and run with molten lead well calked. All water service pipes must be put np on inch-thick stripping or in cases to be prepared by carpenter, and all to be so put that they can be readily got at, at any time for examination. No pipes to run on outside walls unless absolutely necessary. All lead pipes to be secured with hard metal tacks and screws, and all lead waste or ven- tilating connections to iron pipes to be made through brass ferrules, which must be soldered to the lead pipes and caulked with oakum into iron hub and the joints run with molten lead. All exposed places of water pipes or any pipes contain- ing water that is liable to freeze, must be thoroughly packed with mineral wool properly boxed and cased in. The plumber to do all necessary digging, obtain per- mits, pay all fees and reinstate all ground and pavement. MODKKX CAliPENTliY AM) BUILDING. 185 DRAINS. Will be put in by the mason as shown on plan. The plumber to connect iron pipe to same 3 feet outside the cellar wall. CAST IKON SOIL AND WASTE. Connect with drum as shown a 4-inch cast iron pipe, which will extend 3 feet above the roof, and receive waste from all the fixtures. Place a running trap in main soil at inside of cellar wall where it can be conveniently got at to clean out, etc., or as shown. IF THERE is A WATER SUPPLY. Tap, and pay for tap- ping main street, and connect; from this point lay |-inch 2j-lb. lead pipe to supply the entire house, and place a f-inch lever-handle stop-cock on front inside cellar wall to shut off when necessary. Care must be taken in grading this and all other pipes, so that when the water is turned off they will be drained perfectly dry. IN CASE THERE IS NO WATER SlJPPLY. PUMP. Pl'O- vide a set J-inch Douglas double acting lift and force pump to draw water from the cistern (or a well if pre- ferred), with 1-inch pipe. Carry a branch of J-inch lead pipe from a point just below the retaining valve of pump to cold-water cock over kitchen sink, connect to pump and continue up to and over top tank in the attic a f-inch lead pipe. Connect a J-inch tell-tale pipe 4 inches below top of tank, and carry down to sink in the kitchen. TANK. Properly line the tank as furnished by the car- penter, in size 3 feet long, 2 feet wide, 2 feet deep on inside, with 4 Ib. sheet lead, or to be lined with 14 oz. tinned copper. Only tinned copper nails to be used. Connect tank with 1 J-inch lead pipe to soil pipe, placing a Ij-inch open-way valve close to tank for emptying 186 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. same when necessary. Run a f-inch lead pipe from tank to boiler in kitchen and for the necessary supplies ; place a stop cock on this pipe under tank to shut off water from building when needed; leave out a branch in cellar for connection to heater; also place one draw cock in cellar as directed. Where tank is supplied by city water, to have a ball cock to prevent overflow and keep water in tank at one level. OVERFLOW. Connect a IJ-inch lead pipe 2 inches from top of tank and run to outside of building, connecting to leader or run into some gutter or roof below where tank is placed ; place a brass flap-valve on outlet end of pipe to keep out air or cold. RANGE. To be furnished by owner, with water back furnished by plumber, and to be set by plumber complete ready for use. BOILER. Furnish and set a 40-gallon copper boiler of good weight, set on a single legged cast-iron standard, supplied with water through f-inch lead pipe, and con- nected with water back of range through J-inch brass pipe and brass couplings, to have J-inch sediment pipe and cock, this pipe connected into nearest waste trap, so as to empty and cleanse boiler; also place a f-inch stop-cock on supply pipe. CIRCULATION PIPE. There must be J-inch lead pipe connected to hot-water pipe at highest points and to run down below boiler, and there connected to sediment pipe inside sediment cock for the purpose of keeping up a con- tinued circulation of hot water. If supply to boiler is from a tank,* run a --inch lead * It i always better to obtain pressure from tank rather than from street main, as it insures a uniforn pressure, and removes a source of possible danger. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 187 pipe from the top of the g-inch hot-water supply at high- est point of same and up to and over top of tank, leaving the end open for steam escape. SINKS. Wrought steel sinks to be in size as per plans ; the kitchen sink to have H-inch 3-lb. lead waste con- nected to a 5-inch lead pot-trap with 4-inch brass cover to screw on so as to be easily cleaned out. All sinks to be supplied with hot and cold water through J-iuch lead pipe, and f-flange and thimble bib!) cocks of brass; one bibb to have hose screw for filter; lead waste to be connected with 2-inch iron waste pipe in the cellar. WASHTRAYS. Furnish and set 2 soapstone washtrays 22 x 22 x 12 inches of usual shape with 8-inch backs and soap dishes, |-inch brass compression cocks, 1 J-inch brass plugs and couplings, heavy brass safety chains and chain holders, 5-iuch round lead trap and 4 inch trap screw, one cock to have screw for coupling hose. Lids to be of cleated matched pine and hung with suitable brass hinges. PANTRY SINK. As shown by plan ; supply with hot and cola water through J-inch lead pipe and J-inch upright pantry cocks, to have IJ-inch lead waste with 4-inch pot trap properly connected to nearest iron waste pipe. To have stand-pipe overflows. WATER CLOSETS. In bath room and cellar to be pro- vided and fitted up as shown on plan, to have heavy lead traps. Cistern closets to have 14-oz. copper-lined wooden cisterns, supplied through J-inch lead pipe, to have g-inch cistern valve and rubber ball cock ; other closets to have water supplied through f-inch lead pipe, and each closet to have a shut-off cock placed in supply to control water to same. 188 MODERN C AH PEN THY AND BUILDING. SEAT VENTILATION. Each water closet to have a 2-inch zinc pipe connected to same for seat ventilation, and rim to and connected to the chimney flue at the most conven- ient point, this pipe to have all joints tightly soldered and to be carefully cemented into flue. WASH BASINS. To be 16 inches diameter or oval as shown, each set in a best-Italian-marble countersunk slab with molded edges, back and sides 10 inches high and J inches thick, to have J-inch nickel-plated bibbs, plug, chain and chain stay, to be supplied with hot and cold water through ^-inch lead pipe, and to waste through 4-inch pot trap under each, and properly connected to nearest iron waste or soil pipe. BATH TUB. As shown on plans, furnish and fit up a 5J-foot, 14-oz. tinned-copper-lined bath tub, supply same with hot and cold water through a jj-inch lead pipe, and to have a double hot and cold water compression bath bibb. Supply rubber tube and sprinkler to same, tub to be emptied through 2-inch lead waste into water closet trap, to have plated plug and chain and overflow connection. Overflow pipes from basins and baths to be branched into dips of traps to each where no special waste is used or specified. VENTILATION PIPES. All main soil and waste pipes to extend above re ^s as before described, to have funnel and large flashing to make tight and to terminate witli a ventilating cap. All traps are to be back vented. Vent pipes to be connected with the soil pipe 4 feet above highest fixture. SILL COCK. Place nickel-plated sill cock where shown, with shut-off inside the cellar. MODERN CARPENTltY AND BUILDING. 181) All work is to be thoroughly connected and trapped and so arranged with all necessary faucets and stopcocks that the water may be turned off entirely and all pipes com- pletely drained. All soldered joints to be wiped joints except at coup- lings of basin cock, which may be cupped. Chain for wash trays to be No. 2, for baths, No. 1, for basins, No. 0, plated safety chain. WEIGHTS OF LEAD PIPE. Will be per lineal foot for supply pipes f-inch, 2J Ibs., j-inch, 3J Ibs. ; and for waste pipes Ij-inch, 2J Ibs., IJ-inch, 3J Ibs., and 2-inch, 4 Ibs. GAS PIPING. Use best wrought-iron gas piping, of the various sizes required. The mains to run as direct as pos- sible, and so graded that any water gathering in pipes, can be run out at a convenient point near the meter. No pipe to be less than f-inch for fixture connections, and larger where required. Secure all piping substantially in place with iron hold- fasts, and secure the drop and other outlets with galvan- ized-iron straps and screws, the pipe to be run to supply burners where indicated by red checks thus x for side lights, and for drop lights thus (x) on plans, and should the check be omitted in any room or hall, it must be sup- plied as directed. The side wall brack * connections to be arranged so as to project from finishecrwall the proper distance for same, and pipe ends for drop lights to hang perfectly straight and plumb. The gas pipes to be put in as required by rules and regulations of local Gas Light Co. Put the joints together in red lead, all pipes to be capped, proven tight, and caps left on. Locate meter as indicated on plans, provide all 190 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. necessary shut-off and alcohol cocks, and make a perfect job. Pay the Gas Company for permission to connect, ex- cavate and put in service pipe from street main to inner face of the cellar wall, and comply with all their usual regulations. FURNACE. Furnish and set complete a double-dome, wrought-iron warm-air furnace with 24-inch fire pot as in- dicated on plan, to be properly enclosed in galvanized iron and to be connected with cold-air duct; to have the re- quired manhole door, and evaporating pan to hold 5 gal- lons of water supplied with f -inch pipe and ball cock ; to have all required mason work in setting and for ash pit, etc., all necessary fire tools, and smoke flue connection, ready to start fire. Hot air pipes to be connected to top of heater as shown, and extend up to registers with pipes of proper size and made of XX bright tin, joints soldered and all properly connected, and wood-work to be protected with tin linings, and where plastering will be over face of heater pipes, to be covered with met*l lath. The registers to be set in soap-stone borders, and to be in sizes as marked on plans. BELLS. Supply suitable bells for front and back doors as owner may select. PAINTING. The outside of the house and privy is to have two good coats of pure white lead and linseed oil, tinted as owner may direct. All knots and sappy places to receive a good coat of heavy shellac varnish before painting. Piazza floors and steps to be oiled. Hard- wood front door to be filled, and finished with three coats of best elastic spar varnish. Hard-wood floors and stairs MODERN CARPENTRY AXD BUILDING. 191 and all interior finish that is not to be painted, to be filled and finished with two coats of interior spar varnish. Kitchen to be grained imitation of oak and to have one coat of spar varnish. All of the painter's work to be done in a first-class manner., as above described. FINALY. Have the house swept clean from attic lo cellar, and have all rubbish removed from the house and grounds. NOTE : The following items might be included with advantage in many specifications : Fireplaces, Mantels, Electric Bells, Electric Lights, Speaking Tubes, Paper Hangings, Picture Mouldings, Hardware for doors and windows, etc., Cornices, Centre pieces, Fresco work. BUILDING CONTRACT. Contract, made this first day of June, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-six, by and be- tween JOHN SMITH, of Pleasantville, Mass., and THOMAS SAWYER, of Pleasantville, Mass., builder. The said Thomas Sawyer does hereby agree with the said John Smith to make, erect, build, and finish in a good, substantial, and workmanlike manner, a wooden dwelling house upon land of said Smith, located on First street, in Smithville, Mass., Union County, said house to be built of good and substantial materials and in accord- ance with the drafts, plans, explanations or specifications, furnished or to be furnished to said Thomas Sawyer by John Smith ; and to be finished complete on or before the first day of November next. And the said John Smith does hereby agree to pay for the same to the said Thomas Sawyer the sum of twenty- five hundred dollars as follows : When the cellar is in and first floor laid, two hundred and fifty dollars. When the frame is up and boarded, and roof is shingled, five hundred dollars; when the plastering is completed, four hundred and fifty dollars ; when outside carpenter work is com- pleted and painted one coat, three hundred and fifty dol- lars ; when inside carpenter work is completed, two hun- 192 XjeSE ; IB*4^ ^ OF THE r ^ UNIVERSITY MODERN CARPENTRY AXD HUILD1XK. 193 (\\-Q(\ and fifty dollars; when everything is finished, two hundred and fifty dollars ; and 31 days after last work is done, four hundred and fifty dollars, provided there are no mechanics' or other liens on the work, unless security against the same shall be furnished. In event of failure to complete the work on time, a forfeit of fifteen dollars per week for such delay shall be allowed. No alterations shall be made excepting upon written request of said Smith, and such charge or allowance shall be made as is just and reasonable.* And for the performance of all and every the articles and agreements above mentioned the said John Smith and Thomas Sawyer do hereby bind themselves, their heirs, executors, and administrators, each to the other, in the penal sum of five hundred dollars, firmly by these presents. 5n foritnegs infjereof we the said John Smith and Thomas Sawyer hereto and to another instrument of like tenor, set our hands the day and year first above written. Executed nnd delivered in pretem-e of SAMUEL JOHNSON. ) JOHN SMITH. [SEAL.] ABEL ADAMS. I" THOMAS SAWYER. [SEAL.] * It is best to have the plans and specifications in duplicate, all being signed by both parties, both retaining a copy of each, as well as of a copy of the con- tract. Any additions or alterations to be requested in writing, and a price given also in writing, and a letter-press copy of all such requests and replies should be taken. While these things may seem needless and somewhat troublesome, yt a little care used here may save a great deal of worriment and expense of litiga- tion later on, and avoids any chance for the owner to feel that he is being rotated on extras. HOW TO PLAN HOUSES. Whenever you go into any house, make a note of the sizes and arrangements of the rooms, and the sizes of the closets, pantry, etc., consider in what way they could be improved, whether they are too large or too small, then when you wish to draw plans for a house, you have some statistics to guide you. Do not make the house just so large, and then see how it can be divided up, and if any space is left over, try to make a closet of it, but decide about what size you want each room, and the closets and the pantry, then you know about how large to make the house ; of course the sizes of the rooms may have to be modified somewhat to suit circumstances. fin building houses to be let, do not make the rooms too large, as the tenant will then be obliged to buy new car- pets, which will be a drawback in letting the house} For ordinary houses, 12x13 feet makes very fair-sized rooms, and in case there is a bay window let that add so much more to the size of the room. Another thing that is gen- erally overlooked is this : arrange the sizes of the principal rooms so as to use even breadths of tapestry carpets, which are only j-yard in width. If rooms are two or three inches wider it necessitates purchasing entire extra lengths of carpet, and entails a considerable additional outlay, which might have been avoided by a little forethought on the part of the person who planned the house. 194 MODERN CA1IPEXTHY AXD 7>T//,7>/VW/. 195 In planning houses, always keep in mind the furniture that will go in the various rooms, and try so far as possi- ble to provide suitable locations for the principal pieces. To illustrate : In the parlor provide wall space for a piano and one or two large easy chairs, or a sofa; in the sitting room, arrange so as to have wall room for a couch or lounge, and perhaps a desk or book-case; in the dining room provide a location for the sideboard, and iu each chamber there will want to be wall room for the head of the bed, also for dressing case, commode, etc. Then have the doors swing so as not to interfere with any of the furniture, or with other doors. Clothes closets should be made sufficiently deep to hold a trunk. If possible, pro- vide room for a refrigerator on the first floor (outside of the kitchen), thus saving a woman the many steps re- quired to carry food down cellar. Where ice is not obtainable, try to provide a closet with dumb waiter, so that as the food is cleared off from the table, it may be placed on the shelves of the dumb waiter and then lowered into a closet in the cool cellar, which closet may be pro- vided with a wire-mesh door to keep out insects ; then when the food is wanted, the car of the dumb-waiter can be drawn up again, thus saving many steps. Of course, you will always arrange so as to have a rough attic to stow away trunks, chests of bedding, etc., and for drying the washing in stormy weather. Do not have a basement kitchen if you can possibly avoid it, as they are regular tuoman-killers. A study of the following house plans, together with our criticisms thereon, will be of great help to those who wish to plan houses that will prove convenient. REMARKS ON OUR ILLUSTRATIONS. As there is scarcely anybody who would build a house for himself exactly like any published plan or elevation, we have merely introduced a few desirable plans, mostly as suggestions, from which to select as regards sizes and arrangement of rooms, and cost to build, and have also shown a number of illustrations of beautiful modern resi- dences, each having some features of especial interest. We will briefly state that the reason we give no figures of probable cost to build is because such figures are almost invariably worthless and misleading. A few alterations of any given plan, and the question of thoroughness of construction, braces, etc., hardwood finish, rubbed varnish, open plumbing, plate glass and other things, can easily make a difference of from $500- to $1500 or more in the cost of a house; and as the cost of labor and materials vary in different localities, it can easily be understood that the only way to get a correct idea of cost is to have two or three responsible builders make an estimate for their particular locality, after the specifications have been carefully drawn up. Our frontispiece shows a house with front door in the center (not clearly discernible in the deep shadow, the MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 197 photograph having been taken with the sun almost direct- ly overhead in order to bring out the carved work). If this house was of brick, the carved portion could be of brick laid in red mortar, and afterwards sculptured, or it might be of moulded and baked terra cotta, or carved sandstone. For a wooden house it should be either 3-coat exterior plaster, composed largely of Portland cement, the final coat being quite heavy, and modeled by hand before it became too much set, or it might be moulded blocks or sheets of staff (used on the Chicago World's Fair Build- ings) , or it might be embossed sheets of Lincrusta Walton, or embossed copper, nailed on. It is interesting to notice the different treatment that can be given the exterior of houses of practically the same floor plan. In the present instance we have a large round corner bay, running up two stories and surmounted by a spire, while the house shown on page 25 has the round corner bay only one story in height. The house shown on page 15 has a similar bay on a rear corner, the second story being an open balcony, covered with a dome roof. The house on page 135 has a small round corner with still another style of finish. Then note the different treatment of the front-door stoop or porch on the houses shown on pages 15, 25, 45, 55, 65, 75, 95 and 125, also the ornamentations on the friezes of the houses shown on pages 55, 65 and 125; also notice the spacious piazzas on the houses shown on pages 35, 125 and 145, affording ample room for large rocking chairs, tables, hammocks, etc., or for entertaining quite a large company of guests. These broad piazzas are usually sit- uated on southern or western sides of houses to shield the 198 MODEL* N CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. rooms from the intense glare of the mid-summer sun, but it is advisable to also have unshaded windows on one side of each room where such windows are not directly exposed to the rays of the sun, thus preventing any tendency to dampness or gloom in dull weather. In some cases, as shown on page 65, the piazza is covered only by an awning, which can be raised on dark days or altogether removed in winter. Any floor plan that is not fully figured can be scaled in a similar manner as previously explained for scaling photo- graphs. For example : if a room is figured 14 feet wide, with the compasses get yjth of its width as shown in the drawing, which equals one foot, and from this a scale can be marked off on a strip of paper or business card, by means of which any other dimensions that are not figured can be found. Head room for stairs can be ascertained either by drawing a cross-section of the house, or by fig- uring as explained under "stair building." Sufficient head room should be allowed for a tall expressman to carry a trunk up stairs on his shoulder or back, without danger of hitting the plastering overhead. As has been elsewhere stated, any view or plan can be shown reversed by merely holding it before a mirror or by holding it up to the light and looking through from the back side. CRITICISMS OF FLOOR PLANS. PLAN Ai This is about as convenient a plan for a small family as can be found. It will be noticed that the ell part is only one story in height. There are but three alterations that we would suggest; 1st, omit the chimney and grates or fire-places in the parlor and dining room, and the grate in the library, and with the money thus saved, put in a 20-inch fire pot double-dome wrought-iron furnace, (a hot-water heater can be used if preferred, but one of ample size would cost nearly twice as much as the furnace) ; 2d, have a closed porch or back entry at the back door, which will prevent whoever does the kitchen work having cold feet in the winter, and have the entry or porch made sufficiently large to accommodate a refrigera- tor or ice chest, thus saving the many steps that would have to be taken were it kept down cellar ; 3d, change the location of wash bowl in the bath room, putting it where the water closet now is, and putting the water closet where the wash bowl is ; this will make it much handier to get at the window, which need only be a short one, located 3 J or 4 feet up from the floor if desired. A china closet is lack- ing in the dining room. PLAN B This plan is similar to Plan A, but with larger rooms and a two-story ell, which affords room for 199 200 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. back stairs ; (this requires a long passage-way in the second story to connect to front stairs, making a lot of additional floor to carpet and keep cleaned up). The arrangement of the fixtures in the bath room is very poor indeed, as one must reach over or climb into the bath tub, in order to open or close the window; this can easily be improved. A back entry with room for refrigerator is also needed and while you are about it, better make a large closet in it, to stow away old hats and coats, boots and shoes, clothes basket, ironing board, etc., and also better move the sink to the further corner of the kitchen, so the wife or hired girl will not have to wash dishes close up to a hot stove in summer time, and so she can have some daylight on the subject also. The added comfort will well repay the few extra steps she will have to take. PLAN C This plan has many good points to com- mend it. The parlor is about the right size for a house built to be let, (otherwise it might be considered a little nar- row), but we should prefer a sliding (or swinging) door to shut off draughts of cold air from the hall in the winter time. As will be seen, instead of simply having a square hall (as shown on Plan F), the side has been extended out one story in height and a small " den" or reception room has been formed. The library is of ample size, and the wash bowl off the dining room is very convenient (or a dish washer might be set if perf erred). The pantry is poor; we would suggest extending the wall out to the corner of the library bay window (one story only in height) . The water closet on the first floor will save many steps, but will need either a small furnace register, or a small radia- tor, or it will be likely to freeze up in the winter time and MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 201 become a veritable nuisance. We would advise putting a sash door between the kitchen and the back entry-way, and also have glass in the outside door. The principal defect in this plan is lack of accommodations for a refrig- erator and back entry closet, which could be overcome by an addition on the back of the kitchen, similar to that shown on the plan of Sylvester's house, the entrance to the kitchen being where the dresser is now located. Then the present back door should be stopped up or a window locat- ed there instead. The set wash bowl in the second story will be very convenient in case the bath room is occupied, but the two doors entering the bath room may lead to em- barrassment sometime, in case a person taking a bath should happen to fasten only one door, as that is all that is usually necessary. Unless the rear bedroom door has ground glass panels, the rear end of the passage way is liable to be rather dark when all the doors are closed. As will be seen, the piazzas are quite ample, but the door in the second story that opens out on the balcony will be a cold thing in the winter, and may leak cousiderab'y at best. We would suggest a window reaching to within a foot of the floor, instead. PLAN Di Suggestions : Stop up the door next to the sink and put in a window instead, and provide room for a refrigerator at the other back door. Flare the sides of dining room bay so as to be able to put in full-sized win- dows at each side, thus narrowing up the straight part, in which a window may be put if desired, or the window can be omitted and the sideboard can be set there. Our pref- erence would be to omit the fireplace in the parlor, and put the piano or organ there, and make the corner bay 202 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. window much larger. One out about this plan is the fact that to answer the front door bell, one has to travel through two or three rooms and the length of the hall also. No set tubs are shown in the kitchen, but could be added if desired, but most likely there is a laundry finished off in the basement or cellar. The dish washer in the butler's pantry is very convenient. Our principal objections to this plan are; 1st, no hat-and-coat closet in front hall; and 2d, no lavatory (water closet and wash bowl, see Sylvester's plan) on first floor ; and for a house of this size this appears to us to be a serious omission. Note the re- mark previously made in regard to doors for 2d story balconies. PLAN E> This plan has a fine back entry and room for refrigerator, but no back entry closet. The other kitchen door and the library door opening on the piazza will be cold things in winter time. The balance of the first floor plan is very fine indeed, unless one preferred to locate the piano in the parlor where the fireplace now is. The only lack there appears to be a lavatory. In the second floor plan we should omit the fireplace in the parlor chamber and put the head of the bed there, as it would show bet- ter in that position and give easier access to closet over library. A serious fault is having the linen closet open off from the bath room, being thus subject to steam and odors. The bath room should have been sent cleai back to the rear wall, its door carried close up to the rear bedroom partition; the entrance to the rear closet in library cham- ber should have been stopped up, and a door cut through from the hall, then we would have a fine large linen closet opening only from the hall. MODERN CARPENTRY A3D Of course the front piazza and steps can be arranged to suit any particular location. PLAN F. This is one of the best, to our way of thinking. The spacious front hall and front piazza are tine features, and the passage way leading directly from the kitchen to the front hall avoids the necessity for one to have to pass through another room to answer the front door bell. This is a great advantange where one enter- tains much. Personally, we would prefer a slightly pro- truding bay or curving front on the parlor with chimney omitted, and we would put the pantry window on the rear, and have a mixing counter and flour-barrel cupboard there (see Sylvester's plan), and locate the sink on the rear of the kitchen next to the pantry, the chimney being put in the rear left-hand corner. The lack of a back entry with room for a refrigerator, and back-entry closet, also lack of a lavatory on first floor, are the serious omissions of this plan. As usual, the bath room window had to be put where one must climb over the bath tub to get at it. It would have been better to have placed same at back between the wash bowl and bath tub, where there was a clear space. PLAN G But little needs to be said about this plan. If the lobby on back were extended back a couple of feet, leaving the closet door where it is, there would be a fine chance to set a refrigerator. The sink appears to be in a ivarm place, but as provision is made for washing the dishes in the butler's pantry, perhaps this does not matter much, but it seems to us to be quite a distance from the kitchen range to the dining-room table. One would think, that with all the wasted room that there is in the butler's 204 MODERN CARPENTER AND BUILDING. pantry, some proper method might have been adopted to secure a lavatory on the first floor. In the second floor plan we still find bath-room windows located in the most inaccessible places, but what puzzles us is the necessity of having a closet within a closet. PLAN H. The striking features of this plan are the great round bay on the library, the fine piazzas, and the dining-room bay. The pantry is rather small, and the back entry lacks refrigerator room and a closet. No set tubs are shown in the kitchen, as doubtless a laundry is finished off in the cellar. The utility of a closet in the bath room is not apparent, unless it be for dirty clothes ; we would prefer to have the room for a chair. Here again we find no lavatory on the first floor. PLAN I. This is a double house and by extending it ten feet deeper, and slightly modifying some of the details, it could be made into a four-flat house. As will be seen, the lack of good closets is a serious drawback. PLAN J This a very fine plan but needs a back-en- try closet, etc. It is but a few steps from the kitchen to the dining room, thus making easy the serving of food. The fine piazzas and coach porch are especial features. The bath-room fixtures might be differently arranged per- haps, so as to give better access to the window. FINALLY. It will be seen that we have freely criticised these plans, pointing out the good features as well as the defects and omissions, and we believe these criticisms will be helpful to those who have to draw house plans, as well as to prospective builders and house owners. We would simply say, however, that it is much easier to criticise, than to design a plan free from defects. REMARKS ON PLANS FOR W. A. SYLVESTER'S HOUSE. We give herewith a set of twelve complete framing plans for a high-grade modern residence, (two photo- graphic views of same being shown elsewhere) , from which a correct idea of the most approved methods of modern con- struction may be obtained. The complete and thorough method of bracing in the exterior walls will be observed, long braces of 3 x 4-inch or 4 x 4-inch material being used. The interior walls or partitions are similarly braced, there being something like forty braces in the entire frame, all fastened in the most thorough manner with 5 or 6-inch wire spikes. This method is known as semi-balloon framing, and allows practically the full strength of all the timbers, instead of cutting them full of mortices, as was formerly the custom. The roof of this house is covered with selected extra-qual- ity cedar shingles, which after being spread out to dry several days were dipped in creosote stain, and were then fastened on with large galvanized wire nails. The valleys are shingled open, 3J-inches at top, and 4J-inches at bottom, so that ice and snow will not get 205 206 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. lodged therein. The flashings of the valleys, etc., are of 16-oz. copper, 14 inches wide. The walls of the house are covered with very heavy waterproof paper (not tarred paper) before being clapboarded, and a layer of this paper was put between all of the floors, thus making a very warm house. Zinc flashings are put on over all win- dow frames and also over the water table. The chimney is built entirely of selected hard-burned bricks and is topped out with Portland cement mortar, the top being protected by a slate stone cap. The large and numerous closets are a special feature of this house. Opening from the parlor chamber there are two closets each 4x5 feet, one for the owner and one for his wife. If, however, it should be thought more desir- able to occupy the southwest chamber in the winter season (that being more sunny), there are two closets opening from this room also, one of them opening from both rooms, as will be seen by the plan. There is ample chance in the attic to finish off several large rooms if desired, and one or two rooms could easily be finished off in the cellar. For a house for a small family where the lady prefers to do her own work, it is doubtful if a more con- venient plan can be found. Of course the rooms can be made smaller if desired. Several minor changes can easily be made in the plan of this house. For example : If a separate sitting room (or library) and dining room is required, a dining room can be added on the westerly part of the south side, en- trance being had through the pantry and also through the china closet, the present window in the latter being put on the west side instead of on the south side the cupboards on the west side being omitted. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 207 If back stairs are desired, they can be had by two methods : first, by making the addition for the back entry and its large closet two stories high instead of one, and having winding stairs where the closet now is, these stairs leading to the kitchen chamber; secondly, by omitting the lavatory, and having a half flight of back stairs that shall lead up to the landing of the front stairs. In order to get necessary head room for these, put the bath tub and the water closet on the south side of the bath room, and the wash bowl on the north side, then head room can be obtained where the water closet is now situated. One oversight was made by the architect, and that was in having the cold-air box for the furnace enter from the east side, which caused a down draft in the hot-air registers when the wind blew strongly from the west or northwest as it usually does. This defect has since been remedied by having the inlet for the cold-air box come on the north pide under the front piazza. The cold-air inlet should always be on the westor north or northwest side of the house, then the wind entering the cold-air inlet forces the heated air that is in the furnace out through the regis- ters, thus giving a good circulation of warm air and keeping the house comfortable. A sliding damper should be built in the cold-air box near the cellar wall, so that the open- ing may be partly closed, if desired, when the wind blows too hard ; of course a screen of strong galvanized-wire mesh should be put over the outside of the cold- air inlet so as to exclude animals and vermin. The area of a cross eection of the cold-air box should be a little in excess of the combined areas of all the hot-air pipes; if it is smaller, then there is a liabilitv of a down draft in some weak- 208 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. draught register trying to make up the deficiency. With a large double-dome wrought-iron furnace (giving large radiating surface) fed with stove-size coal, there is no trouble in keeping warm, especially if storm windows are placed on some of the most exposed windows. Perhaps it is needless to remark that houses built on speculation, or to sell, are not built and braced in as thorough a manner as this one is, as the average purchaser is not willing to pay the price that the thorough work costs ; and since most builders do not carry on business merely for the fun and excitement to be derived from it, but are trying to get a living, they are frequently obliged to scamp the work, and run up houses in such a manner that they can sell them at a fair profit they are obliged to build a house to fit the probable price the customer will be will- ing to pay, or as some call it, " cut the garment according to the cloth." The purchaser doubtless congratulates himself on getting " a bargain," and will say that " it is cheaper to buy a ready-built house than to build," but usually he gets just about what he pays for. FLOOR AND FRAMING PLANS FOR W. A. SYLVESTER'S HOUSE, READING, MASS. FOR VIEWS OF THIS HOUSE SEE PAGES 105 AND 115. ALSO, FLOOR PLANS OF MODERN RESIDENCES. FOR CRITICISMS ON SAME SEE PAGES 199-204. 210 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. W.A.5YLVZ5TER READING MASS Memo.- All figures on this t>tan grp from The frame fine. Mo-i. 3IODEKN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 211 W.A.5YLVE5TER REACHHG /7A55 no-z flemo-Allmev tf>Af/f ffvm frame line FIRST FLOOR PLAN 212 MODERN CAEPENTEY AND BUILDING. WKSYLVE5TER MODEltX CAKPENTltY AND BUILDING. 213 W.A5YLVE5TEP Cormcp line 214 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. VA SYLVtSTtR E.5Q READING , HA55 FIRST FL-R - FRAMING PLAN W5 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 215 ft /_ W A 5VLVE3TER READING-MASS PLAM 216 MODEtiN CAlirENTllY AND BUILDING. MfT Attic ruffrrs | n ro/er f to from - READIHO-.MA55 N 7 Aff/c F/oor Frame Plan MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 217 /?EAP/NQ MA 5 5 FPAME PL Afi OF THK UNIVERSITY 218 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 5y/ves7~er s j x Plan A. For views of somewhat similar houses, see pages 85-105. 222 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 223 Plan A. JTeeoN/ 7/bof? Plan B. For view of similar house (reversed) see p. 85; also pp. 45 nnd 105. 224 MODERN CARPENTliY AND BUILD I \G. 225 Plan B. Plan C. For views of similar houses, see pages 2, 45, 55, 85. 226 SECOND.JLoOR. 227 Plan D. For view of this house see page 135. 228 Plan D. / m Plan E. ftfsrf/aa? For view of similar house (reversed) see page 135. 230 Plan E. 231 Plan p. For view of this house see page 145 ; also see page 55. 232 Plan 234 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING Plan G. For views of similar houses see pages 35, 65, 75, and 125. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 235 Plan G. 236 MODERN CARPENTRY AND 1W1LD1NG. Plan For view of similar house. (reversed) see page 25; also frontispiece. MODKJtX CAIlPEXrill' AND BUILDlXd. 237 Plan SECONfD.flOOR 238 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Plan I. For view of this house see page 125 ; also see page 65. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 239 Plate I. 240 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Plan J. 1 For view of similar house see page 95 ; also see page 15. MODE JIN CAUPEXTEY AND BUILDING. Plan J. GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN ARCHITECTURE AND CARPENTRY, Acanthus. An ornament resembling the foliage or leaves of the acanthus plant, used in the capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders of architecture. Abutment. That on which a thing rests, or by which it is supported, as the abutment of an arch. Arcade. A series of arches supported by columns or piers, either open or backed by masonry. A long, arched building. Arris. The edge formed by two surfaces meeting each other, applied particularly to the raised edges which separate the flutings in a Doric column. Arris Fillet. A triangular piece of wood used to raise the covering of a roof against a chimney or wall so as to throw off the rain. Abacus. The upper plate upon the capital of a column supporting the architrave. Architrave. The lower division of an entablature, or that part which rests im mediately on the column. The ornamental moulding around the exterior of an arch. This term is also applied to door and window-casings. Annulet. A small, flat fillet encircling a column. It is several times repeated under the Doric capital. Arch. A construction of stone or brick arranged in the form of a curve, supporting each other by their mutual pressure. 242 MOD Eh 'X CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 243 Astragal. A littJ^ round moulding, which surrounds the top or bottom of a column. Back-flaps. Rather long, square hinges, considerably shorter than strap-hinges, but applied in the same manner. Bui uster. A small column used to support a rail. Balustrade. A ro\v of balusters topped by a rail, serving as a fence for balconies, stairs, etc. Laicony. A platform projecting from the outside walls of a house, generally enclosed by a balustrade. Baidacltin. A structure in the form of a canopy, supported by columns or projecting from the wall, placed over doors, thrones, etc. Band. A low, fiat moulding, broad, but not deep. Bartizan. The small, overhanging turret which projects from the angles of towers and other parts of a building. Base. The lower projecting part of a room, consisting of the plinth and its mouldings. The part of a column between the top of the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft. Button. A round moulding in the base of a column ; also called 'J'orus. But dement. A notched parapet; originally used only on fortifications, but since used on buildings. Batten. A narrow strip of board used to cover seams or joints in boarding. Any narrow strip of board. Ban-window. A window projecting outward from the wall, either in a rectangular, polygonal, or semi-circular form. Some- times called Bow-window. Bead. A round moulding. When it comes flush with the surrounding surface, it is called a Quirk-bead . when it is raised, it is called a Cock-bead. There is also the Plaster iny-bead, v hich is nailed on to the corner of the stud or furring which forms the external angle of a partition. It is sometimes called a fdde Joint-bead. foam. A horizontal timber used to resist a force or weight, 244 MODERN CARPENTRY AND HUILDING. as a Tie-beam, where it is used to tie the work together ; as a Collar-beam, when it is used to connect and brace two opposite rafters. Blocking* Small pieces of wood fitted and glued in the internal angle formed by the side of one board being fastened to the edge of another, and used to give strength to the joint. To Break Joints. To arrange the work so that no joint of any course shall come opposite a joint in either the course next above or below it, as ssen in shingling, clapboarding, slating, etc. Butt-joint. A joint formed by the meeting of the square ends of two pieces of wood, or the joint formed by the square end of one piece meeting the side or edge of another piece. Bracket. A piece of wood, stone, or metal projecting from a wall to support shelves, statuary, etc. Buttress. A projecting support to the exterior of a wall ; most commonly applied to churches in the Gothic style, but also to other buildings, and sometimes to mere walls. Flying Buttress. A contrivance for strengthening a part of a building which rises considerably above the rest, consisting of a curved brace or half-arch between it and the opposite face of some lower part, so named from its passing through the air. Carriage of a stair, also called Stringer. The timber which supports the steps and risers. Canopy. An ornamental projection in the Gothic style over doors and windows. Cantilecer. A projecting block or bracket for supporting a balcony, the upper member of a cornice, the eaves of a house, etc. Capital. The header or uppermost part of a column, pilas- ter, etc. There are six varieties, each adapted to its respective order; viz., the Gothic, which is ornamented with leaves and foliations; the Composite, also called the Roman or Italic, which is a combination of the Ionic and Corinthian; the Tuscan, MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 245 which is plain and unornarnented, much resembling the Doric , the Corinthian, which is distinguished by its profusion of orna- ments ; the Doric, which much resembles the Tuscan, and is between that and the Ionic in ornamentation ; and the Ionic, whose distinguishing feature is the volute of its capital, and is less ornamented than the Corinthian. Can/. A piece of board used in veneering for the purpose of clamping the veneer to the surface to which it is to be glued. Casement. A glazed sash or frame which opens on hinges. Castellated. Adorned with turrets and battlements like a castle. Catherine-wheel Window. An ornamental circular window with radiating divisions or spokes. Casting or Warping. The bending of a board width ways, caused either by one side shrinking or swelling more than the other, or by the peculiar grain of the wood. To Chamfer. To bevel the corner of a square-edged piece of wood. Clamp. A tool having a screw, used to force and hold work together. Crown-post. The middle post of a trussed roof ; also called the King-post. Cavelto. A hollow moulding, whose profile is the quarter of a circle ; used chiefly in cornices. Chancel. That part of a church between the altar and the rail that encloses it. Chaptrel. The capital of a pier or pilaster which receives an arch ; also called an Impost. Ceiling. The upper interior surface opposite the floor. Choir. That part of a church appropriated to the use of the officiating clergyman ; the chancel. Chord of an arch; the span. Column. A cylindrical support for roofs, ceilings, etc., corn, posed of base, shaft, and capital; a pillar. 246 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Cyma. A moulding of a cornice which is composed of two members, a hollow and a round ; an ogee moulding. It is called Cyma Recta when the upper member is hollow and the lower member is round. It is called Cyma Reversa when the upper member is round and the lower member is hollow. Cinque-foil. An ornamental foliation, having five points or cups, used in windows, panels, etc. Clustered Column. A column which is composed, or appears to be composed, of several columns collected together. Composite Order. An order of architecture made up of the Ionic order grafted on the Corinthian ; also called the Roman o.r Italic order. Console. A bracket or shoulder-piece, or a projecting orna- ment on the keystone of an arch, and often used to support litlle cornices, busts, and vases. Coping. The highest or covering course of masonry in a wall, sometimes bevelled on the top to carry off the water ; also called Capping. Concrete. A mass of stone drippings, pebbles, etc., cemented by mortar, and used for foundations where the soil is light or wut ; also used to lay cellar-bottoms. In concrete sidewalks the pebbles are generally cemented by gas-tar instead of mortar or cement. Cornice. Any moulded projection which crowns or finishes the part to which it is affixed, as the cornice of an order, of a pediment, of a door, window, or house. Corinthian Order. The third order of architecture, charac- terized by a profusion of ornamentation. Corbel. A bracket used to support arches, statuary, etc. Cove. An arch overhead where ceilings connect with the walls. Crocket. An ornament formed in imitation of curved and b*nt foliage, and placed upon the angles of spires, canopies, etc, Curb-roof. a roof having a double slope ; a gambrel roof. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 247 Cupola. A dome-like vault on the top of an edifice, usually on a tower or steeple, as of a public building. The word as commonly used means a small tower or turret built on the top of a building. Curb-plate. The plate in a curb-roof that receives the feet of the upper rafters. Dado. The die or square part in the middle of the pedestal of a column, between the base and the cornice ; also that part of an apartment between the plinth and the impost moulding. Dentil. An ornamental square block or projection in cor- nices, bearing some resemblance to teeth, used particularly in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders. Doric Order. Belonging to the second order of columns, between the Tuscan and Ionic. The Doric order is distinguished for strength and simplicity. Dormer Window. A window placed on the inclined plane of the roof of a house, the frame being placed vertically on the rafters. Echinus. A moulding of the same form as the ovolo or quarter-round, but properly so called only when ornamented or carved with eggs and anchors. Engaged Columns. Columns sunk partly into the wall to which they are attached, and standing out at least one-half of their thickness. Entablature. That part of an order which is over the col- umns, including the architrave, frieze, and cornice. Facade. A front view or elevation of an edifice. Fascia. A flat member of an order or building, like a flat band or broad fillet. Festoon. An ornament of carved work in the form of a wreath of flowers, fruits, and leaves, represented as depending or hanging in an arch. Fillet. A little square member or ornament used in various places, but generally as a corona over a greater moulding, some' 248 MODERN CAEPENTBY AND BUILDING. times as a small square under other mouldings ; also the square part of the cyma recta and ogee mouldings. Finials. A knot or bunch of foliage that forms the upper extremities of pinnacles in Gothic architecture. Flute. A channel in a column or pilaster. Foil. A rounded or leaf-like ornament in windows, niches, etc., called trefoil, quatre-foil, quinque-foil, or cinque-foil, etc., according to the number of arcs of which it is composed. Foliation. The act of enriching with feather ornaments resembling leaves, or the ornaments themselves. Frieze. That part of the entablature of a column which is between the architrave and cornice. It is a flat member or face, often enriched with figures of animals or other ornaments of sculpture, whence its name. Fresco. A method of painting on plastered walls and ceilings. Fret. An ornament consisting of small fillets intersecting each other at right angles. Furrinys. Strips of board, 1 by 3 inches, which are nailed on the under side of floor-timbers, to form a level surface for laths, strapping. The term furring is sometimes applied to studding. Gable. The vertical triangular end of a house or other building, from the eaves to the top. Gable-roof. The sloping roof which forms a gable. Gable-window. A window in a gable, or pointed at the top like a gable. Girder The principal piece of timber in a floor, girding or binding the others together. Gothic. A style of architecture with high and sharply pointed arches, clustered columns, etc. Groined Arch. An arch having an angular curve, made by the intersection of two half-cylinders or arches, as a groined ceiling. MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDlXtl. 249 Gutter. A channel at the eaves of a roof to carry off the rain. Hanging Buttress. A buttress supported on a corbel, and not resting on the solid foundation. Helix. The little volute under the flowers of the Corinthian capital. Hip-knob. An ornament placed upon the roof of a building, either upon the hips or at the point of the gable. Hip-moulding. A moulding on the rafter or beam which forms the hip of a building. Hip-roof. A roof having sloping ends and sloping sides. Hood-moulding. A projecting moulding over the head of an arch. Interlacing Arches. Arches usually circular; so constructed that their curves intersect or interlace. Ionic Order. An order whose distinguishing feature is the volute of its capital. The column is more slender than the Doric and Tuscan, but less slender and less ornamented than the Corinthian and Composite. Jamb. The side-piece or post of a door or window, or any other aperture in a building. Kerf. To saw a notch in wood, to make it flexible or easily bent. King-post. A post rising from the tie-beam to the roof. Lattice. Any work of wood or iron made by crossing laths, rods, or bars, and forming a network. Lancet Window. A high and narrow window, pointed like a lancet. Lintel. A longitudinal piece of wood or stone placed over a door, window, or other opening ; a head-piece. Louver Window. An opening in a bell-tower church-steeple, crossed by a series of bars or sloping boards, to exclude the rain, but allow the passage of sound from the bells. Mantel. The work over a fireplace in front of a chimney, 250 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. especially a narrow shelf above the fireplace; called also Mantel-piece. Minaret. A slender, lofty turret on the mosques of Moham- medan countries, rising by different stages or stories, and sur- rounded by one or more projecting balconies, from which the people are summoned to prayer. Mitre. This term is applied to pieces meeting at an angle, and matching together on a line bisecting the angle : generally, however, an angle of 45 is called a mitre, sometimes called a square mitre ; that is to say, a mitre for a square or rectangular figure. Modittion. The enriched block or horizontal bracket gen- erally found under the cornice of the Corinthian entablature, and sometimes less ornamented in the Ionic, Composite, and other orders. Mullion. A slender bar or pier which forms the divisions between the lights of windows, screens, etc. One of the divis- ions in panellings resembling windows. Mutule. A projecting block worked under the corona of the Doric cornice, in the same situation as the modillion of the Corinthian and Composite orders. Nave. The middle or body of a church, extending from the choir or chancel to the principal entrance ; also the part between the wings or aisles. Newel. The upright post about which the steps of a circu- lar staircase wind; also the principal post at the angles and foot of a staircase. Niche. A cavity or recess, generally within the thickness of the wall, for a statue, bust, or other ornament. Nosing. That part of the step-board of a stair that pro- jects over the riser; also any like projection. Ogee. A moulding consisting of two members, one con- cave, the other convex, or a round and a hollow. Oriel Window A large bay-window in a hall or chapel. MODKHN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. 251 Ovolo. A round moulding ; the quarter-round. Pavilion. A temporary movable building or tent. The name is sometimes given to a summer-house in a garden. Pedestal. The base or foot of a column. It consists of three parts, base, dado or die, and cornice. Pediment. The triangular, ornamental facing of a portico, or a similar decoration over doors, windows, gates, etc. The name is also applied to arched and circular ornaments of a like kind. Pendant. A hanging ornament, used in roofs, ceilings, etc., much used in Gothic architecture. Pilaster. A square column, usually set within a wall, and projecting a fourth or a fifth part of its diameter. Pinnacle. A slender turret, or part of a building elevated above the main building. Pitch of a Roof. The inclination or slope of the sides ; sometimes expressed in parts of the span, as "* or ^ th pitch, that is, the rise is that part of the span ; sometimes by the length of the rafter in parts of the span, as f" 1 * or | thi pitch, that is, the length of rafter is that part of the span. Also the Gothic pitch, where the length of rafters is the same as the span. Eliza- bethan pitch, in which the length of rafters is greater than the span. Grecian pitch, in which the rise is th to 1 th of the span ; and the Roman pitch, in which the rise is th to f th " of the span. Plate. A piece of timber which supports the ends of the rafters. Plinth. A square, projecting, vertically faced member, form- ing the lowest division of the base of a column. The plain, projecting face at the bottom of a wall, immediately above the ground. Planceer or Planclier. The under side of a cornice ; a soffit. Porch. A kind of vestibule at the entrance of temples, churches, halls, and other buildings; hence, an ornamental entrance-way. 252 MODERN CARPENTRY AND BUILDING. Portico. A covered space, enclosed by columns, at the en- trance of a building. . Purlin. A piece of timber extending from end to end of a building or roof, across and under the rafters, to support them in the middle. Putlog. A piece of timber on which the planks of a stage are laid, one end resting on the ledger of the stage, and the other in a hole in the wall, left temporarily for the purpose. Queen-post. One of the suspended posts in a truss-roof, framed below into the tie-beam, and above into the principal rafter. Quirk. A small, acute channel, by which the rounded part of a Grecian ovolo or ogee moulding is separated from the fillet. K'lil. The horizontal part in any piece of framing or panelling. Rake. Pitch or inclination of a roof. Recess. Part of a room formed by the receding of the wall, as an alcove, a niche, etc. Return. The continuation of a moulding or projection in a different direction. Seat of a Hip, or Plan of a Hip. A level line over which a hip-rafter stands. Scotia- A concave moulding used in the base of a column, between the fillets of the tori, and in other situations. Its out- line is a segment of a circle, often greater than a semicircle. The moulding which is put under the nosing of steps. Scroll. A convolved or spiral ornament. The volute of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals. Soffit. Under side of stairways, archways, entablatures, cornices, or ceilings. Spire. A body that shoots up in a conical form , a steeple. Stall. A small apartment, where merchandise is exposed for sale, as a butcher's stall. MOD KEN CAEPENT11Y AND BUILDING. 253 Stile. The upright piece in framing or panelling. Stucco. Plaster of any kind used as a coating for walls, especially a fine plaster composed of lime or gypsum, with sand and pounded marble ; used for internal decoration and fine work. S urbane. A cornice or series of mouldings on the top of the base of a pedestal, podium, etc. The surbase of a room is sometimes called a chair-rail. Tie-beam. A beam acting as a tie at the bottom of a pair of the principal rafters, and prevents them from thrusting out the walls. Torus. A large moulding used in the base of a column. Its profile is semicircular. Tower. A lofty building, much higher than it is broad, either standing alone or forming a part of another edifice, of a church, castle, etc. Threshold. The door-sill ; the plank, stone, or piece of timber or board, that lies at the bottom or under a door of a house or other building. Transom. A horizontal cross-bar over a door or window, sometimes used for the purpose of supporting a sash over a door. Tracer)/. An ornamental divergency of the mullions in the head of a window into arches, curves, and flowing lines, enriched with foliations ; the sub-divisions of groined vaults, tc. Trellis. A structure or frame of cross-barred work, used for various purposes, as for screens for supporting plants. Transept. A part of a church at right angles to the body of the church. In a cruciform church it is one of the arms of the cross. Turret. A little tower or spire attached to a building, and rising above it. Tuscan Order. The most ancient and simple of the orders of architecture. The capital is plain, unornamental, and much like that of the Doric order. 254 MODERN CARPENTRY AXD BUILDING. Veranda. A kind of open portico, formed by extending a sloping roof beyond the main building. Vestibule. The porch or entrance into a house; a hall or ante-chamber next to the entrance, and from which doors open to the various rooms in the house. Volute. A kind of spiral scroll used in - the Ionic, Corin- thian, and Composite orders of architecture. Well-hole. The open space in the middle of a staircase beyond the ends of the steps. ALLEN SYLVESTER, BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. USEFUL BOOKS. SENT FREE BY MAIL ON RECEIPT OF PRICE. ALLEN SYLVESTER, PUBLISHER, 35 HAVERHILL ST., BOSTON. Building Superintendence. By T. M. CLARK; 194 diagrams; 336 pages, 6i x 9 inches; cloth ; post-paid $3.50 This work is intended to supply a want experienced especially by young archi- tects and those Intending to build and supervise for themselves. The author selects three typical classes of buildings namely, stone, wooden and buck and shows the different stages of construction in each, from the breaking of the ground to the completion of the structure in every detail. The book is not designed as a manual of architecture and construction, but considers exclusively and minutely the best methods for selecting proper materials and using those materials econom- ically and to the best advantage. At every step attention is called to the numei ous mistakes that the amateur builder is liable to make, from oversight, lack of system or from the careless work of the contractor. The stwessive steps of the mason, carpenter and joiner, plasterer and plumber are explained and illustrated. Much attention has been given to the subject of foundations drainage, ventilation and heating, and while perhaps there is not much that is new stated on these subjects, yet we believe there has been no book published in this country in which so much practical information and ndvice has been collected in one volume. The book in- cludes forms of specifications and contracts and brief remarks on stair building. Draftsman's Manual; or How Can I Learn Architecture. Containing hints to enquirers and directions in draftsman- ship. By F. T. CAMP, architect. One small volume, cloth ; price, post-paid $1.00 CONTENTS. Introduction. Preliminary Words. Draftsman's Out fit. Tech- nics of Planning. General Remarks on Planning. General Remarks on Exteriors. Drawing the plan. Using the Instruments. Designing the Elevations. Tracing and Inking. Proportion of Rooms. Perspective Drawing. By ADA CONE. A series of practical lessons beginning with Elementary Principles and carrying the student through a thorough course in Perspective. 33 illustrations. One 12mo. volume, cloth. Price post paid SI -00 Sent postpaid upon receipt of price. res. Figs. 207 to 262. Chap- ALLEN SYLVESTER, BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. Hints on the Drainage and Sewerage of Dwellings. By WM. PAUL GERHARD, civil engineer. One 12rao volume; cloth ; price, po^t-paid ............................... $2.00 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Fresh Air vs. Sewer Gas. Chapter II. Neces- sity of Ventilation in Rooms containing "Modern Conveniences, and Detective Arrangements of Plumbing Fixtures." Figs. 1 to IS. Chapter III. Soil- and Waste-Pipe System as usually found in Dwellings. Figs. 19 10 31. Chapter IV. Traps and Systems of Trappings. Figs. 32 to 38. Chapter V. Details of Traps. Figs. 39 to 159. Chapter VI. Insecurity of Common Water Seal Traps. Figs. ItiO to 164. Chapter VII. Defects in the Plumbing Works of Dwellings. Chapter VIII. Cellar Drains and Drainage of Cellars. Figs. 165 to Ifti. Chapter IX. Usual Defects of House Drains. Sewer Connections. Privies. Vaults and Cesspools. Figs. ITOlo 181. Chapter X Svstein of Plumbing as it should be inside a Dwell- ing. Figs. 182 to 206. Chapter XI. Plumbing Fixtures. Figs. 207 to ter XII. Removal and disposal of Household Wastes. Figs. 263 to 282. Ames' Alphabets. One oblong volume, 33 7x11 well-tilled plates, handsomely bound in cloth ; price, post-paid ....................... $1.50- Adapted to the use of Architects, Engravers, Engineers, Artists, Sign Painters* Draughtsmen, etc. This work has been prepared under our supervision, and with especial reference to the wants of Architects, Sign Painters, and Draughtsmen. Architects will find examples of the most common words in use on their drawings, so that if desired they may be transferred directly to their drawings. - k with instruc- tions in regard to tracing and transferring, and the preparation of India Ink." This will be especially valuable t> Architectural Students and Amateurs. Sign Paint- ers will find fancy and shaded letters especially adapted to their wants, while every alphabet in the book will be found suggestive. A Manual of Industrial Drawing. For carpenters and other woodworkers. By W. F. DECKER, .Instructor in Drawing, University of Minnesota. 176 pages, 29 plates and numerous other illustrations. One 8vo vol., cloth ; price, post-paid ............................... $2.00 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Rough Sketches. Chapter II. Drawing Instru- ments and Materials. Chapter III. Lettering and Titles. Chapter IV. Defini- tions and Geometrical Problems. Chapter V. Elementary Projection. Chap- ter VI. Applications of Projections. Chapter VII Isometrical and Cabinet Projections. Chapter VIII. House Plans. Chapter IX. Laying out of Rafters. Practical Lessons in Architectural Drawing; or, How to Make the Working Drawings for Buildings. 44r pages descriptive letter-press, illustrated by 33 full-page plates (one in colors), and 33 wood-cuts, showing methods of construction and representation. The best and most practical book ever published. By WM. B. TUTHILL, A. M-, Architect. One large 8vo volume, oblong, cloth; price, post-paid. $3.00- Sent postpaid upon receipt of price. ALLEN SYLVESTER, BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. CONTENTS. CHAPTEH I. Introduction. Chapter II. A small Frame House. Chapter III. A Frame Building. Chapter IV. A Brick Building, Chapter V. A Stone Building. Chapter VI. The Specifications. Cl'aptu- VII. Color. The work ei braces Scale Drawings of 1'lans. Elevations, Sections and Details of Frame. Brick and Stone Buildings, with full descriptions ami a form of Specifi- cations adapted to Hie same. Suited to the wants of Architectural Students, Carpenters, Builders, and all de- sirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of Architectural Drawing and Construc- tion. The City Residence. Its design and construction, by W. B. TTTHILL, Architect. One octavo vol. fully illustrated; cloth; price, post-paid $2. 00 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Introduction. Chapter II. The Dwelling House: Treating of designing the prha;e house, and giving many plans. Chapter III. The Tenement Hoii-e: Treating on questions of light, economy of planning and the requirements under the Building Regulations in New York, and giving a large number of plans. Chapter IV. The Apartment House: The discussion of plan- ning given in this chapter will he found very suggestive to those designing tills class of dwellings. Many plans and diagrams are given. Chapter V. Mason Work. This is an important chapter on hi ick and stone construction, and is profusely illustrated: embracing foundations, brick work, chimney building and all the varied details included in mason's work. Chapter VI. Mortars and Concretes. Chap- ter VII. Iron Work: This isachapter of careful detail, tilled withdraw ings show- ing the various uses of ii on in modern construction and the best forms to adopt. Chapter VIII. Brick Work in Elevation. Chapter IX -Stone Work in Elevation. Chapter X. Carpenter's Work: This chapter verv can-fully specin< < this work, giving all that multitude of detail as to sizes and dimensions and methods of con- struction, with drawings, where necessary, to a dear understarding of the work. Chapter XI. Stairs. Chapter XII. Plastering. Chapter XIII. Sheet Metal Work. Chapter XIV. Painting. Cottages; or Hints on Economical Building. Containing twenty-four plates of medium and low cost houses, contributed by different New York Architects, to- gether with descriptive letter-press, giving practical suggest- ions for cottage building. Compiled and edited by A. W. BRUNNER, Architect. And a chapter on the Water Supply, Drainage, Sewerage, Heating and Ventilation, and other Sanitary Questions relating to Country Houses, by WM. PAUL GERHARD. One 8vo. vol., cloth; price, post-paid $1.25 The aim of this lit tie hook is simply to offer a few hints and suggest ions to those about to build, or those interested in building, and to present a series of designs of low-cost cottages. The designs were made, by request, by different New York architects who have turned their attention to the subject. In view of the rapid growth of Art Ideas." and tl'o great improvement in taste that has taken place during the last few years, it is believed that there is a demand for dwellings reasonable in cost, yet artistic and home-like. Sent postpaid upon receipt of price. ALLEN SYLVESTER, BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. Architectural Studies. In two large quarto volumes, bound in cloth ; price, post-paid , $5.50 Containing the following parts : TOL. 1. PART 1. Low cost houses. Paper portfolio ; price, post-paid $1.25 Plates 1 and 2. 1st fr'ue design for a $2.500 house, 3 elevations, plans and de- ails. Plates 3 and 4. 2d prize design for a $2,500 house, 3 elevations, plans and de- ails. Plate 5. 3d prize design for a $2,500 house, elevations, plans and details, 'late 6. Competitive design for a $2,500 house, elevations, plans and details. Mate 7. Competitive design fora $2,500 house. Plate 8. Perspective elevations. ,>lans and details for a $2,200 cottage. Plate !). Perspective plans and details of a small country house. Plate 10. A pair of semi-detached cottages, elevations and plans. Plate 11. Small cottage. 3 elevations, 2 plans; $1.000 cottage, perspective and 2 plans. Plate 12. 2 cheap cottages. PART 2. Store fronts and interior details. Paper portfolio ; price, post-paid $1.25 Plate 13. Village or town store, show windows and interior details. Plate 14. Shop front for small store, with details. Plate 15. Store front, plan and very full details. Plate 10. Design for a corner store, with details. Plate 17. Brick store f.ront, witli details, Plate 18. Designs for a restaurant and cafe, plans and details. PI a e 1'J. Painters' and Artists' matei ials store. Plate 20. Detail of a screen for a bank desk and. detail of a screen for a broker's office. Plate 21. Corner drug store, exterior and interior details. Plate 22. Design for store front and business block with details. Plate 23 Improved method of remodeling an ordinary high stoop private residence into three stories. Plate 24. Suggestions for storefront with arched openings. PART 3. Stables. Paper portfolio; price, post-paid $1.25 Plate 25. Design for small stable. Plate 20. Stable and barn for a gentleman farmer: smallslable. Plate 27. A stable to cost about $1.000. Plate 28 A stable to cost about $1.200. Plate 29. Large stable and barn, giving plan of yard and details. Plate 30. A stable for four horses, to cost, between $3.000 and $4.000. Plate 31. Stable, perspective elevation and plans. Plate 32. Stable and carriage house ; cost $3.000. Plate 33. Stable, elevation, plans and details. Plate 34. Farm stable. Plate 35. Stable; cost, $2,500. Plate 36. Stable for a summer resort; cost, $10,000. PART 4. Seaside and southern homes. Paper portfolio ; price, post-paid $ 1 .25 Plate 37. Design for summer cottage. Plate 38. Low-priced cottage; cost, $1,500 to $1.000. Plate 3'J. A seaside cottage, perspective, elevation, plans and de- tails. Plate 4't. Low-priced seashore cottage, perspective, plans and interior de- tails. Plate 41. Seaside cottage, verandah on two sides, perspective, elevation and plans. Plate 42. Seaside cottage, elevations, plans and details. Plate 43. South- ern home or seaside cottage, perspective and elevation, and two plans. Plate 44. A Florida cottage. Plate 45. Seaside cottage, perspective, elevation and plans. Plate 4. Sketch for seaside cottage, with plans; cost, $2,000. Plate 47. Seaside house, elevation and plans. Plate 48. Seaside hotel. Sent post-paid upon receipt of price. ALLEN SYLVESTER, BOSTOX, MASS., U. S. A. PART 5. Out-buildings. Paper portfolio ; price, post-paid $1.25 Plate 40 Wind mill, wagon house and well house. Plate ao. Three designs for fences, pate and well liouse. Plate 51. Gate lodge, brick fence and old Colonial high fence. Plate 52. Stable, detail of fence and gale, and summer house. Plaie 53. General utility building, including carriage liouse, stable, shop and chicken house. Plate 54. Two ways of entering a terrace, summer house, garden house and entrance prate. Plate 55. Seaside pavilion, bath house and screened privy. Plate 56. Dancing pavilion, poultry ana pigeon liouse. Plate 57. Haih house, ice house. Plate 5S. Two designs for privies, wagon shed, and three designs for gates and fences. Plate 59. Out-buildings for rear of a 100-ft. lot. double privy and covered gateway. Plate 60. Tool house, wood shed and privy, and three designs for fences. VOL. 2. PART 6. $500 to $2,500 houses, giving perspectives, eleva- tions and plans, with specifications, bills of materials, and estimates of cost. Paper portfolio, twelve plates; price, post-paid -$1.25 Plate 1. $500 hor.se. Plate 2. $700 house. Plate 3. $SOO house. Plato 4. $sro house. Plate 5. $WH house. Plate 6. fl.ixio house. Plate 7. $1,000 house. Plate 8. $1,000 house. Plate 9. $1,200 house. Plate 10. $1. .loo house. Plate 11. $2,000 house. Plate 12. $2,500 house. PART 7. Interior woodwork of houses of moderate cost. Paper portfolio, twelve plates ; price, post-paid $1.25 Plate 13. Two china closets. Plate 14. Details of china closet. Plate 15. An angle fire-place and parlor mantel, with details. Plate 16. Book-shelve* with de- tails. Plate 17. staircase and screen, with details. Plate Is. Two bedroom man- tels with details. Plate 1! Entrance hall and staircase. Plate 20. Details of entrance hall and staircase. Plate 21. Bathroom, with details. Plate 22. Hall fireplace, with details. Plate 23. Library book-shelves, with details. Plate 24. Dining-room mantel, with details. PART 8. Store fitting*. Paper portfolio, twelve plates ; price, post-paid $1.25 Plate 25. Counter and showcase, with details. Plate 26. Detached case, with details. Plate 27. Wall-shelving, with details. Plate 28. Telephone case, with details. Plate 2!). Counter for druggist, with details. Plate 30. Wall cases, with details. Plate 31. Two counters, with details. Plate 32. Two detached cases, with details. Plate 33. Prescription counter, with details. Plate 34. Perfumery case, with details. Plate 35. Wall-shelving, with details. Plate 36. Cashiers desk, with details. PART 9. City houses. Paper portfolio, twelve plates ; pr.ice, post-paid $1.25 This part is devoted to elevations, plans and sections of city houses. A special feature will be a large and carefully selected series of floor plans. Practical Boat Building; and Sailing. By P. NEISON, D. KKMPR and G. C. DAVIDS ; 54 x 8 inches ; cloth ; London $3.0O This book contains full instructions for designing and building punts, skiffs, canoes, sailing boats and yachts. Sent post-paid upon receipt of price. ALLEN SYLVESTER, BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. Canoe and Boat Building. A complete manual for amateurs, containing plain and com- prehensive directions for the construction of canoes, rowing and sailing boats and hunting craft. By W. P. STEPHENS; 264 pages; illustrations, and 50 plates in envelope $2.5O Numerous examples of canoes are here given, with plain instruction for tlie beginner to select the proper craft and to plan dimensions, details and fittings. lioat building is fully treated on, a rowboat of the usual construct lull being taken as an example. Wood-Turners' Handy Book. By S. N. HASLUCK. A practical manual for workers at the lathe, embracing information 011 the tools, appliances and processes employed in wood turning; 100 illustrations; 144 pages, 5 x 7 inches ; cloth ; boards 81.00 This is a compact and very satisfactory texl book of wood-turning, treating on wood-turners' lathes, hand loots, rounding tools, titling up a lathe, chucks, copying lathes, &o., as well as special instructions for turning numerous articles of com- mon occurrence. Manual of Wood Carving. By WM. BEMROSE, JR. ; 49 pages, 7 3 x 9.^ inches ; 127 colored illustrations; cloth $3.00 The purpose of the author of this work was to provide the amateur carver such information and assistance as would enable him to produce various articles of fur- niture, tasteful in character and durable in quality. At the outset he gives atten- tion to the tools and appliances necessary, and some general instructions in their use. Following this are plates of designs suitable for execution, accompanied by brief descriptive letterpress. Book of Alphabets, 48 pages, 5ix9 inches: paper $1.00 This book contains llo plain and ornamental alphabets, adapted to the use of sign painters, draftsmen and designer^. It includes all tne standard styles and many new ones. Wood Carving for Amateurs. Containing descriptions of all the requisite tools and full in- structions for their UM; in producing different varieties of carving. Illustrated; second edition, revised and enlarged pamphlet : 80 pages 81 .00 Thislittle book is intented prin-arily to givt- information on the subject for ama- teurs, [t is of such a character, however, as to l>e useful to tlir=e who hnve df-sire to acquire a knowledge of wood carving for its advantages as an eninlovuifi". The subject is carefully discussed, tools are Illustrated, directions are pri-M-nted and in general the reader is carefully instructed in the art. Scut postpaid upon receipt of price. ALLEN SYLVESTER, HOSTOX, MASS., r. S. A. Law Without Lawyers: A Compendium of Business and Domestic Law for Popular Use. By HKNRY B. COKEY, L.L.B., member of the New York Bar: 41G pages; 12mo ; cloth &1.5O Tliis book has been prepared with especial reference to those who have- not en- joved a legal education. It is a simple, clear and accurate presentation of the general laws and of the laws oT the several States relating to the rights of property, contracts, debts, partnerships, bankruptcy, insurance, corporations, marriages, divorce, Ac., with which are included correct copies of all legal instruments :md forms, such as notes, deeds, mortgages, leases, wills, Ac., and a dictionary of legal words and phrases. Technical law terms have been omitted, explained "or trans- lated into ordinary language. The arrangement is'good. each paragraph having the subject designated in heavy type- A complete index facilitates reference to any subject. Everybody's Paint Book. A complete guide to the art of outdoor and indoor painting; L'8 illustrations ; 183 pages, 5 x 74 inches ; cloth S1.6O This book is designed for the special use of that large class of people who in motives of economy or convenience prefer to do their own work. Practical structions are given for plain painting, varnishing, polishing, staining, paper from motives of economy or convenience prefer to do their own work. Practical instructions are given for plain painting, varnishing, polishing, staining, paper hanging, kalsomining, renovating furniture. ,Vc. Full descriptions of tools and materials and explicit directions for mixing paints are Included. The subject of home decoration is briefly considered, and there is a chapter on spatter work. Paper Hanger's Companion. By JAMES AKKOWSMITH ; 108 pages, 5 x 7 4 inches $1.5O The author practically descrilies the necessary tools and appliances and the various cements, pastes "and si/ings best adapted to the purposes of the trade, copious directions preparatory to papering, and preventions against the effect of damp on walls, are given. There are also observations for the paneling and orna- menting of rooms. House Painting, Carriage Painting and Graining. By JOHN MASUKY ; 244 pages, 5 x "^ inches. 82 OO This is a purely practical book on the subjects indicated, which may be readily understood by inexperienced readers. A number of chapters are given to the u>es of colors.mixingof paints and colors, Interior and exterior painting, whitewashing, the various shades of graining and tools used, carriage paint ing and varnishing. ANY OF THESE BOOKS SENT FREE BY MAIL ON RECEIPT OF PRICE. Do you want a nice Cold or Silver Watch, or a fine Clock? We can supply you with the best at less than regular prices. Send ten cents for our elegant illustrated cata- logue of watches and clocks. Sent postpaid upon receipt of price. ALLEN SYLVESTER, DEALER IN FINE Watches, Clocks, Jewelry & Silverware, Charms, Rings, Emblems, Pins, Canes, Etc , AT LESS THAN REGULAR RETAIL PRICES. We desire to call attention to our method of doing business, and to some of the prices of the articles we have for sale. 1st. We carry no goods in stock, but purchase direct from the manufacturer, insuring new and perfect goods, and latest styles in every case. 2d. We buy and sell only for cash, and as our expenses are light, are thus enabled to quote lower prices than the regular dealers for the same qualitj' of goods. 3d. We deliver all goods free of expense to our customers, thus doing away with express and mail charges. 4th. We will purchase anything desired, and on such arti- cles as pianos, bicycles, sewing machines, etc., we can save purchasers a considerable amount of money. Our handsomely illustrated Catalogue of nearly 100 pages, will be sent to any one requesting same upon receipt of 10 cents to cover expense of mailing. FOR FURTHER PARTICULARS ADDRESS ALLEN SYLVESTER, BOSTON. ALLEN SYLVESTER, BOSTON, .V.-l .f price. ALLEX SYLVESTER, HOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. Rings, Charms, Pins, Etc, WEDDING RINGS, Solid H-K Gold Half- Hound King, weight about 5 dwt. Regular price, $8.00. Our price, $6.75. Cheaper rings as low as $] .50. SOCIETY KINGS, Knights-Templar Ring, black Onyx, 4 rose diamonds, Regular price, $12.50. Our price, 10.50. CHARMS, Royal Arch Chapter Charm, White Onyx, $3.00. We have Charms for many leading Secret Societies and other purposes, varying in price from $30.00 to 75c. PINS, we have a large variety of or- namental pins, Bicycle, Wishbone, Sword, Dog, etc. We have a solid Gold "Owl" pin with diamond eyes that we sell for $5.75 that is very cute, and other kinds as low as 50 cents. BROOCHES, Ladies Imitation Dia- mond Brooch, $2 25. Send 10 cents for Complete Catalogue. ALLE\' SYLVESTER, BOSTOX, .V.l.S.*., U.S.A. Silverware. Triple plate Sugar Bowl, Satin Engraved, $3.50. We can supply you anything in the lines of Silverware : Ice Pitchers, Tea Sets, Plated Knives, Forks, Spoons, Toilet Articles, Children's Muss, etc., etc. Get our prices before pur- chasing elsewhere. There are cheap silvered goods ottered for sale by some parties; these are never satisfactory. We handle only reliable, goods. Remember that we can sell you anything, and that we deliv- er all our goods free of expense to the purchaser. Send 10 cents for our illustrated Catalogue and Price-List. All our goods warranted exactly as represented. OF THE I UNIVERSITY) 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to icnmediate recall. T?EC*D iWt VBNov'SOMM BEG 1 8 1960 1961 KB . REC'D LD