THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES This book is P T " SOUTHERN BRANCH UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY LOS ANGELES GREEK SERIES FOR COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS EDITED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF HERBERT WEIR SMYTH, PH.D. ELIOT PROFESSOR OF GREEK LITERATURE IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY VOLUMES OF THE SERIES GREEK GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. By the Editor, Prof. Herbert Weir Smyth. GREEK GRAMMAR FOR COLLEGES. By the Editor, Prof. Herbert Weir Smyth. BEGINNER'S GREEK BOOK. Prof. Allen R. Benner, Phillips Academy, An- dover; and the Editor. BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Prof. Louis Bevier, Jr., Rutgers College. GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION FOR SCHOOLS. Clarence W. Gleason, Volkmann School, Boston. GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION FOR COLLEGES. Prof. Edward H. Spieker, Johns Hopkins University. AESCHYLUS. PROMETHEUS. Prof. J. E. Harry, University of Cincinnati. ARISTOPHANES. CLOUDS. Dr. L. L. Forman, Cornell University. DEMOSTHENES. ON THE CROWN. Prof. Milton W. Humphreys, University of Virginia. EURIPIDES. IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS. Prof. William N. Bates, University of Pennsylvania. EURIPIDES. MEDEA. Prof. Mortimer Lamson Earle, Columbia University. HERODOTUS. BOOKS VII.-VIII. Prof. Charles Forster Smith and Prof. Arthur Gordon Laird, University of Wisconsin. HOMER. ILIAD. Prof. J. R. S. Sterrett, Cornell University. BOOKS I.-III. BOOKS I.-III. AND SELECTIONS. LYSIAS. Prof. Charles D. Adams, Dartmouth College. PLATO. APOLOGY AND CRITO. Prof. Isaac Flagg, University of California. PLATO. EUTHYPHRO. Prof. William A. Heidel, Wesleyan University. THUCYDIDES. BOOKS II.-III. Prof. W. A. Lamberton, University of Penn- sylvania. XENOPHON. ANABASIS. BOOKS I.-IV. Dr. M. W. Mather, Instructor in Harvard University, and Prof. J. W. Hewitt, Wesleyan University. XENOPHON. HELLENICA (Selections). Prof. Carleton L. Brownson. College of the City of New York. GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY. Prof. Harold N. Fowler, Western Reserve University, and Prof. James R. Wheeler, Columbia University. GREEK LITERATURE. Dr. Wilmer Cave Wright, Bryn Mawr College. GREEK RELIGION. Arthur Fairbanks, Ph.D., Litt.D., Director of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. GREEK SCULPTURE. Prof. Rufus B. Richardson, formerly Director of the Ameri- can School of Classical Studies, Athens. A HANDBOOK OF GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY BY HAROLD NORTH FOWLER WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY AND JAMES RIGNALL WHEELER COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY WITH THE COLLABORATION OF GORHAM PHILLIPS STEVENS NEW YORK : CINCINNATI : CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 81190 COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON. FOWLER AND WHEELER. GREEK ARCHAEOLOGYo 'W. f. 8 Art Library 7 / ^j WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN os TTOT' es'EAAaSa yfjv vcapoiis ly/xas KaAe an d what was already known. Especially important were the bronze statues found at Herculaneum in 1753, for the Greek origin of the painted vases was not clearly recognized until much later. Such was the material available, chiefly Roman, when Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768) published, in 1763, his His- tory of Ancient Art. Winckelmann is justly regarded Winckel- as the founder of the science of archaeology, for he mann was the first to study ancient art from the historical which is in this instance the scientific point of view. His History, after- wards supplemented by the Monumenti Inediti, was recognized as the work of a master, and its influence endures even to the pres- ent day, in spite of the fact that the discoveries made since his time have proved many of his views to be erroneous. His errors were due chiefly to the lack of original Greek (as well as Egyp- tian and oriental) works of art. He recognized that the history of art is a continual progress, and divided Greek art into four periods : the old style, from the beginning to the fifth century ; the high style, from the time of Phidias to that of Alexander ; the style of imitators and the fall of art through imitation; and Greek art under the Romans. These main divisions may still, though with some modifications, be accepted. Many scholars of the eighteenth century wrote on archaeologi- cal themes. They had little or no knowledge of original Greek works of art, but their books are, nevertheless, even now valu- I 4 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY able as collections of material, or examples of method, or both. Among these are Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741), whose work, DAntiquite expliquee et represents en figures, is the eigh- an immense collection of material, but without dis- teenth cen- tinction of epochs or of Roman copies from Greek tury originals; Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781), whose Laokoon, an essay on the boundaries of literature and art, is a masterpiece of criticism; Christian Gottlob Heyne (1729- 1812), a learned philologist, who lectured on archaeology and inserted valuable archaeological matter in his commentaries on ancient authors; and Joseph Hilarius von Eckhel (1737-1798), whose great work on ancient coins, Doctrina Numorum Veterum (1792-1798), cannot even yet be entirely neglected by numis- matists. Other scholars also, such as Carlo Fea and Georg Zoega, although their published works are concerned with Roman (and, in the case of Zoega, with Egyptian) archaeology, exercised great influence upon the study of all remains of antiquity. Especially important are the great publications of the collections formed at Naples by Sir William Hamilton, which appeared in 1766-1767 and 1791-1795, for they made the Greek vases of Lower Italy not only known but popular. Hamilton was not the only English- man who collected works of ancient art at this time, and several such collections, among them that of Richard Payne Knight and the greater part of Hamilton's own, are now among the rich pos- sessions of the British Museum, which was first opened in 1759. Even before Winckelmann wrote his History of Ancient Art, the exploration of Greece had begun. In 1674 the Marquis de Nointel was in Athens, and with him was an artist who made drawings of the Parthenon and its sculptures. Who the artist was is uncertain, but he was not, as has been supposed for many years, Jacques Carrey, a pupil of Lebrun. The drawings, espe- cially those of the pediments, are of great importance, because they were made before the explosion which shattered the building in 1687. In 1675-1676 Jacques Spon and George Wheler visited Greece, Dalmatia, the Greek islands, and parts of Asia Minor, and INTRODUCTION 15 published, in 1676 and 1678, an account of their journey, with descriptions and discussions of ancient monuments at Athens and elsewhere, a work which is still of some importance because it describes the monuments of Athens as they were before the bom- bardment of the Acropolis in 1687 by the Venetians. But it was not until the middle of the eighteenth century that the ruins of Athens were carefully measured and adequately pub- lished. This was the joint work of the painter, James Stuart, and the architect, Nicholas Revett, who were in Greece and the neighboring regions . nearly four years (1751-1754), spending half of that time in the careful study and delineation of the monu- ments of Athens. In 1761-1762 appeared the first volume of the Antiquities of Athens, a work which was in another The An ^ 9 _ way as important as Winckelmann's History of An- uities of dent Art, and which was not surpassed by any ar- Athens chaeological publication for more than a century. The second volume appeared in 1787-1788, after Stuart's death, the third in 1 794, and the fourth, which treats of the monuments of Salonichi, Pola, and Corinth, and contains also Pars' drawings of the frieze of the Parthenon, not until 1816. A later edition, published in 18251827, contains additional notes by various authors. As a supplement to the Antiquities of Athens, Sir William Cell pub- lished in 1817 the Unedited Antiquities of Attica, treating of the ruins of Eleusis, Rhamnus, Sunium, and Thoricus, and a further supplement, published in 1830, by Cockerell, Kinnaird, and Donaldson, was devoted to the temple of Zeus at Girgenti, the early temple of Cadacchio on the island of Corfu, the temple at Phigaleia, and the " Treasury of Atreus." So far reaching and long continued was the immediate effect of the work of Stuart and Revett. A natural consequence of the interest aroused in England by the first volume of the Antiquities of Athens was the sending, by the Society of Dilettanti, founded in 1733, of an expedition to explore, measure, and draw the monuments of Asia Minor and Greece. The leader of the expedition was Dr. Richard Chandler, i 6 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY and with him were Revett and the artist Pars. Their report, the Antiquities of Ionia, appeared in 1769 and 1797, and was for many years the chief source of information concerning the ruins of Ephesus, Priene, Miletus, Mylasa, Sardis, Olympia, and other less important places. VVinckelmann laid the foundation for the historical study of Greek art, and Stuart and Revett, with those who continued and supplemented their work, added, as important material for such study, careful descriptions and drawings of monuments of Greek architecture and sculpture. But as yet original works of Greek art, with the exception of vases, small bronzes, coins, and gems, were almost unknown to all who had not themselves travelled in Greece. About 1787 one metope and one slab of the frieze of the Parthenon were brought to France through Choisseul Gouffier, at that time French ambassador at Constantinople, but they attracted The Elgin little attention. It was Thomas Bruce, Lord Elgin, Marbles who first made Greek art really known in modern times. In 1799 he was appointed ambassador to the Sublime Porte. He gathered together a number of artists, who reached Athens in 1800, where they were at first allowed only to make drawings ; but the victories of the British forces over the French in Egypt gave the ambassador greater influence at the Porte, and he obtained permission to make casts and to remove stones on which were inscriptions or figures. After Lord Elgin's recall, in 1803, two hundred cases filled with sculptures from the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, and the temple of Athena Nike, with various other works found in Athens, besides many casts, were shipped for Eng- land. Eighty cases were left behind and did not reach England until 1812. Lord Elgin himself was taken prisoner by the French and not released until 1806. When he arrived in England he gathered his treasures together from the various ports where they had been landed and exhibited them in London. Although they were enthusiastically admired by some artists, the influential Society of Dilettanti, led by Payne Knight, failed to recognize their value, and it was not until Visconti, then the leading archaeologist, INTRODUCTION 17 and Canova, the most famous sculptor of Europe, and other dis- tinguished foreigners had expressed unbounded admiration for them that they were finally purchased by act of Parliament for the British Museum. The price paid did not reimburse Lord Elgin for his expenditures, but his name is indissolubly connected with the " Elgin Marbles," the possession of which makes the British Museum more important than any other collection of works of Greek sculpture. While the Elgin Marbles were awaiting their final disposition, two other important series of Greek sculptures were added to European museums. In 181 1 two Germans, Haller von Hallerstein and Linckh, and two Englishmen, Cockerell and Foster, B assae an a while investigating the ruins of the temple of Aphaia Aegina (then supposed to be that of Zeus Panhellenius and afterwards that of Athena), on the island of Aegina, discovered the remains of the pediment groups. These were bought in 1812 by the Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, who had them restored by Thorwaldsen and placed, as its most precious possession, in the newly established Glyptothek in Munich. 1 The same group of travellers discovered in 1811 the frieze of the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae (Phigaleia), which was bought in 1814 for the British Museum. The excavations at these two sites not only led to the discovery of important works of sculpture, but at the same time added to what was known of Greek architecture. These discoveries in Greece proper were supplemented by equally important, and more extensive, investigations of the monu- ments of Greek art in Lower Italy and Sicily. In 1807 William Wilkins published his An tiquities of Magna Graecia, in 1812 Cock- erell investigated the temple of Zeus at Girgenti, and Magna in 1822-1823 Samuel Angell and William Harris ex- Graecia and cavated at Selinus. Here temples of various ground SlcU y plans and various ages, though all early, were discovered, and the metopes of one temple (temple C ) differed as widely from the 1 Further excavations were carried on under Professor A. Furtwangler, in 1901-1902, with interesting and important results. GREEK ARCH. 2 1 8 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY works of Greek sculpture previously known as did the ground plans of the temples from those of the "Theseum " and the Parthenon. Traces of color on the metopes led to much discussion of the use of color in Greek sculpture and architecture, which was carried on later by Hittorff, Semper, and others. Later discoveries have dis- proved some of the early theories, but have established without the possibility of a doubt that the Greek architects and sculptors made free and constant use of color. Further excavations and investi- gations at Selinus, carried on, with intermissions, almost to the end of the century by the Duke of Serradifalco, Saverio Cavallari, and others, led to the uncovering of further temples and sculptures, with other remains of the ancient city. In Greece itself the war for independence (1821-1828) interfered with archaeological discovery, but shortly before the the wl/for* war broke out, chance brought to light (1820) the indepen- Aphrodite of Melos, one of the most popular and, in some respects, most enigmatical extant works of ancient art. In 1828 a French army, accompanied by artists and scientists, landed in Peloponnesus, and in 1829 Blouet and Dubois excavated for a short time at Olympia, where they secured for the Louvre one metope of the temple of Zeus and some fragments. In 1832 Otto of Bavaria became king of Greece, and made Ludwig Ross Con- servator of Antiquities. Under Ross (1832-1836), most of the mediaeval and Turkish buildings were removed from the Acropol : at Athens, various works of sculpture were discovered, and (1835) Schaubert and Hansen restored the temple of Athena Nike, which had been built into the Turkish fortifications. In the following years the Erechtheum was partially restored ; Penrose made care- fully measured drawings of the Parthenon and the Propylaea (1846- 1847) and determined minutely the horizontal curvatures of the Parthenon ; the Greek Archaeological Society was organized (1837); and the French School at Athens was founded (1846). The most important single discovery at this time was the Apollo of Tenea (1846), which is now in the Glyptothek at Munich. The travels of Ludwig Ross (especially among the islands) and INTRODUCTION 19 H. N. Urlichs furnished hardly less important topographical, histori- cal, and archaeological material than had been furnished in the early years of the century by the travels of Dodwell, Gell, and Leake. After the publication of the Antiquities of Ionia, there was for a time little archaeological investigation in Asia Minor. In 1833- 1837 Charles Texier made drawings and plans of .,..,. Asia Minor many ancient cities and buildings, among them the Doric temple at Assos, a site which was afterwards (1881-1883) completely excavated by the Archaeological Institute of America. Most of the very archaic reliefs from this temple are now in the Louvre, the rest in Boston and Constantinople. A second French expedition under Philippe Lebas, in 1843-1844, produced no striking results. In 1838 Charles Fellows travelled in Asia Minor, and again in 1839 and 1840, this time accompanied by the draughtsman Scharf. The drawings and descriptions pub- lished by Fellows in two books, Asia Minor and Lycia, aroused so much interest that in 1842 an expedition was sent out which brought the reliefs of the " Harpy Tomb " and the " Nereid Monument" to England. Another expedition followed in 1843- 1844, and now the Lycian Room of the British Museum was inferior in interest only to the Elgin Room. But the British Museum was soon enriched by even more im- portant treasures from Asia Minor. In 1846, through Sir Strat- ford Canning, then ambassador at Constantinople, The Mauso- twelve slabs of the Amazon frieze of the Mausoleum, leum which had been built into the walls of the fortress at Budrum, were brought to England. 1 Charles Thomas (afterwards Sir Charles) Newton conceived the plan of excavating on the site of the Mausoleum, and in 1857 he had the satisfaction of carrying out his plan and transferring to London all the existing sculptured remains of the building. The next year Newton excavated the ancient city of Cnidus and brought to the British Museum the 1 A few fragments found somewhat later in Rhodes and Constantinople and a slab which had been in private possession in Genoa were afterwards ac- quired by the Museum. 20 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY Demeter of Cnidus, a colossal lion from the monument erected in commemoration of the victory gained by Conon in 394 B.C., and the series of seated statues from the sacred way that led from the harbor to the temple of Apollo near Miletus. Not many years later, the architect Pullan, while investigating various temples in Asia Minor, discovered a series of late reliefs from an altar at Priene, which were added to the British Museum, and in 1874 another architect, J. T. Wood, after years of toil, brought to the Museum the sculptured drums and various other remains of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Among other discoveries of about the same period should be mentioned the archaic reliefs of the gravestone of Philis and an altar to Apollo and the Nymphs at Thasos, discovered by the French investigator, E. Miller, and now in the Louvre. The Macedonian expedition under L6on Heuzey also led to some interesting results. The discoveries thus far mentioned have to do chiefly with architecture and sculpture. Of Greek painting and its develop- ment little was known. To be sure, paintings had been found at Herculaneum and Pompeii, 1 but they were regarded as Roman works, as indeed they are, so far as their actual execution is concerned, and the Greek origin of their designs was not recog- nized. Greek vases, too, had been known since the early part of the eighteenth century, but they were studied chiefly with a Greek vases view to mystical interpretations of their designs. The and painting discovery, in 1827, first at Corneto, then at Chiusi, Veii, Cervetri, and Orvieto, of Etruscan tombs with painted walls, was speedily followed by general recognition of the fact that these paintings were Etruscan imitations of Greek originals, and that 1 The excavations at Herculaneum were continued only a short time after the discovery of the site. At Pompeii they were carried on in more or less desultory fashion, with intermissions, until the close of the eighteenth cen- tury, and with more energy under the short-lived Republic of Parthenope, and in the reigns of Joseph Bonaparte and of Murat, whose wife, Queen Caro- line, was especially interested in them. INTRODUCTION 21 in them the progress of Greek painting could be traced. The discovery at Vulci, in 1828, of graves containing painted vases, led to further discoveries of the same kind, and the importance of the vases was clearly set forth in 1831 by Eduard Gerhard, who had already made Etruscan ash-urns and mirrors the objects of careful study. Gerhard was one of the founders 1 of the htituto di corrispondenza archeologica, which was for many years, under the direction of Gerhard, Emil Braun, and Heinrich Brunn, the chief centre of archaeological studies, and has been, since 1885, the Roman division of the Imperial German Archaeological Insti- tute. Gerhard called attention to the workmanship of the vases, which shows the excellence of Greek handicraft, to the impor- tance of the representations on them, which portray myths that literature has either not recorded at all or has recorded in differ- ent versions, and to the chronological development of the style of decoration. He recognized an earliest "orientalizing" class, a class with black figures on a red ground, a class with red figures on a black ground, and (in Lower Italy) a class with picturesque polychrome paintings, which is a development from the class with red figures. This classification still holds, though earlier classes than " orientalizing " vases are now known, and Gerhard's views have been modified in important details. The Greek origin of Ger- hard's first three classes was proved in 1837, by Gustav Kramer, who ascribed most of the " orientalizing " vases to the Corinthians and the others to Athens. In 1854 Otto Jahn ascribed the picturesque polychrome vases to Lower Italy and determined the chronology of the classes as well as was possible at that time. Vase paintings are small works of industrial art, and in them the progress of painting can be traced, to be sure, but the appear- ance of real paintings can be imagined with their aid only as that 1 The others were Bunsen, Kestner, Carlo Fea, and Thorwaldsen. The Institute was founded under the protectorate of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia, on Winckelmann's birthday, December 9, 1828, and held its first open meeting on the traditional anniversary of the founding of Rome, April 21, 1829. 22 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY of modern paintings might be imagined without other aid than that of woodcuts. The discovery, in 1831, in the casa del fauna at Pompeii, of the superb mosaic that represents the victory of Alexander over Darius, made a great Greek historical painting known in a completely colored and carefully executed ancient re- production. This mosaic supplemented in a most welcome manner the paintings on the walls of Etruscan tombs, the designs on vases, and the pictures that adorned the houses of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The knowledge of Greek painting was further increased in 1844, when Alessandro Francois discovered the famous " Fran- cois vase" in a grave near Chiusi; in 1848, when pictures repre- senting the adventures of Odysseus were discovered in a house on the Esquiline in Rome ; and in 1857, when Francois and Noel des Vergers discovered at Vulci the grotta Francois, the walls of which are decorated with parallel scenes of Greek and Etruscan legend. Pompeii, and more especially Herculaneum, had made known the excellence of late Greek handicraft in the manufacture of household utensils and the like, especially of bronze pieces ; the Etruscan graves had delivered up countless specimens of the Greek potters' handicraft; and in 1836, in a tomb near Cervetri, called the Regulini-Galassi tomb, from the names of its discov- erers, a rich treasure of early metal work in bronze, silver, and gold was brought to light, which was for a long time the chief source of knowledge concerning early work of that kind and was generally believed to exemplify the art of the Homeric period, until Schliemann's discoveries brought new knowledge and new theories. In southern Russia, especially the Crimea, great quantities of gold ornaments were found in graves of native rulers. The first discovery was made in 1830 at Kul Oba, the richest in 1862-1863 at Nicopolis. The numerous Attic vases found in the Crimea show active trade relations with Athens, and it becomes virtually certain that many of the objects of gold are Attic work. They are now the chief pride of the Department of Antiquities in the Museum of the Hermitage at St. Petersburg. INTRODUCTION 23 The condition of Greek Archaeology about the year 1870 was, then, as follows : The chief temples of Greece, southern Italy, and Sicily, and some of those of Asia Minor, had Condition in been studied with greater or less care, and measured l8 7 drawings of them had been published. Archaic Greek sculpture was known through the Apollo of Tenea, the statues from near Miletus, the metopes from Selinus, the pediment groups from Aegina, and a few other works ; the great period of the fifth cen- tury was represented by the Elgin Marbles, the frieze from Bassae, and the Lycian Marbles in the British Museum ; and the sculp- tures of the Mausoleum and the temple of Artemis at Ephesus were the chief original works of the fourth century known. More- over, through the descriptions by ancient writers, and by compari- son with the known and accessible original works, many Roman copies of Greek statues had been identified, among them the Discobolus and the Marsyas of Myron, the Doryphorus and the Diadumenus (in 1871) of Polyclitus, the Apoxyomenus of Lysippus (but see page 269 f.), and the group of Harmodius and Aristogiton by Critius and Nesiotes. The use of color in Greek architecture and sculpture was more or less generally acknowledged. The im- portance of Greek vases and vase paintings was clearly recognized, and their chronology was in part already determined. Something was known, through vase paintings, the paintings of Etruscan tombs, the decorations of houses at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and the great mosaic from Pompeii, of Greek painting and its development. The study of coins and gems had never entirely ceased since the time of the Renaissance, though there had been additions of material rather than any notable advance of knowl- edge in recent years. Much progress had been made in the in- terpretation of the meaning of ancient works of art, especially of vase paintings. Important discoveries in the interior of Asia Minor, in Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, and other regions had brought forward and, in a few cases perhaps, answered questions concern- ing the relations of Greek art to the art of other countries. The Istituto di corrispondenza archeologica t which had been founded 24 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY as an international undertaking, was now almost entirely German, though scholars of other nations, especially Italians, took part in its meetings. In the publications of the Istituto, Annali, Bul- lettino, and Monumenti, many monuments of ancient art were published and discussed. The study of archaeology was encour- aged and supported by the Ecole franc,aise at Athens by the French Academic ties Inscriptions in Paris, the Academies of Sciences in the various states of Germany, the Society of Dilet- tanti in England, and other less distinguished literary and scien- tific bodies. The great museums, such as the British Museum, the Louvre, the Hermitage, the museums at Berlin, Vienna, and Dresden, not to speak of the old Italian collections, made the study of ancient art possible and more or less convenient, while their curators and other officers had exceptional opportunities for productive study. Good catalogues of many collections had already been made. In Germany systematic instruction in archaeology was given in most, if not all, universities, usually supplemented by collections of casts, vases, and other illustrative material. Except in Germany systematic instruction was hardly to be found, and even there, archaeology was regarded as a handmaid of philology. In the last three decades of the nineteenth century great changes took place. Before 1870, many excavations had been Changes carried on, but as yet almost always with the purpose since 1870 of studying some particular building or of obtaining portable objects for some museum. Hardly anywhere except at Pompeii, and there only imperfectly, had the attempt been made to bring to light systematically an ancient city or a large group of related buildings. Since 1870 many excavations have been under- taken with a view to laying bare whole sites great sanctuaries, such as Olympia and Delphi, or cities, such as Ephesus and Mile- tus though smaller excavations have been both numerous and productive. In 1870 virtually nothing was known of the great and brilliant civilization which existed in Greece and the neigh- boring regions before the "Dorian Invasion," but since 1871 the knowledge of that Prehellenic civilization has increased almost INTRODUCTION 25 daily. In 1870 Greek art and Greek life between the time of Alexander the Great and that of Augustus were little known (though in that very year Brunn recognized the copies of figures from the gift of Attalus to Athens), and this period also has since that time been made familiar by the work of the excavator. Moreover, such works of sculpture as the pediment figures and the Hermes of Olympia, the bronze charioteer of Delphi, and the archaic reliefs and figures found on the Acropolis at Athens, to mention only a few, and such buildings as the Heraeum at Olym- pia and the Tholos at Epidaurus have given a new precision and a new breadth to the study of classical Greek sculpture and architecture, while the chronology of Greek vases, and with them that of Greek painting, has been revolutionized. The study of Greek terracotta figurines begins with the first discoveries at Tanagra in 1870. The great undertakings of the last few decades have been aided by political events, by the general increase in wealth, and the greater ease and rapidity of travel, but also by changes and progress in the organization of archaeological work. The Isti- tuto di corrispondenza archeologica, after having been _ since 1871 a Prussian institution, became in 1874 the of archaeo- Kaiserlich deutsches archaologisches Institut, when lo g ical work the German Institute at Athens was founded. Since its reorgani- zation in 1885, the Institut is managed by a central board in Berlin, while the branches at Athens and Rome are directed each by its own Secretary. The Archaeological Institute of America was founded in 1879, the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, founded under the auspices of the Institute, began its work in 1882, and the American School of Classical Studies in Rome was founded in 1895. In England the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies was founded in 1879, and the British Schools at Athens and at Rome were opened in 1885 and 1900 respectively. France had a school at Athens (1846) and founded one at Rome in 1874. The Austrian Archaeological Institute, created in 1898, with headquarters in Vienna, established 26 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY an Athenian branch, similar in some respects to that of the German Institute. In Italy the Accademia del Lincei encourages and sup- ports archaeological investigations, and in France the publica- tion of works of ancient art is aided by the Fondation Plot. In France, England, and the United States systematic instruction in archaeology is now given at the great universities. Everywhere old museums have been reorganized and enlarged and new ones founded. Among the new foundations the museums at Athens, Olympia, and Delphi, the Metropolitan Museum in New York, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople, and the Glyptothek Ny-Carlsberg at Copen- hagen are most important. Perhaps no single agency has done more to facilitate archaeo- logical work in the field, the publication of new discoveries, the intensive study of monuments already known, and the giving of Photoe- systematic instruction than the development of pho- raphy tography and the allied methods of accurate and inexpensive reproduction. By the aid of photography the archae- ologist of to-day commands a more accurate acquaintance with the entire field than was attainable without its aid when the entire field was vastly less extensive than it now is. So numerous and so great have been the excavations, so rapid the advance of knowledge, so many the new problems (some of them still unsolved) which have changed, enriched, and in- vigorated Greek archaeology since 1870, that anything more than a brief statement of the leading facts would be impossible within the limits of this chapter. The first excavation of an entire series of buildings was in 1873 and 1875, when two Austrian expeditions under the direction of Alexander Conze excavated the sanctuary of the Cabiri at Samothrace. The forms and arrangement of the edifices here brought to light disclosed characteristic fea- tures of Hellenistic architectural design, which had previously been known only through Pompeian paintings. An incidental gain was the discovery of the base of the great statue of Nike (which INTRODUCTION 27 had been in the Louvre since 1863), with the result that Benn- dorf was led to recognize on coins of Demetrius Poliorcetes a reproduction of the statue and thereby to determine its date. The results of these excavations were published in the first great archaeological work in which photographs are included. Twenty years passed before a second great excavation of a Greek site was conducted under Austrian leadership, though Austrian archaeologists were active in other fields, and in 1882 an expedition to Lycia and Caria under Benndorf, Niemann, and Petersen se- cured for the Imperial Museum at Vienna the reliefs of Gjolbaschi (Trysa), which exhibit so clearly the spread of Attic art and the influence of painting upon decorative sculpture. In 1895 the Austrian excavations at Ephesus began, to be con- tinued for ten years. The remains of the great Hel- lenistic and Roman city were laid bare, the general topography and history of the place were carefully studied, and many interest- ing discoveries were made, among them that of a beautiful bronze statue. The inscriptions found here are of great historical in- terest, and various previously unknown facts concerning archi- tecture and the arrangement of buildings in Hellenistic and Roman times were established. Far more ambitious than the work at Samothrace was the excavation of Olympia by the German Empire in 1875-1880. The moving spirit of this great undertaking was Ernst Curtius, but in the work itself and in its publi- cation many others took part, among them Adler, Dorpfeld, Furtwangler, Hirschfeld, and Treu. The entire Altis or sacred precinct and the adjacent buildings were laid bare, and the imme- diate surroundings were carefully investigated. In the small bronzes, terracottas, vases, sculptures, and buildings, the art of all periods from the " Dorian Invasion " to Byzantine times can be traced. The Heraeum threw unexpected light upon the early stages of the Doric style, the sculptures of the temple of Zeus and the Nike of Paeonius offered new information and new problems concerning the sculpture of the fifth century, and in the Hermes 28 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY of Praxiteles an original work of one of the greatest of Greek sculptors was restored to the world. These are only some of the most striking results of the first systematic excavation of a really extensive and important centre of Greek life. In 1878, while the work at Olympia was in progress, excavations were begun by the Berlin Museum at Pergamon, where Karl Hu- mann had discovered traces of the great altar. The object of the work was primarily to enrich the Museum, an object which was completely accomplished by the transportation to Berlin of the sculptures of the great altar and many other works ; but in the course of the excavations, from 1878 to 1886, the entire citadel and some adjacent parts of the city were laid bare. In 1900 the excavations were resumed and are still unfinished, their present object being to gain as much knowledge as possible of the great and splendid city. Besides the great altar, the temples, and other buildings on the acropolis, porticoes, gateways, gymna- sia, a theatre, an amphitheatre, houses, tombs, and waterworks have been excavated and investigated. Many works of sculpture have been found, and here, as at nearly all the extensive sites excavated in recent years, great numbers of inscriptions have come to light. No other single site has added so much to our knowledge of Hel- lenistic civilization. Several other great excavations have been carried on by Ger- mans, in addition to many lesser works. In 1887 and 1888, at the Other Ger- sanctuary of the Cabiri, in Boeotia, an entirely new man excava- variety of painted vases was found, and new light was thrown upon a little known cult. In 1890 Hiller von Gaertringen excavated in the theatre at Magnesia on the Meander, and this led (1891-1893) to extensive and systematic excavation of the city by the Berlin Museum. The city of Priene was also excavated by the Berlin Museum (1805-1899), with the result that the plan and architecture of a Hellenistic city were more com- pletely brought to light than ever before. In 1899 the Museum undertook the even greater task of excavating the remains of the great city of Miletus, a task which is not yet (1909) completed. INTRODUCTION 29 Here, as at Ephesus, Magnesia, Priene, and Pergamon, the ex- cavations have revealed chiefly the city of late periods, with but few remains of early Ionic art. Other important German excavations are those at Thera (1896-1901), carried on at his own expense by Hiller von Gaertringen, which furnished new and valuable in- formation concerning nearly all periods of Greek civilization, and those at the sanctuary of Asclepius at Cos, under the leadership of R. Herzog. The important excavations carried on at Athens near the northwest foot of the Acropolis, which laid bare an interesting quarter of the ancient city and made clear the Athenian system of water supply, were conducted by W. Dorpfeld, head of the German Institute at Athens, and many less extensive excavations in and near Athens are also the work of the German Institute. The Bavarian excavations carried on by A. Furtwangler at Aegina have led to a more complete understanding of the famous sculptures of the temple, as well as to new views of the development of pedimental composition. The first excavations undertaken with the intention of laying bare and studying an entire ancient city were those of the Archae- ological Institute of America at Assos (1881-1883). American The archaic temple on the acropolis was for the first excavations, time accurately measured, the much later city walls, Assos market buildings, baths, and other structures were excavated, photographed, and drawn. Unfortunately an adequate publication has been long delayed, and is only now in process of" comple- tion by F. H. Bacon. In 1892 and 1893 the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, aided by the Archaeological Institute of America, exca- vated at the Argive Heraeum. The continuous occu- Tne Ar ive pation of this site from the earliest prehistoric epoch Heraeum. to Byzantine times makes it peculiarly interesting. Cormth The scanty vestiges of the early temple, the more satisfac- tory, though still incomplete, remains of the temple of the fifth century, with important fragments of its sculptures, and the foundations and other existing portions of several buildings per- 30 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY taining to the famous sanctuary were uncovered and carefully studied. Many more or less primitive bronze fibulae, pins, and the like, fragments of pottery, and primitive terracottas added new material for the study of early ages in Greece. The second ex- tensive work of excavation undertaken by the American School at Athens is at Corinth, where active work has been carried on nearly every spring and summer since 1896. Important results have been achieved in determining topographical points and the levels of different strata of occupation ; the peculiarly interest- ing ancient system of water supply has been in part made clear, and some interesting architectural novelties have come to light. Smaller excavations have been carried on by the School at Plataea, Icaria, Thoricus, Sicyon, Eretria, Sparta, Oeniadae, and the Cave of Vari, all with results of more or less importance. At Delos, the sacred birthplace of Apollo and Artemis, the centre of the Delian Confederacy, and at one time the chief com- mercial port of the Aegean, excavations were begun in 1877 by the French School at Athens and con- tinued at intervals until 1894. Since 1902 they are again in progress, and are now more systematically conducted. Already the temple of Apollo and many other buildings, including ware- houses, temples, places of meeting, and many houses of Hel- lenistic and Roman times, have been excavated, and many important works of art have been found. Among these are the primitive statue dedicated byNicandra, the Nike of Archermus(P), several draped figures of the Chian school, an admirable copy of the Diadumenus of Polyclitus, several mosaics, and numerous coins. At Delphi, as at Olympia, the excavators were guided in their work and aided in the interpretation of their discoveries by the detailed description of Pausanias. Between 1893 and 1901 the French excavators cleared the entire sacred precinct of the Pythian Apollo, as well as some neighboring territory. They made known the bronze charioteer, the Agias of Lysippus, the treasuries or communal houses of INTRODUCTION 31 the Athenians, Cnidians, and Siphnians, with their important sculptures, and many other buildings and monuments that were grouped about the temple ; and the temple itself is now known to have been rebuilt in the fourth century B.C. Lesser French excavations were carried on in 1885 and 1886 at the temple of Apollo Ptoi'os, in Boeotia, where a series of archaic nude male figures came to light; in 1887 and 1888 at Mantinea, where reliefs attributed to Praxiteles were found ; and twice at Tegea, where in 1888 and 1889 the agora and other parts of the town were located, and in 1900 and 1901 fragments of the sculptures of the temple of Athena Alea were added to those discovered by a peasant in 1880. The Greek Archaeological Society, which in its earlier years had almost entirely refrained from general activity in the field, was remarkably active in the last quarter of the The Q reek nineteenth century. In 1876 the sanctuary of Ascle- Archaeologi- pius at Athens was excavated, and in 1881 the ~ al .?" ety ' excavation of the great sanctuary of the same god Eleusis, at Epidaurus was begun. The work has not been con- Athens > etc - tinuous, and is not yet entirely completed, but important results have been attained. One of the greatest Greek sanctuaries of the fourth century B.C. and the succeeding periods a sanctuary which was at the same time a fashionable health resort has been made known, many important works of sculpture have been found, and interesting architectural features have helped to make Epidaurus one of the most important sites in Greece. At Eleusis excavations carried on from 1882 to 1890 laid bare the famous sanctuary with its enigmatical Hall of the Mysteries, its temples, and its propylaea; at the far less famous, though still important, sanctuary of Atnphiaraus, near Oropus, excavations were carried on in 1884, 1886, 1887, and 1906; the excavation of the temple of Despoena, at Lycosoura, where fragments of the statues by Damophon were found, took place in 1889, and for three years (1897-1899) work was carried on at Thermus, in Aetolia, where an ancient temple, which once had painted metopes 32 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY and was divided by a single row of columns in the interior, was discovered. The Society has also carried on many smaller exca- vations, and cares for the preservation of ancient monuments. But its most important achievement was the complete excavation of the Acropolis at Athens (1885-1891). This resulted in the discovery of the ancient temple beside the Erechtheum, of re- mains of a prehistoric palace, of the hidden approaches to the citadel, of remains of several temples, and of many works of sculp- ture, which made Greek art, especially Attic art, of the sixth century known for the first time. Moreover, the numerous frag- ments of pottery found in the debris which was used as filling material after the departure of the Persians in 479 B.C., are mani- festly earlier than the Persian invasion, and since among these are many fragments of red-figured ware, the date of such ware, and consequently of the black-figured vases which preceded it, was seen to be much earlier than had previously been supposed. The history of Greek vase painting, and therefore of Greek painting in general, was thus put on a new chronological basis. The excavations at Megalopolis (1890-1891) and at Sparta (begun in 1906), by the British School at Athens, and the Danish Megalopolis, excavations at Lindus, in Rhodes (1902-1904), should Lindus also be mentioned among the important works of large scope which have contributed to make not only the art, but the life of the ancient Greeks familiar and comprehensible as never before since the end of the ancient civilization. It would be impossible within the limits of this chapter to enumerate all the monuments of Greek sculpture which have been discovered since 1870. Some have already been mentioned in connection with various excavations, but two detached discoveries should at any rate not be omitted, even in a rapid summary : the Sidon Ceri- superb sarcophagi found at Sidon in 1887 (see page gotto 274) and the remains of the cargo of a ship which was sunk in ancient times off Cerigotto (Anticythera), not far from Cythera. The ship contained numerous works of sculpture, some of which were found in 1900. All were much injured by long INTRODUCTION 33 continued action of salt water, but a fine bronze statue (page 267) has been successfully restored. The discoveries mentioned up to this point have made the arrangement of Greek cities, especially in Hellenistic times, and of Greek sanctuaries known; they have at the same time added greatly to our knowledge of Greek architecture, not Ar h .. only in the classical period, but also before and after and sculp- that time, thus making a history of its development ture possible. The numerous works of sculpture unearthed have greatly increased the material available for study, not only by the addition of virtually new classes, such as the works of the sixth century and of the Pergamene school, but also by the increase in the number of works of all periods. It has thus become possible to distinguish with some degree of accuracy the individuality of certain sculptors, such as Phidias, Polyclitus, Scopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippus, and even to trace their development. History and topography have gained greatly, especially by reason of the in- scriptions discovered, and vast numbers of lesser objects, such as bronzes, terracottas, and pottery, have helped to complete the record of Greek civilization. So far as architecture and sculp- ture are concerned, the chief elements of the progress made since 1870 have been mentioned. In the same period the knowledge of Greek painting has also advanced. In 1870 Conze, who had published the first examples of "Melian" vases in 1862, added the geometric Painting and style to the classes of vases previously established, and vases the discovery of the Dipylon vases in 1871 made the most strik- ing features of a style that preceded that of the Corinthian vases familiar. In 1879, by the publication of Klein's Euphronios, the first important and systematic attempt to differentiate from his fellow-workers one of the most gifted of Attic vase painters and to establish his position in the history of painting, the study of vase painting entered upon a new stage. In 1882 Robert rec- ognized in an important class of vase paintings the influence ot Polygnotus, thereby making the close connection between the GREEK ARCH. 3 34 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY humble art of the vase painter and the great art of the fifth cen- tury clear beyond question. The discovery of the Clazomenian sarcophagi in 1883, followed by that of interesting and evidently non-Attic vases at Naukratis (1884-1886) and Daphnae (1888) in Egypt, made the influence of Ionic art upon that of all Greece evident and led to new views concerning the development of design and the use of colors in early times. Boehlau's investiga- tions (1894) in the cemeteries of Samos added precision to the knowledge of Ionic art and designated Miletus as the centre of manufacture of vases previously regarded as Rhodian or assigned to other places. The excavation of the Acropolis at Athens (1885-1891) fixed the chronology of Attic vases. Thus the foundation has been laid for accurate knowledge of the develop- ment of vase painting and with it of monumental painting in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., and painted stelae, especially those found in 1907 at Pagasae, reflect the great art of the third and second centuries. The late paintings, at Pompeii and elsewhere, have also been assigned to their proper historical place since Helbig, in 1873, proved that their origin is Hellenistic. In 1878 the discovery of a villa in the Farnesina, at Rome, the walls of which were adorned with a great number of frescoes, added a most valuable series to the works of this class previously known. In spite of the fact that the works of the great Greek painters are all lost, the history of Greek painting can now be sketched from the sixth century to Roman times. Although Greek terracottas of various kinds have long been known, they awakened little interest until 1870, when the first discoveries of exquisite figurines were made atTanagra. More or less systematic excavations carried on there, especially from 1870 to 1874, brought to light great numbers of statuettes, chiefly delightful little works of the fourth century, though earlier figurines were fairly numerous. At about the same time figurines from Asia Minor began to appear, and in the necropolis of Myrina (1880-1881) E. Pottier and S. Reinach brought them to light in great numbers. Great general similarity INTRODUCTION 35 and at the same time marked differences between the figurines from Myrina and those from Tanagra were at once observed. Terracottas from many sites, especially Cyprus, Rhodes, the Cyre- naica, Sicily, and southern Russia, were already known, and their number was increased by discoveries at many places, among them Athens, Eretria, and Priene. The German Archaeological Insti- tute planned a great publication of this material, under the direc- tion of R. Kekule v. Stradonitz. In 1880 and 1884 terracottas from Sicily and Pompeii were published by Kekule and Von Rohden respectively, and in 1903 appeared, in two folio volumes, a catalogue of types (Typenkatalog) by F. Winter, in which several thousand illustrations exhibit the endless variety of Greek terracotta figurines, their local differences, and their historical development. Prehellenic Greece was first made known to the modern world by Heinrich Schliemann, a remarkable man, who, though without systematic training or scientific aptitudes, became, .... . . Heinrich through his boundless enthusiasm, persistent energy, sehiiemann. and marvellous intuition, the founder of a new branch Prehellenic of science. His first great undertaking was the exca- vation of the Homeric Troy, at Hissarlik, begun in 1870, and re- sumed at various times, the last time with the assistance of W. Dorpfeld, in 1890. After Schliemann's death, in 1890, Dorp- feld excavated at Hissarlik in 1893 and 1894. The results of the work at this site are published in Troja und Ilion (Athens, 1902), by W. Dorpfeld. In 1880 Schliemann excavated the beehive tomb at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, and in 1 884 came his excavations at Mycenae and Tiryns. At both of these sites his work was after- wards supplemented by that of others. Of his less important ex- cavations it is needless to speak. Schliemann made his discoveries known by prompt, but unscientific publications, the chtef contents of which were collected (in 1890) in one volume, Schliemann's Excavations, by Carl Schuchhardt (translated by Eugenie Sellers). In 1877 ar >d 1880 Prehellenic tombs were discovered at Spata and Menidi, in Attica; in 1888 the tomb at Vaphio, in Laconia, 36 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY yielded the famous gold cups ; in 1884 Italian scholars investigated the grotto of Zeus on Mt. Ida, in Crete ; since 1900 Dr. Arthur Evans has been carrying on his excavation of the vast palace and its de- pendencies, including tombs, at Cnossus, while Italian excavations at Phaestus, the excavations of the British School at Palaikastro, those of Miss Boyd (Mrs. Hawes) at Gournia and its neighborhood, and of Mr. Seager at Pseira and Mochlos, with other investigations of lesser scope, have contributed to make it evident that Crete was for centuries the chief seat of a brilliant Prehellenic civiliza- tion. Meanwhile the excavations carried on (1896-1899) at Phylakopi, in Melos, by the British School at Athens, the investiga- tions of Tsountas and others in other islands of the Aegean, and the discovery of tombs and other remains not only in the Argolid, but in Thessaly, Boeotia, and elsewhere, have made it possible to trace the development of civilization in Greek lands from the neolithic period to the so-called Dorian Invasion. The results of these discoveries are summarily treated in the chapter on Prehellenic Greece. The work of excavation and discovery has been accompanied and supplemented by that of publication, classification, and dis- cussion. Each great excavation has been, or is to be, Publications , ., , , . . , , v . , ., followed by an exhaustive special publication, and the relations of newly discovered monuments to those previously known are discussed in many books, monographs, and articles in periodi- cals. The museums publish catalogues, often illustrated, which are monuments of learning as well as of industry. Under the auspices of the German Institute and other organizations, great collections of special classes of monuments have been published or are in preparation, such as the Attische Grabreliefs (Conze) and the Romische Sarkophagreliefs (Robert). S. Reinach has brought together in handy volumes the contents of earlier expensive publica- tions, with additions from various sources, in his Repertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine and his Repertoire des vases peints grecs etetrusques. The Denkmaler griechischer und romischer Sculptur, published by the F. Bruckmann Company, in Munich, and other INTRODUCTION 37 great collections of photographic prints make the study of ancient monuments possible even to those who have not constant access to great museums. Thus the material at the command of the archae- ologist is multiplied. The Histoire de I'art dans rantiquite, by Perrot and Chipiez is a work of groat learning, industry, and insight, in which the attempt is made to bring together and discuss virtually all the important material known. In the earlier volumes the art of Egypt, Chaldaea, Assyria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Palestine, Sardinia, and the various parts of Asia Minor are treated, and Volumes VI, VII, and VIII are devoted to Greek art before its great develop- ment in the fifth century. With such means at its disposal original monuments, collec- tions of photographs, general and special publications Greek archaeology has become an organized science, taking its place beside philology and the study of Greek literature as an equally important element in the reconstruction of Greek antiquity, and beside the study of the art of the Renaissance as an equally im- portant division of the study of the history of art. In its main lines the development of Greek art is now known. It remains to determine more exactly the relations between the art of different centres, the personal qualities of individual artists, their influence upon their contemporaries and successors, and the successive stages in the development of each master. Some work in this direction has already been attempted, notably by Furt- wangler, in his Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture, but as yet only a beginning has been made, and many corrections and additions are needed. There is still important work to be done, in spite of the vast and rapid progress of the last few decades. 81190 PREHELLENIC GREECE GREEK art begins its rapid and wonderful development hardly earlier than 700 B.C. From about that time continuous and, on the whole, steady progress may be traced, and the rude works of the seventh century already show something of the qualities which distinguish Greek art from that of other peoples. But the art which can thus be traced from the seventh century onward is not the earliest art known on Greek soil. For many centuries before the so-called Dorian Invasion continental Greece and the Greek islands were inhabited, and many monuments of the early inhabitants remain. Whether the Prehellenic inhabit- ants of Greece, the islands, and the coasts of Asia Minor were at any time all of one race or related races, we do not Early inhab- itants of know ; but that at one time there was an important Greece civilization which extended over nearly the whole of this region is certain. When fresh and vigorous tribes came in to take possession of the soil, the previous inhabitants cannot have been utterly exterminated, neither can they all have emigrated. Most of them doubtless remained in their old homes as slaves, subjects, fellow-citizens, or allies of the conquerors. As in most other cases, so probably in the case of Greece, the conquering tribes were less numerous than the conquered people. Thus the Prehellenic inhabitants of Greece became in great measure the ancestors of the Hellenes, whether they were originally of kindred race with the invaders or not. The remains of their art are therefore of interest to the student of Greek archaeology. But their art throughout its long and varied development is different from Greek art, and there is a period of several centuries between 38 PREHELLENIC GREECE 39 the overthrow of the latest Prehellenic civilization and the earliest recognizable works of Greek art; the Prehellenic period, or periods, must therefore be treated briefly in a book on Greek archaeology. No remains of the palaeolithic age the period when men had not yet learned to grind or polish their stone implements have as yet been found on Greek soil. Of the neolithic period, how- ever, some monuments are known, and further discoveries will doubtless bring others to light. This is the period when the use of metals was as yet unknown, but when stone implements were ground and polished, not merely chipped. Of course some kinds of stone, notably obsidian, are never ground, because they acquire a sharper edge by being chipped or broken. The neo _ The stone age in Greece was shorter than in northern lithicage and western Europe, perhaps because Greece was so near the early civilization of Babylonia and Egypt. The lowest stratum at Troy probably belongs to the neolithic age ; at Dimini, Sesklo, and other places in Thessaly, were important neolithic settlements ; at Cnossus and other sites in Crete neolithic remains are extensive, and at various other places minor discoveries of neolithic objects have been made. In general the neolithic remains consist of stone and bone implements and rude pottery. This last is made of imperfectly worked clay, is shaped by hand without the use of the potter's wheel, is decorated, if at all, with lines incised in the soft clay, and is fired in an open fire, not in a potter's oven. At Cnossus and in Thessaly the use of color for the decoration appears before the use of metal tools. Undoubtedly the stone age lasted longer in some places than in others, and the use of metal tools does not always mark exactly the same stage of civili- zation. Various terms are used by different writers to designate the various civilizations which existed in the centuries between the neolithic age and the beginnings of Hellenic culture. By some everything in Greece and the Greek islands earlier than the Dorian Invasion has been called " Mycenaean " ; but this ex- 40 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY tended use of the word is now becoming rare. The terra " Aegean " is sometimes used as the equivalent of " Myce- naean " in this sense. At present the term " Mycenaean " is applied especially to the comparatively late period when Mycenae was at the height of her power and the greatness of _Cjiosias_ was already old. Everything before this time is often ' called " Premycenaean," but here also various divisions are made, corresponding with differences in culture. The term " Proto- Nomencla- mycenaean " is applied to pottery and other objects, ture the decoration of which leads up directly to that of objects classed as " Mycenaean," and the term " Early Mycenaean " is used in a similar sense. " Cycladic " is a term applied to a limited series of rather primitive objects found in the Cyclades, and to the civilization that produced them. The word " Amor- gan " was formerly used, because Amorgos furnished many of these objects, but " Cycladic " is preferable. The island of Crete was evidently for centuries the seat of a powerful civilization which is connected by tradition with the name of King Minos. Hence the word " Minoan " is used to designate the civilization of Crete before and during the " Mycenaean " epoch ; it should not be employed where no reference to Crete is intended. Even more limited is the term " Kamares " (Kamarais), applied prima- rily to a kind of Premycenaean pottery first found in a cave on Mt. Ida in Crete, and secondarily to the civilization of the people by whom the pottery was produced. Objects produced in the pe- riod immediately after the Mycenaean age, and showing qualities of Mycenaean art, are sometimes called " Submycenaean," and the term " Predorian " is sometimes used to designate all that pre- cedes the " Dorian Invasion." This last term may properly be used only in reference to those regions which were afterwards occupied by the Dorians. Of the terms here defined, only " Aegean " and " Mycenaean," with " Premycenaean," " Protomy- cenaean," and " Submycenaean," can properly be applied to all parts of the Greek world. The application of the other terms is limited in space as well as time. PREHELLENIC GREECE 41 The different phases and degrees, as well as the different dates of civilization in Prehellenic Greece, may be distinguished and studied in various kinds or classes of* existing remains : Existing city walls, house walls, and foundations ; tombs, weap- remains ons, utensils and ornaments of stone, metal, ivory, bone, and glass ; sculptures, frescoes, and pottery ; but the most important of all is the pottery. This is found in all cemeteries and inhabited sites, and occurs in such numerous specimens that it serves as a fairly sure indication of the degree of civilization of the people who made it, especially when it is considered in connection with the tombs, walls, and other remains among which it is found. It is therefore chiefly by differences in their pottery that the dif- ferent periods of early civilization are most clearly marked. The most primitive pottery of the Troad is handmade and black. The shapes are usually round and full, sometimes nearly spherical. Often the human face or form is rudely imitated, and imitations of animals also occur. The decoration is usually in- primitive cised, often added in relief. Pottery resembling that pottery of the Troad is found also in Cyprus. Painted pottery does not seem to have been produced at Troy until a comparatively late period, and then only in imitation of imported Mycenaean ware. At various places in continental Greece, as at Athens, Tiryns, and Orchomenus, primitive handmade pottery has been found, which evidently belongs to a very early period. Ware similar to this occurs in the Cyclades, from Thera at the south to Tenos at the north, and in these islands the pottery is found in graves and among the ruins of settlements. These remains evidently belong to different periods, and the pottery develops from primitive rudeness to a high degree of excellence before the native manu- facture of the islanders yields to imported Mycenaean ware. At no single place can this development be more easily traced than at Phylakopi, the site of an ancient town on the island Phylakopi of Melos, excavated by the British School at Athens in 1896, and. the following years. The site was evidently occu- pied by several successive settlements, and the occurrence of 42 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY pottery in the different strata formed by the remains of these settlements makes it possible to study the changes in the vases and their decoration and to connect each kind of pottery with the proper stage of culture as exhibited by the other remains. At Phylakopi the earliest stratum shows fragments of primitive, un- painted, handmade ware, decorated, if at all, with incised straight lines, but it shows no traces of walls. The people of this earliest period lived, then, in huts which have left no trace. Above these slight remains was built the first of three successive cities. This first city has left remains of straight-walled houses, containing one, two, and more rooms. The walls of the houses were of stone, plastered inside. A manufactory of obsidian implements was found in connection with the remains of this city. The pottery is still handmade, and its decoration is often incised, but the pat- terns are more advanced, and painted decoration is introduced. The color is sometimes dull (mattmalerei) and sometimes glazed (jirnissmalerei). Neither stone implements nor metal tools were found in this stratum. The first city was unfortified. In the second city the house walls were of stone, like those of the first city, but better built, and the inner walls were sometimes deco- rated with paintings. Lead and bronze were in use by the inhabit- ants of the second city. The pottery is no longer exclusively handmade ; curvilinear decoration, already introduced in the first city, almost drives out the decoration with straight lines ; incised decoration disappears, and naturalistic painted designs are intro- duced. This city was surrounded with a strong fortification. The third city continued for a time to produce pottery like that found in the second, but much pottery of Mycenaean style began to be imported. The importance of the place was evidently declining, perhaps with the decline of the demand for obsidian implements, the only important objects of export which Melos could produce. Phylakopi shows a development from the rudest handmade pot- tery with rectilinear incised decoration through successive stages to carefully made vases turned on the wheel and decorated with naturalistic painted designs. PREHELLENIC GREECE 43 Various stages of this development are represented, with local differences, by objects found at Amorgos, Paros, Antiparos, Syra, and other places in the Cyclades. A few specimens Early island will serve to illustrate the progress of art from the civilization earliest to the latest times of Premycenaean Cycladic civilization. At various places cemeteries have been found which correspond, more or less closely, with the earliest remains and the first city at Phylakopi. The tombs are small cists, made of slabs and small stones, in which the dead were buried in a bent posture. Some of the earliest of these graves were found at Amorgos and Melos, some of the lat- est at Syra. In them were clay vessels, marble vases and idols, obsidian imple- ments, and, in a few instances, objects of bronze. The marble idols range from two or three centimetres to a metre and a half in height, but are usually less than twenty centimetres high. Many of them represent a nude female, though some represent a male, and in others the sex is indeterminate (Fig. i). There are two main types, each with many varia- tions. One type shows the nude per- son, with the head and limbs clearly outlined, the arms laid across the breast. The other type resembles a violin. The head is represented only by a long projection like a neck, while the arms appear as mere swellings, and a similar swelling probably indicates the drapery about the legs. The two types existed side by side, and it is diffi- cult to see how one could have arisen from the other. Apparently these idols were connected with the religious cult of the people who produced them, and although the form of the nude* female idols may possibly be influenced by that of the Babylonian Ishtar, it is at least as probable that no such influence was exerted. Such idols have been found also in Crete and in continental Greece, but FIG. i. Idols from the Cyclades. Athens. (Pho- tograph.) 44 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY not as yet in such numbers as in the Cyclades. The pottery found in these tombs is for the most part rude, and adorned only with incised straight lines. The clay is of various kinds and colors, apparently the local clay of each place. The surface, usually black, is polished by rubbing. Patterns of curved lines, spirals, and circles joined by straight lines are common, but not in the ear- liest graves. A well-developed form of this kind of ornament is found on some curious flat vessels from Syra (Fig. 2). The incised lines are often filled with a white substance. Most of these early vessels are nearly spher- ical in shape, often with a base and a neck, or are flat dishes or cups. Often they have projections at the sides, perforated either horizontally or vertically, doubtless that the ves- sel might be hung up by a string. The marble vessels are not for use, but are imitations of clay vessels. This is evident from the fact that they are only partially hollow. These marble vessels show no traces of painting, though painted geometrical decoration is found on some ware of the period to which they belong. Pottery similar to this early ware from the Cyclades, but differing from it in some respects, has been found in Crete, and the early pottery of Cyprus shows a parallel development. Ware found in the second settlement at Troy and in Sicily shows that the early civilization of a great part of the coast region of the eastern Mediterranean possessed the same general character. Even in the early stages of civilization which produced the ob- jects just described, different places show more or less independent Local differ- development. In the following period the local dif- ences ferences are greater and more important. At this time cities were fortified with walls, rough and poorly built at first, FlG. 2. Flat vessel from Syra. Athens. (Photograph.) PREHELLENIC GREECE 45 but more carefully constructed of hewn stone as time went on. Whether the stones were polygonal or rectangular depended in great measure upon their hardness and natural cleavage. At this time, and throughout the Prehellenic ages, the stones were laid in clay mortar, or mud, and in the early part of the period, at least, small stones were stuck into the interstices between the large blocks (Fig. 1 6). At Cnossus, in Crete, there was little or no fortification, for even at this time the inhabitants seem to have believed themselves safe from attack on account of their naval supremacy. Crete was, for a period of several centuries, which includes part of the My- cenaean Age, the chief centre of civilization in the Aegean region. FIG. 3. Stucco relief from Cnossus. Candia. (B.S.A., Vol. VII, p. 17.) At Cnossus important settlements existed from the neolithic period, and in later times Cnossus and Phaestus were the sites of great palaces, which reached the height of their splendor in the times of the second and third cities at Cnossus 4 6 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY FlG. 4. Painting from Cnossus. Can- dia. (B.S.A., Vol. VI I, p. 57.) Phylakopi. The walls of these vast structures were decorated with paintings and stucco reliefs, many fragments of which have been found, especially at Cnos- sus. The subjects represented cannot in all cases be deter- mined, but among them are processions, groups of men and women, and combats of men, and also of women, with bulls. The style is naturalistic and the execution admirable. The frag- ment of a stucco relief repro- duced in Figure 3 represents the arm and part of the body of a man, and may serve to give some idea of Cretan decora- tive art. In date this and some of the other works of art mentioned above may not be earlier than ) some of those to be described ^^ hereafter as products of My- 2| cenaean art, but it is now evi- A . dent that Mycenaean art was VflT // in great measure derived from ^Bftx"' Crete, where art developed earlier than on the Greek mainland. Perhaps even later than the stucco relief is the painting of a girl (Fig. 4). Some of the Cretan clay fig- urines are also interesting and instructive. An early type is FlG . 6 . - Snake- FlG. 5. Painted terra- Seen in Figure 5 (from Petsofa), goddess from cotta from Petsofa. h y tfa fi f fe Cnossus Can- Candia. (B.S.A., Vol. dia. (B.S.A., ix, PI. 8.) goddess, in faience or glazed Vol. ix, p. 75.) PREHELLENIC GREECE 47 terracotta, from Cnossus (Fig. 6) belongs to a time nearer that of the stucco relief, and the faience plaque representing a goat suck- ling her young (Fig. 7) may be even a little later. All these clay figurines were colored. FIG. 7. Terracotta relief from Cnossus. Candia. (B.S.A., Vol. IX, PI. 3.) A peculiar product of Crete, contemporary, roughly speaking, with the second city at Phylakopi, is the so-called Kamares (Kamarais) ware. This is sometimes coarse, some- Kamares times very fine, but is distinguished from other ware ware by its use of red and dull white paint, with some orange and yellow, upon a ground of black (sometimes reddish or purplish) varnish or glaze. The ornament is most often geometrical, but sometimes imitates plants. Many vases are adorned with rings, wavy lines, and knobs in relief, and some are partially covered with irregular lines which look as if made with the finger tips. These vessels are all made on the potter's wheel, except some large, coarse specimens, which are handmade. Some of the usual shapes are small cups, with or without handles; others are higher vases with spouts or beaks (so-called Schnabelkannen) (Figs. 8, 9). Many of these GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY vessels are evident imitations of metal work. So one common kind of cup closely resembles such cups as those found at Vaphio (Fig. 40), even having knobs to represent the rivets that fasten on the handles. FIG. 9. Kamares vase (Schnabel- kanne) from Cnossus. Candia. , Vol. XXI, PI. 6.) FIG. 8. Kamares vase (Schnabel- kanne) from Cnossus. Candia. (/M.S., Vol. XXI, PI. 6.) Almost as soon as vases began to be painted at all in Crete, two systems, that of painting the de- signs in white or light color on a dark ground, and that of using black or dark colors on a light ground, existed side by side. The Kamares ware is a development of the system of painting light on dark. It is decorated in white and colors upon a ground of Cretan black. Other Cretan vases show white decoration on vases a black ground, as, for instance, the vase reproduced in Figure 10, which was found at Cnossus, and belongs to the time when Kamares ware was becoming less popular. The white lilies on this vase are naturalistic, with hardly a trace of conventional- ism in design. After this the fashion prevailed of painting the design in lustrous black upon the buff or reddish clay of the vase as a ground color. Some Cretan vases of this kind are very fine. At Cnossus they are found in the ruins of the greatest period of the palace, and their style has been called by Dr. Evans the "Palace Style." Figure n represents a vase of this style found PREHELLENIC GREECE 49 E > o u X r GREEK ARCH. 4 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY not at Cnossus, but at Mycenae. As time went on the pottery of Crete and that of Mycenae and other places on the mainland became practically identical in decoration, though local varieties may still be traced. Kamares ware was apparently made in Crete from a time con- siderably before 2000 B.C. until 1600 B.C. or a little later. Vases imported from Crete were found in the second city at Phylakopi. Crete and Both in Crete and in Melos this was a period of Melos prosperity and culture. The palaces at Cnossus and Phaestus were great and splendid, and the second city at Phyla- iir FIG. 12. Fisherman vase or lamp-stand from Phylakopi. Athens. (Phylakopi, PI. XXII.) kopi apparently attained a degree of prosperity higher than any city of Melos ever reached in later times. The Melian pottery of this period is often very beautiful and adorned with striking representations of plants, animals, and even men, as well as with geometrical patterns. A remarkable fragment shows a number of men walking, each holding a fish in his hand (Fig. 12). Still more remarkable is a wall fresco representing flying fish, painted PREHELLENIC GREECE 51 in blue, yellow, and black, or dark brown, on a cream)' white ground. The drawing is naturalistic and the decorative effect good. This fresco is very similar to some of the paintings at Cnossus, and may be the work of a Cretan artist (Fig. 13). FIG. 13. Fresco from Phylakopi. Athens. (Phylakopi, PI. III.) The pottery from the island of Thera is especially interesting. The clay is carefully prepared, and has a grayish yellow surface. The decoration is applied in dull color, usually dark Pottery brown. Straight lines, circles, and spiral curves are from Thera most usual, but representations of plant forms are frequent, and birds and animals also occur. The shapes of the vases are more elegant than those of the primitive vases from graves in the Cyclades, sometimes as fine as those of the later period. They include cups, pitchers or jugs, and funnel-shaped vessels with a hole in the bottom, which must have been used either as funnels for pouring liquids into narrow-necked receptacles or as drinking cups. In the latter case, the drinker must have stopped the hole in the bottom with his finger or thumb, by removing which he GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY Gems FIG. 14. Vases from Thera. Athens. (Rayet and Collignon, Hist, de la Ciramiquc Grecque, pp. 9, 10, II.) could let the liquid run into his mouth. As the vessel could not be set down unless empty, it was necessarily emp- tied at a draught (Fig. 14). At various places in what were afterwards Hel- lenic lands, especially in Crete, engraved seals or gems have been found which belong to the period under discussion. They have usually three sides, all engraved with the same device. Sometimes the shape is conical. The stone used is soft, chiefly steatite, and in this the devices are rudely cut and bored by hand. The devices consist of men, beasts, vases, orna- ments (often spirals), and various signs, some of which seem to be a kind of writing. Some of the ornaments show close connection with Egyptian art of the Twelfth Dynasty, about 2000 B.C. ( Fi fr '5)- The seals themselves are probably of 25,26,28.) not much later date. At a later time, in the FIG. 15. Primi- tivegems. (Furt- PREHELLENIC GREECE 53 " Mycenaean " period, the use of engraved seals, or gems, was widespread, and the engraving is often very fine. At Cnossus and Phaestus, the two great centres of early civili- zation in Crete, the period marked by the production of Kamares ware came to a violent close. The great palaces were destroyed, and new rulers, possibly foreigners, entered into possession. After this the palaces were rebuilt, but the art now displayed is not a mere development from what preceded, but something new and different. The old art survived in some places alongside of the new, and many old elements were accepted by the new artists, but in general a marked change took place. The new art of Cnossus, Phaestus, and other places in Crete is identical with the art previously known from discoveries in many places, among which Mycenae was the first discovered and the most important, and it is called for that reason " Mycenaean Art," M ycenaean though its chief seat seems, in the light of recent dis- Art coveries, to have been Crete. Mycenae and Tiryns were, how- ever, important centres ; less important settlements were other places in the Argolid, in Laconia, Attica, Megara, Boeotia, Thes- saly, and many of the Greek islands, including Cephalonia, Ithaca, and Leucas off the western coast of Greece. 1 The pottery and other objects produced by the artisans and artists belonging to this civilization are found from Egypt to Sicily. The connection with Egypt was evidently especially close in Crete, which is a natural result of the geographical position of the island, but it extended to all Greek islands and the mainland. Egyptian in- fluence is plainly seen in many products of Mycenaean art, but that art is clearly different from Egyptian art, as the Mycenaean civilization was different from Egyptian civilization. In the great Cretan centres of Mycenaean civilization, Cnossus and Phaestus, massive fortifications did not exist, but the walls of 1 It may be that the civilization spread from Crete to the mainland, and that then the inhabitants of the mainland (Achaeans) crossed over to Crete and conquered the great Cretan cities. This theory would account for some of the changes that evidently took place in Crete. 54 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY Tiryns and Mycenae testify strongly to the skill of their builders. The earlier parts of the walls at Tiryns are built of large stones, left nearly in their natural shapes, but with the outer face roughly hammered to something like a plane surface. The interstices were filled with small stones and clay mortar, which has now been almost entirely washed out by the rains of centuries (Fig. 1 6). Other and later parts of the walls are built of square blocks, laid in somewhat irregular horizontal courses. A remarkable feature of the walls at Tiryns is a series of rooms leading from a gallery constructed in the thickness of Buildings FIG. 16. Wall of the citadel of Tiryns. (Photograph.) the walls. The roof of the gallery and the doorways leading into the rooms have nearly the form of a Gothic arch, but the prin- ciple of the keystone arch is not applied. The great blocks of stone project from the side walls, and the space between the top of these projecting blocks is filled with a stone resting on and be- tween those immediately below it (Fig- 17). Such galleries are PREHELLENIC GREECE 55 exceptional, though something like them existed at Mycenae > but the system of the corbelled arch, formed by courses of stones, each projecting over the one immediately below, is employed in highly perfected form in the dome (beehive) tombs of Mycenae and Orchomenus. A fine example of Mycenaean wall-building, of a date later than that of the walls at Tiryns, is seen at the Lions' FlG. 17. Gallery at Tiryns. (Perrot and Chipiez, Hist, de I' art dans I'antiquite, Vol. VI, p. 276.) Gate at Mycenae (Fig. 18). Here the stones are cut into rectan- gular blocks and laid in horizontal courses. The gateway, slightly narrower at the top than at the bottom, is framed by massive stone jambs and covered by a great stone lintel, above which is a triangular space, left empty save for the comparatively thin slab on which the lions are carved. This space was not filled with heavy blocks for fear that their weight would break the lintel. The main entrance to the citadel at Tiryns resembles, so far as it is preserved, the Lions' Gate. Both at Mycenae and Tiryns a smaller postern gate exists, less elaborate than the main entrance, but constructed in the same way, except that on account of the narrowness of the gateway it was not necessary to relieve the GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY lintel of the weight of the wall above. A third fine example of Mycenaean fortification is found at Gla, once in Lake Copais, and remains of Mycenaean city walls exist in some other places. Palaces FIG. 18. The Lions' Gate at Mycenae. (Perrot and Chipiez, Hist, de I' art dans _, I'antiguite, Vol. VI, p. 317.) The most important remains of dwellings of the Mycenaean times are those of the palaces at Cnossus, Phaestus, Tiryns, and Mycenae. Of these, the palace at Cnossus was by far the largest, and is, in some respects, the best pre- served. The palaces at Phaestus (Phaestus proper and Hagia Triada) were also magnificent residences, and are in parts well preserved. The palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae were less large than the great Cretan palaces, but they have been known longer, and their clearness and simplicity of plan makes them easier to understand. These palaces are all built on hills, and in each case the hill has been prepared to receive the building, but not so that the foundations for the entire palace are on one level. On the contrary, the palaces are built on two or more terraces, so that the floors were at different heights, and different parts of the PREHELLENIC GREECE 57 buildings were approached by stairs. The division into terraces is especially noticeable in the great Cretan palaces. It is, how- ever, certain that each of these was built at several different times, and it is as yet not quite clear how great a part of any of them 10 6 10 30 50 70 90 METRES FIG. 19. Plan of the palace at Cnossns. (Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete, PI. 4-) was in use at one time. All the palaces, whether in Crete or in continental Greece, are alike in having their foundations and the lower parts of their main walls built of well-squared blocks of stone. In Crete the upper parts of the walls were of rubble, held together with clay mortar and wooden beams. In Greece proper 58 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY the upper parts of the wall seem to have been rather of sun-dried brick. The surfaces of walls were covered, at least within the palaces, where they would be seen by inmates and visitors, with plaster, which was decorated with paintings. At Cnossus and Phaestus, the lower parts of walls were often cased with slabs of gypsum. The plan of the Cretan palaces is elaborate and com- plicated, as is natural in such great structures. The palace at Cnossus was in parts, at least, two or three stories high and con- tained several courts, one or two chapels or sanctuaries, rooms for audiences and receptions, magazines, storerooms, sleeping rooms, workshops of various kinds, bathrooms, in short, all the apartments of a great establishment, where wealth and luxury abounded (Fig. 19). FlG. 20. The palace at Tiryns. (Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Ausgrabungen, Pi. 4.) The palace at Tiryns, though far less extensive than the palace at Cnossus or those at Phaestus, was still a large edifice or group of edifices (Fig 20). It had a pillared gateway or propylaeum, a large open court, a megaron or hall for men, a similar, somewhat smaller hall for the women, a bathroom, and many other apart- ments. The megaron, with its porch (aithousd) and vestibule (pro- PREHELLENIC GREECE 59 domos}, was the chief part of the palace, about which the other apartments were grouped. The arrangement agrees in general with the Homeric description of the house of Odysseus. The hall itself was nearly square. In the middle was the hearth, about which stood four columns to support the roof. The flat bases of these columns are still in place. The side walls of the hall are con- tinued toward the front, forming the outer walls of the vestibule and the porch. Where these walls end, at the front of the build- ing, are stone bases, upon which once stood wooden planks, as a protection for the crude brick walls against the weather. Between the ends of the walls are two stone foundations for columns which once supported the architrave or beam that extended from one wall (or anta} to the other. The front of the building was there- fore very similar to the front of a Greek temple in antis. The roof of the Mycenaean house was probably flat and covered with earth or clay. This is a priori probable, since tiles were as yet unknown in Greece, and thatch is for various reasons not likely to have been in general use, and it is conclusively proved by a fragment of a silver vessel found at Mycenae (see Fig. 41, p. 81), on which houses with flat roofs are repre- sented. Over the architrave the ends of beams would naturally have been visible ; on these were laid the boards, or, more probably, poles, upon which the earth was spread. This would be the simplest form of such a roof, the projecting eaves of which would have the appearance of a rude cornice immediately above the architrave. If large beams were laid at intervals from the archi- trave to the wall of the porch, the roof would be strengthened, and the layer of earth or clay could be made thicker and therefore more perfectly waterproof. Above the architrave would then ap- pear at regular intervals the ends of the large beams, and be- tween these would be vacant spaces. If, as is probable, the beams were of oblong rectangular section and somewhat thicker in their vertical than in their horizontal dimension, the effect would resemble that of the Doric frieze of triglyphs between metopes. It is, in fact, probable that the Doric temple was de- 6o GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY FlG. 21. Mycenaean palace. Reconstruction by Charles Chipiez. Chipiez, Vol. VI, PI. II.) (Perrot and Columns veloped from the Mycenaean palace, though some of the details of its development are not as yet clear (Fig. 21). The column in Mycenaean architecture had no base, such as the Ionic column of later times possessed, but its shaft rose di- rectly from the flat stone that formed its foundation. The shaft 1 was surmounted by a capital which has some resemblance to the Doric capital, but is more rounding in form. Such columns are represented in several monuments of Mycenaean times, e.g. a wall painting from Cnossus and the relief over the Lions' Gate at Mycenae (see Fig. 18), while the semi- columns that once stood beside the entrance of the so-called Treas- ury or Tomb of Atreus at Mycenae are still so far preserved that *On some gems and paintings columns are represented, the shafts of which are smaller at the bottom than at the top. It is, however, doubtful whether this was usual. See T- Durm, Jahreshefte d. Oesterr. Arch. Inst. X, 1907, pp. 41 ff. The restoration of the semi-columns of the so-called Treasury of Atreus, (Fig. 22) and Fig. 21 should perhaps be corrected in this particular. PRP;HELLENIC GREECE 61 they can be completely restored (see Fig. 22). These are, how- ever, the only stone columns of which any remains or traces exist. As a rule the columns in Mycenaean buildings were of wood, prob- ably often protected at the bottom and adorned at the top with a sheathing of bronze. Among the most remarkable remains of Mycenaean times are the chamber tombs. These are generally excavated in the earth or rock of a hill, and approached by a sloping passage chamber (dromos). They are ordinarily of such moderate size tombs that the hard earth or rock keeps its place without artificial sup- port. Such tombs are merely excavated, not built. But in many instances, either on account of the character of the soil or because a more magnificent tomb was desired, the subter- ranean chamber is entirely walled with stone. Such tombs are circular, and their walls converge in a curve to a point at the top. They are therefore called dome tombs, or beehive tombs. The courses of stone are not laid so as to converge toward a centre in the inside of the hollow space, but are horizontal, and the individual stones have horizontal upper and lower surfaces. The prin- ciple employed is that of the corbel arch, not of the key- FlG. 22. Entrance of the " Tomb of Atreus." Reconstruction by Charles Chipiez. (Perrot and Chipiez, Vol. VI, PI. 6.) stone arch, and the stones are held in place by the pressure of earth heaped upon the outside. Some of these tombs, as that at Menidi, near Athens, and those at Dimini, in Thessaly, are built of small, rough, and irregular stones, while others are beautifully constructed of stones carefully cut and 62 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY fitted together. The most perfect example is the so-called Treas- ury of Atreus, at Mycenae (Fig. 23), though the tomb beside it, excavated by Mrs. Schliemann, and the tomb at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, were originally hardly less magnificent. The entrance passage, or dromos, of the "Treasury of Atreus " is 6 metres wide and 35 metres long, walled on each side with well-laid masonry of FIG. 23. Section and plan of the " Tomb of Atreus." (Perrot and Chipiez, Vol. VI, PI. 3.) rectangular cut stones. The door is 5.40 metres high, 2.66 metres wide at the bottom, and 2.46 metres at the top. Above the door is an immense lintel, formed of two stones, the inner of which is 9 metres long, 5 metres wide, and i metre thick, and must weigh not far from 120 tons. The circular room measures about 15 metres in diameter at the bottom, and its height is about the same. Many small holes and remains of bronze nails shew where ornaments, probably bronze rosettes and the like, were once attached to the PREHELLENIC GREECE 63 walls. To the right a small doorway leads into a rectangular chamber cut in the rock. The sides and top of this chamber are now rough and unadorned, but in the similar chamber of the tomb at Orchomenus the ceiling was formed of a great slab of slate completely covered with an elaborate carved pattern, and there are indications that the rough walls and top of the rectangu- lar chamber of the "Treasury of Atreus " were once hidden by slabs of stone, probably adorned with carvings or paintings. In this chamber was, apparently, the real burial place, the large circular room being used for funeral and commemorative cere- monies. The entrance from the dromos to the great chamber was elaborate and magnificent. At each side stood a richly carved column, and the relieving triangle above the lintel was certainly filled with a carved slab of stone (cp. the Lions' Gate). There are sufficient traces of other ornamentation to make the reconstruction by M. Chipiez (Fig. 22) substantially certain in all essential points, though some details may be incorrect. Such a doorway cannot have been covered up immediately after the burial. On the contrary, the tomb must have continued to be visible and accessible. Undoubtedly, ceremonies in honor of the deceased were performed here by his, or their, descendants. In fact, this great tomb and others of the same kind were, without doubt, family tombs, which continued in use for years, probably for several generations. Most dome tombs are much smaller and less elaborate than this. They have no side chamber, but the dead were buried in the floor of the circular room or, in some cases, especially in Crete, were placed in terracotta sarcophagi. The entrances are unadorned and the masonry comparatively rude. All show, however, the same general qualities which are seen in their highest development in the " Treasury of Atreus." The carving of the columns beside the entrance of the " Treas- ury of Atreus " suffices to prove that the processes of sculpture were not unknown to the Mycenaean workmen. There Mycenaean are, however, comparatively few extant examples of sculpture Mycenaean sculpture. Among the most widely known of these 6 4 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY are four stelae found by Dr. Schliemann above the shaft graves in the acropolis at Mycenae (see p. 70). These are all ornamented with patterns of curved lines, and three of them bear, in addition, scenes of battle or the chase. On the stele reproduced in Fig. 24, a warrior with a great sword at his side is driving his chariot toward an enemy, who holds his sword high in the air, but seems to be turned away from his assailant, perhaps intending to flee. Of the chariot only one wheel is represented, and there appears to be only one horse, though there can be no doubt that the chariots were drawn by two horses. The second wheel, like the second horse, is supposed to be entirely hidden. Whether the broad, straight object extending from the charioteer's hand to the horse's head is a spear, or rep- resents the reins, is uncertain. Apart from the clumsiness of the drawing, the most striking quality in the execu- tion of this relief is its flatness. The figures are throughout of uniform thickness, as if they had been cut out of a thin sheet of stone and pasted upon the background. The date of this stele cannot be much, if at all, earlier than that of the stucco reliefs from Cnossus (see p. 45), to which it is immeasurably in- ferior. Perhaps, however, some of the awkwardness of the design was originally modified by a thin coat of plaster, and there is no doubt that the relief was painted, even if no plaster was added before the paint was applied. A later, and more famous, specimen of Mycenaean sculpture adorns the slab that fills the relieving triangle over the Lions' Gate. Here two lions (or lionesses, for the sex is not indicated) are seen standing one at each side of a column, which rests upon a high base of peculiar form, and upon this base the lions have placed FlG. 24. Stele from Mycenae. (Schuchhardt, Schliemann's, Ausgrabungen, Fig. 146.) PREHELLENIC GREECE their fore feet. The heads of the lions are now wanting. They were made of separate pieces and fastened to the slab, no doubt in such a way that they faced those who approached the gateway. The column has a capital similar to the capitals of the columns be- side the doorway of the " Treasury of Atreus," and above this are two flat horizontal projections, between which are four small cir- cular disks. As the column must represent a real column, it is evident that the projections above represent an architrave, the ends of round beams above the architrave, and a second transverse beam above these. In Mycenaean worship columns served as symbols of deity, and in some cases such columns have beams over them, the deity being, perhaps, regarded as the "pillar of the house." It is natural, therefore, to regard the base of the column above the Lions' Gate as an altar, and the column itself as the sacred object of worship. Lions also seem to have been symbolic of deity. The relief is, then, a monument to the religious sentiments of those who set it up above the entrance to their citadel. In style and execution this relief is greatly superior to those on the gravestones found within the acropolis, and hardly, if at all, inferior to the best stucco reliefs ofCnossus. Part of its superiority to the gravestones may be due to the fact that it is made of much finer and better stone, and that it was not in- tended to be covered with a coat of plaster, but it is evidently the work of a more advanced artist. Its place above the gateway, in a relatively late wall, shows that it belongs to a comparatively late time in the history of Prehellenic Mycenae, certainly much Uter than the time of the stelae from within the acropolis. Small examples of Mycenaean sculpture are comparatively numerous. Some of the clay figurines from Crete, which may be regarded as precursors of Mycenaean sculpture, have already GREEK ARCH. 5 FIG. 25. Bronze statuette. Berlin. (Perrot and Chip- iez,Vol.VI,p.7S4.) 66 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY been mentioned. A bronze statuette (Fig. 25), said to have been Small works found in the Troad and now in Berlin, resembles the of sculpture Cretan figurines in some respects, and may perhaps be actually a product of Cretan art, since it was probably not made in the Troad, but at any rate it is Mycenaean in its character, and belongs to the time of the Mycenaean civili- zation. The flounced skirt seen in this figure is a characteristic part of the Mycenaean woman's costume. The closely fitting bodice is also to be ob- served. Possibly the noticeably slenderwaist of this figure (a pe- culiarity even more pronounced in some other Mycenaean works) may be in some degree a natural char- acteristic of the race, for even the men rep- resented in Mycenaean sculpture and painting have remarkably slen- FlG. 26. Ivory figure from Cnossus. Candia. (B.S.A., Vol. VIII, PI. 3.) der waists, but the lady of our statuette, as well as those rep- resented by the Cretan figurines, must certainly have worn something like modern corsets. Evidently the costume of women in those days was elaborate and artificial. The male costume, on the other hand, was extremely simple, consisting for the most part of a mere loin cloth. This is seen on many monuments, among them a leaden figurine from Kampos, in Messenia. The workmanship of this statuette is by no means so good as that of PREHELLENIC GREECE 67 the bronze statuette of a woman, but even here there is life and action, in spite of some rudeness of execution. An ivory figure from Cnossus shows still greater liveliness, joined with exqui- site workmanship. This figure (Fig. 26) was found in the palace at Cnossus with other objects that belong to the time before that in which Mycenaean vases prevail there, and- it may therefore be regarded, perhaps, as a specimen of the art from which the Mycenaean artists learned their lessons rather than as an example of Mycenaean art itself. The ivory has suffered much from the ravages of time, but parts of it, especially the face, are so well preserved that the delicacy of the work is evident. The youth represented is clearly enough engaged in some athletic or acrobatic exercise, probably in a bull fight, since that seems to have been a favorite sport at Cnossus. Fragments of ivory adorned with reliefs have been found in tombs at My- cenae, Spata (in Attica), and elsewhere. The one reproduced in Figure 27 represents the head of a man wearing an elaborate helmet with a broad chin-strap. The hair above the forehead appears in the form of conventional curls, and at the back of the head, below the helmet, it seems to be straight and fastened with a band. All details are wrought with the greatest care. Other ivory reliefs represent animals, birds, and human beings. In Crete not a few small reliefs carved in steatite have been found, several of which are interesting on account of their repre- sentations as well as their style, but the most in- TheHarvest- teresting is a fragment of a black steatite vase, found ers Vase at Hagia Triada. It was probably once plated with gold. Unfortu- nately the lower part of the vase has not been found, but the missing portion is certainly of less importance than that which is preserved to us, since what we have includes the heads and bodies of the persons represented (Fig. 28). The part of the relief FIG. 27. Ivory head from Mycenae. Athens. (Perrot and Chipiez, Vol. VI, p. 811.) 68 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY preserved is only about 6 centimetres (2^ inches) high, but the small scale of the work has not interfered with its admirable execu- tion. The details of the costume, the headdresses, the loin cloths, the curious covering or cape worn by the long-haired person who seems to be the leader of the procession, the shield-like objects carried by three of the' company, and the long, three-pronged forks FlG. 28. Steatite vase from Hagia Triada. (Monumenti Antichi, Vol. XIII, Pis. i and 3.) carried by nearly all the others, are represented with the utmost conscientiousness and clearness. The doubts that have existed concerning the interpretation of the relief have been due, not to any ambiguity in the artist's expression, but to the fact that ancient utensils are not readily recognized by modern eyes. The long, three-pronged objects are not tridents intended to be used as weap- ons, but rather pitchforks, and the objects carried like shields, which are in form unlike any shields known in the Mycenaean period or PREHELLENIC GREECE 69 before it, are winnowing sieves or pans. The men are not warriors, but harvesters, and their mouths are opened, not to shout defiance or to raise the hymn of victory, but to sing the harvest song. The glad autumn festival of thanksgiving is represented, and the artist has been able to indicate something of the joyousness of the occasion by the attitudes and expressions of some, at least, of the participants. The religious character of the festival, and at the same time the influence of Egypt upon Crete, is shown by the sistrum held up by one of the men, perhaps a priest. This re- markable work, carved in Cretan steatite and found in Crete, is one of the finest known products of the Cretan art in the Mycenaean age. Of all the monuments of the Mycenaean age, none are more re- markable than the objects of gold and silver, especially those of gold. At Troy, Dr. Schliemann discovered a deposit of gold Gold and ornaments, the style of which indicates a date some silver work centuries earlier than that of the similar objects found at My- cenae. These were probably not made at Troy, but imported, perhaps from Crete. At Mochlos, off the Cretan coast, Mr. Seager has found remarkably fine examples of early work in gold ; but these must be passed over with merely brief mention in a rapid survey of the most important remains of the art of Prehellenic Greece. At Mycenae itself great deposits of gold- smith's work were found in six graves within the fortifications of the acropolis. Only a few steps inside of the Lions' Gate is a large, nearly level circle surrounded by an enclosing wall, which consists of two con- centric rings of upright slabs about one metre apart. The space between the rings, which is now for the most part empty, was originally filled with earth and small stones, over which horizontal slabs, supported on the mass below and also on beams, formed a flat covering. Some of these slabs are still in place. The two concentric rings, with the filling of earth and the covering of slabs, formed, then, a solid encircling wall about a metre thick and a metre to a metre and a half high. The entrance to the circular 70 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY space was from the direction of the Lions' Gate and was about two metres "wide. The space itself is about 26.50111. in diameter. The ground was evidently artificially levelled, for the eastern part of the encircling wall rests directly on the rock, while the western part is supported by a wall of " Cyclopean " masonry about 4 m. high. The purpose of this circular enclosure is not clear, but it had probably some religious significance, perhaps connected with the graves below. Some 8 ft. under the surface of the circle Dr. Schliemann came upon a round structure which he regarded with great probability as an altar, and at a further depth of 3 ft. reached the top of a grave, which was itself about 10 ft. deep. Sh ft ^ ve otner g raves were found later, the last by graves at Stamatakis, after Schliemann's excavations were Mycenae finished. The graves vary in depth from 3 to 5 m. They are rectangular, the largest 6.75 by 5m., the smallest 3 by 2.75 m. in size. All have vertical walls of small stones and clay, and originally they were covered with slabs of slate supported on beams that were laid across the open graves. The ends of some at least of these beams were protected by a covering of copper. The corpses, with their rich gold ornaments and other accessories, rested on a layer of small pebbles at the bottom of the graves. Above these graves stood the stelae already mentioned, three stelae with reliefs over grave V (as numbered by Stamatakis), and one over grave II, two plain stelae each over graves I and IV, and one over grave III. In grave I three women were buried, in grave II one man, in grave III three women and two children, in grave IV apparently three men and two women, in grave V three men, and in grave VI two men. The sculptured stelae stood only over the graves of men. Weapons were found in all the graves of men, but not in those of women. Gold objects were found in all the graves, but those in graves I, II, and VI were simpler than those in graves III, IV, and V. Moreover, in graves I, II, and VI, the proportion of gold and bronze was less, and the proportion of pottery greater than in III, IV, and V. Apparently the simpler and less expensive burials belong to a time later than the more splendid, and even in PREHELLENIC GREECE 71 those graves which contained several corpses the burials did not all take place at the same time. In these graves were found about six hundred objects of gold, and though many of these are small, others are of great size and remarkable workmanship. Other materials of objects found in FIG. 29. Gold face mask from Mycenae. Athens. (Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Ausgrabungen, p. 257.) the graves are silver, bronze or copper, amber, agate, glass, ala- baster, stone, glazed porcelain, ivory, bone, wood, ciassifica- ostrich shells, boar's teeth, oyster shells, and terra- tion of con- cotta. The weapons, rings, pins, bracelets, beads, kettles, cups, and vases are evidently such as were worn or used in life by the deceased and their contemporaries, but many of the gold objects are so thin that they must have been made expressly for the adornment of the dead. Certainly no other purpose could be served by the five golden face masks, three of which were 72 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY found in grave IV and two in grave V. The gold, though thin, is too thick to have been shaped by pressing it over the actual FIG. 30. Gold ornament from Mycenae. (Photograph.) features of the dead, and moreover, in the finest masks, notably one from grave IV (Fig. 29), details, such as eyebrows .r 3.C6 fficLSKS and mustache, are rendered by engraved lines, not in relief, as they would have been had the gold been pressed over the face. Evidently a hard core of wood or the like was em- FlG. 31. Gold ornaments from Mycenae. (Schuchhardt, Schliemanris Ausgrabungen, p. 206.) ployed, but the difference between the masks makes it quite clear that all are portraits. PREHELLENIC GREECE 73 Eight sheets of gold about 0.45 to 0.60 m. (ca. 14 to 18 in.) in length, were found in such positions as to make Ornaments it probable that they were used as diadems. They of thin old are adorned with linear patterns, round bosses, and dots (Fig. 30 from grave III), and the most elaborate of all, which has a crest made of small separate leaves of gold, is cov- ered with a pattern of circles in which are small raised bosses and what look like daisies or many-rayed stars. Smaller sheets of gold, shaped some- what like a leaf (or half a dia- dem), are decorated with de- signs like those of the diadems, with which they evidently formed sets or garnitures (Fig. 31 from grave III). Other large objects of thin gold are breastplates, if that is really the proper name for them, sword belts, and a remarkable lion's head, which is unfortu- nately much flattened and dis- torted. A bull's head of silver, wrought with wonderful skill (Fig. 32), was a rhyton, or drinking horn, probably for ritual purposes, as was also the golden lion's head just mentioned. The lesser objects of thin gold are, like most of the objects just described, intended purely for ornament, with the exception of sword belts and some disks and strips of gold, which once formed scales for weighing small commodities. Some of the ornaments consist of very thin sheets, cut into the form of laurel leaves and riveted together ; many are disks adorned with conventional rep- FlG. 32. Silver bull's head from My- cenae. (Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Ausgrabungen, Fig. 248.) 74 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY resentations of shells, polyps, or butterflies, or with patterns of curves that look like coiled wire, (Figs. 34, 35, 36) ; and one (five specimens of which were found) represents an altar (Fig. 33). On FIG. 35. FIG. 36. FIGS. 33-36. Gold ornaments from Mycenae. (Photographs ) the sides of the altar are doves ; the sacred pillar, with the horns of consecration, is seen three times in the lower part, and on the top is a curious vessel or utensil, now known from discoveries PREHELLENIC GREECE 75 in Crete to have been used in Minoan and Mycenaean religious rites. Still other ornaments represent various birds and animals, others a nude female divinity with a dove or doves, and one (in two specimens) a seated figure clad in a flounced gar- ment. It is a generally accepted belief that the face masks were placed directly over the faces of the dead men, the diadems on the heads of the women, and the smaller thin gold ornaments were sewed upon clothing. There are, however, indications that the surface on which these objects were fastened was hard and flat, and it has been suggested that all the thin gold objects, as well as the silver bull's head, were fastened upon wooden coffins, which have de- cayed and left no traces. 1 Positive proof of either theory is perhaps hardly possible except by the discovery of other similar graves. Of the eleven gold drinking vessels found in these graves sev- eral are simple cups with one handle, others have the same form with ornamentation of arches, lines, or rosettes, and c u p s an ^ still others have a stem like that of a goblet, the cup vases itself being in these instances of a wide and flaring shape. One cup, shaped like a tall goblet, has horizontal handles, upon which birds are sitting. From each handle a straight band of gold descends and is riveted to the outer rim of the disk at the foot, as if to strengthen the vessel. Something like this, though larger and more elaborate, was the cup of Nestor described in the Iliad, XI, 632-635. Another striking vessel is of silver, with a short stem. It is adorned with inlaid work ot gold, a single design, representing a low flowerpot with a plant growing in it, being repeated three times on the side of the cup. A very striking vessel is a large alabaster vase, about 0.15 m. high, with three freely curving handles that rise above the rim. Among the many precious objects found in grave IV, which is the largest and richest of all, are two gold rings with large bezels 1 B. StaSs, *Etf>. *Apx- 1907, pp. 32-60. 76 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY (about 0.044 m. long). On these bezels are remarkably fine examples of engraved work (intaglio). The first shows two men in a chariot drawn by galloping horses. One man ap- parently holds the reins, though these are not rep- resented, while the other shoots an arrow at a stag that is bounding away and turning its head to look at its pursuers. On the second ring is a scene of battle. One man is sitting, doubtless wounded, on the ground, while before him a mighty warrior is about to slay an antagonist whom he has seized by the shoulder and forced to his knees. Still another combatant, armed with a spear and protected by a long shield, seems likely to decide the combat against the victor of the moment (Fig. 37). FIG. 37. Bezels of gold rings from Mycenae. (Schuchhardt, Schliemanrfs Ausgrabungen, p. 252.) Some of the long bronze swords found in the graves are adorned with figures of running animals finely wrought in relief ; Dagger but ^ ar more remarkable and elaborate are five dagger blades blades, the adornment of which is not wrought di- rectly in the bronze of the blades themselves, but in separate plates inserted in the sides of the blades ; two of these were found in grave IV. On one side of the first blade (Fig. 38) are five men fighting with a lion, while two other lions are running away, and on the other side a lion is pulling down a deer or gazelle and four more animals of the same kind are escaping. The figures are here not worked in relief, but are inlaid. They are of gold, for the most part yellow, but the lions' manes and the spots on the deer are of red gold, and the shields and scanty clothing of the men are almost as white as silver. Evidently the workmen WtEHELLENlC GREECE 77 understood the use of various alloys and were excellent designers and extremely skilful metal-workers. On the second dagger are three lions running one behind the other. Whereas the figures of the first dagger are inlaid, these lions were wrought in relief on the plate, which was afterwards inserted in the blade, and the relief was then covered with thin gold-leaf. The manes are colored red, and the lines on the legs and flanks of the lions are of lighter gold than the rest of their bodies. Three equally remark- able daggers were found in grave V. One of them has on each side two cats, or perhaps panthers, hunting four ducks among aquatic plants by a river. The colors are varied by the use of different alloys, as was the case on the blades previously described. On the second blade is a design of flowers, and on the third a spiral pattern. In this last, the plate set in the blade is of gold, and the design is made with enamel, by the niello process. Three or foui rivets fastened the blades to the handles, which were of wood, and were in some cases, at least, covered with thin gold and adorned with rich linear patterns. At the end of the hilt was a large knob. When the hilt was of gold, the knob was also gold. The terracotta vases found in these tombs exhibit two distinct 78 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY technical methods. Some are painted with dull dark color on the light buff or reddish ground of the clay, others in lustrous dark color. Those painted with dull color are decorated for the most part with horizontal bands and simple patterns of straight or curved lines, while the decoration of those painted with lustrous color consists chiefly of marine plants and animals. In graves I, II, and VI the two kinds of vases were found together, one vase from grave III has leaves among its linear pat- terns, and one from grave VI, though decorated almost entirely with linear patterns, has ivy leaves about its lower part. These two vases are painted with lustrous color. On one vase from grave VI, which is painted with dull color, various birds are represented, and on another from the same grave is a creature like a polyp with a head resembling that of a bird. It is evident therefore that the two sys- tems, linear decoration in dull color and naturalistic decoration in lustrous color, were practised at the same time. Light decora- tion on a dark ground is seen on a larger water jar from grave V. Here bands and semicircles are painted in white on the reddish ground of the clay. In grave I two rude terracotta figurines of a style common at Mycenae and other places were found. The arms are raised so that they look like a crescent. The figurines are painted with red stripes on the buff ground, perhaps in rude imitation of drapery. These graves and their contents are of great importance. The vast number of gold objects and their remarkable technical excel- . lence show that at a time before the introduction of Importance of the iron the inhabitants of Mycenae had attained a high graves degree of wealth and luxury. The civilization dis- closed by all the graves is the same, but greater wealth and luxury is evident in graves III, IV, and V than in I, II, and VI. Prob- ably there is a difference in date, but there is no reason to sup- pose that either group is more than a century or two earlier than the other. Which is the earlier it is hard to tell ; but the terra- cotta figurines from grave I and the birds on the vase from grave VI resemble objects found elsewhere which are certainly later than PREHELLENIC GREECE 79 these shaft tombs. It is therefore probable that the simpler tombs are in this case the later, that there was, in other words, a period of decline at Mycenae between the first and the second group of burials. That this decline was only temporary is made evident by the splendor of the "Treasury of Atreus " and the im- portance of various other monuments which are clearly of later date than the shaft graves. For the shaft graves are evidently earlier than the circular wall above them, and this appears to be approximately contemporaneous with the Lions' Gate and the " Treasury of Atreus." The shaft graves, by their position and surroundings, give valuable information regarding the relative age of different products of Mycenaean art. They show, among other things, that the art of the goldsmith reached its highest development at an early date, before the latest development of Mycenaean pottery. It is possible that the gold objects found in the shaft graves may be imported, in which case there is little doubt that they came from Crete, the centre of civilization in the Aegean regions at this time (cp. p. 69). Outside of the circle under which were the shaft graves, appar- ently in the ruins of a house, was found a hoard of golden vessels and other objects, among them four cups of graceful shape, with high foot and two handles. More important than these is a gold ring Gold rings with a large, flat bezel (0.035 m - or I i 7 g~ m - l n g)> on which is very finely engraved a strange scene, undoubtedly of religious significance. ' FIG. 39. Gold ring from My- as is made evident by the symbol of cena e. (Schuchhardt, Schiie- the double axe in the centre and the mann's Amgrabungen, p. sun and moon at the top (Fig. 39). A second gold ring found in the same place has several bull's heads engraved in its bezel. In these rings, and others found else- where, the engraving is done by hand with a sharp tool. The rings were not intended for use as seals, for the figures are so en- 8o GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY graved that the representation as seen on the ring is correct, and is reversed in an impression. Many fine specimens of Mycenaean metal work have been found in various places, at Troy, in Crete, in Thessaly, and elsewhere, Other works though no inlaid work has been found to rival that of metal o f the dagger blades from Mycenae. Two gold cups, found at Vaphio, in Laconia, are of unusual beauty and interest (Fig. 40). On one of these the hunting of wild cattle is repre- sented, on the other tame cattle appear. The figures are formed FlG. 40. Gold cups from Vaphio. (Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations.) by the repouss6 process, and the work is exceedingly skilful and delicate. The artist was also evidently a close observer of nature, though the attitudes of the cattle are animated and lively rather than correct. This is especially noticeable in the case of the gal- loping bull and in that of the bull caught in the net. Comparison with the steatite vase from Hagia Triada and with other works of undoubted Cretan origin makes it probable that these beautiful vases were also made in Crete. One further example of Myce- naean metal work which cannot be passed over is the fragment of a silver vessel, found at Mycenae, on which the siege of a city is PREHELLENIC GREECE 81 represented (Fig. 41). The fragment is interesting, not only as a specimen of pictorial sculpture on a small scale which is unparal- leled in Greek art before the Hellenistic period, but also because it represents the bows, slings, and shields of the lightly clad Mycenaean warriors, and the masonry of the city wall, and the architectural form of the flat-roofed houses. Undoubtedly the per- spective is faulty, especially as regards the size of the women who are encouraging their protectors from the wall ; nevertheless the whole scene is clearly represented, not the actual combat alone, but also its surroundings. Pictorial representations of this kind are met with in Assyrian reliefs, in late Greek and Roman works, and in the relief sculptures of the Renaissance and modern times, attaining their highest excellence, perhaps, in the bronze doors of the baptistery at Florence, by Ghiberti, but they are unknown in Greek art of the strictly classical period. A com- parison with the reliefs of the so-called Nereid monument, from Xanthus, or with those of the monument at Gjolbaschi, shows the difference between the Mycenaean and the classical treatment of similar subjects. The Mycenaean artist brings before us the battle as it actually takes place, on uneven ground, over which the troops are scattered as occasion demands, without regard to artistic grouping; whereas the classical artist is confined by the conven- tions of his art, represents the attacking warriors all on one plane, and eliminates entirely the landscape background ; only the wall? and towers are represented, for without these the scene would not be understood. This remarkable little fragment illustrates GREEK ARCH. 6 FlG. 41. Silver fragment from Mycenae. 82 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY admirably the naturalness and realism of Mycenaean art, and shows at the same time, both in its details and in its general conception, how greatly Mycenaean art differs in spirit from that of classical Greece. Somewhat akin to the art of sculpture is that of gem cutting or seal engraving, which was much practised in the Mycenaean age. In the time of the twelfth Egyptian dynasty (2000 to 1788 B.C.), which is sometimes called the " Early Mycenaean " period, Seals and tne material used by the gem engravers was soft, Gems usually steatite, and the designs were rude and en- graved or bored by hand, as has already been said (p. 52). Work of this kind continued to be produced throughout the Mycenaean period, but such soft stones, engraved by hand, were wrought, in the time of developed Mycenaean art, only by inferior workmen for the use of poor customers, and differ from the contemporary works in hard stones chiefly by reason of their inferior workman- ship and the choice of unimportant subjects. In the decay of Mycenaean civilization this style continued, whereas the better work, in hard stones, was no longer produced. All the better gems of the developed Mycenaean period are wrought with the wheel in hard stones. The stones used are carnelian, chalcedony, agate, sardonyx, amethyst, crystal ; also hematite, porphyry, serpentine, jasper, and, occasionally, basalt. They were probably produced at all the important places. The wheel, which enables the workmen to cut gems by means of hard sand on a revolving bit of moist wood, and also by means of a revolving drill, had long been in use in the East, and was doubtless nierely introduced, not invented, by the Mycenaean artists. Gold rings were engraved by hand, since their material is not very hard. Some glass imitations of gems were made in the latter part of the Mycenaean period, but those that are known are for the most part ill preserved. The best engravings are cut in the bezels of finger rings, chiefly gold, one of the most remarkable of which has been described above (p. 76; see also p. 79). These rings are too . PREHELLENIC GREECE 83 small for even the little finger of a man, and must therefore have been intended for women, or to be worn on a chain or cord. Some rings entirely of stone have been found, but metal rings with stones set in them are nearly, or quite, unknown. The engraved stones 1 regularly have the form of . flat beads. They have a hole bored through them in the direction of their greatest dimension, and were worn, with other beads, strung on chains for the neck or arm. Apparently, then, they were amulets or mere ornaments, rather than seals, even though at some times and places their use as seals may have been in vogue. The stones were most frequently circular, with the design cut only on one side, or elliptical (lentoid), or they have somewhat the form of a cylinder thicker at the middle than at the ends. Stones of this last shape are perforated lengthwise. Some stones are rectan- gular, with rounded corners, and occasionally other forms occur. Stones of these common shapes were in use in early times in Babylonia, Egypt, and Syria, but are usually of poor quality and not finely wrought. They were probably used in those countries, not as seals, but merely as amulets, and it is doubtless from those countries that their use was adopted by the Prehellenic inhab- itants of Greece. The cylinder, which was the form of the oriental seal, the scarab, and the scaraboid, were not adopted. The designs of most Mycenaean gems represent animals. Among these, lions and horned cattle occur most frequently, and show the best workmanship, but deer and wild goats are not uncommon. The lion is evidently not merely borrowed from the art of other peoples, but studied from life, a fact that seems to indicate a real acquaintance, not merely casual intercourse, with northern Africa on the part of the people among whom the gems were made, unless lions existed in Greece in those days. Other gems bear religious representations. A draped goddess appears both seated and standing. She has various attributes, and has been interpreted as Artemis, Aphrodite, and Demeter. 1 Mycenaean engraved stones, or gems, were formerly called Inselsteine. " island stones," as most of them were found on the islands. 84 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY A nude goddess appears but rarely, and then only through Oriental influence. When the goddess stands between two lions, she is naturally interpreted as Rhea. The small armed idol in the upper left-hand part of the engraving on the gold ring from Mycenae (p. 79) is perhaps a Palladium, or primitive represen- tation of the goddess known in historical times as Athena. A male deity also appears, sometimes leading a griffin, sometimes standing between two partly human creatures (demons), and once between two lions. It is natural to identify him, at least in some of these cases, with the supreme god, the later Zeus. Another, lower, order of beings combines the forms of men and beasts. They have usually the form of a man with the head of a beast, most frequently that of a lion. They seem to be spirits or demons of the chase, and are often represented with the skin of a beast, perhaps a bull, thrown over them. Some other combinations of human and animal forms also occur. The sphinx, both winged and without wings, occurs rarely in Mycenaean art, less rarely on glass and gold than on gems. The griffin is not uncommon on gems, and sometimes two griffins are placed opposite each other in heraldic fashion. The griffin, a combination of lion and eagle, was borrowed from the East, but its form was further developed by Mycenaean art ; whether the same is true of the sphinx, the combination of lion and man, is as yet uncertain, as its occurrence in Egypt or elsewhere before the Mycenaean period is not established. Various representations pertaining to the cult of the gods occur, such as altars, altar tables, sacred enclosures, and columns. There are some scenes of male worship, but representations of female worship, among which that of the gold ring (Fig. 39) is the most remarkable, are more numerous. Hunting scenes, especially bull hunts, and scenes of war are not uncommon, and one or two other scenes of common life are known. The style of Mycenaean gems is in general picturesque rather than sculptural. There is great freedom of motion, and more attention is paid to scenery and other accessories than in classical PREHELLENIC GREECE Greek art. Exactness and accuracy are less sought after than liveliness and expression. There is little evidence of study of the osseous structure of men and animals ; on the contrary, the more obvious and external elements of the form, such as the muscles and the female breasts, are unduly emphasized. . The space at the disposal of the artist is, as a rule, well filled, though not always without detriment to the beauty of the design. The foreshortening and perspective are poor. Nev- ertheless, the freshness and vigor of the design, the originality of conception, and in many in- stances the fine technical execution, are such as to give the gems a place among the most interesting products of Mycenaean art. No- where more clearly than in the gems is the nature of Mycenaean art made manifest (Fig. 42). The artists who designed them received many incentives and much inspiration from Oriental art, but they were not content to imi- tate. What they received from the East they adapted and transformed, as did the Greeks of the historical period. In this respect the Mycenaean artists are the precursors of the great masters of Hellenic Greece, however much their works may differ in form and spirit from the products of the later art. Mycenaean vases fall into two main divisions, FIG. 42. Mycenaean (i) those decorated with dull (matf) color, Mycenaean and (2) those decorated with lus- vases trous varnish (Firniss). They are alike in one respect, that they are (with the exceptions mentioned below) decorated with dark color on a light ground, and their decorations are virtually monochrome. This separates them from the polychrome Kamares ware, as well as from the various wares the ground color of which is gems. (Furtwang- ler, Antike Gemmen, PI. II, 32, 24, 'E(/>. 'Apx. 1888, PI. X, 2,3-) 86 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY dark. They are also alike in their general tendency to rotund, full forms. 1 1 Furtwangler and Loeschcke, Mykenische Vasen, 1886, divided Myce- naean vases into two divisions: vases with dull painting (Mattmalerei) and vases with glaze varnish painting {Firnissmalerei), Within the first division they recognized two groups : (I, a) vases of red clay, a polished surface, some- times yellowish or greenish, and ornaments in red or purplish brown, with occasionally some white, and (I, ) vases of light clay, with unpolished surface, and ornaments in purplish brown. Some of the coarser vases of this group are hand made; all the others are made on the wheel. The second division forms four classes. All are made on the wheel. In class I the clay is coarse, and the entire vase is covered with a slightly lustrous glaze, on which the ornaments, almost exclusively floral, are painted in dull white and dark red. In class II the clay is coarse, but covered with a coating or slip of fine clay, which forms a whitish or yellowish brown surface. On this the ornament, of geometrical or floral patterns, is painted with lustrous dark brown color. Occasionally some white is added. In class III the clay is fine and well levigated; the surface, of a warm yellowish color, is lustrous and smooth. The decoration, which consists chiefly of marine plants and animals, is painted in lustrous color, varying from yellow to brownish black. Occasionally white is added. In class IV the surface is greenish or dull yellow, sometimes yel- lowish red, and usually dull, not lustrous. The lustrous color of the ornament is black or yellowish brown, sometimes burnt red. The color is less lustrous than in class III. Large figures of quadrupeds and human beings occur. Furtwangler and Loeschcke regarded the first division as earlier than the second. In the latter they regarded classes I and II as contemporary and earlier than class III, which was followed by class IV. Class I is now seen to consist of vases made in Crete (which, when found at Mycenae, are imported), and the same is probably true of most specimens of class II. Furtwangler and Loeschcke recognized that the vases with dull color were made in many places, but thought the invention of glaze or lustrous color was due to the people of Mycenae, and that the pottery with decoration in such color was made at Mycenae. The lustrous color has, however, elsewhere (see below, p. 87) been found on vases much earlier than many of those painted with dull color; the lustrous color cannot, therefore, be a Mycenaean invention. More- over, pottery with lustrous decoration has been found at many places, and local varieties of shapes and decoration are observed, showing that Mycenae was by no means the only place of manufacture. The term " Mycenaean," as applied to pottery, is now sometimes limited to classes III and IV, which were produced when Mycenae was at the height of its power, and to ware which PREHELLENIC GREECE 87 When executed in dull color, the decoration consists of lines, generally curved, plants, and occasionally animals. In general, it resembles that of the vases from Thera (p. 51 f.), and, as a whole, the vases with decoration in dull color are earlier than those decorated with lustrous varnish, though the two classes have sometimes been found together. In Crete and some of the is- lands the lustrous varnish appears before the Mycenaean period, earlier, in fact, than the monochrome decoration in dull color, but in continental Greece, Aegina, and some of the other islands the dull color is earlier, and the lustrous varnish does not appear until Mycenaean times. This seems to indicate that the lustrous varnish, which is the distinguishing peculiarity of Greek vases, and which modern imitators have not been able to produce, was closely resembles these. Classes I and II may then be classed as " Protomy- cenaean." Some of the conclusions reached by Furtwangler and Loeschcke have been modified by later discoveries; but their classification is so generally known that it is employed by most writers on Mycenaean pottery. Two other classifications of the vases with lustrous paint, based on the style, rather than the technique, of the decorations, have been proposed by P. Wolters and by J. C. Hoppin ( The Argive Heraeum, Vol. II, pp. 74 ff.). According to both of these, class I remains the same as in the classification of P"urtwangler and Loeschcke. Class II also remains the same, but the fact that the style of the paintings is naturalistic, not conventional, is emphasized. Hoppin divides class II into subdivisions I and 2, and puts in 2, on account of their naturalistic or pic- torial style, some vases included by the others in class III. Class III, accord- ing to Wolters, consists of two subdivisions, the first of which differs from class II only in its more delicate execution (these are the vases of Hoppin's class II, 2), while in III, 2 the greatest technical excellence is associated with conventionalized design. Hoppin also makes two subdivisions of class III, his III, i being the same as Wolters's III, 2, while III, 2 consists of vases with extremely conventionalized ornamentation and of inferior technical execution. Hoppin's III, 2 is the same as Wolters's IV, I, and class IV, according to Hoppin, is the same as class IV, 2, according to Wolters, and class IV, accord- ing to Furtwangler and Loeschcke. The most common kinds of Mycenaean vases are those of Furtwangler and Loeschcke, class III (Hoppin, class III, 2; Wolters, class IV, i), and Furt- wangler and Loeschcke, class IV (Hoppin, class IV ; Wolters, class IV, 2), 88 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY invented in Crete. Its use, however, spread to all parts of the Greek world in Mycenaean times, and the characteristic My- cenaean vases are those decorated with lustrous varnish. 1 The better Mycenaean vases are made of fine clay, with an even and brilliant polished surface, which has in the best period a yel- low color. Toward the end of the Mycenaean epoch the surface of the vases becomes gray or reddish, and its polish is less bril- liant. The vases exhibit great variety of form, and more than one hundred different shapes may be distinguished. One of the most characteristic and widely distributed shapes is the false amphora (Biigelkanne), a jar with two handles, which meet over the projecting neck, where one might naturally expect to find the mouth, while the real mouth is formed by a small upright spout. Vases of this shape are usually simply decorated with lines. Another popular, and very graceful, shape is a rather flat two- handled goblet with a high stem. Vases of this shape are regularly decorated with rings on the foot and stem and a con- ventionalized cuttlefish on each side of the bowl (Fig. 43). Fun- nel-shaped vases are common, and are usually decorated with murex shells. Other favorite shapes are : a beaked jug (Schnabel- kanne) a low, small jar or pyxis with three small handles ; and a three-handled pear-shaped vessel on a high stem. Linear decoration is common on vases throughout the Myce- naean epoch, but rectilinear designs are generally avoided, the linear decoration consisting either of parallel lines running hori- zontally about the entire vase or of curvilinear patterns, such as circles and spirals. But the most characteristic Mycenaean de- signs are derived from nature, especially from marine plants and 1 Some of the earliest vases with lustrous varnish differ from the rest in being covered entirely with the black varnish, on which the decoration is applied in white or reddish brown. These are in so far not properly Mycenaean as they seem, at least when found in continental Greece, to be imported from Crete (see p. 48), and this may also be true of vases decorated in this manner which have been found in Cyprus ; but at any rate, some of them belong to the early part of the Mycenaean epoch, the time of the shaft graves at Mycenae. PREHELLENIC GREECE 89 animals. The cuttlefish, murex, nautilus, and several kinds of seaweed are represented in a very lively and naturalistic manner. These naturalistic designs become, however, more and more con- ventionalized, and the long tentacles of the cuttlefish develop into a pattern of elongated spirals. This is especially noticeable on some terracotta burial chests decorated in Mycenaean style, which have been found in Crete. Birds, especially sea-birds, and occasionally human figures, also occur on vases of the best period, and on the later Mycenaean vases quadrupeds and human figures are not very uncommon. The most important representation of FlG. 43. Mycenaean vases. (Furtwangler and Loeschcke, Mykenische Vasen, PI. II. 10, PI. XIII, 8iA, PI. XVIII, 130.) human figures is on the so-called Warrior Vase, which was found among the remains of houses outside of the circle under which were the shaft graves (Fig. 44). Here, on one side of the vase, six warriors, with helmets, shields, and lances, are marching away to the right, while a woman stands and looks after them ; on the other side, a scene of combat is represented. The crudities of execution of this painting are evident, but the liveliness of the representation, and the careful observation, especially in details of costume, are no less apparent. This painting represents two scenes such as were familiar to the painter and his patrons, probably merely typical scenes, with no historical significance, though it is, perhaps, possible that the person for whom the vase 9 o GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY was painted was himself a warrior and wished the decoration of the vase to bear some relation to his own exploits. In this case, the painting might be said to represent particular individuals, rather than general types. But it is hardly possible to attach to it any mythological significance. If it is not intended to represent warriors in general, it doubtless represents the person for whom FlG. 44. Warrior vase from Mycenae. (Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Ausgrabungen, Fig. 284.) it was painted and his comrades. Mythological and religious subjects are conspicuously absent from Mycenaean vase paintings, though doubtless some of the patterns that occur, such as the double axe, have religious significance. In general, the decora- tion becomes less careful toward the end of the Mycenaean epoch. An additional sign of late date, occurring in some vases, is the painting of the inside. On some of the fine Mycenaean vases, the black or dark brown varnish has turned to red in the firing. This is probably inten- tional, and certainly the effect is excellent. The wall paintings at Cnossus and the less striking remains of paintings found at Tiryns, Phaestus, and even at Mycenae show that painting in various colors was widely and skilfully practised in Greek lands in the Mycenaean age, and if the characteristic Mycenaean vases are virtually monochrome, the reason is probably a technical one. The brilliant varnish, capable of withstanding the heat of the firing PREHELLENIC GREECE 91 of the pottery, could not be produced in various colors ; other- wise the vases would probably show as much variety of color as do the frescoes. But a certain degree of variety was produced in some cases by firing the pottery at such a heat as to cause the varnish to shade from brownish black to red. For the comparative monotony in coloring, however, ample com- pensation is offered by the immense variety of shapes and designs. The qualities of liveliness and imagination, which have been ob- served in the frescoes of Cnossus, the gold cups from Vaphio, the steatite vase from Hagia Triada, and some of the Mycenaean gems are present also in the decoration of Mycenaean vases. The designers of these vases were doubtless not the great artists of their times, but they were nevertheless real artists in their hum- ble sphere, and their works serve to give us an exalted opinion of the artistic qualities inherent in their race. The brilliant varnish characteristic of Mycenaean pottery ap- pears to have been invented in Crete ; but the great majority of Mycenaean vases cannot be of Cretan manufacture, for the power of Crete was fallen, or at least greatly diminished, before Myce- naean vase painting attained its fullest development and its widest diffusion. Mycenaean vases have been found in great quantities at Mycenae, Tiryns, and other places in the Argolid, at numerous sites in Cyprus, in Rhodes, especially at lalysus, in Attica, Boeotia, Thessaly, and other parts of continental Greece, in many of the Greek islands, at Troy, in Egypt, in Sicily, and elsewhere. Cer- tain large vases of the crater form, on which human figures are unusually frequent, have been found only in Cyprus, and are there- fore probably of Cypriote manufacture. Other local peculiarities may perhaps be distinguished in other places. It is certain that Mycenaean vases were made at various places, and it is probable that their manufacture was carried on at all the chief centres of population and of trade. The vases found in the less important places, and those found in outlying regions, as in Egypt or at Troy, were probably imported from some centre of production, such as Crete in the earlier and Mycenae in the later part of the 92 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY long Mycenaean age. The great similarity of the products of dif- ferent places, which have been found in so many widely separated localities, testifies eloquently to the wide diffusion of a substan- tially homogeneous civilization. The ethnological problems connected with the study of the Mycenaean age and the preceding periods cannot be discussed here. It is, however, made very probable by the study of the monuments and of the Homeric poems that the Achaean heroes of the Trojan War are identical with the rulers whose wealth, power, and culture are attested by the fortifications, golden treas- ures, and works of art of the Mycenaean age. No exact dates can be given for any events or monuments during the long period of which this chapter treats ; but in a general way the chronological sequence is established. The fact Chronology . ,. .. . .. ,. ,., that objects of Egyptian origin are found in the Aegean regions, and that objects from those regions have come to light in Egypt, while Egyptian paintings evidently represent people and things from the "islands of the sea," makes it possible to determine the chronological relations between Egyptian civiliza- tion and that of Greece and Greek lands. Since Egyptian chro- nology is more or less accurately known, approximate dates can be assigned to the various parts of the long period that intervenes between the neolithic age and the end of the Mycenaean civiliza- tion. As for the neolithic age, no exact date can be assigned to its end, and indeed it may have lasted for some time, even for several centuries, longer in some places than in others ; and since its duration is unknown, not even an approximate date can as yet be given for its beginning. But in the stratum immediately above the neolithic remains at Cnossus primitive black pottery was found which is closely connected with vases of foreign origin found in tombs of the first Egyptian dynasty at Abydos, in Egypt; two stone vessels of Egyptian material and belonging to the earliest dynasties were also found at Cnossus, and some Cretan stone vases and engraved stones show the influence of Egyptian work of the same period. At Cnossus, then, the neolithic age appar- PREHELLENIC GREECE 93 ently came to an end before the beginning of the first Egyptian dynasty, the date of which is now generally believed to be 3400 B.C., though some Egyptologists still prefer a date several centuries earlier. In some parts of the Greek world the neolithic age may have lasted longer than at Cnossus, but the date suggested may be regarded as a rough approximation, and may, as such, be ex- tended to apply to the whole Aegean region. To the times of the first dynasties in Egypt belong the objects just mentioned, found at Cnossus, as well as vases of local manu- facture, of dark or light clay, polished by hand and adorned with geometrical ornaments in white or brown. Similar primitive vases from the Cyclades and other places belong apparently to the same period, from about 3400 to 3000 B.C. The same class of vases, with more developed ornamentation, continued to be made in the following centuries, perhaps until about 2600 B.C. During this period seals with decorations of spiral lines appear in Crete, and the black (bucchero) pottery is decorated with incised lines. Idols of marble and ivory are made in Crete at this time, and the earliest idols and incised pottery of the Cyclades apparently belong to the same or the previous period. The first city at Phylakopi may be dated about 3000 B.C. and later. The development of art and manufactures in the Aegean re- gions seems to have continued without striking changes or inter- ruptions throughout the period of the Old Kingdom in Egypt (to about 2500 B.C.) ; geometric ornament became more regular and elaborate, the " Cycladic " civilization developed, apparently influencing Crete to some extent, while in Crete itself primitive pictographic signs appear on engraved stones, and vases with polychrome ornamentation make their appearance, though perhaps not until some time after the end of the Old Kingdom. At any rate, it is not until the times of the Middle Kingdom, about 2000 B.C. , that the " Kamares " vases, with their developed polychromy, become general in Crete. Such vases have been found at Kahun in Egypt under circumstances which fix their date in the time of Usertesen II, 1906 to 1887 B.C. The beginnings of the palaces 94 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY at Cnossus and Phaestus are probably to be placed at least as early as the beginning of the Middle Kingdom (2160 B.C.). To about the same period belongs the second city at Phylakopi, and it is evident that the trade relations of the Greek islands were already of considerable importance. The palace at Cnossus seems to have been in whole or in part destroyed not far from 1800 B.C. After this the palace was rebuilt, and some of the frescoes from Cnossus date from the succeeding years. The polychrome Kamares pottery is gradually succeeded by the pottery with naturalistic decoration, usually white on a dark ground, and naturalistic designs become general in Crete, not only on vases, but also on reliefs and on seals or gems, which are now made of hard stones. Fine statuettes of glazed terracotta were found among the remains at Cnossus belonging to this period, which is approximately dated by a monument of the XIII dynasty later than 1800 B.C. The vases from Thera, with plant forms painted in lustreless dark paint also belong to this time, which may be regarded as continuing until 1600 B.C. or slightly later. After this the system of decoration of pottery at Cnossus changes, and the designs, sometimes very naturalistic, are painted in dark " Mycenaean " varnish on a light ground ; the palace at Cnossus is remodelled and richly decorated ; the palace at Hagia Triada is built ; and the pictographic Cretan script, which had already begun to yield to the linear script, is definitively superseded. Then follows the further remodelling of the palace at Cnossus, and at last its destruction. In Egyptian tombs of the XVIII dynasty (about 1500 to 1450 B.C.) representations of Cretan, or at least of island, men and manufactures are seen. The objects found in the shaft graves at Mycenae belong for the most part to this time, roughly speaking, on the basis of the Egyptian chronology, the fifteenth century B.C. This is also the time of the third city at Phylakopi. From this time on, the naturalistic decoration of vases becomes more and more conventional. The Mycenaean civilization is more widely spread than ever before. It is in this latest period that the great dome tombs at Mycenae, Orchomenus, and elsewhere were built, and PREHELLENIC GREECE 95 toward the end of the period the palace at Cnossus was partially re- occupied. Products of Mycenaean art are found in various places associated with Egyptian objects produced as late as the XXI dynasty (1090-945 B.C.), and possibly somewhat later, but the end of Mycenaean civilization is evidently reached about 900 B.C. 1 At the end of the Mycenaean age new movements of population took place. New tribes, chief among which were the Dorians, entered Greece ; the ancient inhabitants were displaced or sub- jected, the practice of the arts declined, and Greece relapsed into a state that must have been little better than semi-barbarous. After a period of two or three centuries the arts were revived with much of the old spirit, but with new and different ideals. This dark period, which has aptly been termed the Greek Middle Ages, is the time of germination, after which follows the vigorous and won- derful growth of classical Greek art and civilization. The scanty remains of the primitive art of this period, containing as they do the promise of future development, are best discussed in connection with the various forms of art in the later periods. 1 The chronological sketch given above is based upon the chronology of Prehellenic Crete as established by Dr. A. J. Evans, but the actual dates given are, especially in the earlier parts, later than those which Dr. Evans proposes, because Dr. Evans follows, with modifications, the traditional system of Egyptian chronology, and the dates here given are in accordance with the chronology resulting from the investigations of Eduard Meyer and others, which has been adopted by Professor Breasted in his History of Egypt. Dr. Evans divides the history of Prehellenic Crete into three main periods, Early Minoan, Middle Minoan, and Late Minoan, each of which contains three sub- divisions, Early Minoan, I, II, and III, etc. The Early Minoan period com- prises the first centuries after the neolithic age ; the Middle Minoan period the time from the appearance of polychrome vases in Crete to the virtual abandonment of decoration in light color on a dark ground ; and the Late Minoan period the time after the general adoption of decoration in dark varnish on a light ground. The Late Minoan period is practically identical with the Mycenaean period. CHAPTER II ARCHITECTURE BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS CONCERNING Greek building materials and methods of construe tion, little information is derived from ancient literature, but the study of the so-called building inscriptions and of the actual re- mains of buildings serves to make our knowledge of the subject nearly complete. The building inscriptions (about twenty in number) are either records of expenses incurred in the course of erection, such as the inscriptions relating to the Erechtheum at Athens, or contracts and specifications, like the inscription which describes in detail the proposed construction of the arsenal of Philo at Piraeus. The actual remains of buildings are found in all parts of the Hellenic world. At Athens l and in its neighborhood the Greeks had a variety of building stones to choose from. The upper stratum of the Acrop- olis consisted of a hard limestone, ranging in color from pink to blue, which was employed in building the Pelasgic walls about the Acropolis and the foundations of the old temple of Athena. Kara stone, a hard limestone of good weathering qualities and capable of receiving a good polish, was used for the steps of the old temple of Athena. At Piraeus a fos- siliferous limestone was quarried, which was generally used for foundations ; when used elsewhere it was given a coating of stucco. This is the stone usually called " poros " by modern writers. A 1 The building stones of other regions differed little from those in use at Athens, though in many places the variety of available stones was less, and in some places, e.g. Olympia, Sicily, and Magna Graecia, marble was less easily obtained and therefore less freely used. 96 ARCHITECTURE 97 conglomerate was also occasionally employed, but always in un- exposed places. Marble was not used extensively until the fifth century B.C., and veneering is characteristic of the latest periods. 1 The island of Paros seems to have been the first place to pro- duce marble in any great quantity, and on the Greek mainland Attica was the only region where this material was really abun- dant. At Athens it was little used for building purposes until the latter part of the sixth century, and was at first em- Marble ployed only for roof tiles, simas, and sculptures, where delicate carving was required. The quarries of Mt. Pen- telicus were opened at about this time, but Parian marble still continued to be found in the Athenian market. At Olympia the use of marble was nearly limited to parts of the Echo Hall, the Philippeum, the roof and the sculptures of the temple of Zeus, and the veneer of the Exedra of Herodes Atticus. At Delphi, which was in closer communication with districts in which marble was found, this material was more freely employed. Examples of its use there in early times are parts of the temple of Apollo erected in the sixth century and the " treasuries " of the Cnidians and the Athenians. When a coarse stone was used in exposed places, it was almost always covered with a coat of fine stucco carefully smoothed. Rubble construction laid with clay as a mortar is often found in combination with stonework. Lime mortar as a building material did not come into use until Roman times. Sun-dried Brick brick was used where there was a stiff clay and stone was scarce, and even, on account of its cheapness, in places where stone was plentiful, as at Corinth. It was used for the walls of private houses, the upper courses of circuit walls, and sometimes for temple walls. The bricks were laid upon a course of stone work to guard against the danger of disintegration from moisture and injury from wanton or careless passers-by. As 1 As an exception to this rule, the veneering of marble used to hide the Pelasgic stonework of the earlier Propylaea on the Acropplis at Athens may be cited. GREEK ARCH. 7 98 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY examples, the walls of the Dipylon at Athens and of the He- raeum at Olympia may be cited. Burnt brick was unknown until Roman times. As for wood, the Greek builder could choose among many varieties, the most important of which were lotus wood, pine, fir, oak, and ash. Attica imported wood from Thessaly and the islands. The timbers were generally heavier than those now in use, owing to the fact that the weight of a roof with marble tiles was immense, and moreover we find that the timbers were often laid flat instead of on edge. The quarries on Mt. Pentelicus, at Syracuse, Paros, and Campo- bello near Selinus give a good idea of the method by which stones were loosened from their native beds. The quarries, Quarrying as a whole, were worked in a series of steps. To re- move a block, a vertical cut was sunk at its back ; two other cuts were sunk at right angles to the first and at the ends of the block to be removed ; then the block was loosened underneath by driving holes along horizontally, in which wedges of metal or of wood were inserted. If wedges of metal were used, they were struck with a sledge hammer until the block was loosened, and if the wedges were of wood, water was run in about them, causing them to swell and loosen the block. From the quarries on Mt. Pentelicus to the plain, a chute paved with marble was constructed, along which, at intervals, there are still to be seen square cuttings sunk in the native rock, to which ropes were fastened for lowering the stones gently down the slope. Moving Wagon ruts are plainly visible in certain quarries, and a stones sor t of cart or drag was probably used in transporting light stones. For heavy stones, rollers were employed, as in modern times, and the stones were given a forward motion by means of crowbars. In some cases, we find cuttings for the crow- bars, and in other cases projecting bosses, against which the crow- bars were worked, were left on the stones. Drums and shafts of columns l were sometimes rolled by arranging temporary axles at 1 Architrave blocks were occasionally moved like shafts by putting hoops of wood about them and rolling them (Fig. 45). ARCHITECTURE 99 the ends, by which they were dragged along like rollers. For example, at Selinus, in Sicily, some of the ends of the shafts FlG. 45. Method of moving stones. (Koldewey and Puchstein, Griechische Tempel,etc., Fig. 98.) FlG. 46. Method of hoisting. (Olympia, Text, Vol. II, Fig. 20.) Hoisting show two sets of cuttings, both at the centre. One of these, gen- erally oblong, was used in rolling the shafts ; the other set is square and was used in securing a good bed for the shaft when it was set in place (see p. 107 f. below). The earliest method of hoisting stones was probably by means of inclined planes, but the derrick, with ropes and tackles, was used in the classical period. A Roman relief in the Museum of the Lateran shows such a complicated system of pulleys as to justify the assumption that the Greeks understood the use of pulleys, at least in a simpler form. Various cuttings for ropes are to be found at Olympia, Aegina, in Sicily, and in the old temple of Athena at Athens. There are three principal types : a loop cut in the middle of the stone (Fig. 46), grooves cut in the end of the stone (Fig. 47), and a r OVe CUt arOUnd FIG. 48. - Rope cuttings around the Stone (Fig. 48). stone. (Drawing by G.P.S.) I( Me (Draw- ingbyG.P.S.) 100 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY In a variation of the second type hooks were used, which caught on short crossbars (Fig. 49). These cuttings were confined, as a rule, to soft stones, for this method of hoist- ing was discontinued when the use of marble was introduced, and the harder stone permitted the employment of lifting tongs and the lewis. 1 Projecting bosses were sometimes left on the stones for lifting-tongs to catch under. 2 Square cut- tings on the under surfaces of the stones, at the edges, for the use of lifting-tongs, are often seen (Fig. 50), and tong cuttings sometimes occur in the ends, near the top (Fig. 51), or in the upper surface (Fig. 52). FIG. 49. Method of hoisting. (G.P.S. after Koldewey and Puchstein.) FIG. 50. Tong cut- ting. (G.P.S. after Koldewey and Puchstein.) FIG. 51. Lifting-tongs. ( Olympia, Text, Vol. II, Fig. 20.) FlG. 52. Lifting-tongs. (Drawing by G.P.S.) FlG. 53. Greek lewis. (Clarke, Assos, II, Fig. 25-) These last were employed in dropping the final stone of a course into place. The lewis was used constantly in hoisting hard stones, the Greek lewis holes being undercut at one end only (Fig. 53), 1 Cuttings for lifting-tongs and lewises are occasionally found in soft stones; but the cuttings had to be so large, to prevent the stones from breaking, that their use was soon discontinued. 2 These bosses are generally too small and too imperfectly shaped for ropes to catch hold of. ARCHITECTURE 101 not like those of Roman and modern times (Fig. 54), at both ends. Both rope cuttings and lewises were so placed as to bring at first only the edge of the stone in con- tact with the bed, so that an easy and true adjustment of the stone could be rmde. The tools used in dressing the blocks difieied little from those in use to-day. The evidence for this is de- Tools rived from a careful study of the stones themselves and of the building FIG. 54. Roman lewis, inscriptions. Heavy tools, swung by both Cawing by G.P.S.) hands, were the sledge hammer and a large axe, the latter useful for work in soft stone. A lighter axe, the edge of which was well tempered, a square-headed hammer used in dressing the edges of stones, and the mallet with which the chisels were struck were swung by one hand. The chisels in use were the point, for rough work ; flat chisels, sometimes broad and sometimes narrow, for finishing ; and, after the change in the sixth century from soft to hard stone made a better biting instrument necessary, toothed chisels of varying width and fineness, for joints. There is evidence at Tiryns and in certain blocks of marble now (1907) lying to the southeast of the Parthenon that stones were cut with the saw. For work in wood there is evidence of the use of flat chisels, curved chisels, and augers similar to those of to-day. Rulers were sometimes of wood, some- times of stone, and in building inscriptions mention is frequently made of straightening them. To the list of tools may be added from various sources of information squares, levelling instruments, compasses, and instruments used for scratching lines upon stone. 1 There were three stages in the working of stones ; the rough shaping at the quarry, the cutting into size and shape near the 1 The following tools, taken from the cities buried by Vesuvius, are pre- served in the Museum at Naples: bronze compasses, foot-rules, plumb bobs, squares, metal planes, augers, trowels, chisels for use in stone and wood, ham- mers, picks, shovels, and a complete levis. 102 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY building, and the final finish after the stone was in place. For the rough work at the quarry the hammer and point were used ; at the building site the stone was dressed with the point until it reached approximately the size desired, and the block was then worked over with the toothed chisel, the straightedge and square being continually used to test the planes. On exposed surfaces Working of about a quarter of an inch of stone was left to be stones removed later. With the bottoms of the stones great care was taken to obtain true polished surfaces along the exposed edges, in order to secure water-tight joints, as no mortar whatever was used. It was the practice in Attica in the fifth century to dress with equal care the upper surface of a whole course from end to end, thus securing the best possible bed for the following course. The vertical surfaces of contact, since there is no press- ure at such joints, received a special treatment (see Figs. 46 ar.d 55) : the surfaces were picked away, so that there were true smooth bands ' : < 1 of contact at the edges only. This treatment, which is known as ana' F IG - 55- Forms of contact. thyrosis, may occur on one, two, i Ulympia. Text, Vol. II, Fig. 15.) ., , c , . . t three, or all sides of a vertical joint. A form of contact common at Olympia is shown in Figure 55, at the right. The face of the stone, in the best work, was left unfinished until the wall was completed, in order that a true continuous surface and the best possible joints might be obtained. Horizon- tal and vertical bands, to which plumb lines could be referred, were carefully sunk to the desired depth in the face of the wall. In dressing for the final surface the stones were smeared with a mixture of oil and an ochrous earth (/U'ATOS) from Sinope. The straightedge was applied and twisted about, removing the colored mixture from the high points and thus telling the stone cutter where to chisel. Last of all came the polishing, accomplished by means of a smooth stone and some sort of lubricant, such as water or oil. Great care was taken to avoid splintering the exposed ARCHITECTURE 103 edges in setting the stones. The usual method was to bevel the edges (Fig. 56), and the groove thus formed was removed in the final finishing of the wall face. When ex- posed surfaces had to be finished before the stone was set, as in the case of steps which were set along a line scratched in the course below, the treatment was that FIG. 56. Treatment of shown in Figure 57. The same principle edge. Horizontal section. was applied to the bottom drums of the ' Doric column and to all capitals and cornice members which might be injured when they or the stones above them were put in place. In soft stones the centres of ex- posed surfaces were often raised. This was regarded in Hellenistic times as a species of decoration and was used espe- cially in the lowest course of the wall. In addition to the rope cuttings and FlG. 57. Treatment of edge. (Drawing by G.P.S.) lewis holes there are four important kinds of cuttings which have not yet been mentioned ; pry holes, shift holes, Cuttings dowel holes, and cramp cuttings. The first two of these were used in working the stone into its final position, the last two in bonding the wall to- gether. Pry holes are shallow cuttings, from half to three quar- ters of an inch deep an 1 from two to three inches long, cut in the upper surface of a stone and used in connection with a crow- bar in prying the stone in the course above into its place. They lie at right angles to the motion to be given to the stone above (Fig. 58). Sometimes as fast as a stone was moved forward a FIG. 58. Pry holes. (Clarke, Assy., II. Fig. 7.) 1O4 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY new pry hole had to be cut, and as many as four or five in a line occasionally occur. x Shift holes were cut in the ends of the stones, one set on the under surface and a second near the upper surface (Fig. 59). B ,09 > FIG. 59. Shift holes. (Drawing by G.P.S.) Dowels, generally of wrought iron and packed with molten lead, were used to hold the stones of different courses together. They had various ingenious shapes to suit special needs. For use in walls the dowel cutting was rectangular and was about three inches long, one inch wide, and two inches deep in both upper and lower stones (Fig. 60). 2 A special Dowels 1 In the Parthenon each pry hole contains a piece of wrought iron, held in place with lead and situated at the side of the pry hole away from the stone to be pried into place. Its purpose was to give the crowbar a solid hold in prying. 2 These dowels were placed in the end and at the bottom of the upper stone and sealed with lead before the next stone of the same course was laid. A dowel, then, in the bottom of a stone, tells us in which direction the course was laid. A dowel in the top of a stone is generally accompanied by one or more pry holes. These pry holes cannot exist on both sides of the dowel, as they were used in prying into place the stone which the dowel was to hold. Pry hotes and dowels give us, then, not only the direction in which ARCHITECTURE I0 5 type of dowel was employed at angles and in other places wnere sliding in two directions had to be guarded against (Fig. 61) Angle stones, if they were the last stones of their courses to be laid, were sometimes secured by dowels as shown in Figure 62, or, if the stones were thick, as shown in Figure 63, the channel in each case being ma le for the purpose of pouring in the molten lead. It was the usual practice, however, to lay the angle stones FIG. 65. FIG. 66. FIGS. 60-66. Dowels and cuttings. (Drawings by G.P.S.) first and work away from the angles, thus hiding all dowels. In soft stones the dowels, to be effective, had to be placed at a considerable distance from the joint. Figure 64 shows how this was accomplished in the temple of Poseidon at Paestum. As the course above was laid, but also the approximate position of the end of the stone above, that is, its joint. Shift holes also show in what direction the course was laid (cp. Fig. 59). The extensive use of dowels and cramps in Greek buildings is probably due to the danger from earthquakes. io6 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY lead was used on all parts of this dowel, the latter must have been leaded in the upper stone before the stone was set in place. Occasionally an oblique pour-channel leads from the nearest avail- able point in the stone above (Fig. 65), and sometimes dowels are placed in the ends of stones, with vertical pour-channels in the vertical joints. The last type, which was in use from the fourth century on, is the dowel with horizontal pour channel, as shown in Figure 66. As in the case illustrated by Figure 64, the metal dowel, generally square in section, was fastened with lead in the upper stone before the latter was set. A cutting prepared for it FIG. 67. FIG. 68. FIG. 69. FIG. 70. FIG. 71. FIG. 72. FlGS. 67-72. Cramp cuttings. (G. P. S., Fig. 72 after Koldewey, Lesbos, p. 46.) in the stone beneath received the dowel when the upper stone was set, and lead was then run in through a channel cut in the upper surface of the under stone. Cramps, generally of wrought iron, but sometimes of bronze, were used to fasten together the stones of the same course. They were usually hidden and carefully sealed with lead. They were apparently employed earlier than dowels, for the Metroum and the Treasury of the Geloans at Olyinpia, both of early date, had cramps but no dowels in their walls. Cramps afford a good test of the age of a building. There are five types, the first and oldest of which is shown in Figure 67. The cramp Cramps ARCHITECTURE 107 shown in Figure 68 is a variation of this first type. These cramps were used in buildings of the sixth and the early part of the fifth centuries (e.g. the treasuries of Gela, Sicyon, an 1 Selinus at Olympia and the stylobate of the old temple of Athena at Athens), and were made by simply bending the ends of a bar. The second type (Fig. 69), known as the " double T " or the " H " type, is characteristic of the Periclean buildings. It was more expensive than the first type, as its ends were formed by welding, not by simple bending. An early instance of its use is in the entablature of the old temple of Athena at Athens, and its latest known occurrence is in the monu* ment of Nicias in the same city. The third type is called the " hook cramp " and differs from the first type in being set vertically (Fig. 70). This was in use during the longest period, for it is found at Assos and in the treasury of the Syracusans at Olympia ; it was then out of fashion for a time, but came in again in the middle of the fourth century, and was adopted by the Romans. It was much used at Epidaurus, Pergamon, Samothrace, and Olympia. In Roman times the cutting for the bar was shallower than in the early Hellenic period. The fourth type is the " swallow tail " cramp (Fig. 71), which was used chiefly in soft stones. As it was in use from the sixth to the first century, it does not serve as an indication of the date of a building. The last type (Fig. 72) was found by Koldewey in the island of Lesbos, to which it seems to have been confined. 1 In the best work great care was taken to secure, in the case of column drums, joints of wonderful perfection. In Joints every joint, at the axis of the column, there was a cutting (Fig. 73) for some sort of wooden or bronze pivot, about 1 The length of cramps varies from 2 in., for holding strips of mould- ings on, to 2 ft, as in the temple of Zeus at Olympia, where the head needed to be at some distance from the joint lest the cramp break out through the friable stone. Double T cramps were sometimes used in holding defective stones together. In the Propylaea at Athens several cases of this occur. A cramp cutting in the top of the northwest capital of the main building meas- ures 0.80 m. (31 J in.) in length, 0.018 m. wide, 0.15 m. width of head, and o.i I m. deep. This is the longest known cramp or cramp cutting. io8 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY tvhich the drum, as soon as it was put in place, was turned through a small angle, grinding upon the drum below until a " perfect " joint was obtained, in some cases so perfect as to be completely invisible at a short distance. To make this turning possible, bosses were left on the upper drum to catch hold of. The principle of anathy- rosis (see p. 102) was employed here also. 1 Stones were prepared on the ground, with the exception of the last finishing. Each block had a definite position to occupy in the building, and sometimes, in order that there might be no mistake, the blocks were methodically letteied (A, B, F, etc.) or, in Roman times, numbered (I, II, III, etc.). In the " Theseum " at Athens the lid of each coffer of the ceiling was marked with a little design, Fie;. 73. Cuttings in drums of and a similar design was cut at the columns. (Penrose./V^^ sMe of the g opening to which of Athenian ArcAttecture,p.22, ed. of 1882.) the lid belonged. ARCHAIC ARCHITECTURE In the obscure period that followed the breaking up of the Mycenaean civilization and in the first centuries of really Hellenic history, Greek colonies spread from the Black Sea to Italy and even to France. These colonies retained some recollections of My- cenaean art and were, especially in Asia Minor, also influenced by their neighbors (Phoenicians andothers), while at the same time the 1 It is possible that these cuttings, with thjir wooden blocks and circular centre pins, were employed to secure an accurate centring of the drums as they were set one on top of the other. In the fourth century, dowels with horizontal pour-channels begin to be used in column joints, e.g. in the Olympieum at Athens. ARCHITECTURE 109 beginnings of the new Hellenic art were becoming manifest. It was during this period that the Greek temple came into being. A cult without precious statues and costly votive offerings, such as that of Mycenaean times seems to have been, needed only simple sanctuaries ; an altar in an open space with a surrounding hedge or wall would suffice. The origin of the temple Origin of the was probably due to a desire to protect the religious temple emblems from the weather, from theft, or sacrilege, and perhaps also in part to the growth of anthropomorphism in the Greek religion ; for gods who are like men should have fitting houses. And what is more natural than to suppose that the Greeks took the noblest building they knew, the Mycenaean megaron, and enriched it for its new purpose, as the house of the god? The altar remained in front of the temple ; the entrance gate of the precinct, the propy- laeum, was also retained much as it had been before the Dorian Inva- sion. The first temples then probably had the form of the megaron. Development began at the facade, a natural step being the sub- stitution of four columns for the two columns in antis of Mycenaean times. Then came a facade of six columns, with columns along the sides. The lateral colonnades tempted one to walk round the building, and the last feature of the temple was the rear chamber, the opisthodomus, which made the end facades alike (thus com- pleting the beauty of the structure as an isolated edifice) and was also useful as a store room or treasure chamber. 1 Such was the development of the plan. The roof, too, underwent an important change, and from a flat roof of earth became a roof of two slopes (saddle roof) covered at first with terracotta tiles and later some- times with tiles of marble. The facades at the ends of the temple were now surmounted by gables. All the extant monuments are entirely of stone, but the forms of their various members may be explained as derived from wooden prototypes. This theory of their derivation is supported by Vitru- 1 It cannot be proved that the development followed chronologically th order here given, which is merely a possible or probable, because a logical order. no GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY vius, the only ancient writer on architecture whose work has been preserved, and by the work of the Germans on the Heraeum at The He- Olympia (Fig. no), which is the oldest structure exca- raeum at vated at that site and perhaps in all Greece, with the exception, of course, of the buildings of Prehellenic times. The Heraeum is supposed by some authorities to have been for a long time the only temple at Olympia and to have been shared by Zeus and Hera. It was erected not later than the sev- enth century B.C. and perhaps even earlier. The stylobate consists of two steps, not three as is usual. Six columns have disappeared completely, and those that remain exhibit the greatest diversity in diameter, number of channels, profiles of capitals, constructional features, and even materials. Pausanias says one column in the opisthodomus was of oak. Evidently the columns were origi- nally all of wood, but as fast as they decayed they were replaced by stone. Moreover, as the distance between the columns is un- usually great, and as no stone architraves were found, it is natural to suppose that the entablature was never of any other material than wood. The lowest part of the wall consisted of carefully dressed stonework, but above this rose walls of sun-dried brick. The antae and doors were sheathed with wood. In construction the Heraeum resembles the Mycenaean megaron, and therefore serves as a connecting link between Mycenaean buildings and Greek temples of historical times. The wooden Mycenaean col- umn has been replaced, possibly under Egyptian influence, by the heavier and more durable stone column, which is made more stable by tapering upward. The earliest temple has been trans- lated into a material in which a gradual and continuous process of refinement is possible. THE ORDERS Before discussing the more conspicuous parts of Greek buildings it is well to consider briefly the foundations. No architects seem to have appreciated the importance of these better than the Greeks. As basements occur very seldom in Greek buildings, foundations Foundations ARCHITECTURE in are naturally found only under walls and columns, an arrangement which saved both material and labor. The depth of foundations varied with the weight to be carried, but when pos- sible the Greek architect laid his foundations upon the natural rock, going down twenty courses of stone on the south side of the Parthenon. The native rock was dressed into hori- zontal beds, and the foundation stones were then laid without mortar. Where rock foundations were not to be had, a layer of sand, or sometimes of clay, was generally placed at the bottom of the trench to obtain a level bed. At Ephesus the English architect Wood found a bed of charcoal and a kind of mortar used in the same way. At Olympia the Heraeum and some of the treasuries had foundations of irregularly shaped stones, but FIG. 74. Foundations of the Propylaea at Athens, showing second-hand material. (Wiegand, Porosarchitektur der Akropnlis, Fig. 146.) most frequently squared stones were employed, of any good, inex- pensive material, laid without mortar, and, in the best work, care- fully bonded together with iron. Second-hand material was often used in foundations, as in those of the Propylaea at Athens (Fig. 74). The voids about the building were filled in with stone chips, rough stones, and earth. Upon the foundations rested a series of three steps, 1 called the 1 Steps are sometimes absent, especially in stoae, where they would interfere with the free circulation of the people. In porticoes one step is common, and in temples (e.g. the "Theseum") two are occasionally found. Both the ii2 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY stylobate, 1 which in its turn supported the columns. The floor of the portico or colonnade, generally flush with the top of the stylo- bate, was of gravel and earth, or paved with stone. The floor of the cella was raised, as a rule, a step or two above the floor level of the colonnade, and was carefully flagged. The most striking characteristic of the Greek temple is its use of columns (Fig. 75). There are two styles, the Doric and the FIG. 75. The so-called Theseum at Athens. (Photograph.) Ionic (for the Corinthian style is but a development of the Ionic), distinguished by their characteristic columns and entablatures. side steps and the front steps were sometimes laid in gentle hyperbolic curves, the highest points of which are halfway between the corners of the temple. The curve is not noticeable unless one looks for it, but it was probably intended to arid life and vigor to the appearance of the building. Similar curves are found also in architraves and cornices. Large temples needed inter- mediate steps, e.g. the Parthenon, where at the east and west ends steps of convenient height were inserted. In other cases this difficulty was met by a stone ramp or inclined plane, a dignified arrangement for religious processions. 1 Strictly speaking, the stylobate (d wa s a completely enclosed building on the outside. Within there was a court 4 1 m. (134.52 ft.) square surrounded by Doric porticoes. The portico at the south end of the court had two aisles ; from those on the other sides opened apartments of various kinds, with Ionic col- umns at the entrances, which may have served as lecture rooms, dressing rooms, etc. Some of these still contain their ancient stone benches running round the walls. The entrances to the palaestra were symmetrically placed at the eastern and western corners of the southern facade, and consisted of small vestibules, each with two Corinthian columns between antae. These vesti- bules were so arranged as to prevent passers-by from looking in, and also to hinder the entrance of a direct draught of air. Immediately to the north of the palaestra was the main gym- nasium, an open exercising place, more than a stadium in length and surrounded by colonnades. Here all the competitors in the great games had to spend at least the last month of their period of training under the eye of an official. The southern colonnade ARCHITECTURE 163 of the gymnasium abutted on the northern wall of the palaestra ; how far it extended towards the west is unknown, as its remains have been destroyed by the changes of the bed of the river Cla- deus. The eastern colonnade was in the Doric style, and was di- vided into two aisles. It was nearly 220 yards long, and was evidently used as a race course in bad weather, for it had the same arrangements for the start which are seen in the stadium. The entrance to the gymnasium was at the southeast corner, through a propylaeum which dates from the Roman period. At Epidaurus the Greek Archae- ological Society has excavated an exceedingly well-planned gymnasium (Fig. 127). It measures 75.36 m. by 69.53 m< (247.26 ft. by 228.13 ft.) and has a stately entrance pro- pylaeum at the northwest corner. In the rich cities, especially in Hellenistic times, the intellectual uses of the gymnasia often became very important. At Alexandria, for example, under the Ptolemies, the Museum, which was a developed gymnasium, might almost be called an academy of sciences. Unfortunately little is known about this famous building, except that it included extensive gardens, foun- tains, porticoes, a library, and a spacious restaurant. The best known of the stadia, in which festival games took place, were at Athens, Delphi, Olympia, Nemea, the Isthmus of Corinth, Messene, and Epidaurus. At Olympia the simplicity of the stadium contrasted strongly with the importance of the games. It was a rectangle, measuring 214 m. by 32 m. (about 702 ft. by 105 ft.). The northern side rested upon the slope of a hill, and on the other three sides were merely artificial embankments of earth. There were no especially FIG. 127. Gymnasium at Epi- daurus. (Borrmann, Geschichte der Baukunst, I, Fig. 123.) Stadia 164 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY constructed stone tiers of seats. The course was drained by a channel for rain water. The start and finish of the course are marked by lines of white limestone sills, with holes for upright posts to separate the runners. The course from start to finish is a straightaway dash of 630.80 English feet or 600 Olympic feet, one of the most important measures of antiquity. 1 In Roman FIG. 128, Stadium at Athens. (Photograph.) times the earthen enbankments were made higher to increase the seating capacity, and an arched entrance leading from the Altis was built. The hippodrome, for chariot races, which lay immediately southeast of the stadium, has been completely washed away by the river Alpheus. A late Greek manuscript mentions that the distance once round the course was eight stadia (about 1 A stadium was everywhere 600 feet, but the foot used as a unit was not the same in different places. ARCHITECTURE 165 233 ft. less than a mile). The peculiar arrangement for the start is minutely described by Pausanias (VI, 20, 7). The stadium at Epidaurus dates from the Hellenistic period. It has, like the stadium at Olympia, square, not curved, ends. Its length is 181.08 m. (594.12 ft.). The start and finish are indicated by a line with iron pegs, and there are columns every hundred feet to separate the runners and to mark the distance. The stadium at Athens, laid out in 330 B.C., was formed by the artificial expansion and adaptation of a natural hollow between two hills. About 140 A.D. seats of Pentelic marble were added by Hero- des Atticus, whose example has recently been followed by Mr. Averoff of Alexandria, so that to-day the stadium at Athens, in which the modern " Olympic Games " are held, is entirely of white marble. The length of the plot of ground within the stadium is 670 ft. ; there are about fifty rows of seats, and accommodation for 50,000 spectators (Fig. 128). The most important Greek edifices, after the temples and perhaps the stoae, are the theatres. The Greek drama developed from the songs and dances at the festivals of Diony- .. ,. ; , Theatres sus. At first, perhaps, a chorus sang and danced about the altar, and the spectators gathered round in a circle. As the performance became more dramatic, its outward setting remained the same a circular place, the orchestra, about an altar. Then seats for the spectators were provided, rising in tiers on a slope, that all might see. The seats were at first only the natural side of a hill, or were made of wood, but later they were constructed of stones bedded on the slope or on artificial founda- tions, as the nature of the ground demanded. These stone seats were so cut as to give room for each spectator to dispose of his feet without incommoding the person in front of him. At Eretria and some other places, the theatre did not lean against a hill, and doubtless some theatres never had seats of stone. The seats of Greek theatres embrace considerably more than a semi- circle, and the parts beyond the semicircle are either straight (tangential) or on a curve of greater radius than the semicircle, 166 GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY an arrangement which gave to those occupying the end seats a better view than if the curve of the semicircle had been continued. In most cases the seats were divided into a lower and an upper section by a horizontal passage (diazoma) about halfway up. They were also divided into wedge-shaped divisions by radiating flights of steps about two feet wide. The seats of honor were nearly on the level of the orchestra, from which they were sepa- rated by a passage. The third part of the theatre, at first far less important than the orchestra or the tiers of seats, was the scene (O-KT/V^, scaena), originally merely a booth or some other simple structure which served as a dressing room for the actors. It was not connected with the seats. As time went on, the scene building was enlarged. It now contained permanent dressing rooms and places for storage, and its different parts received distinct names. Between the ends of the scene building and the auditorium were the parodi (TrapoSot), or entrances for the chorus, which could be closed by doors. The arrangement and purpose of some of the parts of the scene building are as yet uncertain. There was the scene proper, or players' booth, and the proscenium (irpoaK^viov), a covered place six to ten feet wide and ten to thirteen feet high, between the scene and the orchestra. The proscenium had a front wall composed of columns half engaged, between which were movable painted wooden panels. Its roof, which was carried on beams of wood or stone, was flat or slightly inclined. Sometimes one central door, sometimes three doors, gave the players direct access to the orchestra. Sometimes two symmetrically projecting wings, called parascenia (-n-apaaKyvia.) , which seem to have been used as storerooms, extended into the orchestra. As a rule, the cen- tral part of the scene building had apparently an upper story, which served as a background, though it received no decorative treatment. The point in doubt is whether the proscenium was used as a stage or merely as a background, before which the players per- formed in the orchestra. The supporters of the latter view admit ARCHITECTURE 167 that actors representing gods, and even other actors in certain cases, may have spoken from the top of the proscenium, and steps seen in some theatres indicate that access to the top of the proscenium was provided for. But the Greek proscenium was too narrow to accommodate the action of a play. It differed greatly from the stage of Roman times, and still more from that of to-day. In Hellenic times the play was apparently performed on the level ground of the orchestra, and the actors were distinguished from the chorus only by their costume and their action. 1 It was not until Roman times that the actors were separated from the chorus and raised upon a higher speaking place (Aoye