* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
ANTIQUITIES 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 BEING THE RESULTS OF EXTENSIVE ORIGINAL SURVEYS 
 AND EXPLORATIONS, 
 
 WITH 
 
 A SUPPLEMENT 
 
 ANTIQUITIES OF THE WEST; 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY FOURTEEN QUARTO PLATES AND EIGHTY 
 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD : 
 
 By E. G. SQUIEB, M. A., 
 
 Toreign Member of the British Archaeological Association; Member of the AmeriM 
 
 Ethnological Society ; the Pennsylvania Academy of Natural Sciences ; the 
 
 New York Historical Society ; the Massachusetts Historical 
 
 Society ; the Historical and Antiquarian 
 
 Society of Tennessee, etc., etc. 
 
 FEOM THE "SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 BUFFALO: 
 
 GEO. H . DERBY AND CO. 
 
 1851. 
 

 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by 
 
 E. G. SQUIER, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
 District of New York. 
 
 Stereotyped by C. DAVISON, 33 Goto St., N- \. 
 
 C. A. ALVORD, PRINTER, 
 29 Gold-st., N. Y. 
 

 PREFACE 
 
 THE investigations, the results of which are embodied 
 in the following pages, were undertaken in the autumn 
 of 1848, under the joint auspices of the Historical So 
 ciety of New York, and the Smithsonian Institution of 
 Washington. They were originally published in the 
 Second Volume of the " SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS 
 TO KNOWLEDGE," in a form far too costly to be gene 
 rally accessible. But as it is the design of this Insti 
 tution to promote knowledge, by giving as wide a diffu 
 sion to new facts as possible, its officers have liberally 
 assented to their republication in the present form, and 
 permitted the use of the original plates and engravings, 
 for that purpose. By this means, the work is placed 
 within the reach of all who are interested in the subject 
 of American Antiquities, at a price far below what would 
 have been the cost of its original production. 
 
 In preparing this edition, the author has added largely 
 to the original Memoir, and has also appended a supple- 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 ment, containing a resume or synoptical view of the An 
 cient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. This will 
 enable the general reader to institute all necessary 
 comparisons between the aboriginal remains of New 
 York, and those of the Western States. 
 

 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. Introductory Observations, Page 7 to 15 
 
 II. Earth Works, Inclosures, etc., 15 to 85 
 
 St. Lawrence County, 15 
 
 Jefferson County, 16 
 
 Oswego County, 30 
 
 Onondaga County, 31 
 
 Madison County, 45 
 
 Otsego County, 46 
 
 Chenango County 46 
 
 Cayuga County, 48 
 
 Chemung County, 53 
 
 Ontario County, . 55 
 
 Monroe County, 56 
 
 Livingston County 61 
 
 Genesee County, 64 
 
 Orleans County, 71 
 
 Erie County, 72 
 
 Chautauque County, 81 
 
 Montgomery County, 82 
 
 III. Palisaded Inclosures 85 to 97 
 
 IV. Mounds, Bone-heaps, etc., 97 to 116 
 
 V. Implements, Ornaments, etc., 116 to 137 
 
 VI. Observations on the Probable Origin of the 
 
 Ancient Monuments of New York, 137 to 142 
 
 VIL Ancient Works in New Hampshire, Penn 
 sylvania, Northern Ohio, etc., 142 to 150 
 
 Vin. General Character of Indian Defences, .... 150 to 164 
 
 IX. Stone Heaps ; Stones of Memorial, Stone 
 
 Circle s> 164 to 177 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. Comparison of the Defensive Structures of 
 the American Aborigines with those of 
 the Pacific Islanders, Celts, etc., etc.,. . . 177 to 189 
 XI. Sepulchral Mounds in Mexico, Central 
 
 America, etc, 189 to 195 
 
 XII. Sepulchral Monuments of the Ancient 
 
 World, 195 to 207 
 
 XIII. Probable Funeral Rites of the Mound 
 
 Builders, 207 to 213 
 
 XIV. The Mounds not general Burial Places; 
 
 Great Indian Cemeteries of the West, . . 213 to 225 
 XV. Aboriginal Sacred Inclosures ; Temples of 
 the North American Indians ; Temples 
 of Mexico, Central America, and Peru ; 
 Temples of the Polynesian Islanders, 
 Hindus, etc ; Primitive Temples of the 
 British Islands ; Symbolism of Temples, 225 to 267 
 XVI. Use of Copper and Silver by the American 
 
 Aborigines, 267 to 293 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ; General Ob 
 servations ; Inclosures for Defence ; Sacred Inclosures; 
 Mounds of Sepulture ; of Sacrifice, etc., etc. ; Imple 
 ments ; Ornaments ; Sculptures, etc., etc., 293 to 343 
 
ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 THE Indian tribes found in possession of the country now 
 embraced within the limits of New England and the Middle 
 States have left few monuments to attest their former pres 
 ence. The fragile structures which they erected for protec 
 tion and defence have long ago crumbled to the earth ; and the 
 sites of their ancient towns and villages are indicated only by 
 the ashes of their long-extinguished fires, and by the few rude 
 relics which the plough of the invader exposes to his curious 
 gaze. Their cemeteries, marked in very rare instances by en 
 during monuments, are now undistinguishable, except where 
 the hand of modern improvement encroaches upon the sanc 
 tity of the grave. The forest-trees, upon the smooth bark of 
 which the Indian hunter commemorated his exploits in war, or 
 success in the chase the first rude efforts toward a written 
 language have withered in the lapse of time, or fallen be 
 neath the inexorable ax. The rock upon which the same 
 primitive historian laboriously wrought out his rude, but to 
 
8 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 him significant picture, alone resists the corrosion of years. 
 Perhaps no people equally numerous have passed away with 
 out leaving more decided memorials of their former existence. 
 Excepting the significant names of their sonorous language, 
 which still attach to our mountains, lakes, and streams, little 
 remains to recall the memory of the departed race. 
 
 But notwithstanding the almost entire absence of monu 
 ments of art clearly referable to the Indian tribes discovered 
 in the actual possession of the region above indicated, it has 
 long been known that many evidences of ancient labor and skill 
 are to be found in the western parts of New York and Penn 
 sylvania, upon the upper tributaries of the Ohio, and along the 
 shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario. Here we find a series of 
 ancient earth-works, intrenched hills, and occasional mounds, 
 or tumuli, concerning which history is mute, and the origin of 
 which has been regarded as involved in impenetrable mystery. 
 These remains became a subject of frequent remark, as the 
 tide of emigration flowed westward 5 and various detached no 
 tices of their existence were, from time to time, made public. 
 No connected view of their extent or character was, however^ 
 given to the world, until 1817, when De Witt Clinton, whose 
 energetic mind neglected no department of inquiry, read a 
 brief memoir upon the subject before the " Literary and Philo 
 sophical Society of New York," which was published in pamph 
 let form, at Albany, in 1818. Mr. Clinton in this memoir did 
 not profess to give a complete view of the matter ; his aim 
 being, in his own language, " to awaken the public mind to a 
 subject of great importance, before the means of investigation 
 were entirely lost." It consequently contains but little more 
 than notices of such ancient earth-works, and other interesting 
 remains of antiquity, as had at that time fallen under his no 
 tice, or of which he had received some distinct information. 
 Its publication was, however, without any immediate effect ; 
 for few individuals, at that period, felt the interest requisite, or 
 possessed the opportunities necessary, to the continuance of 
 

 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 9 
 
 the investigations thus worthily commenced. Nothing further, 
 it is believed, appeared upon the subject, until the publication 
 of McCauley's History of New York, in 1828. This work 
 contained a chapter upon the antiquities of the State, embody 
 ing the essential parts of Mr. Clinton's memoir, together with 
 some facts of considerable interest, which had fallen under the 
 observation of the author himself. Within a few years, public 
 attention has again been directed to the subject by Mr. School- 
 craft, in his " Notes on the Iroquois." Some detached facts 
 have also been presented in local histories and publications, but 
 usually in so loose and vague a manner, as to be of little value 
 for purposes of comparison and research. 
 
 The observations of all these authorities were merely inci 
 dental, and were limited in their range. By none were pre 
 sented plans, from actual surveys, of any of the ancient works 
 of the State ; a deficiency which, it is evident, could not be 
 supplied by descriptions, however full and accurate, and with 
 out which it has been found impossible to institute the compar 
 isons requisite to correct conclusions as to the date, origin, 
 and probable connections of these remains. It has all along 
 been represented that some of the inclosures were of regular 
 outlines, true circles and ellipses and accurate squares feat 
 ures which would imply a common origin with the vast system 
 of ancient earth-works of the Mississippi Valley. Submitted 
 to the test of actual survey, I have found that the works which 
 were esteemed entirely regular are the very reverse, and that 
 the builders, instead of constructing them upon geometrical 
 principles, regulated their forms entirely by the nature of the 
 ground upon which they were built. And I may here men 
 tion, that none of the ancient works of this State, of which 
 traces remain displaying any considerable degree of regularity, 
 can lay claim to high antiquity. All of them may be re 
 ferred, with certainty, to the period succeeding the commence 
 ment of European intercourse. 
 
 Mr. Clinton was unable to learn of the occurrence of any 
 1* 
 
10 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 remains upon the first terrace back from the lakes, and, upon 
 the basis of the assumed fact of their non-existence, advanced 
 the opinion that the subsidence of the lakes and the formation 
 of this terrace had taken place since these works were erected 
 a chronological period which I shall not attempt to measure 
 by years. This deduction has been received, I believe, by 
 every succeeding writer upon the subject of our antiquities, 
 without any attempt to verify the assumption upon which it 
 rests. I have, however, found that the works occur indiscrimi 
 nately upon the first and upon the superior terraces, as also 
 upon the islands of the lakes and rivers. 
 
 Misled by statements which no opportunity was afforded of 
 verifying, I have elsewhere, though in a guarded manner, ven 
 tured the opinion that the ancient remains of western New 
 York belonged to the same system with those of Ohio and the 
 West generally.* Under this hypothesis, the question whether 
 they were the weaker efforts of a colony, starting from the 
 southwestern centers, or the ruder beginnings of a people just 
 emerging from a nomadic state, becoming fixed in their habits, 
 and subsequently migrating southward, next suggested itself ; 
 and I gladly availed myself of the joint liberality of the Smith 
 sonian Institution and the Historical Society of New York, to 
 undertake its investigation. The results of my observations 
 are briefly presented in the following pages. These observa 
 tions extended from the county of St. Lawrence on the north, 
 to Chautauque on the south, embracing the counties of Jeffer 
 son, Oswego, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Ontario, 
 Wayne, Monroe, Livingston, Orleans, Niagara, Erie, Genesee, 
 and Wyoming. Throughout this entire region ancient remains 
 are found in considerable abundance ; they are also occasionally 
 found in the counties adjoining those above named, upon the 
 principal tributaries of the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Alle- 
 ghany. They are known to extend down the Susquehanna, as 
 
 * " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," p. 1. 
 
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 11 
 
 far as the valley of the "Wyoming; and a single one was discov 
 ered as far east as Montgomery county, in the neighborhood of 
 Fort Plain. Some, it is said, are to be found in Canada ; but 
 no definite information was received of their localities. It is to 
 be observed that they are most numerous in sections remarkable 
 for their fertility of soil, their proximity to favorable hunting 
 and fishing grounds in short, possessing the greatest number 
 of requisites to easy subsistence. They are particularly nu 
 merous in Jefferson county, in the vicinity of the central lakes, 
 in the southern part of Monroe, in Livingston, Genesee, and 
 Erie counties. Many are said to exist in Chautauque ; but 
 the lateness of the season, and the unsuspected number of re 
 mains elsewhere claiming attention, prevented me from exam 
 ining them. 
 
 In respect to the number of these remains, some estimate 
 may be formed from the fact that, in Jefferson county alone, 
 fifteen inclosures were found, sufficiently well preserved to ad 
 mit of being traced throughout. This is exclusive of those 
 (probably a greater number) which have been wholly or in part 
 destroyed, or of which no information could be obtained, in the 
 limited time allotted to the investigation of that county. It 
 is safe to estimate the whole number which originally existed 
 here at between thirty and forty a greater number than was 
 before known to exist in the State. Erie county probably con 
 tained nearly as many. In the short period of eight weeks 
 devoted to the search, I was enabled to ascertain the localities 
 of not less than one hundred ancient works, and to visit and 
 make surveys of half that number. From the facts which have 
 fallen under my notice, I feel warranted in estimating the num 
 ber which originally existed in the State at from two hundred 
 to two hundred and fifty. Probably one half of these have been 
 obliterated by the plough, or so much encroached upon as to be 
 no longer satisfactorily traced. 
 
 Were these works of the general large dimensions of those 
 of the Western States, their numbers would be a just ground of 
 

 '>.;" ^ 
 
 12 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 astonishment. They are, however, for the most part, compara 
 tively small, varying from one to four acres the largest not 
 exceeding sixteen acres in area. The embankments, too, are 
 slight, and the ditches shallow ; the former seldom more than 
 four feet in height, and the latter of corresponding proportions. 
 The work most distinctly marked exists in the town of Oak- 
 field, Genesee county ; it measures, in some places, between 
 seven and eight feet from the bottom of the ditch to the top 
 of the wall. In some cases the embankment is not more than 
 a foot in height, and the trench of the same depth. Lest it 
 should be doubted whether works so slight can be satisfactorily 
 traced, it may be observed, that a regular and continuous ele 
 vation of six inches may always be followed without difficulty. 
 
 In respect of position, a very great uniformity is to be ob 
 served throughout. Most occupy high and commanding sites 
 near the bluff edges of the broad terraces by which the country 
 rises from the level of the lakes. From the brows of the lime 
 stone ledges, where some of these works occur, in Jefferson and 
 Erie counties, most extensive prospects may be obtained, often 
 terminating in the blue belt of the lakes, distant from ten to 
 forty miles ; the intervening country presenting a beautiful va 
 riety of cleared and forest lands, dotted with houses, churches, 
 and villages. When found upon lower grounds, it is usually 
 upon some dry knoll or little hill, or where banks of streams 
 serve to lend security to the position. A few have been found 
 upon slight elevations in the midst of swamps, where dense for 
 ests and almost impassable marshes protected them from dis 
 covery and attack. In nearly all cases they are placed in close 
 proximity to some unfailing supply of water, near copious springs 
 or running streams. Gateways, opening toward these, are al 
 ways to be observed, and in some cases guarded passages are 
 also visible. These circumstances, in connection with others 
 not less unequivocal, indicate, with great precision, the purposes 
 for which these structures were erected. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that Messrs. Clinton, Yates, 
 
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 13 
 
 and Moulton, and others, have concluded, upon the assumption 
 that none of these works occur upon the first and second ter 
 races above the lakes, that the latter have subsided to their 
 present level since their erection. This conclusion does not 
 necessarily follow from the premises. Few positions susceptible 
 of defence, under the system practiced by all rude people, are 
 to be found upon either of these terraces ; the builders, conse 
 quently, availed themselves of the numerous headlands and 
 other defensible positions which border the supposed ancient 
 shores of the lakes, simply because they afforded the most effec 
 tual protection, with the least expenditure of labor. 
 
 I found an entire uniformity in the indications of occupancy, 
 and in the character of the remains of art discovered within 
 these inclosures, throughout the whole range of their occurrence. 
 The first feature which attracts notice, upon entering them, is 
 a number of pits or excavations in the earth, usually at the 
 points which are most elevated and dry. These pits are occa 
 sionally of considerable size, and are popularly called " wells," 
 although nothing is more obvious than that they never could 
 have been designed for any such purpose. They are usually 
 from three to four,l)ut sometimes from six to eight feet in depth, 
 and of proportionate size at the top. Their purposes become 
 sufficiently evident upon excavation. They were the caches in 
 which the former occupants of these works deposited their stores. 
 Parched corn, now completely carbonized by long exposure, is 
 to be discovered in considerable abundance in many of them. 
 Instances fell under my notice where it had been found un 
 touched to the amount of bushels, in these primitive deposito 
 ries. Traces of the bark and thin slips of wood, by which the 
 deposits were surrounded, are also frequently to be found. In 
 many of these inclosures the sites of the ancient lodges, or cab 
 ins, are still to be traced. These are marked by considerable 
 accumulations of decomposed and carbonaceous matter stones 
 much burned, charcoal and ashes mingled with the bones of an 
 imals, with numerous fragments of pottery, broken pipes, and 
 
14 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 occasionally rude ornaments, such as beads of stone, bone, and 
 shell. The pottery, I may observe incidentally, is of very good 
 material, and appears to have been worked and ornamented 
 with considerable taste and skill. It is found in great abun 
 dance ; and, in many of the inclosures now under cultivation, 
 bushels of fragments might, if desirable, be collected without 
 difficulty. The material, in common with that of all the abo 
 riginal pottery of the North, is composed of clay tempered (if 
 I may use the term) with pounded quartz and shells, or with 
 fine sand, so as to prevent shrinkage, and resist the action of 
 fire. Most of it is well burned, but none exhibits any appear 
 ance of glazing. The pipes are mostly composed of clay, regu 
 larly and often fancifully moulded, and ornamented in various 
 ways. Some bear the form of animals, the distinctive features 
 of which are well preserved ; others are moulded in the shape 
 of the human head, or are variously fluted and dotted with reg 
 ular figures. They are generally of very good material, the 
 clay of fine quality, and well burned. Some, indeed, are so 
 hard, smooth, and symmetrical, as almost to induce doubts of 
 their aboriginal origin. Some of the terra cottas, other than 
 pipes, are really very creditable specimens of art, and compare 
 favorably with any of the productions of the aborigines which 
 have fallen under my notice. They are, with few exceptions, 
 representations of animals; with the minutest features of which, 
 as well as with their peculiar habits, the American Indians had, 
 from long observation, a thorough acquaintance. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 EARTH-WORKS, INCLOSURES, ETC. 
 
 FOR the sake of convenience and easy reference, the inclo- 
 sures of earth are arranged according to counties, and so de 
 scribed. Works which were constructed of palisades simply, 
 without embankments or ditches, do not fall within this ar 
 rangement, but will be described collectively in a separate 
 chapter, under the head of " PALISADED INCLOSURES." 
 
 ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. 
 
 A FEW aboriginal monuments are said to have existed in 
 this county. One or two. of these occurred near Pottsdam ; 
 but it is probable they are now nearly, if not quite obliterated. 
 
 A mound, eight feet in height, still exists on St. Regis Isl 
 and, in the St. Lawrence River. It is crossed by the boundary 
 line separating the territories of the United States and Great 
 Britain. It was excavated by Col. Hawkins, of the United 
 States Boundary Commission, in 1818. Near the surface were 
 human bones in considerable numbers, and in good preserva 
 tion ; but at the base were found traces of fire, charcoal, burned 
 bones, and fragments of pottery, together with some stone 
 implements and ornaments. 
 
 Upon the Canada shore of the St. Lawrence River, opposite 
 Morrisville in this county, a singular aboriginal deposit was dis 
 covered some years ago, in making the excavations for the St. 
 Lawrence Canal. The principal facts concerning them were 
 communicated to the author by Dr. T. Reynolds, of Brockville, 
 C. W., and are embodied in Vol. I. of the " Smithsonian Con- 
 
16 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 tributions to Knowledge," pp. 201, 202. Among the relics 
 of copper and other materials, discovered at this spot and de 
 scribed as above, was a small terra cotta mask of very good 
 workmanship. An engraving of 
 the size of the original is herewith 
 presented (Fig. 1). Mr. Reynolds, 
 who has the relic in his possession, 
 describes it as follows : " It is of 
 clay, and represents the contour of 
 the Indian head, after which it ap 
 pears to have been molded. It 
 corresponds very nearly in shape 
 with the skulls discovered at the 
 same place, and the foramina, or 
 holes found in the skull, are well 
 represented showing that it was 
 modeled to resemble the bony 
 structure of the head, not the flesh or living subject. It seems 
 to have been broken off from some idol or image." 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 JEFFERSON COUNTY. 
 
 THIS county is bounded on one side by Lake Ontario, and 
 upon the other by the wild, mountainous region which sepa 
 rates the waters of the Hudson River from those of the St. 
 Lawrence. It is intersected by the Black River, one of the 
 most picturesque streams of the State. Its surface is diversi 
 fied : for about ten miles back from the shores of the lake, it is 
 nearly level ; we then reach the ledges of the Trenton lime 
 stone, and the entire country becomes more elevated and irre 
 gular. These natural features, implying an abundance of fish 
 and game, joined to great fertility of soil and easy cultivation, 
 
PLATE I. 
 
 A\\\VI Will/// 
 
 ^nm* *$*s-^j* > r t - 
 
 ^^J7"-^ -"o." 
 
 t^ivW^-,- .^_^,i:^' 
 
JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 17 
 
 fitted this county for sustaining a large aboriginal population. 
 We are not surprised, therefore, at finding here numerous 
 traces of former occupancy. These consist chiefly of inclosures 
 of irregular outlines, situated, for the most part, upon the bor 
 ders of the high table-land or terrace formed by the abrupt 
 termination of the great limestone deposit of the Trenton 
 group, the base of which, it is supposed, was formerly washed 
 by the waters of Lake Ontario. Quite a number of these 
 works, however, occur upon the lower terrace, in places where 
 the natural features of the ground were favorable to their con 
 struction and objects. Works were examined in this county, 
 in the townships of Watertown, Le Ray, Rutland, Rodman, 
 Adams, and Ellisburgh. 
 
 The following examples are presented in the order in which 
 they were surveyed 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Ancient Work, Adams Township, Jefferson County, New York. 
 
 THIS work occupies a commanding position upon the brow 
 of the second terrace, which is here some hundreds of feet in 
 height, and very abrupt. The ground immediately back of 
 the site of the work is considerably depressed and swampy. It 
 is drained by a little stream (a), which, falling over the cliff, 
 forms a smal.1 but picturesque cascade. The narrow channel 
 of this stream was formerly obstructed by a beaver-dam, which 
 converted the marsh into a deep and impassable pond. The 
 elevation upon which this work is situated, it will thus be seen, 
 was well fitted by nature for defensive purposes possessing the 
 two primary requisites, difficult approach and an unfailing sup 
 ply of water. 
 
 The artificial defences consist of an embankment of earth, 
 with an exterior ditch. The forest covers the greater part of 
 
18 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 the work, and here the lines are still well preserved. The 
 embankment has an average height of perhaps three feet, by 
 ten feet in width at the base ; the ditch is of corresponding 
 dimensions. There are not less than seven gateways, varying 
 from eight to thirty feet in width. Upon the right of the 
 work, toward the swamp already mentioned, there is an ab 
 rupt bank not far from thirty feet in height, where the defences 
 are interrupted. At the point indicated by the letter Z>, a 
 large bass-wood (linden) tree is standing upon the embankment. 
 It measures twelve feet in circumference, three feet above the 
 ground. The trees within the inclosure are of the usual size. 
 
 Upon the northeastern slope of the eminence, within the walls 
 of the inclosure, and where the soil is sandy and dry, are a 
 great number of small pits and depressions in the earth. They 
 are now nearly filled by accumulations of leaves, but they must 
 at first have been from four to six feet in depth. Upon exca 
 vating some of them, it was found that they were the caches 
 in which the former occupants of the work had placed their 
 stores.* And although it seems probable the original deposits 
 had been removed, considerable quantities of parched corn, now 
 
 * The term cache , literally a hide or place of concealment, is of French 
 origin, and has become current among all the traders and trappers on 
 the frontiers. The practice of caching or hiding goods or provisions on 
 outward marches, to be used upon returning, or by parties following, 
 was derived from the Indians, among whom it was general. A cache is 
 made by digging a hole in the ground, which is lined with sticks, grass, 
 or any material which will protect the contents from the dampness of 
 the earth. After the goods or provisions have been deposited, the earth 
 is carefully covered over, so as best to prevent the penetration of water 
 from above. " It is often, in fact always necessary, at the West, to leave 
 no signs by means of which rival parties or the cunning savages may 
 discover the place of deposit. To this end the excavated earth is car 
 ried to a distance, and carefully concealed, or thrown into a stream, if 
 one is near. The place selected is usually some rolling point, sufficient 
 ly elevated to be secure from inundations. If it be well set with grass, 
 a solid piece of the turf of the size of the proposed excavation is cut 
 out. It is afterward laid back, and taking root in a short time, no 
 
JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC'. 19 
 
 carbonized by long exposure, were still to be found within 
 them. There were, perhaps, forty or fifty of these excavations 
 within the walls, and several upon the crown of the eminence 
 at C. 
 
 Upon removing the leaves at various points within the work, 
 carbonaceous accumulations, bones of animals, fragments of 
 pottery, and other evidences of occupation were discovered. A 
 small portion of the work, indicated on the map, has been clear 
 ed and put under cultivation. Here, just exterior to the wall, 
 upon the brow of the natural bank, at the spot marked d, sev 
 eral skeletons have been exhumed by the plough. They had 
 been buried in a sitting posture, and were very well pre 
 served. 
 
 By the operation of diluvial causes, the drift has been de 
 posited, in a very singular manner, upon the table-land upon 
 which the above work is situated. In some places it occurs in 
 long, narrow ridges, conforming to the general course of the 
 terrace bank; in others it forms amphitheatres of various 
 sizes ; and in a few instances it assumes a conical shape, re 
 sembling artificial tumuli. A short distance to the right of 
 the work under notice is a small natural amphitheatre, rising 
 in the midst of the marshy grounds, which has been supposed 
 by some to be artificial. Its relative position is indicated by 
 the letter e. 
 
 signs remain of its ever having been molested. However, as every lo 
 cality does not afford a turfy spot, the camp-fire is sometimes built 
 upon the place, or the animals are penned over it, which effectually 
 destroys all trace of the disturbance." (Gregg's Commerce of the Prai 
 ries, vol. i. p. 69.) Father Hennepin, in his account of his passage down 
 the Mississippi River, in 1680, describes an operation of this kind in 
 the following terms : " We took up the green sod, and laid it by, and 
 digged a hole in the earth, where we put our goods, and covered them 
 with pieces of timber and earth, and then put in again the green turf: 
 so that it was impossible to suspect that any hole had been digged un 
 der it, for we flung the earth into the river." 
 
20 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 About one and a half miles southeast of the above work, was 
 formerly another of perhaps larger size. It occupied a high, 
 oval-shaped hill, one side of which is very steep, while the other 
 subsides gently to the general level. The embankment ex 
 tended in a semicircular form around that part of the hill not 
 protected by nature ; and, previous to the cultivation of the 
 ground, was upwards of six feet in height from the bottom of 
 the trench. A very slight depression, and the greater luxu 
 riance of the verdure, resulting from the filling of the trench 
 with surface loam, are all that now indicate the original lines. 
 It is said that there was an avenue leading off, for some dis 
 tance, to the westward ; but it is no longer traceable. At the 
 base of this hill is a bowlder, in which are several artificial de 
 pressions, doubtless intended for mortars, and a variety of 
 grooves, in which the stone axes and other implements of the 
 aborigines were rubbed, in order to reduce them to the required 
 shape. 
 
 PLATE II. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work on " Dry Hill" five miles southeast of Water- 
 town^ Jefferson County, New York. 
 
 FOLLOWING the brow of the terrace northward from the 
 work first described, for about two miles, we come to another 
 work of somewhat more regular figure, and of larger dimen 
 sions. Most of it is under cultivation, and the outlines are 
 very much defaced. The embankment, upon one side, runs 
 into the forest land, where it is well preserved, measuring, per 
 haps, three feet in height. The darker lines of the engraving 
 show what parts are still distinctly marked ; the dotted lines 
 those which have been ploughed down, and which are no longer 
 distinguishable -from the general level, except by the deeper 
 green and more luxuriant growth of the grass on the line of the 
 
PL A TE JI. 
 
 AGO (SHE GOT 
 
 DRY HILL" 5 M S. E. OF WATER TOWN, 
 
 JfffEKSOMC' M.Y. 
 
 " ^ ^ 
 
 400ft to tJvalncK- 
 
 2^ Mf S. E. OF WATERTOWN. 
 JEFFERSON C M.Y. 
 
 ;- c, - '- ^' * CW*W/TOW 
 
 ^ JJ j ? ^ 
 
 ^^^^^^'^ 
 
 "* " . > j .1 ^ * j . ; >j 
 
 JT. (7. Syuier S~, & 21 
 

JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 21 
 
 ancient trench. The position of the work, it will be seen, cor 
 responds very nearly with that of the one previously described. 
 There is, however, no water near at hand, except a limited sup 
 ply from a small spring. Nevertheless, this seems to have been 
 the site of a very populous aboriginal town. The entire area 
 of the work is covered with accumulations of carbonaceous mat 
 ter, burned stones, fragments of bones, pottery, etc. Indeed, 
 these indications are visible for some distance exterior to the 
 walls, upon the adjacent level. These artificial accumulations 
 have rendered the soil within the inclosure extremely fertile, 
 and it sustains most luxuriant crops. In cultivating the area, 
 many fragments of human bones, some of them burned, have 
 been observed suggesting the possibility that the ancient vil 
 lage was destroyed by enemies, and that these are the bones of 
 its occupants, who fell in defence of their kindred, and were 
 burned in the fires which consumed their lodges. A little to 
 the northward of the work, there seems to have been an aborig 
 inal cemetery. Here the plough frequently exposes skeletons, 
 buried according to the Indian mode, and accompanied by va 
 rious rude relics of stone and bone. Within and around the 
 work are also found stone axes, flint arrow-heads, and other 
 remnants of savage art. Fragments of pottery and broken 
 pipes of clay are, however, most abundant. Of these bushels 
 might be collected without much difficulty. 
 
 It is clear that this work was not intended as a place of last 
 resort, but was occupied by a considerable population for a long 
 period. It was undoubtedly a fortified town. It should be 
 remarked, that although now nearly or quite filled up, here 
 were originally a number of pits (popularly known as wells) of 
 considerable size the caches of the ancient occupants. 
 
22 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 PLATE II. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work two and a half miles southeast of Watertown, 
 Jefferson County, New York. 
 
 STILL continuing along the brow of the terrace northward, 
 for two and a half or three miles, we reach a third work, the 
 greater part of which is covered with forest, and is consequently 
 well preserved. It is much smaller than any of those before 
 described, and is bounded by a series of right lines, slightly 
 rounded at the angles, which gives it something of the appear 
 ance of a modern field-work. The slope of the terrace bank is 
 here comparatively gentle, and there is a step or table about 
 midway from the brow to the base. Here a number of springs 
 start out, below the stratum of rock. Formerly the walls of 
 the work were continued down "the slope, toward the springs, 
 as indicated by the dotted lines in the plan. They are not now 
 to be traced further than the edge of the terrace. The position 
 of this work is remarkably fine, and was selected with taste and 
 skill. The table-land immediately around it is level ; the soil 
 gravelly and dry. There seems to have been a burial-place in 
 this vicinity, and pipes and fragments of pottery are of common 
 occurrence. It is to be hoped that the remaining portion of 
 this work will be preserved from the encroachments of the 
 plough. 
 
 PLATE III. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work half a mile west of Burrvitye, near Watertown, 
 Jefferson County, New York. 
 
 A WORK, differing somewhat from those before described, is 
 situated two miles north of the inclosure last noticed, upon a 
 high promontory or headland, half a mile west of the little 
 village of Burrville. The northern base of this promontory is 
 
PLATE Iff. 
 
 ? I. 
 
 HALF A MILE WEST OF BURRVILLE, 
 JBFFEKSOM C M. Y. 
 
 SCALE. 
 
 400 ff U> the LuX. 
 
 EG J 'fu.ua- ,18 8, 
 
 
 PUTiAND TP. JEFFERSON C? M.Y. 
 
 LE RAY TP. JEFFERSON C9 N.Y. 
 

 . 
 
JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 23 
 
 washed by a small and rapid stream, a branch of the east fork 
 of Sandy Creek. Deep ravines lend strength to the position 
 on the remaining sides, except toward the west, where it joins 
 the highlands. Here, extending across the neck of the pro 
 montory, (the only direction from which access is easy,) was 
 formerly an artificial defence, consisting of an embankment of 
 earth and a trench. The plough has filled the one and lev 
 eled the other, but the lines can still be accurately traced by 
 attending to the various circumstances already repeatedly men 
 tioned. At the part marked a, was formerly a large deep pit, 
 resembling the cellar of a dwelling-house. At b, was also an 
 accumulation of large stones, bearing traces of fire ; and which 
 the early settlers, indulging in vague notions of the mineral 
 wealth of the country, called " the Furnace" 
 
 Most of these stones were used to fill the pit near by ; but 
 enough still remain to mark the site of the supposed "furnace." 
 Whenever the land in this work is ploughed over, many relics 
 of art are disclosed, fragments of pottery, broken pipes, imple 
 ments of stone and bone, beads of similar materials, etc., etc. 
 
 About a mile northeast of this place, upon a fine level tract 
 of ground, are the traces of an aboriginal village. Rude fire 
 places, constructed of rough stones huddled together, and sur 
 rounded by carbonaceous accumulations, sometimes two feet 
 deep, mark the site of the ancient lodges. These indications 
 are numerous. Here, too, are to be found relics, entirely cor 
 responding with those already noticed, as occurring within and 
 around the ancient inclosures. 
 
24 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 PLATE III. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work, Rutland Township, Jefferson County, New York. 
 
 THE slightest and much the rudest structure discovered in 
 Jefferson county, is the one here delineated. It is situated 
 about a hundred rods back from the brow of the terrace, 
 already so often referred to, and which here rises abruptly 
 from the inferior level, presenting a bold, and, in some places, 
 a precipitous bank. 
 
 Notwithstanding its elevation, this terrace has numberless 
 depressions or basins, which are wet and marshy. Upon a 
 slight elevation, in the midst of one of these, and still covered 
 with a primitive forest, is the work in question. It will be ob 
 served that it is exceedingly irregular, and that the lines are 
 interrupted by several wide openings, which are quite too broad 
 to be regarded as gateways. 
 
 The embankment is not of uniform dimensions. In some 
 places it is elevated but a foot or eighteen inches, by four or 
 five feet base, while in others it is perhaps three feet in height. 
 The ditch is also irregular in sections scarcely exceeding a 
 large plough furrow in depth and width. In fact, the work 
 seems imperfect, and to have been constructed in haste for 
 temporary purposes. Within the area, which is quite uneven, 
 are several small accumulations of stones, which bear the marks 
 of fire. Upon removing some of them, the proprietor of the 
 ground found ashes and other burnt matter, among which 
 was a carbonized ear of maize. A small but entire vessel of 
 pottery, of considerable symmetry of shape, was also found 
 here some years ago. 
 
 Human bones have been discovered beneath the leaves ; and 
 in nearly every part of the trench skeletons of adults of both 
 sexes, of children and infants, have been found, covered only by 
 the vegetable accumulations. They seem to have been thrown 
 together promiscuously. They have also been found in a nar- 
 
JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 25 
 
 row depression resembling an artificial trench, indicated by a 
 dotted line in the plan, and caused by the subsidence of the 
 earth in a cleft of the limestone substratum. These skeletons, 
 from all accounts, do not seem to have been much decayed, and 
 no difficulty was experienced in recovering them entire. The 
 skulls were in some cases fractured, as if by a blow from a 
 hatchet or club. These circumstances would seem to imply, 
 not only that the work is of comparatively late construction, 
 but also that this was the scene of one of those indiscriminate 
 massacres so common in the history of savage warfare. 
 
 From the bank of the terrace, near this work, a very exten 
 sive and beautiful prospect is commanded. 
 
 PLATE III. No. 3. 
 
 Ancient Work, half a mile west of Lockport, Jefferson County, 
 New York. 
 
 THE remaining works of Jefferson county, so far as investi 
 gated, are situated on lower grounds, generally near streams, 
 which are made subservient to art for purposes of defence. 
 The work here presented is a good example. It is situated on 
 Black River (Ka-me-hargo), in Le Ray township, half a mile 
 below the little manufacturing town of Lockport. The banks 
 of the river are here very high, and quite inaccessible. The 
 character of the work is well shown in the engraving, and needs 
 little explanation beyond what that affords. It will be seen 
 that the ends of the embankment extend for a short distance 
 down the slope of the river bank, and then curve slightly in 
 wards, as though designed to prevent the flanks being turned 
 by an enemy. The lines, where they cross the road, and be 
 tween the road and the river, are very distinct, and the em 
 bankment is between three and four feet in height. The rest 
 of the work may be traced without much difficulty, although it 
 2 
 
26 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 has long been under cultivation. Upon the wall, at the point 
 indicated by the letter c, is still standing a pine stump, upwards 
 of three feet in diameter, probably having an age of not less 
 than four hundred years. The usual relics are found within 
 the area of the inclosure ; and in the natural bank at d, a 
 number of skeletons have been disclosed by the plough. They 
 are much decayed, but in respect of position correspond with 
 those found elsewhere in Indian cemeteries. 
 
 PLATE IV. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work, Le Ray Township, six miles northeast of Water- 
 
 town. 
 
 IN the same township with the foregoing work, and about four 
 miles distant, in a northwest direction, is the work here repre 
 sented. It occupies a small sandy elevation, situated in the 
 midst of low grounds. It is lozenge-shaped, and is the most 
 regular of any ancient structure which has fallen under the no 
 tice of the author in the State. Where the lines are interrupted 
 on the north, the ground is considerably elevated, and subsides 
 abruptly, precluding the necessity of an embankment for de 
 fensive purposes. The sites of the ancient lodges, indicated by 
 heaps of burned stones, calcined shells, fragments of pottery, 
 etc., are yet to be traced, notwithstanding that the land has 
 been for a considerable time under cultiyation. Near this work 
 skeletons have been frequently exhumed. 
 
iv: 
 
 ? J 
 
 "-1% Acres: 
 
 LE RAY TP. JEFFERSON C? N.Y. 
 6 Miles !f.E. <// WutertoWH,. 
 
 ie>- (848, 
 
 LE RAY TP. JEFFERSON C? N.Y. 
 
 Tteaj- 
 Sandford's Cor-nCr- 
 
 .6. Syaier 1848 
 
 N. PART OF EILISBURQH T P. JEFF ERSON C* N Y 
 
 ELLISBURGH TP.JEF FERSON.C . N.Y- 
 2h Mat 
 
JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 27 
 
 PLATE IV. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work, Le Ray Township, Jefferson County, New York. 
 
 THREE miles to the westward of the inclosure last described, 
 near " Sandford's Corners," was formerly another work of sim 
 ilar character, but larger size. Only a small portion of the 
 embankment is yet visible ; the dotted lines, however, show 
 the original outlines, according to the recollection of those who 
 were acquainted with the work before it was disturbed. The 
 walls were then not less than six feet in height, measuring from 
 the bottom of the trench. 
 
 Within the area are found great numbers of the shells of 
 the fresh-water molluscas, accumulations of burnt matter, quan 
 tities of pottery in fragments, with broken pipes, etc. Some of 
 the pipes are of good workmanship and fine finish. In this 
 vicinity, also, have skeletons been found ; all buried in a sit 
 ting posture. 
 
 Several other works formerly existed in this township, but 
 they have been either entirely or in great part obliterated. 
 One is spoken of near Felt's Mills, but no opportunity was 
 afforded of examining it. 
 
 PLATE IV. Nos. 3 AND 4. 
 
 Ancient Works in Ellisburgh Township, Jefferson County, 
 New York. 
 
 A NUMBER of ancient works formerly existed in Ellisburgh, one 
 of the southern towns of the county. Plate IV., No. 3, is one 
 of those which are yet perfect. It presents no novel features ; 
 is protected in the usual manner, and has the usual relics and 
 traces of occupancy within its walls. Three quarters of a mile 
 to the eastward is another similar, but larger work (Plate IV., 
 
28 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 No. 4), which has been very nearly obliterated by the plough. 
 The sections indicated in the engraving are yet quite distinct ; 
 nor can the parts supplied differ very materially from the origi 
 nal lines. Perhaps no work in the State has more decided 
 evidences of aboriginal occupation. The entire area is covered 
 with traces of ancient habitations, and with relics of art pot 
 tery, ornaments, and implements. Exterior to the walls, in all 
 directions, but particularly on the level grounds between the 
 two works, the same indications .are abundant. Indeed, the 
 artificial accumulations are so great as materially to augment 
 the fertility of the soil. Caches have been observed here, in 
 some of which the present proprietor of the grounds has found 
 a number of bushels of parched corn, carbonized by long ex 
 posure. It is scattered over the surface, and after rains may 
 be collected in considerable quantities. Here, too, have been 
 found skeletons buried according to the usual custom. 
 
 The aboriginal population must have been very large at this 
 spot, which, both in respect of soil and the close proximity of 
 springs and pure streams, affords a most beautiful site for an 
 Indian village. 
 
 About a mile to the southward of this group, upon the land 
 of Mr. Mendall, was another work, of which no trace now 
 remains. Another occurred at a place called Clark's Settle 
 ment, still another at Ellis' Settlement, and others in various 
 parts of the township, concerning which no definite information 
 can now be obtained. 
 
 Near the neat and pretty village of Pierrepoint's Manor, is 
 also the site of an ancient town, undistinguishable from the 
 fortified village already described, except by the absence of an 
 embankment and trench. Large quantities of relics have been 
 recovered here. A work of considerable size was visible until 
 within a few years, half or three fourths of a mile northwest of 
 the village of Adams, on the lands of Mr. W. Benton. It is 
 described by Mr. Justus Eddy, in a letter to the author, as 
 having been semicircular in form, five hundred feet in diameter, 
 
JEFFERSON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 29 
 
 and the open segment facing or rather opening toward a 
 marshy piece of ground, through which flowed a small stream. 
 There were two or three breaks, or passage-ways, in the em 
 bankments. At the time of the settlement of this part of the 
 country by the whites, about fifty years ago, trees two and 
 three feet in diameter were growing upon the wall, and within 
 the area. The embankment was then between three and four 
 feet in height. Within the work were found quantities of pot 
 tery, pipes, and beads, covered with ornamental figures. A 
 star-shaped silver ornament, bearing the initials P. H., was also 
 found. It was quite thin, not exceeding the common sixpence 
 in thickness. 
 
 Upon an island, outside of Sackett's Harbor, known as 
 Snow-shoe Island, it is said, there are traces of an ancient 
 work. So far as could be gathered, it had been a palisaded 
 structure, unaccompanied by an embankment. 
 
 Besides the various earth-works above described, there are a 
 number of other interesting objects of antiquarian interest in 
 this county. Among them may be mentioned the "bone-pits" 
 or deposits of human bones. One is found near the village of 
 Brownsville, on Black River. It is described as a pit, ten or 
 twelve feet square, by perhaps four feet deep, in which are pro 
 miscuously heaped together a large number of human skeletons. 
 It will be seen, ultimately, that these accumulations owe their 
 origin to a remarkable custom, common to many of the Indian 
 tribes, of collecting and depositing together the bones of their 
 dead, at stated intervals. Another pit, very unlike this, how 
 ever, exists about three miles east of "Watertown. It is situ 
 ated upon the slope of a hill, and was originally marked by a 
 number of large stones heaped over it. Upon removing these 
 and excavating beneath them, a pit about six feet square, and 
 four deep, was discovered, filled with human bones, all well 
 preserved, but in fragments. Upwards of forty pairs of the 
 patella were counted, showing that at least that number of 
 skeletons had been deposited in the pit. It is said that the 
 
30 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 bones, when first exhumed, exhibited marks such as would 
 result from the gnawing of wild animals ; and from this circum 
 stance, and the fact that they were so much broken up, it has 
 been very plausibly supposed that these are the bones of some 
 party, which had been cut off by enemies, and whose remains 
 were subsequently collected and buried by their friends. All 
 the bones are those of adults. Many of the fragments have 
 been removed and scattered, but several bushels yet remain. 
 No relics of any kind were found with them. 
 
 A large mound is said to occur " about one mile from Wash- 
 ingtonville, and eleven from Adams, on a cross-road from the 
 ' ridge road,' leading from Lamb's tavern to Washingtonville. 
 It is conical in shape, and thirty feet high." It is questionable 
 whether this is artificial. 
 
 OSWEGO COUNTY. 
 
 A GREAT part of this county is low and wet, and it is not 
 generally so well adapted to sustain an aboriginal population 
 as the adjoining counties of Jefferson and Onondaga. Few 
 ancient monuments occur within its limits ; and concerning 
 these, little was ascertained in the course of these investiga 
 tions. The following facts were chiefly derived from J. V. H. 
 Clark, Esq., of Manlius, Onondaga county, whose attention was 
 especially called thereto in the preparation of his forthcoming 
 History of the Onondaga and Oswego Country. Two inclo- 
 sures, elliptical in form, existed in Granby township, in the 
 southern part of the county. One of these occurred on State's 
 Hundred, lot 24. Each contained about two acres, and both 
 had gateways opening to the east. The ditch, in each case, 
 was exterior to the walls. Another formerly existed near 
 
ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 31 
 
 Phillipsville, of which no traces now remain ; and still another 
 is said to occur in Granby township, near "Little Utica," in a 
 bend of Ox Creek. Near the town of Fulton, on the west side 
 of Oswego River, is an eminence called "J3o?ie Hill" in which 
 have been found great numbers of human bones promiscuously 
 heaped together. They are much decayed. Intermixed with 
 them were discovered a number of flint arrow-heads. It is 
 probable that none of these remains possessed features differing 
 essentially from those of other parts of the State. ', 
 
 ONONDAGA COUNTY. 
 
 PROBABLY no county in the State had originally a greater 
 number of aboriginal monuments within its boundaries, than 
 the county of Onondaga. It has, however, been so long settled, 
 and so generally brought under cultivation, that nearly all ves 
 tiges of its ancient remains have disappeared. The sites of 
 many are, however, still remembered ; but even these will soon 
 be forgotten. It is a fortunate circumstance that the antiqui 
 ties of this county were the first to attract the attention of 
 observers, and our accounts relating to them are more com 
 plete than concerning those of the other parts of the State. 
 Our principal source of information respecting their numbers, 
 localities, and character, is the memoir of De Witt Clinton, 
 already several times alluded to. Mr. Schoolcraft and Mr. J. 
 V. H. Clark, of Manlius, have presented additional informa 
 tion ; and from these authorities we derive most of the facts, 
 and illustrations which follow. 
 
 Ancient works occurred in the towns of Fabius, De Witt, 
 Lafayette, Camillus, Onondaga, Manlius, Elbridge, and Pom- 
 pey ; but of many of them we know nothing beyond the simple 
 
32 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 fact of their former existence. It should be mentioned that 
 some of the townships here named have been erected within 
 the last few years, and since the date of Mr. Clinton's Me 
 moir. 
 
 Those in Elbridge, according to Mr. Clinton, occurred near 
 the village of that name, about four miles from Seneca River, 
 upon lands then (1817) occupied by Judge Munro. They 
 were two in number. " One was on a very high hill, and cov 
 ered three acres. It had a gateway opening toward the east ; 
 and upon the west was another, communicating with a spring 
 about ten rods from the fort. It was elliptical in shape : the 
 ditch deep, and the eastern wall eight feet high. The stump 
 of a black-oak tree, certainly one hundred years old, stood 
 upon the embankment. The second work was about half a 
 mile distant, upon lower grounds. It was constructed like 
 the first, but was only half as large. * * * * The early 
 settlers observed, in this vicinity, the shells of testaceous ani 
 mals accumulated, in several places, in considerable masses, 
 together with numerous fragments of pottery. Judge Munro 
 found, in digging the cellar of his house, several pieces of 
 burned clay ; and, in various places, large spots of deep black 
 mould, demonstrating the former existence of buildings or 
 erections of some kind. At one place he observed what 
 appeared to be a well, viz., a hole ten feet deep, and the earth 
 much caved in. Upon digging to the depth of three and a 
 half feet, he came to a quantity of flints, below which he found 
 a great number of human bones." This disposition of the 
 dead, Mr. Clinton conjectures, was made by an enemy ; but we 
 shall soon see that it probably owed its existence to the prac- 
 \, tice of gathering the bones of the dead at stated intervals, and 
 depositing them in pits a practice common among the Hu- 
 rons and other Indians around the great lakes. 
 
 Mr. Clark has described some aboriginal remains in this 
 township, which are probably the same ones alluded to by Mr. 
 Clinton. He says: "Upon lot 81, N. E. part, on lands now 
 
ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 33 
 
 occupied by Mr. John Munro (previously the Judge Munro 
 farm) was formerly a fort situated on high ground. In 1 793 
 the ditch and embankment were easily to be traced. Large trees 
 stood upon the wall and in the ditch. The work was square, 
 except that the line of embankment toward the west curved 
 slightly outward. The area was about an acre and a quarter. 
 The walls were about two feet high ; the gateway opened 
 toward the west, and was twelve feet wide. It was situated on 
 a beautiful eminence, nearly surrounded by ravines." 
 
 " About half a mile N. W. of this work," continues Mr. Clark, 
 " on what is called the Purdy lot, was another work of larger 
 dimensions, containing about four and a half acres of ground. 
 It is situated upon one of the most considerable elevations of 
 the town, and is nearly or quite square, with gateways opening 
 to the east and west. The embankment was originally about 
 three feet high, and an oak tree, two feet in diameter, was 
 standing upon it. On the south side were numerous holes, 
 about two feet deep and six feet apart. Large quantities of 
 broken pottery and fresh water shells are still found here. An 
 oaken chest was discovered here, somewhere about the year 
 1800, which contained a quantity of silk goods. The folds and 
 colors were easily distinguishable, but the fabric crumbled on 
 exposure. Some copper coins, it is said, were found with the 
 silks. 
 
 " On lot 84, on the farm now owned by Mr. Caleb Brown, 
 about forty rods south of the road, was formerly a circular work, 
 of upwards of three acres' area. The embankment was about 
 two feet high, the ditch exterior and four or five feet deep. 
 There was a wide gateway upon the west side, and a smaller 
 one on the northeast, opening toward a spring, some rods distant. 
 In digging near the western gateway, fragments of timber, 
 bearing marks of edge tools, were found ; and in an excavation 
 called a well, fourteen feet deep, a quantity of charred Indian 
 corn was discovered. Upon the site of Mr. Brown's house and 
 garden, was also an ancient circular work, inclosing about an 
 2* 
 
34 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 acre of ground. Within it were cinders, charcoal, etc., as if it 
 had been the site of a blacksmith's shop." 
 
 " In the town of Pompey," continues Mr. Clinton, " is the 
 highest ground in the county, separating the waters flowing 
 into the Chesapeake and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The most 
 elevated portions of the town exhibit the remains of ancient 
 settlements, and in various places the traces of a numerous 
 population appear. About two miles south from Manlius 
 Square, in this township, I examined the remains of a large 
 town, which were obviously indicated by large spots of black 
 mould, at intervals of a few paces asunder, in which I observed 
 bones of animals, ashes, carbonized grains of corn, etc. denoting 
 the residence of human beings. This town must have extended 
 at least half a mile from east to west, and three quarters of a 
 mile from north to south. On the east side of this old town 
 there is a perpendicular descent of one hundred feet, into a 
 deep ravine, through which flows a fine stream of water. Upon 
 the north side is a similar ravine. Here there are graves, on 
 each side of the ravine, close to the precipice. Some of the 
 graves contain five or six skeletons, promiscuously thrown to 
 gether. On the south bank of the ravine, gun-barrels, bullets, 
 pieces of lead, and a skull perforated by a bullet have been 
 found. Indeed, relics of this kind are scattered all over these 
 grounds. A mile to the eastward of this town, there is a cem 
 etery, containing three or four acres ; and to the westward of 
 it is still another. 
 
 " There are, in this vicinity, three old forts, placed in a tri 
 angular position, and within eight miles of each other. One 
 is about a mile south of Jamesville [in the present town of De 
 Witt], the second in a northeastern, and the third in a south 
 eastern direction. They are circular or elliptical in form ; 
 bones are found scattered over their areas ; and standing on a 
 heap of mouldering ashes, within one of them, I saw a white 
 pine-tree, eight and a half feet in circumference, and at least 
 one hundred and thirty years old." 
 
ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 
 
 35 
 
 Mr. Clinton expresses the opinion that the three "forts" 
 were designed to protect the "town," the vestiges of which at 
 tracted his attention ; and he even goes so far as to conjecture, 
 from the occurrence of bones upon the brows of the northern 
 ravine, that the attack by which the town was destroyed was 
 made from this direction ! Of course this is wholly suppositi 
 tious. The relics of European art, scattered over the site, show 
 clearly enough that this was an Indian village, occupied by the 
 savages subsequent to the commencement of intercourse with 
 the whites. The traces which Mr. Clinton describes are pre 
 cisely those which mark the site of every abandoned Indian 
 settlement throughout the country. This county possessed a 
 very heavy aboriginal population ; probably greater than any 
 equal extent of territory north of the Floridas ; and it is not 
 surprising, therefore, that the traces of ancient occupancy are 
 so abundant.* Mr. Clinton states that it was estimated there 
 were not less than eighty cemeteries in Pompey township 
 alone. McCauley states that one of the three works, mentioned 
 above by Mr. Clinton, was triangular in form, and contained 
 about six acres. 
 
 Mr. J. Y. H. Clark has described a work situated in part of 
 lot 33 in this township; but whether or not it is one of the three 
 mentioned by Mr. Clinton, it is impossible to determine. " It 
 is about four miles southeast from Manlius village, situated on 
 a slight eminence, which is nearly surrounded by a deep ravine, 
 the banks of which are quite steep and somewhat rocky. The 
 
 *Mr. Schoolcraft states, on the authority of Le Fort, late chief of the 
 Onondagas, that Ondiaka, the great chronicler of his tribe, informed him, 
 on his last journey to Oneida, that in ancient times, before they had 
 fixed their settlements at Onondaga, and before the Five Nations were 
 confederated, the Onondagas lived below Jamesville and in Pompey ; 
 that in consequence of continued warfare with other tribes, they removed 
 their villages frequently ; and that, after the confederation, their for 
 tifications being no longer necessary, they were allowed to fall into 
 decay. This, he believed, was the origin of the ancient works at these 
 points. Notes on the Iroquois, p. 442. 
 
86 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 ravine is in shape somewhat like an ox-bow, made by two streams 
 which pass nearly around and then unite. Across this isthmus 
 of this peninsula, if we may so call it, was a wall of earth run 
 ning from northeast to southwest. When first discovered by 
 the early settlers, the embankment was straight, four or five 
 feet high, with an exterior ditch from two to three feet deep. 
 The area thus inclosed is from ten to twelve acres. A portion 
 of the area was free from trees, and was called the Prairie^ and 
 is still noted among the old men as the spot where the first 
 battalion military training was held in the county of Onondaga. 
 But that portion of the work near the wall has recently been 
 cleared of a heavy growth of black-oak timber. Many of the 
 trees were large, and probably one hundred and fifty or two 
 hundred years old. Some were standing in the ditch, and 
 others on the embankment. The plough has defaced the lines 
 to a considerable degree, but they may still be traced the whole 
 extent. Within the inclosure there is a burial-place. Here, 
 too, are to be found numerous fragments of dark-brown pottery, 
 of coarse material."* 
 
 Mr. Clark mentions that a great number of rude relics have 
 been discovered here. Among other things found in the vicin 
 ity were some small three-pound cannon balls. There is a large 
 rock in the ravine on the south, on which the following charac 
 ters are inscribed, viz. : IIIIIX. They are cut nine inches 
 long, three-quarters of an inch deep, and the same in width, and 
 are perfectly regular. 
 
 Mr. Clark describes another ancient work "situated on a hill, 
 about a mile and a half south of Delphi in this township, on lot 
 No. 100. It has an area of about eight acres, and occupies an 
 elevated piece of ground, surrounded by a ravine made by two 
 small streams which pass around it and unite on the north. It 
 had a large gateway upon the north and a smaller one on the 
 south. Before the first was a kind of mound. The defences 
 
 * Sclioolcraft's Notes on the Iroquois, p. 469. 
 
ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 
 
 37 
 
 consisted of a ditch and pickets. At every place where a picket 
 stood, a slight depression is still distinctly visible. In one cor 
 ner were evident marks of a blacksmith's shop, including various 
 smith's tools, a bed of cinders, and a deposit of charcoal. Be 
 neath one of these piles was found, en cache, a quantity of charred 
 Indian corn, and squash, and pumpkin seeds. A short distance 
 to the south of the work is an extensive cemetery, in which the 
 bodies were buried in rows." Quantities of the implements and 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 trinkets introduced among the Indians, at the period of the first 
 European intercourse, are found with the skeletons. The pal 
 isades were set in the bottom of the ditch, which, when first 
 known, was six feet deep. About a mile west from this, are 
 the remains of another work of similar character ; and about a 
 mile north of Delphi, on a farm owned by a Mr. Sheldon, is 
 still another. Around a number of these works, the corn hills 
 of the Indians could be traced for a long period after the occu 
 pation of the country by the whites. Medals, crosses, gun-bar 
 rels, knives, axes in short, every variety of articles introduced 
 by the Europeans after the discovery, are to be found here in 
 abundance. 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting work, of which any traces yet 
 
 
 
38 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 remain in Pompey township, is the one of which Mr. Clark 
 gives the accompanying plan, and which occurs on lot No. 3, 
 on land owned by Mr. Isaac Keeler. 
 
 V B 
 
 A. *."- 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 B, parapet A, mounds C, look out D. palisades. 
 
 Mr. Clark describes this work as follows : " It had been in 
 closed with palisades of cedar, and contained some ten acres of 
 ground. The plan was a parallelogram, divided by two rows 
 of palisades, running east and west, and crossing in the center. 
 The space between the rows was about twelve feet. At the N. 
 W. corner was an isolated bastion and an embrasure. At the 
 period of the first cultivation of the land, many stumps of the 
 palisades, which had been burned off even with the ground, were 
 ploughed up. "Within the southern division of the fort were 
 several mounds, the principal one of which was four feet high, 
 
ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 
 
 39 
 
 rising on a base of about fifteen feet in diameter, composed 
 chiefly of ashes, in which were found many beads of the size of 
 bullets, and a great variety of trinkets made of red pipe stone. 
 Several hundred pounds of old iron, consisting of axes, gun- 
 barrels, files, knives, etc., etc., were also found in the same place. 
 The smaller mounds contained charred corn, many bushels of 
 
 FIG. 4, (See next page.) 
 
 which were ploughed up. At a distance of about thirty rods 
 north of the work was a ditch, nearly forty rods long, and va 
 rying from three to six feet in depth. It seems to have been 
 entirely disconnected from the work in question. The situation 
 of this ancient fort is on an elevation of land rising gradually 
 for about a mile in every direction ; and, at the time of its oc 
 cupancy, several hundred acres of land must have been cleared 
 
40 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 around it. Fragments of pottery, pipes, flint arrow-heads, stone 
 hatchets, etc., etc., are abundantly found on this spot. In many 
 places both within and exterior to the work, were found pits for 
 hiding corn and other articles, en cache." Some small mounds 
 containing human bones, are found on the lands of Mr. S. A. 
 Keene, in this vicinity. 
 
 A relic of some interest, and which has given rise to no in 
 considerable speculation is a stone bearing an inscription, found 
 in this township in 1820, by Mr. Philo Cleveland. It is about 
 fourteen inches long by twelve broad and eight thick, granitic, 
 and bearing upon one side a rude representation of a tree en 
 twined by an equally rude representation of a serpent, with 
 some letters and a date, as shpwn in the cut inserted on the 
 preceding page, Fig. 4. 
 
 There seems to be little doubt that the stone was found as 
 represented, and that it is a genuine remnant of antiquity. 
 Some have supposed that it attests that Ponce de Leon, Nar- 
 vaez, or some other Spanish adventurer, penetrated thus far to 
 the northward, during the period of Spanish adventure in Flor 
 ida. The stone is now in the museum of the Albany Institute. 
 
 Within two miles of Jamesville, in De "Witt township, upon 
 the banks of Butternut Creek, there existed until recently the 
 traces of an inclosure or fort, and in the vicinity many evidences 
 of comparatively late occupation by the Indians. The fort had 
 been rectangular, with bastions, and constructed with cedar 
 pickets, firmly set in the ground. The stumps of the palisades 
 were struck by the plough when the land was first cultivated. 
 It appeared that the cabins which it had inclosed had been 
 arranged with regularity a practice not common among the 
 Indians before intercourse with the whites. In the year 1810 
 an oak was felled near this fort, in cutting which a leaden bullet 
 was found imbedded in the wood. One hundred and forty-three 
 cortical layers were counted above it. It must, therefore, have 
 been fired in 1667. Fire-arms were introduced among the 
 Iroquois, by the French, as early as 1 609 the date of Hud- 
 
ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 
 
 41 
 
 son's exploration of the river bearing his name. Brass cruci 
 fixes, medals of silver and other metals, dial-plates, and articles 
 of iron, are of frequent occurrence here, mingled with stone axes, 
 and implements and ornaments of bone, shell, and clay, the 
 relics of an earlier period. Among other articles of European 
 origin, a cross of pure gold was found some years ago, bearing 
 the sacred monogram I. H. S. Not far from this spot are two 
 high hills of great regularity, sometimes called mounds, the 
 surfaces of which are covered with pits, which Mr. Schoolcraft 
 conjectures were caches. 
 
 Some investigators are of opinion that Champlain penetrated 
 into this country in 1615. The reasons in support of this 
 opinion are forcibly put forward by Mr. 0. H. Marshall, of 
 Buffalo, in a paper published in the Bulletin of the New York 
 Historical Society, for March, 1849. From this paper the 
 subjoined account of the Indian fort attacked by Champlain is 
 extracted. It throws light upon the modes of defence common 
 to the Indians at that period, besides being of interest in several 
 other particulars. Says Champlain : 
 
 " ' On the 10th of October, at 3 P. M., we arrived before the 
 fort of the enemy. Some skirmishing ensued among the Indians, 
 which frustrated our design of not discovering ourselves until 
 the next morning. The impatience of our savages, and the 
 desire they had of witnessing the effects of our fire-arms on the 
 enemy, did not suffer them to wait. When I approached with 
 my little detachment, we showed them what they had never 
 before seen or heard. As soon as they saw us, and heard the 
 balls whistling about their ears, they retired quietly into the 
 fort, carrying with them their killed and wounded. We also 
 fell back upon the main body, having five or six wounded, one of 
 whom died.' 
 
 " The Indians now retired out of sight of the fort, and refused 
 to listen to the advice of Champlain as to the, best mode of con 
 ducting the siege. He continued to aid them with his men, 
 and, in imitation of the more ancient mode of warfare, planned 
 
42 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 a kind of movable tower, sufficiently high when advanced to the 
 fort to overlook the palisades. It was constructed of pieces of 
 wood placed one upon another, and was finished in one night. 
 
 " ' The village,' says Chainplain, l was inclosed by four rows 
 of large interlaced palisades, thirty feet high, near a body of 
 unfailing water. Along these palisades the Iroquois had placed 
 conductors to convey water to the outside, to extinguish fire. 
 Galleries were constructed inside of the palisades, protected by 
 a ball-proof parapet of wood, garnished with double pieces of 
 wood. 
 
 " ' When the tower was finished, two hundred of the strongest 
 men advanced it near to the palisades. I stationed four marks 
 men on its top, who were well protected from the stones and 
 arrows which were discharged by the enemy.' 
 
 " The French soon drove the Iroquois from the galleries ; but 
 the undisciplined Hurons, instead of setting fire to the palisades, 
 as directed by Champlain, consumed the time in shouting at 
 the enemy, and discharging harmless showers of arrows into the 
 fort. Without discipline, and impatient of restraint, each one 
 acted as his fancy pleased him. They placed the fire on the 
 wrong side of the fort, so that it had no effect. 
 
 "'When the fire had gone out, they began to pile wood 
 against the palisades, but in such small quantities that it made 
 no impression. The confusion was so great that nothing could 
 be heard. I called out to them, and pointed out, as well as I 
 could, the danger they incurred by their imprudent manage 
 ment ; but they heard nothing by reason of the great noise 
 which they made. Perceiving that I should break my head 
 in calling, that my remonstrances were in vain, and that there 
 were no means of remedying the disorder, I resolved to effect, 
 with my own people, what could be done, and to fire upon those 
 we could discover. 
 
 " ' In the mean time, the enemy profited by our disorder. 
 They brought and threw water in such abundance, that it 
 poured in streams from the conductors, and extinguished the 
 
ONONDAGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 43 
 
 fire in a very short time. They continued, without cessation, 
 to discharge nights of arrows, which fell on us like hail. Those 
 who were on the tower killed and wounded a great number. 
 
 '"The battle lasted about three hours. Two of our chiefs, 
 some head-men, and about fifteen others were wounded.' " 
 
 Mr. Marshall is of the opinion that this fort was situated 
 upon the shores of Onondaga Lake. He arrives at this con 
 clusion from an analysis of the courses and distances traveled 
 by Champlain, the streams which he crossed, etc., and continues: 
 
 " Another circumstance to aid us in the location, is the de 
 scription given by Champlain of the fort itself. ' It was situated,' 
 says he, ' on the borders of an unfailing body of water.' This 
 he calls ' Etang] a word generally applied to an artificial pond, 
 but sometimes used for a small lake or other natural collection 
 of water. There is nothing that will answer the terms of the 
 description in so many particulars, as the shore of Onondaga 
 Lake ; and it is quite probable that it is there we must look 
 for the location of the fort which was invested by the invaders. 
 
 " Three miles southeast of its outlet, on the northern bank 
 of the lake, and near the present village of Liverpool, an an 
 cient Indian work was discovered by the early settlers, which 
 may have been the site of the fortification in question. There 
 is reason to believe that the same locality was occupied by 
 Monsieur Dupuis and the Jesuits, when they established them 
 selves among the Onondagas in 1656. 
 
 " Mr. Clark, of Manlius, thinks that the Count de Frontenac 
 occupied this position when he invaded the Onondaga country, 
 in 1696, and that Col. Van Schaick encamped there while on 
 his expedition against the Onondagas, in 1779." 
 
 In the account of Frontenac's Expedition, contained in Yol. 
 V. of the Paris Documents, now deposited in the office of the 
 Secretary of State of New York, it is stated that the principal 
 fort of the Onondagas was burned by the Indians upon the 
 approach of the French army. The terms of the account are 
 as follows : " The cabins of the Indians and the triple pali- 
 
44 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 sade which encircled their fort were found entirely burnt. It 
 was an oblong flanked by four regular bastions. The two rows 
 of pickets, which touched each other, were of the thickness of 
 an ordinary mast ; and at six feet distance outside stood an 
 other palisade of much smaller dimensions, but from forty to 
 fifty feet high." This account also states that the invaders 
 were successful in discovering almost all of the caches in which 
 the Indians had deposited their corn.* 
 
 In his recently published work, Mr. Clark presents a plan 
 of a stockade work, surveyed by Judge Geddes, and probably 
 the very one referred to by Mr. Marshall. 
 
 /ss 
 
 4fc 
 
 ^^ s 
 
 FIG 5. 
 
 It is situated on the shores of Onondaga Lake, between 
 Brown's pump-works and Liverpool. A fine spring of water 
 rises near it, and quantities of relics, of various kinds, have 
 been found within it. 
 
 * Documentary History of New York, Vol. I., p. 332. 
 
MADISON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 
 
 45 
 
 MADISON COUNTY. 
 
 ON the site of the village of Cazenovia, situated in the town 
 ship of the same name, which adjoins Pompey, Onondaga 
 county, on the east, it is said an ancient earth-work once exist 
 ed. No vestige of it now remains. By some it was represent 
 ed to be circular, by others rectangular. Many rude relics 
 have been found here. 
 
 There are yet traces of an old palisaded work in the town 
 ship of Cazenovia, about two miles north of Delphi, of which 
 Mr. Clark, in his " History of Onondaga county," gives the fol 
 lowing plan. 
 
 It will be observed that 
 it essentially corresponds 
 with those in Onondaga 
 county, already described. 
 It has an area of about five 
 acres, and numerous graves 
 of the Indians are to be 
 found both within and with 
 out the walls, in the vi 
 cinity. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 In the town of Lenox there were still visible, in 1812, the 
 traces of a work of more modern date. It occupied a position 
 corresponding with most of the defensive structures of the 
 aborigines, at the junction of two deep ravines, the precipitous 
 banks of which not only afforded protection, but precluded the 
 necessity, in great part, of artificial defences. Within the 
 point thus cut off and defended, there is a small eminence, in 
 which there are a number of excavations, containing traces of 
 decayed wood. 
 
 It may be suggested (though, not knowing their dimensions, 
 the suggestion may be absurd) that the pits were originally de- 
 
46 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 signed for caches. Mr. Schoolcraft supposes that this work was 
 erected by the French -a supposition which finds support in 
 the regular form of the palisaded outlines, and the circumstance 
 that the ground within and around the work has not yet re 
 turned to a forest state. 
 
 OTSEGO COUNTY. 
 
 IT is stated, upon very good authority, that an ancient cir 
 cular earth-work once existed near Unadilla, in this county. 
 Nothing is known concerning it, further than that it was situ 
 ated on low ground. 
 
 CHENANGO COUNTY. 
 
 THERE was formerly an ancient inclosure, of small size, 
 within the limits of the village of Oxford, in the township of 
 that name, on the banks of the Chenango River. It is de 
 scribed by Clinton as occupying a small eminence, three or 
 four acres in extent, which rises abruptly from the flats bor 
 dering the river. At the base of this eminence, upon the west 
 ern side, flows the stream, and here the descent is precipitous. 
 A line of embankment and a trench extended in a semicircu 
 lar form from this bank, leaving narrow interruptions at the 
 ends,, for ingress and egress. The area thus inclosed was about 
 three fourths of an acre. At the period of the first settlement, 
 it was covered with a dense forest ; yet, says Mr. Clinton. " the 
 outline of the work could be distinctly traced among the trees, 
 and the elevation from the bottom of the trench to the top of 
 the embankment was about four feet. The stump of a decayed 
 
CHENANGO COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 47 
 
 pine which stood upon the wall exhibited one hundred and 
 ninety-five cortical layers, and there were many more which 
 could not be counted, as the heart of the tree alone remained. 
 Probably the tree was three or four hundred years old cer 
 tainly more than two hundred. It probably stood many years 
 after it had completed its growth, and it is reasonable to sup 
 pose that some time elapsed from the period of the construc 
 tion of the work to the commencement of the growth of the tree. 
 
 " Probably the work was encircled with palisades, but no 
 traces of the wood were discoverable. The situation was very 
 eligible, elevated, commanding a fine prospect, and having no 
 eminence near from which it could be commanded. No im 
 plements or utensils have been found, except some fragments 
 of coarse pottery, roughly ornamented. The Indians have a 
 tradition that the family of the Antones, which is supposed to 
 belong to the Tuscarora nation, is the seventh generation from 
 the inhabitants of this fort ; but of its origin they know nothing. 
 
 " There is also a place at Norwich in this county, on a high 
 bank of the river, called ' the Castle,' where the Indians lived 
 at the period of our settlement of the country, and where some 
 vestiges of a fortification appear, but in all probability of much 
 more modern date than those at Oxford." 
 
 In Greene township, about two miles below the village, was 
 formerly a mound of some interest. It was situated about 
 thirty rods back from the bank of the Chenango River, and 
 was originally about six feet in height and forty in diameter. 
 " Until within a few years a large pine stump stood on its top, 
 and a variety of trees covered it when first discovered. 
 One of these showed two hundred consecutive growths. An 
 examination of the mound was made in 1829 by excavation. 
 Great numbers of human bones were found ; and beneath them, 
 at a greater depth, others were found which had evidently been 
 burned. No conjecture could be formed of the number of bo 
 dies deposited here. The skeletons were found lying without 
 order, and so much decayed as to crumble on exposure. At 
 
48 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 one point in the mound a large number, perhaps two hundred, 
 arrow-heads were discovered, collected in a heap. They were 
 of the usual form, and of yellow or black flint. Another pile, 
 of sixty or more, was found in another place, in the same 
 mound ; also a silver band or ring, about two inches in diame 
 ter, wide but thin, and with what appeared to be the remains 
 of a reed pipe within it. A number of stone gouges or chisels, 
 of different shapes, and a piece of mica, cut in the form of a 
 heart, the border much decayed and the laminae separated, were 
 also discovered."* 
 
 It may be mentioned here, that the character of the lower 
 deposit, and also some of the relics, coincide with some of those 
 found in the mounds of the Mississippi Valley. The ancient 
 mound-builders often burned their dead. The upper and 
 principal collection of bones had probably a comparatively late 
 date, as is shown by the silver bracelet, which, it is presumed, 
 although not so expressly stated, was found with this deposit. 
 
 CAYUGA COUNTY. 
 
 PLATE V. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work near Auburn, New York. 
 
 ONE of the best preserved and most interesting works in the 
 State, is that overlooking the flourishing town of Auburn. It 
 is situated upon a commanding eminence, which rises abruptly 
 from the level grounds upon which the town is built, to the 
 height of perhaps one hundred feet. It is the most elevated 
 spot in the vicinity, and commands a wide and very beautiful 
 prospect. The ground occupied by the work subsides gently 
 from the centre of the area ; but exterior to the walls are steep 
 
 * Annals of Binghampton. 
 
A 'I/BURN, CAYUGA C? MY. 
 
 s as. fa<*s. 
 
 
 MEMTZ TP. C/4YUGA C?MY. 
 

 CAYUGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 49 
 
 acclivities and deep ravines, rendering approach in nearly every 
 direction extremely difficult. These natural features are indi 
 cated in the plan, which obviates the necessity for a detailed 
 description. Upon the south are several deep gulleys, separated 
 by sharp, narrow ridges, rendering ascent at this point, in the 
 face of determined defenders, entirely impracticable. It has 
 been conjectured by some that the walls here have been washed 
 away ; but it is clear that there was slight necessity for any 
 defences at this point, and that none ever existed beyond what 
 may still be traced. 
 
 The number and relative proportions of the gateways or 
 openings are correctly shown in the plan. That upon the north 
 is one hundred and sixty feet wide ; that upon the east sixty 
 feet, and that upon the west thirty feet. These wide, unpro 
 tected spaces would seem to conflict with the supposition, so 
 well sustained by its remaining features, that the work had a 
 defensive origin. It is not improbable, however, that palisades 
 extended across these openings, as well as crowned the embank 
 ments ; for without such additions, as has been already observed, 
 the best of these structures could have afforded but very slight 
 protection. 
 
 The embankments of this work are now between two and three 
 feet in height, and the trenches of corresponding depth. The 
 area of the work and the ground around it are covered with 
 forest trees. There are several depressions, which, probably, 
 were the caches of the ancient occupants.* 
 
 It is said that a number of relics have been recovered here 
 from time to time, and among others the head of a banner-staff 
 of thin iron, fourteen inches long and ten broad. It is, of course, 
 of French or English origin, and was probably lost or buried 
 here by the Indians, into whose hands, by purchase or capture, 
 
 * This work has an accidental approach to regularity ; but it is far 
 from being a true ellipsis, as has been supposed by some who have vis 
 ited it. 
 
 3 
 
50 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 it had fallen. We may perhaps refer it back to the days of 
 Champlain and Frontenac, when the armies of France swept 
 the shores of the western lakes, in the vain hope of laying the 
 foundation of a Gallic empire in America. This relic is now 
 in the possession of Mr. J. W. Chedell, of Auburn. 
 
 McCauley, in his History of New York, presents the sub 
 joined facts bearing upon the question of the probable antiquity 
 of this work, which may not be without their interest. He says : 
 " We examined the stump of a chestnut tree in the moat, which 
 was three feet two inches in diameter, at a point two feet and 
 a half above the surface of the earth. A part of the trunk of 
 the same tree was lying by the stump. As this tree had been 
 cut down, we endeavored to ascertain its age ; and for this 
 purpose we counted the rings or concentric circles, and found 
 them to amount to two hundred and thirty-five. The centre 
 of the tree was hollow, or rather decayed ; and estimating this 
 part as equal to thirty more layers or growths, we calculated 
 the entire age of the tree to be two hundred and fifty-five 
 years. About five years had' elapsed since the tree was cut 
 down. This was in 1825, and would carry back the date of 
 the work to 1555. 
 
 " At the distance of three paces from this stump was another 
 of chestnut, standing in the ditch. It exceeded three feet in 
 diameter, and the tree must have died standing, and probably 
 remained in that position many years before it fell, from decay. 
 In our opinion, the tree dated back as far as the discovery of 
 the continent. Besides, it may be conjectured, for aught we 
 know to the contrary, that several growths of forest intervened 
 between the abandonment of this work and the date of the 
 present forest."* 
 
 About two miles northeast of the work above described, upon 
 elevated ground, was another similar work. It is now entirely 
 leveled, and its site can only be ascertained by the fragments 
 
 * History of New York, Vol. I., p. 112. 
 
CAYUGA COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 51 
 
 of pottery which are scattered over the ground. It was visible 
 in 1825, when it was visited by McCauley, who says: 
 
 " It inclosed about two acres, and had a rampart, ditch, 
 and gateway. It is now nearly obliterated by the plough. In 
 its original state, or the condition it was in thirty-five years 
 ago, about the time the land was cleared, the rampart was sev 
 en feet high, and the ditch ten feet wide and three deep. Two 
 persons, the one standing in the ditch, and the other within 
 the inclosure, were unable to see each other. The gateway 
 was on the northeastern side, in the direction of a spring which 
 flowed close by. The work was three hundred and fifty paces 
 in circumference." 
 
 PLATE V. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work, Mentz Township, Cayuga County^ New York. 
 
 Six miles northwest of Auburn, and three miles from Troops- 
 ville, in the township of Mentz, is the small but well preserved 
 work of which a plan is here given. The country around is 
 hilly, and the work itself is built upon the crest of a narrow 
 ridge, which extends nearly north and south, and along which 
 the main road passes. There is a hollow, with springs flowing 
 into it. toward the left ; in which direction, it will be observed, 
 a gateway opens. Although the ground has been for many 
 years under cultivation, the lines of embankment are still be 
 tween two and three feet high. A quantity of relics, some of 
 comparatively late date, have been found here. Some skele 
 tons, also, have been disclosed by the plough, both within and 
 without the walls. The plan obviates the necessity for any 
 further description. 
 
 The existence of this work does not seem to have been hith 
 erto known, beyond the secluded vicinity in which it occurs. 
 It is, however, probable that it is the one alluded to by McCau- 
 
52 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 ley in the following very indefinite terms : " On the east side 
 of the Seneca River, near Montezuma, there are still to be seen 
 the ruins of a small fort. A small mound occurs not far from 
 the fort j it is artificial." Montezuma is situated in the same 
 township with the work above described, and about four miles 
 distant, in a northwestern direction. In the " New York Mag 
 azine," for 1792, mention is made of a couple of ancient works, 
 said to occur south of Cross and Salt Lakes, east of the Seneca 
 River, and falling probably within the limits of the present 
 township of Brutus in Cayuga. or Elbridge in Onondaga county. 
 One of these was in the " form of a parallelogram, two hundred 
 and twenty yards long and fifty-five broad, with openings on 
 either side, one of which led to the waters. Half a mile south 
 was another work of crescent form; large trees were growing 
 upon both." Quantities of well-burned pottery in fragments 
 were found there ; also a slab of stone five feet long, three and 
 a half broad, and six inches thick, upon which were some rude 
 tracings, specimens perhaps of the "picture writing" of the 
 Indians. 
 
 McCauley mentions an ancient work near the town of Aurora, 
 in the southern part of this county, and near Cayuga Lake. 
 According to this authority, it was situated " two miles from 
 the village, in a southwesterly direction ; the area triangular, 
 and containing two acres. Two of its sides were defended by 
 precipitous banks, and the third by an embankment and ditch. 
 Fragments of earthen vessels and the bones of animals had been 
 found there enveloped in beds of ashes." 
 
 There are traces of an ancient palisaded work of the Cayugas, 
 in Ledyard township, about four miles southeast of Springport. 
 In fact, the whole country has numerous vestiges, cemeteries, 
 etc., of its aboriginal possessors. 
 

VI. 
 
 XT? 1 
 
 AKKEDHKIT 
 
 /VfAR ELM IRA, CHEMUNG CoAf.Y. 
 
 H If or s ford, ale I, 
 
 / M/LC f Of CAMANOA/GVA 
 ONTAA/O COl/#rY,/KY. 
 
 SCALE 
 2OOft to the Inch 
 
CHEMUNG COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 53 
 
 CHEMUNG COUNTY. 
 
 THERE is a work in this county which possesses peculiar in 
 terest, from the circumstance that the embankments still retain 
 unmistakable traces of the palisades with which it was crowned, 
 thus demonstrating the correctness of the conjectures already 
 indulged in, as to the probable construction of the entire system 
 of earth-works of Western New York. The accompanying plan 
 and description are from the note-books of Prof. E. N. Hors- 
 ford, of Harvard University, who visited this work in company 
 with other gentlemen connected with the State Geological Sur 
 vey, at the time that enterprise was in progress. 
 
 PLATE VI. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work near Elmira, Chemung County, New York. 
 
 " THIS work is situated about two and a half miles west of 
 Elmira, upon the summit of an eminence, the base of which, 
 upon one side, is washed by Chemung River, and upon the 
 other by the waters of a deep and almost impassable ravine. 
 It is, in fact, a bold headland. The approach is by a narrow 
 path, which in some places will admit of the passage of a single 
 person only, and which traverses the very abrupt crown of the 
 ridge. Toward the top, the ascent is more gradual, and the 
 ground continues to ascend slightly until we reach the defences. 
 The site chosen exhibits the strongest proof of design, being 
 such as to command a most extensive view along the course 
 of the river, and being, except from behind, accessible only by 
 the difficult pathway already mentioned. 
 
 (i The artificial defences consist of an embankment, with an 
 outer ditch, which extends, as shown in the plan, from the steep 
 
54 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 bank toward the river, to the brow of the ravine upon the 
 other side. This embankment is about two hundred feet long, 
 fourteen feet broad at the base, and about three and a half feet 
 high. The rotting stump of an old pine tree, three feet in di 
 ameter, and a yellow pine tree, nine feet in circumference, are 
 standing upon the wall, and indicate its high antiquity. 
 
 u What appeared to be a furrow was observed extending 
 along the summit of the embankment throughout its entire 
 length. Upon examination, it was found that this appearance 
 was produced by a succession of holes, about a foot in depth. 
 Just within this chain of holes is another parallel chain, not 
 quite so distinct as the first. Still further inward, and extend 
 ing but part of the way across the area of the work, are several 
 parallel furrows, without accompanying ridges, the design of 
 which is hardly apparent. 
 
 It will be seen that this work corresponds entirely in position 
 with most of the earth-works of the State, was chosen with ref 
 erence to the same principles, and was defended in precisely 
 the same manner. It is peculiar in still retaining the holes 
 left by the decay of the palisades, which show that it was 
 strengthened by a double line. It is rational to conclude, upon 
 general principles, that all the works of the State were protected 
 in like manner ; although, except in this instance, all traces of 
 the wooden superstructure have disappeared. As already ob 
 served, this work, for the positive light which it throws upon 
 the original character of these ancient defences, is probably the 
 most interesting one in the State. 
 
ONTARIO COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. OD 
 
 ONTARIO COUNTY. 
 
 PLATE VI. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work near Canandaigua. 
 
 ONE mile east of the town of Canandaigua, upon the slope of 
 a hill overlooking Canandaigua Lake, is the work here figured. 
 It is unsurpassed for the beauty of its position. A considerable 
 portion of the embankment has been obliterated by cultivation, 
 and another portion by the turnpike road, from Canandaigua 
 to Geneva, which passes through it. The parts which may yet 
 be traced are appropriately indicated in the plan, and enable 
 us to make out the original form of the work with sufficient ex 
 actness. In constructing the road, human bones in considerable 
 quantities were disclosed on the brow of the hill, accompanied 
 by the usual rude relics of Indian art. It is mentioned by 
 Mr. Schoolcraft, that the Senecas deduce their descent from 
 the remarkable eminence upon which this work is situated.* 
 
 Between three and four miles west of Canandaigua, on the 
 road to Victor, there is a long, narrow trench running nearly 
 in a direction from N. E. to S. W. It may be traced, with 
 occasional interruptions, for some miles, and has been errone 
 ously, but very generally, believed to be a work of art. It 
 marks the line of a long, narrow fissure in the limestone sub 
 stratum, into which the earth has subsided. The water which 
 accumulates in it sinks, to swell the volume of so*me subterra 
 neous stream. The cause of this singular fissure is worthy of 
 the inquiries of geologists. 
 
 Judge Porter, of Niagara, mentions another ancient inclosure, 
 similar to that above described, in the vicinity of Canandaigua; 
 but its locality could not be ascertained. It is probably now 
 completely destroyed. 
 
 * Notes on the Iroquois, p. 196. 
 
56 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 PLATE VII. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work near the City of Geneva. 
 
 ONE and a half miles west of Geneva are the traces of the old 
 Indian " Castle " of Ganundesdga, built by the Senecas, and 
 destroyed by Sullivan in 1779. Near it is a mound thickly 
 covered over with graves. A plan and description of this work 
 will be given in another connection. About two miles beyond, 
 in the same direction, in Seneca township, is another work of 
 more ancient date, a plan of which is here presented. It is 
 situated upon elevated grounds, and coincides generally with 
 those already described. The position, upon the east side, is 
 protected by a steep, natural bank, perhaps sixty feet in height, 
 which subsides into low, marshy grounds. At the foot of the 
 bank is a copious and perennial spring. Upon the west, south, 
 and north, the ground falls off gently ; and here we find the 
 artificial defences. Although the whole has been for some time 
 under cultivation, the lines of entrenchment may be followed 
 throughout nearly their entire extent, without difficulty. The 
 usual evidences of ancient occupancy are found within the area. 
 
 Half a mile further to the westward, upon a corresponding 
 site, are the traces of an ancient palisaded work, which will be 
 described in its appropriate place. 
 
 MONROE COUNTY. 
 
 A NUMBER of aboriginal monuments formerly existed in this 
 county ; but, with the exception of a few small mounds, they 
 have been wholly obliterated, or so much defaced that they can 
 no longer be made out. Two mounds occupy the high, sandy 
 grounds to the westward of Irondequoit Bay, where it con- 
 
PLATE, VI I. 
 
 ? i 
 
 
 SCAL . 
 
 (3V3 Hf. JV. w: O f Geneva-.^ 
 ONTARIO C? MY. 
 
 SAHONY * IHAJOH . H. 
 
MONROE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 57 
 
 nects with Lake Ontario. The point is a remarkable one. 
 The position of the mounds in respect to the natural features 
 around them is indicated in the accompanying sketch, Plate 
 VIL, No. 2. 
 
 They are small, the largest not exceeding five feet in height. 
 It was found, upon excavation, that they had been previously dis 
 turbed ; and their examination proved fruitless. Some bits of 
 charcoal and a few small fragments of bones were observed 
 mingled with the sand. At various places, upon the eleva 
 tions around them, were scattered fragments of pottery, and 
 arrow-heads and other rude relics are also of frequent occur 
 rence here. 
 
 The spot was evidently a favorite one with the Indians, the 
 vicinity abounding in fish and game. 
 
 The waves of the lake have thrown up a narrow bar or bank 
 of sand, called the " Spit" which extends nearly across the 
 mouth of the bay, leaving but a small opening. Upon this bar 
 a few scattered trees are standing, and it was here that the 
 Marquis De Nonville landed with his troops, at the time of his 
 expedition against the Senecas, in 1687. He constructed a 
 stockade at or near this point. 
 
 Upon the eastern shore of the bay, and occupying a position 
 corresponding with that of the mounds already described, it is 
 said there is another mound of considerable size. It was opened 
 many years ago, and was found to contain human bones. 
 
 Some eight or ten miles to the southeast, and half a mile 
 east of the village of Penfield, on the banks of Irondequoit 
 Creek, is still another mound, situated upon a headland, which 
 now projects into an artificial pond. It must have been origi 
 nally eight or nine feet in height, by perhaps forty feet base. 
 It is a favorite haunt of " money-diggers," by whom it has been 
 pretty thoroughly excavated. A shaft had been sunk in it but 
 a short time before it was visited by the author ; and at that 
 period many fragments of human bones, much decayed, which 
 had been thrown up from near the base, were bleaching upon the 
 3* 
 
DO ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 surface. The soil is here light and sandy, and a depression is 
 still visible near by, marking the spot whence the material com 
 posing the mound was procured. It could not be ascertained 
 that any relics of art were obtained here. See Plate VII. , 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 As already observed, most, if not all, of the ancient works 
 which existed in this county are now obliterated. We can 
 consequently do but little more than indicate the sites which 
 they occupied according to the best information obtained from 
 the early settlers. It is asserted that an inclosure of con 
 siderable size exists in the town of Irondequoit, west of Iron- 
 dequoit Bay, and near the Genesee River, about five miles 
 north of Rochester. A day was spent in search of it, but with 
 out success. Its discovery may reward the perseverance of 
 some future explorer.* 
 
 A fine work once occupied a commanding site at the point 
 known as " Handford's Landing," three miles north of Roches 
 ter. It consisted of a semicircular embankment, the ends of 
 which extended to the very edge of the immense ravine which 
 shuts in the Genesee River below the falls at Rochester. It 
 had three narrow gateways placed at irregular intervals. 
 
 There is a locality in the town of Parma, about seven miles 
 west of Rochester, where the earth has subsided into the fis 
 sures of the sand rock, forming what has generally been sup 
 posed to be a line of entrenchments. From some distance the 
 apparent ditch has all the regularity of a work of art ; but still 
 it is hard to understand how it came to be regarded as an 
 " Indian Fort," by which name it is currently known in the 
 neighborhood. It would seem incredible that errors of this 
 kind should become general, had not a large experience shown 
 that upon no class of subjects do the mass of men exercise so lit- 
 
 * McCauley states that there is an ancient work on Irondequoit Bay, 
 in Penfield township, on the north side of the " ridge." No informa 
 tion could be obtained concerning it. 
 
MONROE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 59 
 
 tie sound judgment, as upon those which relate to the history 
 and monuments of the past. 
 
 In the town of Ogden, which adjoins Parma on the south, 
 it is reputed that some ancient works are to be found ; but 
 from the best information which could be obtained, it seems 
 probable that the report has no better foundation than hun 
 dreds of similar ones, subsequently found to be erroneous, and 
 originated, it is very likely, in the discovery of an Indian cem 
 etery, or of the traces of an Indian village. 
 
 Ascending the valley of the Genesee for twenty miles, we 
 come to a section of country which is very rich in evidences of 
 aboriginal occupancy, but chiefly such as may be referred to a 
 comparatively late date. In the town of Wheatland, and a 
 short distance to the westward of the village of Scottsville, 
 there formerly existed two very interesting earth-works. 
 There is scarcely a trace of them now to be seen. They 
 were visited by Kirkland in 1788. He found the first 
 work " about two miles west of Allen's residence, which was 
 an extensive flat, at a deserted Indian village near the junction 
 of a creek (Allen's Creek) with the Genesee, eight miles north 
 of the old Indian village of Kanawageas, and five miles north 
 of the Magic Spring (Caledonia Springs), so called by the 
 Indians, who believed its waters had the power of petrifying 
 all things subjected to its influence. This work inclosed about 
 six acres, and had six gates. The ditch was about eight feet 
 wide, and in some places six feet deep, and drawn in a circular 
 form on three sides. The fourth side was defended by nature 
 with a high bank, at the foot of which was a fine stream of 
 water. The bank had probably been secured by a stockade, 
 as there appeared to have been a deep covered way in the mid 
 dle of it, down to the water. Some of the trees on the work V 
 appeared to be two or three hundred years old." 
 
 The usual variety of relics, fragments of pottery, stone chip- 
 pings, etc., have been found upon the site of this work. About half 
 a mile south of this, and upon a greater eminence, Mr. Kirkland 
 
60 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 traced another work, " of less dimensions than the first, but 
 with a deeper ditch, and in a situation more lofty and defen 
 sible." Although it is well remembered by the older settlers 
 in the neighborhood, nothing now remains to indicate that it 
 ever existed, except the greater abundance of stones on the 
 line of the former embankment. The position is such as the 
 builders of these works usually selected for their defences. 
 Upon one side is a high and precipitous bank, at the base of 
 which flows Allen's Creek ; and in every other direction the 
 ground slopes gently. It is altogether a well chosen and very 
 beautiful site. About three miles south of these works, on the 
 bank of the Genesee River, and probably falling in Caledonia 
 township, Livingston county, are to be observed the traces of 
 a mound. It was originally about eight feet high, and was 
 filled with human bones heaped promiscuously together. Still 
 another mound is said to occur a few miles N. W. of Scotts- 
 ville, in the town of Chili. 
 
 Near the village of West Rush, in the town of Rush, upon 
 the banks of Honeoye Creek, were formerly two considerable 
 inclosures. One of these was situated immediately upon the 
 bank of the creek, which defended it upon one side ; while the 
 other occupied higher ground a hundred rods to the south 
 ward. Each contained about four acres, and the embankments 
 were originally four feet in height. A few slight depressions 
 indicating the ancient caches, with fragments of pottery scat 
 tered around, alone remain to mark the sites of these structures. 
 
 The whole of this country was occupied by the Senecas ; and 
 their cemeteries, and the traces of their ancient forts and 
 towns, are particularly numerous along the Genesee River, and 
 on the banks of the Honeoye. We shall refer to these in 
 another place. 
 
LIVINGSTON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 61 
 
 LIVINGSTON COUNTY. 
 
 THIS county, which adjoins Monroe on the south, was also a 
 favorite ground with the Senecas. It is unsurpassed in beauty 
 and fertility by any territory of equal extent in the State, and 
 abounds with mementoes of its aboriginal possessors, who 
 yielded it reluctantly into the hands of the invading whites. 
 Here, too, once existed a considerable number of ancient earth 
 works, but the leveling plough has passed over most of them ; 
 and though their sites are still remembered by the early 
 settlers, but few are sufficiently well preserved to admit of ex 
 act survey and measurement. 
 
 "In 1798," said the venerable Judge Augustus Porter, of 
 Niagara, in a letter to 0. H. Marshall, Esq., of Buffalo. " I 
 surveyed the Indian Reservation of Kanawageas. There were 
 then in the open flats of the Reservation the embankments of 
 an old fort, which included very nearly two acres. It corres 
 ponded in situation and appearance with many others which I 
 have seen in this part of the country, and which seem to bear 
 a high antiquity." The Kanawageas Reservation embraced 
 the township of York in this county. 
 
 Judge Porter also mentioned that he knew of two other works 
 on the " Smith and Jones's Flat," near Mount Morris, (also in 
 Livingston county,) all of which had the same appearance. 
 
 A work also occurs in the town of Avon, not far from the 
 beautiful village of Avon Springs, upon the flats of the Gene- 
 see River. It is described by W. H. C. Hosmer, Esq., in the 
 notes to his beautiful poem of " YONONDIO." 
 
 Another and very similar work once existed in the north 
 eastern part of Avon township, about two and a half miles from 
 the village of Lima. Some portions of the lines may yet be 
 traced, but with difficulty. 
 
62 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 PLATE VIII. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work, Livonia Township, Livingston County, New 
 
 York. 
 
 THE work here represented occurs in the township of Livo 
 nia, three miles N. E. of the village of that name. It is situ 
 ated upon the summit of a commanding hill, and is the largest 
 inclosure which fell under the notice of the author, within the 
 limits of the State. It has an area of not less than sixteen 
 acres. Where the lines of the entrenchment were crossed by 
 fences, and consequently preserved from the encroachments of 
 the plough, the embankment and ditch are distinctly visible. 
 Elsewhere, however, the outlines can only be traced by a very 
 gentle undulation of the ground, and by the denser verdure on 
 the course of the ancient trench. With the assistance of Mr. 
 Haddock, the proprietor of the estate, who knew the work be 
 fore it had been materially impaired, the original form was 
 made out with entire satisfaction. General Adams, who had 
 often been over the grounds before the removal of the forest, 
 states that the ditch was breast deep, and the embankment of 
 corresponding height. Caches were formerly discovered here, 
 and fragments of pottery are now abundant. 
 
 The inclosure had four gateways, one of which, at the north 
 western extremity, opened directly toward a copious spring 
 of water, as shown in the plan. It was thought by General 
 Adams, from certain indications (which might have been caused 
 by the decay of palisades), that slight parallel embankments 
 extended down the slope of the hill, and inclosed the spring 
 here referred to. Be that as it may, the position was well 
 chosen for defence, for which purpose the work was doubtless 
 constructed. 
 
 A mile and a half to the southward are remains of some old 
 fortified towns of the powerful tribe of the Senecas, for plans 
 
vsrr 
 
 i. 
 
 m^siimmSmm 
 
 "m\Wy/IIJl\' 
 
 / M 'l\ v ' 'i.'/,'ll 
 
 sc/tic . 
 4 00 Feet to the Inc7i 
 
 uvoti/A TP. L/y/MGsroN c? w. Y. 
 
LIVINGSTON COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 63 
 
 and descriptions of which the reader is referred to the chapter 
 on " Palisaded Works." 
 
 It is said that a mound, containing a large number of hu 
 man bones, occurs near the head of Hemlock Lake, in the 
 township of Springwater ; but no opportunity was afforded of 
 visiting it. At various places in the county large cemeteries 
 are found ; but most, if not all, of them may be with safety re 
 ferred to the Senecas. Indeed, many articles of European 
 origin accompany the skeletons. A cemetery of large size, and, 
 from the character of the relics found in the graves, of high 
 antiquity, is now in part covered by the village of Lima. 
 Pipes, pottery, etc., are discovered here in great abundance ; 
 and it is worthy of remark, they are identical with those found 
 within the ancient inclosures. 
 
 A number of ancient works are reported to exist higher up 
 the Genesee River, in the southern part of Livingston and in 
 Alleghany counties ; but this entire region has been brought 
 so thoroughly under cultivation, that it was esteemed hope 
 less to look for them with a view to their survey or measure 
 ment. The only information of any authentic kind which was 
 received in addition to what is here presented, relates to a re 
 markable work upon a high hill, not far from the falls of the 
 Genesee, in Alleghany county. Says Judge Porter, in a pri 
 vate letter dated Niagara Falls, November 18th, 1848 : " Upon 
 the west side of Genesee River, a mile or two above the falls, 
 there is a hill, the base of which may perhaps cover two acres 
 of ground, circular in form, and shaped like a sugar-loaf, with 
 a truncated summit a fourth of an acre in area. Upon this 
 summit is a breastwork. The height of the hill is between 
 eighty and one hundred feet. I visited it in 1798, before any 
 settlements were made by the whites nearer than Mount 
 Morris." 
 
 Mr. Moses Long, of Rochester, describes a work which is 
 substantially the same, as follows : " About four miles above 
 the village of Portage, in Alleghany county, is a circular mound 
 
64 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 or hill, which rises probably a hundred feet above the sur 
 rounding interval or ' bottom ' lands. The acclivity is steep on 
 all sides. The Genesee River curves around its base, de 
 scribing nearly a semicircle, and then sweeps on in a tortuous 
 course to the cascades or cataracts below the village of Por 
 tage. The top of the hill is quite level, covered thinly with 
 small forest trees, and its area may comprise an acre. There 
 are appearances of an entrenchment around that part of the 
 summit unprotected by the river. 
 
 " My guide informed me that he had been acquainted with 
 Skongo, an aged chief, and several other Indians of the 
 Caneadea Reservation, who all concurred in saying, that they 
 had no knowledge nor any tradition in relation to this work. 
 Shongo remembered the invasion of Sullivan, when the Indians 
 cut up their corn and threw it into the river, and then re 
 treated with their movable effects a few miles up the stream 
 to the top of an elevated bluff, where they determined to await 
 the attack of their enemy. I came to the conclusion that the 
 entrenchment might have been made by an advanced detach 
 ment from Sullivan's army." 
 
 GENESEE COUNTY. 
 
 A NUMBER of very interesting remains formerly existed in 
 this county ; but few of them are sufficiently well preserved to 
 be satisfactorily traced. 
 
 In the town of Alabama, in the extreme northwest of the 
 county, were once three of these works, all of small size. The 
 plough has completely defaced them. This town adjoins the 
 town of Shelby, in Orleans county, on the south ; and touches 
 Newsted, in Erie county, on the west. It will ultimately be 
 seen that its ancient works constitute part of a chain extending 
 
GENESEE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 65 
 
 from the " Lake Ridge," on the north, to Buffalo Creek on the 
 southwest, a distance of fifty miles. Not less than twenty 
 ancient works are known to occur within this range. 
 
 PLATE VIII. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work, Oakfteld, Genesee County, New York. 
 
 IN the town of Oakfield, half a mile west of the little village 
 of Caryville, is found the ancient inclosure, a plan of which is 
 here given. It is remarkable as being the best preserved and 
 most distinct of any in the State which fell under the notice of 
 the author. It is situated upon the western slope of one of 
 the billowy hills which characterize the rolling lands of the 
 West, and between which the streams find their way to the 
 rivers and lakes. The banks of the little stream which washes 
 the work upon the north are steep, but not more than ten feet 
 in height. Upon the brow of the bank, where the stream ap 
 proaches nearest the work, the entrenchment is interrupted, 
 and the slope toward the water is more gentle than elsewhere 
 indicating an artificial grade. The plan obviates the ne 
 cessity for a detailed description. The embankments will now 
 probably measure six feet in average height, calculating from 
 the bottom of the trench. In the part of the work under cul 
 tivation, it is easy to trace the ancient lodges. Here, too, is to 
 be found the unfailing supply of broken pottery. At the sides 
 of the principal gateway (a) leading into the inclosure from 
 the east, according to the statement of an intelligent aged gen 
 tleman, who was among the earliest settlers in this region, 
 traces of oaken palisades were found, upon excavation, some 
 thirty years ago. They were, of course, almost entirely de 
 cayed. A part of the area is still covered with the original 
 forest, in which are trees of the largest dimensions. An oaken 
 stump upwards of two feet in diameter stands upon the em 
 bankment at the point b. 
 
66 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 About one mile northeast of this work was originally a large 
 inclosure, but which is now entirely destroyed. It was called 
 the " Bone Fort" from the circumstance that the early settlers 
 found within it a mound, six feet in height by thirty at the 
 base, which was entirely made up of human bones slightly cov 
 ered with earth. A few fragments of these bones, scattered 
 over the surface, alone mark the site of the aboriginal sepulchre. 
 The popular opinion concerning this accumulation is, that it 
 contained the bones of the slain, thus heaped together after 
 some severe battle. It will, however, be seen that it probably 
 owed its origin to the same practice to which we are to attribute 
 the " bone pits " found elsewhere, that of collecting together at 
 stated intervals the bones of the dead a practice very preva 
 lent among the northwestern Indians. 
 
 There is no doubt but this is one of the works visited by 
 Rev. Samuel Kirkland, Missionary to the Senecas, in 1788. 
 His MS. Journal was in the possession of Messrs. Yates and 
 Moulton, who have given a synopsis of the part relating to this 
 group of remains in the subjoined passages. 
 
 " Having examined the works (already referred to, in Mon 
 roe county) on the Genesee, he returned to Kanawageas, and 
 resumed his journey west, encamping for the night at a place 
 called Joaika, i. e. Raccoon (Batavia). on the river Tonawande, 
 about twenty-six miles from Kanawageas. Six miles from this 
 place of encampment, he rode to the open fields, and arrived 
 at a place called by the Senecas Tegatainedaghgue, which im 
 ports a ' double-fortified town] or a town with a fort at each end. 
 Here he walked about half a mile with one of the Seneca chiefs, 
 to view the vestiges of this double-fortified town. They con 
 sisted of the remains of two forts : the first contained four acres 
 of ground ; the other, distant about two miles, at the other ex 
 tremity of the ancient town, inclosed about eight acres. The 
 ditch around the first was about five or six feet deep. A small 
 stream of water and a high bank circumscribed nearly one third 
 of the inclosed ground. There were traces of six gates or open- 
 
GENESEE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 67 
 
 ings, and near the centre a way was dug to the water. The 
 ground on the opposite side of the water was in some places 
 nearly as high as that on which the fort was built, which might 
 render this covered way to the water necessary. A considerable 
 number of large thrifty oaks had grown up within the inclosed 
 ground, both in the ditch and upon the wall ; some of which 
 appeared to be two hundred years old or more. The ground 
 is of a hard, gravelly kind, intermixed with loam, and more 
 plentifully at the brow of the hill. At some places at the bot 
 tom of the ditch. Mr. Kirkland ran his cane a foot or more in 
 the soil ; from which circumstance he concludes that the ditch 
 was much deeper originally. 
 
 " Near the western fortification, which was situated on high 
 ground, he found the remains of a funeral pile, where the slain 
 were buried after a great battle, which will be spoken of here 
 after. The mound was about six feet in height by thirty feet 
 diameter at the base. The bones appeared at the surface, pro 
 jecting at many places at the sides. 
 
 "Pursuing his course toward Buffalo Creek, (his ultimate 
 destination.) Mr. Kirkland discovered the vestiges of another 
 fortified town. He does not delineate it in his MSS., but says: 
 ' On these heights, near the ancient fortified town, the roads 
 part ; we left the path leading to Niagara on our right, and 
 went a course nearly southwest for Buffalo Creek. After leav 
 ing these heights, which afforded an extensive prospect, we 
 traveled over a fine tract of land for about six or seven miles, 
 then came to a barren, white-oak, shrub plain. We passed a 
 steep hill on our right, in some places fifty feet perpendicular, 
 at the bottom of which is a small lake, affording another instance 
 of pagan superstition. The old Indians affirm that formerly a 
 demon, in the form of a dragon, resided in this lake, which fre 
 quently disgorged balls of liquid fire. To appease him, many 
 sacrifices of tobacco had been made by the Indians. At the 
 extremity of the barren plain, we came again to Tonawande 
 River, and forded it about two miles above the Indian town of 
 
68 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 that name. At a short distance on the south side of the same 
 stream, is another fortification.' " 
 
 FIG. II. 
 
 Ancient Work, Le Roy, Genesee County, New York. 
 
 REMNANTS of another ancient work occur in the town of Le 
 Roy, three miles north of the village of the same name, in the 
 southeastern part of this county. The accompanying sketch, 
 
GENESEE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. DU 
 
 by L. H. Morgan, Esq., of Rochester, although not from an ex 
 act instrumental survey, is sufficiently accurate for all essential 
 purposes. 
 
 The position which the work occupies is a portion of a high 
 plain or table-land, nearly surrounded by deep ravines, bounded 
 by Fordham's Brook and Allen's Creek, which effect a junction 
 at this point. These streams have worn their beds through 
 the various strata of lime and sandstone to the depth of from 
 seventy to one hundred feet, leaving abrupt banks difficult of 
 ascent.. These natural features are best illustrated by the 
 plan, which precludes the necessity for a minute description. 
 
 The peninsula measures about 1300 feet from north to 
 south, by 2000 feet at its broadest part, and 1000 feet across 
 the neck connecting it with the general table. Positions simi 
 lar to this were often selected by the aborigines for defensive 
 purposes, but in such cases have usually an embankment and 
 trench extending across the isthmus. In this instance, how 
 ever, the only trace of art is an embankment and ditch, about 
 1500 feet in length, and running nearly east and west across 
 the broadest part of the peninsula, and not very far back from 
 the edge of the ravine. The part which is laid down in the 
 plan is said to be still very distinct ; the embankment being 
 between three and four feet in height, and the ditch of cor 
 responding depth. The western extremity of the line curves 
 gently outward, and extends some distance down the bank, 
 which is at this point less abrupt than elsewhere. It is said 
 that formerly trenches existed on the courses indicated by 
 dotted lines on the plan ; but the statement is not confirmed 
 by any remaining traces, 
 
 A number of skeletons have been found here, together with 
 many fragments of pottery. There have also been discovered 
 some heaps of small stones ; which have been supposed to be 
 the missiles of the ancient occupants of the hill, thus got to 
 gether to be used in case of attack. Various relics of art, 
 pipes, beads, stone hatchets, arrow-heads, etc., have been dis- 
 
70 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 closed here by the operations of agricul 
 ture. One of the pipes composed of 
 baked clay is now in the possession of 
 Rev. C. Dewey, of Rochester. It is 
 represented of half size in the accompa 
 nying engraving, Fig. 8. The material 
 is very fine, and the workmanship good ; 
 so good indeed, as to induce some doubt 
 of its aboriginal origin. Another pipe 
 carved from granular limestone was 
 found here, as were also a number of 
 beads, long and coarse, made of clay and 
 burned. 
 
 According to Mr. Dewey, " the trench 
 was estimated by the early observers at 
 from eight to ten feet deep, and as many 
 wide. The earth in making it had been thrown either way, 
 but much of it inward. The road formerly crossed it by a 
 bridge. "When first known, forest trees were standing both in 
 the trench and on its sides. In size and growth they cor 
 responded with the forests around them. Prostrate upon the 
 ground were numerous trunks of the heart-wood of black cherry 
 trees of larger size, which, it is conjectured, were the remains 
 of more antique forests, preceding the growth of beech and 
 maple. They were in such a state of soundness as to be em 
 ployed for timber by the early settlers."* 
 
 From all that remains of this work, it is impossible to con 
 jecture for what purposes it was constructed. Indeed, it bears 
 so few evidences of design, that we are led to distrust its arti 
 ficial origin ; a distrust which is strengthened by the circum 
 stance, that in a number of instances, elevations and depres 
 sions bearing some degree of regularity, but resulting from fis 
 sures in a rock substratum or other natural causes, have been 
 
 * Schoolcraft's Notes on the Iroquois, p. 203. 
 
ORLEANS COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 71 
 
 mistaken for works of art. The fact that the trench in this 
 instance has a course so nearly parallel with .the edge of the 
 ravine, is also a suspicious circumstance. The spot was not 
 visited by the author; but he is authorized in saying that 
 Prof. Dewey, who gave the first and most complete account of 
 the supposed work, is now inclined to the opinion that it may 
 be the result of natural causes. 
 
 On what is called the " Knowlton Farm," about one mile 
 south of the town of Batavia,.is a small natural elevation which 
 was used as a burial-place by the Indians. It has been mis 
 taken for a mound. Various relics have been discovered in 
 ploughing over it. 
 
 ORLEANS COUNTY. 
 
 IT is not known that many ancient remains occur in this 
 county. There is, however, an interesting work in Shelby 
 township, one and a half miles west of Shelby Centra The 
 following account of it was communicated by Dr. S. M. Bur 
 roughs, of Medina, to 0. Turner, Esq., of Buffalo, by whom it 
 was presented to the author. 
 
 " It consists of a ditch and embankment, inclosing, in a 
 form nearly circular, about three acres of ground. The ditch 
 is still well defined and several feet in depth. Adjoining this 
 fortification on the south is a swamp, about one mile in width 
 by two in length ; which was once*, if not a lake, an impassable 
 morass. There is a passage-way through the lines of the en 
 trenchment toward the swamp, and this is the sole gateway 
 discoverable. Large quantities of small stones, of a size to be 
 thrown with the hand, are accumulated in piles within and near 
 the work: Here, too, are many arrow-heads of flint (silex), stone 
 axes, and fragments of pottery, exhibiting ornaments in relief. 
 Human skeletons almost entire have been exhumed here. 
 
72 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 Half a mile west of the fort on a sand hill, an immense number 
 of skeletons have been found in a very perfect state. Many 
 seem to have been deposited in the same grave. As some of 
 the skulls appear to have been broken by clubs or tomahawks, 
 is it not probable that this was the site of some great battle ?" 
 
 ERIE COUNTY. 
 
 ERIE county ranks next to Jefferson in the number of its 
 ascertained aboriginal monuments. The topographical features 
 of the two counties are much the same, although the former is 
 by far the least elevated. Along the shores of Lake Erie and 
 bordering Buffalo Creek are low and fertile alluvions ; back of 
 these we come to the limestone formation, and the country rises, 
 forming a second grand terrace, along the brow of which most 
 of the ancient works are situated. Within the limits of the 
 late Seneca Reservation, which has been only in part brought 
 under cultivation, there are a number of ancient works, which 
 are unimpaired except by the operation of natural causes. It 
 is extremely difficult, however, to find them, in consequence of 
 the forest and the thick undergrowth. As the Reservation 
 is cleared up, no doubt new ones will be discovered ; and it is 
 to be hoped sufficient interest in these matters may be found to 
 exist among the citizens of Buffalo, to secure their prompt and 
 careful investigation 
 
PLATE DC Wo. y. 
 
 NEAR BUFFALO, ERIE, C? N.Y 
 B.G-. Sgui 
 
 , a. Grave of SU<Z Jacket 
 \ A, ,i Mat-yifemifor 
 '. Ct fifpres&i.ons, na.fu.rctj 
 
ERIE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 
 
 73 
 
 PLATE IX. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work near Buffalo. 
 
 ONE of the most interesting works in this county is that here 
 represented. It derives much of its interest from the associa 
 tions connected with it. The site which it occupies was a fa 
 vorite spot with the Senecas, and one of their largest cemeteries 
 occurs within its walls. Here is buried an Indian chief whose 
 name is inseparably interwoven with the history of the Five 
 Nations. He was a man who possessed a rare combination of 
 talents, which, developed under different circumstances, would 
 have secured for him a high position among the greatest states 
 men and proudest orators of the world. This is hardly a proper 
 place to speak of his character ; but his devoted patriotism, his 
 inflexible integrity, the unwavering firmness, calm and lofty 
 dignity, and powerful eloquence with which he opposed the en 
 croachments of the whites, notwithstanding that he knew all 
 resistance was vain and hopeless command an involuntary 
 tribute to the memory of the last and noblest of the proud and 
 politic Iroquois, the haughty and unbending Red Jacket, who 
 died exulting that the Great Spirit had made him an Indian ! 
 Here, too, is buried Mary Jemison, " the white woman," who, 
 taken a prisoner by the Indians when a child, conformed to 
 their habits, became the wife of one of their chiefs, and remained 
 with them until her death. The story of her life is one of the 
 most eventful of those connected with our border history, filled 
 as it is with thrilling adventures and startling incidents. 
 
 The work under notice is situated upon the edge of the second 
 terrace, which is here moderately elevated above the fertile al 
 luvions bordering Buffalo Creek. The particular spot which 
 it occupies is considerably higher than any other near it, and 
 the soil is sandy and dry. It will be seen that the terrace 
 bank upon one side is made to subserve the purposes for which 
 the trench and embankment were erected upon the others. 
 4 
 
74 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 There is now no direct evidence to that effect ; but no doubt 
 can be entertained that, in common with all the other works of 
 the State, the wall was crowned with palisades, which were also 
 carried along the brow of the terrace. The greater portion of 
 this work has been for some time under cultivation ; and the 
 original lines are so much defaced, that they would probably 
 escape the notice of the careless observer. They may, never 
 theless, be distinctly traced throughout their extent. At the 
 point nearest the Indian cemetery, a portion of which is still 
 spared by the plough, the embankment is very distinct, and 
 cannot fail to attract attention. At a short distance to the 
 northward of the work is a low spot of ground or marsh, toward 
 which opens a gateway. From this was probably obtained a 
 portion of the supply of water required by the ancient occu 
 pants of the work. A number of springs start from the foot 
 of the terrace, where the ground is also marshy. Within the 
 walls of this work are to be found the various traces of occu 
 pancy which I have already mentioned, sites of old lodges, 
 fragments of pottery, etc. 
 
 Tradition fixes upon this spot as the scene of the final and 
 most bloody conflict between the Iroquois and the " Gah-kwas" 
 or Eries a tradition which has been supposed to derive some 
 sanction from the number of fragments of decayed human bones 
 which are scattered over the area. 
 
 The old mission-house and church stand in close proximity 
 to this work. The position of the former is indicated in the 
 plan. Red Jacket's house stood above a third of a mile to the 
 southward upon the same elevation ; and the abandoned coun 
 cil-house is still standing, perhaps a mile distant, in the direction 
 of Buffalo. A little distance beyond, in the same direction and 
 near the public road, is a small mound, called " Dah-do-sot" 
 artificial hill, by the Indians, who it is said were accustomed to 
 regard it with much veneration, supposing that it covered the 
 victims slain in some bloody conflict in the olden time. A 
 genuine representative of the Celtic stock had selected it as the 
 
PLATE IX 3W. 2.3. 
 
 JV? 2 
 
 tp 
 
 LANCASTER TP. ERIE CO. NEW YORK 
 
 ' ^^M^fev: 
 
 o o> ^ ^ - 
 
 or^- f^ 
 
 ^ f v&- 
 
 IVa MILE. S.E. OF N<? 2 
 S'atne Toivttship. 
 
 2 OOft to the Inch 
 
ERIE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 75 
 
 site of his cabin, and his worthy but somewhat superstitious 
 spouse was much horrified at the intimation that it probably 
 contained the bones of the unsanctified heathen. A shaft was 
 sunk near the foundation of the cabin to the base of the mound, 
 but nothing of interest was disclosed. A few half-formed ar 
 row-heads, some chippings of horn stone, and some small bits 
 of charcoal were discovered, intermingled with the soil thrown 
 from the excavation. Whatever deposits are contained in the 
 mound, if any, probably occur immediately beneath the apex 
 which is occupied by the cabin of the Celt aforesaid. Its in 
 vestigation is therefore reserved for the hands of some future 
 explorer. It was originally between five and six feet in height 
 by thirty-five or forty feet base, and is composed of the adjacent 
 loam. A depression still exists upon one side, marking the 
 spot whence the material was obtained. 
 
 PLATE IX. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work, Lancaster, Erie County, New York. 
 
 IT is not known that any Ancient remains occur nearer the 
 work last described than the one here presented, which is 
 situated upon lot No. 2, of the late Reservation, about four 
 miles southeast of the village of Lancaster, near Little Bufia- 
 lo Creek. It occurs upon the summit of a small eminence, in 
 the midst of a dense and tangled forest, and is reached by a 
 bridle path which passes through it. It approaches more near 
 ly to the form of a true circle than any work which fell under 
 the observation of the author in Western New York. It is 
 small, containing less than an acre. The embankment is how 
 ever very distinct, being not less than three feet in height, and 
 the ditch of equal, depth. Trees, corresponding in all respects 
 with those of the surrounding forest, are standing within the 
 
76 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 area and upon the wall. The ground is here gravelly and dry. 
 A number of caches of considerable size were observed within 
 the inclosure. 
 
 PLATE IX. No. 3. 
 
 Ancient Work, Lancaster, Erie County, New York. 
 
 HALF a mile to the southeast of the above work, and, as 
 nearly as could be ascertained, on lot No. 6, is a work of larger 
 size and more irregular outline. It occupies a beautiful level 
 spot of ground not far from the edge of the second terrace 
 back from the creek. The embankment is somewhat higher 
 than that of the previous work, and, with a single exception, 
 quite as well defined as any observed within the State. It is 
 very slightly reduced from its original height, which may be 
 estimated as having been between seven and nine feet, measur 
 ing from the bottom of the ditch. At the point indicated by 
 the letter a upon the embankment, is standing the stump of a 
 withered pine tree, which is sixteen feet in circumference six 
 feet above the roots. A few rods to the southward of the work 
 is a narrow ravine leading off toward Little Buffalo Creek. 
 Within this is a spring from which flows a small stream. It 
 will be observed that two of the gateways of the work, placed 
 not far apart, open in this direction leading to the inference 
 that it was here that the water used by the ancient occupants 
 was obtained. A number of large caches also occur within this 
 work. 
 
PLATE X. 
 
 ."oT^ ^3 ^ cX? 
 ^ > LL v <" ^ - 
 
 . . ".xdL, v< ^ 
 
 Ijfc 
 u 
 
 l^y/o ". Ho-. . ^.^ 
 
 !^o?^5^- 
 
 ^K^^II 
 i^^& ' 
 
 y BANK OF LITTLE BUFFALO CftffK 
 
 LANCASTER TP ERIEC'N.Y. 
 /in. 2& In 
 
 CLARENCE TP. ft/ COUNTY /V.Y. 
 2/ 2 M. ,5! <7/- Clawice Hollow . 
 
 rrV%v* 
 
 AMEOIIOsQ'B' 
 
 CLARENCE, 
 ffiM.S of Oar-ewe 
 
 
ERIE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 77 
 
 PLATE X. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work on Late Indian Reservation, Erie County, New 
 
 York. 
 
 UPON the opposite bank of the creek already named, and 
 probably on lot No. 3 of the Reservation, is the singular work 
 here presented. The land upon this side of the creek rises 
 abruptly to the height of 150 or 200 feet, forming a high bluff. 
 The edge of this bluff is cut by ravines into spurs or head 
 lands ; and upon one of these the work under notice is situa 
 ted. It is not large, and is singular only in having wide in 
 terruptions in the embankment so wide, indeed, that were it 
 not from the perfect condition of the lines where they exist, it 
 might be conjectured that the structure was never completed. 
 Caches were noticed here. The ground is covered with a 
 dense forest, which obscures all parts of the work. 
 
 To the southwestward of this, on lot 29 of the same range 
 and on the south side of " Big Buffalo Creek," is still another 
 similar work, which is described by Mr. Junius Clark, in a 
 private communication, as about eight hundred feet in circum 
 ference, having three gateways and an open space ten rods 
 wide at the southwestern corner. A gateway on the north 
 opens toward a, spring of water, distant about a dozen rods. 
 Other works, probably differing in no essential respect from 
 these, are said to occur at various places upon the southern 
 border of the Reservation. 
 
78 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 PLATE X. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work, Clarence Township, Erie County, New iork. 
 
 PASSING northward from the localities last mentioned to the 
 distance of five or six miles, keeping upon the limestone 
 plateau, we find another series of remains, composed of a suc 
 cession of works placed a mile or two apart, and extending 
 quite through the town of Clarence. The first of these (No. 2) 
 is two and a half miles south of the little village of " Clarence 
 Hollow." It has been under cultivation for a number of years, 
 and its outlines can now be traced only by carefully observing 
 the stronger vegetable growth upon the course of the ancient 
 trench. Where fence lines crossed the wall, short sections of 
 the embankment are yet visible. Fragments of pottery are 
 scattered over the area. If any of the usual pits ever existed, 
 they have been filled up by the operations of agriculture. 
 
 PLATE X. No. 3. 
 
 Ancient Work, Clarence Township, Erie County, New York. 
 A MILE northward of the work last described, and occupy 
 ing a position in no respect well adapted for defence, is the in- 
 closure here presented. It is now much defaced ; the part, 
 however, which has never been cultivated is very distinct, and 
 one or two other short sections may yet with some difficulty 
 be traced. Flint chippings, fragments of pottery, and a num 
 ber of deep caches occur within the area. A large Indian 
 cemetery is said to exist somewhere between this work and 
 the one just noticed. However true this may be, about half a 
 mile to the northwest on the land of a Mr. Fillmore, there is a 
 large deposit of bones, a " bone pit," some fourteen feet square 
 and four or five in depth, filled with crumbling human skele 
 tons. The spot was marked by a very slight elevation of the 
 earth a foot or two in height. 
 
PLATE XI. 
 
 CLARENCE TP. Eft IE COUNTY N. X 
 ^ S. W: of Clau-ence JTollotv 
 
 N2 
 
 . r V-^^^ii^Sco - 
 
 % ?- s^w^SS^^rw'C 
 P^&frJ^^ASSS^'/o- o 
 
 F/SHEAS FALLS, MEWSTED.TP. 
 c Jf.y. 
 
 j/Jf.S. of the WZUvLge, of AJtroT^.) 
 
 X6.Syu.Ltr 1848. 
 
ERIE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 79 
 
 A couple of miles distant, still following the brow of the 
 terrace, and not far back of the village of Clarence, was for 
 merly another similar work now completely destroyed. Still 
 a mile beyond is another (Plate XL, No. 1), which, although 
 upon grounds which have been cleared, is yet perfect. It is 
 situated upon a sandy, slightly elevated peninsula, which pro 
 jects into a low tangled swamp. A narrow strip of dry ground 
 connects it with the higher lands, which border the swamp on 
 the south. It is small, containing less than an acre. The em 
 bankment does not preserve uniform dimensions, but has per 
 haps an average height of three feet. The ditch, too, is irregu 
 lar, both in width and depth, owing probably in some degree 
 to the rocky substratum, which in some places comes nearly or 
 quite to the surface of the ground. The stumps of immense 
 pine trees are standing within the work, as also upon its walls. 
 Here, too, are to be found caches, fragments of pottery, etc. 
 The position, for purposes of concealment and defence, is ad 
 mirably chosen, and recalls to mind the famous stronghold of 
 the Narragansetts in Rhode Island, destroyed in 1676 by the 
 New England colonists under Winthrop and Church. 
 
 A short distance from this work, upon the brow of a neigh 
 boring elevation, a number of human skeletons have been ex 
 posed by the plough. They probably mark the site of an In 
 dian cemetery. A mile to the eastward, upon a dry, sandy 
 spot, is another of the " bone pits " already several times re 
 ferred to, which is estimated, by those who excavated it origi 
 nally, to have contained four hundred skeletons heaped promis 
 cuously together. They were of individuals of every age and 
 sex. In the same field are found a great variety of Indian 
 relics, also brass cap and belt plates, and other remains of Eu 
 ropean origin. Not far distant, some lime burners discovered, 
 a year or two since, a skeleton surrounded by a quantity of 
 rude ornaments. It had been placed in the cleft of the rock, 
 the mouth of which was covered by a large flint stone 
 
 Passing onward in the same direction which we have been 
 
80 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 pursuing, we come to the Batavia and Buffalo road, the great 
 thoroughfare over which, previous to the construction of the 
 railroad and canal, passed the entire western trade and travel. 
 Here, at a point a few miles from Clarence, known as the 
 " Vandewater Farm," are the traces of another work. A few 
 sections alone remain, barely sufficient to indicate that it was 
 of considerable size. The road passes through its centre. 
 
 PLATE XI. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work, Fisher's Falls, Newsted Township, Erie County, 
 New York. 
 
 THE sole remaining work in this county which was person 
 ally examined by the author is the one here presented. It is 
 situated five miles eastward of the locality last noticed, at a 
 place known as " Fisher's Falls," in the town of Newsted, upon 
 the banks of a creek, at present barbarously designated " Mur 
 der Creek." The creek here plunges down into a deep, nar 
 row gorge with precipitous banks, which continues to the edge 
 of the terrace a fourth of a mile distant. The relative position 
 of the work, which is of large size, is correctly designated on 
 the plan. It is now under cultivation, and is much reduced 
 from its original elevation, but can be traced without difficulty 
 throughout its extent. The older inhabitants affirm that the 
 walls were originally five feet in height, and the ditch of cor 
 responding proportions. Traces of the ancient caches are yet 
 to be observed ; and without the inclosure is a rock, the sur 
 face of which bears a number of artificial depressions hollowed 
 out by the Indians the rude mortars in which they pounded 
 their corn. 
 
 This work occurs upon the old Indian trail, which extended 
 from the Genesee River to Batavia, and thence to Buffalo and 
 Niagara. A branch of this trail, after striking the limestone 
 
CHATJTAUQUE COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 81 
 
 ledge at Tonawanda Creek, followed along its brow to Buffalo 
 Creek. It diverged inwardly at the point under notice, so as 
 to escape the impassable ravine already mentioned. Kirkland, 
 missionary to the Senecas in 1787, passed along this trail on 
 his way to Buffalo, and incidentally refers to a work which he 
 encountered after crossing Tonawanda Creek, and which is 
 probably the one here figured. 
 
 Besides the ancient remains here noticed, there are no doubt 
 many others of which no information has yet been obtained. 
 It is not probable, however, that they possess any novel fea 
 tures, or differ materially in any respect from those already 
 described. Some " bone pits," in addition to those already 
 mentioned, occur in Clarence township, and will be noticed in 
 another connection. 
 
 This county abounds in traces of recent Indian occupancy; in 
 fact, the rude cabins of the aborigines have scarcely crumbled 
 away, since they deserted their favorite haunts upon the banks 
 of the Buffalo Creek and its tributaries. A small band are at 
 bay upon the borders of the Tonawanda, sullenly defying the 
 grasping cupidity of those who, Shylock-like, sustained by frau 
 dulent contracts, are impatient to anticipate the certain doom 
 which impends over this scanty remnant, and would deny them 
 the poor boon of laying their bones beside those of their fathers. 
 
 CHAUTAUQUE COUNTY. 
 
 THIS county abounds in ancient monuments ; but no oppor 
 tunity was afforded of examining them during the progress of 
 the investigations here recorded. It is probable they are but a 
 continuation of the series extending through Erie county, 
 (which adjoins Chautauque on the northeast,) and it is not 
 likely they present any new features. 
 
82 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 One of the most remarkable occupies an eminence in Sheri 
 dan township, four miles east of Fredonia, on the banks of 
 Beaver Creek. It corresponds, in all respects, with the hill- 
 works already described. Another of like character occurs in 
 the southern part of the same township. 
 
 MONTGOMERY COUNTY. 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 Ancient Work, Minden Township. 
 
 THE work here figured is, in many respects, the most remark 
 able in the State. It is the only one known which is situated 
 upon waters flowing into the Hudson River. Its nearest neigh 
 bors upon the west are the ancient works in Onondaga county, 
 a hundred miles distant. Between it and the Atlantic, we are 
 not aware of the existence of a single monument of like cha 
 racter. 
 
 It occurs upon the banks of the Otstungo Creek, a branch 
 of the Otsquago itself a tributary of the Mohawk, about four 
 miles in a southwestern direction from Fort Plain, in the town 
 of Minden. It is known in the vicinity by the name of " In 
 dian Hill.' 11 The position is admirably chosen, and is naturally 
 by far the strongest and most defensible of any which fell un 
 der the observation of the author in the entire course of his 
 explorations in this State. It is a high point of land project 
 ing into a bend of the creek, which upon one side has cut away 
 the slate rock, so that it presents a mural front upwards of one 
 hundred feet in height, and entirely inaccessible. Upon the 
 opposite side is a ravine, within which flows a small stream. 
 Here the slope, though not precipitous, is very abrupt ; and if 
 
XII. 
 
 ip 
 
 *OQ*t*avc.I*iGJt. 
 
 B.G S 
 

MONTGOMERY COUNTY EARTH-WORKS, ETC. 83 
 
 a line of palisades were carried along its brow, it would be en 
 tirely inaccessible to a savage assailant. Across the narrow 
 isthmus which connects this headland with the adjacent high 
 grounds, is an embankment and ditch two hundred and forty 
 feet in length, extending from the precipice upon the south to 
 the brow of the ravine on the north, along which, curving in 
 ward, it is carried for some distance, terminating at a gigantic 
 pine six feet in diameter. It has been supposed by some that 
 this tree has grown upon the embankment since it was erected ; 
 but it seems most likely that it was the starting point of the 
 ancient builders. The wall is not of uniform height, but at 
 the most elevated point rises perhaps six feet above the bottom 
 of the ditch. No gateway is apparent, but one may have ex 
 isted where the " wood road " now crosses the entrenched line. 
 The plan will afford an accurate idea of the position and its 
 natural strength. The inclosed area is about seven hundred 
 feet long by four hundred and fifty broad at its widest part, 
 and contains very nearly six acres. It is densely covered with 
 immense pines throwing over it a deep gloom, and, with the 
 murmur of the stream at the foot of the precipice, impressing 
 the solitary visitor with feelings of awe, which the professed 
 antiquary might deem it a weakness to acknowledge. 
 
 Fragments of pottery and a variety of rude implements, as 
 also copper kettles and other articles of European origin, have 
 been found upon excavation within the inclosure and in its 
 immediate vicinity. At c and d, skeletons -have been disclosed 
 by the plough. They were well preserved, and had been bu 
 ried, according to the Indian custom, in a sitting posture. 
 
 The valley of the Mohawk in this vicinity, it is well known, 
 was the favorite seat of the tribe whose name it bears, and has 
 been made classical ground by the stirring incidents of our 
 early history. It was here the Indians maintained themselves 
 until the period of the Revolution, and it seems probable that 
 it was they who erected the work in question at an earlier or 
 
84 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 later date in their history.* It corresponds in position and 
 character with the works of the other parts of the State, and is 
 precisely such a structure as we might expect to find erected 
 by a very rude people. It could not be ascertained that there 
 are any traditions connected with it ; in fact, its existence is 
 scarcely known beyond its immediate vicinity. The first inti 
 mation concerning it was derived from 0. MORRIS, Esq., of the 
 New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, to whom the 
 author would convey his acknowledgments. 
 
 * In the London Documents preserved in the Office of the Secretary 
 of State, is a paper containing the observations of Wentworth Green- 
 halgh, who in 1677 made a journey from Albany among the Indians to 
 the westward. The following notices of the towns of the Maquaes, or 
 Mohawks, are interesting in this connection : 
 
 " The Maquaes have four towns, viz. : Cahainaga, Canagora, Canajorha, 
 Tionondogue, besides one small village about 110 miles from Albany. 
 
 " Cahainaga is double stockaded round ; has four ports, about four 
 feet wide apiece ; contains about twenty-four houses ; and is situate 
 upon the edge of a hill, about a bow-shot from the river side. 
 
 " Canagora is only singly stockaded, has four ports like the other, 
 contains about sixteen houses, and is situated upon a flat about a stone's 
 throw from the water's edge. 
 
 " Canajorha is also singly stockaded, with like number of houses, and 
 a similar situation only about two miles distant from the water. 
 
 " Tionondogue is doubly stockaded round, has four ports, four feet 
 wide apiece, contains about thirty houses, and is situated on a hill about 
 a bow-shot from the river." Documentary History of New York, Vol. I., 
 p. 11. 
 
 The Indian town of Canajoharie, or, as it was sometimes called, " Mid 
 dle Mohawk Castle," says Mr. L. H. Morgan, in his valuable " Letters 
 on the Iroquois," was situated at the junction of the creek referred to 
 in the text, the Ot-squa-go, and the Mohawk. " It occupied a little 
 eminence near the present site of Fort Plain, which the Indians called 
 Car-rag-jo-res, The Hill of Health. The name of the village, in the Onei- 
 da dialect, Can-a-jo-har-d-ld-ga, signified a kettle inverted on a pole" 
 
XJH. 
 
 jr.*/. 
 
 PALOSAIH 
 
 OF THE SENECA S, HEAR GfMEVA , 
 M.Y. 
 
 SCAL E . 
 
 S.S.f 
 
 PMHI&BII 
 
 >\\ V \ 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 PALISADED INCLOSURES. 
 
 BESIDES the earth-works which have already been described, 
 and which furnish the principal objects of antiquarian interest 
 in the State, occasional traces are found of defensive structures 
 of a probably later date. These traces consist chiefly of a suc 
 cession of small holes in the earth, caused by the decay of wooden 
 palisades erected without the addition of an embankment and 
 trench. These holes, which are never visible in cultivated 
 grounds, enable us to follow the outlines and make out the 
 forms of the structures which once existed where they are 
 found. Some of these, as that of Ganundasaga near Geneva, 
 are known to have been occupied within the historical period. 
 And although it seems probable that the embankments of all 
 the inclosures already described were originally crowned with 
 palisades, still I have thought the difference between these and 
 simple palisaded works sufficiently marked to constitute the 
 basis of a classification. We may also premise what in the se 
 quel will probably admit of no doubt in any mind, that these 
 two classes of works are of different eras, though possessing a 
 common origin. 
 
 PLATE XIII. No. 1. 
 
 " Ganundasaga Castk? near Geneva. Ontario County, New 
 
 York. 
 
 THE traces of this palisaded work are very distinct, and its 
 outline may be followed with the greatest ease. Its preserva 
 tion is entirely due to the circumstance that at the time of the 
 cession of their lands at this point, the Senecas made it a spe- 
 
86 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 cial condition that this spot should never be brought under 
 cultivation. " Here." said they, " sleep our fathers, and they 
 cannot rest well if they hear the plough of the white man above 
 them." The stipulations made by the purchasers have been 
 religiously observed. 
 
 The site of this ancient palisade slopes gently toward a little 
 stream, called Ganundasaga Creek, which supplied the occu 
 pants of the fort with water. The ground is covered with a 
 close greensward, and some of the apple trees planted by the 
 Indians are still flourishing. In form the work was nearly 
 rectangular, having small bastions at the northwestern and 
 southeastern angles. At a and b are small heaps of stone, 
 bearing traces of exposure to fire, which are probably the re 
 mains of forges or fireplaces. The holes formed by the decay 
 of the pickets are now about a foot deep. A fragment of one 
 of the pickets was removed by Mr. L. H. Morgan, of Rochester, 
 in 1847, and is now in the State Cabinet at Albany. It is of 
 oak. 
 
 A few paces to the northward of the old fort is a low mound 
 with a broad base, and undoubtedly of artificial origin. It is 
 now about six feet high, and is covered with depressions mark 
 ing the graves of the dead. There is a tradition current among 
 the Indians concerning this mound, to the effect that here in 
 the olden time was slain a powerful giant, above whom the 
 earth was afterward heaped. They believe that the bones of 
 this giant may be found at the base. It would be interesting 
 for a variety of reasons to have this mound excavated. By 
 whatever people erected, it is certain that it was extensively 
 used by the Senecas for purposes of burial. 
 
 In the cultivated fields surrounding the interesting works 
 here described, numerous relics have been discovered chiefly, 
 however, of European origin. 
 
 This fort was destroyed by Sullivan in 1779. He burned 
 the palisade, destroyed the crops in the adjoining fields, and 
 cut down most of the fruit trees which the Indians had planted. 
 
PALISADED INCLOSURES. 87 
 
 The name Ga-nun-da-sa-ga, given to this locality, Mr. Mor 
 gan informs us, in his " Letters on the Iroquois," signified 
 a new village, or the place of a new settlement, and was also the 
 aboriginal name of the lake, and the creek upon which the In 
 dian village was situated. Geneva was christened Ga-nun-da- 
 sa-ga "by the Senecas, and was known among them by that name 
 exclusively. Mr. Morgan also gives us the following interesting 
 tradition connected with the mound above described. 
 
 " A Seneca of giant proportions having wandered west to 
 the Mississippi, . and from thence east again to the sea-coast, 
 about the period of the colonization of the country, received a 
 gun from a vessel, together with some ammunition, and an 
 explanation of its use. Having returned to the Senecas at 
 Ga-nun-da-sa-ga, he exhibited to them the wonderful implement 
 of destruction, the first they had ever seen, and taught them 
 how to use it. Soon after, from some mysterious cause, he was 
 found dead ; and this mound was raised over him on the place 
 where he lay. It is averred by the Indians that if the mound 
 should be opened, a skeleton of supernatural size would be 
 found beneath it." 
 
 PLATE XIII. No. 2. 
 
 Palisaded Work of the Senecas. Seneca Township, Ontario 
 County, New York. 
 
 THIS work is situated about four miles to the northwest of 
 that last described, upon a high ridge of land extending north 
 and south, and parallel to and not far distant from another on 
 which is situated an ancient earth-work figured on Plate VII., 
 No. I. A cross road from the " Castle Street Road " to the 
 town of Vienna runs along the crown of the ridge, and longitu 
 dinally through the work under notice. Upon the right of this 
 road the ground has been cultivated, and here the outlines of 
 
88 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 the work are obliterated. Traces of several caches which existed 
 within the lines may however yet be seen. Upon the left, the 
 forest still remains undisturbed ; and here the outlines of the 
 inclosure are quite distinct, yet not sufficiently marked to arrest 
 the attention of the passer. The indications are precisely the 
 same as in the work at Ganundasaga. Fragments of pottery, 
 pipes, and other relics exactly corresponding with those which 
 are so frequent in the earth-works described in a previous 
 chapter, are also found in abundance upon this site. The work 
 does not appear to have had bastions, and is probably of more 
 ancient date than the one just noticed. 
 
 PLATE XIII. No. 3. 
 
 Ancient Work of the Cayugas, Ledyard Township, Cayuga 
 County, New York. 
 
 THIS work is found about twelve miles southwest of Auburn, 
 in the town of Ledyard, Cayuga county. It forms a good il 
 lustration of the character of the aboriginal defences. It is 
 situated upon a high point of ground, formed by the junction 
 of two immense ravines, which here sink some hundreds of feet 
 below the table-lands. A narrow spur, hardly wide enough to 
 permit two to walk abreast, extends down to the bottom of the 
 ravines, starting from the extreme point of the headland. It 
 is still called the " Indian Path," and affords a practicable de 
 scent to the water. At every other point the banks are almost, 
 if not entirely inaccessible. At some distance inward, extending 
 from the bank of one ravine to the other, was originally a line 
 of palisades. The holes left by their decay are still distinct, 
 each about eight inches in diameter. The position is eminently 
 a strong one, and, under the system of attack practiced by the 
 Indians, must have been impregnable. Within the inclosure 
 are to be found caches and other features common to the class 
 
XJII. 
 
PALISADED INCLOSURES. 89 
 
 of works previously described, and with which this work entirely 
 coincides, except that the embankment is wanting. 
 
 So far as could be ascertained, there is no tradition current 
 respecting this work. Still, as it is known that the principal 
 towns of the Cayugas existed in this vicinity until a very late 
 date, there can be no doubt that this was one of their places of 
 last resort. Very many traces of their former occupancy occur 
 here and along the eastern shores of Cayuga Lake. 
 
 PLATE XIV. No. 1. 
 
 Ancient Work of the Senecas, near Victor, Ontario County. New 
 
 York. 
 
 THE site occupied by the work here figured and the country 
 adjacent, derives considerable interest from its historical asso 
 ciations. Recent investigations have satisfactorily determined 
 that the Marquis De Nonville penetrated here in his celebrated 
 expedition against the Senecas, in 1687 ; and there is good 
 reason to believe that the traces at present existing are those 
 of the palisaded fort which was destroyed at that time. They 
 occupy the summit of a high hill, so steep upon most sides as 
 to be ascended only with the greatest difficulty. The line of 
 the palisades can now be traced only at intervals ; but from 
 the nature of the ground and the recollection of persons familiar 
 with the site before it was disturbed by the plough, it was found 
 easy to restore with accuracy the parts which have been oblit 
 erated. The sole entrance which can now be made out is at 
 the point marked by the letter a, where the palisades were 
 carried for some distance inward, leaving an open rectangular 
 space, which may have been occupied by a block -house or some 
 thing equivalent. Nearly in front, and at the bottom of a deep 
 and narrow ravine, a copious spring starts out from the hill ; 
 
90 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 probably the one alluded to by De Nonville in his letter of the 
 25th of August, 1687. 
 
 "On the next day," says this commander, "the 14th of 
 July, we marched to one of the large villages of the Senecas, 
 where we encamped. We found it burned and a fort nearly 
 quite abandoned ; it was very advantageously situated on a hill. 
 * * * We remained at the four Seneca villages for ten days. 
 All the time was spent in destroying the corn, which was in 
 such great abundance that the loss, including the old corn which 
 was in cache which we burnt, was computed at 400,000 minots 
 (1,200.000 bushels) of Indian corn." 
 
 The large village alluded to here is no doubt the one which 
 was situated on the eminence now known as "Boughton's Hill," 
 where abundant traces of Indian occupancy at this period are 
 found. These consist of copper kettles, French hatchets, bro 
 ken gun-barrels, arrow-heads, pipes, pottery, burnt corn, etc. 
 The iron recovered here at the time of the first settlement of 
 the country, was sufficiently abundant to repay the cost of 
 clearing the grounds. Indeed it was the source whence the 
 early blacksmiths, for a long distance round, derived the iron 
 for ordinary consumption ; and even now the smithies in the 
 vicinity consume large quantities of the metal which the opera 
 tions of agriculture continue to bring to light. 
 
 The remains upon Boughton's Hill are mentioned by Mr. 
 Clinton as corresponding in all respects with those which he 
 observed in Onondaga county, and to which he was disposed to 
 ascribe a high antiquity. They may all be referred to the same 
 period, and no doubt mark the sites of Onondaga and Seneca 
 villages in the 17th century.* 
 
 * Having alluded to the expedition of De Nonville, it will not prove 
 uninteresting to insert the following account of his attack on the Seneca 
 towns, which we find in the " Rochester Democrat," translated from a 
 MS. History of Canada, by M. L'Abbe de Belmont, discovered in the 
 Royal Library of Paris, and printed, for private circulation, under the 
 direction of the Historical Society of Quebec. For further information 
 
PLATE XIV 
 
PALISADED INCLOStlRES. 91 
 
 PLATE XIV. No. 2. 
 
 Ancient Work of the Senecas, Livonia Township, Livingston 
 County, New York. 
 
 THE traces of another palisaded work, no doubt erected by 
 the Senecas, but probably at a later period than that near Vic 
 tor, may still be seen on the farm of Gen. Adams, in Livonia 
 township, Livingston county, two miles northeast of the village 
 of Livonia. 
 
 respecting this famous expedition, the reader is referred to the memoirs 
 upon that subject by Mr. 0. H. Marshall, published by the Historical 
 Society of New York. 
 
 After a long accoimt of the organization of the expedition, the Abbe 
 de Belmont proceeds : 
 
 "Never had Canada seen, and never perhaps will it see, a similar 
 spectacle : three barques anchored opposite a camp, composed of one 
 fourth regular troops, with the General's suite ; one fourth habitans in 
 four battalions, with the gentry of the country ; one fourth Christian 
 Indians ; and, finally, a crowd of all the barbarous nations, naked, tattooed 
 and painted over the body with all sorts of figures, wearing horns on 
 their heads, queues down their backs, armed with arrows. We could hear 
 during the night a multitude of languages, and songs and dances in 
 every tongue. The Tsonnontouans (Senecas) came to reconnoitre us, 
 and then went to burn their village and take to flight. 
 
 " We entered and pushed our batteaux into the water of the little lake 
 of Atcniatarontague (Irondequoit) ; built a fort, and took our depar 
 ture from it on the 12th of July, toward evening. M. de Callieres, Lt. 
 General, led the advanced guard, composed of three hundred Christian 
 Indians on the right, commanded by M. de Sainte Hilene. The pagan 
 savages on the left with three companies 100 Ottawas, 800 Poux, 100 
 Chaouanons or Illinois, and 50 Hurons commanded by the interpreters, 
 Nicholas Perrot, Micheloque and Penan, with the runners and volun 
 teers in the centre, making from eight to nine hundred men. At some 
 distance after the advanced guard, came the main body of four battal 
 ions of regulars and four of militia. M. the Marquis was at the head 
 of the regular troops, and M. Dugue of the militia. 
 
 " The march was a little hurried; the wearied troops were dying of 
 thirst ; the day was hot. The two bodies found themselves too distant 
 
92 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 It occupied a beautiful, broad swell of land, not commanded 
 by any adjacent heights. Upon the west side of the lines is a 
 fine, copious spring ; for which the Indians had constructed a 
 large basin of loose stones. The form and dimensions of the 
 work are given in the accompanying plan. Upon a little ele 
 vation to the left, as also in the forest to the northward, are 
 
 from each other. The scouts, too, were deceived ; for having come to the 
 deserts (barrens or plains) of Gaensara, (Victor,) they found five or six 
 women who were going round in the fields. This was a lure which the 
 Iroquois held out to the French to make them believe that they were 
 all in their village. In fact, this was the cause of the hasty march of 
 the Marquis, who wished to surround the town before their leaving it. 
 But the principal cause of all that happened was that Garistatsi and 
 Gannagenroguen Agniers (Mohawks) stole from the barque in the night, 
 and went to the Tsonnontouans and told them our number, our plan, 
 and above all, that the savages carried on their heads red head-dresses. 
 
 " Thereupon all the warriors took off their breech-clothes in order to 
 pass for the Ottawas, who do not wear them, and made them into head 
 dresses, which was of service in enabling them to pass for our allies. 
 Finally the women and old men, loaded with what they had of value, 
 fled to Oniongouen (Cayuga). All the warriors, to the number of eight 
 hundred, having burned their village, resolved to prepare an ambuscade. 
 
 " The territory of Gaensara is very hilly. The village is upon a high 
 hill, which is mounted by three little hills or terraces ; at the foot is a 
 valley, and opposite some other hills, between which passes a large 
 brook overhung with woods, descending and rapid, Avhich in the valley 
 makes a little marsh, covered with alders. This is the place which 
 they selected for their ambuscade. They divided themselves, posted 
 three hundred men along the falling brook between two hills, in a great 
 thicket of beech trees, and 500 at the bottom of these hills in the marsh 
 and among the alders, with the idea that the first ambuscade of three 
 hundred men should let the army pass and then attack them in the rear, 
 which would force it to fall into the second ambuscade which was con 
 cealed at the bottom of the hills in the marsh. They deceived them 
 selves, nevertheless ; for as the advanced guard which M. de Callieres 
 cammanded was very distant from the body under the command of the 
 Marquis, they believed that it was the entire army. Accordingly as 
 the advanced guard passed near the thicket of beeches, after making a 
 horrible whoop (sakaqua), they fired a volley. 
 
 "It is inevitably very disadvantageous to be taken by surprise and 
 
PALISADED INCLOSURES. 93 
 
 extensive cemeteries. Many articles of comparatively late date 
 are found in the graves. The area of the work was about ten 
 acres. 
 
 Three miles to the eastward formerly existed the traces of 
 a work represented to have been octangular in shape, and of 
 considerable size. It has been wholly obliterated. 
 
 fall into an ambush. The Ottawas and the heathen Indians all fled ; 
 they were at the left of the French advanced guard composed of the three 
 companies of Du Luth, La Durantaj r e and Tonti, which they left exposed. 
 The Christian Indians of the Mountain and the Sault, and the Abe- 
 naquis held fast and gave two volleys. 
 
 " M. the Marquis advanced with the main body, composed of the 
 Royal troops, to occupy the height of the hill where there was a little 
 fort of pickets ; but the terror and disorder of the surprise were such 
 that there was only M. de Valrenne who distinguished himself there, 
 and M. Dugue, who, bringing up the rear-guard, rallied the battalion of 
 Berthier which was in flight, and being at the head of that of Montreal, 
 fired two hundred shots. M. the Marquis en chemise, sword in hand, 
 drew up the main body in battle order and beat the drums at a time 
 that scarcely any one was to be seen. This frightened the three hun 
 dred Tsonnontouans of the ambuscade, who fled from above toward 
 the 500 who were ambushed below. The fear that all the world was 
 upon them, made them fly with so much precipitation that they left 
 their blankets in a heap and nothing more was seen of them. 
 
 " A council was held ; it was resolved, as it was late, to sleep on 
 the field of battle for fear of another surprise. On going into the place 
 of the ambuscade, 14 Iroquois were found dead or dying. Their heads 
 were cut off and brought into camp. One of those still alive said that 
 there were 800 of them 300 above and 500 below and that the Onion- 
 gouens (Cayugas) were to come the next day, which was the reason 
 that they stayed where they were. There were found at several places, 
 during the succeeding days, provisions and some other dead savages or 
 if not dead our men killed them. 
 
 "For our loss. Father Angelran, a celebrated Missionary to the 
 Ottawas, was shot through the thighs ; among the French, Nantara, 
 Filliatro and others were killed. 
 
 " Among our savages, were slain Tegaretouan Le Soleil, of the 
 mountain, a brave Christian in every respect ; Oyernatariben, La Cen- 
 dre Chaud (Hot Ashes), of the Sault. Ooniagon, Le Ciel des Tionnonta- 
 tes, Huron. Three wounded savages and many Frenchmen, who suffered 
 
94 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 In Queen's county there were, some years ago, traces of abo 
 riginal works, which seem to have differed very slightly from a 
 portion of those just noticed. They are thus described by 
 Judge Samuel Jones, in a notice of the local history of Oyster 
 Bay, written in 1812: 
 
 " When this part of Long Island was first settled by the 
 Europeans, they found two fortifications in the neighborhood 
 of Oyster Bay, upon a neck of land ever since called, from that 
 circumstance, ' Fort Neck.' One of them, the remains of 
 which are very conspicuous, is on the southernmost point of 
 land on the neck adjoining the Salt Meadow. It is nearly, if 
 not exactly, a square ; each side of which is about one hundred 
 feet in length. The breastwork or parapet is of earth ; and 
 there is a ditch on the outside, which appears to have been 
 about six feet wide. The other was on the southernmost point 
 
 a great deal, were brought in, borne upon litters by our men, who 
 relieved each other several times each day. 
 
 " On the morrow we marched in battle order, watching for an attack. 
 We descended the hill by a little sloping valley or gorge, through which 
 ran a brook bordered with thick bushes, and which discharges itself at 
 the foot of the hill in a marsh full of deep mud, but planted with alders 
 so thick that one could scarcely see. There it was that they had stationed 
 their two ambuscades, and where perhaps we would have been defeated, 
 if they had not mistaken our advanced guard for the whole army, and 
 been so hasty in firing. The Marquis acted very prudently in not pur 
 suing them, for it \vas a trick of the Iroquois to draw us into a greater 
 ambuscade. The marsh, which is about twenty acres (arpens) in extent, 
 being passed, we found about two or three hundred wretched blankets, 
 several miserable guns, and began to perceive the famous Babylon of 
 the Tsonnontouans, a city or village of bark, situate at the top of a 
 mountain of earth, to which one rises by three terraces (hills). It 
 appeared to us, from a distance, to be crowned with round towers, but 
 these were only large chests (drums) of bark about four feet in length, set 
 the one in the other, some five feet in diameter, in which they keep their 
 Indian corn. The village had been burnt by themselves ; it was now 
 eight days since. We found nothing entire in the town except the town 
 cemetery and the graves. It was filled with snakes and animals, a great 
 mask with teeth and eyes of brass, and a bear-skin with which they 
 
PALISADED INCLOSURES. 95 
 
 of the Salt Meadow, adjoining the bay, and consisted of pali 
 sades set in the ground. The tide has worn away the meadow 
 where the fort stood, and the place is now part of the bay and 
 covered with water ; but my father has often told me that 
 within his memory part of the palisades were still standing. 
 In the bay, between the Salt Meadow and the beach, are two 
 islands of marsh, called Squaw Islands ; and the uniform tra 
 dition among the Indians is, that the forts were erected by 
 their ancestors for defence against their enemies, and that upon 
 the approach of a foe, they sent their women and children to 
 these islands, which were in consequence called Squaw Isl 
 ands."* 
 
 Examples of this class of aboriginal remains might be greatly 
 multiplied. Those, however, which have already been pre 
 sented, will serve sufficiently to illustrate their character. In 
 
 juggle in their cabins. There were in the four corners great boxes of 
 grain which they had not burnt. Thej r had, outside this post, their 
 Indian corn in a picket fort at the top of a little mountain, steep (or cut 
 down, scarped) on all sides, where it was knee high, throughout the fort. 
 
 " The Tsonnontouans have four large villages, which they change 
 every ten years, in order to bring themselves near the woods and to 
 permit them to grow up again. They call them Gaensara, Tohaiton, 
 which are the two larger, Onnontague, Onnenaba, which are smaller. 
 In the last dwells Ganonketahoui, the principal chief. We cut the 
 standing grain, already ripe enough to eat, and burned the old. It was 
 estimated that we burnt one hundred thousand minots of old grain, and 
 a hundred and fifty thousand minots of that standing in the field, besides 
 the beans, and the hogs that we killed. Sixty persons died of wounds 
 received in the battle, and a multitude perished of want; many fled 
 beyond the great mountains of Onnontague, which separate them from 
 Virginia, and went to dwell in the country of the Adastoez ; the greater 
 part of the captives dispersed, and since that time the Tsonnontouanne 
 nation, which counted ten thousand souls in all, has been reduced to 
 half that number. From here, against the expectations of the Indians, 
 who believed that we were going to Cayuga, Onondaga and the other 
 Iroquois cantons, we went to establish a fort at Niagara, where we 
 arrived after three days' journey." 
 
 * Coll. N. Y. Hist. Soc., Vol. III., p. 338. 
 
96 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 all are found relics corresponding in every particular with those 
 discovered within the walls of the earth-works described in the 
 preceding chapter, but usually with the addition of articles of 
 later date and known European origin. This circumstance is 
 not without its importance in estimating the probable depend 
 ence between the two classes of remains. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 
 
 VARIOUS references to mounds or tumuli, resembling those 
 found in the Valley of the Mississippi, have been made in the 
 preceding pages. These mounds are far from numerous, and 
 hardly deserve a separate notice. It is, nevertheless, an inter 
 esting fact to know that isolated examples occur, in situations 
 where it is clear no dependence exists between them and the 
 grand system of earth-works of the Western States. It serves 
 to sustain the conclusion that the savage Indian tribes occa 
 sionally constructed mounds ; which are, however, rather to be 
 considered as accidents than the results of a general practice. 
 The purposes of the mounds of New York, so far as can be de 
 termined, seem uniformly to have been those of sepulture. 
 They generally occur upon commanding or remarkable posi 
 tions. Most of them have been excavated, under the impulse 
 of an idle curiosity, or have had their contents scattered by 
 " money-diggers," a ghostly race, of which, singularly enough, 
 even at this day, representatives may be found in almost every 
 village. I was fortunate enough to discover one upon Tona- 
 wanda Island, in Niagara River, which had escaped their mid 
 night attentions. It was originally about fifteen feet in height. 
 At the base appeared to have been a circle of stones, perhaps 
 ten feet in diameter, within which were several small heaps of 
 bones, each comprising three or four skeletons. The bones are 
 of individuals of all ages, and had evidently been deposited 
 after the removal of the flesh. Traces of fire were to be dis 
 covered upon the stones. Some chippings of flint and broken 
 arrow-points, as also some fragments of deer's horns, which ap- 
 5 
 
98 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 peared to have been worked into form, were found among the 
 bones. The skulls had been crushed by the superincumbent 
 earth. 
 
 The mounds which formerly existed in Erie, Genesee, Mon 
 roe, Livingston, St. Lawrence, Oswego, Chenango, and Dela 
 ware counties, all appear to have contained human bones, in 
 greater or less quantities, deposited promiscuously, and em 
 bracing the skeletons of individuals of all ages and both sexes. 
 They, probably, all owe their origin to a practice common to 
 many of the North American tribes, of collecting together, at 
 fixed intervals, the bones of their dead, and finally depositing 
 them with many and solemn ceremonies. They were some 
 times heaped together so as to constitute mounds ; at others, 
 placed in pits or trenches dug in the earth ; and it is probable 
 they were in some instances buried in separate graves, placed in 
 long ranges, or deposited in caverns, either promiscuously or 
 with regularity. 
 
 The period when this second burial took place occurred at 
 different intervals among the different tribes, but was univer 
 sally denominated the " Festival of the Dead." Bartram. 
 speaking of the burial customs of the Floridian Indians, says : 
 " After the bone-house is full, a general solemn funeral takes 
 place. The nearest kindred and friends of the deceased, on a 
 day appointed, repair to the bone-house, take up the respective 
 coffins, and, following one another in the order of seniority, the 
 nearest relations and connections attending their respective 
 corpses, and the multitude succeeding them, singing and la 
 menting alternately, slowly proceed to the place of general 
 interment, when they place the coffins in order, forming a pyra 
 mid. Lastly, they cover all over with earth, which raises a 
 conical hill or mount. They then return to town in order of 
 solemn procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is 
 called the ' Feast of the Dead.' "* The author here quoted 
 
 * Travels, p. 514. 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 99 
 
 adds, in a note, that it was the opinion of some ingenious men 
 with whom he had conversed, " that all those artificial pyra 
 midal hills, usually called ' Indian Mounts,' were raised on 
 such occasions, and are generally sepulchres ;" from which 
 opinion he takes occasion to dissent. There is no doubt a 
 wide difference between the mounds thus formed and the great 
 bulk of those connected with the vast ancient inclosures of the 
 Western States. 
 
 The large cemeteries which have been discovered in Ten 
 nessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio, seem to have resulted 
 from a similar practice. In these the skeletons were generally 
 packed in rude coffins composed of flat stones, placed in ranges 
 of great extent. The circumstance that many of these coffins 
 were not more than two or three feet in length, gave rise to 
 the notion of the former existence here of a pigmy race. The 
 discovery of iron and some articles of European origin in one 
 of these cemeteries, in the vicinity of Augusta, Kentucky, shows 
 that this mode of burial existed at a late period among the 
 Indians in that direction. 
 
 The "bone pits" which occur in some parts of Western 
 New York, Canada, Michigan, etc., have unquestionably a cor 
 responding origin. Several of these have been described in a 
 previous chapter. They are of various sizes, but usually con 
 tain a large number of skeletons. In a few instances the bones 
 appear to have been arranged with some degree of regularity. 
 
 One of these pits discovered some years ago, in the town of 
 Cambria, Niagara county, was estimated to contain the bones 
 of several thousand individuals.* Another which I visited in 
 
 * This locality was visited and examined by Mr. 0. Turner, of Buffalo, 
 in 1823. The account of this gentleman is published in his history of 
 the " Holland Purchase," p. 27, and is as follows : 
 
 " The location commands a view of Lake Ontario and the surrounding 
 country. An area of six acres of level land seems to have been occu 
 pied ; fronting which, upon the circular verge of the mountain, were the 
 distinct remains of a wall. Nearly in the centre of the area was a de- 
 
100 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 the town of Clarence. Erie county, contained not less than four 
 hundred skeletons. A deposit of bones comprising a large 
 number of skeletons was found, not long since, in making some 
 excavations in the town of Black Rock, situated on Niagara 
 River, in Erie county. They were arranged in a circle, with 
 their heads radiating from a large copper kettle, which had 
 been placed in the centre, and filled with bones. Various im 
 plements both of modern and remote date had been placed 
 beside the skeletons. 
 
 In Canada similar deposits are frequent. Accounts of their 
 discovery and character have appeared in various English pub 
 lications, among which may be named the " British Colonial 
 Newspaper," of September 24th, 1847, and the "Edinburgh 
 New Philosophical Journal," for July, 1848. From a commu 
 nication in the latter, by Edward "W. Bawtree, M.D., the sub 
 joined interesting facts are derived. 
 
 A quantity of human bones was found in one spot, in 1846, 
 near Barrie, and also a pit containing human bones near St. 
 Vincent's. Great numbers were found in the latter, with several 
 copper and brass kettles, and various trinkets and ornaments 
 in common use among the Indians. This discovery led to the 
 examination of a similar pit, about seven miles from Penetan- 
 queshene, in the township of Giny. " This pit was accident 
 ally noticed by a Canadian while making sugar in the neigh 
 borhood. He was struck by its appearance and the peculiar 
 
 pository of the dead. It was a pit excavated to the depth of four or 
 five feet, filled with human bones, over which were piles of sandstone. 
 Hundreds seem to have been thrown in promiscuously, of both sexes 
 and all ages. Numerous barbs or arrow-points were found among the 
 bones and in the vicinity. It has been conjectured that this had been 
 the scene of some sanguinary battle, and that these are the bones of the 
 slain. A tree, standing directly over the spot, had been cut down, upon 
 the stump of which could be counted 230 concentric circles of growth. 
 Rude fragments of pottery, pieces of copper, and iron instruments of 
 rude workmanship, had been ploughed up within the area ; also charred 
 wood, corn, and cobs." 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 101 
 
 sound produced at the bottom by stamping there ; and, in turn 
 ing up earth to a little depth, was surprised to find a quan 
 tity of human bones. It was more accurately examined in 
 September. 1847, and found to contain, besides a great number 
 of human skeletons, of both sexes and all ages, twenty-six cop 
 per and brass kettles and boilers ; three large conch-shejls ; 
 pieces of beaver-skin in tolerable preservation ; a fragment of 
 a pipe ; a large iron ax, evidently of French manufacture ; 
 some human hair (that of a woman) ; a copper bracelet ; and a 
 quantity of flat auricular beads, perforated through the centre. 
 
 " The form of the pit is circular, with an elevated margin ; 
 it is about fifteen feet in diameter, and before it was opened 
 was probably nine feet deep from the level of its margin to its 
 centre and bottom ; it was, in one word, funnel-shaped. It is 
 situated on the top of a gentle rise, with a shallow ravine on 
 the east side, through which, at certain seasons, runs a small 
 stream. The soil is light, free from stones, and dry. A small 
 iron-wood tree, about two inches in diameter, is growing in the 
 centre of the pit. 
 
 " The kettles in the pit were found ranged at the bottom, 
 resting on pieces of bark, and filled with bones. They had 
 evidently been covered with beaver-skins. The shells and the 
 ax were found in the intervals be 
 tween the kettles. The beads were 
 in the kettles among the bones, gen 
 erally in bunches or strings. 
 
 " The kettles, of which Fig. 9 is 
 an example, resemble those in use at 
 the present day, and appear to be 
 formed of sheet copper, the rim be- FIG. 9. 
 
 ing beaten out so as to cover an iron band which passes around 
 the mouth of the vessel. The iron handle, by which they were 
 suspended, hooks into eyes attached to the band above men 
 tioned. The smallest holds about six gallons ; the largest, not 
 far from sixteen gallons. The copper is generally very well 
 

 102 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 preserved ; the iron, however, is much corroded. Two of the 
 kettles were of brass. 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 " The largest of the conch-shells, Fig. 10, weighs three pounds 
 and a quarter, and measures fourteen inches in its longest dia 
 meter. Its outer surface has lost its polish, and is quite honey 
 combed by age and decomposition ; the inside still retains its 
 smooth, lamellated surface. It has lost its color, and appears 
 like chalk. A piece had been cut from its base, probably 
 for making the beads that were found in it.* From the base 
 of the columella of the smallest shell a piece 
 had been cut, evidently for the purpose of 
 manufacturing beads. The extreme point 
 of the base of each shell had a perforation 
 through it. 
 
 "The ax, Fig. 11, is of nearly the same 
 model with the tomahawk now in use among 
 the Chippeway Indians, though very much 
 larger, measuring eleven inches in length 
 and six inches and a half along its cutting 
 edge. Numbers of these have been found 
 in the neighborhood on newly cleared land. 
 
 " The pipe is imperfect. It is made of 
 
 * Dr. Bern W. Budd, of New York, states that this shell, the pyrula 
 perversa, abounds in the Gulf of Mexico and particularly in Mobile Bay. 
 It has also been found by the officers of the U. S. Coast Survey as far 
 north as Cape Fear, in North Carolina. 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS. ETC. 103 
 
 the earthenware of which so many specimens are found in the 
 neighborhood, in the form of vessels and pipes. The spots 
 where the manufacture of these articles was carried on are still 
 to be seen in some places. 
 
 " The beads are formed of a white, chalky substance, varying 
 in degree of density and hardness ; they are accurately circular, 
 with a circular perforation in the centre ; of different sizes, 
 from a quarter to half an inch, or rather more, in diameter ; 
 but nearly all of the same thickness, not quite the eighth of an 
 inch. They may be compared to a peppermint lozenge with a 
 hole through the centre. They were found in bunches or 
 strings, and a good many were still closely strung on a fibrous, 
 woody substance. The bracelet is a simple band of copper, an 
 inch and a half broad, closely fitting the wrist. The hair is 
 long, evidently that of a woman, and quite fresh in appearance. 
 
 " Another pit, about two miles from that just noticed, was 
 also examined in September. It is considerably smaller, being 
 not more than nine feet in diameter, by about the same original 
 depth. It is situated on rising ground, in a light, sandy soil, 
 and there is nothing remarkable in its position. A beech tree, 
 six inches thick, grew from its centre. It contained about as 
 many skeletons as the other pit, but had no kettles in it. The 
 bones were of individuals of both sexes, and of all ages. Among 
 them were a few foetal bones. Many of the skulls bore marks 
 of violence, leading to the belief that they were broken before 
 burial. One was pierced by a round hole, like that produced 
 by a musket -ball. A single piece of a brass vessel was found in 
 the pit ; it had been packed in furs. A large number of shell 
 beads, of various sizes, were also ^ found here. Besides these, 
 there were some cylindrical pieces of earthenware and porcelain 
 or glass tubes, from an inch to a quarter of an inch in diameter, 
 and from a quarter to two inches long.* The former had the 
 
 * These were clearly the European imitations of the much-prized 
 Indian wampum. 
 
104 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 appearance of red and white tobacco-pipes, worn away by fric 
 tion, the latter of red and white glass. A hexagonal body, with 
 flat ends, about an inch and a half in diameter, and an inch 
 thick, was also found. It was composed of some kind of porce 
 lain, of hard texture, nearly vitreous, and much variegated in 
 color, with alternate layers of red, blue, and white. It was 
 perforated through the centre. 
 
 " The third of these pits was examined in November, 1847. 
 It is situated in the township of Oro, on elevated ground. The 
 soil is a light, sandy loam. It measures about fifteen feet in 
 diameter, has the distinctly defined elevated ring, but the centre 
 less depressed than in those before examined, which may have 
 resulted from the greater bulk of its contents. On its margin 
 grew formerly a large pine, the roots of which had penetrated 
 through the pit in every direction. The bones, which were of 
 all sizes, were scarcely covered with earth. The skeletons 
 amounted to several hundreds in number, and were well pre 
 served. On some, pieces of tendon still remained, and the 
 joints of the small bones in some cases were unseparated. Some 
 of the skulls bore marks of violence. 
 
 " As in the first noticed pit, so in this, were found twenty-six 
 kettles four of brass and the rest of copper one conch-shell, 
 one iron ax, and a number of the flat perforated shell beads. 
 The kettles were arranged in the form of a cross through the 
 centre of the pit, and in a row around the circumference. The 
 points of this cross seem to have corresponded with the cardinal 
 points of the compass. All except two of the kettles were 
 placed with their mouths downward. The shell was found un 
 der one of the kettles, which had been packed with beaver-skins 
 and bark. The kettles were very well preserved, but had all 
 been rendered useless by blows from a tomahawk. The holes 
 were broken in the bases of the vessels. Should any doubt 
 exist as to the purposes of these pits, the fact that the kettles 
 were thus rendered unserviceable would tend to increase that 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 105 
 
 doubt, as it appears to have been a proceeding so very contrary 
 to the habits and ideas of the Indians in general.* 
 
 "A pipe was found in this pit, described as having been 
 composed of blue limestone or hard clay. On one side it had 
 a human face, the eyes of which were formed of white pearly 
 beads. An iron ax and sundry beads were also found here. 
 
 " A fourth pit was opened in December, 1 847. It is situated 
 on a gentle slope, in the second concession west of the Pene- 
 tanqueshene road, in the township of Giny. In size it corre 
 sponds very nearly with the two first described, and probably 
 contained about the same number of skeletons. In it were 
 found sixteen conch-shells ; a stone and clay pipe ; a number 
 of copper bracelets and ear ornaments ; eleven beads of red 
 pipe-stone ; copper arrow-heads ; a cup of iron resembling an 
 old iron ladle ; beads of several kinds, and various fragments 
 of furs. The shells were arranged around the bottom of the 
 pit, not in a regular row, but in threes and fours ; the other 
 articles were found mixed with the bones. The bones were of 
 all sizes, and the skulls unin 
 jured except by time. The 
 accompanying sketch (Fig. 12) 
 will sufficiently indicate the 
 character of the pipes. The 
 arrow-heads, as they are sup 
 posed to have been, were simple 
 folds of sheet copper, resembling 
 a roughly-formed ferule to a FlG - 12> 
 
 walking-stick. Besides the flat circular beads, which were 
 found in great numbers, were a few cylindrical porcelain bead's, 
 etc. The red stone beads were five eighths of an inch broad, 
 
 * Dr. Bawtree is mistaken in supposing this practice uncommon. 
 The Oregon Indians invariably render useless every article deposited 
 with their dead, so as to remove any temptation to a desecration of the 
 grave which might otherwise exist. A similar practice prevailed among 
 the Floridian Indians. 
 
 5* 
 
106 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 and three eighths thick, with small holes at one end, uniting 
 with each other. 
 
 " There is reason to believe that the above constitute but a 
 very small proportion of the pits that may be found in this 
 neighborhood. The French Canadians, now that their attention 
 has been directed to the subject, say that they are of frequent 
 occurrence in the woods. But besides these larger and more 
 evident excavations, smaller ones of the same shape and appa 
 rent character are often met with. They are usually called 
 1 potato pits.' So far as they have been examined, they do not 
 contain deposits. Some appear to have been covered with bark 
 at the bottom. One was examined in which were found some 
 pieces of pottery and one or two human bones, mixed with stones 
 and black mould ; which seemed to strengthen the supposition 
 previously formed, that they were Indian graves from which 
 the bones had been removed for interment in the large pits. 
 
 " A fifth pit has also been examined. It occurs about eight 
 miles from Penetanqueshene, near the centre of the town of 
 Giny. Close by its side is another pit, which is not circular 
 but elongated, with a mound on each side. At the brow of 
 the hill, if it may be so called, and commencing about twenty 
 yards from the pits, there is the appearance of a long ditch 
 extending in a southwestern direction ; another ditch about 
 half the length of this meets it at right angles on the top of the 
 rising ground, and is continued a few yards beyond the point 
 of junction ; a third ditch intersects the short one, as shown in 
 the following plan. 
 
 ' The two first ditches form two sides of a parallelogram ; 
 but there is no sign of an inclosure at the other sides, where 
 the ground is low and nearly level. The long ditch is seventy- 
 five paces in length, the other half that length. The first ter 
 minates at a moderate-sized gum tree, the latter at the foot of 
 a large birch. These ditches appear to be a succession of small 
 pits or graves, and have an average depth of from one to two 
 feet. Excavation disclosed no bones. Upon the north side of 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 
 
 107 
 
 the shorter and upper ditch, several Indian graves were found, 
 not placed in any order, but scattered around at various dis- 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 tances apart. Three of these were examined and found to 
 contain human bones. In one was an entire skeleton. No 
 implements or ornaments accompanied the bones 
 
 " The bones in the large pits were covered with three or four 
 feet of earth, which is more than is usually found over them, 
 and the marginal ring was in consequence less apparent. It 
 contained very few relics besides the bones, which, from their 
 
108 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 decayed condition, seemed to indicate that burials here were 
 made at a very remote period." 
 
 In Isle Ronde, situated near the extremity of Lake Huron, 
 is a burial-place of the aborigines corresponding generally with 
 those just described. It was visited in 1843 by Mr. School- 
 craft, who states that the human remains appeared to have been 
 gathered from their original place of sepulture and finally de 
 posited here. The bones were all arranged longitudinally, 
 from north to south, in a wide grave or trench. There is upon 
 the same island an Indian cemetery of comparatively modern 
 date, in which the interments were made in the ordinary way. 
 Another similar burial-place was visited by Mr. Schoolcraft, in 
 the town of Hamilton, seventeen miles west of the head of 
 Lake Ontario. The burials had been made on a high, dry 
 ridge, in long trenches and rude vaults ; the bones being piled 
 upon each other longitudinally, as at Isle Ronde. The trenches 
 extend over the entire ridge ; and one of these examined by 
 Mr. Schoolcraft was estimated to include not less than fifteen 
 hundred square feet. Various remains of art. pipes, shells, 
 beads, etc., were found with the bones, and among them sev 
 eral brass kettles, in one of which were five infant skulls. 
 
 The origin of the various cemeteries above noticed admits 
 of no doubt. The same practice which Bartram described as 
 existing among the Floridians, and which we have reason to 
 believe prevailed among the Indians of Tennessee, Kentucky, 
 etc., also existed in a slightly modified form among the more 
 northern tribes. They, too, had their solemn " Festival of the 
 Dead," which is minutely described by Charlevoix, Brabeuf, 
 Creuxius, and other early writers. Says Charlevoix : " This 
 grand ceremony, the most curious and celebrated of all con 
 nected with the Indian religion, took place every eight years 
 among some of the tribes, every ten years among the Hurons 
 and the Iroquois. It was called the ' Fete des Morts] Festival 
 of the Dead, or i Feslin des Ames. 1 
 
 " It commenced by the appointment of a place where they 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC, 109 
 
 should meet. They then chose a president of the feast, whose 
 duty it was to arrange everything and send invitations to the 
 neighboring villages. The appointed day arrived, all the In 
 dians assembled and went in procession, two and two, to the 
 cemetery. Among some tribes of stationary habits, the ceme 
 tery was a regular burial-ground outside the village. Some 
 buried their dead at the foot of a tree, and others suspended 
 them on scaffolds to dry ; this last was a common proceeding 
 among them when absent from home on a hunting expedition, 
 so that on their return they might more conveniently carry 
 the body with them. 
 
 " Arrived at the cemetery, they proceeded to search for the 
 bodies ; they then waited for some time to consider in silence 
 a spectacle so capable of furnishing serious reflections. The 
 women first interrupted the silence by cries of lamentation, 
 which increased the feeling of grief with which each person 
 seemed overcome. They then used to take the bodies, arrange 
 the separate and dry bones, and place them in packets to carry 
 on their shoulders. If any of the bodies were not entirely de 
 composed, they separated the flesh, washed the bones, and 
 wrapped them in new beaver-skins. They then returned in 
 the same procession in which they came, and each deposited 
 his burden in his cabin. During the procession the women 
 continued their lamentations, and the men testified the same 
 marks of grief as on the death of the person whose bones they 
 bore. This was followed by a feast in each house, in honor of 
 the dead of the family. The succeeding days were considered 
 as public days, and were spent in dancing, games, and combats, 
 at which prizes were bestowed. From time to time they ut 
 tered certain cries, which were called ' les cris des aims? 
 
 u They made presents to strangers, and received presents 
 from them on behalf of the dead. These strangers sometimes 
 came a hundred and fifty leagues. They also took advantage 
 of these occasions to treat on public affairs or select a chief. 
 Everything passed with order, decency and moderation ; and 
 
110 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 every one seemed overcome with sentiments suitable to the oc 
 casion. Even the songs and dances expressed grief in some way. 
 After some days thus spent, all went in procession to a grand 
 council-room fitted for the occasion. They then suspended 
 the bones and bodies in the same state as they had taken them 
 from the cemetery, and placed there the presents intended for 
 the dead. If among the skeletons there happened to be one 
 of a chief, his successor gave a grand feast in his name. In 
 some cases the bodies were paraded from village to village, and 
 everywhere received with great demonstrations of grief and 
 tenderness, and everywhere presents were made to them. 
 They then took them to the spot designated as their final rest 
 ing-place. All their ceremonies were accompanied with music, 
 both instrumental and vocal, to which each marched in cadence. 
 
 " The last and common place of burial was a large pit, which 
 was lined with the finest skins and anything which they con 
 sidered valuable. The presents destined for the dead were 
 placed on one side ; and when the procession arrived, each 
 family arranged itself on a sort of scaffold around the pit ; and 
 as soon as the bodies were deposited, the women began again 
 to cry and lament. Then all the assistants descended into the 
 pit, and each person took a handful of earth, which he carefully 
 preserved, supposing it would serve to give them success in 
 their undertakings. The bodies and bones were arranged in 
 order, and covered with furs and bark, over which were placed 
 stones, wood and earth. Each person then returned to his 
 home, but the women used to go back from day to day with 
 some sagamatie (pounded parched corn)."* 
 
 We have, in the quotation from Bartram on page 98, the evi 
 dence, (not the most conclusive, it is true,) that some of the 
 mounds of the South were general cemeteries, and not of a very 
 high antiquity. 
 
 * Charlevoix, Vol. II., p. 194, ubi supra ; Creuxii Historia Canaden- 
 sis, p. 97. 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. Ill 
 
 In a letter dated Mt. Sylvan, Mississippi, August, 1847, Mr. 
 R. Morris presents the following facts respecting the mounds 
 of that region. A mound which I opened last summer, twelve 
 miles southeast from this place, had in it not less than fifty full 
 skeletons, all pretty near the surface. They were packed with 
 out order, with layers of pounded clay between them. Those 
 nearest the top were black and quite fresh, but lower down 
 they were greatly decayed. No relics accompanied them, al 
 though in the graves where the later races buried their dead, 
 are found many ornaments, utensils and weapons. 
 
 " A few miles from Panola, there is a mound quite full of 
 human bones. Hundreds may be thrown out with a sharpened 
 cane. Another mound, about twelve miles north of the place 
 just named, was opened a year or two since. In the centre 
 was found a structure like a cistern, nearly round, four feet 
 across, and filled with soil. This being removed, an earthen 
 vessel of singular form and material was taken out." 
 
 Mounds designed as general cemeteries, if indeed there be any 
 in the Western States, are certainly few in number, and of 
 modern date. One, containing many skeletons, disposed in 
 layers, formerly existed in Belmont county, Ohio. Whether it 
 was secondarily appropriated by the Indians or built by them, 
 it is not presumed to say ; the remains found in it were indu 
 bitably of the recent tribes and of late deposit. 
 
 The tumulus examined by Mr. Jefferson on the low grounds 
 of the Ravenna River, and described in his " Notes on Virgi 
 nia," is attributed by him to the recent tribes of Indians, by 
 whom it was probably built. The stream on which it occurs is 
 one of the lower branches of the James River, which empties 
 into the Atlantic. We have no satisfactory evidence that the 
 race of the mounds passed over the Alleghanies, though they 
 seem to have turned the flank of that range a little upon the 
 north and on the south. The existence of a few tumuli to the 
 east of these mountains, unless in connection with other and 
 extensive works, such as seem to have marked every step of the 
 
112 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 progress of that race, is .therefore of little importance, and not 
 at all conclusive upon this point ; especially as it will hardly be 
 denied that the existing races of Indians did and still do occa 
 sionally construct mounds of small size. This mound was esti 
 mated by Mr. Jefferson to contain the remains of a thousand 
 individuals, a portion of which, particularly toward the surface, 
 were placed without order, while the remainder seemed to have 
 been deposited with a certain degree of regularity. This is 
 certainly a very large estimate of the contents of a barrow but 
 forty feet base by seven feet in height. It will not be out of 
 place to remark here, that by the unpracticed observer, the 
 bones of a hundred skeletons placed together would probably 
 be mistaken for those of several hundred or a thousand. 
 
 We have, it is true, but very few accounts of the construction 
 of mounds by the existing tribes of Indians. Lewis and Clark 
 noticed, in their travels west of the Mississippi river, a spot 
 " where one of the great chiefs of the Mahas had been interred. 
 He was buried on a hill, and a mound twelve feet in diameter 
 and six feet in height erected over him."* Beck mentions a 
 large mound on the Osage river, which had been erected within 
 the last thirty or forty years, by the sages, in honor of one 
 of their dead chiefs, f Mention is made in the documents 
 
 * Exp., vol. I., p. 43. " Blackbird (Wash-ing-gah-sahba), chief of the 
 Omahaws, or Mahas, died in 1800, and was interred in a sitting posture 
 on the back of his favorite horse, upon the summit of a high bluff of 
 the Missouri, ' that he might see the white people ascend the river to 
 trade with his nation.' A mound was raised over him, on which food 
 was regularly placed for many years after ; but this has been discontin 
 ued, and the flag-staff which crowned it has been removed." James 
 Exp., vol. I., p. 204. 
 
 t Gaz. of Mo., p. 308; James' Exp., vol. II., p. 34. This is probably 
 the same mound referred to by Mr. Sibley, who derived his information 
 from a chief of the Osages. " He stated that the mound was built, when 
 he was a boy, over the body of a chief, called Jean Defoe by the French, 
 who unexpectedly died while his warriors were absent on a hunting 
 expedition. Upon their return they heaped a mound over his remains, 
 enlarging it at intervals for a long period, until it reached its present 
 height." Featherstonhaugh' 's Trav., p. 70. 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 113 
 
 accompanying the President's message for 1806, of a "mound 
 of considerable size," erected by the Natchez Indians, near 
 Nachitoches, when they were expelled from Louisiana in 1728. 
 They are also said to have fortified themselves near this place. 
 Mr. Catlin observed a conical mound, ten feet in height, at the 
 celebrated pipe-stone quarries of the Cotcau des Prairies, which 
 had been erected over the body of a young chief of the Sioux 
 tribe, who had been accidentally killed on the spot.* James 
 also presents, upon what he deems good authority, an account 
 of the discovery by a hunting party, in 1816, on the banks of 
 the Le Mine river in Missouri, of a newly-made mound ; which, 
 when opened, disclosed the body of a white officer, clothed in 
 regimentals, placed in a sitting posture on a mat, and surrounded 
 by a rude inclosure of logs, twelve feet long, three wide and 
 four high. He had evidently met a violent death, and had 
 been scalped. f To what nation he belonged, and by whom the 
 mound was erected, is unknown. The Mandans sometimes 
 constructed little mounds of earth, not however for burial. 
 They were connected, in some mysterious way, with their cere 
 monies for the dead. " Their dead," says Catlin, " are placed, 
 closely enveloped in skins, upon scaffoldings, above the reach 
 of wild animals. When the scaffolds decay and fall to the 
 ground, the nearest relatives bury the bones excepting the 
 skull. The skulls are arranged in circles of a hundred or 
 more, on the prairies, with their faces all looking to the centre. 
 In the centre of each ring is erected a little mound, three feet 
 high, on which are placed two buffalo skulls, a male and female, 
 and in the centre is reared a medicine pole, supporting many 
 curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they suppose 
 to have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred 
 arrangement. Here the relatives of the dead resort to hold 
 converse with them, bringing a dish of food, which is set before 
 
 *. N. A. Indians, vol. II. p. 170. f Narrative, vol. I., p. 84. 
 
114 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 the skull at night, and taken away in the morning. Under 
 each skull is constantly kept a bunch of fresh wild sage."* 
 
 The Indians, it is well known, often heaped a pile of stones 
 over the graves of such of their tribe as met their death by 
 accident, or in the manner of whose death there was something 
 sufficiently peculiar to excite their superstition. Such was the 
 case, in one instance, in Scoharie county, on the Cherry Val 
 ley trail. But the construction of mounds, whether for pur 
 poses of burial or as monuments, except, perhaps, among some 
 of the Southern tribes, was far from common, and cannot be 
 regarded as a custom of general acceptance. The few which 
 they built were clearly, in most instances, the result of caprice, 
 or of circumstances ; and we are not justified in ascribing to 
 them more than a very trifling proportion of the numerous 
 tumuli which dot over the plains and valleys of the West, and 
 which in their numbers, and uniformity of structure and con 
 tents, give conclusive evidence that they were constructed for 
 specific purposes, in accordance with a well-recognized design, 
 and an established and prevailing custom. 
 
 The practice of depositing the property of the dead in the 
 tomb with them, (almost universal among the American Indians.) 
 is of the highest antiquity. " In all early ages," remarks an 
 erudite writer, " when the disengaged activity of man ever car 
 ries a keen and military edge with it, and his great employ 
 ment is necessarily war and the chase, the weapons of both 
 would naturally be deposited with the dead." We have a strik 
 ing passage of Scripture, which shows the custom to have. been 
 as general as the spirit of ambition or the profession of arms. 
 " They shall not lie down with the mighty which are gone down 
 to hell [the grave] with their weapons of war ; and they have 
 laid their swords under their heads." Josephus tells us, that 
 in David's sepulchre was deposited such a quantity of treasure, 
 that Hyrcanus, the Maccabean, took 3000 talents out of it, 
 
 * N. A. Indians, Vol. L, p. 90. 
 
 
MOUNDS, BONE-HEAPS, ETC. 115 
 
 about 1300 years after David's death, to get rid of Antiochus 
 then besieging Jerusalem. 
 
 Uniformity in the rites and ceremonies attending burial 
 must not, however, be regarded as necessarily implying connec 
 tions or relations between the nations exhibiting them, for 
 most, if not all of those which may be esteemed of importance, 
 had their origin in those primitive conceptions and notions 
 which are inherent in man, and are in no wise derivative. In 
 the universal recognition of a future existence, may be traced 
 the origin of the immolations and sacrifices made at the tombs 
 or on the pyres of the dead ; the wife and the faithful servant 
 sought to accompany their lord in his future life ; and a 
 numerous retinue was slain at the tomb of the Scythian King 
 and the Peruvian Inca, that they might appear in a future 
 state with a dignity and pomp becoming their earthly great 
 ness. The Mexican slew the techichi at the grave of the dead, 
 that his soul might have a companion in its journey along the 
 dreary, terror-infested pathway, which, according to their 
 superstitions, intervened between earth and the " blessed man 
 sions of the sun." So, too, was the faithful dog of the Indian 
 hunter placed beside him in the grave, that in the blissful 
 " hunting grounds of the West," he might " bear him com 
 pany." The warlike Scandinavian had his horse sacrificed on 
 his funeral pyre, and his weapons buried with him, so that, 
 full-armed and mounted, he might, with becoming state, 
 approach the halls of Odin. (Mallet, Chap, xii.) In the 
 almost universal belief that the soul of the dead, for a longer 
 or shorter period, lingered around the ashes from which it was 
 separated, we may discover the reason why food and offerings 
 were deposited at the grave ; why it was carefully preserved, 
 and why, at stated intervals, the surviving relatives of the 
 deceased decked it with flowers and performed games around 
 it. In some of these ceremonies it was believed the departed 
 spirit silently participated, and with all, it was supposed to be 
 pleased and gratified. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 
 
 MOST of the minor relics of art discovered in the State of 
 New York, are such as are known to have been common 
 among the Iroquois and other tribes which once occupied its 
 territories. The character of these is so well known as to ren 
 der unnecessary any detailed notice of the various articles 
 obtained in the course of the explorations here recorded. A 
 brief reference to the more remarkable specimens is therefore 
 all which will be attempted. 
 
 Upon the site of every Indian town, as also within all of the 
 ancient inclosures, fragments of pottery occur in great abun 
 dance. It is rare, however, that any entire vessels are recov 
 ered. Those which have been found, are for the most part 
 gourd-shaped, with round bottoms, and having little protuber 
 ances near the rim, or oftener a deep groove, whereby they 
 could be suspended. A few cases have been known in which 
 this form was modified, and the bottoms made sufficiently flat 
 to sustain the vessel in an upright position. Fragments found 
 in Jefferson county seem to indicate that occasionally the ves 
 sels were moulded in forms nearly square, but with rounded 
 angles. The usual size was from one to four quarts ; but some 
 must have contained not less than twelve or fourteen quarts. 
 In general there was no attempt at ornament ; but sometimes 
 the exteriors of the pots and vases were elaborately if not taste 
 fully ornamented with dots and lines, which seem to have been 
 formed in a very rude manner with a pointed stick or sharpened 
 bone. Bones which appear to have been adapted for this pur 
 pose are often found. After the commencement of European 
 intercourse, kettles and vessels of iron, copper, brass, and tin, 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 
 
 117 
 
 quickly superseded the productions of the primitiye potter, 
 whose art at once fell into disuse. Pipes and various articles 
 of clay, which may be denominated terra cottas, continued, 
 nevertheless, to be made. The pipes of native manufacture 
 were preferred, as they still are, to those of European or Amer 
 ican production. After the introduction of tools, and as soon 
 as the Indians became acquainted with foreign models, great 
 improvement was made in their manufacture. The following 
 examples will furnish very good illustrations of the forms of 
 the Indian pipe. 
 
 Fio. 14. 
 
 Fig. 14 was found within an inclosure in Jefferson county, 
 Plate IV., No. 4. It is engraved one half the size of the 
 original. It is of fine red clay, smoothly moulded, and two 
 serpents, rudely imitated, are represented coiling around the 
 bowl. Bushels of fragments of pipes have been found within 
 the same inclosure. Some appear to have been worked in the 
 form of the human head, others in representations of animals, 
 and others still in a variety of regular forms. 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
118 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 Fig. 15 was found within another in closure in the same 
 county. It differs from the first only in respect of size. 
 
 Fig. 16 was found on the site of an old Seneca town, in the 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 town of Livonia, Livingston county. It resembles the other in 
 shape, but is of darker color, and not so well burned. The 
 difference to be observed between it and the others may be 
 ascribed entirely to the difference in the clay composing it. 
 
 Fig. 1 7. This is a greatly reduced representation of an article 
 of stone found near Mount Morris, in Livingston county, and 
 now in the New York State Cabinet at Albany. It is composed 
 of steatite or " soap stone," and in shape corresponds generally 
 with the pipes of stone found in the mounds of the Mississippi 
 Valley. If intended for a pipe, which seems most likely, it 
 was never finished, as the cavity of the bowl is merely indicated. 
 One or two pipes of stone of very nearly the same shape have 
 been found in this vicinity, but in point of symmetry or finish 
 they are in no way comparable to those of the mounds. 
 
IMPLEMENTS. ORNAMENTS, ETC. 119 
 
 Some pipes of precisely the same material, and of identical 
 workmanship with those found in the ancient inclosures, have 
 been discovered in modern Indian graves, in Cayuga county. 
 One of these, in the form of a bird, and having eyes made of 
 silver inserted in the head, is now in possession of the author. 
 Various articles of European or American manufacture were 
 found in the same grave. 
 
 The most beautiful terra cotla which I found in the State, 
 and which in point of accuracy and delicacy of finish is unsur 
 passed by any similar article which I have seen of aboriginal 
 origin, is the head of a fox. of which Fig. 1 8 is a full-size 
 engraving. The engraving fails in conveying the spirit of the 
 
 FIG. IS. 
 
 original, which is composed of fine clay, slightly burned. It 
 seems to have been once attached to a body, or perhaps to a 
 vessel of some kind. It closely resembles some of the terra 
 cottas from the mounds of the West and Southwest. It was 
 found upon the site of an ancient inclosure in Jefferson county, 
 in the town of Ellisburgh, near the beautiful village of Pierre- 
 pont Manor. 
 
 Figs. 19 and 20 were found upon the site of an abandoned 
 Seneca village, in the town of Mendon, Monroe county. The 
 spot is now known as the " Ball Farm," and is remarkable for 
 the number and variety of its ancient relics. Vast quantities 
 of these have been removed from time to time. Some of the 
 
120 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 miniature representations of animals found here are remark 
 able for their accuracy. 
 
 
 Fio. 19. 
 
 The stone ax or hatchet 
 may be found from Cape 
 Horn to Baffin's Bay. Spe 
 cimens taken from the inter 
 vening localities can be dis 
 tinguished from each other 
 only by the difference of the 
 materials of which they are 
 composed. I have found 
 them in Nicaragua precisely 
 resembling those of New 
 York. Little, therefore, need 
 be said concerning them. 
 Fig. 21 was obtained in the 
 vicinity of an ancient work 
 on the Susquehanna River, 
 in Pennsylvania, near the 
 New York State line. It is 
 remarkable for its symme 
 try and size, and also for 
 the manner in which it is 
 hollowed upon the inner 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 
 
 121 
 
 side. This last-named feature is well indicated in the engrav 
 ing. 
 
 Figs. 22 and 23 present a front and reverse view of a very 
 fine stone ax, found in Livingston county, near Avon Springs. 
 
 FIG. 22. FIG. 23. 
 
 The material is of intense hardness, resembling porphyry. It 
 is. nevertheless, worked with mathematical accuracy, and highly 
 polished. The edge is very sharp. It is as fine a specimen 
 of the Indian stone ax as ever fell under my notice. 
 
 Fig. 24 is of a greenish-colored slate, 
 and resembles a kind of ornamental hatch 
 et, made of delicate material, which is 
 found at the South and West. It was 
 obtained near Springport, Cayuga coun 
 ty. For examples of similar articles, the 
 reader is referred to the first volume of 
 the Smithsonian Contributions to Know 
 ledge, p. 218. Fl - 24 - 
 
 One of the most interesting relics which has yet been dis 
 covered in the State, is an ax of cast copper, of which Fig. 25 
 6 
 
122 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 is a reduced engraving. The original is four inches long by 
 two and a half broad on the edge, and corresponds in shape 
 with some of those of wrought native copper, which have been 
 found in the mounds of Ohio. From the granulations of the 
 surface, it appears to have been cast in sand. There is no 
 evidence of its having been used for any 
 purpose. Its history, beyond that it was 
 ploughed up somewhere in the vicinity of 
 Auburn, Cayuga county, is unknown. No 
 opportunity has yet been afforded of analyz 
 ing any portion, so as to determine wheth 
 er it has an intermixture of other metals. 
 It appears to be pure copper. An inspec 
 tion serves to satisfy the inquirer that it is 
 of aboriginal origin ; but the questions when 
 and by whom made, are beyond our ability 
 to answer. There is no evidence that the 
 mound-builders understood the smelting of metals ; on the 
 contrary, there is every reason to believe that they obtained 
 their entire supply in a native state, and worked it cold. The 
 Portuguese chronicler of Soto's Expedition into Florida, men 
 tions copper hatchets, and rather vaguely refers to a " smelting 
 of copper," in a country which he did not visit, far to the 
 northward, called " Chisca." The Mexicans and Peruvians 
 made hatchets of copper alloyed with tin. It would seem that 
 this hatchet was obtained from that direction, or made by 
 some Indian artisan after intercourse with the whites had 
 instructed him in the art of working metals. At present it 
 is prudent to say that the discovery of this relic is an anom 
 alous fact, which investigators should only bear in mind, with 
 out venturing to make it the basis of deductions or inferences 
 of any kind. 
 
 Fig. 26 is an example of the iron ax introduced among 
 the Indians by the French. Thousands of these are found 
 in the western counties of the State. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 
 
 123 
 
 \ 
 
 Figs. 27, 28, and 29 are selected by the 
 
 author from the collection of relics made 
 
 in the progress of these explorations, from 
 
 their resemblance to relics of common oc 
 currence in the mounds of the Mississippi 
 
 Valley. Fig. 27 is almost identical in shape 
 
 and material with some of the articles from 
 
 the mounds, described on page 237 of the 
 first volume of the Smith 
 sonian Contributions. The 
 same may be observed of 
 Fig. 28. The material is 
 the green, variegated slate, of which so many 
 of the above-named relics are composed. 
 No. 27 was found near Scottsville, Wheat- 
 land township, Monroe county ; and No. 28, 
 near Springport, Cayuga county. Near this 
 
 FIG. 26. 
 
 FIG. 28 
 
 Fio. 27. 
 
124 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 place, also, was found the disk, Fig. 29. It is of green slate, 
 and corresponds entirely with those described on 
 page 221 of the same volume with the preceding. 
 
 FIG. 29. 
 
 Fig. 30 is the point of a fish-spear, made of the 
 ulna of the deer ; found in Livingston county. 
 Figs. 31 and 32 are of the 
 same material, and were used 
 as bodkins, or for working 
 clay ; found in Jefferson 
 county. 
 
 FIG. 30. 
 
 FIG. 32. 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 125 
 
 Besides these relics, quantities of beads of stone, bone, and 
 shell, ornaments of many kinds and of various materials, as also 
 implements of aboriginal, or European, or American fabric, are 
 found all over the State, but in more abundance in the western 
 counties. They are not of sufficient importance to merit a de 
 tailed notice, and are chiefly interesting as relics of a race fast 
 disappearing, and whose existence will soon be known to his 
 tory alone. It is to be hoped that, however insignificant they 
 may seem, they may be carefully preserved and treasured for 
 public inspection, in places or institutions designated for the 
 purpose.* 
 
 In the preceding pages, several places have been mentioned, 
 where it appears that various branches of aboriginal art were 
 specially carried on. Such was the case at the point opposite 
 Tonawanda island, on the banks of the Niagara River, where 
 
 * I am glad to have it in my power to say, that at the urgent sugges 
 tion of Mr. L. H. Morgan, of Rochester, sustained by the recommenda 
 tions of other citizens of the State, the Regents of the University of 
 New York have not only determined to establish a "Historical and 
 Antiquarian Collection," in connection with the State Cabinet of Natural 
 History, but have already made a very creditable beginning. "But 
 few remains of the skill and industry of our predecessors," says Mr. 
 Morgan, in his letters to the Regents, " have come down to us to illus 
 trate the era of Indian occupation. The low state of the arts which 
 existed among them, detracts from the interest with which their relics 
 would otherwise be invested. Such specimens of their arts as we discov 
 er are rude to the last degree, and bespeak a social condition of extreme 
 simplicity. But as illustrations of the state of the aborigines, and as 
 furnishing the unwritten history of their social existence, however 
 inconsiderable they may be in every ordinary sense, they should be 
 sought out and preserved. * * * The utmost efforts of a single 
 person would accumulate but a small cabinet. Numerous individuals 
 in the State have, however, small collections, which singly have little 
 interest, but which, if brought together, would become valuable, and 
 there is every reason to believe that most of these would be cheerfully 
 surrendered to a general cabinet." It is to be hoped that every citizen 
 of the State who may be possessed of relics of any kind, will take means 
 to place them in the State Collection. 
 
12(5 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 the great quantities of flint chippings show there was once a 
 kind of manufactory of arrow-heads. These seem to have been 
 made of the chert, so common among the limestone formations 
 of that region. At various places at the "West, are found the 
 quarries where the ancient inhabitants obtained the material 
 for the manufacture of their arrow and spear-points. Upon the 
 line of the calcareo-silicious deposit, extending through Licking 
 and Muskingum counties in Ohio, constituting what is called 
 "Flint Ridge," are numerous traces of Indian operations. The 
 material found here is admirably adapted for the purposes de 
 sired, and arrow-heads manufactured from it are to be found 
 in Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. " The compact 
 silicious material of which this ridge is made up," says Dr Hil- 
 dreth in the Geological Report of Ohio, "seems to have 
 attracted the notice of the aborigines, who have manufactured 
 it largely into arrow and spear-heads, if we may be allowed to 
 judge from the numerous circular excavations which have been 
 made in mining the rock, and the piles of chipped quartz lying 
 on the surface. How extensively it has been worked for these 
 purposes, may be imagined from the countless number of the pits; 
 experience having taught them that the rock recently dug from 
 the earth, could be split with more freedom than that which 
 had lain exposed to the weather. These excavations are found 
 the whole length of the outcrop, from Jackson to Muskingum, 
 but more abundantly at " Flint Ridge," where it is most com 
 pact and diversified with rich colors. To the present inhabit 
 ants it is valuable as furnishing a fine article for mill-stones." 
 
 Mr. J. W. Foster, in his report, alludes to the same locality 
 as follows : 
 
 " The stone is fine grained and compact. The aborigines 
 used it for spear and arrow-heads. They seem to have been 
 aware that it works more freely when freshly dug from the earth, 
 than after exposure to the air. They have therefore stripped 
 off the earth to the depth of eight or ten feet. Excavations of 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 
 
 127 
 
 this kind, occupying acres in extent, occur three miles west of 
 H. Lear's, on the ' Flint Ridge ' road." 
 
 This locality has a remarkable parallel in what are called 
 the " Pen Pits," in South Wiltshire, England. These cover 
 an area of several hundred acres, and are supposed to have been 
 dug in order to procure a variety of hard green-stone, (a quarry 
 of which underlies the plain,) for the construction of the ancient 
 Celtic querns or mill-stones, fragments of which, partially worked, 
 are found scattered about.* 
 
 Mr. Featherstonhaugh describes some ancient quarries of the 
 mineral, which he visited, about three miles from the Hot 
 Springs of Arkansas. 
 
 " Ascending a very lofty hill, composed entirely of this min 
 eral, [novaculite ?] we found several large pits, resembling in 
 verted cones, some of which were from twenty to thirty feet 
 deep and as many in diameter, the insides and bottoms of which 
 were covered with chips of this beautiful mineral, some white, 
 some carmine, and many quite opalescent. In and near these 
 pits, round and long pieces of hard green-stone which I had 
 seen in a place about eighteen miles distant -were scattered 
 about, but none of these too large for the hand. These were 
 undoubtedly the quarries from whence the Indians obtained 
 the materials for making their arrow-heads and spears. The 
 pieces of hard green-stone were the tools which the Indians 
 worked with, and the rough mineral, when procured, was taken 
 to their villages to be manufactured."! 
 
 Edwin James, the Naturalist of Long's expedition, mentions 
 an island in the Ohio, 23 miles below the rapids, called " Flint 
 Island," from the great quantities of fragments of that material 
 found upon it. He supposes it to have been a particular resort 
 
 * Hist. Anct. Wiltshire, vol. I., p. 35. 
 f Travels in America, p. 111. 
 
128 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 for the manufacture of spear and arrow-heads, by the abori 
 gines.* 
 
 The manufacture of pottery is the simplest of arts, and its 
 practice in different localities, affords no evidence whatever of 
 derivative character. It would naturally be suggested by the 
 impressions made in the moist clay or soil, by the hands or feet, 
 and would first be practiced where the proper material most 
 abounds, as in the valleys of great rivers. This suggestion is 
 corroborated, by our finding the earliest fictile establishments 
 in the neighborhood of rivers, more or less subject to periodical 
 inundation; the Babylonians, the Egyptians and the Etrurians 
 became potters from their vicinity to the Euphrates, the Nile 
 and the rivers of Northern Italy. In their shape, the vessels of 
 the primitive manufacturer would be most apt to take the form 
 of the natural models he might observe around him. The type 
 of the earliest and rudest productions, was the shell of a nut 
 or the rind of some of the pumpkin tribe ; and this to such an 
 extent, that those acquainted with the vegetable productions of 
 different countries, are generally able, at a glance, to identify 
 their productions in pottery. Those who have examined the col 
 lection in the Museum of Severs, will perceive that the distinc 
 tive characters of Asia, Africa and America, are marked on the 
 potteries of their less-civilized inhabitants. The second type 
 one that marks considerable progress is the female bust, with 
 sometimes an attempt to preserve its character as symbolic of 
 
 * Narrative, vol. L, p. 30. 
 
 " A hunter or warrior, it is true, expected to make his own arms or 
 implements, yet the manufacture of flint and hornstone into darts, and 
 spears, and arrow-heads, demanded too much skill and mechanical dex 
 terity, for the generality of the Indians to succeed in. According to the 
 Chippeway tradition, before the introduction of firearms, there was a 
 class of men among the northern tribes who were called Makers of Ar 
 row-heads. They selected proper stones, and devoted themselves to 
 this art, taking in exchange for their manufactures, the skins and flesh 
 of animals." Schooler aft. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 129 
 
 fecundity and abundance. This graceful type was carried to a 
 voluptuous excess by the Greeks. Other subordinate types of 
 form, suggested by eggs, shells, etc., might be noticed. Suffi 
 cient has been said, however, to enforce the remark made at 
 the commencement of this paragraph, and to show how unsafe 
 would be the attempt to deduce dependences or connections, 
 upon so narrow a basis as simple coincidences in the potteries 
 of detached nations. 
 
 It may be remarked, incidentally, that the degree of skill 
 exhibited in the pottery from the mounds of the West, could 
 only be the result of long practice. The hunter could not have 
 laid aside the bow, and produced works of so much symmetry 
 and so excellent finish. We are justified, therefore, in the be 
 lief, that the manufacture, in this department, devolved upon a 
 class of professional potters, or, at any rate, that it was in the 
 hands of persons, whose experience extended beyond the simple 
 supplying of their individual wants with works of this descrip 
 tion. 
 
 In all the various specimens of aboriginal pottery which have 
 fallen under notice, we find no evidence of the use of the pot 
 ters' wheel. Notwithstanding the regularity of figure and uni 
 formity of thickness which many of the specimens exhibit, it is 
 evident that they were all moulded by hands. 
 
 In the immediate vicinity of some of the salt springs, quan 
 tities of broken pottery are often found. This feature has been 
 particularly observed near the Illinois, Missouri, and Ohio 
 Salines. Breckenridge states, that, in clearing out the Saline 
 below St. Grenevieve, in Missouri, some years ago, "wagon-loads 
 of earthenware, some fragments bespeaking vessels as large as 
 a barrel," were found.* These remains have generally been 
 regarded as pertaining to the race of the mounds, on the 
 assumption that the more recent tribes were unacquainted with 
 the art of manufacturing salt, if they were not entirely ignorant 
 
 6* 
 
 * Views of Louisiana, p. 186. 
 
130 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 of its uses. This is a mistake. We have direct evidence that, 
 at the very earliest periods of European intercourse, they were 
 accustomed to manufacture that article. It is specially referred 
 to, and the process described by the unknown historian of De 
 Soto's expedition.* The Salines in Jackson county, Ohio, 
 (23 miles from Chillicothe,) exhibit proofs of having been 
 worked, not only in the presence of broken pottery, but by 
 excavations in the rock, in which the brine was collected. 
 These excavations, resembling "pot holes," are specially 
 remarkable at the ancient and noted " Scioto Saline," in the 
 county above-named. Dr. Hildreth describes them as follows. 
 " When the white hunters and traders came to this country, 
 it was visited by thousands of buffalo, deer, bears, and nearly all 
 the wild animals of the forest, who found the saline waters 
 agreeable to their tastes or needful for their health. So nu 
 merous and so constant were the animal visitors of these springs, 
 that, at certain seasons of the year, the country adjacent was 
 the most valuable and profitable hunting ground which the 
 Indians possessed. They were also in the habit of making 
 salt here from very remote times, as has been ascertained from 
 several of their white captives, who had visited them in company 
 with the Indians. The first attempt at its manufacture by the 
 whites, was after the close of the Indian war, in the year 1797. 
 At that time, and for several years after, the stumps of small 
 trees cut by the squaws, and the ashes, etc., of their fires, where 
 the salt water had been boiled, were plainly to be seen. The 
 Indian women, upon whom all the servile employments fell, 
 collected the salt water by cutting holes in the soft sandstone 
 in the bed of the creek, in the summer and autumn when the 
 water was low. These were generally not more than a foot or 
 two deep, and the same in width. Into these rude cavities the 
 salt water slowly collected, and was afterwards dipped out and 
 boiled into salt in their vessels. The hunters and first salt 
 
 * Hakluyt's Trans., pp. 736, 749, ubi supra. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 131 
 
 makers pursued the same course, only they sunk their excava 
 tions to the depth of six or eight feet, and finally to the depth 
 of twenty feet into the rock ."* 
 
 It will be seen that the Salines possessed peculiar attrac 
 tions for the modern tribes. The abundance of their relics, 
 therefore, in such localities is a matter of no surprise.! 
 
 * First Annual Report of Geolog. Surv. of Ohio, p. 57. 
 
 f The subjoined passages, from various authors, relating to the man 
 ufacture of pottery by the existing Indians, no doubt indicate, with 
 great exactness, the modes adopted by the ancient tribes. 
 
 " The earthenware is formed by the women, who not only form the 
 vessel, but dig and mix the clay. In this they are tolerable artists ; 
 they make kettles of an extraordinary size, pitchers with a small open 
 ing, gallon bottles with long necks, pots or pitchers, for their bear-oil, 
 which will hold forty pints lastly, large and small plates in the French 
 fashion." Du Pratz 1 Hist, of Louis., p. 360. 
 
 " In manufacturing their pottery for cooking and domestic purposes, 
 they collect tough clay, beat it into powder, temper it with water, and 
 then spread it over blocks of wood, which are formed into shapes to suit 
 their convenience or fancy. When sufficiently dried, they are removed 
 from the moulds, placed in proper situations and burned to a hardness 
 suitable to the intended uses. Another method practiced by them, is 
 to coat the inner surface of baskets of willow or rushes with clay to any 
 required thickness, and when dry to burn them as above described. In 
 this way they construct large, handsome, and tolerably durable ware ; 
 though, latterly, with such tribes as had much intercourse with the 
 whites, it is not much used, because of the substitution of metal ware 
 in their stead. 
 
 " When the vessels are large, as in the case for the manufacture of 
 sugar, they are suspended by grape-vines, which, when exposed to the 
 fire, are constantly kept covered with moist clay. Sometimes the rims 
 are made strong, and project a little inwardly, quite round the vessels, 
 so as to admit of their being sustained by flattened pieces of wood, slid 
 underneath these projections, and extending across the centres." Hun 
 ter's Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians, p. 289. 
 
 " They make earthen pots of very different sizes so as to contain 
 from two to ten gallons ; large pitchers to carry water, bowls, dishes, 
 platters, basins, and a prodigious number of other vessels of such anti 
 quated forms as would be tedious to describe, and impossible to name. 
 
132 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 Great numbers of beads, some of late and others of ancient 
 origin, are scattered all over the sites of Indian occupancy in 
 New York. These ornaments have predominated in every age, 
 and among every people, and still maintain their popularity 
 in the most refined communities one of the relics of the rude 
 state from which all people have, at some period, advanced. 
 The American nations, the hunter tribes no less than the con 
 solidated communities of the centre of the continent, were pro 
 fuse in their use of this species of ornament. The poor but 
 intrepid hunter of the bleak Narraganset was as proud of his 
 rude " braveries " of shell, patiently rubbed into the required 
 shape on the rocks, as the regal Aztec with his necklace of 
 pearls, relieved with gold and gems. The unknown builders 
 of Palenque and the other Palmyras of the tangled evergreen 
 forests of the south, have left engraven upon their sculptured 
 edifices and elaborate statues, the evidence of the importance 
 assigned to this class of ornaments in the list of preserved 
 decorations of their day. So, too, have the mound -builders 
 
 Their method of glazing them is, they place them over a large fire of 
 smoky pitch pine, which makes them smooth, black, and firm. Their 
 lands abound in proper clay for that use." Adair, p. 424. 
 
 " Their pots and boilers are made of clay, mixed with pounded sea- 
 shells, and burned so hard that they are black throughout." Loskiel, 
 p. 54. 
 
 " The earthen dishes are made by the Mandan women in great quan 
 tities, and modeled in a thousand forms and tastes. They are made 
 from a tough, black clay, and baked in kilns which are made for the 
 purpose, and are nearly equal in hardness to our own manufacture of 
 pottery, though they have not yet got the art of glazing. They make 
 them so strong and serviceable, however, that they hang them over the 
 fire as we do our iron kettles, and boil their meat in them with perfect 
 success. I have seen some few specimens of such manufacture dug up 
 from mounds and tombs in the southern and middle states, which were 
 looked upon as a great wonder ; when here, this novelty is at once done 
 away with, and the whole mystery; where women can be seen handling 
 them by hundreds, moulding them in fanciful forms, and passing them 
 through the kilns." Coin's N. A. Indians, vol. I., p. 116. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 133 
 
 left us beside the bones of their dead, and upon the ancient 
 altars of their religion, the evidence that they fully shared the 
 general taste. 
 
 One form of bead, the wampum, or seawant, peak,or roanok 
 of the North American Indians, not only constituted the most 
 common ornament of their persons, but subserved the purposes 
 of a currency, and figured in their operations of war and peace. 
 Like the quippos of Peru, the wampum was sometimes used to 
 commemorate or record events, and was also regarded as sacred. 
 " The strings and belts of wampum," says Loskiel, " are also docu 
 ments by which the Indians remember the chief articles of 
 treaties made either between themselves or the white people. 
 They refer to them as public records, carefully preserving them 
 for that purpose. At certain seasons they meet to study their 
 meaning, and to renew the ideas of which they were an em 
 blem and confirmation." It is said that the Delawares once 
 kept an account of time by putting a bead of wampum every 
 year upon a belt kept for that purpose. In the records, beads 
 of a certain color were assigned a particular meaning, and their 
 arrangement and the figures which their combination furnished, 
 were the mnemonic symbols by which circumstances and events 
 were recalled. Red was the emblem of war, white of peace. 
 Thus if it were designed to give warning of an approaching 
 evil, or to send an earnest remonstrance, a black belt was deliv 
 ered ; if to declare war, a red belt wrought with the figure of 
 a hatchet in white, etc. (Smith's Hist, of New York. Char- 
 levoix 1 Canada, vol. I., p. 320.) In treaties, the exchange of a 
 wampum belt was equivalent to a ratification. A certain num 
 ber of fathoms was a tribute to powerful neighbors. In its use 
 as a currency, separate values were assigned to the different 
 colors ; the black was double the value of the white. Its man 
 ufacture was open to all who chose to engage in it, and 
 its use so general, that the early colonists in New England, 
 New York, and Virginia, adopted it in their exchanges. The 
 revenues of the colonies were sometimes paid in it, and 
 
134 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 appropriations of a certain amount of wampoag are to be found 
 in the early Legislative records of Connecticut, and probably 
 of other States. Among the Dutch of New Netherlands, six 
 white beads of wampum, or three brown or black beads, were 
 equivalent to a stiver, and received as such.* 
 
 These beads were made of the compact portions of shells. 
 If of marine shells the columella alone was used. Says Van 
 der Donk, in his history of New Netherlands : " The wampum 
 is made of conch-shells, which are taken from the sea, or which 
 are cast ashore twice a year. They strike off the thin portions 
 of these shells, and preserve the pillars or standards, which 
 they grind even and smooth, and reduce the same to uniform 
 thickness, and drill a hole through every piece, and string the 
 same on strings, which they afterward sell. This is the only 
 article of moneyed medium among the natives, with which any 
 traffic can be driven ; and it is also common with us in pur 
 chasing necessaries and carrying on our trade ; many thousand 
 
 * Mr. Schoolcraft, in his " Notes on the Iroquois," suggests an anti 
 quarian nomenclature, the principle of which he applies to a limited 
 extent, in the classification of certain relics, chiefly ornamental. The 
 radical names are introduced from the Indian vocabulary, qualified by 
 expletives drawn either from the same source or the English constitut 
 ing terms " which shall, as far as practicable, be descriptive in their cha 
 racter." The design is stated to be, "to render antiquarian examination 
 exact, and facilitate comparison," so as to relieve archaeological inquiry 
 from much of the vagueness which attends it. The object is certainly 
 a desirable one ; but whether it could be attained in the manner proposed 
 is, at least, doubtful. In the very limited application of the system 
 attempted by Mr. Schoolcraft, out of nine radical divisions or classes, 
 we have no less than seven, each embracing several subdivisions or vari 
 eties, which comprise in their whole range only such articles as might 
 be defined with sufficient exactness, as beads and pendants. Whether 
 archaeological science would be greatly advanced by the substitution of 
 "Meddeka Dental " for perforated bear's tooth, or " Attajeguna Deoseowa " 
 for Stone mortar, is a question which the student of natural history, 
 floundering in the sea of modern scientific nomenclature, is best able to 
 
IMPLEMENTS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. 135 
 
 strings are exchanged every year for peltries near the sea-shore, 
 where the wampum is only made, and where the peltries are 
 brought for sale." After the introduction of glass and enamel 
 beads by the traders, the wampum deteriorated in value, and be 
 came quite restricted in its use and manufacture. Catlin men 
 tions, as a singular fact, that the far west Indians make no use 
 of it, while along the frontier, below the Missouri Sioux, the 
 different tribes are found loaded down and beautifully orna 
 mented with it. With the introduction of the traders' tinselry, 
 the wampum has lost its significance, and it is believed is no 
 longer used for records, or in the transmission of messages of 
 peace or defiance. 
 
 Some of the beads found in the mounds, bear a close resem 
 blance to those in use among the Southern Indians. Adair 
 describes large cylindrical beads, " made of the conch-shell, 
 about the length and thickness of a man's forefinger," which 
 bore a near resemblance to ivory, and were attached to the 
 crown of the head, and " so highly valued, that four deer-skins 
 was the price paid for them."* The same author adds : " Be 
 fore we supplied them with our European beads, they had great 
 quantities of wampum, made out of the conch-shell, by rubbing 
 on the hard stones, and so they form them according to their 
 liking. These are bought and sold for a stated current rate, 
 without variation for time or circumstances." 
 
 The late Prof. Troost, of Nashville, Tenn., found similar beads 
 in the so-called "pigmy graves" in that vicinity; he also found 
 beads composed of the shells of the marginella, which, like many 
 of those found in Ohio, were ground in such a manner that a 
 string could pass through their mouth and perforated back. 
 He observes : " Other beads were made of the columella of the 
 
 * Ornaments, doubtless very similar to these, and called Runtees, were 
 common among the Virginia Indians. Beverly describes these in a 
 summary way as " made of shell, as the Peak is, only the shape is flat 
 and round like a cheese, and they are drilleU edgeways." Hist. Va. p. 
 145. 
 
136 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 strombus gigas : I am positive it was of that part of this shell, 
 as I have found these beads in all stages of manufacture from 
 commencement to completion. These columella are often found 
 on the shores of the West Indies ; when the animal of these 
 shells is dead, the shell is constantly rolled and worn down by 
 the waves on the beach, so that the outside and interior whorls 
 soon disappear, and nothing but the solid columella remains. 
 Such columella I have found in a partially decomposed state in 
 the graves I- have found these artificially worn down to a 
 uniform thickness, and perforated through the centre I have 
 found them cut in pieces of the size of the beads, and I have 
 found the beads perfect." Professor Troost remarks further 
 that " these are tropical shells, and could not, therefore, have 
 been obtained from the North, nor have been found in the in 
 terior of the country ; they could not have been bought of travel 
 ing pedlers, because it is not to be supposed that such rude people 
 knew anything of commerce ; the aborigines must, consequently, 
 themselves have brought them from those southern regions 
 not during their hunting excursions, for we are about 2000 
 miles from the places where they are found." Prof Troost 
 probably under-estimates the extent of exchange and transfer 
 among even very rude tribes ; supposing, however, the race 
 occupying the stone graves, to be the same which built the 
 mounds, (as certain coincidences in the character of their re 
 mains would seem to indicate,) and his conclusion is sustained 
 by developments from the mounds on the Ohio, which are irre 
 sistible in their tendency establishing a migration from the 
 South, or an alternative altogether opposed to a natural or prob 
 able course of events. Mr. T. Conrad (American Journal of 
 Science and Arts, New Series, vol. II., p. 41) mentions the 
 strombus gigas as occurring on the coast of Florida, but not 
 above the latitude of Tampa Bay. 
 

 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE ORIGIN OP THE ABORIGINAL 
 MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 BY whom were the aboriginal monuments of Western New 
 York erected, and to what era may they be ascribed ? The 
 consideration of these questions has given rise to a vast amount 
 of speculation, generally not of the most philosophical, nor yet 
 of the most profitable kind. If the results arrived at have 
 been erroneous, unsatisfactory, or extravagant, it may be as 
 cribed to the circumstance that the facts heretofore collected 
 have been too few in number and too poorly authenticated to 
 admit of correct conclusions, not less than to the influence of 
 preconceived notions, and to that constant leaning toward the 
 marvelous, which is a radical defect of many minds. Rigid 
 criticism is especially indispensable in archaeological investiga 
 tions ; yet there is no department of human research in which 
 so wide a range has been given to conjecture. Men seem to 
 have indulged the belief that here nothing is fixed, nothing 
 certain, and have turned aside into this field as one where the 
 severer rules which elsewhere regulate philosophical research 
 are not enforced, and where every species of extravagance may 
 be indulged in with impunity. I might adduce numberless 
 illustrations of this remark. The Indian who wrought the 
 rude outlines upon the rock at Dighton, little dreamed that his 
 work would ultimately come to be regarded as affording indu 
 bitable evidence of Hebrew, Phoenician, and Scandinavian 
 adventure and colonization in America ; and the builders of 
 the rude defences of Western New York, as little suspected 
 that Celt and Tartar, and even the apocryphal Madoc with 
 
138 
 
 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 his " ten ships," would, in this the nineteenth century of our 
 faith, be vigorously invoked to yield paternity to their labors ! 
 
 The probable purposes to which these works were applied 
 are, perhaps, sufficiently evident from what has already been 
 presented. Their positions, general close proximity to water, 
 and other circumstances not less conclusive, imply a defensive 
 origin. The unequivocal traces of long occupancy found within 
 many of them, would further imply that they were fortified 
 towns and villages, and were permanently occupied. Some of 
 the smaller ones, on the other hand, seem rather designed for 
 temporary protection the citadels in which the builders 
 sought safety for their old men, women, and children, in case 
 of alarm or attack. 
 
 In respect to date nothing positive can be affirmed. Many 
 of them are now covered with heavy forests ; a circumstance 
 upon which too much importance has been laid, and which in 
 itself may not necessarily be regarded as indicative of great 
 age, for we may plausibly suppose that it was not essential to 
 the purposes of the builders that the forests should be 
 removed. Still I have seen trees from one to three feet in 
 diameter standing upon the embankments and in the trenches ; 
 which would certainly carry back the date of their construction 
 several hundred years, perhaps beyond the period of the dis 
 covery in the fifteenth century. There is nothing, however, in 
 this circumstance, nor in any other bearing upon the subject, 
 which would necessarily imply that they were built by tribes 
 anterior to those found in occupation of the country by the 
 whites. And this brings us at once to the most interesting 
 point of our inquiry, viz. : By whom were these works erected ? 
 
 I have already mentioned that within them are found many 
 relics of art and many traces of occupancy. These, I had 
 ample opportunities of ascertaining in the course of my inves 
 tigations, are absolutely identical with those which mark the 
 sites of towns and forts known to have been occupied by the 
 Indians, within the historical period. The pottery taken from 
 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 139 
 
 these sites and from within the supposed ancient inclosures, is 
 alike in all respects ; the pipes and ornaments are undistin- 
 guishable ; and the indications of aboriginal dwellings are pre 
 cisely similar, and, so far as can be discovered, have equal claim 
 to antiquity. Near many of these works are found cemeteries, 
 in which well-preserved skeletons are contained, and which, 
 except in the absence of remains of European art, differ in no 
 essential respect from the cemeteries found in connection with 
 the abandoned modern towns and " castles " of the Indians. 
 There are other not less important facts and coincidences, all 
 of which go to establish that if the earth-works of Western 
 New York are of a remote ancient date, they were not only 
 secondarily but generally occupied by the Iroquois or neighbor 
 ing and contemporary nations ; or else and this hypothesis is 
 most consistent and reasonable they were erected by them. 
 
 It may be objected, that if the Indians constructed works of 
 this kind, it could not have escaped the notice of the early 
 explorers, and would have been made the subject of remark by 
 them. The omission is singular, but not unaccountable. 
 They all speak of the defences of the Indians as composed of 
 palisades firmly set in the ground. The simple circumstance 
 of the earth being heaped up around them, to lend them 
 greater firmness, may have been regarded as so natural and 
 simple an expedient, as not to be deserving of special mention, 
 particularly as the embankment, in such a case, would be an 
 entirely subordinate part of the structure. After the intro 
 duction of European implements, enabling the Indians to plant 
 their pickets more firmly in the ground, and to lend them a 
 security before unattainable, the necessity for an embankment 
 was in a great degree obviated. We may thus account for its 
 absence in their later structures, which also underwent some 
 modification of form, suggested by the example or instructions 
 of the whites, or by the new modes of warfare following the 
 introduction of firearms. Thus in the plan of the old Seneca 
 
140 ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS OF NEW YORK. 
 
 fort of Ganundasaga, we find distinct traces of the bastion a 
 feature observable in none of the more ancient defences. 
 
 I am aware that the remnants of the Indian stock which still 
 exist in the State, generally profess total ignorance of these 
 works. I do not, however, attach much importance to this cir 
 cumstance. When we consider the extreme likelihood of the 
 forgetfulness of ancient practices, in the lapse of three hundred 
 years, the lack of knowledge upon this point is the weakest of 
 all negative evidence. Cusick, the Indian, in his so-called " His 
 tory of the Six Nations," has, no doubt, correctly described the 
 manner in which they constructed their early defences. " The 
 manner of making a fort : First, they set fire against as many 
 trees as it requires to make the inclosure, rubbing off the coals 
 with their stone axes, so as to make them burn faster. When 
 the tree falls, they put fires to it about three paces apart, and 
 burn it into pieces. These pieces are then brought to the spot 
 required, and set up around, according to the bigness of the 
 fort. The earth is then heaped on both sides. The fort has 
 generally two gates, one for passage and one to the water." 
 " The people," continues Cusick, " had implements with which 
 they made their bows and arrows. Their kettles were made 
 of baked clay ; their awls and needles of sharpened bones ; their 
 pipes of baked clay or soft stone ; a small turtle-shell was used 
 to peel the bark, and a small dry stick to make fire by boring 
 it against seasoned wood." 
 
 Golden observes of their defences, as they were constructed 
 in his time : " Their castles are generally a square surrounded 
 with palisades, without any bastions or outworks; for, since the 
 general peace, their villages all lie open."* 
 
 In full view of the facts before presented, I am driven to a 
 conclusion little anticipated when I started upon my explora 
 tion of the monuments of the State, that the earth-works of 
 Western New York were erected by the Iroquois or their west 
 ern neighbors, and do not possess an antiquity going very far 
 
 * History of the Five Nations, vol. I., p. 9. 
 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 141 
 
 back of the discovery. Their general occurrence upon a line 
 parallel to and not far distant from the lakes, favors the hypoth 
 esis that they were built by frontier tribes a hypothesis 
 entirely conformable to aboriginal traditions. Here, according 
 to these traditions, every foot of ground was contested between 
 the Iroquois and the Gah-kwas and other western tribes ; and 
 here, as a consequence, where most exposed to attack, were 
 permanent defences most necessary. It was not until after the 
 Confederation, that the Five Nations were able to check and 
 finally expel the warlike people which disputed with them the 
 possession of the beautiful and fertile regions bordering the 
 lakes ; and it is not impossible that it was the pressure from 
 this direction which led to that Confederation an anomaly in 
 the history of the aborigines. Common danger, rather than a 
 far-seeing policy, may be regarded as the impelling cause of the 
 consolidation. 
 
 In conclusion, I may be permitted to observe, that the an 
 cient remains of Western New York, except so far as they 
 throw light upon the system of defence practiced by the abori 
 ginal inhabitants, and tend to show that they were to a degree 
 fixed and agricultural in their habits, have slight bearing upon 
 the grand ethnological and archaeological questions involved in 
 the ante- Columbian history of the continent. The resemblances 
 which they bear to the defensive structures of other rude na 
 tions, in various parts of the world, are the result of natural 
 causes, and cannot be taken to indicate either a close or re 
 mote connection or dependence. All primitive defences, being 
 designed to resist common modes of attack, are essentially the 
 same in their principles, and seldom differ very much in their 
 details. The aboriginal hunter and the semi-civilized Aztec 
 selected precisely similar positions for their fortresses, and 
 defended them upon the same general plan ; yet it would be 
 palpably unsafe to found conclusions as to the relations of the 
 respective builders, upon the narrow basis of these resemblances 
 alone. 
 
CHAPTEK VII. 
 
 ANCIENT WORKS IN PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 WITHOUT the boundaries of the State of New York, there 
 are works composed of earth, closely resembling those described 
 in the preceding pages. Among these may be named the 
 small earth-works of Northern Ohio, which the author himself 
 was at one time led to believe constituted part of the grand 
 system of the mound-builders.* The more extensive and 
 accurate information which he has now in his possession con 
 cerning them, as also concerning those of Western New York, 
 has led to an entire modification of his views, and to the con 
 viction that they are all of comparatively late date, and proba 
 bly of common origin. 
 
 Some similar works are said to occur in Canada ; but we 
 have no account at all satisfactory concerning them. One is 
 mentioned by Laing (Polynesian Nations, p. 109), upon the 
 authority of a third person, as situated upon the summit of a 
 precipitous ridge, near Lake Simcoe, and consisting of an 
 embankment of earth, inclosing a considerable extent of 
 ground. Mr. Schoolcraft also states that there are some 
 ancient enigmatical walls of earth in the vicinity of Dundas, 
 which extend several miles across the country, following the 
 leading ridges of land. These are represented to be from five 
 to eight miles in length, and not far from six feet high, with 
 passages at intervals, as if for gates (Oneota. p. 326). Our 
 knowledge concerning these is too limited to permit any con 
 jecture as to their design. 
 
 * Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 2, 46. 
 
ANCIENT WORKS IN PENNSYLVANIA, ETC. 143 
 
 In the State of Pennsylvania, there are some remains, which 
 may be regarded as the " outliers " of those of New York. 
 They are confined to the upper counties. Those in the Valley 
 of Wyoming are best known. They have, however, been lately 
 so much obliterated, that it is probable they can be no longer 
 traced. One of the number was examined and measured in 
 1 8 1 7 by a gentleman of Wyoming, whose account is published 
 by Mr. Miner, in his " History of Wyoming." 
 
 " It is situated in the town of Kingston, Luzerne county, 
 upon a level plain, on the north side of Toby's Creek, about 
 one hundred and fifty feet from its bank, and about half a mile 
 from its confluence with the Susquehanna. It is of an oval or 
 elliptical form, having its longest diameter from northeast to 
 southwest, at right angles to the creek. Its diameters are 
 respectively 337 and 272 feet. On the southwest side appears 
 to have been a gateway, twelve feet wide, opening toward the 
 great eddy of the river into which the creek falls. It consist 
 ed of a single embankment of earth, which in height and 
 thickness appears to have been the same on all sides. Exte 
 rior to the wall is a ditch. The bank of the creek upon the 
 side toward the work is high and steep. The water in the 
 creek is ordinarily sufficiently deep to admit canoes to ascend 
 to the fortification from the river. When the first settlers 
 came to Wyoming, this plain was covered with its native for 
 ests, consisting principally of oak and yellow pine ; and the 
 trees which grew upon the work are said to have been as large 
 as those in any part of the valley. One large oak, upon being 
 cut down, was found to be 700 years old. The Indians have 
 no traditions concerning these fortifications; nor do they 
 appear to have any knowledge of the purposes for which they 
 were erected." (Miner's History of Wyoming, p. 25.) Traces 
 of a similar work existed on " Jacob's Plains," on the upper 
 flats of Wilkesbarre. " It occupied the highest point on the 
 flats, which in the time of freshets appears like an island in the 
 sea of waters. In size and shape it coincides with that already 
 
144 ANCIENT WORKS IN 
 
 described. High trees were growing upon the embankment 
 at the period of the first settlement of the country. It is 
 about eighty rods from the river, toward which opened a gate 
 way ; and the old settlers concur in stating that a well [cache?'] 
 existed in the interior near the southern line. On the banks 
 of the river is an ancient burial-place, in which the bodies were 
 laid horizontally in regular rows. In excavating the canal 
 through the bank bordering the flats, perhaps thirty rods south 
 of the fort, another burial-place was disclosed, evidently more 
 ancient, for the bones crumbled to pieces almost immediately 
 upon exposure to the air, and the deposits were far more 
 numerous than in that near the river. The number of skele 
 tons are represented to have been countless, and the dead had 
 been buried in a sitting posture. In this place of deposit no 
 beads were found, while they were common in the other." 
 (Miner's History, p. 28.) 
 
 Near this locality, which seems to have been a favorite one 
 with the Indians, medals bearing the head of the First George, 
 and other relics of European origin, are often discovered. 
 
 Still further to the northwest, near the borders of New 
 York, and forming an unbroken chain with the works of that 
 State, are found other remains. One of these, on the Tioga 
 River, near Athens, was ascribed by the Duke de Rochefou 
 cauld to the French, in the time of De Nonville ! He 
 describes it as follows : 
 
 " Near the confines of Pennsylvania, a mountain rises from 
 the banks of the River Tioga, in the shape of a sugar-loaf, 
 upon which are to be seen the remains of some entrenchments. 
 These are called by the inhabitants the l Spanish Ramparts,' 
 but I judge that they were thrown up against the Indians, in 
 the time of De Nonville. A breast-work is still remaining." 
 (Travels in America.) A similar work, circular or elliptical in 
 outline, is said to exist in Lycoming county. Near it are 
 extensive cemeteries. (Day's Hist. Coll., p. 455.) 
 
 In the New England States few traces of works of this kind 
 
PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, ETC. 
 
 145 
 
 are to be found. There are, however, some remains in the 
 State of New Hampshire, which, whatever their origin, are 
 entitled to notice. The subjoined plan of one of these is from 
 a sketch made in 1822 by Jacob B. Moore, Esq., late Libra- 
 
 33. 
 
 rian of the Historical Society of New York, who has also fur 
 nished the accompanying description. 
 
 "According to your request, I send the inclosed sketch and 
 7 
 
146 ANCIENT WORKS IN 
 
 memoranda of an ancient fortification, supposed to have been 
 the work of the Penacook Indians, a once powerful tribe, whose 
 chief seat was in the neighborhood of Concord, New Hampshire. 
 The original name of the town was derived from that of the 
 tribe. The last of the Penacooks long since disappeared, and 
 with them have perished most of the memorials of their race. 
 Enough has come down to us, however, in tradition, added to 
 the brief notes of our historians, to show that the Penacooks 
 were once a numerous, powerful, and warlike tribe. Gookin 
 places them under the general division of the Pawtucketts, 
 which he calls ' the fifth great sachemship of Indians.'* Under 
 the name of Penacooks, were probably included all the Indians 
 inhabiting the valley of the Merrimack, from the great falls at 
 the Amoskeag to the Winnepiseogee Lake, and the great car 
 rying-place on the Pemigewasset. That they were one and the 
 same tribe, is rendered probable from the exact similarity of 
 relics, which have been found at different places, and from the 
 general resemblance of the remains of ancient fortifications, 
 which Tiave been traced near the lower falls of the Winnepise 
 ogee, in Franklin and Sanbornton, and on the table-land known 
 as the Sugar-Ball Plain, in Concord. Tradition ascribes to 
 each the purpose of defence against a common enemy, the 
 Maquaas or Mohawks of the west. 
 
 " The accompanying sketch was taken in pencil, on a visit 
 to the spot, in company with the Hon. James Clark and several 
 friends in the month of September, 1822. The remains are on 
 the west side of the Winnepiseogee, near the head of Little Bay, 
 in Sanbornton, New Hampshire. The traces of the walls were 
 at that time easily discerned, although most of the stones had 
 been removed to the mill-dam near at hand, on the river. On 
 approaching the site, we called upon a gentleman (James Gib 
 son) who had lived for many years near the spot, and of whom 
 we learnt the following particulars : He had lived in Sanborn- 
 
 * Gookin, in Mass. Hist. Coll., I., 149. 
 
PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, ETC. 147 
 
 ton fifty -two years, and had known the fort some time previous 
 to settling in the place. When he came to the town to reside, 
 the walls were two or three feet high, though in some places 
 they had fallen down, and the whole had evidently much dimin 
 ished in height, since the first erection. They were about 
 three feet in thickness, constructed of stones outwardly, and 
 filled in with clay, shells, gravel, etc., from the Ibed of the river 
 and shores of the bay. The stones of which the walls were 
 constructed were of no great size, and such as men in a savage 
 state would be supposed to use for such a purpose. They were 
 placed together with much order and regularity, and when of 
 their primitive height, the walls must have been very strong 
 at least, sufficiently strong for all the purposes of defence 
 against an enemy to whom the use of firearms was unknown. 
 
 " The site of the fortification is nearly level, descending a 
 little from the walls to the bank of the river. "West, for the 
 distance of nearly half a mile, the surface is quite even. In front, 
 or east, on the opposite side of the river, are high banks, upon 
 which at that time stood a thick growth of wood. When the 
 first settlers discovered the fort, there were oak trees of large 
 size standing within the walls. Within the inclosure, and in 
 the mound and vicinity, were found innumerable Indian orna 
 ments, such as crystals cut into the rude shapes of diamonds, 
 squares, pyramids, etc., with ornamental pipes of stone and 
 clay coarse pottery ornamented with various figures arrow 
 heads, hatchets of stone, and other common implements of 
 peace and war. 
 
 " The small island in the bay appears to have been a burial- 
 place, from the great quantity of bones and other remains dis 
 closed by the plough, when settlements were commenced by the 
 whites. Before the island was cultivated, there were several 
 large excavations resembling cellars or wells discovered, for 
 what purpose constructed or used, can of course only be con 
 jectured. There is a tradition that the Penacooks, at the time 
 
148 ANCIENT WORKS IN 
 
 of their destruction by the Maquaas, had three hundred birch 
 canoes in Little Bay. 
 
 "After writing thus far, I addressed a note to the Hon. 
 James Clark, of Franklin, New Hampshire, with inquiries as 
 to the present state of these ruins. Mr. Clark was kind enough 
 at once to make a special visit to the site of the ruins, in com 
 pany with Mr. Bamford, son of one of the first settlers. The 
 following is an extract from his reply : 
 
 " ' The remains of the walls are in part plainly to be traced ; 
 but the ground since our former examination has been several 
 years ploughed and cultivated, so as to now give a very indis 
 tinct view of what they were at our previous visit, when the 
 foundation of the whole could be distinctly traced. No mounds 
 or passage-ways can now be traced. A canal to convey water 
 to a saw and grist mill occupies the place of the mound marked 
 m. The stones used in these walls were obtained on the ground, 
 and were of such size as one man could lift ; they were laid as 
 well as our good walls for fences in the north, and very regu 
 lar ; they were about three feet in thickness and breast high 
 when first discovered. The stones have been used to fill in 
 the dam now adjoining. There were no embankments in the 
 interior. The distance between the outer and inner wall was 
 about sixty feet ; the distance from the north to the south wall 
 was about 250 feet, and from the west wall to the river about 
 220 feet. There were two other walls extending south to Little 
 Bay. The general elevation of the ground was about ten feet 
 above, and gently sloping to the river bank, which is about five 
 feet above the water of the river. The distance between Great 
 Bay and Little Bay is about 160 rods, with a gradual fall of 
 fifteen feet. Here was a great fishing-place for the Indians.' 
 Mr. Bamford states that he has heard his father and Mr. Gib 
 son say, that on their first acquaintance with this place, they 
 have seen three hundred bark canoes here at a time. This 
 may have been in consequence of the number of bays and lakes 
 near this place. Sanbornton was laid out and surveyed in 
 
PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, ETC. 149 
 
 1750 ; but Canterbury, adjoining the bay, was settled as early 
 as 1727. 
 
 " The remains of a fortification, apparently of similar con 
 struction to that above described, were some years since to be 
 seen on the bluffs east of the Merrimack River, in Concord, on 
 what was formerly known as Sugar-Ball Plain. The walls 
 could readily be traced for some distance, though crumbled 
 nearly to the ground, and overgrown with large trees."* 
 
 * " A mound 45 or 50 feet in diameter is situated on the northern 
 shore of Ossipee Lake, New Hampshire. It is ten feet high, and was 
 originally covered with timber. The earth is not like that of the mea 
 dow in which it stands, but of the adjacent plain. A slight excavation 
 was made in it a number of years ago, in the course of which three entire 
 skeletons were found, accompanied by two tomahawks and some coarse 
 pottery. On the surrounding meadow were to be seen, when the ground 
 was first cleared, the hills where the corn had anciently grown." Hist, 
 and Mis. Coll. of N. H., vol. II., p. 47; New Hampshire Gazetteer, p. 207. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 
 
 THE fortifications of the savage or hunter tribes of North 
 America are uniformly represented to have been constructed 
 of rows of pickets, surrounding their villages, or inclosing posi 
 tions naturally strong and easy of defence. The celebrated 
 stronghold of the Narragansetts in Rhode Island, destroyed in 
 1676 by the New England colonists under Winthrop and 
 Church, was an elevation of five or six acres in extent, situated 
 in the centre of a swamp, and strongly defended by palisades. 
 It was of extraordinary size, and inclosed not far from six hun 
 dred lodges. 
 
 Of like character was the fort of the Pequots, on the Mystic 
 River, in Connecticut, destroyed by Captain Mason. Accord 
 ing to Hackluyt, the towns of the Indians on the St. Lawrence 
 were defended in a similar manner. The first voyagers describe 
 the aboriginal town of Hochelaga, now Montreal, as circular in 
 form, and surrounded by three lines of palisades. Through 
 these there was but a single entrance, well secured by stakes 
 and bars ; and upon the inside of the defence, were stages or 
 platforms, upon which were placed stones and other missiles^ 
 ready for use, in case of attack. The town contained about 
 fifty lodges. (Hackluyt, vol. III., p. 220.) 
 
 Charlevoix observes, that " the Indians of Canada are more 
 expert in erecting their fortifications than in building their 
 houses." He represents that their villages were surrounded by 
 double and frequently by triple rows of palisades, interwoven 
 with'branches of trees, and flanked by redoubts. (Canada, 
 vol. II., p. 128.) Cham plain also describes a number of forti 
 fied works on the St. Lawrence, above Trois Rivieres, which 
 
CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 151 
 
 " were composed of a number of posts set very close together." 
 He also speaks of " forts which were great inclosures, with tiers 
 joined together like pales," within which were the dwellings of 
 the Indians. (Purchas, vol. IV., pp. 1612, 1644.) Says La 
 Hontan, " their villages were fortified with double palisades of 
 very hard wood, which were as thick as one's thigh, fifteen feet 
 high, with little squares about the middle of the courtines (cur 
 tains). (Vol. II. } p. 6.) The Indians on the coasts of Virginia 
 and North Carolina are described as possessing corresponding 
 defences. " When they would be very safe," says Beverly, 
 ' they treble the pales." (Hist. Virg., p. 1 49, See also Amidas 
 and Barlow in Pink., vol. XII., p. 567 ; Heriot, ib., p. 603 ; 
 Lafitau, vol. III., p. 228, etc. etc.) 
 
 Among the Floridian tribes, the custom of fortifying their 
 villages seems to have been more general than among the In 
 dians of a higher latitude. This may readily be accounted for 
 from the fact that they were more fixed in their habits, consi 
 derably devoted to agriculture, and less averse to labor than 
 those of the north. The chronicler of Soto's Expedition speaks 
 of their towns as defended by " strong works of the height of a 
 lance," composed of " great stakes driven deep in the ground, 
 with poles the bigness of one's arm placed crosswise, both inside 
 and out, and fastened with pins to knit the whole together. 
 Herrara, in his compiled account of the same expedition, has 
 the following confirmation. " The town of Mabila or Mavila 
 (Mobile) consisted of eighty houses seated in a plain, inclosed 
 by piles driven down, with timbers athwart, rammed with long 
 straw and earth between the hollow spaces, so that it looked 
 like a wall smoothed with a trowel ; and at every eighty paces 
 was a tower, where eight men could fight, with many loop-holes 
 and two gates. In the midst of the town was a large square." 
 (Hist. America, vol. V., p. 324.) Du Pratz also gives a corre 
 sponding account of the defences of the Natchez and neighboring 
 tribes. " Their forts are built circularly, of two rows of large 
 logs of wood, the logs of the inner row being opposite to the 
 
152 
 
 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 
 
 jointings of those of the outer row. These logs are about fifteen 
 feet long, five feet of which are sunk in the earth. The outer 
 
CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 153 
 
 logs are about two feet thick, the inner ones half as much. At 
 every forty paces along this wall, a circular tower juts out, and 
 at the entrance of the fort, which is always next the river, the 
 two ends of the wall pass beyond each other, leaving a side 
 opening. In the middle of the fort stands a tree, with the 
 branches lopped off within a short distance of the trunk, and 
 this serves as a watch-tower." (Hist. Louisiana, p. 375.) The 
 following description and illustrative engraving, copied from 
 De Bry, no doubt convey a correct idea of the character of the 
 Floridian defences. 
 
 " The Indians build their towns in this wise. Having made 
 choice of a spot near a running stream, they level it off as even 
 as they can. They next draw a furrow of the size of the 
 intended town in the form of a circle, in which they plant large 
 round stakes, twice the height of a man, and set closely together. 
 At the place where the entrance is to be, the circle is somewhat 
 drawn in. after the fashion of a snail-shell, making the opening 
 so narrow as not to admit more than two at a time. The bed 
 of the stream is also turned into this entrance. At the head 
 of the entrance a . small round building is usually erected ; 
 within the passage is placed another. Each of them is pierced 
 with slits and holes for observation, and is handsomely finished 
 off after the manner of the country. In these guard -houses 
 are placed those sentinels who can scent the trail of enemies at 
 a great distance. As soon as their sense of smelling tells them 
 that some are near, they hasten out, and, having found them, 
 raise an alarm. The inhabitants, on hearing the shouting, 
 immediately fly to the defence of the town, armed with bows ; 
 arrows, and clubs. 
 
 " In the middle of the town stands the king's palace, sunk 
 somewhat below the level of the ground, on account of the heat 
 of the sun. Around it are ranged the houses of the nobles, all 
 slightly covered with palm-branches; for they make use of 
 them only during nine months of the year, passing, as we have 
 said, the other three months in the woods. When they return, 
 7* 
 
154 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 
 
 they, take to their houses again ; unless, indeed, they have been 
 burned down in the mean time by their enemies, in which case 
 they build themselves new ones of similar materials. Such is 
 the magnificence of Indian palaces." 
 
 Among the Indians to the westward of the Mississippi, par 
 ticularly among the Mandans and kindred tribes, a somewhat 
 different system of defence prevailed. The serpentine courses of 
 the rivers, all of which have here high, steep banks, leave many 
 projecting points of land or elevated peninsulas, protected on 
 nearly all sides by the streams, and capable, with little artificial 
 aid, of being made effective for defensive purposes. Mr. Catlin 
 describes the principal village of the Mandans, while that 
 remarkable tribe existed, as protected upon three sides by the 
 river, and upon the fourth " by a strong picket, with an interior 
 ditch, three or four feet in depth." The picket was composed 
 of timbers a foot or more in diameter and eighteen feet high, 
 set firmly in the ground, at a sufficient distance from each other 
 to admit guns to be fired between them. The warriors stationed 
 themselves in the ditch during an attack, and were thus almost 
 completely protected from their assailants. These practices 
 seem, however, to be of comparatively late introduction. 
 (N. A. Indians, vol. I, p. 81.) 
 
 Brackenridge ( Views of Louisiana, p. 242) mentions the 
 ruins of an Indian town upon the Missouri River, fifty miles 
 above the mouth of the Shienne. The spot was marked by 
 " great piles of buffalo bones and quantities of earthenware. 
 The village appeared to have been scattered around a kind of 
 citidel or fortification, inclosing from four to five acres, in an 
 oval form." The earth was thrown up about four feet, and a 
 few of the palisades were remaining. The Shienne River is 
 1300 miles above the mouth of the Missouri. Lewis and Clark 
 also mention a number of remains of Indian fortifications of 
 like character ; but it is to be observed that they distinguish 
 between them and the larger and more imposing ancient works 
 which fell under their notice in the same region. They describe 
 an abandoned village of the Riccarees, called Lahoocat, which 
 
CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 155 
 
 was situated in the centre of Goodhope Island. It contained 
 seventeen lodges, surrounded by a circular wall, and is known to 
 have been occupied in 1797. (Exp., p. 72.) They also men 
 tion the remains of a deserted village, erected by Petit Arc or 
 Little Bow, an Omahaw chief, on the banks of a small creek of 
 the same name, emptying into the Missouri. It was surrounded 
 by a wall of earth, about four feet high. (Exp., p. 41.) A cir 
 cular work of earth, formerly inclosing a village of the Shiennes, 
 was noticed by these explorers, a short distance above the mouth 
 of the Shienne River. (Exp., p. 80.) The ancient villages of 
 the Mandans, nine of which were observed in the same vicinity, 
 within a space of twenty miles, were indicated by the walls 
 which surrounded them, the fallen heaps of earth which cov 
 ered the huts, and by the scattered teeth and bones of men and 
 animals. (Exp., p. 84.) Another defensive work, probably 
 designed for temporary protection, was observed by these gen 
 tlemen in the vicinity of the mouth of the Yellowstone. "It 
 was built upon the level bottom, in the form of a circle, fifty 
 feet in diameter, and was composed of logs lapping over each 
 other, about five feet high, and covered on the outside with 
 bark set upright. The entrance was guarded by a work on 
 each side of it, facing the river." These entrenchments, they 
 were informed, are frequently made by the Minaterees and 
 other Indians at war with the Shoshonees, when pursued by 
 their enemies on horseback. (Exp., p. 622.) Lieut. Fremont 
 found similar constructions in the vicinity of the Arkansas. 
 A much more feasible method of protection, under such circum 
 stances, is mentioned by Pike. He states that the Sioux, 
 when in danger from their enemies in the plains, soon cover 
 themselves by digging holes with their knives, and throwing 
 up small breastworks. (Exp., p. 19.) They are represented 
 as being able to bury themselves from sight, in an incredibly 
 short space of time. 
 
 The numerous traces upon the Missouri, of old villages occu 
 pying similar positions, and having evidently been defended in 
 
156 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 
 
 a like manner with those above described, place it beyond doubt 
 that this method of fortification was not of recent origin among 
 those Indians. Mr. Catlin mentions that there are several 
 ruined villages of the Mandans, Minaterees and Riccarees, on 
 the banks of the river, below the towns then occupied, which 
 have been abandoned since intercourse became established with 
 the whites. 
 
 Prince Maximilian notices a feature in the defences of the 
 Mandan village of Mih-tutta-hang-kush, which does not seem 
 to have been remarked by any other traveler. This village is 
 represented to have consisted of about sixty huts, surrounded 
 by palisades, forming a defence, at the angles of which were 
 "conical mounds, covered with a facing of wicker-work, and 
 having embrasures, completely commanding the- river and 
 plain." In another place, however, our author adds, that these 
 bastions were erected for the Indians by the whites. ( Travels 
 in the Interior of North America, by Maximilian, Prince of 
 Weid.w- 173, 243.) 
 
 It will thus be seen, from what has already been presented, 
 that, while the Indian tribes on the Atlantic coast and along 
 the Gulf of Mexico, with few exceptions, defended themselves 
 by simple stockades, the Indians to the west of the Mississippi 
 frequently added an embankment of earth, though in other re 
 spects observing a very great uniformity with those nations first 
 named. This difference may be accounted for, to a certain ex 
 tent, by the nature of the soil, which, at the west, is generally 
 readily excavated with the simplest tools. 
 
 Among the semi-civilized inhabitants of Mexico, Central 
 America, and Peru, similar methods of defence were practiced ; 
 but in the construction of their fortresses they displayed a degree 
 of superiority corresponding to that which, in most other re 
 spects, they sustained over their savage contemporaries. Cortez 
 found himself opposed, upon his first landing on the coast of 
 Tobasco, by the town of the same name, which, according to 
 De Solis, was fortified after the usual method, on the coast 
 
CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 157 
 
 The defences consisted of a kind of wall, made of the trunks 
 of large trees, fixed in the ground after the manner of palisades, 
 but so placed that there was room for the Indians to discharge 
 their arrows between them. The work was round, without any 
 traverses or other defences, and at the closing of the circle the 
 extremity of one line covered the other, and formed a narrow, 
 winding street, in which there were two or three little castles 
 of wood which filled up the passage, and in which were posted 
 their sentinels. " This," continues Solis, " was a sufficient 
 fortress against the arms of the new world, when they were 
 happily ignorant of the arts of war and of those methods to 
 attack and defend, in which mankind has been instructed either 
 by malice or necessity." (De Soils' Hist. Mexico, p. 54.) 
 This town, corresponding entirely with those described by the 
 followers of De Soto, in Florida, seems to have been rudely for 
 tified in comparison with others in the interior of the country, 
 and nearer the seat of Aztec civilization. Here the towns and 
 cities were surrounded not only by palisades, but also by ditches 
 and walls of earth and solid masonry. The skill with which 
 the city of Mexico was protected is amply attested by the 
 chronicler of Cortez' expedition, who also informs us that walls 
 were sometimes erected to guard the frontiers of provinces. 
 The great wall of Tlascalla furnishes, in its extent, a parallel 
 to some of the more imposing defensive structures of the other 
 hemisphere. It was erected, according to Cortez, by the " an 
 cient inhabitants " of that republic as a protection against their 
 enemies ; and Clavigero asserts that other portions of the fron 
 tier were defended in a similar manner. De Solis describes it 
 as " a great wall which ran across a valley from one mountain 
 to another, entirely stopping up the way ; a sumptuous and 
 strong piece of building, which showed the power and greatness 
 of the builders. The outside was of hewn stone, united with 
 mortar of extraordinary strength. It was twenty feet thick 
 and a fathom and a half high ; and on the top was a parapet 
 after the manner of our fortifications. The entrance was nar- 
 
158 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 
 
 row and winding, the wall in that part dividing, and making 
 two walls, which circularly crossed each other for the space of 
 ten paces." Clavigero states that it was six miles in length, 
 eight feet in height, besides the parapet, and eighteen feet in 
 thickness, composed of stone cemented with mortar. Works 
 also existed in Mexico which approached more nearly to the 
 character of the modern forts. They were, for the most part, 
 strong, natural positions, such as isolated eminences, or the 
 summits of steep and rugged mountains. 
 
 One of these, inclosing the ruins of many imposing temples 
 and edifices, is situated to the north of the city of Mexico, in 
 the department of Zacatecas, which is supposed to have been 
 formerly occupied by the Chichimecs and Otomies. It is now 
 known as the " Ruins of Quemada." The ruins are situated 
 upon the summit of a high hill or cerro, and are inclosed upon 
 the north, where the ground is sloping, by broad, double walls 
 of massive stones cemented with mortar. Upon the south are 
 rugged precipices, affording natural defences. The walls have 
 bastions at intervals, and are entered by four broad roads, or 
 causeways, which extend in different directions over the adjacent 
 plains. 
 
 The hill of Xochicalco is three hundred feet in height, and 
 a league in circumference, surrounded at the base by a deep 
 and wide ditch. "Whether designed as a temple or fortress, is 
 not apparent. It may have subserved both purposes ; for there 
 is ample evidence, in the records of the conquerors, that the 
 sacred grounds of the Aztecs were their places of last resort, in 
 the defence of which their valor was inflamed by religious zeal. 
 The summit of the hill of Xochicalco is attained by five spiral 
 terraces, faced with cemented stones and supported by bulwarks, 
 and is crowned by the ruins of edifices, which rank among the 
 most imposing remains of the continent. An ancient fortress, 
 which no doubt well illustrates the character of the ancient 
 Mexican defences, is figured and described by Du Paix. " It 
 occupies the summit of a steep, isolated rock, about a league 
 
CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 159 
 
 west of Mitlan. This rock is accessible only from the eastern 
 side. The wall is of solid stone, twenty-one feet thick and 
 eighteen high, forming in its wide range, which is about a league 
 in extent, several salient and retiring angles, with curtains 
 interposed. On its assailable side, where is its principal en 
 trance, it is defended by double walls which mutually flank 
 each other. The first or most advanced forms an enceinte, or 
 elliptical rampart, upon which, at short intervals, there are 
 heaps of small round stones for slinging, and in the centre of 
 the crescent there is an oblique gate, to avoid the enfilade or 
 right line of arrows, darts and stones. The second wall, which 
 is joined at its extremities to that of the fortress, is of greater 
 elevation, and forms a sort of tenaille. It differs from the 
 other in having its sides or flanks more open. It has likewise 
 its rampart and heaps of stones. For greater security, batteries 
 were disposed in the Aztec system of defence, in front of the 
 fortification, consisting of loose round stones, about three feet 
 in diameter, placed high, and so balanced as to be easily pre 
 cipitated below. On the plain surface of the rock are various 
 ruins of square buildings, and edifices of considerable size, 
 which were probably the ancient barracks. In the point dia 
 metrically opposite the entrance, is a sally-port or postern, for 
 furnishing the fort with men and provisions, or to facilitate a 
 forced retreat." 
 
 Near the village of Molcaxac are the remains of an ancient 
 fortress, much resembling that here described. It occupies the 
 summit of a mountain, and consists of four concentric walls of 
 great strength and solidity. (De Soils, Book II., p. 139; 
 Bradford's Am. Antq.,p. 104.) 
 
 Another fortress of similar character, is mentioned by 
 Clavigero as existing at Guatusco, twenty-five miles north of 
 Cordova. It consists of high walls of stone, and is only entered 
 . by high and narrow flights of steps. 
 
 Although the above examples may seem to convey a very 
 accurate idea of the nature of the defensive structures of the 
 
160 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 
 
 Mexicans, it is yet to be regretted that so brief and imperfect 
 accounts of them have been transmitted to us by the early 
 writers. While we are constantly assured of their existence, 
 their great extent and vast strength, we are left in the dark in 
 respect to their details. 
 
 More is known respecting the military works of Peru, and all 
 accounts concur in representing them as clearly resembling those 
 already described. According to Ulloa, a method of fortifica 
 tion existed, nearly allied to that practiced by the ancient Celts. 
 It consisted in digging three or four ranges of moats quite 
 around the tops of high and steep mountains, protecting them 
 on the inside by walls of earth or stone. These were called 
 pucuras ; and, in some of them, the outer circumvallation is 
 represented as having been upwards of three miles in extent. 
 In respect to their number, he asserts that one scarcely meets 
 with a mountain without them.* Some were composed of rough 
 stones without arrangement, others of adobes. The more irreg 
 ular of these were attributed to the Indians before they were 
 reduced by the Incas. La Yega describes the great fortress 
 of Cuzco as constructed of three immense cyclopean walls, built 
 rather of rocks than stones, surrounding a hill. Acosta meas 
 ured some of the stones, and found them thirty feet in length, 
 eighteen in breadth and six in thickness. The outer wall is 
 said to have been twelve hundred feet in compass. Through 
 the walls were gateways, communicating with the interior? 
 where, according to La Yega, were three strong towers, two of 
 which were square and one round ; the latter appropriated to 
 the use of the Incas, the former to the garrison. Under the 
 towers were subterranean passages of great extent, f It was 
 supplied with water from a fountain in the centre. This is the 
 fortress which so long resisted the attacks of the Spaniards. 
 
 * Ulloa, vol. I., p. 504; vol. II., p. 113. 
 
 f McCulloh, p. 272 ; Bradford, p. 169 ; Schneider, (Ulloa, Mem. Phttos. 
 II., p. 457) says they were vaulted, (ceintrees.} 
 
CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 161 
 
 Similar works exist near the village of Banos, in Huamalies, 
 occupying the summits of two mountains, placed opposite to 
 each other on either side of the river. The sides of the moun 
 tains are divided into galleries, ranged one above the other, in 
 some places formed by artificial walls, and in others cut in the 
 solid rock.* On the road from Potosi to Tacua, are the ruins 
 of an ancient Peruvian city. Upon one side, it is protected by 
 a deep ravine, and on the other by a rampart, the stones com 
 posing which are dovetailed together in a very singular man 
 ner. Within the walls was a citadel or place of last resort, f 
 Ulloa mentions tfre ruins of a fortified palace of the Incas, 
 near Patasilca, one hundred and twenty miles from Lima. 
 " The ruins are of very great extent : the walls are of tempered 
 clay, and about six feet thick. The principal building stood 
 upon an eminence, but the walls were continued to the foot of 
 it, like regular circumvallations : the ascent wound round the 
 hill leaving many angles which probably served as outworks to 
 defend the place. It is called Fortalesa, and is supposed to 
 have been a frontier point, during the time of the Incas."J 
 
 There are also evidences that, on the frontiers of certain por 
 tions of Peru, were constructed walls similar in design to that 
 of Tlascalla. Such a one is said to cross the valley of Guarmey.$ 
 Analogous works exist in Chili. || 
 
 The fortifications of Central America are very much of the 
 same character with those already described. Juarros gives an 
 account of one of these situated upon the river Socoleo. " The 
 approach, as usual to such places, was by a single entrance, and 
 that so narrow as scarcely to permit a horseman to pass it. 
 From the entrance there ran on the right hand a parapet raised 
 on the berme of the fosse, extending along nearly the whole of 
 
 * Mercuric, Peruano, vol. V., p. 259 ; Stevenson, vol. II., p. 100. 
 
 f Andrews' Travels in S. A., vol. II., p. 161. 
 
 J Ulloa, vol. II., p. 27; Stevenson, vol. II., p. 23. 
 
 Ruschenberger, p. 361. 
 
 || Frezier, p. 262; Molina, vol. II., pp. 10, 68. 
 
162 CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 
 
 that side ; several vestiges of the counterscarp and curtain of 
 the walls still remain, besides parts of other works, the use of 
 which cannot now be easily discovered. In the court-yard there 
 stood some large columns upon which were placed quantities of 
 pine-wood, that being set on fire, gave light at night to the sur 
 rounding neighborhood. The citadel of this great fortification 
 was in the form of a square graduated pyramid, rising twelve 
 or fourteen yards from the base to the platform on the top, 
 which was sufficient to admit of ten soldiers upon a side, etc. 
 Every part of this fortress was constructed of hewn stones of 
 great size ; one of which being displaced measured three yards 
 in length by one in breadth."* 
 
 The ruins of Uxmal in Yucatan, described by Mr. Stephens, 
 are represented to be inclosed by a wall of loose stones, f It 
 was not, however, completely traced by that gentleman. In 
 closing the ruins of Tuloom he found a well -constructed wall of 
 regular outline. 
 
 It forms three sides of a parallelogram, the fourth side to 
 ward the sea, being bounded by a precipitous cliff. " It is of 
 rude construction, and composed of rough, flat stones laid upon 
 each other without mortar or cement of any kind, and varies 
 from eight to thirteen feet in thickness. The south side has 
 two gateways, each about five feet wide. At the distance of 
 six hundred and fifty feet, the wall turns at right angles and 
 runs parallel to the sea. At the angle, elevated so as to give 
 a commanding view, is a watch-tower, twelve feet square, which 
 has two doorways. The interior is plain, and against the back 
 wall is a small altar, at which the guard might offer up prayers 
 for the preservation of the city. The west line parallel with 
 the sea, has a single gateway ; at the angle is another watch- 
 tower, like that before described, and the wall then runs straight 
 to the sea. The whole circuit is 2800 feet."| 
 
 * Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 462. 
 
 f Stephens' Yucatan, vol. I., pp. 165, 230. 
 
 | Stephens' Yucatan, vol. II., p. 396. 
 
CHARACTER OF INDIAN DEFENCES. 163 
 
 The remarkable structures within this work, seem to be of a 
 religious origin, suggesting the probability that it was designed 
 as a sacred inclosure. It is not impossible that, as in the case 
 of some of the works of the Aztecs, it was the citadel of the 
 surrounding population, within which, in times of danger, they 
 sought the protection and assistance of their gods. The forti 
 fied hill in the vicinity of Grenville, Ohio, has a small sacred 
 inclosure within its walls. May it not furnish a rude type of 
 the more imposing work above described, and denote a similar 
 practice ?* 
 
 * " Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley," Plate IX. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL STONE CIRCLES. 
 
 WE have noticed, on a preceding page, the fact that occasional 
 large heaps of stone, the work of the aborigines, are to be found 
 in the State of New York. Particular reference was made to 
 one in Scoharie county, which is described more in detail in 
 Howe's Gazetteer of New York, as follows : 
 
 " Between Scoharie creek and Caughnawaga was an Indian 
 trail, and near it, in the north bounds of Scoharie county, has 
 been seen, from time immemorial, a large pile of stones, which 
 has given the name of c stone heap patent ' to the tract on 
 which it occurs, as may be seen from ancient deeds. Indian 
 tradition says that a Mohawk murdered his brother on this spot, 
 and that this heap was erected to commemorate the event. 
 Every individual who passed that way added a stone to the 
 pile, in propitiation of the spirit of the victim."* 
 
 Dwight, in his travels, mentions a heap of stones of this de 
 scription, which was raised over the body of a warrior killed by 
 accident, on the old Indian trail between Hartford and Farm- 
 ington, the seat of the Tunxis Indians, in Connecticut. Rude 
 heaps of stone of similar character are of frequent occurrence 
 throughout the west. A very remarkable one occurs upon the 
 dividing ridge between Indian and Crooked creeks, about ten 
 miles south-west of Chilicothe, Ohio. It is immediately by 
 the side of the old Indian trail which led from the Shawanoe 
 towns, in the vicinity of Chilicothe, to the mouth of the Scioto 
 River ; and consists of a simple heap of stones, rectangular in 
 
 * Howe's Gaz. of New York, p. 278. 
 
STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 165 
 
 form, and measuring one hundred and six feet in length by 
 sixty in width, and between three and four in height. The 
 stones are of all sizes, from those not larger than a man's head, 
 to those which can hardly be lifted. They are such as are 
 found in great abundance on the hill slopes the fragments or 
 debris of the outcropping sandstone layers. Some are water- 
 worn, showing that they were brought up from the creek, near 
 ly half a mile distant : and although they were disposed with 
 no regularity in respect to each other, the heap was originally 
 quite symmetrical in outline. The stones have been thrown 
 out from the centre, and an excavation of considerable depth 
 made in the earth beneath, but without results. The heap is 
 situated upon the highest point of land traversed by the Indian 
 trail : upon the water shed, or dividing ridge between the 
 streams which flow into Brush creek upon the one side and the 
 Scioto River on the other. 
 
 Another heap of stones of like character, but somewhat less 
 in size, is situated upon the top of a high, narrow hill overlook 
 ing the small valley of Salt creek, near Tarlton, Pickaway 
 county, Ohio. It is remarkable as having large numbers of 
 crumbling human bones, to say nothing of living black snakes 
 intermingled, apparently without order, with the stones. A 
 very extensive prospect is had from this point. Upon the slope 
 of a lower hill near by, appears to have been formerly an Indian 
 village. Many rude relics are uncovered on the spot, by the 
 plough. 
 
 Smaller, and very irregular heaps are frequent among the 
 hills. These do not generally embrace more than a couple 
 cart-loads of stone, and almost invariably cover a skeleton. 
 Occasionally the amount of stones is much greater. Rude 
 implements are sometimes found with the skeletons. A num 
 ber of such graves have been observed near Sinking Springs, 
 Highland county, Ohio ; also in Adams county in the same 
 State, and in Greenup county, Kentucky, at a point nearly op 
 posite the town of Portsmouth on the Ohio. 
 
166 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 
 
 A stone heap, somewhat resembling those here described, 
 though considerably less in size, is situated on the Wateree 
 River, in South Carolina, near the mouth of Beaver creek, a 
 few miles above the town of Camden. It is thus described in 
 a MS. letter from Dr. Win. Blanding, late of Camden, ad 
 dressed to Dr. S. Gr. Morton, of Philadelphia : 
 
 " The land here rises for the distance of one mile, and forms 
 a long hill from north to south. On the north point stands what 
 is called the ' Indian Grave.' It is composed of many tons of 
 small round stones, from one to four and five pounds weight. 
 The pile is thirty feet long from east to west, twelve feet broad, 
 and five feet high, so situated as to command an extensive view 
 of the adjacent country, as far as ' Rocky Mount,' a distance 
 of twenty miles above, and of the river for more than three 
 miles, even at its lowest stages." 
 
 A large stone heap was observed, a number of years since, on 
 a prairie, in one of the central counties of Tennessee. " Upon 
 removing the stones, near the centre of the pile, was found a 
 stone box, six feet long and three broad, formed by joining 
 with care the edges of flat stones. Within it was found the 
 decayed skeleton of a. man. No weapons or other relics ac 
 companied the skeleton." 
 
 The smaller stone heaps of the West seem to have been con 
 nected with some system of burial, and were perhaps designed 
 to protect the bodies of those who casually met their death 
 among the hills, or in some rencounter with an enemy, from 
 the attacks of wild animals, as well as to point out their places 
 of sepulture.* It is still customary among some of the Indian 
 
 * " To perpetuate the memory of any remarkable warriors killed in the 
 woods, I must here observe that every Indian traveler, as he passes that 
 way, throws a stone on the place, according as he likes or dislikes the 
 occasion or manner of death of the deceased. In the woods we often 
 see innumerable heaps of small stones in these places, where, according 
 to tradition, some of their distinguished people were either killed or 
 buried, till the bones could be gathered ; then they add Pelion on Ossa, 
 
STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 167 
 
 tribes to carefully envelope the bodies of their dead, and place 
 them in trees, or on scaffoldings, for the same purpose. 
 
 Occasionally, after interment in the earth, stakes are driven 
 around the graves for the sake of protection. Whether the 
 large heap first described was raised over the body of some 
 distinguished savage, or as a simple mark or monument upon 
 the Shawanoe trail, it is difficult to determine. The absence 
 of human remains would seem to favor the latter conclusion. 
 However this may be, there is certainly nothing very remark 
 able in the existence of these monuments. The superstitions 
 of the Indians exhibited themselves in a thousand forms. A 
 spot remarkable in any respect, seldom failed to arouse their 
 superstitions, or attract their reverence, and to become in time 
 a great " medicine," or mystery. According to Acosta, the 
 Peruvians had a superstitious practice of casting a stone as an 
 
 still increasing each heap, as a lasting monument and honor to them, 
 and an incentive to great actions." Adair's History of the American In 
 dians, p. 184. 
 
 " At, or soon after burial, the relations of the deceased sometimes 
 cover the grave with stones, and, for years after, occasionally resort to 
 it, and mourn over, or recount the merits and virtues of the silent ten 
 ant." Hunter's Narrative, p. 309. 
 
 " They have other sorts of tombs ; as when ah Indian is slain, in that 
 very place they make a heap of stones, (or sticks, when stones are not 
 to be found :) to this memorial, every Indian that passes by, adds a 
 stone, to augment the heap in respect to the deceased hero." Lawson's 
 Carolina, (1709,) p. 22. 
 
 LONG describes an Indian burial-place near Piqua, Ohio, where the 
 dead were placed upon the bare limestone rocks, and covered over with 
 slabs of stone. No order was displayed in the arrangement of the 
 graves. A cemetery of like character, in which each grave is marked 
 by a heap of stones, is said to exist in Westmoreland county, Pennsyl 
 vania. 
 
 The Bheels of the mountain district of India still raise cairns, or rude 
 piles of stones, over the bodies of their chiefs, the tops of which, at par 
 ticular periods, is covered with oil, red lead and vermillion. Cokman's 
 Hind. Myth., p. 271. 
 
168 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 
 
 offering, upon any remarkable spot, at the crossings of paths, 
 and on the tops of hills or mountains. " It is therefore," ob 
 serves our authority, " that we find by the highways, great 
 heaps of stones offered, and such other things."* So, too, an 
 early writer on the Housatonic Indians observes : " There is a 
 large heap of stones, I suppose ten cart-loads, in the way to 
 W^anhktukook. which the Indians have thrown together as they 
 passed by the place : for it used to be their custom, every time 
 one passed by, to throw a stone upon it : but what was the end 
 thereof they cannot tell, only that their fathers used to do it, 
 and they do it because it was the custom of their fathers. 
 Some suppose it was designed as an expression of their grati 
 tude to the Supreme Being, that he preserved them to see the 
 place again."f The " Elk-horn pyramid," on the upper Mis 
 souri, is regarded with deep reverence, and no hunter passes it 
 without adding another horn to its proportions. This accumu 
 lation has been going on for a long period, and the pile is now 
 reported to be not far from fifteen feet high, and of correspond 
 ing lateral proportions. It is composed entirely of elk-horns, 
 many of which are to be found upon the adjacent prairies. An 
 instance of this practice of accumulating stones and other ma 
 terials, is mentioned by Mr. Schoolcraft, in which the offerings 
 consisted of sticks and twigs. :f It is highly probable that most 
 of the great heaps of stone scattered over the country, owe 
 their origin to this practice. It is further possible that some 
 of them may have originated in a practice mentioned by Bev 
 erly, who states that the Indians sometimes signalized the 
 conclusion of peace, or some other memorable action, by bury 
 ing a tomahawk, and raising over it a heap of stones. If such 
 was the fact, " burying the hatchet," was not a mere rhetorical 
 figure among the Indian orators. 
 
 * Acosta, in Purchas, vol. III., p. 1028. 
 
 t Hopkins' Memoirs of Housatonic Indians, p. 11. 
 
 ^ Indian in his Wigwam, p. 78. 
 
 Hist. Virginia, p. 164. 
 
STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 169 
 
 Customs, similar in all respects to those described as exist 
 ing among the Indians, prevailed among the ancient Celts, and 
 have hardly become extinct among the Highlanders of Scot 
 land. A cairn, or heap of stones, was the common monument 
 of the dead, and hence arose the saying, " I'll add a stane to 
 yer cairn" in acknowledgment of a service, or in token of re 
 gard. Two motives, however, appear to have existed for throw 
 ing a stone, in passing, to a cairn. In the one case, says 
 Logan, it arose from respect to the deceased, whose memory it 
 was wished to prolong by increasing the size of his funeral 
 mount. The soul of the departed was believed to be pleased 
 with this mark of attention. The other motive for throwing 
 stones to augment a cairn was, to mark with execration the 
 burial-place of a criminal ; a practice which, according to Dr. 
 Smith, was instituted by the Druids. " It is curious," con 
 tinues the above author, " that the same practice should result 
 from views so different ; yet the fact is so, and the author has 
 often, in the days of his youth, passed the grave of a suicide, 
 on which, according to custom, he never failed to fling a stone." 
 
 At the death of Absalom, we are informed, in execration of 
 his memory, his body was cast in a pit, and a heap of stones 
 raised over him. " And they took Absalom, and cast him into 
 a great pit in the wood, and laid a very great heap of stones 
 upon him. and all Israel fled, every one to his tent." (2 Sam 
 uel xviii. 17.) A similar expression of popular hatred was vis 
 ited upon the avaricious Achan. " And all Israel stoned him 
 with stones, and they raised over him a great heap of stones." 
 (Joshua vii.) 
 
 We also learn from the Scriptures that the ancients erected 
 heaps of stone to mark spots signalized by some remarkable 
 event. Thus, Jacob raised a pillar of stone to commemorate 
 his wonderful dream. The spot where he parted with his 
 brother Esau, was marked in a like manner. The priests 
 caused a mound of stones to be erected where the Israelites 
 crossed the river Jordan, and Grilgal, their second encampment, 
 8 
 
170 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 
 
 was indicated by a heap of stones. Greek historians inform 
 us that a similar custom existed among that people, derived 
 from their ancestors Every memorable field of battle, through 
 out Greece, has its tumulus or polyandrum. 
 
 The ancients erected heaps of stones in the cross-ways, and 
 every traveler augmented it by adding a stone. These were 
 termed Thermula. The pilgrims of the Middle Ages did the 
 same, when they came within view of the end of their journeys ; 
 the piles which they erected were called Montjoyes. In the 
 passes of the Alps, rude heaps of stone are visible, marking 
 the spot of some deed of violence, or of some catastrophe. 
 Similar heaps were often used to designate boundaries ; and, 
 in the early explorations of the western parts of our own coun 
 try, were erected to mark the corners of surveys, or " loca 
 tions." The bounds between Jacob and Laban were thus 
 indicated. " And Laban said to Jacob, Behold this heap, and 
 behold this pillar, which I have cast up betwixt me and thee. 
 This heap be witness and this pillar be witness that I will not 
 pass over this heap to thee, and thou shalt not pass over this 
 heap and this pillar unto me, for harm." ( Genesis xxxi. 51, 52.) 
 
 We have an instance, mentioned by Lieut. Emory, in which 
 an erect stone was raised by some of the Indians of Northern 
 Mexico in commemoration of a treaty or compact. He says, 
 " At this point, (on the plains bordering the Moro River, New 
 Mexico,) we were attracted to the left by an object which we 
 supposed to be an Indian ; but on corning up to it, we found it 
 to be a sandstone block standing on end, surmounted by ano 
 ther shorter block. A mountain man, versed in these signs, 
 said it was in commemoration of a talk and friendly smoke 
 between some two or three tribes of Indians."* 
 
 The superstitions of the Indians extended to remarkable 
 objects in nature. A tree or stone of singular form seldom 
 failed to command their reverence. A stone which, from the 
 
 * Military Keconnoissance from U. S. to California, p. 24. 
 
 
STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 
 
 171 
 
 action of natural causes, has assumed the general form of a 
 man or an animal, is especially an object of regard ; and the 
 fancied resemblance is often heightened by artificial means, as 
 by daubs of paint, indicating the eyes, mouth and other fea 
 tures. Mr. Schoolcraft has presented the public with sketches 
 of a number of these rude idols, all of which were found to the 
 
 FIG. 35. 
 
 northwest of the Great Lakes. Number 1 in the cut was 
 brought to the Indian Office at Mackinaw in 1839 : number 2 
 was found on Thunder Bay Island in Lake Huron in 1820, 
 where it had been set up under a tree. The island is small 
 and barren, and in its solitary, desolate aspect furnished a 
 place eminently appropriate, according to the Indian supersti 
 tion, for the residence of a Manitou or spirit. Number 3 was 
 found by Mr. Schoolcraft 
 about one thousand miles 
 above the Falls of St. An 
 thony, on the Mississippi. 
 It had been set up in a 
 shadowy nook, and was al 
 most entirely concealed by 
 shrubbery.* Figure 36, No. 
 1, was found in East Hart 
 ford, Connecticut, and depo- FIG. 36. 
 
 * Indian in his Wigwam, p. 292. 
 
172 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 
 
 sited in the Museum of Yale College in 1788. It is thirty-one 
 inches high and seventeen wide ; the material is white granite. 
 It is said the Indians placed their dead before it previous to 
 burial, and afterward returned and danced around it.* Number 
 2 was found at the base of a mound in South Carolina, and is 
 now in the possession of Dr. S. Gr. Morton, of Philadelphia. 
 It is small, not more than six inches in height, and has evi 
 dently undergone some artificial modification. 
 
 Single erect stones, or a group of them, of large size, in iso 
 lated situations were also venerated. They are sometimes 
 covered with rude figures, and sacrifices made at their base. 
 Lewis and Clark, Prince Maximilian, and other travelers men 
 tion some of these, which in size and general disposition closely 
 resemble the Celtic cromlech.^ Catlin remarked a singular 
 group of five large boulders, at the Coteau des Prairies, which 
 were regarded with the utmost veneration by the Indians. 
 None venture to approach nearer than three or four rods, and 
 sacrifices are made in humble attitude, by throwing tobacco 
 toward them from a distance.^ It is well known that among 
 the nations of the East, a plain, unwrought stone, placed in the 
 ground, was an emblem of the generative or procreative powers 
 of nature. In India such stones are very abundant, and are 
 denominated Linghams ; and in Central America the same 
 symbol was extensively adopted. It is not improbable that 
 the erection of an obelisk of wood in the centre of the conse 
 crated areas of the Creeks, as described by Bartram, on page 
 121 of "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," had 
 its origin in the primitive practice of erecting these symbolical 
 stones ; which in India, as also in Central America, almost 
 invariably occupy the centres of the sacred inclosures. Stones 
 arranged in a circle, around a central larger one, or amid 
 
 * Trans. Am. Acad. Arts and Sciences, vol. III., p. 192. 
 f Lewis and Clark, pp. 79, 83 ; Prince Maximilian's Travels, pp. 381, 
 417. 
 J N. A. Indians, vol. II., p. 202. 
 
STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 173 
 
 several disposed in a peculiar manner, was a very primitive 
 form of the solar temple. The remains of these temples, not 
 withstanding their rudeness, constitute some of the most im 
 posing and interesting monuments of the Old World. If we 
 may credit Beverly, the Indians of Virginia not only erected 
 sacred stones, but had sacred inclosures, corresponding very 
 nearly with the ancient stone circles. He says : " The Indians 
 have posts fixed around their Quioccasan (temple of the idol), 
 which have men's faces carved upon them, and are painted. 
 They are likewise set up around some of their other celebrated 
 places, and make a circle for them to dance about in, on certain 
 solemn occasions. They very often set up pyramidal stones 
 and pillars, which they color with puccoon and other sorts of 
 paint, and which they adorn with peak, roenoke, etc. To these 
 they pay all outward signs of worship and devotion, not as to 
 God, but as they are hieroglyphics of the permanency and im 
 mutability of the Deity : because these, of all sublunary bodies, 
 are the least subject to decay or change ; they also, for the 
 same reason, keep baskets of stones in their cabins."* 
 
 Besides the rough, upright and wrought stones, constituting 
 inclosures, or occupying the areas of sacred structures, in Cen 
 tral America and Yucatan, accounts of which are given by Mr. 
 Stephens, we have the intelligence of the recent discovery of 
 monuments, in New Grenada, (South America,) which exhibit 
 a still closer relationship to the primitive stone circles and 
 other analogous structures of the other continent. The sub 
 joined account is given in a letter from Signer Yelez, dated 
 Bogota, December, 1846: 
 
 " In traversing, at different times, the province of Tunja, 
 with the sole purpose of examining the country, I acquired 
 some vague information respecting the presumed existence, in 
 the province of Leiva, of some ruins belonging to a temple or 
 a palace of the times of the ancient Indians. As the account 
 
 * Hist. Virginia, p. 184. 
 
174 
 
 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 
 
 varied each time that I attempted to inform myself by inqui 
 ries, as to the existence of remains of buildings anterior to the 
 conquest, and as no one affirmed that he had seen them himself, 
 I began to doubt the truth of the report. Nevertheless, as the 
 subject was one that interested me exceedingly, I undertook a 
 journey, in the month of June, 1846, in spite of the time and 
 trouble it would necessarily cost me, in order to put an end to 
 my uncertainty. After traversing the province of Leiva in 
 different directions, without meeting with the object I was in 
 search of, and after advancing as far as the neighborhood of 
 Moniquira, by following the route from Gachantiva to this 
 place, across a beautiful gently sloping plain under cultivation, 
 I discovered a large stone, which, when seen some distance off, 
 did not at first appear as if wrought by the hand of man. On 
 approaching it, I found it was a sort of column, 4 varas in 
 length by 3 in diameter. It seemed to me that such stones, 
 although rudely wrought, must have served as columns. On 
 examining the locality, I found, scattered here and there, other 
 stones similar to the first, and at last, 13 stones of the largest 
 size, ranged as in a circle about 50 varas in circumference. It 
 appeared to me that they must have proceeded from some tem 
 ple or palace, extending back to a remote period. Some of 
 these columns have a flattened shape like a fish; each has 
 notches at its extremities, which show clearly what means were 
 employed for making fast to them, and drawing them from the 
 quarry to the site which they now occupy. 
 
 ; ' But now, when I began to despair of meeting with the ru 
 ins of an edifice, which was the main object of my journey, some 
 Indians from a hut pointed out to me a spot some 400 varas 
 distant from the thirteen last-mentioned columns. I imme 
 diately proceeded thither, and great indeed was my joy at be 
 holding ruins ! I found cylindrical columns, exceedingly well 
 wrought, fixed in the ground, and occupying a surface 45 varas 
 long by 22 broad. These ruins extend, in the direction of 
 their length, from east to west ; some arranged in a straight 
 
STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 175 
 
 line running in the same direction, with this peculiarity, that 
 the columns are so near together that their distance from each 
 other does not exceed half a vara. Their circumference also is 
 not over half a vara (sic) ; as to their length, it could not be 
 determined, these remains being so much damaged, that the 
 highest of them is not more than ! vara above ground; others 
 are scarcely visible, the ranges to which they belong being in 
 terrupted. The diameter of these columns is precisely alike ; 
 they resemble each other exactly, and are so well turned into a 
 cylindrical shape, that they seemed to me of better workman 
 ship than those now made use of at Bogota ; they form, by their 
 lightness and elegance, a striking contrast with the thirteen 
 enormous fragments mentioned above. 
 
 " It is impossible to affirm that the edifice in question was 
 only 45 varas long and 22 broad, because, in this space, the 
 columns touch each other. Over the whole extent of the place, 
 which covers a considerable surface, there are scattered numer 
 ous fragments of columns, as also of other stones which appear 
 to have been wrought on one of their faces. At a distance of 
 100 varas, I also found a spot covered with brambles and a 
 considerable number of stones, which, from a cursory examina 
 tion, I concluded to have been wrought. The columns which 
 remain sunk in the ground, are about twenty-nine in number. 
 
 " In all that I saw, I observed no trace of mortar, lime, or 
 any other cement. By taking up some of these columns, some 
 may, perhaps, be found. 
 
 " The examination of these vestiges made a deep impression 
 upon me, and I became convinced that the territory which con 
 tains them, and which is about two miles in extent, must have 
 been occupied by a large city and, as I conclude, by a nation 
 much more ancient than the Muyscas. 
 
 " The ignorance which has always reigned in the province of 
 Tunja, explains the little attention shown to monuments so in 
 teresting, and so worthy of being studied. The inhabitants of 
 the country have alone been acquainted with them up to the 
 
176 STONE HEAPS STONES OF MEMORIAL, ETC. 
 
 present time ; and although not comparable in importance and 
 grandeur to those which have been discovered in Guatemala 
 and Yucatan, they nevertheless attest the existence of ancient 
 populations already far advanced in civilization." 
 
 Monuments analogous to those here described, are found on 
 the shores of Lake Titicaca, in Peru. Their origin is lost in 
 obscurity, and they are supposed, by M. De Orbigny, who has 
 carefully investigated, and given the world drawings of them 
 to have been the work of a race anterior to the Incas, denoting, 
 perhaps, a more advanced civilization than the monuments of 
 Palenque. They have been described by a number of the early 
 writers, commencing with Pedro de Ceica, one of the followers 
 of Pizarro. M. De Orbigny speaks of them as follows : u These 
 monuments consist of a mound raised nearly a hundred feet, 
 surrounded with pillars of temples from six to twelve hundred 
 feet in length, opening precisely toward the east, and adorned 
 with colossal angular columns of porticoes of a single stone, 
 covered with reliefs of skillful execution, though of rude design, 
 displaying symbolical representations of the sun, and the condor 
 his messenger of basaltic statues loaded with bas-reliefs, in 
 which the design of the carved head is half Egyptian and 
 lastly, of the interior of a palace formed of enormous blocks of 
 rock completely hewn, whose dimensions are often twenty-one 
 feet in length, twelve in breadth, and six in thickness. In the 
 temples and palaces, the portals are not inclined as among those 
 of the Incas, but perpendicular ; and their vast dimensions, 
 and the imposing masses of which they are composed, surpass 
 in beauty and grandeur all that were afterward built by the 
 sovereigns of Cuzco."* 
 
 * L'Home Americain, torn. I., p. 323. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE AMERI 
 CAN ABORIGINES, WITH THOSE OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDERS, 
 CELTS, ETC. 
 
 THE resemblances which the defensive works of the mound- 
 builders, as well as of the later and existing Indian tribes, bear 
 to those of many other rude nations, in various parts of the 
 world, are no less striking than interesting. These resem 
 blances have, however, had the effect of misleading superficial 
 investigators, or those who have only paid incidental attention 
 to these subjects. They have hastily inferred that, because 
 certain monuments and aboriginal relics of the United States, 
 such as entrenched hills, tumuli, and instruments and orna 
 ments of stone and copper, sustain analogies, in some instances 
 almost amounting to identities, with those occurring in the 
 British Islands and on the steppes of Russia, that relations 
 must necessarily have existed between the builders, or that 
 they had a common origin. These resemblances are, never 
 theless, the inevitable results of similar conditions ; and the 
 ancient Celts and Scythians, the American Indians, and the 
 natives of Australia, built their hill-forts, and fashioned their 
 flint arrow-points and stone axes in like manner, because they 
 thus accomplished common objects, in the simplest and most 
 obvious mode. Human development must be, if not in pre 
 cisely the same channels, in the same direction, and must pass 
 through the same stages. We cannot be surprised, therefore, 
 that the earlier, as in fact the later monuments of every people, 
 exhibit resemblances more or less striking. What is thus true 
 8* 
 
178 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE 
 
 physically, or rather monumentally, is not less so in respect to 
 intellectual and moral development. And it is not to be 
 denied that the want of a sufficient allowance for natural and 
 inevitable coincidences, has led to many errors in tracing the 
 origin and affinities of nations. 
 
 We find not only in the British islands, but also in the 
 islands of the Pacific ocean, the almost exact counterparts of 
 the defensive structures of our own country. " The places of 
 defence of the Sandwich Islanders," says Ellis, " were rocky 
 fortresses improved by art, narrow defiles or valleys, shel 
 tered by projecting eminences, passes among the mountains, 
 difficult of access, yet allowing their inmates a secure and 
 extensive range, and an unobstructed passage to some stream 
 or spring. The celebrated Pare (fortress), in Atehuru, was 
 of this kind ; the mouth of the valley in which it was situated 
 was built up with a stone wall, and those who fled thither for 
 shelter were usually able to repel their assailants. 
 
 " Several of these places are very extensive ; that at Maeva, 
 in Huahine, near Mouna Tabui, is probably the best in the 
 islands. It is a square of about half a mile on each side, and 
 incloses many acres of ground well stocked with bread-fruit, 
 containing several springs, and having within its precincts the 
 principal temple of their tutelar deity. The walls are of solid 
 stone-work, twelve feet in height. On the top of the walls, 
 which were even and well paved, and in some places ten or 
 twelve feet thick, the warriors kept watch and slept. Their 
 houses were built within, and it was considered sufficiently 
 large to contain the whole population. There were four prin 
 cipal openings in the wall, at regular distances from each other, 
 that at the west being called the King's road. They were 
 designed for ingress and egress ; and during a siege, were built 
 up with loose stones, when it was considered &pari haabuea, an 
 impregnable fortress." (Ellis 1 Polynesian Researches, vol. I, 
 pp. 313, 314.) 
 
 The New Zealanders were not deficient in defensive skill. 
 
DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES. 179 
 
 Cook describes one of their strongholds or Heppahs at length. 
 His account, from the light which it affords as to the probable 
 manner in which the embankments of the western works were 
 surmounted, is subjoined entire : 
 
 " Near this place is a high point or peninsula projecting into 
 the river, and upon it are the remains of a fort, which they call 
 Eppah or Heppah. The best engineers could not have chosen 
 a situation better adapted to enable a small number to defend 
 themselves against a greater. The steepness of the cliffs ren 
 ders it wholly inaccessible from the water, which incloses it on 
 three sides ; and, to the land, it is fortified by a ditch, and a 
 bank raised on the inside. From the top of the bank to the 
 bottom of the ditch is twenty-two feet ; the ditch on the out 
 side is fourteen feet deep, and broad in proportion. The whole 
 seemed to be executed with great judgment, and there had 
 been a row of palisadoes, both on the top of the bank and along 
 the brink of the ditch on the outside ; those on the outside 
 had been driven very deep in the ground, and were inclined 
 towards the ditch so as to project over it ; but of these, the 
 thickest only were left, and upon them were evident marks 
 of fire, so that the place had probably been taken and de 
 stroyed by an enemy. If occasion should make it necessary 
 for a ship to winter or stay here, tents might be built in this 
 place, which is sufficiently spacious, and might easily be made 
 impregnable to the whole country." (Cootts Second Voyage.) 
 
 The following additional particulars respecting the construc 
 tion and defence of the Heppah, by a later writer, and a 
 long resident of New Zealand, may serve to explain some of 
 the features of the aboriginal structures of our own country, 
 as also the probable manner in which they were defended. 
 
 " The fortifications of the natives are called Pa (fort), or E' 
 Pa (the fort). The spots chosen for these defences equally 
 evince sound judgment and habitual fear. The position ac 
 counted as best adapted for the purpose, is the summit of a 
 high hill, overlooking the surrounding country, or a mountain- 
 
IbO 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE 
 
 ous pass, having at its foot a river or running stream. Insular 
 retreats, distant a, few miles from the main, are also in especial 
 repute. The first procedure is to escarp the hill, so as to 
 render the ascent difficult and dangerous to a foe. Remains 
 of such works are to be found on every remarkable elevation 
 throughout the country. The further defences consist of two, 
 sometimes of three stout stockades of irregularly sized posts 
 and poles, varying from eight to thirty feet high from the 
 ground, into which they are thrust from three to seven feet. 
 The large posts are placed about a dozen feet apart, on which 
 are often carved ludicrous representations of men and animals ; 
 the spaces between the poles being filled with stakes, placed 
 close together, and bound firmly with horizontal pieces by a 
 creeper called toro-toro, which is tough and serviceable for a 
 long period. These strongholds have often proved superior to 
 any force the natives could bring against them. Few instances 
 have occurred of a Pa being taken by a brisk siege ; they have 
 failed only when cowardice, treachery, or improvidence have 
 aided the assailants. The stockades that inclose the fort are 
 within a few feet of each other, the outer gate or entrance 
 being much less than the inner opening, which, in time of war, 
 is entered by stepping-stones or small wooden posts like a turn 
 stile. The width is so contracted as scarcely to admit a large- 
 sized man, and between the fences a fosse is often cut, about 
 four feet in depth, sheltering the besieged while discharging 
 their missiles at the enemy. A more confused scene can 
 scarcely be conceived than a Pa during a siege. Some hun 
 dreds of low arched huts lie huddled together without regu 
 larity, streets, or paths ; among these, some native palaces raise 
 their roofs, and platforms (watas) built on trees for the preser 
 vation of food, and not for defensive purposes. Mounds are 
 often erected during a night by an enemy, to overlook the 
 interior of a fort, but they are of rare occurrence. The huts 
 near the tidpa or stockades are covered with earth and clay, to 
 render them secure to the inmates. 
 
 L_ 
 
DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES. 181 
 
 " Some forts have been selected with consummate skill, 
 having the command of mountain gorges and narrow passes, 
 which might keep in check an army, if defended by a handful 
 of brave men. Various contrivances are invented to render 
 an approach to a fortification difficult of access Sometimes a 
 wooden post with notches for the feet affords the only means 
 of entering the fort. The Pa formed by the celebrated 
 E'Ongi, on a promontory jutting into Lake Moperri, was a 
 work of much merit, and added greatly to the consequence of 
 the self-taught engineer among his countrymen." (Pollock's 
 New Zealand, vol. II., p. 26.) 
 
 It appears from these facts, that whatever estimate we may 
 place upon the capabilities of the Pacific and South Sea 
 Islanders in other respects, they are, in the language of a close 
 observer, " sufficiently advanced in civilization to construct 
 fortifications, and adapt them to the nature of the country in 
 which they are required." (Laing's Polynesian Nations, 
 p. 108.) 
 
 The defensive works of Great Britain present a great variety 
 of forms, betraying different authors and different eras of con 
 struction. First of all, we have the works of the ancient 
 Celts, of irregular outline, and occupying strong natural posi 
 tions. These are succeeded by the fortified camps and other 
 defences of the Roman era, which are followed by the less 
 regular but more laborious works of the Belgic or Saxon 
 period. 
 
 During the earliest or Celtic period, a large proportion of 
 the barrows or tumuli scattered over the islands were erected ; 
 then, also, were built those mysterious circles and long avenues 
 which bear so striking a resemblance to the ancient structures 
 of our own country. 
 
 In the choice of their military positions, the ancient Britons 
 were governed by the same obvious rules which regulated the 
 mound-builders and the American Indians generally ad 
 vantage in all cases being taken of the natural features of the 
 
182 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE 
 
 country. Their defences were usually erected on headlands, a 
 single wall being carried along the brow of the promontory, 
 while the level approaches were protected by a succession of 
 embankments and ditches, with occasional outworks or advance 
 posts. In some instances, steep, isolated hills were selected, 
 which were defended by a series of concentric embankments, 
 completely encircling the summit, a method of construction, 
 as we have already seen, most frequently adopted by the 
 Peruvians. 
 
 The subjoined examples of ancient British fortresses, are 
 reduced from plans presented by Sir R C. Hoare. 
 
 FIG. 37. 
 
 Fig. 37 is situated in the county of Wilts, in the parish of 
 Colerne, near the road leading to Bath, and is known to 
 British antiquaries under the different titles of " North Wood " 
 and "Bury Wood Camp." "Its shape resembles that of a 
 heart, its pointed part resting in an angle between two streams. 
 
DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES, 183 
 
 Its area comprehends twenty-five acres, and it appears to have 
 had only one entrance toward the S. W., and that placed 
 exactly in the centre of the ramparts, which on this side are 
 double and rectilinear, the ground being level and most acces 
 sible on this side. On the N. "W. side, near the outward val 
 lum, but within the area of the camp, is a small earthen work 
 (a), single ditched, with an entrance to the west." (Ancient 
 Wiltshire, vol. II., p. 104.) 
 
 '. M % 1-- ">} "lie j .' 
 
 FIG. 38. 
 
 Fig. 38 is situated in the same section of country with the 
 work just described, in the vicinity of Castle Combe, from 
 which it is named. " It is placed," says Hoare, " in a very 
 strange and picturesque situation, on the point of a very steep 
 hill, at whose base flows a rapid brook. It is very difficult of 
 access. The foundation of walls, a raised mound, and other 
 circumstances, induce me to attribute to it a Saxon origin; and 
 history reports its having been ravaged by the Danes. Its 
 area is eight and a half acres ; its form is rather oblong, but 
 
184 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE 
 
 wider toward the north, where the ground is most easy of 
 access, and where the adit into the camp has been placed. On 
 entering the work at this point, and proceeding toward the 
 southern extremity, where the ground is most precipitate, we 
 meet with three lines of ramparts, which intersect the area of 
 the camp, through two of which there is an opening ; the 
 eastern point was fortified by a raised mound." (Ib. vol. II., 
 p. 101.) 
 
 The singular vitrified forts of Scotland are suggested in this 
 connection. They appear to have been composed of loose stones, 
 which, by some process of vitrification, were made to present the 
 outward features of solid rocks, and have long perplexed anti 
 quarians. Some have attributed the vitrification to lightning, 
 others to accidental conflagration, while a few, more daring in 
 their speculations, have considered them the craters of ex 
 tinguished volcanos ! It has also been supposed that vast de 
 fences of wood once surrounded and surmounted the ramparts, 
 by the casual burning of which they were vitrified. There is, 
 however, every reason to believe, that this feature was the result 
 of design, although it is not easy to explain how it was produced. 
 Dr. Anderson, in a communication to the Society of Anti 
 quarians, in 1777, gives an account of a remarkable work of 
 this description, called Knockferral, in Ross-Shire. It is placed 
 on a high ridge of an oblong-shaped hill, very steep on three 
 sides, the walls being raised on the edge of a precipice all round, 
 except at the end admitting entrance into the area, the inclosed 
 space of nearly an acre being level : features readily recognizable 
 as also belonging to our American " Hill Forts." The ap 
 proaches to this work, as those of all others of the same descrip 
 tion, are strengthened by additional ramparts. " Those at the 
 entry," says our authority, " had extended, as I guessed, about 
 one hundred yards, and seemed to have consisted of cross-walls, 
 one behind the other, eight or ten in number; the ruins of 
 which are still plainly perceptible. Through each of these walls 
 there must have been a gate, so that the besiegers would have 
 
DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 185 
 
 been under the necessity of forcing each of these gates succes 
 sively, before they could carry the fort ; on the opposite end of 
 
 
 Fio. 39. 
 
 the hill, as the ground is considerably steeper, the outworks 
 seem not to have extended above twenty yards. Not far 
 from the farther end, was a well (a), now filled up. The wall 
 all around from the inside appears to be only a mound of rub- 
 
186 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE 
 
 bish, consisting of loose stones : the vitrified wall is only to be 
 seen from the outside. Here the wall is covered with a crust 
 of about two feet in thickness, consisting of stones immersed 
 among vitrified matter ; some of the stones being half fused 
 themselves, all of them having evidently suffered a considera 
 ble heat. The crust is of an equal thickness of about two feet 
 from the top to the bottom, so as to lie upon, and be sup 
 ported by, a backing of loose stones, forming in section an acute 
 angle. Within the crust of the vitrified matter is another 
 stratum of some thickness, parallel to the former, and consist 
 ing of loose stones, which have been scorched by the fire, but 
 present no marks of fusion." 
 
 It will be perceived that in position, mode of construction, 
 etc., these defences are indistinguishable from those of America. 
 They might be regarded, so far as their apparent features are 
 concerned, as the work of the same people ; yet they were con 
 structed by different races, separated from each other by ocean 
 wastes, and having little in common, except the possession of 
 those savage passions which have reddened every page of the 
 world's history with blood. They serve only further to illus 
 trate how naturally, and almost of necessity, men similarly cir 
 cumstanced hit upon common methods of meeting their wants, 
 and do not necessarily establish a common origin, nor a constant 
 or casual intercourse. 
 
 The Roman camps, vestiges of which are abundant through 
 out England and on the continent, also bear a close analogy to 
 a large class of the more regular Western earth-works, though 
 probably differing widely from them in the purposes for which 
 they were erected. " The Romans, from the earliest period, 
 paid particular attention to the security of their armies, by 
 choosing the best situations for their camps that the circum 
 stances would permit. They did not, however, trust to natural 
 strength alone making it an invariable rule, wherever they 
 came, to inclose themselves within an entrenchment, consisting 
 of a rampart and ditch, strengthened with palisades. The forti- 
 
DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ABORIGINES. 187 
 
 fications were of a stronger or weaker character, according to 
 the nearness of an enemy, or the appearance of danger with 
 which they were threatened at the time. The form of the 
 Roman camp was square, contrary to that adopted by the 
 Greeks, who made theirs round, triangular, or of any other 
 shape, as best suited the nature of the ground." (Roy's Mili 
 tary Antiquities of England, p. 41.) The angles of the Roman 
 camp were rounded, on a radius of about sixty feet, and there 
 were gateways midway upon each side ; sometimes, if the camps 
 were of large size, there were several passages upon each side. 
 These entrances were usually protected by exterior mounds, or 
 by overlapping walls, and occasionally outworks were erected. 
 The temporary camps, castra astiva, or those not designed for 
 constant occupation, had comparatively slight entrenchments, 
 the ditch being about six feet deep, and the parapet behind it 
 only about four feet high. The castra stativa were generally 
 much smaller than the temporary camps, and were strongly pro 
 tected. They were designed to contain garrisons, either to 
 guard a frontier or keep in awe newly conquered provinces. 
 Two ranges of them were erected shortly after the time of Agri- 
 cola, upon the frontiers of Caledonia, placed at short intervals 
 apart between the Clyde and Forth, and the Tyne and Solway, 
 nearly upon the line afterward occupied by the walls of Had 
 rian, Antoninus Pius, and Severus. The smaller sort of castra 
 stativa were termed castella, answering in a great degree to the 
 field-forts and redoubts made use of by modern armies. 
 
 The following cut, Fig. 40, is a plan of the camp of a single 
 Roman legion, according to Polybius, and is introduced more to 
 illustrate the different methods of protecting the gateways, than 
 to serve any other purpose. In some of the Western military 
 works, as may be seen by reference to the first volume of Smith 
 sonian Contributions, gateways occur similar to that at A. In 
 the more regular structures of the West, however, the mound 
 covering the gateway is invariably placed interior to the walls, 
 which circumstance, joined to others less equivocal, goes to sus- 
 
188 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW, ETC. 
 
 tain the conclusion that such works were not constructed for 
 defence. The Roman camps had frequently two, sometimes 
 
 FIG. 40. 
 
 four or more, lines of embankment, with flanking defences, horn- 
 works, etc. The stone and earth circles of England are all 
 ascribed to the Celts; the rectangular works to the Romans. 
 Throughout the islands, no works occur in which the two figures 
 are combined, as in the Mississippi valley. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, PERuJ 
 AND CHILI. 
 
 MOUNDS are found in Oregon ; but little is known concerning 
 them, except that they occur in the open prairies, are of small 
 size (seldom more than six or seven feet in height), and are 
 many thousands in number. Some of them were opened by 
 Com. Wilkes. but found to contain nothing beyond a pavement 
 of round stones. Their origin is involved in obscurity. Al 
 though professing to know nothing concerning them, the Indians 
 nevertheless regard them with some degree of veneration. 
 Their priests, or " medicine men," gather the wild herbs which 
 grow upon them, for use in their incantations and superstitious 
 rites. It seems unlikely that they were built by a people so 
 rude as those found in present occupation of the country. (Ex 
 ploring Expedition, vol. IV., p. 313.) 
 
 It is not known that any mounds occur in Upper or indeed 
 in Lower California. A few are found in New Mexico, and in 
 the valley of the Gila ; but we are ignorant of their character 
 and contents. The aboriginal Mexicans often buried in the 
 pyramidal structures constituting their temples ; and it is pre 
 sumed, although we have no direct evidence of the fact, that 
 they sometimes erected tumuli over their dead. The plain 
 surrounding the great pyramids of Teotihuacan is covered with 
 mounds, chiefly of stone, and disposed with a great deal of reg 
 ularity; it is called Micoatl, or Path of the Dead* These 
 
 *Mr. Thompson, in his "Recollections of Mexico (pp. 138, 142), 
 expresses the opinion that what have been very generally supposed 
 to be sepulchral mounds around these pyramids, are not such in fact, 
 
190 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC. 
 
 pyramids are, however, ascribed to the Toltecs, who preceded 
 the Aztecs in the possession of the valley of Anahuac ; and it 
 is reasonable to believe that the numerous tumuli which sur 
 round them, whatever their purposes, were built by the same 
 hands. 
 
 If the practice of erecting mounds over the dead prevailed at 
 all among the Mexicans, it must have been to a very limited 
 extent. This is inferred from the silence of all the ancient 
 authorities, who, although giving us very minute accounts of 
 their burial customs, say nothing concerning such structures. 
 It was usual to burn the dead, and the rite was performed with 
 many ceremonies.. In cases where simple inhumation was 
 practised, the body was placed in a sitting posture, in chambers 
 of stone or brick, accompanied by their ornaments and the 
 implements of their profession. Bernal Diaz mentions the 
 explorations of Figuero, an officer among the conquerors, who, in 
 the territory of the Zapoticas, employed himself " in discovering 
 the burial-places of the Caziques, and in opening their graves 
 for the sake of the golden ornaments which the inhabitants of 
 olden times were accustomed to bury with their chiefs. This 
 employment he prosecuted with so much vigor and success, 
 that he collected in this manner over 100.000 dollars worth of 
 gold." (Lockharfs Diaz, vol. II., p. 322.) It will be observed 
 that Diaz speaks of these tombs as belonging to the people who 
 inhabited the country in the olden time probably the Toltecs, 
 among which branch of the American family the practice of 
 mound-building seems to have been of universal prevalence. 
 
 Sepulchral mounds are abundant in many parts of Central 
 America. In the vicinity of the ruins of Ichmul, in Yucatan, 
 they are particularly numerous, covering the plain for miles in 
 every direction. Some of these are forty feet in height. Sev 
 eral have been opened and found to contain chambers, inclos- 
 
 but simply the ruins of the houses composing an ancient town. His 
 opinion, for reasons which the inquirer will find explained at large in 
 his book, is entitled to consideration. 
 
SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC. 191 
 
 ing skeletons, placed in a sitting position with small vessels of 
 pottery at their feet. (Norman's Yucatan,}*. 146.) In Hon 
 duras, says Herrara, were many tombs of the inhabitants ; 
 ; ' some of which were large plain rooms, and others only like 
 great heaps of earth. In the territory of Zenu," continues this 
 author, " abundance of graves were found in a field near a tem 
 ple, so ancient that large trees were growing over them ; and 
 within them was an immense quantity of gold, besides what the 
 Indians took, and what still is lost underground. These 
 graves were very magnificent, adorned with broad stones and 
 vaults, in which the dead body was laid, and all their wealth, 
 jewels, and arms, women and servants alive, with good stores 
 of provisions and pitchers of their liquors, which denoted the 
 knowledge they had of the immortality of the soul. The dead 
 were buried sitting, clothed and well armed." (Herrara^ vol. 
 IV., p. 221.) 
 
 Mr. Stephens excavated a sepulchral mound in the vicinity 
 of San Francisco, in Yucatan. It was a square stone structure, 
 with sides four feet high ; and the top was rounded over with 
 stones and earth. The interior was loose earth and stones, with 
 some layers of large flat stones, the whole very rough. After 
 digging six hours, he came to a flat stone of large size, beneath 
 which was a skeleton. The knees were bent against the stomach, 
 the arms doubled from the elbow, and the hands supporting the 
 neck or head. With this skeleton was found a large vase, the 
 mouth of which was covered with a flat stone. It was empty, 
 except some little, hard, black flakes at the bottom. Mr. Ste 
 phens conjectures that it may have contained some liquid, or 
 the heart of the skeleton. (Trav. in Yucatan, vol. I., p. 277.) 
 
 In South America, and particularly in Peru, the custom of 
 erecting mounds over the dead was of general prevalence. The 
 sepulchral tumuli of Peru were called huacas or guacas. They 
 exhibit many features in common with the burial mounds of 
 the Mississippi valley, and establish that funeral customs, in 
 many respects similar to those practised by the race of the 
 
192 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC. 
 
 mounds, prevailed among the ancient inhabitants of that coun 
 try. Their form is generally that of a simple cone ; sometimes 
 they are slightly elliptical, and occasionally rectangular. Their 
 usual height is said to be not far from forty to fifty feet, though 
 some are mentioned which are upwards of one hundred feet in 
 altitude. They are scattered in great profusion over the coun 
 try ; but, according to Ulloa, are " most abundant within the 
 jurisdiction of the town of Cayambe, where the plains are 
 covered with them, for the reason that formerly here was one 
 of the principal temples of the ancient inhabitants, which it was 
 supposed communicated a sacred character to the surrounding 
 country, which was therefore chosen for the burial-place of the 
 kings and caziques of Quito ; and in imitation of them, all the 
 chiefs of the villages were interred there. The remarkable 
 difference," continues this author, " in the magnitude of these 
 monuments, seems to indicate that the guacas were always suit 
 able to the character, dignity, or riches of the person interred, 
 as indeed the vassals under some of the most potent caziques 
 concurred in raising a mound over his body." (Ulloa, vol. 
 I., p. 480.) It may be regarded as settled, that, as a general 
 thing, none but the bodies of deceased chieftains and other 
 persons of consequence were deposited in the huacas, and that 
 those of the common people were buried in simple graves. 
 Within the huacas, upon the original surface of the ground, are 
 found chambers constructed of stone, brick, or timber ; some 
 times there are several of them, with connecting galleries, in 
 which the dead were placed. The bodies are usually found 
 occupying a sitting posture. With them were placed a great vari 
 ety of articles, ornaments, and implements. Vast quantities of 
 pottery, of every variety of form and ornament ; articles of gold 
 and silver, comprising ear-rings, pendants, bracelets, and little 
 images of men and animals ; axes of hardened copper and of 
 stone, differing but slightly in shape from those in use at the 
 present day ; spear-heads and mirrors of obsidian (gallinazo 
 stone) ; cloth of cotton, of the wool of the lama s and of other 
 
SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC. 193 
 
 materials ; implements of palm-wood ; marine shells, and a 
 thousand articles of similar character. Vast numbers of these 
 tombs have been opened for the sake of the treasures they con 
 tain.* 
 
 In Chili, sepulchral mounds of earth and stone are of fre 
 quent occurrence. In them are found, besides the bones of the 
 dead, earthenware, axes, and vessels of stone, admirably worked, 
 and occasionally edged tools of hardened copper. Molina 
 describes, with considerable minuteness, the funeral ceremonies 
 of the Chilian Indians ; which, from the light they may throw 
 upon the customs of the mound-builders, are worthy of notice. 
 " As soon as one of their nation dies, his friends and relations 
 seat themselves on the ground round the body, and weep for a 
 long time ; they afterward expose it, donned in its best clothes, 
 upon a high bier, where it remains during the night, which they 
 pass near it, weeping, or in eating or drinking with those who 
 come to console them. This is called the black entertainment : 
 black being with them, as with us, the sign of mourning. The 
 following day, or within two or three days, they carry the corpse 
 to the burial-place of the family, which is usually situated on a 
 hill or in a wood. The corpse is preceded by two men at full 
 speed on horseback, and is followed by the relations, with loud 
 cries and lamentations, while a woman strews ashes on the track, 
 to prevent the soul from returning. On arriving at the place 
 
 * The amount of treasure found in some of the huacas is very great. 
 Stevenson states that in the year 1576, a huaca was opened in which 
 was found gold amounting to 46,810 golden ounces ; according to 
 Huinboldt, 5,000,000 francs. We are not surprised at the great value 
 of some of these deposites, in view of the almost incredible quantities 
 of gold and silver possessed by the ancient Peruvians. According to 
 Proctor (Peru in 1823-4), the excavation of the ancient tombs for their 
 contents is still carried on, though it seems that considerable quantities 
 of the precious metals are seldom found. Mr. Proctor mentions that 
 in some instances the spindles of the ancient inhabitants, with the cot 
 ton thread still perfect on them, have been found in the huacas. 
 9 
 
194 
 
 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN MEXICO, ETC. 
 
 of burial, the corpse is laid on the surface of the ground, sur 
 rounded, if a man, with his arms ; if a woman, with female im 
 plements, and with a great quantity of provisions, and with 
 vessels filled with chica and with wine, which, according to their 
 opinion, are necessary to subsist them during their passage to 
 another world. They sometimes even kill a horse and inter it 
 in the same ground. After these ceremonies, they take leave, 
 with many tears, of the deceased, wishing him a prosperous 
 journey, and cover the body with earth and stones in a pyra 
 midal form, upon which they pour a great quantity of chica" 
 (Molina 1 s Chili, vol. II., p. 82.) 
 
 The Esquimaux cover their dead with rude heaps of stone, 
 above which they pile the sledges and canoes of the deceased. 
 The bodies are usually closely wrapped in skins, and placed in 
 a sitting posture. ( Capt. Lyorts Narrative, p. 68.) Kotze- 
 bue mentions a structure of stones which he designates as a 
 " round tower, four fathoms in height," at Kotzebue Sound. 
 It was probably a sepulchral monument of the savages. 
 (Voyage, vol. I., p. 210.) 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS OF THE ANCIENT 
 WORLD. 
 
 " THE most enduring monuments of the primeval ages of 
 society," observes a learned archaeologist, " were those erected 
 in memory of the dead ; and it seems that the further we go 
 back into the history of mankind, the deeper we find man's 
 veneration for his departed brethren. The simplest, and also 
 the most durable, method of preserving the memory of the 
 departed, was by raising a barrow, or mound of stones, over 
 his remains ; and accordingly, we find instances of this mode 
 of interment in almost all countries of the globe." The 
 extent to which it prevailed in America, we have already 
 indicated ; and the coincidences in form and structure between 
 the sepulchral monuments of this continent and those of the 
 Old World, have been the subject of incidental remark. 
 These coincidences are, however, sufficiently remarkable to 
 merit further attention ; and it is believed a brief review of 
 the character of the primitive sepulchral monuments of the 
 other continent will serve greatly to illustrate and explain 
 those of our own country, at the same time that it establishes 
 the general prevalence of the custom of mound-burial in past 
 ages. 
 
 The earliest of human records distinctly refer to the prac 
 tice of erecting mounds of- earth or stone over the dead ; but 
 we find in the pyramids of Egypt which may be regarded as 
 perfected tumuli the evidence of its prevalence at a period 
 long anteceding the dawn of written history. In the deep 
 night of antiquity, step by step, had the rude heap of stones 
 
196 
 
 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS 
 
 which filial regard first gathered over the dead, developed 
 itself, until in its massive proportions and solid strength it 
 emulated the mountains, and bade defiance to time. Homer 
 speaks frequently of the sepulchral tumuli of the heroic age 
 of early Greece, and gives many curious details relating to the 
 ceremonies of the interment. The description of the burial 
 of Patroclus is familiar to most readers ; it, however, conveys 
 so accurate and lively an idea of the practices common to 
 ancient burials, that we cannot do better, in illustration of our 
 subject, than to quote it here. It should be premised that the 
 Homeric heroes were burned before interment. 
 
 " They still abiding heaped the pile. 
 A hundred feet of breadth from side to side 
 They gave to it, and on the summit placed, 
 With sorrowing hearts, the body of the dead. 
 Many a fat sheep, with many an ox full-horned, 
 They flayed before the pile, busy their task 
 Administering ; and Peleus' son, the fat 
 Taking from every victim, overspread 
 Complete the body with it of his friend 
 Patroclus, and the flayed beasts heaped around. 
 Then, placing flagons on the pile, replete 
 With oil and honey, he inclined their mouths 
 Towards the bier, and slew and added next, 
 Deep groaning and in haste, four martial steeds. 
 Nine dogs the hero at his table fed ; 
 Of which beheading two, their carcasses 
 He added also. Last, twelve gallant sons 
 Of noble Trojans slaying (for his heart 
 Teemed with great vengeance), he applied the force 
 Of hungry flames that should devour the whole." 
 
 Iliad, Book XXIII., COWPER'S Version. 
 
 The sacrifices done, and the body consumed, the bones are 
 next collected and the tumulus heaped above. 
 
 " The Greeks obey ! Where yet the embers glow, 
 Wide o'er the pile the sable wine they throw, 
 And deep subsides the ashy heap below. 
 
OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 197 
 
 Next the white bones his sad companions place, 
 
 With tears collected, in the golden vase. 
 
 The sacred relics to the tent they bore ; 
 
 The urn a veil of linen covered o'er. 
 
 That done, they bid the sepulchre aspire, 
 
 And cast the deep foundations round the pyre ; 
 
 High in the midst they heap the swelling bed 
 
 Of rising earth, memorial of the dead." Iliad, Book XXIII. 
 
 The Trojans are made to bury the body of Hector in the 
 same manner: during nine days they collect the wood and 
 raise the pile ; and when fire has completed its part of the 
 work, they also quench the fires with dark wine, and collect the 
 bones of the hero in a golden urn, which they cover with a rich 
 cloth, and place in a " hollow trench ;" above this they pile 
 large stones, and over all heap the tumulus. 
 
 The body of the dead was not always burned among the 
 Greeks ; on the contrary, burial both by inhumation and incre 
 mation was practised from the earliest times, though one prac 
 tice may have been more common than another at a particular 
 period. In Magna Grsecia, unburnt skeletons have been found, 
 and in tombs close by vases containing the ashes of the dead. 
 ( Tischiben and Bottiger.) Both skeletons and ashes have been 
 found in Greece itself. (Stackelberg, die Grdber.der Hellenen.) 
 There are no certain accounts as to whether the body was 
 burned at the place of sepulture, or at a spot designated for 
 that purpose. At any rate, the remains were collected and 
 deposited in a cinerary made of clay or bronze. The coffins of 
 the unburned were sometimes of wood, but generally the work 
 of the potter, though in some cases of masonry or stone. The 
 tombs were usually in a spot designated for the purpose. 
 Sometimes they were placed in the person's own house. After 
 it was forbidden to bury in the city, it became common to 
 select a, certain quarter for burials. The favorite place of se 
 pulture was in the fields or by some frequented highway. The 
 tombs were the inviolate property of the family, so that no 
 
198 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS 
 
 other person might bury therein. A variety of articles were 
 placed with the dead vases, mirrors, ornaments, etc. In cases 
 of burning, they were placed on the pyre. Feasts and offerings 
 to the dead were customary. At stated times the tombs were 
 decked, and sometimes bloody sacrifices were made. In the 
 order of funeral ceremonies, it should be mentioned that the 
 first thing done was to insert a small coin (an obolus) in the 
 mouth of the dead, as a vav\ov for the ferryman of Hades. A 
 similar custom existed among the ancient Mexicans, who in 
 serted a gem of some kind in the lips of the deceased, which 
 was to serve as a heart in the next world. 
 
 The funeral customs of the Romans were nearly identical 
 with those practised by the Greeks. Their tombs were often 
 simple tumuli, and so denominated. Burial by inhumation 
 and by fire were common practices. In the tombs were placed 
 coins, urns, flasks for holding tears or perfumes, sepulchral 
 lamps, etc. Games were celebrated in honor of the dead, and 
 sacrifices and libations made on their tombs. 
 
 Among both Greeks and Romans, the expenditures at fu 
 nerals became so great, and the ambition to erect large and 
 costly monuments so general, that it was found necessary to 
 prescribe their dimensions, and check extravagance by law. 
 
 A pillar or upright stone, in ancient times a sacred emblem, 
 was usually placed upon the tumulus of the dead. Paris 
 wounded Diornedes from behind the pillar on the barrow of 
 Ilus. These pillars were called stelce. Alexander, when he 
 crossed the Hellespont, performed solemn games at the bar 
 rows of the Grecian heroes who fell before the walls of Troy, 
 and anointed with perfumes the stelce on their tops. They 
 were erected on the taphos of the Athenians who fell at Mara 
 thon, and on that of the Lacedaemonians who died at Thermo 
 pylae, and bore the names of the slain. The stelae were con 
 tinued when the barrows were no longer erected ; and the idea 
 of their sanctity is still retained in the monumental stones 
 
OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 199 
 
 which plead for safety, by professing to be sacred to the memory 
 of the person above whose grave they are erected. 
 
 Sometimes the arms or implements of the dead were sus 
 pended around the stela or crowned the barrow of the dead. A 
 spear was fixed on the tomb of the Trojan Hector ; and Mise- 
 nus, the . trumpeter of Hector, and pilot of the Trojan fleet 
 of ^Eneas, had reared upon his tomb the symbols of his 
 deeds. 
 
 " On it J5neas piously heaped 
 A mighty mound sepulchral. The oar, the trumpet, 
 Arms of the man, the airy summit crowned, 
 From him Misenus named. It still retains 
 That name, and holds it through the lapse of time."* 
 
 Mneid, IV., 232. 
 
 Even in the later periods of Grecian history, mounds are 
 occasionally raised over the illustrious dead. Plutarch says 
 that Alexander, on the death of Demaratus, " made a most 
 magnificent funeral for him, his whole army raising him a 
 monument of earth eighty cubits high and of vast circum 
 ference." Semiramis endeavored to eternize the memory of 
 Ninus her husband, by raising a high mound for his tomb. 
 The Scythians, whose tumuli are scattered in great abundance 
 over the plains of Russia, southern Siberia, and Tartary, 
 labored, says Herodotus, " to raise as high a monument of earth 
 
 * The practice here indicated was one of general prevalence, not only 
 in ancient but in more modern times, and alike among savage and 
 polished nations. The Indians around the Upper Mississippi, to this 
 day, place a pole above the graves of their dead, from which his arms 
 and ornaments are suspended ; so, too, do the Indians of Oregon ; who, 
 however, distrusting the veneration of their fellows, break holes in the 
 kettles, and bend the barrels of the guns which they place on the tombs. 
 The arms and crest of the titled dead are still graven on their monu 
 ments, and the unstrung lyre and broken sword indicate the graves of 
 the poet and the warrior. The stelae are still to be seen on the barrows 
 of the ancient Scythians and Scandinavians, though none are found 
 crowning the sepulchral mounds of America. 
 
200 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS 
 
 for their dead as possible." This author has left us a remarka 
 ble description of their mode of interment, which is amply 
 confirmed by the exploration of their tombs. " The body of 
 the king, having been transported through the various pro 
 vinces of the kingdom, was brought at last to the Gerri, who 
 live in the remotest parts of Scythia, where the sepulchres are. 
 Here the corpse was placed upon a couch, encompassed on all 
 sides by spears fixed in the ground: upon the whole were 
 placed pieces of wood, covered with branches of willow. They 
 strangled one of the deceased's concubines, his groom, cook, and 
 most confidential servant, whose bodies they placed around the 
 dead ; they slew horses also, and deposited with him the first 
 fruits of all things, and the choicest of his effects, and finally 
 some golden goblets, for they possessed neither silver nor brass. 
 This done, they heaped the earth above with great care, and 
 endeavored to make as high a mound as possible." (Melpomene, 
 LXXI. ) The richness of the Scythian barrows is extraordinary ; 
 and according to Strahlenberg, the local governors of Siberia 
 used formerly to authorize caravans or expeditions " to visit 
 and ransack the tombs," reserving to themselves a tenth of the 
 treasures recovered. (Siberia, p. 366.) In the second volume 
 of the British Archasologia, is an account of the opening of one 
 of the large tumuli in southern Siberia. After removing the 
 superincumbent earth and stones, three -vaults, constructed of 
 unhewn stones and of rude workmanship, were discovered. 
 The central one was largest, and contained the remains of the 
 individual over whom the tumulus had been erected. It also 
 contained his sword, spear, bow, quiver, arrows, etc. In the 
 vault at his feet, were the skeleton and trappings of a horse ; 
 in the vault at his head, a female skeleton, supposed to be that 
 of his wife. The male skeleton reclined against the head of 
 the vault, on a sheet of pure gold, extending from head to foot, 
 and another of like dimensions was spread over it. It had 
 been wrapped in a rich mantle, studded with rubies and eme 
 ralds. The female skeleton was enveloped in like manner j a 
 
OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 201 
 
 golden chain of many links, set with rubies, went round her 
 neck, and there were bracelets of gold upon her arms. The 
 four sheets of gold weighed forty pounds. 
 
 In some instances, the bodies were burned before interment. 
 All of the Scythian barrows contain numerous relics of art, orna 
 ments of gold and silver and precious stones, weapons and 
 implements of war, domestic utensils, mirrors, images and 
 idols, vases of metal and pottery, grains of the millet kind, etc., 
 etc. (Strahlenberg, pp. 264, 268 ; RenncPs Herodotus, p. 110.) 
 These ancient tombs, which are called Bogri by the Rus 
 sians, are often plain mounds. Some were set round with 
 rough stones in a circle or square : others with hewn stones. 
 In the squares the corner-stone was usually higher and broader 
 than the others, and sometimes bore inscriptions. Occasion 
 ally, the barrow was surmounted with a stone, or stela. 
 
 In Rajast'han, the practice of burying the distinguished 
 dead under tumuli still exists. Previous to interment, the 
 body is burned, as is also the wife of the deceased, who in all 
 cases accompanies her lord. Monumental pillars are also 
 erected, rudely carved with emblematic figures. They are 
 placed in lines, irregular groups, and in circles, and are numer 
 ous in the vicinity of every large town. These tombs are 
 places of sacrifice, and to them the Rajpoot repairs at stated 
 intervals, to make offerings to the manes of his ancestors. 
 (Tod's Rajasthan, vol. I., pp. 72, 75 ) 
 
 A singular variety of tumular structures, maintaining a cer 
 tain resemblance to those of other portions of the globe, but 
 having many essentially peculiar features, is found in Sweden. 
 They are, for the chief part, circular : sometimes, however, 
 there is a square inclosure of upright stones, with a conical 
 barrow in the centre, which has its base surrounded with up 
 right stones ; midway between this and the summit, the cir 
 cumference is marked by a second ring of upright stones ; close 
 to the summit, a third belt encircles it, and the crest of the 
 barrow is crowned by a cromlech, or group of stones. Another 
 
 9* 
 
202 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS 
 
 variety has a circle of upright stones around the base of a 
 carnedd, or stone mound. A third variety has a circular belt 
 of upright stones around a conical barrow, which is surmounted 
 by a single upright stone. In connection with these, is a re 
 markable variety of stone inclosures. Some consist of a simple 
 circle of upright stones ; two of which, placed opposite each 
 other, are larger and taller than the rest. Others are circular, 
 with a small avenue of approach of four stones on each side ; 
 others are large circles, with every sixth stone of larger size 
 than the others, and the two north and south, of still greater 
 dimensions ; others are triangular, with a large stone in the 
 centre, and another at each corner; others triangular, with 
 each side curving inward, but without the large stones in the 
 centre and corners ; others are square. The structures last 
 named are frequently surrounded by valla, and inclosures are 
 seen contiguous to and even forming part of tumuli. (Sjoborg 
 Samlingarfor Nor dens Porndlskare, fyc., 2 vols. 4to., Stockholm, 
 1822 ; Zur Alterthumskunde des Nordens, Von J. J. A. Wbrsace, 
 Leipzig. 1847.) 
 
 Mr. Worsaae divides these barrows, according to the charac 
 ter of their contents, into three classes ; 
 
 FIRST. Barrows of the Stone Age. These contain unburned 
 corpses, inclosed in rude stone chambers ; the implements and 
 utensils found in them are of stone or flint. 
 
 SECOND. Barrows of the Bronze Age. Containing burned 
 human remains, deposited in vases or little stone chests : also, 
 arms and utensils of bronze or copper. 
 
 THIRD. Barrows of the Iron Age. Burned human remains : 
 arms and utensils of iron, etc. These barrows are often of 
 regular forms, triangular, square, oval, shipform, etc. ; generally 
 surrounded by upright stones, as above. 
 
 This classification differs somewhat from that usually adopted, 
 in which the "age of fire" and the "age of hills" distinguish 
 the earlier and later periods of Scandinavian monumental his 
 tory. Odin is said to have introduced the practice of burning, 
 
OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 203 
 
 'and also that of the wife sacrificing herself with her deceased 
 lord. (Mallei's Northern Antiq., Chap. XII.) Among all the 
 rude nations of the north and west of Europe, for an indefinite 
 period before the dawn of civilization, burial customs, strictly 
 analogous to those already described, existed. The dead were 
 buried with or without burning, and with them were deposited 
 numerous relics of art, which, in the greater or less skill which 
 they exhibit, mark the eras of burial, and the gradual advance 
 of the builders. The Germans, says Tacitus, " added to the 
 funeral pile the arms of the deceased and his horse," and both 
 Caesar and Pomponius agree in saying that the inhabitants of 
 Belgium and Gaul buried or burned with the dead whatever 
 was valued by them in their lifetime. 
 
 The burial-mounds of the ancient Britons, both of the Celtic 
 and Saxon periods, evince similar practices on the part of 
 their builders. For obvious reasons, the mounds of the United 
 States have oftenest been compared to these ; and, upon the 
 narrow basis of certain coincidences in structure, a common 
 origin has been ascribed to both. This circumstance, in con 
 nection with others, justifies a more detailed notice of the 
 British barrows than would otherwise be required. They have 
 been systematically investigated by many learned and indefati 
 gable antiquarians, the result of whose inquiries, so far as they 
 relate to the modes of interment practised by the ancient 
 inhabitants, are compendiously presented by Sir R. C. Hoare, 
 in his splendid work, entitled " Ancient Wiltshire." 
 
 " Four distinct modes of interment were practised by the 
 ancient Britons : 
 
 1. The body placed generally in a cist, with its legs bent up 
 toward the head, and frequently accompanied by daggers of 
 brass, drinking cups, &c. 
 
 2. The body extended at full length, accompanied by articles 
 of brass and iron, such as spear-heads, lances, swords, and the 
 umbos of shields. 
 
 3. Interment by incremation ; when the body of the de- 
 
204 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS 
 
 ceased was consumed by fire, and the bones and ashes deposited 
 either on the floor of the barrow, or in a cist cut in the chalk. 
 This is called a simple interment. 
 
 4. Urn burial, with incremation, when the body was burned, 
 and the bones and ashes deposited within a sepulchral urn, 
 which is generally, though not in all cases, reversed. By the 
 web of cloth still remaining in some instances, it appears that 
 the ashes were wrapped up in a linen cloth and fastened by a 
 small brass pin, several of which, intermixed with the ashes, 
 have been found. 
 
 " Of these modes of burial, the first was probably most 
 primitive; articles of iron bespeak a later period; and it is 
 further probable, that the two modes of burying the body by 
 fire were adopted at one and the same period. We have in 
 stances where the body has been inclosed in a wooden chest, 
 riveted with brass, or within the more simple covering of an 
 unbarked timber tree." 
 
 A very remarkable resemblance in form exists between the 
 various kinds of British barrows and the mounds of this coun 
 try; in this respect, indeed, there is scarcely a perceptible 
 difference between them. The curious will find in Hoare's 
 Ancient Wiltshire, 1812; Stukeley's Stonehenge and Itinera- 
 rium ; Rowland's Antiquities of Anglesey, 1723; Camden's 
 Britannia ; Grose's Antiquities ; in the British Archaeologia, 
 thirty volumes, quarto; Higgins's Celtic Druids, 1827 ; Bor- 
 lase's Ancient Cornwall ; and in numerous other works upon the 
 subject, abundant illustrations of the correctness of this obser 
 vation. Sir R. C. Hoare has attempted to make the variety 
 of form exhibited by these barrows the basis of a classification, 
 distinguishing the eras of their construction, and even the caste 
 and condition of the dead which they cover. It is probable 
 that some varieties of form may have predominated at a par 
 ticular period, and that the dimensions of the barrow may have, 
 in some degree, corresponded with the rank of the dead. Fur- 
 
OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 205 
 
 ther than this, however, the theory is not well sustained. Sir 
 Richard enumerates not less than eleven kinds of tumuli, dis 
 tinguished from each other by their form, viz : 
 
 1st. The Long Barrow, which resembles half an egg, cut 
 lengthwise, one end a little broader than the other, generally 
 ditched around the base, sometimes inclosed in a circle, and 
 occasionally set round with upright stones. Supposed to be 
 the oldest form of the Celtic barrows. Contents : usually a 
 number of skeletons at the broad end, lying in a confused man 
 ner, and generally covered with a pile of stones or flints. In 
 other parts, stags' horns, fragments of rude pottery, and burnt 
 bones. 
 
 2d. The Bowl Barrow, the form of which is indicated by the 
 name, with or without a ditch, and having a slight depression 
 in the top. Supposed to be a family mausoleum. 
 
 3d. The Bell Barrow, a modification of the Bowl Barrow, 
 supposed to have been formed by placing a new top thereon, 
 for additional interment. 
 
 4th. The Druid Barrows, inclosed by a vallum and ditch, 
 the latter always interior to the former ; the number of mounds 
 within the inclosure, varying from one to fifteen or twenty. 
 Contents : skeletons, small cups, beads of amber, glass, and jet, 
 small lance-heads, and very rarely, sepulchral urns, all of 
 elegant workmanship. Sir Richard supposes, from the pre 
 dominance of ornaments, that they were devoted to females. 
 Supposed to be family cemeteries. 
 
 5th. The Pond, Barrow, consisting of a simple circular vallum 
 or ditch. Fosbroke doubts whether these should be denomi 
 nated barrows, and suggests that they may have been Druidi- 
 cal tribunals. They are identical in form with many of the 
 small circles of the "West. No remains found in them. 
 
 6th. The Twin Barrow, comprised of two barrows joining 
 each other, and inclosed in a circle. Supposed by Sir Richard 
 
206 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS AND MONUMENTS, ETC. 
 
 to be the monuments of individuals closely allied to each other 
 by blood or friendship. 
 
 The remaining classes are but slight and hardly appreciable 
 modifications of those already described. 
 
 The rude natives of New Zealand erect tumuli over their 
 dead, who are sometimes burned previous to interment. Their 
 arms and ornaments are deposited with them. Custom rigor 
 ously enjoins that these monuments to the departed should be 
 carefully watched over. A woman at Clarence River, who 
 neglected to weed and trim her husband's tumulus, was put to 
 death in consequence of her neglect. (Angas' Australia and 
 New Zealand, vol. II., p. 280 ; Grafs Australia, vol. L, p. 
 227.) Similar monuments, most usually constructed of stone, 
 and sometimes of great size and regularity, were often erected 
 over the dead by the natives of the larger Polynesian Islands, 
 where they still remain, enduring records of the primitive cus 
 toms of the islanders. (Ellis's Polynesian Researches, vol. 
 III., pp. 242, 325 ; Beechey's Nar., pp. 20, 37 ; La Perouse 
 Voy., vol. Ill, p. 194.) 
 
 Without noticing further the burial customs of nations, an 
 cient and modern, in the various quarters of the globe, enough 
 has been presented to show the general prevalence of mound- 
 sepulture, and the nearly uniform, practices which attended it. 
 As remarked at the outset, it is the simplest method of per 
 petuating the memory of the dead. Its general adoption by 
 different and widely separated people, must not, therefore, be 
 taken to indicate any extraordinary dependence. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PROBABLE FUNERAL RITES OP THE MOUND-BUILDERS. 
 
 FROM various features discovered in the sepulchral mounds 
 of New York as well as in those of the West, it has been sug 
 gested that sacrifices or ceremonies of some kind, in which fire 
 performed a part, were solemnized above the dead. The gen 
 eral occurrence of a layer of charcoal at some point near the 
 surface of the mound, bearing evidence of having been heaped 
 over while burning, and sometimes having mingled with it 
 human bones, the bones of animals, and relics of art, affords 
 ample basis for the conjecture. We have seen that in the 
 burials of Chili, sacrifices and libations were made at the tumuli 
 of the dead ; in Peru, the burial rites were very similar, and in 
 cases where the deceased was of the Inca race, or a person of 
 consequence, his wives and domestics were put to death, that 
 they might accompany and serve him in another world. On 
 the death of the Inca Huyana Capac, it is said that over one 
 thousand victims were slain at his tomb. Similar practices pre 
 vailed among many of the South American savage tribes ; also 
 in Central America and in Mexico. In the latter country, the 
 arms, implements, and ornaments of the deceased were burned 
 or buried with him ; and, as we have already said, an animal 
 resembling a dog, called by the Mexicans techichi, was killed, to 
 accompany his soul in its journey to the world of spirits. If 
 the body was burned, the ashes were collected in an earthen pot ; 
 in this was deposited a gem. which it was supposed would serve 
 in the next world for a heart ; and the urn was buried in a deep 
 
208 PROBABLE FUNERAL RITES 
 
 ditch.* Eighty days thereafter, oblations of meats and drinks 
 were made over the grave. On the decease of persons of con 
 sequence, their slaves and servants were put to death ; some 
 times in great numbers. Analogous customs prevailed among 
 the Natchez, when, on the death of the Suns, many human vic 
 tims were sacrificed. Among the savage North American tribes, 
 no custom was more general than that of making oblations at 
 the tombs of the dead : dogs were sometimes sacrificed at the 
 burial ; and horses are now occasionally slain by the "Western 
 tribes upon the graves of their owners. Libations in some 
 cases were made at the tomb, and repeated at intervals for 
 years. According to Charlevoix. at the " Feasts of the Dead," 
 or general burial of the Hurons and Iroquois, dances, games, 
 and combats constituted a part of the ceremonies of the occasion. 
 Yanegas (Hist. California, L, p. 104) says, The California 
 Indians bury or burn their dead indifferently, as chances to be 
 most convenient. Vancouver ( Voy. III., pp. 182, 242) men 
 tions two instances, in which the natives of the Northwest coast 
 burned their dead ; but we are not left to infer that the cus 
 tom was general. A singular funeral custom is mentioned as 
 prevailing among the Takali, or Carriers, one of the Oregon 
 tribes, and a branch of the great Algonquin family. They 
 always burn their dead upon a pyre ; in case the deceased has a 
 wife, she is obliged to lie by the side of the corpse until the fire 
 
 * " They (the Mexicans) made it the office of the priests to inter 
 the dead and perform the funeral obsequies. They buried them in their 
 own gardens, and in the courts of their own houses. Some were carried 
 to the places of sacrifice in the mountains ; others were burned, and the 
 ashes afterward buried in the temples ; and with all were buried what 
 ever they had of apparel, stones, and jewels. They did put the ashes 
 of the dead in pots, and with them their valuables, how rich soever they 
 might be. If it were a king or lord who was dead, they offered slaves to 
 be put to death, and gave apparel to such as came to the interment. * * * 
 They did set food and drink on the graves of the dead, imagining that 
 their souls did feed thereon." (Acosta in Purchas, Vol. III., p. 1029.) 
 
OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS. 209 
 
 is lighted and the heat becomes intense. If, in the estimation 
 of the spectators, she abandons the pyre too early, she is thrust, 
 back, and thus often falls a sacrifice. The Medicine-men of this 
 tribe pretend to receive the spirit of the dead in their hands, 
 after the corpse is burned, and to be able to transfer it to any 
 one they choose, who then bears the name of the dead, in addi 
 tion to his own. (Narrative of U. S. Exploring Expedition, 
 vol. IV., p. 453.) 
 
 Father Creux, a Jesuit Missionary in Canada, in 1639, no 
 tices a fact which affords a curious antithesis to the customs of 
 the Mexicans, above presented by Clavigero : namely, that the 
 Hurocs cut off the flesh from the bones of those who were 
 drowned or frozen, and burned it ; the skeleton alone was 
 buried. Charlevoix (vol. II., p. 189) confirms this statement. 
 He adds, that the bodies of those slain in battle were burned, 
 probably for the more easy transportation of their ashes to the 
 burial-grounds of their fathers. 
 
 La Hontan (vol. II., p. 53) states that " The savages upon 
 the Long River [Mississippi?] burn their dead; reserving the 
 bodies until there are a sufficient number to burn together, 
 which is performed out of the village, in a place set apart for 
 the purpose." This statement does not find support in other 
 authorities. 
 
 " They appease the souls of the dead with offerings of meats 
 and drinks. Every woman whose child dies at a distance from 
 home, makes a journey, once a year, if possible, to its place of 
 burial, to pour a libation on its grave." (Loskid, p. 76.) 
 
 With these facts and the suggestions of analogy before us, we 
 are certainly justified in the inference that the burials in the 
 mounds were attended with sacrifices, perhaps of human victims, 
 with oblations, and, it is probable, with games and ceremonies 
 corresponding with those which prevailed, at one period, in the 
 Old World. 
 
 It was remarked, in a preceding chapter, that the highest 
 
210 PROBABLE FUNERAL RITES 
 
 points of the hills and the jutting bluffs of the table-lands bor 
 dering the valleys of the Western rivers, are often crowned 
 with mounds. Although generally supposed to have been de 
 signed for " look-outs," or places of observation, investigation has 
 shown that a portion of them, at least, were sepulchral in their 
 original purposes. Clavigero observes of the Mexicans, that 
 they had no particular places assigned for the burial of 
 their dead, but entombed them in the fields and on the moun 
 tains. It is possible that an ambition like that which governed 
 the selection of the place of sepulture of the Omahaw chief, 
 Blackbird, also influenced the ancient people in the disposal of 
 their dead. He was buried sitting on his favorite horse, on the 
 summit of a high hill overlooking the Mississippi, "that he might 
 see the strangers coming to trade with his people." So, too, the 
 chiefs of the mound-builders may have desired, at their death? 
 to be placed where, with the eyes of a spirit, they might watch 
 over their people thronging the fertile valleys beneath their 
 tombs. Thus an early Greek poet speaks of the tomb of The- 
 mistocles overlooking the Piraeus : 
 
 " Then shall thy mound, conspicuous on the shore, 
 Salute the mariners who pass the sea, 
 Keep watch on all who enter or depart, 
 And be the umpire in the naval strife." 
 
 Plato comicus, ap. Plut. vit. Themisl. 
 
 A somewhat similar sentiment occurs in the Iliad, where 
 Hector, speaking of one he is to slay in single combat, says : 
 
 " The long-haired Greeks 
 To him, upon the shores of Hellespont, 
 A mound shall heap ; that those in after-times 
 Who sail along the darksome sea shall say, 
 ' This is the monument of one long since 
 Borne to his grave, by mighty Hector slain.' " 
 
 The ancient Anglo-Saxon was not without a similar ambi 
 tion. The dying Beowulf enjoins : 
 
OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS. 211 
 
 " Command the famous in war 
 to make a mound, 
 bright after the funeral fire, 
 upon the nose of the promontory. 
 Which shall for a memorial 
 to my people 
 rise high aloft 
 on Hronesness ; 
 that the sea-sailors 
 may afterward call it 
 Beowulfs barrow, 
 when the Brentings 
 over the darkness of the floods 
 shall sail afar." Beowulf, v. 5599. 
 
 The size of the aboriginal mounds of the West was no doubt 
 regulated in a degree by the dignity of the individuals over 
 whose remains they were erected, or by the regard in which 
 they were held by their people. In the number or value of 
 their inclosed relics, the various mounds, great and small, ex 
 hibit little difference. We have, however, seen, according to 
 Ulloa, that the character of the deposites as well as the size of 
 the mound was, in Peru, a sure indication of the state and 
 power of the dead. Such was the case among the ancients. 
 Beowulf requests that his people may raise a barrow over him 
 proportionate in size to the respect entertained for his memory : 
 
 ' Old of life, he spake a whole multitude of words, and com 
 manded me to greet you ; he bade that ye should make, accord 
 ing to the deeds of your friend, on the place of the funeral pile, 
 the lofty barrow, large and famous, even as he was of men the 
 most worthy warrior." (Beowulf, I., 6183.) 
 
 In the subsequent burial of Beowulf, the burning of the body, 
 the sacrifices, the games, the songs and orations in praise of the 
 dead and in commemoration of his deeds, we have a vivid pic 
 ture of the funeral customs of the olden time, customs not 
 peculiar to the old Continent, but prevailing among the nations 
 
212 PROBABLE FUNERAL RITES, ETC. 
 
 of the New "World, and probably attending the burials of the 
 ancient people whose monuments we are investigating. Beowulf s 
 people carry into effect his desire, and the poem ends with this 
 description of his interment : 
 
 " For him then prepared the people of the Geats a funeral 
 pile upon the earth, strong, hung round with helmets, with war- 
 boards (shields), and with bright byrnies, as he had requested. 
 The heroes, weeping, then laid down in the midst the famous 
 chieftain, their dear lord. Then began on the hill the mightiest 
 of funeral fires the warriors to awake : the wood-smoke rose 
 aloft dark from the fire ; noisily it went, mingled with weep 
 ing. The mixture of the wind lay. on till it the bone-house 
 [body] had broken, hot in his breast. Sad in mind, sorry in 
 mood, they mourned the death of their lord. * * * Made 
 then the people of the Westerns a mound over the sea ; it was 
 high and broad, by the sailors over the waves to be seen afar. 
 And they built up, during ten days, the beacon of the war-re 
 nowned, the [king] of swords. They surrounded it with a wall, 
 in the most honorable manner that wise men could desire. They 
 put into the mound rings and bright gems, all such ornaments 
 as the fierce-minded men had before taken from the hoard : they 
 suffered the earth to hold the treasures of warriors, gold on the 
 sand ; there it yet remaineth, as useless to men as it was of old. 
 Then round the mound rode of beasts of war, of nobles, a troop, 
 twelve in all ; they would speak about the king, they would call 
 him to mind, relate the song of words, speak themselves ; they 
 praised his valor, and his deeds of bravery they judged with 
 honor, as it is fitting that a man his friendly lord should extol, 
 should love him in his soul, when he must depart from his body 
 to become valueless. Thus mourned the people of the Geats, 
 his domestic comrades, their dear lord ; they said that he was 
 of the kings of the world the mildest of men and the most gen 
 tle, the most gracious to his people, and the most jealous of 
 glory" (Beowulf, v. 6268.) 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE MOUNDS NOT GENERAL BURIAL-PLACES; GREAT INDIAN 
 CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 
 
 ALLUSION has been made, in the body of this work, to the 
 large cemeteries which have been discovered at various places 
 in the Mississippi valley, and the suggestion ventured that they 
 owe their origin to practices similar to those which prevailed 
 among the Indians of New York and Canada, of collecting, at 
 stated intervals, the bones of the dead, and depositing them in 
 pits or trenches. There are many interesting facts connected 
 with these cemeteries, which merit attention, and justify a re 
 currence to the subject. 
 
 Nothing is more common in the accounts given of Western 
 mounds, than the loose and very vague remark, that certain 
 ones or all of them " contain vast quantities of human bones." 
 To this circumstance seems attributable, in a great degree, the 
 prevailing and very erroneous impression, that the mounds are 
 simple tombs, or rather grand cemeteries, containing the re 
 mains of an entire race. The Grave Creek mound is spoken of 
 by Atwater, Doddridge. and other writers, as a grand mausoleum 
 "undoubtedly containing many thousand human skeletons." 
 An investigation has shown it to contain but a very few skele 
 tons ; and examinations of several other tumult, characterized 
 in similar extravagant terms, have been attended with like re 
 sults. The mounds of the West can be regarded only to a very 
 limited extent as the burial-places of the people who built them. 
 But little more than one-half of their number are clearly sepul- 
 
214 
 
 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 
 
 chral in their character; and these, except in extraordinary 
 cases, contain but a single skeleton each.* 
 
 We must seek elsewhere for the general depositories of the 
 dead of the mound-builders. It has been suggested that the 
 
 * The authority of Mr. Samuel R. Brown, author of the " Western 
 Gazetteer, or Emigrant's Directory," published in 1817, has been quoted 
 by various writers on American antiquities, and has been supposed to 
 sustain the conclusion that the mounds were vast receptacles of the dead, 
 slain in battle. It will be seen, however, from Mr. Brown's account of his 
 explorations, that the mounds which he examined contained depositcs of 
 different dates, one of which was clearly of the modern Indians, though 
 the fact does not appear to have suggested itself to the mind of the ex 
 plorer, or to have occurred to the writers who have followed him. The 
 material portions of Mr. Brown's account are subjoined : 
 
 " We examined from fifteen to twenty of these mounds. In some, 
 whose height was from fifteen to twenty feet, we could not find more 
 than four or five skeletons. In one, not the least appearance of a human 
 bone was to be found. Others were so full of bones as to warrant the 
 belief that they originally contained at least one hundred bodies ; chil 
 dren of different ages and the full-grown seemed to have been piled to 
 gether promiscuously. * * * In the progress of our researches, we 
 obtained ample testimony that these masses of earth were the work of a 
 savage people. We discovered a piece of glass resembling the bottom of 
 a tumbler, but concave; several stone axes, etc. * * * There was 
 no appearance of iron ; one of the skulls was found pierced by an arrow, 
 which was still sticking in it, driven about half way through before its 
 force was spent. It was about six inches long. The subjects of this 
 mound were doubtless killed in battle and hastily buried. In digging 
 to the bottom of them, we invariably came to a stratum of ashes, from 
 six inches to two feet thick, which rests on the original earth. These 
 ashes contain coals, fragments of brands, and pieces of calcined bones. 
 From the quantity of ashes and bones, and the appearance of the earth 
 underneath, it was evident that large fires must have been kept burning 
 for several days previous to commencing the mound, and that a consid 
 erable number of victims must have been sacrificed by burning on the 
 spot." (Brown's Gazetteer of the West, p. 58.) 
 
 " That some of the mounds served for tombs, we have the conclusive 
 evidence that they abound in human bones. It has often been asserted, 
 
GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 215 
 
 caves of the limestone regions of Kentucky and Tennessee were 
 used as sepulchres. Some of these are represented to have con 
 tained thousands of bodies, preserved by the natural properties 
 of these caves, clothed in strange fabrics, composed of a coarse 
 species of cloth interwoven with feathers, in fanciful and taste 
 ful patterns, resembling the feather-cloth of Mexico, of which 
 such glowing descriptions were given by the conquerors.* Ex- 
 
 that some of the mounds are full of bones that are perforated, as though 
 the living subjects were slain in battle ; and that the skeletons are heaped 
 together in promiscuous confusion, as if buried after a conflict, without 
 order or arrangement. The bones which we have seen were such, and so 
 arranged, as might be expected in the common process of solemn and 
 deliberate inhumation." (Flint.) 
 
 " The vulgar opinion has been circulated by various writers, that un 
 der these mounds were buried the bodies of those who were slain in 
 battle. They probably pertained to the particular tribe of a country, 
 and were restricted to the principals among them ; for it is not to be sup 
 posed that the inhabitants were indiscriminately buried under tumuli. 
 Their burial-places must be sought elsewhere." (Sir Richard C. Hoare, 
 an the Barrows of Great Britain.') 
 
 * The nitrous caves of Kentucky were found to contain a consid 
 erable number of desiccated human bodies ; they were termed mummies, 
 and, for a time, created much speculation. They were generally en 
 veloped in skins, in a species of bark, or in feather-cloth, and placed in 
 a squatting posture. It is said that hundreds of these were taken from 
 a cave near Lexington, and burned by the early settlers. The bodies ap 
 pear to have owed their preservation entirely to natural causes. It has 
 been inferred, from the resemblance between the envelopes of these 
 bodies and the feather-cloths of Mexico, that the people who thus de 
 posited their dead were very ancient, and probably an offshoot from 
 Mexico. We have, however, abundant evidence to show that fabrics of 
 this kind were manufactured by the Southern Indian tribes. The chroni 
 cler of Soto's expedition reports having found " a great many mantles 
 made of white, red, green, and blue feathers, very convenient for the 
 winter." Du Pratz also describes this feather fabric as of common use ; 
 and Adair observes: "They likewise make turkey-feather blankets, 
 twisting the inner end of the feathers very fast in a double, strong thread 
 of the inner bark of the mulberry," etc. (Am. Inds., p. 423.) 
 
216 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 
 
 tensive, however, as these cave depositories may have been, they 
 fail, in view of the abundant evidences of a vast ancient popu 
 lation, to answer the question, What became of the dead of the 
 ancient people? In Tennessee, as well as in Kentucky and 
 
 In May, 1835, a cavern cemetery was discovered on the banks of the 
 Ohio River, opposite Steubenville. It was thirty or forty feet in cir 
 cumference, and filled with human bones. " They were of all ages, and 
 had been thrown in indiscriminately after the removal of the flesh. They 
 seemed to have been deposited at different periods of time, those on the 
 top alone being in a good state of preservation." {Morton's Crania 
 Americana, p. 235.) Dr. Morton regards these remains as of no great age, 
 and as undoubtedly belonging to individuals of the barbarous tribes. 
 
 A similar cave was discovered some years ago, at Golconda, on the 
 Ohio River, Illinois. It contained many skeletons. {Crania Am., p. 
 234.) Henry, in his travels, mentions a cave in the island of Mackinaw, 
 in Lake Huron, the floor of which was covered with human bones. He 
 expresses the opinion that it was formerly filled with them. The Indians 
 knew nothing concerning the deposite ; our author, nevertheless, ven 
 tures the conjecture, that the cave was an ancient receptacle of the bones 
 of prisoners sacrificed at the Indian war-feasts. " I have always observed," 
 he continues, " that the Indians pay particular attention to the bones of 
 sacrifices, preserving them unbroken, and depositing them in some place 
 exclusively appropriated to the purpose." {Travels, p. 111.) 
 
 In the State of Durango, Mexico, some cave depositories have been 
 discovered, which have given rise to very exaggerated accounts. Some 
 of them have represented that as many as a million of bodies were found 
 in a single cavern. All the information which we have, that can be re 
 garded as authentic, is contained in Dr. Wislizenus's Memoir of the Ex 
 pedition under Doniphan, published by order of Congress, p. 69. After 
 crossing the Rio Nasas, we arrived at San Lorenzo. " On the right 
 hand, or south of us, was a chain of limestone hills running parallel to 
 the road. At the foot of a hill belonging to the chain, Sefior de Gaba 
 pointed out a place to me where, some years ago, a remarkable discovery 
 had been made. In the year 1838, a Mexican, Don Juan Flores, perceived 
 the hidden entrance to a cave. He entered, and found nearly one thou 
 sand well-preserved Indian corpses, squatted together on the ground, 
 with their hands folded below their knees. They were dressed in fine 
 blankets, made of the fibres of lechuguilla, with sandals made of a species 
 of liana, and were ornamented with colored scarfs, with beads of seeds 
 
GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 
 
 217 
 
 
 Missouri, extensive cemeteries have been discovered. For a 
 description of some of those of Tennessee, the public are in 
 debted to Prof. TROOST, of Nashville. (Trans. Am. Ethnol. 
 Soc., vol. I., p. 358.) One is mentioned by him in the imme 
 diate vicinity of that town, which is about a mile in length, and 
 of indefinite breadth. No less than six others equally exten 
 sive are found within a radius of ten miles. The graves are 
 lined with flat stones, and occur in ranges. "Within these, skele 
 tons much decayed are found, also various relics, some of which 
 are recognized as identical with those found in the mounds of 
 Ohio, suggesting a common origin. This identity is further in 
 dicated, though not established, by the presence of mounds and 
 other structures in the vicinity of these cemeteries. Beads, 
 composed of perforated shells, of the genus Marginella, were 
 discovered by Dr. Troost in the graves. These have been found 
 in both the sepulchral and sacrificial mounds north of the Ohio ; 
 as have also beads and other ornaments, made probably from 
 the columella of the strombus gigas, similar to those found by 
 this explorer in the graves above mentioned. How far these 
 coincidences may be traced, can only be determined when the 
 same mind which has investigated one class of remains shall be 
 able to investigate the other. 
 
 Near Sparta, in Tennessee, are several extensive cemeteries, 
 in which the bones of the dead were deposited, inclosed in short 
 
 of fruits, polished bones, etc. This is a very insufficient account of this 
 mysterious burying-place. The Mexicans supposed it belonged to the 
 Lipans, an old Indian tribe which from time immemorial has roved and 
 still roams over the Bolson de Mahimi. I had heard at Chihuahua of 
 this discovery, and was fortunate enough to secure a skull which had 
 been taken from the cave." 
 
 Among the South American nations, cave-burial seems to have been 
 common. Humboldt describes a cave-sepulchre of the Atures, which 
 he discovered on the sources of the Orinoco. It contained nearly six 
 hundred skeletons, regularly arranged in baskets and earthen vases. 
 Some of the skeletons had been bleached, others painted, and all, it is 
 worthy of remark, had been deposited after the removal of the flesh. 
 10 
 
218 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 
 
 coffins or boxes, made of flat stones. These coffins measure 
 about two feet in length and nine inches in depth. A small, 
 rude, earthen vessel, accompanied by some small shells, is usually 
 found near the head of each skeleton. (Feather stonhaugtts 
 Trav., p. 48.) Similar burial-places are found in Missouri, par 
 ticularly in the vicinity of the Marimec River. The " coffins " 
 are neatly constructed of long flat stones, planted vertically, and 
 adapted to each other edge to edge, so as to form a continuous 
 wall. At either end of the grave the stones project a little 
 above the surface. These stone sarcophagi are usually from 
 three to four, but sometimes as many as six feet in length. The 
 bones in these appear to have been deposited after having been 
 separated from the flesh, in accordance with a practice well 
 known to have been common among many Indian tribes. 
 (Bectts Gaz. of Missouri, p. 274 ; James's Exped., vol. I., p. 
 55.) Other extensive cemeteries are found in various parts of 
 the country. One near Alexandria, in Arkansas, is said to be 
 a mile square.* 
 
 A very extensive cemetery has been discovered in Bracken 
 county, Kentucky, occupying nearly the whole of the " bottom " 
 
 or plain, on the south bank of the Ohio, between Bracken and 
 
 
 
 * Accounts of a number of these ancient cemeteries are given by 
 Gen. Lewis Collins, in his recently published History of Kentucky, from 
 which the following notices are condensed. Six miles N. E. of Bow 
 ling Green, Warren county, there is a cave which has a perpendicular 
 descent of about thirty or forty feet. At the bottom are vast quantities 
 of human bones. (p. 541.) On the north bank of Green River, in the 
 vicinity of Bowling Green, are a great many ancient graves ; some of 
 which are formed of stones set edgewise. A similar cemetery occurs 
 near the mouth of Peter's creek, on Big Barren River ; the bones are 
 inclosed in stone coffins, which are about three feet long, and from one 
 .to one and a half wide. On the same river, three miles above Glasgow, 
 and on Skegg's creek, five miles S. W. of the same place, are caves con 
 taining human bones ; those in the last-named cavern seem to be exclu 
 sively the bones of small children. (p. 177.) Similar caverns are found 
 in Union and Meade counties, all of which are said to contain human 
 bones in abundance. 
 
GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 219 
 
 Turtle creeks. The village of Augusta has been built upon it 
 in latter times. The following account of this cemetery was 
 communicated to the author by Gen. John Payne, of Augusta. 
 It will be observed that iron was discovered in some of the 
 graves ; which demonstrates that a portion of the burials took 
 place since communication was established between the whites 
 and Indians, and very likely within the 18th century. 
 
 " The beautiful bottom upon which it stands, extends from 
 one creek to the other, about a mile and a half, and averaging 
 about 800 yards wide. The town is laid off at the upper end 
 of the bottom. The hill back of it is high, but not precipitous ; 
 and upon arriving at the summit, it almost immediately falls 
 toward the south with a gentle but deep descent, and immedi 
 ately there rises another hill. I am thus particular, that you 
 may have a knowledge of the ground where now rest the skele 
 tons of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of an ancient race, as well 
 as of the surrounding localities. The soil of the bottom-land is 
 alluvial. .'../ 
 
 " The village rests upon one vast cemetery : indeed, the 
 whole bottom appears to have been a great burying-ground ; for 
 a post hole can hardly be dug in any part of it without turning 
 up human bones, particularly within three or four hundred 
 yards of the river bank. The ground appears to have been 
 thrown up into ridges, one end resting on the river bank, and 
 the other extending out some two, others three hundred yards, 
 with depressions between of about one hundred feet, the ridges 
 rising to an elevation of about three feet, and are about fifty or 
 sixty yards wide. These ridges are full of human skeletons, 
 regularly buried. My house, at the lower end of the village, 
 stands upon one of these ridges : and in excavating a foundation 
 for the basement story, seventy by sixty feet, and four feet deep, 
 we exhumed one hundred and ten skeletons, numbered by the 
 skulls ; but there were several more, the skulls of which were so 
 much decayed and intermingled with others that I did not take 
 them into the calculation. I have no doubt that there were at 
 
220 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 
 
 least one hundred and forty bodies buried within the bounds 
 above mentioned ; and then on every side the skeletons had 
 been severed, a part taken away while the remains were left 
 sticking in the wall. My garden, extending one hundred and 
 fifty feet back from my house, is manured with human bones, 
 and is very productive. I cannot turn up a spadeful of earth 
 without disturbing the remains of the ancient dead. 
 
 " Those exhumed by me, I have said, appeared to have been 
 regularly buried ; they were about two feet below the surface 
 generally, but some not more than a foot or eighteen inches, 
 invariably with their heads toward the river the river at this 
 point running south 70 west ; some had rough unhammered 
 stones extending on both sides the full length, with a head and 
 foot stone, and a stone covering the head ; others, again, would 
 have only a stone on each side of the head, a head and foot stone, 
 and a stone covering the head ; others, only a head and foot stone ; 
 and others, and much the greatest number, had ' nothing to 
 mark the ground where they were laid.' Most of the bones 
 were entire ; but when exposed to the atmosphere, many soon 
 crumbled into dust, though others remained quite firm. Several 
 of the skulls, in a good state of preservation, I had in my house 
 for months, until they were broken up. The teeth appeared 
 sound : I do not recollect an instance of defective teeth ; there 
 were many absent teeth, but this evidently arose from their 
 dropping out after burial. There were some skeletons of 
 children : the bones of those mouldered into dust almost imme 
 diately. 
 
 " Many articles of Indian ornament, use, and warfare were 
 excavated, such as arrow-heads of flint and bone, glass beads, 
 and that peculiar kind of ancient Indian pottery, formed of clay 
 and pulverized or pounded muscle-shells, which had evidently 
 received the action of heat to harden it. Some of the speci 
 mens of the latter were very perfect, with well-formed ears, like 
 our pottery ware ; some well-formed, handsome stone pipes, 
 
GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 221 
 
 glass beads, both black and blue, ornaments of bone, etc. The 
 other ridges, where they have been opened, have exhibited like 
 results : they are full of human bones, apparently regularly 
 buried ; but the skeletons have not been always found to lie at 
 right angles with the river, but sometimes parallel, and at other 
 times diagonally. Upon this bottom, and covering these re 
 mains in 1792, when the bottom was first settled, stood some 
 of the largest trees of the forest. "We have sycamores now 
 standing on the bank, between these remains and the river, five 
 feet in diameter at the stump. 
 
 " There is another fact which perhaps I should mention. 
 Maj. Davis, who owned a farm on the Augusta bottom, about 
 half a mile below the village, passing opposite his lands where 
 a part of the bank had fallen into the river, discovered a bone 
 sticking out of the bank ; and upon drawing it out, it proved to 
 be the bone of the right arm, and upon the wrist there were 
 three hammered iron rings. They were evidently of manufac 
 tured iron, round and formed to fit the wrist : the ends brought 
 together but not welded or closed ; the iron was destroyed it 
 had been so completely oxydized as to break very easily ; the 
 workmanship was rough, and the print of the hammer was upon 
 them. 
 
 " A full cart-load of bones, taken from the basement story of 
 my house, I had wheeled off into my garden ; over them I 
 erected a mound, and crowned it with a summer-house ; and 
 there they shall rest for the future. 
 
 " About forty years ago, Dr. Overton, then of Lexington, was 
 upon a visit to Augusta. I had heard of a large pile of stones 
 upon the spur of a hill overlooking the Ohio, about three miles 
 above. We went to visit it, worked hard nearly all day, and, 
 at the depth of about five feet in the centre of the pile, found 
 about a half bushel of charcoal and ashes ; this was all that we 
 could discover. 
 
 " I know of no fortifications, nor of any mounds or tumuli, in 
 
222 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 
 
 the county of Bracken. At Claysville, near the bank of 
 Licking River, there is a very large mound ; but I have not 
 been informed that either curiosity or scientific research has 
 induced the citizens to open it." 
 
 Cemeteries, analogous to those in Tennessee and Kentucky, 
 as already observed, exist in Ohio. One, in the extreme 
 northeastern part of the State, at Conneaut, on Lake Erie, 
 covers about four acres. " It is in the form of an oblong 
 square, and appears to have been laid out in lots running north 
 and south, and exhibits all the order and propriety of arrange 
 ment deemed necessary to constitute Christian burial. The 
 graves are distinguished by slight depressions, disposed in 
 straight rows, and were originally estimated to number from 
 two to three thousand. Some were examined in 1800, and 
 found to contain human bones, blackened by time, which, 
 on exposure, crumbled to dust. On the first examination of 
 the ground by the early settlers, they found it covered with a 
 primitive forest. A number of mounds occur in the vicinity. 
 The pioneers observed that the lands around this place ex 
 hibited signs of having once been thrown up in squares and 
 terraces, and laid out in gardens." (How's Gaz. of Ohio, 
 p. 40.) 
 
 A cemetery also occurs in Coshocton county, in the same 
 state, which is described by Dr. Hildreth of Marietta, in Silli- 
 man's Journal of Science and Art. It is situated a short dis 
 tance below the town of Coshocton, on an elevated, gravelly 
 alluvion; in 1830, it covered about ten acres. The graves 
 were arranged regularly in rows, with avenues between them ; 
 and the heads of the skeletons were placed to the west. Traces 
 of wood were observed around some of the skeletons ; from 
 which circumstance it is supposed the bodies were deposited in 
 coffins. The interments had evidently been what may be de 
 nominated bone, burials, and were not made until after the 
 decomposition of the flesh. The graves, consequently, measure 
 but little more than three feet in length, the bones being dis- 
 
GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 223 
 
 membered and packed upon each other, or flexed together, thus 
 giving rise to the popular error of an aboriginal pigmy race. 
 No relics are described as accompanying the human remains.* 
 Near this cemetery is a large mound. 
 
 How far these cemeteries may be regarded as the deposito 
 ries of the mound-builders, we are unprepared to say. Dr. 
 T roost is disposed to regard the " pigmy graves" as of compar 
 atively late origin, and distinguishes between them and the 
 cemeteries of the more ancient race. He observes : " Some 
 consider these places as battle-grounds, and the- graves, those of 
 the slain ; but that is not the case. The Indians do not bury 
 fallen foes : they leave them to- be devoured by wild animals ; 
 their own slain they carry to their towns, or hang up in mats, 
 on trees. They have their burying festivals, when they collect 
 the bones thus preserved, and bury them. In my opinion, the 
 numerous small graves which are attributed to a race of 
 pigmies, had this origin. I have opened numbers of them, and 
 found them filled with mouldering bones, which, judging from 
 the fragments, belonged to common-sized men. The bones in 
 these graves lay without order. This is not the case with the 
 old extinct race, whose graves are much larger, the skeletons 
 being generally stretched out. Nevertheless, I have found 
 these also more or less doubled up."* It is extremely probable 
 
 * It is said that in one of the graves were found pieces of oaken boards, 
 together with some wrought iron nails. If such were the fact, the burial 
 must have been made subsequent to the commencement of European 
 intercourse. It is possible that this was a burial of later date than the 
 others. 
 
 * Trans. Am. Ethnog. Soc., vol. I., p. 358. Dr. Troost describes these 
 graves as " rude fabrics, composed of rough flat stones (mostly a kind 
 of slaty lime and sandstone, abundant in Tennessee). These were laid 
 on the ground, in an excavation made for the purpose : upon them were 
 put, edgewise, two similar stones of about the same length as the 
 former ; and two small ones were put at the extremities, so as to form 
 an oblong box of the size of a man. When a coffin was to be con 
 structed next to it, one of the side stones served for both, and conse- 
 
r 
 
 224 GREAT INDIAN CEMETERIES OF THE WEST. 
 
 that the large cemeteries of Ohio, and those of Kentucky and 
 Tennessee, had a common origin. The absence of stone coffins 
 in the former may perhaps be ascribed to the greater difficulty 
 of procuring stones for the purpose of constructing them. 
 Quite a number of stone graves have, nevertheless, been found 
 in Ohio, entirely corresponding in structure with those above 
 described ; all of which answer perfectly to the dstvaen or kistvaen 
 of the British antiquaries. 
 
 It is the opinion of Dr. Morton, founded upon an examination 
 of the human remains found in some of the " pigmy graves" of 
 Tennessee, that " the so-called pigmies of the "Western country 
 were merely children, who, for reasons not readily explained, 
 but which actuate some religious communities of our own time, 
 were buried apart from the adult people of their tribe." (An 
 Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the American 
 Race, p. 44.) 
 
 quently they lay in straight rows, in one layer only: I never found one 
 above the other." 
 
 The vulgar notion of a pigmy race, founded upon the small size of 
 some of the ancient stone graves, was for a time associated with another 
 equally absurd. Some skulls of old persons were taken from those 
 cemeteries: the teeth had been lost and the alveoles obliterated, ex 
 posing the sharp edge of the jaw-bone ; whence it was inferred that the 
 ancient pigmies were destitute of teeth, and had jaws like those of a 
 turtle! 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 IT has elsewhere been observed, " that the structure, not less 
 than the form and position, of a large number of the aboriginal 
 inclosures of the Mississippi valley, render it certain that they 
 were designed for other than defensive purposes." (Ancient 
 Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, p. 47.) They are dis 
 tinguished for their regularity : most are circular, others are 
 square or rectangular, and a few are elliptical or octagonal. 
 Sometimes these figures are combined in the same group. 
 While the defensive works for the most part occupy high hills 
 and other commanding positions, and in their form correspond 
 to the natural features of the ground upon which they are 
 built, the sacred inclosures almost invariably occur upon the 
 level river terraces, where the surface is least undulating. The 
 ditch, in the few instances where that feature is discovered, is, 
 with rare exceptions, interior to the embankment ; and, in pro 
 curing the material comprising the latter, great care seems to 
 have been exercised by the builders to preserve the surface of 
 the surrounding plain smooth, and, as far as practicable, un 
 broken. The further fact that many of these regular works 
 are commanded from neighboring eminences, not to mention 
 the absence of supplies of water, seems conclusively to establish, 
 that whatever may have been their secondary purposes, they 
 were not primarily connected with any military system. 
 
 It has also been observed that these inclosures contain 
 mounds, evidently of sacred origin. Some of them correspond 
 
 10* 
 
1 
 
 226 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 in form with the ancient pyramidal temples of Mexico and 
 Central America, and others cover altars upon which were 
 offered the sacrifices prescribed by the aboriginal ritual. 
 
 Upon the basis of these facts, it is assumed that the inclo- 
 sures of the West, not manifestly defensive in their purposes, 
 were in some way connected with the superstitions of their 
 builders; an assumption supported by the well-known fact that 
 the most imposing monuments of human labor and skill, in 
 early times, were those which were erected under the influence 
 of religious zeal. 
 
 Proceeding upon this assumption, we next inquire what 
 relations these works sustain to the sacred structures of the 
 various aboriginal nations of this continent, and to those erected 
 by the primitive nations of the Old World, and to what extent 
 they may be regarded as indicating the religious beliefs and 
 conceptions of their builders 1 
 
 TEMPLES OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 The temples of most of the North American Indian tribes 
 were of the rudest character, and distinguished only by their 
 greater size from the ordinary huts of the natives. The ground 
 which they occupied was considered sacred, and an area around 
 them was sometimes inclosed and consecrated to religious 
 rites. Like the religious structures of the Druids, they were 
 usually places of deliberation and council ; within them the 
 priests performed the ceremonies of their religion, and within 
 them the chiefs and warriors gathered to consult on public 
 affairs, to make war and conclude peace. Within them also 
 was maintained the sacred fire of those nations which adhered 
 to the requirements of sun-worship. The Narragansett Indians 
 of New England, and the nations of Virginia, both kept up 
 perpetual fires in their temples, as did also the Natchez and 
 the other tribes which assimilated to the semi-civilized natives 
 of Central America. (Purchases Pilgrims, IV., p. 1868; 
 McCullocWs Researches, p. 3 ; Loskiel,p. 39; Catlin's N. A 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 227 
 
 Indians, vol. I., pp. 88, 158.) Among the Natchez, these 
 temples were sometimes decorated with rude carvings and 
 paintings, which probably were not without their significance. 
 
 Berkley describes with some minuteness a Quioccosan or 
 sacred building of the Virginia Indians. It was constructed in 
 precisely the same manner with their cabins generally, but was 
 somewhat larger. It was thirty feet long by eighteen broad ; 
 and around and at some distance from it, were " set up posts, 
 with faces carved on them and painted." The entrance was 
 barricaded with logs ; thus there was neither window nor pas 
 sage for the light, except the door. In the centre of the build 
 ing was a fire-place, and near one end was suspended a partition 
 of mats, behind which, on shelves, were found three other mats, 
 carefully rolled up. " In one of them," says our author, " we 
 found some bones, which we judged to be the bones of men ; in 
 another we found some Indian tomahawks, finely graven and 
 painted ; and in the third, some materials which, when put 
 together, formed a rude figure of a man, which was their okee, 
 kiwassee, Quioccos, or idol." (Hist. Virginia, p. 166.) 
 
 Smith, in his description of Virginia, says, that " in every 
 territory of a Werowance is a temple and a priest two or 
 three, or more." He mentions also, " upon the top of certain 
 red sandy hills, great houses filled with images of their kings 
 and devils, and tombs of their predecessors. Which houses are 
 neere sixty foot in length, built arborwise. This place they 
 account so holy, that none but priests or kings dare come into 
 it, nor the savages dare not go up in boats by it, but that they 
 solemnly cast some pieces of copper, white beads, or pocones in 
 the river. In this place are commonly resident seven priests." 
 (Smith in Purchas, vol. IV., p. 1701.) 
 
 Marchand mentions a temple among the natives of Coxe's 
 Channel (N. "W. Coast), which had some relation to the primi 
 tive open temples of the Old World. " It is surrounded by 
 strong posts, seven or eight feet high, in which are preserved 
 
228 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 all the tall trees that are then growing ; but all the shrubs are 
 carefully torn up, and the ground is everywhere put in order 
 and well beaten. In the midst of this inclosure, where a cave 
 is sometimes made, is seen a square and uncovered edifice, 
 constructed with handsome planks, the workmanship of which 
 is admirable ; and a stranger cannot behold without admiration 
 that they are twenty- five feet in length, by four in breadth, and 
 two and a half inches in thickness." (Marchand 1 s Voy.^ vol. 
 I., p. 409.) Yanegas states that there was a temple, in his day. 
 at the Island of St. Catherines, on the coast of California, which 
 had a spacious level court, where the Indians performed their 
 sacrifices. The place of the altar was a large circular space, 
 with an inclosure of feathers of divers colors ; and within the 
 circle was an image strangely painted, representing some devil, 
 according to the manner of the Indians of Mexico, holding in 
 his hand the figures of the sun and the moon. ( Vanegas's 
 California, vol. I., p. 105.) 
 
 Prince Maximilian has described to us the " Medicine lodge " 
 of the Minataree Indians, of which the subjoined engraving 
 (Fig. 41) is a plan. It is situated in the centre of the village, 
 and consists of an elliptical space, one hundred and twenty 
 
 FIG. 41. 
 
 feet in length, inclosed by a fence ten or twelve feet high, com 
 posed of reeds and poles, somewhat inclining inwards. It has 
 an entrance to the left ; d, d, d, d, are four fires ; and in the 
 semi-elliptical recesses, the medicine men and elders of the 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 229 
 
 tribe have their seats. (Travels in America, p. 419.) The 
 place occupied by the spectators, is indicated by /, / The 
 Mandans had similar " medicine lodges," except that they were 
 circular in form. They had also a sacred area in the centre of 
 their village ; and within it was placed a shrine of high mys 
 tery, around which their religious dances were performed. 
 
 It would be profitless to inquire further into the character 
 of the sacred edifices, "medicine lodges," or " council houses" 
 of the hunter tribes. It will be seen at once, that they reflect 
 little if any light upon the structures under notice. 
 
 No sooner, however, do we pass to the southward, and arrive 
 among the Creeks, Natchez, and affiliated Floridian tribes, 
 than we discover traces of structures which, if they do not 
 entirely correspond with the regular earth-works of the West, 
 nevertheless seem to be somewhat analogous to them. These 
 natives, it will be remembered, had made some slight advances 
 in civilization, were agricultural in their habits, lived in con 
 siderable towns, had a systematized religion, and sustained 
 many other resemblances to the semi-civilized nations of the 
 continent. 
 
 Adair, in his account of these Indians, frequently mentions 
 K the Holy Square" surrounding their temples, and within which 
 their religious rites were performed. He does not, however, 
 descend to particularize ; and we are left to conjecture what 
 were its dimensions, and how its boundaries were designated. 
 It must have been of considerable size ; for he several times 
 speaks of it as receiving an entire village or tribe, at the time 
 of the great annual festivals. He is so absorbed, however, in 
 his favorite theory, that he cannot describe any feature except 
 by the name borne by its fancied counterpart among the Jews. 
 So we are not surprised in finding, within " the Sacred Square," 
 and standing near its western side, a Sanctum Sanctorum, or 
 most holy place, inclosed by a mud-wall about breast high. It 
 was here that the consecrated vessels of earthenware, conch- 
 
230 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 shells, etc., were deposited. This sacred place, according to 
 our authority, could not be approached by any but the magi or 
 priests. Indeed, so great a holiness attached to the sacred 
 squares themselves, that it was believed if the great annual 
 sacrifice were made elsewhere, it would not only be unavailable 
 for the purposes required, but bring down the anger of the god 
 to propitiate whose favor it was instituted, viz., the genial god, the 
 god of almost universal adoration among rude people, the fountain 
 of heat and light, the divine fire, The Sun ! Within this square, 
 at least at the time of the great festival, the women were not 
 allowed to enter, nor those persons who had neglected to com 
 ply with certain prescribed purifying ceremonies, or who had 
 been guilty of certain specified crimes. 
 
 The deficiencies in Adair's account are supplied to a consid 
 erable extent by Bartram, in a MS. work on the Creek Indians, 
 now in possession of Dr. S. T. Morton, of Philadelphia. He 
 not only describes the " public squares " alluded to by Adair, 
 in which the religious ceremonies of the Indians were per 
 formed, and their deliberative councils held, but also com 
 municates the interesting and important fact that they some 
 times appropriated to their purposes the ancient inclosures 
 and other monuments found in the country, and concerning 
 the origin of which they professed no knowledge. His account, 
 apart from its bearings on the questions before us, has a general 
 interest which justifies its insertion entire. 
 
 "CHUNK YARDS. The 'Chunk Yards' of the Muscogulges 
 or Creeks, are rectangular areas, generally occupying the cen 
 tre of the town. The Public Square and Rotunda, or Great 
 Winter Council House, stand at the two opposite corners of 
 them. They are generally very extensive, especially in the 
 large, old towns : some of them are from six to nine hundred 
 feet in length, and of proportionate breadth. The area is 
 exactly level, and sunk two, sometimes three feet below the 
 banks or terraces surrounding them, which are occasionally 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 231 
 
 two in number, one behind and above the other, and composed 
 of the earth taken from the area at the time of its formation. 
 These banks or terraces serve the purpose of seats for specta 
 tors. In the centre of this yard or area there is a low circular 
 mound or eminence, in the middle of which stands erect the 
 ' Chunk Pole,' which is a high obelisk or four-square pillar 
 declining upwards to an obtuse point.* This is of wood, the 
 heart or inward resinous part of a sound pine tree, and is very 
 durable ; it is generally from thirty to forty feet in height, and 
 to the top is fastened some object which serves as a mark to 
 shoot at, with arrows or the rifle, at certain appointed times. 
 Near each corner of one end of the yard stands erect a less 
 pole or pillar, about twelve feet high, called a ' slave post,' for 
 the reason that to them are bound the captives condemned to 
 be burnt. These posts are usually decorated with the scalps 
 of slain enemies, suspended by strings from the top. They 
 are often crowned with the white dry skull of an enemy. 
 
 " It thus appears that this area is designed for a public place 
 of exhibition, for shows, games, etc. Formerly, there is little 
 doubt, most barbarous and tragical scenes were enacted within 
 them, such as the torturing and burning of captives, who were 
 here forced to run the gauntlet, bruised and beaten with sticks 
 and burning chunks of wood. The Indians do not now prac 
 tise these cruelties : but there are some old traders who have 
 witnessed them in former times. I inquired of these traders 
 for what reason these areas were called ' Chunk Yards ;' they 
 were in general ignorant, yet, for the most part, concurred in a 
 lame story that it originated in the circumstance of its having 
 been a place of torture, and that the name was but an inter 
 pretation of the Indian term designating them.f 
 
 * This pole, it may here be observed, corresponds in position with 
 certain erect stones, found by Mr. Stephens and other travelers, occu 
 pying the centre of the areas inclosed by the temples of Central Amer 
 ica and Yucatan, and which, as will be seen in due time, were un 
 doubtedly phallic emblems. 
 
 t According to Adair, Du Pratz, and other writers, the Cherokees 
 
232 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 "I observed none of these yards in use in any of the Cher 
 okee towns ; and where I have mentioned them, in the Chero 
 kee country, it must be understood that I saw only the remains 
 or vestiges of them among the ruins of ancient towns. In the 
 existing Cherokee towns which I visited, although there were 
 ancient mounds and signs of the yard adjoining, yet the yard 
 was either built upon or turned into a garden plat, or other 
 wise appropriated. Indeed, I am convinced that the Chunk 
 Yards now or lately in use among the Creeks are of very 
 ancient date, and not the work of the present Indians ; although 
 they are now kept in repair by them, being swept very clean 
 every day, and the poles kept up and decorated in the manner 
 I have described. 
 
 " The following plan, Fig. 42 , will illustrate the form and 
 character of these yards. 
 
 " A. The great area, surrounded by terraces or banks. 
 
 " B. A circular eminence, at one end of the yard, commonly 
 nine or ten feet higher than the ground round about. Upon 
 this mound stands the great Rotunda, Hot House, or Winter 
 Council House of the present Creeks. It was probably 
 designed and used by the ancients who constructed it, for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 and probably the Creeks were much addicted to a singular game, played 
 with a rod or pole and a circular stone, which was called chungke. Mr. 
 Catliii describes this game as still existing under the name of " Tchung- 
 kee" among the Minitarees and other tribes on the Missouri. It also 
 prevailed among some of the Ohio Indians. It has been suggested that 
 the areas called chunk or chunky yards by Bartram, derived their names 
 from the circumstance that they were, among other objects, devoted 
 to games, among which that of the chungke was prominent. This sug 
 gestion derives some support from Adair. who says, " They have, near 
 their State House, a square piece of ground, well cleared; and fine sand 
 is strewn over it when requisite to promote a swifter motion to what 
 they throw along it." (American Indians, p. 402.) It is therefore not 
 improbable that these square areas were denominated chungke yards. 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 233 
 
 " C. A square terrace or eminence, about the same height 
 with the circular one just described, occupying a position at 
 the other end of the yard. Upon this stands the Public 
 Square. 
 
 " The banks inclosing the yard are indicated by the letters 
 &, b, b, b ; c indicates the ' Chunk Pole; and d, d, the ' Slave 
 Posts. 1 
 
 FIG. 42. 
 
 " Sometimes the square, instead of being open at the ends, as 
 shown in the plan, is closed upon all sides by the banks. In 
 the lately built or new Creek towns, they do not raise a mound 
 for the foundation of their rotundas or public squares. The 
 yard, however, is retained, and the public buildings occupy 
 
234 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 nearly the same position in respect to it. They also retain the 
 central obelisk and the slave posts. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF THE PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 
 
 " The following engraving, Fig. 43, exhibits the most com 
 mon plan or arrangement of the Chunk Yard, Public Square, 
 and Rotunda, in the modern Creek towns. 
 
 FIG. 43. 
 
 u A. The Public Square. 
 
 " B. The Rotunda : #, the entrance opening toward the 
 square ; the three circular lines show the rows of seats or rude 
 sofas ; the punctures show the posts or columns which support 
 the building; c, the great central pillar, surrounded by the 
 spiral fire which gives light to the edifice.* 
 
 " C. Part of the Chunk Yard. 
 
 * It is to be regretted that our author has not given the dimensions 
 of the " Rotunda." It would be interesting to know how it would com 
 pare, in that respect, with the small circles so common throughout the 
 West. 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 235 
 
 li Within this Rotunda, they seem to keep the Eternal Fire, 
 where it is guarded by the priests. Within it the new fire is 
 kindled on the occasion of the Feast of the First Fruits. No 
 woman .is allowed to step within the Rotunda, and it is death 
 for any to enter. None but a priest can bring the sacred fire 
 forth. The spiral fire in the centre of the building is very 
 curious : it seems to light up into a flame, of itself, at the ap 
 pointed time ; but how this is done I know not. 
 
 THE PUBLIC SQ.UARE. 
 
 " The Public Square of the Creeks consists of four buildings 
 of equal size, placed one upon each side of a quadrangular 
 court. The principal or Council House, is divided transversely 
 into three equal apartments, separated from each other by a 
 low clay wall. This building is also divided longitudinally into 
 two nearly equal parts ; the foremost or front is an open piazza, 
 where are seats for the council. The middle apartment is for 
 the king (mico), the great war chief, second head man, and other 
 venerable and worthy chiefs and warriors. The two others are 
 for the warriors and citizens generally. The back apartment 
 of this house is quite close and dark, and without entrances, 
 except three very low arched holes or doors for admitting the 
 priests. Here are deposited all the most valuable public things, 
 as the eagle's tail or national standard, the sacred calumet, the 
 drums, and all the apparatus of the priests. None but the 
 priests having the care of these articles are admitted ; and it is 
 said to be certain death for any other person to enter.* 
 
 * This is probably the apartment designated by Adair as the sanctum 
 sanctorum. Du Pratz (p. 851) states that the temples of the Natchez 
 were divided into two apartments, in the larger of which the eternal fire 
 was kept. " The inner apartment," he observes, " was very dark, receiv 
 ing no light except what came in at the door. I could meet nothing here 
 but two boards, on which were placed some things like small toys, which 
 I had not light to peruse." These sacred inner rooms cannot fail to re 
 mind us of the dark chambers of Palenque and Copan, within which Mr. 
 
236 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 " Fronting this is another building, called the ' Banqueting 
 House ;' and the edifices upon either hand are halls to accommo 
 date the people on public occasions, as feasts, festivals, etc. 
 The three buildings last mentioned are very much alike, and 
 differ from the Council House only in not having the close back 
 apartment. 
 
 " The clay-plastered walls of the Creek houses, particularly 
 of the houses comprising the Public Square, are often covered 
 with paintings. These are, I think, hieroglyphics or mystical 
 writings, of the same use and purpose with those mentioned by 
 historians to be found upon the obelisks, pyramids, and other 
 monuments of the ancient Egyptians. They are much after the 
 same style and taste ; and though I never saw an instance of 
 perspective or chiaro-oscuro, yet the outlines were bold, natural, 
 and turned to convey some meaning, passion, or admonition, 
 and they may be said to speak to those who can read them. 
 The walls are plastered very smooth with red clay ; then the 
 figures or symbols are drawn with white clay, paste, or chalk : 
 if the walls are plastered with white clay, the figures are sketched 
 in red. brown, or bluish paste. 
 
 " Almost all kinds of animals, sometimes plants, flowers, 
 trees, etc., are depicted ; also figures of men in various attitudes, 
 some very ludicrous and even obscene. In some instances, the 
 membrum gencrationis virile is represented ; but I saw no in 
 stance of indelicacy in a female figure. Men are often pictured 
 with the head and other members of different kinds of animals, 
 as the wolf, buck, hare, horse, buffalo, snake, duck, turkey, tiger, 
 cat, crocodile, etc., etc. All these animals, on the other hand, 
 are depicted having the human head and other members, as 
 
 Stephens discovered the mystical tablets described in his volumes on 
 Central America. Nor is it difficult to trace a correspondence between 
 the pictured walls of these buildings, as described in the text, and the 
 sculptured fronts and elaborately painted walls of the Central American 
 temples. 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSTTRES. 
 
 237 
 
 also the head and members of other animals, so as to appear 
 monstrous. 
 
 CREEK TOWNS AND DWELLINGS. 
 
 The general position of the Chunk Yard and Public Build 
 ings of the Creeks, in respect to the dwellings of the Indians 
 themselves, is shown in the following engraved plan : 
 
 a 
 
 o ..... J 
 
 ...... - 
 
 I ...... \ ..... .d 
 
 ' 
 
 c/o 
 
 s 
 
 I ........ l p'T"! 
 
 
 FIG. 44 
 
 " A is the Rotunda ; B, the Public Square ; C, the grand 
 area, or Chunk Yard. The habitations of the citizens are 
 placed with considerable regularity in streets or ranges, as in 
 dicated in the plan."* 
 
 * " The dwellings of the Upper Creeks consist of little squares, or 
 rather of four oblong houses inclosing a square area, exactly on the plan 
 of the Public Square. Every family, however, has not four of these 
 houses : some have but three, others not more than two, and some but 
 one, according to the circumstances of the individual or the number of 
 his family. Those who possess four buildings have a particular use for 
 each : one serves for a cook-room or winter lodging-house, another as a 
 
238 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 The inference might not unreasonably be drawn, from Bar- 
 tram's language, that the rectangular areas, surrounded by em 
 bankments, as also the square and circular mounds above men 
 tioned, were constructed by the Creeks. He, however, states 
 explicitly in his Travels, that the country in which these re 
 mains occur was occupied subsequently to the arrival of Euro- 
 summer lodging-house and hall for visitors, and another for a granary 
 or store-house, etc. 
 
 " The accompanying cut (Fig. 45) illustrates the plan of the dwelling 
 
 FIG. 45. 
 
 or villa of a Creek chief known among the traders by the name of Bos- 
 ten. A is the area inclosed by four buildings : the one upon the left, e, 
 was his lodging-house, and was large and commodious ; the building op 
 posite was a large, square, open pavilion, covered by a cedar roof, which 
 was supported by two rows of posts or pillars. Between each range of 
 pillars was a platform, raised about two feet and ascended by two steps ; 
 this was covered with checkered mats of curious workmanship, woven 
 of splints of canes variously colored. In the centre of the pavilion was a 
 square platform, raised somewhat higher than the others, and also cov 
 ered with mats. In this delightful, airy place, visitors were received 
 and entertained. The remaining two buildings were used, the one as a 
 cook-house, the other as a store-house. 
 
 " The Lower Creeks, or Seminoles, are not so regular in their build- 
 ings, public or private. The private houses of the Cherokees consist of 
 
 G 
 
 M- 
 
 FIG. 46. 
 
 one oblong log building, divided transversely into several apartments, 
 with a portico in front ; a round house, D, stands a little distance off, and 
 is used as a winter lodging-house." 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 239 
 
 peans by the Cherokees, who were afterward dispossessed by 
 the Creeks ; and that " it was probably, many ages preceding 
 the Cherokee invasion, inhabited by a single nation or confed 
 eracy, governed by common laws, possessing like customs, and 
 speaking the same language, but so ancient that neither the 
 Creeks nor the Cherokees, nor the nations they conquered, 
 could render any account by whom or for what purposes these 
 monuments were erected." He also inclines to the belief, that 
 the uses to which these structures were appropriated, by the 
 existing Indian tribes, were not widely different from those for 
 which they were originally built. Upon this point he adds : 
 " The mounds and large areas adjoining them seem to have 
 been raised in part for ornament and recreation, and likewise 
 to serve some other public purpose, since they are always so 
 situated as to command the most extensive prospect over the 
 country adjacent. The square terraces may have served as the 
 foundations of fortresses ; and perhaps the great pyramidal 
 mounds answered the purpose of look-outs, or were high places 
 for sacrifice." (Travels, p. 518.) 
 
 From this account we gather the important fact, that in the 
 centre of the Creek (as also of the Cherokee) towns was a 
 " public square," surrounded by edifices devoted to public pur 
 poses ; and that accompanying this square, and placed in a fixed 
 position in respect to it, was an edifice, circular in form, which 
 was more especially dedicated to religious purposes, and within 
 which was kept up the eternal fire. In some cases these struc 
 tures, it seems, were elevated upon mounds. 
 
 Mr. Payne, in his MSS., thus describes the great Council 
 House of the Cherokees, which corresponds with the " Rotunda," 
 mentioned by Bartram. After remarking that it was near this 
 that the dwellings of the Uku and head men of the tribe were 
 erected, and that it was always situated in a town capable of 
 accommodating a great number of people, he proceeds : 
 
 " Every part bore a mystical reference to the sanctity with 
 which they regarded the number seven. Seven posts were set 
 
240 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 deep in the ground, equi-distant from each other, so as to form 
 seven equal sides ; though generally the roof, when it touched 
 the ground, as it sometimes did, was entirely circular. Upon 
 the seven posts seven very long beams were so placed, as to 
 rest one end on the ground, or periphery raised two or three feet 
 with earth, while the other end stretched high in air, and all 
 soon met at a point directly over the centre of the floor. Other 
 pieces of timber were fastened transversely to these, answering 
 for ribs ; at first they were thatched with grass, and over it a 
 layer of clay, surmounted with another layer of grass, so as to 
 make it water-proof. The external appearance of the entire 
 building very much resembled an immense charcoal-pit. There 
 was an opening in the roof for the escape of the smoke. The 
 fire was in the centre. Anciently, they say, this was the sacred 
 fire handed down from above. 
 
 " The Council House door was always on the eastern side, 
 directly toward the rising sun. Before it was a portico. The 
 seven posts which supported the house were so set, that one 
 stood directly opposite the entrance, on the west side of the 
 structure. It was painted white, and had pins and shelves 
 attached to it, on which were hung or laid all the holy things 
 connected with their worship. * * * The space which was 
 regarded as most sacred, was that immediately back of the seat 
 of the Ukuj near the white post already mentioned. Among 
 the sacred things kept here were the sacred arks, and smaller 
 arks of clay for conveying the holy fire. * * * Adjacent 
 to the Council House, there was a large public square, the 
 sides formed by four one-story structures. The entrances at 
 each corner were wide and open. These structures were open 
 in front like piazzas, and each one was partitioned off into 
 several divisions, etc." 
 
 The embankment designating the outlines of the structure 
 here described, may be regarded as throwing direct light upon 
 the origin of the small circles so abundant in the valley of the 
 Ohio. 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 241 
 
 In the account of La Salle's last expedition to the mouth of 
 the Mississippi, published by the Chevalier Tonti, we have a 
 brief notice of the Taencas or Tenzas, from which the following 
 interesting passages, relating to the questions before us, are 
 extracted. 
 
 " As the first village of the Taenca stands on the other side 
 of a lake which is eight leagues in circumference, and half a 
 league over, we were forced to take a canoe to cross it. As soon 
 as we landed, I was surprised to see the grandeur of the village, 
 and the order of the cottages ; they are placed in divers rows, 
 and in a straight line, round about a large space, being all made 
 of earth and covered over with mats of cane. "We presently 
 took notice of two, fairer than the rest, one of which was the 
 prince's palace, and the other the temple. Each of them was 
 forty feet square, and the walls ten feet high and two feet 
 thick, the roof in the form of a cupola, and covered with a mat 
 of divers colors. * * * As to their religion, the prince told 
 me that they worship the sun ; that they had their temples, 
 their altars, and their priests. That in their temple there was 
 a fire which burned perpetually, as the proper emblem of the 
 sun. That at the decrease of the moon, they carried a great 
 dish of their greatest dainties to the door of the temple, as an 
 oblatory sacrifice ; which the priests offered to their god. and 
 then carried it home and feasted themselves therewith. * * 
 The next day I had the curiosity to see their temple, and 
 the old gentleman led me thither. The structure of it was 
 exactly the same with that of the prince's house As to the 
 outside, it is encompassed with a great high wall, the space betwixt 
 that and the temple forming a kind of court where people may 
 icalk. On the top of the wall were several pikes to be seen, 
 upon which were stuck the heads of their own most notorious 
 criminals, or of their enemies. On the top of the frontispiece, 
 there is a great knob raised, all covered round with hair, and 
 above that a heap of scalps, in the form of a trophy. 
 The inside of the temple is only a Nave, painted on all sides, 
 
 11 
 
242 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 at top with all sorts of figures ; in the midst of it is a hearth 
 raised in the form of an altar, upon which there is burning con 
 tinually three great billets of wood, standing up on end ; and 
 two priests, dressed in white vestments, are ever looking after 
 it to make up the fire and supply it. It is round this the 
 people come to say their prayers with strange kind of hum- 
 mings. The prayers are three times a day : at sunrise, at noon, 
 and at sunset. They made me take notice of a sort of closet 
 cut out of the wall, the inside of which was very fine. I could 
 only see the roof of it, on the top of which there hung a couple 
 of spread eagles, which looked toward the sun.* I wanted to 
 go in ; but they told me it was the tabernacle of their god, 
 and that it was permitted to none but their high priest to go in. 
 And I was told it was the repository of their wealth and 
 treasures, as jewels, gold and silver, precious stones, and some 
 goods that came out from Europe, which they had from their 
 neighbors. (La Salle, Trans. N. Y. Hist. Soc., vol. II., pp. 
 269, 272.) 
 
 THE TEMPLES OF MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND PERU. 
 
 The pyramidal temples of the Aztecs, which perhaps better 
 deserve the name of altars, or the scriptural name of " high 
 places," were always surrounded by large inclosures, most 
 usually of a square form. The great temple of Mexico, which 
 is described by all the early authors as nearly identical in form 
 and structure with all the principal temples of Auahuac, con 
 sisted first of an immense square area, " surrounded by a wall 
 of stone and lime, eight feet thick, with battlements, ornamented 
 with many stone figures in the form of serpents." The extent 
 of this inclosure, which occupied the centre of the ancient city, 
 may be inferred from the assertion of Cortez, that it might con 
 tain a town of five hundred houses. It was paved with pol- 
 
 * Adair speaks of " cherub imical figures in the Synhedria " of the 
 Muscogulges or Creeks. (p. 30.) 
 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 243 
 
 ished stones, so smooth, says Bernal Diaz, that " the horses of 
 the Spaniards could not move over them without slipping." 
 The four walls of this inclosure corresponded with the cardinal 
 points, and gateways opened midway upon each side, from 
 which, according to Gomera, led off broad and elevated' avenues 
 or roads. (Purchas, vol. III., p. 1 133.) In the centre of this 
 grand area arose the great temple, an immense pyramidal struc 
 ture of five stages, faced with stone, three hundred feet square 
 at the base, and one hundred and twenty feet in height, 
 truncated, with a level summit, upon which were situated two 
 towers, the shrines of the divinities to which it was consecrated. 
 It was here the sacrifices were performed and the eternal fire 
 maintained. One of these shrines was dedicated to Tezcatli- 
 poca, the other to Huitzlipochtli ; which divinities sustained 
 the same relation to each other, in the Mexican mythology, as 
 Brahma and Siva in that of the Hindus. Both are the same 
 god, under different aspects, and with the God of the Rain, 
 Tlaloc, constitute a Triad, almost identical with that which 
 runs through all the mythologies of the East. 
 
 Besides this great pyramid, according to Clavigero, there 
 are forty other similar structures, of smaller size, consecrated 
 to separate divinities ; one was called Tezcacalli, " House of 
 the Shining Mirrors," which was covered with brilliant mate 
 rials, and sacred to Tezcatlipoca, the God of Light, the Soul 
 of the World, the Vivifier, the Spiritual Sun; another to 
 Tlaloc, the God of Water, the Fertilizer ; another to Quetzal- 
 coatl, said to have been the God of the Air, whose shrine was 
 distinguished by being circular, " even," says Gomera, " as the 
 winds go round about the heavens, for that consideration made 
 they his temple round." 
 
 Besides these, there were the dwellings of the priests 
 (amounting, according to Zarate, to 5,000) and of the attend 
 ants in the temples, and seminaries for the instruction of 
 youth ; and, if we are to credit some accounts, houses of re 
 ception for strangers who came to visit the temple and see the 
 
244 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 grandeur of the court ; ponds and fountains, groves and gar 
 dens, in which flowers and " sweet smelling herbs " were cul 
 tivated for use in certain sacred rites, and for the decoration 
 of the altars. " And all this," says Solis, " without retracting 
 so much from that vast square but that eight or ten thousand 
 persons had sufficient room to dance in, upon their solemn 
 festivals." The area of this temple was consecrated ground ; 
 and it is related of Montezuma, that he only ventured to 
 introduce Cortez within its sacred limits, after having con 
 sulted with and received the permission of the priests, and 
 then only on the condition, in the words of Solis, that the 
 conquerors "should behave themselves with respect." The 
 Spaniards having exhibited, in the estimation of Montezuma, a 
 want of due reverence and ceremony, he hastily withdrew them 
 from the temple, while he himself remained to ask the pardon 
 of his gods for having permitted the impious intrusion. 
 
 There is a general concurrence in the accounts of this great 
 temple given by the early authorities, among whom are Cortez, 
 Diaz, and others, who witnessed what they described. They 
 all unite in presenting it as a type of the multitude of similar 
 structures which existed in Anahuac. Their glowing descrip 
 tions, making due allowance for the circumstances under which 
 they wrote, are sustained by the imposing ruins of Cholula. 
 Papantla, Mitla, Xoxachalco, Misantla, Quemada, and the 
 thousand other monuments which are yet unrecorded by the 
 antiquary, and which invest every sierra and valley of Mexico 
 with an interest hardly less absorbing than that which lingers 
 around the banks of the Nile. 
 
 From the number of these religious structures, we gather 
 some idea of the predominance of Mexican superstitions. 
 Solis speaks of eight temples in the city of Mexico, of nearly 
 equal grandeur with that above described, and estimates those 
 of smaller size to amount to two thousand in number, " dedi 
 cated to as many idols of different names, forms, and at 
 tributes." Torquemada estimates the number of temples in 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 245 
 
 the Mexican empire at forty thousand, and Clavigero places 
 the number far higher. " The architecture," he adds, " of the 
 great temples was for the most part the same with that of the 
 great temple of Mexico ; but there were many likewise of a 
 different structure, composed of a single body in the form of a 
 pyramid, with a staircase, etc." Gomera says, " they were 
 almost all of the same form : so that what we shall say of the 
 principal temple, will suffice to explain all the others." 
 Cortez, in a letter to Charles V., dated October 30, 1520, 
 states that he counted four hundred of these pyramidal tem 
 ples at Cholula. 
 
 From all sources we gather that the principal temples, or 
 rather sacred places of Mexico, consisted of large square areas, 
 surrounded by walls, with passages midway at their sides, from 
 which sometimes led off avenues or roads, and that within 
 these inclosures were pyramidal structures of various sizes, 
 dedicated to different divinities, as also the residences of the 
 priests, with groves, walks, etc. 
 
 Proceeding to Central America, we still find, so far as we 
 are informed concerning the remains of these countries, the 
 sacred inclosure and the pyramidal temple. The inclosure 
 surrounding the sacred edifices of Tuloom, already described 
 in another connection (page 162), was most probably the conse 
 crated ground of the ancient inhabitants. Its rectangular 
 form and the position of its gateways go far to connect it with 
 the corresponding structures of Mexico and the United States. 
 Grijalva, the first discoverer of Yucatan, alluding perhaps to 
 these very structures of Tuloom, " saw several places of wor 
 ship and temples, wide at the bottom and hollow at the top, 
 stately stone buildings, at the foot of which was an inclosure 
 of lime and stone." Del Rio assures us that the principal 
 structures, the temples of Palenque, were placed in " the centre 
 of a rectangular area, three hundred yards in breadth, and 
 four hundred and fifty in length." Assuming the word 
 " yard " to be a translation of the Spanish vara, which is about 
 
246 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 thirty-three inches in length, we have the dimensions of this 
 area, 825 by 1240 feet. Herrara relates, concerning the build 
 ing of the town of Mayapan, by the ancient inhabitants of 
 Yucatan : 
 
 " They pitched upon a spot, eight leagues from the place 
 where Merida now stands, and fifteen from the sea, where they 
 made an inclosure of about half a quarter of a league [on 
 each side?], being a wall of dry stone with only two gates. 
 They built temples, calling the greatest of them Cuculcan, and 
 near to the inclosure the houses of the prime men. * * It 
 was afterward ordered that, since the inclosure was only for 
 the temples, the houses of the people should be built round 
 about." (Herrara, vol. IV., p. 162.) 
 
 The accounts which we possess of the ancient religious 
 structures of Peru, although glowing with admiration of their 
 splendor and riches, are yet extremely vague as respects their 
 plan of construction. Enough, however, is easily gathered to 
 assure us that they consisted of large consecrated courts or 
 areas, like those of Mexico, in which the temples proper were 
 situated, together with fountains, gardens, and the residences 
 of the priests. 
 
 The great Temple of the Sun at Cuzco, in the description 
 of which the early Spaniards have expended every superla 
 tive of their language, consisted of a principal building and 
 several chapels and inferior edifices, covering a large extent of 
 ground, in the heart of the city, and completely encompassed 
 by a circular wall, which, with the edifices, was constructed of 
 stone. Aqueducts opened within this sacred inclosure ; and 
 within it were gardens, and walks among shrubs and flowers 
 of gold and silver, made in imitation of the productions of 
 nature. It was attended by four thousand priests. " The 
 ground," says La Vega, " for two hundred paces around the 
 temple, was considered holy, and no one was allowed to pass 
 within this boundary but with naked feet." Nor even under 
 these restrictions were any permitted to enter, except of the 
 
r 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 247 
 
 blood of the Incas, in whom were centred the priestly and 
 civil functions of the government. 
 
 Besides the great Temple of the Sun, there was a large 
 number of inferior temples in Cuzco, estimated by Herrara at 
 three hundred. Numerous other temples are scattered over 
 the empire, all of which seem to have corresponded very nearly 
 in structure with that already described. The most celebrated 
 temple in Peru, next to that of Cuzco, was situated on an 
 island in Lake Titicaca, where it was believed Manco Capac 
 first made his appearance on earth. The whole surface of the 
 island was considered sacred. The Temple of Pachacamac is 
 described as being inclosed by walls, and to have "more 
 resembled a fortress than a temple." According to Roman, 
 "the temples of Peru were built upon high grounds or the 
 tops of hills, and were surrounded by four circular embank 
 ments of earth, one within the other. The temple stood in 
 the centre of the inclosed area, and was quadrangular in 
 form." 
 
 A structure, corresponding very nearly with this description, 
 is noticed by Humboldt, who denominates it, in accordance 
 with local traditions, Ingapilca, " House of the Incas," and 
 supposes it to have been a sort of fortified lodging-place of the 
 Incas, in their journeys from one part of the empire to the 
 other. It is situated at Cannar, and occupies the summit of a 
 hill. The " citadel " is a very regular oval, the greatest axis 
 of which is 125 feet, and consists of a wall, built of large 
 blocks of stone, rising to the height of sixteen feet. Within 
 this oval is a square edifice, containing but two rooms, which 
 resembles the ordinary stone dwellings of the present day. 
 Surrounding these is a much larger circular inclosure, which, 
 from the description and plate, we infer is not far from five 
 hundred feet in diameter. This series of works possesses few 
 military features, and it seems most likely that it was a temple 
 of the Sun. This opinion is confirmed by the fact that, at the 
 base of the hill of Cannar was formerly a famous shrine of 
 
248 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 the Sun. consisting of the universal symbol of that luminary 
 formed by nature upon the face of a great rock. Humboldt 
 himself admits an apparent dependence between this shrine 
 and the structures above described. (HumboldC s Res., vol., 
 pp. 242, 248: fol. plates, No. 17.) Ulloa describes an ancient 
 Peruvian temple situated on a hill near the town of Cayambe, 
 perfectly circular in form, and open at the top. It was built 
 of unburnt bricks, cemented together with clay. ( Ulloa, vol. 
 I., p. 486.) 
 
 TEMPLES OP POLYNESIAN ISLANDERS, HINDCJS, ETC. 
 
 Inclosures ruder in construction, yet nevertheless analogous 
 in form and identical in purpose with those here described, 
 were found among the Polynesian Islanders. The area of 
 their temples was frequently a square or parallelogram, pro 
 tected by stone walls, within which were pyramidal structures, 
 sometimes of great size. One of these, within the great in- 
 closure of Atehuru, was two hundred and seventy feet long, by 
 ninety-four feet broad, and fifty feet high ; flat on the summit, 
 which was reached by a flight of steps, much after the manner 
 of the Mexican Teocalli. Within the sacred area, and at the 
 base of these pyramidal structures, the idols were placed and 
 their altars erected. Here also were the dwellings of the 
 priests and of the keepers of the idols. The trees and other 
 objects within the walls were sacred. (Ellis's Polynesian 
 Researches, vol. I., p. 340.) In some instances, instead of an 
 unbroken wall, the sacred area was indicated by a series of 
 pyramidal heaps of stones, placed at intervals, so as to con 
 stitute the leading points of a square, within which was placed 
 the temple proper. The ruins of a temple of this kind, called 
 Kaili, still exist in the island of Hawaii. ( U. S. Exploring 
 Exped., vol. IV., p. 100.) 
 
 When we extend our inquiries to the eastern shores of the 
 old continent, we find in India the almost exact counterparts 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 249 
 
 of the religious structures of Central America : analogies fur 
 nishing the strongest support of the hypothesis which places 
 the origin of American semi-civilization in southern Asia. A 
 close and critical comparison of these monuments, in con 
 nection with the systems of religion to which they were 
 respectively dedicated, and the principles which governed their 
 erection, may lead to most interesting and important results. 
 
 In another connection, some of the more obvious analogies 
 will be pointed out ; with no view, however, of establishing 
 dependencies, but for the purpose of illustration and elucida 
 tion. It is sufficient for our present objects to remark, that 
 the temples of India and of the islands of the Indian seas, 
 both of modern and ancient date, are constructed and inclosed 
 in like manner with those already described. The consecrated 
 area is sometimes of vast extent, equaling if not exceeding in 
 this respect the largest of those which existed in Mexico. 
 These inclosures are square, and usually have their entrances 
 corresponding to the cardinal points. " The general style of 
 these buildings," says Bishop Heber, " is a large square court, 
 sometimes merely surrounded by a low brick wall, with balus 
 trades, indented at the top, with two or sometimes four towers 
 at the angles. In the centre of the principal front is, for the 
 most part, an entrance, often very handsome. In the middle 
 of the quadrangle, or in the middle of one of its sides opposite 
 the main entrance, is a pyramid, which is the temple of the 
 principal deity. The structure is sometimes octagonal, but 
 mostly square." (Heber's Travels, vol. I., Chap. 3.) " Some 
 times a number of temples are built within this sacred area. 
 One at Chanchra, in Jesson, has twenty-one temples, and one 
 thousand acres of ground." ( Ward, vol. III., p. 230.) The 
 Pagoda of Seringham is one of the most magnificent in India. 
 It stands on an island in the river Careri, in the dominions 
 of the Rajah of Tanjore. Seven square inclosures, formed by 
 walls twenty-five feet high, four feet thick, and three hundred 
 and fifty feet distant from each other, inclose a court in the 
 11* 
 
250 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 centre, in which are sacred pyramidal structures, the abodes 
 of the gods of the Hindu pantheon, and among them the 
 sanctuary of the Supreme Vishnu. These various deities are 
 believed really to animate their respective pyramids or shrines. 
 Four large gates, one in the middle of each side, each sur 
 mounted by a tower, are the entrances to the several courts. 
 The outer wall is four miles in circumference. The number 
 of the inclosures has a symbolical signification, and refers to 
 the several regions into which the Universe, the abode of the 
 gods, was supposed to be divided, according to the theory of 
 the age in which the structure was built. (Dudley's Naology, 
 p. 104; Caiman's Mythology of the Hindus, p. 157; Maurices 
 Indian Antiquities, vol. III., pp. 13, 50.) The great temple 
 of Jaggenath, at Orissa, the general resort of all Hindu sects, 
 is regarded as possessing such exceeding sanctity, that the 
 earth for twenty miles round is considered holy. The most 
 sacred, spot is an inclosed area about six hundred and fifty 
 feet square, which contains the temples of the idol and his 
 sister, surrounded by fifty lesser temples, all of pyramidal 
 form. (Caiman's Myth, of the Hindus, p. 52.) 
 
 In the Island of Java are the remains of many ancient tem 
 ples, of similar character and construction. A large number 
 of these, designated as the ruins of Prambanai, exist in the 
 district of Pajang. One of the most perfect of the groups oc 
 curring here is termed by the natives " the Thousand Temples." 
 The group occupies a rectangular area six hundred feet long 
 and five hundred and fifty feet broad, and consists of four rows 
 of small pyramidal structures, inclosing a court, in which is 
 placed a large pyramidal edifice. The whole is surrounded by 
 a wall, having entrances midway on each side. Some of these 
 groups are disposed in squares of greater or less dimensions, 
 but all have a common character. ( Crawford's Indian Archi 
 pelago, vol.. II., p. 196 ; Asiatic Researches, Calcutta, vol. 
 XIII.) There are also single temples of like form, occasionally 
 of great size, and generally surrounded by a series of inclosures. 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 251 
 
 The religious edifices and pyramidal shrines of the Japanese 
 are described by Ksempfer as " sweetly seated " in the midst of 
 large square inclosures, approached by spacious avenues, and 
 embracing within their walls springs, groves, and pleasant walks. 
 " The empire," observes our authority, " is full of these temples, 
 and their priests are without number. Only in and about 
 Miaco, they count nearly 4,000 temples and about 37,000 
 priests." (Kcempfer's Japan, vol. II., p. 416.) 
 
 These examples might be greatly multiplied, so as to extend 
 the chain of analogies quite around the globe. Passing, how 
 ever, over the intermediate space, we come at once to the Brit 
 ish Islands. 
 
 PRIMITIVE TEMPLES OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 
 
 The British Islands, and the portion of the continent adja 
 cent to them, abound in ancient monuments, closely allied to 
 those under consideration. They have been very accurately in 
 vestigated and described by Camden, Borlase. Douglas, Hoare, 
 Cunnington, Higgins, Deane, and numerous others ; and the 
 world is familiar with their character. The researches of these 
 investigators have directed upon them all the lights of erudi 
 tion. Availing ourselves at once of the results of their labors, 
 we apply them to the elucidation of the mysterious monuments 
 of our own country. 
 
 The analogies which exist between one class of ancient Brit 
 ish remains and a corresponding class of American structures, 
 have already been briefly pointed out. There is, however, 
 another large division, more numerous and more interesting 
 than these, of widely different form and manifestly different de 
 sign. These consist, for the most part, of circular structures, of 
 greater or less dimensions, composed of earth or of upright 
 stones placed at short distances apart. These circles are some 
 times of great size, embracing many acres of ground ; but most 
 are of moderate dimensions, corresponding in this as generally 
 
252 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 in other respects with those of this country. They are regarded 
 by all well-informed British antiquaries as religious in their 
 origin, and connected with the ancient Druidical system. This 
 conclusion is not entirely speculative, but rests in a great degree 
 upon traditional and historical facts. Borlase observes, " The 
 grandeur of design, the distance of the materials, the tediousness 
 with which all such massive works are erected, all show that they 
 were the fruits of peace and religion." " That they were erected," 
 says Hoare, " for the double purpose of civil and religious assem 
 blies, may be admitted without controversy. They were public 
 edifices, constructed according to the rude fashion of the times, 
 and at a period when the Deity was worshipped in the most 
 simple and primitive manner, under the open canopy of heaven." 
 (Ancient Wiltshire, vol. II., p. 122.) Caesar, writing of the 
 Druids, is understood to allude to their sacred structures in 
 the following terms : " Druides, certo anni tempore, considunt in 
 LOCO CONSECRATO. Hue omnes undique qui conlroversias habent 
 conveniunt, eorumque judiciis decretisque parent}" 1 (Cccsar, de 
 Bello Gallico, Lib. VI.) " Once a year the Druids assemble at 
 a consecrated place. Hither such as have suits depending flock 
 from all parts, and submit implicitly to their decrees." It need 
 not be added, that the Druids were priests and judges, the ex 
 pounders of religion and the administrators of justice ; they 
 were entrusted with the education of youth, and taught the 
 motions of the stars, the magnitude of the earth, the nature of 
 things, and the dignity and power of the gods. They officiated 
 at sacrifices and divinations ; they decided controversies, pun 
 ished the guilty, and rewarded the virtuous. Their power was 
 superior to that of the nobles, over whom they wielded the ter 
 rors of excommunication from a participation in the imperative 
 rites of their religion. They centred in themselves the occult 
 learning of the day, which seems to have been closely allied to 
 that of Phoenicia, if not, indeed, mainly derived from the East. 
 " The sacred places of the Druids were inclosed sometimes 
 with a fence of palisades, and sometimes with a mound of earth, 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 253 
 
 or with stones, to keep off the profane, and prevent all irreve 
 rent intrusion upon their mysteries.* Tacitus relates that the 
 early Germans considered their groves and woods as sacred : 
 these spots were consecrated to pious uses, and the holy recess 
 took the name of the divinity who filled the place, and whose 
 sanctuary was never permitted to be seen but with reverence 
 and awe. Agreeable to this was the early practice of the 
 Britons, who, according to the same authority, used similar 
 customs with the Germans." ( Germania, C. ix. and C. xl.) In 
 the form of their temples, the Druids, for the most part, 
 adopted the circle ; and the generally received opinion is, that 
 all circular monuments were originally intended for devotional 
 purposes. 
 
 There are some earth-works in the British Islands, which 
 were clearly not defensive, but yet are rectangular. To these, 
 authors have hesitated in ascribing a date. One of the most 
 singular of these, which corresponds very nearly with that dis 
 covered near Tarlton, Pickaway county, Ohio (Ancient Monu 
 ments of the Mississippi Valley, Plate XXXVI., No. 1), occurs 
 
 FIG. 47. 
 
 * Salopia Antiqua, p. 10. Hermoldus. in his Chronicon de Rebus 
 Salivae, says that the Sclavonians prevented all access to their groves 
 and fountains, which they considered would become desecrated by the 
 entrance of Christians. They had their sacred oaks, which they sur 
 rounded by a fence of wicker-work. The tabooed palms and other trees 
 of the Marquesas and South Sea Islanders are protected from profane 
 contact in a like manner. 
 
254 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 upon Banwell Hill, county of Wilts, England. The engraving on 
 the preceding page (Fig. 47) is reduced from the plan given by 
 Sir R. C. Hoare, who notices it briefly as follows : " Before 
 quitting this interesting eminence, I must not omit to take 
 notice of a very singular little earth-work, situated toward the 
 village of Banwell. Its form proclaims it to be Roman ; but I 
 cannot conceive to what use it was destined. The embankment 
 inclosing the cross is two hundred and thirty yards in extent, and 
 incloses nearly three-quarters of an acre." (Ancient Wiltshire, 
 vol. II. ; Roman Era, p. 43.) There is certainly a most strik 
 ing coincidence ; yet it is one which it would be unsafe to re 
 gard as any other than accidental. 
 
 It may not be wholly inappropriate to mention that some of 
 the most ancient temples of India are built in the form of a 
 cross ; such is the shape of the great temple at Benares, and 
 that at Mathura. At the intersection of the four arms rises a 
 lofty dome. Such also is the shape of the subterranean temple 
 of New Grange, in Ireland. (Tavernicr, vol. III., pp. 30, 47; 
 Faber's Pag. Idol., vol. III., p. 287 ; Higgles Celtic Druids, 
 p. 40.) 
 
 The circular form is certainly best adapted for the reception 
 of the devotees desiring to see and hear, or to participate in 
 parts of the sacrificial rites practised within them. But it is 
 claimed, and upon an array of evidence which will admit of no 
 dispute, that the form of the primitive temple was, with great 
 uniformity, that of the symbol of the religion to which it wad 
 consecrated, or of the god to whose worship it was dedicated. 
 
 The circle is the uniform symbol of the sun, alike among the 
 most savage as the most enlightened nations ; and the fact that 
 most of the ancient religious structures of the British Islands 
 are of that form, would seem to imply that the god of Celtic 
 adoration was symbolized as the Sun, and that the ancient Celtic 
 religion was a modification of what is usually termed sun or fire 
 worship. This implication is sustained by abundant evidence, 
 into which it is impossible, as it would be out of place, to enter 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 255 
 
 here. We have every reason for believing that the objects of 
 the Druidical worship were identical with those of the followers 
 of Baal (the Sun).* Like them, the Druids were addicted to 
 the study of the heavens, and in the same way they offered up 
 sacrifices to Baal, Bel, Belus, Belinus, Moloch, Apollo, or the 
 Sun. The connection of Druidism with the name of Baal, is well 
 known in the lines of Ausonius himself a Druid who writes : 
 
 " Tu Baiocassis, stirpe Druidum satus, 
 
 Si fama non fallit fidera, 
 Belini sacratum duels e templo genus." 
 
 Caesar says the Gauls worshipped Apollo : the Gauls were 
 followers of the Druidic rites according to the same authority. 
 
 SYMBOLISM OF TEMPLES. 
 
 The rationale of symbolism, as connected with temples, next 
 claims our attention. Not only was the doctrine of occasional 
 presence of universal acceptance among the followers of every 
 early religious system, but they believed that the gods made 
 temples and sacred structures their places of constant abode. 
 Their presence, in some instances, was supposed actually to 
 animate their shrines, and to consecrate the earth around them. 
 The Jews were assured that Jehovah dwelt between the emble 
 matic cherubim. In the hope of rendering his homage in the 
 
 * Salopia Antiqua, p. 7. The evidence upon this point, as remarked 
 in the text, is alike abundant and conclusive. The Phoenicians, who 
 undoubtedly penetrated into the British Islands at a very early day, in 
 troduced many of their own habits and superstitions. They were the 
 carriers of customs and opinions, as of wares, and dispersed the seeds 
 both of African and Asiatic idolatry in Europe. This conclusion is sus 
 tained not only by the striking resemblance between many of the reli 
 gious rites of the ancient Celts and those of Assyria and Egypt, but by 
 etymological evidences of a most positive character. ( Thackeray's An 
 cient Britain, vol. I., pp. 10, 14: also, Introduction to Ancient Wiltshire, 
 and Higgins's Celtic Druids, ubi supra.) 
 
250 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 actual presence of his God, the Mohammedan pilgrim makes 
 his weary journey to Mecca, and the Hindu devotee seeks, from 
 the remotest provinces, the shrine of Jaggenath. The same 
 idea of a living presence is manifested in the superstition of 
 the savage, who regards every remarkable tree, rock, cave, 
 spring, or stream, as the evidence or actual impersonation of a 
 divinity, and renders his homage in accordance with his belief. 
 The presence of the gods was formerly supposed to be favor 
 able, and powerfully conducive, if not indispensably necessary, 
 to the prosperity of cities and nations ; and as such was ever 
 desired and ever a cause of joy and exultation. The poet 
 Horace addresses the goddess Venus in terms significant of the 
 benefits resulting from her presence : 
 
 " Goddess in blest Cyprus dwelling, 
 And Memphis wanting of Sithonian snow !" 
 
 So, too, Homer alludes to the celestial mountain of Greece : 
 
 " Olympus famed, the safe abode of gods, 
 By winds is never vexed, nor drenched with rain. 
 Snow falls not ; but the cloudless arch serene 
 Widely expands ; with brightness ever clear." 
 
 Influenced by opinions such as these, we can readily under 
 stand how the temple might take the symbolical form of the god 
 to whose worship it was dedicated ; thereby being made more 
 acceptable as his abode, at the same time that its form pro 
 claimed his presence. Sallust, in his treatise on the Gods and 
 the World, illustrates this ancient doctrine in the following 
 words : " As the providence of the gods is everywhere extended, 
 a certain habitude or fitness is all that is necessary in order to 
 receive their beneficent communications. But all habitude is 
 produced through imitation and similitude ; and hence temples 
 imitate the heavens, but altars the earth ; statues resemble life, 
 and on this account are similar to animals, etc."* 
 
 * The Pantheon at Rome was dedicated to all the gods ; who, instead 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 257 
 
 The earth, remarks an ingenious writer, being regarded as 
 God by a large portion of the heathen world, any structure 
 bearing that form might justly be considered as a symbol of 
 the Deity, indicative of his power and his presence. The im 
 port of the symbol caused the conviction and assurance that 
 all sacred structures ought, of necessity, to be constructed in its 
 form. (Dudley on Symbolism, p. 43.) 
 
 This conviction seems to have prevailed among the Hebrews : 
 the " Ark of the Covenant," in which were deposited the tables 
 of the law, was essentially symbolical in its form. The form 
 of the Tabernacle in the wilderness, and of the great temple 
 on Mount Z ion, we may infer, was regarded as a matter of 
 importance, from the specific directions given for their con 
 struction. And the primitive Christians, we are assured, were 
 in a like manner influenced in the form of their sacred edi 
 fices.* 
 
 Vesta, in the later mythologies, was the igneous element 
 personified ; her globular temple on the banks of the Tiber 
 represented, we are told, the Orb of the Earth, cherished and 
 
 of rude shrines consecrated to each, as in the great temple of Mexico, 
 had their statues placed within the vast rotunda. The great concave 
 dome, we are expressly told by Pliny, was designed to represent the 
 vault of heaven ; " quod forma ejus convexa fastigiatam call similitudi- 
 nem ostenderet." Yet it seems to have been eminently a temple of the 
 solar Apollo, whose colossal image was placed immediately in front of 
 the entrance, the first and most imposing object which met the eye of 
 the spectator. (See Faber, Pagan Idolatry, vol. III., p. 284 ; Maurice, 
 Ind. Antiq.vol. III., p. 185.) Mr. Dudley, who claims that the circle and 
 the square were the symbols of the reciprocal powers of nature, assumes 
 that the circular Pantheon, with its quadrangular portico, was intended 
 to signify the union of the two principles or powers. (Naology, p. 390.) 
 * " In respect to the form and fashion of their churches, it was for the 
 most part oblong, to keep (say some, vide Constit. Apost., L. ii. C. 57) 
 the better correspondence with the fashion of a ship: the common 
 notion or metaphor by which the church was wont to be represented." 
 (Cave's Prim. Christianity, p. 65.) 
 
258 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 made prolific by the central fire. (Maurice, Ind. Antiq., vol. 
 III., p. 130.) The reason for the orbicular or oval form of her 
 temple was recognized in Ovid's day. He writes : 
 
 " What now is roofed with brass, was then of straw, 
 And the slight osier formed the wattled wall. 
 This spot, that now the fane of Vesta bears, 
 The palace was of Numa, king unshorn. 
 'Tis said the form is now, as erst of old ; 
 And the true reason may be well approved : 
 Vesta and Earth are one. A ceaseless fire 
 Burns in them both, and both alike pervades. 
 The earth, a globe supported on no prop, 
 Hangs, heavy weight, in all-subjected air." 
 
 Ovid, Fast., Lib. VI., 261. 
 
 Plutarch alludes, in similar terms, to the symbolical signifi 
 cance of the form of this temple. " Numa built a temple of 
 orbicular form, for the preservation of the sacred fire ; intending 
 by, the fashion of the edifice to shadow out, not so much the 
 earth, or Vesta considered in that character, as the whole uni 
 verse ; in the centre of which the Pythagoreans placed fire, and 
 which they called Yesta and Unity."* 
 
 * Plutarch de Iside et Osiride. M. Ramee has well expressed this 
 idea in his " Histoire Generate de V Architecture" from which we translate 
 the following passage : 
 
 "Among all the people of antiquity, intimately connected with the 
 idea of God, was that of the Earth as his habitation, and Heaven as his 
 eternal home. The universe, and especially the visible heavens, was for 
 this reason considered as a true Temple of the Divinity, built by Himself, 
 and was held as the primitive Temple, to be taken as a model, as the 
 type of all temples to be raised by the hand of man. It was, therefore, 
 considered unworthy of God and contrary to the idea held of Him, to 
 erect sanctuaries to the Supreme Being on the same plan as the houses 
 which man built for himself as a shelter and protection against the 
 changes of the seasons. A habitation for God, it was thought, should 
 resemble the Universe ; and for that reason it would bear a divine cha 
 racter, and the Divinity would therein be, as it were, at home. Hence 
 the construction of temples was regarded, in all antiquity, as a religious 
 or hieratic ,art, the inventors and masters of which, at first, were the 
 gods themselves." 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 259 
 
 The notions already alluded to as influencing the forms of 
 temples, controlled also the choice of their position, the nature 
 of their materials, and, when they were advanced from their 
 primitive rudeness, the character of their ornaments. The 
 crescent crowns the minaret of the Mohammedan; the sym 
 bolic trident of Siva, the dome consecrated to his worship ; and 
 the cross, in like manner, designates the church of the Chris 
 tian. The significance of the trident is not less obvious to 
 the Hindu, than that of the crescent to the Turk, or the sym 
 bol of his religion to the Christian ; yet to the stranger to 
 each, they would possess no higher value than might attach to 
 them in their character of ornaments. 
 
 Were it necessary to our purpose, the illustrations of the 
 various points here indicated might be greatly extended. 
 Enough has, however, been said to place in a plausible light 
 the fact (which probably no one would be disposed to deny), 
 that the form of the primitive temple was, to an eminent 
 degree, symbolical. In the words of Deane, " The figure of 
 the temple, in almost every religion with which we are 
 acquainted, is the hierogram of its god. The hierogram of 
 the sun was always a circle : the temples of the sun were cir 
 cular. The Arkites adored the personified ark of Noah : their 
 temples were built in the form of a ship. The Ophites adored 
 a serpent deity : their temples assumed the form of a serpent. 
 And to come home to our own times and feelings, the Chris 
 tian retains a remnant of the same idea when he builds his 
 temples in the form of a cross ; the cross being at once the 
 symbol of his creed, and the hierogram of his God." 
 (Observations on Dracontia, by Rev. J. B. Deane, British 
 Archaologia, vol. XXV., p. 191.) 
 
 It is the fact that the religious conceptions, the philosophy 
 and physical speculations of the ancients, exerted a controlling 
 influence upon the construction of their sacred edifices, that 
 invests those monuments with interest, not only as works of 
 art, but as illustrations of man's primitive beliefs, his notions 
 
2(50 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 of cosmogony, and his philosophy of the earth and heavens. 
 " On every review," observes an eminent author, " and from 
 every region, accumulated proofs arise, how much more exten 
 sively than is generally supposed the designs of the ancients 
 in architecture were affected by their speculations in astrono 
 my, and by their mythological reveries." (Maurice, 2nd. 
 Antiq., vol. III., p. 199.) 
 
 Having already taken this brief survey of the character of 
 the various primitive religious structures of various parts of 
 the world, and having indicated the principles upon which 
 those with the origin of which we are acquainted, sustaining 
 the closest analogy to those of our own country, were con 
 structed, we return with new aids to the investigation of the 
 latter. 
 
 As has already been several times observed, the aboriginal 
 temples, or rather sacred inclosures, of the Mississippi valley 
 are nearly all of regular figures, usually circular or elliptical, 
 sometimes square or rectangular ; exhibiting in this respect, as 
 also in their manner of combination, a uniformity which could 
 only result from a fixed and well-recognized design. Nothing 
 can be more obvious than that they were built in accordance 
 with a general plan, founded upon certain definite principles ; 
 and it is impossible to resist the conviction that their various 
 forms and combinations possessed some degree of significance, 
 and sustained some relation to the worship to which they were 
 dedicated. "We arrive at these conclusions from a simple con 
 templation of the monuments themselves, unaided by the sug 
 gestions of analogy, or the evidence furnished by the concurrent 
 practice of all early nations.* 
 
 When, however, we find these conclusions sustained by analo 
 gies of the most striking character, and discover that the my 
 thological and philosophical notions of primitive nations ex- 
 
 * " Nothing," says M. Leibnitz, " happens without a reason why it 
 happens so rather than otherwise." 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 261 
 
 hibited themselves in a symbolical system which extended even 
 to the form, position, and ornaments of their temples, then our 
 conclusions become invested with a double value, and we pro 
 ceed with some -degree of confidence to inquire how far we are 
 justified in supposing that the ancient structures of the Missis 
 sippi valley indicate the character of the worship to which they 
 were dedicated. We have, it is true, neither the light of tradi 
 tion nor of history to guide our inquiries ; the very name of the 
 mysterious people by whom these works were erected is lost to 
 both, and a night darker than that which was prophesied should 
 shroud the devoted " cities of the plain " rests upon them. 
 Under these disadvantages, every attempt to clear up the dark 
 ness may fail ; if, however, but partially successful if but a 
 single ray of light be directed upon the subject of our inquiries, 
 the attempt will not be in vain, nor stand in need of an 
 apology. 
 
 By far the larger proportion of the sacred structures of our 
 country are circular in form ; so also were the temples of the 
 ancient Celts, for the received reason that they were dedicated 
 to the worship of the Sun, whose most obvious and almost 
 universal symbol is the circle. Assuming, upon the basis of 
 this and other analogies, that their circular form is allusive to 
 the former existence, among the people by whom they were 
 built, of a similar system or form of worship, what further 
 support do we find for the assumption, in the known religious 
 notions of the various American tribes and nations ? If, in 
 answer to this question, it should be found that Sun Worship, 
 if not of universal prevalence, greatly predominated throughout 
 the continent, the assumption already so well sustained by 
 analogy rises into the dignity of a well-supported hypothesis. 
 
 It has already been remarked, in another connection, that 
 the worship of the Sun was not less general in America than it 
 was at one period among the primitive nations of the Old 
 World. It existed among the savage hunter-tribes and among 
 the semi-civilized nations of the South ; where it assumed its 
 
262 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 most complicated and imposing form, and approximated closely 
 to that which it sustained at an early period among the Asiatic 
 nations the Egyptians, Assyrians, Hindoos, Scythians, and 
 their offshoots in Europe. It is well known that it predomi 
 nated in Peru, and was intimately connected with the civil 
 institutions of that empire. The race of the Incas claimed 
 their descent from the sun ; to that luminary they erected 
 their most gorgeous temples ; and the eternal fire, everywhere 
 emblematic of its influences, was watchfully maintained by the 
 virgins consecrated to its service. The royal Inca himself offi 
 ciated as priest of the sun, on every return of its annual festival. 
 The Peruvians also paid adoration to the moon, as the " wife 
 of the sun," a clear recognition of the doctrine of the recipro 
 cal principles. In Mexico also, as in Central America, we still 
 discover, beneath a complication of strange observances and 
 bloody rites, the simplicity of Toltican Sabianism. Upon the 
 high altars of Aztec superstition, reeking with the blood of 
 countless human victims, we still find the eternal fire ; no 
 longer, however, under the benign guardianship of consecrated 
 virgins, but consigned to the vigilance of a stern and rigorous 
 priesthood. And, as the Inca trusted at his death to be 
 received to the bosom of his father, the Sun, so too did the 
 fiercer Aztec look forward with confidence to eternal existence 
 and beatitude in the " House of the Sun."* 
 
 The Natchez and their affiliated tribes were worshippers of 
 the sun, to which they erected temples and performed sacrifices. 
 And from what can be gathered concerning their temples, it is 
 rendered probable that they erected structures analogous to 
 those under notice. They also maintained a perpetual fire, 
 and their chiefs claimed the sun as their father. The chiefs 
 bore the distinguishing title of Suns, and united in themselves 
 
 * Clavigero, vol. II., p. 3. " They held for an assured faith that there 
 were nine places appointed for souls, and the chiefest place of glory 
 was to be near the sun." (Gomera, in Purchas, vol III., p. 1137.) 
 
ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 263 
 
 the priestly and civil functions. ( Charlevoix, Canada, vol. II., 
 p. 273; Du Pratz, Hist. Louisiana, vol. II., pp. 178, 212; 
 Hcrriot, Hist. Canada,]*. 508.) The natives of the Barbadoes 
 and the West India islands generally, worshipped the same 
 celestial body in conjunction with the moon. (Edward's Hist. 
 W. Ind., vol. I, p. 80 ; Davis 's Barbadoes, pp. 216, 236 ; Her- 
 rara,vol. I., p. 162.) The Hurons derived the descent of their 
 chiefs from the sun, and claimed that the sacred pipe proceeded 
 from that luminary. ( Charlevoix, Canada, vol. I., p. 322 ; 
 Lafiteau, vol. I., p. 121.) The Pawnees, Mandans, and Mina- 
 tarees had a similar tradition and a kindred worship. (NutaWs 
 Arkansas, p. 276.) The Dela wares and the Iroquois offered 
 sacrifices to the sun and moon ; and, in common with the 
 southern Indians, had a festival in honor of the elementary fire, 
 whi'ch they considered the first parent of the Indian nations. 
 It is probable that their council-fire was an original symbol of 
 their religion. (Loskiel, pp. 41, 43; Golden' s Hist. Five Na 
 tions, vol. I., pp. 115, 175 ; Schoolcrafl' ] s Narrative, p. 20 ; Brad 
 ford's Res., p. 352.) The Virginian tribes were also sun wor 
 shippers, and sustained the perpetual fire in some of their 
 temples. The same is true, as we have already had occasion to 
 show, in a remarkable manner, of the Floridian tribes ; who, if 
 we are to credit the accounts of the early voyagers, sacrificed 
 human victims to the sun. (Ribauld, MS. ; Le Moyne, in De 
 Bry ; Herrara, Florida ; Lafiteau, Moeurs des Sauvages, vol. 
 I., p. 158 ; Rochefort, Hist. Antilles, Chap. 8.) 
 
 The Esquimaux, the natives of the Northwest Coast, and the 
 California Indians, all shared in this worship. (Hall's Voy. 
 (1631). pp. 38, 61 ; Vanegas's California, vol. I, p. 164.) It 
 prevailed to an equal extent among the savage tribes of South 
 America. In connection with the worship of the moon, it ex 
 isted among the Muyscas of Colombia, among the Araucanians, 
 the Puelches, and the Botucados of Brazil. (Herrara, vol. V., 
 p. 90; Molina, vol. II., p. 71; Dobrizho/er, vol. II, p. 89; 
 Mod. Trav. in Brazil, vol. II., p. 183.) The caziques of the 
 
264 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 Guaranies, like those of the Natchez, were called Suns, and 
 claimed a like lofty lineage. The evidence upon this point 
 might be greatly extended, but enough has been adduced to 
 establish the general predominance of Sun "Worship in America.* 
 
 It will be seen, from this hasty survey, that the hypothesis 
 which ascribes to the square, circular, and other regular struc 
 tures of the Mississippi valley a religious origin, and to their 
 forms a symbolical significance, is sustained not only by the 
 most obvious circumstances of structure and position, but also 
 by striking analogies, derived from the form and known charac 
 ter of corresponding structures in other parts of the world. It 
 is further sustained by the nature of the worship, which, from 
 its wide diffusion and great prominence among the American 
 nations, we are justified in supposing was elementary and per 
 vaded the American continent from the earliest period. 
 
 It may be objected that a portion of these structures are 
 square or octangular, and cannot therefore, whatever may be 
 said of those bearing a circular form (and which are by far the 
 most numerous), be regarded as symbolizing the sun, or indicat 
 ing the prevalence of sun worship among the builders. Any 
 attempts to answer this question would doubtless involve a 
 very extended inquiry into the form and connections which this 
 worship assumed, both in the Old-and New Worlds, and would 
 
 * " Sun worship existed extensively in North as well as South America. 
 There is reason to believe that the ancestors of all the principal existing 
 tribes of America worshipped the Eternal Fire. Both from their records 
 and traditions, as well as their existing monuments, this conclusion is 
 irresistible. * * * Among the North American tribes, the graphic 
 Ke-ke-win, which depicts the sun, stands on their pictorial rolls as the 
 symbol of the Great Spirit ; and no important rite or ceremony is under 
 taken without an offering of tobacco to him. The weed is lit from fire 
 generated anew on each occasion." (Schoolcraft, Address before N. Y- 
 Hist. Soc., 1846, p. 29.) " They believe in the sacred character of fire, 
 and regard it as the mysterious element of the universe typifying di 
 vinity." Ib., p. 35. 
 
' 
 
 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 265 
 
 perhaps, after all, bear too much the character of a mere specu 
 lation to be satisfactory, or in any degree conclusive. For this 
 reason no attempt of the kind will be made. The observations 
 which follow are thrown out suggestively, as furnishing the 
 possible if not the probable principles upon which some of these 
 structures were built, and the reasons which may have influ 
 enced the singular combinations which we observe between 
 them. 
 
 It can be shown that the doctrine of the reciprocal principles 
 of nature, which entered so largely into the early idolatry of 
 the Eastern World, prevailed also in America. The sun and 
 the moon, or oftener, the sun and the earth, emblematized these 
 principles. According to Mr. Dudley and other writers on 
 symbolism, these powers among the primitive idolaters were 
 figuratively represented : the male principle by the circle, the 
 female principle by the square* The same authorities lay it 
 down as a rule, subject to few exceptions, that whenever the 
 circular form is adopted in sacred structures, the worship of the 
 male principle is indicated ; but when the quadrangular, then 
 the female principle. " At one time," says Mr. Dudley, " the 
 ancient world was divided in the worship of the two powers ; 
 but time and various circumstances contributed to effect a com 
 promise, which resulted in the combination of the two figures, 
 or the adoption of the octagonal form instead." Mr. Dudley 
 instances several examples of these combinations among the 
 early Grecian and Celtic remains, and observes, " if the sacred 
 structures of early antiquity were examined with reference to 
 this doctrine, many and ample proofs of its truth would be 
 discovered." (Naology, pp. 345, 358, ubi supra.) 
 
 * " The Chinese have consecrated two temples, one to the Heavens, 
 the other to the Earth : the first is round, the second square, according 
 to the theory of their learned men ; who, with the Pythagoreans, regard 
 the earth as a cube, and the heavens a sphere." (De Pau, Res. China 
 and Egypt, vol. II., p. 42.) 
 
 12 
 
266 ABORIGINAL SACRED INCLOSURES. 
 
 If we were to adopt the hypothesis advanced by Mr. Dudley, 
 the fact that the American nations almost universally enter 
 tained the . idea that the earth was square, would become in 
 vested with importance. 
 
 But, as already observed, these latter suggestions are simply 
 thrown forward as plausible, and not as indicating a settled 
 opinion. The refinement of symbolism which they imply, will, 
 however, appear less improbable, when we come to learn to what 
 extent the semi-civilized nations of America, in their religious 
 beliefs and conceptions, display an identity with the primitive 
 nations of the Old World. 
 
 The hypothesis of a symbolical design in the forms and com 
 binations of these structures may seem somewhat new and 
 startling to most minds. There are, however, many other facts 
 and considerations having a direct bearing upon it, which will 
 appear in a succeeding work. Meantime, and before passing 
 to collateral inquiries, it will not be out of place to repeat, that 
 the great size of many of the structures to which we have 
 assigned a sacred origin, precludes the idea that they were 
 temples in the ordinary acceptation of the term. It is probable 
 that, like the great circles of England, the squares of India, 
 Peru, and Mexico, they were the sacred inclosures within which 
 were erected the shrines of the gods of the ancient worship, and 
 the altars of the ancient religion. They may have embraced 
 consecrated groves, and, as they did in Mexico, the residences 
 of the ancient priesthood. Like the sacred structures of the 
 country last named, some of them may have been secondarily 
 designed for protection in times of danger. 
 

 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER BY THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 IN the paragraphs relating to St. Lawrence county, mention 
 is made of a singular aboriginal deposit or burial, on the Cana 
 dian shore of the St. Lawrence River, near Brockville. Here 
 were found a number of skeletons and a variety of relics, among 
 which were a number of copper implements. They were buried 
 fourteen feet below the surface of the ground. Two of the 
 copper articles were clearly designed as spear-heads : they were 
 pointed, double-edged, and originally capable of some service. 
 One was a foot in length. A couple of copper knives accom 
 panied these, and also an implement which seems to have been 
 designed as a gouge. (Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley, 
 p. 201.) Some implements entirely corresponding with these 
 have been found in Isle Royal, and at other places in and 
 around Lake Superior. Whether or not these are relics of the 
 existing Indian tribes, it is not undertaken to say, although it 
 seems highly probable that they are. That the Indians of New 
 England, New York, and Virginia, to a limited extent, pos 
 sessed copper ornaments and implements at the time of the 
 Discovery, is undoubted ; but it is not to be supposed for an 
 instant that they obtained it by smelting from the ores. They 
 unquestionably procured it from the now well known native 
 deposits around Lake Superior 
 
 Raleigh observed copper ornaments among the Indians on 
 the coast of the Carolinas ; and Verazzano mentions articles, 
 probably ornamental, of wrought copper, among the natives 
 which he visited in a higher latitude, " which were more es- 
 
268 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 teemed than gold." Granville speaks of copper among the 
 Indians of Virginia, which was said to have been obtained 
 among the Chawanooks (Shawanoes?). " It was of the color 
 of our copper, but softer." He endeavored to visit the place 
 where it was represented to be found ; but after a toilsome 
 journey of some days into the interior, the search was aban 
 doned. This was a grievous disappointment at that time, when 
 the minds of men were filled with visions of vast mineral wealth } 
 and when the value of the New World was thought to consist 
 in its mines. Granville thus concludes his account of his 
 fruitless expedition : " I have set down this voyage somewhat 
 particularly, to the end that it may appear unto you (as true it 
 is) that there wanted no good will, from the first to the last of 
 us, to have perfected the discovery of this mine ; for that the 
 discovery of a good mine, by the goodness of God, or a passage 
 to the South Sea, or some way to it, and nothing else, can bring 
 our country in request to be inhabited by our people." ( Gran- 
 mile's Voy., 1585, in Pinkerton, vol. XII, p. 580.) Heriot 
 says, " In two towns 150 miles from the main, are found divers 
 small plates of copper, that are made, we are told by the in 
 habitants, by people who dwell farther in the country, where, 
 they say, are mountains and rivers which yield white grains of 
 metal, which are deemed to be silver. For the confirmation 
 whereof, at the time of our first arrival in the country, I saw 
 two small pieces of silver, grossly beaten, about the weight of a 
 tester, [an old coin about the weight of a sixpence sterling.] 
 hanging in the ears of a Wiroance. The aforesaid copper we 
 found to contain silver." (Heriot 1 s Voi/. : 1586, in Pink., vol. 
 XII., p. 594.) Robert Juet, in his account of Hudson's dis 
 covery of the river which bears his name, asserts that the 
 savages " had red copper tobacco pipes, and other things of cop 
 per, which they did wear about their necks." He makes men 
 tion, in another place, of " yellow copper/' as distinct from what 
 he terms " red copper." Both Behriri^ and Kotzebue found 
 copper implements in use among the Indians of the Northwest 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 269 
 
 Coast. (Behring's First Voy.,p. 85; Kotzebue, Voy.,vol. I., p. 
 227.) McKenzie mentions copper as being in common use 
 among some of the extreme Northern tribes, on the borders of 
 the Arctic Sea. " They point their arrows and spears with it, 
 and work it up into personal ornaments, such as collars, ear 
 rings, and bracelets, which they wear on their wrists, arms, and 
 legs. They have it in great abundance, and hold it in high 
 estimation." (Second Journey, p. 333.) Owing to the difficulty 
 of reducing iron from the ore, an acquaintance with that metal 
 has usually been preceded by a knowledge of copper, silver, 
 and gold. " These three metals," says Robertson, " are found 
 in their perfect state in the clefts of rocks, in the sides of 
 mountains, or in the channels of rivers. They were accordingly 
 first known and applied to use. But the gross and stubborn 
 ore of iron, the most serviceable of all metals, and to which man 
 is most indebted, must twice feel the force of fire, and go 
 through two laborious processes, before it becomes fit for use." 
 Says Lucretius : 
 
 " Sed prius seris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus." 
 
 It was the difficulty of obtaining iron from the ores, or the 
 possession of the art of so tempering or hardening copper as to 
 make it answer most of the purposes to which steel is now 
 applied, one or both, that perpetuated the use of bronze instru 
 ments in Egypt, as well as in Greece and Rome, long after 
 those nations became acquainted with the former metal. 
 
 It may be regarded as certain, that the American aborigines, 
 at the period of the Discovery, were in ignorance of the uses of 
 iron. It is true Vespucius mentions a tribe of natives near 
 the mouth of the La Plata, in South America, who possessed 
 iron points to their arrows. It was probably obtained from 
 native masses in that vicinity. The inhabitants of Madagascar 
 obtain a part of their iron from such sources.* A late traveler 
 
 * Lieut. H. C. Flagg, Trans. Am. Association, th Meeting, p. 40. It 
 
270 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 in Chile observes : " It appears that the Indians of Chile had, 
 at the time of their discovery, in some very rare instances, iron 
 blades to their lances ; which led to the erroneous supposition 
 that they were so far advanced in metallurgy as to be able to 
 reduce and refine that metal from the ores. Our surprise will 
 cease upon recollecting that this valuable metal already existed 
 naturally in South America, in the very extensive deposits of 
 native iron at Santiago del Estero, which has proved to be of 
 meteoric origin, and differing from that at Zacatecas and 
 Durango in Mexico, described by Humboldt, in the absence 
 
 is unnecessary to remark, that all accounts of the discovery of iron in 
 the mounds, or under such circumstances as to imply a date prior to the 
 Discovery, are sufficiently vague and unsatisfactory. The fragment of 
 an iron wedge, found in a rock near Salem, Washington County, Ohio, 
 and which has been alluded to by several writers upon American 
 antiquities, does not probably possess an antiquity of more than fifty 
 years. It is now in the possession of Dr. S. P. Hildreth, of Marietta ; 
 and its history, stripped of all that is not well authenticated, is simply 
 that it was found fastened in the cleft of a rock, and no one could tell 
 how it came there ! The author of the paper on American antiquities, 
 in the first volume of the Archaeologia Americana, states that, in a 
 mound at Circleville, Ohio, was found among other articles "a plate of 
 iron which had become an oxyde ; but before it was disturbed by the 
 spade, resembled a plate of cast iron. (Archceol. Am., vol. I., p. 178.) 
 It is obviously no easy matter to detect iron when fully oxydized in the 
 earth ; and when we are obliged to base our conclusions respecting the 
 use of that metal, by an evidently rude people, upon such remains, if any 
 there be, the strictest examination should be given them ; appearances 
 alone should be disregarded, and conclusions, after all, drawn with 
 extreme caution. Whether it is likely the requisite discrimination and 
 judgment were exercised in this case, it is not undertaken to say. But 
 few masses of native iron, and these of small size and meteoric origin, 
 nave been found in this country ; consequently the presence of iron to 
 any extent among the mound-builders, can be accounted for only on the 
 assumption that they understood the difficult art of reducing it from the 
 ores, which involves a degree of knowledge, and an advance in the arts 
 of civilization, not attained by the Mexicans nor by the Peruvians, and 
 not sustained by the authenticated remains of the mounds. 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 271 
 
 of earthy matter, and in not being, like them, in round masses, 
 but in a horizontal bed of considerable extent and variable 
 thickness, now for the most part covered with drifting sand, 
 and resting on abed of the same material." (Mier's Travels in 
 Chile, etc., vol. II., p. 464.) Copper, on the other hand, seems 
 to have been very abundant, and much used for implements, 
 among all the semi-civilized nations of the continent. Colum 
 bus, when at Cape Honduras, was visited by a trading canoe 
 of Indians. Among the various articles of merchandise which 
 constituted their cargo, were " small hatchets, made of copper, 
 to hew wood, small bells and plates, crucibles to melt copper, 
 etc." (Herrara, vol. I. p 260.) When the Spaniards first 
 entered the province of Tuspan. they found the Indians in 
 possession of an abundance of copper axes, which, in their 
 greediness, they mistook for gold, and were much mortified 
 upon discovering their mistake. " Each Indian," says Barnal 
 Diaz, " had, besides his ornaments of gold, a copper axe, which 
 was very highly polished, with the handle curiously carved, as 
 if to serve equally for an ornament as for the field of battle. 
 We first thought these axes were made of an inferior kind of 
 gold ; we therefore commenced taking them in exchange, and 
 in the space of two days had collected more than six hundred ; 
 with which we were no less rejoiced, as long as we were ignorant 
 of their real value, than the Indians with our glass beads." In 
 the list of articles exacted as an annual tribute from the various 
 departments of the Mexican empire, as represented by the 
 Mexican paintings, were " one hundred and sixty axes of cop 
 per" from the southern divisions. 
 
 Fig. 48 is copied from the tribute tables, and illus- 
 rates the form of the axes required to be paid to 
 the emperor. This seems to have been the usual 
 form, which, however, was sometimes slightly modi 
 fied, so as to give them a broader cutting edge. The 
 following example, Figs. 49 and 50, are drawings of originals 
 
272 
 
 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 FIG. 49. 
 
 obtained by Du Paix, and published among the plates of his 
 antiquarian tour. They are engraved of one fourth their actual 
 
 size. 
 
 They were part of a deposit of two hundred and seventy-six, 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 273 
 
 of like character, found buried in two large earthen vases, in 
 the vicinity of Oxaca, and are 'of alloyed copper, and cast. 
 " Such," says Du Paix, " are much sought by the silversmiths, 
 on account of their fine alloy." 
 
 Fig. 51 is a chisel, of similar composition, found in the 
 
 
 FIG. 51. 
 
 vicinity of Mexico, and also figured by Du Paix. It is engraved 
 one fourth of the original size. 
 
 The methods in which these axes were used are well shown 
 in the subjoined cuts, faithfully copied from the Mexican 
 paintings, Figs. 52 and 53. They require no explanation 
 
274 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 beyond what is furnished by Clavigero, who says : " The Mex 
 icans made use of an axe to cut trees, which was also made of 
 copper, and was of the same form as those of modern times, 
 except that we put the handle in an eye" of the axe, while they 
 put the axe in an eye of the handle." Fig 54 is copied from 
 the Mendoza Paintings, and represents a carpenter using one 
 of these axes, or one very similar, adjusted, probably, so as to 
 answer the purpose of an adze. 
 
 In the Mexican battle paintings, we occasionally observe 
 weapons, the blades of which were of copper, as is shown by 
 their green color, and which were used something after the 
 manner of the battle-axe. Examples are here given, Fig. 55. 
 
 FIG. 55. 
 
 But although copper was used for such purposes, it does not 
 appear that it entirely substituted itself for stone ; for stone 
 axes, and weapons formed by inserting blades of obsidian or 
 itzli in solid pieces of wood, were common as late as the period 
 of the Spanish conquest. The instrument this formed was 
 called mahquahuitl, and was much dreaded by the Spaniards, 
 who told wonderful stories of their efficiency, affirming that a 
 single stroke was sufficient to cut a man through the middle, or 
 decapitate a horse. Figs. 56 and 57 are examples from the 
 paintings, and Fig 58 is copied from the monuments at Chichen 
 Itza, in Yucatan. The latter represents an axe, or rather, 
 
 FIG. 56. FIG. 57. 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 275 
 
 FIG. 58. 
 
 weapon of war, made by inserting blades of obsidian in a handle 
 of wood, as above described. It will be seen by reference to 
 vol. I., p. 211, of the Smithsonian Contributions, that there is 
 reason to believe that an entirely corresponding practice pre 
 vailed among the mound-builders. The device is an extremely 
 
 Fro. 59. 
 
276 
 
 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 simple one, and seems to have been common to many rude 
 nations. 
 
 The copper axes of ancient Egypt closely resembled those 
 above described, both in form and the mode of attachment to 
 the handle. The illustration on the preceding page, Fig. 59, 
 reduced from one of Yisconti's plates, represents one of unique 
 and ornamental workmanship. It will be observed that it is 
 also lashed to the handle with thongs : differing from the prim 
 itive American axe only in the manner of insertion. In this 
 instance the broad end of the tool 
 is sunk in the wood 
 
 The Mexicans also used copper 
 to point their spears and arrows ; 
 although here obsidian was often 
 substituted. Fig. 60 is a represen- 
 
 FIG. 60. 
 
 tation of a short javelin, which we 
 find of frequent occurrence in the 
 paintings, and which seems to have 
 been used only in close combat. 
 The long javelin, or that which was 
 thrown from the hand, is well shown 
 in Fig. 61, which exhibits the man- 
 
 Fio. 61. 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 277 
 
 ner in which it was thrown, and also the xuiatlatli, or instru 
 ment used in throwing it, and by means of which it was 
 sent with greater accuracy and force than could otherwise 
 be attained. The gods are almost always represented, in 
 the mythological paintings, holding the xuiatlatli in their 
 hands. It is often fancifully ornamented with tassels and 
 feathers. 
 
 The Peruvians used copper for precisely the same purposes 
 with the Mexicans. Says La Vega, " They make their arms, 
 knives, carpenters' tools, large pins, hammers for their forges, 
 and their mattocks, of copper ; for which reason they seek it in 
 preference to gold." And Ulloa adds, " The copper axes of 
 the Peruvians differ very little in shape from ours ; and it 
 appears that these were the implements with which they per 
 formed most of their works. They are of various shapes and 
 sizes ; the edge of some is more circular than others, and some 
 have a concave edge." (vol. I., p. 483.) 
 
 The knowledge of alloying was possessed by both the Mexi 
 cans and Peruvians, whereby they were enabled to make in 
 struments of copper of sufficient hardness to answer the pur 
 poses for which steel is now deemed essential. Their works in 
 stone and wood, whether in dressing the huge blocks of por 
 phyry composing some of their structures, or in sculpturing 
 the unique statues which are found scattered over the seats of 
 their ancient cities, were carried on entirely with such instru 
 ments, or with still ruder ones of obsidian and other hard 
 stones. 
 
 The metal used as an alloy was tin ; and the various Peru 
 vian articles subjected to an analysis, are found to contain from 
 three to six per cent, of that metal. The chisel analyzed by 
 Humboldt contained copper 94, tin 6. (Res., vol. I., p. 260.) 
 Figure 62 is a reduced sketch of a copper knife found in Peru, 
 by J. H. Blake, Esq., of Boston. It has about four per cent, 
 of tin. This gentleman informs me, that " the knives, gravers, 
 
278 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 and other implements found by myself in Peru, contain from 
 three and a half to four per cent, of tin, which is sufficient to 
 give them a very considerable degree of hardness.* The knives 
 which I send you were found about the person of a mummy 
 which I took from an ancient cemetery near Arico. Various 
 household articles were found with it ; but these were the only 
 ones of metal, except a medal of silver suspended around the 
 neck. The chisels or gravers are pointed at one end, with a 
 cutting edge at the broad part. They were found at various 
 places in the northern part of Peru. At the ancient city of 
 Atacama, I found several hoes of copper, shaped very much like 
 the i grubbing-hoes ' to be found in our warehouses." 
 
 Figure 63 is a reduced sketch of an ancient Peruvian spear 
 head, of copper, found in a Peruvian huaca or tumulus, near 
 Lima, whence it was brought by the late Dr. Marmaduke Bur 
 roughs, in 1826, and by him presented to Dr. S. G. Morton, of 
 Philadelphia, in whose possession it now is. It is somewhat 
 flattened, and regularly four-sided from the point to within 
 a third of the distance from the larger end, where it be- 
 
 * The Indians of Chile, previous to the discovery by the Spaniards, 
 made use of a kind of bronze metal, found native in the country, which 
 is an alloy of copper, zinc, and antimony, called campanil by the Span 
 iards. From this they formed their cutting instruments. (Mier's Trav. t 
 vol. II., p. 464.) 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 comes cylindrical. This part is hollow, for the 
 reception of the handle. The metal is not hard 
 ened, and is now covered with a green oxyde. 
 The length of the weapon is seventeen inches, 
 and the diameter, at the larger end, one inch and 
 one-tenth. 
 
 Figure 64 is a full-size engraving of one of the 
 arrow-points discovered with a skeleton near Fall 
 River, Massachusetts, in the year 1831. With this 
 skeleton were found a corroded plate of brass, 
 supposed to have constituted a breastplate, and 
 a number of rude tubes of the same metal, com 
 posing a sort of belt or cincture. The arrow 
 points are two inches in length, and one and one- 
 third inches broad at the base. This skeleton 
 attracted a good deal of attention at the time, and 
 was supposed to lend some sanction to the then 
 popular theory of the early discovery and settle 
 ment of the coast of New England by the North 
 men. An analysis of the compound metal of 
 which the relics were composed, was made by 
 Berzelius, under the direction of the Royal So 
 ciety of Antiquaries of Denmark. The result 
 of the analysis was published by that learned 
 body, in the following comparative table : 
 
 FIG 63. 
 
 FIG. 64. 
 
280 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 Copper. Zinc. Tin. Lead. Iron. 
 
 Brass from Fall Kiver, . . . 70.29 28.03 0.91 0.74 0.03 
 
 Old Danish, 67.13 20.39 9.24 3.39 0.11 
 
 Modern Brass, 70.16 27.45 0.79 0.20 
 
 It will be seen by the table, that the metallic relics found at 
 Fall River bear in their composition a suspicious resemblance 
 to modern brass. They certainly differ widely, in this respect, 
 from any of the alloys of copper found elsewhere on the con 
 tinent. Without alluding to the rudeness of the workmanship 
 exhibited by the Fall River relics a rudeness entirely incon 
 sistent with that stage of advancement indicated by a know 
 ledge of smelting and alloying the metals the fact that the 
 skeleton accompanying them was found buried, after the Indian 
 mode, in a sitting posture, and enveloped in bark, places in a 
 very strong light the probability that the burial was made 
 subsequent to the first settlement of New England, in 1625, 
 and that the relics were of native manufacture, from sheets or 
 plates of brass obtained from the early colonists. This proba 
 bility is further sustained, by the circumstance that a portion 
 of the wood attached to the arrows was still preserved, as was 
 also a large proportion of the bark envelope of the skeleton, at 
 the time of its discovery ; which could hardly be the case, if its 
 interment had been made as early as the tenth century, which 
 is the period assigned to the Scandinavian visits. It cannot 
 be claimed that the preservative properties of the salts of the 
 copper could have more than a very local application or influ 
 ence. 
 
 And while upon this point, it may be mentioned that Wood, 
 in his "New England Prospect," published in 1634, (p. 90,) 
 distinctly states that the Indians obtained brass of the English 
 for their ornaments and arrow-heads, the last of which, he adds, 
 " they cut in the shape of a heart and triangle, and fastened in a 
 slender piece of wood, six or eight inches long" in a manner, 
 according to the description, precisely similar to that observed 
 in the articles found with the Fall River skeleton. If any 
 
 

 BY THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 further evidence were needed to establish the opinions already 
 advanced, it might be found in the fact that, a few years ago, 
 in the town of Medford, near Boston, in Massachusetts, a skele 
 ton was exhumed, accompanying which were found some flint 
 arrow-heads, and some brass arrow-points, identical with those 
 discovered at Fall River, together with a knife of the English 
 manufacture of two hundred years ago. Fig. 65 is a full-sized 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 engraving of the arrow-point in question, which is now in the 
 possession of the author. 
 
 It has already been suggested that the shore of Lake 
 Superior is the probable locality whence the copper used by 
 the aborigines of, at least, the Eastern and Middle States was 
 obtained. This suggestion is rendered more than probable by 
 the fact that abundant traces of aboriginal mining have been 
 discovered there in the course of recent explorations. Some of 
 the more productive veins in the " Copper Region" seem to 
 have been anciently worked to a considerable extent. The 
 vein belonging to the " Minnesota Company" exhibits evidence 
 of having been worked for a distance of two miles. The an 
 cient operations are indicated by depressions or open cuts on 
 the course of the vein. Upon excavating these, ample proofs 
 of their artificial origin are discovered, consisting of broken 
 implements of various kinds, stone axes, hammers, etc. Traces 
 

 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 of fire are also frequent. Some of the excavations are found 
 to have extended to the depth of thirty feet. In the mine of 
 the particular company above named, covered by fifteen feet 
 of accumulated soil, and beneath trees not less than four hun 
 dred years old, was found a mass of pure copper, weighing 
 11,537 Ibs.j from which every particle of the rock had been 
 removed. It had been supported by skids, and was surrounded 
 by traces of the fire which had probably been used to disen 
 gage the rock. Here, too, were found various rude implements 
 of copper. 
 
 At the Copper Falls and Eagle River, as at the Vulcan and 
 other mines, the ancient shafts are frequently discovered. Pro 
 fessor W. W. Mather, the eminent geologist, in a private letter, 
 referring to the two mines first named, says : " On a hill, south 
 of the Copper Falls Mine, is an excavation, several feet in 
 depth and several rods in length, extending along the course 
 of the river. Fragments of rock, etc., thrown out of the excava 
 tion, are piled up along its sides, the whole covered with soil, 
 and overgrown with bushes and trees. On removing the 
 accumulations from the excavation, stone axes of large size, 
 made of green-stone, and shaped to receive withe handles, are 
 found. Some large round green-stone masses, that had ap 
 parently been used for sledges, were also found. They had 
 round holes bored in them to the depth of several inches, which 
 seemed to have been designed for wooden plugs, to which withe 
 handles might be attached, so that several men could swing 
 them with sufficient force to break the rock and the projecting 
 masses of copper. Some of them were broken, and some of the 
 projecting ends of rock exhibited marks of having been battered 
 in the manner here suggested." 
 
 The great Ontonagon mass of virgin copper, now deposited 
 at Washington, when found, exhibited marks of having had 
 considerable portions cut from it : and the ground around it 
 was strewed with fragments of stone axes, which had been 
 broken in endeavors to detach portions of the mass. It is not 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 impossible that this mass was one of those which had been 
 brought to the surface by the ancient miners.* 
 
 The questions naturally arise, By whom were these ancient 
 mining operations carried on ? and to what era may they be 
 referred 1 Without noticing the improbable suggestion, that 
 the various excavations which have been discovered are due to 
 the French, (who, it is well known, were early acquainted with 
 the mineral riches of the Northwest,) we may find a satisfactory 
 answer to the first of these questions, if not to the last, in the 
 character of the deposits which recent explorations have dis 
 closed from the mounds of the West. Among the multitude 
 of relics of art found buried upon the ancient altars, or beside 
 the bones of the dead, articles of copper are of common occur 
 rence. It is sometimes found in native masses, but generally 
 worked into articles of use or ornament. I have taken from 
 the mounds axes, well wrought from single pieces, weighing 
 
 * Since the above was written, the subjoined additional facts have 
 been published in the Lake Superior Journal newspaper, of the date of 
 September 25, 1850 : 
 
 " We have been shown by Charles Whittlesey, Esq., of the Ontonagon 
 Mine, a copper arrow-head, and a piece of human skull and other bones, 
 which have lately been found in the ancient Indian excavations on the 
 Ontonagon River. The arrow-head is now about two inches in length, 
 and seems to have had originally a socket, though but part of it remains. 
 Several chisels, or instruments resembling chisels, having sockets like 
 the common carpenter's chisel, and small gads or wedges, have also 
 been found at the Minnesota Mine. 
 
 " But the greatest curiosity we have seen in the way of these articles 
 is a stick of oak timber lately taken out of one of the ancient ' pits,' or 
 shafts, at the Minnesota Mine, twenty-seven feet below the surface. It 
 is a small tree, about ten feet in length, and eight or ten inches in 
 diameter, having short limbs two feet apart, and at nearly right angles 
 with one another ; and on this account, and from its standing nearly 
 upright, it is supposed to have been used as a ladder by the ancient 
 miners. In this shaft and around and over this stick, were rocks and 
 earth, and large trees were growing over it. Many centuries must have 
 elapsed since that ancient ladder was placed there. 
 
284 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 upwards of two pounds each. They are symmetrical, corre 
 sponding very nearly in shape with the Mexican and Peruvian 
 axes. Some are double-bladed, others gouge-shaped, and evi 
 dently designed to be used as adzes. Besides these, chisels, 
 graving tools, and a great variety of ornaments, bracelets, gor 
 gets, beads, etc., etc., composed of this metal, have been dis 
 covered. Some of the ornaments are covered with silver, 
 beaten to great thinness, and so closely wrapped around the 
 copper that many persons have supposed that the ancient people 
 understood the difficult art of plating. 
 
 Some years ago, a mass of native copper, weighing upwards 
 of twenty pounds, was found upon the banks of the Scioto 
 River, near Chilicothe, in Ohio. Large portions had evidently 
 been cut from it. The discovery of these native masses, not 
 to mention the amount of the manufactured copper, implying a 
 large original supply, points pretty certainly to the shores of 
 Lake Superior as the locality whence the metal was obtained. 
 There are other circumstances, still more conclusive, and which, 
 taken in connection with the traces of ancient mining in the 
 mineral region, leave no room to doubt that the race of the 
 mounds obtained their supplies of copper from that direction. 
 It is well known that while some of the Lake Superior copper 
 is almost perfectly pure, a part is alloyed with silver in various 
 proportions, and some is found having crystals of silver attached 
 to it a peculiar mechanico-chemical combination, known to exist 
 nowhere except in this region. This characteristic combination 
 has been observed in some of the specimens, both worked and 
 unworked, found in the mounds, and enables us to identify 
 fully their primitive locality. The great industry and skill 
 which the mound-builders displayed in the numerous and often 
 gigantic monuments which they have left us at the West, 
 warrant us in ascribing the ancient excavations, etc., in the 
 mineral region to them. The Indian hunter is proverbially 
 averse to labor ; and we have no instance of the Indians under 
 taking works of this extent. Still, it cannot be doubted that 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 285 
 
 they also obtained copper from this region. Indeed, we have 
 direct evidence of the fact ; but it is probable that they pro 
 cured it only in small quantities, when it was found exposed at 
 the surface, or on the banks of streams. Alexander Henry ? 
 who penetrated to Lake Superior at the period of the second 
 French war, assures us that the Indians obtained copper here, 
 which they " made into bracelets, spoons," etc. ( Travels, p. 
 195.) As we have seen, the early explorers on the coasts of 
 New England, New York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, 
 among whom we may mention Hudson, Verrazano, Raleigh, 
 Heriot, Ribaude, De Soto, all concur in saying that the Indians 
 had copper in small quantities among them, which they worked 
 into pipes and ornaments. De Soto found copper hatchets 
 among some of the tribes along the Gulf, which they professed 
 to have obtained from " a province called Chisca, far toward 
 the North." 
 
 All the copper found in the mounds appears to have been 
 worked in a cold state ; and although the axes and other 
 instruments appear to be harder than the copper of commerce, 
 they have been found, upon analysis, to be destitute of alloy. 
 The superior hardness which they possess over the unworked 
 metal, is doubtless due to the hammering to which they have 
 been subjected. Some of the sculptures in porphyry, and 
 other hard stones found in the mounds, exhibit traces of having 
 been cut ; but as they now turn the edge of the best tempered 
 knife, we are at a loss to conjecture how they were so elabo 
 rately and delicately worked. The lack of cutting implements, 
 among most rude people, is partially met by various contriv 
 ances, the most common of which is attrition, or rubbing or 
 grinding on hard stones. It was thus the stone axes, etc., of 
 the early Indians were slowly and laboriously brought into 
 shape. It however needs but a single glance at the mound 
 sculptures to convince the observer that such rude means are 
 wholly inadequate to the production of works possessing so 
 much delicacy of execution. 
 
286 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 The Mexicans and Peruvians were wholly unacquainted with 
 the use of iron ; and their carvings, etc., were all wrought with 
 copper tools. They, however, contrived to harden them with 
 an alloy of from three to seven per cent, of tin. I have some 
 of their implements in my possession, which answer a very 
 good cutting purpose. It nevertheless seems incomprehensible 
 how their extensive works in granite, porphyry, and other 
 obstinate materials, could be carried on with such aids. The 
 Egyptians, although not ignorant of iron, were compelled, by a 
 variety of circumstances, to use copper tools, and with these 
 most of their gigantic labors were effected. They must of 
 necessity have had some means of hardening the metals ; yet 
 it is a singular fact, that with the exception of a few bronze 
 weapons of probably a comparatively late date, the chisels and 
 other implements found in the monuments and at the quarries 
 are pure copper. 
 
 USE OF SILVER BY THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. Granville, 
 as we have seen in the quotation from his voyage on page 177, 
 speaks of finding pieces of silver among the Virginia Indians, 
 " grossly beaten," and used for purposes of ornament. Having 
 shown that the copper found among the Indian tribes of the 
 north was probably obtained from the native deposits around 
 Lake Superior, we have little difficulty in accounting for the 
 presence among them of small quantities of silver, derived 
 from the same localit}^ where it also exists in a native form. 
 That the silver in use among the mound-builders was princi 
 pally if not wholly obtained there, seems incontestible. In no 
 instance does it appear to have been smelted. 
 
 A variety of silver ornaments were discovered some years 
 ago in one of the mounds at Marietta, Ohio, under very singular 
 circumstances, and in a remarkable connection. The circum 
 stances have been detailed by the accurate pen of Dr. S. P. 
 HILDRETH, in a communication to the President of the Ameri 
 can Antiquarian Society, dated " Marietta, Nov. 3, 1819." 
 
 " In removing the earth composing an ancient mound in the 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 287 
 
 streets of Marietta, on the margin of the plain, near the fortifi 
 cations, several curious articles were discovered. They appear 
 to have been buried with the body of the person to whose 
 memory the mound was erected. 
 
 " Lying immediately over, or on the forehead of the body, 
 were found three large circular bosses, or ornaments for a 
 sword-belt or a buckler : they are composed of copper overlaid 
 with a thick plate of silver. The fronts are slightly convex, 
 with a depression like a cup in the centre, and measure two 
 inches and a quarter across the face of each. On the back 
 side, opposite the depressed portion, is a copper rivet or nail, 
 around which are two separate plates, by which they were 
 fastened to the leather. Two small pieces of the leather were 
 found lying between the plates of one of these bosses ; they 
 resemble the skin of a mummy, and seem to have been pre 
 served by the salts of copper. The copper plates are nearly 
 reduced to an oxyde, or rust. The silver looks quite black, but 
 is not much corroded, and in rubbing is quite brilliant. Two 
 of these are yet entire 5 the third one is so much wasted that 
 it dropped in pieces in removing it from the earth. Around 
 the rivets of one of them is a small quantity of flax or hemp, in 
 a tolerable state of preservation. Near the side of the body 
 was found a plate of silver, which appears to have been the 
 upper part of a sword-scabbard ; it is six inches in length and 
 two inches in breadth, and weighs one ounce. It has no orna 
 ments or figures, but has three longitudinal ridges, which 
 probably corresponded with the edges or ridges of the sword ; 
 it seems to have been fastened to the scabbard by three or 
 four rivets, the holes of which remain in the silver. 
 
 " Two or three broken pieces of a copper tube were also 
 found filled with iron rust. These pieces, from their appearance, 
 composed the lower end of the scabbard, near the point of the 
 sword. No signs of the sword itself were discovered, except 
 the appearance of rust above mentioned. Near the feet was 
 found a piece of copper weighing three ounces [now in the Muse- 
 
288 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 um of the Antiquarian Society of Worcester]. From its shape 
 it appears to have been used as a plumb, or for an ornament, as 
 near one of the ends is a circular crease or groove, for tying a 
 thread : it is round, two inches and a half in length, one inch 
 in diameter at the centre, and half an inch at each end. It is 
 composed of small pieces of native copper pounded together ; 
 and in the cracks between the pieces are stuck several pieces 
 of silver, one nearly the size of a half-dime. A piece of red 
 ochre or paint, and a piece of iron ore [hematite] which had the 
 appearance of having been partially vitrified [polished .?], were 
 also found. 
 
 " The body of the person here buried was laid upon the 
 surface of the ground, with his face upwards, and his feet 
 pointing to the south-west. From the appearance of several 
 pieces of charcoal and bits of partially burned fossil coal, and 
 the black color of the earth, it would seem that the funeral 
 obsequies had been celebrated by fire ; and while the ashes 
 were yet hot and smoking, a circle of these flat stones had been 
 laid around and over the body. The circular covering was 
 about eight feet in diameter ; and the stones yet look black, as 
 if stained by fire and smoke. This circle of stones seems to 
 have been the nucleus over which the mound was formed, as 
 immediately over them is heaped the common earth of the 
 adjacent plain. At the time of opening it, the height was 6 
 feetj and diameter between 30 and 40. It has every appear 
 ance of being as old as any in the neighborhood, and was, at 
 the first settlement of Marietta, covered with large trees. It 
 seems to have been made for this single personage, as the re 
 mains of one skeleton only were discovered. The bones were 
 much decayed, and many of them crumbled to dust on exposure 
 to the air." 
 
 Engravings of the silver-plated discs and also of the embossed 
 silver plate, supposed by Dr. Hildreth to have been a sword 
 ornament, are herewith presented. These articles have been 
 critically examined, and it is beyond doubt that the copper 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 Fio. 66. 
 
 " bosses " are absolutely plated, not simply overlaid, with silver. 
 Between the copper and the silver exists a connection, such as, 
 it seems to me, could only be produced by heat ; and if it is 
 admitted that these are genuine remains of the mound-> 
 builders, it must, at the same time, be admitted that they 
 possessed the difficult art of plating one metal upon another. 
 There is but one alternative, viz., that they had occasional or 
 constant intercourse with a people advanced in the arts, from 
 whom these articles were obtained. Again, if Dr. Hildreth is 
 not mistaken, oxydized iron, or steel, was also discovered in 
 connection with the above remains ; from which also follows, as a 
 necessity upon the previous assumption, the extraordinary con 
 clusion that the mound-builders were acquainted with the use 
 of iron the conclusion being, of course, subject to the improba 
 ble alternative already mentioned. 
 
 Leading, therefore, as they do, to such extraordinary con 
 clusions, it is of the utmost importance that every fact and 
 circumstance connected with these remains should be narrowly 
 examined. If there is a reasonable way of accounting for their 
 presence, under the circumstances above described, without 
 involving us in these conclusions, unsustained as they are by 
 collateral facts, we are justified upon every recognized rule of 
 
 13 
 
 r 
 
290 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER 
 
 evidence in adopting it as the nearest approximation to the 
 truth. 
 
 The existing tribes of Indians, it has been demonstrated, 
 recently and remotely, often buried in the mounds, placing the 
 arms and ornaments, in short, whatever was valued by the 
 possessor while living, in the grave with him at his death. It 
 has been shown that in some instances they opened the mounds 
 to the depth of six or seven feet, and buried at or below their 
 bases. (Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 146, 
 147, 149.) It has been shown, also, that partial burial by fire 
 was occasionally practised by them, or by races succeeding the 
 builders of the mounds. That it was a common custom among 
 the Indians to cover their dead with stones, is also well known. 
 The occurrence of these remains in the position above described, 
 does not, therefore, necessarily establish that they belonged to 
 the race of the mounds. 
 
 The French as early as in the seventeenth century, had visited 
 the mouth of the Muskingum, as is shown by the lead tablet 
 which they left there in token of having taken possession of the 
 country in behalf of their nation. A notice of this plate, from 
 the pen of Governor Clinton, is published in the second volume 
 of the Archseologia Americana. Previous to this date, a very 
 general intercourse had sprung up between the Europeans on 
 the Atlantic coast, the St. Lawrence and the Lakes, and the 
 Indians to the westward of the Alleghanies, in the valley of the 
 Ohio and its tributaries. Nothing is, therefore, more likely than 
 that the arms and the general martial equipments of the 
 European adventurers were occasionally obtained by the In 
 dians, either as presents for purposes of conciliation, by pur 
 chase, or from the bodies of the slain in their frequent encounters 
 with the whites. By whatever means they came into their 
 hands, it is certain they would be highly prized by the pos 
 sessor, and deposited with him at his death. 
 
 The discs, described in the extract, and which, it should be 
 
BY THE ABORIGINES 
 
 291 
 
 remarked, are very different in style and workmanship from 
 the rude articles elsewhere obtained from the mounds, are al 
 most identical in shape with the plated ornaments which we 
 observe upon belts and military accoutrements of the present 
 day. The conjectures of Dr. Hildreth respecting both these 
 and the embossed silver plate are probably not far from correct, 
 and are measurably sustained by the oxyde of iron found with 
 them. It seems, however, somewhat remarkable that no more 
 distinct traces of the sword blade, if such there was, accom 
 panying these relics, were observed ; if, as it is announced, 
 they were deposited by the Indians, after the commencement 
 of European intercourse, 
 
 Any conclusion we may make, respecting these relics, hypo- 
 thetically or otherwise, is beset with difficulties, and all that 
 is claimed for the hypothesis here indicated is, that it is 
 less unreasonable than any other. If the circumstances under 
 which the relics were found do not sustain, they certainly do 
 not necessarily invalidate it. It is, moreover, directly sup 
 ported by the circumstance that other remains of analogous 
 character and of undoubted European origin have been dis 
 covered in mounds and elsewhere, in the same vicinity. Among 
 these may be mentioned a silver-plated frontlet of a military 
 cap, silver cups, gilded on the interior, etc. 
 
 FIG. 67. 
 
 Among the ornaments taken from mound No. 21, in " Mound 
 City" (Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, Plate 
 XIX.) were several star-shaped ornaments, of one of which an 
 
292 
 
 USE OF COPPER AND SILVER, ETC 
 
 engraving is given on the preceding page, Fig. 67. It seems to 
 have been made of shells, over which thin slips of copper, and 
 afterward slips of silver were closely wrapped, so as to resemble 
 plating. 
 
 Fio. 68. Copper Beads from the Mounds. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 
 
 ON 
 
 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS; INCLOSURES FOR DEFENCE; SA 
 CRED INCLOSURES ; MOUNDS OF SEPULTURE ; OF SAC 
 RIFICE, ETC., ETC.; IMPLEMENTS; ORNAMENTS; 
 SCULPTURES, ETC., ETC. 
 
 VARIOUS references have been made, in the preceding pages, 
 to the Ancient Monuments, and the great system of Earth 
 works of the Mississippi valley, of which it has hitherto been 
 supposed the aboriginal monuments of Western New York 
 constituted a part. It will not, therefore, be uninteresting, 
 nor inappropriate, to present here a brief outline of the cha 
 racter of the former remains, with the single observation that 
 those who may desire further information respecting them will 
 find it in the first volume of the " Smithsonian Contribution to 
 Knowledge," entitled " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi 
 Valley." 
 
 These monuments consist, for the most part, of elevations 
 and embankments of earth and stone, erected with great labor 
 and manifest design. In connection with these, more or less 
 intimate, are found various minor relics of art, consisting of 
 ornaments and implements of many kinds, some of them com 
 posed of metal, but most of stone. They spread over a vast 
 extent of country. They are found on the Alleghany, in the 
 western part of the State of Pennsylvania, on the east ; and 
 extend thence westwardly along the southern shore of Lake 
 
294 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 Erie, and through Michigan and Wisconsin to Iowa and the 
 Nebraska territory, on the west.* We have no record of their 
 occurrence above the lakes, nor higher than the falls of the 
 Mississippi. Carver mentions some on the shores of Lake 
 Pepin ; and Lewis and Clarke saw them on the Missouri river, 
 1000 miles above its junction with the Mississippi. They are 
 found all over the intermediate country, and along the valley 
 of the Mississippi to the Gulf from Texas to Florida, and 
 extend, in diminished numbers, into South Carolina. They 
 occur in great numbers in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, 
 Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Missis 
 sippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Texas. They are found 
 in less numbers, in the western portions of Pennsylvania, and 
 Virginia ; as well as in Michigan, Iowa, and in North and 
 South Carolina. In short, they occupy the entire basin of the 
 Mississippi and its tributaries, as also the fertile plains along 
 the Gulf. 
 
 It is not to be understood that these remains are dispersed 
 equally over the area here defined. They are mainly confined 
 to the valleys of the streams, occupying the level, fertile ter 
 races, and seldom occurring very far back from them. - 
 
 * It is a fact not generally known, that there is an abundance of 
 tumuli or mounds in the Territory of Oregon. We are not informed, 
 however, that there are any inclosures or other works of like character 
 with those usually accompanying the mounds of the Mississippi valley, 
 nor whether the mounds of Oregon are generally disseminated over 
 that territory. The only reference we have to them is contained in a 
 paragraph in the Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition : 
 
 " We soon reached the Bute Prairies, which are extensive and covered 
 with tumuli or small mounds, at regular distances asunder. As far as I 
 can learn, there is no tradition among the natives concerning them. 
 They are conical mounds, thirty feet in diameter, about six or seven 
 feet above the level, and many thousands in number. Being anxious to 
 ascertain if they contained any relics, I subsequently visited these 
 prairies, and opened three of the mounds, but found nothing in them 
 but a pavement of round stones." U. S. E. E., vol. iv., p. 313. 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 295 
 
 Their number is well calculated to excite surprise, and has 
 been adduced in support of the hypothesis which has not 
 been without its advocates that they are most, if not all of 
 them, natural formations, "the results of diluvial action," 
 modified perhaps, in a few instances, but never erected by man. 
 Of course no such hypothesis was ever advanced by any indi 
 vidual who had enjoyed the opportunity of examining these 
 remains for himself. 
 
 Some estimate may be formed of their great abundance, in 
 certain portions of the country, by an inspection of Map No. 1, 
 in the first volume of the " Smithsonian Contributions to Know 
 ledge," which exhibits a section of twelve miles of the Scioto 
 valley. It will be observed that not less than ten large groups 
 of earth-works occur within the space designated, besides which 
 there is a large number of mounds and lesser monuments. 
 Twenty-four of these mounds are found within a single inclo- 
 sure three miles above the city of Chillicothe. Two large 
 works in the vicinity of this, have each not far from two miles 
 of embankment, and inclose little less than one hundred acres. 
 Nearly one hundred inclosures and five hundred mounds are 
 found in Ross county. Ohio, alone ; and the ancient works of 
 the State may be safely estimated at ten thousand mounds, 
 and one thousand or fifteen hundred inclosures. of all sizes. 
 Many of them are, of course, small, but cannot be omitted in 
 an enumeration. 
 
 Nor is their magnitude less a matter of surprise than their 
 numbers. Lines of embankment, varying in height from five 
 to fifteen feet, and inclosing areas of from one to fifty acres, 
 are common ; while inclosures of one hundred or two hundred 
 acres area are far from infrequent. Occasional works are 
 found, embracing not less than five or six hundred acres.* The 
 magnitude of the area inclosed is not, however, always an index 
 
 * Lewis and Clarke describe one on the Missouri river which they 
 estimated to contain six hundred acres. 
 
290 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 of the amount of the labor expended in the construction of 
 these works, or of the length of the embankment raised. A 
 fortified hill, in Highland county, Ohio, (A. M. Plate Y.) has 
 one mile and five-eighths of heavy embankment ; yet it incloses 
 an area of only about forty acres. A similar work, on the 
 Little Miami river, in Warren county, Ohio, (A. M. Plate 
 VII.) has upwards of four miles of embankment, yet incloses but 
 little upwards of one hundred acres. The group of works at 
 the mouth of the Scioto river at Portsmouth has an aggregate 
 of at least twenty miles of embankment ; yet the amount of 
 land embraced within the walls does not exceed two hundred 
 acres 
 
 The mounds are of every conceivable dimension, from those 
 of but a few feet in height and a few yards in diameter, to 
 those which, like the celebrated one at the mouth of Grave 
 Creek, in Virginia, (A. M. Fig. 56,) measure one thousand 
 feet in circumference by seventy feet in height ; or, like the 
 truncated pyramid at Cahokia, in Illinois, (A. M. Fig. 60,) rise 
 to the altitude of nearly one hundred feet, and measure half a 
 mile in circumference at the base, with a level summit of several 
 acres area. Their usual dimensions are, however, considerably 
 less than in the examples here given. The larger number range 
 from six to thirty feet in height, by forty to one hundred feet base. 
 
 These constructions are composed of earth or stone, taken up 
 on the spot, or brought from localities more or less remote ; 
 though a combination of these materials, in the same work, is 
 by no means rare. In the absence of ditches interior or 
 exterior to the embankments, pits or dug holes, from which the 
 earth for their construction was taken, are generally visible 
 near by. These are sometimes very broad and deep, and occa 
 sionally quite symmetrical in shape. In the vicinity of large 
 mounds, such excavations are also common.* 
 
 * These are the " wells" of Mr. Atwater and other writers on Ameri 
 can Antiquities. 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 
 
 297 
 
 A large, perhaps the larger, portion of these works are regu 
 lar in outline, the square and the circle predominating. Some 
 are parallelograms, some ellipses, others polygons, regular and 
 irregular. The regular works are almost invariably erected on 
 level river-terraces, great care having evidently been taken to 
 select those least broken. The irregular works are those which 
 partake most of the character of defences, and are usually made 
 to conform to the nature of the ground upon which they are 
 situated running along the brows of hills, or cutting off the 
 approaches to strong natural positions. The square and the 
 circle often occur in combination, frequently communicating 
 with each other or with irregular works, directly or by avenues 
 consisting of parallel lines of embankment. Detached paral 
 lels are frequent. The mounds are usually simple cones in 
 form, but they are sometimes truncated, and occasionally ter 
 raced, with graded or winding ascents to their summits. Some 
 are elliptical, others pyriform, and others squares or parallelo 
 grams, with flanking terraces. Besides these are others, most 
 common in the extreme north-west, which assume the forms of 
 animals and reptiles. Another variety of remains are the 
 causeways or " roads," and the graded descents to rivers and 
 streams, or from one terrace to another. 
 
 As already remarked, these remains occur mainly in the 
 valleys of the Western rivers and streams. The alluvial ter 
 races, or " river bottoms," as they are popularly termed, were 
 the favorite sites of the builders. The principal monuments 
 are found where these " bottoms" are most extended, and where 
 the soil is most fertile and easy of cultivation. At the junc 
 tion of streams, where the valleys are usually broadest and 
 most favorable for their erection, some of the largest and most 
 singular remains are found. The works at Marietta, at the 
 junction of the Muskingum with the Ohio ; at the mouth of 
 Grave Creek ; at Portsmouth, the mouth of the Scioto ; and at 
 the mouth of the Great Miami, are instances in point. Occa 
 sional works are found on the hill-tops, overlooking the valleys, 
 13* 
 
298 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 or at a little distance from them ; but these are manifestly, in 
 most instances, works of defence or last resort, or in some way 
 connected with warlike purposes. And it is worthy of remark, 
 that the sites selected for settlements, towns, and cities, by the 
 invading Europeans, are often those which were the especial 
 favorites of the mound-builders, and the seats of their heaviest 
 population. Marietta, Newark, Portsmouth, Chillicothe, Cir- 
 cleville, and Cincinnati, in Ohio ; Frankfort in Kentucky ; and 
 St. Louis in Missouri, may be mentioned in confirmation of 
 the remark. The centres of population are now where they 
 were at the period when the mysterious race of the mounds 
 flourished.* 
 
 The monuments throughout the entire Mississippi valley 
 possess certain grand points of resemblance, going to establish 
 a common origin. Whether they were contemporaneous in 
 their erection, or constructed by a people slowly migrating from 
 one portion of the valley to the other, under the pressure of 
 hostile neighbors or the inducements of a more genial climate, 
 are questions open to inquiry, and which proper investigations 
 may satisfactorily answer. It is quite certain, however, and 
 this fact is of importance in the consideration of these ques 
 tions, that the mounds increase in magnitude and regularity, 
 if not in numbers, as we go down the Mississippi toward the 
 Gulf. And although between the monuments of the North 
 and the South there is a marked contrast, in many respects ; 
 yet it would be impossible to tell, so gradually do they merge 
 into each other, where one series terminates and the other be 
 gins. It is not impossible that future investigations may show 
 an imperceptible transition from the more regular earth-struc- 
 
 * " The most dense ancient population existed in precisely the places 
 where the most crowded future population will exist in ages to come. 
 The appearance of a series of mounds generally indicates the contiguity 
 of rich and level lands, easy communication, fish, game, and the most 
 favorable adjacent positions." Flint. 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 
 
 299 
 
 tures of the lower Mississippi, to the symmetrical and imposing 
 stone teocalli of Mexico. 
 
 The remains of which we are speaking may be divided into 
 two grand classes, viz., INCLOSURES, bounded by parapets, cir- 
 cumvallations or walls, and simple Tumuli or MOUNDS.* They 
 constitute together a single system of works ; but, for purposes 
 which will satisfactorily appear, it is preferred to classify them 
 as above. These grand classes resolve themselves into other 
 subordinate divisions ; Indosures for Defence, Sacred and Miscel 
 laneous Inclosures ; Mounds of Sacrifice, Temple Mounds, Mounds 
 of Sepulture, etc. 
 
 INCLOSURES. 
 
 The Inclosures, or, as they are familiarly known throughout 
 the West, " Forts," constitute a very important and interesting 
 class of remains. Their dimensions, and the popular opinion 
 as to their purposes, attract to them more particularly the at 
 tention of observers. As a consequence, most that has been 
 written upon our antiquities relates to them. Quite a number 
 have been surveyed and described by different individuals, at 
 different times ; but no systematic examination of a sufficient 
 number to justify any general conclusion as to their origin and 
 purposes has hitherto been made. Accordingly we have had 
 presented as many different conclusions as there have been in 
 dividual explorers ; one maintaining that all the inclosures 
 were intended for defence, while another persists that none 
 could possibly have been designed for any such purpose. A 
 sufficiently extended investigation would have shown, however, 
 that while certain works possess features demonstrating incon- 
 testably a warlike origin, others were connected with the super 
 stitions of the builders, or designed for purposes not readily ap 
 parent in our present state of knowledge concerning them. 
 
 * I use the term mound, for obvious reasons, in a technical sense, as 
 synonymous with tumulus or barrow, and as distinct from embankment, 
 rampart, etc. 
 
300 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 It has already been remarked that the square and the circle, 
 separate or in combination, were favorite figures with the mound- 
 builders ; and a large proportion of their works in the Scioto 
 valley and in Ohio are of these forms. Most of the circular 
 works are small, varying from 250 to 300 feet in diameter, 
 while others are a mile or more in circuit. Some stand isolated, 
 but most in connection with one or more mounds, of greater or 
 less dimensions, or in connection with other more complicated 
 works. Wherever the circles occur, if there be a fosse or ditch, 
 it is almost invariably interior to the parapet. Instances are 
 frequent where no ditch is discernible, and where it is evident 
 that the earth composing the parapet was brought from a dis 
 tance or taken up evenly from the surface. In the square or 
 irregular works, if there be a fosse at all, it is exterior to the 
 embankment, except in the case of fortified hills, when the 
 earth, for the best of reasons, is usually thrown from the interior. 
 These facts are not without their importance in determining the 
 character and purpose of these remains. Another fact bearing 
 directly upon the degree of knowledge possessed by the builders 
 is, that many if not most of the circular works are perfect circles, 
 and that many of the rectangular works are accurate squares. 
 This fact has been demonstrated, in numerous instances, by 
 careful admeasurements, and has been remarked in cases where 
 the works embrace an area of many acres, and where the em 
 bankments or circumvallations are a mile or upwards in extent. 
 
 WORKS OF DEFENCE. 
 
 Those works, which are incontestably defensive, usually occupy 
 strong natural positions. To understand fully their character 
 and capacity for the purpose assigned to them, it is necessary 
 to notice briefly the predominant features of the country in 
 which they occur. 
 
 The valley of the Mississippi, from the base of the Alleghanies 
 to the ranges of the Rocky Mountains, is a vast sedimentary 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 
 
 301 
 
 basin, and owes its general aspect to the powerful action of 
 water. Its rivers have worn their valleys deep in a vast origi 
 nal plain, leaving in their gradual subsidence broad terraces, 
 marking the different eras of their history. The edges of the 
 table lands, bordering on the valleys, are cut by a thousand 
 ravines, presenting bluff headlands and high hills with level 
 summits, sometimes connected by narrow isthmuses with the 
 original table, and sometimes entirely detached. The sides of 
 these elevations are always steep and difficult of ascent, in some 
 cases precipitous and absolutely inaccessible. The natural 
 strength of such positions, and their susceptibility of defence, 
 would certainly suggest them as the citadels of a rude people, 
 having hostile neighbors or pressed by foreign invaders. Accord 
 ingly, we are not surprised at often finding these heights occu 
 pied by strong and complicated works, the design of which is 
 indicated no less by their position than by their peculiarities of 
 construction. In such cases it is always to be observed that 
 great care has been exercised in their selection, and that they 
 possess peculiar strength and adaptation for the purposes to 
 which they were applied. While rugged and steep on most 
 sides, they have one or more points of comparatively easy ap 
 proach, in the protection of which the utmost skill of the builders 
 has been expended. They are guarded by double overlapping 
 walls, or a series of them, having sometimes an accompanying 
 mound, designed perhaps as a " look-out," and corresponding to 
 the barbican in the British system of defence, of the middle 
 ages. The usual defence is a simple parapet thrown up along 
 and a little below the brow of the hill, varying in height and 
 solidity as the declivity is more or less steep and difficult of 
 access. 
 
 Other defensive works occupy the peninsulas formed by the 
 streams, or cut off the bluff points formed by their junction 
 with each other. In such cases a fosse and wall are carried 
 across the isthmus, or diagonally from the bank of one stream 
 to that of the other. In certain instances the wall is double, 
 
302 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 and extends along the bank of the stream for some distance 
 inwardly, as if designed to prevent an enemy from turning the 
 flank of 'the defence. 
 
 To understand clearly the nature of the works last men 
 tioned, it should be remembered that the banks of the Western 
 rivers are always steep, and, where these works are located, 
 invariably high ; the banks of the various terraces are also 
 steep, ranging from ten to thirty and more feet in height. The 
 rivers are constantly shifting their channels, and frequently cut 
 their way through all the intermediate up to the earliest 
 formed or highest terrace, presenting bold banks, inaccessibly 
 steep, and from fifty to one hundred feet high. At such points, 
 from which the river has in some instances receded to the 
 distance of half a mile or more, works of this description are 
 oftenest found. 
 
 And it is a fact of much importance and worthy of special 
 note, that within the scope of a pretty extended observation, no 
 work of any kind has been found occupying the latest formed 
 terrace.* This terrace alone, except at periods of extraordi 
 nary freshets, is subject to overflow. The formation of each 
 terrace constitutes a sort of semi-geological era in the history 
 of the valley ; and the fact that none of the works occur upon 
 the lowest or latest formed of these, while they are found 
 indiscriminately upon all the others, bears directly upon the 
 question of their antiquity. 
 
 Many of these structures are of vast dimensions ; indeed, the 
 works of greatest magnitude are those which are most clearly 
 of defensive origin. A fortified hill in the vicinity of Chilli- 
 cothe embraces one hundred and forty acres within its walls ; 
 and another military work most probably a fortified village 
 
 * This observation is confirmed by all who have given attention to 
 the subject in the Ohio and Upper Mississippi valleys. Along the Gulf 
 and at points on the Lower Mississippi, where the entire country is low 
 and subject to inundation, some of the ancient monuments are invaded 
 by the water. 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 303 
 
 on the banks of the North Fork of Paint Creek, five miles from 
 Chillicothe, has an area of one hundred and twenty-seven 
 acres. To appreciate fully the judgment displayed in the 
 choice of position, and the skill exhibited in defence, a minute 
 examination of a series of these structures is necessary. No 
 one can rise from such an examination without being convinced 
 that the race by whom they were erected possessed no incon 
 siderable knowledge of the science of defence a degree of 
 knowledge much superior to that known to have been possessed 
 by the North American tribes previous to the discovery by 
 Columbus, or indeed, subsequent to that event. Their number 
 and magnitude must also impress the inquirer with enlarged 
 notions of the power of the people commanding the means for 
 their construction, and whose numbers required such extensive 
 works for their protection. It is not impossible that they were, 
 to a certain extent, designed to embrace cultivated fields, so as 
 to furnish the means of sustenance to their defenders in event 
 of a protracted siege. There is no other foundation, however, 
 for this suggestion than that furnished by the size of some of 
 these defensive inclosures. The population finding shelter 
 within their walls must have been exceedingly large, if their 
 dimensions may be taken as the basis of a calculation. 
 
 The vast amount of labor necessary to the erection of most 
 of these works precludes the notion that they were hastily con 
 structed to check a single or unexpected invasion. On the 
 contrary there seems to have existed a system of defences, ex 
 tending from the mouth of the Alleghany diagonally across 
 the country, through central Ohio to the Wabash. Within 
 this range, those works which ar regarded as defensive are 
 largest and most numerous. If an inference may be drawn 
 from this fact, it is that the pressure of hostilities was from the 
 north-east ; or that, if the tide of migration flowed from the 
 south, it received its final check upon this line. On the other 
 hypothesis, thrat in this region originated a semi-civilization 
 which subsequently went southward, constantly developing 
 
304 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 itself in its progress, until it attained its height in Mexico, we 
 may suppose from this direction came the hostile savage hordes, 
 before whose incessant attacks the less warlike mound-builders 
 gradually receded, or beneath whose exterminating cruelty 
 they entirely disappeared leaving these monuments alone to 
 attest their existence, and the extraordinary skill with which 
 they defended their altars and their homes. Upon either 
 assumption it is clear that the contest was a protracted one, 
 and that the race of the mounds were for a long period con 
 stantly exposed to attack. This conclusion finds its support in 
 the fact that, in the vicinity of those localities, where, from the 
 amount of remains, it appears the ancient population was most 
 dense, we almost invariably find one or more works of a defen 
 sive character, furnishing ready places of resort in times of 
 danger. We may supppose that a state of things existed 
 somewhat analogous to that which attended the advance of our 
 pioneer population, when every settlement had its little fort, to 
 which the settlers flocked in case of alarm or attack. 
 
 It may be suggested that there existed among the mound- 
 builders a state of society something like that which prevailed 
 among the Indians; that each tribe had its separate seat, 
 maintaining an almost constant warfare against its neighbors, 
 and, as a consequence, possessing its own " castle," as a place 
 of final resort when invaded by a powerful foe. Apart from 
 the fact, however, that the Indians were hunters, averse to 
 labor, and not known to have constructed any works ap 
 proaching, in skilfulness of design or in magnitude, those under 
 notice, there is almost positive evidence that the mound- 
 builders were an agricultural people, considerably advanced 
 in the arts, and possessing great uniformity, throughout the 
 whole territory which they occupied, in manners, habits, and 
 religion, a uniformity sufficiently marked to identify them 
 as a single people, having a common origin, common modes 
 of life, and, as a consequence, common sympathies, if not a 
 common and consolidated government, 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 305 
 
 SACRED WORKS 
 
 The structure, no less than the form and position, of a large 
 number of the earth-works of the West, and more particular 
 ly of the Scioto valley, render it clear that they were erected 
 for other than defensive purposes.* The small dimensions 
 of most of the circles, the occurrence of the ditch interior to 
 the embankment, and the fact that many of them are com 
 pletely commanded by adjacent heights, may be mentioned as 
 sustaining this conclusion. We must seek, therefore, in the 
 connection in which these works are found, and in the char 
 acter and contents of the mounds, if such there be, within 
 their walls for the secret of their origin. And it may be 
 observed, that it is here we find evidence still more satisfac 
 tory and conclusive than furnished by the small dimensions 
 of these works, or the position of the ditch, that they were 
 not intended for defence. Thus, when we find inclosures 
 containing a number of mounds, all of which it is capable of 
 demonstration were religious in their purposes, or in some 
 way connected with the superstitions of the people who built 
 them, the conclusion is irresistible that the inclosure itself 
 was also deemed sacred, and thus set apart as u tabooed" or 
 consecrated ground especially where it is obvious, at first 
 glance, that it possesses none of the requisites of a military 
 work. But it is not to be concluded that those inclosures 
 
 * It seems incredible that many well-informed men, who have exam 
 ined some of the small circular and elliptical works of the West, should 
 have fallen into the palpable error of supposing them defensive in their 
 origin. Major Long (Second Exp. vol. i., p. 54) describes some petty 
 works in the vicinity of Piqua, Ohio, consisting of a number of small 
 circles, as of undoubted warlike origin, applying to them the terms of 
 military technology. One of these circles, which he regards as a " re 
 doubt" is 43 feet in diameter, and has its ditch interior to the wall ! A 
 famous defence, truly, contrasted with the fortified hills already de 
 scribed ! 
 
306 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 alone, which contain mounds of the description here named, 
 were designed for sacred purposes. We have reason to be 
 lieve that the religious system of the mound-builders, like 
 that of the Mexicans, exercised among them a great, if not a 
 controlling influence. Their government may have been, for 
 aught we know, a government of the priesthood ; one in 
 which the priestly and civil functions were jointly exercised, 
 and one sufficiently powerful to have secured in the Missis 
 sippi valley, as it did in Mexico, the erection of many of 
 those vast monuments, which for ages will continue to chal 
 lenge the wonder of men. There may have been certain 
 superstitious ceremonies, having no connection with the pur 
 poses of the mounds, carried on in inclosures specially dedi 
 cated to them. There are several minor inclosures within 
 the great defensive work already referred to, on the banks of 
 the North Fork of Paint Creek, (A. M. Plate X..) the pur 
 poses of which would scarcely admit of doubt, even though 
 the sacred mounds which they embrace were wanting. It is 
 a conclusion which every day's investigation and observation 
 has tended to confirm, that most, perhaps all the earth-works, 
 not manifestly defensive in their character, were in some way 
 connected with the superstitious rites of the builders, though 
 in what manner, it is, and perhaps ever will be, impossible 
 satisfactorily to determine. 
 
 What dim light analogy sheds upon this point goes to sus 
 tain this conclusion. The British Islands only afford works 
 with which any comparison can safely be instituted. The 
 " ring forts" of the ancient Celts are nearly identical in form 
 and structure with a large class of remains in our own coun 
 try ; and these are regarded by all well-informed British an 
 tiquaries as strictly religious in their origin, or connected 
 with the rites of the ancient Druidical system. This conclu 
 sion is not entirely speculative, but rests in a great degree 
 upon traditional and historical facts. The late Sir R. C. 
 Hoare, author of " Ancient Wiltshire" (the most scientific as 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 307 
 
 also the most splendid antiquarian work ever issued from the 
 British press), regarded the occurrence of the fosse, interior 
 to the wall, in a portion of the British works, as precluding 
 the supposition of a military, and establishing their religious 
 origin. 
 
 The character of these works has already been briefly indi 
 cated. They are generally regular in their structure, and 
 occupy the broad and level river-bottoms, seldom occurring 
 upon the table-lands, or where the surface is undulating or 
 broken. Their usual form is that of the square or the circle ; 
 sometimes they are slightly elliptical. Occasionally we find 
 them isolated, but oftenest in groups. The greater number 
 of the circles are of small size, having a nearly uniform di 
 ameter of two hundred and fifty or three hundred feet, with 
 the ditch invariably interior to the wall. These have always 
 a single gateway, opening oftenest toward the east, but by no 
 means observing a fixed rule in this respect. It frequently 
 happens that they have one or more small mounds interior to 
 their walls, of the class denominated sacrificial. These small 
 circles occasionally occur within larger works of a defensive 
 character. Apart from these, numerous little circles, from 
 thirty to fifty feet in diameter, are observed in the vicinity 
 of large works, consisting of a very light embankment of 
 earth, and destitute of a gateway or entrance. It has been 
 suggested that these are the remains of the ancient lodges or 
 of other buildings. The accounts which we have of the 
 traces left of the huts of the Mandans and other Indian 
 tribes, at their deserted villages, render this supposition not 
 improbable. It sometimes happens that we find small circles 
 around the bases of large mounds ; these probably cannot be 
 regarded as of the same character with that numerous class 
 already described. 
 
 The larger circles are oftenest found in combination with 
 rectangular works, connecting with them directly or by avenues. 
 Some of these are of large size, embracing fifty or more acres. 
 
308 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 They seldom have a ditch ; but whenever it occurs, it is interior 
 to the wall. As in the case of the squares or rectangular 
 works with which they are attached, (and which, it is believed, 
 never have ditches, exterior or interior,) the walls are usually 
 composed of earth taken up evenly from the surface, or from 
 large pits in the neighborhood. Evident care seems in all 
 cases to have been exercised, in procuring the material, to pre 
 serve the surface of the adjacent plain smooth, and as far as 
 possible unbroken. This fact is in itself almost conclusive 
 against the supposition of a defensive design, especially as we 
 have abundant evidence that the mound-builders understood 
 perfectly the value of the external fosse in their works of de 
 fence. The walls of these works are, for the most part, com 
 paratively slight, varying from three to seven feet in height. 
 Sometimes they are quite imposing ; as in the case of the great 
 circle at Newark, Licking county. Ohio, where, at the entrance, 
 the wall from the bottom of the ditch has a vertical height of 
 not far from thirty feet. The square or rectangular works at 
 tending these large circles are of various dimensions. It has 
 been observed, however, that certain groups are marked by a 
 great uniformity of size. Five or six of these now occur to the 
 writer, placed at long distances asunder, which are exact squares, 
 each measuring one thousand and eighty feet side a coinci 
 dence which could not possibly be accidental, and which must 
 possess some significance. It certainly establishes the existence 
 of some standard of measurement among the ancient people, 
 if not the possession of some means of determining angles. 
 The rectangular works have almost invariably gateways at the 
 angles and midway on each side, each of which is covered by a 
 small interior mound or elevation. In some of the larger 
 structures the openings are more numerous. A few of this de 
 scription of remains have been discovered which are octagonal. 
 One of large size, in the vicinity of Chillicothe, has the alter 
 nate angles coincident with each other, and the sides equal. 
 Another description of works, probably akin to those here 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 
 
 described, are the parallels, consisting of light embankments, 
 seven or eight hundred feet in length and sixty or eighty 
 apart. 
 
 Indeed, so various are these works, and so numerous their 
 combinations, that it is impossible to convey any accurate con 
 ception of them, without entering into a minuteness of detail 
 and an extent of illustration utterly beyond the limits of this 
 paper. They are invested with singular interest, alike from 
 their peculiar form and the character and contents of the 
 mounds which they inclose. If we are right in the assumption 
 that they are of sacred origin, and were the temples and con 
 secrated grounds of the ancient people, we can, from their num 
 ber and extent, form some estimate of the devotional fervor or 
 superstitious zeal which induced their erection, and the pre 
 dominance of the religious sentiment among their builders. 
 
 The magnitude of some of these structures is, perhaps, the 
 strongest objection that can be urged against the position here 
 assigned them. It is difficult to comprehend the existence of 
 religious works, extending, with their attendant avenues, like 
 those near Newark in Ohio, over an area of little less ih&ufour 
 square miles ! We can find their parallels only in the great 
 temples of Abury and Stonehenge in England, and Carnac in 
 Brittany, and associate them with a mysterious worship of the 
 Sun, or an equally mysterious Sabianism. Within the mounds 
 inclosed in many of these sacred works, we find the altars upon 
 which glowed their sacrificial fires, and where the ancient peo 
 ple offered their propitiations to the strange gods of their primi 
 tive superstition. These altars also furnish us with the too 
 unequivocal evidence that the ritual of the mound-builders, 
 like that of the Aztecs, was disfigured by sanguinary observ 
 ances, and that human sacrifices were not deemed unacceptable 
 to the divinity of their worship. It is of course impossible in 
 this connection to go into the details of the evidence upon this 
 or kindred points of interest. 
 
310 
 
 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 THE MOUNDS. 
 
 - FIG. 69. Temple Mound. 
 
 Intimately connected with the 
 interesting works already de 
 scribed are the mounds ; of these, 
 however, little has hitherto been 
 known. The popular opinion, 
 based, in a great degree, upon the 
 well-ascertained purposes of the 
 barrows and tumuli occurring in 
 certain parts of Europe and Asia, 
 is, that they are simple monu 
 ments, marking the last resting-place of some great chief or 
 distinguished individual, among the tribes of the builders. 
 Some have supposed them to be the cemeteries, in which were 
 deposited the dead of a tribe or village, for a certain period, 
 and that the size of the mound is an indication of the number 
 inhumed. Others, that they mark the sites of great battles, 
 and contain the bones of the slain. On all hands the opinion 
 has been entertained, that they were devoted to sepulture alone. 
 This received opinion is not, however, sustained by the investi 
 gations set on foot by the writer and his associate. The con- 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 311 
 
 elusion to which their observations have led, is, that the mounds 
 were constructed for several grand and dissimilar purposes ; or 
 rather, that they are of different classes ; the conditions upon 
 which the classification is founded being four in number 
 namely : position, form, structure, and contents. In this classi 
 fication, we distinguish 
 
 1st. Altar Mounds, which occur in, or in the immediate 
 vicinity of inclosures, which are stratified, and contain altars 
 of burned clay or stone, and which were places of sacrifice. 
 
 2d. Mounds of Sepulture, which stand isolated, or in groups, 
 more or less remote from the inclosures, which are not stratified, 
 which contain human remains, and which were the burial-places 
 and monuments of the dead. 
 
 3d. Temple Mounds, which occur most usually within, but some 
 times without the walls of inclosures; which possess great 
 regularity of form ; which contain neither altars nor human re 
 mains ; but which were " High Places " for the performance of 
 religious rites and ceremonies, the sites of structures, or in some 
 way connected with the superstitions of the builders. 
 
 4th. Anomalous Mounds, including mounds of observation, 
 and such as were applied to a double purpose, or of which the 
 design and objects are not apparent. This division includes 
 all which do not clearly fall within the preceding three classes. 
 
 These classes are broadly marked in the aggregate ; but, in 
 some instances, they seem to run into each other. Mounds of 
 this mixed character, as well as those which, under our present 
 condition of knowledge respecting them, do not seem to indi 
 cate any clear purpose, have been denominated anomalous. Of 
 one hundred mounds excavated, sixty were altar or sacrificial 
 mounds, twenty sepulchral, and twenty either places of obser 
 vation or anomalous in their character. Such, however, is not 
 the proportion in which they occur. From the fact that the 
 mounds of sacrifice are most interesting and most productive 
 in relics, the largest number excavated has been of that class. 
 In the Scioto valley the mounds are distributed between the 
 
312 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 three classes specified, in very nearly equal proportions ; the 
 mounds of observation and the anomalous mounds constituting 
 together about one third of the whole number. 
 
 Mounds of Sacrifice. The general characteristics of this 
 class of mounds are : 
 
 1st. That they occur only within, or in the immediate vicinity 
 of inclosures or sacred places.* 
 
 2d. That they are stratified. 
 
 3d. That they contain symmetrical altars of burned clay 
 or stone, on which are deposited various remains, which, in 
 all cases, have been more or less subjected to the action of fire. 
 
 Of the whole number of mounds of this class which were 
 examined by the author, four only were found to be exterior to 
 the walls of inclosures, and these were but a few rods distant 
 from the ramparts. 
 
 The fact of stratification, in these mounds, is one of great 
 interest and importance. This feature has heretofore been 
 remarked, but not described with proper accuracy ; and has 
 consequently proved an impediment to the recognition of the 
 artificial origin of the mounds, by those who have never seen 
 them. The stratification, so far as observed, is not horizontal, 
 but always conforms to the convex outline of the mound. f Nor 
 
 * It is not assumed to say that all the mounds occurring within inclo 
 sures are altar or sacrificial mounds. On the contrary, some are found 
 which, to say the least, are anomalous, while others were clearly the 
 sites of structures or temple mounds. 
 
 f Some of the mounds, on the Lower Mississippi, are horizontally 
 stratified, exhibiting alternate layers, from base to summit. These 
 mounds differ in form from the conical structures here referred to, and 
 were doubtless constructed for a different purpose. Some are repre 
 sented as composed of layers of earth, two or three feet thick, each one 
 of which is surmounted by a burned surface, which has been mistaken 
 for a rude brick pavement. Others are composed of alternate layers of 
 earth and human remains. Their origin is doubtless to be found in the 
 annual bone burials of the Cherokees and other southern Indians, of 
 which accounts are given by Bartram and other early writers. It is not 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 313 
 
 does it resemble the stratification produced by the action of 
 water, where the layers run into each other, but is defined with 
 the utmost distinctness, and always terminates upon reaching 
 the level of the surrounding earth. That it is artificial will, how 
 ever, need no argument to prove, after an examination of one 
 of the mounds in which the feature occurs ; for, it would 'be dif 
 ficult to explain, by what singular combination of " igneous and 
 aqueous " action, stratified mounds were always raised over sym 
 metrical monuments of burned clay or of stone. 
 
 The altars, or basins, found in these mounds, are almost in 
 variably of burned clay, though one or two of stone have been 
 discovered. They are symmetrical, but not of uniform size and 
 shape. Some are round, others elliptical, and others square, or 
 parallelograms. Some are small, measuring barely two feet 
 across, while others are fifty feet long by twelve and fifteen 
 wide. The usual dimensions are from five to eight feet. All 
 appear to have been modeled of fine clay, brought to the spot 
 from a distance, and rest upon the original surface of the earth. 
 In a few instances, a layer or small elevation of sand had been 
 laid down, upon which the altar was formed. The elevation of 
 the altars, nevertheless, seldom exceeds a foot or twenty inches 
 above the adjacent level. The clay of which they are composed 
 is usually burned hard, sometimes to the depth of ten, fifteen, 
 and even twenty inches. This is hardly to be explained, by 
 any degree or continuance of heat, though it is manifest that in 
 some cases the heat was intense. On the other hand, a number 
 of these altars have been noticed, which are very slightly burned ; 
 and such, it is a remarkable fact, are destitute of remains. 
 
 The subjoined account of a mound of this class (No. 9 of 
 " Mound City," A. M. Plate XIX..) will give an idea of their 
 detailed characteristics. This mound is seven feet high by fifty- 
 impossible that, in rare instances, natural elevations have been modified 
 by art so as to serve some of the purposes for which mounds were 
 erected. In such the natural stratification would be preserved. 
 
 14 
 
314 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 five feet base. A shaft, five feet square, was sunk from its apex, 
 with the following results.: 
 
 1st. Occurred a layer of coarse gravel and pebbles, which ap 
 peared to have been taken from deep pits, surrounding the in- 
 closure, or from the bank of the river. This layer was one foot 
 in thickness. 
 
 2d. Beneath this layer of gravel and pebbles, to the depth 
 of two feet, the earth was homogeneous, though slightly mottled, 
 as if taken up and deposited in small loads, from different locali 
 ties. In one place appeared a deposit of dark-colored, surface 
 loam, and by its side, or covering it, there was a mass of the 
 clayey soil of greater depth. The outlines of these various de 
 posits could be distinctly traced. 
 
 3d. Below this deposit of earth, occurred a thin and even 
 layer of fine sand, a little over an inch in thickness. 
 
 4th. A deposit of earth, as above, eighteen inches in depth. 
 
 5th. Another stratum of sand, somewhat thinner than the 
 one above mentioned. 
 
 6th. Another deposit of earth, one foot thick ; beneath which 
 was 
 
 7th. A third stratum of sand ; below which was 
 
 8th. Still another layer of earth, a few inches in thickness ; 
 which rested on 
 
 9th. An altar, or basin, of burned clay. 
 
 This altar was perfectly round, nine feet in diameter, and 
 twenty inches high. The basin, or hollow, was also perfectly 
 round, five feet in diameter, and nine inches deep. The body 
 of the altar was burned throughout, though in a greater degree 
 within the basin, where it was so hard as to resist the blows of 
 a heavy hatchet, the instrument rebounding as if struck upon a 
 rock. The basin, or hollow of the altar, was filled even full with 
 fine dry ashes, intermixed with which were some fragments of 
 pottery, of an excellent finish and elegant model, ornamented 
 with tasteful carvings on the exterior. One of the vases, taken 
 in fragments from this mound, has been very nearly restored. 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 315 
 
 Its height is six, its greatest diameter eight inches. The mate 
 rial is hardly distinguishable from that composing the pottery 
 of the ancient Peruvians ; and in respect of finish, it is fully 
 equal to the best Peruvian specimens. A few convex copper 
 discs, much resembling the bosses used upon harnesses, were 
 also found. 
 
 Above the deposit of ashes, and covering the entire basin, 
 was a layer of silvery or opaque mica, in sheets, overlapping 
 each other ; and, immediately over the centre of the basin, was 
 heaped a quantity of burned human bones, probably the amount 
 of a single skeleton, in fragments. The layer of mica and cal 
 cined bones, it should be remarked, to prevent misapprehension, 
 were peculiar to this individual mound, and were not found in 
 any other of the class. 
 
 At a point about two feet below the surface of the mound, a 
 human skeleton was found. It was placed a little to the left 
 of the centre, with the head to the east, and was so much de 
 cayed as to render it impossible to extract a single bone entire. 
 Above the skeleton, the earth and outer layer of gravel and 
 pebbles were broken up and intermixed. Thus while on one 
 side of the shaft the strata were clearly marked, on the other 
 they were confused. And, as this was the first mound of the 
 class excavated, it was supposed, from this circumstance, that 
 it had previously been opened by some explorer, and it had 
 been decided to abandon it when the skeleton was discovered. 
 Afterward the matter came to be fully understood. No relics 
 were found with this skeleton. 
 
 It is a fact well known, that the modern Indians, though 
 possessing no knowledge of the origin or objects of the 
 mounds, were accustomed to regard them with some degree 
 of veneration. It is also known, that they sometimes buried 
 their dead in them, in accordance with the almost invariable 
 custom which leads them to select elevated points, and the 
 brows of hills, as their cemeteries. That their remains should 
 be found in the mounds, is therefore a matter of no surprise. 
 
316 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 They are never discovered at any great depth, not often more 
 than eighteen inches or three feet below the surface. Their 
 position varies in almost every case : most are extended at 
 length, others have a sitting posture, while others again seem 
 to have been rudely thrust into their shallow graves without 
 care or arrangement. Rude implements of bone and stone, 
 and coarse vessels of pottery, such as are known to have been 
 in use among the Indians at the period of the earliest Euro 
 pean intercourse, occur with some of them, particularly with 
 those of a more ancient date ; while modern implements and 
 ornaments, in some cases of European origin, are found with 
 the recent burials. The necessity therefore of a careful and 
 rigid discrimination, between these deposits and those of the 
 mound-builders, will be apparent. From the lack of such 
 discrimination, much misapprehension and confusion have 
 resulted. Silver crosses, gun-barrels, and French dial-plates 
 have been found with skeletons in the mounds 5 yet it is not 
 to be concluded that the mound-builders were Catholics, or 
 used fire-arms, or understood French. Such a conclusion 
 would, nevertheless, be quite as well warranted, as some 
 which have been deduced from the absolute identity of cer 
 tain relics, taken from the mounds, with articles known to be 
 common among the existing tribes of Indians. The fact of 
 remains occurring in the mounds, is in itself hardly pre 
 sumptive evidence that they pertained to the builders. The 
 conditions attending them can alone determine their true 
 character. As a general rule, to which there are few excep 
 tions, the only authentic and undoubted remains of the 
 mound-builders are found directly beneath the apex of the 
 mound, on a level with the original surface of the earth ; 
 and it may be safely assumed, that whatever deposits occur 
 near the surface of the mounds are of a date subsequent to 
 their erection. 
 
 In the class of mounds now under consideration we have 
 data which will admit of no doubt, whereby to judge of the 
 
OF THE MISIISSIPPI VALLEY. 317 
 
 origin, as well as the relative periods, of the various deposits 
 found in them. If the stratification already mentioned as 
 characterizing them, is unbroken and undisturbed, if the 
 strata are regular and entire, it is certain that whatever oc 
 curs beneath them, was placed there at the period of the con 
 struction of the mound. And if, on the other hand, these 
 strata are broken up, it is equally certain that the mound has 
 been disturbed, and new deposits made, subsequent to its 
 erection. It is in this view, that the fact of stratification is 
 seen to be important, as well as interesting ; for it will serve 
 to fix, beyond all dispute, the origin of many singular relics, 
 having a decisive bearing on some of the leading questions 
 connected with American Archaeology. The thickness of the 
 exterior layer of gravel, &c., in mounds of this class, varies 
 with the dimensions of the mound, from eight to twenty 
 inches. In a very few instances, the layer, which may have 
 been designed to protect the form of the mound, and which 
 purpose it admirably subserves, is entirely wanting. The 
 number and relative position of the sand strata are variable ; 
 in some of the larger mounds, there are as many as six of 
 them, in no case less than one, most usually two or three. 
 
 In one case which fell under my observation, and in another, 
 of which I have an account from the person who discovered 
 it, the altar was of stone. This altar was elevated two and 
 one half feet above the original surface of the earth, and was 
 five feet long by four broad. It was a simple elevation of 
 earth packed hard, and was faced, on every side and on top, 
 with slabs of stone of regular form, and nearly uniform thick 
 ness. They were laid evenly, and, as a mason would say, 
 " with close joints ;" and though uncut by any instrument, 
 the edges were straight and smooth. The stone is " the "Wa- 
 verly sandstone," underlying the coal series, thin strata of 
 which cap every hill. This stone breaks readily, with a rect 
 angular fracture, and hence the regularity of the slabs is not 
 so much a matter of surprise. This altar bore the marks of 
 
318 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 fire, and fragments of the mound-builders' ornaments were 
 found on and around it. What had originally been deposited 
 there was probably removed by the modern Indians, who 
 had opened the mound and buried one of their dead on the 
 altar. 
 
 Mounds of this class are most fruitful in relics of the 
 builders. On the altars have been found, though much in 
 jured and broken up by the action of fire, instruments and 
 ornaments of silver, copper, stone, and bone ; beads of silver, 
 copper, pearls, and shell; spear and arrow heads of flint, 
 quartz, garnet, and obsidian ; fossil teeth of the shark ; teeth 
 of the alligator ; marine shells ; galena ; sculptures o f the 
 human head, and of numerous animals ; pottery of various 
 kinds, and a large number of interesting articles, some of 
 which evince great skill in art. No description of these can 
 be given here. 
 
 MOUNDS OF SEPULCHRE. 
 
 The Mounds of Sepulchre stand apart from the inclosures, 
 and, in their average dimensions, greatly exceed those of the 
 first class. The celebrated mound at Grave Creek is of this 
 class. They lack the gravel and sand strata, which character 
 ize those already described, and are destitute of " altars." 
 They invariably cover a skeleton (sometimes more than one, 
 as at Grave Creek), which, at the time of its interment, was 
 inclosed in a rude framework of timber, or enveloped in bark 
 or coarse matting, the traces, in some instances the very casts, 
 of which remain. 
 
 The subjoined account of a single mound of this class will 
 serve to exhibit their peculiarities. It occurs on the third 
 u bottom " or terrace of the Scioto river, six miles below the 
 town of Chillicothe. There are no inclosures nearer than a mile ; 
 though there are three or four other mounds, of smaller size, on 
 the same terrace, within a few hundred yards. The mound is 
 twenty-two feet high, by ninety feet base. The principal exca- 
 

 OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 319 
 
 vation was made from the west side, commencing at about one- 
 third of the height of the mound from the top. At ten feet 
 below the surface, occurred a layer of charcoal, not far from ten 
 feet square, and from two to six inches in thickness, slightly in 
 clined from the horizontal, and lying mostly to the left of the 
 centre of the mound. The coal was coarse and clear, and seemed 
 to have been formed by the sudden covering up of the wood 
 while burning, inasmuch as the trunks and branches retained 
 their form, though entirely carbonized, and the earth immedi 
 ately above, as well as below, was burned of a reddish color. 
 Below this layer the earth became much more compact and dif 
 ficult of excavation. At the depth of twenty-two feet, and on 
 a level with the original surface, immediately underneath the 
 charcoal layer, and, like that, somewhat to one side of the centre 
 of the mound, was a rude timber framework, now reduced to an 
 almost impalpable powder, but the cast of which was still re 
 tained in the hard earth. This inclosure of timber, measured 
 from outside to outside, was nine feet long by seven wide, and 
 twenty inches high. It had been constructed of logs laid one 
 on the other, and had evidently been covered with other tim 
 bers, which had sunk under the superincumbent earth, as they 
 decayed. The bottom had also been covered with bark, mat 
 ting, or thin slabs at any rate, a whitish stratum of decomposed 
 material remained, covering the bottom of the parallelogram. 
 Within this rude coffin, with his head to the west, was found a 
 human skeleton, or rather the remains of one ; for scarcely a 
 fragment as long as one's finger could be recovered. It was so 
 much decayed that it crumbled to powder under the slightest 
 touch. Around the neck of the skeleton, forming a triple row, 
 and retaining their position, as originally strung and deposited 
 with the dead, were several hundred beads, made of ivory, or 
 the tusks of some animal. Several of these still retain their 
 polish, and bear marks which seem to indicate that they were 
 turned in some machine, instead of being carved by hand. A 
 few laminae of mica were also discovered, which completed the 
 
320 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 list of articles found with this skeleton. The feet of the skele 
 ton were nearly in the centre of the mound. A drift beyond it 
 developed nothing new, nor was a corresponding layer of char 
 coal found on the opposite side of the mound. It is clear, there 
 fore, that the tumulus was raised over this single skeleton. In 
 the case of a mound of this class, opened at Gallipolis, on the 
 Ohio river, the chamber inclosing the skeleton was found just 
 below the original surface, which can always be detected by a 
 strongly marked line and the uniform drab color of the earth 
 beneath it. 
 
 The layer of charcoal is not uniformly found in mounds of 
 this class, though it is a feature of frequent occurrence. It 
 would seem to indicate that sacrifices were made for the dead, 
 or that funeral rites of some kind were celebrated. The fire, in 
 every case, was kept burning for a very brief space, as is shown by 
 the lack of ashes, and the slight traces of its action left on the 
 adjacent earth. That it was suddenly heaped over, is also 
 proved by the facts already presented. 
 
 Bracelets of copper and silver; beads of bone and shell; 
 mica plates and ornaments ; stone instruments of various kinds, 
 some of which are identical with those found in mounds of the 
 first class, &c. &c., are found with the skeletons. In every in 
 stance falling within our observation, the skeleton has been so 
 much decayed, that any attempt to restore the skull, or indeed 
 any portion of it, was hopeless, Considering that the earth 
 around these skeletons is wonderfully compact and dry, and 
 that the conditions for their preservation were exceedingly 
 favorable, while, in fact, they are so much decayed, we may form 
 some estimate of their remote antiquity. In the barrows and 
 cromlechs of the ancient Britons, entire and well-preserved 
 skeletons are found, although having an undoubted antiquity 
 of 1800 years. 
 
 In some of the sepulchral mounds, as has already been 
 stated, the sarcophagus, if we so please to term it, was omitted 
 by the builders, the dead body having been simply enveloped 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 
 
 in bark or matting. Perhaps this course was most frequently 
 pursued. In these cases the original surface appears to have 
 been carefully smoothed and leveled, for a space ten or twenty 
 feet square, which space was covered with bark. Upon this was 
 deposited the dead body, and, by its side, such personal orna 
 ments or implements as were deemed proper, the whole being 
 covered with another layer of bark, and the tumulus raised 
 above. Instances have occurred in which it is clear that burial 
 by incremation was made, but these are comparatively rare. In 
 the celebrated mound at Grave Creek, two sepulchral chambers 
 were discovered, one at the base, another at a higher point. 
 The lower one contained two skeletons, and the upper but one. 
 The mound, in this respect, is somewhat extraordinary. It may 
 be conjectured, with some appearance of reason, that it con 
 tained the bones of the family of a chieftain, or a distinguished 
 individual, among the builders. It is common to find two or 
 three, sometimes four or five, sepulchral mounds, in a group. 
 In such cases, it is always to be remarked, that one of the group 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 
 is much the largest, twice or three times the dimensions of any 
 of the others, and that the smaller ones are arranged around its 
 base, generally joining it, thus evincing an intended dependence 
 
 14* 
 
322 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 and close connection between them. Plans of three groups of 
 this description are given in the annexed figures. May we not 
 conclude that such a group is the tomb of a family the prin 
 cipal mound covering the head of the same, the smaller ones its 
 various members ? In the Grave Creek mound, it is possible 
 that, instead of building a new mound, an additional chamber 
 was constructed upon the summit of the one already raised a 
 single mound being thus made to occupy the place of a group. 
 
 TEMPLE MOUNDS. 
 
 These mounds are distinguished by their general large di 
 mensions and great regularity of form. They occur most 
 usually within, but sometimes without, the walls of inclosures. 
 They consist chiefly of pyramidal structures, truncated and 
 generally having graded avenues to their tops. In some in 
 stances they are terraced, or have successive stages. But 
 whatever their form, whether round, oval, octangular, square, 
 or oblong, they have invariably flat or level tops of greater 
 or less area. Examples are known in which, although but a 
 few feet in elevation, they cover several acres of ground ; in 
 which cases they are commonly called " platforms." Exam 
 ples of these structures are given in " Ancient Monuments 
 of the Mississippi Valley," Plates XVIII, XXV., XXVL, 
 and in Figs. 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65. So far as ascertained 
 they cover no remains, and are obviously designed as the sites 
 of temples or of other structures which have passed away, or 
 as " high places" for the performance of religious ceremonies. 
 The likeness which they bear to the Teocallis of Mexico, is 
 striking, and suggestive of their probable purposes. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of this class of structures is 
 that at Cahokia, in Illinois. Its form is that of a parallelo 
 gram, seven hundred feet long, by five hundred wide at the 
 base. It is ninety feet high. Upon one side is a broad apron 
 or terrace, which is reached by a graded ascent. At the time 
 this mound w^s occupied by the Monks of La Trappe, the ter- 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 
 
 323 
 
 race was used as a garden. It is one hundred and sixty feet 
 wide, and three hundred and fifty long. The summit, or 
 highest part of the mound measures two hundred feet in 
 width by four hundred and fifty in length. This mound cov 
 ers not far from eight acres of ground, and the area of its 
 level summit is about five acres. Its solid contents may be 
 roughly estimated at 20,000.000 of cubic feet. In the states 
 bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, these mounds constitute 
 the most numerous and important part of the ancient re 
 mains. Here they are generally of larger size, and enter 
 into new combinations, occurring entirely separate from in- 
 closures of any sort, and frequently placed with great regu 
 larity in respect to each other. It sometimes happens that 
 a large truncated mound is surrounded by a series of smaller 
 ones, so as to form an ellipse, circle, square, or parallelogram. 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 
 No. 1 in the above cut (Fig. 71), occurs within the great 
 inclosure at Marietta, Ohio. The plan and sections exhibit 
 its structure and dimensions. No. 2 is an elevation of a sim 
 ilar mound on the banks of Walnut Bayou, Madison Parish, 
 Louisiana. 
 
324 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 ANOMALOUS MOUNDS. 
 
 It will be impossible, within the compass of this resume, to 
 enter into the details which a proper notice of these mounds 
 would require. Such a notice would necessarily involve a de 
 scription of almost every one thus characterized. A single 
 mound was examined which contained an altar, and also a 
 skeleton with its rude inclosure of wood. It was elliptical in 
 shape, measuring one hundred and sixty feet in length, sixty 
 in width and twenty-five in height. The altar occupied one 
 centre of the ellipse, the chamber of the skeleton the other. 
 Of the twenty-six mounds embraced in "Mound City," six are 
 of very small dimensions, not exceeding three feet in height. 
 Within each of these was deposited a quantity of burned hu 
 man bones in fragments, not exceeding in any case the amount 
 of a single skeleton. No relics were found with these, though 
 in one instance the fragment of an altar, a couple of inches 
 square, was observed with the bones, leading to the conclusion 
 that they were taken up from the altars, in the adjacent larger 
 mounds, and afterward finally deposited here. 
 
 On the tops of the hills and on the jutting points of the 
 table lands bordering the valleys in which the earth-works of 
 the West are found, mounds occur in considerable numbers. 
 The most elevated and commanding positions are frequently 
 crowned by them, suggesting at once the use to which some 
 of the cairns of the Celts were applied that of signal or 
 alarm posts. On a high hill, opposite Chillicothe, six hun 
 dred feet in height, the loftiest in the whole region, one of 
 these mounds is placed. A fire built upon it would be visible 
 for a distance of fifteen or twenty miles up and down the 
 river, as well as for a number of miles up the valley of Paint 
 Creek a broad and fertile valley, abounding in ancient mon 
 uments. Between Chillicothe and Columbus, a distance of 
 forty-five miles, there are about twenty mounds, so placed 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 325 
 
 that, it is believed, if the country were cleared of forests, sig 
 nals by fire could be transmitted along the whole line in a 
 few minutes. My examination of this description of mounds, 
 from a variety of causes, has been comparatively limited. So 
 far as my personal observation goes, they contain few of the 
 remains found in the two classes of mounds just described ; 
 and, although there are traces of fire around many of them, 
 the marks are not sufficiently strong to justify fully the infe 
 rences that they were look-outs and fires used as the signals. 
 Indeed, it is certain that, in some cases, they contain human 
 remains, undoubtedly those of the mound-builders. It is 
 possible that a portion, perhaps all, were devoted to sepulture, 
 another portion to observation, or that some answered a double 
 purpose. This is a point which remains to be settled by more 
 extended observations. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON MOUNDS. 
 
 Whether these classes are maintained throughout the West, 
 is a question which a systematic examination, carried on over a 
 wide field, alone can determine. In almost every case falling 
 within our knowledge, where mounds have been thoroughly ex 
 amined by competent persons, some of the features here marked 
 have been noticed. It is conjectured, that the " brick hearths," 
 of which mention has occasionally been made, were the " altars," 
 already described as belonging to a certain class of mounds. 
 Nothing is more likely than that some of them were left uncov 
 ered by the builders, and subsequently hidden by natural accu 
 mulations, to be again exposed by the invading plough, or the 
 recession of the banks of streams. The indentations occasion 
 ed by the passage of roots across them, or by other causes, 
 would naturally suggest the notion of rude brick hearths. 
 
 REMAINS OP ART FOUND IN THE MOUNDS. 
 
 The condition of the ordinary arts of life, among the people 
 which constructed the singular and often imposing monuments 
 
326 
 
 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 we have been contemplating, furnishes a prominent and inter 
 esting subject of inquiry. How far the conclusion, already hy- 
 pothetically advanced, that the vast amount of labor expended 
 upon these works, their number, and the regularity and design 
 which they exhibit, denote a numerous people, considerably ad 
 vanced from the nomadic, hunter, or radically savage state, 
 how far this conclusion is sustained by the character of the 
 minor remains, of which we shall now speak, remains to be 
 seen. 
 
 It has already been remarked that the mounds are the prin 
 cipal depositories of ancient art, and that in them we must seek 
 for the only authentic remains of the builders. In the obser 
 vance of a practice almost universal among barbarous or semi- 
 civilized nations, the mound-builders deposited various articles 
 of use and ornament with their dead. They also, under the 
 prescriptions of their religion, or in accordance with customs 
 unknown to us, and to which perhaps no direct analogy is 
 afforded by those of any other people, placed upon their altars 
 numerous ornaments and implements, probably those most 
 valued by their possessors. which remain there to this day, 
 attesting at once the religious zeal of the depositors, and their 
 skill in the minor arts. 
 
 The necessity of a careful discrimination between the various 
 remains found in the mounds, resulting from the fact that the 
 races succeeding the builders in occupation of the country often 
 buried their dead in them, has probably been dwelt upon with 
 sufficient force, in another connection. Aside from the distinc 
 tive features of the relics themselves, attention to the conditions 
 under which they are discovered, and to the simple rules which 
 seem to have governed the mound-builders in making their de 
 posits, can hardly fail to fix, with great certainty, their date 
 and origin. Their true position satisfactorily determined, we 
 proceed with confidence to comparisons and deductions, which 
 otherwise, however accurate and ingenious they might be, would 
 nevertheless be invested with painful uncertainty. From want 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 327 
 
 of proper care in this respect, there is no doubt that articles of 
 European origin, which, by a very natural train of events, found 
 their way to the mounds, have been made the basis of specula 
 tions concerning the arts of the mound-builders. To this cause 
 we may refer the existence of the popular errors, that the an 
 cient people were acquainted with the use of iron, and under 
 stood the art of plating, gilding, etc.* 
 
 The relics found in the mounds are such only as, from the 
 nature of the materials of which they are composed, have been 
 able to resist the general course of decay : articles of pottery, 
 bone, shell, stone, and metal. We can, of course, expect to 
 find but slight traces of instruments or utensils of wood, and 
 but few, and doubtful ones at best, of the materials which went 
 to compose articles of dress. 
 
 The first inquiry suggested by an inspection of the mounds 
 and other earth-works of the West, relates to the means at the 
 command of the builders in their construction. However dense 
 we may suppose the ancient population to have been, we must 
 regard these works as entirely beyond their capabilities, unless 
 they possessed some artificial aids. As an agricultural people, 
 they must have had some means of clearing the land of forests 
 and of tilling the soil. We can hardly conceive, at this day, 
 how these operations could be performed without the aid of 
 iron ; yet we know that the Mexicans and Peruvians, whose 
 monuments emulate the proudest of the old world, were wholly 
 unacquainted with the uses of that metal, and constructed their 
 edifices and carried on their agricultural operations with imple- 
 
 * A silver cup is said to have been found, many years ago, in a mound 
 near Marietta, Ohio, which, " though simple in its form, was smooth 
 and regular, and had its interior finely gilded" (Schooler aft's View, p. 
 276.) This statement has been quoted by several writers, as illustrat 
 ing the advance of the mound-builders in the arts. Assuming the fact 
 to be as stated, there is nothing very extraordinary in the discovery. 
 What more likely than that this cup fell, in course of barter or by acci 
 dent, into the hands of some savage, with whom, in accordance with 
 the Indian custom, it was buried at his death. 
 
328 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 ments of wood, stone, and copper. They possessed the secret 
 of hardening the metal last named, so as to make it subserve 
 most of the uses to which iron is applied. Of it they made 
 axes, chisels, and knives. The mound-builders, also, worked it 
 into similar implements, although it is not yet certain that they 
 contrived to give it any extraordinary hardness. A number 
 of axes have been extracted from their depositories, the general 
 form of which is well exhibited in the engravings of Mexican 
 axes, presented in the first part of this work, in treating of the 
 use of copper by the Aborigines. A specimen found in a 
 mound near Chillicothe, Ohio, (A. M. Fig. 81.) consists of a 
 solid, well-hammered piece of copper, and weighs two pounds 
 and five ounces. It is seven inches long by four broad at the 
 cutting edge, and has an average thickness of little less than 
 four-tenths of an inch. Its edge is slightly curved, some 
 what after the manner of the axes of the present day, and is 
 beveled from both surfaces. Copper chisels, gravers, &c., have 
 also been found in the mounds. The metal seems, however, 
 to have been more generally applied to ornamental than useful 
 purposes ; for, while articles of ornament are common in both 
 the sacrificial and sepulchral mounds, copper implements are 
 comparatively rare. It is possible that ornaments were more 
 generally placed in the mounds than articles of use ; such cer 
 tainly is the case in respect to the mounds of sepulture. Cop 
 per beads, bracelets, gorgets, &c. &c., are of frequent occur 
 rence. 
 
 Silver has also been found, but in small quantities, reduced 
 to great thinness, and closely wrapped around copper orna 
 ments. The ore of lead, galena, has been found in considera 
 ble abundance, and some of the metal itself under circum 
 stances implying a knowledge of its use on the part of the 
 ancient people. The discovery of gold has been vaguely 
 announced, but is not well attested. It is not impossible that 
 articles of that metal have been found, with other vestiges of 
 European art, accompanying secondary and recent deposits ; 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 329 
 
 and it is far from impossible or even improbable, judging from 
 the extensive intercourse which they seem to have maintained, 
 that the metal may yet be disclosed under such circumstances 
 as to justify the conclusion that it was not entirely unknown 
 to the mound builders. No iron or traces of iron have been 
 discovered, except in connection with recent deposits ; and 
 there is no reason for believing that the race of the mounds 
 had the slightest acquaintance with its uses. 
 
 It is hardly to be supposed that the silver and copper found 
 in the mounds, were reduced from the ores of these metals. 
 On the contrary, it is nearly certain that they were obtained 
 native from primitive deposits. Indeed, fragments of un- 
 wrought native copper have occasionally been discovered, of 
 considerable size ; one of these, from which portions had evi 
 dently been cut, weighing twenty-three pounds, was found, a 
 few years since, near Chillicothe. Both metals appear to 
 have been worked in a cold state, and display the lamination 
 of surface resulting from such a process. This is somewhat 
 remarkable, as the fires upon the altars were sufficiently 
 strong, in some instances, to melt down the copper ornaments 
 and implements deposited upon them, and the fact that the 
 metal was fusible could hardly have escaped notice. The 
 locality, from which a portion at least of the supply of these 
 metals was obtained, is pretty clearly indicated, by the pecu 
 liar rnechanico-chemical combination existing in some speci 
 mens between the silver and copper, which combination char 
 acterizes the native masses of Lake Superior. The evident 
 scarcity of silver may also be regarded as supporting this 
 conclusion. 
 
 Galena, as already observed, is found in considerable quan 
 tities. One of the altars uncovered was entirely occupied by 
 a deposit of this mineral, which had been slightly subjected 
 to the action of fire. No native deposits of galena are known 
 to exist in Ohio, and the supply of the mounds was probably 
 
330 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 obtained fromthe well-known localities on the Upper Missis 
 sippi. 
 
 The comparative scarcity of copper implements seems to 
 imply that they were not in general use. At any rate, they 
 never entirely superseded the ruder articles of bone and stone, 
 so generally diffused among rude nations all over the globe. 
 In Mexico .and Peru those characteristic implements of a 
 ruder state were still adhered to at the period of the discov 
 ery. The early explorers found all the American nations, 
 from the squalid Esquimaux, who struck the morse with a 
 lance pointed with its own tusks, to the haughty Aztec, rival 
 ing in his barbaric splendor the magnificence of the East, 
 including the fearless hunter tribes situated between these 
 extremes, in possession of them. We are not, therefore, sur 
 prised at their occurrence in the mounds. We find them 
 with the original and with the recent deposits, and the plough 
 turns them up to light on every hand. And so striking is the 
 resemblance between them all, that we are almost ready to 
 conclude they were the productions of the same people. The 
 conclusion would be irresistible, did we not know that the 
 wants of man have ever been the same, and have always sug 
 gested like forms to his implements, and similar modes of 
 using them. The polished instrument with which the pioneer 
 of civilization prostrates the forest, has its type in the stone 
 axe of the Indian which his plough the next day exposes to 
 his curious gaze. In the barrows of Denmark and Siberia, in 
 the tumuli on the plains of Marathon, and even under the 
 shadow of the pyramids themselves, the explorer finds relics, 
 almost identical with those disclosed from the mounds, and 
 closely resembling each other in material, form, and workman 
 ship. We have consequently little whereby to distinguish 
 the remains of the mound-builders, so far as their mere im 
 plements of stone are concerned, except the position in which 
 they are found, and the not entirely imaginary superiority of 
 their workmanship, from those of the succeeding races. We 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 331 
 
 have, however, in the different varieties of stone of which 
 they are composed, the evidences of a communication more 
 extended than we are justified in ascribing to the more recent 
 tribes. For instance, we find knives and lance-heads of obsid 
 ian (the itzli of the Mexicans and the gallinazo stone of the 
 Peruvians), a volcanic product, the nearest native locality of 
 which, so far as we know, is Central Mexico, the ancient in 
 habitants of which country applied it to the very purposes 
 for which it was. used by the race of the mounds. 
 
 Arrow and lance heads and cutting instruments of the nu 
 merous varieties of quartz, embracing every shade of color 
 and degree of transparency, from the dull blue of the ordina 
 ry hornstone to the brilliant opalescence of the chalcedonic 
 varieties, are frequent in the mounds. Some are worked with 
 exquisite skill from pure, limpid crystals of quartz, others from 
 crystals of manganesian garnet, and others still, as before ob 
 served, from obsidian. It is a singular fact, however, that none 
 of these, nor indeed any traces of weapons, have been discovered 
 in the " sepulchral mounds ;" most of the remains found with 
 the skeletons being evidently such as were deemed ornamental, 
 or recognized as badges of distinction. Some of the altar or 
 sacrificial mounds, on the other hand, have the deposits within 
 them almost entirely made up of finished arrow and spear 
 points, intermixed with masses of the unmanufactured material. 
 From one altar were taken several bushels of finely worked 
 lance heads of milky quartz, nearly all of which had been broken 
 up by the action of fire. In another mound, an excavation six 
 feet long and four broad, disclosed upwards of six hundred 
 spear heads or discs of hornstone, rudely blocked out, and the 
 deposit extended indefinitely on every side. Some of these are 
 represented in the accompanying engraving. They are neces 
 sarily greatly reduced. The originals are about six inches long 
 and four broad, and weigh not far from two pounds each. Some 
 specimens from this deposit are nearly round, but most are of 
 the shape of those here figured. We are wholly at a loss re- 
 
332 
 
 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 FIG. 72. 
 
 specting their purposes, unless they were designed to be worked 
 into the more elaborate instruments to which allusions has been 
 made, and were thus roughly blocked out for greater ease of 
 transportation from the quarries. Several localities are known 
 from which the material may have been obtained. One of these, 
 distinguished as " Flint Ridge," has been described on a pre 
 ceding page. 
 
 One description of knives, found in the mounds, is illustrated 
 in the following engraving, which also exhibits the absolute 
 identity that sometimes exists between the remains of widely 
 separated people, and how, almost as it were by instinct, men 
 hit upon common methods of meeting their wants. 
 
 FIG. 73. 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 333 
 
 No. 1 is of flint, from a Scandinavian barrow ; No. 2 is of 
 hornstone. from a mound in Ohio ; and No. 3 is of obsidian 
 from the pyramids of Teotihuacan, in Mexico. They are all 
 made in a like manner, by dexterously chipping off thin, nar 
 row pieces from blocks of the various minerals mentioned, all of 
 which break with a clear, conchoidal fracture and sharp cutting 
 edges. Clavigero states that, so skillful were the Mexicans in 
 this manufacture, that their workmen produced a hundred per 
 hour. It was with knives of this kind that the bloody sacrifices 
 of the Aztecs were performed. 
 
 In the manufacture of pottery, as has already been intimated, 
 the mound-builders attained a considerable proficiency. Many 
 of the vases recovered from the mounds display, in respect to 
 material, finish, and model, a marked superiority to anything 
 .of which the existing Indian tribes are known to have been 
 capable, and compare favorably with the best Peruvian speci 
 mens. Though of great symmetry of proportions, there is no 
 good reason to believe that they were turned on a lathe. Their 
 fine finish seems to have been the result of the same process 
 with that adopted by the Peruvians in their manufactures. 
 Some of them are tastefully ornamented with scrolls, figures of 
 birds, and other devices, which are engraved in the surface, in 
 stead of being embossed upon it. The lines appear to have 
 been cut with some sharp, gouge-shaped instrument, which en 
 tirely removed the detached material, leaving no ragged or 
 raised edges. Nothing can exceed the regularity and precision 
 with which the ornaments are executed. The material of which 
 the vases are composed is a fine clay, which, in the more deli 
 cate specimens, was worked nearly pure, or possessing a very 
 slight silicious intermixture. Some of the coarser specimens have 
 pulverized quartz mingled with the clay, while others are tem 
 pered with salmon-colored mica, in small flakes, which gives 
 them a ruddy and rather brilliant appearance, and was perhaps 
 introduced with some view to ornament as well as utility. None 
 appear to have been glazed ; though one or two, either from 
 
334 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 baking or the subsequent great heat to which they were sub 
 jected, exhibit a slightly vitrified surface. 
 
 Various terra cottas are extracted from the mounds, though 
 they are far from numerous. They generally represent the 
 heads or figures of animals. 
 
 FIG. 74. 
 
 Fig. 74, is an outline representation of a rattle of baked clay, 
 found in a mound near Nashville, Tennessee. It has the form 
 of a human head, with a portentous nose and unprecedented 
 phrenological developments. It is smooth and well polished, 
 and contains six small balls of clay, which were discovered by 
 perforating the neck. They must necessarily have been intro 
 duced before the burning of the toy. Similar conceits were 
 common in Mexico and Peru, and were observed by Kotzebue 
 upon the Northwest Coast. 
 
 Among the minerals found in the mounds, mica is most abun 
 dant. It occurs both in the sacrificial and sepulchral mounds, 
 and seems to have been invested with a superstitious regard, and 
 associated with certain burial and religious rites. Some idea can 
 be formed of its abundance from the fact that bushels are some 
 times taken from a single mound. It is found of every variety 
 the common or transparent, silvery or opaque, and graphic or 
 hieroglyphical varieties. Some specimens have a fine golden 
 tinge, resembling Dutch leaf. It is sometimes neatly cut into 
 ornamental figures, discs, scrolls, and oval plates, which seem to 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 335 
 
 have constituted ornaments for dresses. A quantity, cut into 
 the form of discs each a foot in diameter, was found in a mound 
 near Chillicothe ; the plates, which overlapped each other like 
 the tiles of a roof, being so arranged as to form a crescent, five 
 feet in diameter at the widest part, and upwards of twenty 
 feet long. Some fine specimens of the graphic variety, in thin 
 oval plates, were recently discovered in a mound near Lower 
 Sandusky. Ohio, which were supposed, by those who first ex 
 amined them, to bear indubitable hieroglyphics. A native 
 deposit of this variety occurs on the Schuylkill river, a few 
 miles above the city of Philadelphia. The mineral must be re 
 ferred to some primitive locality or localities, which it would be 
 interesting to identify ; for, by the identification, accurate or ap 
 proximate, of the original sources of the various foreign articles 
 found in the mounds, we are enabled to fix, with greater or less 
 certainty, the extent of the intercourse, if not in some degree 
 the direction of the migrations, of the ancient people. 
 
 It is in this view that the discovery of pearls and marine 
 shells in the mounds, is specially interesting. Of the latter, not 
 less than five kinds have been recognized ; viz., the cassis (several 
 varieties), the pyrula, perversa, oliva, marginella, and nalica. 
 These shells are all found on our Southern shores.* They 
 
 * Several of these shells, including the pyrula pet-versa and the cassis 
 cornutus, were discovered several years ago in a mound near Cincinnati, 
 and others near Lexington, Ky., which have since figured largely in most 
 speculations on American antiquities and the origin of the American 
 race. They were assumed to be peculiar to Asia ; and, as similar shells 
 were sacred to certain religious rites, or consecrated to certain gods of 
 the Hindoos, have been cited in support of the hypothesis that the 
 builders of the mounds had their origin in India. [See DelafielcTs In 
 quiry, Bradford's Researches, Laing's Polynesian Researches, &c. &c.] 
 This is but one of many instances in which an erroneous assumption has 
 been perpetuated by succeeding writers, each quoting from his prede 
 cessor without submitting his statements to a critical analysis. The 
 well-known fact that these shells occur in abundance on our Southern 
 shores, relieves them from the necessity to which they have heretofore 
 been subjected, of a transportation of twelve thousand miles, ten thou 
 sand by sea, and two thousand by land ! 
 
THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 seem to have been chiefly used for ornamental purposes, and 
 hundreds of the marginella, pierced longitudinally so as to be 
 strung, are sometimes found accompanying a single skeleton. 
 Great numbers of beads worked from the compact portions of 
 some of the larger shells, are also found. These, generally much 
 altered by long exposure, were originally supposed to be ivory, 
 and their frequent discovery probably gave rise to the notion 
 that ivory is common in the mounds. It has been suggested 
 that many of them were worked from the columella of the 
 strombus gigas, which has been discovered in some of the an 
 cient graves of Tennessee. Quantities of pearls^ more or less 
 burned, have been found, but only upon the altars. They are 
 clearly not from the fresh water molluscas ; their numbers and 
 great size forbid the supposition. They are easily identified by 
 their concentric lamination. They are generally pierced for 
 beads, but some of the smaller ones, as will shortly appear, con 
 stituted the eyes of the ancient sculptures of animals and birds. 
 We must refer these to the same locality from whence the 
 shells above named were procured ; where, as we are informed 
 by the early writers, the Southern Indians carried on the pearl 
 fishery. It may be mentioned, in this connection, that the 
 teeth of the shark and alligator, bear, panther and wolf, and 
 the talons of rapacious birds, as also the fossil teeth of the 
 shark, the latter most likely from the tertiary of the Lower 
 Mississippi, have all been found in the mounds. Most of them 
 are perforated, and were probably used as ornaments or amulets, 
 but some seem designed as implements. Many large teeth, pro 
 bably cetacean, have been discovered ; not far from one hun 
 dred occurred in a single mound. They were all too much 
 burned to be recovered entire. One of the largest measured 
 six inches in length, and upwards of four inches in circumfer 
 ence at the largest part. They are destitute of enamel, and 
 have a pulp cavity, in this respect resembling those of the 
 whale, from which, however, they differ widely in shape. They 
 have not yet been identified. The mound-builders evidently 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 337 
 
 used them for various purposes, and some of the articles taken 
 for ivory may have been made from them. A specimen was 
 found which exhibited marks of having been sawn, drilled, and 
 polished. Accompanying them were several beautifully carved 
 cylinders of a compact substance resembling ivory ; one of 
 these was originally fourteen inches in length, and when found 
 was closely wrapped in sheet copper. Bones of the elk, deer, 
 etc., worked into the form of daggers, awls, etc., are of frequent 
 occurrence. 
 
 It is impossible here to indicate the great variety of the im 
 plements and ornaments of silver, copper, stone, &c. &c., found 
 in the mounds. Many of these are of a very interesting char 
 acter, as illustrating the state of ancient art, and as enabling 
 us, from the material of which they are composed, their pecu 
 liarities of form, and correspondences of use, to define the in 
 tercourse, and in some degree the connections, of the ancient 
 races. From what has already been presented, it will be seen 
 that there are gathered in the mounds, or the alluvions of the 
 Ohio, copper and silver from the Great Lakes ; pearls and 
 shells from the Southern Gulf; mica from the primitive ranges 
 of the Alleghanies, and obsidian from the volcanic ridges of 
 Mexico, an extended range, the extremes of which define, 
 with great precision, the field in which the mounds occur. It 
 would almost seem that the ancient race existed contemporane 
 ously over this great area, maintaining throughout a constant 
 intercourse. BfinCTOlt ij| 
 
 There is one class of ancient remains which probably pos 
 sesses a greater popular interest than any other. These are the 
 sculptures or carvings in stone, of which a great variety occur 
 in the mounds. These display no inconsiderable degree of 
 taste and skill. They exhibit a close observance of nature, and 
 an attention to details, which we are unprepared to look for 
 among a people not considerably advanced in the arts, and to 
 which the elaborate and laborious, but usually clumsy and un 
 graceful productions of the savage, can claim but slight ap- 
 
 15 
 
338 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 proach. Savage taste in sculpture is oftenest exhibited in 
 monstrosities, caricatures of things rather than faithful copies. 
 The carvings from the mounds, on the contrary, are remark 
 able for their truthfulness ; they display not only the general 
 form and features of the objects sought to be represented, but 
 to a surprising degree their characteristic expression and atti 
 tude. In some instances their very habits are indicated ; the 
 otter is represented securing a fish, so also is that inveterate 
 fisher, the heron, and the hawk hold s a small bird in his talons 
 and tears it with his beak. These representations are so exact 
 as to leave no doubt as to the animals designed to be exhibited. 
 Hardly a beast, bird, or reptile, indigenous to the country, is 
 omitted from the list. We identify the beaver, the otter, elk, 
 bear, wolf, panther, racoon, opossum, and squirrel ; the hawk, 
 heron, owl, vulture, raven, swallow, paroquet, duck, goose, and 
 numerous other varieties of land and water birds ; the alliga 
 tor, turtle, toad, frog, rattlesnake, etc. etc. Besides these there 
 are carvings of various animals and birds not indigenous to this 
 latitude ; for instance, the lamantin or manitus, and the tocan. 
 Several carvings, supposed to represent the manitus, have been 
 discovered, one of which is shown, of full size, in the following 
 engraving : 
 
 FIG. 75. 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 339 
 
 The engraving does not do full justice to the original, which 
 is exquisitely carved and polished, every feature being clearly 
 made out. The sculpture answers very well to the descriptions 
 of the manitus given by naturalists. It has the obtuse head 
 (not well shown in the engraving) ; thick, fleshy snout ; semi- 
 lunar nostrils ; tumid upper lip, furrowed in the middle ; 
 scarcely distinguishable ears ; the singular moustaches men 
 tioned by Desmoulin ; short, thick neck, and rudiinental paws, 
 or, as they were called by the Spaniards' hands. The general 
 form also corresponds with the descriptions given. But one of 
 the sculptures exhibits a flat, truncated tail ; the rest are round, 
 and rather long. There is a variety of the lamantin, however, 
 known as the round-tailed manitus, to which they may bear a 
 closer resemblance. This animal is only found in tropical re 
 gions ; it occurs, though rarely, on the Peninsula of Florida, and, 
 it is believed, nowhere else within the limits of the United 
 States. The inhabitants of San Christophers, Guadaloupe, 
 and other of the Barbadoes, formerly used it for food, and the 
 Southern Indians made use of its hide for thongs, and its bones 
 for implements. The sculptures of this last of animals or first 
 of fishes, are all of the same style of workmanship, and of like 
 materials, with an entire class of sculptures found in the 
 mounds. Consequently, either the same race of men, possessing 
 throughout a like mode of workmanship and deriving their ma 
 terials from the same sources, existed at the same period over 
 the intervening country, from the Ohio to the haunts of the 
 manitus on the Southern coast, and maintained a constant in 
 tercourse ; or else there was, at some time, a migration from 
 the South, bringing with it these characteristic remains of ano 
 ther region. We cannot conceive that these sculptures alone 
 are fanciful creations, bearing only an accidental resemblance 
 to the manitus, while the others accompanying them are faith 
 ful representations of objects generally easily recognizable. 
 It should be remarked, that the mound-builders seem to 
 
340 
 
 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 have been inveterate smokers, and that in the construction and 
 ornament of their pipes they displayed their utmost skill. 
 They are always carved from a single piece, and consist of a 
 flat, curved base of variable length and width, the bowl rising 
 from the convex side. From one of the ends, communicating 
 with the bowl, is drilled a small hole answering the purposes of 
 a tube ; the corresponding opposite division being left for the 
 manifest purpose of holding the implement to the mouth. The 
 bowls of these pipes are often sculptured into singular devices, 
 figures of the human head, of animals, birds, etc. etc., of which 
 examples are given in the " Ancient Monuments of the Mis 
 sissippi Valley," from Fig. 142, to Fig. 194, inclusive. 
 
 Of a very different character, and doubtless of a very differ 
 ent origin, is a class of sculptures of which the following cut, 
 Fig. 76, presents an example. It is carved from a dark-colored 
 
 FIG 76. 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 341 
 
 sandstone, and presents a human figure resting upon its knees 
 and elbows. The limbs, however, are barely indicated. The 
 figure is boldly though roughly carved, with the exception of 
 the face, which is better finished and quite characteristic. It 
 has peculiar markings, extending from the eyes diagonally 
 across the cheeks. A large serpent is folded around the neck ; 
 ^he head and tail of the reptile resting together upon the 
 breast of the figure. The head is surmounted by a knot, re 
 sembling the " scalp-lock" of the Indians. It is six inches in 
 greatest length, five inches high, and has a broad, flat base. It 
 was ploughed up, some years since, near Chillicothe, Ohio. 
 Like the more delicate sculptures above referred to, it was 
 adapted for a pipe. 
 
 Several other specimens, closely resembling the one last de 
 scribed, have been found at various points upon the surface, but 
 none have been developed from the mounds. Both in material 
 and workmanship they sustain a close relationship to certain 
 " stone idols," as they have been termed, discovered in Virginia, 
 Tennessee, and elsewhere. The fact that no sculptures of this 
 description have been found in the mounds, and the compara 
 tive rudeness which they exhibit, induce the belief that they 
 belong to a different era, and are the work of another and a 
 ruder people. 
 
 A large proportion of the mound sculptures are executed in 
 a fine porphyry. It occurs of many shades of color ; some va 
 rieties have a greenish brown base, with fine white or black 
 grains ; others a light brown base, with white, purple, and 
 violet-tinged specks ; but most are red, with white and purplish 
 grounds. In some specimens the base exhibits scarcely any 
 admixture, and strongly resembles the Catlinile, or red pipe- 
 stone of the Coteau des Prairies. All the examples are of 
 great hardness ; a natural characteristic, or measurably the 
 result of the great heat to which they have been subjected. 
 Under heat this porphyry splinters, often in a nearly uniform 
 plane : and examples have been remarked, partly fused into a 
 
 L 
 

 342 THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS 
 
 porous, dark brown mass. Heat has the effect of rendering the 
 specimens with a red base of a bright black ; and some of the 
 restored sculptures exhibit a striking contrast in the color of 
 their different parts. The primitive locality of this mineral is 
 unknown. * '.. 
 
 All carvings from the mounds are exquisitely wrought ; and 
 in all cases where the material will admit of it, beautifully 
 polished. "We can scarcely understand how, in the absence of 
 instruments of iron, the carvings were executed. It may be 
 suggested that they were rubbed into shape upon hard rocks ; 
 but, apart from the incredible labor of such a process, and the 
 palpable impossibility of securing the delicate features which 
 some possess, by such means, we find some of the unfinished 
 specimens which show that, however the general outline was 
 secured, all the lines and more delicate features were cut or 
 graved in the stone. The copper tools, resembling gravers, 
 seem hardly adequate to this work, but they are the only in 
 struments discovered which appear at all adapted to the pur 
 pose. 
 
 The limits assigned to this resume prohibits any further ac 
 count of the remains found in the mounds. Those who wish 
 to pursue the subject, will find ample materials and illustration 
 in my work on the monuments of the West, so often referred 
 to in the preceding pages, and in my (in some respects supple 
 mentary) work on " The Serpent Symbol, and the Worship of 
 the Reciprocal Principles in America." What has already 
 been presented may serve to give some slight conception of the 
 general character of the ancient works of the West, if not of 
 their number. The relationship which they exhibit, in many 
 respects, to remains found elsewhere on the continent, will pro 
 bably be forcibly suggested to most minds, and may serve in a 
 degree to indicate, as has already been remarked, the depend 
 encies and intercourse, as well as illustrate the minor arts of 
 the ancient people. They should, however, be considered only 
 in connection with the other more imposing remains with which 
 
OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 343 
 
 they are associated, as collateral aids in the solution of the 
 grand questions involved in the ancient history of man in 
 America. 
 
 There is a single point more, which, from a variety of causes, 
 has been invested with a special interest, and which it will not 
 be out of place to notice in this connection, viz. : the alleged 
 discovery in the mounds, of sculptured tablets, bearing hiero- 
 glyphical or alphabetical inscriptions. Nothing, to which it 
 would be possible to assign any such extraordinary character, 
 has been discovered by the author, in the course of his investi 
 gations ; nor does it seem likely that anything like an alpha 
 betical or hieroglyphical system existed among the mound- 
 builders. The earth-works and their contents certainly estab 
 lish that prior to the occupation of the Mississippi valley by the 
 tribes found in possession by the Europeans, there existed here 
 a numerous people, possessing a different social, and probably 
 a different civil organization, an agricultural people, consider 
 ably advanced in the arts, and undoubtedly, in most respects, 
 superior to the hunter tribes with which we are acquainted. 
 There is no evidence, however, that their condition was any 
 thing more than a limited approximation to that attained by 
 the ancient Mexicans, Central Americans, and Peruvians, 
 which nations had made but the first advance toward an alpha 
 bet. Whether they had progressed further than to a refinement 
 on the picture-writing of the savage tribes, is not yet considered 
 established. It would be unwarrantable, therefore, to assign 
 to the race of the mounds, a superiority in this respect over 
 these nations, which were so much in advance of them in all 
 others. It would be a practical reversal of the philosophic 
 teachings of History, an exception to the laws of progress, 
 which it would require a large array of well-attested facts to 
 sustain. Such an array of facts we do not yet possess.