FIRE PREVENTION 
 
 AND 
 
 PROTECTION 
 
 A COMPILATION OF INSURANCE REGULATIONS COVER 
 
 ING MODERN RESTRICTIONS ON HAZARDS AND 
 
 SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS IN BUILDING 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND FIRE PREVENTION 
 
 AND EXTINGUISHMENT 
 
 THIRD EDITION 
 
 COMPLETELY REVISED BY 
 
 A. C. HUTSON, C. E. 
 FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEER 
 
 1916 
 THE SPECTATOR COMPANY 
 
 CHICAGO OFFICE: 135 WILLIAM STREET 
 
 INSURANCE EXCHANGE. NEW YORK. 
 
HO M 
 Ml !M:M5IVQ>i*n/J 
 
 . 
 
 Copyright, 1916, by 
 
 THE SPECTATOR COMPANY, 
 New York. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In the preparation of this book it has been the aim of 
 its publishers to place before merchants, manufacturers 
 and underwriters, as succinctly and .conveniently as pos- 
 sible, the knowledge necessary to the most thorough pro- 
 tection from fire and its consequent danger, trouble and 
 loss ; in addition it is believed that it will be of great value 
 to fire departments, as in no other book are the various 
 protective features to be found so completely set forth. 
 There are many methods by which the physical hazard of 
 mercantile and manufacturing establishments may be so 
 improved as to materially lessen the liability to fire, and 
 also to command considerable reductions in premium rates 
 for insurance. The latter consideration will appeal strongly 
 to those who have been accustomed to exercising the utmost 
 care in the preservation of their property in ordinary ways, 
 but who would not care to go to the expense necessary to 
 the fullest protection without the practical recognition of 
 their effort and outlay in the form of a lessened expense 
 for premiums. 
 
 The plan of this work includes the presentation of refer- 
 ences to the various materials and devices which have been 
 found useful in preventing or extinguishing fires, accom- 
 panied by such information as will enable a property owner 
 to be guided in the use of approved appliances and mate- 
 rials. It covers all suggested regulations of the National 
 Hoard of Fire Underwriters and its allied organizations, 
 concerning the matters treated in this book. 
 
 Embodied in this work will be found a considerable 
 amount of miscellaneous information, all tending to give a 
 clearer understanding of matters connected with the pre- 
 vention and extinguishment of fire. 
 
 3G5555 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 Little of the text of this book can be claimed as being 
 strictly original, as the subjects treated have received ex- 
 acting study by the various organizations from whose 
 reports and regulations they have been compiled. In par- 
 ticular, credit is given to the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters for the use of authoritative cuts and per- 
 mission to reprint various articles and regulations, with 
 especial reference to the copyrighted pamphlet on Fire 
 Engine Tests and Fire Stream Tables, and the suggestions 
 contained in the Building Code. 
 
 In the hope that its contents will assist in producing a 
 reduction of the annual fire loss, thereby benefiting both 
 those who buy and those who sell insurance, this book is 
 respectfully submitted to the public. 
 
 THE SPECTATOR COMPANY. 
 
 New York, September i, 1916. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 ORGANIZED FIRE PREVENTION. Work of the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters, the Underwriters' Laboratories and the National 
 Fire Protection Association, with index of regulations issued and 
 appliances listed, 1-12. 
 Hints to the Insured, 13-18. 
 
 HAZARDS 
 
 GENERAL INFORMATION RELATING TO EXPLOSIVES AND OTHER DAN- 
 GEROUS ARTICLES. As issued by the Bureau of Explosives of 
 ' the American Railway Association. 
 Explosives, 19-22. 
 
 Dangerous Articles Other than Explosives, 23-47. 
 MANUFACTURING HAZARDS. 
 Furnaces, 48-61. 
 Drying and Driers, 62-74. 
 Kettles, 74-78. 
 Miscellaneous, 78-96. 
 PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT OF HAZARDS. As compiled by the 
 
 Chicago Board of Fire Underwriters, 97-109. 
 ELECTRICITY, 110-111. 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING. As issued by the 
 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters, 112. 
 General suggestions applying to all structures, 113. 
 Tall chimneys, stacks, steeples and similar structures, 115. 
 Structures other than chimneys, stacks, etc., 115. 
 PYROXYLIN PLASTIC OR NITRO-CELLULOSE. 
 General, 117-120. 
 Storage of films, 121-123. 
 Handling of films, 123-124. 
 Motion picture machines and theatres, 124-128. 
 STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS. 
 General, 129-136. 
 
 Use, handling and storage, 136-146. 
 Garages, 146-148 
 Dry Cleaning, 149 
 Installation of dip tanks, 157. 
 
 Installation and use of internal combustion engines and oil burning 
 equipment other than for household use; including the regula- 
 tions of the National Board of Fire Underwriters and suggested 
 changes adopted by the Railway Fire Protection Associa- 
 tion, 159-174. 
 
 Oil conveyors or carriers, 175. 
 
 Fuel oil apparatus for cooking and heating, for household use, 175. 
 Safety cans, 177. 
 Oil lighting systems, 179. 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 GASES AND VAPORS. 
 
 General, 181-184. 
 
 Acetylene apparatus, 185-190. 
 
 Coal gas producer, 191. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF LAUNDRIES, 195-197. 
 EXPLOSIBILITY OF GRAIN DUST, 198-203. 
 .BLOWER SYSTEMS, 204-210. 
 EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Handling and storage, 2 1 1-2 14. 
 CHEMICAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION RISKS, 215-218 
 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION, 219-225. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 PLANNING, 226. i -.., XiJLT/ : 
 
 DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION, 228. 
 
 EFFECTS OF FIRE ON ALL FORMS OF BUILDING MATERIAL, 239-257; 
 COST AND DEPRECIATION OF ALL FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION, 258-269. 
 GYPSUM AS A FIREPROOFING MATERIAL, 270-274. 
 STUCCO ON METAL LATH, 274-278 
 ASBESTOS, 279-287. 
 REINFORCED CONCRETE, 288-292. 
 
 NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE, 293-349. 
 
 Definitions; classification of buildings; walls; heights and areas; 
 allowable loads; working stresses; ordinary timber construction; 
 roofs and roof structures; protection of vertical openings; mis- 
 cellaneous construction requirements; fireproof construction and 
 fireproofing; reinforced concrete construction; reinforced concrete 
 for fireproofing; chimneys, .flues and heating apparatus; frame 
 buildings. 
 
 MILL CONSTRUCTION, 350-362. 
 
 Including semi-mill construction and composite construction 
 steel and plank. 
 
 ROOF COVERINGS. As defined and graded by the Underwriters Labo- 
 ratories, 362. p<vf 
 PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS, 367. 
 
 Regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters on tin clad 
 
 doors, solid steel doors, rolling steel doors, hollow metal fire door, 
 
 protection to openings in enclosures, vertical communications, 
 
 protection to openings in partitions, 367-403. 
 
 Protection to openings in exterior walls, subject to severe exposure 
 
 and to moderate exposure, 404-411. 
 
 Regulations for the construction of fire windows, 412-421. 
 Prism glass frames used as a fire retardant, 422. 
 Skylight and other roof structures, 423-433. 
 THE PROTECTION OF MAIN BELT DRIVES WITH FIRE RETARDANT 
 
 PARTITIONS, 433-441. 
 WOODEN BEAMS AND COLUMNS, 442-457. 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR VAULTS, 458-462. 
 
CONTENTS vii 
 
 PROTECTION 
 PROTECTION TO PERSONS IN BUILDINGS, 463. 
 
 Means of egress as defined by the National Board Building Code, 465- 
 
 483 
 SIGNALLING SYSTEMS, 484-512. 
 
 Including regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters 
 for central stations, manual fire alarm systems, automatic fire 
 alarm systems and thermostats, automatic journal alarms, watch- 
 man's time recording apparatus, automatic sprinkler alarm and 
 supervisory systems, fire alarm signal systems to supplement 
 factory fire drills. 
 
 THE DESIRABILITY OF HIGH PRESSURE FIRE SYSTEMS, 513-517. 
 MINOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS, 518-529. 
 
 Fire pails, hand pumps and chemical extinguishers. 
 STANDPIPES IN BUILDINGS, 530-534. 
 AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS, 535-597. 
 
 Including the Regulations of the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers. 
 FIRE PUMPS, 598-617. 
 
 Rotary, duplex and centrifugal fire pumps, tests for acceptance, 
 
 electrical driving and control of fire pumps. 
 GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS, 618-648. 
 CONCRETE RESERVOIRS, 649-658. 
 VALVE PITS, 659. 
 CONCRETE TANKS, 660. . 
 HOSE HOUSES FOR MILL YARDS, 661-670. 
 WATER SUPPLY FOR FIRE PROTECTION, 671-676. 
 
 Fire flow tests as made by the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers, 672. 
 TESTS OF FIRE PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES, 677-727. 
 
 Including an authorized reproduction of the copyrighted pamphlet 
 on Fire Engine Test and Fire Stream Tables, issued by the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 INSPECTION REPORTS, 728-739. 
 TABLES, 739-745. 
 APPENDIX, 747. 
 
ORGANIZED FIRE PREVENTION 
 
 Chief Fire Causes. Fire insurance companies have realized for 
 many years that most of the fires are caused by improperly in- 
 stalled appliances or wrongful use of materials, and that the 
 seriousness of fires is often due to faulty construction, which per- 
 mits an early collapse of a building or the rapid spread from one 
 floor to another or to adjoining buildings. 
 
 Fire Prevention a Duty. Primarily it is the duty of the indi- 
 vidual or the State to provide the regulations necessary to prevent 
 such occurrences and only the business of the insurance company 
 to indemnify the owner, and to charge a sufficiently high premium 
 for each class of business to cover the loss and pay a moderate 
 return on the company's capital. 
 
 Even in the early days of fire insurance the companies realized 
 that to reduce the gamble, by reducing the probability of fires, a 
 greater net profit would be obtained during a long period of time. 
 The companies have for years, in line with this policy, maintained 
 men who made a special study of prevention of fires and who would 
 give advice to prospective customers. 
 
 Confusing Advice. With the expanding of American indus- 
 tries, plants became too large for one or two companies to under- 
 write the entire risk involved, and other companies would be called 
 upon to take their share. This resulted in each company advising 
 the owners as to the best means of protection and prevention, 
 with great confusion when attempts were made to carry out the 
 various requirements, as each engineer had his own idea as to 
 what was best. 
 
 Organized Effort. To offset this, various committees of inter- 
 ested insurance officers have been organized from time to time to 
 formulate suggestions and regulations; at the present time, as a 
 result of this, two organizations are in existence primarily for 
 this purpose. One of those is the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers and the other is the National Fire Protection Association. 
 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters. The National Board 
 of Fire Underwriters is an organization of practically all of the 
 stock fire insurance companies ; it operates through committees, 
 on which are executive officers of the company members, and has 
 an office, under the supervision of a general manager, 'at 76 William 
 Street, New York. Of the various committees, the following are 
 the more important: The Committee on Fire Prevention, which, 
 
2 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 through a corps of trained engineers, investigates and reports on 
 the general features of fire protection and conflagration hazard of 
 cities ; the Committee on Laws, which keeps the companies informed 
 of legislatipn affecting them, and through publicity strives to pre- 
 vent unfair requirements being enacted ; the Committee on Build- 
 ing Construction, under whose guidance a model building code 
 has been drawn up and efforts made to- get the various cities to 
 adopt it; the Acturial Committee, which has recently started a 
 compilation of all fire losses in the United States, and the Com- 
 mittee on Lighting, Heating and Patents, which supervises the 
 issuing of suggested regulations covering various appliances and 
 features of construction. 
 
 Regulations Issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters-. 
 
 Acetylene Gas Machines and. Oxy-Acetylene Heating and Welding. 
 
 Blower Systems. 
 
 Cans Waste and Ash. (Out of print.) 
 
 Chemical Fire Extinguishers. (Out of print.) 
 
 Coal Gas Producers. (See Internal Combustion Engines.) 
 
 Code Building. 
 
 Code Electrical. 
 
 Code Electrical Fittings. 
 
 Containers for Hazardous Liquids. 
 
 Dip Tanks. 
 
 Doors, Fire. (See Protection of Openings.) 
 
 Fire Alarm Systems Municipal. 
 
 Fire Brigades Private. 
 
 Fire Doors. (See Protection of .Openings.) 
 
 Fire Pails. (Out of print.) 
 
 Fuel Oil Storage and Handling. 
 
 Gasolene Stoves. (Out of print.) 
 
 Gasolene Vapor Gas Lighting Machines. 
 
 Qas Shut-off Valves. 
 
 Grain Dryers. (Out of print.) 
 
 Hose Couplings and Hydrant Fittings. 
 
 Hose Houses for Mill Yard Use. 
 
 Hose Unlined Linen. Out of print. 
 
 Hydrants Mill Yard. (Being revised.) 
 
 Internal Combustion Engines and Coal Gas; Producers. 
 
 Kerosene Oil Pressure System. (Out of print.) 
 
 Lightning Protection Against. 
 
 Mill Construction. (Out of print.) 
 
 NOTE, Regulations dealing with the construction of appliances are no 
 longer issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, but can be 
 obtained by interested manufacturers from the Underwriters' Laboratories. 
 
ORGANIZED FIRE PREVENTION 3 
 
 Motion Picture Films Storage and Handling. 
 
 Oil Rooms. (Out of print.) 
 
 Oxy- Acetylene. (See Acetylene Gas Machines.) 
 
 Protection of Openings in Walls and Partitions. 
 
 Pumps Centrifugal Rotary Electric. 
 
 Pumps Steam. \ 
 
 Pumps Steam Governors. 
 
 Railway Car Storage. 
 
 Signaling Systems. (Being revised.) 
 
 Skylights. 
 
 Sprinkler Equipments. 
 
 Tanks Gravity and Pressure. 
 
 Valves and Indicator Posts. 
 
 Vaults. 
 
 Walls and Partitions Protection of Openings in. 
 
 Windows Fire. (See Protection of Openings.) 
 
 Wired Glass. (Out of print See Protection of Openings.) 
 
 List of Suggested State Laws and City Ordinances 
 issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 For use by State and City Officials in framing 
 regulations on matters pertaining to Fire Prevention 
 
 State Laws 
 
 To Regulate the Manufacture, Storage, Sale and Distribution of 
 Matches. 
 
 To Regulate the Transportation and Carriage of Explosives. 
 To Regulate the Manufacture, Storage, Sale and Use of Explo- 
 sives. 
 
 To Establish the Office of State Fire Marshal. 
 
 City Ordinances 
 
 To Regulate the Installation, Operation and Maintenance of Mo- 
 tion Picture Machines, and the Construction and Arrangement of 
 Picture Machine Booths and Audience Rooms. 
 
 To provide for the Inspection of Premises by the Fire Department, 
 accompanied by a blank form for use by the inspector. 
 
 To Regulate the Manufacture, Storage, Sale and Distribution of 
 Matches. 
 
 To Regulate the Manufacture, Keeping, Storage, Sale, Use and 
 Transportation of Explosives, in Cities whose population exceeds 
 100,000 inhabitants. 
 
 To Regulate the Manufacture, Keeping, Storage, Sale, Use and 
 Transportation of Explosives, in Villages or in Cities whose popu- 
 lation does not exceed 100,000 inhabitants. 
 
4 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 To Prohibit the Discharge or Firing of Fireworks. 
 
 To Regulate the Use, Sale and Storage of Fireworks. 
 
 To Govern the Construction and Operation of Laundries. 
 
 To Regulate the Construction and Equipment of Theatres. 
 
 To Regulate the Use, Handling, Storage and Sale of Inflammable 
 Liquids and the Products Thereof. 
 
 A Code of Abbreviated Ordinances for use of Small Municipali- 
 ties, and containing under one cover, ordinances providing for Fire 
 Limits, and the Construction and Equipment of Buildings; The 
 Regulation of Automobile Garages ; The Regulation of the Equip- 
 ment and Operation of Picture Machines and Premises wherein the 
 same are operated ; The Inspection of Premises by the Fire Depart- 
 ment; the Cleanliness- of Streets, Alleys and Premises; The Burn- 
 ing of Refuse; The Storage of Explosives; Fire Escapes, and Pro- 
 hibiting the Discharge or Firing of Fireworks. 
 
 A Model Building Code, covering all features of building con- 
 struction, including Theatres and Tenement Houses. 
 
 National Fire Protection Association. Cooperating with the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters is the National Fire Pro- 
 tection Association. This association originally included only those 
 organizations and societies interested in underwriting, but in latter 
 years its membership has broadened to include all institutions, 
 societies, associations, departments and bureaus interested in the 
 protection of life and property against loss by fire, with associate 
 membership for any individual paying dues. This association has 
 two functions, to educate the people as to the economic advantage 
 in preventing fires and to formulate suggested requirements as 
 to the best means of accomplishing this and of the proper ex- 
 tinguishing appliances necessary. 
 
 Personal Responsibility for Fire Loss. In a pamphlet dated 
 March, 1914, the National Fire Protection Association issued a- 
 suggested- bill for adoption by State legislatures, reading as follows : 
 
 SUGGESTED BILL TO Fix PERSONAL LIABILITY FOR FIRES DUE TO 
 CARELESSNESS OR NEGLECT 
 
 SECTION i. Any persen, persons or corporation for any fire caused by, 
 resulting from, or spreading by reason of the negligence of such person, 
 persons or corporation or the non-compliance with any law or ordinance 
 or lawful regulation or requirement of or by any state or municipal authority, 
 shall be liable: (i) for all loss, expense or damage caused by or resulting 
 from such negligence or non-compliance; and- (2) for any expense incurred 
 by any municipal or other governmental agency in extinguishing or attempting 
 to extinguish any fire so caused, resulting or spreading. 
 
 SECTION 2. In all actions against any person,, company or corporation for 
 the recovery of damages on account of any loss or injury to any property, 
 
ORGANIZED FIRE PREVENTION 5 
 
 real or personal, occasioned by fire communicated from property owned by 
 one party to property owned by another party, the fact that such fire was 
 so communicated shall be sufficient evidence to charge the occupant of the 
 property in which the fire originated with negligence, and place the burden 
 of proof upon him. 
 
 In connection with the above, Charles E. Meek, then president of 
 the National Association of Credit Men, said: 
 
 The American fire loss in 1914 amounted to nearly $236,000,000, the largest 
 in the history of the country, with three exceptions, namely, 1908, the 
 year of the Chelsea fire, 1906, when San Francisco was destroyed, and 
 1904, when Baltimore suffered. Compare these figures with those showing 
 the loss through business failures and you will begin to appreciate the fact 
 that the fire loss was nearly as much as, if not more* than, that caused 
 through commercial disasters, this for the reason that there is a considerable 
 amount of salvage tp be secured from the assets of those who fail, while 
 the figures setting forth the fire loss show the amount actually destroyed. 
 There was only one conflagration during 1914, representing a loss of about 
 $13,000,000, the balance of the loss being distributed pretty equally through- 
 out the country, which bears striking testimony to the carelessness of the 
 American people, because it is a well-known fact that a great majority of 
 the fires could be prevented were proper care exercised And don't forget 
 that a great many lives aie sacrificed annually through fire, whereas business 
 fatalities result only in the loss, of dollars and cents. I read a few days ago 
 that in one city over one hundred and sixty-eight lives were lost during the 
 year through fire. 
 
 The question which now naturally arises is: What can be done to reduce 
 the annual fire and bad debt losses? Regarding the first, until some severe 
 penalty is laid upon those whose carelessness is the cause of fire damage 
 toi the property of their neighbors, there will be no reduction in the size 
 of our annual bonfire. It is welcome news to hear that the National Fire 
 Protection Association has drafted a bill which will be introduced into the 
 legislature in every state, and which, if enacted, will penalize the individual 
 whose carelessness has damaged the property of others. The members of the 
 National Association of Credit Men can, as individuals, aid materially in 
 reducing the fire loss and at the same time set a good example to their 
 neighbors through personally inspecting their places of business and their 
 homes at regular intervals, for the purpose of ascertaining whether the 
 ordinary precautions against fire are being exercised. You may not know 
 it, but a very large percentage of all the fires occurring in this country 
 originate in the rubbish heap. 
 
 The Elimination of Fire Hazards. To lessen this preventable 
 loss the first mentioned function of the National Fire Prevention 
 Association, that of preparing suggested requirements, is of vital 
 importance ; seldom does a property owner realize the hazard of 
 the conditions existing around his plant, and even if he appreci- 
 ates the hazard, he may not know of the best way to abate it. 
 These regulations, the majority of which are embodied in this 
 book, are prepared by committees composed of insurance men, 
 as well as men in daily contact with the conditions being discussed, 
 are then passed upon by the association as a whole and by the 
 
6 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 executive committee, and are adopted and printed by the National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters. The following list covers the sub- 
 jects on which regulations have been issued, copies of which can be 
 obtained from any insurance organization or direct from the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters at 76 William Street, New 
 York. 
 
 Membership in the National Fire Protection Association, which 
 entails an annual fee of $5.00, insures receiving a copy of all later 
 editions of any regulations already issued and of regulations on 
 new subjects; it also includes a quarterly publication which gives 
 interesting articles dealing with fire prevention and protection, 
 and statistics on' fires in various classes of manufacturing risks. 
 This association has lately included in the work of some of its 
 committees the question of safeguarding life as well as property. 
 For plant managers and others interested, it is advised that an 
 application for membership be sent to the Secretary of the National 
 Fire Protection Association at 87 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. 
 
 The Underwriters' Laboratories. Manager W. Ii. Merrill has 
 prepared a description of the purposes and work of the Under- 
 writers' Laboratories, much of which is presented herewith: 
 
 Underwriters' Laboratories, a corporation chartered November, 1901, by 
 the State of Illinois, is authorized to establish and maintain laboratories for 
 the examination and testing of appliances and devices, and to enter into 
 contracts with the owners and manufacturers of such appliances and devices 
 respecting the recommendation thereof to insurance organizations. 
 
 The corporation is not in business for profit. Its chief financial support 
 is received from the National Board of Fire Underwriters, under whose 
 general direction the work is carried on. The ' members of the Board of 
 Directors of the corporation are chosen from the officers of the National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters and other organizations of Underwriters from 
 which donations of money are received. 
 
 The work of Underwriters' Laboratories is confined to investigations hav- 
 ing a bearing upon the fire hazard, and is undertaken as one means of secur- 
 ing correct solutions of many of the problems presented by the enormous 
 and disproportionate destruction by fire of property in the United States. 
 
 OPINIONS OF EXPERTS. The object of Underwriters' Laboratories is to 
 bring to the user the one best obtainable opinion on the merits or demerits 
 of appliances in respect to the fire hazard. Such appliances include those 
 designed to aid in extinguishing fires, such as automatic sprinklers, pumps, 
 hand fire appliances, hose, hydrants, nozzles, valves, etc.; materials and 
 devices designed to retard the spread of fire, such as structural methods and 
 materials, fire doors and shutters, fire windows, etc. ; and machines and fittings 
 which may be instrumental in causing a fire, such as gas and oil appliances, 
 electrical fittings, chemicals and the various machines and appurtenances used 
 in lighting and heating. 
 
 THE LABORATORIES' PLANT. The principal offices and testing station of 
 Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., are located at 207 East Ohio St., Chicago. 
 Branch offices are located in thirty-two other cities of the United States and 
 Canada. The New York office is equipped for the conduct of examinations 
 
ORGANIZED FIRE PREVENTION 7 
 
 and tests of all electrical devices under the same conditions as those afforded 
 at the principal office and testing station in Chicago. The Chicago plant 
 occupies a three-story and basement building of fireproof construction con- 
 taining something over 45,000 square feet of floor space, with a frontage of 
 two hundred and sixty-six feet. Yard space is provided Tor huts and large 
 testing furnaces. The main building in Chicago is, perhaps, the best example 
 in America of absolutely fireproof construction furnished with fireproof finish 
 and equipment. Brick, terra cotta, concrete, stone, steel and iron, are used 
 exclusively in the structural features. The window frames and sash are of 
 metal with wired glass, the doors are of metal, the desks and filing cases in 
 the main office are of steel, and even some of the picture frames are of 
 the same material. No wood or other combustible material is used in any 
 portion of the finish. In addition, the plant is equipped with automatic sprink- 
 lers, and the lighting and heating hazards are safeguarded with every known 
 precaution applicable to their installation in buildings of frame construction. 
 In this model building the Underwriters have -gone to the extreme in adopt- 
 ing in their own property all the measures they are known to recommend 
 in the property of others. Eighty-three persons are employed in the Chicago 
 plant, which, with its equipment, has a value of approximately $175,000.00. 
 
 TESTS. The specifications under which the experimental work is 'carried on 
 are based upon the Rules and Requirements of the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters as recommended by the National Fire Protection Association. 
 The technical work at the Laboratories and the promulgation of the findings 
 in the Laboratories' reports are under the supervision of the Council of 
 Underwriters' Laboratories. 
 
 REPORTS UPON TESTS. Summaries of the Laboratories' reports are promul- 
 gated on printed cards filed according to classifications, and cabinets con- 
 taining these cards are maintained at the offices of the principal Boards of 
 Underwriters and Inspection Bureaus in the United States, at many of the 
 general offices of insurance companies, by some insurance firms, certain 
 municipal departments, and at the local offices of the Laboratories in larger 
 cities. Much of the information is also freely distributed by means of lists 
 of manufacturers of inspected appliances promulgated bv the Laboratories, 
 and the results of the work in many classes of appliances are furnished 
 directly to building owners, architects, users and all other persons interested, 
 by means of the Laboratories' Label service, under which goods are inspected 
 at factories by Laboratories' engineers and stamps or labels attached to such 
 portion of the output as is found constructed in accordance with standard 
 requirements. 
 
 The aim of the founders of Underwriters' Laboratories to secure the best 
 and fairest opinion regarding the merits or demerits of every device, system 
 or material having a bearing upon the fire hazard, and to have the work 
 so conducted and reviewed as to secure accuracy and uniformity in its 
 findings, has been accomplished to such an extent that the majority of fire 
 Underwriters in the United States, many municipal authorities, and a large 
 number of architects, building owners and users either accept or require a 
 report from these Laboratories incident to their recognition of devices, 
 systems and materials having a bearing upon the fire hazard. 
 
 Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., however, issues no guarantee that its 
 findings will be accepted or recognized in any case. Such assurances can 
 only be obtained from the authority having jurisdiction. 
 
 PROPRIETARY ARTICLES. As manifestly the regular subscribers to the 
 Laboratories cannot be called upon to cover the expenses of tests made 
 at the request of others, a system has been established whereby a manu- 
 facturer or owner desirous of securing an examination and report by the 
 
8 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Laboratories on any particular device, system or material, is enabled to do 
 so by first depositing a preliminary fee as evidence of good faith, and on 
 completion of the work paying the balance of its cost as shown by accurate 
 records thereof, which are kept in detail. As a warrant that an applicant 
 will not incur costs beyond his expectations, a limit of expense is fixed 
 in each case beyond which charges are not made. By this means an oppor- 
 tunity is afforded anyone at comparatively low cost to'' secure the opinion 
 of the recognized authorities covering any device, system or material in 
 its relation to the fire hazard. 
 
 The amounts of the fees are in proportion to the nature and extent of 
 the work required in examinations and tests. 
 
 The cost of experimental work is practically the same in each class of 
 device, whether samples show superior or inferior qualities. 
 
 The applicant's obligation to pay the charges is not, therefore, contingent 
 upon the nature of the opinion rendered, whether favorable or otherwise. 
 
 The schedule of charges found necessary in the different branches of the 
 work is arranged by groups as follows: 
 
 Amount of Total cost to Applicant 
 
 Preliminary Fee not to exceed : 
 
 Group A...'.! $100.00 $250.00 
 
 B 50.00 100.00 
 
 C. ; ... 25.00 75 .00 
 
 D.'.. 10.00 50.00 
 
 'E 5.00 25.00 
 
 Group F. Under this group is classified experimental work and researches 
 covering subjects or appliances for which standard requirements are not 
 adopted. The amount of the preliminary fee is $100 and bills are rendered 
 monthly as the work proceeds. 
 
 Wherever approvals are granted, on the more common classes of devices, 
 the names of the manufacturers thereof are placed in printed lists, distributed 
 freely by the Underwriters' Laboratories, and in many classes the devices are 
 labeled. 'Many of the leading organizations and authorities are at the present 
 time using these lists or recognizing the labels as the basis of their recommen- 
 dations or requirements. 
 
 Whenever approvals of appliances or materials are ready to issue, the 
 favorable opinion, promulgated as above described, is followed up by one 
 of three forms of supervision over goods marketed under the approvals. 
 
 RE-EXAMINATION SERVICE. The oldest of these three forms is the 
 Re-Examination Service, in which the maker is under contract to con- 
 struct during the continuance of the approval, appliances in exact duplicate 
 of the sample approved, and to pay certain fees annually (ranging usually 
 from five to thirty dollars), with which the Laboratories partially defray 
 the costs of obtaining samples in the open market or from the manufacturer 
 and of making examinations and tests of the appliance one or more times 
 yearly. Unsatisfactory features, if any are found as a result of the re- 
 examination, are corrected by the maker on subsequent products. 
 
 INSPECTION SERVICE. The second form of supervision is the Inspection 
 Service, which is regarded by the Laboratories' management as superior to 
 the Re-Examination Service and is applied so far as possible wherever the 
 Label Service, later described, is not considered practicable. The Inspection 
 Service includes regular and frequent examinations and tests of products at 
 factories by Laboratories' engineer and the correction by the manufacturer 
 of features found not in compliance with the standards of efficiency shown 
 by the samples originally approved, together with supplementary examina- 
 
ORGANIZED FIRE PREVENTION 9 
 
 tions at the Laboratories of samples purchased in the open market or re- 
 ceived from inspectors and users, thus affording counter-checks on the 
 factory inspection work and determinations of the service value of the 
 product. 
 
 The cost of the inspection service is billed monthly in each case to 
 manufacturers co-operating. 
 
 THE LABEL SERVICE. The third form of supervision by the Laboratories 
 is the Label Service. This is regarded by the Laboratories' management 
 as the most efficient and satisfactory of the three methods and is being 
 utilized to a greater extent each year. The Label Service consists of 
 inspections of devices and materials at the factories by Laboratories' engi- 
 neers and the labeling of standard goods by stamps, transfers or metal 
 labels, whereby they may be recognized wherever found; and in addition 
 of systematic supplementary examinations and tests at the Laboratories of 
 samples of labeled goods purchased in the open market or received from 
 inspectors and users, and serving to counter-check the efficiency of the 
 factory inspection work and to determine the service value of the product. 
 
 For a number of industries this service now includes inspection of the 
 product at factories, check tests on materials purchased in the open market, 
 service value determinations by retests of samples which have been in 
 practical use, and schedule estimates showing comparative demerits noted 
 on products. These elaborations are working to the decided advantage of 
 all concerned, and are all possible only under the labelling system. 
 
 Experience has shown that this method is in every way superior for the 
 purpose of bringing to the consumer the article he desires, for the purpose 
 of placing competition between manufacturers beyond the point where 
 deterioration in the quality of the output is made necessary, and for the 
 proper protection of the Laboratories and the organizations co-operating) 
 with them which are given substantial recognition to efficient fire protec- 
 tion appliances. 
 
 It is also shown that an inspection and checking system of this nature 
 can be efficiently operated under the Laboratories' direction without calling 
 upon the mamifacturer to give undue publicity to his manufacturing process 
 or subjecting him to any embarrassment or annoyance. 
 
 The cost of this service is defrayed by charges made for the labels. These 
 charges vary according to the nature and extent of the inspection needed. 
 For goods which can be tested by machinery or which are machine made and 
 run through factories in such quantities that tests of a number of samples 
 of each day's output give a fair criterion of the whole product, the charges 
 run from fifty cents ($0.50) to one dollar and a half ($1.50) per thousand 
 (1,000) labels. For goods made by hand and goods which require inspection 
 or test of each individual item, the charges run from seven and one-half 
 cents ($0.07^) to fifty cents ($0.50) per label. In no case is the cost of 
 the service as represented by the charge for the label sufficient to become 
 a factor of importance in determining the selling price of the article labeled. 
 
To the date of issue of this book the Underwriters' Labora- 
 tories had listed one or more appliances covered by the follow - 
 ing index: 
 
 FIRE APPLIANCES 
 FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS: 
 
 Automatic Sprinkler Equipment, alarm valves, automatic sprink- 
 lers, dry pipe valves, guards, hangers, unions. 
 (For Sprinkler Supervisory Devices, see Signaling Apparatus.) 
 
 Chemical Extinguishers, 100, 33, 2| and 1| gallons, 1 quart, and 
 for oil storage. 
 
 Fire Pails. 
 
 Gate Valves. 
 
 Hand Extinguishers, pail type, pails in tanks. 
 
 Hose, rubber lined. For public or private fire department. For 
 chemical extinguishers on wheels. For hand chemicals. Un- 
 lined linen. 
 
 Hose House Padlocks, Hose Racks, Hydrants. 
 
 Play Pipe, Pumps, Pump Governor. 
 
 Steamer Connection Cap. 
 
 FIRE RETARDANTS: 
 Fire Doors: ..,, SiM |. 
 
 Fire doors for openings in fire walls. 
 Tin clad. 
 
 Sheet metal sliding and swinging patterns. 
 Composite sliding and swinging patterns. 
 Hollow metal swinging pattern. 
 Steel rolling pattern. 
 Fire doors for openings in vertical shaft. 
 Hollow metal swinging pattern. 
 Metal clad swinging pattern. 
 Composite swinging pattern. """.'" 
 
 Steel rolling, counterbalanced patterns. 
 Tin clad counterbalanced, swinging and sliding patterns. 
 Fire doors for openings in corridor and room partitions. 
 Fire doors for openings to exterior fire escapes. 
 Fire Shutters for openings in exterior walls. 
 Frames for fire doors and shutters. 
 Fire Door and Shutter Hardware. 
 Door checks. 
 Sliding type. 
 Swinging type. 
 
 Three-point locking mechanisms. 
 Fire Window Frames. 
 Hollow metal type. 
 Solid section type. 
 Metal clad type. 
 Wired glass. 
 Putty. 
 
FIRE APPLIANCES n 
 
 Fire Window Hardware. 
 
 Sash locks. 
 
 Sash chains. 
 Gypsum Blocks. 
 Paints, Fire Retardant. 
 
 Dry powder and liquid types. 
 Partitions. 
 Roof Coverings. 
 
 Built up type. 
 
 Prepared type. 
 
 Shingle type. 
 Shop and Office Furnishings. 
 
 Cabinets, insulated. 
 
 Driers. 
 
 Safes light weight. 
 
 Shelving, bins, boxes and box trucks, portable racks. 
 
 Waste cans. 
 Miscellaneous Fire Retardants. 
 
 Automatic closers. 
 
 Fire shields for belt openings in floors and walls. 
 
 Fusible links. 
 
 Heat insulating coverings. 
 
 Lumber. 
 
 Plaster boards. 
 
 Post cap and girder supports. 
 
 Wall hanger. 
 
 SIGNALING APPARATUS: 
 Battery Sets. 
 
 Bells see list of electrical fittings. 
 Signaling Systems, fire alarms, thermostats. 
 Local Manual Fire Alarm Boxes. 
 Sprinkler Supervisory Devices. 
 
 Watchmen's Time Recording Apparatus, boxes for central stations, 
 local or private system apparatus, portable recorders and key 
 boxes, stationary recorders, magnetos. 
 
 GAS, OIL, MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL APPLIANCES 
 ACETYLENE APPLIANCES: 
 
 Generators: For lighting; for welding and cutting. 
 
 Blow pipes. 
 
 High Pressure Cylinders for lighting and welding. 
 Lamps; Torches: Reducing and regulating valves. 
 
 ALCOHOL APPLIANCES: Flat Iron; Lamp. 
 BALING PRESSES. 
 
 CANS: 
 Safety. 
 Waste. 
 
 CAR-HEATING SYSTEM. 
 CELLULOSE ACETATE PLASTIC. 
 CLEANING LIQUIDS. 
 
12 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 CONTAINERS FOR HAZARDOUS LIQUIDS, STORAGE AND SUPPLY SYSTEMS: 
 
 Discharge Devices, hand operated, outside. 
 
 Discharge Devices, hand operated, inside. 
 
 Discharge Devices, power operated, inside. 
 
 Safety Cans. 
 
 Tanks. 
 
 Underground storage. 
 
 Stationary, for use in buildings. 
 
 Portable. 
 
 Shipping containers. 
 
 Miscellaneous tanks, cleaning and dip. 
 
 Fittings for Hazardous Liquids. 
 
 Couplings, gauges, meters, unions, valves. 
 DUST CLOTHS. 
 FERTILIZER. 
 FILMS. 
 
 FIRE WORKS. 
 FLOOR BRUSH. 
 FLOOR OILS. 
 FUEL KINDLER. 
 FUEL FOR GASOLINE ENGINES. 
 FUEL-OIL APPLIANCES: 
 
 Engines Auxiliary Tank (for Engines), Oil-burning Equipmant, 
 
 Shut-off and Drain Valves, Vent for Oil Tank. 
 FUMIGATORS. 
 GAS APPLIANCES: 
 
 Engines, Heaters, Mixers, Producers, Regulators, Shut-off Valves, 
 
 Fittings for Shut-off Valves Pull Boxes, Roller Elbows. 
 GASOLINE APPLIANCES: 
 
 Engines, Stationary and Portable. 
 
 Gas Machines, Lighting Systems, Vapor Lamps. 
 
 Gauges (see Fittings for Hazardous Liquids). 
 
 Hose. 
 
 Pumps (see Discharge Devices). 
 
 Stoves. 
 
 Strainers. 
 
 Valves (see Fittings for Hazardous Liquids). 
 INCUBATORS, BROODERS AND DRINKING FOUNTAINS: 
 
 Incubators. 
 
 Brooders. 
 
 Drinking Fountains. 
 KEROSENE APPLIANCES: 
 
 Engines, Kilns, Oil Pressure Systems. 
 LANTERNS WATCHMEN'S Electric, Kerosene. 
 LIQUIFIED GAS APPARATUS. 
 MATCHES. 
 METAL POLISH. 
 PITCHING PLANT. 
 SLAKED LIME. 
 SOLDERING FLUX. 
 SWEEPING COMPOUNDS. 
 
 TRICHLORETHYLENE AND TETRACHLORETHANE. 
 TURPENTINE SUBSTITUTES. 
 WASTE CANS. 
 
 ELECTRICAL 
 
 FITTINGS, WIRE AND APPLIANCES OF ALL KINDS. 
 
HINTS TO THE INSURED 
 
 Below will be found a number of hints which may prove useful 
 in the avoidance of fire loss or in securing indemnification there- 
 for. 
 
 If you hold a policy of a company which is not regularly licensed 
 to do business in your State, read it carefully it may differ vitally 
 from the ordinary standard policy. 
 
 Certain things are specifically permitted by standard policies; 
 others are strictly prohibited. When in doubt cousult the Policy. 
 
 If the insured cancels his policy, the company retains the usual 
 short time rate; if the company cancels, it only retains a propor- 
 tionate part of the premium. The company must give five days' 
 notice of cancellation. 
 
 Under certain restrictions kerosene oil may be used and kept 
 for sale. See policy and " special clauses." 
 
 Certain classes of property are especially excluded from insur- 
 ance unless written in the policy or form. Among these are cur- 
 rency, deeds, securities, pictures, etc. 
 
 Encumbrances, changes in ownership, other insurance without 
 permission, and various other circumstances may void policy. Be 
 sure you have complied fully with its requirements. 
 
 Loss of rent or income by reason of fire may be insured against, 
 but is not covered by the standard policy. 
 
 If you sustain a fire loss give immediate written notice to. the 
 companies interested, stating in round figures your estimate of the 
 damage. 
 
 The property owner must use all reasonable effort to save and 
 preserve his insured property in event of fire. 
 
 Keep an account of all expenses incurred in caring for saved 
 property, for later consideration. 
 
 The insurance company will not take care of, nor take posses- 
 sion of, your premises, or of your saved property. Any loss 
 caused by the insured's negligence to protect and care for his 
 property at and after a fire is not covered by the insurance contract. 
 
 All the value of the property saved belongs to the insured, and 
 all of the loss and loss expenses thereon up to the face of the 
 policy belongs to the insurance. 
 
 After a fire it is the owner's duty to separate the damaged from 
 the undamaged property, and to make an inventory showing quan- 
 tity and cost of each article, with the amount of damage claimed 
 thereon. 
 
 As the policy of an insolvent company would be held to con- 
 tribute proportionately in any loss, it is advisable to cancel such 
 policy as soon as the insolvency of the company is known. 
 
 Care should be used to have all policies read alike when covering 
 the same property. 
 
 13 
 
14 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Large floor areas are discriminated against unless divided by 
 acceptable fire walls, with openings properly protected. 
 
 Rate reductions are made for approved fire doors and shutters. 
 
 Engines should, if possible, be located in separate brick or stone 
 building at some distance from factory. 
 
 The installation of automatic sprinkler systems is encouraged by 
 liberal concessions in premium rates. 
 
 Fair allowances are made by underwriters to' induce the use of 
 such devices as watchmen's clocks, chemical extinguishers, fire pails, 
 hydrants and hose, wired glass windows, etc. 
 
 Stairways should be built outside of main building in brick addi- 
 tion, cut off at each floor by fire door. If inside of building they 
 should be enclosed and cut off by doors at each floor ; but the spaces 
 under stairways should be left entirely open. 
 
 Before adopting for use in your factory or store any new device 
 or material, inquire of your local insurance agent whether its use 
 is approved by insurance companies; otherwise you may learn 
 that your insurance has been vitiated. 
 
 Use metal ash cans, and keep rags and oily waste in metal cans. 
 The latter should be kept out of doors at night. 
 
 Be exceedingly cautious with matches. Keep them in metal or 
 other fireproof boxes. 
 
 Make it one man's duty to inspect thoroughly and regularly all 
 apparatus designed to prevent or extinguish fire or to send in an 
 alarm ; also to see that the premises are kept clean and free from 
 anything which might feed a fire. Water casks and pails should 
 be kept filled, sprinklers and valves in working order, gas jets 
 properly protected, stoves and stovepipes in safe condition, etc. 
 
 By having your boilers insured against damage by explosion you 
 can secure their regular inspection. 
 
 Be especially careful in filling and trimming oil stoves and lamps. 
 Do it only by daylight. 
 
 Steam pipes should be covered with a suitable non-conducting 
 material. They have been known to cause fires when in contact 
 with or too near woodwork. 
 
 Every large establishment should have a well-organized and ef- 
 fective private fire department, fully equipped with good apparatus. 
 
 The division of buildings into fire sections by brick walls run- 
 ning up through and above the roof and cutting off cornices, with 
 all openings protected by automatic fire doors is highly approved 
 by underwriters. This arrangement tends to localize any fire which 
 may occur. 
 
 All openings through walls and floors, such as doors, hatchways 
 and belt-holes, may be protected by automatically closing doors 
 and shutters, which are of great assistance, in event of fire occur- 
 ring, in preventing its spread through the building. 
 
 Every factory of any size should be provided with a fireproof 
 oil room, for the storage of illuminating and lubricating oils, etc. 
 This can be constructed within the main building, if necessary, in 
 such a manner as to materially lessen the fire risk inherent in such 
 materials. 
 
 It is a good plan, when a plant is equipped with a dry-pipe 
 automatic sprinkler system, and is located in a district subject to 
 severe weather in winter, to protect the dry-pipe valves by placing 
 them in insulated closets. 
 
HINTS TO JHE INSURED 15 
 
 Where there is danger of an oil fire, keep pails of sand at hand. 
 Water would help spread such a fire, while sand would quench it. 
 
 Skylights should be made of wired glass or protected from 
 breakage by wire screens. 
 
 Floor beams should rest on ledges or in box anchors, in order 
 that, should the floors fall during a fire, they would not pull down 
 the outside walls. 
 
 Asbestos and other fireproof materials are now prepared in every 
 conceivable way; so that an almost certain protection can be se- 
 cured against any particular hazard. 
 
 Fireproof roofing materials are now plentiful, and should be 
 used wherever feasible. 
 
 Beware of concealed spaces in interior woodwork. Wherever 
 they are necessary, they should contain frequent fire stops; other- 
 wise fire may be carried through them with great rapidity. 
 
 Walls and ceilings should be built of non-inflammable materials, 
 the use of wood or wooden lath and plaster being discouraged by 
 insurance men. 
 
 All windows through which fire could be communicated from an 
 adjoining building or from another wing of the same building 
 should be protected by automatic fire shutters. 
 
 All fire doors and shutters should be closed nights, Sundays and 
 holidays, or whenever the building is not occupied. 
 
 It is advisable to protect openings between important divisions 
 of a building with a fire door on each side of the wall. 
 
 Constant care must be exercised to keep all protective appliances 
 and apparatus in good order. Dependence upon deteriorated pro- 
 tective devices is more dangerous than is their entire absence. 
 
 An equipment of open sprinklers on the exterior of the building 
 is very desirable in the case of a wooden building which is exposed 
 by another building. These should be arranged under the cornice 
 and over each window. In some cases every window should be 
 protected by a sprinkler. 
 
 Do not let your sprinkler equipment freeze up in winter. It may 
 burst and inflict water damage, or it may be frozen up and inef- 
 fective when a fire occurs. 
 
 Sprinkler protection, to be effective, must be thorough. Every 
 nook and corner must be protected or a fire may have time to grow 
 beyond control. 
 
 Gas jets are .dangerous unless surrounded by wire guards. 
 
 Every sizable factory should have, in connection with its private 
 fire department, one or more hose houses, each sheltering a hydrant, 
 with hose already attached and neatly laid out ready for instant 
 use, together with axes and other necessary tools. Permanent 
 ladders should be erected at points where they might be needed in 
 fighting a fire. 
 
 Be certain that your supply of water for sprinklers and hydrants 
 is always sufficient and easily obtainable. 
 
 Fire pumps should be located beyond reach of fire, and should 
 be constantly in condition for immediate and protracted use at 
 their full capacity. The " Underwriter " pattern is deemed the 
 best style of fire pump. 
 
 A tank used to supply water to a sprinkler system should not 
 be used for domestic purposes, as sediment is apt to accumulate 
 and clog sprinkler pipes. 
 
16 FIRE PREVENTION -AND PROTECTION 
 
 A steam coil or an open live steam pipe should be used to pre- 
 vent water in tank from freezing. There should be a permanent 
 ladder leading to gravity tank. 
 
 Heavy pressure of water, satisfactory to underwriters, may be 
 obtained from public water works systems, private reservoirs or 
 standpipes, air pressure tanks or automatic steam pumps. 
 
 No large mercantile or manufacturing establishment can be con- 
 sidered properly equipped which has no automatic fire alarm system. 
 There are a variety of these, and they can be arranged to suit 
 every requirement. Some of them are combined with automatic 
 sprinklers. 
 
 Use none but frost-proof hydrants where the winters are cold 
 enough to freeze up ordinary hydrants. 
 
 The underwriters have adopted a standard for fire hose ; see 
 that your hose is up to standard and in good condition. 
 
 Great care should be exercised in the treatment of hose. Jt 
 should be kept in a well-ventilated house, and should be emptied 
 and carefully laid out on shelves after using. 
 
 It will be found economical in the end to purchase thoroughly 
 good hose, even though the price is somewhat higher than other 
 hose said to be " just as good." 
 
 Probably more fires have been put out by means of water pails 
 than by any other instrumentality. A liberal supply of pails, well 
 scattered throughout the premises and kept constantly filled, pro- 
 vides an excellent safeguard against fire. 
 
 Watchmen are proverbially sleepy; hence the desirability, if not 
 the absolute necessity, for the use of watchmen's clocks and watches, 
 to secure regular and systematic inspection of the premises during 
 nights, Sundays and holidays. 
 
 A good system for conveying an alarm of fire to employees, and 
 especially to the members of the private fire department, should be 
 devised by the factory owner. Promptness may mean the safety 
 of your property, when delay would cause its loss. 
 
 A generous supply of hand fire extinguishers will contribute 
 much toward the safety of your premises. 
 
 Fire prevention is better than fire insurance for a reputable house. 
 Insurance companies may indemnify you fully for direct loss, but 
 they will not and cannot make good the loss occasioned by the 
 stoppage of your business, such as loss of old customers and old 
 and skilled employees. '.'",'' 
 
 Hand grenades are particularly adapted for use in some lines of 
 business, and in special locations possibly they would suit your 
 needs. 
 
 A supply of efficient fire escapes may be the means of saving 
 many lives. A life saving net is an excellent addition to the factory 
 apparatus. 
 
 None but approved safety lanterns should be used by watchmen 
 and others in a factory, especially in one containing inflammable 
 goods. 
 
 Concerns still clinging to the use of sawdust in cuspidors should 
 substitute sand. 
 
 Be careful in your choice of executive men for your private fire 
 department. Have those only in power whose authority will be 
 recognized, who are cool and ready ip emergencies, and who live 
 near the establishment. 
 
HINTS TO THE INSURED 17 
 
 If you use, or intend using, acetylene gas, make certain that your 
 generator is of a type approved by underwriters, that it is properly 
 situated, and that you are violating no rule concerning storage of 
 calcium carbide. 
 
 Bear in mind that, while acetylene gas, under certain conditions, 
 is as safe as ordinary illuminating gas, under certain other condi- 
 tions it has highly explosive qualities. Be sure you are right 
 then go ahead. 
 
 It has been aptly remarked that " a pail of water at the beginning 
 will extinguish any fire, provided the pail of water is there, and 
 some one to use it." Also that a sprinkler " is itself the first pail, 
 but it requires no human agency to operate it. It is on duty night 
 and day." 
 
 Rubbish, if permitted to accumulate, is extremely likely to some 
 day cause a fire. This is especially true if oily rags, cotton on 
 sawdust form a part of the accumulation, for then spontaneous 
 combustion is apt to occur, and another mysterious fire, with no 
 imaginable cause, is reported. 
 
 Stoves and stove pipes have caused many fires. Pipes should 
 always be securely fastened, particularly when passing through 
 walls or partitions ; and the sheet of tin or zinc placed under the 
 stove should project for a considerable distance in front of it, to 
 prevent damage by live coals. 
 
 Do not permit any joists to run into the mason work of a chim- 
 ney as the chimney, in settling, is apt to crack in such a way that 
 the wood will be exposed to the action of the fire. Watch chimneys 
 closely and remedy defects promptly. 
 
 If your building is heated by a hot-air furnace, see that ample 
 space (at least one foot) is left between the furnace, smoke pipe 
 and heat pipes, and the joists above them. Better further protect 
 the joists by a fireproof covering. 
 
 With the increasing use of electricity for light and power, the 
 number of fires attributable to stray electricity is growing. Elabo- 
 rate rules have been promulgated by organized underwriters, elec- 
 tricians and architects to ensure the safe installation of electrical 
 plants ; but the actual safety depends very largely upon the honesty 
 and conscientiousness of the local electrician who does the work. 
 Most of his work is covered up so that it is almost impossible to 
 detect existent defects. 
 
 Use sand for the absorption of oil drippings, not sawdust. 
 
 Never deposit ashes in a wooden receptacle. 
 
 There are several preparations for rendering fabrics practically 
 fireproof. If you have gas jets in proximity to curtains, have, the 
 latter fireproofed. 
 
 Mansard and shingled roofs, wooden awnings, blind attics, etc., 
 do not find favor with underwriters. 
 
 Use only a good quality of bricks and mortar in the construction 
 of chimneys. 
 
 The use of Herosene on floors when sweeping, or of sawdust 
 on floors, adds to the fire hazard and the insurance premium. 
 
 Holiday decorations in stores in which lights and flimsy fabrics 
 are utilized, constitute a positive fire risk. 
 
 Keeping merchandise in tin-covered boxes, or on skids or plat- 
 forms raised above the floor, or on the grade floor of building, all 
 tend to reduce the liability to damage by fire or water. 
 
l8 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Co-insurance may be briefly defined as the carrying or insuring 
 of a portion of his risk by the owner in case his insurance in 
 companies falls below a certain fixed percentage of the value of 
 his insured property. A concession in premium rate is usually 
 granted for a High percentage of co-insurance clause. 
 
 Keeping goods in fireproof safes reduces risk and premium. 
 
 Remember that heat has a great expansive effect on iron pillars 
 and beams, which should be thoroughly protected by some non- 
 conducting material. 
 
 Put in cut-offs or fire-stops at every floor of your building and 
 wherever feasible, so that fire will not have free play through the 
 interior of partitions. 
 
 Wrought iron is much more affected by the attack of rust than 
 is cast iron. A covering of lime mortar tends to prevent deteriora- 
 tion of iron by rust. 
 
 When installing a sprinkler system, be thorough; protect every 
 portion of your plant, placing sprinklers under large shelves, plat- 
 forms, racks, etc., where the water distributed by the ceiling heads 
 might not reach and quench a fire. 
 
 Keep the valves in sprinkler supply pipes always open. 
 
 Explosives must not be used or stored, except under prescribed 
 conditions or by special permission. 
 
 If your property is mortgaged, be certain that you have complied 
 with policy requirements respecting mortgaged property. 
 
 Permission of the insurance companies is necessary before mak- 
 ing extensive repairs or alterations. Read the policy in this con- 
 nection. 
 
 If insurance is carried in more than one company, be sure that 
 permission for other insurance is given in each policy. 
 
 Losses are adjusted according to the present value of the goods 
 damaged or destroyed. 
 
 To extinguish a chimney fire, close the doors and windows of 
 the room from which the flue leads, in order to prevent draught, 
 and then sprinkle a cup or two of salt on the fire. 
 
 If a building is to ,be vacant or unoccupied longer than ten days, 
 obtain permission from the insurance companies. 
 
 A factory may be run until ip P. M., or closed for not exceeding 
 ten days, without special permission. 
 
HAZARDS 
 
 GENERAL INFORMATION RELATING TO 
 
 EXPLOSIVES AND OTHER 
 
 DANGEROUS ARTICLES* 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 An explosive consists of a substance capable of conversion with great 
 rapidity into gaseous form with evolution of heat. The volume of gas given 
 off is many times that of the volume of the explosive. The effective work 
 of commercial explosives is due to the large amount of gas and heat given 
 off and to the -rapidity with which the chemical action occurs. 
 
 Practically all explosions are in reality a burning of the explosive material. 
 The difference between the burning or explosion of an explosive and the 
 burning of wood, coal or other inflammable material is that in the former 
 case the oxygen necessary for the burning is furnished from one of the 
 components of the explosive, while in the latter case the necessary oxygen 
 .is furnished by the air. 
 
 In the firing of explosives other than high explosives the action is com- 
 municated by actual contact of the flame passing from one part of the 
 charge to the other. These explosives are ignited by a powder fuse in 
 mining or by a primer in rifle and shotgun cartridges. In the explosion of 
 a high explosive the action through the material is transmitted ' as a wave 
 motion, much in the same manner that sound vibrations pass through the air. 
 Such an explosion is also characterized by the term detonation, and is many 
 times quicker than the ordinary explosion of such materials as black powder. 
 High explosives can be exploded by heat, shock, friction, or by use of a 
 blasting cap. It is this last means that is employed whenever high explosives 
 are used in practical work. In fact, a high explosive may be best defined 
 and distinguished as one that may be detonated by means of a blasting cap. 
 
 BLACK POWDER is the oldest and most widely known explosive material. 
 Black powder is not a high explosive. Black blasting powder is a mixture 
 of sulphur, charcoal and sodium nitrate. Black rifle powder is a mixture of 
 sulphur, charcoal and potassium nitrate. Sodium nitrate is used in blasting 
 powder in the United States on account of its lower cost, and in spite of the 
 fact that it has the property of absorbing moisture from the air. Potassium 
 nitrate does not have this property, and hence the black rifle powder has 
 better keeping qualities than the blasting powder. However, any deterioration 
 of a black powder from absorption of moisture renders it less easy to ignite, 
 and consequently less dangerous. At the same time, its value as an explosive 
 is lessened or destroyed. 
 
 In the manufacture of blasting powder the sodium nitrate is dried and 
 pulverized, and the charcoal and sulphur are also pulverized. The three 
 ingredients are then placed in their proper proportions in a wheel mill in 
 which the mixing takes place, and the materials are at the same time reduced 
 to a very fine powder. 
 
 * Issued by the Bureau of Explosives of the American Railway Association, 
 
 19 
 
2o FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 After the mixing is completed the material is removed to a press mill, 
 where it is pressed by hydraulic pressure into hard cakes. This cake is 
 then broken up and formed into grains in the corning mill. The granular 
 powder is then glazed by placing it in a rotating cylinder with powdered 
 graphite. The glazing renders the grains less angular and gives them a 
 polished surface. The glazing process is omitted entirely with some grades 
 of blasting powder. The powder, after glazing and drying, is packed for 
 shipment and the usual container is the 25-lb. metal can. Black rifle powder 
 is made in much the same manner as above, with the exception that potassium 
 nitrate is used instead of sodium nitrate. 
 
 Black powder is very insensitive to shock or friction, and for all practical 
 purposes it may be said that it cannot be exploded in this way. If, how- 
 ever, a spark is produced in any manner the powder is readily ignited. The 
 finer the grains the easier the powder may be ignited. It is the peculiar 
 susceptibility to sparks which renders the transportation of black powder 
 hazardous. The term low explosives may be used for black powder or other 
 explosives of similar composition. 
 
 SMOKELESS POWDERS usually consist principally of nitrocellulose. The chief 
 risk attending transportation of these powders is one of fire from external 
 causes. 
 
 Smokeless powder for cannon would increase the intensity of the fire, 
 but it must be strongly confined, as in a cannon, to make it explode. On 
 account of the finer granulation, smokeless powder for small arms would 
 burn much more rapidly. 
 
 Some few so-called smokeless powders are made from chlorate mixtures 
 and are, of course, subject to the same risks as high explosives. 
 
 DYNAMITE may be defined as any material formed by the mechanical mixing, 
 of nitroglyeerin with an absorbent. Nitroglycerin is formed by the treatment 
 of glycerin with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids. After formation 
 of the nitroglyeerin in this way it is separated from the mixed acids and 
 thoroughly washed with water till all traces of acid are removed. The nitro- 
 glyeerin is a heavy, oily liquid, having somewhat the consistency of glycerin, 
 and having generally a yellowish color. Nitroglycerin of itself is extremely 
 sensitive to shock, friction or detonation, and is too dangerous for railway 
 transportation. About the only use for it in a liquid state is in blowing 
 oil wells. For this purpose it is customary to transport it by wagon. Many 
 accidents have occurred in this way. 
 
 In making dynamite, nitroglyeerin is mixed with an absorbent or " dope." 
 In this country the usual practice is to use a mixture of sodium nitrate 
 and wood pulp for a dope for a straight dynamite. In making ammonia 
 dynamite the dope usually consists of a mixture of ammonium nitrate, sodium 
 nitrate, wood pulp and sulphur. It is also required that an antacid of some 
 kind be used in all dynamites to neutralize any traces of acidity accidentally 
 remaining in the nitroglyeerin. The materials most often used as antacid 
 are magnesium carbonate or calcium carbonate. Chalk or limestone is com- 
 posed chiefly of calcium carbonate. 
 
 The ingredients of the " dope " should be thoroughly dried before mixing, 
 and the dope should be of such quality that it will absorb and hold the 
 nitroglyeerin added. As wood pulp is much more efficient as an absorbent 
 than sodium nitrate, the high grade dynamites must have much more pulp 
 than the low grades. After the nitroglyeerin has been thoroughly mixed 
 with the absorbent either mechanically or by hand, it is taken to the packing- 
 house, where it is loaded in paper cartridges. These cartridges are made 
 of stout paper, and are dipped in , melted paraffin before loading. It is the 
 
EXPLOSIVES 21 
 
 usual practice after filling cartridges with ammonia dynamite to dip them 
 again into melted paraffin. 
 
 In making gelatin dynamite the nitroglycerin is first mixed with soluble 
 nitrated cotton, thus forming a jelly-like mass; afterwards a dope some- 
 what similar to that for straight dynamite is thoroughly mixed with the 
 jelly-like mass, thus forming a gelatin dynamite. Gelatin dynamite, when 
 properly made, is less liable to leak than straight dynamite. 
 
 Gelatin, or blasting gelatin, differs from gelatin dynamite in that it con- 
 tains no absorbent dope. 
 
 The sodium nitrate and wood pulp used in dynamite have the power of 
 absorbing moistxire from the air, and are therefore said to be hygroscopic. 
 Ammonium nitrate, which is used in ammonia dynamites, is much more 
 hygroscopic than the sodium nitrate or the wood pulp. The use of paraf- 
 fined paper for the cartridges tends to prevent the absorption of moisture 
 from the atmosphere and the leakage of nitroglycerin from the cartridges. 
 The double coating of the ammonia dynamite cartridges is done on account 
 of greater hygroscopic qualities. 
 
 A dynamite made up with a proper absorbent in sufficient quantity will 
 r,'>t leak when manufactured, but if subjected to long storage it has a tendency 
 to gradually absorb moisture from the atmosphere This absorption naturally 
 takes places faster if the dynamite is stored in a damp magazine. As a 
 rebult of this absorption of moisture, the power of the dope to hold the 
 nitroglycerin is lessened, and the cartridge becomes stained with nitroglycerin; 
 these stains are in turn transmitted to the box and to the floor of the 
 magazine. Ammonia dynamites, having a greater power of absorbing moisture 
 than the others, deteriorate sooner in this way. 
 
 Dynamite is exploded by shock, friction or detonation. When burned in 
 large masses it usually explodes, but it can be burned with comparative 
 safety in small quantities when entirely unconfined. Dynamite when cooled 
 to a temperature of about 45 F. entirely loses its ordinary soft and plastic 
 condition and becomes entirely solid and hard. In this condition it is said 
 to be frozen completely. Frozen dynamite is less sensitive to shock and 
 friction than when in the soft condition, but partially thawed dynamite is 
 said to be more sensitive. It is necessary to " thaw out " frozen dynamite 
 to get complete detonation in practical use. The thawing should always 
 be done in an apparatus well adapted to the purpose. It must, however, be 
 remembered that even frozen dynamite is liable to explode if carelessly 
 handled. 
 
 Many " low freezing " dynamites are now made by the addition of nitro- 
 toluol or other suitable ingredients to the nitroglycerin. With the exception 
 of the ingredient added to the nitroglycerin to lower the freezing point, these 
 dynamites are similar in composition to ordinary dynamites. Their use in 
 cold weather avoids the inconvenience of thawing. In other respects they 
 involve much the same hazards in handling and in transportation as do the 
 ordinary dynamites. 
 
 High explosives other than dynamite generally come under' four groups: 
 I. Nitrocellulose and Nitrostarch Explosives; II. Chlorate Mixtures; III. Am- 
 monium Nitrate Mixtures; IV. Picric Acid and Picrates. 
 
 NITROCELLULOSE AND NITROSTARCH EXPLOSIVES. The basis of these ex- 
 plosives is either nitrostarch or nitrocellulose. These compounds are formed 
 by the treatment of either starch, cotton, paper, or wood meal, with a 
 mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The acid is then removed by thor- 
 ough washing with water, and often by boiling with water. The resulting 
 nitrostarch or nitrocellulose has the same appearance as the material before 
 nitration. It has, however, become much more inflammable, and under 
 
22 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 certain conditions explosive. For use as a commercial explosive, the nitro- 
 starch or nitrocellulose is usually mixed with sodium nitrate or a mixture 
 of sodium and ammonium nitrates. Explosives of this group are generally 
 less sensitive to shock, friction and detonation than dynamites. Having no 
 liquid ingredient, they are not subject to exudation. In use, they are ex- 
 ploded by the ordinary blasting cap or electric blasting cap. As a rule, 
 explosives of this group burn with great rapidity when ignited in the 
 open air. 
 
 CHLORATE MIXTURES. Explosives of this group consist of a mixture of 
 chlorates or perchlorates or both with some organic matter. Explosives 
 containing chlorates are liable to be sensitive to shock, friction or detonation. 
 Some of them ignite at low temperatures. Chlorate explosives if made from 
 improper or impure ingredients, are liable to spontaneous ignition. Increase 
 of sensitiveness is also possible. 
 
 Explosives containing perchlorates without chlorates, are less sensitive to 
 impact, friction and detonation than the chlorate explosives and are not 
 liable to spontaneous decomposition. 
 
 AMMONIUM NITRATE MIXTURES. Explosives of this group consist of a 
 mixture of ammonium nitrate with some organic combustible material. As 
 a rule, these explosives are the safest explosives. They are less sensitive 
 to shock, friction and detonation than the others. Owing to a large per- 
 centage of ammonium nitrate, some of these explosives will burn very slowly 
 even when placed in a hot fire. 
 
 PICRIC ACID AND PICRATES. Picric acid consists of a yellow crystalline 
 powder of intensely bitter taste and explosive properties. It is formed by 
 the nitration of phenol (carbolic acid). Picric acid combines directly with 
 metals to form salts known as picrates. Picric acid and picrates are used 
 in the color industries and in the manufacture of explosives, principally for 
 military use. High price and fumes from explosion render them of little 
 use for commercial explosives. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE.- For handling and storage of Explosives, see page 211. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 
 
 For the purposes of safe transportation by rail, dangerous articles other 
 than explosives are divided into five classes, namely: 
 
 I. Inflammable Liquids. (Red label.) 
 
 II. Inflammable Solids. (Yellow label.) 
 
 III. Oxidizing Materials. (Yellow label.) 
 
 IV. Corrosive Liquids. (White label.) 
 
 V. Compressed Gases. (Red or green (gas) label.) 
 
 An inflammable liquid, as defined by the Bureau of Explosives, does not 
 mean any liquid that can. be burned. The meaning is restricted to liquids 
 which at ordinary temperatures, give off inflammable vapors. These vapors 
 are not only inflammable, but, when mixed in proper proportions with air 
 in an enclosed space, will explode with violence, if ignited by any means. 
 This action is exactly similar to explosions caused by ignition of mixtures 
 of coal gas and tar in houses, cellars, sewers, etc., which frequently occur 
 through the accidental escape of gas into enclosed spaces. Any liquid 
 giving a flash point of 80 F. or less, open cup, is classified as an inflammable 
 liquid. 
 
 The flash point* is determined by gradually heating the liquid in question 
 in a small open cup. After each five degrees rise in temperature a small 
 flame is passed across the top of the cup about one-quarter of an inch above 
 the surface of the liquid. The lowest temperature at which a flash passes 
 over the surface of the liquid is called the flash point. It will readily 
 he seen that the lower the flash point of any liquid the greater the risk of 
 handling. 
 
 Inflammable solids include such solid materials other .than explosives as 
 are liable to cause fires by self-ignition though friction, through absorption 
 of moisture or through spontaneous chemical changes. 
 
 Oxidizing materials! include all substances, such as chlorates, peroxides, 
 perchlorates, permanganates and nitrates, that yield oxygen readily to stimu- 
 late combustion of organic matter. 
 
 Corrosive liquids include the strong mineral acids, in strength greater 
 than \k concentrated, and other strongly corrosive liquids, the transportation 
 of which involves risks, similar to "transportation of the acids. 
 
 COMPRESSED GASES. Gases are commonly shipped compressed in steel 
 cylinders. Among the inflammable gases so shipped are acetylene, blaugas, 
 hydrogen gas, pintsch gas, liquefied petroleum gas and coal gas; among the 
 non-inflammable gases shipped are anhydrous ammonia, carbonic acid gas or 
 carbon dioxide, chlorine, compressed air, nitrous oxide or dental gas, oxygen 
 and sulphur dioxide. These gases are compressed or liquefied at pressures 
 varying from 50 to 1,800 pounds per square inch or higher. Of the above 
 gases the* following are commonly shipped in the liquefied condition, 
 blaugas, liquefied petroleum gas, anhydrous ammonia, carbon dioxide, chlorine, 
 nitrous oxide, and sulphur dioxide. The inflammable gases are liable to be 
 ignited if they escape, while any compressed gas may burst the cylinder 
 from internal pressure. Pressure will always increase with increase of tem- 
 perature, and should any cylinder of compressed gas be exposed to fire it 
 
 * See also page 216. 
 t See also page 130. 
 
 23 
 
24 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 will inevitably explode unless provided with an efficient safety device. Cylin- 
 ders occasionally explode on account of being dropped or exposed to external 
 violence. 
 
 Definitions 
 
 A brief description of the principal articles included in the above classes, 
 and other articles of special or peculiar hazard for rail or water transportation, 
 is given below: 
 
 Acetate of Amyl is a clear, colorless liquid having an odor like bananas. 
 It is made from amyl alcohol and is used as a solvent of nitrocellulose in 
 the manufacture of lacquers. Different grades of amyl acetate vary in in- 
 flammability with the character of impurities, contained. The commercial 
 grades in ordinary use give a flash point about 70 F., and are therefore 
 classed as inflammable liquids. Very small units of the absolutely pure 
 material give flash point above 80 F., and are not classed as inflammable 
 liquids. 
 
 Acetate of Ethyl or Acetic Ether, is a clear, colorless volatile liquid of 
 fragrant odor, used as a medicine and as a flavoring. It is very inflammable, 
 having a flash point of approximately 40 F. It is classed as an inflammable 
 liquid. 
 
 Acetate of Methyl is a clear colorless liquid of pleasant odor. It is of 
 about the same degree of inflammability as acetone, and is classed as an 
 inflammable liquid under the I. C. C. Regulations and is not accepted by 
 many of the steamship companies. 
 
 Acetic Ether. (See Acetate of Ethyl.) 
 
 Acetone is a clear, colorless liquid, having a pleasant odor somewhat 
 similar to wood alcohol. It is used largely as a solvent for nitrocellulose 
 in the production of lacquers, etc. Acetone is highly inflammable, having 
 a flash test of 35 F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Acetylene is an inflammable gas of formula C2 Ha. It is formed by the 
 action of water on calcium carbide. When compressed alone it is liable to 
 explosion. It is, however, extremely soluble in acetone. It can be shipped 
 only in steel cylinders filled with a porous material satisfactory to the Bureau 
 of Explosives. This porous material must be charged with acetone or equiva- 
 lent solvent. Acetylene is used for head lights on locomotives, automobiles 
 and motor boats, for signal lights, and for welding purposes. It requires a red 
 (gas) label. 
 
 Acid, Acetic, is a clear, colorless liquid, having a pungent odor, and is 
 used chiefly in technical work. It is not inflammable, nor is it classed as 
 a corrosive liquid under the regulations. Glacial acetic acid is the most 
 concentrated acetic acid, and solidifies at temperature of 50 F. Its ship- 
 ment is restricted by the Department of Commerce. 
 
 Acid, Arsenic, is a white crystalline solid material, not inflammable or 
 corrosive, but highly poisonous, and, therefore, prohibited by some steam- 
 ship lines. It is also shipped in concentrated aqueous solution. Its ship- 
 ment on passenger steamers is restricted by the Department of Commerce. 
 
 Acid, Arsenious, is a white, solid material, either in powder or lumps, 
 used in paint, glass and leather industries; it is highly poisonous, but not 
 otherwise dangerous. Its shipment on passenger steamers is restricted by 
 the Department of Commerce. 
 
 Acid, Carbolic, is shipped both in the solid and liquid state. Material is 
 poisonous, somewhat corrosive, and has an exceeding strong odor. It is 
 not classed as an inflammable liquid or solid, but its shipment is restricted 
 by the Department of Commerce. 
 
 Acid, Formic, is a colorless liquid of pungent, irritating odor. When con- 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 25 
 
 centrated, it has a caustic effect on the skin, but does not have the strong 
 corrosive effect of the mineral acids, and is not classed as a corrosive liquid 
 under the regulations. Its shipment is restricted by the Depaitment of 
 Commerce. 
 
 Acid, Hydrochloric (Muriatic Acid), is a corrosive liquid, varying from 
 colorless to yellow, according to purity. It gives off acid vapor of a 
 peculiarly irritating odor. It cannot be packed in iron drums, but is usually 
 packed in glass bottles or carboys. It is also shipped in tank cars provided 
 with acid-proof lining. Hydrochloric acid will damage or destroy many 
 articles by contact, but does not cause fires. It is classed as a corrosive 
 liquid. 
 
 Acid, Hydrocyanic, is a colorless, volatile liquid, having odor and taste 
 of bitter almonds. Both liquid and its vapor are highly poisonous. It is of 
 slight commercial importance. Its shipment by water is restricted by the 
 Department of Commerce. 
 
 Acid, Hydrofluoric, or Etching Acid, is a fuming corrosive liquid used 
 principally for etching on glass. It cajinot be kept in glass bottles, owing 
 to its solvent action on glass. It also dissolves all metals except gold, platinum 
 and lead. It is consequently shipped in vessels of lead, rubber, or ceresine 
 (a material similar to paraffin), or in asphaltum-lined barrels or wooden 
 tank cars. Hydrofluoric acid is made by treatment of the mineral known 
 as fluor spai with sulphuric acid. It is classed as a corrosive liquid. It 
 is refused by many steamship companies. 
 
 Acid, Mixed, is a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, used for nitration 
 of glycerin or cellulose in the manufacture of nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose. 
 This acid mixture coming into contact with organic matter is sure to cause 
 fire, and, therefore, should not be shipped or stored in glass containers, 
 owing to risk of breakage, except it is in a glass carboy, packed in a tight 
 cylindrical iron case, covering bottom and sides of carboy, the space between 
 bottle and case being filled with non-combustible cushioning material, and 
 the case fitting tightly in the outside wooden box. It is also shipped in 
 iron drums or tank cars. It is classed as a corrosive liquid. It is refused 
 by many steamship companies. 
 
 Acid, Nitrating. (See Acid, Mixed.) 
 
 Acid, Muriatic. (See Acid, Hydrochloric.) 
 
 Acid, Nitric, is a fuming, corrosive liquid, varying from colorless to red, 
 according to purity. It has a corrosive action on almost all metals. It is 
 also a strong oxidizing agent, and when brought into contact with wood or 
 other organic matter is likely to cause fire. Nitric acid is made of different 
 strengths for different purposes. The stronger acid is more likely to cause 
 fire. It is packed in glass bottles or carboys. These bottles or carboys must 
 be packed in incombustible packing. It is formed by the action of sulphuric 
 acid on a nitrate usually sodium nitrate. It is used largely in the manu- 
 facture of explosives. It is classed as a corrosive liquid. It is refused by 
 many steamship companies. 
 
 Acid, Nitre-Hydrochloric, is a mixture of nitric and hydrochorlic acids. 
 This acid gives off chlorine gas, especially if warmed. It is highly corrosive, 
 having the power to dissolve all metals, including gold and platinum. It is 
 packed in glass bottles or carboys. It is classed as a corrosive liquid. 
 
 Acid, Oxalic, is in the form of a white crystalline solid. It is odorless, 
 and slightly corrosive but poisonous. It is not generally regarded as hazard- 
 ous for transportation. 
 
 Acid, Phosphoric, consists of a clear colorless, odorless liquid of a syrupy 
 consistency. It is but very slightly corrosive, and is not classed as a cor- 
 
26 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 rosive liquid by the I. C. C. Regulations, nor is it generally restricted by 
 the steamship companies. 
 
 Acid, Picric, is a yellow crystalline solid of intensely bitter taste. It is 
 used in leather and dye industries, also as a military explosive. The dry 
 material is a high explosive. When thoroughly mixed with not less than 
 10 per cent water, in waterproof containers, it is treated as an inflammable 
 solid. 
 
 Acid, Pyroligneous, is the crude acid obtained by the destructive distilla- 
 tion of wood. It is of yellowish or brownish color, and contains approxi- 
 mately 6 per cent acetic acid, together with tarry matters. It has a strong 
 smoky odor. It is entirely uninflammable and without hazard in shipment. 
 
 Acid, Sulphuric., is a heavy, oily, corrosive, odorless liquid. It varies 
 from colorless to almost black, according to purity. Sulphuric acid is made 
 by the oxidation of sulphur, by burning the native sulphur or iron pyrites. 
 The sulphur dioxide formed directly by the burning is still further oxidized 
 to sulphuric acid by either the contact process or the lead chamber process. 
 Sulphuric acid will char wood or almost any other organic matter, but is 
 unlikely to cause fire. It is largely used in manufacture of chemicals, 
 acids, fertilizers, explosives, and in refining of oil. It is shipped in glass 
 bottles and carboys, or in iron drums or tank cars. It is classed as a cor- 
 rosive liquid. It is refused by some steamship companies, and its shipment 
 by boat is restricted by the Department of Commerce. 
 
 Acid, Valerianic, is a colorless, oily liquid of a very offensive, rancid odor. 
 It is not dangerously corrosive or inflammable, but owing to offensive odor 
 is not accepted by some steamship lines. 
 
 Air, Liquid, is air liquefied by high pressure and low temperature. It is 
 shipped in double walled glass bottles with silvered walls; the space between 
 the double walls is a vacuum. These containers are built on the same 
 principle as the well-known " thermos bottles." The containers for liquid 
 air are not tightly closed, and evaporation may take place without causing 
 internal pressure. Liquid air, owing to its concentration has a strong 
 oxidizing effect on finely divided organic matter. Owing to its extremely 
 low temperature, it causes effects similar to severe burning if it should 
 come in contact with the skin. It is of small practical value, and shipments 
 are chiefly confined to material for demonstration purposes. 
 
 Alcohol, Denatured, consists of grain alcohol to which some substance 
 has been added, rendering it unfit for use as a beverage, but not interfering 
 with its use in the arts. Ordinary denatured alcohol contains wood alcohol 
 and benzine, and consequently the flash point is lowered to 40 F., ap- 
 proximately. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Alcohol, Grain, is a clear, colorless liquid of characteristic taste and 
 color. It is obtained by fermentation of grain or other starch or sugar- 
 containing material. It mixes with water in all proportions. Pure alcohol 
 has a flash test of 55 F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Alcohol, Solidified, consists of wood alcohol which has been colloided to 
 a soft semi-transparent mass of about the consistency of a jelly. It is 
 made either by colloidirig with nitrocellulose, or with a kind of soap. The 
 former kind is unchanged by moderate heat while the latter is liquefied. 
 Solidified alcohol gives off inflammable vapors at temperatures of approxi- 
 mately 50 F. or above, but owing to the fact that its physical condition 
 is such as to prevent leakage from defective containers it is not classed 
 as a dangerous article. 
 
 Alcohol, Wood, is a clear, colorless liquid, of a peculiar odor. It is 
 obtained by the dry distillation of wood. It mixes with water in all pro- 
 portions and has a flash test of 45 F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 27 
 
 Alfalfa Feeds* consist of varying mixtures of ground alfalfa hay, with 
 molasses, with or without the addition of cracked corn, oats, and various 
 other feeds. Carload shipments of these feeds under some circumstances 
 heat spontaneously and in extreme cases may cause fire. The use of inferior 
 or mouldy, or exceedingly damp ingredients, or the wetting of the material 
 in transit promotes this heating. It is not classed as a dangerous article. 
 
 Ammonia, Anhydrous, is a compressed liquefied gas shipped in iron or 
 steel cylinders at pressure approximating 150 Ibs. per square inch at 60 F. 
 Gas is entirely non-combustible and is used for refrigerating purposes. Cylin- 
 ders must be kept away from heat and must not be dropped or struck. It 
 requires a green (gas) label. 
 
 Ammonia, Aqua, is in the form of a clear colorless liquid having a 
 strong odor of ammonia. It consists of ammonia gas dissolved in water. 
 It is slightly corrosive but has a strong odor. It is not classed as a hazard- 
 ous article by the I. C. C. Regulations, but its shipment is restricted by 
 some of the steamship companies. 
 
 Ammonium Hydroxide. (See Ammonia, Aqua.) 
 
 Ammonia Water. (See Ammonia, Aqua.) 
 
 Ammonium Picrate, is a crystalline powder of yellow to orange color and 
 having an intensely bitter taste. It is a high explosive, but is extremely 
 insensitive to friction, impact or detonation. 
 
 Ammunition Bombs or Bombardments are fireworks. They consist of heavy 
 paper shells containing bursting charge of black powder or other explosive, 
 and in addition usually contain colored stars of chlorate composition. These 
 bombs are meant to be fired into air from a mortar. Some of these bombs 
 are very large and heavy and explode with great violence. When assembled 
 with blasting caps or detonators they are forbidden for transportation. These 
 bombs are not accepted by steamship lines, and when shipped by rail are 
 classed as a^ecial fireworks or as high explosives, according to nature and 
 composition. 
 
 Ammunition for Cannon embraces all fixed or separate-loading ammuni- 
 tion too heavy for use in small arms. When the component parts are 
 packed in separate outside package such packages may be shipped as smoke- 
 less powder for cannon, explosive projectiles, empty (including solid and 
 sand loaded) projectiles, primers, or fuses. Igniters composed of black 
 powder may be attached to packages in shipments of smokeless powder for 
 cannon. 
 
 Ammunition for Small Arms consists usually of a paper or metallic shell, 
 the primer, powder charge and projectile, the materials necessary for one 
 firing being all in one piece, such as is used in sporting or fowling pieces, 
 or in rifle, pistol practice, etc. 
 
 Amyl Acetate. (See Acetate of Amyl.) 
 
 Aqua Fortis. (See Acid, Nitric.) 
 
 Aqua Regia. (See Nitro-Hydrochloric Acid.) 
 
 Animal Charcoal or Bone Black consists of a charcoal formed by the 
 destructive -distillation of bones. It is used largely as a clarifying agent 
 in sugar refining, etc. Owing to the large amount of mineral matter con- 
 tained, it does not possess the hazards of wood charcoal, and is not clashed 
 as an inflammable solid. It is accepted generally by the steamship com- 
 panies. 
 
 Arsenic Trioxide. (See Acid, Arsenious.) 
 
 Asphaltum Paint or Varnish consist's" of asphaltum in solution in benzine, 
 benzol, or other solvents. Its inflammability depends on the nature of the 
 solvents used. 
 
28 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Automobile Supplies, N. O. S., may include gasoline, acetylene ij.is tanks, 
 or rubber cement, which are all properly classed as inflammable. 
 
 Bags, Empty, used for nitrate of soda. The jute bags used in shipment 
 of nitrate of soda become impregnated with the nitrate, which, unless thor- 
 oughly removed by washing with water, renders the bags very inflammable. 
 
 Barium Chlorate. (See Chlorates.) 
 
 Barium Nitrate consists of a heavy white crystalline salt, which is a 
 strong oxidizing agent. It is occasionally used in explosives, but mostly 
 to produce a red color in fireworks. It is commonly shipped in barrels 
 or boxes, and thus packed it is not classed as dangerous by the T. C. C. 
 Regulations. 
 
 Barium Peroxide, Barium Dioxide, Barium Binoxide, is a heavy grayish 
 white powder insoluble in water. It is a strong oxidizing agent used prin- 
 cipally in bleaching and in the manufacture of hydrogen peroxide. It is 
 incombustible alone, but when mixed with organic matter is dangerously 
 inflammable. Mixtures of barium peroxide and organic matter are ignited 
 by friction and barium peroxide rubbed between wooden surfaces is liable 
 to cause fire. It is classed as an oxidizing material and must be shipped 
 in metal containers, except small quantities which may be packed in bottles. 
 
 Barrels, Empty, having been previously filled with gasoline, benzine, naphtha, 
 or other inflammable liquids should be shipped with bungs closed, as interiors 
 contain inflammable vapor either alone or mixed with air in proportions to 
 form explosive mixture. Accidental entrance or contact with spark or flame 
 may cause fire and explosion. So-called " empty barrels " often still contain 
 a small quantity of the inflammable liquid which may escape in handling the 
 barrel, thus causing further risk. The risk is not considered great, however. 
 
 Batting, Dross, consists of an intimate mixture of cotton fiber nrd rosin. 
 It is formed by the filtration of melted rosin through raw cotton. If 
 ignited it burns very rapidly, but is not regarded as liable to spontaneous 
 ignition. It is not classed as inflammable by the I. C. C. Regulations, but 
 it is not accepted by steamship companies. 
 
 Benzene. (See Benzol.) 
 
 Benzine is the lighter and more inflammable distillate from crude petroleum. 
 It is of varying specific gravity, but is exceedingly inflammable, and has a 
 well-known characteristic odor. It is used for lighting, heating, power and 
 as a solvent. The flash point varies with different grades, but is approxi- 
 mately o F. or below. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Benzol is a clear, colorless liquid of aromatic odor, distilled from coal 
 tar. It is very inflammable, having a flash test of approximately 20 F. It 
 is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Benzol, Trinitro, is a yellow crystalline solid. It is a high explosive. 
 
 Benzoyl Chloride, consists of a clear, colorless liquid, having an intensely 
 irritating and offensive odor. It is combustible, but not dangerously inflam- 
 mable. It is not classed as an inflammable liquid by the I. C- C. Regulations, 
 but is refused by many of the steamship companies. 
 
 Bichloride of Tin (or more properly Tetrachloride of Tin) is. shipped in 
 two forms. In the anhydrous condition it is in the form of a heavj", colorless, 
 corrosive liquid, giving off fumes on exposure to the air. It is shipped in 
 bottles, carboys and in iron drums, and is classed as a corrosive liquid. It 
 is also shipped in a hydrated condition, in the form of white crystals. In 
 this form it is not classed as a hazardous article for transportation. 
 
 Bichromate of Soda and Bichromate of Potash are yellow crystalline salts 
 which act as oxidizing agents. They are not considered hazardous for 
 railroad transportation, and are accepted by all steamship companies so 
 far as known. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 29 
 
 Binitro Toluol is a yellow crystalline solid, melting at 158 F. Material 
 is not explosive nor dangerously inflammable. In appearance it strongly 
 resembles trinitrotoluol, which is a high explosive. 
 
 Blacking, X. O. S. Some liquid blackings contain a volatile inflammable 
 liquid solvent, and may therefore give a flash test of 80 F. or below, 
 in which case they will be classed as inflammable liquids. 
 
 Blacking, Stove, Liquid. (Similar to above.) 
 
 Blasting Caps consist of small, hollow copper cylinders, containing fulmin- 
 ate of mercury or a mixture of fulminate of mercury and potassium chlorate. 
 These caps are used for detonating dynamite and other high explosives. They 
 are sensitive to shock and very dangerous. 
 
 Blangas is a colorless inflammable gas, having odor similar to Pintsch gas. 
 It is formed by passing mineral oil into a highly-heated retort; the oil is 
 decomposed, forming gaseous products. The gas is compressed to high 
 pressure, removing liquids that condense during compression. The gas is 
 shipped in steel cylinders at a pressure of approximately 1,500 pounds per 
 square inch. Cylinders require a red (gas) label. 
 
 Bleaching Powder is a heavy white powder composed chiefly of calcium 
 hypochlorite. It is often known under the name of chloride of lime. It 
 gives off chlorine gas when heated or brought in contact with acids. It 
 also gives off small amounts of chlorine when exposed to the atmosphere 
 and thus may cause damage to other freight. It is not classed as a hazardous 
 article. 
 
 Blue Billy, or Pyrites Cinder, is the residue from burning pyrites m manu- 
 facture of sulphuric acid. It is a heavy, dark red material, consisting chiefly 
 of iron oxide. 
 
 Bombs, Whistling, are fireworks containing small quantities of potassium 
 picrate, a high explosive. These bombs are not believed to be specially 
 hazardous in transportation, but are classed as special fireworks on account 
 of composition. 
 
 Bromine is a heavy, reddish brown liquid, which at ordinary tempera- 
 tures gives off poisonous, suffocating vapors of the same color. Its odor is 
 very irritating to the eyes and throat. Bromine is not inflammable, but is 
 corrosive and has an oxidizing effect on organic matter. Owing to its 
 oxidizing effect it causes heating when in contact with organic matter and 
 may cause fire. It is shipped in glass bottles, and these bottle should be 
 packed in non-combustible, mineral packing, It is classed as a corrosive 
 liquid for transportation and requires a white label. It is refused by many 
 steamship companies. 
 
 Bronzing Liquids usually contain pyroxylin or soluble cotton dissolved in 
 volatile inflammable solvents. Benzine is often used to thin the solution, 
 hence flash point of mixture is generally very low. Risks are due entirely 
 to inflammable nature of the solvent. Classed as inflammable liquid. 
 
 Calcium Carbide is a grayish black solid material formed by fusion of 
 lime and coke in an electric furnace. Addition of water to calcium carbide 
 causes formation of acetylene gas. Carbide is not explosive or inflammable. 
 It is always packed in tight metallic containers. The type of container used 
 for this material shipped by water, is defined by the Department of Com- 
 merce. Material is not classed as a hazardous article by I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Calcium Lights and Calcium Light Tubes are steel cylinders always shipped 
 in pairs, one cylinder containing compressed oxygen and the other compressed 
 hydrogen gas. The later is an inflammable gas, and requires the red label, 
 while the former is non-inflammable and requires the green label. 
 
 Calcium Oxide (Unslaked Lime or Quicklime), is a white, solid mass 
 obtained by burning limestone. Material is incombustible, but combines with 
 
30 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 water, giving off a great heat, sufficient to cause ignition of surrounding 
 substances. Risks of transportation are due to contact with moisture or to 
 hot loading. It is not accepted by some steamship companies. It is not 
 classed as a hazardous article by the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Calcium Phosphide is a reddish or grayish solid mass, which decomposes 
 on contact with water, forming hydrogen phosphide, which ignites spon- 
 taneously, on contact with air. It is used in signal fires. It is classed 
 as an inflammable solid by I. C. C. Regulations, and is refused by many 
 steamship companies. When shipped it must be packed in hermetically sealed 
 metal cans enclosed in metal lined wooden boxes, or it may be shipped in 
 securely closed iron or steel barrels. 
 
 Camphene is a mixture of alcohol and turpentine, formerly used as an 
 illuminant but not now shipped. Camphene is also a name used for a solid 
 organic substance resembling camphor, which is not dangerous. 
 
 Caps, Blasting Caps, Electric Caps, Exploders, Detonators. (See Blasting 
 Caps.) 
 
 Caps, Toy, consist of small portions of a mixture of antimony sulphide, 
 red phosphorus and potassium chlorate, between two layers of paper. These 
 caps are in the form of discs forming one cap, or in strips forming a 
 number of caps. Under the I. C. C. Regulations the' weight of explosive 
 material in a single cap is limited to 0.35 grain. Owing to the small size 
 of the units of explosive substance, the risks of transportation are small. 
 The caps do not ignite spontaneously, nor explode in mass from external 
 causes, except when the units exceed the legal limit. They are classed as 
 special fireworks. 
 
 Carbolic Acid. (See Acid, Carbolic.) 
 
 Carbon Bisulphide (Carbon Disulphide or Bisulphide of Carbon) is a 
 heavy clear colorless to yellow liquid, having a very offensive and char- 
 acteristic odor. It gives off inflammable vapors at o F. This vapor ignites 
 at comparatively low temperatures, a spark or flame not being required, 
 as temperature of a high-pressure steampipe will ignite vapors. Carbon 
 bisulphide is used as a solvent for oils, fats, sulphur, phosphorus and rubber, 
 also to kill vermin. It is classed as an inflammable liquid, and is refused 
 by many steamship companies. It is the most hazardous of any of the 
 inflammable liquids. 
 
 Carbon Black, or Lamp Black, consists of light and finely divided carbon. 
 It is obtained by burning oil or gas with a smoky flame. It is used as a 
 pigment. It is considered by some to have risks of spontaneous ignition, 
 but is not classed as an inflammable solid. Occasional fires in shipments 
 are more probably due to sparks remaining from the manufacturing process, 
 or to external sparks. 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas, or Carbon Dioxide, is a non-inflammable gas, which 
 is shipped compressed in steel cylinders. It is used in making carbonated 
 beverages. It requires a green label. It is shipped under high pressures, 
 and occasional accidents are caused by bursting of the cylinders. These 
 cylinders are more liable to burst if exposed to heat, or if roughly handled. 
 
 Carbon Oil. (See Hydrocarbon.) 
 
 Carbon Tetrachloride is a heavy, colorless liquid of aromatic odor resembling 
 that of chloroform. It is an anaesthetic, but it is dangerous to heart action. 
 It is quite volatile, boiling at 171 F., but is entirely incombustible. It is 
 used as a solvent, and as a fire extinguisher. It is not classed as a hazardous 
 article by the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Celluloid is the commonly accepted name for all pyroxylin plastic articles. 
 It is the trade name of the plastic vised by one company and objection has 
 been made to its use as including all such plastics. It is a solid material 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 31 
 
 made from nitrocellulose and camphor, together with some solvent. It 
 ignites at low temperatures. It is not generally accepted by the steamship 
 companies. 
 
 Celluloid (Pyroxylin Plastic) Scrap, consists of trimmings, clippings, and 
 other waste obtained in the manufacture of celluloid articles, from the sheets, 
 rods or blocks in which it is originally manufactured. Owing to its finely 
 divided condition it is more hazardous than the original celluloid. It is 
 classed as an inflammable by the I. C. C. Regulations and is not accepted 
 by the steamship companies. 
 
 Cement, Leather. (See Cement, Rubber.) 
 
 Cement, Shoe. (See Cement, Rubber.) 
 
 Cement, Naphtha. (See Cement, Rubber.) 
 
 Cement, Liquid, N. O. S., may be a roofing cement or a rubber cement, etc. 
 
 Cement, Roofing, generally consists of a mixture of pitch, tar or asphalt, 
 with some more or less inflammable liquid solvent. The inflammability will 
 depend on amount and character of the solvent remaining in finished cement. 
 
 Cement, Rubber, is a heavy solution of rubber in gasoline or carbon 
 bisulphide. It is highly inflammable, having a flash test at or near o F. 
 It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Charcoal is the product of the destructive distillation of wood. It is a 
 highly porous substance, and has the property of absorbing great quantities 
 of various gases. When freshly burned, this absorption sometimes proceeds 
 so rapidly as to cause the spontaneous ignition of the coal. Freshly burned, 
 wet, or finely divided charcoal, especially the hard wood charcoal made in 
 ovens or retorts, is most liable to this risk. It is classed as an inflammable 
 solid. 
 
 Charcoal Tablets are small tablets made by compression of powdered char- 
 coal usually mixed with some binding material. Owing to the small bulk 
 in packages and the presence of other ingredients these tablets are not 
 regarded as hazardous. 
 
 Chemicals, N. O. S., may' include materials classed as inflammable liquid, 
 inflammable solid, oxidizing material or corrosive liquid. 
 
 Chili Saltpetre (Sodium Nitrate). (See Nitrates.) 
 
 Chlorate of Barium. (See Chlorate.) 
 
 Chlorate of -Potassium. (See Chlorate.) 
 
 Chlorate of Sodium. (See Chlorate.) 
 
 Chlorates are salts of such bases as barium, strontium, sodium and potas- 
 sium, etc., and are generally spoken of as barium chlorate, strontium chlorate, 
 sodium chlorate, and potassium chlorate. There are also chlorates of other 
 bases, but the ones mentioned above are the most important. All the 
 chlorates are in the form of white crystalline salts and are strong oxidizing 
 agents. Mixed with organic matter, they form very, inflammable mixtures, 
 and frequently act as high explosives, when mixed with finely divided com- 
 bustible material. All chlorates when brought in contact with sulphuric acid 
 are liable to cause fire or explosion. Mixtures of chlorates with organic 
 matter may be ignited by friction. Barium chlorate and strontium chlorates, 
 are principally used in fireworks. Potassium chlorate is used in fireworks 
 and explosives. Sodium chlorate is used to some extent in explosives. 
 Chlorates are commonly shipped in wooden kegs and are classed as oxidizing 
 materials by the I. C. C. Regulations. Their shipment is also restricted by 
 the Department of Commerce. 
 
 Chlorate Tablets. Small tablets consisting wholly or in part of potassium 
 chlorate are used medicinally for sore throat, etc. These, if in large bulk, 
 possess same hazards as the chlorate in any other form. Packed in bottles 
 in small units they possess no particular risk. 
 
32 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Chloride of Phosphorus, or (Phosphorus Trichloride is a fuming, colorless 
 liquid, strongly corrosive. It acts strongly on organic matter, producing 
 great heat. Bottles containing this liquid should be packed in non-combustible, 
 mineral packing. It is classed as a corrosive liquid by the I. C. C. Regula- 
 tions. It is not accepted by some steamship companies. 
 
 Chloride of Silicon is a colorless liquid, fuming strongly in air. It 
 has a suffocating odor. Mixed with water, it decomposes, forming hydro- 
 chloric acid. It is classed as a corrosive liquid by the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 It is not accepted by some steamship companies. 
 
 Chloride of Sulphur, or Sulphur Chloride, is a yellow to reddish corrosive 
 fuming liquid. It is a solvent for sulphur, and is used in vulcanizing rubber. 
 It is classed as a corrosive liquid by the I. C. C. Regulations. It is not 
 accepted by some steamship companies. 
 
 Chlorine Gas is a heavy, greenish yellow gas of suffocating, irritating odor. 
 It is used for bleaching, and also for de-tinning iron, and is shipped liquefied 
 in steel cylinders. It is very poisonous, but not cpmbustible. It requires a 
 green label. It is not accepted by some steamship companies. 
 
 Chromic Acid (Anhydrous) is in the form of reddish brown crystals. 
 Material is caustic and a powerful oxidizing agent. Mixed with organic 
 matter it may ignite spontaneously or explode, and in such mixtures it is 
 always highly combustible, in shipment it must be kept away from organic 
 matter and moisture. It is classed as an oxidizing material. It is not 
 accepted by some steamship companies. 
 
 Cleaning Fluids frequently consist largely of gasoline, naphtha, or other 
 inflammable, volatile solvents, in which case they are classed as inflammable 
 liquids. 
 
 Coal Gas is the gas obtained by the destructive distillation of bituminous 
 coal. It is chiefly used for lighting and heating purposes in towns and 
 cities, being distributed for this purpose through pipes at very low pressure. 
 A relatively small amount of coal gas is compressed and used for welding. 
 The compressed gas is shipped in steel cylinders; the maximum pressure to 
 which it is compressed is approximately 2,000 Ibs. per sq. inch. For trans- 
 portation purposes it is classed as Compressed Gas Inflammable and requires 
 a red (gas) label. 
 
 Coal Oil. (See Kerosene.) 
 
 Coal Tar Distillate. (See Benzole.) 
 
 Coal Tar Naphtha. (See Benzole.) 
 
 Coal Tar Oil. (See Benzole.) 
 
 Collodion is a solution of nitrocellulose in a mixture of ether and alcohol. 
 It has a flash test of approximately o F. It is classed as an inflammable 
 liquid. It is not accepted by some steamship companies, and its shipment 
 is restricted by the Department of Commerce. 
 
 Cologne Spirits. (See Alcohol, Grain.) 
 
 Columbian Spirits. (See Alcohol, Wood.) 
 
 Common Fireworks include all that depend principally upon nitrates to 
 support combustion and not upon chlorates; that contain no phosphorus 
 and no high explosive sensitive to shock and friction; that produce their 
 effect through color display rather than by loud noises. If %oisa is the 
 principal object, the units must be small and of such nature and manufacture 
 that they will explode separately and harmlessly, if at all, when one unit 
 is ignited in a packing case. They must not be designed for ignition by 
 shock or friction. Examples are (Chinese firecrackers, Roman candles, rockets, 
 pin wheels, colored fires, serpents, railway fusees, flash powders, etc. 
 
 Compounds, Cleaning, may contain gasoline or other inflammable solvents. 
 In this case they will be classed as inflammable liquids. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 33 
 
 Compounds, Polishing, N. O. S. Many liquid polishing compounds con- 
 tain an abrasive material held in suspension by gasoline or some other 
 inflammable liquid. 
 
 Compounds, Type Cleansing, may contain gasoline or other similar inflam- 
 mable liquid. 
 
 Compounds, Vulcanizing, may include rubber cements, which are in- 
 flammable liquids, or sulphur chloride, which is classed as a corrosive liquid. 
 Cordeau detonant is a fuse consisting of a thin walled lead tube approxi- 
 mately 1/6 inch in diameter filled with finely powdered trinitrotoluol. This 
 cordeau detonant can be exploded only by attaching a blasting cap to the 
 lead tube in a peculiar way. Otherwise it is non-hazardous, and can be 
 shipped without any restriction, except that it must not be loaded in. the 
 same package with blasting caps or high explosive. 
 
 Cotton. This material is generally shipped in bales. It is not liable to 
 spontaneous ignition, but is readily ignited by very small sparks, and is 
 capable of maintaining a smoldering combustion for a number of days 
 before breaking openly into flame. When once ignited .it is impossible to 
 extinguish fire without pulling bales entirely apart. The cotton, if contam- 
 inated with animal or vegetable oils, is liable to spontaneous ignition. In 
 this way linseed oil is the greatest hazard. 
 
 Cotton, Burnt, is cotton which has been on fire, and has not been subse- 
 quently repicked and rebaled. Such cotton is liable to retain fire inside 
 the bales, and maintain a smoldering combustion for a long time, and ulti- 
 mately break out into open flame. This " burnt cotton " is classed as a 
 yellow label inflammable, and must not be offered or accepted for shipment 
 until not less than five days have elapsed since the last evidence of fire in it. 
 
 Cotton, Soluble. (See Nitrocellulose.) 
 
 Cotton, Waste, of itself is not liable to spontaneous ignition, but when 
 oily or greasy with animal or vegetable oils, it is liable to spontaneous 
 heating and ignition. The ordinary oily cotton wastes contain mineral 
 lubricating oils, and are not liable to spontaneous heating. Cotton waste 
 containing more than 5 per cent animal or vegetable oils is a forbidden 
 article under the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Cresote, or Cresote Oil, is a heavy, brownish liquid of peculiar, char- 
 acteristic, penetrating odor. It is combustible, but the flash point is high. 
 It is used largely as a preservative for lumber. Shipment is refused by 
 some steamship lines on account of objectionable odor. Its shipment is 
 restricted by the Department of Commerce. j 
 
 Creosoted Lumber is lumber which has been treated with creosote. .Ship- 
 ment is refused by some steamship lines on account of objectionable odor. 
 
 Crude Oil, as it comes from the well is a heavy, oily liquid, having color 
 varying from green to almost black. It usually has a disagreeable odor, 
 and varies in inflammability according to percentage of more volatile in- 
 gredients. Crude oils produced in the east are generally very inflammable, 
 while many of* those from the south and west have flash point above 100 F. 
 
 Crude Petroleum. (See Crude Oil.) 
 
 Cyanide of Potash. (See Potassium Cyanide.) 
 
 Cymogen is one of the most volatile of the distillates from crude petroleum. 
 It has a flash test of o F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. This 
 term is but little used. 
 
 Dental Gas is nitrous oxide gas. Is a colorless, incombustible gas of 
 pleasant odor. It is shipped compressed and liquefied in steel cylinders. It 
 is used as an anaesthetic by dentists, but is not otherwise hazardous. It 
 requires a green (gas) label. 
 
 Desiccated Leather Scrap consists of leather scrap that has been digested 
 
34 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 with steam, either with or without addition of acid, and then dried and 
 powdered. The drying is frequently of such nature as to partially char 
 the material, causing the freshly finished product to be subject to spontaneous 
 ignition in same way as freshly burned charcoal. 
 
 Detonating Fuses are used to detonate the high explosive bursting charges 
 of projectiles or torpedoes. In addition to a powerful detonator they may 
 contain several ounces of a high explosive, such as picric acid or dry 
 nitrocellulose, all assembled in a heavy steel envelope, the flying fragments 
 of which, in case of explosion, would be very dangerous. From their careful 
 design, manufacture, and packing, detonating fuses are not liable to be 
 exploded in transportation except by fire of considerable intensity. 
 
 Detonators. (See Blasting Caps.) 
 
 Dip, Sheep, sometimes contains inflammable liquid ingredients. 
 
 Disinfectants, Liquid. Some few liquid disinfectants may contain inflam- 
 mable liquids, and as such would be so classed. Most of the liquid disin- 
 fectants are not classed as inflammable, but are sometimes objectionable on 
 account of odors ^of essential oils or formaldehyde. 
 
 Distillates may include petroleum or coal tar products of low flash point. 
 
 Drier, Paint, and Japan, N. O. S. If liquid, may include volatile solvents, 
 and require classification as inflammable liquid. 
 
 Driers are liquids added to paints or varnishes to improve their drying 
 qualities. They frequently contain volatile solvents such as benzine and 
 may therefore be classed as inflammable liquids. 
 
 Dross, Lead, is a term properly applied to the material skimmed from 
 the surface of molten lead. This material when cold is entirely non- 
 hazardous. The term is sometimes improperly applied to the scrap from 
 the lead chambers used in making sulphuric acid. This material is more 
 or less saturated with sulphuric acid and is commonly refused by steam- 
 ship lines. 
 
 Dross, Zinc, is a term properly applied to the material skimmed from 
 the surface of modern zinc, and is a by-product of galvanizing iron. This 
 dross is entirely non-hazardous. The term zinc dross is sometimes applied 
 to zinc dust, which is an inflammable solid under the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Drugs, N. O. S. (See Chemicals, N. O. S.) 
 
 Drums, Empty. (See Barrels, Empty.) 
 
 Dynamite is any high explosive formed by the mixing of nitroglycerin with 
 an absorbent material so as to form a plastic solid. 
 
 Electric Primers consist of small brass tubes containing compressed black 
 powder and small pieces of platinum resistance wire. Copper wires are 
 attached externally to one end of primer, which bears a slight superficial 
 resemblance to an electric blasting cap. Electric primers are used for firing 
 cannon, and are comparatively safe for shipment. When accepted for either 
 rail or boat shipment, they must be packed and marked according to I. C. C. 
 Regulations. 
 
 Eradicator, Paint or Grease, frequently contains ether or gasoline, and is, 
 therefore, then classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Ether (Sulphuric Ether) is a clear, colorless, highly volatile , and inflam- 
 mable liquid. It has a peculiar pungent odor, boils at temperature of 97 F. 
 and gives a flash test at o F. It is made by treatment of alcohol with 
 sulphuric acid. It is used medicinally As an anaesthetic, technically as a 
 solvent of fats, oils, rosins, etc., and mixed with alcohol as a solvent for 
 nitrocellulose in manufacture of smokeless powder. It is classed as an 
 inflammable liquid. Its shipment is restricted by Department of Commerce, 
 and it is not accepted by many steamship companies. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 35 
 
 Ether, Petroleum, is a very light and volatile petroleum distillate. It is 
 more inflammable than ordinary gasoline, and is principally used as a solvent. 
 
 Ethyl Acetate. (See Acetate of Ethyl.) 
 
 Ethyl Alcohol. (See Alcohol, Grain.) 
 
 Ethyl Chloride is a colorless highly volatile and inflammable liquid, which 
 boils at 55 F. Consequently, unless confined in hermetically sealed con- 
 tainers, it will immediately evaporate at ordinary temperatures. It is used 
 as an anaesthetic.. It is the usual practice to ship this material in sealed 
 glass or metal tubes, and, on account of the secure method of packing and 
 small quantity shipped, it is not mentioned in the list of dangerous articles 
 in the regulations. 
 
 Ethyl Methyl Ketone is a colorless inflammable liquid, somewhat resembling 
 acetone in its properties, and is used for a similar purpose. It has a flash 
 point of approximately 30 F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Ethyl Nitrite is a thin, yellowish liquid, boiling at 61 F. It is exceed- 
 ingly volatile and inflammable, and has an odor somewhat like apples. It 
 may ignite spontaneously in storage at a temperature of 194 F., or if 
 mixed with fat or other organic matter at 167 F. It is usually shipped in 
 alcoholic solution containing 15 per cent ethyl nitrite. This solution is also 
 exceedingly volatile and inflammable. Ethyl nitrite, either pure or in 15 
 per cent solution, should be packed in sealed glass tubes. It is chiefly used 
 in making spirits of nitrous ether, a medicinal preparation containing 4 per 
 cent ethyl nitrite. Spirits of nitrous ether is somewhat more inflammable 
 than ordinary alcohol. All of these preparations are classed as inflammable 
 liquids. 
 
 Excelsior is shredded wood used as a packing material. Owing to its 
 finely divided form, it Is readily ignited by sparks, and therefore not carried 
 by some steamship lines. 
 
 Explosive Projectiles, or loaded shells for use in cannon, are not liable 
 to be exploded except by fire of considerable intensity, and the flying frag- 
 ments wonld then be very dangerous. 
 
 Extracts, N. O. S. Extracts may be dried powders, water solutions, or 
 alcoholic solutions; in the last case they may be classed as inflammable liquid. 
 
 Ferro Silicon is a compound of iron and silicon. It occasionally gives 
 off poisonous gas when in large bulk, and especially if wet. When shipped 
 by water, should be on deck or in well-ventilated portion of hold away from 
 quarters of passengers and crew. It is not classed as a dangerous article for 
 rail transportation, but is not accepted by some of the steamship companies. 
 
 Fertilizers. Mixed or complete commercial fertilizers have little or no 
 fire hazard. Separate ingredients such as desiccated leather scrap or tankage, 
 spent iron oxide, garbage tankage and partially charred organic residues, are 
 often improperly shipped under the name of fertilizer. Some of these 
 ingredients in bulk are liable to spontaneous ignition. 
 
 Fiber. Commercial fibers, such as cocoa, jute, palmetto, etc., are required 
 to be baled for shipment, and owing to inflammability, are not accepted 
 at all by some steamship lines, and only under certain restrictions by others. 
 
 Fiberloid. (See Celluloid.) 
 
 Fillerine (fertilizer ingredient) is waste iron oxide which has been used 
 for the purification of coal gas. It is liable to spontaneous combustion on 
 exposure to air. It is added to fertilizers to produce bulk rather than for any 
 fertilizing value. 
 
 Fire, Colored or Tableau, are pyrotechnic mixtures for illuminating and 
 signal purposes. These mixtures usually contain chlorates, and often sulphur. 
 Mixtures containing both chlorate and sulphur are liable to spontaneous 
 
36 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ignition. All such mixtures are classed as common fireworks when accepted 
 for shipment. 
 
 Fireworks include everything that is designed and manufactured, pri- 
 marily, for the production of pyrotechnic effects. They consist of common 
 fireworks and special fireworks. 
 
 Flue Dust consists of finely divided dust, either carbonaceous in form of 
 soot, or metallic, containing zinc, etc. Some of these dusts contain large 
 proportion of zinc in a metallic condition, and these are inflammable. Others 
 contain zinc as oxide and are .non-hazardous. 
 
 Freezing Point of Alcoholic Liquids, etc. The freezing points of mixtures 
 of ethyl alcohol and water are given in Lanuolt & Bornstein's tables. They 
 are as follows : 
 
 Per Gent. Freezing 
 Alcohol. Point. 
 
 2.4% 30.2 Fahr. 
 
 5.0% 28.4 
 
 8.1% 26.0 
 
 36.4% 3-2 
 
 51.0% 10.0 
 
 86.2% 30.0 
 
 It will, therefore, be seen that practically all alcoholic liquors are liable 
 to freeze in extreme temperature at times prevalent in the Northwest. While 
 it is possible to freeze some other liquids, water or water solutions are the 
 only ones which expand on freezing. 
 
 It is believed that no damage will result from the freezing of any liquid 
 other than alcoholic liquors, or other liquids which consist of solutions 
 in water. 
 
 Fusees are colored fire mixtures placed in pasteboard tubes. Mixtures some- 
 times contain both sulphur and chlorate, and in this case are somewhat liable 
 to spontaneous ignition, especially if old or damp. Must be designated as 
 common fireworks for shipment. Potassium perchlorate is at present being 
 much subs'tituted for potassium chlorate in these products, much reducing 
 the chances of accidental or spontaneous ignition. 
 
 Fuses, Platinum, are made from platinum wire, and are used as igniters 
 over gas jets, etc., causing ignition when exposed to coal gas or alcoholic 
 vapors. 
 
 Fulminate of Mercury is a heavy grayish powder of crystalline form. It 
 is formed by the action of nitric acid and alcohol on metallic mercury. This 
 material is one of the most sensitive and dangerous of explosive substances. 
 It is used principally in the manufacture of detonators, blasting caps and 
 primers. 
 
 Fulminate of Silver is a grayish white crystalline material used in toy 
 torpedoes. It is even more sensitive than mercury fulminate, and cannot 
 be shipped in bulk by rail. 
 
 Fusel Oil (Amyl Alcohol) consists of a colorless to yellowish liquid having 
 a penetrating, disagreeable odor resembling that of bad whiskey. It is pro- 
 duced in the fermentation of starch and sugar, and is separated from grain 
 alcohol. Fusel oil being a mixture of various higher alcohols, and varying 
 in purity, has no definite flash test. So far as known all the commercial 
 fusel oil has a flash point above 80 F. and is therefore not classed as an 
 inflammable liquid. The flash point is commonly from 100 to no F. It 
 is generally accepted by the coast steamship companies, and much is imported. 
 
 Garbage Tankage, a product from digestion and extraction of garbage, 
 consists mainly of vegetable fibers; it sometimes causes spontaneous ignition 
 and is refused by some steamship companies. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTH-ER THAN EXPLOSIVES 37 
 
 Gas Oil may be a product of low flash point. 
 
 Gasoline. (.See Benzine.) 
 
 Gas Purifying Waste (fertilizer ingredient). (See Iron Mass, Spent.) 
 
 Grease Eradicator. (See Eradicator.) 
 
 Greek Fire is colored fire mixture used for pyrotechnic purposes. Must 
 be designated as common fireworks. 
 
 Gun Cotton. (See Nitrocellulose.) 
 
 Hay, Baled, owing to its inflammability, is not accepted by some steam- 
 ship lines. 
 
 Hemp, when baled, is accepted by some steamship lines and not by others. 
 When loose it is accepted by none. 
 
 High Wines. (See Alcohol, Grain.) 
 
 Hydrocarbon is a liquid that condenses on compression of Pintsch gas. 
 It is highly inflammable, having a flash test of o F. It is classed as an 
 inflammable liquid. 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid. (See Acid, Hydrochloric.) 
 
 Hydrogen Gas is a colorless, odorless, inflammable gas, shipped compressed 
 in steel cylinders. It requires red (gas) label. 
 
 Hydrofluoric Acid. (See Acid, Hydrofluoric.) 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid. (See Acid, Hydrocyanic.) 
 
 Insect and Vermin Destroying Preparations frequently contain carbon 
 bisulphide, gasoline, naphtha or other inflammable liquids. Such prepara- 
 tions are classed as inflammable liquids. 
 
 Iron Mass is a mixture of wood shavings with a hydrated ferric oxide. If 
 carefully made and properly oxidized, it is entirely safe. If an undue 
 amount of unoxidized iron remains, further oxidation is liable to occur, 
 causing sufficient heat in closely packed material to cause fire. Material 
 is used to remove sulphur from coal gas. If properly prepared it is not 
 classed as an inflammable by the I. C. C. Regulations, but if not properly 
 prepared it is a forbidden article and is refused by most of the steamship 
 companies. If not properly oxidized it is classed as a forbidden article by 
 tl:e I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Iron Mass, Spent (Iron Sponge, Spent) consists of the iron mass or sponge 
 after saturation with sulphur in gas purification. The spent material is 
 hable to spontaneous combustion on exposure to air. At the present time 
 there is fittle traffic in this material. 
 
 Iron Sponge. (See Iron Mass.) 
 
 Iron Sponge, Spent. (See Iron Mass, Spent.) 
 
 Japan Drier. (See Drier, Japan.) 
 
 Iron Turnings, Borings, Filings, when in large bulk, have a fire hazard, 
 as they oxidize spontaneously if wet and the oxidation may produce enough 
 heat fcr ignition. This risk is not sufficient to cause material to be classed 
 as inflammable by I. C. C. Regulations and material is accepted by stean: 
 s'r ip companies. 
 
 Kerosene is a petroleum distillate commonly used for lighting purposes 
 It has a flasn. point approximately 115-125 F., and is not classed as an in 
 flammable liquid by the I. C. C. Regulations. It is not accepted by some 
 of the steamship companies. 
 
 Ketone, Methyl or Ethyl. (See Ethyl Methyl Ketone.) 
 Laboratory Supplies, N. O. S. (See Chemicals, N. O. S.) . 
 Lacquer usually consists essentially of nitrocellulose dissolved in a volatile 
 solvent or a mixture of volatile solvents. Inflammability depends on the 
 character of these solvents. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Lacquer (Shellac) consists of a solution of shellac in alcohol and lias a 
 flash test of about 40-70 F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
38 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Lead Nitrate is a heavy white translucent salt, which is an oxidizing 
 agent. It is used medicinally, and in the color industry. It is commonly 
 shipped in barrels and boxes and when so packed is not classed as an 
 oxidizing material by the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Leather Cement is a solution of rubber in gasoline or carbon bisulphide, 
 and is consequently very inflammable, having a flash test of approximately 
 o F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Leather Meal. (See Dessicated Leather Scrap.) 
 
 Leather Scrap. (See Dessicated Leather Scrap.) 
 
 Ligroin is the more volatile distillate from crude petroleum; it has a flash 
 test of o F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. This term is seldom 
 used. , 
 
 Lime. (See Calcium Oxide.) 
 
 Light Oil. (See Benzole.) 
 
 . Liniments frequently contain crude petroleum, ether, alcohol and other 
 volatile inflammable liquids. 
 
 Liquid Bronze. (See Bronzing Fluids.) 
 
 Liquids, N. O. S. Classification depends on character. 
 
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas is the liquid condensed by compressing the gas 
 fron 1 petroleum oil wells, known as casing head gas. For transportation 
 purposes the term is applied only to such products whose x vapor tension at 
 100 F. exceeds 10 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 When the vapor pressure at 100 F. does not exceed 10 Ibs. per square 
 inch, it may be shipped as gasoline. When the vapor pressure at 100 F. 
 lies between 10 Ibs. and 25 Ibs. per square inch, shipments must be made 
 in metal kegs, drums or barrels complying] with I. C. C. Specification No. 5, 
 or in specially built tank cars. Such material is classed as inflammable liquid. 
 
 When the vapor pressure at 100 F. exceeds 25 Ibs. per squate inch, 
 material must be shipped as a compressed gas. 
 
 Luxor Oil is a trade name for a certain make or grade of petroleum 
 oil used for burning and illuminating. It is not classed as an inflammable 
 liquid. 
 
 Magnesium, Metallic, is a white metal; in mass it is non-hazardous, but in 
 form of powder or ribbon it is highly inflammable, burning with intense 
 heat and light. It is used in flashlight powder and pyrotechnics. In 
 powdered form it is classed as an inflammable solid. 
 
 Matches, " Strike Anywhere " usually contain phosphorus sesquisulphidt 
 and potassium chlorate, together with other ingredients. Under the present 
 Federal law the manufacture or importation of matches containing yellow 
 or white phosphorus is not probable. The new matches are non-poisonous, 
 but have about the sanae fire hazards as those containing the yellow or white 
 phosphorus. The temperature of ignition is much higher than with the old 
 phosphorus match, but sensitiveness to impact and friction is about the same. 
 The risks in transportation are about the same as with the old match. When 
 a package of matches is ignited by impact or friction, the head composi- 
 tion burns off the matches, and the fire generally goes out unless the package 
 is broken. If the package is broken, allowing access of air, the fire will 
 continue. Strike Anywhere Matches are classed as inflammable "solids. 
 
 Matches, N. O. S., may be either " strike anywhere " or " strike on box " 
 matches. In former case they are classed as inflammable. 
 
 Matches, " Strike on Box," are those that are supposed to strike only 
 on the prepared surface of the box. They can, however, usually be ignited 
 by rubbing- on glass, linoleum, or on a smooth, unvarnished surface. The 
 active principle of the head composition is potassium chlorate, while the 
 prepared surface on box contains red phosphorus. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 39 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. The Underwriters' Laboratories label one manufacturer's 
 matches as meeting the following requirement: 
 
 Class A, or Strike-on-Box. These have heads made of a stable 
 chemical compound with heat ignition point exceeding 340 degrees 
 Fahrenheit and with low susceptibility to ignition by shock and 
 with the explosive character and the fly hazard during combustion 
 reduced so far as is at present' practicable for this type of match 
 and have strong splints, treated to prevent afterglow. 
 
 Class B, or Strike-Anywhere. These have heads made of stable 
 chemical compounds with heat ignition point exceeding 300 degrees 
 Fahrenheit, and especially well safeguarded against ignition by 
 shock, with practically no explosion or fly hazard during com- 
 bustion and with the inert bulb (not ignitible by friction) prevent- 
 ing to a large degree the accidental ignition of the tip, and have 
 strong splints treated to prevent afterglow. 
 
 Mercuric Chloride, or Corrosive Sublimate, is a heavy white salt in form 
 of powder or lumps. It is very poisonous, but not otherwise hazardous for 
 shipment. It is not accepted by some steamship lines. 
 
 Metallic Potassium and Metallic Sodium are soft white metals of silvery 
 lustre on freshly cut surface, similar in appearance to freshly exposed surface 
 of lead. These metals are very readily oxidized, and contact with water 
 will cause ignition. They are, therefore, packed in mineral oil to protect 
 from air or water, or in hermetically sealed tin cylinders or metal drums. 
 The chief risk with these metals is that they may be brought in contact 
 with water. They are classed as inflammable solids. 
 
 Metal Polish, Liquid. (See Polish.) 
 
 Methyl Alcohol. (See Alcohol, Wood.) 
 
 Mirbane Oil, or Mono-Nitro-Benzol, is a heavy oily liquid of yellow to 
 brownish color, and having the odor of bitter almonds. Material is not 
 very inflammable, having a flash test of approximately 200 F. 
 
 Moss, Florida. This material, owing to fibrous nature, is readily ignited 
 by sparks, etc. 
 
 Moving Picture Film consists largely of nitrocellulose and has risks similar 
 to pyroxylin plastics, but to a greater degree. Material may be ignited by 
 sparks or by proximity tc steam pipes or other sources of heat. Material 
 when ignited burns with extraordinary and almost explosive rapidity. 
 Rolls of films should be packed in strong and tight boxes, complying with 
 the I. C. C. Regulations. They are classed as inflammable solids when shipped 
 by express. There are some non-inflammable films made of cellulose acetate. 
 Owing to the higher cost, and lack of durability of this kind of film, the 
 amount used is negligible. 
 
 Muriatic Acid. (See Acid, Hydrochloric.) 
 
 Naphtha. (See Benzine or Benzol.) 
 
 Naphtha Cement. (See Leather Cement.) 
 
 Naphtha, Coal Tar. (See Benzol.) 
 
 Naphtha Soap is a soap said to contain a small percentage of naphtha. 
 This soap is alleged to have caused fire and explosion several years ago 
 in a ship's hold at Liverpool. It is not received by some of the steamship 
 lines, but is not classed as an inflammable by the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Naphtha, Wood. (See Alcohol.) 
 
 Naphthalene (Coal Taf Camphor) is a white crystalline solid, having odor 
 somewhat similar to camphor. Material is readily ignited by sparks. 
 
4O FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Negative. Cotton. (See Nitrocellulose.) 
 
 Neutral Spirits. (See Alcohol, Grain.) 
 
 Nitrate of Barium. (See Barium Nitrate.) 
 
 Nitrate of Lead. (See Lead Nitrate.) 
 
 Nitrate of Potassium. (See Potassium Nitrate.) 
 
 Nitrate of Soda, (See Sodium Nitrate.) 
 
 Nitrate of Strontia. (See Strontium Nitrate.) 
 
 Nitre. (See Potassium Nitrate.) 
 
 Nitrite. (See Sodium Nitrite.) 
 
 Nitric Acid. (See Acid, Nitric.) 
 
 Nitrating Acid. (See Acid, Mixed.) 
 
 Nitre-Benzol. (See Mirbane Oil; see Trinitro Benzol.) 
 
 Nitrocellulose is formed by the nitration of cotton by treatment with a 
 mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. After removal of acid the product 
 is dried. It then has the same physical form as the original cotton, but is 
 highly inflammable and explosive. Sometimes the nitrocellulose is pulped 
 before drying, and is then in form of a fine light powder rather than in 
 fibrous condition. 
 
 Nitrocellulose when dry, is shipped under requirements for high explosives. 
 When wet with volatile solvent! or dissolved in solvents it is classed as an 
 inflammable liquid. When wet with not less than 20 per cent of water 
 it is classed as an inflammable solid. 
 
 Nitroglycerin is obtained by nitration of glycerin with a mixture of nitric 
 and sulphuric acids. It is a heavy oily liquid of yellowish color resembling 
 glycerin in appearance. It is highly explosive and dangerous, and shipment 
 is prohibited. 
 
 Nitroglycerin. Spirits is a solution of nitroglycerin of not more than 10 
 per cent strength in grain alcohol. It is used for medicinal purposes. The 
 inflammability of this solution is the same as that of grain alcohol. It is 
 not explosive, but rupture of package may allow alcohol to evaporate, and 
 thus leave the explosive nitroglycerin. On account of the practice of shipping 
 this article in small units, seldom exceeding four ounces of one per cent 
 solution, in quantity, it is .not mentioned in the list of dangerous articles 
 in the regulations. 
 
 Nitrotoluol. There are various compounds shipped as nitrotoluol, for 
 example, dinitrotoluol, mononitrotoluol, and trinitrotoluol, some liquid and 
 some solid. None of the liquid nitrotoluols are explosive or dangerous. Of 
 the solid nitrotoluols, trinitrotoluol is the only one classed as a high explosive. 
 
 Nitrous Ether. (See Ethyl Nitrite.) 
 
 Oil, Dead, is the heavy oil distilled from coal tar after the distillation 
 of the light oil. This heavy oil is not very inflammable, having a high 
 boiling point and flash test. It is not classed as an inflammable liquid by 
 the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Oil, Mirbane. (See Mirbane Oil.) 
 
 Oil, Petroleum, N. O. S. Classification depends on flash point. 
 
 Oil, Rosin, Light, is distilled from rosin. It is a light oil, having about 
 the same degree of inflammability as turpentine. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine. (See Turpentine.) 
 
 Oil of Vitriol. -(See Acid, Sulphuric.) 
 
 Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, non-inflammable gas. It is shipped com- 
 pressed in steel cylinders. It requires a green (gas) label. Some of these 
 cylinders contain the oxygen under very high pressures, approximately 2,000 
 Ibs. per square inch. It is not accepted by some steamship companies. . 
 
 Paint, Aluminum. (See Bronzing Liquid.) 
 
 Paint, Bronzing. (See Bronzing Liquid.) 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 41 
 
 Paint, Gold. (See Bronzing Liquid.) 
 
 Paints, Liquid, are paints in which the pigment is generally of miner-il 
 or metallic origin; the inflammability of these paints depends wholly on 
 the nature of the liquid ingredients. 
 
 Paint Removers frequently contain wood alcohol, naphtha or other in- 
 flammable solvents, and such materials are classed as inflammable liquids. 
 
 Paper, Waste. Old or scrap paper shipped in bales is readily ignited by 
 sparks. It is also liable to have a fire hazard owing to the accidental pres- 
 ence of matches, oily waste, and other foreign articles. 
 
 Paraffin Oil is a heavy non-volatile petroleum oil of high flash test. It 
 is not accepted by some steamship lines. 
 
 Paste, Shoe, may be a solution of rubber in gasoline or carbon bisulphide, 
 and therefore would be classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Pentane is a clear, colorless, volatile liquid, having a pleasant odor. It 
 has a specific gravity of 0.63, and boils at temperature of 95 F. or less. 
 It gives a flash test at or below o F. and is consequently highly inflammable. 
 It is obtained from the more volatile portions of petroleum, and is used 
 as a standard in determining candle power of various lights and illuminants. 
 Material is about the same inflammability as 88 naphtha. It is classed as 
 an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Perchlorate of Potash. A white crystalline solid, used as an oxidizing agent 
 in fireworks and explosives. It is classed as an oxidizing material by the 
 I. C. C. Regulations. It is not accepted by some steamship companies. 
 
 Petroleum Ether. (See Benzine.) 
 
 Petroleum Spirit. (See Benzine.) 
 
 Petroleum Naphtha. (See Benzine.) 
 
 Petroleum Oil may include any oil derived from crude petroleum, but 
 usually term is used to indicate the ordinary illuminating oil. The classifica- 
 tion as to inflammability will depend on flash test. 
 
 Petroleum Products, N. O. S. Classification as to inflammability will 
 depend on flash point. 
 
 Phenol. (See Acid, Carbolic.) 
 
 Phosphorus, Red or Amorphous, is different in physical form from yellow 
 phosphorus. It is a reddish brown powder, not spontaneously inflammable, 
 nor poisonous. It is not dangerously inflammable, and is not classed as 
 inflammable, and its shipment is not restricted by either the railways or 
 steamship lines. 
 
 Phosphorus, Yellow, is a yellow, waxy solid of peculiar characteristic odor. 
 It is highly inflammable and will ignite at ordinary temperature if exposed 
 to the air. It is usually shipped under water. Beside being inflammable, 
 it is very poisonous. It is classed as an inflammable solid. It is not 
 generally accepted by the steamship companies. 
 
 Phosphorus, White. (See Phosphorus, Yellow.) 
 
 Pintsch Gas is formed by heating fuel oil in a retort. The gas produced 
 is. compressed, the condensed liquid is drawn off, and the dry compressed 
 gas is stored in iron or steel tanks. Its chief use is for lighting railway 
 coaches. It is shipped in metal cylinders and requires the red (gas) label. 
 
 Pitch Roof Coating. (See Cement, Roofing.) 
 
 Platinum Fuse (Platinum Black) is finely divided metallic platinum, which 
 causes spontaneous ignition of mixtures of air and inflammable vapors or 
 gases. It is used in patent cigar and gas lighters, also in some chemical 
 apparatus. 
 
 Polish, Liquid. May contain inflammable liquid ingredients, of such char- 
 acter as to make flash test of mixture 80 F. or lower. 
 
 Polishing Liquids. (See Polish.) 
 
42 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Potash, N. O. S., may include nitrate, chlorate or permanganate of potash, 
 and therefore be classed as an oxidizing material. 
 
 Potassium Chlorate. (See Barium Chlorate.) 
 
 Potassium Cyanide is a heavy white solid material, highly poisonous, but 
 not otherwise hazardous. It is used in recovering precious metals, in case 
 hardening and electro-plating. It is not accepted by some steamship lines, 
 but is not classed as a hazardous article by the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Potassium Metallic. (See Metallic Potassium.) 
 
 Potassium Nitrate is a white crystalline salt, which acts as an oxidizing 
 agent. It is used to some extent chemically, and largely in the manufacture 
 of black rifle powder. It is commonly shipped in barrels or boxes, and 
 when so packed is not classed as dangerous by the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Potassium Permanganate is a purplish crystalline salt, soluble in water, 
 giving a highly colored solution. It is very rich in oxygen and may cause 
 fire when mixed with combustible material. Contact with sulphuric acid will 
 also cause fire. It is classed as an oxidizing -material by the 1. C. C. 
 Regulations. It is not accepted by some steamship companies. It should 
 never be packed in the same outside- container with formaldehyde. 
 
 Potassium Peroxide. (See Sodium Peroxide.) 
 
 Preparations, Insect and Vermin Destroying, if liquid, sometimes contain 
 carbon bisulphide or gasoline, and would in such case be classed as in- 
 flammable liquids. 
 
 Preservers, Iron, Steel, or Wood, may contain volatile inflammable liquids 
 sufficient to lower flash test to 80 F. or below. 
 
 Primers, Electric. (See Electric Primers.) 
 
 Primers, Percussion and Time Fuses are devices used to ignite the black 
 powder bursting charges of projectiles, or the powder charges of ammunition. 
 For small-arms ammunition the primers are usually called " small-arm primers " 
 or " percussion caps." 
 
 Proof Spirits. (See Alcohol, Grain.) 
 
 Prussic Acid. (See Acid, Hydrocyanic.) 
 
 Pyralin. (See Celluloid.) 
 
 Pyroxylin. (See Nitrocellulose.) 
 
 Pyroxylin Plastic. (See Celluloid.) 
 
 Pyroxylin Solutions consist of pyroxylin, nitrocellulose, or soluble cotton 
 dissolved in amyl acetate, or other solvent. The pyroxylin solutions are 
 used as a basis for the manufacture of lacquer, leather coating compounds, 
 leather substitutes, etc., and are generally thicker than ordinary lacquers, 
 but have no greater fire hazard. They are classed as inflammable liquids. 
 
 Rags, Old, are refused by certain steamship lines owing to the fire risk. 
 Old rags are commonly very dirty and if oily or wet are liable to spon- 
 taneous heating or ignition. Rags contaiinng more than 5 per cent animal 
 or vegetable oil, and wet rags are prohibited articles under the I. C. C. 
 Regulations. 
 
 Railway Fusees. (See Fusees.) 
 
 Railway Torches. (See Fusees.) 
 
 Railway Torpedoes. (See Torpedoes, Track.) 
 
 Removers, Paint, Oil or Varnish. (See Paint Removers.) 
 
 Rhigolene. (See Benzine.) 
 
 Rice Straw is refused by certain steamship lines due to liability to fire 
 from sparks, etc. 
 
 Rosin Dross. (See Batting, Dross.) 
 
 Rubber, Regenerated, Shoddy, or Reclaimed, consists of old rubber which 
 has been subjected to chemical treatment of various kinds to prepare it for 
 further use in the rubber industry. Some grades of these regenerated, shoddy 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 43 
 
 or reclaimed rubbers are liable to spontaneous ignition. According to the 
 I. C. C. Regulations these rubbers must be packed in tight metal containers, 
 or in wooden boxes complying with Shipping Container Specification No. 17, 
 except when in the form of dense, homogeneous, non-porous sheets, or rolls, 
 the sheets of thickness of % inch or greater packed flat or in rolls. 
 
 Certain grades of rubber scrap if ground, powdered, or granulated, are 
 also subject to this risk of spontaneous ignition. Such scrap containing more 
 than 45 per cent rubber must also be shipped in tight metal containers or 
 in wooden boxes complying with Shipping Container Specification 17. Re- 
 generated, reclaimed, or shoddy rubbers, or ground rubber scrap icquiring 
 this special packing are classed as inflammable solids under the I. C. C. 
 Regulations. 
 
 Rubber Cement, Rubber Solution. (See Cement, Rubber.) 
 
 Safety Fuse consists ordinarily of a core of fine grain black powder, 
 which is surrounded by yarn, tape, pitch, rubber, etc. Squibs are merely 
 small paper tubes containing a small quantity of black powder, one end of 
 each tube being twisted and generally tipped with sulphur. 
 
 Saltpetre. (See Potassium Nitrate.) 
 
 Shavings, Wood, are refused by some steamship lines, due to risk of fire 
 from sparks or other external causes. 
 
 Shellac, Liquid, is a solution of shellac in grain alcohol or denatured 
 alcohol. It has flash test of 40-70 F., respectively, according to solvent. 
 It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Small-arms Ammunition. (See Ammunition.) 
 
 Sodium Metallic. (See Metallic Sodium.) 
 
 Sodium Nitrate is a white or yellowish white salt, imported in large 
 amount from Chili. It is used very largely in fertilizers, in explosives, and 
 in the manufacture of nitric acid. It is hygroscopic, and is therefore liable 
 to be quite damp. It is commonly shipped in jute bags of approximately 
 200 pounds capacity. When so packed it is classed as an oxidizing material 
 by the I. C. C. Regulations. If for any reason it is packed in boxes, 
 barrels or kegs as are the other nitrates it is not classed as an oxidizing 
 material. 
 
 Sodium Nitrite is a yellowish white salt, somewhat moist in appearance. 
 It is an oxidizing material which, while containing less oxygen than the 
 nitrates, is more readily decomposed, and therefore generally more active. 
 When mixed with organic matter, it is more readily ignited than a corre- 
 sponding mixture of sodium nitrate. It is used in the manufacture- of dyes. 
 Material is rather hygroscopic, and is commonly shipped in barrels, casks or 
 cases, and not in bags. 
 
 Sodium Peroxide, or Potassium Peroxide, is a white or yellowish white 
 powder possessing very strong oxidizing properties. It is decomposed by 
 water or acids. In contact with organic matter it is ignited by heat, friction 
 or moisture. It is always shipped in tight, metallic containers. It is a 
 hazardous commodity. It is classed as an oxidizing material. 
 
 Softener, Leather, may contain inflammable liquids. 
 
 Soluble Cotton. (See Nitrocellulose.) 
 
 Solvents include such inflammable liquids as acetone, ether, naphtha, etc. 
 Such articles are classed as inflammable liquids. Solvents may have flash points 
 above or below 80 F., according to nature. 
 
 Soot consists chiefly of finely-divided carbonaceous matter together with 
 some ammonium sulphate. The presence of latter renders it of value as a 
 fertilizer. It is liable to spontaneous combustion. 
 
 Special Fireworks include all that contain any quantity of red phosphorus, 
 a fulminate, or other high explosive sensitive to shock or friction; or that 
 
44 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 contain units of such size that the explosion of one while being handled 
 would produce a serious injury; or that require a special appliance or tool, 
 mortar, holder, etc., for their safe use: or that are designed for ignition 
 by shock or friction. Examples are giant firecrackers, bombs and salutes 
 (not high explosives), toy torpedoes and caps, ammunition pellets fired in a 
 special holder, railway torpedoes, etc. 
 
 Spirits of Nitrous Ether. (See Ethyl Nitrite.) 
 
 Stain, Furniture or Leather, may contain inflammable liquids of such nature 
 as to give flash point of 80 F. or below. 
 
 Spirits of TurpeiAine. (See Turpentine.) 
 
 Strontia may be term used to designate strontium nitrate. 
 
 Strontium Nitrate consists of a heavy white crystalline salt, which is a 
 strong oxidizing agent. Its principal use is making a red fire in fireworks. 
 It is commonly shipped in barrels, and boxes, and when so packed is not 
 classed as an oxidizing material by the I. C. C. Regulations. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. (See Acid, Sulphuric.) 
 
 Sulphur Dioxide is the gas formed by burning sulphur on iron pyrites in 
 air. It has the well known irritating and suffocating odor of burning 
 sulphur. The liquefied gas is shipped in iron or steel cylinders. It is entirely 
 non-inflammable. The pressure at 70 F. is approximately 50 pounds per 
 square inch. It requires a green (gas) label. 
 
 Tankage, Dried Blood, is composed of blood from slaughter houses, evap- 
 orated to dryness and pulverized. It is used as fertilizer. It is not 
 inflammable. 
 
 Tankage, Garbage. (See Garbage Tankage.) 
 
 Tankage, N. O. S., consists chiefly of various kinds of slaughter house 
 scraps and offal. The fat and grease are first extracted, and residue is then 
 dried. Tankage of this character is not inflammable, nor liable to spon- 
 taneous combustion. e 
 
 Temperatures. In this pamphlet measurements of temperature Lave been 
 expressed in Fahrenheit degrees, as that scale is in common every day use 
 throughout the United States and Canada. In technical books, laboratory 
 reports, etc., the Centigrade scale is often used. The following table will 
 serve to change the Centigrade temperature to the corresponding Fahrenheit 
 temperature. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 45 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THERMOMETERS 
 
 1 Fahrenheit degree = 5/9 deg. Cent. 
 
 1 Centigrade degree = 9/5 deg. Fahr. 
 
 1 Reaumur degree =9/4 deg. Fahr. 
 
 Temp. Fahrenheit = 95 X temp. C. + 32 deg 
 
 Temp. Centigrade = 5/9 (temp. F. 32 deg.) 
 
 Temp. Reaumur = 4 / 5 temp. C. 
 
 Freezing point: Reaumur = deg.; Cent. = deg.; Fahr. = 32 deg 
 
 Boiling point: Reaumur = 80 deg.; Cent. = 100 deg.; Fahr. = 212 deg. 
 
 = 4/9 deg. Reaumur 
 = 4/5 deg. Reaumur 
 = 5/4 deg. Cent. 
 = 9/4 R. -f 32 deg. 
 = 5/4 R. 
 
 4/9 (F. 32 deg.) 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Reau. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Reau. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Reau. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 107 
 
 225 
 
 86 
 
 234 
 
 455 
 
 187 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 110 
 
 230 
 
 88 
 
 237 
 
 460 
 
 190 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 113 
 
 235 
 
 90 
 
 240 
 
 466 
 
 192 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 116 
 
 241 
 
 93 
 
 242 
 
 469 
 
 194 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 118 
 
 244 
 
 94 
 
 245 
 
 475 
 
 196 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 121 
 
 250 
 
 97 
 
 248 
 
 480 
 
 198 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 124 
 
 255 
 
 99 
 
 251 
 
 4S6 
 
 201 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 127 
 
 261 
 
 102 
 
 253 
 
 489 
 
 202 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 4 
 
 129 
 
 264 
 
 103 
 
 256 
 
 495 
 
 205 
 
 7 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 132 
 
 270 
 
 106 
 
 259 
 
 500 
 
 207 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 134 
 
 275 
 
 107 
 
 262 
 
 505 
 
 210 
 
 13 
 
 55 
 
 10 
 
 137 
 
 280 
 
 110 
 
 265 
 
 511 
 
 212 
 
 16 
 
 61 
 
 13 
 
 140 
 
 296 
 
 112 
 
 267 
 
 514 
 
 214 
 
 18 
 
 64 
 
 14 
 
 142 
 
 289 
 
 114 
 
 270 
 
 520 
 
 216 
 
 21 
 
 70 
 
 17 
 
 145 
 
 295 
 
 116 
 
 273 
 
 525 
 
 218 
 
 24 
 
 75 
 
 19 
 
 148 
 
 300 
 
 118 
 
 276 
 
 531 
 
 221 
 
 27 
 
 81 
 
 22 
 
 151 
 
 306 
 
 121 
 
 278 
 
 534 
 
 222 
 
 29 
 
 84 
 
 23 
 
 153 
 
 309 
 
 122 
 
 281 
 
 540 
 
 225 
 
 32 
 
 90 
 
 26 
 
 156 
 
 315 
 
 125 
 
 284 
 
 545 
 
 227 
 
 35 
 
 95 
 
 28 
 
 159 
 
 320 
 
 127 
 
 287 
 
 550 
 
 230 
 
 38 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 162 
 
 325 
 
 130 
 
 290 
 
 556 
 
 232 
 
 41 
 
 106 
 
 33 
 
 165 
 
 331 
 
 132 
 
 292 
 
 559 
 
 234 
 
 43 
 
 109 
 
 34 
 
 167 
 
 334 
 
 134 
 
 295 
 
 565 
 
 236 
 
 46 
 
 115 
 
 37 
 
 170 
 
 340 
 
 136 
 
 298 
 
 570 
 
 238 
 
 49 
 
 120 
 
 39 
 
 173 
 
 345 
 
 138 
 
 301 
 
 576 
 
 241 
 
 52 
 
 126 
 
 42 
 
 176 
 
 351 
 
 141 
 
 303 
 
 579 
 
 242 
 
 54 
 
 129 
 
 43 
 
 178 
 
 354 
 
 142 
 
 306 
 
 585 
 
 245 
 
 57 
 
 135 
 
 46 
 
 181 
 
 360 
 
 145 
 
 309 
 
 590 
 
 247 
 
 60 
 
 140 
 
 48 
 
 184 
 
 365 
 
 147 
 
 312 
 
 595 
 
 250 
 
 63 
 
 145 
 
 50 
 
 187 
 
 370 
 
 150 
 
 315 
 
 601 
 
 252 
 
 66 
 
 151 
 
 53 
 
 190 
 
 376 
 
 152 
 
 317 
 
 604 
 
 254 
 
 68 
 
 154 
 
 54 
 
 192 
 
 379 
 
 154 
 
 320 
 
 610 
 
 256 
 
 71 
 
 160 
 
 57 
 
 195 
 
 385 
 
 156 
 
 323 
 
 614 
 
 258 
 
 74 
 
 165 
 
 59 
 
 198 
 
 390 
 
 158 
 
 326 
 
 620 
 
 261 
 
 77 
 
 171 
 
 62 
 
 201 
 
 396 
 
 161 
 
 329 
 
 625 
 
 263 
 
 79 
 
 174 
 
 63 
 
 203 
 
 399 
 
 162 
 
 332 
 
 630 
 
 266 
 
 82 
 
 180 
 
 66 
 
 206 
 
 405 
 
 165 
 
 335 
 
 636 
 
 268 
 
 85 
 
 185 
 
 68 
 
 209 
 
 410 
 
 167 
 
 337 
 
 639 
 
 270 
 
 88 
 
 190 
 
 70 
 
 212 
 
 415 
 
 170 
 
 340 
 
 645 
 
 272 
 
 91 
 
 196 
 
 73 
 
 215 
 
 421 
 
 172 
 
 343 
 
 650 
 
 274 
 
 93 
 
 199 
 
 75 
 
 217' 
 
 424 
 
 174 
 
 346 
 
 656 
 
 277 
 
 96 
 
 205 
 
 77 
 
 220 
 
 430 
 
 176 
 
 348 
 
 659 
 
 278 
 
 99 
 
 210 
 
 79 
 
 223 
 
 435 
 
 178 
 
 351 
 
 665 
 
 281 
 
 102 
 
 216 
 
 82 
 
 226 
 
 441 
 
 181 
 
 354 
 
 670 
 
 283 
 
 104 
 
 219 
 
 83 
 
 228 
 
 444 
 
 182 
 
 357 
 
 675 . 
 
 286 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 231 
 
 450 
 
 185 
 
 360 
 
 681 
 
 288 
 
46 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Toluene is a distillate from coal tar. It resembles benzol in odor and 
 appearance, but is somewhat heavier and less volatile. It has a flash test 
 of 55 F. It is classed as an inflammable liquid. 
 
 Toluol. (See Toluene.) 
 
 Torches, Railroad. (See Fusees.) 
 
 Torpedoes, Toy, small paper-covered pellets containing a paper cap con- 
 taining a small quantity of red phosphorus and chlorate. This cap is sur- 
 rounded by particles of gravel to produce friction. The paper cap in torpedo 
 is sometimes replaced by a small particle of loose, dry, silver fulminate. 
 Classed as special fireworks. Sometimes these torpedoes owing to undue 
 sensitiveness or improper packing, will explode in mass. Such explosions 
 are rare, and of comparatively slight force. 
 
 Torpedoes, Track, consist of hollow tin or fiber discs, filled with a mixture 
 of sulphur, potassium chlorate, and sand or gravel. They are meant to be 
 exploded by weight of locomotive passing over them. Classed as special 
 fireworks. 
 
 Trinitro Benzol. This compound when dry is a high explosive, but when 
 wet with not less than 20 per cent water and placed in waterproof con- 
 tainers, may be shipped as inflammable solid, with yellow label. 
 
 Trinitro Phenol. (See Trinitro Benzol.) 
 
 Trinitrotoluol. (See Trinitro Benzol.) 
 
 Turpentine is a clear, colorless liquid of well known characteristic odor. 
 It is obtained by the distillation of the exudation from - pine trees. It is 
 used principally in paints and varnishes. It has a flash test of 95 F. 
 
 Turpentine Substitutes are usually petroleum distillates, usually having 
 about the same flash test as turpentine, but the flash point may be below 
 80 F. 
 
 Varnish Removers. (See Paint Remover.) 
 
 Varnish, N. O. S., may have flash test at 80 F. or below. 
 
 Viscoloid. (See Celluloid.) 
 
 Whistling Bombs. (See Bombs, Whistling.) 
 
 Wood Flour is finely divided wood, which has been reduced to a fine 
 powder, by mechanical means. It is used as an absorbent in dynamite 
 manufacture, and also to a certain extent in paper making. It is readily 
 ignited by sparks, but burns slowly when ignited. It is not considered liable 
 to spontaneous ignition. It is not classed as a hazardous article by the 
 I. C. C. Regulations and is commonly accepted by the steamship companies. 
 
 Wood Naphtha. (See Alcohol, Wood.) 
 
 Wood Pulp. This term is commonly applied to Wood Flour in the ex- 
 plosives trade. It is more properly applied to the material made by digesting 
 wood with caustic soda, or sulphurous acid. These pulps are felted and 
 baled. They are not used in the explosives business, but in paper manu- 
 facture. As regard to hazard wood pulp is approximately the same as 
 wood flour. 
 
 Wood Spirits. (See Alcohol, Wood.) 
 
 Xylene, or Xylol, is a coal tar distillate similar to toluol, but heavier and 
 less inflammable. It has a flash test of 95 F. 
 
 Xylonite. (See Celluloid.) 
 
 Zinc Dross. (See Dross, Zinc or Lead.) 
 
 . Zinc Dust, consists chiefly of finely divided metallic zinc. It is liable to 
 spontaneous ignition if wet. It is classed as an inflammable solid. 
 
 Zinc Flue Dust, from some processes is very similar to zinc dust and 
 has the same risks. Other zinc flue dusts consist almost wholly of oxides 
 and are non-hazardous. 
 
DANGEROUS ARTICLES OTHER THAN EXPLOSIVES 47 
 COMMON NAMES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES 
 
 Aqua Fortis Nitric Acid 
 
 Aqua Regia Nitro-Muriatic Acid 
 
 Blue Vitriol Sulphate of Copper 
 
 Cream of Tartar Bitartrate of Potassium 
 
 Calomel Chloride of Mercury 
 
 Chalk Carbonate of Calcium 
 
 Salt of Tartar Carbonate of Potassia 
 
 Caustic of Potassa Hydrate of Potassium 
 
 Chloroform Chloride of Gormyle 
 
 Common Salt Chloride of Sodium 
 
 Copperas, or Green Vitriol Sulphate of Iron 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate Bi-chloride of Mercury 
 
 Diamond Pure Carbon 
 
 Dry Alum Sulph. Alum, and Pptassium 
 
 Epsom Salts Sulphate of Magnesia 
 
 Ethiops Mineral Black Sulphide of Mercury 
 
 Fire Damp Light Carbureted Hydrogen 
 
 Galena Sulphide of Lead 
 
 Glucose Grape Sugar 
 
 Goulard Water Basic Acetate of Lead 
 
 Iron Pyrites Bisulphide of Iron 
 
 Jeweler's Putty Oxide of Tin 
 
 King Yellow Sulphide of Arsenic 
 
 Laughing Gas 
 
 Lime 
 
 Lunar Caustic 
 
 Mosaic Gold 
 
 Muriate of Lime. . 
 
 . Protoxide of Nitrogen 
 . Oxide of Calcium 
 . Nitrate of Silver . 
 . Bisulphide of Tin 
 Chloride of Calcium 
 
 Niter of Saltpeter Nitrate of Potash 
 
 Oil of Vitriol Sulphuric Acid 
 
 Potash Oxide of Potassium 
 
 Red Lead Oxide of Lead 
 
 Rust of Iron Oxide of Iron 
 
 Sal Ammoniac Muriate of Ammonia . 
 
 Slacked Lime : Hydrate of Calcium 
 
 Soda Oxide of Sodium 
 
 Spirits of Hartshorn Ammonia 
 
 Spirit of Salt Hydrochloric or Muriatic Acid 
 
 Stucco, or Plaster of Paris Sulphate of Lime 
 
 Sugar of Lead Acetate of Lead 
 
 Verdigris Basic of Acetate 
 
 Vermilion Sulphide of Mercury 
 
 Vinegar Acetic Acid (Diluted) 
 
 Volatile Alkali Ammonia 
 
 Water Oxide of Hydrogen 
 
 White Precipitate " Ammoniated Mercury 
 
 White Vitriol Sulphate of Zinc 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 
 
 On examining the danger-producing features, or hazards, as they 
 are commonly designated, , of various businesses, it will be found 
 that most of them can be classified as furnaces, driers or kettles. 
 There are many, however, which can hardly be included in any of 
 these groups, and, as they are dissimilar, they will, in the following 
 article, be treated under the general heading " Miscellaneous." 
 
 Furnaces 
 
 In practically all instances the features of significance here are 
 setting, clearance, stack or chimney and method of heating or fuel 
 used. 
 
 By setting is meant the nature of the enclosing walls of the fur- 
 nace and the manner in which these, as forming the furnace, are set 
 or arranged, as well as the condition in which they may be found. 
 
 Clearance refers to the distance of any heated portions of the 
 furnace from woodwork or other fixed inflammable materials, and 
 does not include distance to or proximity of temporary rubbish or 
 other materials, which is a matter of management. Clearance is 
 further analyzable into bottom, side meaning any one or all four 
 sides and overhead clearance. 
 
 By stack or chimney is meant the enclosure for the flue conveying 
 away the heated gases of combustion, including the breeching or 
 uptake or downtake to such stack or chimney. The construction, 
 location inside or outside or in walls, condition and clearance of 
 stacks or chimneys are the significant features in connection with 
 them. 
 
 Method of heating or fuel used refers to the source of heat, and 
 includes coal, coke, wood, gas, gasolene, electricity (as in carbide 
 furnaces), fuel oil, etc., and the conditions under which these may 
 be handled or used. A fuller treatment of these features is given 
 under " Boilers," and will not be repeated elsewhere. 
 
 Annealing Ovens'. These are too numerous in kind to receive 
 specific mention. The more common and the general characteristics 
 of the ovens as a class, therefore, will be given. Annealing ovens 
 are primarily arid principally for drawing an undesired temper 
 acquired in shaping materials or to prevent brittleness by providing 
 a gradual cooling process. 
 
 Plate glass annealing ovens or kilns, as they are called, are large 
 flat ovens heated to about noo degrees F., into which the freshly 
 rolled plate of glass is pushed and kept for five days until it has 
 gradually cooled. Inasmuch as the roofs over these ovens are gen- 
 erally low, the heat from open doors may, in time, desiccate the 
 roof timbers ; the roof supports are also frequently found in contact 
 with the setting. 
 
 48 
 
M.\\rF.\<"! fkixc HAZARDS 49 
 
 Sheet-iron annealing ovens and those in tin-plate rolling mills 
 are small house-like ovens, .generally brick and iron-bound, in which 
 the sealed annealing-boxes are placed, the boxes containing stacked 
 sheets of iron rendered too hard by the repeated rolling they have 
 received. Roofs above these are low in some plants; they should be 
 well away from the tops of the ovens, and the surrounding floor 
 should be fireproof, as the annealing boxes are dragged out quite hot. 
 
 The bake ovens or annealing ovens in wire mills are for drawing 
 the temper acquired in passing the wire through the dies in the 
 operation of " drawing," or for drying the coils after the scale has 
 been removed from the rods. Generally brick and iron,- with no 
 special characteristics. 
 
 Annealing ovens for beer bottles or glass bottles, to be used 
 under pressure, differ from leers (q. v.), in that the bottles are 
 stacked in brick, iron-bound ovens and allowed to remain several 
 days. 
 
 Malleable castings are annealed by enclosing 'them in pots or 
 boxes containing red hematite and heating them several days in a 
 ( brick oven-like furnace. 
 
 Assaying Furnaces. There are several general kinds, for cal- 
 cination, roasting, reduction, fusion, scorification, cupellation and 
 smelting. If ore be damp, it is calcined to dry it; if it be a sulphide, 
 it must be roasted before charged in the crucible with the fluxes, 
 etc., the object of roasting being to ensure oxidation and the 
 elimination of sulphur, arsenic, antimony, etc. In reduction and 
 fusion the ore is heated with fluxes and reducing agents in a crucible 
 or scorifier. Scorification and cupellation may both be classed as 
 a combination of fusion, roasting and sublimation, the difference 
 being that in the case of cupellation the volatile compounds formed 
 are absorbed by the cupel, while in scorification they form a slag. 
 Smelting in its restricted sense is the reduction of ores, sweepings, 
 metallurgical products, etc., by fusion in a furnace. Calcining and 
 roasting furnaces have shallow fireplaces and, ordinarily, brick 
 bodies bound with iron, cast-iron top plate, removable grate-bars, 
 a hood to carry off fumes and a stack or chimney of brick, iron or 
 clay; the temperature used is not high. Reduction and fusion fur- 
 naces are similar to ordinary crucible brass furnaces (q. v.) ; a high 
 temperature is used. The various furnaces above-mentioned are 
 similar to one or the other of these forms. 
 
 Bake Ovens. Reference is made here to ovens for baking crack- 
 ers, bread, etc. Modern bakeries generally have large brick ovens 
 with a grate fire at the bottom of a large chamber, in which, above 
 the fire, rotates a sort of ferris wheel, the cars of which are flat pans 
 to carry the crackers, biscuits, etc., to be baked. These ovens have 
 brick-arched ceilings covered with a foot or more of sand, so that 
 top clearance is not so significant as side clearance. The firing pit 
 should be fireproof. The wheel is moved by machinery and so timed 
 in its rotation that baking is accomplished in one complete turn, 
 when the product is removed by paddles. Xewly-baked crackers 
 should not be barreled immediately, as they contain sufficient heat 
 to cause trouble. Xor should the cracker coolers and chutes be of 
 wood. Bread bake ovens are generally flat and massively built, so 
 as to retain the heat at an even temperature, and clearance is not 
 so important, although it is well to keep them free. Portable iron 
 
I 
 
 50 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ovens are also frequently used for various baking operations in the 
 case of smaller orders, being practically large ovens similar to those 
 in ranges. 
 
 Bark Furnaces. Generally in connection with boilers at tanneries 
 and for burning spent bark. Occasionally they are mere burners, 
 like fireplaces, in which no effort is made to utilize the heat, but 
 as a rule, they are brick and iron furnaces attached to the boiler 
 fronts and fed from the top, the bark being piled on top as it falls 
 from the conveyor. Inasmuch as the bark is damp, this practice 
 and that of piling it against the side setting of the furnaces and 
 boilers are not so objectionable as they would appear. 
 
 Barrel Heaters. Usually the worst feature in cooper shops, not 
 excepting the boiler hazard. Sometimes they are simply open 
 hearths on which the barrels are placed and a fire built inside. 
 Again, they are salamanders on a platform. Yet again they are 
 cylinder-like stoves with the flue at the bottom, or conical-shaped 
 stoves with telescoping flues at the apex, so as to permit the removal 
 of the barrels from about the stoves. Rarely they are gas-heated 
 cylindrical stoves or steam-heated cylinders. Probably, the most 
 objectionable form is the open hearth; the safest, the steam cylinder. 
 Salamanders are not so bad as the open hearth, but nearly, and the 
 other forms are fairly safe when properly arranged. Doubtless, 
 the reasons for these opinions are clear when it is reflected that 
 refuse nearly always strews the floor about such heaters. The floor 
 about heaters for 6 feet or more should be protected. 
 
 Bessemer Converters. Tilting steel, fire-brick-lined furnaces for 
 eliminating the carbon and silicon from pig iron, preparatory to its 
 conversion into steel or ingot iron, by forcing a blast of air through 
 the iron while it is molten. Inasmuch as the blast is powerful, 
 sparks and red-hot cinders are thrown 100 feet or more into the air, 
 and all roofs within reach should be incombustible. 
 
 Billet Furnaces. Reheating furnaces for billets which are blcnms, 
 of iron or steel drawn into smaller bars. Generally brick, iron- 
 bound. Clearance of both stack and furnace important. 
 
 Blacksmith Forges. These are in general stationary and port- 
 able. Practically all portable forges are iron or steel, with attached 
 geared blowers. Stationary forges may be of the portable type or 
 consist of iron or brick bodies into the center of which the blast-hole 
 is built. Occasionally, such forges have wooden box-like bodies ; 
 these are objectionable, as a rule. Forges are such simple hazards 
 that the dangers are often overlooked. A few remarks are therefore 
 added. They should not be located near wooden partitions or boxes 
 or other inflammable materials against or into which coals might 
 land when the blast is on. These sometimes smoulder undetected 
 and break out later. Floors which are splintered or in bad repair 
 or with wide cracks between the boards are also objectionable, as 
 well as the presence of openings in sheathing or lath and plaster 
 finish on walls, ceilings or partitions. The fans or blowers supplying 
 the blasts are sometimes run by belts from the floor below, and care 
 should be taken to see that nothing inflammable is underneath the 
 belt-hole. Anvils are also apt to throw scale around even further 
 than the sparks from forge fly ordinarily. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 51 
 
 Blast Furnaces. A type of furnace, consisting of tall structures 
 in which the materials and fuel are mixed together, an air blast 
 introduced near the bottom, and in which fusion of the contents 
 is effected. The principal furnace of the type is used to smelt ore 
 in making pig iron. Formerly they were brick or stone, like huge 
 lime kilns, but nowadays they are tall iron and steel stacks, lined 
 with fire-brick, with loading platforms near the top and tap-holes 
 and tuyeres near the bottom, the tap-holes being for draining off 
 the molten iron and the tuyeres the mouths of the air blasts. A 
 bell or cup-and-cone arrangement closes the top after each charge. 
 The gases pass through a flue in the side into a " down comer " 
 leading to the boilers, " stoves/' etc. Explosions, arising from air 
 admitted during charging, are possible, but are guarded against by 
 explosion doors consisting of simple flap-checks. There is also 
 danger of the charge bridging or arching, technically known as 
 " hanging," within the furnace, and then collapsing and bursting 
 the sides or bottom out. There should, therefore, be no inflam- 
 mable material near the furnace. Owing to the repeated flaring 
 noted at the top of the furnaces during charging, the structures 
 on the loading platform near the charging door should be fireproof. 
 Smaller furnaces of the type are used in smelting lead. 
 
 Bloom Furnaces. For reheating blooms or long slab-like masses 
 of steel or malleable iron from which the slag has been forced by 
 hammer, rolls or squeezer. Clearance of both stack and setting 
 important. 
 
 Blow Furnaces. In window glass factories. Large reheating 
 furnaces for heating the glass cylinder as it is blown. Generally 
 brick and iron-bound, and burning coke, coal, ga,s or fuel oil. In 
 front of the round openings into which the blower holds the cylin- 
 der are footpaths generally of wood for the workmen to walk back- 
 ward and forward upon in swinging the cylinder. A dip pit is under 
 these paths and generally communicates with a basement. Aside 
 from the regular furnace hazard is the danger of charring the 
 wooden footpath, which is necessarily wood, as the cylinder strikes 
 against it from time to time, and stone and iron would fracture the 
 glass. 
 
 Bluing Ovens. Generally small brick ovens, practically for tem- 
 pering, used in giving the blue finish to gun barrels, revolvers, etc. 
 No special comments necessary. 
 
 Boilers. The hazard of these is mainly due to piling lumber or 
 small pieces of wood on top of the boilers to dry, to direct exposure 
 of beams, joists, partition or other woodwork by the breeching or 
 stack, to back-drafts, or to the ignition of piles or trains of shavings 
 in front of the furnace. 
 
 The objection to drying inflammable materials over boilers arises 
 from the fact that unequal expansion of the boiler itself, its arch- 
 ings or its setting, causes cracks in the setting or arching. Where 
 shavings are used sparks will fly out quite freely, and even hot air 
 will escape from the crevices sufficiently to char and ignite wood 
 near, laid there to be dried out. This is the main danger at this 
 point. The fine dust which settles on top of boilers will in some 
 instances smoulder and hold fire like punk, and an additional danger 
 arises here. The writer has conducted many experiments with such 
 
52 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 dust. While most dust 'of this 'description will not ignite' easily when 
 laid, some 6f a fluffy, splintery, fibrous nature will, and care should 
 be taken to keep the tops of boilers free from it. The dust from 
 soft wood removed by sanders, especially by side abrasion, is par- 
 ticularly apt to smoulder or flame up. Sand and ashes are sometimes 
 used, to cover the arching, but these are not .safeguards enough to 
 warrant the practice of drying wood, etc., on top of the boiler since 
 they set in time, and fissures and crevices form in them also. 
 
 Back-drafts are due mainly to the accumulation of unignited gas 
 in the furnace or flue from temporary choking, caused by wind, 
 sudden atmospheric changes, etc., and may send sparks and coals 
 from the furnace into the fire room. For this reason the door of 
 the shavings vault should not be opposite that of the furnace. 
 Neither should any communication with the main building be oppo- 
 site the furnace, even when provided with a fire-door, as the latter 
 might be opened at the time of a back-draft. Back-drafts, however, 
 are not of frequent occurrence. 
 
 The breeching, unless lined with brick, is a serious exposure to 
 woodwork even two or three feet away, and for this reason proper 
 precaution should be' taken to protect any woodwork so exposed. 
 Soot accumulations sometimes cause over-heating, and even where 
 refuse alone is used as fuel the crowding of a boiler may overheat 
 the breeching. Unlined iron stacks may also become a source of 
 danger for very similar reasons. As a rule, however, such stacks 
 are not as serious hazards as the breeching, which is too frequently 
 ignored as a hazard. Stacks should be well ventilated and provided 
 with hoods and thimbles where they pass through the roof. Joists 
 should not be let into brick stacks unless the latter are very heavy, 
 and it is just as well then to be on the safe side by providing headers 
 about the stacks to carry floor beams or joists. 
 
 Trains of shavings are sometimes left by a careless fireman from 
 the furnace to the open door of the vault. These may be ignited 
 and start a fire. Again, shavings from the dust collector are occa- 
 sionally allowed to fall through the air from the bottom of the 
 collector to the floor in front of the boiler, where they are shoveled 
 into the furnace. The objection to this practice need not 1 be pointed 
 out. A remote danger is the explosion of dust in the feed flues 
 where shavings are blown directly to the boilers. This danger is 
 practically obviated by the intervention of dust collectors, back- 
 check flaps and automatic regulators. In general, it may be said 
 that "the boiler hazard is most serious when soft wood is worked and 
 merely nominal where wet wood (as in butter-dish factories) is, 
 handled. Where refuse is used for fuel, spark-arresters should be 
 provided for the stack, as the risk or its neighbors often suffer loss 
 from flying sparks. Sparks are particularly noticeable when there 
 is a 'forced draft, unless the draft is produced by exhausting steam 
 into the stack. 
 
 Brass Furnaces.- As a rule, cylindrical iron, fire-brick-lined fur- 
 naces containing coke fires upon which rest the crucibles holding the 
 brass to be melted. Provided with covers. Coal is nowadays Used 
 as fuel, also, but needs more blast to get the desired heat. Stacks 
 of such furnaces are very hot and usually too light. The furnaces, 
 unless set in the ground, should be suspended in iron pits clear of 
 all woodwork, as side and overhead exposures* are intense. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 53 
 
 Brazing Forges. lira/ing is an operation similar to soldering 
 nn a large scale, the metal corresponding to the solder having, how- 
 ever, a higher degree of fusibility than the latter. It is really the 
 welding of two metals, alike or dissimilar, to a third between them. 
 Ordinarily some modification of a Biinsen burner is used, but black- 
 smith forges (q. v.) are frequently used. Many brazing apparatus 
 use the Run sen burner or blowpipe principle, the llames impinging 
 against the work as it rests on a bed of coke, charcoal, stones or 
 fire-bricks to give the heat a cumulative effect. Such beddings 
 should never rest upon wood-work, as they heat through gradually 
 and set fire to the charred wood-work. It is impracticable to detail 
 at this point the various methods of supplying heat. See " Gaso- 
 lene," " Fuel-oil," etc. 
 
 Busheling Stoves. Used for heating flat-irons, tailors' irons, etc., 
 in hat, overall, shirt and clothing factories and similar risks. They 
 are ordinary stoves with polygonal bodies, against the many faces 
 of which the irons are allowed to rest while being heated. Hazard 
 that of large overheated stoves. See '' Slug Heaters." 
 
 Calciners. These are of kiln .type and for expelling moisture. 
 Lime kilns, calcination furnaces, plaster kilns, etc., are examples. 
 Generally heavily built of brick or stone. Well to prevent wood- 
 work from coming in contact with setting, ho'wever, as fissures may 
 form. 
 
 Candy Furnaces 4 . Usually cylindrical iron, fire-brick-lined and 
 having concentric annular lids for varying-sized kettles. Coke or 
 hard coal fires generally used; sometimes gas and artificial coals. 
 Chimneys very hot and frequently too thin. Brick or cement plat- 
 form with raised edges should surround furnaces, and hood be pro- 
 vided overhead if ceiling be low, in case of accident from boiling 
 over. Used in candy kitchens and factories, bakeries, for syrup 
 boiling, in extract works, in fruit-cleaning establishments, etc. 
 
 Carbide Furnaces. Electric furnace for making calcium carbide 
 from lime and coke by fusion. Intense heat internally, but furnaces 
 are heavily built and usual furnace hazard mild. 
 
 Carbon Point Furnaces. -For baking lamp carbons. Intense heat 
 used and clearance and stack important. 
 
 Coffee Roasters. Name signifies use. .Generally brick with rotat- 
 ing horizontal metal cylinders set in them for tumbling coffee as it 
 is roasted. Coal, coke or gas fuel generally used. Some danger of 
 roasted-out gas igniting. Clearance all sides and stack important. 
 Xo wooden spouts should be allowed near, and coffee should, after 
 roasting, be cooled in iron receptacles, as it retains sufficient heat 
 to char wood. Preferably ceiling and floor of roaster room should 
 be fireproof. 
 
 Coke Ovens.-t-For roasting gas out of soft coal in the manufac- 
 ture of coke. Generally stone and arranged in batteries many hun- 
 dred feet long. Seldom under cover. 
 
 Cupolas. Smaller blast furnaces used in foundries for remelting 
 iron preparatory to casting. Generally iron, fire-brick-lined stacks, 
 with charging door in the side, air blast and tap-hole near bottom 
 and dumping bottom. They emit a shower during a melt, especially 
 when the charge runs low. Should have good clearance at roof and 
 
54 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 charging floor, as well as at the " dump " or place where the refuse 
 slag and cinders are allowed to fall from the bottom after a run. 
 The " dump " is the worst feature in connection with cupolas, espe- 
 cially large ones such as those in car-wheel foundries, when the 
 heat from the pile of cinders and slag is so intense that it may ignite 
 woodwork 30 feet away. Small hose should always be. provided at 
 cupolas, and the cupola house itself, if not cut off, should preferably 
 be fireproof. 
 
 Crematories. Reference is made more particularly to garbage 
 crematories. Those for cremating the dead are generally gas-heated 
 and in elaborately fireproof surroundings. Garbage and dead animal 
 burners are generally box-shaped brick furnaces, bound with iron, 
 with charging doors in the top which is level with the receiving floor 
 and grates underneath. An effort is made to make them self-sus- 
 taining in the matter of fuel, gas, coke, coal and fuel oil being used 
 to assist the cremation. Ceilings above furnace and charging doors 
 should be high and receiving floor should _not, unless fireproof, be 
 in contact with setting. Small garbage crematories are in use in the 
 back yards, in some cities, these being small brick enclosures without- 
 tops. 
 
 Flattening Ovens. Used in window glass factories to roll out or 
 flatten the glass after the glass cylinder has been seamed or cracked 
 along its length. A combination reheating and annealing oven, the 
 reheating part containing a circular rotating table upon which the 
 glass is flattened by means of wooden blocks on the ends of pokers 
 or rods. Roofs over these generally low, and there is a tendency to 
 let roof timbers rest on the setting. See " Leers." 
 
 Galvanizing Furnaces. Generally long, low, brick melting fur- 
 naces, with the fire under an open pot containing the zinc or alloy. 
 For galvanizing or coating with zinc, alloy, pipe, wire, hooks, eye- 
 bolts, velocipede wheels, etc. Stack generally most important fea- 
 ture, as clearance and setting are apt to be good. Various fuels used. 
 
 Gas Producers. Reference is made more particularly to those 
 producers making fuel gas from soft coal by roasting it, the gas 
 being conveyed hot directly to the furnaces by means of large flues. 
 In these producers advantage is taken of the fact that carbon dioxide 
 is reduced to carbon monoxide by red-hot carbon. Ordinarily, the 
 producers consist of deep grates into which the fuel is fed from 
 above, the air entering below the charge. There are several makes 
 of producers which are generally iron, fire-brick-lined, and in a two- 
 story house, the second story being for charging purposes and the 
 first for firing. If adjoining or exposing main buildings, the pro- 
 ducer house should be entirely fireproof, as fires are frequent from 
 direct exposure, puffs or back-drafts, dust explosions and sponta- 
 neous combustion of soft coal. 
 
 Gas Stacks and Retorts. Retorts are used in the manufacture of 
 coal gas. They are cylindrical receivers horizontally placed, closed 
 at one end ami sealed at the other by a hinged door. They are 
 arranged in tiers like the tubes of a boiler, and enclosed in a brick 
 setting somewhat similar to that of boilers, with a coke fire under 
 them. The retorts are filled with bituminous coal, sometimes mixed 
 with cannel coal, from which gas is roasted or distilled. This gas 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 55 
 
 passes by its own expansion through a riser at the front end which 
 ascends and turns downward into the first seal or hydraulic main, 
 as it is called. 
 
 The dangers in connection with retorts may be several. Ordi- 
 narily they are not serious in properly constructed plants. There 
 is the ordinary furnace hazard. In withdrawing the charge after 
 a " run," there is a possibility of its setting fire to any woodwork 
 with which it might come in contact or be near, and the building 
 should have an incombustible floor and walls. When the retort 
 doors are opened there is a mild explosion of the already heated 
 and expanded residue gas inside mixed with the newly admitted 
 air, resulting in some soot which lodges on the walls and roof, as 
 well as small sparks or pieces of soot, from the concussion, being 
 sent upward. Soot is also produced from the smoking at the retort 
 doors when the riser to the hydraulic main becomes choked until, 
 in time, rhe rafters Become coated with flaky soot which the above- 
 mentioned sparks, or those of extraneous origin, may ignite. It is 
 evident, then, that the retort house roof should be incombustible. 
 Another danger shared between the retorts and hydraulic main is 
 from leakage in the seal of the latter which may result in the 
 admission of air from a back pressure into any retort which should 
 happen to be opened for the purpose of recharging. Such accidents 
 have occurred, resulting in the wreckage of the hydraulic main, the 
 top of the retorts and the roof. 
 
 Stacks are used in the manufacture of water gas. They are the 
 generator, carburetter, superheater and combined stacks. In the 
 separate stack system the generator is an iron cupola or stack lined 
 with fire-brick, and containing a deep bed of coke fire into which 
 steam is injected. Before the " run " is begun, however, an air blast 
 from a Sturtevant or other fan heats the fire up to the desired 
 temperature. It is then shut off and the steam admitted. The tem- 
 perature, about i6co degrees R, disintegrates the steam into its 
 component elements, oxygen and hydrogen, the former uniting with 
 the coke and producing carbonic oxide, and the latter remaining 
 free. These two gases pass over in about equal volumes to the 
 carburetter through what would otherwise be the smoke flue of 
 the generator. 
 
 In this system the carburetter is a similarly built furnace to the 
 generator except that it contains a checker-work of heated bricks 
 against which the crude oil is sprayed. This oil is first heated by 
 being led up through the delivery main of the superheater, and 
 is drawn from tanks by means of small steam pumps. The heated 
 bricks vaporize the oil which mingles with the hydrogen and car- 
 bonic oxide from the generator, and all pass on to the superheater 
 which makes them a fixed gas to prevent subsequent condensation. 
 
 There is something of the furnace hazard in the carburetter, but 
 it is slight. A more serious danger is the accidental admission of 
 air, which can come through the blower pipe, as stated, or through 
 the peep-holes provided for the operator if carelessly manipulated 
 or injured. The peep-holes are iron pipes with two shut-off valves, 
 the outer having a center of glass, or one shut-off valve and a fixed 
 glass eye-piece. Evidently, the breakage of the eye-piece would 
 result in an accident which might fire the building. 
 
 The superheater in the separate stack system is a furnace similar 
 to the carburetter, without the oil injectors, and provided with the 
 
56 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 final smoke flue for the system (when the blast is on), which flue' 
 is covered with a lid when the apparatus is making a "run." After 
 a " run " the lid is lifted, the air blast started, and any remaining 
 gas blown out through the flue, clearing the apparatus for a new 
 " run." The. superheater is provided with a water-seal which pre- 
 vents the gas, during a " run," from returning to the superheater. 
 
 The superheater is also provided with peep-holes, the hazard 
 from which has been indicated, and there is considerable of the 
 furnace hazard, but the features most likely to result in fire are 
 the "roaring" at the top of the stack when the blast is put on 
 and the ignition of the mingled gas and air at that point. The 
 "roaring," so-called, makes the ventilator above red-hot, and the 
 combustion of the gas and air envelops the whole roof with flames. 
 Evidently, the building must be entirely iron and brick. The roar- 
 ing is similar to that of a foundry cupola and from very much the 
 same cause. The ignition of the residue gas, and the air at the 
 top of the superheater is intentional, being effected by a pilot-light 
 at the point designed to burn any escaping gas. It is, however, 
 none the less likely to burn the roof if it is wood. Leakage of the 
 oil: pipe in the delivery main may also cause trouble, but it would 
 probably be local. 
 
 In the combined stack system each stack is arranged with a deep 
 bed of coke fire at the bottom, with several skeleton arches -above, 
 each arch carrying its quota of checker-bricks against which the 
 crude oil impinges. Each stack has also a blow-off flue and lid. 
 
 The hazards are similar to those in the separate system, except 
 that they are rather more marked, owing to the fact that the admis- 
 sion of air is apt to result in worse explosions. The oil is also 
 heated by a jacket of steam instead of being passed through the 
 pipe inside of a delivery main. Repairs are thus more easily made 
 and the exact condition of the oil system known. The arrange- 
 ment of glower valves is more complicated, and therefore human 
 error is likely to play a greater part in accidents. 
 
 Glory Holes. Small reheating furnaces found only in bottle fac- 
 tories, for reheating the necks preparatory to shaping the bead upon 
 it. Formerly heated by coke and coal fires, the ashes of which 
 fell through the eye and could expose the timbers of the floor under- 
 neath. Now heated by gas or fuel oil. Generally well away from 
 walls and surrounding the melting furnace proper, the room con- 
 taining which has a high 'ceiling. Ordinarily, they are small fire- 
 brick, iron-bound furnaces, similar to large soldering-iron heaters, 
 set ; on iron legs. 
 
 Hearths. A type of furnace used principally in metallurgical 
 work and steel and iron mills, and consisting of shallow and more 
 or less open fireplaces, in which the materials and fuel are mixed, 
 a blast of air supplied and the atmosphere made more or less oxi- 
 dizing by varying the amount of air supplied. Generally brick and 
 aron. Clearance important. 
 
 Hearths. Reference is not made to the type bearing this name, 
 but to fireplaces and barrel hearths: Chimneys for these should be 
 double brick, with ample throats. The floor of the fireplacg should 
 extend well in front of the fire, and the space under the lire or grate, 
 if any, should be built on brick or cement arches. There. is always 
 danger, with wood fuel, of sparks flying out into ai room. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 57 
 
 Heating Furnaces. Furnaces classifiable thus are almost innu- 
 merable. The principal are heating furnaces for sheet iron in cut 
 nail works; rods in nut and holt works; billets and blooms in steel 
 and iron works; rods, bars and blocks in forge and blacksmith 
 -.ils; fagots in rolling mills; trunnions, axles, ordnance, etc., in 
 ordnance foundries and forge shops, and for various parts in straight 
 metal and mixed metal and wood-workers. 
 
 Heating Furnaces (for buildings). These are of the general 
 kinds steam, hot air and hot water. Hot air furnaces are of two 
 kinds those supplying the hot air to the rooms through flues and 
 those heating the rooms by circulating the hot air through radiators. 
 I lot water heating is accomplished by circulating. hot water through 
 radiators similar to steam radiators. In all systems a furnace is 
 required, and this is generally iron-jacketed or set in brick. Top 
 clearance to joists and side clearance to wooden bins or partitions 
 are generally important. Smoke flue should also have good clear- 
 ance and enter chimney horizontally. Hot water and steam pipes 
 should not come in contact with wood, as even hot water pipes char 
 wood, and the lower the temperature at which wood is charred the 
 easier it ignites. Hot air flues should be double in partitions and 
 cold air intake flues should be iron for several feet away .from fur- 
 nace. Ashes should be kept in metal receptacles and not mixed 
 with papers and rubbish -in wooden boxes or barrels. 
 
 Kilns. These are generally for expelling moisture or chemical 
 constituents by heating. They are nearly always heavily built of 
 brick or stone, but are sometimes metal and lined with fire-bricks. 
 Lime kilns are of two types, continuous and periodic, both being 
 subdivided into short and long-flame kilns. Short-flame kilns have 
 alternate layers of fuel and long-flame kilns burn the fuel on a 
 grate, the gases only coming in contact with the limestone. Gyp- 
 sum kilns in plate glass works, in which the gypsum is calcined in 
 making plaster of paris for setting the glass on the polishing wheels, 
 cement kilns and rock-burning kilns in plaster mills, are all similar 
 to lime kilns. Plaster kilns in plate glass works, for reclaiming the 
 plaster of paris after it has been used, are rather furnaces than 
 kilns, being brick and iron-bound. Calcining operations in all kinds 
 of metallurgical work are frequently carried on in kilns. Clearance 
 the main feature in all. 
 
 Knobbing Furnaces. Small bfoomery furnaces. Much used for- 
 merly in steel manufacture and then using charcoal fuel. Brick, 
 iron-bound. Roofs above were low, dried out and subject to fre- 
 quent fires from sparks rising. 
 
 Lead Furnaces. Tn smelting lead there are four general kinds 
 of furnaces : reverberatory, blast and slag furnaces, and melting-- 
 pots for desilverizing. The reverberatory and blast furnaces are of 
 the usual construction, the latter resembling a foundry cupola ; the 
 slacr furnace or hearth is a sort of blast furnace of brick and iron 
 construction, for treating rich slags obtained in smelting in the 
 reverberatory furnaces, and the melting-pots are huge iron kettles 
 set on brick foundations, with the fire underneath. 
 
 Leers. Low brick annealing furnaces for bottles, table ware, etc. 
 Ordinarily they consist of a tunnel-like oven with a fire at one end, 
 
58 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 a chimney near the middle and an open door at the other. The 
 ware to be annealed is placed upon iron trays and shoved into the 
 heated end of the leer, where a conveyor engages a hook or lug on 
 the trays and draws them through to the cool end where they are 
 removed and the ware packed. Gradual cooling is thus accomplished 
 and brittleness avoided. Roofs above are generally low, but this 
 fact is immaterial unless roof supports are on leer setting. Wooden 
 braces were formerly used and were obviously objectionable. Pack- 
 ing with straw or paper should not be allowed near. 
 
 Melting-Pots. These occur in a great variety of risks for a 
 variety of purposes. Those which may properly be classed as fur- 
 naces generally consist of a pot, kettle or basin set on brick founda- 
 tions, with a gas, coke, oil or coal fire underneath. Some of the 
 more common are lead pots for melting lead in moulding ingots, 
 strip lead, lead castings, etc. ; solder-pots in can factories and tin 
 shops, usually for remelting and reclaiming; zinc and tin furnaces 
 for galvanizing, tinning, etc.; stereotype furnaces, for melting type 
 metal in making forms from matrices. They are apt to be set in 
 crowded corners or places, and clearance is an important feature. 
 
 Muffle Furnaces. A type of furnace used in metallurgy and for 
 many purposes in which a chamber is heated by the flames and 
 gases circulating in flues around them. Generally brick and iron- 
 bound. 
 
 Pipe-bending Furnaces. For heating large pipes preparatory to 
 bending. Generally similar to large open blacksmith forges and 
 involving the same hazards on a large scale. 
 
 Pitching Apparatus. In breweries. For coating the interior of 
 kegs with pitch to prevent the tannic acid of the oak staves from 
 affecting the beer. The apparatus generally consists of a super- 
 heater for burning out old pitch and a pitch melting-pot. Both vary 
 greatly in construction and details of use. If direct fires are used, 
 the apparatus should be outside or in a fireproof room, as the pitch 
 is apt to boil over. 
 
 Portable Forges. Used for heating rivets, small pieces of metal 
 to be worked, tempering tools, etc. Generally consist of iron basin 
 on iron legs with blower attachment. See " Blacksmith Forges." 
 
 Pot Arches. In glass factories. Brick, iron-bound furnaces for 
 baking the expensive clay glass melting-pots and stones and tweels 
 forming the furnaces. Operated at a high temperature and gen- 
 erally built in a leanto. Inasmuch as the door is frequently opened 
 while the furnace is still hot, the roof overhead will become charred 
 and ignited unless it has full clearance. Side clearance also very 
 important and no wooden braces should be allowed. 
 
 Puddling Furnaces. Reverberatory furnaces for converting pig 
 iron into wrought iron by the expulsion of carbon and impurities. 
 These furnaces are brick, fire-brick-lined and iron-bound. Puddling, 
 in brief, consists of melting down the iron, boiling it and rabbling 
 it (stirring up the charge), firing and balling. The last consists 
 in pushing, by means of rods through holes in the work door, the 
 spongy iron together into a sort of ball, which is then removed and 
 shingled in a hammer or squeezer. Shingling consists of welding 
 the particles of iron together and squeezing out the slag. Clear- 
 ance, especially of stack, important. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 59 
 
 Ranges. Cooking stoves, generally of a larger size, with oven 
 compartments, broilers, water-backs, etc. Generally cast-iron and 
 sheet-iron. Frequently set too close to wainscoting or partitions 
 and space behind used as catch-all. Wood also piled behind to dry 
 in many instances. Both are bad practices. Hotel ranges fre- 
 quently have large iron hoods above them to carry off odors and 
 smoke from broilers, etc., and the flues from these hoods should be 
 clear of woodwork, as they often burn out from the greasy accumu- 
 lations, and bad fires have resulted. Coal or wood ranges should 
 have sheet metal in front. 
 
 Reduction Furnaces. See " Assaying Furnaces." 
 
 Refuse Burners. In connection with sawmills, refuse is burned 
 in pits, piles or furnaces, especially built for the purpose. The 
 pits or piles should evidently be located at a safe distance from the 
 mill and lumber yards, as the wind carries the sparks and small 
 brands surprisingly far. Two hundred feet square clearance is fre- 
 quently required, but this distance is by no means a guaranty of 
 safety, especially if refuse be burned in huge piles, to which it is 
 sent on conveyors or by hand. Such piles are sometimes seen burn- 
 ing continuously at the end of a long conveyor, which drops the 
 refuse on the heap from a height of 30 to 40 feet. It is hardly 
 necessary to mention that these piles are a serious menace to sur- 
 rounding property. 
 
 A regular slab burner is often found quite near the mill, some- 
 times within 15 or 20 feet. It consists of a cylindrical furnace of 
 brick or iron, lined with brick, with a dome-shaped wire screen 
 spark-arrester at the top. They run about 10 to 20 feet in diameter 
 and 30 to 60 feet in height. An opening in the side about 20 feet 
 from the ground admits the refuse which is brought to the burner 
 by a' drag-conveyor. These are much safer than pit or pile burners, 
 but may start fires. It is possible for a coal of fire or a brand to 
 be carried back into the mill on the return portion of the conveyor. 
 The spark-arresters, become worn, allowing sparks to escape, and 
 sparks sometimes issue from the lower doors or cracks above them. 
 
 In connection with broom factories, small brick furnaces are used 
 to burn unavailable refuse. They are frequently too close to build- 
 ings and surrounded by broom straw. 
 
 Regenerative Furnaces. A type of furnace for many uses, in 
 which the waste heat is employed for heating the air, or air and gas, 
 supplied to the furnaces. Most important is steel and iron plants. 
 The regenerative feature may be applied to other types, as the rever- 
 beratory, the famous Siemen's furnace being a regenerative rever- 
 beratory furnace. They are generally brick and iron, with compart- 
 ments and chambers for the waste gases. Generally in fireproof 
 surroundings. 
 
 Retorts. Of various forms and for a multiplicity of uses. 
 Where of the furnace type, they generally consist of a closed vessel 
 of iron, glass or stoneware set on a brick foundation or enclosed in 
 brick, with the fire underneath. Used in coal gas works, in which 
 they are cylindrical iron chambers enclosed in brick walls; in nitric 
 acid plants, in which they are stoneware jugs set on brick furnaces; 
 and in metallurgical operations, in which they are iron vessels fixed 
 in brick work and heated. Explosion hazard in some cases, due to 
 
6o FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 air and gas inside becoming mixed and ignited. Otherwise, ordinary 
 furnace hazards prevail. 
 
 Reverberatory Furnaces. A type of furnace finding many appli- 
 cations, in which the fuel is burnt in a separate part of the chamber, 
 the flame and hot gases only coming in contact with the material 
 treated. Used extensively in steel and iron mills and smelting- 
 pfants. Generally brick and iron and in fireproof surroundings. 
 If not, clearance of both furnace and stack important. 
 
 Rivet Forges. Either portable forges (q. v.) or small heating 
 furnaces for heating rivets in bridge, structural iron, boiler, iron 
 tank, ship building, etc., works. 
 
 Rouge Ovens. In plate glass works, for roasting copperas in the 
 manufacture of buffing rouge for use in polishing. Generally flat, 
 brick furnaces. 
 
 Salamanders. Stoves with open tops, no flues and generally 
 raised on three iron legs. Used for heating purposes in foundries, 
 rolling mills, etc., where ceilings are high; also for drying out 
 brewers' vats preparatory to varnishing, for drying new , plastering 
 in buildings, for taking chill off foundry sand, etc. Sometimes used 
 in place of forges for heating small work and as stove in barrel- 
 heating. Coke or charcoal the usual fuel ; sometimes wood. They 
 should have fixed pans under the grates and be used with great 
 care iri any environment containing combustibles. 
 
 Slug Heaters. Stoves or furnaces for heating the removable iron 
 slug used in one form of tailors' irons. Generally coke or coal-fired, 
 brick-heating furnaces. Frequently without sufficient clearance, 
 and, owing to frequent tramping,, floors about are apt to be worn. 
 Found in connection with hat, overall, shirt and clothing factories. 
 
 Stalls*. A type of calcining furnace taking its name from its gen- 
 eral appearance, in which the materials are mixed with fuel. Free 
 access of air is permitted and no fusion takes place. Ordinarily, 
 the furnace consists of two rows of brick compartments with a 
 chamber between, each compartment having th*e top and outer side 
 open, giving the appearance of horse-stalls. These open places are 
 loosely covered during the operation. Reguli and mattes are often 
 calcined in stalls. There should be plenty of overhead clearance. 
 
 Stereotype Furnaces. For melting the type metal used in cast- 
 ing forms from the pulp matrices in large printing establishments. 
 Generally cylindrical iron, fire-brick-lined furnaces, similar to large 
 candy furnaces with the lead pot set in the top. Frequently set in 
 close quarters. 
 
 Stills (direct-heated). Rare nowadays for distilling spirits. 
 Steam still used more frequently. Direct-heated stills are found in 
 small plants and are very objectionable, owing to the danger of 
 explosion. Furnace hazard 'normal otherwise, the copper or other 
 metal still being set on an ordinary brick furnace. Platinum stills 
 used in concentrating sulphuric acid are direct-heated, but no in- 
 flammable vapors are given off ; these stills are very valuable, how- 
 ever, and easily damaged by falling lead from towers or chambers, 
 in case of fire, heated lead and platinum forming an amalgam. 
 
 Stoves. Reference is made to heating stove's, laundry stoves, cook 
 stoves, etc. Their construction is familiar. Their hazards consist 
 
M. \.\rKAcruRiNG HAZARDS 61 
 
 of the direct exposure of inflammable material by the stove itself 
 or its flue, the emanation of sparks from the grate or open door or 
 from crevices in the stove or flue and the escape of soot or sparks 
 past possibly ill-lining collars or thimbles at the entry of the flue 
 into the chimney. In general, wood stoves are the most hazardous, 
 and all stoves, except those using gas, should be set on metal or 
 other protection ample in ai^ea ; no stovepipes should enter a chimiuy 
 or tile flue vertically, and chimneys should preferably be built from 
 the ground and not rest on side brackets, stirrups or attic floors. 
 Stovepipes should never pass through blind attics or other concealed 
 spaces, and ventilated thimbles should protect them at all partitions. 
 
 Stoves, Hot Blast. For utilizing the heated waste gases from 
 blast furnaces in warming up the air furnishing the blast. They are 
 variously constructed of brick or iron-lined with brick, with checker- 
 work or flues inside for the cold air to pass through and heated by 
 the waste gases referred to. Such stoves are huge affairs, generally 
 detached from any buildings. 
 
 Tempering Ovens. Of all shapes and sizes, generally brick or 
 iron-bound brick and lined with fire-brick. For tempering tools, 
 steel, 'parts, etc. Many articles, such as files, are tempered by thrust- 
 ing them first into a pot of melted lead and then into oil or. water 
 or other bath. 
 
 Tinners' Furnaces. Reference is made to all soldering iron heat- 
 ers. The old style and still used furnace or fire-pot is a small ver- 
 tical sheet-iron cylinder stove, set on a pan and using charcoal fuel ; 
 commonly used by plumbers and roofers and either portable or 
 stationary. Many fires caused by leaving them alone in rubbishy 
 surroundings, the wind or drafts frequently causing them to flare 
 up. Later fire-pots use gas, oil or gasolene flames, and are iron 
 boxes lined with fire-brick, with an apron in front on which to 
 rest the soldering-iron. These should be on iron legs, if inside, and 
 used preferably on iron tables. The use inside of those having 
 gasolene receivers or tanks attached should be discouraged, the gaso- 
 lene being supplied to the burners, and the blast furnished by air 
 under pressure in the receiver. Such portable devices are subject 
 to hard usage and become leaky. 
 
 Tinning Furnaces. In tin plate works the sheet-iron is passed 
 through a tank of palm oil and then through a large kettle being 
 set on a low brick furnace. The oil sometimes becomes fired and 
 roof's above such apparatus should be high or fireproof and the 
 floor about incombustible. 
 
 Tire Furnaces. For setting tires. In ordinary blacksmith shops 
 a wood fire may be built in the yard about the tire to be shrunk. 
 In some, a cabinet-like oven is provided for heating the tire, the 
 object of heating being to expand the tire so that it will fit over 
 the rim of the wheel which is made a little larger than the interior 
 diameter of the tire when it is cool ; as the tire cools, the rim is 
 pulled tightly down upon the spokes and the wheel stiffened. The 
 wood fires referred to should be well away from any buildings. 
 
 Wind Furnaces. A type of furnace consisting of deep fireplaces, 
 with grates at the bottom and flue openings at the top, for heating 
 crucibles, etc. Used for many purposes, but principally in metal- 
 lurgical work. > 
 
62 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Drying and Driers 
 
 In driers of all kinds the principal features to be considered are 
 the construction and method of heating. Construction is intended 
 to include all matters of arrangement. Frequently, as in wood- 
 workers, the location of the device is important. To save repetition, 
 it may be well to state that all steam-pipes, direct or exhaust, may 
 cause fire, the steam-pipe hazard being due to the charring and sub- 
 sequent ignition of the inflammable material. Jets of hot air may 
 also cause fire, in blower systems, even where the jets are of low 
 temperature, the reason for this being obscure. 
 
 Board Drying. In knitting mills. Underwear after washing is 
 drawn oveV board forms which are suspended by hooks from the 
 ceiling or racks above them, and the room heated by hot air or steam- 
 pipes. Hosiery and knit gloves and mittens are dried similarly. 
 
 Bone Drying. In packing plants, bones, after being washed, are 
 dried on open steam-coils a foot or more above the floor or in spe- 
 cially constructed boxes or rooms, generally of wood. Wooden- 
 slatted trays holding the bones sometimes rest on the steam-pipes, 
 the practice being objectionable. Modern plants build these dry- 
 rooms fireproof. 
 
 Bone-black Kilns. The decolorizing and clarifying properties of 
 bone-black are restored by reburning in retorts heated by furnaces 
 which are usually set in brick and iron-bound. These should be 
 located in fireproof buildings, as there is not only a bad furnace 
 hazard but a great deal of fine dust present. The elevators for the 
 bone-black should also be preferably of iron and arranged so as to 
 be self-cleaning. Preliminary heaters are located above the kilns 
 in some instances, utilizing the hot gases from the furnaces. They 
 are used to dry the bone-black before it passes into the retorts. 
 Modern plants have separately constructed and arranged kiln houses, 
 but should it happen by any chance that the kiln house was of 
 ordinary construction and not cut off, it should be regarded as a 
 prohibitive feature. 
 
 Brick Kilns. These are in general clamps and permanent kilns. 
 Clamps are kilns of the up-draft type, the walls of which are built 
 up at each fire or run and torn down when the bricks within have 
 been burned. They are generally roofed over with boards, also of 
 a more or less temporary nature, but are sometimes erected in regu- 
 lar sheds. The fireplaces are built at the bottom on each side. Sheds 
 are apt to be badly exposed by the kiln tops. Some continuous kilns 
 are partially temporary, continuous kilns being those in which the 
 firing is done in one part while the stacking goes on in another, the 
 operations succeeding each other around the kiln. 
 
 Permanent kilns are substantially built of brick and iron-bound, 
 and are either of the down-draft or up-draft type. They are gen- 
 erally not under cover, although sheds similar to the above may be 
 built over them or over the fireplaces, and occasionally they are 
 found inside buildings. Clearance and method of heating are the 
 most important features, oil, gas, coal and coke being used as fuel. 
 The fireplaces are arranged as above. 
 
 Terra cotta, terra cotta lumber, tiles, drain-pipes, sewer pipes, etc., 
 are burned in similar kilns. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 63 
 
 Brick Pan-Driers. Flat brick furnaces, the top being like a floor 
 on which green bricks are stacked to dry. Sand or other stock is 
 also sometimes dried on such a floor. 
 
 Brick Tunnel-Driers. Wooden or brick driers for green bricks 
 built in the form of tunnels, into which the bricks are pushed on 
 trucks or racks. Generally steam-heated. 
 
 Butterworth Driers. A drier in textile mills in which the stock 
 is made to pass backword and forward between flat coils of steam- 
 pipes one above another. Several other driers of the same general 
 type. If wooden enclosure, rather objectionable. All should be 
 easily cleanable. 
 
 Calendars. Steam-heated rolls or cans through which paper, 
 cloth, rubber-covered cloth, etc., are passed to be heated and 
 smoothed. Used in super-calendering paper, making gossamer, etc. 
 
 Can Driers. A type of drier in which the stock is wound on or 
 laid over or passes over and between can-like cylinders heated inside 
 by steam or hot water. Used in slashers, paper engines, pasteboard 
 machines, corrugated strawboard packing machines, etc. 
 
 Candy Starch or Dry-Rooms. Generally frame, steam or hot air 
 heated enclosures containing the moulded candy, in wooden racks, 
 to be dried. Sometimes built fireproof, but rarely. Explosion haz- 
 ard present on account of starch in mould, and no open lights 
 should be used inside or near the rooms. Pipes also become very 
 dusty. 
 
 Caul or Dry Boxes or Heaters. These are small box-like warm- 
 ing and drying ovens used in preparing stock to be glued, and rang- 
 ing from i to 2 feet on a side to 15 or 20 feet long by 4 to 6 feet 
 in width or height. They are, if anything, even more likely to start 
 a fire than kilns, since equal care is not taken in keeping them 
 clean. A fire in one is more accessible, however, and lining with 
 metal reduces the hazard considerably. The steam-pipes should be 
 well collared where they enter and leave the boxes. A particularly 
 objectionable form of dry-box is that sometimes found in musical 
 instrument works, where several turns of a stovepipe inside supply 
 the heat. Defective joints or overheating would play havoc. It 
 may be well to emphasize the objection to caul or dry boxes, as 
 these hazards are frequently underestimated. Certain forms are 
 opened at the top and difficult to clean. Even when lined with tin, 
 therefore, there is a chance for smouldering to occur and break 
 out after hours. Not infrequently wood is left in them overnight, 
 and as they are usually located where a fire once started will 
 spread rapidly, they should be watched carefully. The tin lining, 
 while it reduces the hazard, is not entirely effective in preventing 
 a fire. Other forms have objections that will occur to any one after 
 a little thought. The best form, and one which should^be regarded 
 as standard, is that in which the top, sides and ends are iron, with 
 the steam-pipes on iron supports about 6 inches above the lower 
 edges of the sides forming the only bottom, the whole apparatus 
 resting upon iron legs 2 or 3 feet long. With this arrangement, the 
 box is self-cleaning, since there is no bottom, and the hot air, being 
 lighter than the surrounding air, will remain in the box above the 
 pipes. If iron be too expensive, frame boxes built this way are 
 much more desirable than any other. 
 
64 FlRE PREA'ENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Chipped Glass Glue Dry-Rooms. Chipped glass is made by -first 
 sanding the surface and then applying a stiff glue which on drying 
 curls up and tears off the surface of the glass, producing the fern- 
 like tracery characteristic of chipped glass. The drying is assisted 
 by gentle steam heat in frame, compartments. 
 
 Core Ovens. For drying the cores used in castings. Generally 
 large brick ovens set on the ground, with brick and iron ceilings, 
 iron doors at the entrance and a coke fire inside. The flue or 
 chimney of this type is generally at the far. end from the fire, so 
 that the gases and heat will traverse the interior. Another form 
 is an iron oven with trays to carry the cores, sometimes steam- 
 heated, and again set on a stove. Mild furnace hazard in either 
 kind. 
 
 Dish Warmers. Also used as driers. Found in hotels and res- 
 taurants and generally consisting of iron steam-heated closets or 
 ovens. Steam-pipe hazards. 
 
 Dry Lofts. In some kinds of oilcloth works large hanging rooms 
 heated by steam-pipes are used, involving the steam-pipe hazard 
 and that of explosion from the volatile ingredients used in making 
 the oilcloth and a serious hazard. Ground rubber is also seasoned 
 or dried in attics or lofts heated by steam-pipes, generally with a 
 mild temperature. Tacking lofts in tanneries arc similar to the 
 last, the leather or skins being stretched on frames which are hung 
 from hooks on the bottom of joists or racks built below the joists 
 for the purpose; hot air is sometimes used; hazard mild, as a rule. 
 In some tanneries the tacking frames are piled one above another in 
 front of hot-air pipe openings. 
 
 Emery Driers. In plate glass and other factories where polish- 
 ing emery is reclaimed. Generally metal pans set over steam-pipes 
 or stoves. 
 
 Feed Driers. For drying refuse from corn-starch works, brew- 
 eries, distilleries, etc. Horizontal, rotating iron cylinders, as a rule, 
 steam-heated. Sometimes set on iron legs and sometimes in brick- 
 work. Furnace heat often used, coke, coal, gas or fuel oil supplying 
 the heat. Stock is fed in one end and gravitates to the other, falling 
 to the t floor or into a conveyor or elevator boot. Clearance' and 
 manner of heating important. No wooden spouting nor partitions 
 should be in contact with setting. Direct-heated driers should be 
 in fireproof surroundings or in a section well cut off. 
 
 Fertilizer Driers. Used for drying blood and tankage in packing 
 plants and tankage in garbage reduction works or similar risks. 
 Generally consist of one or more slightly inclined, rotating iron 
 cylinders set in brick and heated by direct fires or steam. Some 
 types are entirely iron, with a lagging of asbestos and set on iron 
 legs. The tankage is picked by hand or- machines and shoveled into 
 hoppers leading to the cylinders, in which it 'is tumbled and from 
 which it emanates in a dry state. It is allowed to fall upon the floor 
 or into the buckets of an elevator. The surroundings are dusty and 
 woodwork is often too close to the setting. A bad feature inside, 
 as a rule. 
 
 Fruit Driers or Evaporators. Generally racks, containing screen- 
 like trays for the fruit, arranged in a room or compartment warmed 
 by hot air or steam-pipes. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 65 
 
 Glue Dry-Rooms. In glue factories the glue is brought from the 
 chill room, sliced up and placed on wire screens with wooden frames. 
 These are piled one upon another on trucks and pushed into long, 
 low, tunnel-like compartments, generally frame and heated by hot 
 air or steam-pipes. 
 
 Grain-Driers. These are of three general kinds direct-heated 
 rotaries, steam-heated rotaries and stationary driers, heated by 
 steam coils or by air from furnaces or blown through steam-coils. 
 The first are seldom found. Steam-heated rotaries are wooden or 
 iron drums, slightly inclined, into which the grain is admitted and 
 tumbled over steam-coils as it passes through. Hazard that of 
 steam-pipes. Should be constructed so as to be readily cleaned and 
 precautions taken to see that fires in them could not spread through 
 the spouting. 
 
 Stationary driers in which the grain rests upon the steam-pipes 
 as a grid are objectionable; these are rare. t 
 
 A stationary drier, such as is used in oatmeal mills and in other 
 risks for similar purposes, consists of circular pans, one above 
 another, with steam-pipes under each pan. The grain is admitted 
 to the top pan, where it is stirred and pushed along by revolving 
 paddles which gradually work it inward until it reaches an opening 
 near the center through which it falls to the pan below. Here an- 
 other set of paddle's pushes it and tumbles it outward until it falls 
 off the outer edge to the pan below. This operation is repeated 
 through the whole series of pans until the grain has passed through 
 the apparatus and is removed by conveyors. Fans may or may not 
 be provided to remove the moisture which is driven off. Cooling 
 may be done on unheated pans below the heated ones, or separately. 
 There is a steam-pipe hazard in connection with these, and fine par- 
 ticles which the paddles do not touch may remain and become 
 charred, finally causing trouble. Aside from the actual contact of 
 the heating pipes with combustible material, and the last-mentioned 
 feature, which is a matter of care, the hazard of driers of this type 
 is small. They should 'not be enclosed in wood, however, as the 
 wood becomes desiccated and is readily ignitible in case small fires 
 start on the pans. 
 
 Stationary driers, in which the grain is run in and remains quiet 
 while hot air is blown through it from steam coils, are practically 
 the only ones in use nowadays, and will receive more detailed men- 
 tion. Most of them work on the same principle, the main difference 
 between them being in the mechanical arrangements for holding 
 the grain so that it will be evenly dried or conditioned. Most of 
 them have ducts running through the grain, into which hot air is 
 forced and escapes through the grain, or the grain is columned and 
 the air blown through the walls of the columns. The ducts and 
 retaining walls are variously of wood and netting, netting on iron 
 or perforated iron. In this type of driers the possible sources of 
 danger are the use of steam-pipes and of fans or blowers. The 
 steam-pipes may cause trouble by actual contact with temporary 
 woodwork or by charring dust or refuse of a combustible sort that 
 may accumulate upon them. Blowers or fans have the usual engine 
 ( or electric motor) hazards accompanying them, as well as a bear- 
 ings hazard of their own. They also produce a draft toward the 
 steam-coils, stir up grain dust and provide drafts which would facili- 
 
66 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 tate the spread of .fire. In addition, forced drafts of hot air have 
 a peculiar charring effect upon wood, causing it to ignite at an 
 alarmingly low temperature. 
 
 The Hess and Eureka driers column the grain, through which the 
 air is blown, passing first through grain already dried on its way 
 to the steam-coils. These driers possess many advantages and are 
 as safe as can be expected. 
 
 Hair Batteries. Arrangements for drying hair in tanneries or 
 packing plants. Generally screens, gratings or perforated iron floors 
 over steam-pipes or hot-air chambers or both. Enclosures generally 
 frame, 
 
 Hanging Rooms. In tanneries leather is suspended from hooks 
 over steam-pipes on racks along the floor or- in rooms warmed by 
 hot air ; hazard generally mild. Large frame halls are used in wall 1 
 paper hanging rooms, the folds of paper moving in festoons over 
 steam-pipes on racks underneath ; a bad hazard in case fire starts 
 owing to construction and desiccated condition of rooms and pres- 
 ence of so much inflammable material. Similar dry-rooms are found 
 in playing-card and coated-paper works. 
 
 Hat and Hat Body Dry-Rooms. In felt, wool and straw-hat 
 factories. Generally frame steam-heated rooms with racks and 
 pegs for the hats or bodies. Steam-pipe hazard 'only, no gas being 
 evolved from the hats. If stoves supply the heat, the hazard is 
 obviously increased. 
 
 Hominy Kilns. See description of rotary grain driers. The type 
 is used in the various " health food " factories. 
 
 Hop Kilns. The hops are spread to a depth of 1.8 inches on a 
 'slatted floor covered with burlap, and hot air passes up through 
 them from a furnace in the first story of the kiln house. Twelve 
 hours is the usual length of time allowed for drying, one run a 
 day being the custom. Sometimes two runs of 9 or 10 hours are 
 made. In the latter case the fires have to be forced, as greater 
 heat is needed. From time to time the hops are turned over so as 
 to permit even drying. 
 
 Various styles of furnaces are used, the most common being 
 box-shaped and horizontal, or drum-shaped and vertical, the flue 
 being coiled about the room before it enters the chimney. The fur- 
 nace is placed in the center of the room under the slatted floor, 
 in which room sulphur is also burned in a flat dish or pot placed 
 on the furnace, the fumes rising and bleaching the hops. Saltpetre 
 is also similarly burned, in some cases, to toughen the hops so that 
 they will not damage readily in handling. 
 
 Chimneys for the furnace are variously constructed of brick, vitri- 
 fied, unglazed and cement drain-pipes, and iron. They are variously 
 .built and supported, the brick ones generally being single. 
 
 Kiln house is two stories and the warehouse, always adjoining, 
 also two stories. Generally frame on brick or stone foundations. 
 
 Japan Ovens. For baking enamel or japan on bicycle frames, 
 iron-work of buggy tops, sewing machines, typewriters, etc. They 
 are generally and preferably brick, tile or iron or combinations of 
 these. Sometimes they are frame. If the oven is on a wooden floor 
 its own floor should be two thicknesses of brick laid with cement 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 67 
 
 mortar or one layer on ^-inch of asbestos on sheet-iron. Doors to 
 be of iron and tight-fitting. Explosion vent to be provided, prefer- 
 ably in the ceiling and leading to the outside air. Heating oy 
 steam-pipes on iron supports, preferably at the sides. No open 
 lights should be used 'near, as the vapors given off during baking 
 are explosive when mixed with air. If other than steam heat, such 
 as that from open gas flames, stoves or furnaces, be used, there 
 should be no direct connection between the interior of the oven and 
 the chamber containing the open flames, otherwise explosions will 
 be imminent. Preferably, japan ovens should be located outside. 
 
 Ladle Driers. For drying out and semi-baking the clayjining in 
 bull and pouring ladles in foundries. Sometimes wood fires are built 
 inside of them ; sometimes ovens, somewhat similar to core ovens, 
 are built for the purpose. 
 
 Laundry Dry-Rooms. Generally frame, with sectional sliding- 
 racks to carry the articles to be dried, and heated by steam-pipes. 
 They should be entirely iron or fireproof. Lining with sheet-iron 
 or asbestos does not make them safe. Screens should be provided 
 above the steam-pipes to catch socks, collars, etc., accidentally fall- 
 ing. See also remarks on lumber kilns, many of which apply here. 
 
 Lithographed Card Dry-Rooms. For drying freshly litho- 
 graphed cards. Generally frame compartments provided with gentle 
 steam heat. Similar to japan ovens, but a milder hazard. 
 
 Lithographed Tin Dry-Rooms. Used also for baking painted 
 and varnished cans. Practically the same as japan ovens (q. v.). 
 
 Lumber Kilns.- In general, kilns may be classified as direct- 
 heated and steam-heated. Direct-heated kilns may be further sub- 
 divided into what are known as furnace, smoke and open-fire kilns. 
 
 Furnace kilns are those in which stoves or furnace-like fire- 
 places are utilized to supply the heat, the furnace or stove jutting 
 into the kiln-room or being built in a pit inside the kiln structure. 
 In this type metal smoke flues may or may not be utilized to sup- 
 ply a portion of the heat in which they are zig-zagged back and 
 forth or coiled in the kiln-house before venting to the outside air. 
 Obviously, this type of kiln is very hazardous, owing to the possi- 
 bility of live sparks or heated jets of air escaping from cracks or 
 crevices in the top plate or sides of the furnace or stove or in the 
 smoke flues from them, not to mention the direct exposure of the 
 stock to be dried or portions of the structure by the stoves, furnaces 
 or flues, through accident or poor arrangement. 
 
 The open-fire and smoke processes are crude methods in which 
 the stock to be dried is piled or stacked around and over an open 
 fire built in a pit in the ground, the stack being enclosed by common 
 boards laid against it and standing on end or built as a sort of 
 fence. The dangers of this method of drying are obvious, the 
 flames, sparks and smoke passing freely through the piled lumber 
 and providing ripe conditions for the destruction of the edifice, if so 
 flimsy an affair may be dignified with the term.~ This type of drier 
 has fallen into disuse largely, being found at present mainly in 
 Southern States. 
 
 Steam-heated kilns may be subdivided into what is known as 
 natural draft and blower systems. Natural draft kilns are the 
 
68 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 familiar ones encountered in all parts of the country, wherein live 
 or exhaust steam-pipes are supported from above, arranged in coils 
 about the sides of the room, sometimes placed vertically in the 
 center, or, most frequently, built as a gridiron under the stock. 
 Practically, the only hazard of this type is what is known as the 
 steam-pipe hazard, although what appears yet to be merely a theory 
 has been advanced, that the banking up of hot air and the subse- 
 quent admission of cold air into such kilns could produce a fire. 
 The steam-pipe hazard, however, is quite apt to be^in its element in 
 such kilns, especially where they are frame, inasmuch as the interior 
 becomes in time desiccated and splinters, short lengths of wood, 
 dust and pitch from the dried stock may accumulate upon the pipes. 
 
 In the blower type of kilns, the steam-pipes supplying the heat 
 are located generally in large iron boxes, open at one end for the 
 admission of air, which is drawn from the coils and blown on to 
 the kiln-room by means of fans. The blower and coils used are the 
 familiar hot-air heating apparatus, found so often in use in con- 
 nection with the heating of churches, halls, schools and factory 
 buildings, the hot air in such cases being delivered to the desired 
 points through metal flues. In addition to the steam-pipe hazard, 
 the blowers or fans in this system of drying have the usual engine 
 or electric motor hazard accompanying them, as well as bearings 
 hazards of their own. The forced draft itself is not negligible as 
 a hazard when a fire has once started, and, in addition, hot-air 
 drafts have a peculiar charring effect upon wood, causing it to ignite 
 at an alarmingly low temperature. It is even stated that warm-air 
 drafts, especially in the form of jets such as might issue from the 
 crevices in poor joints, will ignite wood at ordinary atmospheric 
 temperatures. The explanation of this phenomenon is not at hand, 
 notwithstanding the fact. that it seems to have occurred frequently. 
 It is just as well, however, to bear the possibility of fires occurring 
 from this source in mind in the arrangement of kilns. The steam- 
 coils and. blowers for kilns are sometimes located in the engine or 
 boiler-house, but are most frequently found in a small addition to 
 the main kiln structure. In many instances the fan-room is crowded, 
 dirty and oily, so that fires starting at the bearings have a good 
 chance to spread and are immediately conveyed to the interior of 
 the kiln. Not frequently it happens that the iron box enclosing the 
 steam-coils rests upon wooden supports. The practice should be 
 discouraged, since the iron enclosure is at practically the same tem- 
 perature as the coils themselves, and might cause trouble in time. 
 To minimize the danger from the forced drafts in case of fire, it is 
 possible to arrange flap-check valves in the main conduit to the kiln, 
 so that one will fall into place across the conduit, shutting off the 
 draft from the kiln, while at the same time another opens at a 
 point outside the kiln to relieve the bank-up pressure ensuing. One 
 objection to the blower system, which can be overcome effectually 
 only by care as to the arrangement of the apparatus, is the fact that 
 an induced draft is set up and may draw in upon the coils not only 
 foreign inflammable materials, but transient sparks from locomo- 
 tives, boiler stacks, boiler furnaces or exposure fires while the fan 
 is in operation. 
 
 While it would seem that the blower system is much safer than 
 any other in connection with the drying of lumber, it appears that 
 such is not the case, and that natural draft kilns have greater 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 69 
 
 immunity from fires than any other kind. The longevity of any 
 kind of frame kiln, however, seems to be limited to five or six 
 years, on the average, and this fact should not be lost sight of in 
 considering dry-kilns as internal or external exposures. 
 
 There seems to be no valid reason why dry-kilns should not be 
 made entirely incombustible, except, of course, as far as their con- 
 tents are concerned, so that wisdom would dictate that any lumber 
 dry-kiln, whether of the natural-draft or blower system, when inside 
 or exposing a main building, should be absolutely fireproof as 
 regards the material of its own construction. Automatic sprinklers 
 in kilns are desirable, but owing to the manner in which lumber is 
 piled in kilns these cannot operate to the best advantage. Steam- 
 jets, however, in view of the confined nature of the space to be 
 protected, should be valuable in the extinguishment of kiln fires. 
 
 Malt Kilns. For curing sprouted barley in making malt. Of two 
 general types.: in one, the heat is from a coke or hard coal fire in 
 a central furnace without a stack, the heat and gases rising through 
 the grain as it lies upon perforated iron floors ; in the other, the 
 fires are located on either side of the kiln-room, the heat passing 
 up flues in the walls and entering the space between a slanting 
 iron ceiling and the perforated floor, there generally, in all types, 
 being more than one of the latter. The fires of central-fire kilns 
 are hooded, the sprouts abraded sliding into bins beside the fur- 
 naces from which they are removed and sold as feed. Hopper kilns 
 have either wooden, brick or iron-lined hoppers under the first 
 perforated floor, or else the entire hopper is brick, the arches form- 
 ing it being back to back, as it were, instead of groined. The roof 
 of the whole kiln-house is generally sheathed on the under side 
 on account of the humid, chemical-laden air rising. Fans in towers 
 provide forced drafts, and the bearings of these add a hazard. 
 Preferably, malt kilns should be cut off, as there is some danger 
 of the sprouts igniting, but as they are generally fireproof, the 
 hazard is slight. Steam-pipes are sometimes installed in addition 
 to the furnaces. 
 
 Oat-Meal Kilns. See " Grain-driers." Generally of the pan 
 type. 
 
 Oilcloth Driers. Similar to Butterworth driers (q. v.) in ar- 
 rangement, but more hazardous owing to the inflammable nature of 
 the stock to be dried. Explosive vapors are also given off, and no 
 open lights should be near. - Also danger from static electricity 
 generated by the moving oilcloth. 
 
 Paper Calendering. The drying end of paper engines consists 
 of numerous can driers. Ordinary steam-pipe hazard. Pipes some- 
 times in contact with floor, but this is nearly always wet. No in- 
 stances known where engine was clogged long enough for the paper 
 to ignite from the cans. 
 
 Patent Leather Enamel Ovens. First for drying the prelimin- 
 ary coat applied to the leather, consisting of boiled oil, lampblack, 
 umber, etc., and then for baking the coat of varnish which is finally 
 applied after the first coat has been pumiced. These ovens or dry- 
 rooms are of, large area and frame, with numerous small detachable 
 doors or covers provided on the front, so that a few of the stretch- 
 ing frames may be entered or removed at a time without disturbing 
 
70 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 the others or admitting too much cold air. Steam-pipes along the 
 bottom supply the heat, which varies from 120 to 150 degrees. A 
 tarry or pitch-like accumulation forms on the inside, being a con- 
 densation of the vapors which emanate during the baking. As in 
 japan 'ovens, no open lights should be allowed near. 
 
 Pepsin Driers. Small dry-rooms, generally frame, and contain- 
 ing wooden racks to carry the trays holding the cloth aprons or 
 glass plates upon which the pepsin is spread. All odor of gasolene 
 used in dissolving the pepsin has dissipated before the pepsin reaches 
 the dry-room, which involves only the ordinary hazards of frame 
 steam-heated rooms. 
 
 Pottery Dry-Rooms. These are the " green " room, the biscuit- 
 ware room, the sagger dry-rooms and the mould dry-rooms. The 
 green dry-room is for setting or drying the freshly turned or 
 moulded ware preparatory to firing ; the biscuit-room is for drying 
 the silicious coating which when burned in the gloss kiln provides 
 the glaze, and the mould-rooms for drying newly-made plaster of 
 paris moulds. All of these- are large rooms containing frame steam- 
 heated compartments, with wooden shelves and racks for the ware. 
 The hazard is slight, as the clay dust forms a sort of protection. 
 Sagger driers are frequently similar to brick pan-driers (q. v.),on 
 a small scale, and are for giving a preliminary drying to the saggers 
 before they are burned, saggers being the containing vessels for 
 the pottery to be fired and protecting the latter. They are made of 
 "grog" (broken pottery) and some new clay. 
 
 Pottery Kilns. These are of three general kinds biscuit, gloss 
 or glost, and china kilns. 
 
 Biscuit kilns are tapering or conical-shaped furnaces, substan- 
 tially built of brick and bound with iron, used for drying or baking 
 the ware from the green rooms. In modern potteries an effort is 
 made to cut the kiln-house or shed off from the main plant, and 
 this is advisable, although the absence of such cut-offs should not be 
 prohibitive. The ordinary furnace hazard is, largely, the danger in 
 connection with biscuit kilns. While actual contact of woodwork 
 with the kiln is usually avoided, the kilns are so thick that this haz- 
 ard is not serious. It may become so, however, if cracks or fissures 
 should form in the walls of the kiln. A small danger is the prox- 
 imity of peep-holes, blocked with loose bricks ordinarily, to desic- 
 cated beams, which should be tinned near the peep-hole, as work- 
 men sometimes neglect to replace the brick, and the sudden rush 
 of heat from them, also, may start the wood smouldering without 
 being discovered. A more serious danger arises from the opening 
 of the charging door before the kiln has become cool after a " run." 
 This is done in some sections, notwithstanding the fact that it is 
 claimed to be detrimental to the quality of the ware and apt to 
 crack a large portion of it. The dried woodwork above is some- 
 times instantly fired, as well as subject to ignition from smoulder- 
 ing. Coal or coke fires are generally used. 
 
 Gloss kilns are similar to biscuit kilns, and practically the same 
 remarks apply to them. After the biscuit ware is " dipped," the 
 glaze or gloss is burned on. In some ware decoration precedes the 
 glossing, but this precedence is of little significance from an insur- 
 ance standpoint. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 71 
 
 China kilns are smaller, usually, for the finer and more delicate 
 decorated ware. They are generally fire-brick furnaces bound with 
 iron, and involve the ordinary furnace hazards. Used also for 
 burning " stilts.' 
 
 Sand-Driers. Where clean sharp sand is needed, as in street-car 
 work for use on the tracks, it must be dried. Driers of various 
 patterns are used. The most common form, and an entirely accept- 
 able one, consists of a large stove, surrounded by an iron drum or 
 hopper, into which the damp sand is shoveled at the top, and from 
 which it trickles at the bottom as it dries. This drier should be set 
 on a cement or brick platform well away from woodwork, and its 
 flues pass to a good brick chimney. Inasmuch as the dry sand issu- 
 ing is hot enough to be dangerous, not only the floor underneath 
 the drier but the dried sand-bin should be entirely incombustible. 
 
 Some driers consist of a gridiron of steam-pipes close together, 
 or of a perforated pan over steam-pipes, with a space underneath 
 for the dried sand. This type is also acceptable if the enclosing 
 walls of the drier are fireproof, but wooden partitions too frequently 
 form these walls and are dangerous. 
 
 One form of drier is a tunnel or low furnace, with an iron plate 
 top upon which the sand is piled, one end of the tunnel leading to 
 a flue and the other containing the grate for a coal or coke fire, 
 unless gas flames are used, in which case no grate or chimney 
 obtains. This form is 'crude and uneconomical, since the whole 
 mass of sand must be heated sufficiently to expel the moisture 
 before any sand is removed. There is no particular objection to it 
 otherwise, except that the walls of the furnace may become cracked, 
 but precautions as to surroundings make this objection minor. 
 
 Shellac-Driers (or lacquer-driers). Generally small wooden or 
 iron ovens for drying shellacked or lacquered ware or parts. Simi- 
 lar to japan ovens of the same type (q. v.). Sometimes mere boxes 
 containing steam-pipes or gas-jets. Latter type dangerous, as in- 
 flammable vapors are given off. Larger driers of this sort are used 
 in lantern works and correspond to can dry-rooms in stamping 
 works. 
 
 Shoddy Rubber-Driers. Old rubber, after it has been washed 
 and ground, is dried in screen-bottomed trays over steam-pipes, gen- 
 erally in frame rooms. Hot air sometimes used. A hazard of rubber 
 boot and shoe factories or other rubber factories using mixed stock. 
 
 Slashers. Machines for sizing and drying the warp in carpet 
 factories, ordinary can-driers being used. 
 
 Smoke-Houses. Sausage smoke-houses nowadays are built near 
 tho sausage department, and are entirely of iron or brick or com- 
 binations of these. Ordinarily, they are two stories in height and 
 appear in practice on the walls outside, the sausage department, rest- 
 ing upon iron brackets. Frequently, they occupy a part of the ham 
 smoke-house sections, which may be partitioned off for the purpose. 
 In some cases an entire ham or bacon smoke-house is used for 
 smoking sausages, but large plants nearly always have sections 
 especially constructed for each purpose. The two stories referred 
 to are used as a fire-room below and a hanging-room above, the 
 smoke being furnished by slow log fires in the lower room. The 
 sausages are suspended upon hooks on iron frames on trolleys or 
 
72 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 mounted as trucks. An iron grating on iron supports furnishes the 
 floor of the upper story, and proper ventilators, extending above 
 the roof of the house, take off surplus smoke. Iron fire-doors 
 cover the openings to each section, the sills of these being prefer- 
 ably a few inches above the floor upon which the wood tires are 
 built. As an additional safeguard, the floor of the sausage depart- 
 ment in front of the entrance to the sections is concrete or brick, 
 and ample clearance is provided above the fire-doors to a'ny wood- 
 work. Wooden gratings inside and wooden hanging-rails are unde- 
 sirable as being ignitible and furnishing fuel in an interior already 
 lined with a tarry soot, although they are not prohibitive if the 
 smoke-houses are properly constructed in other respects. 
 
 Ham and bacon smoke-houses are generally built from the ground 
 and are equivalent to from one to six stories in height, with para- 
 peted brick walls, earth or cement floors, and generally timber roofs. 
 The division walls between the section should be blank and all use- 
 less openings avoided. Necessary openings should have good iron 
 doors covering the apertures adequately. Although most smoke- 
 houses have wooden roofs, there does not appear to be any real 
 necessity for this construction, and modern 1 packers are building the 
 roofs entirely of iron or brick and iron. Heretofore, also, the grat- 
 ings and rails from which to hang the stocl^have been wooden, but 
 these are being discarded for iron gratings a J nd steel rails. Instead, 
 also, of hanging each ham or strip of bacon upon a rail or hook on 
 the 4 x 45 formerly used, iron arbors or frames carrying a num- 
 ber of pieces are now mounted on trucks or suspended from a 
 trolley and run into the smoke-houses. In the latter instance the 
 fire-doors should be built so as to be tight-fitting at the rails, or 
 else the rail openings should be provided with automatic flaps or 
 slides. An excellent device for this purpose consists of a slide 
 pushed into place, as the door is closed by a rod attached to the 
 door near the hinge side. A great deal of leverage is obtained in 
 this way, insuring reliability of action. 
 
 The sills on the lowest doors of smoke-houses should be a foot or 
 more above the firing-floor in the bottom to prevent an overflow 
 of grease in case the contents burn out. It is well, but not essen- 
 tial, to have an iron hood over the wood fires to prevent grease 
 from dripping on the fires and causing them to flare up. The low- 
 est grating, however, is nowadays placed high above the fires, so 
 that accidents from this source are rare. Oak logs are generally 
 used to feed the fires, although other woods are used occasionally, 
 and when wood is scarce, corn-cobs are sometimes utilized. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances smoke-houses are not dangerous, 
 and fires in them burn out harmlessly, but the very high ones when 
 full of stock and on fire may damage the ham-house adjoining, as 
 a result of the meat falling in bulk, causing the fire-doors to bulge 
 out and thus allow the fire to communicate with any woodwork 
 near. Where strings and wooden hanging-rails and no gratings 
 obtain, the danger from this source is greatest. It is not at all 
 a supposititious danger, as an accident resulting in considerable loss 
 has actually occurred from meat falling and bulging out the fire- 
 doors. Iron floor gratings at the ham-house floor levels, by limit- 
 ing the amount of meat which could accumulate at one point, reduce 
 this hazard very materially. W 7 here such gratings are provided and 
 iron arbors and hanging-rails as well, it is practically eliminated. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 73 
 
 In examining smoke-houses, care should be taken to see that the 
 floor beams or headers do not lie too close to the tops of the doors, 
 as they may be ignited by a fire inside. Preferably, there should 
 be a clearance of several feet over the tops of the doors to any 
 floor joists or woodwork. The best construction, and one which 
 may be regarded as standard at the present time, is that in which 
 the smoke-houses themselves are brick and iron, as already described, 
 and set in or adjoining a filling or handling section of fireproof 
 construction, cut off from the ham-house by fire-doors. The filling 
 hallways are now generally joisted and are frequently not cut off 
 from the ham-house. While the standard construction advised is 
 rather more expensive, the security and convenience of arrangement 
 will more than offset the difference in cost. 
 
 Snuff-Driers. In snuff factories, for drying the tobacco from 
 which the snuff is made. They should be of brick, and the convey- 
 ors on which the tobacco passes through the kiln should be entirely 
 of metal. No inflammable material should be used in the construc- 
 tion of the kiln, which should also be cut off from the factory. 
 Preferable methods of heating are steam-coils and hot air. Dust 
 accumulations within the kiln should be carefully guarded against, 
 as, at the temperature used, explosions are imminent. 
 
 Soap Dry-Rooms. Bar and cake soap in the factory are dried 
 atmospherically, as a rule, with the assistance of a fan. Sometimes 
 steam-coils are placed in the rooms or the air is drawn through 
 coils before it passes to the dry-rooms, which are long, low, frame, 
 tunnel-like compartments. Chipped soap is dried on trays on racks 
 over steam-pipes, or in rooms heated by hot air circulated by a fan. 
 
 Sole-Driers. In shoe factories. Generally shallow wooden or 
 metal boxes or trays, with steam-pipes or 'gas-jets under the sheet- 
 metal or wire screen bottom. 
 
 Starch or Crusting-Kilns. Block starch, in starch works is 
 baked or dried in frame compartments, heated by steam-pipes under 
 the wooden racks supporting the trays carrying the starch. Sturte- 
 vant or similar apparatus is also used. These rooms are numerous 
 and sometimes extend through several stories, and, as they are also 
 dried out, form a bad feature. More modern factories are using 
 fire-proof oven-like kilns. 
 
 Stock-Driers. In cotton and woolen mills, for washed stock. Of 
 various types. A familiar form consists of a bin, generally of wood, 
 with a gauze wire bottom. The stock is piled on the wire bottom 
 and heat from steam-coils in the hollow space underneath is forced 
 up through the stock by a fan. Sometimes the heat is from coils 
 beyond the fan, and often from combinations of the two systems. 
 Occasionally, frame or fireproof buildings, with one or more grated 
 floors, are built for the purpose, the same sources of heat being 
 used. Care should be taken to keep the pipes free from wood and 
 stock accumulations. 
 
 Tenter Frames. In dye works and bleacheries. Cloth is engaged 
 at its edges by tenter hooks which then spread apart on a frame to 
 stretch the cloth. In some cases the cloth remains stationary on a 
 long frame, and a car containing a charcoal fire is passed under it. 
 
74 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 In others the cloth passes ove"r and between steam-coils until it is 
 dried. First method antiquated and dangerous. 
 
 Tobacco Drying. This is done in dry-rooms and rotary driers. 
 The dry-rooms are for leaf tobacco and generally wooden, possibly 
 metal-lined. Steam-pipes or hot air are used for heating. Par- 
 ticular care should be taken to keep pipes free and bearings of fan 
 clean. The rotary driers are for fine-cut tobacco and are similar 
 to feed-driers (q. v.). If direct-heated they are very hazardous, 
 and should be in roomy, fireproof surroundings. 
 
 Tube Driers. In knitting mills, for drying the long, continuous 
 knitted pieces, afterward cut up for undershirt bodies. One end 
 of the tube-like cloth is placed over the mouth of a metal flue or 
 tube through which hot air from steam-coils is blown, the goods 
 ballooning out and drying. Coil and fan hazard. Trouble might 
 be caused by burning particles from coils or fan being blown into 
 cloth when dry. 
 
 Varnish Dry-Rooms. For facilitating the setting of varnish 
 applied to articles, and are generally frame rooms heated by steam. 
 Except that an inflammable vapor may accumulate and explode 
 upon the entrance of open lights, the hazard is that of steam-pipes 
 and dry interiors. Stoves, if used, are dangerous, and should be 
 discouraged, except under the most careful regulations. A gentle 
 heat is used ordinarily. These rooms occur in coffin works and light 
 wagon body and carriage factories; sometimes in other risks of a 
 similar nature. 
 
 White Lead Dry Pans. In white lead factories the stock is 
 settled in shallow iron pans and dried, sometimes over steam-pipes 
 and again by steam in the hollow bottoms. Ordinary steam-pipe 
 hazard, unless the pans, as occurs occasionally, are enclosed in 
 wooden partitions which add the hazard of desiccated wood. 
 
 Wool-Driers. In woolen mills, as mentioned, and in wool pul- 
 leries. See " Stock-Driers." 
 
 Yeast-Driers. The moulded cakes are dried in small frame, 
 steam-heated rooms, being set in pans on racks. 
 
 Kettles 
 
 The principal features in connection with these are the manner 
 of heating, the nature of their contents and chances of it causing 
 trouble, and the fact that the kettle is closed and used under 
 pressure or open. To save repetition and description in each case, 
 it may be well to call attention to the fact that direct flames, espe- 
 cially other than gas, are not so easily regulated and result in boil- 
 ing over or excessive ebullition of a sputtering sort, so that, even if 
 boiling over does not ensue, the surroundings may be spattered. 
 
 Brewing Kettles. Generally copper and enclosed, but not used 
 under pressure. Formerly set on brick furnaces with coke or coal 
 fires, but nearly always nowadays heated by steam. 
 
 Cookers. Used in. distilleries, breweries, linseed-oil mills, cotton- 
 seed-oil mills, cereal food plants, etc. In distilleries they are cylin- 
 drical iron tanks, on iron legs, with wooden platforms on top of 
 them for cooking the mash. Subject to rapid variations of tern- 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 75 
 
 perature, as the mash is cooled rapidly after being cooked. Some 
 danger of explosion on this account. In breweries, for practically 
 the same purpose and similar apparatus. In linseed and cotton-seed 
 oil mills they are for cooking the ground seed or meal to start the 
 exudation of the oil, and are a worse hazard. They are iron, steam- 
 heated receptacles containing stirring paddles ; no wooden enclosure 
 should be allowed about them, as these become oily and act as 
 catch-alls for stray meal, etc., causing numerous fires. Cookers 
 for grain, etc., involve steam-pipe hazard only. 
 
 Digesters. In paper and strawboard mills, for digesting wood, 
 rags or straw. Cylindrical or spherical rotating iron vessels in 
 which the raw stock and chemicals are mixed with steam under 
 pressure. Steam-pipe and explosion hazard. 
 
 Doublers. Redistilling apparatus. See " Stills." 
 
 Dye Tubs. In dye works. Wooden or copper vats almost invari- 
 ably heated by steam nowadays. Surroundings wet and hazard 
 negligible. 
 
 Fried Cake or Cruller Kettles. In bakeries and sometimes in 
 dwellings. Shallow kettles or pans containing melted lard, into 
 which the dough is dropped and fried. Generally heated by direct 
 fire and a bad hazard. Surroundings generally greasy, as the boil- 
 ing and bubbling lard sputters over neighboring walls, partitions 
 and floor. Should be in fireproof surroundings if used regularly. 
 
 Glue and Paste-Pots. These would appear to be comparatively 
 innocent as hazards. They are prolific sources of fire, however, 
 especially as frequently heated and arranged. About the most 
 hazardous heating device is an oil stove. Frequently small stoves, 
 which are little more than lamps with tin chimneys surmounted 
 by rests for the pots, are used, being carried from place to place 
 and allowed to rest en benches, boxes, shelves, etc. They are top- 
 heavy, unstable and easily upset. Next in hazardousness is the 
 small regulation iron base oil stove. It is not so easily upset, 
 although far from immune from such accidents. In both types 
 over-heating of the oil in the base, explosions and boiling over of 
 the glue on to the flames, are ever-present dangers, in addition to 
 the direct exposure of inflammable materials, such as patterns, 
 shavings, shelving, benches, etc. Both kinds should be prohibited 
 unless well enclosed in metal boxes having only one side open and 
 set in trays with sand under the stove. 
 
 Gas-jets are less objectionable, but carry with them the objection 
 to open lights, use of matches, direct exposure to inflammable 
 materials, etc. Very often otherwise arranged glue-pots are found 
 in a recess below a bench so disposed as to endanger the under side 
 or supports of the bench. Particular pains should be taken in exam- 
 ining such devices to see that the flames or heat from them does 
 not lap around the bottom or sides- of the pot in such a way as to 
 expose woodwork or heat up the enclosing metal case, so that it will 
 expose woodwork. Gasolene torches are sometimes used and should 
 be absolutely prohibited. 
 
 Steam-heated pots are the safest, all things considered, the only 
 danger being that in the steam-pipes leading to the bath of heater, 
 as a rule. Ordinary warming-coils, caul-boxes and dry-boxes are 
 
76 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 often utilized for heating the pots, but without increase of hazard. 
 An excellent type of heater is a small hollow iron disc, heated by 
 steam, and resting on iron supports. The surroundings of such 
 "heaters are easily kept clean, whereas the battery type of jacketed 
 heater has a tendency to become dirty. 
 
 Hot Water Kettles. In various risks, such as breweries, dye 
 works, plating works, etc. Method of heating most important 
 feature. 
 
 Licorice Kettles. In tobacco factories. Steam-jacketed iron or 
 copper; sometimes stove-heated. Used for melting .and preparing 
 licorice in flavoring tobacco. Rum and alcohol are sometimes added 
 in flavoring, being especially significant if the kettle be direct- 
 heated. 
 
 Lye Kettles. In soap factories and chemical works. Generally 
 iron and steam-heated, containing strong lye water. 
 
 Mash- Tubs. Steam-heated iron vats for preparing mash. Gen- 
 erally contain stirring paddles. 
 
 Mixing Kettles. No particular type. For various purposes, in 
 chewing gum mixing, varnish mixing, pharmaceutical works, making 
 stuffing grease, etc. 
 
 Oil-boiling Kettles. In linseed-oil, varnish, patent-leather and 
 cheap paint-mixing works principally. Generally iron or copper 
 kettles set on low brick furnaces, and using coal, coke, wood, gas, 
 etc., as fuel. Great danger of boiling over and should be in fire- 
 proof surroundings. They are generally built on hearths, with 
 hoods and flues above. 
 
 Oil-warming Pots. In tanneries oil at tables is warmed in 
 shallow kettles or pots generally by steam, but sometimes by oil 
 lamps, jets, etc., in which case they are dangerous. 
 
 Pharmaceutical Kettles. This heading includes the various cop- 
 per or iron, steam or direct-heated kettles used in pharmaceutical 
 works for making elixirs, extracts, infusions, decoctions, syrups, 
 porous plasters, etc. They are mostly for melting or boiling. 
 Steam-heated ones a mild hazard; those direct-heated may be seri- 
 ous, depending upon substance heated and environment. 
 
 Pitch-Pots and Kettles. In breweries, for melting pitch to line 
 kegs with. See " Tar and Asphalt Kettles " and " Pitching Appa- 
 ratus." 
 
 Process Kettles. In canning factories. Really cooking kettles. 
 Sometimes enclosed entirely with covers. Steam-heated nowadays 
 and a mild hazard. 
 
 Rendering Tanks. These are large, vertical iron tanks, 4 to 6 
 feet in diameter, generally steam-heated and extending from the 
 first to the top story of the rendering house. They are made of 
 riveted boiler iron and are provided with trapped openings for the 
 admission of offal. When they are steam-heated the danger from 
 them is small, being an ordinary steam-pipe hazard; and the clear- 
 ance of the tanks and pipes to them is practically all that needs to be 
 considered, as gasolene is not used in rendering tanks in packing 
 houses. If heated by direct fires, however, which is seldom done 
 
A I A\ I'FAC TURING HAZARDS 77 
 
 in any but small plants, they may become very hazardous. Their 
 manner of heating is then important, as well as the usual features 
 of clearance. 1 he charging floor is always more or less oily and 
 greasy, although many well-regulated plants reduce this objection 
 to a minimum by care. 
 
 Rosin Kettles. For melting rosin in varnish works, in pipe 
 bending, etc. Apt to boil over; if direct-heated, a bad hazard, and 
 should be set in fireproof surroundings if inside. 
 
 Salt-Pans. Huge iron kettles for evaporating saline water. 
 Steam or direct-heated. Generally in light frame structures, which 
 become thoroughly desiccated and the floors of which are apt to be 
 in contact with the sides of the pan or kettle. 
 
 Soap Vats or Boilers. Huge iron or wooden, generally the 
 former, vats or tanks used in the final boiling operation of soap- 
 making. Generally steam-heated and a mild hazard. Sometimes 
 direct-heated, the furnace hazard then being important. Surround- 
 ings generally slopped with soap stock, giving an appearance of 
 hazardousness which does not exist. 
 
 Steamers. In a variety of risks for varying purposes, but gen- 
 erally involving the same principle. For steaming logs in turned 
 veneer works, articles to be bent in wood-workers, bottled beer 
 in breweries, etc. Generally a tight chamber to which steam is 
 admitted. Steam-pipe hazard only. 
 
 Stills. In various classes of risks, for driving off volatile and 
 condensable matter, such as alcohol, gin, rum, naphtha, water, 
 pyroligneous acid, etc. Generally a closed vessel, with an outlet 
 conduit at the top to a worm or condenser of some sort, the vapors 
 passing over and being cooled to liquefy them. In all stills where 
 inflammable vapors are given off, direct heat is dangerous in addition 
 to the usual furnace hazards, as leaks and explosions may occur. 
 
 Stuffirfg Grease Kettles. For * mixing and preparing stuffing 
 grease (neatsfoot-oil and tallow, largely) in tanneries. Generally 
 open iron, steam-heated kettles, the surroundings being greasy, as 
 a ruk. If direct heat be used, they are a bad hazard inside. Table 
 grease, or excess grease scraped from the leather in setting, is 
 reclaimed, as well as that from greasy scraps, in similar or the 
 same kettles. 
 
 Sugar Kettles. Specifically, those used for boiling sugar and 
 glucose in candy factories. Generally steam-heated and copper. 
 Direct-heated kettles for the purpose are called candy furnaces 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Syrup Kettles. Practically the same as the above. Used mainly 
 in making syrup from sugar, in making extracts, elixirs, etc., and 
 in reducing syrups to sugar. 
 
 Tar and Asphalt Kettles. Both portable and stationary. Used 
 in roofing houses, paving streets, caulking decks and heavy floors, 
 making electrical insulation, etc. Generally direct-heated and apt 
 to boil over. Should be used only in fireproof surroundings. 
 
 Varnish Kettles. Specifically, the last mixing and boiling kettle 
 in varnish making. Direct-heated, being, as a rule, mounted on 
 
78 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 trucks so that they may be quickly withdrawn from over the fire- 
 place^ the operation being critical as to ultimate quality. Used, as a 
 rule, in huge brick hearths in fireproof surroundings. Prohibitive 
 inside main buildings. 
 
 Vacuum Pans. A type of evaporating or boiling apparatus, util- 
 izing the principle that substances in a vacuum boil at a lower tem- 
 perature than ordinarily. Closed copper or iron kettles, air being 
 exhausted after the stock is admitted. Pans of the sort may be 
 single, double or multiple effects. Principal uses are in making 
 beef extract, malt extracts, " stic," glue, sugar, glucose, beet sugar, 
 condensed milk, bark extract, etc. Steam-heated and a mild hazard. 
 
 Wax-Pots. For melting sealing-wax used in setting bicycle tires, 
 beeswax and cobblers' wax in shoe factories, stearine and paraffine 
 in candle making, and packing sausage for export, pattern makers' 
 wax, etc. In shoe factories wax-pots are now on the machines and 
 steam-heated or warmed by small gas-jets, but formerly they were 
 variously heated and detached. If direct heat be used in any case, 
 fireproof surroundings are necessary to prevent loss in case of 
 upsets, boiling over, etc. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Acids. The principal hazardous acids of commerce, with their 
 predominant characteristics, are as follows : 
 
 PICRIC. Commercially in yellow prisms or crystals. Fuses at 246 
 degrees F. Explodes at 600 degrees and highly dangerous when 
 steam or water is dashed on it. Soluble in water, alcohol and gaso- 
 lene. Used as a hop substitute in making beer and in dyeing silk 
 and wool; also in making explosives and in solution in gasolene 
 for use in gasolene engines, gasolene absorbing five per cent of it. 
 Explodes easily when mixed with red lead or other oxides, such 
 as iron rust. Sodium salt of picric acid, sometimes sold as picric 
 acid, is very explosive and dangerous. Ammonium and potassium 
 picrate are also very explosive when heated or struck. 
 
 SULPHURIC, OR OIL OF VITRIOL. Colorless when pure, but light 
 brown or yellow in its cheap commercial forms. Heavy and oily. 
 Kept ordinarily in carboys. Most widely used of all acids in arts 
 and manufactures. Absorbs water so rapidly, with the evolution 
 of heat, that the sudden addition of water will cause an explosion. 
 Chars many substances by deoxidizing them, this property render- 
 ing it dangerous. Poured on sugar, it inflames. It attacks all ordi- 
 nary metals but lead, corrodes all cloths and most combustibles, 
 and reacts upon a great many chemicals. It should, therefore, be 
 handled and stored with care to prevent spilling or breakage of the 
 carboys. 
 
 NITRIC, OR AQUA FORTIS. A colorless, corrosive liquid, kept ordi- 
 narily in carboys. Used widely in the arts and manufactures. 
 Attacks all metals except gold, platinum and aluminum. Sets fire 
 readily to dry packing materials, such as straw, sawdust, paper, 
 etc., and nitrates produced by its action are also likely to oxidize 
 and set fire to combustibles mixed with them. It also sets fire to 
 wood in 'bulk if allowed to soak into it. In contact with phos- 
 phorus, charcoal and many other substances in common use, it 
 inflames. Steel, iron or brass filings on floors, mixed with it, cause 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 79 
 
 it to give off deadly fumes which, together with the evaporating 
 acid, render it extremely dangerous for firemen or workmen. It 
 should be handled and stored with great care. 
 
 ACETIC. Practically the same as vinegar. Boils at about 240 
 degrees F., giving off a vapor which burns like that of alcohol, 
 otherwise practically non-hazardous as ordinarily found and used. 
 
 HYDROFLUORIC. Colorless liquid, fuming strongly in the air, with 
 a pungent irritating odor. Boils at sixty-seven degrees F. Cor- 
 rodes glass rapidly and kept ordinarily in gutta percha bottles. 
 Combines with sulphuric and phosphoric anhydrides with great 
 evolution of heat; likewise with water. 
 
 HYDROCHLORIC OR MURIATIC. This has a suffocating odor and very 
 strong attraction for water, otherwise it is comparatively harmless. 
 Commonly, it has a bright yellow color, and is stored in carboys. 
 
 Bale Openers. Cotton bales should not be opened with an axe, 
 as it may strike fire on the bale-ties and ignite the cotton. The 
 spark may smoulder for hours and break out after the stock has 
 been carried to the mill. A duck-bill wrench should be used, this 
 to have one edge beveled to prevent a broken bit of the bale-tie 
 from remaining in the bale. 
 
 Banana Ripening. In connection with wholesale fruit-houses 
 green bananas are ripened by artificial heat, generally from open 
 gas-jets or crowns along the floor. Inasmuch as considerable pack- 
 ing-straw is about, as a rule, this is a dangerous practice, and care 
 should be taken to see that the burners are properly shielded. 
 
 Bark Mills. Generally in connection with tanneries. For grind- 
 ing the bark used in the leach-tubs in preparing the tanning liquor. 
 Of two general kinds, one being like a vertical corn-sheller and the 
 other a chipper, in which radial blades on the side of a wheel cut 
 up the bark. Both kinds have dusty surroundings and explosions 
 can occur. Shafting hazard also considerable, and if belt-and- 
 bucket elevators are used to convey away the bark these should 
 have self-cleaning heads. Wooden conveyors generally remove the 
 bark. Bark mill-house should be cut off. 
 
 Batch Warmers. For warming candy batches in making stick 
 and other candy shaped by hand. They are variously built. Some- 
 times a steam slab or table, with a coil set vertically on top ; again 
 a direct-heated plate, the low wall of jets or low furnace (char- 
 coal) set on top. Arrangement -of heating device and clearance at 
 tables important. 
 
 Bending. Bending is done in various ways, some of them in- 
 volving hazardous processes in the actual bending, and others not. 
 In many instances in the case of shovel, post-hole digger, wheel- 
 barrow, plow and corn-planter handles, felloes, etc. the object is 
 steamed and bent and then set in regular dry-rooms while still in 
 the frames holding them to the desired shape. There exists here 
 the steam-pipe hazard in connection with the steaming-vat, as well 
 as the dry-room hazard. In other cases steam-heated frames are 
 used to expel the moisture from the bent stock and set the latter 
 to the desired form. Such apparatus is used where buckling or 
 other warping than that designed is to be especially avoided, and 
 we have only the steam-pipe hazard. 
 
8o FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 A different type of bender from the above is what is known as a 
 panel-bender, used for curving or warping pieces, generally with the 
 grain running parallel with the cylindrical surface and depending 
 upon heating one side only of the work. Coach door or body panels, 
 guitar sides and pieces of similar description are bent in this way. 
 Curved plates, cylinders, etc., of iron serve as forms upon which 
 to lay the work, being variously heated by gas or gasolene flames, 
 small fires or steam. 
 
 Benzine. Highly volatile and inflammable colorless liquid. Fumes 
 heavier than air and apt to accumulate in partly empty vessels or 
 fall to floor and hang together until they reach an open flame. 
 Such fumes have traveled 100 feet to a flame and flashed back to 
 the vessel. Benzine vapor and air mixed are very explosive. Ben- 
 zine is used mainly for cleaning, especially greasy or oily surfaces. 
 
 Bleaching, Sulphur. In various risks hop-kilns, malt-kilns, 
 broom factories, rattan works, etc. Generally by burning sulphur 
 in an iron or stone pot in a tight room. As sulphur boils over 
 readily when burning, the pots should be of ample capacity and 
 preferably on fireproof floor. 
 
 Board Scrapings. In cutting upper leather, principally in shoe 
 factories, the cutting boards are coated with linseed-oil to prevent 
 their surfaces from chipping too easily. These boards have to be 
 planed every week or two to level the surface up, and the process is 
 called " scraping." The refuse is subject to spontaneous combustion 
 and should be removed separately. 
 
 Branding. In breweries, distilleries and other risks using bar- 
 reled, boxed or kegged goods; in packing houses, on hams and 
 bacons. Irons with imprints, letters or marks are selt-heated or 
 heated in forges, stoves or salamanders. Self-heated irons are sta- 
 tionary or portable, the former being set on tables and heated from 
 the under side. Rests should be provided for portable irons. Clear- 
 ance and method of heating important. 
 
 Breechings. See " Boilers." 
 
 Brush Machines. Cloth-cleaning machines in textile mills. Dust 
 and shaftings hazard. 
 
 Burring. Polishing by means of cotton wheels and rouge. Con- 
 siderable dust, and fly or lint raised. Shafting becomes clogged, 
 flashing of refuse is imminent and spontaneous combustion may 
 take place in refuse accumulations on account of the stearine used 
 as a binder in the rouge. 
 
 Bunsen Burners. A type of gas-burner in which air is admitted 
 back of the burner to increase the heat. -Used in various apparatus. 
 Specifically, a small tube burner, with a heavy base to keep it from 
 upsetting, used in laboratories, jewelry repair work, tube and vial 
 works, etc. Rubber tubing to them rots or becomes loosened, and 
 may cause trouble. 
 
 Candles. Hazard of these arises from their habit of softening 
 and falling over, of burning down and upsetting. Too frequently 
 stuck on woodwork and left to burn alone. 
 
 Carbureters. See " Gas-stacks and Retorts." Carbureters for 
 enriching gas or making gasolene gas are variously-built chambers, 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 81 
 
 usually made to expose a large surface of gasolene to air passing 
 over it. They should never be inside, but outside and well removed. 
 
 Cartridge Filling. Hazard due to presence of powder loose and 
 chances of detonation or ignition accidentally. Should be done in 
 roomy, fireproof surroundings. 
 
 Carpet Sewing. Where electrical machines are used, the usual 
 small electrical motor hazard is present. 
 
 Catch-basins. The waste products of gas-making are drained to 
 tanks let into the ground, the top being flush with the surface of 
 the ground. Through derangement of the apparatus and other 
 causes, volatile by-products sometimes escape into the catch-basin, 
 and may be ignited by stray sparks falling through open covers, 
 and as the sides of the catch-basin are usually coated with tar, 
 a smart fire results from the woodwork, the tar and the lighter 
 by-products. The catch-basin should, therefore, be so located as 
 not to expose adjacent property. 
 
 Celluloid. Made by treating pure cotton or tissue paper with 
 nitric acid and mixing the product, called pyroxylin, with camphor, 
 coloring matter, alcohol, and sometimes oil. Highly combustible, 
 taking fire without flame at about 300 degrees F. Used as a sub- 
 stitute for ivory, bone and shell. It can be cemented, a cement 
 consisting of a solution of pyroxylin in alcohol and ether being 
 used. The cement is equally dangerous. 
 
 Chemicals. These are too numerous and have too many charac- 
 teristics to be treated in detail here. The more common, therefore, 
 will be treated briefly: 
 
 Acetone. A colorless liquid with a sweetish odor, and very in- 
 flammable. 
 
 Acetylene. A colorless gas with a garlicky smell. Produced 
 commercially by treating calcium carbide with water. Used as an 
 illuminant and to supply heat. The gas in air forms explosive mix- 
 tures, the percentage varying from 3 to 82. 
 
 Alcohol. A volatile, colorless liquid, burning in air with a 
 bluish, almost invisible flame. Its vapors form explosive mixtures 
 with air. 
 
 Ammonia. A gas consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen. Dis- 
 solved in water, it is known as ammonia water, ammonia liquor, 
 aqua ammonia, etc. It decomposes into its elements at 900 degrees 
 F., but is not combustible at ordinary temperatures. It is not 
 explosive, but when liquid ammonia is stored in drums, with insuf- 
 ficient space left to allow it to expand, the drums may burst on 
 warm days. Saturated with oil, it will explode if lighted. ' 
 
 Calcium Carbide. A grayish crystalline solid. In contact with 
 water it forms acetylene, and should be kept in tight, fireproof 
 boxes. 
 
 Camphor. Very inflammable, burning with a bright, smoky 
 flame. 
 
 Carbon Bisulphide. An extremely inflammable liquid, colorless 
 when pure. It ignites at a very low temperature and may be 
 
8z FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION' 
 
 exploded by shock. One of the most dangerous substances used 
 in the arts. 
 
 Chlorate of Potash. A salt rich in oxygen which is weakly held 
 in combination, making the compound dangerous. When heated, it 
 decomposes, with the evolution of more heat, into potassium chloride 
 and oxygen. If mixed with combustibles, therefore, and ignited, 
 the oxygen liberated causes rapid combustion. If melted and 
 brought in contact with coal gas, it burns spontaneously. It forms 
 dangerous combinations with many other substances, and the kegs 
 in which it is stored should be kept outside. 
 
 Coal. Soft coal is subject to spontaneous combustion under cer- 
 tain conditions not definitely known, and should not be stored in 
 quantity where it exposes woodwork. 
 
 Collodion. A solution of gun cotton in ether and alcohol. 
 
 Ether. An extremely volatile, colorless liquid. Its vapors are 
 heavier than air and very inflammable. The cans containing it 
 should be kept in a cool place. 
 
 Fusel-Oil. A mixture of alcohols, amyl alcohol being its chief 
 constituent. An oily liquid slightly yellow in color and very in- 
 flammable. 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. A very poisonous gas. Inflammable. 
 Mixed with air in certain proportions, it explodes. Used for killing 
 weevils in mills and elevators. 
 
 Hydrogen. A colorless, tasteless, odorless gas, the lightest' of all 
 known substances. It burns in contact with oxygen, and in air 
 forms explosive mixtures, the percentage varying from 5 to 80. 
 Commercially, kept in cylinders. 
 
 Lampblack. A form of carbon consisting mainly of the soot 
 from the smoky flames produced by burning in an insufficient supply 
 of air highly carbonaceous substances. It is subject to spontaneous 
 combustion and should be kept in metal receptacles. 
 
 Lead Nitrate* When mixed with organic matter and rubbed or 
 subjected to friction, it may cause ignition. 
 
 Marsh Gas or Methane. A hydrocarbon produced when vege- 
 table matter decays in the presence of moisture. Sometimes con- 
 fined in layers of coal. Inflammable and forms explosive mixtures 
 with air. / 
 
 Oxygen. A colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, the basis of com- 
 bustion. It enters into combination readily with numerous sub- 
 stances, the combination evolving heat. Kept commercially in 
 cylinders. 
 
 Phosphorus. Generally in the form of yellow or whitish sticks. 
 It inflames at in degrees F., and should be kept under water. The 
 flame of phosphorus, however, does not generally ignite solid sub- 
 stances, although it sets fire readily to paraffine, sulphur or wax, 
 and in contact with chlorate of potash it may cause a violent 
 explosion. 
 
 Rosin Spirit. A colorless or slightly yellow liquid, with a low 
 flash-point, very volatile and inflammable. It absorbs oxygen from 
 the air with the production of heat. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 83 
 
 Saltpeter or Nitre. Many similar characteristics to chlorate of 
 potash, being rich in oxygen weakly held in combination. One 
 volume of nitre represents 3000 of air in its power for supporting 
 combustion. Fires in the bags in which it has been kept burn 
 fiercely, therefore, and can occur spontaneously. In contact with 
 hot coals it deflagrates violently. 
 
 Sodium and Barium Peroxide. Bleaching powders of a highly 
 dangerous nature. Mixed with wood dust and struck, they explode, 
 Either should not be scattered on the floor, as the contact of a 
 heel with it would cause a fire. 
 
 Sulphur. Comparatively harmless alone. It burns freely, but 
 does not ignite at less than goo degrees F. Its vapor explodes 
 spontaneously when mixed with air. It may be detonated when 
 mixed with chlorate of potash, and is ignited by phosphorus flames. 
 
 Compounding and Laboratory Work. This involves, besides 
 the use of retorts, Bunsen burners, small ovens, etc., the mixing of 
 chemicals which may inflame, detonate or explode. Compounding 
 in wholesale drug stores, as generally found, is a misnomer, being 
 mechanical mixing of substances which do not unite chemically. 
 The closet or -hod used to carry off noxious fumes should be fire- 
 proof and not frame, as generally happens. 
 
 Dipping. Reference is made to the rapid process of immersing 
 the object in a bath of oil, paint or varnish, and then withdrawing 
 it and allowing the coating to dry. Where benzine, cut paint or 
 varnish is used, the hazard is obviously most serious. Ordinarily, 
 the dipped articles are stacked or hung over a trough draining back 
 to the dipping-tank. The latter should be iron and provided with 
 a cover which may be let down to smother flames in the trough. 
 The hazard of dipping is due to the presence of the inflammable 
 coating, the spattering of this around, the vapor or fumes from it, 
 and the chances of ignition by lights or static electricity, not to 
 mention the presence of newly-dipped stock in quantity. 
 
 Dust Hazard. Briefly, this is due to the rapid ignition of dust 
 particles suspended, in air, the ignition being so rapid as to amount 
 to an explosion. The dust of any substances which will burn or 
 oxidize will explode when properly mixed with air. Dust also clogs 
 bearings, causing them to heat, and many dusts settling and becom- 
 ing oily may ignite spontaneously. 
 
 Egg-Candling. Generally in commission houses, packing houses 
 and other risks handling eggs in quantity. Candling consists in 
 holding the eggs before a light, formerly f-rom candles, to ascer- 
 tain if they are addled or not. Oil-lamps, gas-jets, incandescent 
 lights and daylight are also used. Jets, candles and oil-lamps are 
 very dangerous, owing to crowded nature of candling compartments 
 and presence of so much inflammable material. 
 
 Electrical Hazards. In brief, electrical hazards are due to heat- 
 ing of conductors or parts, to arcs and to leaks. Heating is caused 
 by overloading which itself may be due to short-circuits, poor joints, 
 poor contacts, lightning, crosses with currents of higher voltage, 
 too many lights or motors on a line or to intention, as in electric 
 heaters. It is also caused by induction, as in choke coils and mag- 
 nets which are rapidly magnetized and demagnetized. Arcs are the 
 
84 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 jumping of current across an air space, being caused when a cir- 
 cuit is broken by accident or design. Arcs may be produced by 
 leaks which gradually become severe enough for a sudden rush of 
 current, by switches, by short-circuits, by burn-outs, etc. Leaks 
 are due to the breaking down of the insulation through one cause 
 or another, and may lead to heating or arcs. 
 
 There are also in connection with electrical apparatus numerous 
 dangers of a mechanical or physical rather than electrical nature, 
 such as the breaking of lamp globes in inflammable vapors, the 
 fracture and sputtering of arc-light carbons, the ignition of mate- 
 rials, by contact with incandescent lamp bulbs, etc. 
 
 Electro-plating. This is done by first washing the piece to be 
 plated with concentrated lye or benzine and lime water, to remove 
 any grease, and by rewashing with dilute sulphuric acid to neutral- 
 ize the previous wash. The " work " or part to be plated is then 
 attached to the negative pole, and a nickel, copper, silver or gold 
 slab or plate, as the case may be, to the positive pole of a low 
 potential dynamo, after which both are immersed in a bath of 
 copper sulphate or other electrolyte. The current being turned on 
 removes molecular particles of the slab or metal to be transferred 
 and deposits it on the surface of the "work." Plating dynamos 
 employ a difference of potential of from two to four volts. The 
 bus wires are almost invariably bare and often run on wooden sup- 
 ports, but there is no danger of leakage with the low voltage used. 
 There is, however, some little hazard in connection with these 
 dynamos and wires. Pieces of metal laid or dropped across the 
 bus wires, terminals or brushes would be instantly fused, and if 
 the molten metal fell into inflammable material trouble might 
 ensue. This is really about the only considerable danger in con- 
 nection with the dynamo and its appurtenances, and it is generally 
 remote. Electro-plating, however, involves the use of materials 
 and incidental processes which are more or less hazardous^ i. e., 
 lacquers, lacquer-drying ovens and buffing. 
 
 Electro-typing. A matrix, consisting of graphite and wax, is 
 made by pressing into (he surface of the composition type forms or 
 cuts. The type metal is then deposited upon the matrix as in the 
 case of electro-plating (q. v.). Wax-heating pots are an accom- 
 panying hazard. 
 
 Embossers. Machines for pressing patterns or wood in imita- 
 tion of carving, or designs on leather or book covers. Heated to 
 give permanence to the designs which could otherwise lose their 
 sharpness of outline and contour. Method of heating the most 
 important feature. Gas generally used ; occasionally live steam. 
 Apt to be used in the midst of inflammable materials. 
 
 Engines. In all types of engines there is present in a greater 
 or less degree the grease hazard. In fly-wheel engines there is the 
 danger of the wheel bursting and causing damage from which fire 
 may ensue. Gas engines may have flame igniters, which should be 
 well away from inflammable materials ; the muffler and exhaust 
 should be clear also, and the exhaust should extend to the outside 
 air and never enter flues or stacks unless the latter are large. Gaso- 
 lene engines should never have flame igniters if they are inside, 
 and the supply should be outside underground and never gravitate 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 85 
 
 to the engine, otherwise the remarks on gas engines apply. The 
 live steam and exhaust pipes of steam engines should be free. 
 
 Etching and Pyrography. In etching by gas flames, such as 
 that done on bamboo, the jets should have proper rests or racks 
 when not in use, and the rubber tubing should be kept in repair. 
 The surroundings should be neat also, in case the jets are dropped 
 accidentally. Somewhat similar remarks are true of gas-heated 
 tools, and the heating devices should be watched. The wires leading 
 to electric gravers should be properly insulated and protected against 
 wear and injury, and adequate rests provided for the instruments 
 when they are not in use. Particular care should be taken with 
 the gasolene bulb apparatus used by artists and amateurs. 
 
 Explosives. Gunpowder, a mixture of saltpetre, sulphur and 
 charcoal, ignitible by flame or by heat varying from 554 degrees for 
 black, to 579 degrees, F., for brown, prismatic powder. 
 
 Gunco'tton consists of purified cotton treated with a -mixture of 
 i part strong nitric and 3 parts sulphuric acid, resembling ordinary 
 cotton in appearance. It can be exploded by percussion, flame and 
 the shock produced by fulminate of mercury. 
 
 Nitroglycerine is made by the action of strong sulphuric and 
 nitric acids upon glycerine. It is an oily, colorless liquid and poison- 
 ous. It explodes at 356 to 392 degrees F. It is easily exploded by 
 shock and extremely dangerous to handle. 
 
 Dynamite is a mixture of nitroglycerine and some absorbent, as 
 silicious earth, magnesia alba, mica powder and charcoal. 
 
 Blasting gelatine is made by dissolving guncotton in nine times 
 its weight of nitroglycerine. 
 
 There are many other explosives, but the above are those appear- 
 ing commercially in this country. 
 
 Feather Renovators. Apparatus for dusting, steaming and clean- 
 ing feathers. Steam-pipe and dust hazard. The impression obtains 
 that feathers will not burn, but the down near the quill will flash 
 and make a quick, intense fire. 
 
 Finishing. The term finishing generally includes filling, rubbing 
 and the final finishing, and is frequently extended to include var- 
 nishing as well. Varnishing, however, has been treated elsewhere, 
 embodying somewhat different hazards. The first operation in fin- 
 ishing is filling, which consists of filling or plugging the pores of the 
 wood so that it will present a smooth surface and not absorb too 
 much varnish. Fillers are made of various combinations of silex, 
 silver white, corn starch, whiting, plaster of Paris, raw and boiled 
 linseed oil, turpentine, japan and benzine. Sundry pigments are 
 used to color fillers, depending upon the character of the final finish 
 desired. The principal among these are raw and burnt umber, raw 
 and burnt Italian sienna, Vandyke brown, drop or ivory black and 
 pink. Both turpentine and benzine ground japans are used. 
 Fillers are generally in paste form and are thinned down for appli- 
 cation, turpentine, naphtha or refined linseed-oil being used. No 
 more linseed-oil is used than necessary to form a binder, as it pre- 
 vents .the filler from drying or setting rapidly. Excess filler is 
 rubbed off with curled moss, excelsior, shavings, soft sawdust, tow 
 and waste, as the case may be. Flax or hemp tow is used in finer, 
 and the other substances in cheaper grades of work. 
 
86 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Shellacking follows filling for the purpose- of sealing the pore 
 depressions. This is sometimes done with ordinary alcohol shellac, 
 but may be accomplished with other substances, the operation, how- 
 ever, being known as shellacking irrespective of the materials used. 
 When this is dried, the varnish coats are applied and the various 
 rubbings follow. 
 
 Rubbing is done with either water or rubbing oil, the latter being 
 a petroleum product resembling machine oil and not dangerous. 
 Linseed-oil can be used, but is much more expensive and not so 
 satisfactory, being more gummy than rubbing oil. It is also more 
 hazardous. Pulverized pumice or rotten stone is used to hasten 
 the cutting action of the rubbing process. In the final rubbings of 
 fine finishes water or the hands alone are used. Ordinarily, the 
 rubbing oils and pumice or rotten stone are applied and rubbed in 
 with rags, old silk cloths or handkerchiefs, chamois skins, or rub- 
 bing felt. After the rubbing is done, a damp, .soft wood sawdust is 
 generally used to clean off with, being sprinkled over the surface 
 and removed with cotton waste or soft cotton wadding. 
 
 The hazardous features of filling, rubbing and finishing arise from 
 the use of finely subdivided waste and materials in conjunction with 
 oils which absorb oxygen freely and from the use of volatile liquids. 
 Linseed-oil is especially subject to spontaneous heating, and the 
 hazardous nature of the other oils and liquids has been pointed 
 out under " Painting." Flemish finishes are thinned with amyl- 
 alcohol, the substance so frequently used in cutting lacquers and 
 very volatile. It should be treated in much the same manner as 
 naphtha. It is almost unnecessary . to add that standard waste- 
 cans should be provided for the rags and materials used in all 
 filling and finishing operations, except, of course, where water rub- 
 bing only is done. By-ways and corners, bench drawers and closets 
 should be kept free from accumulations of any of the materials 
 saturated to any degree. 
 
 Filling. See " Finishing." 
 
 Flash Lights. For photographic and pyrotechnic purposes. Pow- 
 ders similar to explosives, and similar precautions should be taken 
 in handling and storing them. 
 
 Flasks. The wooden or iron boxes used in moulding in foundries. 
 Those of wood should 'not be stored inside so as to expose build- 
 ings, as they become charred and may harbor smouldering sparks. 
 They are also a prey to transient sparks. 
 
 Fuel-Oil System. These should be installed in accordance with 
 the underwriters' requirements. In general, there are gravity, 
 pumping, intermediate tank, auxiliary standpipe and air-pressure 
 systems. In gravity systems the oil flows to the burners by gravity 
 from the main supply tanks; in pumping it is forced to the burners 
 by small pumps, the supply tanks being below the burners ; in inter- 
 mediate tank systems the oil is forced to small elevated tanks ; in 
 auxiliary standpipe systems the oil is pumped from tanks below the 
 burners to standpipes, 4 to 6 inches in diameter, and tall enough to 
 give the desired pressure, with overflow pipes at their tops draining 
 to the supply tanks ; in the air-pressure systems various procedures 
 occur, the general plan being to pump air upon the surface of the 
 oil in a closed tank, the pressure forcing the oil out to the burners. 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 87 
 
 An intermediate tank system of one firm is unique in that it has a 
 small tank filled by a ball-float arrangement, the burners being a 
 few inches above the "oil level maintained and provided with two 
 nozzles, one for air or steam and one for oil in the center of the 
 other. The air or steam, being forced out past the orifice of the oil, 
 produces a partial vacuum which allows the oil to rise to the nozzle 
 where it is sprayed by the air or steam, as the case may be. 
 
 The chief desideratum in all acceptable systems is that the oil does 
 not gravitate to the burners from any considerable supply. The 
 piping should also be tight and be self-draining, with convenient 
 valves. The supply tanks should be underground and well removed. 
 
 Gasometers. In gas plants the gas is stored in huge water- 
 sealed iron tanks. It is possible to explode them by lightning stroke 
 or exposure to fire, and a case is known where a high wind tipped 
 a gasometer over so that it was unsealed and the escaping gas 
 ignited. Ordinarily, such burning does not amount to an explosion, 
 but it is possible for the burning gas in an injured gasometer to 
 so thin out by escaping that incoming air will produce an explosive 
 mixture. Small gasometers for acetylene gas machines, and the like, 
 should not be allowed inside. 
 
 Gasolene Devices. These are too numerous for specific mention. 
 The principal are venders' torches, lamps, plumbers' soldering-iron 
 heaters, blow-torches or paint removers, stoves, portable lead-melt- 
 ing pots, pyropen apparatus, branding apparatus, etc. All are dan- 
 gerous and only such appliances should be used as are approved by 
 Underwriters' Laboratories. Paint removers, venders' torches and 
 non-safety gasolene stoves are particularly hazardous. 
 
 Gas Purifiers. In the manufacture of illuminating gas. They 
 are shallow pans with false bottoms, the upper bottom being per- 
 forated. They are filled with iron filings, rusted, and sawdust, which 
 removes the sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gases present 
 in the gas, the result being obtained by placing an iron water-sealed 
 cover over the pan and passing the impure gas down through the 
 iron oxide and sawdust from a pipe which usually enters from below 
 to a point near the top of the purifier. 
 
 The danger in a purifier is that of explosion, which may result, 
 when the cover is removed, from an open light. It is necessary to 
 admit air to the cover to remove it because of the atmospheric 
 pressure on the outside when the purifier is cut off at the center 
 seal; and an explosive mixture of the gas and air may be formed 
 which, if ignited, may wreck the building. Obviously, only natural 
 light or securely enclosed lights shining through a pane in a window 
 should be permitted 
 
 Gas Stoves. These are of various patterns. The flat, single or 
 multiple burner type in common use has short legs to raise it from 
 the table or floor on which it rests, but these legs do not give suffi- 
 cient clearance, and if the stove rests on wood it should have pro- 
 tection under it. Rubber hose should not be allowed for connecting 
 any gas stove, as it rots or becomes loose. The permissible hose 
 is braided and stiffened by an inside coil of wire to prevent it from 
 kinking or being crushed temporarily and thus shutting off the gas 
 long enough to put out some burners and not others, making explo- 
 sions imminent. The gas stoves and radiators in use should espe- 
 
88 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 cially not have soft rubber tubing and should not expose woodwork, 
 curtains, etc. 
 
 Gilding. In picture-frame and moulding works. Gold and silver 
 leaf are put on by first oiling the surface and blowing the leaf 
 against it, after which brushes and rags press it to the contour of 
 the work. The rags and refuse are subject to spontaneous com- 
 bustion. 
 
 Grain Elevators. The belt-and-bucket type of elevator is almost 
 invariably used. The legs of these are so many flues for the spread 
 of fire. The heads and boots are also apt to become clogged by 
 dust, and in order to prevent this inclined strut-boards (pieces in 
 the head of the elevator under the pulley) are provided, making the 
 head self-cleaning. Dust accumulations in the boots may be removed 
 by slides. Hoppers venting into the legs are sometimes substituted 
 for the strut-boards, their sloping sides making them self-cleaning. 
 Occasionally weighted and hinged strut-boards are used, the idea 
 being to have them open when the weight of the dust overbalances 
 that which keeps the boards in place. These are not reliable, how- 
 ever, and are rare. Some elevator heads are not enclosed under- 
 neath, and there is no danger from the strut-board, but such ele- 
 vators permit a great deal of dust to escape into the building. Still 
 other elevators have both legs in one, and no strut-board is neces- 
 sary, evidently. Where chain and bucket elevators are used there 
 is little danger from the strut-board, as the pulley is like a huge 
 sprocket and will not permit the dust to bank up. Marine legs come 
 properly under the head of elevators, but are not so dangerous, 
 being tilted so often as to -keep clean. However, as they are some- 
 times placed, they facilitate the spread of fire from the first floor 
 to the texas, affording direct communication. 
 
 Similar elevators are used for various other purposes and the 
 above remarks are largely applicable to them. 
 
 Grinding. Unless thoroughly wet there is generally danger of 
 the fine particles abraded heating spontaneously if allowed to accu- 
 mulate. Band-splitters in tanneries and similar devices should be 
 arranged with this danger in view. 
 
 Gun Testing. The testing range should preferably be fireproof, 
 or at least lined, on account of the wads and chance bits of flaked 
 powder starting trouble. 
 
 Hat Presses. This includes the steam-heated moulds and flange 
 plates used in hat factories. They and their pipes and the sand- 
 bags for flanging should be kept free from woodwork. 
 
 Ice Machines. The machines themselves have only the ordinary 
 engine hazards, except that they compress a gas, generally ammo- 
 nia, which may escape. (See "Ammonia.") No open lights should 
 be allowed near the machines, as leaks, breakage of the gauge or 
 damage to the cylinder head may cause an explosion. Ammonia 
 becomes assimilated with oil under pressure, and in this combination 
 is explosive. 
 
 Incubators. These are generally wooden or glass boxes warmed 
 by oil or gasolene lamps or stoves placed, as a rule, at one end 
 under the mouth of a duct leading through the box. They should 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 89 
 
 not be allowed in important buildings, being subject to frequent fires 
 with either source of heat. 
 
 Ironing Machines. In steam laundries, for ironing cuffs, collars, 
 bodies, linen, etc. Generally rollers heated by internal gas flames; 
 a few are steam-heated. Clearance and neatness of surroundings 
 and connections important. Soft rubber tubing should be discour- 
 aged. 
 
 Kit Heaters. For heating shoemakers' dressing tools. In ordi- 
 nary cobbleries a rest is provided on top of the chimney of an oil 
 lamp or stove; in factories such stoves or lamps or fixed gas-jets 
 are used, unless the tools are on machines, in which case a small 
 jet impinges against the tool as it operates. Stoves and lamps are 
 easily upset and are trouble breeders, and the fixed gas-jets, being 
 on benches, may be surrounded by inflammable materials. 
 
 Lime. Unslaked, this should be stored in dry places, as the addi- 
 tion of water causes it to heat violently and set fire to the contain- 
 ing barrels or other inflammables near. 
 
 Machinery. While we naturally associate with the more rapid 
 moving machinery the idea of greater hazardousness, it does not 
 necessarily follow that the slower moving may not in some cases 
 be more dangerous. Great speed, of course, carries with it a ten- 
 dency to heating, especially as the rapid rotation of the parts makes 
 it more difficult to keep the bearings in oil, other things being equal ; 
 but slow, cumbersome, badly-aligned or heavily-loaded shafts may 
 heat up to an even worse degree, since they are not self-ventilating 
 by their speed and have more mass in which to get a cumulative 
 heat effect. In general, it may be stated that shafting and bearings 
 of machinery heat up as a result of poor alignment, binding or 
 insufficient oil, any one of which defects is remediable. Shaftings 
 and bearings of all sorts may be dangerous in other respects than 
 as to heating by becoming oily and accumulating dust or inflam- 
 mable fly or lint, and by saturating nearby woodwork. For this 
 reason journals should never be placed on wooden beams nor the 
 sides of wooden posts. Several makes of iron drop or post hangers 
 are on the market and are excellent in obviating the objections 
 pointed out. These should be adjustable, and, if self-oiling and 
 non-dripping, are ideal. If not self-oiling, drip-cups, preferably 
 of cast-iron and fixed substantially under the journal-boxes, should 
 be provided. Tin cups or pans suspended by wires, so often seen, 
 are no more than makeshifts. 
 
 It is impracticable to detail the hazardousness of every variety of 
 machine in an article of this sort. A few general remarks only will 
 be made, therefore. 
 
 In all machines grinding, pulverizing, or otherwise reducing sub- 
 stances to smaller particles by .a breaking operation, considerable 
 dust is raised and some heat is produced by the act of separating the 
 particles from the main mass. If the substance reduced will burn, 
 its dust will be explosive, and there is always the danger of it clog- 
 ging bearings. Many such dusts in accumulations and saturated 
 with oil can ignite spontaneously. Most machines performing ope- 
 rations of the sort discussed should have blowers and flues to 
 remove the dust and collectors to prevent it from being sent over 
 surrounding property. There is nearly always the danger of foreign 
 particles or parts of the mechanism striking fire. 
 
9$ FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 The above is true of machines altering stock by cutting and pol- 
 ishing operations, while those doing sorting or separating operations 
 raise dust mainly by a species of jostling and involve the dust and 
 bearings hazards only. 
 
 Picking machines have already been mentioned. Knitting and 
 weaving machinery involves but slight hazard as machinery, the 
 principal danger being the possible ignition of the stock in addition 
 to the bearings hazard. 
 
 Spinning machinery involves the hazard of numerous small, rap- 
 idly-moving spindles which may heat at their bearings, and which 
 are often in concealed carriages or frames, as well as considerable 
 grease hazard at the driving mechanism. 
 
 Matches. Match heads consist of various combinations of glue, 
 rosin, phosphorus, amorphous phosphorus, sulphur, chlorate of pot- 
 ash, saltpeter, red lead, bichromate of potash, nitrate of lead, anti- 
 mony sulphide, fine sand, peroxide of manganese, whiting and other 
 substances. The bursting and separation of match heads from the 
 stems is confined to so-called parlor matches. The bursting or chip- 
 ping off of the heads is caused by improper mixing of the ingredi- 
 ents entering into the composition. It is liable to happen with the 
 matches of any firm, although, as a general statement, it is true 
 that the larger factories are more apt to have competent composition 
 mixers, and their matches will naturally average better than those 
 of the small concerns. The specific cause of the bursting is due to 
 the liberation too freely of gases in the mass of the composition. 
 While this is a scientific fact, it affords little solace to underwriters, 
 since there is 'no way of telling when the conditions actually obtain 
 which produce the bursting. In other words, we cannot tell prac- 
 tically until we use a match whether it was made from an improperly 
 mixed batch of composition or not. 
 
 The separation of the heads bodily from the stems is due to the 
 formation of what is technically known as a " teat." When the 
 splint with the fresh globule of composition is allowed to hang too 
 long in one position, obviously the plastic composition will sag 
 before it dries. This sagging forms 'a conical-shaped teat or else 
 the whole globule settles so that it does not engage the end of the 
 splint firmly. When the match is struck, therefore, a portion of 
 the head or the whole head may be broken off, and the fusing of the 
 composition proceeds where the head has fallen. It is unnecessary 
 to point out the dangers arising from this defect. The remedy for 
 it lies in improved methods of drying and attention to the setting 
 qualities of the composition, If, after the splints are dipped inta the 
 composition, they are immediately reversed and later reversed again, 
 and so on, the composition will dry as a globule, with the splint 
 projecting into it a proper distance. This expedient is resorted to 
 in factories where the cause of the trouble is appreciated and the 
 reversals are made by machinery. 
 
 Safety matches are usually made with the oxydizing agents (ni- 
 trates or chlorates) in the match-head and the phosphorus in the 
 rubber of the box. Owing to their expensiveness they are not sold 
 as generally as the cheaper and more readily made parlor matches. 
 The amorphous form of phosphorus is used in them and this is not 
 only non-poisonous but not subject to spontaneous ignition. >k>lr! 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 91 
 
 Malt Mills. For grinding malt. Generally mills of the roller 
 type, but more dangerous than those in flour mills, as the stock is , 
 apt to contain more flinty and metal particles. They should have a 
 device to keep the space under the rolls full of ground stock, so 
 that no explosive mixture of ground malt and air can occur. Mag- 
 nets should be provided in the feeds to catch steel and iron par- 
 ticles, and gravity separators are advisable to arrest non-metallic 
 foreign substances. An explosion vent to the outside air is also 
 desirable to take up the force of an explosion. Preferably, the mill 
 should be in a section well cut off. 
 
 Nitre Bags. Gunny-bags in which nitre is obtained. The empty 
 bags always have adhering to them particles of nitre and are sub- 
 ject to spontaneous combustion in heaps, burning fiercely. 
 
 Napping Machines. Machines for removing the surplus nap 
 from cloth goods. Owing to lint brushed off, the bearings hazard is 
 increased, and if the nap contains cotton it flashes readily. 
 
 Oiling Stock. In cotton and woolen mills the stock is oiled 
 before it goes to the pickers by scattering oil over the stock as it 
 lies spread out on the floor. The latter should be covered with 
 metal or be of brick or cement, as wooden floors become saturated. 
 
 Oiling Woodwork. This generally appears upon woodwork 
 which is to be left practically with its natural finish. It is done by 
 rubbing the oil on with rags, applying it with brushes or dipping the 
 object into a vessel of oil. Care should be taken with the rags and 
 overalls or old clothes of the workmen. Considerable oil is apt to 
 be spattered around, and adjacent woodwork should be metal-clad 
 if possible, see also " Painting." 
 
 Oils. These are a hazard in that they furnish fuel for a fire, and 
 are, in many cases, subject to spontaneous combustion when sub- 
 divided on waste, clothing, etc. All animal and vegetable oils are 
 subject to spontaneous heating under some circumstances, but the 
 admixture with them of mineral oils of twenty to fifty per cent pre- 
 vents this heating. Experiments have shown that on cotton-waste 
 in a chamber heated to 130 to 170 degrees, boiled linseed-oil ignited 
 in i J4 hours, raw linseed-oil in 4, lard-oil in 4, colza-oil in 6, olive- 
 oil in 5, sperm-oil in 4 and castor-oil in 24. See also " Painting." 
 
 Oily Waste. Oily waste is a hazard in that it is inflammable 
 and may ignite spontaneously. It is generally used with mineral oils 
 in connection with metal workers and with animal or vegetable 
 oils in woodworkers. The mineral oils may be adulterated, how- 
 ever, and it is always well to keep oily waste in standard cans. 
 
 Painting. Paints consist of pigments and oils, generally turpen- 
 tine, rosin spirit, rosin-oil, linseed-oil and benzine. In many cases 
 the various prepared ingredients are mixed as needed, being kept on 
 hand for the purpose. Of the solid substances used, those of sig- 
 nificance, owing to their inherent or indirect hazardousness, are 
 lamp-black, the chromes, Prussian blues, vegetable blacks and some- 
 times red lead. These are all more or less subject to spontaneous 
 combustion, or inflammable under various circumstances, and should 
 be kept in meta! receptacles or in a safe place. Lamp-black often 
 contains unburnt oil, accounting for its liability to spontaneous 
 heating in addition to the natural avidity of carbon for oxygen. 
 
92 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Even where it does not contain such oil the accidental addition of 
 oil to it has in many cases promoted dangerous heating. In fact, 
 oily finger-marks upon the paper of the ordinary commercial pack- 
 ages have brought about undue .activity of this sort. Many of the 
 pigments made from organic substances are very inflammable when 
 finely subdivided or ground with an oxidizing substance in a dry 
 state, so that it is advisable not to have open lights near any appar- 
 atus apt to give rise to dust particles. 
 
 .Turpentine, so general in painting, is very inflammable, flashing 
 97-101 degrees F. Although popularly supposed to be exempt from 
 danger of spontaneous heating on waste, it absorbs oxygen rapidly 
 enough to cause fire in rags saturated with it. Rosin spirit, used as 
 an adulterant and substitute for turpentine, has the same flash-point 
 and characteristics as that oil. The characteristics and behavior 
 of benzine are well known. Linseed-oil, particularly boiled, has 
 great avidity for oxygen, and is especially subject to spontaneous 
 combustion in conjunction with rags, waste, etc. If dissolved in 
 turpentine, as in paints, the tendency to heating is magnified, so that 
 painty rags are even more dangerous than those saturated with the 
 oil alone. The flash-point of linseed-oil is high, however, so that 
 there is little danger from the oil at ordinary temperatures, except 
 that from spontaneous heating on waste. 
 
 In estimating the painting hazard, it should be borne in mind that 
 higher grade work carries with it, on the average, more skilled 
 and, consequently, careful labor. In coarse work, also, there is not 
 the same necessity of care with the materials used, from the stand- 
 point of economy, as in the case of high-grade work, and the natural 
 carelessness of the laborers is enhanced by this fact. It is a fact, 
 also, that all labor is unconsciously affected by the degrees of care 
 essential in the commercial use of its services, and, in connection 
 with painting, this physico-moral feature is probably most significant. 
 
 Where any considerable amount of oiling, painting or dipping is 
 done, iron closets, properly raised from the floor, ventilated and 
 free from the proximity of inflammables, should be provided for 
 the clothing and overalls of the men. Both heavy wire grating and 
 sheet or corrugated iron closets are made for this purpose, each 
 having many points of excellence. Where sprinklers are installed, 
 the grating closets are, on the whole, preferred by the writer; 
 otherwise, the solid-walled. Wooden closets are very objectionable. 
 Even if lined with tin they are not so good, and cost nearly as 
 much as the iron. The practice of hanging clothes and overalls 
 on wooden partitions, or together in a large dressing-room, should 
 be discouraged, and throwing them in heaps on or under benches 
 entirely discountenanced. Nor should wooden receptacles of any 
 kind be used for oily waste, wipes, rags for cleaning smeared hands, 
 etc. ; iron boxes with legs about 3 inches long and self-closing lids 
 are the best and safest. 
 
 The scope of this article is too limited for extended comments 
 upon paint and oil storage, and only a few remarks will be. made. 
 Only a day's supply of materials should be permitted inside the 
 main buildings, and any remaining stock should be removed to the 
 storehouse or vault at the close of a day's work. Cans containing 
 volatile oils, such as turpentine and benzine, should not be allowed 
 to stand around without stoppers, especially if partly empty, as 
 the space above the surface allows an accumulation of the fumes 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 93 
 
 to occur. Painters should not be permitted to " try " their brushes 
 all over the walls of partitions or closets. The main supply room, 
 if inside, should be fireproof and so constructed that a fire could 
 be smothered by closing the doors to the room. It is best, however, 
 to encourage the use of a detached building for the storage of oils, 
 paints, varnishes, etc. Explosions may shatter an inside vault so 
 that it would not confine a fire. 
 
 Paint Mills. These are generally buhr stones or steel mills of 
 similar design. They may heat and cause trouble by igniting the 
 stock, although heating is guarded against, as it has a deleterious 
 effect upon the paint. 
 
 Peanut Roasters. The larger ones are similar to coffee roasters 
 (q. v.). Venders' roasters are small, rotating metal cylinders, gen- 
 erally heated by a gasoline torch. 
 
 Pickers. These, in general, are devices through which the stock 
 passes and is torn up or loosened and straightened out by means 
 of rotating toothed cylinders. They are of various designs, for 
 diverse uses, and found in several classes of risks. The main haz- 
 ard in all is the danger of striking fire on foreign particles and 
 igniting the stock. Other hazards are due to friction at the bear- 
 in-s and the possible escape of light, fluffy material, these hazards 
 varying in seriousness according to the kind of machine and the 
 stock worked. Regular pickers for cotton or easily inflammable 
 goods should vent to fireproof rooms if they are inside. The indi- 
 vidual characteristics and degrees of hazard in pickers are too 
 numerous to mention here. The principal pickers or machines doing 
 picking operations are blowers (hat factories), buhr, cards, devils 
 (hat factories), dusters, excelsior, garnettes, gins, grabot gins, hair, 
 lappers, linters, mixing, openers, rag, waste and willowers. 
 
 Pouncing. An operation in felt and wool hat-making, corre- 
 sponding to napping, in which the hat body is placed on a rotating 
 block and smoothed with sandpaper. Considerable lint arises, clog- 
 ging bearings and filling cracks and corners. Blowers should be 
 provided to remove it. 
 
 Printing Presses. The hazard in connection with these is due to 
 the grease and oil which in time saturate the floor, the steam-pipes, 
 sometimes installed under them to regulate the consistency 6f the 
 ink, the rags and waste used in cleaning, the possible use of benzine 
 in washing forms, type, rollers, etc., and the making of rollers. 
 The floor under all presses, unless brick or cement, should be nretal- 
 clad, and safety waste and benzine cans provided. In newspaper 
 work, where high speed rotary presses are used, to reproduce half- 
 tones a quick drying ink is used, generally thinned with benzole; 
 the vapors liberated make this process very hazardous. Good ven- 
 tilation is necessary and provision must be made to take care of 
 static electricity on the paper. 
 
 Quick-aging. Whiskey is aged principally by tannic acid in the 
 staves of the barrels. It is hastened sometimes by steam, generally 
 from coils around the rooms. There is no special hazard when it 
 is done this way, except that the evaporation is hastened and there 
 is a possible chance for the fumes of evaporation to accumulate 
 and result in' fire on the careless entry of open lights into the room. 
 
94 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 There are methods, however, which may result in the bursting of 
 the barrels, unless extreme care is exercised. They involve the 
 rapid heating of the whiskey, usually by inserting a goose-neck 
 steampipe in the bunghole of the barrel. 
 
 Rolling Mill Rolls. These have a squeezing effect upon the hot 
 metal, causing confined gases to be compressed and explode, and 
 throwing scale and small particles sometimes 100 feet. They should 
 have good clearance to woodwork and corners containing waste, 
 overalls, etc. 
 
 Rubbing. See " Finishing." 
 
 Rubber-Cement. Also guttapercha-cement. Cut with benzine 
 and should be used from safety-pots only. The best of these are 
 similar to pneumatic chicken watering-troughs. 
 
 Screw-cutting. Where " soda water " is used, screw-cutting in- 
 volves no hazard. Oil is frequently pumped over the work or run 
 over it from cans or small tanks, and there arises the so-called 
 " grease-hazard," oil being necessarily scattered on the floor until 
 it becomes saturated. Heavy mineral oils are used for the purpose, 
 and there is no danger of saturated rags igniting spontaneously. 
 
 Setting. In tanneries. Grease is worked into the leather by 
 slickers as it lies stretched upon tables. Excess grease should not 
 be allowed to accumulate. 
 
 Shafting. See " Machinery." 
 
 Shavings Vaults. Shavings vaults or rooms are designed to re- 
 duce hazard and do so, inasmuch as they confine shavings and dust 
 to certain limits, but they involve hazards, perhaps, not suspected 
 at first. Not the least of these is that of explosions which occur 
 in the dust-laden air of partially filled vaults when an open light or 
 flame is introduced in any way. Dust explosions and their causes 
 have been explained elsewhere. The necessary flame or spark can 
 be furnished in various ways from hand torches near the opening, 
 lanterns, coals from a back-draft, electrical mishaps, etc., and shav- 
 ings rooms or vaults should be so arranged as not to damage main 
 buildings if shattered by explosions or destroyed by fire. If inside, 
 they should be absolutely fireproof and should have safety vents 
 to the outside air. It may be well to add that these vents are to 
 relieve the force of an explosion, and may be arranged with flap- 
 checks, so as to remain shut against the mild expansion of gas 
 resulting from ordinary burning inside the vault, so as to smother 
 an ordinary fire. The doors to vaults, bins or rooms should not 
 be in line with a back-draft from the boiler furnaces or too near 
 the latter if to one side, and should be arranged so as to close 
 easily. A wall of the bin, room or vault also should not form a 
 part of the boiler setting, owing to the cracks which are apt to form 
 in the latter, and if the structure adjoins the boiler or engine rooms 
 its walls toward them should be continued through the roof as a 
 parapet. 
 
 Shellacking. Hazard is due to the presence of alcohol which is 
 used to dissolve the shellac. 
 
 Singeing. In bleacheries and cloth works the nap is singed off 
 in some instances by gas flames, the cloth passing rapidly over the 
 
MANUFACTURING HAZARDS 95 
 
 latter. Rooms in which this is done should be cut off, as the in- 
 terior is dried out and any hitch in the feeding apparatus would 
 result in the cloth being ignited. Hats. are singed by flaring gas 
 flames after being pounced, the hazard being that of open gas 
 flames only, as. a rule. The same is true of pigs' feet, ear and 
 snout-singeing in packing houses. 
 
 Smoking. The hazard of smoking is due to careless use of 
 matches and disposition of the discarded remains of a pipe-bowl, 
 cigar or cigarette, as well as to the ignition of inflammable vapors. 
 
 Squeezers. For welding together the molten particles of pud- 
 dled iron. Spark and scale hazard prominent. 
 
 Static Electricity. Reference is made only to such as is gen- 
 erated by belts, moving machinery, rubbing of brushes against 
 stock, etc. Small sparks frequently jump through the air and can 
 ignite inflammable vapors in the air or fine lint and dust. In some 
 cases grounds can be provided to reduce the static charge, but in 
 many cases the development of static electricity is difficult to fore- 
 see and prevent. 
 
 Straw and Hay. Used for feed, bedding, packing, collar-stuf- 
 fing, etc. Hazard due to its ignitability and combustibility. It 
 should riot be strewn about inside of buildings. If its presence be 
 necessary inside buildings it should be stored in metal-lined or tile- 
 walled bins with doors. Sometimes subject to spontaneous com- 
 bustion. 
 
 Transferring. In lithographing establishments the designs are 
 transferred from paper to the stone, turpentine and rags being used 
 in the cleaning operations. Such rags should be kept in standard 
 cans. 
 
 Trimming and Upholstering. These occur in carriage, coffin 
 and furniture factories and similar risks, and the hazard is due to 
 the large amount of tow, excelsior, moss, hair, cocoanut fibre, 
 shucks, cotton, etc., used, as well as the presence of glue-pots and 
 flat-irons occasionally. Bins should be provided for superfluous 
 stock at night and a regular daily sweeping made. Stove heat and 
 oil stoves in the vicinity are dangerous. 
 
 Trip Hammers. Spark and scale hazard. If operated by steam, 
 steam-pipe hazard also. Some trip hammers are raised by friction 
 belts, and a small hazard exists at the belt and pulley. 
 
 Varnishing. Varnish is usually applied with brushes. Cheap 
 work is frequently dipped. There is little hazard in the actual 
 application of varnish with brushes, although it is said that fric- 
 tional electricity is sometimes generated in slapping the brushes 
 around and sparks have ignited the fumes or vapor from the in- 
 gredients in the varnish. The real hazard lies in the use of mate- 
 rials of an inflammable and more or less volatile nature, also subject 
 to spontaneous combustion when spread thin on rags or waste. In 
 fact, the hazard of varnishes is practically the same as that of their 
 constituents, boiled Jinseed-oil and a volatile solvent, except that 
 varnishes containing turpentine and linseed-oil are even more sub- 
 ject to spontaneous heating. 
 
96 ' FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Vulcanizers. Generally steam-heated vessels, chests, cylinders 
 or arms. Hazard that of steam-pipes. Smaller vulcanizers are 
 sometimes gas-heated. 
 
 Zapon. A lacquer cut with amyl-acetate and consequently in- 
 flammable and explosive. Similar lacquers pass under the names 
 lustrine, brassoline, opaline, Egyptian lacquer, etc. 
 
 Xylonite. Practically the same as celluloid (q. v.). Sometimes 
 spelled zylonite. 
 
 .'/*>H bus wr>:ijf- 
 
 
PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT 
 OF HAZARDS 
 
 The Chicago Board of Underwriters recommends the safeguarding 
 of the following hazards in connection with the construction or 
 alteration of buildings for the specific purposes as noted : 
 
 Bake Ovens. The following specifications, with the exception 
 of the first, are for ovens located in combustible buildings. 
 
 Ovens located on the upper floors of fireproof buildings should 
 be supported on special foundations provided in the framing of 
 the buildings. The wooden top flooring (and nailing strips) of the 
 firing floor should be removed for a distance of twelve inches at 
 the sides and back of oven and not less than six feet in front and 
 replaced with concrete placed directly on the floor arches. 
 
 Rotary or revolving ovens are generally built on special founda- 
 tions in the ground, extend up to the second floor of the building 
 and have the firing door (through which fuel is fed) on the first 
 floor. The firing floor (from which fuel-is fed) should have joists, 
 beams, girders and flooring removed for a space of eight feet in 
 front of the ovens and the space filled in with I-beams and tile 
 or brick arches ; it may also be necessary to provide the same sort 
 of clearance at sides and back, depending upon the thickness and 
 condition of the oven walls. The charging door (through which 
 the material to be baked is fed) is usually on the second floor and 
 consists of a long horizontal opening extending nearly across the 
 face of the oven, and about 18 inches high; a metal hood with 
 metal vent pipe communicating to th-3 outside air should be pro- 
 vided to carry off the heated air and gases. The tops of these 
 ovens are usually constructed of brick arches and should be covered 
 with sand or cinders. When the walls of the oven are extended 
 to the ceiling of the room, a dead air space is formed between 
 the tops of the ovens and the ceiling which should be vented 
 this may be accomplished by connecting the space with flues in 
 the wall of the building and placing register openings in the front 
 wall of the oven enclosure to provide for circulation ; or by raising 
 the flooring above the oven, about 24 inches above the main floor 
 line and placing louvres in the bulkhead thus formed, which will 
 allow the hot air to escape into the room; the first method is 
 preferable and safer. 
 
 97 
 
98 FIRE PREVENTION* AND PROTECTION 
 
 The ordinary brick ovens as found 2n small bakeries are generally 
 built on the ground and do not extend through the floor. The 
 clearing to combustible ceilings, partitions, etc., should be not less 
 than 18 to 24 inches and wooden ceilings should be kept well white- 
 washed. The floor in front for a distance of 8 to 10 feet should 
 be incombustible. 
 
 Portable ovens found in the small bakeries are built in skeleton 
 style on 'iron legs and are open underneath, the fire-box and ash 
 pit extending sometimes to within 10 inches of the floor. Although 
 these ovens are fairly safe, it is preferable to place a metal sheet 
 extending underneath and 6 feet in front and 3 feet at sides and 
 back of the fire-box and on this a hyer of 3-inch hard burned hollow 
 tile or 4-inch brick on edge. 
 
 Ovens of the " Middleby " type (which have short legs) should, 
 if located over wooden floors, have a foundation of at least 4-inch 
 hard burned hollow tile with continuous air ducts this is to provide 
 for circulation of air through the tiles. 
 
 Small portable gas heated ovens, used extensively in restaurants, 
 boarding houses, private bakeries, etc., usually have walls made 
 double of metal with a filling or mineral wool. They set close to 
 the floor and should have a foundation varying according to the 
 size of burners used, but at least equal to that specified in the last 
 paragraph. Care should be taken in regard to exposed combustible 
 material. 
 
 Inside chimneys used in connection with bake ovens should have 
 brick walls not less than 8 inches thick, lined with flue tiling; the 
 throat area should be sufficient to prevent undue heating. Outside 
 chimneys (stacks) may be of metal provided , they are self-support- 
 ing and have ample clearance to combustible material. 
 
 Boilers. The term, low-pressure boilers, will be taken under this 
 section as meaning boilers in which the steam pressure does not 
 exceed 15 pounds; high-pressure boilers, those in : which the steam 
 pressure exceeds 15 pounds. 
 
 Combustible ceilings over boilers should have no concealed spaces 
 and should be protected by at least two good coats of whitewash 
 or fire-retardent paint, which will need to be renewed as occasio'n 
 demands, This means that wood or metal sheathing, plastering, 
 etc., should be removed and the ceiling left unfinished so as to be 
 readily accessible for inspection, whatever protection is necessary, 
 aside from the whitewash or paint mentioned above, being placed 
 upon the boiler. 
 
 Clearance, ist Between boiler and fire-proof ceiling (concrete, 
 brick or tile arch, etc.), is not serious enough to be dealt with except 
 in special cases. 26. Between the unprotected arch or breeching 
 
PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT OF HAZARDS 99 
 
 (smoke flue) of a high-pressure boiler and combustible ceiling or 
 material must be not less than 36 inches; may be reduced to 18 
 inches if the arch or breeching is covered with at least 3 inches 
 of asbestos cement, or its equivalent breeching should be covered 
 on sides as well as on top; and may be reduced to 10 inches in 
 one-story boiler houses if the arch or breeching is protected with 
 3 inches of asbestos cement, provided there is ample ventilation 
 over the arch or breeching to the outside air. 3d Between- the 
 unprotected arch or breeching of a low-pressure boiler and com- 
 bustible ceiling or material must not be less than 24 inches; may 
 be reduced to 12 inches if the arch or breeching is protected by 
 3 inches of asbestos cement or its equivalent breeching should be 
 covered on sides as well as on top; and may be reduced to 6 
 inches in one-story boiler houses if the arch or breeching is covered 
 with 3 inches of asbestos cement, provided there is ample ventilation 
 over arch or breeching to the outside air. 
 
 NOTE. Breechings which have been in use for some years may 
 be too weak to carry the amount of asbestos cement called for, 
 in which case some lighter material may be specified as a substitute. 
 
 The dome of a boiler is simply a large steam holder and may 
 be treated as far as concerns clearance, with large steam pipes, 
 except that in case it is located between joists or is otherwise 
 pocketed, it should have at least a 3-inch clearance and be pro- 
 tected with 2 inches of asbestos cement having smooth finish. 
 
 Boilers set over wooden floors should be arranged as follows : On 
 the floor place a sheet iron or steel plate, not, less than 3-16 inch 
 in thickness, extending at least 5 feet in front of: and 2 feet on 
 all other sides of boiler or boilers ; plate to be securely riveted 
 at joints and turned up 5 inches at edges all around; on top of 
 the plate place at least 5 inches of brick set in cement mortar; 
 on top of the brick cover the space directly under the boiler with 
 6-inch hollow fire-tile covered with 3-16 inch steel plate. (See 
 Chimneys, Flues and Stacks.) 
 
 Brass Furnaces Specifications for Mounting. Should pre- 
 ferably be located only in high one-story buildings (ceiling- 12 feet 
 or more above the floor) having plain brick walls and incom- 
 bustible floors. All furring on walls and the underside of roofs 
 for a distance of 5 feet each side of furnaces to be removed. All 
 wooden ceiling joists in immediate vicinity to be thoroughly white- 
 washed. 
 
 If necessary to locate in other than one-story buildings, place 
 the furnaces on the top floor and construct the foundation for 
 same as follows: 
 
 Installation Under Low Ceilings. If the ceiling is less than 
 
lt)b FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTEcxrcnsr 
 
 12 feet ifl height, the wbbderi flbor .foists should be cut away 12 
 inched Widfer each side than the space* requited for the fWftace- 
 well and framed in with 12-inch Steel f-frearris, properly supported ; 
 to this steel framing securely support an iron pan (not less than 
 24 inches deep) maintaining a 36-inch clearance between the fur- 
 naces and the combustible floor of materials. Grating used at the 
 floor line of ari to be made of steel or iron bars. Ceiling over 
 above setting to be removed, the rdof cut away 18 inches each 
 way be'yohd the line of furnaces and the opening thus formed fitted 
 with a metal ventilator. 
 
 Stack. To be constructed of metal or brick ; if of brick, to be 
 riot less than 8 inches thick and lined with fire-tile; if of metal, 
 to be made of not less than No. 12 U. S. gauge steel (must be not 
 less than 3-16 inch thick in the base and extending to a point 
 12 inches above, where the auxiliary flue connects), properly riveted 
 and lined with 4 inches of fire-brick lining to extend Continuously 
 from the furnace tb a 'point at least 24 inches above the roof boards. 
 To have at least a lo-irich clearance to roof boards if a ventilated 
 weather shield is used, otherwise to have at least a 15-inch clearance 
 a separate collar or fender should be provided below the roof 
 boards, arranged to shield the boards in the vicinity of the stack 
 from the radiation of heat and cause the heat to pass up arid around 
 the stack through the ventilated shield above the roof. Metal 
 stacks sho'uld iiever pass through floors. 
 
 Casting Floor. Should be fireproof, but special permission may 
 be given at discretion to 'use a wooden floor if same is covered 
 with 54-inch asbestos which in turn is covered with brick 'laid flat 
 or on edge and embedded in 2 inches of sand. A special platform 
 should be provided for depositing skimmings from the ladle, or 
 on which to place hot ladles. This platform should be of 6-inch 
 hollow tile or its equivalent arid should be 'placed on the above- 
 described casting floor unless such flbor is strictly fireproof. 
 
 Installation Under High Ceilings. T'f the Ceiling is 12 feet 
 or more in height, the furnace may be set above a wooden floor, 
 provided the following foundation is used: 
 
 ist Place a covering of J^-inch asbestos On top of the woode'n 
 floor, covering the entire area of furnaces and exteriding 4 feet 
 in front of arid 3 feet Tyeyorid the sides arid back of sariie. 
 
 2d On 1:6p of the asbestbs place a riie'tal 'pan made of not less 
 than No. 14 U. S. gauge steel with 4-inch upturned edges (all 
 joints tb be securely riveted). 
 
 3d Fill the pan with coriimon brick laid on edge arid slushed 
 with cement mortar. 
 
 4th Support each 'furnace independently by parallel "I-beams 
 
PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT OF HAZARDS 101 
 
 which should be laid on brick and terminate about 6 inches in front 
 of and about 6 inches in rear of the turnace ; bottom of furnace to 
 be not less than 12 inches above the brickwork. 
 
 NOTE. Either 12-inch or superimposed 6-inch I-beams may be 
 used to secure the necessary height. 
 
 Place a plate (see note helovv) of No. 12 U. S. gauge iron or 
 steel 6 inches above the brickwork and covering the entire area 
 between the I-beams; this plate to be supported by flanges riveted 
 to the webs of 1 2-inch I-beams to be. supported on top of 6-inch 
 I-beams and riveted to both upper and lower beams. The space 
 between the plate just mentioned and the brickwork may be left 
 void, or ma}- be filled by a layer oi double air-cell 6-inch hollow 
 fire-tile set in cement mortar and well slushed at sides next to 
 I-beams, or may be filled by a layer of 6-inch steel rails or I-beams ; 
 if hollow tile is used, the channels in the tile must be continuous, 
 parallel with the I-beams supporting the furnace, and be kept open 
 at both ends at all times. Ceiling over above setting to be removed, 
 the roof cut away 18 inches each way beyond the line of furnaces 
 and the opening thus formed filled with a metal ventilator. 
 
 NOTE. The plate mentioned above is for the purpose of pre- 
 venting the space below filling with cinders and, where tile is 
 used, to prevent the tile being broken when the furnace is barred 
 down. Where the box-bottom or air-chamber type of furnace is 
 installed, the height of the chamber may be figured in the 12-inch 
 clearance required above the brick foundation, and the heavy plate 
 under the grate may be omitted. 
 
 The flue or auxiliary chimney leading to the main stack, if near 
 the floor line, must always be mounted on a platform similar to 
 the one just described for the furnace; the sides and top of this 
 flue to be of 8-inch fire-brick and independent of the building walls 
 (unlined metal flues or stacks are unsafe, as they deteriorate 
 rapidly, due to the intense heat resulting from the white hot 
 metallic clust which accumulates in the flue) ; must be constructed 
 so that the air channels in the tile foundation of furnaces will be 
 unobstructed. 
 
 Stack to be of brick or metal, as previously described. 
 
 Installation on an Intermediate Floor. Where it is absolutely 
 necessary to install furnaces in other than top floors or one-story 
 buildings, the following rules apply: 
 
 ist Foundation, casting floor and auxiliary flue to be constructed 
 as already described, according to the height of ceiling. 
 
 2d Stack, if in wall, to be not less than 8 inches thick, lined 
 with fire-tile ; if of iron and preferably run up on outside of wall 
 between window bays with not less than a 3-foot clearance to 
 
102 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 inflammable material and 'extending at least 8 feet above the roof, 
 to be not less than No. 14 U. S. gauge with 2-inch brick lining ; 
 if of iron run through floors, to be not less than No. 12 U. S. 
 gauge lined with 4-inch fire-brick, surrounded by a 6-inch hollow 
 fire-tile stack, extending 4 feet above the roof and 'Open at top and 
 bottom, so arranged as to allow a. 6-inch clearance between the 
 stack and tile ; joists to be headed at floor openings with 6-inch 
 I-beams carrying the tile. 
 
 3d< A hood of sheet metal, not less than No. 20 U. S. gauge 
 at sides, and No. 16 U. S. gauge at top, to be placed over and 
 extending 3 feet, all sides, beyond the line of furnaces; hood to 
 have at least a 24-inch clearance to ceiling and-. to be connected' 
 with a pipe venting outside of building (if possible) to carry off 
 the heat. 
 
 Converter Type Furnaces. Converter type brass furnaces must 
 be installed either in a one-story building or' upon the upper floor 
 of a building more than one story in height. 
 
 Foundation. To be of dirt or other incombustible material for 
 a radius of 15 feet about the f urn ice. Where on top floor, to be 
 constructed as follows: Place a layer of ^4 -inch asbestos, on top 
 of which place sheet metal of not less than No. 14 U. S. gauge; 
 then a layer of 4-inch hollow tile (hard burned or fire-tile pre- 
 ferred) slushed with cement mortar air ducts to be continuous ; 
 on top of the tile place a layer of 2-inch brick laid in cement 
 mortar solid brick instead of hollow tile may be used directly 
 under the supports for furnace. 
 
 Roof over space used for furnace should be removed for an area 
 20 feet square and a metal ventilator installed. 
 
 Casting floor should be similar to that required for other furnaces. 
 
 Fuel oil systems should be installed in accordance with specifi- 
 cations furnished on request. 
 
 Buffing Wheels. Buffing or poli?hing wheels, emery wheels, 
 and all lint, dust and shavings producing machines should always 
 be provided with blowers preferably venting outside of buildings 
 into a metal dust house, tank of water or other non-inflammable 
 receptacle which would prevent the refuse collecting inside or on 
 roof of building or adjacent buildings. When venting into a fur- 
 nace or vault inside of building, an automatic damper should be 
 provided in the discharge pipe. 
 
 Candy Furnaces. Having 4-inch legs should be installed as 
 follows : Place No. 16 U. S. gauge iron on the floor, covering 
 the space necessary for furnaces and extending 4 feet in front 
 of and 2 feet at sides; on top of this place a layer of common 
 brick laid on edge, slushed with cement mortar; directly under 
 
PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT OF HAZARDS 103 
 
 the furnaces place 3-inch hollow tile (hard burned or fire-tile pre- 
 ferred). Furnace legs may rest on brick supports. Chimney for 
 furnaces, if inside the building, should be not less than 8 inches 
 thick and lined with flue tiling, or if outside, to be metal. All 
 walls within 4 feet of furnaces to be of plain brick. If ceiling is 
 less than 14 feet high, a metal hood constructed of not less than 
 No. 16 U. S. gauge steel should be placed over furnace and 
 ventilated to outside of building. 
 
 Iron Stacks. Outside stacks should be built round of galvanized 
 iron (nor less than No. 12 U. S. gauge), properly riveted at all 
 joints and braced about every 10 feet with band or angle iron well 
 fastened to building wall. They should extend at least 10 feet above 
 roofs of buildings and be kept at least 4 inches from the building 
 wall. 
 
 Inside stacks should be discouraged; where found should be very 
 well built and protected. They should be constructed of not less 
 than No. 12 U. S. gauge steel and where extending through roofs 
 and floors should be enclosed in not less than 8 inches of brick 
 or 6 inches of hollow fire-tile, maintaining a 4-inch air space between 
 the stack and enclosure throughout. 
 
 Stove pipes passing through closets, blind attics (and other con- 
 cealed spaces) should be condemned. 
 
 Stove pipes of 6-inch or less diameter passing through floors, 
 partitions, sides of buildings and roofs are dangerous and should 
 be removed. If allowed to remain, they should be protected by 
 double, metal, ventilated thimbles so arranged as to maintain at 
 least a 4-inch clearance between the pipes and combustible material ; 
 thimbles to extend at least 3 inches at both ends beyond the sur- 
 faces protected. 
 
 Stove pipes and smoke pipes from hot-air furnaces, more than 
 6 inches in diameter, should be kept at least 12 inches from com- 
 bustible partitions, walls, etc., and be protected by double, metal 
 thimbles or equivalent. 
 
 Pipes mentioned in the two preceding paragraphs to be kept at 
 least 18 inches below combustible ceilings, or else the ceilings should 
 be protected with l /4 -inch asbestos (covered with metal) or its 
 equivalent. 
 
 Coffee Roasters. Should be located on the top floor in a room 
 having not less than 8-inch brick or 6-inch hollow tile walls with 
 single standard iron doors (not less than No. 14 U. S. gauge) 
 on openings ; ceiling and floor to be brick, concrete, or tile arched, 
 at least 8 inches thick, sprung between iron or steel I-beams; 
 arches to be open finished underneath. Room to have approved 
 skylights or metal ventilators. 
 
IO4 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 If impossible to secure the foregoing specified floor construction, 
 the following may be acceptable : Wooden floor to be protected 
 by a layer of $4 -inch asbestos or equivalent covered with sheet 
 metal, on top of which are placed two courses of 4-inch hollow 
 tile laid at right angles with air spaces continuous and with a top 
 covering of 3-16 inch plate iron or steel. Cooling pans to be metal 
 and provided with metal blow pipes. Chutes and hoppers to floor 
 below should be metal. 
 
 Core Ovens. Brick ovens should have at least a 3-foot clear- 
 ance overhead and a 12-inch clearance at sides to combustible 
 material; metal ovens should have at least a 3-foot clearance 
 overhead and at sides to combustible material. 
 
 Cupolas. Should have ,at least a 36- inch clearance at combustible 
 charging floor and roof and must extend 10 feet above the highest 
 point of any roof within a radius of 40 feet. If the charging floor 
 is less than 8 feet above the dump floor, the former should be of 
 fireproof construction. 
 
 Cyclone Dust Collectors. To vent outside, or to a dust room 
 having outside ventilation. 
 
 Corn Shelters. To have dust pipes attached, venting outside or 
 to boiler, except where a corn cleaner is in use, in which case may 
 vent to the latter. 
 
 Drip Pans* Metal drip pans 'should be placed under all machines 
 using oil to catch oil drippings, metal borings and shavings, etc. 
 The contents of these pans should be removed from the building 
 each night in metal receptacles. 
 
 Furnaces Soft Metal^-These are divided into several classes: 
 Babbitt metal, stereotyping metal, ciectrotyping metal, lead, etc. 
 
 Stereotyping metal, being the hardest grade, requires a hotter 
 fire and -more concentration of heat under the kettle; this causes 
 a deflection of intense heat downward, which must be provided 
 for. A preferable foundation for this class of furnace is to remove 
 all wooden joists, beams and floors, insert steel I-beams with either 
 brick, concrete, or tile arches, and on top of this spread 3 inches 
 ior 4 inches of concrete and cement. 
 
 Electrotype furnaces usually have a large air space in the ash 
 pit and rest on 6-inch legs, the metal pot not requiring tfie depth 
 of stereotyping furnaces. In most cases a plate of No. 10 or No. 
 12 U. S. gauge steel is placed upon the floor, extending in front of 
 and at sides as circumstances may warrant. Small metal furnaces 
 sudh as are used in metal novelty works and gasket factories are 
 usually set on 10 or 12-inch legs with a protection of metal cover- 
 ing the door under and around same; a metal shield midway between 
 the bottom of furnace and floor usually afi'ords ample protection. 
 
PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT OF HAZARDS 105 
 
 Furnaces constructed of an iron pot set in brick require special 
 care in construction, as the pot when filled is quite heavy, requiring 
 walls of brick to be so constructed that they will not break down 
 or open up in the joints. The following usually makes good con- 
 struction: On top of floor place <heet iron (about No. 12 U. S. 
 gauge) ; on top of this place one layer of 4-inch hollow tile laid 
 in cement mortar; on top of the tile in the space directly under 
 the fire-box place a layer of fire-brick on edge, filling balance of 
 space with common brick. Build the furnace enclosure wide enough 
 .to permit of a 3-inch air space between inside and outside walls. 
 Bind walls of furnace by 3x3x^4 -inch angle iron strapped together 
 at top and bottom. Construct support for pot of 5-inch fire-brick 
 laid fat ; this forms the side or enclosure of the fire bed and ash 
 pit; the 4-inch air space surrounds this enclosure. Outside shell 
 to be constructed of not less than 8-irich brick. Top covering is 
 usually an iron plate at least l /2 inch in thickness. A raised wooden 
 platform may be constructed along side of furnace to permit of the 
 dipping out of metal. 
 
 Grain Bleachers Construction.' To be of brick, concrete or 
 other fireproof construction, or, if of cribbed construction, to be 
 protected on the outside by brick, concrete, metal or other incom- 
 bustible material. 
 
 Location. To be set at least 25 feet from the elevator, or from 
 any building adjoining or communicating with elevator, unless 
 communications are protected in a standard manner. 
 
 Spouts. To be connected to the elevator above and below by 
 metal spouts properly cut off by two automatic valves in each spout. 
 
 L'oni'cyors. All conveyors to be metal screw conveyors in metal 
 box; no combustible material to be used between bleacher and 
 elevator. 
 
 Furnace. Sulphur burning furnace to be set at least 25 feet 
 distant from bleacher in the opposite direction from the elevator; 
 to be of fireproof construction ; to be unenclosed, except it be an 
 enclosure of fireproof construction. 
 
 NOTE. When necessary to set furnace closer to bleacher than 
 above specified, it may be done piovided the fume pipe is not less 
 than 25 feet in length. 
 
 Japan or Enameling Ovens. Japan ovens are mostly constructed 
 of metal, except in large plants where special buildings are con- 
 structed for the purpose, in which case they are built of brick 
 usually outside of an opening through iron doors into room where 
 the japan dipping is done. Steam, gas and coal fires are used to 
 heat these ovens. Steam heat is not conducive to rapid or hard 
 drying and is being dispensed with, except in the smaller plants. 
 
io6 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Gas heat is used by placing parallel perforated pipes on metal 
 supports about 4 to 6 inches above the floor, the heated air passing 
 up to the top and down the sides to a ventilator which extends 
 to the outside of the buildings. Coal fires are sometimes built 
 in an open ditch inside of the oven (this applies to brick ovens), 
 and others have a stove recessed into side or set in the room. 
 Owing to the nature of the thinner used in japan and enaiiiel, 
 the vapor thrown off in the process of drying is liable to ignition 
 where an open fire is used. This hazard may be reduced some- 
 what where good ventilation is provided. Foundation under large 
 japan or enameling ovens should be not less than 6-inch hard 
 burned hollow tile with ducts laid continuous, and wooden floor- 
 ing should be covered with metal between front of oven and dip 
 trough to prevent floor being soaked with oil. 
 
 Small lacquering ovens are usually made of metal, have a low 
 temperature and are mostly steam (a few are gas) heated ; these 
 are usually set on legs, but where they are not, it is well to place 
 4-inch hollow fire-tile under same. 
 
 Brick japan or enameling ovens set on any floor above the 
 basement should have foundations of brick or tile arches on steel 
 I-beams, and doors to same should be not less than 'No. 14 U. S. 
 gauge. In plants where a number of metal japan or enameling 
 ovens are used, a fireproof room should be provided on the top 
 floor with thin glass skylights and ventilator; opening to room 
 to be protected by No. 12 U. S. gauge self-closing doors. This 
 latter plan applies to nearly all large plants where a separate 
 building is not feasible. 
 
 Packing Material. To be kept, when loose, in wooden, metal, 
 or tin-lined wooden boxes with automatic or self-closing covers. 
 
 Pickers. In ordinary buildings, pickers for moss, hair, excelsior, 
 etc., should be in a room used exclusively for this purpose and 
 having a window or other outside ventilation. Sides and top of 
 room to be of incombustible material, such as metal lath and 
 plaster on metal framing; or double sheet metal with hollow 
 space of at least I inch ; tile or its equivalent may also be used. 
 Floors to be made of 2-inch tile or cement, or their equivalent, 
 and covered with sheet metal. The only communication from the 
 room to the building to have a good self-closing door equivalent 
 to the construction of the sides of the room ; any openings for stock 
 spouts, etc., to have automatic doors. Automatic sprinklers to be 
 installed, or a live steam jet to be put into the room with valve on 
 outside, or an approved chemical fire extinguisher to be kept just 
 outside of door leading to the room and a small protected hole 
 provided for inserting the nozzle of the extinguisher. 
 
PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT OF HAZARDS 107 
 
 Paint Mills and Printing Presses. To be set on metal-clad 
 or incombustible floor; surroundings to be kept neat. (This also 
 applies to other oil-bearing machines.) 
 
 Pressing Irons and Heaters Protection Under Same Gas 
 Irons (a) Where possible to obtain, especially in shops using 
 more than ten irons, iron tables should be provided. 
 
 (b) If wooden tables are used, protect same with J^-inch sheet 
 asbestos covered with sheet iron (not less than No. 16 U. S. 
 gauge), both extending at least 2 inches beyond all sides of iron 
 stands ; iron stands having not less than 3-inch legs to set on top 
 of sheet metal and to be securely fastened to table, but not to 
 have the legs extended through the sheet metal or asbestos. 
 
 (c) Gas, air blast, pressing irons to be provided with iron stands 
 having legs not less than 3 inches long. 
 
 All gas supplies to pressing irons to be provided with shut-off 
 valve, or valves so arranged as to cut off the entire supply ; valves 
 to be closed every night. 
 
 Gas Plates. If used over wooden tables, should set on 3-inch 
 hollow tile, have at least an 8-inch clearance to combustible material 
 at sides and back and never be located under wooden shelving. 
 
 Electric. (a) Must each have a cut-out and an indicating switch. 
 
 NOTE. It is often desirable to connect in multiple with the heat- 
 ers, an incandescent lamp of low candle power, as it shows at a 
 glance whether or not the switch is open, and tends to prevent its 
 being left closed through oversight. 
 
 (b) The base of iron must be set on iron or other incom- 
 bustible stand in such a manner as to maintain a 3-inch clearance 
 between bottom of iron (when in, place on base) and combustible 
 material beneath. 
 
 Coal or Wood-Heated Busheling Stoves. If used over com- 
 bustible floors, should be set on 4-inch hollow fire-tile on a layer 
 of brick (on edge, well laid in cement ; brick to extend 3 feet in 
 front and 18 inches at sides and back beyond line of stoves). 
 
 Ranges Coal. Coal ranges having 4-inch legs, warming oven 
 below the baking oven and a large ash pan under fire-box, need 
 little attention, except as to surroundings the floor may be pro- 
 tected with a zinc board or sheet zinc extending 14 to 18 inches 
 in front and 4 inches at sides and back. Where the range is set 
 closer than 18 inches to a furred wall, the furring, wooden lath 
 and plaster, etc., should be removed for a distance of 12 inches 
 each side, and 6 feet above top line of range. If stud or wooden 
 partition at back, a wall of 3-inch hollow tile should be constructed 
 between range and partition ; tile ducts to be continuous and open 
 top and bottom; sides, if exposed within 24 inches, to have like 
 
io8 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 protection. Where a coal range is of the 2-fire or 3-fire, etc., type, 
 a foundation of 3-inch or 4-inch hard burned hollow tile should be 
 placed on top of zinc ; ducts to run the short way of range. 
 
 Single coal ranges without warming ovens below, over wooden 
 floors, should be mounted on a foundation of 5-inch hollow tile 
 on metal ; if 2-fire or 3-fire, etc., foundation should be 4-inch brick 
 laid in cement mortar covered with 4-inch hollow tile, brick to 
 extend 4 feet in front of range. . , . 
 
 Gas. Gas stoves may be divided into three classes : 
 
 ist Plate or single-burner. Ordinarily found in tailor shops 
 and under coffee urns, etc. A foundation .of 3-inch hollow tile 
 should be used except where used for heating small irons, when 
 zinc should be placed on top of board foundation and sheet iron 
 plate suspended directly under burner midway between top of stove 
 and table or support ; or further, the table may be cut away directly 
 under the burners. 
 
 2d Ordinary house stove. Sometimes used in small restaurants 
 and usually set on a perforated base or 2-inch legs. This class of 
 stove, if in a dwelling, needs only zinc under it, but if in a restau- 
 rant, it should be protected with & foundation of 3-inch or 4-inch 
 hard burned hollow tile; clearance at sides and back to be the 
 same as for coal stoves. 
 
 3d Gas ranges. This type is usually found in the large restau- 
 rants and hotels. The foundation generally required for this class 
 is : A sheet of metal, preferably not less than No. 16 U. S, gauge, 
 over space for range and extending 4 feet in front and 12 inches 
 at sides of same (edges may or may not be turned up 2 inches to 
 form a pan) ; on top of the metai, a foundation of 4-inch brick laid 
 on edge and pointed up with cement and mortar this brick founda- 
 tion to extend from wall to 4 feet in front and 12 inches at sides 
 of range; on top of brick and directly under range, a foundation 
 of 4-inch hard burned fire-tile; ducts to extend the short way of 
 range. Clearance from partition and combustible material, the same 
 as for coal stoves. 
 
 Rendering Kettles. Fire heated rendering kettles, oil boiling 
 kettles, etc., should set on an hioombusUble floor; if set on legs 
 over a wooden floor, the floor should be protected by at least one 
 layer of brick dished toward the center, well set in cement, covered 
 with 2 inches of cement and extending 3 feet on all sides. 
 
 The safest form of kettle is one set in brick walls, so arranged 
 that in case it boils over the contents cannot reach the fire or 
 flames; such a kettle is fired from the outside. 
 
 A supply of wet burlap bags provides a good means of smother- 
 ing oil or grease fires. Covers provided with long handles should 
 
PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT OF HAZARDS 109 
 
 be kept hanging on the wall nearly, convenient for use in case the 
 kettle catches fire. 
 
 Soldering Iron Heaters. If charcoal or gas pots are used over 
 wood, they should be set on at least 3-inch hollow tile or on sheet 
 metal and asbestos with- a 3-inch hollow space below. 
 
 If electric heaters are used, to be arranged so as to provide 
 protection equally as good as required for electric pressing irons. 
 
 Gasoline plumbers' ^pots should be free from leaks; gasoline to 
 be well cared for. 
 
 Stoves. Ordinary coal or wood heating stoves set on wooden 
 floors, should have sheet metal underneath and extending at least 
 18 inches in front. Protecting metal screens should be used where 
 inflammable material is liable to come in contact with stoves. 
 
 Gasoline stoves to be of approved type. 
 
ELECTRICITY 
 
 With the first introduction of electricity into every-day use for 
 lighting and power, few safeguards were provided and little care 
 taken with the installations. As a result many fires occurred and 
 it became recognized as a distinct hazard and in many cases its 
 use was prohibited in an insurance policy or an increase made in 
 the premium charged. For some years the insurance interest, in 
 connection with manufacturers, contractors and the various elec- 
 trical societies, have drawn up, with revision every two years, a 
 set of rules covering the installation of electric wiring and ap- 
 paratus and the construction of fittings. These rules are known 
 as the National Electrical Code, and are accepted as standard by 
 practically all city electrical bureaus, as well as the underwriters. 
 The code consists of a pamphlet of about 200 pages and is there- 
 fore not printed herein; copies can be obtained by applying to the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters, 76 William Street, New 
 York City. 
 
 For the inspector or the electrician, an intimate knowledge of 
 the code is necessary. For the owner of the building no general 
 rules can be given, except that all repairs, changes and renewals 
 be made by a skilled electrician and every installation looked over 
 by a properly qualified inspector after all changes. 
 
 For the owner or architect, it is recommended that a clause 
 be inserted in any contract " that all electric wiring and fixtures 
 be installed in accordance with the National Electrical Code," and 
 that during and after the installation, a careful inspection be 
 had by an electrical inspector of the municipality or the insurance 
 board having jurisdiction. 
 
 Electrical Fittings. In the foreword of the code, it is stated that 
 the portion of the rules relating to the design and construction of 
 appliances is but a partial outline of requirements. A device 
 which fulfills the conditions ^outlined M and no more, will not neces- 
 sarily be acceptable. All appliances should be submitted to the 
 Underwriters' Laboratories for examination and report before 
 being introduced for use. A list of electrical fittings is issued by 
 the National Board of Fire Underwriters, covering devices and 
 materials which have been examined and are suitable for the use 
 intended. This list is revised semi-annually. 
 
 no 
 
ELECTRICITY 1 1 1 
 
 / 
 
 It is best for an owner or architect to specify that all material 
 and fittings bear the Underwriters' label and that this requirement 
 be religiously lived up to. Much of the material installed several 
 years ago would not to-day pass the approval of the Laboratories, 
 and the natural deterioration of insulation and working parts also 
 makes an old equipment sub-standard. For this reason, where a 
 competent electrician is not employed to keep the system up, a 
 complete reinspection at least every -two years should be obtained 
 from the municipal or the Underwriters' inspector. 
 
 Avoid Short Circuits. In all electric work, conductors, how- 
 ever well insulated, should always be treated as bare, to the end 
 that under no conditions, existing or likely to exist, can a ground 
 or short circuit occur, and so that all leakage from conductor to con- 
 ductor, or between conductor and ground, may be reduced to the 
 minimum. 
 
 In all wiring special attention should be paid to the" mechanical 
 execution of the work. Careful and neat running, connecting, 
 soldering, taping of conductors, and securing and attaching of 
 fittings, are specially conducive to security and efficiency, and are. 
 strongly advised. 
 
 Installations Should be Accessible. In laying out an installa- 
 tion, except for constant current systems, every reasonable effort 
 should be made to secure distribution centers located in easily 
 accessible places, at which points the cutouts and switches' con- 
 trolling the several branch circuits can be grouped for convenience 
 and safety of operation. The load should be divided as evenly as 
 possible among the branches, and all complicated and unnecessary 
 wiring avoided. 
 
 The use of wire-ways for rendering concealed wiring perma- 
 nently accessible is most heartily endorsed and recommended ; and 
 this method of accessible concealed construction is advised for 
 general use. 
 
 Architects are urged, when drawing plans and specifications, to 
 make provision for the channeling and pocketing of buildings for 
 electric light or power wires, and also for telephone, district mes- 
 senger and other signaling system wiring. 
 
 Although not obligatory by the code, it is best to make any- 
 extensive installation entirely in conduit. In many of the codes 
 adopted by municipalities, it is required that all wiring in certain 
 classes of buildings or within the fire limits be entirely in conduit. 
 
'>! : 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR PROTECTION AGAINST 
 LIGHTNING* 
 
 Protection against lightning is usually advisable on country buildings, on 
 isolated buildings, and on all buildings wherever located having elevated 
 features such as tall chimneys, steeples, high peaked or gable roofs and flag 
 poles. 
 
 Since the amount of protection which any building should have will 
 depend upon its location, construction, nature of its occupancy, and the 
 value of the building as compared with the expense necessary to provide 
 the protection, definite rules cannot be laid down for the installation of 
 lightning conductors, but the following general suggestions should, if carried 
 out, give under most conditions, reasonable protection. 
 
 The ordinary condition causing a lightning discharge is a cloud charged 
 with electricity at a greatly different potential from that of the earth. The 
 difference of potential is finally sufficient to " break dtown " the stratum of 
 air between earth and cloud, and an electrical discharge takes place. The 
 resistance of the air stratum being generally less between cloud and tops of 
 buildings and other structures than between cloud and earth, such high 
 points take the discharge, and unless some less resistive path is provided 
 from these points to the ground than the structure to be protected, the 
 lightning will follow the next best course to earth, generally causing damage 
 to the structure and frequently starting a fire. 
 
 It is also of importance to note that the discharge leaves a column of 
 heated air between earth and cloud. This hot air column may be blown 
 in one or another direction and very likely become the path of a second 
 discharge, since it has less resistance than the surrounding cooler air. This 
 may account for lightning striking a structure below the high points. 
 
 It is therefore desirable to so locate the conductors forming the lightning 
 protection that the lightning will strike these and be carried to eart'h instead 
 of tearing through the structure on its way to the ground. Such an arrange- 
 men of conductors suggests an enclosing cage with the bars of course con" 
 siderably separated. The idea of protection is therefore a metallic cage with 
 air terminal projections at the high points of the structure and the whole 
 protecting cage thoroughly grounded. Just what material is employed is 
 not of great importance provided it has good electrical carrying capacity, is 
 strong, can be bent and jointed readily, and is not liable to be seriously 
 affected by corrosion. Undoubtedly copper in tape form or ordinary gal- 
 vanized iron pipe best meets these conditions. 
 
 Just how far apart the conductors should be will depend very considerably 
 upon conditions, and no general rule can be given for the number of square 
 feet of ground area protected by one rod which will safely cover ;>11 .cases. 
 Since in addition to the high points the most exposed parts of a structure 
 are the outposts and projections, extra protection is needed here, while a 
 much wider spacing of rods might be sufficient along the sides of the structure. 
 
 In general, all-metal buildings, metal chimneys or stacks, need only to 
 be grounded. 
 
 * Issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, 1913. 
 
 112 
 
SUGGESTIONS FOR PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING 113 
 
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS APPLYING TO ALL 
 STRUCTURES 
 
 NOTE. Either copper or iron is satisfactory for conductors. One advan- 
 tage of iron over copper is its higher fusing point, but iron should not be 
 used in locations difficult of access where corrosion is likely or possible, 
 owing to the necessity of frequent painting to guard against such corrosion. 
 
 a. CONDUCTORS. -i. Conductors when made of copper to be sbft-drawn in 
 the form of either tape or stranded cable. Except as noted below, the conductor 
 in each case to weigh not less than six ounces per foot. Where cable 
 form is used, no single copper wire to be less than No. 12 B. & S. gauge, 
 while if tape form the thickness to be not less than 3/32 inch. 
 
 With copper conductors having a total weight of six ounces per foot, 
 and the above dimensions, the cable will contain 19 No. 12 wires and the 
 tape will be one inch wide by 3/32 ioch thick. 
 
 When used on residences, barns, stables, stores and similar buildings where 
 the maximum height of any point does not exceed 60 feet, and where corrosion 
 is not liable to occur to any extent, copper cable to weigh not less than 
 three ounces per foot, no single wire being less than .046 diameter. 
 
 2. Conductors when made of iron to be in the form of either heavy tape 
 or pipe. The tape conductor to weig-h not less than i ^4 pounds per foot 
 and to be not less than 3/32 inch thick. If pipe is used the standard weight 
 of %-inch pipe would be satisfactory. Iron used in any form should be 
 thoroughly galvanized to prevent corrosion, and may also be painted if 
 desired. 
 
 Heavy tape is specified to guard against the use of a thin sheet which 
 would be more easily destroyed by corrosion. Pipe is specified as an alterna- 
 tive for the tape as it is cheaper, is readily .obtainable, and can be easily 
 installed using the ordinary pipe fittings. The fittings should, of course, be 
 galvanized as well as the pipe, and all pipe ends and unused outlets on fittings 
 should be tightly plugged in order to prevent the entrance of moisture inside 
 the pipes. 
 
 3. Conductors to have as few joints as possible, these to be mechanically 
 and electrically secured and to be protected from corrosion. 
 
 It is essential that the conductors be continuous and, therefore, the fewer 
 the joints and the better these are protected from corrosion, the less chance 
 of crippling the protection due to a break in the conductors. 
 
 4. Conductors never to be insulated but to be fastened securely in place, 
 suitable allowance being made for expansion, by clamps of same material as 
 conductor, the vertical rods being carried a sufficient distance from the wall 
 to avoid sharp bends around projecting masonry or brick work. In all 
 cases as straight a run as possible should be provided and the conductors 
 should incline downward. The conductors should never be run through 
 iron pipes. 
 
 Sharp bends and loops in an upward direction are liable to cause the light- 
 ning discharge to leave the conductors at these points, and as these side 
 flashes may be dangerous, care should be taken that the conductors should 
 run as straight as possible. Since the effect of the lightning discharge in 
 the conductors is practically the same as that produced by an alternating 
 current, it is obvious that the conductors should not be run through iron 
 pipes which would tend to choke back the discharge due to induction in 
 the pipe. 
 
 5. Conductors to be run as far as practicable from interior piping. 
 
 If the conductors' are run too near the interior pipe system, there is a 
 chance that the discharge may jump from the conductors to the pipe, and 
 in doing so, start a fire. The best way to avoid this is evidently to keep 
 the two systems as far apart as practicable. 
 
 b. AIR TERMINALS. To be solid, not less than %-inch in diameter except 
 on residences, barns, stables, stores and similar buildings where they may 
 be of tubing not less than %-inch in diameter with wall thickness not less 
 than .031 inch. Terminals to extend not less than 18 inches above tbe 
 point protected. 
 
H4 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 The distance of 18 -inches specified is the minimum for smaller buildings. 
 On larger buildings it is desirable to have the rods longer. 
 
 c. CONNECTIONS TO METAL WORK OF STRUCTURES. i. All exterior metal 
 work, such as metal roofs, gutters, ventilators, railings, chimney hoods, etc., 
 to be connected with the lightning rod system below the line of the metal 
 work itself or to be separately grounded by regular conductors. 
 
 Unless all such metal work is well grounded the discharge is liable to 
 jump from this part to other conducting parts and possibly set fire to inter- 
 vening combustible material. 
 
 2. All interior masses of metal such as girders, beams, water piping and 
 any structural iron or steel, though under no consideration gas piping, to 
 be securely connected to the system at their highest and lowest points, the 
 connecting bonds being the regular conductor. 
 
 This suggestion is made for the same reasons as that regarding ekterior 
 metal work. (See Section c-g preceding.) 
 
 The electrical resistance of pipe joints may occasionally be sufficient to 
 permit a high voltage current melting the pipe at that point, which would 
 be especially dangerous in case of gas pipes, for the arc would probably 
 at the same time ignite the escaping gas. The same result might be obtained 
 by arcing between the gas pipe and other conductors which might be carrying 
 a lightning discharge. It is therefore best not to connect gas piping to the 
 lightning rod system, as this might be the means of leading the discharge 
 on to these pipes where otherwise they might not be affected. 
 
 It, however, would be advisable to securely bond around the gas meter 
 the iron pipe on both sides of the meter, being careful to make secure elec- 
 trical connections between the pipe and the bond. 
 
 NOTE. A permanent and reliable ground is absolutely essential, and by 
 far the best ground can usually be secured by connection to underground 
 metallic water piping. When this is impracticable, ground plates, driven 
 pipes, or the equivalent are recommended. 
 
 d. GROUNDING. i. Connection to piping to be made preferably by .soldering 
 the conductor into a brass plug and forcibly screwing the plug into the pipe 
 fitting, or, when the pipes are cast iron, into a hole tapped into the pipe 
 itself; or, by sweating the conductor into a lug attached to an approved 
 clamp and firmly bolting the clamp to the pipe after the rust and Scales 
 have been removed. 
 
 In the case of a farm building having a well outside and a pump suction 
 pipe running to the building, a reasonably good ground may be obtained by 
 connecting the conductor to the pipe, provided the pipe at some point is in 
 earth below permanent moisture level. 
 
 The idea is to get as good and permanent connection to the underground 
 piping as possible, and one that will best withstand the effects of corrosion. 
 It is desirable to connect to two or more lengths of pipe in order to guard 
 against crippling the protection by injury to or deterioration of a single 
 connection. 
 
 2. Connection to ground plates to be made by riveting and soldering, and 
 the connection to be thoroughly protected against corrosion by painting. The 
 ground plates to be of copper and not less than No. 16 Stubb gage about 
 3 feet square and buried below the permanent moisture level with about 
 two feet of crushed coke or charcoal above and below it. 
 
 A heavy iron casting having a superficial area of at least 12 square feet 
 could be used in place of the plate. The conductor should be connected to 
 the casting by riveting and soldering, and the casting buried the same as 
 the ground plate above described. 
 
 3. Connection to driven pipe to be made by soldering the conductor into 
 a brass plug and forcibly screwing the plyg into a coupling on the upper 
 end of the pipe. The lower end of the pipe to be well below permanent 
 moisture level. 
 
 A ground plate or a driven pipe properly put into the ground is un- 
 doubtedly the most satisfactory alternative for the underground water pipe 
 system, but is not advised where the pipe system ground is available. 
 
SUGGESTIONS FOR PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING 115 
 
 TALL CHIMNEYS, STACKS, STEEPLES AND SIMILAR 
 STRUCTURES 
 
 a. Two or more main lightning rods equally spaced about the structure 
 to be provided, extending from the top by the most direct course to the 
 ground. 
 
 The proper number of rods in any given case will vary somewhat with 
 the conditions. For example, a flag pole would not require more than one 
 rod, while chimneys 150 feet -or more high should have one rod for each 
 50 feet of height. The higher the chimney the greater the cross sectional 
 area at any given distance from the ground, and the additional rods are 
 desired in order not to expose too great an unprotected vertical area to a 
 discharge. 
 
 b. To have a band of copper or iron not smaller than the lightning rods 
 around the top with air terminals securely attached thereto extending 3 
 feet above the highest point. The air terminals to be placed at intervals 
 not exceeding 4 to 6 feet around the circumference of the band. 
 
 c Additional bands to be provided around the structure at or near the 
 ground line and at intervals of 25 to 50 feet, all such bands being securely 
 connected to the lightning rods. 
 
 In the same way that additional vertical rods reduce the size of the un- 
 protected vertical areas, these additional bands limit these areas horizontally. 
 The bands also serve to connect the rods together at frequent intervals, so 
 that an accidental break in one rod is not liable to be as serious as might 
 otherwise be the case. In other words, the vertical rods are thus made to 
 connect in combination rather than separately. 
 
 STRUCTURES OTHER THAN CHIMNEYS, STEEPLES 
 
 ETC. 
 
 a. Two or more lightning rods should be provided extending from the 
 top by the most direct course to the ground, so spaced that they will not 
 be over 50 to 75 feet apart. 
 
 The proper number of rods and their exact spacing will depend very 
 largely upon the conditions, such as shape of structure, the exposure with 
 reference to both severity of lightning storms and direction .from which 
 these storms usually come. In general the most exposed parts of a structure 
 are the outposts and projections, and here it would be advisable to place the 
 rods somewhat nearer together than along the sides of the structure. In 
 general it would "hot be advisable to carry the rods through the center of a 
 structure, for if for any reason it becomes broken it would be the direct 
 means of carrying the lightning to a point inside the structure where it 
 would be almost sure to set fire. 
 
 b. Horizontal conductors to be provided connecting the vertical rods along 
 the ridge or any suitable position on the roof and at or near the ground. 
 
 The horizontal bonding of the vertical conductors is desirable for much 
 the same reasons as given for the horizontal bands arounds chimneys, and 
 these horizontal conductor* serve to tie the system together, thus carrying 
 out the idea of a protecting cage. It is considered important that at least 
 the upper and lower ends of the vertical rods be thus connected, and in 
 general intermediate bonding would not be necessary except possibly for very 
 high structures. 
 
 c. The upper horizontal conductor should be provided with air terminals 
 at intervals of 20 to. 30 feet, and in addition, air terminals connected with 
 the horizontal conductor to be provided for gables or other projections above 
 the top of the main structure. Air terminals should in all cases extend 
 well above roofs or chimneys and be firmly secured in an upright position. 
 
 Air terminals assist in diverting the lightning discharge to the lightning 
 rod system, and therefore it is an advantage to have them placed; at fairly 
 frequent intervals. 
 
 d. Where trees stand so close to a building "that branches overhang or 
 approach very close to the roof, a conductor with proper earth terminal 
 
Ji6 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 tt) extend along the trunk of each of several such trees to the highest branch 
 top fastened by a band around the branch or trunk, would probably give all 
 necessary protection under average conditions. It, however, would be ad- 
 visable to connect these rods together at the bottom by a substantial con- 
 ductor laid under ground. 
 
 Care should be taken to protect as far as possible this underground bond 
 connection against corrosion. Probably well-galvanized %-inch iron pipe, or 
 copper in tape form, would best serve the purpose. 
 
 The above method might be used for the protection of tre.es wherever 
 located. 
 
PYROXYLIN PLASTICS OR NITRO 
 CELLULOSE 
 
 What is Nitro-Ccllulose? To the public the name celluloid is 
 generally thought to include all pyroxylin plastics and even in official 
 publications of the British Government, the general term of celluloid 
 is used; this however is a trade name of the product of a single 
 firm and for this reason it will not be used in this book. 
 
 Commercial pyroxylin plastic consists essentially of gelatinised 
 nitro-cellulose and camphor in proportions usually varying from 
 70 to 75 per cent of the former and 30 to 25 per cent of the latter. 
 The proportion of nitro-cellulose in motion picture films ranges 
 from 80 to 90 per cent. In addition to the essential constituents 
 there are frequently coloring or mineral matters. 
 
 Its Properties. The plastic possesses properties which render it 
 suitable for a great variety of purposes. It is hard, tough, and 
 elastic, and under the influence of heat it is capable of being 
 moulded into shapes which it retains on cooling. It is unaffected 
 by water. It can be prepared in thin transparent .sheets, and by 
 the addition of suitable coloring matters can be made of the most 
 varied tints. It can also be used in solution with alcohol and ether 
 as an adhesive lacquer or varnish, when a very durable protective 
 coating is obtained. 
 
 Inflammability. It possesses however the serious defect of being 
 highly inflammable, will ignite very readily, and burns with great 
 rapidity and fierceness. Moreover, in certain circumstances it may 
 ignite without the direct application of flame. The ignition of a 
 film in a motion picture machine is a familiar occurrence, and 
 cases have been recorded of the ignition of articles in shop win- 
 dows by the accidental focussing of the sun's rays upon them. 
 As other examples of the effect of radiant heat, mention may be 
 made of cases in which contact with electric light bulbs and steam 
 radiators has caused ignition. 
 
 If submitted to a moderately elevated temperature for a consid- 
 erable time it suddenly decomposes with the evolution of con- 
 siderable heat and the emission of large volumes of carbon 
 monoxide and nitric oxide, both of which are highly poisonous, 
 and of gaseous decomposition products of camphor and a small 
 proportion of other gases, including hydrocyanic acid (prussic 
 acid). The fumes are very inflammable and, when mixed with a 
 
 117 
 
n8 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 suitable quantity of air, are highly explosive. The quantity of 
 hydrocyanic acid in the fumes is small, and cannot be regarded 
 as a serious danger. With inferior plastics in certain circum- 
 stances this 'decomposition will take place at, or even below the 
 temperature of boiling water (2121 F.), and comparatively few 
 grades can withstand a temperature of 300 F. At this tempera- 
 ture ordinary inflammable substances are generally unaffected. 
 Although there is a considerable difference in the stability to heat 
 in different makes or brands, in practice this is not sufficient to 
 justify a 'distinction being drawn between them. 
 
 Dangerous Qualities. One of the peculiar dangers of pyroxylin 
 plastic is that, in itself, it contains sufficient oxygen to support 
 its own combustion, and once ignited will continue to burn in the 
 absence of air, although without flame. For this reason a fire 
 cannot be extinguished by excluding air in the same manner as 
 an ordinary fire. Chemical fire extinguishers, therefore, which 
 depend on a blanketing by gas, are of little use; although they 
 may extinguish the flame they will not stop the combustion. Hav- 
 ing regard to the fact that two of the three conditions necessary 
 for combustion are actually present, it follows that the only way 
 to extinguish burning plastic is to eliminate the third essential 
 condition by reducing the temperature below that at which com- 
 bustion can be maintained. The simplest and only really practical 
 means of doing this is by the application of water, and therefore 
 all places in which pyroxylin plastic is handled or stored, a com- 
 plete automatic sprinkler system is very necessary. It is' true 
 that, under certain conditions, it will burn under water for a 
 short time, but the temperature is speedily reduced by the water 
 below that which is necessary for the maintenance of combustion. 
 If sand is used, although the flame may be temporarily extinguished, 
 the plastic will continue decomposing and emitting gases which 
 will ignite on contact with flame. 
 
 Extinction of Fire Difficult. Should a substantial quantity get 
 alight, the extinction of the fire may become a matter of extreme 
 difficulty, and even sprinklers may fail to save the building. In 
 tests made in New York, 50 pounds of pyroxylin plastic resulted 
 in flames of intense heat 12 to 15 feet in extent. A fire in which 
 a large quantity is involved is of a specially dangerous character 
 owing to the density and poisonous nature of the fumes, which 
 render it difficult for the firemen to approach the seat of the fire. 
 The rapidity with which the fife spreads renders its isolation 1 an 
 exceptionally arduous task. When well alight, great jets of flame 
 are shot out, and the risk to adjacent buildings, even if they are 
 not actually adjoining, is thus greater than with an ordinary fire. 
 
PYROXYLIN PLASTICS OR NITRO CELLULOSE 119 
 
 The opinion sometimes expressed that pyroxylin plastic is liable 
 to spontaneous ignition at ordinary temperatures appear erroneous 
 nor is it explosive in ordinary circumstance. There has been how- 
 ever, explosions of the gases evolved from decomposition, and, as 
 is the case of many other substances, the dust is liable to cause 
 explosion. 
 
 Safer Substitutes. Various attempts have been made to neu- 
 tralize the inflammability of this plastic, but so far as can be ascer- 
 tained it has not been found possible to reduce the inflammability 
 to any great extent without sacrificing some of the properties on 
 which its commercial value depends. Greater success has attended 
 the efforts to find a total substitute, several of which are on the 
 market. The Underwriters' Laboratories have recently approved 
 three makes of motion picture film, all of which are acetate cellu- 
 lose compounds ; these by test were shown to have a less fire hazard 
 than paper or pasteboard of equal thickness. 
 
 The articles most likely to cause accident are those worn on 
 the person, such as combs, hairpins, cuffs, and collars; and it 
 would appear from the list of accidents of which there are records, 
 that the majority of the serious accidents which have Occurred 
 have been due to the ignition of articles of this description. In 
 general they should not be sold without some clear indication of 
 their nature being given, by distinctly marking or labeling the 
 articles with the words " danger, inflammable." 
 
 Storage. Accidents in stores, both wholesale and retail, have 
 been very rare, and the danger of a fire arising owing to the 
 presence of such articles is remote, if ordinary precautions are 
 observed. The bulk of the articles are* necessarily kept in packages, 
 and the main stock is kept in the drawers or shelves of the shop 
 or in a stock room. However, any large storage of pyroxylin 
 plastic is a very distinct hazard, because of the intense heat, rapid 
 combustion and difficulty in extinguishing. 
 
 Danger in Factories. In factories the greatest danger is due 
 to the creation of waste and the large amount usually out on 
 tables, etc., waiting to be worked on. Waste should not be allowed 
 to accumulate on the floor, but should be collected from time to 
 time (if possible as it is created) in suitable waste cans, kept 
 partly filled with water. (For description, see page 224.) At the 
 end of the day it should be removed from the workrooms and 
 placed in metal boxes provided with lids and marked " Dangerous." 
 It should not be stored in sacks. Owing to the fact that a com- 
 mercial value now attaches to waste, greater care is taken for its 
 safe preservation than was formerly the case. 
 
 Saws .should run in water and all machines which produce a 
 
I2O 'FiRE PREVENTION ANI> PROTECTION 
 
 should be provided with suction collecting systems, discharg- 
 ing into water. 
 
 The amount in tfee ^workrooms should be Hmited as far as pos- 
 sible, and should in no case exceed one day's requirements. 
 
 AH stock, either raw or in process of manufacture, should be 
 kept in small self-closing cans, preferably of a material rather tow 
 in conductivity, such as mlolded asbestos board, holding not over 25 
 pounds, and finished goods should be removed with all due diligence. 
 
 The great inflammaibility of pyroxylin plastic requires extra 
 safeguards where it is present in considerable quantity. In the 
 fires that have occurred where it is being worked, usually some 
 one is seriously burned even if adequate exit facilities are pro- 
 vided, To prevent the spread of fire from one work bench or 
 machine to another each should be set off by an incombustible 
 screen or partition extending about 2 feet on all sides. 
 
 The work people should be instructed as to the steps to be taken 
 in case of fire. 
 
 Stnoking and Lights Dangerous. Smoking and the introduction 
 of matches into the workrooms should be prohibited. 
 
 Open lights and 1 fires are a source of danger, and the require- 
 ment that all lighting be from incandescent electric fights should 
 be strictly adhered to. It is inadvisable to allow plastic to 
 remain in contact with sources of heat. The use of sealing wax 
 and soldering should be avoided as far as possible; if such opera- 
 tions are necessary, they should be performed witji all the precau- 
 tions possible to prevent conrtact with heated tools or direct flame. 
 
 There should be adequate means of escape, not only from the 
 room, but from each working place ; gangways, passages and stair- 
 cases should be of sufficient breadth and be kept free from obstruc- 
 tion ; doors should open outwards. 
 
 Safeguards. In general the storage and handling should be in 
 one story buildings, and extensive storage should be prohibited 
 inside a building. Where possible only small vaults or special 
 buildings should be used for storage and these should be well away 
 from- other buildings or adjacent to blank wall's. Substantial roof 
 houses are well adapted for storage, as eliminating the exposure 
 hazard. 
 
 Very extensive vent openings are necessary to prevent excessive 
 pressure inside the place of stora.ge in case pyroxylin plastic is 
 ignited or decomposes, and such vents must be so arranged a's 
 not to expose other property. 
 
 In general storage should follow the regulations covering Nitro- 
 Cellulose Motion Picture Films issued by the National Board of 
 Fire Underwriters, which are as follows: , ni 
 
PYROXYLIN PLASTICS OR NITRO CELLULOSE 121 
 
 STORAGE OF PYROXYLIN PLASTIC OR NITRO- 
 CELLULOSE PICTURE FILMS* 
 
 N'itro-cellulose motion picture films should preferably be stored in a 
 separate building or vault, not exposing other property or occupancy; if a 
 limited quantity is permitted in a building with other occupancy, or in an 
 exposed building, it must be in standard fireproof vauks, safes or cabinets. 
 
 1. FILM REELS. Each reel of film shall be kpt in a separate metal box 
 with tight-fitting cover, except when in use. 
 
 XOTE. A reel ordinarily contains 1,000 feet of film i 11/32 inches wide, 
 and weighs about 5 pounds; diameter of reel is approximately 10 inches. 
 
 2. VAULTS. Where the maximum degree of protection for valuable films 
 is the primary consideration, vaults shall be constructed according to re- 
 quirements for Class "A" vaults. This type of vault involves massive 
 construction designed to resist long continued fire, impact of falling bodies, 
 and attack by burglars (in so far as this feature can properly he incor- 
 porated in these specifications). 
 
 \Yhere the primary consideration is to minimize the fire hazard in a 
 building incident to the films therein, vaults shall be constructed in accord- 
 ance with the requirements for Class "A," " B " of " C " vaults. 
 . See specifications for vaults, page 458. 
 
 Xo one vault or compartment shall exceed in size 750 cubic feet. 
 
 To prevent abnormally high temperature within thte vault, glass windows 
 and skylights should be avoided; likewise proximity to boiler stacks and 
 similar sources of heat. 
 
 Automatic sprinklers should be installed inside each vault. 
 
 Vaults not exceeding the size and capacity specified below for safes and 
 cabinets will be considered satisfactory if of equivalent strength and insula- 
 tion to that required for safes and cabinets. 
 
 Editor's Note. In a test made of a vault holding approximately 
 a ton of film, a temperature over 1000 F. was obtained. Although 
 nearly all the films were in the usual metal containers, the entire 
 contents of the vault burned in less than 3 minutes. Flames extended 
 through the vent opening provided for a distance of about 75 
 feet. From this and from actual fires it is evident that such fires 
 are of great fierceness and require a good class of construction. 
 The time interval before the contents are destroyed is so short 
 that except for perfect tightness, to prevent the escape of gas, 
 there is little need for especially strong or thick vaults. The low 
 point of decomposition, about 300 F., requires a good form of 
 container to prevent ignition from an outside fire, especially if 
 settlement of the floors or a stream of water playing on the vault 
 may result in cracked walls. Because of these conditions, it is 
 evident that a lighter form of vault would be satisfactory where 
 the vault was not exposed ; for yard vaults or vaults on roofs of 
 fireproof buildings, the latter of which should be a very acceptable 
 location in city plants, there does not appear to be any reason why 
 a 6-inch tile or 4-inch concrete wall is not satisfactory. 
 
 3. SAFES. Size not to exceed 150 cubic feet. Safes shall have an angle 
 iron frame at least % x % x 2 inches and continuous at all edges. On 
 safes larger than 40 inches high, 30 inches wide, and 30 inches deep, an 
 additional stiffening of heavy steel at least Vt-inch thick, and of width pro- 
 portioned to size, but never less than 2 inches, shall be used at top, bottom 
 and sides. Sheet steel plates shall be not less than No. 12 U. S. gauge 
 
 * As adopted by the Notional Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
122 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 for the outer shell and not less than No. 14 for the inner shell. Filling 
 to be of cement concrete or its .equivalent not less than 5^ inches thick, 
 except that the doors may have at least 4 inches of concrete with a sealed 
 air space for the lock and bolts. Door shall have stepped sides so as to be 
 smokeproof. No cast iron to be used in the construction of the' safe, except 
 such 'parts as casters, hinges and flanged door frames. Other containers 
 of no mere than 150 cubic feet capacity and approved as the equivalent 
 of above described safes may be accepted in lieu thereof. 
 
 4. CABINETS. Two hundred reels of film weighing not more than one 
 thousand pounds in the aggregate may be stored in cabinets, but no one 
 cabinet shall contain more than 50 reels (250 pounds). When two or more 
 cabinets are used they shall be in a separate room with outside ventilation 
 and enclosed by fireproof partitions with fire doors of the vertical shaft 
 type at communications. There shall be at least 10 feet clear space between 
 cabinets unless an incombustible shield is provided at each side of each 
 cabinet extending 2 feet beyond cabinet in all directions, in which case 
 the distance between cabinets may be only 4 feet. 
 
 Cabinets shall be tightly enclosed and may be made of suitably stiffened 
 sheet iron at least No. 18 U. S. gauge in thickness, double walled with 
 1^2 inch of air space; doors shall be constructed equivalent to walls of the 
 cabinet, shall be self-closing, fit closely and be kept locked. 
 
 Other containers having a capacity not exceeding 50 reels of film each and 
 approved as the equivalent of the cabinets may be accepted in lieu thereof. 
 
 5. PRESSURE RELIEF FOR VAULTS, SAFES AND CABINETS. Each container for 
 film storage shall be provided with a pressure relief vent opening to the 
 outside of the building, directly through an exterior wall, or through a 
 separate stack with walls of reinforced concrete or brick at least 5 inches 
 thick and shielded at top. The effective sectional area of the opening shall 
 be at least 70 square inches for each 100 reels (500 pounds) of film capacity. 
 The capacity of vaults shall be rated at three reels per foot of cubical con- 
 tents; the capacity of safes and cabinets, or small vaults without aisle space, 
 shall be rated at six reels per foot of cubical contents. Reels shall not 
 be placed near enough to vent opening to reduce its effective area. A 
 permanent guard shall be installed to prevent films from being forced 
 against the vent openings of small containers. In fireproof buildings hori- 
 zontal ducts may be permitted to connect the relief openings in vault 
 separately to the outside of the building, provided the walls are made of 
 solid masonry at least 5' inches thick and securely supported. A riveted 
 sheet metal pipe of at least No. 18 U. S. gage in thickness may be per- 
 mitted to separately connect the vent opening of each cabinet to the outside 
 of the building, provided the pipe is covered with at least i inch of 
 approved heat insulating material. Such pipes shall not be nearer than 9 
 inches to combustible material. 
 
 Each pressure relief vent shall be protected against the weather by thin 
 glass (i/i6-inch thick) painted a dark color or by other incombustible fragile 
 material in a sash arranged to open automatically in case of fire by the 
 use of a fusible link or thermostat placed inside the film container. The 
 effective sectional area of the vent opening shall correspond with the actual 
 area of the glass. No pane of glass to be smaller than 200 square inches. 
 Muntins to be constructed as lightly as possible so as to break readily. 
 
 A light wire screen, not coarser than %-inch mesh, shall also be placed 
 over each vent at a point between the glass sash and the container, so 
 arranged as not to interfere with the automatic operation of the sash. 
 
 The outlet of each vent shall be located at a point above the roof. Ex- 
 ception will be made only where a different location of the outlet will not 
 
PYROXYLIN PLASTICS OR NITRO CELLULOSE 123 
 
 expose other property in the same or adjacent buildings, and then only by 
 special permission of the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 6. VENTILATION OF VAULTS. There should be no ventilation of vaults other 
 than a pressure relief opening, discharging directly to the outside of the 
 building. Blower systems circulating air in the vault are objectionable, even 
 after every reasonable safeguard has been provided. 
 
 Artificial ventilation of vaults is sometimes desired in factories handling 
 new material as in motion picture film printing establishments. In such 
 cases the additional fire hazard in connection with the ventilation may be 
 somewhat reduced if the intake and discharge openings in the vault connect 
 directly to the outside of the building through wall or a flue with masonry 
 walls at least 4 inches thick. The outlet and intake openings shall not 
 expose or be exposed by other property. Only suction blowers drawing 
 air away from vault shall be used. 
 
 HANDLING OF PYROXYLIN PLASTIC OR NITRO- 
 CELLULOSE MOTION PICTURE FILMS* 
 
 1. PRINTING, DEVELOPING, EXAMINING, REPAIRING AND EXCHANGE ROOMS. 
 (a) Shall have outside ventilation and be separated from each other and 
 the balance of the building by tight partitions of fire-resistive material, with 
 fire doors of the corridor type at communications, partitions and transoms. 
 Doors' should contain no glass other than wired glass. 
 
 (b) Such rooms to be used neither for storage nor handling of com- 
 bustible materials, other than the films. The furnishings should be of fire- 
 resistive material. 
 
 (c) The number of reels of films not in special rooms exposed in a single 
 room at any one time shall be limited to 20. 
 
 2. SCRAP AND WASTE. All scrap or waste shall be kept under water, in self- 
 closing standard metal waste cans or their equivalent, and removed from 
 the building at least once each day to a safe location; such waste to be 
 kept separate from paper waste or other rubbish. 
 
 3. CEMENT. Any compound of collodion and amyl acetate or similarly 
 inflammable cements inside the building shall be limited to one gallon, not 
 exceeding the quantity required each day. 
 
 4. MOTION PICTURE MACHINES AND BOOTHS. Shall be safeguarded in 
 accordance with the requirements of the National Electrical Code. The booth 
 may be omitted if the machines are in a separate room inclosed by incom- 
 bustible partitions with fire doors of the corridor type at communications. 
 
 5. POWER. Electric motors, if used, should preferably be of the induction 
 type without commutators, or if of the Direct Current type to have enclosed 
 commutators. All switches, rheostats, or other current-controlling devices 
 must be enclosed in approved dust-proof and fireproof cabinets. 
 
 6. LIGHTING. Shall be by incandescent electric lights only; lamps, if 
 subject to mechanical injury, to be protected by approved wire guards. 
 Entire installation shall be in accordance with the requirements of the 
 National Electrical Code. 
 
 7. HEATING. Only hot air, hot water or steam heat shall be used. The 
 heating pipes should be preferably overhead attached to the ceiling. Steam 
 and hot water pipes or radiators, if on side 'walls, shall be safeguarded by 
 the use of sheet metal or heavy galvanized wire netting with not over 
 Vt-inch mesh held firmly in place at least one inch from pipes; or by 
 covering space between back of benches and walls with heavy galvanized 
 
 * As adopted by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
124 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 wire netting, with not Over ^4-inch mesh, securely stapled to bench and 
 wall, but sloping so that it may not be used as a shelf. No hot air nor 
 other floor registers shall be used, nor shall any register be less than 6 
 inches above the floor. 
 
 8. SMOKING AND CARRYING OF MATCHES. Shall: be strictly prohibited. 
 
 9. PROTECTION. All buildings in which there is a total of more than 50 
 reels of films (250 pounds), shall be equipped with an approved >ystem of 
 automatic sprinklers. Each room shall be equipped with at least one 
 approved hand fire extinguisher. At least one pail of water and one pail 
 of sand shall be provided for each vault, safe or cabinet in use. 
 
 MOTION PICTURE MACHINES AND THEATRES 
 
 To regulate the installation, operation and maintenance of motion 
 picture machines and to regulate the construction and arrangement 
 of picture machine booths and of audience rooms in which motion 
 picture exhibitions are to be given, the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters issued a suggested ordinance;, except for the sections 
 covering permits and enforcement, this ordinance is given below : 
 
 MATERIALS. Motion picture machines must be installed in an enclosure 
 constructed entirely of fire-resistive material, which may include only brick, 
 tile, concrete, galvanized iron, hard asbestos board, asbestos building lumber, 
 two inches of solid metal lath and Portland cement plaster, or their equivalent. 
 
 LOCATION. The booth must not be placed directly over an exit, and in all 
 cases must be securely anchored or fastened to prevent dislodgment in case 
 of panic. A separation of at least twelve inches must be maintained between 
 the top or sides of metal booths and any inflammable material. The enclosure 
 must be not less than seven (7) feet in height, with area of floor space 
 varying 1 in accordance with the number of machines or devices installed in 
 such booths, as follows: 
 
 i Picture machine 6 feet x 8 feet 
 
 1 Picture machine and i stereopticon 9 feet x 8 feet 
 
 2 Picture machines and i stereopticon 12 feet x 8 feet 
 
 BRICK, TILE OR CONCRETE BOOTHS. Walls, roof and floor of brick or tile 
 shall be at least 8 inches thick; if of reinforced concrete, they may be only 
 4 inches thick. \ 
 
 METAL OR ASBESTOS BOOTHS; Frame to be made of at least i^o-inch by 
 i^-inch by ^4-inch angle or tee irons, as follows: 
 
 Four outside horizontal members at top and bottom. 
 
 Four corner uprights. 
 
 Intermediate uprights on sides and intermediate members on roofs, spaced 
 at least every two feet. 
 
 Doorway to be two feet wide by at least five feet high, with an angle iron 
 framing. 
 
 All joints in frame to be made with j,J\ 6-inch steel plates, to which each 
 angle iron or tee iron shall be riveted or bolted by the use of at least two 
 %-inch bolts or rivets. All bolts or rivets to have flat heads, said heads 
 always to be placed on exterior side of booth and properly countersunk. 
 
 COVERING OF BOOTH. Sides and top of booth and main or entrance door 
 shall be covered with hard asbestos boards or asbestos building lumber, of at 
 least ^4-inch thickness, or their equivalent, or with steel or galvanized sheet 
 irofi of not less than No. 20 U. S. gauge. The asbestos, or its equivalent, 
 shall be so cut and arranged that vertical joints between boards shall always 
 
PYROXYLIN PLASTICS OR NITRO CELLULOSE 125 
 
 come over an angle or tee iron, to which it shall be securely fastened by 
 means of proper bolts and nuts, spaced not more than six inches apart. The 
 sheet metal shall be so cut and arranged that joints shall always come over 
 a member, be overlapped and bolted or riveted to such member; bolts or 
 rivets to be spaced not over three inches on centers. 
 
 FLOORING. Floor shall be made of two parts, an upper and a lower floor. 
 Lower floor may be made of wood, %-inch minimum thickness, supported 
 on lower leg of horizontal angle irons. Resting on this floor shall be a 
 floor made of hard asbestos board, asbestos building lumber of %-inch 
 minimum thickness, or an equally good non-combustible material. 
 
 OPENINGS. There shall be not more than two openings in the broth for 
 each machine one for observation by the operator and one for operation of 
 the machine. Opening for machine shall be not more than seventy-two 
 square inches. Opening for operator shall be not more than four inches 
 wide or more than twelve inches high. The two openings for each machine 
 shall be provided with gravity doors, constructed of metal not less than 3/16- 
 inch in thickness; when closed they shall overlap the openings at least two 
 inches on all sides, and be arranged to slide, without binding, in properly 
 constructed grooves; said doors to be held open normally by use of a fine 
 combustible cord fastened to a fusible link which melts at a temperature 
 of 160 degrees F., the whole so arranged that the door may be easily released 
 and closed by hand. 
 
 The main or entrance door shall be hung on at least three heavy hinges 
 and arranged to close against a substantial metal rabbet. The door shall 
 also be provided with a substantial spring which will keep it closed tightly. 
 
 SHELVES. All shelves, furniture and fixtures within the booth shall be 
 constructed of incombustible material. 
 
 VENTILATION. Booths shall be provided with a ventilating inlet in each of 
 three sides; to be fifteen inches long and three inches high, the lower side 
 to be not more than three inches above floor level. Inlets shall be covered 
 on the outside by a wire netting of not greater than %-inch mesh, firmly 
 secured by means of iron strips and screws or rivets, and on inside by 
 gravity doors arranged to slide in properly constructed grooves, and which, 
 when closed, shall overlap ventilator openings at least two inches on all 
 sides; doors to be held open normally by use of a fine combustible cord 
 fastened to a fusible link which melts at a temperature of 160 degrees F., 
 so arranged that the doors may be easily released and closed by hand. 
 
 Near the renter of the top of the booth shall be a circular opening of 
 not less than ten inches in diameter, the upper side provided with an iron 
 flange, securely fastened to the roof. Securely fastened to this flange shall 
 be a metallic vent pipe of not less than ten inches in diameter, leading to the 
 outside of the building or to a special incombustible vent flue; all parts of 
 vent pipe to be at least six inches from any combustible material. 
 
 For the comfort of the operator it is important to provide for a constant 
 current of air to pass outward through the opening or vent flue at the rate 
 of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute when the booth is in use. 
 
 PORTABLE BOOTHS. Portable booths shall not be used where a permanent 
 booth has been or is installed, but only for the temporary one-night exhibi- 
 tion of motion pictures in places of assemblage, such as halls belonging to 
 commercial organizations, churches, schools, etc., where it is deemed im- 
 practicable to install permanent booths made in accordance with the above 
 specifications. 
 
 In constructing a portable booth the specifications for a pertnanent booth 
 shall be followed, with the exceptions given below: 
 
 i. Intermediate uprights may be spaced every four feet. 
 
126 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 2. Special means for ventilation need not be provided except that there 
 shall be an opening for ventilation in the top of the booth, this opening to 
 be ten inches in diameter and a metal sleeve at least eighteen inches in 
 height, provided with a ventilating cap, shall be attached thereto. 
 
 3. The booth may be made in a folding type so constructed that when 
 assembled it will be rigid and all joints tight so that flames may not pass 
 through them. 
 
 4. The base of booth shall have a flange extension outward on all four 
 sides provided with a sufficient number of holes, through which booth may 
 be fastened to floor. 
 
 GENERAL PROVISIONS. The motion picture machines must be securely 
 fastened to the floor to prevent accidental overturning or moving of same. 
 
 Shall be equipped with a feed reel enclosed in a metal magazine constructed 
 of 20 U. S. gauge metal, with a slot at the bottom only large enough for 
 film to pass out, and with cover so arranged that this slot can be instantly 
 closed. No solder to be used in the construction of this box. Door on side 
 shall be of metal and provided with spring hinges and latch, which will keep 
 door closed tightly. 
 
 Shall be provided also with a take-up reel in a magazine, similar to that 
 used to enclose feed reel. A slot to be provided only large enough to receive 
 the film, and a door at the side to be provided to remove film. The door 
 must be of metal and equipped with spring hinges and latch to keep same 
 securely closed. 
 
 A shutter must be placed in front of the condenser, so arranged as to be 
 automatically closed when film is stationary. 
 
 Resistance box must be kept not less than one (i) foot from any com- 
 bustible material, or must be separated from it by a slab of slate or marble. 
 The resistance box must be surrounded with a substantially attached metal 
 guard having a mesh not larger than one-half inch, which guard is to be 
 kept at least one inch from outside frame of rheostat. 
 
 The lamp must not be mounted upon a base or frame composed of wood. 
 
 LIGHTS. No artificial light shall be used except that produced by elec- 
 tricity. All electric wiring to and in the booth; except necessary flexible con- 
 ductors, shall be installed in metal conduit. One light will be allowed for 
 each machine and one for the rewinding bench, but all such lights shall be 
 provided with wire guards, and reinforced cord shall be used for pendant 
 purposes. If house lights are controlled from within the booth, an additional 
 emergency control must be provided near the main exit and kept at all times 
 in good condition. 
 
 FILMS. No films shall be exposed in the booth at the same time other 
 than the one film in process of transfer to or from the machine or from 
 the upper to lower magazine, or in process of rewinding. A separate 
 case, made without solder, shall be provided for each film when the same 
 is not in the magazine or in process of rewinding, said films to be kept in 
 these cases. No material of a combustible nature shall be stored within any 
 booth except the films needed for one day's operation. 
 
 EXTINGUISHERS. At least two standard hand chemical fire extinguishers 
 shall be provided, one inside the booth and located in an accessible place 
 within easy reach of the operator, the other located outside of the booth 
 near the door to same. 
 
 SMOKING, ETC. Neither smoking nor the keeping nor use of matches shall 
 be permitted in any booth, room, compartment or enclosure where a motion 
 picture machine- is installed. 
 
 NOTE. It is suggested that at some convenient time during each exhibi- 
 tion a bulletin stating the precautions taken to reduce the danger from fire 
 and a caution against the dangers of panic, be thrown upon the screen. 
 
PYROXYLIN PLASTICS OR NITRO CELLULOSE 127 
 
 ENVIRONMENT, ETC. No motion picture machine shall be installed, main- 
 tained or operated in any building that does not abut directly upon a street; 
 nor shall any such machine be installed, maintained or operated in connection 
 with any exhibition room contained in a building occupied as a hotel, tenement 
 house, or lodging house; nor in factories or workshops, except where the 
 exhibition room and motion picture machine are separated from the rest of 
 the building by unpierced fireproof walls and floors; and in no case shall the 
 main floor of such exhibition room be more than four feet above or below 
 the adjoining grade level. To overcome any difference of level on the ground 
 floor gradients shall be employed of not over one foot in teri feet; no steps 
 shall be permitted. Exit doors must be at the same level as the sidewalk. 
 
 If the walls of the auditorium contain wood studs, they shall be covered 
 with either expanded metal lath or wire mesh and plastered with thiee coats 
 of plaster, or be covered with one-half inch plaster boards and plastered or 
 covered with metal. The joints shall be properly filled with mortar. The 
 ceilings of all such rooms shall be plastered with three coats of plaster on 
 wire mesh or metal lath, or covered with one-half inch plaster beards and 
 plastered or covered with metal. If there be a basement or cellar, the ceil- 
 ing under the auditorium floor must be plastered with three, coats of plaster 
 on wire mesh or expanded metal lath, or be covered with one-half inch 
 plaster boards and plastered or covered with metal. 
 
 Any motion picture exhibition room accommodating more than three hun- 
 dred people, or containing a gallery or galleries, shall be built in compliance 
 with the requirements for theaters and opera houses. (See the Building 
 Code issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters.) 
 
 EXITS. All motion picture exhibition rooms shall be provided with at least 
 two separate exits, one of which shall be in -.the. front and the other in the 
 rear, both leading to unobstructed outlets on the street. The aggregate width 
 in feet of such exits shall be not less than one-twentieth of the number of 
 persons to be accommodated thereby. No exits shall be less than five feet 
 in width, and there shall be a main exit not less than ten feet in total width. 
 
 If an unobstructed exit to a street cannot be provided at the rear of such 
 buildings, as herein specified, either an open court or a fireproof passage 
 or corridor must be provided from rear exit to the street front, of at least 
 four feet in width for exhibition rooms accommodating 50 persons or less, 
 and six inches additional for each additional 50 persons accommodated by 
 such room. Such passage must be constructed of fireproof material and 
 must be at least ten feet high in the clear. The walls forming such passage 
 must be at least eight inches thick, of brick or other approved fireproof 
 material, and if there be a basement the wall on the auditorium side should 
 either run one foot below the cellar bottom or may be carried in the cellar 
 on iron columns and girders properly fireproofed. The ceiling of said passages, 
 and, if there be a basement, the floor, must be of fireproof construction. 
 
 If unobstructed rear exit or exits to a street are provided, the said exit 
 or exits must be of the same total width required for the court or passage 
 above mentioned. Said passages and exits to the street, as above, must be 
 used for no other purposes except for exit and entrance, and must be kept 
 free and clear. 
 
 The level of the open court or passage at the front of building shall not 
 be greater than one step above the level of the sidewalk, and the grade shall 
 not be more than one foot in ten, with no perpendicular rises. 
 
 SEATS AND AISLES. All seats in any exhibition room for movjng picture 
 machines shall be not less than 32 inches from back to back and securely 
 fastened to the floor; they shall be so arranged that there will be not more 
 than ten seats in a line between aisles, nor more than four between any 
 
128 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 seat and an aisle. Ail aisles shall lead directly to exits and all exits shall 
 be directly accessible to aisles. No aisles shall be less than three feet in width 
 where they begin, and shall be increased in width toward the exits three 
 inches to every ten running feet length. All exit doors shall be arranged 
 to swing outward and tie provided with fastenings such as can be opened 
 readily from the inside, without the use of keys or any special effort, but 
 not locked when the room is open to the public. 
 
 All the requirements of this section relating to seats, aisles, passageways, 
 exits and doors shall apply in connection with each open-air motion picture 
 exhibition. 
 
 DOORWAYS. 'Every exit doorway leading from the exhibition room shall 
 have over the same on the auditorium side, the word " EXIT " in letters 
 not less than six inches high, or an illuminated sign with letters of the same 
 height. Where illuminated signs are not provided there shall be at least one 
 red light over each exit doorway. The exit doorways shall be numbered with 
 figures not less than six inches high. Light used in marking exits or lighting 
 passageways, stairways or inclines leading from them shall not depend upo 
 or be controlled by wires, switches or fuses located in room, compartment, 
 booth or enclosure containing motion picture machines, but shall be controlled 
 from the ticket office. 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF 
 INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 
 
 Hazards. The hazard from inflammable liquids is two-fold 
 tlie danger of an explosion or fire from the gases liberated, and 
 the spread of fire in and from the liquid. 
 
 As inflammable liquids are nearly always of considerable mone- 
 tary value, the usual containers in which they are handled in 
 bulk are tight, with small chances of leaking. The Interstate 
 Commerce Commission and the Department of Commerce have 
 issued requirements covering the construction of shipping con- 
 tainers and it is safe to say that any inflammable liquid in an 
 original shipping container, providing it is in good condition, can 
 be stored in practically any place with slight danger of fire or 
 explosion resulting from it. But with these containers open very 
 distinct hazards arise, first, that of the liberation of dangerous 
 gases and, second, that of spilling or igniting the liquid contents. 
 
 Properties of Liquids. The Underwriter's Laboratories, in 
 classifying the hazardous properties of liquids, consider eleven 
 properties, as follows : 
 
 1. Explosive characteristic. 
 
 2. Combustibility; as indicated by the flashing point. 
 
 3. Volatility; as indicated by the 
 
 (a) Vapor pressure at 68 F. 
 
 (b) Boiling point at standard pressure. 
 
 4. Violence of vapor air explosions. 
 
 5. Vapor density. 
 
 6. Ignition point. 
 
 7. Resistance when burning to the extinguishing action of water. 
 
 8. Chemical activity. Hazards in combination. 
 
 9. Ability as a corrosive agent. 
 
 10. Ability towards leakage. 
 
 11. Ability as a factor in spontaneous ignition. 
 Characteristics i, 3, 4 and 5 are rated with reference to the 
 
 flashing ^oint. The flashing point is in this way made a determina- 
 tive factor in rating the hazard and is not, therefore, considered 
 separately. 
 Under this classification: 
 
 Ether rates 100 
 
 Gasolene 90-100 
 
 Turpentine 40-50 
 
 Kerosene (F. P. 38 C. 100 F.) 30-40 
 
 Paraffin Oil (F. P. 229 C. 444 F.) 10-20 
 
 129 
 

 130 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Flash Point. Although the above classification is best to deter- 
 mine the exact relative hazard of liquids, for general purposes a 
 simpler method is necessary; any of the liquids if heated and 
 ignited will burn intensely, with little difference between them. 
 The main hazard then to differentiate upon is the volatility and 
 combustibility, which can best be determined by the flash point. 
 This has been taken as the deciding factor in a recommended 
 ordinance issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters and 
 abstracted below; the requirements given in this ordinance are 
 also essentially those recommended for adoption by the insurance 
 associations for their guidance in accepting risks. 
 
 Cleaning Substitutes. As a substitute for benzine, gasoline, 
 naphtha, ether, carbon bisulphide and other dangerous substances 
 used for cleaning and extracting, the Underwriters' Laboratories 
 have listed Carbona as non-combustible and non-flammable, Deter- 
 gene as in the same class as turpentine, Carbozine, Claroline and 
 Woolleys' Solvent as in the same class as kerosene, and trichlore- 
 thylene and tetrachlorethane as not forming inflammable or explo- 
 sive mixtures with air under ordinary conditions, but at high tem- 
 peratures giving off vapors that are moderately combustible. The 
 last two and chloroform, which is also a safe liquid for such pur- 
 poses, possess toxical properties which make ventilation a 'require- 
 ment for their use. 
 
 Carbon tetrachloride is also of value for cleaning purposes; it 
 has high extinguishing value and is used to a' large extent in 
 small fire extinguishers. When mixed with gasoline, it reduces 
 the flash point, until with a mixture of 40 to 50 per cent of 
 tetrachloride, the hazard is removed. 
 
 Gasoline. The more volatile parts of petroleum are known as 
 naphtha by the refiners, but to the general public the term gasoline 
 covers the general class used in every day life ; gasoline is lighter 
 than water and therefore can not be extinguished by the appli- 
 cation of water, except as the cooling effect of the water dimin- 
 ishes the heat generated to such an extent as to bring the heat 
 in the burning liquid below the flashing point. Fires are often 
 spread by the application of water, the oil staying on top and con- 
 tinuing to burn. 
 
 Gasoline gives off vapor at practically all temperatures, the 
 amount of vapor varying with the temperature; for this reason it 
 is best to store in as cool a place as possible; underground storage 
 is the only safe method. The vapor of gasoline when pure, not 
 mixed with air, will not explode. It becomes violently explosive 
 when mixed with air, when the proportion of vapor is from 3 per 
 cent to 6 per cent, after which last figure it is no longer explosive. 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 131 
 
 The vapor is 2.77 times as heavy as air, therefore, it tends to 
 settle to the ground and to collect in low spots unless a draft 
 or ventilation disperses it. This feature is the most dangerous 
 property of the vapor, and causes many serious fires, as the 
 vapor will travel several hundred feet under the right circum- 
 stances, until reaching a flame it will ignite and flash back to 
 the origin of the vapor, setting fire to any inflammable sub- 
 stance in its path. Many instances are on record of the vapor 
 lying in a layer on a garage or dry-cleaning floor, or being in a 
 pit or basement, and, when ignited by a dropped match, spark 
 from electrical apparatus, or from friction, or back-fire of a 
 gasoline engine, spreading so rapidly as to destroy the entire 
 contents of the building in a very short period of time. 
 
 Gasoline Containers. In handling gasoline, open receptacles 
 should never be used, and discharge should be direct from one 
 closed container to another, with as little chance of its getting in 
 contact with the air as possible. All containers which are partly 
 filled with gasoline or have held gasoline, contain the vapor in 
 a more or less mixture of air. On filling, this is driven off and 
 immediately mingles with the lower stratum of the air ; if no 
 means of its flowing away are provided, i. e., proper ventilation 
 is not established, it forms either an explosive or a burnable 
 mixture, which only needs a spark or flame to set it off. 
 
 The principal danger is in the handling of gasoline, as with 
 underground storage the hazard of storage .is well safeguarded ; 
 laws should be stringent as to its use and should be strictly en- 
 forced by the fire department. 
 
 Fire Risks. In respect of fire risk, the crude petroleums are 
 less uniform in character than the fats and oils, the risks of which 
 are confined within narrow limits, while those of petroleum have 
 a wide range. Many of them contain gases that are liberated at the 
 ordinary- temperature, and, when condensed to the liquid condi- 
 tion, boil a little above the freezing point of water. Such gases 
 do not occur in fats or oils. Other constituents of crude petroleum 
 are extremely volatile and inflammable, the vapors forming ex- 
 plosive mixtures with air. Finally, other constituents are solid, 
 are not easily ignited, and do not explode until high temperatures 
 are attained. 
 
 The low-boiling and highly volatile constituents of petroleum 
 and mineral oils belong to the most dangerous of substances so 
 far as risk of fire and explosion are concerned. However, as 
 the boiling point rises and the volatility diminishes, the danger 
 also lessens, until we arrive at the paraffins, which are about on a 
 par with the fats and oils. 
 
132 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Alcohol. Alcohol is a generic term, and applies to a large 
 series of organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, and having the same fundamental chemical composition. 
 The chief member of the series is spirits of wine, which is called 
 alcohol when chemically pure and of a certain degree of strength. 
 
 The alcohols are for the most part liquid and volatile, only a 
 few e. g. mannite and erythrite being solid and non-volatile. 
 
 They are generally combustible, some of them readily inflamma- 
 ble; and though perfectly safe alcohols are not unknown, the 
 name " alcohol " is associated with the idea of inflammability 
 and fire risk, and to a certain extent also with that of explosion 
 (especially when warmed alcoholic vapors are in question). For 
 this reason very stringent precautions should be prescribed for all 
 premises where alcohol is employed. 
 
 Alcohols of different strengths gives off inflammable vapor at 
 the following temperatures: 
 
 Absolute alcohol at 51 F. 40 per cent alcohol at 78^ F. 
 
 80 per cent 68 30 per cent " 85 
 
 70 per cent 6oJ4 " 20 per cent .".. 97 I /4 " 
 
 60 per cent 7i^ 10 per cent " 120% " 
 
 50 per cent 75^ " 5 per cent 143^ " 
 
 The final limit of inflammability -is only attained between 5 .and 
 3 per cent. 
 
 Strong alcohol will ignite readily even in the cold ; but for that 
 of 60 per cent strength a temperature of 80^ F. is necessary, 
 and 87^4 F. for 45 per cent spirit. 
 
 Alcohol of 99-99^4 per cent strength is classed as alcohol, that 
 of 95-97 per cent as fine spirit, that of 8b-86 per cent as raw spirit, 
 and that of 80 per cent strength as burning spirit. 
 
 Alcohol between 60 and 99^ per cent strength is more inflammable 
 than ordinary petroleum (f. p. 70 F.) ; but, on the other hand, 
 the vapors are far less explosive, since to attain this condition 
 they require to be strongly heated and placed in contact with a 
 flame or electric spark. In point of general fire-risk, alcohol is 
 far below ether, benzol, carbon disulphide, and similar liquids. 
 
 Special danger attaches to alcohol by reason of its high diffusi- 
 bility. With the exception of glass and metals there are few 
 substances through which alcohol is unable to penetrate, even 
 when of only 60 per cent strength. Neither wooden vessels nor 
 the most compact cement tanks, etc., can prevent escape, and the 
 stronger the alcohol the quicker the dispersion. 
 
 Denatured Alcohol. To cheapen alcohol for technical purposes, 
 it is denatured, generally with methyl alcohol (2 per cent), which, 
 however, increases the risk of fire and explosion, owing to the 
 rapidity with which the adjunct evaporates, and to the explosive 
 vapors it yields. 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQ'UIDS 133 
 
 Use No Rubber. Rubber pipes or tubing made of organic ma- 
 terials should never be used for conveying alcohol, or connecting 
 vessels containing that liquid, when the strength of the spirit is 
 above 50 per cent. Flexible metallic tubing, which is now made 
 of good quality, is necessary in such cases. 
 
 Spirituous Liquors. Among spirituous liquors, only such as are 
 rich in alcohol are dangerous, and even then the risk is not high, 
 since it is only when they are in a warm and undiluted condition 
 that they readily ignite. Inflammable vapors are liberated by : 
 Ordinary brandy, at 84 F. ; Dutch -gin at 89^2 F. ; whisky at 
 S2 l / 2 F. ; rum, arrack, and cognac at about 77 F., according to 
 strength; and by sherry and port wines at 129 F. 
 
 Ethers. Like " alcohol," the term " ether " is a generic appella- 
 tion for a large series of organic compounds of definite composition. 
 The chief representative of the group is sulphuric ether, com- 
 monly known as ether. 
 
 The cithers are .usually volatile, readily inflammable and com- 
 bustible, far more so indeed than the alcohols, from which latter 
 they differ in the explosive character of their vapors at low tem- 
 peratures, alcohol vapors being explosive only when hot. 
 
 The ethers usually have lower boiling points than alcohols, there 
 being but few exceptions to this rule. 
 
 Wherever large quantities of ether vapor are liberated, great 
 danger of explosion is imminent. 
 
 Carbon Bisulphide. Carbon disulphide, on account of its great 
 volatility, must always be kept under water, -by which it is dis- 
 solved to the extent of about 0.5 per cent without any dangerous 
 properties being thereby imparted to the water itself. Owing to 
 the great density and high explosive factor of the vapors, the 
 floorings of all rooms where it is employed must be well made, 
 to prevent penetration by the vapor; and all depressions to which 
 the vapor could gain access must be well covered. Where large 
 quantities of carbon disulphide are employed, no fires should be 
 allowed within 50 ft. of the workrooms. 
 
 Despite their volatility the vapors of carbon disulphide are 
 tenaciously retained by porous, fibrous, woollen materials; and in 
 the ground they are retained for more than a year. By reason of 
 this retentive faculty, carbon disulphide cannot be used for ex- 
 tracting fat from wool, though otherwise the best agent for that 
 purpose. All porous materials treated with carbon disulphide re- 
 mains dangerous for a considerable time from the above cause. 
 
 In itself, liquid carbon disulphide is not explosive, but the 
 presence of even 6 per cent of its vapor in air is sufficient to 
 impart an explosive tendency to the latter. This tendency is 
 
134 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 retained in all cases where the proportion is higher ; and therein 
 lies the great danger of this substance. The risk is increased when 
 the air is replaced by oxygen, violent explosions occurring what- 
 ever the proportions of the mixture. 
 
 Ethereal Oils. The ethereal oils are of an oily nature, form 
 grease spots (which, however, disappear on heating), are lighter 
 than water, in which they are insoluble, and are soluble in the same 
 solvents as fats. 
 
 The following typical ethereal oils may be cited : 
 
 Lemon oil, turpentine oil, ' lavender oil, wormwood oil (ver- 
 mouth), pine oil, bergamot oil, nutmeg oil, mace oil, eucalyptus 
 oil, juniper oil, and solid camphor. When treated with iodine, 
 these oils detonate with liberation of vapors and great heat. 
 
 Aniseed oil, fennel oil, camomile oil, rosemary oil, carraway 
 oil, thyme oil, sage oil, and hop oil. These detonate only slightly 
 with iodine. 
 
 Rose oil, bitter almond oil, clove oil, mustard oil, valerian oil, 
 and amber oil. When mixed with iodine they generate only a 
 moderate amount of heat. 
 
 When old, resinfied, or rancid, the oils of the last two groups 
 behave with iodine in the same manner as those of the first. 
 
 All the ethereal oils boil at temperatures above 284 F., and 
 decompose at 390 -535 F. They will burn even without a wick, 
 are more easily ignited than fats or oils, and are in general more 
 dangerous than these latter. Exposed to the air, they take up 
 oxygen and then form characteristic carriers of ozone. 
 
 A few of the ethereal oils (oil of turpentine) take fire on 
 contact with fuming nitric acid or nitrating liquid.. 
 
 Varnishes. Varnishes may be divided into the following classes : 
 
 1. Oil varnish, usually boiled linseed oil, more rarely poppy 
 or nut oil. 
 
 2. Lacquer varnish (true lacquer, also called spirit varnish). 
 This class consists of resins dissolved in alcohol, wood spirit, 
 acetone, benzol, or petroleum ether; or collodion wool dissolved 
 in amyl acetate. 
 
 3. Oil lacquer varnish: solutions of resins in linseed oil often- 
 times thinned with oil of turpentine or benzol; hence a mixture 
 of i and 2. 
 
 4. Turpentine lacquer varnish : solutions of resins in oil of tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 5. Resin oil lacquer varnish : solutions of resins in resin oils. 
 There are also* sundry special lacquers, such as dull lacquer 
 
 (sandarach in ether, benzol, or toluol), zapon lacquer (collodion 
 wool or celluloid in amyl acetate), asphaltum lacquer (asphaltum 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 135. 
 
 in oil of turpentine). The resins most in use for lacquers and 
 oil varnishes are, copal, dammar, anine, sandarach, mastic, shellac, 
 pine resin, colophony, amber, and asphaltum. 
 
 The dangers of varnishes and lacquers increase in proportion to 
 the dangerous character of the solvents used, the benzol and ether 
 varnishes being the worst in this respect. Of late the extremely 
 dangerous nitrous ether (b. p. 62 F.) has been largely used, but 
 should not be employed except when greatly diluted with alcohol. 
 
 Lacquering Stoves. An important and dangerous appliance in 
 connection with the use of dip tanks and oil varnish is the dry- 
 room or oven and the lacquering stove, in which the, articles are 
 dried and finished. The temperature in these stoves ranges from 
 120 to 160 R, and since the formation of explosive mixtures of 
 vapor may occur, they must be fitted with proper ventilating out- 
 lets discharging into flues out of all communication with fire. 
 Efficient ventilation must be provided in the room where the stove 
 is located; naked lights must be prohibited, and the stove must 
 be kept in good condition and free from leaks through which any 
 inflammable vapors could escape. They are sometimes heated with 
 hot air of high tension ; explosions may readily happen, and there- 
 fore all fire or sparks should be rigidly excluded. The danger 
 may be diminished by the introduction of carbon dioxide, 10 per 
 cent being sufficient, though even in this event no guarantee of 
 safety is possible. 
 
 Storage of Inflammable Liquids. From the insurance view- 
 point, the storing and handling of hazardous liquids are divided 
 as follows: 
 
 Class A Underground Storage without Inside Discharge 
 
 These storage systems, which are generally known as " Isolated Storage 
 Systems," consist of an outside underground storage tank provided with 
 suitable means for filling and for withdrawing the liquid it is designed 
 to contain. 
 
 Systems which provide for storing and handling hazardous liquids out- 
 side of and so removed from adjoining property as not to create an exposure 
 thereto, are considered the least dangerous. 
 
 Class B Underground Storage with Inside Discharge 
 
 An inside discharge or so-called " long distance " system consists of an 
 underground storage tank connected by piping to a pump or other means 
 of transferring liquid into a building. This type of installation is regarded as 
 more dangerous than systems not introducing hazardous liquids inside buildings. 
 Where used its hazards should be recognized. 
 
 Class C Portable Tanks 
 
 A portable tank consists of a metal receptacle mounted on wheels and 
 provided with means for filling and withdrawing liquid. 
 
 These devices handle a considerable quantity of hazardous liquids inside 
 buildings. Their use obviates the necessity for handling these liquids in 
 buckets or other open receptacles. If used, their hazards should be recognized. 
 
136 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Class D Stationary Tanks in Buildings 
 
 Tanks used for the storage and handling of various paint oils, linseed oil, 
 varnishes, lubricating oils, kerosene, etc., and not for the storage of gasoline, 
 benzine, alcohol, naphtha or liquids involving similar hazards. 
 
 These devices are not intended as substitutes for Class "A" or Class " B " 
 systems when same can be installed, but are largely used to reduce the 
 hazard of storing and handling of the first-above-mentioned materials in 
 barrels, etc. 
 
 Class E Outside Aboveground Storage 
 
 These storage systems, in the largest sizes, are such as are generally 
 found in oil fields, oil refineries or distributing stations and consist of 
 tanks located above ground. 
 
 The hazards' of such systems depend upon the distance from burnable 
 property and topography of the surrounding land, but owing to the tanks 
 being above ground they are considered as more hazardous than under- 
 ground systems of storage. 
 
 The National Board of Fire Underwriters have issued regulations 
 under the title of Containers for Hazardous Liquids, covering the 
 above classes. These in all essentials are the same as given in a 
 model ordinance on this subject also issued by the board ; this ordi- 
 nance is given complete below. 
 
 USE, HANDLING AND STORAGE OF INFLAMMABLE 
 LIQUIDS AND THE PRODUCTS THEREOF* 
 
 Section 2. Inflammable liquids are divided into three classes, according 
 to the flash point, as follows: 
 
 Class I. Liquids with flash point below 27 degrees Fahrenheit ( 3 degrees 
 Centigrade) closed cup tester. (Equivalent to 30 degrees Fahrenheit open 
 cjup tester.) 
 
 Class II. Liquids with flash point above that for Class I and below 74 
 degrees Fahrenheit (23 degrees Centigrade) closed cup tester. (Equivalent 
 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit open cup tester.) 
 
 Class III. Liquids with flash point above that for Class II and below 
 187 degrees Fahrenheit (86 degrees Centigrade) closed cup tester. (Equivalent 
 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit open cup tester.) 
 
 The flash points shall be as determined with the Abel-Pensky or the 
 Pensky-Martens closed cup tester. For commercial use, where the flash 
 point is not within 9 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Centigrade) the Tagliabue 
 open cup tester may be used; provided that the flash point as given by 
 the Abel-Pensky or :Pensky-Martens testers shall be authoritative in all 
 cases, f 
 
 *Abstracted from a suggested ordinance recommended by the National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters. Sections omitted covered matters of enforce- 
 ment and permits. 
 
 t For description of testers and methods as used by the U. S. Bureau of 
 Mines see technical paper No. .49 on " The flash point of oils methods and 
 apparatus for its determination." 
 
 This paper may be had upon request from the Director of the United 
 States Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. 
 
 For ordinary usage, the comparison of open and closed cup testers may 
 be assumed as follows: 
 
 Degrees Fahr. (Tagliabue) = i + De g re ^ Fahr - (Abel-Pensky). 
 Degrees Fahr. (Abel-Pensky) 0.94 Degrees Fahr. (Tagliabue) 1. 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 137 
 
 Representative examples of the classes of inflammable liquids are: 
 
 Class I 
 
 Ether Benzole 
 
 Carbon bisulphide Collodion 
 
 Gasoline Hydrocarbon (gas drips) 
 
 Naphtha Liquefied Petroleum gas 
 
 Class II 
 
 Acetone Amyl acetate 
 
 Alcohol Toluol 
 
 Class III 
 
 Kerosene Whiskey 
 
 Amyl alcohol Brandy 
 
 Turpentine 
 
 Section 24. Except in sealed containers, no Class I nor II liquids may 
 be stored within 10 feet of any stairway, elevator or exit. 
 
 Section 25. In paint or oil stores, retail stores and jobbers' plants con- 
 taining inflammable liquids, at least two exits shall be provided, one of 
 which must be away from the point of storage. 
 
 Section 26. The mixing, storing or handling of inflammable liquids of 
 Class I and II in open containers, is prohibited in any store in any building 
 housing more than two families or in a frame building housing more than 
 one family, provided that this shall not apply to drug stores where inflam- 
 mable liquids are used in making and compounding medicines and prescriptions. 
 
 Section 27. The storage of inflammable liquids inside buildings, except 
 in buildings now so used, shall be as given under the following sub-sections; 
 provided that in a special storage room or fireproof building, conforming to 
 requirements given in Section 29, an unlimited quantity may be maintained 
 therein, except of Class I liquids: 
 
 a. Within the limits given in Section 45. 
 In frame buildings: 
 
 Classes I and II prohibited. 
 
 Class III. Maximum limit of any tank or container to be 60 gallons. 
 - In other than frame buildings: 
 
 Class I, In sealed containers or safety cans of not more than i gallon 
 
 capacity, and not exceeding a total of 10 gallons. 
 Class II, In sealed containers or safety cans of not more than 5 gallons 
 
 capacity and in barrels, drums or tanks of not more than 60 gallons 
 
 capacity. (Total quantity to be stored in this manner unlimited.) 
 Class III, In sealed containers of not more than 5 gallons capacity, 'in 
 
 barrels and drums and in tanks not exceeding 120 gallons capacity. 
 
 (Total quantity to be stored in this manner unlimited.) 
 
 b. Outside the limits given in Section 45. 
 In frame buildings: 
 
 Class I, In sealed containers or safety cans of not more than i gallon 
 
 capacity, and not exceeding a total of 10 gallons. 
 Class II, In sealed containers of not more than 5 gallons capacity and 
 
 in barrels, drums or tanks not exceeding 60 gallons capacity. (Total 
 
 quantity to be stored in this manner unlimited.) 
 Cldss III, In sealed containers not exceeding 5 gallons capacity, in 
 
 barrels and drums and in tanks not exceeding 120 gallons capacity. 
 
 (Total quantity to be stored in this manner unlimited.) 
 In other than frame buildings: 
 
 Class I, Not exceeding 50 gallons in sealed containers or safety cans 
 
 of not more than i gallon capacity. 
 Class II, In sealed containers or safety cans of not more than 5 gallons 
 
138 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 capacity, in drums and barrels and in tanks not exceeding 120 gallons 
 capacity. (Total quantity to be stored in this manner unlimited.) 
 Class III, In sealed containers, drums and barrels and in tanks not 
 exceeding 240 gallons capacity. (Total quantity to be stored in this 
 manner unlimited.) 
 
 Section 29. Special rooms for storage of inflammable liquids and the 
 handling and use of inflammable liquids shall, where called for in this 
 ordinance, be constructed as follows: Walls, floors and ceiling to be of eight 
 inches of brick or concrete, or four inches of reinforced concrete; door 
 openings to other rooms or buildings to be provided with sills raised six 
 inches and with automatically closing fire doors; windows to be wired glass 
 in metallic sash and frames; no combustible material used in construction, 
 except that floor surfacing may be of wood; proper ventilation provided; 
 no opening to rooms below except as made necessary by trade or manu- 
 facturing process, and openings to rooms and other parts of building above 
 to be provided with automatically closing fire doors or trap doors. 
 
 Section 30. Except where kept in sealed containers, Class I liquids 
 shall be kept in storage tanks underground or outside the building and no 
 discharge system shall have outlet inside building unless in a special room 
 as given in Section 29. Provided that safety cans of not over ten gallons 
 capacity may be used, except that if of over one gallon's capacity, they 
 must be kept and used in special rooms as given in Section 29. 
 
 Section 31. No container containing Class II liquid and of over five 
 gallons capacity may be used to fill other containers and appliances, unless 
 kept outside the building or in a special room, as given in Section 29, and 
 all drawing, except from safety cans, shall, where the nature of the liquid 
 permits, be as provided for in Sections 66 and 67. 
 
 Section 32. Any building, other than a frame building, within the fire 
 limits containing more than 500 gallons of inflammable liquids in other 
 than sealed containers, must have all windows in side and rear walls and 
 above the first floor on street fronts exposed by another building within 
 fifty feet, provided with wired glass in metallic sash and frame. 
 
 Section 33. Any manufacturing plant hereafter established in a building 
 in which persons are employed above the second story, shall have all rooms 
 in which Class I and II liquids are mixed or stored in receptacles per- 
 mitting the escape of vapor constructed as given in Section 29. 
 
 Section 34. In existing manufacturing plants where persons are employed 
 above the second floor, all elevator, stair and other wells or vertical openings 
 communicating to rooms in which Class I and II liquids are mixed or 
 stored in receptacles permitting escape of vapor, must be inclosed and 
 provided with automatic fire doors or trap doors. 
 
 Section 35. No manufacturing plant shall be located in any building 
 used as a dwelling fdr more than one family unless all Class I liquids are 
 kept in safety cans, not exceeding one quart in capacity, or in outside 
 storage tanks as given in Chapter III, with no discharge inside the building. 
 
 Section 36. Kettles, vats, saturators and other vessels used in manufac- 
 turing processes, and containing more than five gallons of inflammable liquid, 
 must not be located within five feet of combustible material nor within five 
 feet of any exit, unless two or more exits are provided, and all combustible 
 floor thereunder within a radius of ten feet must be protected with non-com- 
 bustible covering. All kettles and other open vessels must be provided with 
 substantial covers operating automatically or which can be easily and readily 
 placed in position. 
 
 Section 37. Rooms in which Class I and II liquids are used in open 
 vats, pans or other vessels, or in which Classes I, II and III liquids are 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 139 
 
 heated or otherwise treated in such manner as to produce inflammable vapor, 
 shall he well ventilated. Where natural ventilation is not sufficient, ventilation 
 may be obtained* as provided in Section no, or a trench or trough located 
 in the lowest portion of the room, near any appliance emitting inflammable 
 vapor may be used, such trough to be not less than six inches deep, open 
 except for screens or grating and sloping downward to the outside of the 
 building to a point acceptable to the inspection department having juris- 
 diction; or a ventilation system or any other special systems meeting the 
 intent of this section may be used when approved by the inspection depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction. 
 
 Section 38. Where inflammable liquids are kept, used or handled, dry 
 sand, ashes, chemical extinguishers or other fire retardants shall be provided 
 in such quantities and with such pails, scoops and other fire appliances as 
 may be directed by the inspection department having jurisdiction. A rea- 
 sonable quantity of such loose non-combustible absorbents as mentioned above 
 shall be kept convenient for use in case of excessive oil leakage or overflow. 
 
 Section 39. Inside the fire limits, barrels and drums containing Class I, II 
 or III liquids stored outside any building must not be piled upon each 
 other nor stored in a passageway or beneath any window and no open lights 
 shall be permitted in any such storage yard. 
 
 Section 40. Drums or barrels for inflammable liquids shall have caps, 
 plugs and bungs replaced immediately after package is emptied. 
 
 Section 41. In all rooms or parts of buildings which contain inflammable 
 liquids in open containers or in which the vapors from inflammable liquids 
 are present, or in which inflammable liquids are used in any manufacturing 
 process, the carrying of matches is prohibited, and smoking shall be a 
 misdemeanor. Suitable signs lettered SMOKING PROHIBITED BY ORDER 
 OF THE CHIEF OF THE FIRE DEPARTMENT shall be displayed. 
 
 Section 42. Inflammable liquids shall not be drawn nor handled in 
 the presence of open flame or fire, but may be drawn and handled when 
 lighting is by incandescent electric lamps installed in compliance with the 
 rules and regulations of the " National Electrical Code;" said rules and 
 regulations are hereby made a part of the requirements of this ordinance 
 as affecting all electrical equipment. 
 
 Section 43. No portable wheeled tank for the handling of inflammable 
 liquids inside buildings shall exceed sixty gallons capacity. Tank must be 
 of iron or steel, 3^1 6-inch thick, with all openings at the top and screened 
 with 30 x mesh, or equivalent, brass wire screen. Wheels must be rubber 
 tired and tanks so hung as not to be tipped over in ordinary usage. 
 Liquids must be drawn fiom tank by means of a tight fitting pump or equiva- 
 lent device which will not permit continuous flow in case of mishap or 
 defective operation. 
 
 Section 44. The handling or storing of any inflammable liquid within 
 dangerous proximity to open flame or fire is expressly prohibited. 
 
 Storage Tanks Capacity, Location and Restriction 
 
 Section 45. Except as otherwise permitted in this ordinance, the storage 
 of inflammable liquids shall be outside buildings, in underground tanks or 
 above ground tanks; except that the storage in tanks above ground and 
 outside buildings is prohibited within the following limits: (NOTE. : These 
 limits to be specified; they should include the mercantile and other con- 
 gested districts and land near streams or other water ways which would 
 carry burning liquid into congested districts.) 
 
 Section 46. Tanks located underground shall have top of tank at least 
 three feet below the surface of the ground, and below the level of the 
 
140 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 lowest pipe in the building to be supplied. Tanks may be permitted under- 
 neath a building if buried at least three feet below the lowest floor. Tanks 
 shall be set on a firm foundation and surrounded with soft earth or sand, 
 well tamped into place or encased in concrete. Tank may have a test well, 
 provided test well extends to near bottom of tank, and top end shall be 
 hermetically sealed and locked except when necessarily open. When tank 
 is located underneath a building, the test well shall extend at least twelve 
 feet above source of supply. The limit of storage permitted shall depend 
 upon the location of tanks with respect to the building to be supplied and 
 adjacent buildings, as follows: 
 
 (a) Unlimited capacity if lower than any floor, basement, cellar or pit 
 in any building within a radius of fifty feet. 
 
 (b) 20,000 gallons total capacity if lower than any floor, basement, cellar 
 or pit in any building within thirty feet radius. 
 
 (c) 5,000 gallons total capacity if lower than any floor, basement, cellar 
 or pit in any building within twenty feet radius. 
 
 (d) 1,500 gallons total capacity if lower than any floor, basement, cellar 
 or pit in any building within ten feet radius. 
 
 (e) 500 gallons if not lower than every floor, basement, cellar 
 
 r pit in 
 
 any building within ten 
 six inches of concrete. 
 
 feet, in which case it must be entirely encased 
 
 ^ss 
 
 " C 5"?":;i.:.. 
 
 'Unlimited capacity 
 
 FIG. i. SHOWING PERMISSIBLE QUANTITY AS AFFECTED BY LOCATION 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. In connection with the requirement for the depth 
 of bury necessary for tanks, the following extract from the Scien- 
 tific American, August 25, 1908, is given, to show that the 3 feet 
 required is ample. 
 
 PENETRATION OF HEAT IN EARTH 
 
 " The Hanover fire department made a series of experiments for deter- 
 mining the penetration of the soil by the heat of a fire above it. Three 
 broad piles, about three feet high and three feet square, with slopes of 45 
 degrees, were constructed of dry sand, nearly dry clay, and wet rubbish. 
 On each pile was erected a brick furnace, in which a hot fire of coke was 
 maintained, so that the upper surface of the piles inside the furnaces acquired 
 a temperature of about 2,200 degrees F., which is seldom or never attained 
 by the bottom of a heap of ruins in a conflagration. Thermometers and 
 fusible balls were buried in the piles at depths of 4, 12, 20, 30 and 40 inches 
 below the surface, and were examined hourly. 
 
 " It was found that even very thin layers of earth have a great power of 
 thermal insulation. In the pile of rubbish, for example, after the fire on 
 top had been burning 21 hours, the temperatures in Fahrenheit degrees were: 
 518 at the depth of 4 inches, 185 at 12 inches, 122 at 20 inches, 68 at 30 
 inches, and 62% at 40 inches. Moisture was found to retard the penetration 
 
STOKACL; AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 141 
 
 of heat very greatly. In the wet pile, at the small depth of 4 inches, the 
 temperature remained at 212 degrees F. (the boiling point of water) until 
 the moisture had been almost entirely evaporated. 
 
 " At the depth of -20 inches, 46 hours of firing were required to raise the 
 temperature to 158 degrees F., the average boiling point of commercial gaso- 
 line, and at 40 inches below the surface only a very small rise of temperature 
 was produced by 70 hours of brisk firing. 
 
 " Hence it appears quite sufficient to put the highest part of the gasoline 
 reservoir 20 inches t>elow the surface of the ground, for, apart from the 
 improbability that a surface temperature of 2,200 degreds F. will be main- 
 tained during 46 hours as the result of a conflagration, gasoline could not be 
 caused to boil by a temperature of 160 or 170 degrees F., produced by a fire 
 above, because of the cooling of the reservoir by the colder strata of earth 
 below. 
 
 '* The cause resulting in this test was the great fire in the Victoria Ware- 
 houses in Berlin, where more than 30,000 gallons of gasoline, stored in an 
 underground reservoir, lay under a pile of burning ruins for twenty-four 
 hours. The explosion, or even the combustion of this quantity of gasoline, 
 would have entailed a great direct loss, and would also have given the con- 
 flagration a vastly more serious character." 
 
 Section 47. Outside the limits given in Section 45, the capacity of each 
 outside above ground storage tank used, designed or intended for Class 
 I and II liquids shall be limited as given in Column A of Table I. For 
 Class III liquids a storage double that given in Column A, Table I, will 
 be permitted. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. Since the date of issue of this proposed ordinance, approval 
 has been given' by the Underwriters' Laboratories to the Erwin foam extin- 
 guisher see page 6 1 8, which in the opinion of some authorities is of such value 
 as to permit a closer spacing of tanks than given in these requirements, or 
 about double these permitted quantities for the same spacing. 
 
 TABLE i 
 Capacity of Outside Above Ground Storage Tanks for Class I and II Liquids 
 
 COLUMN'A 
 
 MINIMUM DISTANCE OF TANKS 
 
 
 To Line of Adjoining 
 
 
 Capacity of Tank, Gallons 
 
 Property which may 
 
 To Any Other Tank 
 
 
 be Built Upon* 
 
 
 300 or less 
 
 5 feet 
 
 2 feet 
 
 500 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 18,000 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 48,000 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 75,000 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 150,000 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 
 350 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 Unlimited 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 * In general this distance should apply to the distance away from any build- 
 ing, even those in connection with the plant itself, and should in all cases 
 apply to buildings where open flame may be used. EDITOR'S NOTE. 
 
142 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Section 48. Each above ground tank, inside or outside buildings, over 
 1,000 gallons in capacity, must have all manholes, hand holes, vent openings 
 and other openings, which may contain inflammable vapor, provided with 
 20 x 20 mesh, brass wire screen, or its equivalent, so attached as to com- 
 pletely cover the opening and be protected against clogging. A safety 
 valve must be provided, or manhole covers must be kept closed by weight 
 only, and not firmly attached. The screen on such opening may be made 
 removable, but must be kept normally firmly attached. 
 
 Section 49. Above ground tanks for Class I and II liquids outside build- 
 ings shall have painted conspicuously upon their side, in letters at least 2 
 inches high, the wording, " INFLAMMABLE KEEP FIRE AWAY." 
 
 Section 50. Except existing tanks in good condition, all tanks outside 
 buildings, either above or below ground, and all tanks for Class I liquids 
 inside buildings, as permitted by this ordinance, shall be made of galvanized 
 steel, basic open hearth steel or wrought iron of a minimum gauge U. S. 
 Standard depending upon the capacity or size as given in Tables 2, 3 and 4. 
 
 TABLE 2 
 
 Underground tanks inside the limits prescribed in Section 45, or within 
 10 feet of a building when outside such limits. 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Capacity (Gallons) Thickness of Material 
 
 Ito 560... 14 
 
 561 to 1,100 12 
 
 1,101 to 4,000... 7 
 
 4,001 to 10,500 
 
 10,501 to 20,000 
 
 20,001 to 30,000 
 
 TABLE 3 
 
 Underground tanks outside limits as described in Section 45, provided 
 the tanks are 10 feet or more from a building. 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Capacity (Gallons) Thickness of Material 
 
 1 to 30. 18 
 
 31 to 350 16 
 
 351 to 1,100 ... 14 
 
 1,101 to 4,000 7 
 
 4,001 to 10,500. . . 
 
 10,501 to 20,000 
 
 20,001 to 30,000 
 
 TABLE 4 
 Above Ground Tanks. 
 
 (a) Horizontal or vertical tanks not over 1,100 gallons capacity. 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Capacity (Gallons) Thickness of Material 
 
 1 to 30. . . 18 
 
 31 to 350 16 
 
 351 to 1,100 14 
 
 (b) Horizontal tanks over 1,100 gallons capacity. 
 
 Maximum 
 Diameter 
 Not over 5 feet 
 
 Minimum 
 Thickness of Material 
 Shell Heads 
 10 7 
 
 5 feet to 8 feet 
 
 7 1' 
 
 8 feet to 11 feet.. 
 
 r r 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 143 
 
 (c) Vertical tanks over 1,100 gallons capacity. 
 
 Under 40 feet in diameter and containing not more than 5,000 gallons: 
 
 Bottom No. 8 gauge 
 Bottom Ring No. 8 gauge 
 Other rings No. 10 gauge 
 Top No. 12 gauge 
 
 Under 40 feet in diameter and containing more than 5,000 gallons but 
 not more than 1 0,000 gallons. 
 
 Bottom No. 8 gauge 
 Bottom Ring No. 7 gauge 
 Other rings No. 8 gauge 
 Top No. 12 gauge 
 
 ( 'ther vertical tanks to be of thickness not less than indicated in the 
 following table, the figures referring to U. S. Standard gauge: . 
 
 
 
 
 2d 
 
 3d 
 
 4th 
 
 5th 
 
 6th 
 
 
 DIAMETER 
 
 Top 
 
 Top 
 Ring 
 
 Ring 
 from 
 
 Ring 
 from 
 
 Ring 
 from 
 
 Ring 
 from 
 
 Ring 
 from 
 
 Bot- 
 tom 
 
 
 
 
 Top 
 
 Top 
 
 Top 
 
 Top 
 
 Top 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 3-0 
 
 5-0 
 
 10 
 
 75 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 10 
 
 65 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3-0 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2-0 
 
 10 
 
 55. . . 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2-0 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 40 and less .... 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 All riveted joints to have an efficiency of at least 60 per cent. 
 
 Tanks of greater capacity than given above shall be of material of suf- 
 ficient thickness to safely hold the contents, and proportionately heavier. No 
 vertical tanks shall be more than 30 feet high. 
 
 Section 51. With the approval of the Inspection Department having juris- 
 diction, tanks of copper or other suitable material may be used, if after 
 the necessary handling incident to installation they conform to the value 
 given above as to strength, rigidity, durability and tightness. 
 
 Section 52. Tanks shall be riveted, welded or brazed, and shall be 
 soldered, caulked or otherwise made tight in a mechanical and workmanlike 
 manner, and if to be used with a pressure discharge system shall safely 
 sustain a hydrostatic test at least double the pressure to which tank may be 
 subjected. Top of tank to be securely fastened to top ring, with joints of 
 equal tightness to those between rings. They shall be covered with asphaltum 
 or other non-rusting paint or coating. All pipe connections shall be made 
 through flanges or reinforced metal securely riveted, welded or bolted to 
 tank and made thoroughly tight. 
 
 Section 53. Tanks must be set upon a firm foundation, and outside tanks 
 when above ground, except portable tanks, must be electrically grounded. 
 
 Tanks more than one foot above the ground must have foundation and 
 supports of non-combustible materials, except wooden cushions; no com- 
 bustible material shall be permitted under or within ten feet of any above 
 ground outside storage tank. 
 
 Tanks containing crude petroleum shall be surrounded by an embank- 
 ment or wall of sufficient height to provide storage equal to one and a half 
 times the capacity of the tank. 
 
144 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Section 54. Stationary tanks inside buildings for the handling of liquids 
 of Classes II and III, where permitted in this ordinance, shall be made' of 
 soft galvanized iron, or tin plate suitable for the purposes. Cylindrical 
 tanks of 120 gallons or less capacity shall be made of material with a 
 minimum thickness of No. 20 gauge U. S. Standard; rectangular tanks of 
 800 gallons or less capacity shall be made of material with a minimum 
 thickness of No. 14 gauge U. S. Standard. Correspondingly heavier gauge 
 metal must be used for longer tanks. All joints must be locked, double 
 seamed or riveted. All joints must be soldered or made tight by some 
 equally satisfactory method. All such tanks shall be so located that the 
 pump or other drawing off device shall not be below the first floor, and the 
 floor for a radius of at least three feet from pump shall be of non-com- 
 bustible materials or covered with metal. Tanks similar to those given in 
 Section 50 may also be used, or original barrels or drum may be used 
 until contents are drawn, if substantially placed to prevent tipping or rolling, 
 with pump inserted through a close fitting connection in head or side. 
 
 Piping and Other Appurtenances 
 
 Section 55. All connections from tank 'to any house or sub-surface drainage 
 system shall be so arranged as to prevent the flow of inflammable liquid to 
 any such system or the leakage of any inflammable gases from such fluid, 
 or properly constructed inflammable fluid collectors shall be provided in such 
 connection. 
 
 Section 56. All underground storage systems or Class I liquids, in which 
 the tank may contain inflammable gases, shall have at least a i-inch vent 
 pipe, run from top of tank to a point outside of the building and acceptable 
 to the Inspection Department having jurisdiction, but which shall end at least 
 12 feet above level of source of supply and in a location remote from fire 
 escapes and never nearer than three feet, measured horizontally and 
 vertically, from any window or other opening, the tank vent pipe shall ter- 
 minate in a goose-neck protected in the outer end by a 30 x 30 mesh or equiva- 
 lent brass wife screen. Or a combined vent and filling pipe, so equipped 
 and located as to vent the tank at all times, even during filling operations, 
 may be used. The vent pipes from two or more tanks may be connected 
 to one upright, provided they be connected at a point at least one foot 
 above level of source of supply. 
 
 Section 57. All drawing-off pipes terminating inside of any building shall 
 have valve at the discharge end; when delivery is by gravity, pipes shall 
 have valve, which shall preferably be of the automatically closing type, and 
 in addition must have emergency valve. 
 
 Section 58. Where tanks are above ground there shall be- a valve located 
 near the tank in each pipe. In case two or more tanks are cross-connected 
 there shall be a valve near each tank in each cross connection. 
 
 Section 59. Pumps delivering to or. taking supply from above ground 
 storage tanks shall be provided with valves on both suction and discharge 
 side of pump, and check valve when delivering to tank. 
 
 Section 60. Where underground tanks are used, all pipes carrying volatile 
 inflammable fluids, except in dry-cleaning establishments, shall pitch toward 
 tanks without any traps or pockets, and shall enter tank at the top. 
 
 Section 61. All pipes used in systems for inflammable liquids shall be 
 of standard full weight brass, galvanized iron or steel, with suitable brass 
 or galvanized malleable iron or steel fittings, or of double wall lead with an 
 inert gas in the annular spaces between wall at all times the inner pipe 
 contains inflammable liquid. No rubber nor other packings, and no flanges, 
 shall be used. If unions are used, at least one face must be of brass, with 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 145 
 
 close fitting conical joints. Litharge and glycerin, shellac or other suitable 
 material shall be used on pipe joints. Outside piping must be protected against 
 any mechanical injury when within 5 feet of ground level. Inside piping 
 must be rigidly supported. 
 
 Section 62. Defective and leaking piping must be made tight immediately 
 or replaced. 
 
 Section 63. Piping carrying Class I and II liquids, unless without joints 
 or connections, shall not extend through any room which contains any 
 open light or fire. 
 
 Section 64. The end of the filling pipe for underground storage tanks 
 for Class I and II liquids shall be carried to an approved location outside 
 of any building, but not within 5 feet of any entrance door, or cellar opening, 
 and shall be set in an approved metal box with cover which shall be kept 
 locked except during filling operations; this filling pipe shall be closed by a 
 screw cap. A 30 x 30 mesh or equivalent brass screen strainer shall be 
 placed in the supply end of filling pipe. 
 
 Section 65. Deliveries of inflammable liquids of Class I and II, where 
 practical, shall be made directly to the storage tank through the filling pipe 
 by means of a hose or pipe between the filling pipe and barrel, tank wagon 
 or tank car from which such liquid is being drawn. 
 
 Section 66. Except as permitted in Section 68, inflammable liquids shall 
 be drawn from tanks by pumps so constructed as to prevent leaking or waste 
 splashing, or by some other system approved by the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction, with controlling apparatus and piping so arranged as to 
 allow control of the amount of discharge and prevent leakage or discharge 
 inside the building by any derangement of the system. When inside a 
 building, the pump or other drawing-off device shall be located on or above 
 the grade floor, preferably near an entrance or other well-ventilated place. 
 
 Section 67. Except as permitted in Section 68, no tanks, drum nor other 
 containers inside a building, or discharging inside a building, shall be 
 provided with a faucet or other bottom-drawing device which will permit 
 the gravity flow of liquids inside the building. Pipe shall not terminate at 
 any point lower than the level of source of supply. 
 
 Section 68. The Inspection Department having jurisdiction shall permit 
 the storage and gravity flow of inflammable liquid in refineries and in manu- 
 facturing and jobbing plants where the nature of the manufacturing process 
 requires such storage and flow, and also the storage and gravity flow of 
 commodities of Classes II and III in stores, plants and establishments, where 
 the nature of the liquid will not permit pumping. Provided that the contents 
 of tanks holding Class I liquid shall be sufficient only for one day's opera- 
 tion and such storage shall be in rooms as called for in Section 29. 
 
 Section 71. Pumps must be equipped with a pressure gauge for oil and 
 the system shall be so arranged that the oil pressure cannot at any time 
 exceed 60 pounds, a relief valve to be provided to return surplus oil back 
 to the supply tank when the pressure exceeds this quantity. 
 
 If receivers, accumulators or standpipes are provided, they must be so 
 arranged that the oil may drain back to the supply tank. 
 
 Section 78. Containers of petroleum Class I and II liquids shall be painted 
 red and be conspicuously lettered in black, " Dangerous Keep Lights and 
 Fires Away and Store Outside Building." Containers of Class III liquids 
 shall be painted green and have conspicuously marked in white letters, " In- 
 flammable Liquid Keep Fire Away and Store Outside Building." It shall 
 be a misdemeanor to keep or place the above mentioned liquids in containers 
 other than those marked as designated, or to use the containers for any other 
 
146 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 liquids or substances than those specified, or fail to keep their exterior clean 
 so that coloring and lettering are easily distinguishable. 
 
 Garages 
 
 Section 85. A garage shall be construed to mean a building in which are 
 housed, for rent, care, demonstration, storage or sale, self-propelled vehicles 
 or other wheeled machines, containing in the tanks thereof inflammable 
 liquids for fuel or power; also all parts of the building and all adjoining 
 structures or buildings not cut off by an unpierced fire wall. 
 
 Section 86. No garage shall be allowed or kept in any building used for 
 a school, place of assembly or detention, hotel, apartment, tenement or lodging 
 house, or within 50 feet of any school, place of assembly or detention. Any 
 building erected or remodeled as a garage and occupied in part as an office 
 building, manufacturing establishment, warehouse or store, shall have such 
 parts entirely cut off from the portion used as a garage, by unpierced fire 
 walls at least 12 inches thick and by fireproof floors, and shall be provided 
 with adequate means of exit independent of that used for the garage. All 
 windows in the first two floors above parts used as a garage shall be provided 
 with wired-glass windows in metal frames. 
 
 Section 88. All garages erected in the future, except as hereinafter specified 
 as private garages, shall be of fireproof construction. All trim or other 
 interior finish must be of metal or of other non-inflammable material approved 
 by the Building Inspector. Floor finish shall be smooth and of concrete, 
 brick or other incombustible material. 
 
 Section 89. No rooms, nor open or closed spaces of any character, shall 
 be permitted below the flcor level in any building erected or used for garage 
 purposes, and no floor shall be entirely below the street level. 
 
 All elevators and stairways in garages shall be enclosed with fireproof 
 materials. All openings in stair or elevator enclosures shall be protected 
 with automatic fire doors approved for this purpose. 
 
 Section 91. Where buildings are now being used for garage purposes, 
 in which wooden floors .exist, sufficiently large and fluid-tight metallic drip 
 pans shall be placed under all motor vehicles, and all floors shall be well 
 cleaned and mopped each day with a strong alkali or other non-inflammable 
 grease solvent solution. 
 
 Section 92. All automobile garages or shelters housing not more than 
 three motor vehicles shall be known as private garages. A private garage 
 located within 10 feet of any other building must be of fireproof construction 
 as called for in Section 88. If more than 10 feet from any building, it must 
 be built of non-combustible material throughout, except that, if outside the 
 fire limits and not closer than 30 feet to any building, it may be constructed 
 of combustible material, except walls, floors on which automobiles are kept 
 and roof coverings, which shall be non-combustible. All portions of the 
 building used for other purposes must be cut off from such storage place 
 by unpierced fireproof walls and floors. 
 
 Section 93. The heating for all buildings used for garage purposes must 
 be done by steam or hot water. All boiler or other furnaces, forges or 
 other exposed fires, lights or spark-emitting devices or machines, and all 
 repair shops, if on or below the topmost floor where Class I liquids are 
 present, must be in a room separated from all other parts of the garage by 
 an i unpierced fire wall at least eight (8) inches thick. Such appliances may 
 be kept in the garage if in a fireproof room 8 feet above the top-most floor 
 where Class I liquids are present, provided all doors and openings between 
 such rooms and other parts of the garage are provided with standard self- 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 147 
 
 closing fire doors kept closed. All such rooms must be ventilated at floor 
 line as described in Sectipn 97. Lighting shall be as given in Section 42. 
 No flame lights shall be" allowed lit on automobiles in a garage except 
 immediately after entering and immediately before leaving the garage. 
 
 Section 94. All reserve and storage of Class I and II liquids must be 
 stored in underground tanks. No Class I liquid shall be kept inside a 
 garage except that contained in the reservoirs of motor vehicles and in the 
 measuring pumps used for filling; provided, however, that there may be 
 in each garage one or more approved portable wheeled tanks not exceeding 
 sixty gallons capacity, to lie used for transferring such liquids from the 
 storage tank. The reservoirs of motor vehicles shall be filled directly through 
 hose from pump attached to such portable tank, or by hose coupled to a 
 permanent filling station connected with the main storage tank. No transfer 
 of Class I or II liquids in any garage shall be made with open containers. 
 Hose for use in connection with the permanent filling station or portable 
 tank shall be of such design and material as to prevent leakage. The port- 
 able wheeled tank must be as described in Section 43. 
 
 The use of gasoline for cleaning any parts of an automobile is prohibited, 
 except in a special room as provided- for in Section 29, and ventilated as 
 given in Section 37, and used for this purpose only, or outside of any 
 building and at least 10 feet from any opening in any buildings. 
 
 Section 95. All underground tanks shall comply with the requirements 
 given in Sections 46, 50, 51 and 52. 
 
 Section 96. Pumps and other drawing-off appliances shall b^e as given in 
 Sections 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65 and 66. The drawing of any inflam- 
 mable liquid within dangerous proximity to exposed flame or fire, or while 
 any automobile engine or motor is being run in the room, is expressly 
 prohibited. 
 
 Section 97. Rooms containing Class I and II liquids shall have openings 
 for ventilation, of at least 30 square inches, along at least two walls and at 
 floor level. These openings shall connect by incombustible flues to the 
 outside air at a point not closer than 3 feet to any window or door opening. 
 They shall be provided with 2x2 mesh brass wire screen on the inside of 
 the wall, and unless laid with a downward slant direct to the outside air, shall 
 conduct to and through a sparkless fan, run continuously, which shall be of 
 sufficient size to completely change the air volume every ten minutes. Dis- 
 charge outlets of vent pipes shall be provided with 20 x 20 mesh (or equiva- 
 lent) brass wire screens. 
 
 Section 98. All garages must be kept clean. Grease, oil or paint-soaked 
 rags, waste or other combustible materials of like character, shall be kept 
 in approved self-closing metallic receptacles having metallic legs at least 
 3 inches high and securely braced. These receptacles shall be kept safely clear 
 of all combustible surroundings and their contents shall be safely disposed 
 of at least once each day. Oily and greasy clothing shall be cared for in 
 non-combustible and well-vented closets, safely located. 
 
 Section 99. Class III liquids may be kept inside the buildings, if stored 
 as given in Section 54. The style of can and its location must be approved 
 
 Section 100. Dry sand, ashes, chemical extinguishers and other approved 
 fire retardants shall be provided in such quantities and with such pails, scoops 
 and other fire appliances as may be directed. A reasonable quantity of such 
 loose, non-combustible absorbents as mentioned above shall be kept convenient 
 for use in case of excessive oil waste or overflow. 
 
 Section 101. There shall be no direct connection between any garage 
 waste basin, sink, floor drain or waste and any house drainage or sewer 
 system. All such drains or waste mains to sewer system shall have inter- 
 
148 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 INTERCEPTING TANK FOR RETAINING PETROLEUM 
 
 THROUGH WHICH ALL SURFACE DRAINAGE MUST PASS 
 BEFORE ENTERING THE SEWER 
 
 AS RECOMMENDED BY THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. 
 
 
 
 LONGITUDINAL. SECTION 
 
 CH -\feffTiLXTi7fZ ~f>~fS 
 
 SECTIONAL. PLAN 
 FIG. 2. ' 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 149 
 
 cepting grease, oil and inflammable liquid traps or separators which will 
 completely separate such substance from water and sewage and allow of 
 their safe and convenient removal. Such traps shall be ventilated in the 
 same way as is required for tanks holding Class I liquids. 
 
 Section 102. It shall be the duty of the owner or manager of all garages 
 to maintain in at least three conspicuous places on each floor of a garage 
 a placard giving a copy of all ordinances affecting the handling of inflam- 
 mable liquids in garages. 
 
 In recent years, practically all the large cities have had violent 
 explosions in sewers ; the evidence in many of these cases has been 
 such as to indicate that these were caused by an accumulation of 
 gasolene vapor or vapors from other oils. Several cities have rigid 
 requirements to prevent the discharge into sewers. Fig. 2 gives 
 details of a large separator designed in England and Figures 3 and 
 4 give details of one in use in New York. The requirements of 
 this last are as follows: 
 
 Oil Separators of the New York Fire Department 
 
 BILL OF MATERIAL. See Figure 3. Two 3/1 6-inch steel tanks rivetted to- 
 gether, composed of one large tank, 24 inches by 30 inches by 60 inches, 
 having rivetted to its intake end, the small tank 22 * inches by 12 inches by 
 34 inches (end of large tank comprises division wall). Top of small tank 
 on same level with that of large one. 
 
 SMALL TANK. Either a steel or cast-iron hopper bottom rivetted to small 
 tank, about 9 inches deep by 22% inches by 12 inches. 
 3-inch plug valve (brass plug iron body), 
 box wrench to fit 3-inch plug valve. 
 
 connecting nipple (to connect 3-inch plug valve to hopper bottom). 
 4-inch threaded I. P. flange rivetted to tank. 
 4-inch by 6-inch nipple (threaded for its entire length). 
 4-inch by 6-inch I. P. S. nipple. 
 4-inch Tucker connection. 
 4-inch cast- x iron elbow. 
 One 5/1 6-inch steel plate cover, tw\. afting rings connected. 
 2-inch x 2-inch x ^inch steel angles rivetted all around inside near top for 
 cover. 
 
 One i/i 6-inch asbestos gasket. 
 
 LARGE TANK. One 2-inch threaded I. P. flange rivetted to large tank (for 
 vent pipe). 
 
 One 2-inch x 7-inch nipple, I. P. S. 
 One 2-inch elbow, 90 deg. 
 
 One i % -inch threaded I. P. S. flange rivetted to tank. 
 One i % -inch stop cock, for iron pipe (brass plug iron body). 
 One i %-inch x f%-inch nipple. 
 
 One box wrench to fit i%-inch plug valve. \ 
 
 One 4-inch I. P. S. flange rivetted to tank (outlet). 
 One 4-inch x 5-inch nipple I. P. S. 
 One 4-inch C. I. standard T-fitting. . 
 One 4-inch C. I. plug foi T-fitting. 
 
 One piece 4-inch wrought iron pipe, 29 inches long, threaded both ends. 
 One 4-inch C. I. standard 45-deg. elbow. 
 
 One 4-inch C. I. standard plug for 45-deg. elbow (%-inch hole drilled in top 
 for syphon breaker). 
 
150 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 One s/i6-inch steel plate cover with 2%-inch x 2%-inch x %-inch stiffener 
 attached. 
 
 2%-inch x 2%-inch x i'i mch angle rivetted to inside, all around near top for 
 cover. 
 
 Two lifting rings rivetted to cover. 
 
 One i/i 6-inch asbestos gasket. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS. 3/i6-inch steel throughout, except covers. 
 
 Rivets %-inch diameter, 2 inches C. to C. 
 
 No soldering allowed. 
 
 Electric or acetylene welding permitted. 
 
 All joints to be caulked, where rivetted. 
 
 To be gas and water tight. 
 
 All flanges to be rivetted or electric or acetylene welded to shell. 
 
 Outside of separator to be coated with a rust proof coating. 
 
 INSTALLATION. -Oil separators installed in any building where volatile in- 
 flammable fluids are used, must be arranged to be readily accessible; where 
 located underground an iron, brick or concrete manhole must be provided 
 with an iron or flagstone cover. They must not receive the discharge of house, 
 outsidf cjurt and area drains, toilets or leaders. 
 
 They must in all cases be connected by a Y-branch fitting to the house sewer 
 on the public sewer side of house trap. 
 
 No separate trap need be provided on drain entering oil separators, but a 
 running trap must be provided for each floor drain discharging to the separator. 
 
 When fixture of floor drains are located on any floor above the first, the 
 lines to which they are connected must extend in full calibre at least one foot 
 above the rc-of coping, and well away from all shafts, windows, chimneys or 
 other ventilating openings. When less than 4 inches in diameter they must 
 be enlarged to 4 inches at a point not less than one foot below the roof sur- 
 face by an increaser not less than 9 inches long, and the traps of all fixtures 
 vented. ( 
 
 Relief pipes must be piovided at least 2 inches in diameter and carried inde- 
 pendently above the roof and there capped with down-turned elbow equipped 
 with fire screen. 
 
 Drainage from washstand in garages shall not be permitted to flow into 
 sump pits. 
 
 AH piping must be left exposed until after the Fire Department inspections. 
 
 Oil separator pit should be so located to prevent floor drainage flowing into 
 it, or else have concrete curbing around it. 
 
 When a pit is below the ground water table and there is a possibility of 
 water being in the pit, the lining should be made impervious. 
 
 (See Figure 4 for Underground Installations.) 
 
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 151 
 
 
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 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
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STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 153 
 
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STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 155 
 Dry Cleaning* 
 
 Section 103. "Dry cleaning" shall be known as the art, act or process 
 of cleaning or renovating wearing or other apparel, clothes and other fabrics 
 or textiles, or any other things with any inflammable liquid. " Sponging " 
 shall be the removal of dirt, grease, etc., by local application of inflammable 
 liquid as applied by tailors and others. 
 
 Section 104. Sponging is prohibited in shops, dwellings, enclosures, yards 
 and all other places, unless carried on through the application of such 
 inflammable liquids from an automatically closing safety can of not more 
 than one (i) quart capacity, and the use for sponging of such liquid from, or 
 in, open pans or vessels shall be a misdemeanor. 
 
 Section 105. Sponging is prohibited in any room not provided with safe 
 means of exit dnect lo the outside of the building and shall not be executed 
 or applied in any room or enclosure containing any open or naming fire 
 or light nor within ten feet of any such light, self-heating iron or other 
 spark or flame producing appliance. During alt such application, and for 
 one half hour thereafter, two direct openings for ventilation and air circu- 
 lation must be provided, preferably on opposite sides of the room and near 
 the floor level. 
 
 Section 107. Buildings used for dry cleaning purposes shall be constructed 
 of non-combustible material, shall not be more than one story or 16 feet 
 high, without a basement or other open space below the floor, shall not 
 be used for other occupancy, and shall be at least 10 feet from other 
 buildings or a public thoroughfare. All floors shall be of concrete or other 
 non-combustible material. All doors shall have raised sills at least 10 inches 
 above the highest point of floor, and no other opening, except for ventilators, 
 shall be less than 12 inches above same point. In wash rooms, only the 
 necessary appliances for washing, extracting and redistilling shall be per- 
 mitted. No direct opening shall be permitted between wash room and dry 
 room. No combustible material shall be permitted in the construction of 
 dry rooms or any racks or other appurtenances. All steam or hot water 
 pipes for drying purposes must be protected by wire screens or otherwise 
 so as to prevent contact of pipes and inflammable goods. All windows, 
 doors or other openings within 100 feet of exposing openings or combustible 
 structures or materials shall be provided with wired glass in metal frames 
 or fireproof shutters, doors or covers. All doors, windows, shutters, screens, 
 grills and barrel openings shall be arranged for ready opening from either 
 side in case of an emergency. Inter-communicating openings shall be pro- 
 vided with standard automatic closing fire doors kept closed except when 
 passing through. All rooms shall have a steam extinguishing system or 
 where such fire extinguishing agent is not available an approved system 
 using a fire deterrent chemical or gas. One approved hand chemical ex- 
 tinguisher shall be provided for each 500 square feet of floor area. 
 
 Section 108. A vent opening of at least 20 square inches area shall be 
 provided at the floor level in each wash room and drying room, near each 
 machine and opposite to any door or other air inlet: such openings shall 
 be covered with 2x2 mesh No. 16 galvanized wire web and shall be kept 
 clear of all obstructions. From the vent opening a flue of at least 20 
 square inches area and of non-combustible materials, built into the wall or 
 floor or securely fastened thereto and free from mechanical injury, shall 
 conduct to and through a sparkless exhaust fan, to be run continuously, and 
 which shall be of sufficient size to completely change the air volume every 
 
 * Part of Suggested Ordinance issued by the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers. References by section number are to the sections on pages 136 to 149. 
 
'56 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 five minutes. All discharge outlets of vent pipes shall be provided with i2<x 12 
 mesh or equivalent wire screen and located without hazard to surrounding 
 property. Skylights and windows must be of wired glass in metal frames and 
 provided with fusible link connecting to an automatically closing device, 
 and shall be covered with 12x12 mesh or equivalent brass wire screen to 
 prevent spark or other fire entrance. Necessary precautions shall be taken 
 to prevent the clogging or in any way the stopping of air passage through 
 such wire screens. 
 
 Section 109. Heating shall be done by steam or hot water. No steam 
 boiler, furnace nor exposed fire, nor any electric dynamo nor motor, nor 
 other spark emitting device, shall be allowed in any washing, drying or 
 distilling room, or in line with vapor travel therefrom. All artificial lighting 
 shall be in accordance with Section 42. 
 
 Section no. In each wash room there shall be provided a drain or con- 
 nection to the sewer, at least 4 inches in diameter, provided with a U pipe 
 forming a water seal to prevent the passage of inflammable vapor, and with 
 inlet pipe in the form of ah inverted U, or a siphon, with end at least 2 
 inches above the floor lever, %-inch air inlet 3 inches above floor level, and 
 top of siphon 8 inches above floor level. 
 
 Section in. All dry cleaning, washing, extracting and redistilling shall 
 be carried on in closed machines, which shall be fluid tight. Washers 
 shall have hinged door and shall be arranged so that in case of an explosion 
 the door will automatically close. The transfer of all liquids shall be 
 through continuous piping, and all outlet or drain lines shall be drained by 
 gravity to settling or storage tanks. No dry cleaning liquid shall be settled 
 in any open or unprotected vessels or tanks. All piping and all metallic 
 parts of each machine shall be properly grounded by at least No. 10 copper 
 insulated wire to a water pipe or other grounded devices. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. Substances like cotton, linen, wool and silk become elec- 
 trified when moved quickly in gasoline, and the gasoline, a bad conductor, 
 accumulates the electricity and when equalization arrives produces sparks 
 which ignite the gases. 
 
 Section 112. All reserve and storage stocks of such liquids shall be 
 kept and handled as given in Sections 46, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 
 64, 65 and 66. 
 
 Section 113. All goods removed from washer to extractors must be kept 
 in tight metal pans with under side of bottom covered with wood, and 
 no goods or washed stocks shall be taken from wash room till washing liquid 
 has been removed by. the extractor and all dried goods shall be removed from 
 extractors at close of operation. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. It is reported that many fires start at the centrifugal 
 extractor, from friction or sparks generated by the brake; daily attention 
 should be paid to this and care taken to have complete ventilation at that 
 point. 
 
 Section 114. Settling tanks shall be constructed, located and vented 
 essentially as given for the storage tanks. At the close of the day's opera- 
 tions, all liquid contained in washers, extractors or stills, or otherwise, shall 
 be returned to the stock or settling tanks. The location of all tanks buried 
 or otherwise, and their contents and hazards, shall be plainly marked by 
 signs as approved by the Chief of the Fire Department. 
 
 r-...i . >-'i : ... 
 
 I.i.:'. . ; : .: ,,"*; " , . ..I 
 
REGULATIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION 
 AND INSTALLATION OF DIP TANKS* 
 
 The process of dipping articles in tanks containing inflammable mixtures 
 should be carried on in a detached building used for no other purpose, 
 located at a safe distance from other properly. It is impossible to entirely 
 eliminate the din-tank hazard where inflammable liquids are used, even 
 though all practicable safeguards are provided. 
 
 If the dipping process is permitted inside the main building or in an 
 adjoining building, the room in which the hazard exists should preferably 
 be on the lowest floor, but not below the grade line, nor on a floor imme- 
 diately above a cellar or basement, and should be used only for dipping 
 processes. Side walls and ceiling of the dipping room to be of fireproof 
 construction at least equivalent to eight inches of brick. There should be 
 a standard fire wall cutting off the room from the rest of the plant; the 
 floor should be fireproof and waterproof; it should pitch to a point at which 
 is located a drain pipe leading outside the building and terminating at a 
 point where liquids flowing therefrom will not endanger surrounding property. 
 
 The drain pipe to be at least 6 inches in diameter and to have a coarse 
 strainer (about %-inch mesh) at floor. No drain-pipe connection shall be 
 made to a sewer. The floor should be 6 inches lower than the floors of 
 adjoining rooms, or the thresholds should be raised that distance and parti- 
 tions should be flashed so as to guard against inflammable liquids flowing 
 to adjoining rooms. Metal covering for floor is not advised. The room 
 should be well ventilated at top and bottom by suitable screened openings. 
 
 NOTE. In large dip-tank installations a more positive system of ventilation 
 will be necessary. 
 
 When practicable a metal hood should be located directly over each tank; 
 hood to terminate in a metal pipe discharging into a properly constructed 
 chimney used for no other purpose. The hood to extend well over the sides 
 and ends of the tank and to be sufficiently low to prevent water from being 
 thrown into the tank from automatic sprinklers. The hood and pipe should 
 be designed to take off flames from the burning liquid in case the automatic 
 cover should fail to operate. 
 
 Requirements for Dip Tanks 
 
 1. CONSTRUCTION. To be constructed in a substantial manner of steel or 
 of cast iron. The edges of tank, tracks (when used in connection with 
 covers), and all working parts, to be so constructed and shielded as to protect 
 same against mechanical injury and accumulation of drippings sufficient to 
 interfere with the operation of the cover. 
 
 2. COVERS. Covers may be either hinged or sliding on tracks and should 
 be normally held open by approved types of metal chains containing fusible 
 links, one such link to be near top of tank and one at the ceiling above the 
 tank. Such covers may be constructed either of metal, not less than No. 
 12 U. S. gauge, reinforced by an angle iron frame, or of two-ply %-inch 
 tongued and grooved board nor over 6 inches in width and covered on all 
 surfaces with lock-jointed tin, and in all cases such covers must overlap the 
 side and ends of tank at least two inches. 
 
 All covers to be so designed and installed that operation will be automatic 
 * Issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, 1913. 
 
 157 
 
158 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 and secure positive closing without danger of sticking when released by 
 action of heat bn the fusible links' or by manual operation. Covers to be 
 closed when tanks are not in use. Hinged covers to be secured with strong 
 metal hinges offset and protected against gumming. 
 
 Covers operating by gravity on tracks, to be provided with deep and wide 
 grooved wheels, properly shielded so as to prevent accumulation of drippings 
 on them or their tracks, and to be provided with a guard to prevent the 
 wheels leaving the tracks. The inclination of the tracks on this style of 
 gravity cover to be not less than % inch to the foot. 
 
 3. DRIP BOARDS. Each tank to be provided with drip boards to protect 
 working parts of cover and return all drippings to the tank. Boards to 
 be of incombustible material and readily permit of cleaning. 
 
 4. AGITATOR. Each tank containing liquids holding material in suspension 
 should be provided with an agitator or other facilities designed to effectively 
 prevent sediment accumulating and hardening on the bottom of the tank. 
 
 5. OVERFLOW. Tank to have an iron or steel overflow pipe leading outside 
 of building to a cistern. Pipe to be without traps or unnecessary bends 
 and to lead as directly as possible to the cistern. This pipe to be at least 
 3 inches in diameter when the tank holds less than too gallons and increased 
 proportionately for larger tanks. Overflow to have a coarse strainer at 
 tank (about %-inch mesh). 
 
 6. DRAINS. Each tank should preferably be provided with a drain pipe of 
 sufficient size to empty tank in about sixty seconds. The drain to be pro- 
 vided with a valve capable of being operated both manually and automatically. 
 The valve opening should be at least 60 per cent larger than the cross 
 sectional area of the drain pipe. The operation of the valve should be 
 sufficiently positive to overcome any danger of sticking or clogging due to 
 the accumulation of sediment. The drain valve to be so designed that 
 when open, it will not interefere with the agitator, and so that the agitator 
 will effectually assist in keeping the passage to the drain valve clear of 
 sediment. Drain pipe to connect directly or through overflow pipe to a 
 cistern. 
 
 7. CISTERN. To be of sufficient size to hold the aggregate capacity of all 
 tanks emptying into it. To be detached at least thirty feet and located 
 in ground sloping down from buildings, or to be so arranged that any 
 overflow cannot endanger property; otherwise the cistern must have at 
 least twice the capacity of all the dip tanks draining into it, and be sub- 
 stantially constructed of masonry, or metal, so as to be watertight. Such 
 cisterns to be buried underground, covered and otherwise arranged to prevent 
 filling of same with water. A proper vent must also be provided. Overflow 
 and drain pipes to dip under water and terminate near bottom of cistern. 
 
 8. CARE AND ATTENDANCE. a. Heating to be done only by steam or hot 
 water. No steam boiler, furnace or exposed fire, nor any electric dynamo 
 or motor or other spark emitting device, to be allowed in any room used 
 for dipping processes or dangerously exposed thereto, or in line with vapor 
 travel therefrom. 
 
 b. No open light or flame shall be allowed in any such room, and for 
 electric lighting, lamps shall have keyless sockets and be protected by 
 vapor-tight outer globes. Switches shall be placed outside of room and 
 beyond the presence of ignitible vapors, and the whole shall be done accord- 
 ing td the National Electrical Code. 
 
 c. All 'such rooms to be provided with a high pressure steam line fed 
 from a boiler of sufficient capacity to admit of flooding the rooms with 
 steam in case of fire. Operating valves to be located outside building. Any 
 other method of protection judged to be equivalent may be used. 
 
REGULATIONS FOR THE INSTALLATION AND 
 
 USE OF INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 (GAS, GASOLINE, KEROSENE, FUEL OIL) 
 
 AND OF OIL BURNING EQUIPMENT* 
 
 Gas Engines 
 
 1. LOCATION OF ENGINES. (a) Should, whenever possible, be located on 
 the ground floor. 
 
 (b) In workshops or rooms where dust or inflammable flyings prevail, 
 the engine should be enclosed in a suitable compartment well ventilated to 
 the outer air at floor and ceiling. 
 
 -<c) If located on a wooden floor, the floor under and 24 inches outside of 
 the engine should be covered with metal. 
 
 2. PIPING. (a) Must be provided with a shut-off valve located in an 
 accessible place on the service side of the pressure regulator. 
 
 (b) Piping and connections shall be run as direct as possible and be 
 thoroughly tested before being placed in service. 
 
 3. IGNITER OR EXPLODER. Electric ignition only must be used. 
 
 NOTE. Hot tubes and any provision for their installation on engines are 
 prohibited. 
 
 4. MUFFLER OR EXHAUST POT.- (a) Exhaust pots must be placed on firm 
 foundations and mufflers and exhaust pots to be kept at least one foot from 
 woodwork or combustible materials. 
 
 (b) Exhaust pots of the closed type must be provided with plugged opening, 
 placed near the bottom and below the exhaust pipe connection. 
 
 5. GAS BAG OR PRESSURE REGULATOR.- (a) Gas bags, if used, must be 
 enclosed in a substantial gas-tight metal drum, of approved construction, 
 vented to the outer air through a pipe used for no other purpose. 
 
 (b) Where not otherwise provided for, regulator should be arranged with 
 
 an automatic gas shut-off to prevent the flow of gas into the room in case 
 engine shuts down from any cause. 
 
 6. EXHAUST PIPE. Exhaust pipe, whether direct from engine or from 
 mufflers, shall, where practicable, be carried above the roof of the building 
 in which the engine is contained, and above adjoining buildings. When 
 buildings are too high to make this practicable, the pipe shall end at least 
 10 feet from any wall opening. 
 
 Xo exhaust pipe shall be within 9 inches of any wooden lath and plaster 
 partition, ceiling, or other combustible material. 
 
 Where exhaust pipes pass through combustible partitions, they shall be 
 guarded by galvanized iron ventilated thimbles at least 12 inches larger in 
 diameter than the pipes, or by galvanized iron thimbles built in at least 8 
 inches of brickwork or other incombustible material. They shall not under 
 any circumstances be connected into chimneys or flues, except that the pipe 
 may pass up in flues used for no other purpose. No exhaust pipe shall 
 pass through any floor, nor through a roof having wooden framework or 
 covering. 
 
 NOTE. This pipe is liable to become very hot and should have additional 
 protection where dust or inflammable flyings are present. 
 
 * As recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 159 
 
i6o FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 7. ENGINE BASE. It is recommended that the base be constructed with a 
 groove or channel to prevent lubricating oil from 1 soaking into floors. 
 
 8. LUBRICATING OIL DRIPS AND PANS. (a) Must 'be provided when neces- 
 sary to prevent the spilling of oil. 
 
 (b) Cranks and other rapidly revolving or reciprocating parts must be 
 shielded to prevent throwing of oil. 
 
 9. NAME PLATES. Must be provided with a name plate giving the name 
 of the manufacturer and the trade name of the engine. 
 
 10. CARE AND ATTENDANCE. Due consideration to be given the cleaning of 
 the cylinder, valves and exhaust pipe as often as the quality of the fuel 
 may necessitate. , 
 
 Stationary Gasoline Engines 
 
 In addition to Nos. I, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 of the Gas Engine 
 regulations, the following are made for Stationary Gasoline Engines. 
 
 CAPACITY AND LOCATION OF TANKS. In closely built districts, or within 
 fire limits, tanks should be Iocate4 underground; see page 139. 
 
 GASOLINE FEED-CUP. (a) Must be arranged to prevent spattering, dripping 
 or exposure of gasoline during operation or with the engine at rest. 
 
 (b) Must be provided with an overflow connection draining to the supply 
 tank. 
 
 GASOLINE FEED-PUMP. Must be of approved type secure against leaks, with 
 check valves located as close to the pump as convenient. 
 
 EXHAUST PIPE. Water pockets in exhaust pipes to be provided with 
 suitable means for drainage. 
 
 ENGINE BASE. (a) Must not be used as a storage space for gasoline or 
 other material. 
 
 Portable Gasoline Engines 
 
 In this class are included so-called " self-contained " engines, mounted on 
 wheels, or on skids, or otherwise so arranged as to be conveniently moved 
 from place to place as the necessities of the service may demand. 
 
 These engines are considered more hazardous than stationary engines hav- 
 ing separate underground storage tanks, and should not be used as a substi- 
 tute for stationary engines. Where used, their hazards should be recognized 
 by the inspection department having jurisdiction, and the following rules 
 and precautions should be rigidly observed. 
 
 The requirements for Stationary Gasoline Engines apply except 
 as to the Tank, which are as follows. 
 
 SUPPLY TANKS. (a) Gravity feed from supply tank to engine is prohibited. 
 
 (b) Capacity of supply tank must not exteed the amount of fuel required 
 for 10 hours running full load. 
 
 (c) Must be so mounted as to be protected against wear due to jarring 
 and vibrations. 
 
 (d) Must be so located, or protected, as to avoid injury from coming in 
 contact with outside objects, as well as to prevent an excessive rise of tem- 
 perature of the gasoline, due to heat from cylinder or exhaust. 
 
 (e) All pipe connections should be made above the highest gasoline level 
 in the tank. 
 
 CARE AND ATTENDANCE. (a) Tanks to be filled during daylight hours only 
 and while the engine is not running. 
 
 (b) Tanks to be filled by means of approved safety cans and main gasoline 
 supply to be kept in approved receptables outside of buildings. 
 
 (c) Due consideration shall be given to the cleaning of the cylinder, 
 valves and exhaust pipe as often as the quality of the fuel may necessitate. 
 
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 161 
 
 (d) Portable engines should not be used where dust or inflammable flyings 
 prevail, nor be located near combustible material. 
 
 Stationary Kerosene and Fuel Oil Engines 
 
 These rules refer to engines using a fuel having a flash point above 
 100 degrees Fahr. (Abel-Pensky Flash Point Tester.) 
 
 In addition to Nos. I, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 of the Gas Engine 
 Regulations, the following are made for engines of this type. 
 
 STORAGE OR SUPPLY TANK AND PIPING. In closely built districts, or within 
 the fire limits, storage or supply tanks shall be located underground and tanks 
 and piping shall conform to the requirements given on pages 139 and 144. 
 
 Outside of closely built districts or outside of fire limits, aboveground storage 
 or supply tanks may be permitted, but such tanks and piping shall conform to 
 the requirements given on pages 141 and 144. 
 
 AUXILIARY TANKS. (a) Tanks or other reservoirs for providing a supply 
 of oil v.-ithin the building to have a capacity of not more than sixty gallons 
 when not of the pressure type. Tanks to be filled by means of an approved 
 pump connected by full weight iron or steel pipe to the main supply tank. 
 To be provided with an ample overflow pipe connected to main tank. Oil 
 to be drawn from auxiliary supply by means of an approved pump operated 
 by the engine. Gravity feed of oil to engine or pipe connections below 
 the oil level in auxiliary tanks having a capacity in excess of one gallon 
 is not to be permitted. 
 
 (b) Tanks or receivers of the pressure type to have a capacity of not 
 over ten gallons and to be provided with a reliable gauge. This tank also 
 to have an approved pressure relief set to operate at a safe pressure and 
 connected by an overflow pipe to the main -tank. These receivers, when 
 arranged with engine supply pipe connections below the oil level, to be so 
 arranged that the oil will automatically drain back to the main supply 
 tank when the engine stops, leaving not over one gallon, where necessary 
 for priming. In case the supply of oil for the engine by piping is connected 
 above the oil level the automatic release of the pressure without the draining 
 of the oil may be permitted. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. At a meeting of the National Fire Protection 
 Association in May, 1916, the above section on Auxiliary Tanks was 
 recommended to be changed as given below; action by the National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters had not been taken at the time this 
 book went to press: 
 
 Auxiliary Tanks, Standpipes, Receivers or Accumulators. 
 a. These may have a total capacity of 60 gallons, and may be of 
 an individual capacity not exceeding 60 gallons, if the containing 
 room is fireproof, not used for other manufacturing or storage pur- 
 poses and provided with standard wall opening protection on all 
 interior and exterior walls. 
 
 b. In room other than described above, the capacity shall not 
 exceed 10 gallons. 
 
 c. Filling shall be by continuous piping from the storage tank or 
 in small plants by piping from a filling inlet outside the room. 
 
 d. Shall be constructed in accordance with Class D, Containers 
 for Hazardous Liquids, except that gravity flow may be permitted 
 through continuous piping to the apparatus supplied. 
 
 e. Shall be provided with an ample overflow pipe connected to the 
 main tank ; if of the pressure type, this connection shall be from an 
 
1 62 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 approved pressure relief valve, set at not in excess of twice the 
 normal working pressure. 
 
 f. Except in fireproof rooms (see "a" above) or by special per- 
 mission of the inspection department having jurisdiction, provision 
 shall be made so that the oil will automatically drain back to the 
 supply tank upon shutting down the appliance served, leaving not 
 more than one gallon for priming, or in pressure systems that the 
 pressure will be automatically released. 
 
 IGNITION AND STARTING. (a) Torches for pre-heating the combustion cham- 
 ber of engines are to be used only while starting the engine, and the 
 pressure on the supply reservoir is to be released as soon as the engine is 
 " firing " properly. 
 
 (b) Torches used for initially heating the combustion chamber must be 
 of a type approved for use with kerosene. 
 
 (c) Gasoline if used for starting must be introduced as a fuel within 
 the cylinders of the engine and the supply of gasoline must not be more 
 than necessary to produce a proper temperature for operating the engine 
 with the heavier oils. 
 
 (d) The gasoline supply for engines using this liquid for starting must 
 be drawn from an outside underground storage tank by means of a hand 
 pump permanently attached to the engine, into an approved feed cup having 
 a capacity of not more than one pint and provided with an overflow to the 
 outside gasoline tank, or an approved reservoir of the " lift out " type 
 may be used provided the capacity is limited as in Rule 36c, but not to 
 exceed one gallon, and further that the retention of any gasoline after 
 starting is automatically prevented. 
 
 EXHAUST PIPE. Water pockets in exhaust pipes to be provided with suit- 
 able means for drainage. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. The above regulations are to lessen the haz- 
 ard, and are not based on the relative reliability of the machine 
 for operation purposes; for use where great reliability is neces- 
 sary, as in water-works plants, additional requirements are 
 necessary, covering the ability to start quickly and operate 
 continuously under varying load. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL OIL BURNING EQUIPMENTS FOR 
 OTHER THAN HOUSEHOLD PURPOSES* 
 
 Apparatus using oil for fuel, however safeguarded, introduces a distinct 
 increase in hazard which should be recognized. 
 
 Where used, the following rules should be rigidly observed. 
 
 All oil used for fuel purposes under these rules shall show a flash lest 
 of not less than 150 degrees Fahrenheit. (Abel-Pensky Flash Point Tester.) 
 This flash point corresponds closely to 160 degrees F. (Tagliabue Open Cup 
 Tester), which may be used for rough estimations of the flash point. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. In the regulations for Fuel Oil Engines (see page 
 161) as revised in 1915, the National Board of Fire Underwriters 
 adopted 100 degrees Fahr. as the minimum allowed for fuel oil. 
 At the meeting of the National Fire Protection Association in May, 
 1916, it was recommended that the regulations for Fuel Oil Equip : 
 ment be changed accordingly ; final action has not been taken by the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 * Abstracted from regulations of National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
FUEL OIL EQUIPMENTS 163 
 
 CAPACITY AND LOCATION OF TANKS. a. In closely built up districts or 
 within fire limits tanks to be located underground and tanks and piping are to 
 be as given in the requirements on pages 139 and 144. 
 
 Outside of closely built up districts or outside of fire limits, above-ground 
 storage tanks may be permitted, provided drainage away from burnable prop- 
 erty in case of breakage of tanks is arranged for or suitable dikes built 
 around the tanks. 
 
 When above-ground tanks are used all piping must be arranged so that 
 in case of breakage of piping the oil will not be drained from tanks. This 
 requirement prohibits the use of gravity feed from storage tanks. Above- 
 ground tanks of less than 1,000 gallons capacity without dikes may be per- 
 mitted in case suitable housings for the protection of the tanks 'against 
 injury are provided. 
 
 Some device for indicating the level of the oil in the tank is desirable. 
 Where used, such attachment shall be connected through substantial fittings 
 so as to minimize exposure of the oil, and devices the breakage of which 
 will allow the escape of oil, must not be used. 
 
 Suitable filters or strainers for the oil should be installed and preferably 
 be located in supply line before reaching pump. Filter to be arranged so 
 as to be readily accessible for cleaning. 
 
 Feed Pumps must be of approved design, secure against leaks. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. At a meeting of the National Fire Protection 
 Association in May, 1916, the requirement for Pumps was recom- 
 mended to be changed as given below ; action by the National Board 
 of Fire Underwriters had not been taken at the time this book went 
 to press: 
 
 Pressure Delivery Systems. a. Delivery from tank to burn- 
 ers may be direct or through receivers, accumulators or stand- 
 pipe. 
 
 b. Must be by a substantially constructed discharge device of 
 approved design, which will prevent the delivery or leakage of 
 liquid when not in use. 
 
 c. Must be provided with safety reliefs, which will prevent the 
 accumulation of pressure in excess of twice the normal working 
 pressure ; such reliefs to be of a design which will not discharge 
 inflammable liquid into the open air. 
 
 d. Must be of a design that when delivering to a system of several 
 individual oil burning equipments, pressure will be maintained on 
 the piping inside the building only when the equipment is in actual 
 use. Or shall be so equipped that a flow in excess of the normal 
 discharge of any individual oil burning equipment will result in 
 automatically shutting off the power producing the pressure or 
 cutting off supply to the piping within the building supplying that 
 equipment. 
 
 Glass gauges, the breakage of which would allow the escape of oil, are 
 to be avoided. If their use is necessary, they should have substantial pro- 
 tection or be arranged so that oil will not escape if broken. Pet cocks must 
 not be used on oil carrying parts of system. 
 
 Readily accessible shut-off valves to be provided in the supply lirfe as near 
 to the tank as practicable, and additional shut-offs to be installed in the 
 main line inside building and at each oil consuming device. 
 
164 , FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Receivers or Accumulators, if used, must be designed so as to secure a 
 factor of safety of not less than 6. Must be subjected to a pressure test 
 of not less than twice the working pressure. The capacity of the oil chamber 
 must not exceed 10 gallons. To be equipped with pressure gauge. To be 
 provided with an automatic relief valve set to operate at a safe pressure 
 and connected by an overflow pipe to supply tank, and so arranged that 
 the oil will automatically drain, back to the supply tank immediately on 
 closing down the pump. 
 
 Standpipes, if used, shall not exceed 10 gallons capacity. To be of 
 substantial construction, equipped with an overflow, and so arranged that 
 the- oil will automatically drain back to the supply tank on shutting down 
 pump, leaving not over one gallon, where necessary, for priming, etc. If 
 vented, the opening should be at the top and may be connected with the 
 outside vent pipe from storage tank, above level of source of supply. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. At a meeting of the National Fire Protection 
 Association in May, 1916, the above section on Auxiliary Tanks was 
 recommended to be changed as given below ; action by the National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters had not been taken at the time this 
 book went to press: 
 
 Auxiliary Tanks, Standpipes, Receivers or Accumulators. 
 
 a. These may have a total capacity of 60 gallons, and may be of 
 an individual capacity not exceeding 60 gallons, if the containing 
 room is fireproof, not used for other manufacturing or storage pur- 
 poses and provided with standard wall opening protection on all 
 interior and exterior walls. 
 
 b. In room other than described above, the capacity shall not 
 exceed 10 gallons. 
 
 c. Filling shall be by continuous piping from the storage tank or 
 in small plants by piping from a filling inlet outside the room. 
 
 d. Shall be constructed in accordance with Class D, Containers 
 for Hazardous Liquids, except that gravity flow may be permitted 
 through continuous piping to the apparatus supplied. 
 
 e. Shall be provided with an ample overflow pipe connected to the 
 main tank ; if of the pressure type, this connection shall be from an 
 approved pressure relief valve, set at not in excess of twice the 
 normal working pressure. 
 
 f. Except in fireproof rooms (see "a" above) or by special per- 
 mission of the inspection department having jurisdiction, provision 
 shall be made so that the oil will automatically drain back to the 
 supply tank upon shutting down the appliance served, leaving not 
 more than one gallon for priming, or in pressure systems that the 
 pressure will be automatically released. 
 
 A committee of the Railway Fire Protection Association, in a 
 report made at the annual meeting in October, 1915, gave, in addi- 
 tion to the National Board regulations above, which they adopted, 
 the following requirements: 
 
 Gravity Systems should not be installed under any conditions, as they are 
 a menace to both life and property. 
 
 PUMPING SYSTEMS. Plate No. i shows the plan of a large storage tank with 
 auxiliary tank and pumping system, also the pump lines; and how this system 
 should be installed to give the proper protection and service where large 
 equipments are used. 
 
 I 
 
FUEL OIL EQUIPMENTS 
 
 165 
 
 PLAN 
 SATETY FUEL, OIL SYSTEM 
 
 BOILER A*> FUR^^lACE INSTALLATIONS 
 
 RALWAT FRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION 
 
 PLATE No. 1 
 
166 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 This equipment will apply to large furnace installations as well as to boiler 
 plants. 
 
 Plate No. 2 shows the detail of a steam pump equipment and how it should 
 be arranged to obtain the best service and protection. This arrangement will 
 also apply to rotary pumps with the exception of the. steam governor. The 
 order of the automatic appliances should be strictly adhered to. The steam 
 governor, controlling the pump direct from the cushion, should be set at a 
 pressure 25 per cent lower than the relief valve, so that the oil will not be 
 circulated through the relief valve unless the steam governor should become 
 inoperative. By placing the relief valve at this point, only cold oil is handled 
 by the pump or discharged back into the tank. 
 
 SAFEFY FUEL OIL STfSTEM 
 DLTA1LS--PUMP3 
 ran 
 
 RAIUAWY' FIRE PROTECTION AS30ClAnON 
 PLATE No. 2 
 
FUEL OIL EQUIPMENTS 
 
 The heater should be by-passed, so that in warm weather it will 
 under constant pressure. 
 
 The automatic drain valve is placed at the lowest point of the line, 
 absolute drainage can be secured. 
 
 167 
 
 not be 
 so that 
 
 PLATE No. 3 
 
i68 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 The discharge of the pump into the air receiver is at right angles to the 
 boiler or furnace supply. This is done to prevent throbbing and to maintain 
 uniform pressure on the line. 
 
 The gauge glass on the receiver should be protected by automatic shut-off 
 cocks in case of the glass breaking, and further it should be protected by 
 double brass casings in case the automatic cocks should fail to operate. 
 
 The automatic stop valve is then placed in the direct line to the boiler or 
 furnaces and is controlled by a gate valve before and after, so that the former 
 can be opened and cleaned in case of necessity without spilling oil on the 
 floor or emptying the fuel oil line. 
 
 Strainers should not be used anywhere in the lines, as they become clogged 
 and are a constant source of menace. No dirt will ever enter the lines if the 
 trouble is cured at the source. Large basket strainers placed in the manhole 
 or the receiving line of the fuel oil storage tank will remove dirt and foreign 
 
 PLATE No. 4 
 
FUEL OIL EQUIPMENTS 169 
 
 matter before it gets into the system and better satisfaction will be obtained 
 in the operation of the system and at less cost. 
 
 AIR PRESSURE SYSTEMS. Plates Nos. 3 and 4 show two types of Air Pressure 
 Systems, one with single tanks and the other with double tanks. While this 
 system is not approved by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, it is 
 undoubtedly the best =ystera from the point of service obtained in the use of 
 oil around the furnace. A steadier pressure is maintained upon the oil which 
 reduces to .1 minimum the necessity for regulation of the furnace burners; 
 there is under pressure a comparatively small amount of oil (not over a 
 day's capacity for the shops) and but little time is required each day to fill the 
 tanks for the day's run (the air maintaining a constant pressure). 
 
 The two plates mentioned show the storage and pressure tanks. The system 
 having two pressure tanks is to be used when a day's supply would exceed 
 a thousand gallons and the piping is so arranged that only one tank, at a 
 time is under pressure feeding the system. This is accomplished by a three- 
 way valve which will permit the operation of only one tank at a time. 
 
 The other system is designed for a single pressure tank, which can be rilled 
 during working hours should the oil run low. The piping therefore is so 
 arranged that if the pump should accidentally be allowed to run, the overflow 
 of the tank will be discharged back into the main supply tank. 
 
 In many instances these supply tanks are filled by gravity from the main 
 storage tanks, but this has proved unsatisfactory. If the connection is per- 
 manent between the main tanks and the pressure tanks, and the latter are 
 not properly vented, the supply of oil in the storage tanks as well as that in 
 the pressure tanks is liable to be discharged into the buildings. It is recom- 
 mended, therefore, that no direct connection be made between these tanks and 
 the storage tanks. 
 
 Plate No. 5 shows how the pipe lines should be run in a large plant. This 
 applies not only to a pressure system, but also to a pumping system of any 
 kind. 
 
 All lines drain back to the source of supply. They are outside the building 
 as far as possible and ail piping is underground, except the short pipe leading 
 from the ground line to furnace. This should be adhered to as far as possible. 
 
 Plate No. 6 shows how the lines should be run in the buildings and to the 
 furnaces in order to obtain the maximum protection. This method of protec- 
 tion prevents the operator at a furnace from drawing more oil than the furnace 
 can properly consume; pictecting therefore both operator and building. The 
 method of testing the automatic stop valve as shown on this plate is for both 
 the master valve and the group control valve. 
 
 All underground lines in the building should be at least i inch in diameter. 
 The pipes leading from the underground lines to above the floor line should 
 be at least % inch in diameter and reduced by special reducing fittings and 
 extra heavy angle valves, to which the automatic valves should be fastened. 
 From there to the furnace the lines should be at least % inch. This gives 
 stability and strength to the installation, and insures against breakage of pip- 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 MOTOR 
 g AIR COMPRESSOR/OIL PUMP 
 
 
 " DISTRIBUTING- 
 TANKS 
 
 D 
 
 p 
 P 
 
 PLATE No. 5 
 
FUEL OIL EQUIPMENTS 
 
 171 
 
 PLATE No. 6 
 
172 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ing which would stop temporarily the operation of the plant. On account of 
 the small amount of piping required this heavier type of construction will 
 amply repay for the expenditure, and the extra cost would not be 5 per cent 
 on the installation. 
 
 There should be no connection anywhere in the building by which ail can 
 be drawn from the fuel Oil lines for lighting or other purposes. Such con- 
 nections are rarely free from leak and eventually the ground becomes saturated 
 with oil, which is liable to result in a serious fire. 
 
 If it is necessary to have a connection for filling portable tanks or for 
 similar purposes, this -should be done by a connection close to the pumps or 
 an individual hand pump connected to the storage tanks. 
 
 RIVET OR PORTABLE FORGE.- Plate No. 7 shows a rivet forge which is 
 properly protected and which should prevent accident in case of ruptured lines 
 or overfeeding of the furnace. Whether the tank be set vertically or hori- 
 zontally, the same method would be applied; but if a horizontal tank be used, 
 the method shown on Plate No. 8, as far as it applies to this tank or furnace, 
 is recommended. 
 
 PORTABLE. RIVET FURNACE-. 
 
 SHOWING AUTOMATIC STOP VALVE. 
 
 FOR 
 
 FUEL OIL SYSTEM 
 
 RAILWAY FIRL PROTECTION ASSOCIATION! 
 
 PLATE No. 7 
 
FUEL OIL EQUIPMENTS 
 
 173 
 
 PORTABLE WU>ING TORCHES. Plates Nos. 8 and 9 show a safe type of 
 torch that can be cheaply constructed, and will immediately stop the discharge 
 of oil in case of fracture in pipe or hose lines. 
 
 Torches using single hose lines (where the mixing is done close to the 
 tank) should not be used, for the reason that the operator has no control of 
 the oil in the hose line, and if the needle valve be leaky and the air turned 
 on, the oil in the hose pipe line will be immediately discharged. This is 
 liable to cause a serious fire or personal accident. 
 
 Plans of the proper burners to use in connection with the double hose line 
 for the burning of fuel oil will be .supplied upon application to the committee. 
 
 PLATE No. 8 
 
 In the discussion the following points were brought out : 
 Hose should not be used if it is possible to use metal piping for 
 any connections on oil tanks or oil burning equipment. Metal 
 hoods, of ample proportions and properly vented through the roof, 
 should be provided over furnaces where necessary or where there 
 is danger from a flash, or flare. Furnaces, wherever possible, 
 should be located in non-combustible buildings, must be on non- 
 combustible floors and a safe distance away from inflammable 
 
174 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 building construction or other material; wooden columns or win- 
 dows, if 'necessary, to be covered or shielded with metal. 
 
 PLATE No. 9 
 
FUEL OIL EQUIPMENTS 175 
 
 OIL CONVEYOR OR CARRIERS* 
 
 STEAMERS, ETC. a. Steamers, barges or vessels loading or discharging oil 
 in bulk, shall not load or discharge at wharves other than those used by 
 the oil company, and such wharves shall be well isolated from all burnable 
 property or wharfage. 
 
 b. There shall be a gate valve immediately at the point in the pipe line 
 where connection is made with the hose leading to the ship for the purpose 
 of shutting off the oil, and there shall be another gate valve in this line of 
 pipe at a distance of at least 10 feet back from the wharf, where it will 
 be readily accessible for the purpose of shutting the oil off in event of 
 failure on the part of the valve first mentioned. 
 
 c. A tight connection shall be made with the hose length at the wharf by 
 means of a carefully threaded coupling, to prevent leakage and accumulation 
 of oil around the piers. 
 
 d. Lights. No fire nor open lights to be allowed on the vessel while at 
 the wharf. 
 
 FUEL OIL APPARATUS FOR COOKING AND HEATING 
 FOR HOUSEHOLD USE* 
 
 The use of oil as fuel for domestic purposes is regarded from the insur- 
 ance viewpoint as more hazardous than the use of ordinary fuel, such as 
 coal, wood and coke. 
 
 Where these systems are used their hazards should be recognized and the 
 following rules and precautions should be observed. All oil used for fuel 
 under these rules shall show a flash test of not less than ,100 Fahr. (Abel- 
 Pensky Flash Point Tester.) This flash point corresponds closely to 106 
 Fahr. (Tagliabue Open Cup Tester), which may be used for rough estima- 
 tions of the flash point. 
 
 For Capacity, Location, Material and Construction of Tanks and of Piping, 
 see pages 139 to 145. 
 
 PUMP. Oil pump used in filling auxiliary tank from the main supply 
 tank to be approved type, secure against leaks, with check valves located 
 as close to the pump as convenient. Pumps should be rigidly fastened in 
 place. 
 
 NOTE. Stuffing box, if used, should be provided with a removable cupped 
 gland designed to compress the packing against the shaft and arranged so 
 as to facilitate removal. Packing affected by the oil must not be' used. 
 
 AUXILIARY SUPPLY TANK. a. If used, shall not exceed five gallons in 
 capacity, except by special consent of the Inspection Department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 b. Shall be located at least 10 feet, measured horizontally, from the 
 burners. 
 
 c. Shall be provided with an overflow connection draining to the supply 
 tank and a vent pipe leading outside the building, the" latter to have a 
 weatherproof hood. To be constructed of brass, copper or galvanized plate 
 not less than 0.050" (No. 18 U. S. standard gauge) in thickness. Joints to 
 be made as specified for outside storage tanks. 
 
 VALVES. a. Readily accessible valves to be provided near each burner 
 and also close to the auxiliary tank in the pipe leading to burners. 
 
 b. Controlling valves to be constructed as specified in Rule 2ib. 
 
 INSTALLATION OF BURNERS. a. Overflow. Burners shall be installed with 
 overflow attachment so arranged that any surplus oil will drain by gravity 
 
 * Regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
176 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 from the burner through a pipe into a substantially constructed reservoir 
 having* a capacity of not less than that of the auxiliary tank. 
 
 Each tank to be constructed and vented as provided for auxiliary tanks. 
 
 b. Draughts. No dampers to be used in smoke pipe between burner and 
 chimney. Any regulation of draught which is necessary is to be accomplished 
 through the dampers in front. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF BURNERS. a. The size of the orifice through which the 
 oil is supplied to the burners should be limited to furnish only sufficient 
 oil for the maximum burning conditions when the controlling valves are 
 wide open. 
 
 b. Valves to be arranged so as not to enlarge the orifice. 
 
 c. Burners containing chambers which allow the dangerous accumulation 
 of gases are prohibited. 
 
 d. Burners containing oil conveying pipes or parts subject to intense heat 
 or subject to stoppage from carbonization are prohibited. 
 
 e. Burners should be designed so that they can be easily cleaned, and 
 so as not to allow leakage of oil. 
 
 INSTRUCTION CARD. A card giving complete instructions in regard to the 
 care and operation of the system to be permanently placed near the apparatus. 
 
SAFETY CANS 
 
 For Open Stock of Liquids which at Ordinary Temperatures 
 Give Off Inflammable Vapors* 
 
 MATERIAL. (a) \Yeight. Cans one gallon and smaller must be constructed 
 i*f tinned or leaded iron or steel sheets or sheet brass at least .01 25-inch 
 thick (IC=io8 pounds tin plate) or of galvanized sheet iron or copper at 
 least .oi56-inch thick (28 gauge galvanized iron, U. S. Standard). 
 
 Cans larger than one gallon must be constructed of tinned or leaded iron 
 IT steel sheets or sheet brass at least .oi5o-inch thick (IX =126 pounds tin 
 plate) or of galvanized sheet iron or copper at least .oi87-inch thick (26 
 galvanized iron, U. S. Standard). 
 
 (b) Quality. All materials must be annealed to allow working without 
 cracking the seams. 
 
 (c) Coating. Tinned steel sheets must carry a coating of at least two 
 pounds per 100 square feet (Charcoal grade), leaded steel sheets at least 
 tlyee and one-half pounds per 100 square feet, galvanized sheet iron at least 
 nine pounds per 100 square feet. Electroplating with copper, nickel or other 
 material equivalent to the tin coating above specified will be acceptable. 
 
 SEAMS. Cans, one quart and larger, must be made with straight seams 
 of body grooved or riveted; ends double seamed, machine crimped, riveted 
 or otherwise secured to body, so body parts will remain together after 
 solder is melted. All seams must be soldered tight or brazed. 
 
 CLOSURES. (a) .Each opening into the can body must have an automatic 
 valve, which will remain securely closed with the can in all positions, until 
 it rs opened by the application of manual pressure at a specific point in a 
 definite direction (a series of small holes, controlled by a single valve, is 
 considered a single opening). Provided, however, that a can having a capacity 
 of one quart or over may be provided with a screw cap closure to the 
 filling opening if the cap is lined with flexible oil-proof material and is 
 chained to the can with safety chain, permanently secured. 
 
 (b) Cans one quart and larger, must be provided with a valve or equivalent 
 device, so constructed that pressure of vapor from within will open it and 
 relieve the pressure before it accumulates an amount sufficient to rupture any 
 seam of the can. 
 
 (c) Cans, smaller than one quart, shall be limited to a single valved 
 opening into the body of the can adapted to both filling and emptying. 
 
 (d) Cans having closures which permit a leakage of more than four drops 
 per minute, must be condemned. 
 
 NOTE. 60 drops = i teaspoonful per hour; 438 drops = i fluid ounce; 
 or, i pint in 112 hours. 
 
 (e) No can shall have more than two valved closures, and where two are 
 used, each valve must be closed independently to avoid leaks resulting from 
 unequal wear of valves or from lost motion. <. 
 
 PROHIBITIONS. Openings into the body of the can provided with stuffing 
 boxes, removable plugs or corks, also bearing pins smaller in diameter than 
 3 /32-inch (Xo. 13 U. S. Standard) are prohibited. 
 
 I > Roi'ORTio.\s.--To insure reasonable stability, it is desirable that the height 
 of the body does not exceed the diameter more than fifteen per cent. 
 
 * As recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 177 
 
178 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 SAFETY CANS FOR HAZARDOUS LIQUIDS. 
 
OIL LIGHTING SYSTEM 
 
 Extensive use has been made of gasoline to furnish light, par- 
 ticularly before the large field for the use of gasoline for auto- 
 mobiles made such gasoline systems relatively of less importance 
 to the oil producers. The rapid improvement in the electrical 
 art, and the big cuts made in the cost of producing electricity, 
 have also tended to reduce the use of oil lighting systems. The 
 Xational Board of Fire Underwriters have issued rules covering 
 both Kerosene Pressure systems and Gasoline Lighting systems, 
 but as these are mainly details of construction of the apparatus, 
 they are not given herein. Several different makes of each kind 
 are listed by the Underwriters' Laboratories as being safeguarded 
 insofar as the hazard permits; the use of only such as are listed 
 is strongly urged, as improperly constructed appliances are a dis- 
 tinct, hazard. 
 
 Of the Gasoline Systems, five classes are listed, divided as 
 follows : 
 
 Class A Machines Having Outside Carbureters 
 
 These machines, which do not introduce liquid gasoline into the building, 
 are regarded from an insurance viewpoint as constituting the least dangerous 
 type of gasoline gas machine. 
 
 To be located outside the building, underground, at least 30 feet removed 
 from all buildings, and the top thereof must be below the level of the 
 lowest pipe in the building used in connection with the apparatus. 
 
 Class B Machines Having Inside Carbureters 
 
 These machines are regarded from an insurance viewpoint as more danger- 
 ous than those having outside carbureters, owing to the fact that they 
 introduce gasoline in liquid form and manufacture gas inside the building. 
 Where permitted the following rules and precautions should be rigidly 
 observed: 
 
 Supply tank must be located outside the building, underground where 
 possible, and below the level of the lowest pipe in the building used in 
 connection with the apparatus. 
 
 If impracticable to bury the supply tank the same may be installed in a 
 non-combustible building or vault properly ventilated, preferably from the 
 bottom, always remembering that it must be below the level of the lowest 
 pipe in the building used in connection with the apparatus. 
 
 Class C Gasoline Lighting Systems Having Outside Tanks 
 and Inside Flame Heated Generators 
 
 These systems are regarded from an insurance viewpoint as more danger- 
 ous than the systems in Class A or Class B. Where used their hazards 
 
 179 
 
180 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 should be recognized by Underwriters and the following rules and pre- 
 cautions should be rigidly observed: 
 
 Supply tank must be limited to 6 gallons. 
 
 To be located outside the building and so arranged that under* normal 
 conditions the only gasoline in the building will be that contained in the 
 hollow wires leading to lamps or to the common generator. 
 
 Class D Gasoline Vapor Lamps 
 
 . These lamps are regarded from an insurance viewpoint as even more 
 dangerous than the systems covered in Class A, Class B or Class C, and 
 where used their hazards should be recognized. If permitted, the general 
 specifications for the construction of such devices and for regulating same 
 should be observed. 
 
 Class E Systems Having Inside Tanks and Inside Flame 
 Heated Generators 
 
 These systems which embody the hazard of handling gasoline inside build- 
 ings are regarded from an insurance viewpoint as more dangerous than the 
 devices covered in Class A, Class B or Class C, -and on a par with those 
 of Class D. When used their hazards should be recognized.' 
 
 If permitted, the. following general specifications for the construction of 
 such devices and for regulating- same should be observed. 
 
 Supply tank not to exceed 6 gallons. 
 
 Should preferably be located against an outside wall and so installed that 
 a clear space is maintained above and below from floor to ceiling, and for 
 at least a foot on either side of the device. 
 
 NOTE. Where located against other than a fireproof wall to be insulated 
 therefrom by an ample sheet of metal placed not less than i inch from the 
 wall, leaving an air space. 
 
 : r...". .".' 
 
 
GASES AND VAPORS 
 
 Gas Defined. In a restricted sense the name gas is applied to 
 bodies that exist in the gaseous state at the ordinary temperature 
 and pressure, and can only be liquefied or solidified by artificial 
 means. Vapors are the gases given off, with or without the aid 
 of heat, by bodies that, under ordinary circumstances are either 
 solid or liquid. 
 
 When several gases or vapors are present they mix with com- 
 parative rapidity; only very dense vapors and very light gases 
 remaining unmixed for any length of time. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, and when in a pure state, gases 
 and vapors are non-explosive, even though combustible. 
 
 Gas Explosion. Explosions of gas or vapor sometimes occur 
 in places where, though there is explosive mixture, there is neither 
 fire, light, nor other burning substances; this is due to the migration 
 of the gas or vapor caused by its relatively higher or lower 
 density than 'air. Such instances of fire or explosion are said to 
 be produced by remote fire, or flashing back, and may be pro- 
 duced by contact with a lighted stove, a lamp, a discarded lighted 
 or burning match, or the like. 
 
 Explosion Temperatures. Gases and vapors may be ignited or 
 exploded by heat as well as by flame. A list of these explosion 
 temperatures is given below : 
 
 Degrees C. Decrees C. 
 
 Oxyhydrogen gas 620-700 Carbon disulphide vapor.. 100-170 
 
 Under pressure 518-606 Acetylene 509-515 
 
 Cartx>n monoxide 636-814 Propane 545-548 
 
 Methane 656-678 Propylene 497-511 
 
 Ethane 605-622 Coafgas 647-649 
 
 EthyJene 577- 599 Hydrogen 555 
 
 Limits of Explosibility. According to Professor Bunte of Carls- 
 ruhe, the limits of explosibility can be greatly varied by circum- 
 stances, such as the lateral dimensions of the containing vessel, 
 the method of ignition, volume of gas present, moisture content 
 of same, etc. The same authority gives the following values in 
 the case of electrical ignition, the mixtures of air with the several 
 gases mentioned exploding when the proportion of gas attains the 
 following percentages : 
 
 181 
 
1 82 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Range of 
 Per Cent Explosibility 
 
 Carbon monoxide 16.6-74.8 58.2 
 
 Hydrogen 9.5-66.5 57.0 
 
 Water gas 12.5-66.6 54.1 
 
 Acetylene..^. 3.2-52.2 49.0 
 
 Coal gas... 8.0-19.0 11.0 
 
 Ethylene .- 4.2-14.5 10.3 
 
 Alcohol vapor 4.0-13.6 9.6 
 
 Methane 6.2-12.7 6.5 
 
 Ether vapor.., 2.9-7.5 4.6 
 
 Benzol vapor 2.7-6.3 3.6 
 
 Pentane 2.5-4.8 2.3 
 
 Benzine vapor 2.5-4.8 2.3 
 
 According to Dr. Von Schwartz, the range of explosibility in 
 an admittedly very imperfect series of gases and vapors is as 
 given below, the figures in the first column representing the mini- 
 mum percentage of gas, and those in the second the maximum 
 percentage, at which an explosion of the mixture is possible. The 
 gases are arranged in reverse order, starting with the one exhibit- 
 ing the highest minimum ; and the values cited are merely approxi- 
 mate, great divergence prevailing in the figures given by different 
 authors. 
 
 Approximate Relative 
 Percentage Range of Explosibility 
 
 Carbon monoxide ' 13-75 3 
 
 Carburetted air (air gas).. . 9-26 5 
 
 Water gas 9-55 4 
 
 Coal gas 8-23 6 
 
 Hydrogen 7-75 2 
 
 Carbon disulphide vapor, from 6 downwards 1 Merely 
 
 Ether disulphide vapor, from 6 downwards/ approximate 
 
 Methane (marsh gas) 5-13.16 8 
 
 Ethylene 4-22 7 
 
 Acetylene 3-82 1 
 
 Benzol (Benzine), 2.6-4.8.. 3-6 9 
 
 Toluol about 7 
 
 Pentane 2.5-5 10 
 
 Above and below these limits no explosion occurs, the mixture 
 merely flashing at the upper limit. The explosion of the mixtures 
 can be prevented by additions of '7^-10 per cent of carbon dioxide. 
 
 Ventilation. To facilitate solution of the general problem re- 
 specting the comparative advantages of roof and floor ventilation, 
 lists of the gases (g) and vapors (v) respectively lighter and 
 heavier than air are given by Dr. Von Schwartz as follows, the 
 density of air being taken as unity. 
 
 (1) Lighter than Air (Roof Ventilation) 
 
 0.069 Hydrogen (g) 0.700 Wood gas (g) 
 
 0.400-0.600 Coal gas (g) 0.898 Acetylene (g) 
 
 0.553 Pit gas (Firedamp) (g) 0.945 Hydrocyanic acid (g) 
 
 0.588 Ammonia (g) 0.967 Ethylene (g) 
 
 . 622 Water vapor (v) . 967 Carbon monoxide (g) 
 
 Water gas, generator gas, Dowson gas, power gas, and similar gases differ con- 
 siderably in density according to their composition, but are all lighter than air. 
 
 0.987-1.015 Mond gas (according to the coal used) 
 0.510 Water gas 
 0.830-1.000 Generator gas 
 
GASES AND VAPORS 183 
 
 (2) Heavier than Air (Floor Ventilation) 
 
 1.036 Ethane (g) 1-.800 Cyanogen (g) 
 
 1.039 Nitric oxide (g) 1.935 Butylene (g) 
 
 1.105 Oxygen (g), 2.004 Butane (g) 
 
 1.120 Methyl alcohol (v) 2.104 Carbon oxysulphide (g) 
 
 1.185 Phosphuretted hydrogen (g) 2.200 Sulphur (v) 
 
 1 . 192 Sulphuretted hydrogen (g) 2 . 448 Chlorine (g) 
 
 -Air gas (carburetted air) (v): 2.565 Ether (v) 
 
 1 . 260 With 10% of hydririne 2 . 645 Carbon disulphide (v) 
 
 1.275 With 11J% of hydririne 2.697 Arseniuretted hydrogen (v) 
 
 1.317 With 14% of hydririne 2.770 Benzol (v) 
 
 1.382 Allylene (g) 2.784 Seleniuretted hydrogen (g) 
 
 1.451 Propylene (g) 3.147 Amyl alcohol (v) 
 
 1.520 Propane (g) 4.215 Chloroform (v) 
 
 1 . 527 Nitrous oxide (g) 4 . 355 Phosphorus (v) 
 
 1 . 530 Ethyl aldehyde (v) 4 . 498 Telluretted hydrogen (g) 
 
 1.590 Hyponitrous acid (g) 5.700 Selenium (v) 
 
 1.613 Alcohol (v) 6.650 Sulphur vapor 
 
 1.617 Methyl ether (g) - 8.896 Tellurium (v) 
 
 1 . 738 Methyl chloride (g) 
 
 Gas Containers. According to ^Dr. Von Schwartz in Fire and 
 Explosive Risk, the following points may be stated with reference 
 to the fitting up of the gas cylinders and their pipe connections: 
 
 (1) Liquid gases should never be used or stored, not to say 
 manufactured, in workrooms containing inflammable materials or 
 explodible vessels. 
 
 (2) The cylinders and pipes may only be placed in suitable 
 cool situations, shaded from the sun and remote from any source 
 of heat (a stove or lamp). 
 
 (3) The waste gas that cannot be used again must not be allowed 
 to escape in or towards any place where it might become ignited by 
 sparks, fire, or incandescent material (flues). Exceptions to this 
 rule are afforded by the uninflammable gases sulphuric acid, am- 
 monia, and carbon dioxide ; but oxygen, though itself uninflammable, 
 may stimulate combustion in other burning materials, and should 
 therefore be kept at a distance from fires of all kinds. 
 
 (4) The cylinders must fulfil legislative requirements, be 
 officially certified and tested, mounted on secure foundations, pro- 
 vided with safety valves of sufficiently strong construction, and 
 have been thoroughly annealed at the time of manufacture. 
 
 (5) If the outlet valve be opened very quickly, the temperature 
 in the pressure regulator is raised to a point sufficient to carbonize 
 wood shavings, i. ' e., i6o-2oo C. This temperature has been 
 observed in the case of carbon dioxide, which is harmless so far 
 as inflammability is concerned; and in the case of inflammable 
 gases the very rapid opening of the valve would lead to consid- 
 erable' risk of explosion. 
 
 (6) Explosions of liquefied combustible gases may easily cause 
 fires, whereas, in the case of incombustible gases, e. g., carbon 
 dioxide, ammonia, sulphur dioxide, such a result can only occur 
 w r hen particularly inflammable materials, carriers of oxygen, or 
 dust-yielding substances are present. 
 
184 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (7) With certain gases the escape from the cylinder is accom- 
 panied by electrical phenomena, which may prove a source of 
 danger, especially in the case of readily inflamm-able gases. 
 
 (8) Cylinders containing liquid gases should never be heated to 
 more than 30 C, and this temperature, which may readily -be 
 attained in the sun, may induce explosion even in the case of the 
 best-made cylinders. Conveying gas cylinders on open wagons 
 exposed to the heat of the stm, is a dangerous proceeding. 
 
 In the United' States, the Interstate Commerce Commission 
 has issued regulations covering the construction of cylinders 
 and drums for compressed or liquefied gases or gases in solu- 
 tion. The provisions of these regulations have been adopted 
 by the National Board of Fire Underwriters for storage con- 
 tainers for acetylene and like gases, and are in use by various 
 cities. Containers meeting the above regulations are required 
 to have stamped, labeled or marked thereon " Complies with the 
 I. C. C. Spec'n No. :." These containers, if used for gases, 
 must be tested every five years, and must not show a permanent 
 expansion of over ten per cent. 
 
 These regulations provide that containers of inflammable, 
 liquids must not be entirely filled, a vacant space equal to two 
 per cent being required. 
 
 vii io; ':.! .-vfi!'- -i I :,jinr ;i r->Mruv 
 
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ACETYLENE APPARATUS 
 
 Calcium carbide in its commercial form is harmless in so far as 
 the effect of fire on it is concerned. With the application of 
 water, however, it decomposes and generates acetylene; when left 
 open its great affinity for water permits absorption of moisture 
 from the air, with a gradual liberation of acetylene. Because of 
 this, the commercial packages are made very tight; instances are 
 known where large quantities have been sunk or flooded, with 
 no harmful effect on the contents of the drums. In small quan- 
 tities, if the containers are kept closed and above the floor, to 
 prevent accidental letting in of water, there is little hazard, and 
 storage is permitted in most any place. For larger storage, the 
 rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters are as follows: 
 
 Calcium carbide in excess of 600 pounds shall be stored in approved metal 
 packages above ground in one-story buildings without cellar or basement 
 and used exclusively for the storage of calcium carbide. Such buildings 
 shall be constructed to be dry, waterproof and well ventilated. Buildings 
 shall be located outside congested mercantile or manufacturing districts. 
 If storage building is of incombustible construction it may adjoin other one- 
 story buildings if separated therefrom by an unpierced fire wall; if detached 
 less than ten feet from such one-story buildings there shall be no openings 
 in the adjacent sides of either building. If carbide storage building is of 
 combustible construction it must not be within 20 feet of other one-story or 
 two-story buildings, nor within 30 feet of other buildings over two stories. 
 
 Acetylene. Pure gaseous acetylene under a pressure of less 
 than i atmosphere may be exposed to powerful shocks, blows, 
 falls from a considerable height, and the effects of gunshot, without 
 exploding, but if there is any liquid acetylene in the vessel or 
 any sparks are produced, there will be a violent explosion. How- 
 ever, as it is highly explosive at 2 atmospheres it is desirable not 
 to store it under pressure. 
 
 Anything likely to produce sparks is a source of danger to 
 acetylene kept under pressure. All vessels should be protected 
 from the action of heat, since the gas should never be heated 
 above 100 F., at which temperature the effects are the same as 
 those of direct ignition, electric sparks, etc., and explosion may 
 result even if the gas be under moderate pressure. An acetylene 
 burner will reignite the gas if the tap is turned on again before 
 it has cooled. 
 
 Through the sudden opening of the delivery apertures of vessels 
 containing acetylene under pressure, the escaping gas may become 
 
i86 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 so hot as to take fire. The overcharging of the vessels that are 
 not sufficiently cooled, or the transfer of acetylene from a small 
 vessel (under pressure) to a larger one, is also a source of danger. 
 
 To prevent acetylene lighting back from the burner jet to the 
 generator, at least two non-return valves or back-flash preventers 
 should be provided. 
 
 To diminish the dangers of acetylene it is sometimes mixed 
 with coal gas or oil gas. The latter in particular is now used, 
 in the proportions 50 per cent of acetylene and 56 per cent of 
 oil gas, or 60-65 per cent of oil gas and 40-35 per cent of acetylene. 
 In addition to being inexplosive, these mixtures may be subjected 
 to a pressure of 6 atmospheres. Acetylene is not well suited for 
 incandescent lighting, the mantles being rapidly injured and spoiled 
 by the violence of the detonations on lighting the gas. 
 
 The dangers of acetylene have been reduced by dissolving the 
 ' gas in liquids that are capable of absorbing it in large quantities. 
 Water is unsuitable for this purpose, since it merely dissolves its 
 own volume of the gas ; and, besides, this solution is always danger- 
 ous when brought into contact with burning gases or oxygen. 
 Hence all water containing acetylene, and especially waste waters 
 that have stood in contact with the gas for some time, must be 
 handled with care. 
 
 The best solvent is acetone. Under ordinary pressure, this liquid 
 will take up 31 times its own volume of the gas; and if cold be 
 employed, one part of acetone will absorb, at 81 C. (the solidifi- 
 cation point of acetylene), as much as 2,000 parts of acetylene, 
 its own volume being thereby increased 4 to 5 fold. Even under 
 pressure alone though this is dangerous the solvent capacity 
 can be raised to 50 volumes of acetylene to one of acetone. The 
 solution may be exposed to a pressure of 10 atmospheres without 
 any great danger being incurred. If the acetone is supersaturated 
 with acetylene, or the solution is heated so that free gas accumu- 
 lates in the container, this gas will present the same dangers as 
 acetylene gas under pressure. 
 
 In using or generating acetylene, it is highly advisable to use 
 only generators and appliances which have been listed by the 
 Underwriters' Laboratories, which guarantees that the appliances 
 have been examined under a rigid set of requirements tending 
 largely to reduce the otherwise high hazard of this gas. 
 
 The insurance regulations, as given below, permit the location 
 of stationary automatic generators inside the building being lighted. 
 In the first rules adopted, the larger sizes were prohibited inside 
 buildings, and were required to be in a special generator house 
 30 feet distant; because the hazard was primarily one of explosion 
 
ACETYLENE APPARATUS 187 
 
 and there was little fire hazard, these have been changed, against 
 the judgment of many insurance engineers, who felt that the hazard 
 to life was sufficiently great to still require the separate generator 
 house. A form of generator becoming more common is the so- 
 called " Pit Generator ;" this is buried and is located at least 30 
 feet from any building. While not provided with all the safety 
 features of the stationary automatic generator used inside a build- 
 ing, the damage possible with an explosion is greatly reduced; it 
 is strongly recommended that this type be used where possible. 
 
 The installation rules of the various types of machines, as issued 
 by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, are as follows: 
 
 (See also appendix for changes made in the Regulations in 
 1916 and Regulations for Classes D and C.) 
 
 The use of liquid acetylene or gas generated therefrom is absolutely pro- 
 hibited. 
 
 Class A Stationary Automatic Apparatus 
 
 1. FOUNDATIONS. a. Where practicable to be of brick, stone, concrete or 
 iron. If necessarily of wood they shall be extra heavy, located in a dry place 
 and open to the circulation of air. 
 
 The ordinary board platform is not satisfactory. Wooden foundations shall 
 be of heavy planking, joists or timbers, arranged so that the air will circulate 
 around them and so as to form a firm base. 
 
 b. To be so arranged that the machine will be level and unequal strain will 
 not be placed on the generator or connections. 
 
 2. LOCATION. a. Generators, especially in closely built up districts, should 
 preferably be placed outside of insured buildings in generator houses con- 
 structed and located in compliance with Rule 9. 
 
 b. Generators to be so placed that the operating mechanism will have room 
 for free and full play and can be adjusted without artificial light. They must 
 not be subject to interference by children or careless persons, and if for this 
 purpose further enclosure is necessary it must be furnished by means of 
 slatted partitions permitting the free circulation of air. 
 
 c. Generators which from their construction are rendered inoperative during 
 the process of recharging to be so located that they can be recharged without 
 the aid of artificial light. 
 
 J. Generators to be placed where water will not freeze. 
 
 3. ESCAPES OR RELIEF PIPES. Each generator to be provided with an escape 
 or relief pipe of ample size; no such pipe to be less than three-quarters inch 
 internal diameter. This pipe to be substantially installed, without traps, and 
 so that any condensation will drain back to the generator. It is to be carried 
 to a suitable point outside the building, and terminate in an approved hood 
 located at least twelve feet above ground and remote from windows. 
 
 The hood is to be constructed in such a manner that it cannot be obstructed 
 by rain, snow, ice, insects or birds. 
 
 4. CAPACITY". a. To be sufficient to furnish gas continuously for the maxi- 
 mum lighting period to all lights installed. A lighting period of at least 5 
 hours is to be provided for in every case. 
 
 b. Generators for conditions of service requiring lighting periods of more 
 than 5 hours to be of sufficient capacity to avoid recharging at night. 
 
 The following ratings will usually be found advisable: 
 
 (i) For dwellings, and where machines are always used intermittently, the 
 generator to have a rated capacity equal to the total number of burners in- 
 stalled. 
 
1 88 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 V;*( 2) For stores^ opera houses, theatres, day run factories, and similar 'ser- 
 vice, the generator to have a rated capacity of from 30 to 50 per cent in excess 
 of the total number o'f burners installed. 
 
 (3) For saloons and all night or continued service, the generator to have 
 a rated capacity of from 100 to 200 per cent in excess of the total number of 
 burners installed. 
 
 c. A small generator should never be installed to supply a large .number of 
 lights, even though it seems probable that only a few lights will be used at a 
 time. An overworked generator adds to the cost of producing acetylene gas. 
 
 $. CARBIDE CHARGES. To be sufficient to furnish gas continuously for the 
 maximum lighting period to all burners installed. In determining charges 
 lump carbide to be estimated as capable of producing 4% cubic feet of gas to 
 the pound, commercial %-inch carbide 4 cubic feet of gas to the pound, and 
 burners to be considered as requiring at least twenty-five per cent more than 
 their rated consumption of gas. 
 
 6. BURNERS. Burners consuming one-half of a cubic foot of gas per hour 
 are considered standard in rating generators. Those having a greater or less 
 capacity will decrease or increase the number of burners allowable in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Burners usually consume from 25 to 100 per cent more than their rated 
 consumption of gas depending largely on the working pressure. The so-called 
 %-foot burner when operated at pressures of from 20 to 25 tenths inches water 
 column (2 to 2% inches) is usually usedv with, best economy. 
 
 7. PIPING. a. Connections from generators to service pipes must be made 
 with right and left thread nipples or long thread nipples with lock nuts. All 
 forms of unions requiring gaskets are prohibited. 
 
 b. Piping, as far as possible, to be arranged so that any moisture will drain 
 back to the generator. If low points occur of necessity in any piping, they 
 are to be drained through tees into drip cups permanently closed with .screw 
 caps or plugs. No pet-cocks to be used. 
 
 c. A valve and by-pass connection to be provided from the service-pipe to 
 the blow-off for removing the gas from the holder in case it should be neces- 
 sary to do so. ("". 
 
 d. The schedule of pipe sizes for piping from generators to bxirners should 
 conform to that commonly used for ordinary gas, but in no case are the feed- 
 ers to be smaller than three-eighths inch. 
 
 The following schedule is advocated: 
 
 t. inch pipe, 26 feet, three burners, 
 
 inch pipe, 30 feet, six burners, 
 
 inch pipe, 50 feet, twenty burners. 
 
 1 inch pipe, 70 feet, thirty-five burners. 
 1% inch pipe, too feet, sixty burners. 
 
 i% inch pipe, 150 feet, one hundred burners. 
 
 2 inch pipe, 200 feet, two hundred burners. 
 2^ inch pipe, 300 feet, three hundred burners. 
 
 3 inch pipe, 450 feet, four hundred and fifty burners. 
 3^/2 inch pipe, 500 feet, six hundred burners. 
 
 4 inch pipe, 600 feet, seven hundred and fifty burners. 
 
 e. Machines of the carbide feed type are not to be fitted with continuous 
 drain connections leading to sewers, but must discharge into suitable open 
 receptacles which may have such connections. 
 
 . / Piping to .be thoroughly tested both before and after the burners have 
 been installed. It should not show loss in excess of two inches of mercury 
 within twelve hours when subjected to a pressure equal to that of fifteen 
 inches of mercury. 
 
 g. Piping and connections to be installed by persons experienced in the 
 installations of acetylene apparatus. 
 
 8. CARE AND ATTENDANCE. In the care of generators designed for a lighting 
 
AfKTYLKNK APPARATUS 189 
 
 period uf nn>ro than 5 hours always clean and recharge the generating cham- 
 bers at regular stated intervals regardless of the number of burners actually 
 used. 
 
 Where generators are not used throughout the entire year always remove all 
 water and .UPS and clean thoroughly at the end of the season during which 
 they are in service. 
 
 It is usually necessary to take the 1>ell portion out and invert it so as to 
 ,,llo\v all gas to escape. This should never be done in the presence of arti- 
 ficial light or fire of any kind. 
 
 Always observe a regular time, during daylight hours only, for attending to 
 and charging the apparatus. 
 
 In charging the generating chambers of water-feed machines clean all 
 residuum carefully from the containers and remove it at once from the build- 
 ing. Separate from the mass any unslacked carbide remaining and return it 
 to the containers, adding new carbide as required. Be careful never to fill 
 the containers over the specified mark, as it is important to allow for the 
 swelling of the carbide when it comes in contact with water. The proper action 
 and economy of the machine are dependent on the arrangement and amount of 
 carbide placed in the generator. Carefully guard against the escape of gas. 
 
 Whenever recharging with carbide always replenish the water supply and in 
 carbide machines be careful not to place in the generator less than one gallon 
 of water for edch pound of the carbide capacity, and not to bring the water 
 above the point marked on the machine as the proper level. 
 
 Never deposit residuum or exhausted material from water-feed machines in 
 sewer pipe or near inflammable material. 
 
 Never recharge carbide feed generators with carbide without first cleaning 
 out the generating chambers and completely refilling with clean water. 
 
 Never test the generator or piping for leaks with a flame, and never apply 
 flame to an outlet from which the burner has been removed. 
 
 Never use a lighted match, lamp, candle, lantern or any open light near the 
 machine. 
 
 Failure to observe the above cautions is as liable to endanger life as property. 
 
 9. OUTSIDE GENERATOR HOUSES. a. Outside generator houses should not be 
 located within five (5) feet of any opening into, nor shall they open toward 
 any adjacent building, and must t be kept under lock and key. 
 
 b. The dimensions to be no greater than the apparatus requires to allow 
 convenient room for recharging and inspection of parts. 
 
 c. Generator houses to be thoroughly ventilated, and any artificial heating 
 necessary to prevent freezing shall be done by steam or hot water systems. 
 
 Class B Stationary Non-Automatic Apparatus 
 
 10. FOUNDATIONS. a. To be of brick, stone or concrete. 
 
 b. To be so arranged that the machine will be level and so that strain will 
 not be brought upon the connections. 
 
 it. GAS HOUSES. a. To be constructed entirely of non-combustible material 
 and must not be lighted by any system tff illumination involving open flames. 
 
 b. To be heated, where artificial heating is necessary to prevent freezing, by 
 steam or hot water systems, the heater to be located in a separate building, 
 and no open flames to be permitted within generator enclosures. 
 
 r. To be kept closed and locked excepting during daylight hours. 
 
 d. To be provided with a permanent and effective system of ventilation 
 which will be operative at all times, regardless of the periods of operation of 
 the plant. 
 
 12. ESCAPE PIPES. Each generator to be provided with a vent pipe of ample 
 size, substantially installed, without traps. It should be carried to a suitable 
 
190 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 point outside the building and terminate in an approved hood located at least 
 twelve feet above ground and remote from windows. 
 
 The hood is to be constructed in such a manner that it cannot be obstructed 
 by rain, snow, ice, insects or birds. 
 
 13. CARE AND MAINTENANCE. All charging and cleaning of apparatus, gen- 
 eration of gas and execution of repairs to be done during daylight hours only, 
 and generators are not to be manipulated or in any way tampered with in the 
 presence of artificial light. 
 
 This will require gas-holders of a capacity sufficient to supply all lights 
 installed for the maximum lighting period, without the necessity of generation 
 of gas at night or by artificial light. 
 
 In the operation of generators of the carbide-feed type it is important that 
 only a limited amount of carbide be fed into a given body of water. An 
 allowance of at least one gallon of generating water per pound of carbide must 
 be made in every case, and when this limit has been reached the generator 
 should be drained and flushed, and clean water introduced. These precautions 
 are necessary to avoid overheating during generation and accumulation of hard 
 deposits of residuum in the generating chamber. 
 
 Class C Semi-Portable Automatic Acetylene Apparatus 
 
 FOUNDATIONS. (a) Should be so arranged as to afford proper support for 
 the weight involved. If of wood, they shall be located in a dry place open 
 to the circulation of air. 
 
 (b) To be so arranged that the machine will be level, and so that unequal 
 strain will not be placed on the generator or connections. 
 
 (c) The generator must be so installed as to prevent accidental over- 
 turning. 
 
 LOCATION. (a) Generators to be so placed that the operating mechanism 
 will have room for free and full play and can be adjusted without artificial 
 light. They must not be subject to interference by children or careless 
 persons, and if for this purpose further enclosure is necessary it must be 
 furnished by means of slatted partitions, permitting the free circulation of air. 
 
 (b) Generators which from their construction are rendered inoperative 
 during the process of recharging to be so located that they can be recharged 
 without the aid of artificial light. 
 
 (c) Generators to be placed where water will not freeze. 
 
 ESCAPES OR RELIEF PIPES. If escape or relief pipes are required, they 
 should conform to rule for the installation' of other acetylene apparatus. 
 (See Rule 3.) 
 
 PIPING. (a) Shall conform to Rule 7, except that seamless brass tubing 
 may be employed provided the generator is so designed that in case of a 
 break anywhere in the distributing system, the machine will be inoperative. 
 
 (b) If conditions for recharging are such that the machine must be dis- 
 connected from the piping system, it may be connected with the piping by 
 metal tubing or pipe having sufficient flexibility through U-bend or coil to 
 allow necessary adjustment for making connection without undue strain on 
 material or joints. 
 
 (c) Tubing must be of sufficient internal diameter t& insure adequate supply 
 of gas with normal working pressure at the generator. 
 
 (d) Tubing must be of sufficient thickness to safely withstand pressure 
 of 500 pounds per square inch, and in no case lighter than %-inch outside 
 diameter with i /64-inch walls. 
 
 (e) Must not be secured in place with staples unless bushed, and must 
 be suitably protected from mechanical injury wherever the distance above 
 the floor is less than 5 feet. 
 
 Must be protected by sleeves where passing through floors, walls or 
 partitions. 
 
 Must be supported in ceiling runs at intervals not exceeding 6 feet. 
 
REGULATIONS FOR THE INSTALLATION 
 AND USE OF COAL GAS PRODUCERS* 
 
 XOTE. These are installation rules only and are not to be considered as 
 specification^ for the construction of Coal Gas Producers. 
 
 1. PRESSURE SYSTEMS. All pressure systems must be located in a special 
 building or buildings approved by Inspection Department having jurisdiction 
 for the purpose, at such distance from other buildings as not to constitute 
 an exposure thereto, except that approved pressure systems without gasometer 
 
 'having a maximum capacity not exceeding 250 horse power and with pressure 
 in generator not exceeding two pounds, may be located in the building, pro- 
 vided that the generator and all apparatus connected therewith be located 
 in a separate fireproof room, well ventilated to the outside of the building; 
 every communication if any to be protected by an approved fire door. In 
 al' other respects the apparatus must comply with the requirements for 
 suction systems. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. The pressure type of system introduces an explosion hazard 
 to a slight degree, making the building best suited one of light non-com- 
 bustible character. For both types of producers, the hazard of coal storage 
 is the same as for a boiler plant. 
 
 2. SUCTION SYSTEMS. (a) Approved suction gas producers may be located 
 inside the building, provided the apparatus for i producing and preparing the 
 gas is installed in a well-ventilated room. At no time shall the internal 
 pressure of the producer be in excess of atmospheric pressure. 
 
 NOTE. The installation of gas producers in places where open lights or 
 fires are used may be permitted by special permission of the Inspection De- 
 partment having jurisdiction. 
 
 (b) The smoke and vent pipe shall, where practicable, be carried above 
 the roof of the building in which the apparatus is contained, and above 
 adjoining buildings. When buildings are too high to make this practicable 
 the pipe shall end at least 10 feet from any wall opening. 
 
 No smoke nor vent pipe shall be within 9 inches of any woodwork or 
 any wooden lath and plaster partition or ceiling. 
 
 Where smoke and vent pipes pass through combustible partitions they 
 shall be guarded by galvanized iron ventilated thimbles at least 12 inches 
 larger in diameter than the pipes, or by galvanized iron thimbles built in 
 at least 8 inches of brickwork or other incombustible material. They shall 
 not under any circumstances be connected into, chimneys or flues except that 
 the pipe may pass up in flues used for no other purpose. No smoke pipe 
 shall pass through any floor nor through a roof having wooden framework 
 or covering. 
 
 (c) Platforms used in connection with generators must be incombustible. 
 
 (d) The producer and apparatus connected therewith shall be safely set 
 on a solidly built masonry foundation. 
 
 (e) While the plant is not in operation the connection between the gen- 
 erator and scrubber must be closed and the connection between the producer 
 and vent pipe opened, so that the products of combustion can pass into the 
 
 *As recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 IQI 
 
192 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 open air. This must be accomplished by means of a mechanical arrangement 
 which will prevent one operation without the other. 
 
 (f) The producer must have sufficient mechanical strength to successfully 
 resist all strains to which it will be subjected in practice. 
 
 (g) Wire gauze not larger than 30 mesh to the inch or its equivalent must 
 be used in the test pipe outlet. 
 
 (h) If illuminating or other pressure gas is used as an alternative supply, 
 the connections must be so arranged as to make the mixing of the two 
 gases or the use of both at the same time impossible. 
 
 If illuminating or other pressure gas is used as a supplementary supply, 
 mixing of the two gases may be permitted if a suitable device is provided 
 to prevent the supplemental gas from entering any part of the producer 
 gas equipment, including the scrubber or purifier. 
 
 (i) The opening for admitting fuel shall be provided with some charging 
 device so that no considerable quantity of air can be admitted, or gas v 
 escape, while charging. 
 
 (j) Before making repairs which involve opening the gas passages to the 
 air, the producer fire must be drawn and quenched and all combustible gas 
 blown out of the apparatus through the vent pipe. 
 
 (k) Except for pressure producers, the opening for admitting air into 
 the producer during operation may be inside the building subject to the 
 approval of the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 (1) The apparatus must have name plate giving the name of the device, 
 capacity and name of maker. 
 
 NOTE. For installation of engines used in connection with these producers, 
 see Regulations for Internal Combustion Engines. 
 
 Hazard of Electric Lamps 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of Mines, as the result of an investigation, reports that 
 the naked filaments of all standard lamps, energized at rated voltage, will 
 ignite explosive gaseous mixtures; that all classes of standard carbon lamps 
 will sometimes ignite gas when the tips of the bulbs are broken off; that the 
 filament temperature of all classes of standard lamps and of all but one class 
 of miniature lamps can be increased to such a degree that the lamps when 
 smashed will ignite gas; that several classes of both standard and miniature 
 lamps when smashed while burning at rated voltage will invariably ignite gas. 
 
 The Underwriters' Laboratories list a watchman's portable electric safety 
 lamp, consisting of a lead plate, 2 V. storage battery enclosed in aluminum 
 case* A small incandescent lamp, together with a special switch, safety glass 
 and shells are mounted on the top of casing. For watchman's use. Also a 
 miners' portable electric safety lamp, consisting of a battery, reflector and 
 safety features same as watchman's lamp. Battery is enclosed in a case for 
 fastening to miner's belt, and reflector is designed to fasten to miner's cap. 
 Electrical connection is made between the two by length of small armored 
 cord and bayonet receptacles and plugs. For use in mines. 
 
 Fire hazard of these lamps under any conditions liable to be met in service 
 is judged to be practicably negligible, although it is recognized that under con- 
 ditions remotely possible the more explosive vapors can be ignited by the hot 
 filaments exposed by breaking of lamps used. 
 
 The results of tests, supplemented by reports of extensive field experience, 
 indicate that these lamps are suitable for general use and are .especially suitable 
 for use wherever flammable or, explosive vapors or gases are liable to be 
 encountered. 
 
GAS APPLIANCES 193 
 
 Gas Shut-Off Valves 
 
 Owing to the fact that fires are frequently caused or increased 
 in volume as a result of the escape of inflammable gases, which 
 cannot be readily controlled on account of the inaccessibility or 
 absence of shut-off valves in the system of piping, or on account 
 of the fact that ordinary valves where installed may not be opera- 
 tive after long standing, a properly located manually operated 
 valve in such piping should be provided. 
 
 The Underwriters' Laboratories list several makes of gas shut-off 
 valves. The equipment consists essentially of a valve connected 
 by a protected rod or cable with a control handle in a pull box 
 located at some readily accessible point. 
 
 As given in the regulations issued by the/National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters issued in 1913 the installation should be as follows : 
 
 INSTALLATION. a. Shut-off valve preferably to be located in a substantially 
 constructed pit outside the building wall. Pit to be provided with a locked 
 cover and to be no larger than necessary tc allow the proper inspection and 
 adjustment of the valve. Valve should be protected against freezing. 
 
 NOTE. Inspection departments and local authorities haying jurisdiction to 
 be consulted when the valve cannot be located as specified above. When 
 necessarily installed inside of building, valve to be located as near as possible 
 to the point where gas main enters building. 
 
 b. The installation of the valve to be such that the hazards from falling 
 walls, etc., will be minimized. 
 
 c. The valve to be located in such a manner that it may be readily inspected 
 and reset by authorized persons. 
 
 d. The valve to be protected from accumulation of moisture as far as 
 practicable, and to be kept free from accumulation of lumber or other material. 
 
 e. Control handle for closing valve to be in a locked metal pull box pro- 
 vided with a glass or metal cover suitably marked to designate its purpose. 
 Pull box to be located so that it will be readily accessible from outside of 
 building, and to be secured to a non-combustible wall where possible. 
 
 f . Connection between valve and control handle to be run as directly as 
 practicable, and to be entirely enclosed in galvanized iron or steel pipe or 
 approved conduit to prevent interference with operation, accidental closure, 
 or tampering. 
 
 NOTE. Connection between valve and control handle by means of a single 
 direct rod is preferred. Where the' character of the installation is such that 
 the direct-rod connection is impracticable the use of a cable connection, if 
 acceptable to inspection departments and local authorities, may be permitted. 
 
 g. Where a cable connection is used between valve and control handle, 
 the conduit is to be securely anchored and provided with suitable roller 
 fittings at angles which will prevent sticking of the cable. 
 
 NOTE. Bends in conduit and unnecessary joints which are liable to cause 
 friction or lost motion, are to be avoided. 
 
 h. Supplementary pull boxes for operating valve from inside of building, 
 if used, must be so arranged that they will not in any way interfere with 
 the manual operation referred to above. 
 
 NOTE. Supplementary controls are not to be used unless acceptable to 
 inspection departments and local authorities, who should be consulted in 
 reference to location of control stations. 
 
 i. Valve mechanism and pull boxes to be locked so as to be accessible only 
 to authorized persons. 
 
194 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 N OTE . Automatic means for closing valves may be of value for the pro- 
 tection of fusible meters or connections. Where meters and connections are 
 of such construction that gas will not escape in case of fire an automatic 
 control is of little value and may lead to the premature extinguishment of 
 the lights in the building. 
 
 CARE AND ATTENDANCE. The valve and its attachments should be inspected 
 at least once every six months, and after a valve has been used to shut off 
 the gas it should be reset only by authorized persons. 
 
 ! 
 
 , . 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 ' ' 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 

 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF 
 LAUNDRIES* 
 
 Xo combustible material shall be permitted in the construction of any 
 laundry drying room hereafter erected in hotels, apartments, tenements, 
 asylums, convents, prisons, and similar public institutions. 
 
 NOTE. It is strongly recommended that all laundry drying rooms be 
 made of incombustible materials. The extra cost of such fireproof con- 
 struction is not excessive and this is offset by the increased life of the 
 structure. The reduction in fire hazard by the use of such construction is 
 very marked. 
 
 If drying rooms are constructed of wood, the inside surface of all walls, 
 ceilings, partitions, and doors, shall be covered in every part with a layer 
 of sheet asbestos not less than % inch thick; and over this a layer of sheet 
 metal. The metal shall be nailed in place with locked joints covering the 
 nail heads. 
 
 If wheel racks are used which roll on the floor of the drying room, the 
 floor shall be covered with heavy sheet steel suitable to resist the wear of 
 the wheels; or it may be covered with brick, concrete, tile, or any incom- 
 bustible composition flooring approved by the Superintendent of Buildings. 
 If drying racks are of such type as not to abrade the floor, it may be 
 covered the same as the sides and ceiling. 
 
 If any windows are placed in drying room walls or ceilings, they shall 
 be glazed with wired glass, set in stationary approved metal sash. 
 
 If a vent pipe be used in connection with a drying room, it shall be 
 wrapped its full length with sheet asbestos, corrugated asbestos, or some 
 equivalent fireproof material satisfactory to the Superintendent of Buildings. 
 Such covering shall be not les's than % inch in thickness, and shall be 
 securely attached to the pipes with wire or metal bands. 
 
 Xo part of a vent pipe shall be placed nearer than 6 inches to any 
 exposed woodwork. 
 
 In the vent pipe, in or near the drying room, there shall be placed a fine 
 wire screen to catch the lint and dirt that is drawn out of the drying room. 
 The screen shall be arranged to permit of easy removal for purpose of 
 cleaning, and it shall be the duty of the person in charge of the drying 
 room to see that the screen is kept clean. 
 
 XOTE. For requirements for ventilating systems, see page 204. 
 
 The inside of the drying room shall be thoroughly cleaned at least once 
 a week to remove any dust or lint that may have accumulated therein. 
 
 The dust and lint shall be thoroughly cleaned from all dryroom tumblers, 
 ironing machines, and mangles at least once per month. Particular attention 
 shall be paid to cleaning the driving mechanism where such accumulations 
 may be saturated with oil. 
 
 XOTE. These precautions are taken because of the well recognized danger 
 of fire due to an accumulation of lint and dust in conjunction with the 
 inevitable spark from some unexpected source. Even spontaneous com- 
 bustion is known to have started such a fire. 
 
 * Abstracted from a suggested ordinance issued by the National Board of 
 Fire Underwriters. 
 
 195 
 
196 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Ventilating fans for drying rooms shall be constructed entirely of metal, 
 and shall have all bearings outside, and easily accessible for oiling and 
 daily inspection. 
 
 Fans shall be so installed as to be automatically stopped when the tempera- 
 ture around them reaches 300 degrees F. 
 
 All heating pipes in drying rooms, whether single 6r in coils, shall be 
 in vertical tiers and be protected by wire screens of a mesh not exceeding 
 14 inch. Such screens shall be rigidly placed at a distance of not less than 
 2 inches trom the pipes or their connections in every part. The screens shall 
 be conveniently removable for purposes of repairing pipes or removing dust 
 therefrom. 
 
 No stove or any heating appliance burning gas, gasoline, coal or other 
 fuel shall be permitted in any drying room. 
 
 No gas lights or lamps of any kind shall be permitted in any drying room. 
 
 No combustible material of any character shall be allowed to be stored 
 or to accumulate upon the top or against the sides of any drying room. 
 
 In all wooden drying rooms hereafter erected, there shall be introduced 
 through the ceiling or near it, a one-half inch live steam pipe directly con- 
 nected to the boiler. Said pipe shall be fitted in the drying room with 
 automatic sprinkler heads set to open at 300 degrees F. The number and 
 location of heads to be controlled by the standard sprinkler rules of the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters, and there shall be a " sealed open " 
 cut-off valve in the boiler room which can be closed in case of emergency, 
 or for repairs. 
 
 In lieu of this steam pipe connection, the drying room may be protected 
 by automatic sprinklers installed under the ceiling according to the sprinkler 
 rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, except that the water 
 may be taken from the city supply, provided it will give a pressure of 10 
 pounds at the sprinkler heads with all heads open. All sprinkler heads shall 
 be set to open at 300 degree F. 
 
 Combustible floors under dryroom tumblers, or other similar apparatus 
 using steam from a boiler rated at 50 pounds pressure or over, shall be 
 protected by a shret of metal over a % inch layer of asbestos or asbestos 
 building lumber. 
 
 All stoves used for laundry purposes in non-fireproof buildings shall be 
 supported on metal legs not less than 6 inches in length. 
 
 A combustible floor under a laundry stove shall be protected by a % inch 
 layer of sheet asbestos or asbestos building lumber, upon which a course 
 of hollow brick shall be laid in cement mortar; and over the brick there 
 shall be placed a sheet of galvanized iron of a thickness not less than No. 26 
 gage. The whole protection shall extend 24 inches beyond the stove on 
 all sides. 
 
 The sheet metal may be lapped down over the sides of the layer of brick 
 1 and be nailed to the floor to assist in holding the brick in place, but the 
 metal must not project over the ends of the brick sufficiently to cover any 
 portion of the hollow spaces and thereby obstruct a free circulation of air. 
 
 The installation of laundry stoves as regards their proximity to wooden 
 partitions, ceilings, or furred walls, shall conform in all particulars to the 
 requirements for stoves and ranges presented on page 340. 
 
 All machines used for ironing or finishing purposes which are heated by 
 gas or any volatile inflammable fluid, shall,- so far as possible, be vented 
 by metal pipes into some safe place outside the building, or into a chimney 
 flue. In no case shall the vent opening of such machines be permitted to 
 face any passageway, nor any part of a laundry floor where operatives would 
 be stationed, or likely to pass within a distance of 5 feet of the vent. All 
 such machines shall be placed at least 2 feet from any woodwork. 
 
LAUNDRIES 197 
 
 Collar or cuff shapers, or stands for sad or polishing irons, which are 
 heated by gas, or any volatile inflammable fluid, and rest on wooden tables, 
 floors, or other wooden supports, shall have between them and the woodwork 
 a % inch layer of asbestos or asbestos building lumber, covered with a 
 sheet of metal. The aforesaid protective material shall extend the full size 
 of the heating appliance. No such heating stand shall be placed nearer 
 than 1 8 inches to any combustible wall or partition unless such wall or 
 partition be protected in the same manner as specified for tables. 
 
 No rubber or other combustible tubing or hose, shall be used for gas 
 connections to any laundry heating appliance, except that necessary for 
 certain types of flat irons which are used while being heated. All other 
 connections shall be made with standard metal pipe and fittings. 
 
 The gas used for heating purposes shall be supplied by a system of piping 
 entirely separate from that used for lighting, and the main supply pipe for 
 the heating system shall "have a cut-off valve near the meter which shall be 
 closed at the end of each day's work. 
 
 No matches other than safety matches shall be permitted to be used in 
 any laundry. i 
 
 NOTE. Some careful laundrymen require that all gas heated laundry ap- 
 pliances be ignited by means of a wax taper, or a portable electric gas 
 lighter. This practice is commended. 
 
 It shall be the duty of the manager or person in charge of the laundry 
 to see that the gas is shut off from all ironing or other heating surfaces at 
 the close of each day's work, and that all sad, polishing, *or other such 
 irons are placed on some incombustible support. 
 
 He shall also see that no combustible material be allowed to accumulate about 
 any of the heating machines. All waste paper or other combustible material 
 shall be kept in metal cans. 
 
 If the packing room and the laundry adjoin, they shall be separated by 
 a fireproof partition. 
 
 NOTE. Sections covering electric wiring, volatile inflammable liquids, gas 
 and acetyline are omitted as being covered by other parts of this book. 
 
EXPLOSIBILITY OF GRAIN DUST.* 
 
 Origin and Distribution cf Dusts. During the process of 
 handling grain large quantities of dust are produced. The coarse 
 or heavier dust settles on the floors, steps, machinery, etc., while 
 the very fine dust rises into the atmosphere, and settles on beams, 
 rafters and other inaccessible points. The bolters, rolls, purifiers, 
 etc., all produce a large quantity of dust during their process of 
 operation, and if a satisfactory system of dust collecting is not 
 installed a. portion of the dust may escape 'into the surrounding 
 atmosphere. During the grinding process considerable dust may 
 also escape into the air if proper provisions are not taken to keep 
 the machinery in repair. The conveyor lines and elevator legs, 
 in case of any defect in construction, will allow the dust to enter 
 the surrounding air. At the discharging point of grain into stor- 
 age, an opportunity is_ given for the dust to escape into the air 
 and settle on surrounding projections. In addition to the various 
 sources enumerated, there are possibly a number of others, but 
 the ones mentioned generally cover the sources that produce the 
 largest quantity. An important consideration in the prevention of 
 the accumulation of dangerous dusts would be to attack the point 
 where the dust is produced, and not deal exclusively with its 
 removal after it has settled in dangerous quantities. It is true 
 that the escape of dust cannot be entirely prevented, but it can 
 be reduced to such an extent that its complete removal can be 
 more certain. 
 
 Efficiency of Dust-Collecting Systems. The introduction of 
 dust-collecting systems in the milling industry has succeeded in the 
 practical elimination of the old dust or " stive " room. When this 
 dust room was in use, such as at the time of the Minnesota ex- 
 plosion in 1878, and the Illinois explosion in 1893, the dust was 
 conveyed or carried to the " stive " room from the various parts 
 of the mill. This always made an " explosive chamber," as it 
 were, allowing sufficient dust to be in suspension to produce a 
 violent explosion, if ignited. With the present system of dust 
 collection as applied to modern mills this particular source of 
 danger is done away with, and, by means of air currents, the dust 
 is carried to the collector and deposited. Many millers seem to 
 feel a sense of security if such a dust-collecting system is in good 
 working order, and that this danger from explosions is practically 
 eliminated. Owing to the difference in types of grinding machines 
 used in flour and feed milling, the flour miller feels an additional 
 amount of protection from the fact that a series of sparks neces- 
 sary to ignite the dust cloud will not be as readily produced by 
 the grinding " rolls " as when attrition or friction mills are used. 
 However, it would not be advisable to conclude that flour mills 
 are not as liable to experience explosions as feed or cereal mills, 
 owing to this one difference of machinery installation, as other 
 
 * Abstracted from a report of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. 
 
 198 
 
EXPLOSIRILITY OF GRAIN DUST IQ9 
 
 sources are often present which may cause a spark or fire and 
 generate an explosion which would extend to the highly inflam- 
 mable dust usually prevalent in any grinding mill. 
 
 Observations in various mills would seem to indicate that at 
 times some of the dust collectors do not work as effectively as 
 at other times. In sorrre cases dust has been in suspension, form- 
 ing a noticeable cloud near the collecting device, probably due to 
 defective equipment. When this occurs the very finest part of 
 the dust leaks out into the atmosphere, and when mixed with suf- 
 ficient air forms a dangerous mixture. 
 
 Laboratory Investigations of Inflammability of Grain Dust. 
 Following the disaster in Minnesota in 1878, Professors Peck and 
 Peckham carried out some tests upon the explosibility of flour 
 dusts. They found that two ounces of these dusts together with 
 two cubic feet of air would produce, when ignited in a box with 
 a frame, an explosion that would lift two men standing on the 
 cover. It has been calculated that a sack of flour suspended as 
 dust in 4,000 cubic feet of air*(a room 20x20x10), when ignited, 
 would generate sufficient force to throw 2,500 tons 100 feet high. 
 
 More recent work upon the inflammability of carbonaceous dusts 
 has been carried out by R. V. Wheeler, Chief Chemist for the 
 Explosion in Mines Committee, England. He tested a large num- 
 ber of various kinds of dusts by two different methods one for 
 the purpose of discriminating between harmless and dangerous 
 dusts : the other with the intention of ascertaining the temperatures 
 at which inflammation of the dangerous dusts takes place readily. 
 As a result of these tests he divided the dusts into three classes, 
 namely : 
 
 " Class I. Dusts which ignite and propagate flame readily, the source of 
 heat required for ignition being comparatively small; such, for example, as 
 a lighted match. 
 
 " Class II.- Dusts which are readily ignited, but which for the propaga- 
 tion of flame require a source of heat of large size and high temperature 
 (such as electric arc), or of long duration (such as the flame of a Bunsen 
 burner). 
 
 " Class III. Dusts which do not appear to be capable of propagating flame 
 under any conditions likely to obtain in a factory; either (a) because they 
 do not readily form a cloud in air, or (b) because they are contaminated 
 with a large quantity of incombustible matter, or (c) because .the material 
 of which they are composed does not burn rapidly enough." 
 
 Class I 
 
 Sugar Maize 
 
 Dextrine (calcined farina) Tea 
 
 Starch Compound cake 
 
 Cocoa Grain (grain storage) 
 
 Rice, meal and sugar refuse Rape seed 
 
 <'"rk Cornflour 
 
 Unextracted soya bean Flour (flour mill) 
 
 Wood flour Chicory 
 
 Malt Briquette- 
 
 Oat husk Gramophone record 
 
 Grain (flour mill) Extracted soya bean 
 
 Class II 
 
 Copal gum Oil cake 
 
 Leather Offal grinding (bran) 
 
 " Dead " cork Grist milling 
 
 Cocoanut oil milling Horn meal 
 
2oo FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Rice milling Mustard 
 
 
 Sawdust Shoddy 
 
 Castor oil nieal Shellac composition 
 
 Class III 
 
 
 Organic ammonia Drug grinding 
 
 Tobacco Cotton seed 
 
 Spice milling . Cotton seed and soya bean 
 
 Bone meal Charcoal 
 
 Coal (foundry blacking) Foundry blacking 
 
 Lamp black Brush carbon 
 
 Sack cleaning Stale coke 
 
 Retort carbon Plumbago 
 
 Rape seed (Russian) Bone charcoal 
 
 Blacking Mineral and ivory black 
 
 Grain cleaning 
 
 The classification, as here given, is according to the inflammabil- 
 ity, of the sample tested. Other results might he obtained from 
 other samples of the same material, especially those placed in 
 Class III. 
 
 The U, S. Bureau of Min'es, aftef a series of tests, reports that: 
 "Although sufficient work has not been done to allow of any absolute 
 statements, the results thus far indicate that all dusts that are made in the 
 handling and working up of grain :into food products can be ignited under 
 proper conditions, and also will propagate a flame, most of them with 
 explosive violence. This statement should not be taken as meaning that 
 the dusts will ignite of themselves, that is, spontaneously; but when heated 
 to their ignition-temperature will ignite an.d will propagate a flame. In 
 other words, there must be some outside source of heat. This may be 
 very small, such as a heated coil of wire, as used in the above tests, if 
 the temperature is sufficiently high; or it may be larger, as a flame, which 
 may have a lower temperature but a larger heating surface." 
 
 Amount of Dust that will Propagate an Explosion. In dust 
 explosions usually two reports are heard ; the first is described as 
 a sharp, quick sound, followed by a second of a loud, rumbling 
 nature, and lasting for a much longer period and usually followed 
 by fire, destroying the plant. The theory of this is that a very 
 small quantity of fine dust in suspension becomes ignited, causing 
 the first sharp report, which would produce sufficient concussion 
 to disturb settled and packed dust on surrounding ledges and pro- 
 jections, filling the air with an additional explosive mixture. The 
 heat, or flame from the original small puff, would cause an ignition 
 of this newly formed mixture, and the explosion would propagate 
 throughout a very large area, until: the entire dust zone would be 
 covered. Because of the possibility of this, it is necessary to 
 prevent even small accumulations of dust, particularly near points 
 from which sparks or flame may originate. 
 
 Many theories and ideas have been advanced as to the conditions 
 under which dust explosions are produced and the amount of dust 
 in suspension necessary to original the explosion, all probably 
 based on different tests and experiments. It is generally agreed 
 that the dust must be fine and dry, and in a state of suspension 
 in the atmosphere, and there must be a proper proportion in 
 diffusion so that the explosive mixture will ignite with sufficient 
 force to propagate to an explosion! It is therefore evident that 
 to prevent explosions practically all the dust must be removed, 
 or the amount of air kept down to a minimum. 
 
 Causes of Grain-Dust Explosions. The following causes have 
 
EXPLOSIBILITY OF GRAIN DUST 2OI 
 
 been assigned to many of the explosions in milling plants through- 
 out this country and abroad: 
 
 (1) Use of open lights, or naked flames, such as lamps, torches, 
 gas jets, lanterns, candles, matches, etc. 
 
 (2) Property fires. 
 
 (3) Introduction of foreign material in grinding machines. 
 
 (4) Electric sparks from motors, fuses, switches, lighting systems. 
 
 (5) Static electricity produced by friction of pulleys and belts, 
 grinding machines, etc. 
 
 A detailed discussion of the first two classes is not necessary; 
 recognizing the explosive hazard of dust laden air, it is obvious 
 that all the causes in (i) should be guarded against. Many violent 
 explosions have occurred during mill fires, as the force from the 
 fire produces sufficient concussion to jar accumulated dust into 
 suspension. 
 
 A large number of explosions in more recent years have been 
 traced to the introduction of foreign materials into grinding 
 machines, particularly in grinding oat hulls and feeds. Particles 
 of foreign material seem to pass the separating systems and, com- 
 ing in contact with the grinding plates of the machines, produce 
 sufficient sparks to cause an ignition of the dusts in the grinding 
 machines and conveyor lines. 
 
 Explosions have been assigned to the ignition of the dust cloud 
 by an electric arc, and by sparks from motors, blown fuses, switch- 
 boards, starting boxes, lighting systems, etc. A disastrous ex- 
 plosion in Liverpool, England, in 1911, was. due to the ignition 
 of dust stirred up by the breaking of a belt. The cause of the 
 ignition was due to sparks from a blown fuse of a temporary' 
 switchboard. 
 
 The production of static electricity by friction of pulleys and 
 belts has been assigned as the cause of recent dust explosions. 
 Although experiments have not been conducted along this line to 
 show that a dust cloud can be ignited in this manner, a recent 
 experiment by the U. S. Bureau of Mines showed very clearly 
 that sufficient static electricity could be produced by a very small 
 pulley and shaft to readily ignite gas. A milling company in 
 Texas, engaged in grinding cottonseed cake into meal, states, that 
 after experiencing a series of explosions, the insulating of a certain 
 grinding machine, prevented any repetition of previous occurrences. 
 The fact that explosions have been known to occur at times when 
 the feed of grinding machines was cut off, seems to indicate that 
 an unknown factor may be the responsible agent. 
 
 Prevention of Grain-Dust Explosions. Since only a very small 
 quantity of dust in suspension is necessary .to present conditions 
 favorable to ignition, it would appear advisable that the proper 
 thing to do would be to avoid the production or escape of dust 
 into the atmosphere, as far as this is possible. From the large 
 number of explosions thought to have been due to the presence 
 of foreign material in the grain, it appears that the grain contains 
 a portion of this material from the original point of shipment 
 and suggests the importance of cleaning the grain at the very first 
 stages of handling. In addition to this source of danger the 
 size of the bins receiving ground material has an important rela- 
 tion to the extent of the fire or the violence of the explosion. 
 If the bin is of large dimensions and very deep, it gives a very 
 
2O2 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 large area that may become filled with very fine dust in suspension. 
 A number of violent explosions have occurred, due to a flame coming 
 in contact with the suspended dust in bins containing only a 
 small quantity of grain. 
 
 It is necessary in mills and elevators, for the workmen to deter- 
 mine at frequent intervals the amount of grain that the storage 
 bins contain. A common practice is to lower a light of some kind 
 into the bin, to observe or measure the quantity of grain. Many 
 explosions have occurred when open lights and lanterns were 
 introduced into grain bins for this purpose, and the practice 
 cannot be too strongly condemned. The relation of the electric 
 spark to the ignition of the dust cloud has not been fully deter- 
 mined by experiment, and many companies, for this reason, have 
 discontinued the lowering of incandescent electric light bulbs into 
 dusty atmospheres. There is a tendency for the workmen to 
 become hasty in an effort to ascertain the quantity in a series of 
 bins, and the bulb may, by contact with the side of the bin or 
 floor, become broken and introduce an element of possible danger. 
 The desired result can be obtained by lowering a " tape " with a 
 weight attached to the end, and the exact measurement can be 
 recorded. 
 
 Where lights must be used an approved type of portable electric 
 lamp should be provided. The Electrical Section of the Bureau of 
 Mines has recently approved three different types of lamps for 
 safety in gaseous mixtures. 
 
 Electric bulbs in dusty atmospheres located near machinery where 
 there is a possibility of the lamp becoming broken, or at points in 
 the mill where workmen may strike the lamp, especially when 
 carrying a projection of some kind on their shoulder, should be 
 enclosed in strong wire guards or protectors; and it would be 
 advisable also to enclose each bulb in a vapor-proof globe. An 
 extra safety feature would be, whenever possible, to locate all 
 fuses on light and power circuits, switches, starting boxes, motors, 
 etc., at points where dust is not present in dangerous quantities. 
 
 An adequate system of preventing or collecting dust should be 
 provided and maintained; in fact, from the point where the grain 
 or other material enters the building to its final distribution, it 
 should not be allowed to be discharged or moved in such a manner 
 that dust may escape. 
 
 At any point where open delivery is necessary, powerful suction 
 dust collectors should be provided. To prevent explosions due 
 to sparking in milling machinery, vents are often provided ; these 
 are essentially safety or explosion valves, to permit the release of 
 pressure caused by incipient explosions ; to be of value they must 
 be of good size, and under no circumstances should they open into 
 any part of the building. Lately experiments have been made with 
 checking devices which hold back a sufficient amount of the 
 material to almost completely exclude any air at the point where 
 sparks may be expected ; such an appliance, when perfected, will 
 tend largely toward reducing the hazard of explosions originating 
 or traveling through conveyors and machinery. 
 
 Besides the dust collecting systems, the removal of dust which 
 has settled in the mill is necessary. The usual method is to 
 sweep up the floors with a broom and dust off all rafters, etc. 
 This removes the larger particles and much of the real dust, but 
 
EXPLOSIBILITY OF GRAIN DUST 2O3 
 
 the finest and, therefore, most dangerous dust is only stirred up 
 to mix with the fine particles already in the air. In any of the 
 larger mills and in any dust laden section of a smaller plant a 
 complete vacuum cleaning system should be installed, similar to 
 that used by the housewife in cleaning her home. The cost of 
 installation may be high but the thoroughness is undisputed and 
 it will save in the number of employees usually necessary for 
 cleaning. 
 
BLOWER SYSTEMS* 
 
 Blower systems, which are often an economic necessity, usually 
 introduce an additional hazard contributing to the cause and spread 
 of fire, particularly when used for conveying stock and refuse. It 
 is impossible to eliminate the fire hazard from such systems, but 
 reasonable safeguards can be provided to reduce it. 
 
 The general standards applicable to blower systems are sub- 
 divided into two classes: 
 
 A. Heating and Ventilating Systems. 
 
 B. Stock and Refuse Conveying Systems. 
 
 Class A Heating and Ventilating Systems 
 
 1. BLOWERS. (The' word blowers is used to include blowers and fans.) 
 
 (a) Blowers shall be so located as to be accessible for repairing and. 
 lubricating. 
 
 (b) Casings to be strongly built and properly reinforced where necessary; 
 joints shall be air-tight. 
 
 Casings and runners shall be entirely non-combustible, and large enough 
 not to require overspeeding. 
 
 To prevent accidents, openings into casings shall be protected with sub- 
 stantial screens or their equivalent. 
 
 (c) Bearings and journals to be constructed in accordance with the best 
 modern machine design and so proportioned as to prevent over-heating. The 
 bearings shall be self-oiling and so designed as to prevent leakage of oil. 
 They shall be located outside of casings or ducts wherever possible. If 
 located inside of casings or ducts, oilless self-lubricating bearings shall 
 be used, made of bronze bushings fitted with plugs, such as graphite or 
 metaline. 
 
 2. DUCTS. (The word ducts is used to include ducts, flues, pipes and tubes.) 
 
 (a) Openings through floors for the circulation of air from one story to 
 another shall not be used. 
 
 (b) Entire system of ducts to be self-contained; no rooms, hallways, attics, 
 hollow spaces, voids, nor other portions of the building shall be used for 
 air chambers or ducts, unless of fire- resisting constructon, and then only 
 by permission of the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 (c) Ducts shall be made of galvanized iron or other approved non-com- 
 bustible material. The same applies to enclosures of steam coils used for 
 heating air. 
 
 (d) To be thoroughly braced. 
 
 (e) To be substantially supported by metal hangers, brackets or their 
 equivalent. 
 
 (f) Where subject to mechanical injury, ducts to be properly protected. 
 
 (g) In no case shall the clearance between any metal ducts and combustible 
 material be less than i inch. 
 
 (h) The 'passing of ducts through fire walls should be avoided wherever 
 possible. Where ducts pass through fire walls they shall be provided with 
 
 * From the -Regulations issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters 
 in 1915. 
 
 204 
 
BLOWER SYSTEMS 
 
 205 
 
 automatic dampers, or national standard vertical automatic fire doors, located 
 on each side of the wall through which they pass. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (i) All ducts passing through floors shall be made of or protected through- 
 out by approved fire-resisting material, such as 4-inch brick, hollow tile, 
 or 2-inch cement plastered partition supported by a substantial steel frame. 
 
 (j) Where a vertical duct has an outlet on more than one floor, automatic 
 dampers shall be provided on all outlets opening directly from such vertical 
 ducts and at all connections where ducts branch from such vertical ducts. 
 
 Editor 1 ^ Note. The object of these requirements is to prevent 
 fire from spreading from one floor to another through ducts. 
 
 (k) Joints between ducts and floors, walls or partitions, must be made 
 tight by non-combustible material. 
 
206 
 
 s FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (1) Outlets on supply and exhaust ducts should always be protected by 
 means of register faces or wire screens. 
 
 (m) Intake of air to be from outside except in re-circulating systems, 
 and shall be taken only from areas containing non-combustible material. 
 Intakes must be protected with rolling shutters or heavy doors. 
 
 Intake and intake rooms, steam coils and blowers, etc., shall be segregated 
 in a room cut off by fire-resisting partitions from other portions of the 
 building. 
 
 (n) Blower systems should preferably have an emergency or automatic 
 control to shut them down in case of fire. This may be done automatically 
 by means of devices utilizing fusible links, thermostats, or automatic sprinklers. 
 Such installations to be subject to the approval of the inspection depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction. 
 
 3. VENTILATION OF COOKING APPLIANCES. (a) Ventilating ducts used to 
 carry off the grease-laden vapors from hoods over cooking appliances, espe- 
 cially in kitchens of large restaurants and hotels, shall be constructed simi- 
 larly to boiler smoke flues, and, if of metal, must be of not less than No. 16 
 U. S. gauge, so substantially built that the grease and gum could be removed 
 from the interior by burning out under a flash fire. 
 
 (b) The ventilating ducts shall be an independent system in no manner 
 connected with other house ventilating systems. 
 
 (c) Ducts should not be connected to stacks, chimneys or flues used for 
 other purposes. 
 
BLOWER SYSTEMS 
 
 207 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (d) A live steam jet should preferably be provided at the end of the 
 duct nearest the cooking appliances. 
 
 Class B Stock and Refuse Conveying Systems 
 
 The high velocity of the air and the inflammability of the slock or 
 refuse which these systems are usually designed to handle make them espe- 
 cially hazardous. 
 
 The specific requirements of a ventilating system detailed under class 
 "A" shall be applied to the stock and refuse conveying systems, also the 
 following: 
 
 4. BLOWERS. (a) Blowers shall be installed on proper foundations and 
 secured in place in a manner subject to the approval of the inspection 
 department having jurisdiction. 
 
 (b) Bearings of blowers shall not extend inside of blower casings or ducts. 
 
 (c) It is recommended that oilless self-lubricating bearings .be used, made 
 of bronze bushings with plugs such as graphite or metaline. 
 
 (d) Connections between discharge end of blower and main* duct must be 
 made so as to prevent leakage of fine dust. 
 
 (e) Blowers through which inflammable materials pass shall have blades 
 , of composition, copper or brass. Ample clearance to be provided for all 
 
 blades. 
 
 5. DUCTS. (a) Ducts for conveying stock and refuse shall be made of 
 
208 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 suitable non-combustible materials, preferably galvanized iron. All joints 
 shall be riveted and soldered. 
 
 (b) Lock joints are acceptable for longitudinal seams in pipes used under 
 suction. All such joints shall be made dust proof. 
 
 (c) Spiral pipes to be full riveted and soldered. 
 
 (d) Provision shall be made for the wear due to friction, at all points 
 of change of direction, by making long bends, by using heavier metal, and 
 in case where abrasive materials are to be conveyed, by inserting an approved 
 form of inside lining that may readily be renewed. 
 
 (e) Suitable tight-fitting sliding clean-out doors to be provided on all 
 conveyor ducts at sufficient intervals to facilitate cleaning of ducts or 
 removing obstructions. 
 
 (f) Suction ducts shall be provided at all machines producing dust or 
 combustible refuse, and shall be connected to exhaust fans. 
 
 (g) " Sweep-up " pipes should be so protected as not to admit material 
 which would be large enough to damage blower. 
 
 (h) Trunk line shall be run on the ; <mtside wall of the building with 
 ducts from each machine and each floor, passing out directly through the 
 wall and discharging into the trunk line. If inside of building, the trunk 
 duct shall be overhead rather than under the benches. 
 
 (i) The air vents from the system shall discharge outside of building. 
 
 (j) Where dust or readily inflammable material can accumulate on or 
 near blowers and ducts, they shall be grounded to prevent ignition of these 
 materials from a discharge of static electricity. 
 
 6. AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS. There shall be an approved sprinkler near the 
 feed end, and at the discharge outlet, inside the condenser, if such is used, 
 and also a sprinkler to protect the blower. In some cases, sprinklers may 
 be installed inside the ducts. Such sprinklers should be arranged in an 
 off-set or dome-shaped casing and not in the direct path of the draft. 
 Sprinklers with smooth deflectors that will not catch the flying stock are 
 desirable. 
 
 7. CYCLONE COLLECTORS OR SEPARATORS. (a) The cyclones or separators 
 shall be outside the building, and so located as not to constitute a hazard 
 to adjacent structures. Their construction and supports shall be of incom- 
 bustible material. If the cyclone of necessity is placed within 10 feet of 
 wooden walls, inflammable structures., or openings into buildings, it shall 
 be provided with a metal pipe extending to a point above the main roof, 
 or other safe location. 
 
 (b) The refuse from the cyclones and separators is to discharge by 
 gravity into a vault as described in Section 9. 
 
 (c) If the discharge ;from the cyclone or separator conveys the refuse 
 directly to the fire , boxes of boilers, the feed spout shall have an open end 
 discharging into a suitable receiver near the furnace, so that when the 
 furnace gets choked the refuse will fall out on the boiler room floor giving 
 the fireman % warning, also it would prevent " back fire " when the fan 
 blowing the refuse is stopped. 
 
 Editor's Note. The above section applies mainly to conveyors 
 of sawdust, cotton waste and such substances. Where considerable 
 dust of a combustible character, see page 199, is being conveyed, 
 the delivery direct to a boiler is strongly recommended against. 
 
BLOWER SYSTEM 209 
 
 For such material, the opening in the discharge pipe would not 
 prevent a " back fire." 
 
 (d) The air vent from the separator must not be connected to a chimney. 
 
 (e) If the air vent carries objectionable dust, as in the case of refuse, 
 such as from grain elevators, etc., the use of a simple air washer, or 
 other suitable filter, is recommended for eliminating the dust. 
 
 A screen shall be installed in the air vent to prevent sparks from entering. 
 
 8. SPECIAL CASES. (a) Readily ignitible stock, such as cotton, should not 
 pass through the fan. The system should never be connected directly to 
 picker or other hazardous machines. Systems handling such stock shall 
 operate entirely under suction with a device such as a " condenser," or 
 large separating chamber to discharge the stock from the pipe or conduit 
 before it reaches the fan. Stock should be fed to system preferably 
 by hand. Stock shall enter such a system in an upward direction 
 and the pipe should continue upward for at least ten feet to allow 
 any henvy substances or foreign material in the stock to drop out. If the 
 pipe must leave the room at a lower level, a long radius inverted U may 
 be used to obtain the necessary vertical distance. 
 
 (b) Systems using mixtures of cotton and wool which cannot be handled 
 by condensers and which operate under fan pressure, shall discharge to 
 non-combustible bins or boxes with outside vents through screens. 
 
 (c) Conditions whkh approach those favorable for explosive mixtures 
 should be subject to a special investigation. 
 
 (d) The dust from sand-papering machines, granulators and pulverizers, 
 bufling or polishing wheels, emery wheels and from other machines pro- 
 ducing a very fine dust, shall have a suction system independent of the 
 cyclone, which connects with the refuse vault. 
 
 The dust should be settled by spraying in an enclosed chamber of in- 
 combustible material, thus eliminating the hazard of the dust room. Dust 
 from the machines may also be discharged directly into running water if 
 suitable provision is made for its collection and removal. 
 
 (e) For mills, such as malt, cereals, sugar, celluloid, etc., it is recom- 
 mended that an explosion flap be provided in a metal pipe leading outside 
 
 'of the building so that in case of an explosion in the mill the flap opens 
 and the explosion spends itself outside the building. 
 
 9. VAULTS, (a) Vaults for shavings, refuse, etc., shall be located outside of 
 building. Walls, floor and roof shall be of brick or other approved fire- 
 resisting material. 
 
 (b) Openings, if any, between vault and boiler room should not exceed 
 9 square feet, and bottom of opening be not less than 6 inches above the 
 level of boiler room floor. Openings to be located at least 8 feet from 
 the firing door of boiler, preferably at right angles, and protected by a 
 standard automatic fire door. 
 
 (c) Roof of vault to be provided with proper ventilating opening not 
 less than 6 inches in diameter. As a protection from the weather this 
 opening may be fitted with a suitable metal ventilator. 
 
 (d) Vaults shall be protected by approved automatic sprinklers. Where 
 such protection is not available, steam jets may be installed for fire extinguish 
 ing purposes. 
 
 (e) Where dust-producing machines are used only on a small scale, the 
 dust or refuse may, by special permission of the inspection department having 
 
2io FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 jurisdiction, discharge into a substantial metal dust box, or other approved 
 receptacle located outside the building, in lieu of a vault. The receptacle 
 to have a hinged door or cover, which will readily open and vent a fire 
 or explosion within. 
 
 (f) A water tank may be used in lieu of the dust box. In such cases 
 the tank should be provided with water supply, overflow and drain pipes. 
 On the water supply pipe a proper float-controlled valve shall be installed 
 to maintain a constant water level. It is recommended that the end of duct 
 be submerged into the water at least one inch. 
 
STORAGE OF EXPLOSIVES 
 
 The storage and handling of explosives is seldom found in city 
 risks, being usually restricted to one or two classes of occupancies. 
 In general, the best safeguard to throw around them is to put 
 the handling and keeping of explosives in charge of only careful 
 men of known character, who understand the danger of the sub- 
 stance handled; this fitness of the employee is of vital importance. 
 
 In general, storage of explosives should not be near places of 
 assembly, as often the panic of the people in such a place will 
 cause more loss of life than the actual explosion. 
 
 Some fireworks, as given below, are very dangerous and should 
 be prohibited in any place. In general, the firing off of fireworks 
 is dangerous both to life and property, and for several years a 
 country-wide campaign has been carried on by various organiza- 
 tions to have laws adopted prohibiting it ; in several cities such 
 laws have been passed and in other places or States rigid limita- 
 tions have been put on the size and explosive contents of various 
 fireworks. A more general prohibition should be made throughout 
 the country, until only public displays, under men holding certifi- 
 cates of fitness, are allowed. 
 
 HANDLING AND STORAGE* 
 
 Explosives belonging to the various classes are as follows: 
 
 Class I or Forbidden Explosives 
 
 (a) Liquid nitroglycerin. 
 
 (b) High explosives containing over 60 per cent of nitroglycerin (except 
 gelatine dynamite). 
 
 (c) High explosives having an unsatisfactory absorbent or one that 
 permits leakage of nitroglycerin under any conditions liable to exist during 
 transportation or storage. 
 
 (d) Nitro cellulose in a dry condition, in quantity greater than ten (10) 
 pounds in one exterior package. 
 
 (e) Fulminate of mercury in bulk in a dry condition, and fulminates of 
 all other metals in any condition, except as a component of manufactured 
 articles not hereinafter forbidden. 
 
 (f) Fireworks that combine an explosive and a detonator or blasting cap. 
 
 (g) Fireworks that will ignite spontaneously when subjected to forty- 
 eight consecutive hours in the presence of moisture to the temperature of 
 boiling water. 
 
 (h) Firecrackers whose dimensions exceed five inches in length or three 
 quarters of an inch in diameter, or whose explosive charges exceed forty- 
 five grains each in weight. 
 
 (i) Toy torpedoes or caps exceeding one and one-half inches in diameter, 
 
 *Abstracted from a suggested ordinance issued by the National Board of 
 Kire Underwriters. 
 
212 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 or containing more than an average of thirty-five hundreths of a grain of 
 explosive composition per cap. 
 
 (j) Fireworks that can be exploded en masse by a commercial detonator 
 placed in one of the units or by the impact of a rifle bullet or otherwise. 
 
 (k) Fireworks containing a match tip or head, or similar igniting point 
 or surface, unless each individual tip, head or similar igniting point or sur- 
 face is entirely covered and securely protected from accidental contact or 
 friction with any other surface. 
 
 Clas-s II or Dangerous Explosives 
 
 Black Powder. 
 
 High explosives (except as described in Class I). 
 
 Blasting caps (including detonators and electric detonators). 
 
 Smokeless powder for small arms. 
 
 Wet fulminate of mercury. 
 
 Ammunition for cannon with explosive projectiles. 
 
 Explosive projectiles. 
 
 Detonating fuses. 
 
 Class III or Less Dangerous Explosives 
 
 Ammunition for cannon (except as described in Class II). 
 
 Smokeless powder for cannon. 
 
 Fireworks. 
 
 Class IV or Relatively Safe Explosives 
 
 Small arms ammunition (blank, ball or shot). 
 
 Primers. 
 
 Fuses (except as described in Class II). 
 
 Safety fuse. 
 
 Safety squibs. 
 
 DISTANCES OF FACTORIES AND MAGAZINES, FROM BUILDINGS, ETC. All fac- 
 tory buildings and magazines, in which Class II explosives are had, kept or 
 stored, must be located at distances from neighboring buildings, highways 
 and railroads in conformity with the following quantity and distance table. 
 
 Whenever the building, highway or railroad to be protected is effectually 
 screened from the factory building or magazine where Class II explosives 
 are stored, either by natural features of the ground or by an efficient arti- 
 ficial barricade of such height that any straight line drawn from the top 
 of any side wall of the factory building or magazine to any part of the 
 building to be protected will pass through such intervening natural or 
 efficient artificial barricade, and any straight line drawn from the top of 
 any side wall of the factory building or magazine to any point twelve feet 
 above the center of the highway or railroad to be protected will pass through 
 such intervening natural or efficient artificial barricade the applicable dis- 
 tances as prescribed may be reduced one half. 
 
 Except in a dwelling, school, theatre or other place of public amusement 
 or assembly, the following storage is permitted: 
 
 (a) One second class magazine containing not more than fifty pounds of 
 explosive if placed on wheels and located not more than ten feet from, on 
 the same floor with, and directly opposite to the entrance on the floor nearest 
 the street level. 
 
 (b) One second class magazine containing not more than one thousand 
 blasting caps, if placed on wheels and located on the floor nearest the 
 street level. 
 
STORAGE OF EXPLOSIVES 
 
 2 J 3 
 
 Magazines in which Class II explosives may be kept or stored must be' 
 constructed as follows: 
 
 (a) Magazines of the first class are those containing explosives in amount 
 exceeding fifty pounds. They shall be constructed of brick, concrete, iron 
 
 QUANTITY AND DISTANCE TABLE 
 
 Column 1 
 
 Column 2 
 
 Column 3 
 
 Column 4 
 
 Quantity that May be Kept or Stored from 
 Nearest Building, Highway or Railroad 
 
 Distance 
 from 
 
 Distance 
 from 
 
 Distance 
 
 
 
 Nearest 
 
 Nearest 
 
 from 
 Nearest 
 
 Blasting and Electric 
 
 Other Explosives 
 
 Building 
 
 Railway 
 
 Highway 
 
 Blasting Caps 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 Number 
 Over 
 
 Number 
 Not Over 
 
 Pounds 
 Over 
 
 Pounds 
 Not Over 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 1,000* 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 5,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 10,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 70 
 
 35 
 
 20,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 50* 
 
 145 
 
 90 
 
 45 
 
 25,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 240 
 
 140 
 
 70 
 
 50,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 360 
 
 220 
 
 IK) 
 
 100,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 520 
 
 310 
 
 150 
 
 150,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 640 
 
 380 
 
 190 
 
 200,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 720 
 
 430 
 
 220 
 
 250,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 480 
 
 240 
 
 300,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 860 
 
 520 
 
 260 
 
 350,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 920 
 
 550 
 
 280 
 
 400,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 800 
 
 900 
 
 980 
 
 590 
 
 300 
 
 450,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 900 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,020 
 
 610 
 
 310 
 
 500,000 
 
 750,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,060 
 
 640 
 
 320 
 
 750,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 720 
 
 360 
 
 i,ooo;ooo 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 780 
 
 390 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 1,420 
 
 850 
 
 420 
 
 2,000,000 . 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 ,500 
 
 900 
 
 450 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 1,560 
 
 940 
 
 470 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 1,610 
 
 970 
 
 490 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 ,660 
 
 1,000 
 
 500 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,020 
 
 510 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 ,740 
 
 1,040 
 
 520 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 ,780 
 
 1,070 
 
 530 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 ,950 
 
 1,170 
 
 580 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 12,500,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 2,110 
 
 1,270 
 
 630 
 
 12,500,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 2,260 
 
 1,360 
 
 680 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 . 35,000 
 
 2,410 
 
 1,450 
 
 720 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 2,550 
 
 1,530 
 
 760 
 
 
 
 40,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 2,680 
 
 1,610 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 45000 
 
 50000 
 
 2,800 
 
 1 680 
 
 840 
 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 2,920 
 
 1,750 
 
 880 
 
 
 
 55000 
 
 60000 
 
 3,030 
 
 1 820 
 
 910 
 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 65ioOO 
 
 3,130 
 
 1,880 
 
 940 
 
 
 
 65000 
 
 70000 
 
 3,220 
 
 1 940 
 
 970 
 
 
 
 70,000 
 
 75;000 
 
 3,310 
 
 1,990 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 75000 
 
 80000 
 
 3 390 
 
 2,040 
 
 1,020 
 
 
 
 80,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 3,460 
 
 2,080 
 
 l|040 
 
 
 
 85 000 
 
 90000 
 
 3 520 
 
 2,120 
 
 1^060 
 
 
 
 90,000 
 
 95IOOO 
 
 3J580 
 
 2,150 
 
 l|080 
 
 
 
 95,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 3,630 
 
 2,180 
 
 1,090 
 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 3,670 
 
 2,200 
 
 1,100 
 
 
 
 125,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 3,800 
 
 2,280 
 
 1,140 
 
 
 
 150,000 
 
 175,000 
 
 3,930 
 
 2,360 
 
 1,180 
 
 
 
 175000 
 
 200000 
 
 4 060 
 
 2 440 
 
 1,220 
 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 225,000 
 
 4,190 
 
 2,520 
 
 1 ,260 
 
 
 
 225 000 
 
 250,000 
 
 4,310 
 
 2 590 
 
 1,300 
 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 275,000 
 
 4,430 
 
 2,660 
 
 1^340 
 
 
 
 275,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 4,550 
 
 2,730 
 
 1,380 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * May be kept in second class magazines inside buildings. 
 
214 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 or wood covered with iron, or other fireproof material having bullet resisting 
 qualities, and shall have no openings except for ventilation and entrance. 
 The doors of such magazines must at all times be kept closed and locked, 
 except when necessarily opened for the purpose of storing or removing 
 explosives therein or therefrom, by persons lawfully entitled to enter the 
 same. Every such magazine shall have sufficient openings for ventilation 
 thereof, which must be screened in such manner as to prevent the entrance 
 of sparks of fire through the same. Upon each side and each end of such 
 a magazine, or if barricaded With an artificial barricade then upon its 
 barricade, there shall at all times be kept conspicuously posted a sign, with 
 the words, " EXPLOSIVES DANGEROUS," legibly printed thereon in 
 letters not less than six inches high. No matches or fire of any kind shall 
 at any time be permitted in such magazine. Magazines itl which more than 
 fifty pounds of explosives are kept or stored must be detached from other 
 structures. The total amount of Class II explosives in any two or more 
 magazines, which are located within two hundred feet of each other, must 
 be considered in determining the lawful distances for such magazines to be 
 from buildings, highways or railroads. 
 
 (b) Magazines of the second class are those containing explosives in 
 amount not exceeding fifty pounds. They shall be made of fireproof material, 
 or wood covered with sheet iron, and except when necessarily opened for 
 use by authorized persons, shall at all times be kept securely locked. Upon 
 each such magazine there shall at all times be kept conspicuously posted a 
 sign, with the words, " EXPLOSIVES DANGEROUS," legibly printed 
 thereon, and not more than two such magazines shall be had or kept in 
 any building. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR MAGAZINES. It shall be unlawful to place, keep or store 
 any blasting caps or detonators of any kind in the same magazine together 
 with explosives. 
 
 All magazines must be kept clean and free from grit, paper, rubbish and 
 empty packages. 
 
 All magazines must be kept locked except when being inspected or when 
 explosives are .being placed therein or removed therefrom. 
 
 When any kind of explosive is removed from the magazine, the oldest 
 of that particular kind must always be taken, and it shall be the duty of 
 the magazine keeper to see that this is done. 
 
 Packages pf explosives in a magazine must be neatly piled .in such a 
 way that all of them may be easily examined, and packages of high ex- 
 plosives must always be placed right side up. 
 
 It shall be unlawful for any person to cap a cartridge within a radius 
 of fifty feet of a magazine, or in any case to cap more cartridges than 
 necessary for immediate use. 
 
 No artificial light shall be used in magazines except portable electric safety 
 battery lamps. 
 
CHEMICAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION RISKS 
 
 In order to form an idea of .the degree of fire or explosion risk 
 attaching to establishments it is necessary to investigate : 
 
 1. The danger each of the raw materials is capable of producing 
 during storage or while in use; 
 
 2. The same characteristic of the intermediate and final products ; 
 
 3. The various processes employed: firing, nitrating, oxidizing, 
 reducing (with hydrogen), impregnating, burning, briquetting, car- 
 buretting, carbonizing, kilning, drying, fulminating, gasification, 
 lacquering, refining, distilling, subliming, vulcanizing, charring, cal- 
 cining, incinerating, etc.; 
 
 4. The progress of the different operations, whether turbulent, 
 accompanied by the formation of dangerous by-products and waste 
 products, or the liberation of gas, vapor, or dust; 
 
 5. The treatment, purification, or storage of waste products or 
 spent raw materials, with a view to their use over again (recovery 
 or revivification) ; 
 
 6. The working temperatures during the various stages of opera- 
 tions. 
 
 The degrees of fire risk always differ and can only be accurately 
 defined by a careful examination. 
 
 Substances of different kinds must not be stored together indis- 
 criminately; but due regard must be paid to their mutual compati- 
 bility. For instance, the substances mentioned in the following list 
 may cause outbreaks of fire if stored in contact with one another. 
 For the sake of brevity only one example is given (in the principal 
 list) in the case of groups of similar materials, thus : 
 
 Organic substances comprise all kinds of coal, peat, flour, starch, 
 sugar, herbs, fruit, seeds, bran, grist, chaff, straw, concentrated 
 fodder, artificial fertilizers (except those of a purely mineral 
 nature), wood, cork, horn, paper, millboard, rags, fibres, textiles, 
 wool, silk, cotton, flax, hemp, and leather. 
 
 Dusty substances: All pulverulent materials that readily form 
 clouds of dust: like flour, lampblack, bronze powders, all kinds of 
 fibrous waste, shearing fluff. 
 
 Dangerous liquids: All liquids that, at the ordinary temperature, 
 liberate inflammable vapors which form explosive mixtures with 
 air, namely, carbon disulphide, ether, acetone, alcohol, wood spirit, 
 lacquers, varnishes, benzol, petroleum spirit, illuminating oils. 
 
 215 
 
2i6 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Carriers of Oxygen: All substances that are chemically highly 
 charged with oxygen or ozone and will part with this when a 
 favorable opportunity occurs and hence exhibit the same danger- 
 ous properties as oxygen. When the liberation of oxygen by these 
 compounds is effected in an atmosphere of inflammable gases or 
 vapors, or in direct contaqt with organic substances, like resins, 
 ethereal oils, or mineral oils, and the temperature is merely slightly 
 elevated, an immediate ignition of these substances may occur, if 
 the circumstances are favorable. Certain carriers of oxygen will 
 ignite organic substances even at the ordinary temperature. 
 
 The most important carriers of oxygen are enumerated below,\ 
 the temperatures or other conditions at which they liberate the 
 oxygen, and therefore become dangerous, being also mentioned. 
 
 Perchloric acid, at the slightest opportunity, even during storage, 
 with violent explosion. 
 
 Permanganic acid, on gentle warming, any organic matter present 
 being thereby ignited. 
 
 Potassium permanganate, in a warmed solution ; dry, at 240 C. ; 
 when mixed with sulphuric acid, it will ignite all inflammable 
 gases, vapors, ethers, etc. The dry salt tends to ignite spon- 
 taneously when suffused with glycerin. 
 
 lodic acid and periodic acid, at 300 C. ; at the ordinary tem- 
 perature in presence of organic matter. 
 
 Persulphuric acid, analogous to hydrogen peroxide. 
 
 Potassium or ammonium persulphate, at 100 C. ; at the ordinary 
 temperature when dissolved in water. 
 
 Potassium perselenate liberates oxygen when the solution is 
 warmed. 
 
 Chloric acid ignites organic matter on simple contact at ordinary 
 temperature. 
 
 Chromic anhydride at 250 C. detonates and ignites organic sub- 
 stances when suffused with alcohol. 
 
 Chlorates liberate oxygen in an explosive manner under the 
 influence of friction, shock, concussion, or heat (about 800 F.). 
 When mixed with potassium cyanide, oxygen is immediately dis- 
 engaged with explosion. 
 
 Nitrogen pentoxide (nitric anhydride), with violence at 50 C. 
 
 Sulphur heptoxide disengages oxygen very violently during stor- 
 age, when dissolved in water or warmed. 
 
 Bismuth pentoxide (bismuthic anhydride), when heated, or 
 treated, with strong acids. 
 
 Calcium hypochlor'ite ("chloride of lime"), when gently warmed 
 or exposed to direct sunlight. 
 
CHEMICAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION RISKS 217 
 
 The following substances may be classed as carriers of oxygen 
 that liberate that element at high temperatures only: 
 
 Barium, lead, manganese, potassium and sodium peroxides; 
 potassium perchlorates ; all nitrites; ozone; oil of turpentine,^ and 
 colophony. 
 
 Disinfectants. The carriers of oxygen are largely used as dis- 
 infectants, for the destruction of organic matter, and in bleaching. 
 For these purposes preference is mainly given to hydrogen peroxide 
 (which is explosive) and sodium peroxide. When sprayed, or in 
 the form of vapor and mixed with dust, carriers of oxygen or 
 ozone augment the danger of explosion by increasing the inflam- 
 mability, heat of combustion, and explosive power of the dust. 
 
 Dangerous Combinations 
 
 The substances in italics should not be stored with those men- 
 tioned after them in each section of the following list: 
 
 Organic Substances, with nitric acid, carriers of oxygen, ozone, 
 peracids, picrates, chlorates, liquid air, fulminates, fats or oils. 
 
 Lampblack or Carbonaceous Substances, with fats, oils, sulphur, 
 metallic sulphides, or carriers of oxygen. 
 
 Metals in Powder, Bronzes, with damp substances, water, dusty 
 materials, mineral acids, ethereal or fatty oils, oil of turpentine, 
 carriers of oxygen, ozone, liquid air, peracids, or flowers of sulphur. 
 
 Peracids, with organic substances, sulphur, metallic powders, 
 bronzes, carbon, or dangerous liquids. 
 
 Resins, Turpentine, Ethereal Oils, with iodine or chlorine, min- 
 eral acids, carriers of oxygen, or dangerous liquids. 
 
 Carriers of Oxygen, Liquefied Oxygen, Ozone, with fulminates, 
 chlorates, organic substances, picrates, bronzes, metallic powders, 
 dangerous liquids, carbon, lampblack, resins, phosphorus, sulphur, 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, nitric acid, or dusty substances. 
 
 Dangerous Liquids, with carriers of oxygen, ozone, liquefied 
 oxygen, oil of turpentine, ethereal oils or peracids. 
 
 Carbides and Quicklime, with water, damp substances, or acids 
 of any kind. 
 
 Strong Nitric Acid, with oil of turpentine, hydriodic acid, organic 
 substances, sulphuretted hydrogen, carriers of oxygen, ozone, car- 
 bides, metallic powders, bronzes, strong sulphuric acid, fulminates, 
 picrates, or chlorates. 
 
 Strong Sulphuric Acid, with strong nitric acid, saltpetre, sub- 
 stances impregnated with saltpetre, metallic powders, bronzes, car- 
 bides, picrates, fulminates, or chlorates. 
 
 Carbon Disulphide, with carriers of oxygen, ozone, or liquefied 
 oxygen. 
 
218 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Fulminates, Picrates, Chlorates, with mineral acids, organic sub- 
 stances, sulphur, carriers of oxygen, ozone, or liquefied oxygen. 
 
 Dusty Materials, with metallic powders, bronzes, carriers of oxy- 
 gen, ozone, or liquefied oxygen. 
 
 Sulphur, Metallic Sulphides, with carbon, lampblack, fats, oils, 
 chlorates, or phosphates. 
 
 Water (Solutions), Damp Substances, with quicklime, carbides, 
 metallic powders, bronzes, light metals. 
 
 Phosphorus, with chlorates, carriers of oxygen, ozone, or sulphur. 
 
 Nitrates and Substances Impregnated with Saltpetre, with .sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 Fats, Oils, with organic substances, lampblack, carbon, metallic 
 sulphides, or pyrites. 
 
 Materials which Should be Isolated. The following substances 
 should be isolated during storage : all those spontaneously igniting 
 or explosive; all firework charges, nitrated cellulose, fulminates, 
 detonating compounds, chlorates, picrates, peracids, igniting pellets, 
 gunpowders, metallic nitrides, nitrogen iodide, chloride, fluoride, 
 and bromide, the dangerous peroxides (e. g., hydrogen peroxide 
 and potassium peroxide), liquefied gases, acids and phosphorus. 
 
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION 
 
 The processes and conditions which may incite to spontane- 
 ous heating or spontaneous ignition, taken in the widest sense, 
 according to Von Schwartz, are: 
 
 Predominantly in the case of 
 
 1. Moisture ~| 
 
 2. Bacterial activity i- Agricultural products, fodder, manures. 
 
 3. Germination J 
 
 4. Storage in large heaps Agricultural products, coal, tobacco, 
 
 oleaginous substances. 
 
 5. Protracted drying Wood, organic substances. 
 
 6. Contained sulphur Lampblack, coal. 
 
 7. Contained finely divided carbon . . Metallic sulphides. 
 
 8. Contained fat or oil Organic substances, fibres, colours 
 
 (paint), clothing. 
 
 9. Occlusion of oxygen . Coal, etc., metals. 
 
 10. Absorption of moisture '. Quicklime, potass'ium, sodium, carbides. 
 
 11. Fineness of division Metals, bronzes,' varieties of dust, fats, 
 
 oils. 
 
 12. Recent calcination Carbonised substances, metallic pow- 
 
 ders, metallic sulphides, lampblack. 
 
 13. Exposure to the sun Phosphorus in fragments, oxyhydrogen 
 
 gas. 
 
 14. Concentration of the sun's rays 
 
 (burning glasses, lenses, glass 
 
 bricks) All readily ignitible substances. 
 
 15. Friction, pressure, shock, fall Numerous detonating, explosive sub- 
 
 stances (spontaneous ignition being 
 here generally modified into explo- 
 sion). 
 
 1 6. Electricity (sparks) Explosive vapour mixtures, dry clean- 
 
 ing works, resinous bodies. 
 
 17. Air - Phosphuretted hydrogen, and numerous 
 
 compounds (ethyl-, methyl- and 
 propyl-compounds) , pyrophorus 
 
 substances. 
 
 1 8. Contact with spongy metals (plati- 
 
 num black) Hydrogen gas, oxyhydrogen gas, coal 
 
 gas. 
 
 Periods of Development. The examples numbered 1-9 mostly 
 exhibit slow development (chronic spontaneous ignition), those 
 numbered 10-14 progress with moderate rapidity; 15-18 are sudden 
 and of explosive character (acute). 
 
 The period of development in cases of chronic spontaneous igni- 
 tion may extend over two or three months; in many cases a good 
 deal depends on the bulk of the stored mass; where this amounts 
 
 219 
 
22O FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 to some hundreds of tons, as in the case of bran, cereals, etc., 
 spontaneous ignition may sometimes take two to three months 
 before becoming apparent externally. 
 
 Causes. Many of the fires originating in warehouses are sup- 
 posed to be due to spontaneous combustion resulting from the 
 saturation of the fibre with oil from the seed, expressed by the 
 process of baling and handling, and the numerous fires in cotton 
 gin houses may be largely due to the ignition of cotton saturated 
 with oil from the cotton-seed expressed during the process. 
 
 The presence of as little as 3 to 5 per cent of fat or oil may 
 cause fibrous material to ignite spontaneously. Inasmuch as 8 to 
 10 per cent of oil will remain even after pressing oily or greasy 
 fibrous material it is evident that the hazard exists until the 
 material is thoroughly cleaned by washing or a solvent. The prin- 
 cipal items tending to induce heating are : The porosity of the 
 fibre, i. e., the amount of fatty or oily surface it presents to the 
 air; the affinity of the fat or oil for oxygen; the possibility of 
 loosing heat to or taking up heat from some outside source ; the 
 pressure under which the substance is kept, and the presence of 
 oxygen carriers. 
 
 Mineral Oils. The mineral oils have practically no affinity for 
 oxygen and can therefore be used without objection for oiling 
 fibrous materials, except when the mineral oil is impure, consisting 
 of a heavy oil containing paraffin, and the impregnated material 
 is hung on steam pipes, boilers, stoves, or in contact with some 
 other warm object, or exposed to heat for some time; or when 
 the oil is strongly contaminated with sulphur or iron sulphide, 
 usually found in distillation products of lignite or coal. 
 
 Lubricants. In general lubricants of animal origin (tallow, lard, 
 train oil, neats-foot oil) have the greatest cooling effect on axles 
 and shafts, but render the cleaning rags liable to spontaneous 
 ignition. 
 
 Lubricants of earthly origin (petroleum, shale oil and paraffins) 
 have the smallest cooling effect, but only become a source of 
 danger to the cleaning waste under special circumstances. 
 
 Lubricants of vegetable origin, and of a non-drying character, 
 stand between the other two kinds in respect of cooling prop- 
 erties; but are the most dangerous of all in connection with fibrous 
 materials. The danger of spontaneous ignition may be diminished 
 by an addition of 25-50 per cent of mineral oil, provided the min- 
 eral oil is free from paraffin and sulphur impurities. 
 
 Oils and Fats. Because of the differences in fibrous materials 
 and the effect that local conditions have, no exact classification 
 of oils and fats as to their power of imparting a tendency to spon- 
 
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION 221 
 
 taneous ignition can be made. In general, the amount of iodine 
 absorbed by 100 grams of fat gives a fair representation of their 
 danger. 
 
 Iodine Iodine 
 
 Vegetable Fat. Value. Animal Fat. Value. 
 
 Linseed oil 1 70 Codliver oil 140 
 
 Hemp oil 150 Seal oil 127 
 
 Nut oil 146 Japan liver oil 120 
 
 Poppy oil 1 38 Goose fat 71 
 
 Olein 138 Bone fat 68 
 
 Cottonseed oil 108 Hog fat, American 62 
 
 Sesame oil 106 Hog fat, German 58 
 
 Rape oil 101 Tallow 42 
 
 Ground-nut oil 96 Mutton tallow 42 
 
 Castor oil 84 Wool fat 36 
 
 Olive oil 82 Butter fat 30 
 
 Palm oil 52 
 
 Cocoa butter 36 
 
 Palm kernel oil 14 
 
 Cocoanut oil 9 
 
 Linseed oil is therefore the most dangerous, and its danger is 
 increased when boiled into varnish. The rancidity of oils and fats 
 increases the danger from spontaneous heating and rancid animal 
 fats and oils are more dangerous than pure vegetable oils. 
 
 Heat Dangerous. The sun and heat must be carefully excluded 
 wherever oiled fibres are in question, and suitable provision must 
 be made to ensure cooling. Where the application of warmth is 
 necessary to a manufacturing process, great care should be taken 
 to accurately check the temperature by the aid of a thermometer; 
 testing with the hand is insufficiently reliable. 
 
 Kissling found that fibres soaked with linseed oil, and exposed 
 to direct sunlight, became heated to 266 F. in 4 hours, and after- 
 wards took fire; sheltered from the sun's rays, the temperature 
 did not exceed 78 F. in the same time. 
 
 Spontaneous ignition is favored by carbonization of the fibre, 
 or the presence of carbonaceous substances, because of the in- 
 creased absorptive power for oxygen, holding more of that gas 
 in their pores. 
 
 The application of pressure increases the hazard, as the more 
 tightly any substance is packed and compressed, the better is it 
 enabled to retain warmth. 
 
 Prevention of Ignition. There are no direct means of pre- 
 venting spontaneous ignition in oiled fibres; impregnation with 
 antipyrenes renders the fibres uninflammable, but not the fatty 
 matter, since this latter cannot be impregnated, and charring will 
 occur, even though fire be prevented. 
 
 The best preventive of the danger involved consists in the 
 employment of good oil, free from rancidity: pure vegetable oil 
 mixed with 20-30 per cent of pure mineral oil. Coal-tar oils cannot 
 
222 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 be recommended, owing to their irregular composition (presence 
 of sulphur), and animal oils are better avoided. 
 
 Safeguards. Oiled fibrous material should be kept in approved 
 waste cans (see page 224), kept away from all sources of heat, 
 protected from the rays of the sun, and burned or removed to a 
 safe place every night. All operations with oiled materials should 
 be under thorough supervision, and the temperatures carefully 
 checked. 
 
 Storage Hazards. Fats and vegetable and animal oils, and some 
 of the higher grades of refined mineral oils introduce very little 
 hazard in their storage, as the flash point is low and the danger 
 of ignition slight. However, it must be remembered that at high 
 temperatures, usually over 450 F., they give oft vapors which take 
 fire spontaneously when heated to about 20 F. above their tem- 
 perature of formation, and these vapors may become explosive 
 when mixed with the right proportion of air. The danger of leak- 
 age impregnating fibrous material sufficiently to cause spontaneous 
 combustion is also a hazard to be guarded against; the use of 
 sawdust to absorb such leakage is very unwise. 
 
 Storages of fats and oils of this character in congested dis- 
 tricts or in the main parts of a plant are very objectionable be- 
 cause of the difficulty in extinguishing them when ignited from 
 some outside cause. The containers will be ruptured by the 
 internal pressure of the vapors ^liberated by heat, and the contents 
 spread for considerable distances. 
 
 Burning Temperatures. At the following temperatunes the 
 oils specified will go on burning: 
 
 Olive oil at 662 F. Linseed oil at 662 F. 
 
 Rape oil , at 662 F. Engine oil at 275-^ " F. 
 
 IFempseed oil ,. . . .at 329 F. Spindle oil (light) at 505 F. 
 
 Poppy oil at 662 F. Spindle oil (heavy) at 550 F. 
 
 Sesame oil at 662 F. 
 
 Fat Rendering. The recovery of fat by melting (rendering) 
 and the cooking or refining of the oils of high flash point are 
 dangerous if direct fire heat is employed; superheating, ebullition 
 attended by decomposition, or the formation of inflammable vapors 
 may easily lead to an outbreak of fire. The danger is diminished, 
 to a certain extent, by the use of steam heat. 
 
 The dangerous vapors liberated must be rendered harmless by 
 conducting them into a fire, where they will be consumed, or by 
 condensation or proper ventilation to the outside air; as the 
 vapors are explosive when under pressure the pipes and vessels 
 used in a condensing system must be fitted with safety valves. 
 
 Use of Solvents. The risks are far greater in works where 
 the fat and oils are extracted with solvents instead of by pressing. 
 
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION 223 
 
 In addition to ether, naphtha, carbon-disulphide and alcohol, all 
 very dangerous solvents, there are other less dangerous, and even 
 harmless, such as carbon tetrachloride, ammonia, chloroform, ben- 
 zol soaps and oxgall, but unfortunately their solvent power is rela- 
 tively insignificant, and they are seldom used. 
 
 Fat Extraction. The apparatus used in extracting fat is now- 
 adays of very perfect construction, as indeed is essential in view 
 of the dangerous materials employed ; but though they offer a 
 certain guarantee of safety, the claims of absolute security, some- 
 times preferred by the makers, are not in harmony with truth. 
 In addition to the general requirements given on pages 137 to 
 145 in regard to the handling of the readily inflammable solvents, 
 it must be expressly prescribed that no pressure must be allowed 
 to obtain within the extraction apparatus, even when the solvents 
 are in ebullition, since any appreciable pressure on the vapor of 
 the solvents increases the explosibility and the danger of a violent 
 explosion. 
 
 The apparatus must be so arranged that the separation of the 
 raw material, solvent and fat must be effected in a single train 
 of operations within the apparatus, and without any part of the 
 latter or its appurtenances requiring to be opened. 
 
 Charred Wood. Wood which has been for a length of time in 
 contact with pipes containing hot water or steam seems to be 
 reduced gradually to a condition favoring spontaneous ignition. 
 The destruction of the English House of Parliament and many 
 other fires have been attributed to this cause. 
 
 From statistics as to fires in dry-kilns and dry-rooms it appears 
 evident that wood subjected continuously to heat for a given length 
 of time gets into a condition where it ignites spontaneously; this 
 indicates the necessity of discontinuing the use of wood in rooms 
 subject to high temperatures. 
 
 In newer wooden structures the most dangerous are those com- 
 posed of wood that still continues to exude resin, which chars 
 more easily than the wood itself. 
 
 Pipes Should be Insulated. The best way to prevent injury 
 to wood and other organic substances by the influence of pipes, 
 etc., conveying steam, hot gases and hot liquids, is by using some 
 good insulating material (non-conductor of heat). 
 
 Certain paints lead paints and asphaltum applied to steam 
 pipes increase the loss of heat as much as 25 per cent; the pipes 
 become hotter, the radiation of heat more extensive, and the danger 
 correspondingly increased. 
 
224 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Waste Cans* 
 
 1. SIZE. To be not smaller than n inches diameter and n inches deep 
 inside, nor larger than 22 x 25 inches inside, if used for oily waste. Inside 
 diameter to be not less than 90 per cent of height excluding legs. It is 
 desirable to use a number of smaller cans, rather than fewer large ones. 
 
 2. BODY. For cans nxn inches inside, not less ' than No. 26 gauge, 
 U. S. Standard (.0187 inch), galvanized iron or steel and increase thickness 
 one number in gauge for each 3-inch increase in diameter. 
 
 3. LEGS. To be made of band iron not less than 12 gauge, U. S. Standard 
 (.1093 inch), %-ihch wide, riveted to side and bottom of can, two rivets at 
 each end, and not less than 3 inches high for cans n x n inches, three legs 
 on each can; for larger sizes, not more than 4 inches high, gauge and width 
 increased in proportion to size of can, using 1 1 x 1 1 inches as base. 
 
 4. COVER. To be in two sections, width of one section to be equal to about 
 one-third the diameter and riveted to the can with the movable lid perma- 
 nently and freely hinged to the rigid section without soldering, and to have 
 a device to prevent opening more than a 60 degree angle from horizontal and 
 weighted sufficiently to make closure positive and automatic. Iron to be of 
 at least two numbers heavier than the body, lid to extend beyond the body of 
 the can, finished with a hemmed or wired edge and made rigid by two strips 
 of band iron % x i inch, riveted inside lengthwise and outside crosswise re- 
 spectively in the middle of the lid, the outer end bent upward at an angle 
 of about 45 degrees. 
 
 SELF-CLOSING OILY WASTE CAN. 
 
 5. HANDLES. To be riveted to the rigid portion of the coyer and prefer- 
 ably made from band iron % x i inch bent to form a stop for the lid. Side 
 handles must be supplied on cans larger in\ diameter than 16 inches. 
 
 6. Construction. Can to be assembled with all seams lock-jointed or riveted 
 and attachments riveted on, Body of can to be wired at top with wire not 
 smaller than No. 9 for can nxii inches, proportionally heavier for larger 
 cans, or finished with band iron of equivalent strength. 
 
 7. Marking.- Each can to be plainly and permanently marked with its 
 trade-name and the name, initials or trade-mark of the manufacturer. 
 
 'As recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION 225 
 
 NOTE. Waste cans are required for all oily waste, and recommended for 
 clean waste. 
 
 It should be the practice to empty oily waste cans and burn the contents 
 every evening. Oily waste should not be allowed to remain in cans over night. 
 
 ( 
 
 Ash Cans and Refuse Barrels* 
 
 8. Size. To be determined by necessities of risk, but not smaller than 
 12x12 inches. 
 
 9. Body.-^Not less than No. 24 gauge, U. S. Standard (.025 inch), for 
 average size of 15 x 26 inches used for general purposes, and No. 20 (.0375 
 inch) for bottom. To increase one number in thickness for each 3-inch 
 increase in diameter. 
 
 10. Flanges. To be reinforced top and bottom by flanges riveted on, of not 
 less than No. 12 (.109 inch) iron. Flange at bottom to be of height to 
 insure air space of 2 inches between lowest point of bottom and the floor. 
 
 Flange at bottom to be perforated at intervals with i/srinch holes to vent 
 the space formed by flange. 
 
 To be reinforced by vertical ribs, made of angles, channels, sheet metal 
 bosses, corrugated or strap iron. If made 30 per cent heavier, reinforcement 
 not required. 
 
 u. Handles. To be of wrought or malleable iron, securely riveted to can. 
 
 12. Covers. Must have covers, to be loosely fitting over outside of can 
 to take up irregularity of top of can due to service, and to have flange 2 
 inches deep. 
 
 13. Engineers' Ash Cans. Should be of not less than No. 16 (.0625 inch) 
 iron, and flanges not less than ^-inch thick, and bottom flange to be of such 
 width as to admit of 2 inches clear air space, and to be ventilated. 
 
 14. Marking. Each can must be plainly and permanently marked with its 
 trade-name and the name, initials or trade-mark of the manufacturer. 
 
 *As recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
CONSTRUCTION 
 
 PLANNING 
 
 In the planning of building operations the prevailing . thought 
 is generally devoted to the economic conditions. Plans are often 
 formulated which may seem economical from a certain stand- 
 point, but when the many conditions involved in building opera- 
 tions are considered that which may first appear as economy 
 is in reality false economy; true economy involves not only the 
 needs of the structure for which purpose it is intended, but in 
 making the best use of the available building materials as well as 
 properly determining the best type of construction, suitable for 
 the location of the structure. 
 
 Alterations or additions of any magnitude require the same 
 forethought as new structures and by properly studying the 
 conditions the property as a whole would be improved. 
 
 The planning of structures should involve not only their present 
 requirements but the possibility of future extensions. 
 
 The defence against fire should be formulated from the beginning 
 in the planning of all structures, it is, therefore necessary to thor- 
 oughly consider the nature of all surrounding buildings or the 
 possibility of future buildings being erected on adjacent ground; 
 such conditions will determine the selection of proper materials 
 for wall or cornice construction, as well as planning the proper 
 window and door openings and the. proper protection of the same ; 
 these features govern the exposure charges of the Fire Insurance 
 Underwriters, and unless provision is made in the plans for the 
 exposure conditions, future expense arises not only in correcting 
 structural defects, but in the continued additional expense in insur- 
 ance premiums. 
 
 In planning manufacturing properties time is well spent in 
 studying the arrangement of the processes to be incorporated in 
 the structures in order to prevent the principal hazards from en- 
 dangering the main values. There is hardly any step in the design- 
 ing of a structure of any kind which does not have a certain bear- 
 ing, direct or indirect, from a fire protective standpoint. It is 
 possible to design .and construct any class of structure in a thor- 
 oughly economic manner if proper study is exercised in the plan- 
 ning and if provision is made for the fire protective features. 
 
 226 
 
PLANNING 227 
 
 Accept the evidences of the destruction that is continually taking 
 place from fire in all classes of structures; plan the structure in 
 such a manner that it will be a permanent investment, and arrange 
 and protect the property in such a manner that fire can cause only 
 a minimum of damage, remembering that fire resisting structures 
 also resist depreciation. 
 
 Secure the rates of insurance on various kinds of structures 
 before selecting your building materials or perfecting the plans. 
 Faulty planning and construction are directly responsible for the 
 enormous fire waste, and it has been repeatedly demonstrated that 
 with the proper planning of the constructive features the ultimate 
 costs are less than in buildings of inferior construction. 
 
 Absolute fireproof buildings do not exist, but fire resisting 
 buildings do, and the amount of resistance depends on the intensity 
 and duration of a fire and on the materials entering into the 
 construction. 
 
 The general layout of the building and proper insulation of 
 certain parts, such as the stairs, elevators and portions likely to 
 admit a draught to adjacent stories are features which should 
 receive special study in planning structures. 
 
 Fire cut-offs should receive special attention in planning, and 
 be arranged to prevent the spread of fires over large areas. Metal 
 structural work should be properly protected against fire and a 
 careful study should be made of the proper materials to be used 
 for this purpose. 
 
 Those conditions which are conducive to cleanliness and the 
 proper planning to assist in maintaining this feature are equally 
 important from a commercial standpoint as well as a safeguard 
 against fire. 
 
 As the fire protective devices differ in various classes of struc- 
 tures it is important to seek the co-operation of the insurance under- 
 writers. If owners, architects and engineers would confer with the 
 insurance organizations before their plans have reached an ad- 
 vanced stage much valuable information would be given which 
 would not only assist in securing improved construction and fire 
 protection, but reduce the cost of fire insurance which is a direct 
 yearly tax not only to the owner but the occupants. 
 
 It is the duty of the property owner to protect the life and 
 limb of the public, whether such properties be used for churches, 
 schools, places of public assembly, tenements, mercantile buildings 
 or factories, and only such persons who have made a study of 
 the science of the prevention of loss by fire in connection with the 
 other requirements of their profession should be entrusted with 
 the planning of such structures. 
 
DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Nothing develops structural defects as much as fire, and as all 
 classes of structures have been subjected to this test, comparisons 
 between good and bad types of construction can readily be based 
 on actual facts. Some types of construction may be judged de- 
 fective for certain classes of buildings owing to the surroundings, 
 nature of the occupancy, and the height of the structure, whereas 
 the same type of construction, under different conditions, would 
 not be called defective owing to the nature of the occupancy, the 
 possibility of no danger from the surroundings and adequate fire 
 protective devices. 
 
 Any class of structure which admits of rapid combustion or 
 deterioration under fire or the elements, is defective, likewise a 
 structure in which fire cannot be fought to advantage, is defective. 
 
 Common defects in structures are often latent from the time the 
 building has been under construction and if discovered at all it is 
 generally too late to rectify the errors, as the damage occasioned 
 by fire is of such a nature that the structure is ruined beyond repair. 
 Structural defects are to be found in all portions of buildings ; any 
 local defects may subject the entire structure to ruin. 
 
 Defective Foundations. The stability of a structure is primarily 
 dependent upon its foundations, and as the foundations generally 
 exist at such locations where it is difficult to regularly examine 
 the conditions from time to time it is of vital importance to 
 arrange for the proper determination of the sustaining strength 
 of the soils and the proper type of foundation planning .to suit 
 this condition. It should always be considered that fire under cer- 
 tain conditions can exist in out of the way places, where it is diffi- 
 cult or impossible to reach the seat of fire, by hose streams, or 
 oheihicais;- It is therefore important to use only such structural 
 materials as will offer the maximum' resistance to fire,; as well as 
 other depreciable influences. Foundations not only include the sup- 
 ports of the structure itself, but of the internal appurtenances, 'such 
 as boilers, ovens, fireplaces, chimneys, heating apparatus, arid various 
 forms of machinery which by unequal settlement or disintegration 
 of the materials, lead to unobserved open joints or cracks through 
 which sparks or hot gases may pass and communicate fire to the 
 contents of the building; or as frequently happens, back of wood 
 furring which is used for plastering or interior finish. 
 
 228 
 
DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION 229 
 
 Hot bearings of machinery frequently arise from settlement 
 caused b;- defective foundations. Improper footings, supports or 
 foundations for superimposed loads, such as merchandise, special 
 ma'chinery, chimneys, water tanks or conditions due to periodical 
 vibration are conducive to the destructive influences of deteriora- 
 tion and fire. Columns are often thrown out of alignment, impor- 
 tant structural members arc sheared or deprived of proper bearings, 
 the result being that a light shock or fire of small magnitude would 
 tend to wreck the entire structure. 
 
 Stonework. The use of limestone, bluestone and granite should 
 be avoided in connection with supporting columns, bond stones or 
 lintels, as in case of fire and the application of water, stonework 
 often, no matter how substantially built, rapidly disintegrates and 
 wrecks the entire structure. Granite piers have been known to dis- 
 integrate into the consistency of sand. Stone lintels should never 
 be used over large or important door or window openings. 
 
 Chimneys and Flues. The defective flue is especially disastrous 
 in dwellings, as the plastering of the interior walls or partitions 
 prevents the observation of the common defects. Flues built in 
 connection with walls are likely to become defective, as the natural 
 tendency of the wall is to settle, owing to the unequal loading on 
 the foundations, the result being that -the wall will crack from 
 flue to joist and at the point of contact, probably the crack will fill 
 with soot, and in time there is a likelihood. of a spark igniting the 
 soot in the crack, the fire in turn finding its way to a dried out 
 joist or timber which is susceptible to ignition. In such thoroughly 
 concealed spaces the spark of fire will glow into a flame, which 
 forces its way along the joist or back. of the furring, burning there 
 until it bursts forth in a number of places, causing a destructive 
 fire. Poor masonry work, thin walls, lack of properly mixed mortar 
 and open joints are common defects. Flues arranged on corbels 
 formed in walls are especially subject to cracking. The running 
 of floor timbers into flue walls or arranging such timbers directly 
 against flue walls is bad. Negligence in not providing masonry 
 trimmer arches for hearths, fireplaces or grates is a common defect 
 and is often found. It is very important to safeguard the header 
 and trimmer timbers adjacent to all flues, stacks, fireplaces, or where 
 there is any danger from heat or sparks. 
 
 Stovepipes. As stovepipes frequently cause fires, every pre- 
 caution should be taken to provide for the proper support of stove- 
 pipes, which should be substantially made. The joints of stovepipes < 
 should be thoroughly riveted and no solder should be used. Long 
 stovepipes are dangerous. Care should be exercised in avoiding 
 open joints where stovepipes enter chimneys as leaks at such points 
 
230 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 are dangerous. Stovepipes should not be run through combustible 
 walls, partitions, floors, ceilings or roofs. Where such conditions 
 cannot be overcome, double metal thimbles with air spaces around 
 them of at least one inch should be provided. 
 
 Steam Pipes in contact with woodwork cause the wood to 
 carbonize and it is then subject to rapid combustion. Without 
 proper metal collars, there is danger from dirt, rags, etc., accumu- 
 lating in the exposed space around the pipe, which is further con- 
 ducive to fire. 
 
 Furnaces in low basements where the top of furnace is close 
 to the joists or other woodwork are especially dangerous. This 
 comment will also apply to stoves where there is always the pos- 
 sibility of overheating, exposing such woodwork to rapid combus- 
 tion. Proper protection should be provided with incombustible 
 materials, which at the same time will provide suitable insulation 
 agains % t radiated heat. Or, preferably, the woodwork should be 
 entirely eliminated in the vicinity of stoves, whether at sides, back 
 or at the hearth. 
 
 Hollow spaces and wood furring are dangerous as the spaces 
 form flues through which fire rapidly flashes, and it is very diffi- 
 cult to reach the seat of fire with fire protective apparatus. Fire 
 stops should be provided at all floors and metal or non-combustible 
 furring should be used instead of wood. 
 
 Hollow and concealed spaces in floors and walls, especially 
 in buildings constructed of wood, are dangerous, as not only do 
 such spaces harbor vermin, but form many flues or passages open 
 for the communication of fire through all portions of- the building. 
 Fire in such spaces is difficult to locate and hard to extinguish. 
 Fires in steep roof with concealed spaces therein are especially 
 difficult to fight. 
 
 Boxed cornices are dangerous, as they admit of fire com- 
 municating to all portions of the - roof, the hollow spaces making 
 it difficult to locate the seat of fire as well as to extinguish it. 
 
 Inaccessible spaces under floors are responsible for the rapid 
 spread of fire, as it is impossible to direct hose streams to advan- 
 tage in such spapes. A frequent custom is to build floors some 
 distance above the ground level, supporting the joists or floor beams 
 on piers and girders. Cracks or openings are likely to exist in the 
 floor allowing a draught to convey fire through and under the floor 
 which will continue to burn often unobserved until the entire floor 
 is wrecked. Such spaces harbor vermin, filth and rubbish all of 
 which are conducive to fire hazard, and the existence of such spaces 
 is also favorable to dry rot or rapid deterioration of the constructive 
 
DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION 231 
 
 timbers. The effect of a small fire under such conditions is often 
 disastrous. It is preferable from an economic standpoint alone to 
 avoid the existence of such spaces under all floors and platforms. 
 
 Dry Rot. This condition should ever be guarded against in 
 all forms of timber construction. Green timber is especially sub- 
 ject to this result of fermentation. Seasoned timber is affected 
 by the lack of proper circulation of air, and great care should be 
 taken to secure ventilation around wood work, where beams enter 
 walls. The use of plaster of paris, cement and similar materials 
 which are absorbents of moisture should be guarded against in 
 connection with wood work, and such materials should never be 
 brought in direct contact with wood work. Lime mortar is con- 
 sidered preferable. 
 
 Built up beams or girders with spaces between the timbers, 
 are especially subject to the destructive action of fire. Should 
 fire gain headway in such inaccessible spaces, it is impossible to 
 reach the seat of the fire by sprinklers, or hose streams, especially 
 if the hose streams are directed from the outside of the building. 
 
 Exposed Structural Metal Work. In buildings or rooms 
 where the contents are of a combustible nature, exposed structural 
 metal work constitutes a structural defect, as steel or wrought iron 
 when subject to a mild fire rapidly fail by buckling, expansion or 
 bending. Steel begins to lose its strength at a temperature of 500 
 degrees. 
 
 The use of metal rods in connection with timber construction is a 
 serious defect, especially when used with wood girders. A common 
 method of securing long spans in wood girders is to strengthen 
 the timbers with truss rods; spans of from thirty-five to forty feet 
 are frequently planned. The timbers under such conditions without 
 the reinforcing truss rods would ordinarily support but a fractional 
 portion of the load. The main carrying capacity being imposed on 
 the metal rods, any failure of the rods would naturally result in the 
 destruction of the entire girder. There .ire a number of ways in 
 which fire can wreck such a girder. The primary result of fire 
 on such construction is the expansion of the rods, and as no pro- 
 vision can be made in this form of construction for eliminating 
 expansion of the metal, the rods in question readily detach them- 
 selves from the struts, posts or chairs leaving the timbers unsup- 
 ported. The results of deflection and vibration are readily mani- 
 fested in such types of construction, and unforeseen weaknesses 
 can develop at the joints or threaded ends of the rods which 
 when subjected to the action of fire rapidly lead to the destruc- 
 tion of the entire girder. 
 
232 FIRE PREVENTION ANT* PROTECTION 
 
 The use of iron rods for the support of hanging galleries or 
 intermediate floors should be avoided. 
 
 Supporting and Cut-Off Walls. A defect frequently existing 
 in such walls is the lack of proper structural material at certain 
 places to retard the progress of fire from one building to another. 
 Poor mortar joints are often responsible for the communication 
 of fire through intended fire stops. Beams and joist are often 
 extended into cut-off walls in such a manner that little or no space 
 exists between the ends of timbers on either side of the wall, with 
 a result that the burning or falling timbers allow direct communi- 
 cation for fire to the opposite side of the wall. This condition 
 frequently exists at roofs where extra wood strips or timbers are 
 often inserted into so-called fire walls for the support of roofing 
 or arranging flashings. 
 
 Wood girders over door openings in division walls should be 
 avoided ; the nearer the division wall is self-sustaining without 
 the introduction of beams or supporting members built into the 
 same the more substantial and effective the wall becomes as a. fire 
 retardant. 
 
 Open elevator wells, stairways and belt holes through floors 
 are structural defects in all classes of buildings irrespective of the 
 type of construction. With such features the entire building is 
 subject to draughts and the progress of fire cannot be confined to 
 a limited area; fire under such conditions will quickly flash from 
 story to story and soon be beyond control. Such conditions are also 
 conducive to the so-called dreaded back draft or smoke explosions, 
 which are due to the subsequent ignition of the volumes of sus- 
 pended carbon and gases arising through the building. 
 
 Varnished woodwork or hardwood finish is undesirable from 
 a fire protective standpoint, as fire will rapidly flash over surfaces 
 thus treated. Mills, offices and places of public assembly should 
 be free from such conditions. Woodwork thus finished is often 
 supported by wood furring with the existence of hollow spaces. 
 This type of construction admits of the rapid progress of fire, and 
 such conditions have defied trie efforts of fire departments to save 
 life and property. 
 
 Sheet metal nailed to woodwork for protection of the wood 
 against fire gives a false sense of security, as the metal conveys 
 the heat to its wood backing and ignition of the latter would be 
 hidden by the metal facing. Nails readily pull out and fire can 
 work through the joints or cracks and ignite the woodwork. Fire 
 under such conditions is difficult to fight. Metal work is not an 
 
DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION 233 
 
 insulator against heat and anything but a short flash fire is liable 
 to cause the woodwork to ignite. 
 
 Where it is desired to protect exposed woodwork, only such 
 materials should be used as are incombustible and will provide 
 insulation against heat. 
 
 Quick Burning Construction. Manufacturing and mercantile 
 buildings, schools, or places of public assembly should never be 
 constructed with light floor or roof timbers. A frequent custom 
 is to arrange light joists or rafters from two to three inches in 
 width spaced from twelve to eighteen inches apart. This form 
 of construction admits of serious fire loss due to the numerous 
 exposed surfaces to which a fire could readily communicate. The 
 spaces between these joists act as flues in which fire cannot readily 
 be extinguished especially by outside hose streams, the result being 
 the seat of fire cannot be reached, and if fires under such conditions 
 are not extinguished in their incipiency the results are disastrous. 
 
 The sheathing of the underside of joist with wood or plaster 
 aggravates the above conditions. 
 
 Where timber enters into building construction it is preferable 
 to arrange the same in heavy solid Amasses in order to expose the 
 least number of corners or projections to fire. 
 
 Misplaced Fire Escapes. It is a common error to locate fire 
 escapes in such a manner that they are exposed to the action of 
 fire bursting from windows, and many fire escapes are so arranged 
 that flames coming from a single window along the line of fire 
 escape cuts off every chance for those above. Correctly placed 
 a fire escape should be upon a blind wall wherever possible, with 
 approaches or bridges at each story running to and opening upon 
 it. This feature should receive particular consideration in factory 
 buildings, schools and places of public assembly. The laws of 
 some municipalities require smoke proof fire towers which are the 
 correct solution of the problem of safe exits. 
 
 Exposure Conditions. In order to overcome structural de- 
 fects which may develop from outside sources, the exteriors of 
 structures should be constructed with due consideration of the 
 nature of the surroundings. Fire may enter through exterior doors 
 and windows or skylights unless these features are properly de- 
 signed. Wood or combustible cornices readily communicate fire 
 from exterior sources and they should never be designed for struc- 
 tures to be erected in congested districts. The construction of bay 
 windows or windows with large glass nreas should be avoided 
 where there is danger of fire communicating from the exterior. 
 Large wood cupolas, wood ventilators or monitors should not be 
 arranged on roofs where fire could communicate to the same. The 
 
234 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 use of cut stone work and ornamental terra cotta should be avoided 
 in built-up districts or where fire could damage the same. Shingle 
 or other combustible roofs are frequently found where external 
 fires can readily communicate to, and destroy property. Such roofs 
 should not be used after the completion of the building, in which 
 event such defects as above outlined cannot be overcome or pro- 
 tected against fire after the completion of the building, in which 
 even such defects form a fixed charge upon the property and con- 
 tents thereof as long as the structure exists. 
 
 Conditions conducive to rapid deterioration constitute struc- 
 tural defects which should be guarded against in the selection of 
 building materials or the assembling of the same. 
 
 Climatic conditions have a direct effect on materials and should 
 be considered. The action of moisture, gases, steam, and radiated 
 heat from, furnaces or boilers have injurious effects on structures 
 which are often overlooked, and as a result serious conditions are 
 likely to ensue, especially in types of construction where thorough 
 periodical examination of the structural members is not feasible. 
 
 It frequently develops that serious results ensue from the deteri- 
 oration or disintegration of apparently minor structural members; 
 this especially applies to structural metal works which is susceptible 
 to rapid deterioration if not properly protected. Wrought iron and 
 steel are liable to be thoroughly consumed by rust and the action 
 of this disintegrating influence is first apparent at points where two 
 surfaces come together as in joints in Z or angle columns. It is 
 therefore important to provide for the avoidance of concealed 
 spaces in structural metal work and to design such members in such 
 a manner as to guard against the promotion of rust and its conceal- 
 ment. The covering of metal work should be of such a nature as 
 will protect the same from rust; the painting of iron preserves it 
 only as long as the oil of the paint lasts. The protection of metal 
 work should not be attempted with such materials as absorb moist- 
 ure. Steam pipes should never be placed and concealed near 
 wrought iron or steel columns, as escaping steam or condensation 
 is liable to cause and hasten rusting. Cast iron should not be used 
 for beams or lintels as it is brittle and will not withstand shock 
 or vibration. When used in columns defects in the castings should 
 be guarded against, as frequently the castings are thin on one side 
 and thick on the other which is due to the floating of the cores 
 in the moulds. While cast iron is not as susceptible to rust as 
 steel and wrought iron, the action of fire thereon should be guarded 
 against by proper fireproofing materials. 
 
 Defective Fire Doors and Fire Shutters. Fire doors and 
 .shutters are subject to rapid deterioration if not properly installed 
 
DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 235 
 
 1 
 
 
 "Truss Rods in connect 
 leavind twnbers 
 
 - DEFECTIVE 
 
 ion w'tth Supporting Yimbers expand under heat 
 unsupported. (of ten used to secure lor>4 Spans) 
 
 CONSTRUCTION - 
 
 ^'rloor Pbnk. 
 
 Inaccessible Space-, between 
 bu'dt up t'mnberi, used for 
 
 and 
 
 ' wals 
 
 . 
 
 partitions 
 
 Spaces m floors 
 
 No RirApet Fire Wals 
 befeweervbuHdihis .X-RC 
 rrrttuTrrnwrLrrjfiar tlrm 
 
 KX^ ^ Su PP'Tt d 
 
 ^by joist and by 
 corbelind out Bie 
 
 FIGURE 14 
 
236 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 and inspected at frequent intervals. There are many fire doors 
 and fire shutters, so-called, which are absolutely of no use in fur- 
 nishing protection for the door or window openings. Not only 
 are doors and shutters frequently improperly constructed but are 
 ineffectively installed or not properly looked after from time to 
 time. Frequent defects in fire doors and shutters consist of the 
 improper jointing of the tin work and improper method of nailing 
 under the seams. These are defects which often cannot be observed 
 at a casual inspection, but can only be detected by opening up the 
 seams. Exposed nails in the tin work are always defects. Doors 
 are often hung on light or in3ecure tracks or hinges, the condition 
 being aggravated by the presence of wood work used in support- 
 ing or blocking up the tracks; combustible door sills, improper 
 guides and stops all tend to reduce the effectiveness of these struc- 
 tural features. Fire shutters secured to wood window frames fre- 
 quently exist and are about as useful as no form of protection. 
 Consideration of Occupancy. There is no feature of more 
 importance in the construction of a building than the thorough 
 consideration of the proposed purpose for which it is to be used. 
 Correct constructive features differ with different classes of build- 
 ings and locations. Common defects in construction are the im- 
 proper arrangement of the rooms or grouping of buildings which 
 contain the hazardous features, or the exposing of valuable con- 
 tents to the resultant conditions of smoke, fire and water ; the 
 improper use of constructive materials to withstand depreciation, 
 or the action of gases, steam, etc., in connection with the internal 
 appurtjenances ; the lack of properly planned ventilating ducts or 
 flues ofteji requires the marring of structural features and the cut- 
 ting of unnecessary holes through walls and floors, and proper 
 provision for wire or pipe shafts is often overlooked in the con- 
 structive process. Improper supports for machinery or concentrated 
 loads often require the addition of structural members which can- 
 not be installed without detracting from the original type of con- 
 struction. The arrangement of structural features to suit the special 
 conditions of fire protective devices should . not be overlooked, as 
 excessive costs can often be avoided, if future fire protective devices 
 are considered in connection with the constructive materials. 
 
 HEAT 
 
 From scientific tests the following conclusions have been reached 
 relative to the temperatures developed by fire under various condi- 
 tions, and these results should serve as a guide in determining t'he 
 class of materials or type of construction to suit various require- 
 ments : 
 
DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION 237 
 
 The heat developed by a common wood fire is about 1000 F. 
 
 The heat developed by a charcoal fire is about 2200 F. 
 
 The heat developed by a coal fire is about 2400 F. 
 
 The heat of a burning structure is at least 1000 F. 
 
 A mild external fire develops at least 1200 F. for one hour; 
 700 to 1000 F. for about one-half hour indicates a mild condition 
 such as would generally occur in an office building or dwelling 
 where such structures are under the protection of a public fire 
 department. 
 
 A conflagration develops at least 2500 F. for a period of six 
 hours. Oil fires or fires in lard refineries are extremely severe, 
 developing temperatures as high as 4000 F. 
 
 TEMPERATURES 
 
 The following table gives a list of temperatures developed in 
 iron and clay working industries: 
 
 Degrees 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 Shale Drain tile Bottom kiln 1600 
 
 Composition Earthenware Kiln best heat 1860 
 
 Fire clay Stoneware Hottest part of kiln . . 2922 
 
 Fire clay Stoneware Hottest part cooling. . 1900 
 
 Fire clay Stoneware Bottom best heat i^^o 
 
 Fire clay Scvver pipe Kiln best heat 1920 
 
 Fire clay Prick and terra-cotta. . Kiln best heat 2200 
 
 Shale Sewer pipe Kiln best heat 1 862 
 
 Fire clay Paving brick Kiln best heat 1920 
 
 Shale Paving brick Kiln best heat 1800 
 
 Boiler Under Under stoker arch . . . 2295 
 
 Ingot On table Being rolled 1950 
 
 Ingot Heating furnace Ready for rolling. ... 2120 
 
 Bessemer steel Pouring Ingot 2550 
 
 Open hearth steel Pouring Ingot ..."..... 2620 
 
 Blast furnace In furnace Ready for tap 2660 
 
 Blast furnace Mill Iron Running 2225 
 
 Blast furnace Bessemer iron Running 2295 
 
 Open hearth and blast furnaces develop temperatures in molten 
 metal up to 3000 F. 
 
 Good Portland cement is manufactured at temperatures from 
 2600 to 3000 F. 
 
 Sand does not fuse until a temperature of above 2900 F. is 
 reached. 
 
 Temperature of glass melting furnace 25oo'to 2600 F. 
 
 Melted glass 2400 
 
 Annealing bottles 1 100 
 
 Bright iron becomes yellow at 400 
 
 Bright iron becomes red at 500 
 
 Brieht iron becomes indigo at 550 
 
 Bright iron becomes gray at '. 750 
 
 Tin melts at 445 
 
 Lead melts at 612 
 
 Zinc melts at 775 
 
 Copper melts at 1885 to 2000 
 
 Cast iron melts at 1900 to 2200 
 
 Wrought iron melts at 2500 to 2912 
 
 Platinum melts at 3227 
 
 Steel melts at 2500 to 2790 
 
 Aluminum (cast) n 5 7 
 
238 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 COMBUSTION 
 
 According to the experiments of Kerl, the initial heat or tem- 
 perature to be reached to allow the particles of carbon to properly 
 ignite with those of oxygen is as follows : 
 
 Peat 437 R 
 
 Pine 563 F. 
 
 Soft coal 619 F. 
 
 Charcoal made by low heat, say 280, will ignite at 360 F. 
 
 Charcoal made by higher heat, say 750, will ignite at. .-. . 380 F. 
 
THE EFFECTS OF FIRE ON ALL FORMS 
 OF BUILDING MATERIAL 
 
 Wood in the form of small units is highly combustible and 
 has no fire resisting qualities; in bulk or heavy timbers it 
 burns slowly after the outside has become charred, as the char- 
 ring acts as a non-conductor to the heat Large timbers have with- 
 stood the direct action of fire without impairing the strength of 
 the floor construction whereas structural steel under similar 
 conditions has utterly failed. 
 
 The inflammability of timber, is in proportion to the structural 
 compactness of the pores, timber of the character of oak being less 
 readily inflamed than pine. 
 
 Fire resisting wood has been successfully used in the navy 
 department of the United States Government, and is acceptable 
 as a fire retardant under certain conditions under the New York 
 Building Code. Severe tests have been made on properly treated 
 wood which indicated its merits as a non-inflammable material, 
 but as the expense of properly treating wood is considerable, and 
 as a number of faulty processes have been usejl, the use .of fire 
 resisting wood has not been extensive, nor has its effectiveness been 
 proved by the ageing of the wood so treated and the possible 
 chemical changes due to varying atmospheric conditions. 
 
 Certain kinds of treated woods are likely to absorb moisture, 
 or the wood fibres might become weak or brittle; under such 
 conditions it is a question whether it is wise to consider wood 
 so treated as a constructive material. 
 
 The tests of treated and untreated woods show that the tend- 
 ency of untreated woods to burn is ten to twenty times that 
 of treated woods. 
 
 The fireproofing of wood is most successfully accomplished by 
 the processes which thoroughly impregnate all the pores to the heart 
 of the timber using such chemicals as are not hygroscopic or efflores- 
 cent in character. The chemicals used should be of such a nature as 
 will not corrode structural metal work used in connection with the 
 timbers, and only such chemicals should be used as will admit of 
 the cremation of the wood without flame. 
 
 Compounds of ammonia have been successfully used as the ready 
 
 239 
 
240 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 volatility by heat of such compounds produces gases which do not 
 support combustion or burn of themselves. 
 
 " Fireproof " paints are used extensively for the protection 
 of wood work but their effectiveness is limited and depreciates in 
 time; as a protection to' wood work such paints have been known 
 to resist the action of a mild fire for periods of from fifteen to 
 twenty minutes. Paints in the form of tungstate of soda and 
 asbestos paint are extensively used. Silicate of soda and lime 
 wash applied in alternate coats will decrease the probability of 
 ignition to wood work in the case of incipient fires. 
 
 The formula for whitewash as adapted by the United States 
 Government, when properly applied to wood work, affords a good 
 fire retardant. 
 
 Whitewash Formula Recommended by the Lighthouse Board 
 of the United States Treasury Department. Slake one-half 
 bushel of unslacked lime with boiling water, keeping it covered 
 during the process; strain it and add a peck of salt dissolved in 
 warm water ; add three pounds of ground rice, put in boiling water 
 and boil to a thin paste ; add one-half pound powdered Spanish 
 whiting and a pound of clear glue dissolved in hot water. Mix 
 these well together and let the mixture stand for several days. 
 Keep the wash thus prepared in a kettle or portable furnace, and 
 when used put it on as hot as possible with painter's or whitewash 
 brushes. 
 
 Where possible the coatings should be applied by a hand brush 
 rather than by a spraying machine, thus effecting a better surface, 
 and special care should be taken to keep the whitewash off of the 
 sprinkler heads. 
 
 STONEWORK 
 
 In considering the resistive qualities of various kinds of stone, it 
 is necessary to determine the conditions due not only to the influence 
 of heat, but the resultant disintegration due to a rapid change of 
 temperature which is likely to ensue from the action of the water 
 thrown in hose streams on the heated stone in case of fire. 
 
 A stone which under certain conditions may stand up very, well 
 will disintegrate under other conditions. Some stone or granites 
 act badly on fast cooling, yet under the combined action of flame 
 and water have suffered little damage. Sudden cooling is con- 
 ducive to disintegrating the general forms of stonework, damage 
 being more pronounced in rocks of coarser texture. The more 
 compact and hard the stone the better it will resist extreme heat; 
 the greater the absorption the greater will be the effect of heat. 
 A very porous sandstone will be reduced to sand, and a stone in 
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BUILDING MATERIAL 241 
 
 which the cement is largely limonite or clay will suffer more than 
 one held together by silica or lime carbonate. 
 
 Limestones up to the point where calcination begins (600 
 to 800 F.) will be little injured, but above that point they fail 
 badly owing to the crumbling caused by flaking of the quicklime. 
 
 Marble behaves similarly to limestone but on account of the 
 coarseness of texture also cracks considerably. 
 
 Sandstone will stand up fairly well at temperatures from 
 800 to 1000 F. but cracking can be expected along the bed of the 
 stone, and the stability of structural members would be endangered 
 if the stone had not been properly set. At 1500 F. severe injury 
 could be expected, as there is no possibility of local expansion or 
 contraction without rupture. 
 
 Granite. Crumbles rapidly, disintegrates and cracks under 
 normal degrees of heat, which is due to the coarseness of texture 
 and the differences in the co-efficients of expansion of the various 
 mineral constituents. Some minerals expand more than others and 
 the strains occasioned thereby will tend to rupture the stone more 
 than where the mineral composition is simpler. 
 
 BRICKWORK 
 
 Brickwork of properly burned brick, and properly laid up in 
 strong mortar, with good solid well filled joints constitutes, a form 
 of construction which in point of efficiency cannot be excelled as a 
 fire resistive material. This is due to the homogeneous texture and 
 the joints which makes it possible for each joint to assist in taking 
 up the expansion stresses without rupturing the main body of the 
 brickwork. When used as fireproof coverings the expansion stresses 
 are not severe as the homogeneous nature of the material prevents 
 a rapid change of temperature between the exposed face and the 
 interior side of the brickwork, thus eliminating the destructive ex- 
 pansion stresses. Hard dense bricks will spall on the exposed sur- 
 face whicn does not to any extent affect the efficiency as a protective 
 covering. 
 
 The fire resisting property of bricks depends chiefly upon the 
 amount and relative proportions of the silica and alumina contained 
 in the clay from which the bricks are made ; the greater the pro- 
 portion of alumina to silica the greater is the infusibility of the 
 clay. The most refractory bricks are however not the strongest 
 for structural purposes. The best bricks for building purposes 
 should be burned just short of vitrification. 
 
 Fire brick has not been excelled as a resistive material to 
 high temperatures. The linings of steel melting furnaces which 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 are constructed of this material are required to insulate up to 300 
 degrees of heat ; the brickwork in such cases is from twelve to 
 fourteen inches in thickness, which insures the proper insulation; 
 at the same time the expansion stress in the brickwork is very 
 slight, 
 
 CONCRETE BLOCKS 
 
 The proper manufacture of concrete blocks is an art accomplished 
 by few at the present time. Walls constructed of concrete block 
 have passed through mild fires without damage, but the percentage 
 of failures is considerable. A good type of construction for small 
 buildings or where high temperatures or long continued fires are 
 not likely to occur, is > of well made concrete blocks. Cement blocks 
 should not be usgid for fire walls or where conditions are such 
 that they would be subject to severe fire. ;.!: 
 
 Hollow blocks of concrete as set- in the walls or floors of a build- 
 ing usually present but one surface or face to the direct attack of 
 fire and the consequence is that one side or face of the block 
 expands rapidly under the influence of heat, while the other 
 three sides receiving much less heat do :npt. expand nearly as 
 rapidly, with the result that the hottest side breaks away from the 
 others. 
 
 TERRA COTTA 
 
 The fire resistive qualities of terra cotta are governed by the 
 nature of the clays entering into its composition, the method of 
 burning, arrangement and thickness of the webs and cellular con- 
 struction, the size of the units or blocks and the manner of setting 
 the material in connection with the structural frame of the build- 
 ing. The structural defects of terra cotta can readily develop in 
 a fire of no great magnitude and the ultimate efficiency of the 
 material can only toe secured by the proper care in manufacturing 
 and installation. 
 
 Terra cotta should be of adequate thickness and weight, with 
 heavy webs and partitions ; the corners should be arranged with 
 well rounded fillets and the blocks should be substantially con- 
 structed. For effective coverings the minimum thickness of the 
 material should not be skimped. The disastrous results to terra 
 cotta as a fire protective material have been due to the insufficient 
 thickness of the material, and the method of installation. In many 
 cases terra cotta lias been but a thin veneer without protecting the 
 structural metal work against fire. Webs of tiles should be at least 
 one and one-half inches thick with interior angles rounded to a 
 radius of two inches. A weakness from a fire protective stand- 
 point is frequently developed in buildings of irregular form where 
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BUILDING MATERIAL 243 
 
 the beam lines and side walls or girders intersect at acute angles. 
 Much difficulty is experienced and much imperfect work in the set- 
 ting of tile often results in the patching out of cut pieces of tiling 
 for the purpose of filling out the irregular angles and intersections. 
 
 The chief weakness in terra cotta has been due to the large size 
 units employed and the thin exposed webs which are incapable of 
 sustaining the expansion stresses. With a rapid change of tem- 
 perature thin webs have not the required resistive qualities, per- 
 mitting fractures and ultimate failure. The damage by lire to 
 the soffits of terra cotta arches is due to the unequal expansion 
 between the shells and webs of the arch blocks, the shells re- 
 ceiving much more heat than the webs. 
 
 Semi-porous terra cotta properly made of fire clay can be heated 
 to redness and plunged into water without disintegration and with 
 the proper application of same, structural metal work can be effec- 
 tively protected against severe fire. 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 Cast iron, steel, and wrought iron appear to increase in strength 
 in temperatures up to about 400 F. ; as the temperature rises above 
 this point the strength is rapidly depreciated ; this is especially the 
 case with wrought iron and steel. 
 
 Structural steel at about 575 F. loses about 10% of its strength. 
 
 Structural steel at about 750 to 800 loses about 50% of its 
 strength. 
 
 Structural steel at about 1000 to 1200 loses about 75% of its 
 strength. 
 
 Hard steel has a higher resistance to heat than soft steel ; experi- 
 ments by Howard prove that o.io per cent, carbon steel had a 
 strength of 20,000 pounds per square inch at 1000 F. and 0.60 to 
 i. oo per cent, carbon steel had the same strength at 1600 F. Steel 
 columns -will yield under loads at from 1000 to 1200 F. Cast 
 iron has stood up to 1300 to 1500 F. for a short time but the 
 throwing of water on cast iron when highly heated may cause it 
 to crack or fly to pieces. Cast iron columns should not be used in 
 high buildings as their failures are usually complete, which results 
 in a sudden total collapse of the sections supported. Beams or 
 girders cannot be rigidly attached to such columns and defects in 
 the material cannot readily be detected. Wedges and blocking 
 pieces are frequently introduced in connection with cast iron col- 
 umns for the purpose of tracing up the structure. Such a feature 
 is often unobserved until the action of fire or shock, which usually 
 results disastrously. 
 
244 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Irregular heating of structural steel, such as may take place 
 when a beam or girder is partly encased in a wall, or when the 
 lower portion of the structural metal work is unprotected, pro- 
 duces a dangerous condition as the excessive internal strains 
 tend to induce twisting and distortion or the stresses due to 
 expansion may be sufficient to throw the walls of a building. 
 
 COMPOSITION FIRE RESISTIVE MATERIALS 
 
 Resistive materials such as plasters having gypsum as a base 
 offer a great degree of resistance to heat. With proper compound- 
 ing of such materials and when the blocks or slabs are properly 
 arranged they afford good barriers against fire. Gypsum retains 
 its cohesive power when subjected to high temperatures and to hose 
 streams; if however such a condition is present for any length of 
 time the calcined surface of the material may be washed away 
 without a total disintegration or breaking up of the material. 
 
 Asbestic plasters when laid on a solid foundation are a good 
 fire resistant, the customary thickness being from three-quarters 
 to one inch. 
 
 ..,.:;: 
 
 Asbestos building lumber is used extensively for shingles and 
 siding, and is considered superior to wood when arranged in con- 
 nection with proper supporting members. 
 
 Composition wood is made from ground straw or straw board 
 with a cement or composition binder, the materials being subjected 
 to heavy pressure, and forming a compact board, which is non- 
 combustible and is considered a good non-conductor. If the mate- 
 rial is of sufficient thickness it is but slightly affected by high 
 temperature and a subsequent application of water. 
 
 Plaster of Paris. While plaster of paris is a well-known 
 non-conductor of heat, such compositions absorb moisture rapidly 
 and dry slowly; they soften under fire streams and are rapidly 
 disintegrated. 
 
 Air spaces in connection with fireproofing if arranged in such 
 a manner that flues will not exist for the conveying of the heat 
 or gases, that is if such spaces are " dead," afford good protection 
 to structural metal work, as such spaces will permit the transmis- 
 sion of heat only by radiation, a much slower process than by direct 
 contact. When designed so as to form two or more thicknesses of 
 insulating material with air spaces intervening the efficiency is 
 largely increased. Wire lath and cement or plaster arranged on 
 suitable furring provides a very good protective material. v 
 
 

 EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BUILDING MATERIAL 245 
 
 WIRED GLASS WINDOWS 
 
 Wired glass in approved metal frames is an excellent fire retard- 
 ant; although it will crack under the influence of fire, it will retain 
 its position when subjected to a rapid change of temperature due 
 to the application of water. Under the continued application of heat 
 as would be present in a conflagration, the glass could radiate suffi- 
 cient heat to destroy combustible materials in the immediate vicinity 
 within the room they are intended^ to protect. Wired glass windows 
 form the best known safeguard for the prevention of fire spreading 
 from one floor to another through the outside window openings, 
 especially in buildings of non-combustible or fireproof construction, 
 and of several stories in height. 
 
 EFFECTS OF FIRE ON CONCRETE 
 
 Good Portland cement is manufactured at temperatures of from 
 2600 to 3000 F. The fire resistive qualities of concrete are gov- 
 erned by the nature of the cement, sand and stone, the proper pro- 
 portioning and mixing of these materials and the care exercised in 
 applying the concrete mixture in the construction work. 
 
 Cement varies in its chemical properties, and may to all outward 
 appearance seem good, but the only safeguard where cement is to 
 be used for structural purposes, is to subject it to a physical test. 
 Failures have been caused by a low percentage of lime in the cement, 
 a specific gravity below normal with an undue amount of volatile 
 matter in the cement. The strength of concrete is due to the hydra- 
 tion of cement which in setting takes up a certain amount of water 
 in crystallization which is essential to its strength. At a tempera- 
 ture of about 600 F. this water begins to be driven off and the 
 cement loses its strength. When dehydration is complete the 
 strength is gone. However, the dehydration being a slow process, 
 and as the dehydrated material is a poor conductor of heat the 
 interior of the mass is thus slow to dehydrate. Twenty to twenty- 
 five per cent, of the weight of concrete represents the amount of 
 moisture which is chemically combined in the proper setting of 
 cement ; dehydration represents the evaporation or driving off of 
 this vapor from the pores of the concrete. It frequently happens 
 that concrete is laid in places where it is to be exposed to a tem- 
 perature of from 400 to 500 F. It has been demonstrated that 
 concrete will stand this temperature provided it has previously been 
 allowed to thoroughly harden. If, however it is subjected to any 
 such temperature as this within a short time after being laid, the 
 effect is to dry it out, -not leaving sufficient moisture present for its 
 proper hardening. 
 
 Concrete will resist extremely high temperatures for brief periods. 
 
246 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 say four to five hours. Stone concrete subjected to temperatures up 
 to 2000 F. and suddenly cooled by hose streams has been known 
 to disintegrate to a depth of i% inches from the surface, the inte- 
 rior of the mass being intact. Concrete under long continued tem- 
 perature of over 700 F. will ultimately disintegrate. Concrete will 
 resist 500 F. for an indefinite period if mixed with proper propor- 
 tions of good sand and trap rock. The question as to the superior 
 qualities of cinder concrete as a fire retardant is one that has re- 
 ceived considerable attention. 
 
 Cinder concrete is known to have undergone temperatures 
 of 2000 F. and when suddenly cooled by hose streams none of 
 the material was dislodged, the theory being that the cement and 
 cinders being chemically similar the masses bind together upon 
 the application of heat. It should, however, be considered that 
 cinder concrete has but half the compressive strength of good stone 
 concrete, and ultimately the strength of cinder concrete when sub- 
 jected to high temperatures would be proportionally weakened. 
 
 Gravel concrete will crack and crumble in pieces long before 
 trap rock or cinder concrete will develop any weakness under the 
 same temperatures. The relatively large coefficient of expansion 
 of quartz or flints, which form the integral part of gravel, is re- 
 sponsible for the breaking down of the concrete mixture when 
 subjected to high temperatures. 
 
 Trap rock concrete is considered as a whole superior, as 
 Feldspar which is one of the predominant minerals has a coefficient 
 of expansion of but one-half of that of quartz. 
 
 Limestone Concrete. Pure limestone is considered a very 
 good aggregate and will not decompose until after the cement loses 
 its resistive qualities. 
 
 Reinforcing Metal in Concrete. The experiments of reinforc- 
 ing metal in concrete indicate that where the reinforcing metal is 
 exposed in the progress of a fire, only so much of the metal as 
 is actually bare to the fire is seriously affected by it. Portland 
 cement, concrete and steel are acted upon by temperature precisely 
 to a similar degree, expanding and contracting in a uniform 
 manner, or the coefficient of expansion and contraction of concrete 
 and steel are to all practical purposes the same. The adhesion 
 between the concrete and steel affords a powerful resistance to 
 sudden cooling. The inherent strength of well mixed concrete and 
 its ability to sustain a heavy shock or impact makes it important 
 as a fire resistive material. The thickness of concrete on the ex- 
 posed sides of the reinforcing metal to properly protect the same 
 from fire, is working to a fixed standard among the best informed 
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BUILDING MATERIAL 247 
 
 engineers. The consensus of opinion is that there should be at 
 least one inch of concrete between the nearest point of a bar to 
 the ceiling in panels, at least two inches below the steel in beams 
 and girders, and also two inches of concrete outside of vertical 
 bars in columns. 
 
 In designing columns many engineers figure only that area of 
 the column inside the vertical bars, when hooped, as carrying the 
 load, or if hoops are omitted and but light reinforcement is used 
 to prevent bending stresses to add an extra inch beyond that needed 
 to carry the load, all around the outside, which might be burned 
 away without endangering the Toad carrying capacity of the balance 
 of the column within. If this is burned off it can be plastered 
 back giving the column the same fire resisting qualities as before. 
 The fire resistive qualities of concrete structures arc also governed 
 by the protection that can be most effectively appKed in the extin- 
 guishing of fire that might originate in the contents within such a 
 structure. These forms of structure where the beam and slab 
 arrangement is similarly arranged to a standard mill building, admit 
 of the possibilities of securing the most effective results from hose 
 streams, as the streams can be directed with a greater force and 
 remaining unbroken thus secure the maximum horizontal limit of 
 the stream where it hits the ceiling. Sprinkler protection can also 
 be arranged effectively; whereas in the case of a number of pockets 
 being formed in the ceilings by small intermediate beams there 
 is a danger from the heated air being held in these pockets, which, 
 under certain conditions, transmits the heat through to the floor 
 above. 
 
 Some Tests on the Effect of Fire on Building Materials 
 At the recent annual meeting of the National Association of 
 Mutual Insurance Companies, Mr. James E. Howard, engineer- 
 physicist of the Bureau of Standards, read a paper on the proper- 
 ties of building materials which are influenced by fire. Among the 
 diagrams he presented was one, Fig, 15, showing the probable 
 expansive force which would be developed by confined materials 
 when the temperature is a raised. The figures on the diagram are 
 based on the moduli of elasticity and the co-efficients of expansion 
 of the materials. A range in temperature of 160 Fahr. was used, 
 since this change in temperature will cause an expansion in a steel 
 bar equal in amount to the extension which it will display under 
 a stress of 30,000 Ibs. per square inch, that is, equal to the exten- 
 sion of a piece of mild steel at its elastic limit. 
 
 Three predicted values are given for brick, to represent the be- 
 havior of hard, light hard and salmon brick. The very low value 
 for salmon brick is significant. 
 
248 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Lime mortar is very compressible, and makes a good cushion 
 in a wall for the stronger brick to act upon when heated. Jhese 
 expansive forces must be guarded against or may be neglected 
 according to the kind of material or its position in the structure. 
 It will be noted that the range in temperature here considered, 
 only 160 Fahr., is an exceedingly limited one ; if, however, these 
 predicted values are approximately reached the gravity of thermal 
 changes in causing disrupting forces may be realized. 
 
 Steel 
 
 
 80000 
 
 Pound* per *q. In. 
 
 Cast Iron 
 Granite 
 
 mmamm 
 
 '. .1 1 J . ) 
 
 6270 
 8200 
 
 
 
 Marble 
 
 
 S880 
 
 dT ' 
 
 Slate 
 
 Bnoon 
 
 1HHHHH 'i* "0 
 
 " " 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 J 
 
 8200 
 
 eo 
 
 .. .. .. 
 
 Bricks 
 
 mmam 
 
 I 
 
 B 4660 
 
 ttso 
 141 
 
 .. .. .. ,. 
 .. .. 
 
 Neat 
 
 Portland 
 Cemei: 
 
 _1 -^'K:.ir 
 
 
 -:i',(ifi!:-r 
 
 FIGURE 15 
 
 8710. 
 
 FIGURE 16 
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BUILDING MATERIAL 
 Portland Cements. 
 
 249 
 
 L CO, 
 
 280 382 
 
 Temp. P. 
 
 372 752 
 
 FIGURE 17 
 
 1112 
 
 Another of Mr., Howard's diagrams, Fig. 16, shows the relative 
 expansion of a number of building stones after exposure to a 
 temperature of about 400 to 440 Fahr. The open lines of the 
 diagram indicate the approximate expansion of the stones when 
 heated, while the portions showing full lines represent the per- 
 manent expansion which remained after they had returned to the 
 initial temperatures. It will be seen from the results that stones, 
 when even moderately heated, do not return exactly to their primi- 
 tive dimensions, but retain as a permanent set some of the expan- 
 sion which they acquired when hot. These permanent sets are 
 comparatively small, amounting to but a few thousandths or ten- 
 thousandths of the length of the sample, but nevertheless from the 
 persistence with which they appeared in each case are believed to 
 be there. 
 
 Still another diagram, Fig. 17, shows the loss in water and in 
 carbon dioxide of samples of ground hydrated cements. One Port- 
 land and two natural cements are represented, also a composite 
 cement, Silica brand, made of one part Portland cement and one 
 and a half parts of crushed limestone. Water of combination was 
 successively driven off in this hydrated material as the temperature 
 was raised from 230 Fahr. to redness. This would seem to indi- 
 
250 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 cate a want of stability in the chemical state of the hydrated cement 
 or a state the equilibrium of which is d'^turbed at comparatively 
 low temperatures. Hygroscopic water was driven off by initially 
 heating the material at 10 Cent, above the boiling point. The large 
 percentage of carbondioxide driven off the Silica brand of cement 
 was due to the limestone entering into its composition. 
 
 In this connection Mr. Howard said that cubes of neat Portland 
 cement, which were exposed to a temperature of 1,000 Fahr., 
 within a short time thereafter gradually displayed cracks and 
 eventually broke up into small fragments. The heating was done 
 slowly, consuming one hour in raising the temperature, maintain- 
 ing the maximum temperature for a period of one hour, and then 
 cooling the cubes in dry powdered asbestos. This careful treat- 
 ment was adopted so as to avoid destructive internal strains by 
 sudden changes of temperature, the object of the test being to 
 determine the effect of exposure to successively increasing tem- 
 peratures without endangering the integrity of the cement by 
 violent thermal changes. 
 
 Two diagrams were prepared to show the results of some tem- 
 perature observations taken at the center of sticks of Douglas fir. 
 One diagram, Fig. 18, gives the observations on sticks exposed 
 over a wood fire for periods of 2^2 hours for each stick. One stick 
 was quenched with water at the end of tin's period of time, another 
 was smothered with sand and ashes, while the third was taken from 
 the fire without quenching. The sticks originally were 10 in. square 
 by 4 ft. long. There was a hole bored at the center for a depth of 
 2 ft. and a thermometer inserted in this hole indicated the tempera- 
 tures which are plotted on the diagram. 
 
 Time Hour* 
 
 FIGURE 18 
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ox BUILDING MATERIAL 251 
 
 It will be noted that no substantial rise in temperature was felt 
 at the center of the sticks during the first hour over the fire. After 
 this there was a rapid rise, which continued for some time after 
 the sticks had been quenched or withdrawn from the fire. The 
 temperature of the fire was estimated to be 1,380 Fahr. The sticks 
 were burned until they were from 6 to 7 in. square. 
 
 Compression tests made on the wood after scraping off the 
 charred portions showed the unburnt portions to have retained 
 their strength unimpaired. In fact, the thorough drying of the core 
 was to its advantage apparently, since the compressive strength of 
 the central portions gave results above the average for this kind 
 of wood. Some long leaf pine posts, charred by a fire which 
 occurred in the upper story of a building, also displayed compres- 
 sive strength equal to and in some sticks above others from the 
 same building which had not been charred. 
 
 z 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Quenc 
 
 In fife fth. 
 
 FIGURE 19 
 
 The second diagram, Fig. 19, shows other sticks of Douglas fir, 
 which were also exposed over a wood fire. One stick was quenched 
 with water after having been over the fire for \Y hours and imme- 
 diately returned to the fire, which operation was repeated five times ; 
 after the sixth quenching it was cooled in the air. The other stick 
 was exposed to the fire during alternate hours for three hours, then 
 taken from the fire and smothered. From The Engineering Record, 
 Dec. 3, 1910. 
 
 Structural Steel Protected with Terra Cotta or Concrete as 
 Applied to Fireproof Buildings. The use of structural steel in 
 modern building construction is necessitated by the commercial 
 economics which impose the following requirements: ist, The maxi- 
 
252 FIRE PREVENTION AND, PROTECTION 
 
 mum of unencumbered floor space. 2nd, The maximum of height. 
 3rd, Abundance of natural light. 4th, The resistance to destruction 
 by fire and the elements. The congestion of business centers within 
 confined areas which involves building sites having large values is 
 a condition which is arising and growing in all quarters of the 
 universe, and while attempts have been made to discourage the 
 erection of skyscrapers, the demand for high buildings is on the 
 increase. As the surroundings of modern structures in built-up 
 communities will prove more or less of a menace for many years 
 to come, the elimination of conflagration hazards cannot be ex- 
 pected in this generation ; therefore, the modern building con- 
 structed with a structural steel frame should not only be immune 
 from the conflagration hazard but it should involve such features 
 as will prevent it from being a conflagration breeder or, carrier. 
 These, requirements are not unknown quantities at the present time, 
 as the reports of experts relative to the several well known con- 
 flagrations in the past have brought to light the structural defects 
 which were largely conducive to the disastrous results in buildings 
 of structural steel covered with terra cotra or concrete and which 
 previously were thought fireproof in the modern sense of the word. 
 
 There is considerable available data as to the fire resistance of 
 building materials, based on the investigations of the National Board 
 of Fire Underwriters, the New York Board of Fire Underwriters, 
 the United States Geological Survey Department, and of many of 
 the larger cities. 
 
 The degree of endurance with respect to fire and the elements is 
 directly proportionate to the protection afforded to the structural 
 frame work by the materials which are supposed to afford fire- 
 proofing qualities. 
 
 Any and all materials, whether terra cotta, concrete, brick or 
 stone, are likely to fail as retardants against fire if proper con- 
 sideration has not been given to these questions, and the 
 materials chosen and assembled, accordingly. 
 
 The reports prepared by the various committees of the National 
 Fire Protection Association bearing on the several conflagrations 
 in the past show that many structural steel frames were not only 
 improperly protected by unreliable materials, but the materials 
 themselves were poorly assembled. The building laws of the 
 larger cities are sufficiently flexible to admit of several types of 
 materials for fireproofing purposes. As the deteriorating effects 
 of moisture, electrolysis, vibration, and chemical action have an 
 important bearing on the resistive qualities of structural steel 
 the fireproofing -materials should be governed accordingly, and 
 only such materials should be adopted as will preclude the above 
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BUILDING MATERIAL 253 
 
 conditions from arising within the structure itself, as resultant 
 effects of either electrolytic or moisture leakage from pipe lines 
 which must necessarily exist in all portions of the structure. 
 
 The-conclusions set forth in the report of the New York Board 
 of Fire Underwriters in relation to the Parker building fire which 
 occurred on January 10, 1008, illustrate fully the need of a proper 
 standard and enforcement of the same, in the design and construc- 
 tion of fire resisting buildings. The Parker building was con- 
 sidered on a par with average representative fire-proof buildings; 
 in fact many structures in various parts of the country which are 
 so called fireproof are to-day inferior to this example. That such 
 a building should meet with practical destruction from a fire in a 
 city where the fire department is of such magnitude is almost 
 inconceivable to the general public, but the results should not be 
 surprising to the layman when the conclusions of the New York 
 Board of Fire Underwriters which follow are reviewed. 
 
 i. " In buildings of mercantile, manufacturing or storage occu- 
 pancy, it is absolutely essential that all vertical openings be thor- 
 oughly enclosed in substantial fireproof shafts having standard fire 
 doors at all openings, or so arranged that the shaft is without 
 openings directly into the various stories. Unprotected, vertical 
 openings through buildings are the greatest factor in the loss of life 
 and property by fire and the proper safeguarding of this hazard 
 demands the most* careful attention of all concerned. 
 
 " The unprotected vertical openings through the floors furnished 
 the condition which was the main cause of the rapid spread of fire 
 and the almost total destruction of the Parker building and its 
 contents. 
 
 " High buildings filled with combustible materials and having 
 unprotected vertical openings present fire conditions which are very 
 apt to be beyond the control of fire departments, no matter how 
 efficient or well equipped. Promptness of discovery, nature of the 
 contents, proximity of the fire to vertical openings, area of the 
 enclosure in which the fire occurs and distance above the street, 
 all influence the chances of control of fire in such buildings. 
 
 " That the danger of the rapid spread of fire through unprotected 
 vertical shafts also exists to a very considerable degree in fireproof 
 office buildings, is evidenced by the great rapidity with which sev- 
 eral such buildings were destroyed in the San Francisco conflagra- 
 tion. The buildings to which reference is made were not subject 
 to general conflagration conditions." 
 
 The unprotected floor openings in the Fquitable building played 
 the most prominent part in the destructive fire by making possible 
 the quick spread of the flames from the small receiving room in 
 
254 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 the basement to all the upper floors. The use of a few fire doors 
 at the communications with the dumb waiter shaft would have 
 confined the fire to the shaft and left the balance of the building 
 with little or no damage. 
 
 2. " The height of fireproof buildings of mercantile, manufactur- 
 ing or storage occupancy should ,be limited to correspond to the 
 degree of protection the building equipment and the fire department 
 is able to furnish. In other words, if adequate fire protection in 
 any building is not available above a certain height, the building 
 should be limited to such height." 
 
 The fire in the Parker building furnished an excellent example 
 bearing on this question. The Equitable building fire demonstrated 
 fully the need of fire protective devices such as automatic sprink- 
 lers, smoke-proof stair towers in combination with stand pipe 
 equipments, one or more interior fire walls and protection against 
 exposing buildings. 
 
 3. " Buildings of large unbroken floor areas filled with com- 
 bustible contents develop the severest fires and constitute one of 
 the most dangerous sources of general conflagration. Floor areas 
 in buildings of this character should be' sub-divided by substantial 
 brick fire walls sufficient to form a positive barrier to the spread 
 of fire." 
 
 The fire in the Equitable building demonstrated the fact that the 
 above comments can apply with equal force to office buildings; 
 corridor partitions in every fireproof office building should be 
 effective fire stops, utilizing fire doors; any glass if used in 
 transoms should be wired glass. 
 
 4. " Fireproof buildings, no matter how well designed and con- 
 structed, do not prevent the destruction by fire of contents in any 
 story; and it is essential that high buildings of mercantile, manu- 
 facturing or storage occupancy be thoroughly protected by a 
 standard equipment of automatic sprinklers." 
 
 In the design of such structures Mt is important to consider the 
 proper location arid arrangement of the water supplies, with special 
 reference to the size and suitable location of gravity or pressure 
 tanks to meet the requirements of the Underwriters. 
 
 5. " Exterior openings in buildings should be thoroughly pro- 
 tected against exposing fires. Universal efficient fire protection of 
 exterior openings will practically eliminate the danger of confla- 
 grations in cities. 
 
 " Fires in buildings containing large quantities of combustible 
 contents generate large volumes of gas and flame which must find 
 exit through the windows. The necessity for effective window pro- 
 tection to prevent sach fires from re-entering at other stories was 
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BUILDING MATERIAL 255 
 
 again demonstrated at the Parker building; wired glass windows 
 in standard metal frames are particularly well adapted for protec- 
 tion against exposure of this character, but should not, alone, be 
 depended upon at points where the exposure from the exterior is 
 severe. 
 
 " Exterior openings in buildings can be effectively protected 
 against exposing fires by standard fire doors and shutters, steel 
 rolling shutters, wired glass in standard metal frames, open sprink- 
 lers, or combinations of these devices. However, the fire retardant 
 qualities of these various devices are not equal and their selection 
 for use should depend on the severity of the exposure. 
 
 6. " High buildings of mercantile, manufacturing, or storage occu- 
 pancy should be provided with large, properly enclosed stairways 
 in sufficient number to afford a safe exit at time of fire. Such build- 
 ings should also be provided with outside fire escape and stand pipe 
 equipments. 
 
 7. " Buildings of mercantile, manufacturing or storage occupancy 
 should be provided with adequate systems of inside stand pipes 
 equipped with linen hose and nozzles suitable for fire department 
 use, and, in addition, a smaller linen hose and nozzle suitable and 
 safe for the use of occupants. These equipments should be acces- 
 sible and in sufficient number to effectively cover all portions of the 
 building. They should extend through all stories and should be 
 supplied from a reliable source of water tinder adequate pressure, 
 in addition to Siamese steamer connections on the outside or street 
 level. 
 
 " Cast iron columns should not be used in high buildings, as their 
 failure is usually complete, and results in sudden total collapse of 
 the sections ^ supported. Girders and beams cannot be rigidly 
 attached to such columns and defects in the material cannot be 
 easily detected. 
 
 " Although most of the* columns in the Parker building were 
 intact, the failures noted were responsible for the loss of three lives 
 and serious injury to many firemen, the destruction of large por- 
 tions of the building and the loss of considerable property in lower 
 stories which would not otherwise have been destroyed. In contra- 
 distinction, the failure of steel columns is gradual and does not 
 often result in the total collapse of the sections supported. This 
 was fully demonstrated in the San Francisco conflagration, where 
 the serious deflection of hundreds of steel columns did not result 
 in the total collapse of floors, except in one or two instances." 
 
 The Equitable building fire fully demonstrated the failures of 
 cast iron columns. There were three separate and distinct collapses 
 
256 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 of portions of the floors and the initial collapse in each case was 
 apparently due to the failure of unprotected cast iron columns. 
 
 " It is essential that all structural members of fireproof buildings 
 hex protected by a sufficient mass of fireproofing to thoroughly insu- 
 late them against the heat which would lie developed by the rapid 
 burning of all materials permitted in any story of such building. 
 It is also essential that all fireproofing be firmly anchored, or other- 
 wise securely held in position, where it is of such a nature or so 
 designed that it will become loose as a result of heat. On account 
 of their great importance structurally, columns should be insulated 
 by at least four inches of fireproofing ; and no pipes or conduits 
 should be placed in or back of the fireproofing material. On account 
 of the heavy mass of fireproofing with which girders and floor beams 
 are in contact a lesser amount of protection can be safely employed 
 at the soffits ; generally this should not be less than two inches for 
 girders and one and one-half inches for floor beams. /,' 
 
 " Buildings of large area and buildings in which large quantities 
 of combustible materials are stored, require heavier and more, effi- 
 cient fireproofing than buildings of moderate area and those con- 
 taining limited quantities of fuel. The tendency has been towards 
 lightness and cheapness, and fireproofing is often reduced to a point 
 where unsatisfactory results can be expected." 
 
 There is always the possibility of a quick spreading fire even in 
 office buildings; the Equitable bilduing fire was of sufficient in- 
 tensity to cause the deflection of wrought-iron beams with only 
 their lower flanges unprotected. 
 
 "All floor arches should be provided with a large factor of safety 
 so as to safely carry the imposed loads; not only under ordinary 
 conditions, but when severely exposed by fire. The arches in the 
 Parker building were weak, particularly the wider spans. Many 
 collapsed as a result of the impact of material falling from the upper 
 floors, thus carrying down the arches in several floors below. In 
 many places the arches were knocked through by heavy safes and 
 machinery, which settled or fell when wood floors and supports 
 were burned. Quite a number which had no heavy loads above 
 them collapsed as a result of fire. The majority of the arches 
 which failed were on the six-foot spans, although the failures 
 were by no means confined to these." 
 
 In the Equitable building the arch spans varied from 3 to 5^2 feet; 
 the terra cotta was 10 inches deep and the material and w'ork- 
 manship of the arches was apparently very good. As a result 
 of the fire scarcely any of the tile was cracked off the lower 
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BUILDING MATERIAL 257 
 
 web of the arch, except where exposed to the heat of the burn- 
 ing insulation on telephone and telegraph wires where the heat 
 was unusually severe. 
 
 " Arches of all forms in common use are seriously damaged 
 when directly exposed to high temperatures of long duration. In 
 buildings containing large quantities of combustible material, they 
 should be so designed or protected against fire that serious struc- 
 tural damage will be prevented." 
 
 Damage by ^fire to the soffit of hollow terra cotta arches is due 
 to the unequal expansion between the shells and webs of the arch 
 blocks; the shells receiving very much more heat than the webs. 
 
 " This is an inherent weakness and cannot be remedied by any 
 practical increase in the thickness of the members. Additional 
 lower cells in the blocks would in all probability prevent serious 
 structural damage and permit of economical repair." 
 
 Substantial suspended metal lath arid plaster ceilings, although 
 resisting fire streams poorly after exposure to fire, afford sufficient 
 additional protection to properly designed floor arches. 
 
 " No wood or other combustible material should be employed in 
 the construction of fireproof partitions and all metal supports or 
 reinforcements should be thoroughly insulated from heat. Fire- 
 proof doors and wired glass in standard metal frames should be 
 used at necessary openings in corridor and room partitions. Pro- 
 vision for expansion in the material used and in metal supports 
 entering into the construction of fireproof partitions is essential, par- 
 ticularly where hollow terra cotta blocks are employed. All fireproof 
 partitions should rest on solid incombustible material. 
 
 " The unreliability of stair and elevator enclosures made of hollow 
 terra cotta blocks and of partitions containing wood supports and 
 large openings with wood doors and ordinary glass was again 
 demonstrated by the Parker building fire. 
 
 "In buildings of fireproof construction R!! floor surfaces, doors, 
 window frames, sash and other trim and finish should be of incom- 
 bustible material. 
 
 " The support of heavy safes and machinery on wood floors and 
 wood skids in fireproof buildings is a menace to both life and prop- 
 erty, and should be absolutely prohibited. Heavy shafting should 
 be attached to ceilings in such a manner that it will not fall as a 
 result of fire. 
 
 " Floors are seldom designed to withstand the impact resulting 
 from the dropping or overturning of heavy safes, which are often 
 supported six to twelve inches above the floor and commonly weigh 
 from three to six tons. These loads should be safely distributed 
 by means of steel framing resting on non-combustible material." 
 
COST AND DEPRECIATION OF ALL FORMS 
 OF BUILDING MATERIAL 
 DEPRECIATION OF BUILDINGS 
 
 The present values of buildings, as reduced from original values 
 by depreciation, are more difficult to determine in an accurate and 
 satisfactory manner than the majority of problems involved in 
 building construction. Frequently this subject does not call for 
 consideration on the part of property owners until the question 
 arises during the adjustment of fire losses. This is particularly the 
 case respecting properties which have changed ownership, and where 
 different conditions in the nature of the occupancy have transpired. 
 
 There are so many influences which tenj to bring about deterio- 
 ration in structural materials, as well as structures in their entirety, 
 that the question of depreciation is more frequently adjusted by 
 compromise than by actual computation based upon a percentage of 
 original value. Frequently the insurable values have been incor- 
 rectly calculated, because of the want of proper consideration of 
 the question of depreciation ; in fact, the actual profit and loss 
 accounts of manufacturing interests can only be justly determined 
 by instituting a building depreciation fund, in connection with the 
 machinery depreciation fund. Such a fund should be sufficient at 
 any time during the life of the business to offset the depreciation, 
 so that the ca'pital invested in the provision of buildings is always 
 realizable at the full amount originally invested by the concern 
 under this heading. The sum invested in a structure should be 
 maintained at its original level, partly by the continued existence 
 of the structure, which should stand on the books at a value, depre- 
 ciating year by year, and partly by cash invested which would repre- 
 sent the depreciation in value. Such funds should be accumulated 
 by means of a fixed charge upon the business according to the work 
 done within the building. As the depreciation fund is built up, it 
 can readily be determined whether the building has declined in its 
 earning capacity to such an extent as to warrant its replacement. 
 Consideration of this subject might also tend to show how the pro- 
 ducts of a manufacturing concern could be produced on more eco- 
 nomical lines than was possible in the older structure. In behalf 
 of the management the existence of a depreciation fund overcomes 
 
 258 
 
COST AND DEPRECIATION OF BUILDING MATERIAL 259 
 
 the financial difficulties likely to accrue in the question of modern- 
 izing existing manufacturing conditions. 
 
 Instirable values can be determined in a more accurate manner 
 if a depreciation fund be maintained. If the property is over- 
 insured there is a loss through excessive payments for insurance 
 premiums, and where such conditions are manifested in the course 
 of adjustments, the question of depreciation, if left ttnconsidered 
 by the owner, becomes aggravating and often retards the progress 
 of what might otherwise prove a mutuallv satisfactory adjustment 
 of values. There is an annual depreciation on buildings of all 
 descriptions, in addition to certain charges for maintenance and 
 repairs. Opinions, however, vary as to the amount of annual depre- 
 ciation for different types of structures as a whole. 
 
 Every property is more or less influenced by conditions peculiar 
 to itself. To arrive at a proper understanding of depreciable values 
 it requires not only a knowledge of materials and their assembly, 
 but of the useful life of a building; considering the purpose for 
 which it exists, the method of its use and the probable length of 
 lime that it may be expected to be required for that particular pur- 
 pose. Many buildings are especially designed to turn out a certain 
 product, being provided with special appliances to meet the require- 
 ments of that product. Such buildings would, probably, not be 
 readily capable of adaptation to other purposes; and, even though 
 substantially constructed of brick, stone or concrete, it would be 
 good judgment to look upon them as falling in a class by them- 
 selves, instead of their being classified strictly according to their 
 type of construction. In cases of this character it would be wise 
 to consider the life of the building as comparatively short, which 
 would naturally mean rather heavy depreciation. 
 
 The Home Insurance Company of New York has conducted 
 extensive investigations into the cost of building in various parts 
 of the country, and has arranged its data in a convenient form for 
 architects and builders. 
 
 In addressing this to architects and builders, the Home Insur- 
 ance Company seeks relation with the twc professions that have 
 the most to do with physical constructions that make for its interest. 
 In part, it says : "Many considerations are weighed by a man who 
 sets out to build a house; if a dwelling for himself, comfort and 
 beauty: If a store, convenience and suitableness; if a factory, 
 strength and adaptability. But, whatever other conditions are con- 
 sidered, there is one that, first and last, influences and generally 
 dominates and controls, and that is the cost. That must always be 
 counted. Is it always counted wisely? What is the true economy 
 in house building? Admitting that a good building, even at a 
 
26o FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION T?OJ 
 
 lower insurance rate, is better for us, can we establish that it is 
 better for the owner? If this can be done, will it not be your 
 pleasure and to your advantage to advocate a wise initial outlay 
 of somewhat larger sums for buildings, to make good brick, stone 
 or concrete walls; metal, tile or slate root's; substantial chimneys 
 from the ground condemning and opposing the use of poor mate- 
 rials as not only inferior, but actually, in the end, more expensive 
 from every point of view? 
 
 "Let Us assume, for the sake of the argument, that one is to plan 
 or erect a two-story building, to be occupied as a dwelling, a store 
 or a factory, to be 25 feet front by 35 feet deep, making an area of 
 875 square feet ; the first floor to be flush with the ground and the 
 height of the building to the eaves to be 22 feet; having a pitched 
 roof with peak 10 feet above the eaves producing a roof area of 
 about 1,120 square feet. This would make the surface of the four 
 walls amount to about 2,890 square feet. 
 
 " We have secured estimates from a number of responsible 
 builders in different parts of the country, principally South, 
 made as though for a prospective customer, for (i) the walls, 
 '(2) the roof, (3) one chimney, and (4) probable depreciation 
 of .walls and roof for different materials. We have made an 
 average of the figures given us, and in this way believe that 
 they should be approximately correct. 
 
 Estimated Cost 
 
 WALLS (12 inches thick): 
 
 Stone $1,301 .00 
 
 (Estimates are for rough quarry dressed stone rather 
 than fancy cut or ornamental work,) 
 
 Brick 1,096 . oo 
 
 Reinforced concrete 838 . oo 
 
 Wood 619.00 
 
 '.; i' i f : ' ! '?; ; t !:?: ; ' :\ 
 
 ROOF: 
 
 Tin (painted) $120.00 
 
 Slate 1 20 . oo 
 
 Tile 212.00 
 
 Shingle , . .. . . ', ,. . . 87 . oo 
 
 'rft/rl to .'j -. f.-f, ( } f 
 
 CHIMNEYS: 
 
 Assume one chimney adapted for the entire building. Difference in cost 
 for various types: 
 
 Brick. Eight inches thick from the ground; three feet foundation, eight 
 feet cellarway (if a cellar exists).; 40 feet high above that; total, 51 feet. 
 
 Cost with one straight Flue from ground $66 . oo 
 
 Cost with two straight Flues from ground 88.00 
 
COST AND DEPRECIATION OF BUILDING MATERIAL 261 
 
 Cost of Flue, same dimensions, resting on second story 
 
 beams, 25 feet, one Flue $33 . oo 
 
 Cost of Flue, same dimensions, resting on second story 
 
 beams, 25 feet, two Flues 46.00 
 
 DEPRECIATION: 
 
 Those given us average as follows: 
 
 Per Cent. 
 Per Annum 
 
 Stone Walls i % 
 
 Brick Walls i % 
 
 Concrete Walls i 1-6 
 
 Wood Walls 2 8.10 
 
 Tile Roof . 12-3 
 
 Tin Roof 4 % 
 
 Slate Roof I 
 
 Shingle Roof 8 % 
 
 Wood and shingles for walls and roof and a hung chimney have 
 outset advantages in cost. That is why these types prevail. Are 
 they, however, really any cheaper at the end of twenty years? 
 
 A good chimney resting on the ground is essentially a measure 
 of safety in preventing fires. It will, moreover, represent a slight 
 saving in maintenance, the amount of which can not be stated 
 exactly, and it makes a material saving in insurance rate. For the 
 standard type of construction (built from ground) there is a favor- 
 able difference in rate, running from 10 per cent, upwards. 
 
 If stone, brick or concrete is used for walls, no painting is needed. 
 If wood is employed, it should be painted at least once in four years. 
 Cost of same, say, $60. In forty-six years this alone would con- 
 sume the extra cost of stone, in thirty-two years that of brick, and 
 in fifteen jears that of reinforced concrete. 
 
 A further economy in brick or stone, contrasted with wood, is 
 the lessened cost of heating. The ordinary wood house develops 
 cracks an--l openings in the walls, especially around the window 
 frames, that permit the escape of heat, and the entrance of cold 
 and wind, which make drafty places that are uncomfortable in cold 
 weather and add to fuel bills. The writer has in mind a frame 
 house built some years ago, which he planned to construct with 
 brick filling. The contractor, with probably the best intention, 
 recommended to omit this. It saved a couple of hundred of dollars, 
 and as an offset to that economy (?) it would be safe to estimate 
 that $20 worth of coal extra is needed annually to keep the house 
 warm, besides which, in extreme weather, the rooms facing the 
 cold west winds can not be made comfortable by the furnace, no 
 matter how hard it is driven. 
 
 In addition to safety and preventing loss of life or injury by fire, 
 promoting comfort and warmth (with saving in fuel) in winter, 
 
262 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 and conversely cooler and more comfortable in summer, which are 
 
 not altogether measurable in dollars and cents, it is possible to make 
 
 a fairly precise and accurate equation showing the benefit of a mod- 
 erate increase in first cost by the use of superior materials and 
 
 methods in construction. 
 
 FIRST/ AS TO LONGER LIFE: 
 
 STONE WALLS AND TILE ROOF. Cost per estimate, $1,513.00. Annual 
 Depreciations, i% per cent, walls, i 2-3 per cent. roof. Annual Depre- 
 ciation equals $18.17. 
 
 STONE WALLS AND TIN ROOF. Cost per estimate, $1,421.00. Annual 
 Depreciations, i% per cent, walls, 4% per cent. roof. Annual Depre- 
 ciation equals $19.59. 
 
 STONE WALLS AND SLATE ROOF. Cost per estimate, $1,430.00. Annual 
 Depreciations, i V& per cent, walls, i per cent. roof. Annual Depreciation 
 equals $15.93- 
 
 STONE WALLS AND SHINGLE ROOF. Cost per estimate, $1,388.00. 
 Annual Depreciations, i l / s per cent, walls, 8*4 per cent. roof. Annual 
 Depreciation equals $21.82. 
 
 BRICK WALLS AND TILE ROOF. Cost per estimate, $1,308.00. Annual 
 Depreciations, i l / s per cent, walls, i 2-3 per cent. roof. Annual Depre- 
 ciation equals $15.86. 
 
 BRICK WALLS AND TIN ROOF. Cost per estimates, $1,216.00. Annual 
 Depreciations, 1% per cent, walls, 4% per cent. roof. Annual Depre- 
 ciation equals $17.28. 
 
 BRICK WALLS AND SLATE ROOF. Cost per estimates, $1,225.00. An- 
 nual Depreciations, i% per cent, walls, i per cent. roof. Annual Depre- 
 ciation equals $13.62. 
 
 BRICK WALLS AND SHINGLE ROOF. Cost per estimates, $1,183.00. 
 Annual Depreciations, iy s per cent, walls, 8*4 per cent. roof. Annual 
 Depreciation equals $19.51. 
 
 CONCRETE- WALLS AND TILE ROOF. Cost per estimates, $1,050.00. 
 Annual Depreciations, i 1-6 per cent, walls, i 2-3 per cent. roof. Annual 
 Depreciation equals $13.31. 
 
 CONCRETE WALLS AND TIN ROOF. Cost per estimates, $958.00. 
 Annual Depreciations, i 1-6 per cent, walls, 4% per cent. roof. An- 
 nual Depreciation equals $14.73. 
 
 CONCRETE WALLS AND SLATE ROOF. Cost per estimates, $967.00. 
 Annual Depreciations, i 1-6 per cent, walls, i per cent. roof. Annual 
 Depreciation equals $11.07. 
 
 CONCRETE WALLS AND SHINGLE ROOF. Cost per estimates, $925.00. 
 Annual Depreciations, i 1-6 i>er cent, walls, 8*4 per cent. roof. An- 
 nual Depreciation equals $16.96. 
 
 FRAME WALLS AND TILE ROOF. Cost per estimates, $831.00. Annual 
 Depreciations, 2 8-10 per cent, walls, i 2-3 per cent. roof. Annual 
 Depreciation equals $22.28. 
 
 FRAME WALLS AND TIN ROOF. Cost per estimates, $739.00. Annual 
 Depreciations, 2 8-10 per cent, walls, 4% per cent. roof. Annual 
 Depreciation equals $22.87. 
 
 FRAME WALLS AND SLATE ROOF. Cost per estimates, $748.00. An- 
 nual Depreciations, 2 8-io'per cent, walls, i per cent. roof. Annual 
 ;Depreciation equals $18.62. 
 
COST AND DEPRECIATION OF BUILDING MATERIAL 263 
 
 FRAME WALLS AND SHINGLE ROOF. Cost per estimates, $>o6.oo. 
 Annual Depreciations, 2 8-10 per cent, walls, 8V4 per cent. roof. Annual 
 Depreciation equals $24.51. 
 
 In figures of cost and in estimating depreciation, no account is 
 taken of interior work nor of inside wear and tear; these figures 
 relate only to outside walls and the roof. 
 
 From the foregoing we select for illustration three types of 
 construction : 
 
 Cost. Depreciation. Per Cent. 
 
 1. Concrete Walls, Tile Roof $1,050 $13-31 equals i 27-100 
 
 2. Brick Walls, Slate Roof 1,225 13.62 equals i n-ioo 
 
 3. Frame Walls, Shingle Roof 706 24.51 equals 3 47-100 
 
 Assume cost of land ($500) and interior work ($1,500) to be 
 $2,000 additional in each case, and that each house rents for 10 
 per cent, oi the cost. Result at end of twenty years : 
 
 1. Concrete Walls, Tile Roof. Value $3,050. Rents for $305.00 per annum. 
 $305.00 x 20' years, equals $6,100. 
 
 Charge $13.31 x 20 equals $266.20 Depreciation. 
 
 Charge 30.50 x 20 equals 610.00 Taxes, say i per cent, on value. 
 Charge 24.29 x 20 equals 485.80 Ins. Premiums on $2,550, being average 
 
 for three occupancies given. Page 
 $1,362.00 259. 
 
 From $6,100, twenty years' income, deduct $1,362 charges, leaving $4,738; 
 same divided by 20 gives $236.90 per annum and represents 7 77-100 per 
 cent, interest. 
 
 2. Brick Walls, Slate Roof. Value $3,225. Rents for $322.50 per annum. 
 $322.50 x 20 years, equals $6,450. 
 
 Charge $13.62 x 20 equals $272.40 Depreciation. 
 
 Charge 32.25 x 20 equals 645.00 Taxes, say i per cent, on value. 
 Charge 25.96 x 20 equals 519.20 Ins. Premiums on $2,725, being 'average 
 
 for three occupancies given. Page 
 $1,436.60 '259. 
 
 From $6,450, twenty years' income, deduct $1,436.60 charges, leaving $5,013.40; 
 same divided by 20 gives $250.67 per annum and represents 7 77-100 per 
 cent, interest. 
 
 3. Wood Walls, Shingle Roof. Value $2,706. Rents for $270.60 per annum. 
 $270.60 x 20 years, equals $5,412. 
 
 Charge $24.51 x 20 equals $490.20 Depreciation. 
 
 Charge 27.06 x 20 equals 541.20 Taxes, say i per cent, on value. 
 Charge 60.00 x 5 equals 300.00 For outside painting every 4 years. 
 Charge 20.or x 20 equals 400.00 For extra cost of heating. 
 Charge 44.26 x 20 equals 885.20 Ins. Premiums on $2,206, being average 
 
 for three occupancies given. Page 
 $2,616.60 259. 
 
 From $5,412, twenty years' income, deduct $2,616.60 charges, leaving $2,795.40; 
 
 same divided by 20 gives $139.77 per annum and represents 5 16-100 per 
 
 cent, interest. 
 
 In a hrick, stone or concrete house the reduction of concealed 
 spaces in the walls is a material advantage in excluding rats and 
 other vermin. 
 
264 j/j FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 The insurance cost is also a factor of considerable moment in 
 determining the ultimate economy of good construction, and in 
 order to set this forth fairly we have averaged rates for different 
 constructions in Southern towns of first, second and third-class 
 fire protection, also towns with no protection, for the three main 
 divisional occupancies, being (a) dwellings; (b) stores; (c) fac- 
 tories, selecting for the latter, sixteen classes of factories common 
 in the South. All of these rates are basis figures that is, without 
 any charge for interior or protective defects, or charge for exposure 
 of other buildings. Touching the exposure charge it may be well 
 to state, in passing, that such is notably less to brick, stone or 
 concrete buildings with metal, tile or slate roofs than to frame, 
 shingle roof buildings, for the obvious reason that the former are 
 much less likely to be ignited by a burning building near by than 
 the latter. The insurance rates given assume also that standard 
 chimneys built from the ground - exist in the buildings, otherwise 
 an additional charge of about n per cent, applies to dwelling 
 rates and from 10 cents to 25 cents per $100 insurance in the case 
 of stores and factories. Our estimates show an excess cost of $33 
 for a chimney with one flue, built from the ground, over a hung 
 flue. In an ordinary frame dwelling insured for $1,000 the differ- 
 ence in premium would pay the extra cost in about the same num- 
 ber of years (33) and in proportionately less time, according to 
 increased value. 
 
 The insurance rate (and charge) on a building extends naturally 
 to the contents as well. In many instances the value of the contents 
 exceeds the cost of the building itself, so for the purpose of count- 
 ing the cost of poor construction it is proper to apply the insurance 
 cost to what is in the building as well as to the- building itself. 
 Therefore, it follows that a building justifying a low insurance rate 
 is additionally better for the builder if he is to be the occupant, 
 and if built to be let, the feature of a minimum rate will make it 
 rent more readily and to better advantage. 
 
 On the score of annual insurance charge on building and con- 
 tents the advantage of good construction may be worked out as 
 in the following illustrations for (a) dwelling; (b) store; (c) 
 factory. 
 
 Reverting to the building we have assumed, add $1,500 as else- 
 where for the value of interior work (excluding the land), 
 whence we get values for buildings for the three types, as follows: 
 
 Concrete Walls and Tile Roof $1,050 plus $1,500 equals $2,550 
 
 Brick Walls and Slate Roof 1,225 plus 1,500 equals 2,725 
 
 Frame Walls and Shingle Roof 706 plus 1,500 equals 2,206 
 
 Assume each type to be occupied (a) as dwelling, with furniture 
 
COST AND DEPRECIATION OF BUILDING MATERIAL 265 
 
 requiring $1,500 insurance; (b) as store, with stock needing $10,000 
 insurance, and (c) as factory, with machinery and other contents 
 wanting $15,000 insurance. From the tables of average rates we 
 calculate insurance premiums as follows: 
 
 TYPE No. i 
 
 (Reinforced Concrete Walls and Tile Roof) 
 
 Rate 
 
 Per Cent Premium 
 DWELLING: 
 
 Building $2,550.00 @ .49% $12.63 
 
 Contents 1,500.00 @ .49% 7.42 
 
 $4,050.00 $20.05 
 STORE: 
 
 Building $2,550.00 @ .95 $24.23 
 
 Contents 10,000.00 @i.oi% 101.25 
 
 X - 
 
 $12,550.00 $125.48 
 FACTORY: 
 
 Building $2,550.00 @i.4iV4 $36.01 
 
 Contents 15,000.00 1.41^4 211.88 
 
 $17,550.00 $247.89 
 
 TYPE No. 2 
 
 (Brick Walls and Slate Roof) 
 
 Rate 
 
 Per Cent Premium 
 DWELLING. 
 
 Building $2,725.00 @ .49% $13-49 
 
 Contents f. 1,500.00 @ .49% 7.42 
 
 $4,225.00 $20.91 
 STORE: 
 
 Building $2,725.00 @ .95 $25.89 
 
 Contents 10,000.00 @i.oii4 101.25 
 
 $12,725.00 $127.14 
 FACTORY: 
 
 Building $2,725.00 1.41 *4 $38.49 
 
 Contents 15,000.00 (0)1.4114 211.88 
 
 $17,725.00 $250.37 
 
 TYPE No. 3 
 
 (Frame Wails and Shingle Roof) 
 
 Rate 
 
 Per Cent Premium 
 DWELLING: 
 
 Building $2,206.00 @ .882 $19.46 
 
 Contents 1,500.00 @ .882 13.23 
 
 $3,706.00 
 
 $32.69 
 
266 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 STORE: i 
 
 Building $2,206.00 2.75 $60.67 
 
 Contents 10,000.00 @2.68% 268.75 
 
 $12,206.00 $329.42 
 FACTORY: 
 
 Building $2,206.00 2.38% $52.67 
 
 Contents 15,000.00 2.38% 358.12 
 
 $17,206.00 $410.79 
 
 DWELLING Premium on 
 
 Type Cost of Bldg. Bldg. & Cont. 
 
 No. i. Concrete Walls and Tile Roof $2,550.00 $20.05 
 
 No. 2. Brick Walls and Slate Roof 2,725.00 20.91 
 
 No. 3. Frame Walls and Shingle Roof 2,206.00 32.69 
 
 Difference in premium alone will pay increased cost of Type No. i over Type 
 
 No. 3 ($344.00), in twenty-seven years. 
 
 Difference in premium will pay increased cost of Type No. 2 over Type No. 3 
 ($519.00), in forty-four years. 
 
 STORES Premium on 
 
 Type Cost of Bldg. Bldg. & Cont. 
 
 No. i. Concrete Walls and Tile Roof $2,550.00 $125.48 
 
 No. 2. Brick Walls and Slate Roof 2,725.00 127.14 
 
 No. 3. Frame Walls and Shingle Roof 2,206.00 329.42 
 
 Difference in premium will pay increased cost of Type No. i over No. 3 
 
 ($344.00), in two years. 
 
 Difference in premium will pay increased cost of Type No. 2 over Type No. 3 
 ($519.00), in three years. 
 
 FACTORY Premium on 
 
 Type Cost of Bldg. Bldg. & Cont. 
 
 No. i. Concrete Walls and Tile Roof $2,550.00 $247.89 
 
 No. 2. Brick Walls and Slate Roof 2,725.00 250.37 
 
 No. 3. Frame Walls and Shingle Roof 2,206.00 410.79 
 
 Difference in premium will pay increased cost of Type No. i over No. 3 
 
 ($344.00), in a trifle over two years. 
 
 Difference in premium will pay increased cost of Type No. 2 over Type No. 3 
 ($519.00), in 3^4 years. 
 
 We believe this disproportion between initial saving and inci- 
 dental expense later permanent and continuous cost and actual 
 loss could be carried on and set forth indefinitely. Cheap plaster- 
 ing on furring strips and wood lath, with frequent restoration of 
 fallen ceilings and blemished, cracked walls wood window frames 
 that shrink away from studding, with consequent drafty rooms 
 lath and plaster partitions (harboring rats and vermin) in place 
 of tile. Many interior features of inferior material or construction 
 exist, the cost of which in comfort and health is great, but not 
 readily quotable in money value. 
 
 These suggestions and figures plainly indicate that insurance com- 
 panies are doing all in their power to encourage good construction 
 and the safeguarding of hazards, by making radical and substantial 
 reduction in premium rates for superior conditions. We submit 
 
. COST AND DEPRECIATION OF BUILDING MATERIAL 267 
 
 that we are employing our best efforts in that direction. May we 
 have your active co-operation to the same end? 
 
 Important as all this is to us, our interest is almost trivial com- 
 pared with that of your clients. From every quarter recitals reach 
 us of men and women either roasted alive in flimsily built hotels, 
 theaters, stores and factories, or crushed on the ground below after 
 jumping from upper windows to escape a worse death, to say 
 nothing of the suffering of horses, cattle and other dumb creatures 
 destroyed by thousands in fire-trap buildings. The 1915 fire- waste 
 of this country exceeded $180,000,000. It is a safe and sober state- 
 ment that half of this would be saved by the use of incombustible 
 materials for walls and roofs, and by substantial chimneys and safe 
 heating arrangements. Prevention is better than cure. 
 
 THE COST OF CONCRETE BUILDINGS 
 
 It has been a common method to estimate the approximate cost 
 of a building by either the square foot of floor or the cubic foot of 
 space enclosed. In a paper published in The Engineering Record, 
 Jan. 16, 1909, Leonard C. Wason, president of the Aberthaw Con- 
 struction Co., Boston, presents numerous comparative costs obtained 
 through his own experience and states as his conclusion that " after 
 making this comparison he is convinced that neither method is 
 accurate enough to put much reliance on, but that the square foot 
 method is a little safer than the other." Four of the tables from 
 his paper are presented herewith. In each case the total cost in- 
 cludes masonry and carpentry work without interior finish or deco- 
 rating, plumbing and heating. The effort has been made to put 
 the buildings upon a comparative basis as regards the amount of 
 work done on each. 
 
 The first table consists of the total cost of actual contracts exe- 
 cuted. The second table consists of bona fide bids on complete 
 buildings on which Mr. Wason's company were not the lowest 
 bidders, but where the difference was not. as a rule, very great. 
 The third and fourth tables are bona fide bids on work by another 
 contractor whose experience was similar to that of Mr. Wason's. 
 As a rule, cubic foot measurements are given in cents only, seldom 
 being carried to any closer subdivision. In reference to Table 4 
 on second class buildings, it will be noted that for the largest 
 building a variation of one cent per cubic foot amounts to over 
 $28,000, while the smallest one in the list amounts to only a little 
 over $5,400. Again, on the last three item?, the cubic foot price is 
 practically identical, while the square foot measurements correspond- 
 ing, vary by more than 100 per cent, with no easily apparent reason 
 in the design. 
 
268 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 In Table 3 another discrepancy is noticed. In the first and the 
 last items, the highest and the lowest per cubic foot as well as per 
 square foot, are on office buildings of similar type which were within 
 one mile of each other where theie is no apparent reason for such 
 discrepancy in the design or difficulty of access in the erection of 
 the building. It is recommended by Mr. Wason that very little 
 reliance be placed upon this class of estimates. 
 
 Table i. Cost of Fireproof Completed Contracts 
 
 Job 
 KIND OF BUILDING. cost. 
 Offices and stores $181,194 
 Offices and stores 61.646 
 
 Volume 
 in cu. ft. 
 1,365,830 
 496,780 
 112,440 
 746,674 
 312,000 
 156,198 
 149,250 
 44,265 
 9,734 
 59,991 
 
 Floor 
 area in 
 sq. ft. 
 90,474 
 39,840 
 7,519 
 49,546 
 24,960 
 10,806 
 19,208 
 2,982 
 657 
 5,243 
 
 /Unit cost > 
 Per Per. 
 cu. ft. sq. ft. 
 $0.133 $2.00 
 .124 1.545 
 .114 1.70 
 .060 .902 
 .127 1.60 
 .085 1,23 
 .134 1.04 
 .153 2.26 
 373 5-45 
 333 3-82 
 373 3-82 
 .06 .90 
 .138 1.72 
 
 Factory 
 
 12 774 
 
 Factory . . 
 
 4/1.61:2 
 
 Factory. . . 
 
 m8^o 
 
 Garage 
 
 10,436 
 
 Filter 
 
 IQQQ? 
 
 Fire station .. 
 
 5,757 
 
 Observatory 
 
 "3,625 
 
 Filter 
 
 20076 
 
 Highest 
 
 
 Lowest 
 
 
 
 
 Average. . 
 
 
 
 
 Table 2. Cost of Fireproof Complete Buildings 
 
 KIND OF BUILDING. 
 
 Job 
 cost. 
 
 Storehouse $141,755 
 
 Hospital 60,800 
 
 Office building 61,646 
 
 Cold storage 200,051 
 
 Factory. 19,292 
 
 Factory 141,529 
 
 Storehouse 76,796 
 
 Mfg. building 91,377 
 
 Office 136,880 
 
 Factory 13,064 
 
 Factory 75,604 
 
 Factory 23,332 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Average 
 
 Volume 
 in cu. ft. 
 
 1714,448 
 
 703,692 
 
 496,780 
 
 1,535,000 
 
 212,400 
 
 1,327,868 
 
 1,140,000 
 
 1,380,500 
 
 693,840 
 
 105,600 
 
 1,211,364 
 
 180,000 
 
 Floor 
 
 area in 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 168,696 
 
 57,654 
 
 39,840 
 
 154,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 106,022 
 
 146,000 
 
 00,240 
 
 56,552 
 
 8,800 
 
 74.604 
 
 i6,394 
 
 /'Unit cost^ 
 
 Per Per. 
 
 cu. ft. sq. ft. 
 
 $0.0827 $0.84 
 
 .0865 
 .124 
 
 13 
 
 .091 
 
 .107 
 
 .0685 
 
 .067 
 
 .197 
 
 .124 
 
 .0625 
 
 .129 
 
 .197 
 
 .0625 
 
 .1088 
 
 1.05 
 
 1-545 
 1.30 
 1.28 
 1-335 
 
 575 
 
 1. 01 
 
 2.42 
 1.485 
 
 1. 01 
 
 1.42 
 2.42 
 
 575 
 1.27 
 
COST AND DEPRECIATION OF BUILDING MATERIAL 269 
 
 Table 3. Cost of 
 
 Fireproof 
 
 Buildings 
 
 
 
 
 Floor 
 
 i Unit cost > 
 
 
 Job 
 
 Volume 
 
 area in 
 
 Per 
 
 Per. 
 
 KIND OF BUILDING. 
 
 cost. 
 
 in cu. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 Office building 
 
 $70,690 
 
 441,000 
 
 35,854 
 
 $0.159 
 
 $1-97 
 
 Cold storage 
 
 132,365 
 
 1,016,400 
 
 101,640 
 
 13 
 
 1.30 
 
 Hospital. . . 
 
 44,451 
 
 348,320 
 
 34,832 
 
 .127 
 
 1.27 
 
 Hospital 
 
 51,574 
 
 4M,732 
 
 29,838 
 
 .124 
 
 1-73 
 
 Bank 
 
 65,580 
 
 533,750 
 
 
 .123 
 
 
 Masonic 
 
 180,197 
 
 1,479,456 
 
 
 .122 
 
 .... 
 
 Warehouse 
 
 31,280 
 
 259-700 
 
 24,500 
 
 .120 
 
 1.28 
 
 Garage 
 
 59,105 
 
 497,420 
 
 
 .118 
 
 
 Warehouse 
 
 -V5,723 
 
 2,597,000 
 
 212,000 
 
 .106 
 
 1.30 
 
 Hotel 
 
 220,646 
 
 2,116,106 
 
 
 
 .104 
 
 
 Hospital 
 
 49,724 
 
 485,789 
 
 38,247 
 
 .100 
 
 1.30 
 
 Office 
 
 25,151 
 
 264,687 
 
 
 095 
 
 . t . . 
 
 Cold storage 
 
 82,711 
 
 909,240 
 
 66,745 
 
 .091 
 
 1.24 
 
 Club 
 
 43,586 
 
 5i3,8o8 
 
 
 
 .085 
 
 
 Office 
 
 60,003 
 
 501-575 
 
 67,400 
 
 .084 
 
 1. 12 
 
 Highest 
 
 
 
 
 159 
 
 1.97 
 
 Lowest 
 
 
 
 
 .084 
 
 1. 12 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 113 
 
 1-39 
 
 Variation, high and low. 
 
 
 
 
 53-8% 
 
 57-0% 
 
 Table 4. Cost of Mill 
 
 Construction or 
 
 Second-class Building 
 
 
 
 
 Floor 
 
 r-Unit cost > 
 
 
 Job 
 
 Volume 
 
 area in 
 
 Per 
 
 Per. 
 
 KIND OF BUILDING. 
 
 cost. 
 
 in cu. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 cu. Tt. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 Mill 
 
 $66,516 
 
 544,788 
 
 44,172 
 
 $0.122 
 
 $1-51 
 
 Warehouse 
 
 337,000 
 
 2.808,850 
 
 
 .12 
 
 
 Mill 
 
 113,288 
 
 ,271,300 
 
 129,920 
 
 .0891 
 
 875 
 
 Storehouse 
 
 101,098 
 
 ,714448 
 
 168,696 
 
 059 
 
 .60 
 
 Mill. 
 
 90,703 
 
 1,622,128 
 
 152,200 
 
 .056 
 
 .60 
 
 Mill 
 
 72,048 
 
 ,331,200 
 
 83,200 
 
 054 
 
 -865 
 
 Mill 
 
 85,754 
 
 "752,609 
 
 81.500 
 
 .048 
 
 1.05 
 
 Mill 
 
 122,128 
 
 2,641,000 
 
 98,059 
 
 .046 
 
 1-25 
 
 Mill 
 
 94,341 
 
 2,036,731 
 
 174,000 
 
 .046 
 
 542 
 
 Mill 
 
 129,405 
 
 2,867.535 
 
 157,730 
 
 -045 
 
 .82 
 
 Highest 
 
 
 
 
 .122 
 
 I-5I 
 
 Lowest 
 
 
 
 
 045 
 
 542 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 .069 
 
 .90 
 
 From 
 
 The Engineering 
 
 Record, 
 
 Feb. 27, 
 
 I909- 
 
GYPSUM AS A FIREPROOFING MATERIAL 
 
 Gypsum is used as a fireproofing material in the form of blocks, 
 plaster board and plaster on metal lath. The results of considerable 
 experience on its application in these three forms are available and 
 have recently been .brought together by Mr. H. G. Perring in a 
 pamphlet, which the National Fire Protection Association is send- 
 ing out. Preceding the data relating to actual construction with 
 the material is information regarding the fire-resisting qualities of 
 gypsum from which the following notes have been taken : 
 
 Plaster of Paris is made from gypsum, which is a sulphate of 
 lime; chemically, a hydrous calcium sulphate, the formula of which 
 is expressed as Ca SO 4 -f 2 H 2 O. Interpreted, this formula may be 
 expressed as 32.5 per cent, by weight of calcium and 46.6 per cent, 
 sulphuric acid chemically compounded and holding 20.9' per cent, of 
 water of crystallization. Plaster of Paris is made by calcining the 
 gypsum rock to drive off part of the water of crystallization. This 
 material has the valuable quality of taking up water and, by a 
 crystallizing' process, becoming again converted into gypsum. 
 
 Gypsum is a soft mineral, ranking number. 2 in a scale of 10 in 
 Moh's scale of hardness. It has a specific gravity of 2.32 and weighs 
 145 Ibs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Plaster of Paris has a specific gravity of 1.81, but upon setting 
 with water returns to a specific gravity of 2.32. 
 
 Delicate experiments have shown that plaster in setting neither 
 contracts nor expands. 
 
 Plaster has been generally recognized as a fireproofing material 
 in Europe for many years, Mr. Perring states, and is today used 
 almost exclusively for partitions and to a great extent for floors 
 in France and Gerrnany, while in England many of the government 
 buildings, including the newer portions of Windsor Castle, have 
 partitions of plaster block. In America, despite the prejudice against 
 plaster fireproofing, over 1,000 -of the -large fireproof buildings of 
 the country have been fireproofed cither wholly or in part by plaster 
 in the form of plaster blocks, a large number having plaster floors. 
 Metal lath and plaster for partitions has been used to a great extent, 
 and in the smaller buildings plaster board and plaster. 
 
 Mr. Perring discusses at some length the various fire test require- 
 ments and gives a list of fire tests of gypsum products. In summar- 
 
 270 
 
GYPSUM AS A FlREPROOFING MATERIAL 27! 
 
 izing, Mr. Perring treats the various classes of gypsum products 
 hut only the results in two classes are repeated here. Plaster blocks 
 in 18 tests of fire and water for periods of from I to 2 hours stood 
 successfully, resisting the passage of flame, smoke or water, and 
 were stable and strong after test. These tests have shown that 
 the effect of a fire of 2 hours' duration is but little greater than 
 that of i hour. The effect of one hour of high temperature fire 
 is to recalcine the block to a depth of about ^ in., while 2 hours 
 will carry the recalcination to a depth of'>< inch. The effect of a 
 stream from a fire hose is to wash off this recalcined material. In 
 seven tests of metal lath and gypsum plaster the effect of high tem- 
 perature fire for I hour was to recalcine the plaster as in the blocks 
 to a depth of about ^ to ^ in. The application of water from a 
 fire hose will wash off this recalcined material and occasionally 
 erode the material sufficiently to expose patches of the metal. 
 
 Few fires have occurred in buildings in which plaster has been 
 used for fireproofing, but the following are cited as indicating more 
 than a laboratory test: 
 
 On Feb. 6, 1906, at 9 o'clock a fire occurred in the Engineering 
 Building in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. The 
 fire spread so rapidly that a second alarm was sent in 15 minutes 
 after the start of the fire. Two fire alarms brought out nine engine 
 companies, which played 15 streams of hose on the fire until 2 a. m., 
 at which time the fire was considered past the dangerous point, 
 and all but one engine went home, the remaining engine playing 
 a stream of water upon the smoking embers until 7 a. m., when the 
 fire was pronounced completely out. The building was erected in 
 1892. had brick 'exterior walls and an interior construction known 
 as mill, or slow-burning construction ; that is, the column and gird- 
 ers were of heavy yellow pine timber and the floor of 3-in. yellow 
 pine. The trim of the rooms was also of yellow pine ; a structure 
 well calculated to burn with intense heat when the fire was well 
 started. The partitions were fire-proof, being made of gypsum 
 plaster blocks 3-in. thick. Despite the incense heat and the many 
 tons of water thrown into the building the partitions remained 
 intact and would have required no repairs beyond replastering to 
 fit them for use again. These partitions prevented the spread of 
 the fire and saved a considerable portion of the building from any 
 damage whatsoever, preventing the loss of a valuable engineering 
 library, which was in a room completely shut off from the fire by 
 the gypsum tile partitions. 
 
 On March 4, 1910, a fire occurred in the Alwyn Court fireproof 
 apartment house, New York City. The interior columns were fire- 
 proofed with 2-in. U. S. Gypsum Company's composition plaster 
 
272 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 blocks with an air space between blocks and columns. Partitions 
 were of 3-in. plaster blocks set in wood frame work (wood door 
 "bucks"). The hallways were formed of 3-in. composition blocks 
 with kalamein doors to apartments. Many of the rooms contained 
 an unusual amount of lumber in the form of wood trim, parquet 
 flooring, side and ceiling paneling and other decorative woodwork. 
 The following extract is taken from the report of the New York 
 Board of Fire Underwriters : 
 
 " The ninth and tenth floors in the duplex apartment were gutted 
 except the northerly rooms of the tenth, which were badly dam- 
 aged. The dining room and reception hall of west apartment on 
 eleventh floor were practically gutted, with heavy damage in kitchen 
 and moderate damage in other rooms. In the west apartment on 
 twelfth floor the dining room, reception hall and living room, in- 
 cluding salon, were practically gutted; considerable damage in 
 kitchen and maids' room; only moderate damage in northerly 
 rooms. The west apartments immediately below the floor, where 
 the fire started, had considerable water on ceilings, walls and floors ; 
 part of ceiling plaster had fallen off in a few rooms. There was 
 no fire and but little water damage in easterly apartments, includ- 
 ing those above the eighth. There seems to have been no structural 
 damage to the steel frame or its fireproofing; the lower flanges of 
 floor beams were protected only by plaster finish, which fell off and 
 exposed the flanges to considerable heat, but no deflection of .beam 
 is apparent. The channel shaped steel lintels over dining room 
 windows were softened by the heat and deflected, particularly those 
 on the twelfth floor. The 3-in. plaster block partitions are intact, 
 except around the doorways, where they were supported by wooden 
 frame work, which was entirely burned away and caused the blocks 
 to fall." 
 
 Analyzing the special features of gypsum plaster in general, which 
 make the material desirable as fireproofing, Mr. Perring draws the 
 following conclusions: 
 
 1. Low heat conductivity is an essential point. In partitions heat 
 is not conducted through to set fire to furnishings on the opposite 
 side. In the protection of structural steel work the steel is protected 
 from 'the weakening action of hea^. The heat penetrates the plaster 
 at such a slow rate that in fires of ordinary duration the metal 
 would hardly get warm. 
 
 2. Tests and experiments have failed to indicate any appreciable 
 expansion of plaster under heat action. 
 
 3. Materials of a nature that expand under heat readily contract 
 when water is applied to the heated surface. This contraction is 
 often so severe as to cause the bursting of the material. Plaster 
 
GYPSUM AS A FlREPROOFING MATERIAL 273 
 
 partially recalcines under high heat action and the subsequent appli- 
 cation of water removes this recalcined portion, but generally will 
 withstand severe water application, there being no indication of 
 
 bursting. 
 
 4. Any material to be used for fireproofing must not burn or sup- 
 port combustion. Plaster is incombustible. 
 
 5. Lightness is essential in fireproofing, as the fireproofing at best 
 is dead load on a building and plays no part in the support of the 
 structure. Plaster is the lightest practical fireproofing material. 
 
 6. Plaster fireproofing has sufficient strength for use in partitions 
 and column covering, and in fires will stand up reliably against the 
 impact of fire streams. 
 
 7. Plaster is adaptable to any form of construction. Where used 
 in slabs they are readily sawed or cut to fi* any desired location and 
 the use of the material in the plastic state will cover any possible 
 condition of construction. 
 
 8. The desirable fireproofing material is one that combines all the 
 fireproofing features with lew cost. Plaster is low in cost. 
 
 Trim can be nailed to plaster fireproofing without the use of wood 
 blocks or grounds, saving the cost thereof and omitting combustible 
 material from the building. Plaster blocks or boards are true and 
 even and reduce the cost of plastering to a minimum. The blocks 
 are made of pure gypsum and wood fibre. 
 
 Changes in partitions can be made with a minimum of dirt and 
 discomfort. Where a door is to be cut in a partition a hole is bored 
 through with an auger, a keyhole saw inserted and sufficient cut 
 made to insert a large saw, after which the opening is neatly cut, 
 the frame inserted and the trim covers the edges so that no plas- 
 tering beyond the pointing up around the door buck is necessary, 
 and the decorations are not destroyed. 
 
 The blocks should be laid with core holes horizontal, with joints 
 broken vertically. They should be laid in gypsum mortar consist- 
 ing of one part gypsum plaster mortar and three parts sand. The 
 joints should not exceed ^ in. in thickness. From The Engineer- 
 ing Record, Dec. 3, 1910. 
 
 The Underwriters' Laboratories report that : Non-bearing corri- 
 dor and room partitions for fire-proof office buildings, hotels, apart- 
 ments, and buildings of this class, made of listed types of gypsum 
 blocks and laid with vertical joints broken in gypsum cement mortar 
 containing not to exceed 3 parts of sand, coated on each side with 
 the same material at least V 2 -inch in thickness, and set on non- 
 combustible foundations, are standard for corridor and room par- 
 titions not exceeding 13 and 17 feet in height, respectively, for 
 3 and 4-inch thicknesses of block, in dry locations where the tern- 
 
274 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 peratures do not exceed 200 d-jgrees Fahr., but not for enclosures 
 to stairways, elevators, or vertical communications where full 
 protection is required. 
 
 TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR STUCCO ON METAL 
 
 LATH* 
 
 _ 
 
 Foreword 
 
 The merits of the stucco house are now so well recognized that 
 arguments in its favor seem to be trite. It is assumed that the 
 prospective builder and his architect want a stucco exterior and 
 realizing that when built, the house will look as substantial .as stone, 
 brick or solid concrete, they want a structure that will age slowly 
 and gracefully through decades not fail perceptibly from year to 
 year. 
 
 This specification is offered with this realization promised but it 
 must be borne in % mind that poor work is dear at any price. A 
 faithful observance of every detail will give results gratifying to 
 the architect and satisfactory to the owner. 
 
 Metal Lath is recommended because wood lath absorbs moisture 
 required by the mortar. Wood lath drys out and shrinks away 
 from the plaster following which the alternate shrinkage and swell- 
 ing resulting from moisture causes unsightly cracks and finally 
 failure. Wood lath, also, increases the fire risk and it will harbor 
 vermin. 
 
 Metal lath in combination with cement plaster is " reinforced 
 concrete" and will insure an unbroken surface, to be assured of 
 which is at least an uncertainty when the plaster is applied direct 
 to a wall set up in block form. The air space afforded by metal 
 lath construction is the most efficient insulation. 
 
 A careful following of this specification will absolutely give a 
 construction economical and enduring. 
 
 Framing and General Construction 
 
 Flimsy construction in framing is false economy. The best will 
 prove cheapest. The studs spaced 12" between centers wherever 
 possible, should be run entirely from foundation to the rafters with- 
 out any intervening horizontal grain in the wood. These studs shall 
 be tied together just below the second story joists by a 6" board 
 which shall be let into the studs on their inner side, so as to be 
 flush and securely nailed to them. This board will also act as a 
 sill for the second story joists, which in addition will be securely 
 spiked to the sides of the studs. At two points between the foun- 
 
 * Recommended by Associated Metal Lath Manufacturers, Youngstown, Ohio. 
 
STUCCO ON METAL LATH 275 
 
 dation and the eaves, brace between the studding with 2"x3" bridg- 
 ing placed horizontally but -with the faces of the bridging inclined 
 in alternate directions in adjacent spaces. 
 
 .Pointed Expanded l*Jetal Lath Cement Piaster and 
 
 Not Less than 3 Ibs to thp sq yd. Stucco f'n/sh-^ 
 
 /r-_' : v C nmped FurrTriq - f 
 
 Detail Showing Section of &+er>or \A/all 
 
 All roof gutters should be fixed and down spouts put up before 
 the plastering is done ; the down-spouts should be temporarily placed 
 about a foot from the wall so there will be no break in the plaster- 
 ing where they are to be finally fixed. 
 
 Wood copings or rails for tops of parapets, balustrades, etc., are 
 not so good as cement for they may curl up, warp, check, crack, 
 and in various ways fail to do what they should KEEP WATER 
 FROM GETTING BEHIND THE PLASTER. This also applies to brick 
 chimneys, which, when plastered, should have wide and tight caps 
 of concrete or stone to prevent water running behind the plaster. 
 
 If only wood sills are used, they should project well from the 
 face of the plaster and should have a good drip; either by being 
 placed with a downward slant or by a groove rabbeted in the 1 under 
 side of the sill near enough to its edge that it will not be covered 
 by plaster. THE DRIP is AN ESSENTIAL OF GOOD STUCCO CONSTRUC- 
 TION THAT CAN NOT BE SLIGHTED. IT MUST BE USED TO PREVENT 
 WATER GETTING BEHIND THE PLASTER. 
 
 Lath and plaster should not be carried all the way down to the 
 ground; this same restriction applies to brick or stone. 
 
 Care should be taken that all trim be placed the proper distance 
 from the studding or furring to show its right projection after the 
 plaster is on. It is a common mistake to allow too little for the 
 lath and plaster, with the result that mouldings which should :pro- 
 ject from the face of the 'wall are back from it or partly buried 
 under the plaster, thus missing the effect desired. About \y 2 " 
 should be allowed for the lath and plaster, making sure that the 
 projection of the moulding to show when finished is not measured 
 in as part of this thickness 
 
276 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Furring 
 
 Use painted or galvanized steel rods or painted or galvanized 
 crimped furring. One-quarter inch is best and it should not be over 
 one-half inch at the most. This furring is to be applied along the 
 face of the studding with galvanized staples. 
 
 Insulation 
 
 After the lath on the outside has been back-plastered the air 
 space may be divided by applying heavy building paper, quilting, 
 felt or some suitable insulating material between the studs, fasten- 
 ing it by nailing wood strips over folded ends of the material. This 
 insulation should be so fastened as to clear the 2" bridging, leav- 
 ing the preponderance of the air-space on the outside. Care must 
 be taken to keep the insulating material dear of the outside plaster 
 and to make tight joints against the wood framing at the top and 
 bottom of the spaces and against the bridging where the 3" face 
 intercepts. 
 
 Corner Bead 
 
 If corner bead is not used, there should be 6", strips of metal 
 lath bent around the corners and stapled over the lathing unless the 
 sheets of metal lath as applied are folded around the corners. 
 
 Even though corner bead is used, it is a good precaution to bind 
 the corners in this way and apply the corner bead over the strips 
 of lath. 
 
 Lathing 
 
 The lath shall be painted to protect it until it can be applied and 
 covered with Portland cement plaster. Care should be taken not 
 to expose the lath to the weather while it is lying about the building. 
 
 Use metal lath weighing not less than 3 Ibs. per square yard, 
 spaced at 12" centers and fastened horizontally over the furring 
 strips with galvanized staples 1^/4 x No. 14 gauge. The sheets be- 
 tween furring are to be tied with No. 18 gauge galvanized wire. 
 
 Plastering 
 
 Portland cement will protect metal from corrosion absolutely by 
 reason of its moisture-resisting qualities. Calcined gypsum should 
 not be used in combination with Portland cement, as the gypsum 
 will destroy the productive quality in the cement ; neither should it be 
 used as a substitute for Portland cement. A gypsum plaster may 
 repel moisture for a time, but Portland cement actually thrives on it. 
 
 It is not theory only that Portland cement will preserve iron or 
 steel indefinitely; it has been well demonstrated that Portland 
 cement stucco will endure in any habitable climate. The first and 
 second coats should be of good thickness and the finishing coat 
 
STUCCO ON METAL LATH 277 
 
 should have with it a mixture of waterproofing. A total thickness 
 of plaster of about i l /2 H is good practice. 
 
 It is aimed for the first and second coats to get a Portland cement 
 mortar with as little lime in it as will make it work properly. 
 Clean long winter cattle hair should be used. 
 
 For the first and second coats and back-plastering, -mix in the 
 following proportions : 
 
 Lime Mortar. 2 barrels of hydrated lime. 
 
 i yard of clean sharp sand free from loam. 
 4 bushels of cattle hair. 
 
 Made up at least 3 days before using. 
 
 Cement Mortar. 2 parts of clean sharp sand free from loam, 
 i part Portland cement. 
 
 Mix fresh in small batches as used. 
 
 The Lime Mortar and Cement Mortar should be mixed and tem- 
 pered separately, measured carefully, equal parts of each and mixed 
 well together. 
 
 In plastering over the face of the stud, the plaster should be 
 forced well through the lath in order to fill entirely the space be- 
 tween the lath and the stud. 
 
 The back-plastering should be a heavy coat well troweled so that 
 the lath is entirely enveloped. The finish coat may be done in a 
 way to get any one of the many surfaces which give stucco its 
 charm ; this coat should contain no lime as it makes the wall more 
 porous and if a lighter color is wanted than can be gotten with 
 ordinary cement, a white Portland cemenr should be used. 
 
 The waterproofing acceptable to the architect should be mixed 
 with the last coat of the exterior according to directions given by 
 the waterproofing manufacturer. The lathing and plastering on the 
 inner side of the wall need not differ from ordinary practice. 
 
 The exterior plaster must not be allowed to set rapidly; if neces- 
 sary, hang a curtain in front of the wall, of burlap or other 
 material that can be kept moist for a couple of days. Stucco 
 should never be applied when the temperature is below freezing. 
 
 Stucco on Brick 
 
 In applying stucco over brick chimneys a y 2 " painted or galvan- 
 ized steel furring strip not lighter than 22 gauge should be fas- 
 tened to the brick at 12" centers with galvanized staples 2" x No. 9 
 gauge driven into the mortar joints.^ The lath is fastened to the 
 furring with No. 18 gauge galvanized wire, run through under the 
 furring and the same material used for lacing the onds of the 
 sheets together between furring strips. 
 
278 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 The same mixture for plaster is recommended for this work 
 as on the metal lath on studding. Before plastering, the brick 
 should be well wetted to prevent its absorbing the moisture from 
 the plaster and the first coat should be forced through thoroughly 
 so that the entire space back of the lath is filled with the' Portland 
 cement plaster and the lath enveloped. 
 
 . 
 
 . . 
 
 . 
 \ 
 
ASBESTOS* 
 
 Asbestos is one of the most peculiar and marvelous productions 
 in organic nature. Called by mineralogists, asbestus, the name in 
 its Greek 'form signifies unquenchable, inextinguishable, incon- 
 sumable. 
 
 It has been called a " mineralogical vegetable." In mineralogy, 
 three minerals are classified under the term " asbestos," namely, 
 antophyllite, amphibole and serpentine. 
 
 ist. Antophyllite, which is not used commercially. 
 
 2d. Amphibole or hornblende asbestos. This includes various 
 varieties, among which are actinolite and Italian asbestos. 
 
 3d. Serpentine asbestos, which has three fibrous forms, namely, 
 picrolite, soapstone or talc and chrysotile. The chrysotile asbestos 
 is a variety found in the Canadian deposits and is the only variety 
 which is of much economic value. 
 
 In appearance and mineralogical character these varieties are 
 somewhat different, while in chemical composition they are very 
 similar. The amphibole varieties being silicate of lime and mag- 
 nesia and alumina, while serpentine is a hydrated silicate of mag- 
 nesia. The following is about the average chemical composition 
 of the Canadian chrysotile asbestos, viz.: 
 
 Silica -. 40% 
 
 Magnesia 42% 
 
 Ferrous oxide 3% 
 
 Alumina i % 
 
 Water 14% 
 
 100% 
 
 The chemical analysis is important in determining the value of 
 an asbestos deposit, because all fibres capable of being spun must 
 analyze about as stated. The percentage of water has apparently 
 much to do with the strength, silkiness and flexibility of the fibre. 
 The Canadian chrysotile asbestos always seems to contain not less 
 than 13 per cent of water, while all the harsh and more brittle 
 fibres of the other types of asbestos contain little water, varying 
 from i per cent to 5 per cent consequently they are of little or 
 no value. 
 
 While asbestos in one or other of its varieties has been found 
 in many states of the United States, in Italy, South and Central 
 America, China, Japan, Australia, South Africa, and other parts 
 of the world, none of these deposits so far have proved to be of 
 much economic value, or are so located that they cannot be worked 
 profitably. 
 
 About 80 per cent of the world's production of commercial asbes- 
 tos is being supplied from the Canadian deposits. Russia is the 
 next largest producer of commercial asbestos to Canada. 
 
 The Canadian developed deposits of asbestos are located south 
 of the St. LawTence river in the Eastern Townships of the Prov- 
 
 * Abstract of an address by L. R. Hoff before the Fire Insurance Society of 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 279 
 
280 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ince of Quebec one of the largest being four miles from Dan- 
 ville, in the County of Richmond, on the line of the Grand Trunk 
 Railway. The others being situated at Thetford Mines, Black 
 Lake, Robertson and East Broughton in the County of Megantic, 
 on the line of the Quebec Central Railway. 
 
 The deposits were discovered about 1877 and the gradual de- 
 velopment has taken place since then, until the total shipments for 
 the year ending December 31, 1910, amounted to 80,000 tons, valued 
 at over two and a half million dollars. 
 
 The chrysotile asbestos found in these deposits occurs as a 
 fibrous silky product, lying in narrow veins in a mass of serpentine 
 rock. The veins are found in every direction throughout the entire 
 mass and often intersect each other at all angles. The general 
 tendency of the veins, however, is more or less parallel with a slight 
 dip downwards. 
 
 The fibres lie at right angles to the walls of the veins and vary 
 in length from two and one-half inches to one-eight inch or less. 
 The asbestos in the vein has a marked wavy lustre of a greenish 
 tint, but when the silky fibres are separated they are pure white. 
 
 Mining. While generally referred to as " asbestos mining," the 
 Canadian developed deposits are nearly all worked as open quar- 
 ries. As practically the entire mass of rock has to be removed, 
 quarrying is the cheapest method. Unless the deposits are very 
 rich in the longest grades of fibres, underground mining is too 
 costly. 
 
 The different quarries vary in size and shape. Some of the 
 larger ones, at present Worked, are from- 1,000 to 1,500 feet in 
 length, with an approximate average width of 300 to 400 feet, and 
 in some instances, a depth of 200 feet. So far, the depths of these 
 Canadian deposits have not been finally determined, but asbestos 
 has been found at a depth of 400 feet. It is nearly impossible 
 to test by diamond drillings, owing to the fibrous nature of the rock. 
 
 The quarrying is usually carried on. by a series of benches or 
 terraces from the top to the bottom of trie quarry. Rock drills, 
 operated by compressed air, are usually used for drilling. The 
 depth of holes drilled range from eight to fifteen feet, according 
 to conditions. 
 
 The holes are filled with dynamite and exploded by electric 
 batteries. The larger pieces of sepentine rock resulting from 
 blasts are again drilled and exploded by similar process. After the 
 rock is thus broken up, it undergoes a hand-sorting process. The 
 pieces of rock containing veins of one-half inch or more in length 
 are picked out and the longer fibres separated by "hand combing." 
 The rock containing the shorter fibres is shovelled into boxes or 
 skips to be sent to the mills for mechanical separation. The dead 
 or barren rock is sent to the dumps. 
 
 Sorting. What is known as No. i Crude and No. 2 Crude is 
 hand picked, sorted and dressed. No. I being fibres of three- 
 quarter inch and over in length. No. 2 from five-sixteenth inch 
 to three-quarter inch in length. The roughly picked longest veins 
 from the pits are broken down by hammers and passed over screens 
 in order to get rid of the rock particles and the grading as No. i 
 and No. 2 is done by hand. 
 

 ASBESTOS 281 
 
 The rock containing the shorter veins is sent to the mills for 
 automatic, mechanical separation, by passing through a series of 
 crushing rollers. 
 
 The problem of separating or extracting the fibres from the rock 
 by a mechanical process, without unduly injuring the fibres, has 
 been gradually solved, until it is now possible to get them free 
 from grit and particles of rock. 
 
 The rock from the dumping cars is delivered into ore bins or 
 slides, from which it is fed into crushers. The first crushers are 
 usually of large capacity, with feed opening from 24" x 36" to 
 30" x 15", so that large pieces of rock can be fed in. From the 
 first set of crushers the rock passes to a second and sometimes a 
 third set to reduce the size. The serpentine rock usually splits 
 in the crushers along the line of the asbestos vein. Thus, consid- 
 erable asbestos is separated from the rock in the crushing, but 
 the fibres are not opened up. As the rock is frequently wet, it is 
 necessary to dry it before the fibres can be opened up and separated 
 from all the rock particles. 
 
 From the crushers, the rock passes through driers of various 
 description, heated by hot air, steam, etc. 
 
 From the driers, the material is sometimes carried to crushing 
 rolls or is passed direct to some form of fiberizer. The previous 
 crushings have liberated the asbestos veins from the rock, but 
 fiberizing machines are required to open up the individual fibres. 
 The fibres arc separated by means of air currents, created by the 
 fast revolving beaters which quickly discharge the silky fibres, 
 without injuring them. 
 
 The product coming from the fiberizers consists of asbestos fibre 
 and quantities of pulverized rock. The next process is the separa- 
 tion of the fibres from the pulverized rock. This is accomplished 
 by means of screens and suction fans. The material from the 
 fiberizers, after going through revolving sizing screens, is delivered 
 to flat vibrating screens, covered with wire cloth or perforated 
 plates. These screens are vibrated and set at a slight angle, the 
 vibrating movement causing the fibres to come to the top and the 
 pulverized rock is shaken through the meshes of the screen. When 
 the fibres have traveled to the lower end of the screens, they are 
 sucked up through hoods by means of suction fans, which deliver 
 the fibres into collectors, from which they pass into long cylindrical 
 grading screens which separate them into different lengths required 
 by the manufacturers and then bagged ready for shipment. The 
 tailings produced in the milling are carried away either by narrow 
 gauge railroads or belt conveyors. 
 
 From the reports published by the Department of Mines at 
 Ottawa and Quebec for the year ending December 31, 1910, the 
 percentages and values are about as follows : 
 
 Total rock mined, 2,000,000 tons. 
 
 Total asbestos produced, 100,000 tons. 
 
 Total rock milled, 1,500,000 tons. 
 
 Percentages of asbestos produced to tons of rock mined, 5 per 
 cent. 
 
 Percentages of asbestos produced to tons of rock milled, nearly 
 7 per cent. 
 
 The remarkable qualities of asbestos have been known even 
 before the Christian era. Pliny refers to it in his works and it 
 
282 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 was undoubtedly used by the Greeks for cremation cloths. It is 
 also believed that from examination of the wrappings of mummies 
 in good state of preservation, that asbestos cloth was used to some 
 extent in this connection, but it is only within the last fifty years 
 "that it has been commercially considered and only in the last 
 twenty years become such an important factor in engineering and 
 industrial construction. 
 
 The value of asbestos is graded according to the length of the 
 fibres and in exactly the same ratio are graded the value of the 
 manufactured product. I do not mean by this that the products 
 manufactured from the longest fibres constitute the greatest bulk 
 of asbestos commerce. To the contrary, from the medium and 
 short fibres, are made the greatest percentage of manufactured 
 asbestos products. 
 
 Asbestos Yarns and Cloth. The longest, and of course the most 
 valuable, fibres are used in the manufacture of yarns and cloths 
 for numerous purposes. The fibres are carded and spun into yarn 
 in much the same manner as cotton and wool, but on specially 
 designed machinery. It is made into yarns of different strengths 
 and diameters and twisted into various plies, according to the 
 requirements of the purposes for which they are to be used. 
 
 The spinning of asbestos, because of its lack of the microscopic 
 barbs found on wool and other fibres, has presented great diffi- 
 culties and only by bringing together all the talent of textile manu- 
 facturers, has it been possible to produce the splendid product of 
 to-day. 
 
 These yarns are woven into cloths of various weights, thick- 
 nesses and density of weave, according to the mechanical pur- 
 poses for which they are intended. 
 
 They may be plain or asbestos-metallic. The former being com- 
 posed solely of asbestos; the latter consisting of asbestos yarn, 
 twisted around the strands of fine brass wire, woven into cloth. 
 The plain cloth is used for many purposes, the more important of 
 which are rod and valve packings. For this purpose the cloth is 
 coated, or as technically called, frictioned with rubber compound 
 and rolled up to required diameters round, or calendered where 
 square packing is required. These packings are furnished in coil, 
 spiral or ring form, according to the requirements of the engineers 
 and are thoroughly lubricated and graphited, ready for use when 
 supplied to the trade. 
 
 . The cloth with wire interwoven in the strands of asbestos is 
 frictioned in the same manner as in the case of the packing above 
 described and may be used flat for all jointing purposes and folded 
 into gaskets for all sorts of conditions. 
 
 By the way of digression, asbestos in this field alone has made 
 the use of high pressure and superheated steam a success. Its 
 great heat-resisting properties successfully withstand the high tem- 
 peratures, without in any way affecting its serviceability, whereas 
 the old form of rubber, cotton and flax packings would soon be 
 charred into uselessness. 
 
 Asbestos cloth, plain or wire interwoven, preferably the latter, 
 is almost generally used as a fire barrier in the proscenium openings 
 of stages, where it is raised or lowered mechanically or manually, 
 sliding on wire ropes, run through rings on the sides of the cur- 
 tains, being raised bodily into the gridiron above the stage. A 
 
ASBESTOS 283 
 
 theatre curtain properly constructed and installed, will be a posi- 
 tive barrier to the spread of flames from the' stage and affords pro- 
 tection to life and property. 
 
 Use in Filters. Asbestos is one of the greatest known filters 
 and is used extensively in all filtering processes, either in fibre 
 or cloth form, more especially as a fabric, because in this form 
 it is more tractable. 
 
 Chemical plants use it in filtering acid solutions where organic 
 fabrics would be destroyed. 
 
 It has made the many wonderful electrolytic processes possible. 
 Here it is used as diaphragms in the cells or compartments. 
 
 Most of the large portable filters of potable waters are based 
 on the use of asbestos. Water, no matter how discolored by dirt 
 and sediment, can be made as clear as crystal by one or at the 
 most two filterings. Further, asbestos cloth in one of the most 
 prominent German types of filters, has been proved to greatly 
 reduce the number of pathological bacteria, by straining them 
 from the water passing through. 
 
 Asbestos cloth is made up into gloves, coats, trousers, leggins, 
 etc., for the protection of workmen in electrical furnaces, blast 
 furnaces, glass plants, etc. For domestic purposes, into pads for 
 protecting table tops from hot dishes, palm covers for hot irons, 
 stove polishers, etc. 
 
 Brake Linings. Some three or four years ago, it was discovered 
 that asbestos possessed unusually high frictional properties and its 
 introduction into the lining of brakes, had a great deal to do with 
 the increased efficiency of automobiles, as well as stationary 
 machinery, such as hoists, cranes and other types of machinery, 
 where friction clutches or brakes are used. It has unusual advan- 
 tages over organic linings as well as iron, in that it withstands the 
 temperature caused by the friction, without disintegrating, and is 
 immune from destruction from water or oil. 
 
 The medium length fibres are formed by various processes into 
 all forms required for the insulation of heated surfaces, such as 
 pipes, boilers, heaters, air ducts, ceilings, flues, stack linings, etc. 
 
 Felted Insulation. In this form the fibres are felted together by 
 natural felting process with the addition of sponge or certain inert 
 cementitious materials, which -in themselves, possess insulating 
 values and are fire proof. These are used to give added mechan- 
 ical strength. The material thus felted, is moulded into cylindrical 
 half sections for pipes ; sheets and blocks for larger surfaces and 
 rolls where a flexible material is required. 
 
 Magnesia Insulation. In this well-known form of insulation, 
 asbestos fibres are moulded as a bond with carbonate of magnesia 
 in proportion of 85 per cent magnesia carbonate and 15 per cent 
 fibre, into forms as above described, with the exception of the 
 rolls. Carbonate of magnesia is used because of its lightness and 
 the fact that like sponge, etc., in combination with asbestos fibre, 
 it produces a structure with an infinite number of dead air cells, 
 the basic principle of all insulation. 
 
 Cellular Asbestos Insulation. This form is built up from as- 
 bestos felt or paper, later described. The felts are corrugated 
 through regular corrugating rolls and wound over a mandrel to 
 the required thickness for pipe covering or laid up in sheets or 
 
284 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 blocks, fastened together by means of fire-proof glue, a silicious 
 fire-proofing material.' These cellular products in the cylindrical 
 form for pipe covering, may be formed with the cells running 
 lengthwise with the section or circumferentially, the latter being 
 the higher insulator, because each cell is closed against the adjoin- 
 ing one, preventing the free transmission of air and the loss of 
 heat by radiation. 
 
 Other Forms of Insulation. There are other common forms 
 of insulating materials made from asbestos, which are known as 
 ordinary moulded coverings composed of gypsum or plaster of 
 paris, bounded together with fibre. These, however, are the older 
 and more primitive forms and because of low insulating value and 
 inefficient mechanical strength, when applied to heated surfaces, 
 are being abandoned by the engineering profession. 
 
 Where a material to be moulded on the job is required, various 
 forms of cements in dry form are furnished. These cements are 
 composed of a- percentage of asbestos fibre of length and quality 
 according to the demands of the trade and price which it is desired 
 to pay, mixed with cementitious fire-proofing materials, which re- 
 quire only the addition of water and can be applied and trowelled 
 on in much the same manner as Portland cement. 
 
 In passing it might be interesting to state that engineering au- 
 thorities generally concede that one inch of high grade asbestos 
 pipe covering on 150 pounds steam pressure is capable of saving 
 approximately 85 per cent of the loss caused by condensation as 
 compared with bare pipes; two inches, 88 per cent; three inches, 
 90 per cent. 
 
 On superheat, it has been found that a covering applied to the 
 pipes, consisting of rings of high grade insulation, three inches wide 
 on eighteen centers, forming a one inch air space, over which are 
 superimposed two layers, each one inch thick of regular pipe cov- 
 ering, finished with a thin coating of cement, has an efficiency of 
 88 per cent to 90 per cent. 
 
 Paper Felt. There are certain grades of the shorter fibres which 
 are used in the manufacture of paper felts. These fibres are 
 mixed in a beater in very much the same way as wood pulp and 
 other fibres, passed over a standard type of paper machine adapted 
 to the handling of this particular fibre and made into felts of thick- 
 nesses from one one-hundreths of an inch up to one-eighth of an 
 inch in thickness. 
 
 The paper felts are used as above described, in the manufacture 
 of cellular asbestos insulation material, fire-proof paper for lining 
 floors, partitions, etc., of frame buildings and in the manufacture 
 of asbestos roofings. The short fibres are also mixed with certain 
 cementitious materials and made into asbestos boards of various 
 thicknesses and density, in practically the same manner as card- 
 board is made, on what is known as a board or wet machine. 
 These card-boards vary in thickness from one thirty-second of an 
 inch to one-half of an inch and are used for all forms of fire 
 proofing, where contained between other members in construction 
 and no great mechanical strength is required. 
 
 Roofing Material. As above stated, certain grades of short 
 fibres of asbestos are felted into paper, that is afterwards built 
 up into asbestos roofing. For this purpose a specially selected 
 

 ASBESTOS 285 
 
 superior grade of shorter fibres, free from grit, is used; made on 
 a regular paper-making machine, into thin felts, which are satu- 
 rated with a bituminous material. 
 
 For this purpose, the very best results are obtained by using a 
 natural asphalt with non-volatile oils and it is these two basic ma- 
 terials on which the great value and durability of asbestos roofing 
 depends. 
 
 Asbestos, as is generally conceded, is not subject to rot, rust 
 or decay; therefore, it possesses all of the much desired require- 
 ments for a permanent roofing felt and all that it needs to give 
 it an indeterminate life without cost of up-keep, is a proper water- 
 proofing element. Compounded asphalts combined with highly 
 volatile oils while they may be used in the manufacture of asbestos 
 roofing, do not make a satisfactory product. 
 
 Asbestos fibre is peculiar to itself in that unlike wool or other 
 fibres used in roofing felts, it is non-tubular, therefore, it does not 
 take the oil into the fibre tubes as in the case of organic fibres, 
 but each fibre is individually coated on the outside and the mass 
 so amalgamated that with the natural asphalt and non-volatile oil, 
 the water-proofing of the roofing fabric is prolonged indefinitely 
 and is not affected by the loss of the water-proofing element by 
 capillary attraction or the oxidizing effects of the sun and air, 
 which is the case in the ordinary felt roofings. 
 
 Asbestos Lumber. Certain grades of shorter fibres of asbestos 
 have, of recent years, been used very extensively in combination 
 with Portland of hydraulic cements in the manufacture of fire- 
 proof lumber and roofing. The fire-proof lumber in the shape of 
 sheets in size approximately 42"xOj6", in all thicknesses from one-' 
 eighth of an inch to one inch and the asbestos roofing in the form 
 of shingles of various shapes and sizes approximating the thick- 
 ness of slate. 
 
 The most approved type of manufacturing these products, and 
 in fact, the only manner in which the most durable and mechanically 
 correct product of this nature can be made, is by mixing the 
 asbestos fibre and the hydraulic cement dry, pressing in form 
 presses under enormous hydraulic pressure, saturating with water, 
 in order to give the proper set to the hydraulic cement and re- 
 pressing and trimming in order to make an article of commercial 
 value. 
 
 The larger sheets of asbestos lumber have been largely used for 
 large area roof coverings on steel and wooden roof structures, 
 siding, etc., proofing, partition work, and while this material has 
 not as yet come into gerleral use, the enormous economic waste 
 through fire loss and the demand by the public for greater fire pre- 
 vention, coupled with the increased cost of ordinary lumber, will 
 unquestionably make it a staple fire-proofing material, where the 
 structural requirements permit. 
 
 Asbestos Shingles. The great fire hazard found in wooden 
 shingles, and the fact of the scarcity and increased cost of lumber 
 from which these shingles are produced, and the weight and brittle- 
 ness and other points of unreliability of slate, has brought the 
 asbestos shingle into marked prominence immediately upon its being 
 offered to the public. The asbestos shingle is light in weight, 
 absolutely fire-proof and indestructible. 
 
\ 
 
 286 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Neither of the materials used in their makeup, asbestos fibre 
 and Portland cement, are in any way affected by fire, temperature 
 or exposure to the elements ; and the asbestos shingles will last 
 as long as the structure upon which they are used. It is reasonable 
 to assume that their life is indefinite, and the success with which 
 the sale of these shingles has met in the time they have been on 
 the market, warrants us in assuming that in but very few years 
 to come, they will be the standard roof covering for all types of 
 buildings, where slate and wooden shingles have heretofore been 
 used. 
 
 It might be interesting to state that asbestos shingles differ from 
 slate in that they will withstand a very high heat such as may 
 affect them from neighboring fires and while hot, may be wet down 
 with water without in any way injuring them. Slate, of course, 
 under these conditions, would crack and wooden shingles would 
 be readily consumed. 
 
 Furnace Linings. Asbestos fibres are used as bond with cer- 
 tain hign temperature resisting clays and certain forms of graphitic 
 carbon, for the purpose of forming linings for stoves, ranges, 
 furnaces, brass melting furnaces, setting up of fire brick, etc., and 
 whereas fire clay even of the very best quality under high tem- 
 peratures, will fuse and become brittle and lose its binding quali- 
 ties, these asbestos fire-resisting cements, according to their various 
 grades and ingredients, will withstand temperatures up to 3,000 
 degrees and somewhat over, without in any way being affected, 
 thus prolonging the life of the apparatus with' which they are 
 lined or the brick construction where they are used as bond. 
 
 These cements are furnished in dry form for mixing with water 
 or in plastic form all ready for use. 
 
 Certain forms of the fire-resisting cements above described are 
 capable of being moulded under hydraulic pressure for various 
 conditions where high temperatures are to be met, such as carry- 
 ing-in paddles, bottle rests and many other articles known to the 
 glass manufacturing and electrical industries. 
 
 Asbestos in this form is especially adapted for use in glass manu- 
 facturing in place of iron, because the absence of any great amount 
 of expansion and contraction, as compared with the great amount 
 of the same in iron, does away with the tendency found in the 
 use of iron causing considerable breakage in handling hot glass 
 articles. 
 
 These pieces are also used in the jewelry trade for melting and 
 soldering purposes. 
 
 Asbestos fibres of different lengths, both long and short, are used 
 in moulding pieces of innumerable designs and sizes, where a 
 material with considerable dielectric strength, combined with fire- 
 resisting qualities is required. The fibres are mixed with various 
 insulating compounds, pressed in moulds into various forms to be 
 used in electrical machinery or in electrical apparatus, such as con- 
 troller linings, arc deflectors, etc. In this field alone, asbestos has 
 gone a great ways to assist in developing electrical apparatus to 
 its modern high state of perfection. 
 
 Ebonized Asbestos Wood. This consists of boards made from 
 asbestos fibre and magnesite cement in place of the hydraulic 
 cement, manufactured and prepared for market in exactly the same 
 
ASBESTOS 287 
 
 way as the regular asbestos lumber. Ebonized asbestos wood is 
 impregnated with a bituminous compound which renders it abso- 
 lutely impervious to moisture and gives it an unusually high dielec- 
 tric strength. 
 
 It is especially used in place of slate and marble for switch 
 boards and panel boards and it has practically 50 per cent greater 
 dielectric strength than either slate or marble, and unlike these 
 two materials, it is not brittle and easily broken, but has great 
 mechanical strength to withstand the shocks of transportation and 
 service. 
 
 Some of the largest power plants in the states have equipped their 
 switchboards throughout with ebonized asbestos wood, with the 
 most satisfactory results in point of saving in operation, the orig- 
 inal cost being but slightly more than slate or marble. 
 
 Asbestos Tape. Asbestos paper in the form of ribbon or tape 
 one one-hundreths of an inch thick, together with asbestos yarns, 
 is used for the covering of electric wires and cables in connection 
 with insulating compounds, affording a high electrical resistance 
 with very considerable fire-proof qualities. 
 
 Thin woven asbestos tape .010 and .015 thick, has in the last two 
 or three years been produced for winding of armatures, etc., in 
 various types of electrical apparatus, as well as the covering of 
 wires, cables, leads, etc. 
 
 One very important development of asbestos is in the fire-proof 
 covering of individual cables running from a large power plant, 
 where a blow-out in one cable would result in the destruction of 
 the insulation of the cables next adjoining. Here asbestos roll 
 fire felt with cloth backing, one-eighth of an inch or one-quarter 
 of an inch thick in strips three inches wide, is wound spirally 
 around each cable, treated w y ith a hardening or water-proofing 
 compound superficially, the purpose being to prevent the spread of 
 flames from the blow-out of the cable to the destruction of the 
 insulation on nearby cables. 
 
 Asbestos Plaster. The very lowest grade of asbestos fibre, 
 especially those which still contain a large percentage of serpentine 
 rock, has found a very large use in the manufacture of plaster for 
 interior as well as exterior purposes. There has been an unusual 
 development of the stucco house both on terra-cotta blocks and 
 wire lath over wood boards in the states, and while there has long 
 been a desire for this particularly attractive style of construction, 
 it was never formerly popular, because the only available materials, 
 sand and Portland cement, had a tendency to crack and discolor. 
 
 Asbestos stucco, however, has overcome these objections and 
 thousands of tons are now used throughout the country. In fact, 
 it has made possible a durable stucco house of pleasing appearance. 
 It is mixed with Portland cement water-proofing material, in proper 
 quantities, and applied in exactly the same manner as any Portland 
 cement mortar. 
 
 It has also entered very largely into use for the interior plastering 
 of the largest public buildings, and is now, because of its fire-proof 
 qualities, being generally recognized throughout the large cities as 
 a most desirable addition to fire-proof building materials. 
 
REINFORCED CONCRETE 
 
 Concrete without reinforcement is a composite material, or arti- 
 ficial stone having the structural virtue of resisting to a high 
 degree compression stresses, thus being generally used for founda- 
 tion purposes. Concrete 1 has no value in resisting tension or pulling 
 stresses unless it is reinforced or armoured with steel introduced 
 in such a manner as to bring the compressive stresses upon the 
 concrete itelf and the tensile stresses upon the imbedded steel. 
 
 Properly designed and executed there is no form of construc- 
 tion which admits of greater versatility of application. There is 
 hardly any class of structure to which reinforced concrete cannot 
 be applied. At the present time reinforced concrete cannot be 
 treated by the general use of fixed formulas as standardized in 
 the use of other structural materials such as wood and steel. 
 Although the various concerns have formula covering the appli- 
 cation of their patented reinforcing materials, there still remain 
 problems which can only be properly solved by specialists, and 
 works of any magnitude should be under the direct supervision 
 of one who has had experience in this field of engineering. The 
 requirements for the successful designing and executing of rein- 
 forced concrete work are numerous ; in fact this field of engineering 
 work is again subdivided into specialties involving different patented 
 systems. 
 
 The reinforced concrete specialist or engineer should be thor- 
 oughly conversant with the analysis of all stresses entering into 
 the problem in order to properly design the various constructive 
 members. He should be familiar with the various forms of patented 
 systems and their limitations in order to make the best selection 
 for the purpose intended. It is also necessary to determine the 
 proper selection of the aggregate (cement, sand and stone) avail- 
 able at or near the site of the proposed construction work as well 
 as making the proper laboratory tests of the cement, sand and 
 stone if there is any question relative to the merits of the same 
 for the work intended. 
 
 The success or failure in reinforced concrete construction is 
 largely a matter of experience, organization and honesty. Care 
 and skill must be present in every step in the design and execu- 
 tion of reinforced concrete work. The experimental stage of 
 
 288 
 
REINFORCED CONCRETE 289 
 
 reinforced concrete construction is over as the strains and stresses 
 can be accurately figured and the most intricate designs are readily 
 executed; but there still exists certain conditions in some forms 
 and locations of structural members where reinforced concrete can- 
 not economically replace these forms. 
 
 Limitations of Reinforced Concrete. In the application of 
 reinforced concrete the design of structures must be positively 
 determined, together with, the arrangement of stairways, elevators, 
 pipe shafts, etc., as well as the location of machinery. Changes 
 are seldom practical when the work is under way. It is expensive 
 and difficult to cut out floor openings for pipes, etc. The appli- 
 cation of reinforced concrete for light floor loads such as 100 to 
 125 pounds per square foot involves relatively high costs over plank 
 and timber or steel construction. Reinforced concrete is heavier 
 than steel work for supporting the same leads, hence a high per- 
 centage of dead to live loads. 
 
 Desirable Features. Fire resisting qualities, low insurance rates, 
 freedom from vibration and repairs, durability, increasing with age, 
 solidity and lack of joints, sanitary value, good foundations for 
 delicate machinery, or where such, machinery must be kept in 
 alignment; water tight floors readily arranged, large window areas 
 available, owing to economical column and pier construction; 
 freedom from decay by infection of moisture, low competitive costs 
 with timber when used for heavy floor loads as above 200 pounds 
 per square foot, conducive to cleanliness, no harbors for vermin, 
 versatility of application, suitability for heavy floor loads, powerful 
 resistance to disintegration by sudden cooling, and ability to sustain 
 shock or impact. As Portland cement concrete and steel are acted 
 upon by temperature to precisely a similar degree, expanding and 
 contracting in a similar manner, the assembling of these materials 
 in v proper combination enables reinforced concrete to rank as one 
 of the most important of structural materials. 
 
 Design. The working compressive strength of concrete is about 
 500 pounds per square inch; its working tensile strength is about 
 50 pounds, which is generally disregarded in design. The ratio 
 of modulus of elasticity of concrete to that of steel is I to 15 
 or for the same amount of compression a given area of steel will 
 take 15 times as much load as the same area of concrete. Steel 
 will take 300 times as much tension as concrete. 
 
 The safe combination of concrete and steel requires a thorough 
 knowledge of all the principles of mechanics with the theories 
 involved. As the action of the various stresses even in a simple 
 beam are complex, it is necessary to determine just how much 
 
290 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION , 
 
 of the load the concrete or steel is to carry as well as the proper 
 distribution of the steel to take 'up every tensile strain which may 
 occur in any part of the beam. In a beam supported at both ends 
 the tension or pull is in the bottom and the reinforcing steel 
 must be as near the bottom as is, consistent with rust and fire 
 protection. If such a beam is built into a column or into another 
 beam, a load upon it will produce a tensile strain at the top of 
 the , beam over its supports which will tend to crack it there, and 
 in addition there are secondary stresses in the interior of the beam ; 
 partly shear or tendency to slide and partly tension or pulling. 
 All such stresses must be taken up by the reinforcing metal which 
 must be properly calculated and placed in the correct position. 
 
 i Materials 
 
 Cement. In reinforced concrete, Portland cement is the only 
 safe material to use, and only such cement should be approved 
 as meets the tests specified by the American Society for Testing 
 Materials and the rules adopted by the American Society of Civil 
 Engineers. Portland cement is much stronger than natural cemerit, 
 more reliable and hardens more rapidly. 
 
 The average chemical analysis of Portland cement is as follows : 
 Carbonate of lime 62%, silica 22%, alumina 8%, oxide of iron 
 3%, magnesia 2%, sulphuric acid J^4%. It is advisable to select 
 only such brands of cement as bear a good reputation, and as a 
 further safeguard, samples should be taken from every fortieth 
 sack in bulk shipments. 
 
 Sand. The strongest mortar is made with sand passing a 
 No. 20 sieve and resting on a No. 30 sieve. Sand of proper grade 
 and quality is just as necessary as the proper cement in order to 
 obtain the best results. It is advisable to test the various sands 
 to find which one has the greatest compactness. 
 
 Silicians and calcareous varieties of sand are the best. Bank 
 pit sand is preferable to shore sand as" it has sharper edges which 
 make a better bond with the 'cement than the smooth round grains 
 of shore sand. A mixture of varying size grains of sand yields 
 a stronger mortar than sand of uniform grain, whether coarse or 
 fine. Mortar with fine sand requires twice the quantity of cement 
 to obtain a given strength as when coarse sand is used. Coarse 
 sand even to the finer gravels are used bv the best concrete engi- 
 neers. Argillaceous sand should not be used; the presence of 
 organic matter and other impurities is detrimental to any sand for 
 structural purposes. 
 
 The ideal or dense mixture is where all the spaces between the 
 
RK IN FORCED CONCRETE 291 
 
 stone or gravel are filled with sand and all the spaces between 
 the different particles of sand are filled with cement. 
 
 The amount of cement and sand to make a unit volume of mortar 
 should be determined. Mortar dropped from a trowel should leave 
 it perfectly clear. It should be readily moulded into a ball and if 
 dropped 20 inches should retain its rounded shape without cracking. 
 
 Gravel. Gravel is equal to trap rock for strength, but as it 
 spalls off under intense heat should be preferably used in founda- 
 tions where it would not be affected by fire. The gravel should 
 be absolutely clean and well screened. 
 
 Stone. Stone should pass a ^4 mcn ring for all work above 
 foundations and not over a \y 2 inch ring for foundation work. 
 Only such hard durable rock as trap, limestone, or granite should 
 be used. While sandstone makes a good concrete, the strength is 
 variable and it should only be used in connection with the lowest 
 strength shown by testing. The stone should be free of dust and 
 deleterious matter. 
 
 Water. The water used in mixing concrete should be free from 
 Dcids or strong alkalies. 
 
 Steel. When the elastic limit of the reinforcing metal is passed, 
 'providing all other stresses are proportionately taken care of, the 
 concrete beam fails ; for conservative practice a tensile strength 
 of 60,000 pounds ; an elastic limit of from 30,000 to 40,000 pounds ; 
 an elongation of 2% in 8 inches, and bending cold 180 degrees 
 without fracture, are considered fair requirements of steel. 
 
 The various patented bars have elastic limits from 30,000 to 
 60,000 pounds, and ultimate strength from 60,000 to 100,000 pounds. 
 
 Ordinary working stresses range from 15,000 to 22,000 pounds per 
 square inch in tension, and from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds for shear. 
 
 The cross bands, distribution of stresses and of the reinforcing 
 metal itself varies in accordance with the type of system used. 
 The best engineers figure plain round rods should not be used 
 when the fibre stress exceeds 10,000 pounds per square inch, as 
 there is danger from the adhesion being destroyed by the rods 
 slipping. Square bars should not be used where the fibre stress is 
 over 12,000 pounds. 
 
 Medium steel having a high elastic limit is favored by many 
 engineers, as the elastic limit of the steel governs the steel stresses 
 used in the design of reinforced concrete. 
 
 Medium steel deformed cold increases the elastic limit and ulti- 
 mate strength. At the same time the initial qualities of the steel 
 are preserved without the steel becoming brittle. 
 
 While high carbon steel has a much higher yield point than 
 
292 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 mild steel, brittleness should be considered, and only well melted 
 and rolled steel free from impurities, such as phosphorus, should 
 be used* If a good grade of high carbon steel, where the carbon 
 ranges from .45 to .60%, is used in reinforced concrete work the 
 danger from shock is remote, but to insure such safety rigid 
 specifications should be followed. 
 
 Proportions of Materials. In building construction, the gen- 
 eral .rule for proportioning the materials is as follows : i part 
 cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts broken stone or gravel, or what is 
 known as a i :2 14 mixture. 
 
 Concrete for reinforced footings is often made of a mixture of 
 i part cement, 2^ part sand to 5 parts broken stone or gravel. 
 Concrete for foundations which do not require reinforcement and 
 sustain direct compression is often made of 'i part cement, 3 parts 
 sand to 6 parts broken stone or gravel. 
 
 The richer the mixture, the greater the compressive strength. 
 The greater the impermeability, the greater the change in volume. 
 
 ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND FIBRE STRESSES OF DIFFERENT 
 
 CONCRETES 
 
 
 
 
 
 Factor 
 
 Material 
 
 Mixture 
 
 Ultimate Strength 
 
 Fibre Stress 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Safety 
 
 Trap rock 
 
 
 
 
 
 Granite 
 
 1-2-4 
 
 2,500 lbs.-3,000 Ibs. 
 
 625 lbs.-750 Ibs. 
 
 3 
 
 Gravel 
 
 1-3-5 
 
 1,800 lbs.-2,000 Ibs. 
 
 450 lbs.-500 Ibs. 
 
 4 
 
 Limestone 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sandstone | 
 
 1-2-4 
 1-3-5 
 
 1,400 lbs.-l,800 Ibs. 
 1,100 lbs.-l,500 Ibs. 
 
 280 lbs.-360 Ibs. 
 220 Ibs. -300 Ibs. 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 See also abstract from the National (Board Building Code, 
 given hereinafter on page 327. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 
 
 The following definitions and specifications are taken from the 
 Model Building Code prepared by the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters; the same section numbers have been retained as in 
 the code and where reference is made to a section, it will be found 
 herein, either under this general heading, pages 293 to 349, or 
 under the chapter on Fire Protection for People in Buildings, 
 pages 465 and 483. All illustrations and diagrams are repro- 
 duced from the original cuts by permission of the National 
 Board. 
 
 Definitions 
 
 AREAWAY. An open sub-surface space adjacent to a building for lighting 
 or ventilating cellars or basements. 
 
 AREA OF A BUILDING. The area of the horizontal cross-section at the 
 ground level measured to the center of party walls or fire walls, and to the 
 outside of other walls. 
 
 BASEMENT. A story partly but not more than one-half below the level of 
 the curb. 
 
 BEARING WALL. A wall which supports any load other than its own weight. 
 
 BULKHEAD OR PENT HOUSE. A structure erected on the roof of a building 
 for the purpose of enclosing stairways to the roof, elevator machinery, water 
 tanks, ventilating apparatus, exhaust chambers or other building equipment 
 machinery and for janitor's quarters. When used only for the above men- 
 tioned purposes, such structures need not be considered in determining the 
 height of the building. 
 
 CELLAR. A story whose height is more than one-half below the level of 
 the curb. It shall not be counted as a story in determining the height of 
 a building. 
 
 CEMENT PLASTER. A plaster composed of one part Portland cement, not 
 more than three parts sand, and not more than 10 per cent by vclume of 
 hydrated lime, with hair or other binder when necessary. 
 
 CEMENT-TEMPERED PLASTER. A lime or gypsum plaster tempered with not 
 less than 20 per cent of Portland cement. 
 
 CURTAIN WALL. Any exterior non-bearing wall between columns or piers, 
 which is not supported by beams or girders at each story. 
 
 DEAD LOAD. The weight of the walls, framing, floors, roofs, tanks with 
 their contents, and all permanent construction. 
 
 DIVISION WALL. Any interior wall in a building. 
 
 DWELLING. A residence building, designed for, or used as, the home or 
 residence of not more than two separate and distinct families. 
 
 ENCLOSURE WALL. See Panel Wall. 
 
 EXTERIOR WALL. Any outside wall, or vertical enclosure of a building, 
 other than a party wall. 
 
 FACTORY. A building or portion thereof, designed or used to manufacture 
 or assemble goods, wares, or merchandise, the work being performed wholly, 
 or principally by machinery. 
 
 2Q3 
 
294 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 FIBRE PLASTER BOARD. A board consisting of an intimate mixture of 
 gypsum plaster composition and a fibrous binding material. 
 
 FIRE DOOR. A door, frame, and sill which will successfully resist a fire 
 for one hour in accordance with test specifications, and has been approved 
 upon such test. 
 
 FIRE EXIT PARTITION. A sub-dividing partition built for the purpose of 
 protecting life by providing an area of refuge. 
 
 FIREPROOF. Refers to materials or construction not combustible in the 
 temperatures of ordinary fires, and which will withstand such fires without 
 serious impairment of their usefulness for at least one hour. 
 
 NOTE. It is recognized that the term " fireproof " is misleading and should 
 be abandoned for the more correct term " fire-resistive;" but until the latrer 
 term has been authoritatively defined in a manner expressive of its elastic 
 interpretation, it seems advisable to continue the use of the more common 
 though objectionable word. 
 
 FIRE SHUTTER. A shutter which will successfully - resist a fire for one 
 hour in accordance with test specifications, and has been approved upon 
 such test. 
 
 FIRE WALL. A wall built for the purpose of restricting the area subject 
 to the spread of fire. 
 
 FIRE WINDOW. A window frame, sash, and glazing which will successfully 
 resist a fire for one hour in accordance with test specifications, and has 
 been approved upon such test. No single pane in a fire window shall exceed 
 720 square inches. 
 
 FOUNDATION WALL. Any wall or pier built below the curb level or nearest 
 tier of beams to that level. 
 
 GYPSUM BLOCK. The term " gypsum block " shall include tile or blocks 
 composed of gypsum and not to exceed. 5 per cent by weight of combustible 
 fibre binding material; or a mixture of crushed cinders and gypsum, com- 
 monly called " cinder-plaster blocks." 
 
 HEIGHT OF A BUILDING. The vertical distance from the curb level to the 
 top of the highest point of the roof beams in the case of flat roofs, or to 
 the average height of the gable 4 in the case of roofs having a pitch of more 
 than 20 degrees with a horizontal plane. When a building faces two or 
 more streets having different grades, the measurement shall be taken at the 
 middle of a facade on the street having the greatest grade. When a building 
 does not adjoin the street, the measurement shall be taken from th? average 
 level of the ground adjoining such building. In measuring the height of a 
 wall, the height of the parapet above the top of the roof beams shall not 
 be included. 
 
 HOTEL. Any building or portion thereof, designed or used for supplying 
 food or shelter to residents or guests, and containing more than fifteen 
 sleeping rooms above the first story. 
 
 INCOMBUSTIBLE. Materials or construction which will not ignite pnd burn 
 when subjected to fire. 
 
 LENGTH OF A BUILDING. Its greatest horizontal dimension. 
 
 LIVE LOAD. All loads other than dead loads. All partitions which are 
 subject to removal or rearrangement shall be considered as live load. 
 
 NON-BEARING WALL. One which supports no load other than its own 
 weight. 
 
 OFFICE BUILDING. One used for professional or clerical purposes, but 
 not for manufacturing, storage, or sale , of goods except by sample; also 
 excepting the first story which may be used for commercial purposes. No 
 part of such building shall be used for living purposes except by the janitor's 
 family. 
 
 f 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 295 
 
 OUTHOUSES. All structures not exceeding 8 feet in height, nor more than 
 150 square feet in area, exclusive of sheds. 
 
 PANEL OR ENCLOSURE WALL. An exterior non-bearing wall in a skeleton 
 structure built between columns or piers and supported at each story. 
 
 PARAPET WALL. That portion of any wall which extends above the roof 
 line and bears no load except as it may serve to support a tank. 
 
 PARTY WALL. A wall used or adapted for joint service between two 
 buildings. 
 
 PUBLIC HALLWAY. A hall, corridor or passageway used in common by 
 the occupants of a building and serving as a means of communication for 
 the public between an entrance to any story of a building, and the various 
 rooms, apartments or spaces in that story. 
 
 RETAINING WALL. One constructed to support a body of earth or to resist 
 lateral thrust. 
 
 SHED. A roofed structure, open on one or more sides, which does not 
 exceed 15 feet in height nor more than 500 square feet in area. 
 
 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION. A form of building construction wherein all 
 external and internal loads and stresses are transmitted to the foundations 
 by a rigidly connected framework of metal or reinforced concrete. The 
 enclosing walls are supported by girders at each story. 
 
 SKYLIGHT. Any cover or enclosure placed above roof openings for the 
 admission of light. 
 
 STORY. That part of any building comprised between any floor and the 
 floor or roof next above. In case any floor or the combined area of floors 
 at any one level extends over less than 20 per cent of the horizontal area 
 included within the outside walls at that level, the same shall not be con- 
 sidered as a floor for the purpose of determining story heights. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Includes the terms building, appurtenance, wall, platform, 
 staging, or flooring used for standing or seating purposes; a shed, fence, 
 sign, or billboard on public or private property, or on, above or below a 
 public highway. 
 
 WAREHOUSE. A building or portion thereof, designed or used for the 
 storage of goods, wares, and merchandise. 
 
 WIDTH OF A BUILDING. The horizontal dimension next in value to the 
 length. 
 
 WIRED GLASS. Glass not less than 14 inch thick enclosing a layer of 
 wire fabric reinforcement having a mesh not larger than % inch, and the 
 size of wire not smaller than No. 24 B. and S. gauge. 
 
 WORKSHOP. A building or room in which articles of merchandise are 
 manufactured or repaired wholly or principally by hand. 
 
 Classification of Buildings 
 
 I'RAME CONSTRUCTION. A building having the exterior walls or portions 
 thereof of wood; also a building with wooden framework veneered with brick, 
 stone, terra cotta, or concrete; or covered with plaster, stucco, .or sheet 
 metal, shall be classed as a frame building. 
 
 NON-FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTION. The term " Non-Fireproof Construction " 
 shall apply to all buildings or structures having exterior masonry walls with 
 floors and other interior construction wholly or in part of wood. 
 
 (a) Ordinary Construction. A building having masonry walls, with floors 
 and partitions of wooden joist and stud construction. The supporting posts 
 and girders may be of wood, or of metal protected. 
 
 (b) Mill Construction. (Sometimes called " Slow-burning Construction.") 
 A building having masonry walls, and heavy timber interior construction. 
 
296 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTION. Buildings of masonry, steel, or reinforced con- 
 crete construction in accordance with Sections no to 173, shall be considered 
 fireproof. 1 
 
 Class A. Armories, Asylums, Bath Houses (with sleeping accommodations 
 other than those required for janitor), City Halls, Colleges, Court Houses, 
 Detention Buildings, Police Stations, Hospitals, Libraries, Museums, Nurseries, 
 Railway Passenger Stations, Schools, and Theatres. 
 
 Buildings of this class shall be of fireproof construction, except that 
 schools in which no pupils are accommodated above the second story may be 
 of non-fireproof construction. 
 
 Where armories, railway passenger stations, museums and similar build- 
 ings have large arched exposed roof construction, the fireproofing of the 
 structural members of these roofs may be omitted if, in the opinion of the 
 Superintendent, the construction of the remainder of the building would 
 reasonably warrant such omission. 
 
 Class B. Amusement Halls, Churches, Exhibition Buildings, Lodge Rooms, 
 and Public Halls. 
 
 All ' buildings of this class shall have the floor over cellar or basement 
 which is nearest to grade level of fireproof construction. 
 
 Buildings of this class over three stories, or 40 feet high, shall be of 
 fireproof construction throughout, except that church spires need not be 
 fireproof until they exceed 75 feet in height. 
 
 Every permanent structure intended for the seating or accommodation 
 of the public, commonly known as grandstands, erected within the fire 
 limits, shall be of fireproof construction, except that the seats may be of wood, 
 and the structural steel work may be unprotected. When portions of such 
 structures are enclosed, the enclosing construction shall be fireproof. 
 
 Class C. Bachelor Apartments, Club Houses, and Studios with more than 
 15 sleeping rooms, Dormitories, Hotels and Lodging Houses. 
 
 Buildings of this class when permitted of frame construction shall not 
 exceed two stories or 30 feet in height. 
 
 AH' buildings of this class three stories in height shall have the floor over 
 cellar or basement which is nearest to grade level of fireproof construction. 
 
 Buildings of this class over three stories or 40 feet high, shall be of 
 fireproof construction throughout. 
 
 Class D. Dwellings, Tenement Houses, and all other Residence Buildings 
 not specified in Class C. 
 
 Buildings of this class over three stories, or 40 feet high, shall have the 
 floor over cellar or basement which is nearest to grade level of fireproof 
 construction. 
 
 Buildings of this class over four stories, or 55 feet high, shall be of 
 fireprdof construction throughout. 
 
 When the lower stories or portions thereof in non-fireproof buildings of 
 Classes C and D are occupied for business purposes, the construction shall 
 be made in accordance with the requirements of Section 98. 
 
 Frame buildings, Sec. 187-192. 
 
 Class E. Factories, Lofts, Office Buildings, Printing Houses, Restaurants, 
 Stables, Stores, Warehouses, and Workshops. 
 
 Buildings of this class of ordinary construction over two stories, or 30 
 feet high, shall have the floor over the lowest story of fireproof construction; 
 buildings of this class over four stories, or 55 feet high, shall be of fire- 
 proof construction throughout, or of mill construction. Mill construction 
 buildings shall not exceed 65 feet in height. 
 
 Class F. Car Barns, Foundries, Light and Power Plants, Railroad Freight 
 Stations. Ice Houses; also Special Industry Buildings, constructed and occu- 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 297 
 
 pied exclusively for a special purpose or industry and not otherwise classified, 
 such as Coffee Roasters, Dry Cleaning Establishments, Grain Elevators, Ice- 
 Making Plants, Laboratories, Malt Houses, Oil Houses, Oil Refineries, 
 Refrigerating Plants, Rendering Plants, Soap Factories, Sugar Refineries, 
 Smoke Houses, Slaughter Houses, Wharf Buildings, also Garages accom- 
 modating more than three cars, or in which cars are stored on more than 
 . one floor. 
 
 Buildings of this class, such as garages (as herein defined), oil houses, 
 oil refineries, rendering plants, smoke houses, varnish works, etc., and build- 
 ings or portions of buildings which are used for the storage or handling of 
 large quantities of combustible packing or refuse material, shall be only of 
 fireproof construction. All other buildings of Class F shall be of fireproof 
 or mill construction if within the fire limits or if they exceed 55 feet in 
 height 
 
 Height of mill construction, Sec. 37. 
 
 Buildings of Class F, whether of fireproof construction and within the 
 fire limits, or of non-fireproof construction and outside the fire limits, shall 
 only be erected in such isolated localities and under such conditions as are 
 approved by the Superintendent of Building Construction. 
 
 Walls 
 
 SECTION 27. PANEL OR ENCLOSURE WALLS FOR SKELETON CONSTRUCTION. 
 In skeleton construction the panel walls shall be supported by girders at each 
 floor level, and if of brick, shall be not less than 12 inches thick, laid in 
 cement mortar. When the vertical distance between supporting girders 
 exceeds 15 feet the thickness of the wall shall be increased 4 inches for 
 each 15 feet or fraction thereof that the said vertical distance exceeds 15 
 feet. Such walls shall be of brick, stone, or gravel concrete, or hard burned 
 terra cotta. 
 
 Reinforced concrete walls, Sec. 147. 
 
 Terra cotta in skeleton construction, Sec. 31, par. 7. 
 
 SECTION 28. CURTAIN WALLS. Curtain walls over three stories or 50 
 feet in height shall be laid in cement mortar, and shall be not less than 12 
 inches thick for the uppermost 50 feet thereof, or nearest tier of beams to 
 that height, and increased 4 inches for every additional section of three 
 stories or 45 feet, or nearest tier of beams to that height. When such 
 walls are used, the foundation, of the buildings shall be so designed that the 
 load from the columns and the load of the walls are carried together. Cur- 
 tain walls shall be anchored to the steel framing at each floor level, the 
 anchors Eeing spaced not further apart than 6 feet horizontally. See 4 and 5, 
 Figure 22. 
 
 SECTION 29. FIRE WALLS. i. Fire walls shall be built of brick laid in 
 Portland cement, mortar, or of reinforced concrete. In fireproof buildings, 
 brick fire walls supported by girders at each story, may be 12 inches thick 
 throughout. In none-fireproof buildings, brick fire walls which do not serve 
 as bearing walls shall be not less than 16 inches thick in the upper four 
 stories or upper 50 feet, increasing 4 inches in thickness for each two stories 
 or fraction thereof below. See Fig. 21. No such two-story increment shall 
 exceed 30 feet in height. In frame buildings used for manufacturing or 
 commercial purposes, and not exceeding two stories or 30 feet in height, 
 non-bearing fire walls shall be not less than 12 inches thick. 
 
 2. Every opening in a fire wall or a party wall, shall be protected on each 
 side of the wall by an approved automatic fire door. No opening in any 
 such wall shall exceed 80 square feet in area, except that by written per- 
 
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 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
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NATIONAL HOARD BUILDING CODE 299 
 
 mission of the Superintendent, a larger opening may be had upon the ground 
 floor only; but special precautions shall be taken, to protect such opening, 
 and in no case shall the total width of openings in any one story, other 
 than the first story, exceed 25 per cent in linear length of the wall. Fire 
 and party walls shall be continuous from foundation to 3 feet above roof 
 level and be coped, except that such walls in fireproof buildings need not 
 extend above the top of the roof beams. 
 
 3. When three or more buildings used for stores, factories or warehouses; 
 communicate by openings through separating fire walls, the openings shall 
 be protected by double fire doors, and each building shall also be provided 
 with a system of approved automatic sprinklers. 
 
 NOTE. The great value of solid walls in restricting the spread of fire 
 is so well known, argument should be unnecessary to insure their use 
 wherever suitable. A fireproof factory or warehouse with properly restricted 
 areas between fire walls, equipped with automatic sprinklers, and having 
 proper protection to vertical openings arid windows, would be practically 
 impossible to burn. The truth of this statement has been demonstrated 
 many times. The folly of building otherwise is a sel^evident verity. 
 
 Fire walls are as useful in protecting school buildings, hospitals, hotels, 
 state and county buildings, large residence buildings, and in fact any building 
 having considerable area, as they are in other types of buildings. In such 
 public buildings where numerous people are housed, many of whom may 
 be invalids or infirm, the life saving features of properly constructed nre 
 exits through fire walls, cannot be overestimated. The additional expense of 
 such cut-offs is slight, and neither the architectural effects, nor the" utility 
 of the building, need be affected by their introdviction. Necessary openings 
 in such walls when not large, can be efficiently protected by fire doors as 
 artistic in finish as ordinary doors. It is no longer necessary to be restricted 
 to the unsightly tin clad fire door for such use. 
 
 4. If an opening in a fire wall is made to serve as an emergency or hori- 
 zontal exit, and is included in the calculations for exits, it shall not exceed 
 48 square feet in area, and a self-closing fire door shall be substituted for 
 one of the automatic fire doors. The automatic door shall be controlled by 
 an approved automatic door release on each side of the wall. 
 
 NOTE. A self-closing fire door is one which is normally kept in a closed 
 position by some mechanical device. 
 
 An automatic fire door is one which is arranged to close when released 
 by the action of heat. 
 
 Self-closing fire doors used on exit openings in fire walls, should have a 
 standard of quality at least equal that required for stairway doors. Such 
 doors are intended to prevent the passage of smoke through the opening, 
 which might under certain conditions, render an adjoining floor area unten- 
 able before the heat would be sufficient to close the automatic door. For 
 this reason the self-closing door should never be allowed to be. held open 
 mechanically for more than a few minutes at a time when strictly necessary 
 for transporting goods through the doorway or for similar service. Under 
 no circumstances should it be held open by a mechanical device other than 
 one which contains a fusible link as an integral part. Such device shall 
 be attached at the top of the door. 
 
 If other openings in a fire wall communicate directly with an area of 
 refuge included in the calculations for exits and protected by a self-closing 
 fire door as above described, the automatic fire doors protecting such openings 
 should be kept closed* at all times except foi; short periods when strictly 
 necessary for the transportation of goods. 
 
 Horizontal exits, as emergency exits, Sec. 46, par. 2, (c). 
 
 SECTION 30. PARAPET WALLS. All exterior or party walls over 20 feet 
 'high, except where such walls are finished as cornices, gutters, 01 crown 
 mouldings, excepting also the walls of detached dwellings with peaked or 
 hipped roofs, shall be furnished with parapets. Parapet walls shall be the 
 full thickness of the top story walls and shall project at least 3 feet above 
 
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 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
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NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 301 
 
 the roof at all points, except that on dwellings the parapets may be reduced 
 to 2 feet. All parapet walls shall be coped with approved durable material. 
 
 Parapets on fire walls, Sec. 29, par. 2. 
 
 SECTION 31. HOLLOW BUILDING BLOCK WALLS. i. Hollow building blocks 
 of hard burned terra cotta or of concrete, may be used for all walls except 
 party and fire walls of buildings not exceeding three stories or 40 feet in 
 height, provided that such blocks have met the test requirements of Section 
 58, and are not stressed beyond the safe limits therein prescribed. The 
 minimum thickness of such walls shall be as required for brick waits. 
 
 Hollow blocks for skeleton construction, par. 7. 
 
 Building block defined, Sec. 58, par. i. 
 
 2. Concrete blocks shall not be used in construction until they have attained 
 an age of 28 days, nor until they have developed the required test strength. 
 All building blocks shall be laid in Portland cement mortar. 
 
 3. If a wail be built of blocks laid with the cells horizontal, which were 
 designed to be normally laid with the cells vertical, or if band courses of 
 such blocks with cells horizontal be laid in a wall otherwise built of the 
 same blocks with the cells vertical, the carrying capacity of such walls shall 
 be calculated from the strength of the blocks tested with their cells horizontal. 
 
 Test requirements for hollow building blocks, Sec. 58. 
 
 4. Hollow terra cotta blocks in exterior walls shall be either extra hard 
 burned or be veneered with brick, architectural terra cotta, or stone, securely 
 bonded and set as provided in Section 21, paragraph 8, or the blocks shall 
 be covered on the exposed surface with at least % inch of Portland cement 
 stucco; such blocks shall be well scored, grooved or roughened to retain the 
 coating. The stucco shall not be considered as a part of the required thick- 
 ness of the wall. 
 
 5. When hollow block walls, laid with cells vertical, are decreased in thick- 
 ness, the blocks in the top course of the thicker wall shall be filled solidly 
 with concrete, or the exposed openings in such top course may be covered 
 with slabs of hard burned terra cotta or concrete at least i inch in thickness. 
 Terra cotta, concrete or metal slabs or templates of approved size and thick- 
 ness shall be placed under all floor beams and girders as bearing plates in 
 order that the allowable working stresses shall not be exceeded. 
 
 Hollow blocks filled with concrete, Sec. 58, par. 8. 
 
 6. Building blocks shall be so laid that the shells and webs shall be super- 
 posed upon the shells or webs of the adjacent block or blocks below. 
 
 7. Hollow blocks when used to form lintels, which are not keyed arches, 
 shall be reinforced with steel rods, and be filled solidly with concrete. Such 
 lintels shall be designed in accordance with the unit stresses and other re- 
 quirements for reinforced concrete as required in Section 117, etc. 
 
 8. Except for party or fire walls, hard burned terra cotta blocks may be 1 
 used for walls of skeleton construction having a height not exceeding four 
 stories or 55 feet. The thickness shall be the same as required for brick walls. 
 
 Terra cotta blocks faced with brick bonded in the manner specified in the 
 last half of paragraph 8, Section 21, may be used for walls of skeleton con- 
 struction to a height of 10 stories or 125 feet. 
 
 XOTE. It is recommended that hollow building blocks having shells or 
 webs one inch or less in thickness, which are laid with cells vertical in 
 walls which have unusual length or height between supports, or which are 
 liable to be subjected to stresses which would make them unstable, shall 
 be reinforced by interior metal supports, or that a layer of metal fabric 
 be embedded in each horizontal mortar joint. The fabric to be Va inch less 
 in width than the thickness of the wall, and to have a mesh of % to % inch. 
 The fabric to be laid in the joint before the mortar is deposited and be 
 lapped at the corners. 
 
302 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 SECTION 33. FURRED WALLS AND HOLLOW WALLS. i. The inside 4 inches 
 of all walls may be built of hard burned hollow brick the dimensions of 
 ordinary brick, properly tied and bonded into the walls. Terra cotta, con- 
 crete, or gypsum tile or blocks used as lining or furring shall 'not be con- 
 sidered as forming part of the required thickness of any wall. 
 
 2. In all hollow walls of stone, brick or concrete, the same net horizontal 
 section shall be used as if they were solid. The parts of hollow walls shall 
 be connected by approved ties of brick, stone, or metal, placed not over 24 
 inches apart horizontally and vertically. Metal ties shall have the ends bent 
 at right angles, and be not less than i inch wide by Vi inch thick, and shall 
 extend into the wall on each side not less than 4 inches. 
 
 SECTION 34. RECESSES AND CHASES IN WALLS. i. Recesses for stairways 
 or elevators may be located within the required thickness of foundations or 
 cellar walls, provided the walls are not thereby reduced to a less thickness 
 than that required for a fourth story wall. Reinforcement shall be supplied 
 where necessary to compensate for the diminished thickness as approved by 
 the Superintendent. 
 
 The brick backing of recesses for alcoves and similar spaces shall be not 
 less than 8 inches thick. 
 
 2. No pipe chases shall extend into any wall more than one-third of its 
 required thickness. No horizontal recess or chase shall exceed 4 feet in 
 length in any wall without express permission of the Superintendent. No 
 recess in a wall shall be made within a distance of 6 feet from any other 
 recess in the same wall. 
 
 Chases shall not be permitted within the required area of any pier. Chases 
 or recesses in walls built of hollow blocks shall not be formed by cutting 
 of blocks, or by other method which would impair the strength of the wall. 
 
 Neat fitting' metal sleeves, or asbestos covering, shall be provided around 
 pipes at each floor level, and' the chases at these* levels shall be filled with 
 solid masonry for the space of one foot in height. 
 
 Heights and Areas 
 
 SECTION 37. HEIGHT OF BUILDINGS. i. No building, or structure here- 
 after erected, except a church spire, shall exceed in height two and one-half 
 times the width of the widest street upon which it fronts, nor shall it exceed 
 the following limits: 
 
 Height in Height in 
 
 Stories Fppt 
 
 Frame buildings used for purposes other than dwellings 
 
 and tenements 2 30 
 
 Frame dwellings and tenements occupied by not more 
 
 than two families 2 \ 30 
 
 Frame dwellings occupied by not more than one family. 3 35 
 
 Buildings having bearing walls of hollow terra cotta or 
 
 concrete blocks 3 40 
 
 Non-fireproof buildings, ordinary construction 4 55 
 
 Non-fireproof buildings, mill construction 5 65 
 
 Fireproof buildings used for factories, stores, warehouses 
 
 or workshops 7 85 
 
 Fireproof buildings used for purposes other than facto- 
 ries, stores, warehouses or workshops 10 125 
 
 2. If a single story building exceeds 30 feet in height the roof shall be 
 constructed entirely of incombustible materials, and all metal framework of 
 same shall be protected with fireproofing, except as provided in Section n, 
 paragraph 2. 
 
 3. A single story building not exceeding 30 feet in height may have a roof 
 monitor not exceeding 10 feet in height. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 
 
 303 
 
 4. No story of any building above the first story shall exceed 15 feet in 
 beighY 
 
 SECTION 38. ALLOWABLE FLOOR AREAS. i. In every building of the char- 
 acter named in this section the maximum area of any floor between fire walls 
 or exterior walls, either without or with a full equipment of &utomatic 
 sprinklers, shall be as follows: 
 
 2. Non-Fireproof Construction. (a) Tenement houses, 3,000 sq. ft. 
 
 (b) All other ordinary non-fireproof buildings, height not exceeding 55 feet. 
 
 Without 
 sprinklers 
 5,000 sq. ft. 
 6,000 sq. ft. 
 7,500 sq. ft. 
 
 (c) Mill construction buildings, height limit 65 feet. 
 
 Fronting on 
 One street 
 Two streets ...................... ' 
 
 Three or more streets 
 
 Fronting on 
 One street 
 Two streets 
 Three or more streets 
 
 Without 
 
 sprinklers 
 
 6,500 sq. ft. 
 
 8,000 sq. ft. 
 
 10,000 sq. ft. 
 
 With sprinklers, 
 
 increase of 
 
 66 f per cent 
 
 8,333 sq. ft. 
 
 10,000 sq. ft. 
 
 12,500 sq. ft. 
 
 With sprinklers, 
 increase of 
 100 per cent 
 13,000 sq. ft. 
 16,000 sq. ft. 
 20,000 sq. ft. 
 
 3. Fireproof Construction. 
 (a) All buildings of Classes A, B, C, 
 
 and D 
 
 1 No 
 
 Light and ' power stations 
 
 
 ^restrictions 
 
 
 
 Jas to area. 
 
 (b) All other buildings not exceeding 
 
 Fronting on 
 One street 
 
 65 feet in height. 
 
 Without 
 sprinklers 
 10,000 sq. ft. 
 
 With sprinklers, 
 increase of 
 66 f per cent 
 16,666 sq. ft. 
 
 Two streets 
 
 12,000 sq. ft. 
 
 20,000 sq. ft. 
 
 Three or more streets. . . 
 
 15.000 sq. ft. 
 
 25,000 sq. it. 
 
 (c) Stores, warehouses, factories, and .workshops not exceeding 85 feet; 
 and other buildings not exceeding 125 feet in height. 
 
 Fronting on 
 One street 
 Two streets 
 Three or more streets 
 
 Without 
 
 sprinklers 
 
 7,500 sq .ft. 
 
 10,000 sq. ft. 
 
 12,500 sq. ft. 
 
 With sprinklers, 
 
 increase of 
 
 50 per cent 
 
 11,250 sq. ft. 
 
 15,000 sq. ft. 
 
 18,750 sq. ft. 
 
 (d) The first floor only of any fireproof building occupied as a store may 
 have an area of 20,000 sq. ft., and if fully protected by approved automatic 
 sprinklers may be increased 50 per cent or have a maximum area of 30,000 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 NOTE i. It is generally conceded that five stories is the maximum height 
 to which water can be thrown effectively by a fire department from the 
 street level, and that 50 feet is the maximum distance inside a building 
 which can be reached by a stream through a window. These facts have 
 been a governing consideration in the establishment of the limits of heights 
 and areas in this Code. In addition, the width of the street upon which 
 a building fronts and the height of the building should be considered; a 
 building endangers adjacent property in proportion to its size and proximity 
 to other property. 
 
 The areas given in this section are based upon an average street width 
 of 60 feet. For less than this width, it does not appear unreasonable to 
 require sprinklers for even smaller areas than herein given, particularly for 
 buildings over two stories high. This could well be placed in the hands of 
 the Chief of the Fire Department. 
 
304 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 NOTE 2. Attention is called to a paper entitled " Allowable Heights and 
 Areas for Factory Buildings," distributed by the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters, which contains a digest of opinion of over a hundred prominent 
 Fire Chiefs upon this subject. 
 
 Allowable Loads 
 
 SECTION 39. FLOOR LOADS. 
 
 LIVE LOADS 
 
 Pounds per Square Foot 
 Class of building 
 
 Ground and Upper 
 lower floors floors 
 
 Foundries, light and power plants, printing and litho- 
 graphing houses, railroad freight depots 250 250 
 
 Warehouses 200 200 
 
 Car barns, garages 150 120 
 
 Fire houses 150 60 
 
 Armories, ball rooms, dance halls, exhibition build- 
 ings, factories, gymnasiums, work shops, lofts, 
 
 markets, stables, stores, public halls, restaurants. . 120 120 
 
 Railway passenger stations 120 90 
 
 Office buildings 120 75 
 
 Court houses 100 100 
 
 Churches, libraries, museums, theatres 90 90 
 
 Schools and colleges 90 75 
 
 Asylums, bath houses, club houses, detention build- 
 ings, dormitories, hospitals, hotels, lodge rooms, 
 
 lodging houses, studios 60 
 
 Tenement houses and dwellings 60 
 
 SECTION 58. BUILDING BLOCKS. i. The term "block" as used in this 
 section shall mean any shape of block, brick or tile which, forms a hollow 
 or cellular wall. 
 
 2. Terra cotta blocks for bearing walls shall be dense, and hard-burned or 
 vitreous. 
 
 Portland cement only shall be used in the manufacture of concrete blocks, 
 and the coarse aggregate shall be of suitable material graded in size, but in 
 no case shall the maximum dimension exceed one-half the width of the mini- 
 mum section of the finished block. 
 
 Tests shall be made to establish the working stresses to govern the use 
 of blocks of each particular mark or brand. A series of ten full size 
 blocks shall be selected from average quality stock, and shall be tested for 
 compression. 
 
 4. Concrete blocks shall be not more than 36 days old when tested. 
 
 5. The compressive strength of building blocks shall in all cases be calcu- 
 lated upon the gross sectional area of the bedding faces including the cellular 
 spaces. 
 
 All blocks submitted to test shall be bedded in plaster of paris or cement 
 to secure an even bearing. 
 
 Two piece blocks shall be tested in pairs as set to form the two faces of 
 the wall. The strength requirement shall be the same as for hollow blocks, 
 and it shall be calculated upon the gross sectional wall area which would 
 be formed by the two blocks and the space between them. 
 
 6. The average ultimate compressive strength for terra cotta blocks designed 
 to be normally laid with the cells vertical, and which are tested with the 
 cells in that position, shall be not less than 1,200 Ibs. per square inch. The 
 allowable working stress on such blocks shall not exceed 120 Ibs. per square 
 inch. 
 
 7. The average compressive strength of terra cotta blocks which are 
 designed to be normally laid with the cells vertical, but are tested with the 
 cells horizontal, shall be not less than 300 Ibs. per square inch, and no block 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 305 
 
 of the set shall test less than 200 Ihs. per square inch. The allowable work- 
 ing stress on such blocks when laid with the cells horizontal, shall not exceed 
 30 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 8. The average ultimate compressive strength for terra cotta blocks designed 
 to be normally laid with the cells horizontal, and which are tested with the 
 cells in that position, shall be not less than 800 Ibs. per square inch. The 
 allowable working stress on such blocks shall not exceed $o Ibs. per square 
 inch. 
 
 9. The average compressive strength for concrete blocks when tested with 
 the cells vertical, shall be not less than Soo Ibs. per square inch, and 300 
 Ibs per square inch with no block testing at less than 200 pounds per 
 square inch if tested with the cells horizontal. The allowable working stress 
 for such blocks shall not exceed 80 Ibs. and 30 Ibs. per square inch re- 
 spectively. 
 
 10. Hollow building blocks may be filled solidly with Portland cement 
 concrete or cement mortar to increase the stability and to aid in distributing 
 the load, but the allowable working stress on such blocks shall not be greater 
 than that permitted for unfilled blocks. 
 
 NOTE. Tests have demonstrated that the strength of hollow terra cotta 
 blocks is not increased by being filled with concrete, the reason being the 
 difference in strength and elasticity of the two materials. Similar tests 
 thus far available upon concrete blocks indicate some gain in strength by 
 filling, but not sufficient to warrant recognition. 
 
 11. The absorption of building blocks used for bearing or panel walls, 
 determined by taking the average test of three blocks, shall not exceed 10 
 per cent in 48 hours, and shall not exceed 15 per cent in any case. 
 
 12 Hollow building blocks shall not be used in fireproof buildings until 
 they ha\e successfully withstood a two-hour fire test as specified for parti- 
 tions. 
 
 SECTTON 63. WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS. The weights of various materials 
 shall be assumed to be as follows: 
 
 Pounds per 
 Cubic Foot 
 
 Brickwork Ordinary 120 
 
 Brickwork Pressed brick 130 
 
 Concrete Cinder, used for floor arches or slabs, well tamped 108 
 
 Concrete Cinder, used for filling, not tamped 60 
 
 Concrete Stone, or gravel 144 
 
 Granite, P.luestone, and Marble 1 70 
 
 Limestone. 160 
 
 Sandstone 145 
 
 Oak 50 
 
 Spruce and Hemlock 30 
 
 White Pine 27 
 
 Yellow Pine, Grade 1 42 
 
 Yellow Pine, Grade II 35 
 
 Maple 43 
 
 Birch 45 
 
 Douglas Fir and Cypress 35 
 
 Working Stresses 
 
 SECTION 65. PERMISSIBLE WORKING STRESSES. i. The safe carrying 
 capacity of the various materials of construction, when not otherwise speci- 
 fied, shall be determined by the following working stresses in pounds per 
 square inch of sectional area: 
 
306 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 2. STEEL AND IRON. 
 
 COMPRESSION IN SHORT BLOCKS Pounds per 
 
 Square Inch 
 
 Rolled steel 16,000 
 
 Cast steel 16,000 
 
 Cast iron . 1 6,000 
 
 Steel pins, shop and power driven field rivets (bearing) 20,000 
 
 Steel field rivets (driven by hand) (bearing) 16,000 
 
 Steel field bolts (bearing) 12,000 
 
 TENSION 
 
 Rolled steel 1 6,000 
 
 Cast steel * . .': 16,000 
 
 Working stress on bolts in tension, Sec. 74, par. 6. 
 
 Working stress on concrete reinforcement bars, Sec. 125. 
 
 SHEAR 
 
 Steel web plates 10,000 
 
 Steel shop and power driven field rivets and pins 10,000 
 
 Steel field rivets (driven by hand) 8,000 
 
 Steel field bolts 7,000 
 
 Cast steel .' 9,000 
 
 Cast iron ^ i,5o 
 
 EXTREME FIBRE STRESS 
 
 Rolled steel beams, and riveted steel beams 16,000 
 
 Rolled steel pins, rivets, and bolts 20,000 
 
 Cast' iron compression side 16,000 
 
 Cast iron tension side 2,500 
 
 3. CONCRETE AND MASONRY. 
 
 COMPRESSION Pounds per 
 
 Square Inch 
 
 Grout, Portland cement, neat i ,000 
 
 Grout, Portland cement, neat between steel in foundation not over 
 
 % inch 1,500 
 
 Concrete, Portland cement, i ; sand, 2; stone, 4 500 
 
 Concrete, Portland cement, i ; sand, 2 1 / ; stone 5 400 
 
 Concrete. Natural cement, i ; sand 2; stone, 4 125 
 
 Concrete, Natural cement, i ; sand, 2% ; stone, 5 80 
 
 Brickwork in Portland cement mortar 250 
 
 Brickwork in Natural cement mortar 208 
 
 Brickwork in lime and Portland cement mortar 208 
 
 Brickwork in lime mortar 1 1 1 
 
 Hollow terra cotta blocks, see Section 58. 
 Hollow concrete blocks, see Section 58. 
 
 Rubble stonework in Portland cement mortar 140 
 
 Rubble stonework in lime and cement mortar 100 
 
 Rubble stonework in lime mortar 70 
 
 Cut stone masonry, other than sandstone 600 
 
 Sandstone masonry 300 
 
 Granites, according to test 1,000 to 2,400 
 
 Gneiss i ,000 
 
 Limestones, according to test 700 to 2,300 
 
 Marbles, according to test 600 to 1,200 
 
 Sandstones, according to test 400 to i ,600 
 
 Slate - '. i ,000 
 
 SHEAR 
 
 Shearing stress involving diagonal tension in Portland cement con- 
 crete, in the proportions of 1-2-4 4 
 
 Direct shear (punching shear), in Portland cement concrete, in the 
 
 proportions of 1-2-4 i 120 
 
 Working stresses on reinforced concrete, Sees. 125, 167 and 168. 
 
 4. STRUCTURAL TIMBER. The following stresses apply to seasoned timber 
 
 to be kept under shelter in a dry location, and deflection not to increase 
 
 with time. If the timber is to be used under other conditions, these stresses 
 should be modified. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 307 
 
 BENDING COMPRESSION 
 
 Oak 
 
 Extreme 
 Fibre 
 Stress 
 
 1,400 
 
 Maximum 
 Longitud- 
 inal Shear 
 
 120 
 
 { 
 
 Perpendic- 
 ular to the 
 Grain 
 
 400 
 
 Parallel to the 
 3rain, Columns 
 
 with - less 
 d 
 than 10 
 1,000 
 
 Yellow Pine, Grade I 
 Yellow Pine, Grade II 
 Douglas Fir 
 
 1,600 
 1,200 
 1,500 
 
 120 
 85 
 100 
 
 350 
 300 
 300 
 
 1,200 
 900 
 1,100 
 
 Eastern Spruce ... 
 
 1,000 
 
 75 
 
 200 
 
 900 
 
 Western Hemlock 
 
 1 300 
 
 75 
 
 250 
 
 1,000 
 
 Norway Pine 
 
 1,000 
 
 75 
 
 250 
 
 800 
 
 / = unsupported length in inches 
 d = diameter or least side in inches 
 
 SECTION 66. WORKING STRESSES FOR COLUMNS. i. The working stresses 
 per square inch for all steel, cast iron, or wooden columns having flat ends 
 shall not exceed the values given by the following formulas: 
 
 j. STEEL COLUMNS. Working stress, S = 16,000 70 
 
 Where S = allowable compression in Ibs. per square inch. 
 / = allowable length in inches. 
 r = least radius of gyration in inches. 
 The allowable compression (S) shall not exceed 13,000 Ibs. per square 
 
 inch, and the ratio of slenderness shall not exceed 120, except that for 
 
 bracing and for compression members resisting wind stress only, shall 
 not exceed 150. 
 
 See Fig. 23 for comparison of formulas. 
 
 3. CAST IRON COLUMNS. Working stress, 8 = 9,000 40 
 
 Maximum shall not exceed 60. ' 
 
 r For Columns with 
 
 4. WOODEN COLUMNS. d 
 
 greater than 10, but not 
 exceeding 30 
 
 Oak... 1,200-20 
 
 d 
 I 
 
 Yellow Pine, Grade 1 1,400-20 
 
 d 
 I 
 
 Yellow Pine, Grade II 1,100-20 
 
 d 
 I 
 
 Douglas Fir 1,300-20 
 
 d 
 I 
 
 Spruce 1,100-20 
 
 d 
 I 
 
 Western Hemlock 1,200-20 
 
 d 
 I 
 
 Norway Pine 1,000-20 
 
 / = unsupported length in inches 
 d = diameter or least side in inches 
 
 The unsupported length of wooden columns and compression members shall 
 not exceed 30 times the diameter or least side, nor shall the unit stresses 
 
 exceed those given in the table in Section 65 for -j less than 10. 
 
 Wooden columns with -r less than 10, Sec. 65, par. 4. 
 
 
 
308 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 309 
 
 SECTION 75. PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL METAL AGAINST CORROSION. i. 
 All metal structural work shall be cleaned of all scale, dirt, and rust, and 
 be given one coat of paint at the shop completely covering all exposed sur- 
 faces. After erection all such work shall be painted at least one additional 
 coat of a shade different from the first coat. The first coat of paint shall 
 be made of pigments which shall be chemically inert after application, and 
 shall be mixed with linseed or other drying oil. The amount of volatile 
 matter shall be sufficient for easy spreading, and shall not injure the film 
 of the paint. The paint must dry sufficiently hard within 24 hours so that 
 it will not rub off or abrade easily. When the steel reaches the job all 
 abraded or injured portions must be thoroughly recoated with the same 
 material as the shop coat before the second coat is applied. The second 
 coat of paint shall be such as will not act as a solvent of the first coat, 
 and shall be mixed with a pigment which shall be inert after application, 
 and the vehicle shall be one that will not saponify under the action of 
 cement mortar. 
 
 2. Surfaces of riveted work which come in contact with each other, shall 
 be painted with two coats of paint before assembling. 
 
 3. All iron or steel used in damp locations or under water shall be 
 embedded in Portland cement concrete. No paint shall be applied to the 
 steel surfaces which are to be encased in concrete. 
 
 4. Any structural steel work which may be so placed as to be inaccessible 
 for inspection after erection, shall be thorough cleaned of all rust and 
 encased in Portland cement concrete before it is rendered inaccessible. 
 
 Protection of wall columns, Sec. 112, par. i. 
 
 Ordinary Timber Construction 
 
 SECTION 76. WOODEN BEAMS OR JOISTS. i. Every wooden beam in any 
 party or fire wall shall be separated from any other beam in the wall by 
 at least 6 inches of solid masonry. Such separation may be obtained by 
 staggering the beams, corbeling, or by use of approved steel hangers properly 
 anchored in the wall, and arranged to make the beams self-releasing. No 
 wall shall be corbeled more than 2 inches for this purpose. If {he beam 
 ends are opposite each other in the wall the separation shall be not less 
 than 8 inches. Fig. 24 indicates spacing and arrangement of beams of 
 different thickness in a 1 2-inch wall which will meet the requirement of 
 this section. The spacing could be reduced if the walls under the beams 
 were corbeled. 
 
 NOTE. Staggering the beams distinctly lessens the danger of transmission 
 of fire through a wall, for the reason that the fire or highly heated air must 
 travel through two joints at right angles to each other to pass from one 
 beam to the other. The probability of both these joints being open is much 
 less than in the case of one straight connecting joint. 
 
 2. No wooden floor beam or roof beam used in any building within the 
 fire limits shall be less than 3 inches thick. 
 
 3. The thickness of wooden beams shall be not less than 3 inches in any 
 building where the floor load is greater than 60 pounds per square foot. 
 
 4. All wooden trimmer and header beams when over 4 feet in length shall 
 be hung in approved metal stirrups or hangers. 
 
 5. Every wooden beam, except header and tail beams, shall have bearings 
 of at least 4 inches. 
 
 NOTE. In designing wooden floor constructions to carry heavy loads, it is 
 important to take into account the resistance of wood to crushing perpendicular 
 to the grain. Frequently the area allowed for support of the ends of wooden 
 beams is so small that crushing occurs while other proportions are ample for 
 the load. 
 
310 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 6. The ends of all wooden floor and roof beams, which rest on walls, 
 shall be cut to a bevel of 3 inches in their depth. 
 
 7. Neither end of a floor or roof beam shall be supported on stud parti- 
 tions, except in frame buildings. 
 
 8. All wooden floor and roof beams shall be properly braced with cross 
 bridging. The distance between bridging or between bridging and bearing 
 shall not exceed 8 feet. So far as possible knots or other imperfections 
 shall be excluded from the bottom and top quarters of timber beams. 
 
 Timber stresses, Sec. 65, par. 4. 
 
 SECTION 77. WOODEN BEAMS SEPARATED FROM MASONRY CHIMNEYS. i. 
 No wooden beams or joists shall be placed within 2 inches of the outside 
 face of a chimney or flue, whether the same be for smoke, air or any other 
 purpose. 
 
 2. No woodwork shall be within 4 inches of the back . face of ihe wall 
 of any fireplace. Figs. 25 and 26. 
 
 3. For smoke flues of boilers and furnaces where the brick work is required 
 to be more than 8 inches in thickness, the header beams shall be not less 
 than 4 inches from the outside of the brickwork. 
 
 24. Di'agram showing placing of floor beams in a wall to secure 
 separation of at least 6 inches between the ends 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 
 
 Plaster 
 
 Section on AJ5. 
 
 :ombustible 
 
 \ \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ \ 
 
 \ 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 " fr "' ~ "\ ^yiy 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 o heet Metal dinp ^^ \J. 
 for holding fireproofing^^^ \[ 
 
 1 
 
 I 1 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 FIG. 25. Fire-stopping around chimney and fireplace. 
 Reproduced by permigsion Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und'a. 
 
3 I2 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Wooden Studs 
 
 W//^ 
 
 FIG. 26. Diagram showing two common features of dangerous chimney con- 
 struction. Woodwork placed against chimneys, and tmlined ilues. 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 4. All spaces between the chimney and the wooden beams shall be filled 
 with mineral wool, loose cinders, gypsum block, or other porous incombustible 
 material. See Fig. 25. 
 
 NOTE.- The object of this filling of dead air spaces around a chimney 
 before the flooring is laid, is to prevent an accumulation of shavings and 
 other combustible material in them, also to prevent the danger of mice 
 building nests there. The filling material should be porous to preserve the 
 heat insulating advantage of the air cells, consequently brickwork, mortar, 
 or solid concrete should not be used. 
 
 5. The header beam, carrying the tail beams of a floor, and supporting 
 the trimmer arch in front of a fireplace, shall be not less than 20 inches 
 from the chimney breast. 
 
 6. No wjoden furring or studding shall be placed against any chimney, 
 the plastering shall be directly on the masonry, or on metal lathing. 
 
 Roofs and Roof Structures 
 
 SECTION 80. ROOF COVERINGS. i. All buildings except as given below shall 
 have roof coverings of approved standard quality, such as brick, concrete, tile, 
 or slate; or highest grade of tin roofing, or of asbestos shingles, or of built-up 
 roofing felt with gravel or slag surface, or of built-up asbestos roofing; or 
 other roofings of like grade which would rank as Class A or B, as listed 
 by the Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc. 
 
 Exceptions: 
 
 (a) Dwellings; 
 
 (b) Frame buildings; 
 
 (c) Buildings not exceeding two stories or 30 feet in height nnd 2,500 
 
 square feet in area, and not used for factories, warehouses, or 
 mercantile purposes. 
 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 313 
 
 2. The quality of roofing for all dwellings and other buildings exempted 
 in paragraph i, shall be as therein specified; or may be of a grade which 
 would rank not lower than Class F, as listed by the Underwriters' Labora- 
 tories, Inc. 
 
 3. A layer of deadening felt at least 1/16 inch thick shall be placed between 
 metal roofing and the supporting woodwork. 
 
 NOTE. The purpose of the felt is to prevent quick ignition of the wooden 
 decking when the roof is exposed to burning brands or radiated heat. 
 
 4. The wooden planking and sheathing of roofs shall not in any case be 
 extended across side or party walls. 
 
 5. Any roof having a pitch over 60 degrees, placed on any building over 
 40 feet high, except towers or church spires as specified in Section 188, shall 
 be constructed of iron or steel frames filled with fireproof material not less 
 than 3^ inches thick, and shall be covered with approved roofing. 
 
 6. All flashings shall be of metal properly incorporated with the roofing 
 material. Copper flashings are recommended. 
 
 7. The top and sides of dormer windows shall be protected the same as 
 the roof. 
 
 SECTION 85. CORNICES AND GUTTERS. i. On all buildings or structures 
 within the fire limits the exterior cornices, inclusive of those on show windows 
 and gutters, shall be of incombustible material. All cornices not built as 
 a part of the walls, shall be secured to the walls with metal framing or 
 anchors. 
 
 3. Outside of fire limits where buildings having masonry walls are placed 
 nearer than 3 feet to a side or rear lot line, or 5 feet to another building, 
 the cornices and overhanging eaves on the side or rear walls shall be of, 
 or covered with, incombustible material. When such buildings are erected 
 in rows, combustible cornices on the front shall be fire-stopped with incom- 
 bustible material between each building. 
 
 NOTE. The most vulnerable point of attack for an exposure fire of this 
 kind is under the eaves, for the heat banks up there, and the woodwork 
 is always highly combustible since never exposed to storms. With ordinary 
 construction numerous cracks are almost .certain to exist alongside the rafters 
 communicating directly with the attic space which is usually difficult of 
 access, and liable to be filled with combustible material. It is therefore 
 important that the space above the plate and between the rafters be filled 
 as tight as possible. Where masonry walls are used they should extend up 
 to the underside of the roof boards. 
 
 SECTION 88. PROTECTION OF EXTERIOR WALL OPENINGS. i. Every building 
 within the fire limits, except churches and dwellings, shall have approved fire 
 doors, or fire windows on every exterior opening above the first story, when 
 fronting on a street or driveway less than 50 feet wide, or where another 
 building or portion of the same building is within 50 feet of such opening; 
 also all openings in the side and rear walls of the first story, except show 
 windows, when less than 50 feet from another building. The walls of a 
 building in the same plane or parallel planes and facing in the same direction 
 as that in which the opening is situated, shall not be considered as coming 
 within the intent of this rule. 
 
 NOTE. It has been demonstrated many times that the heat from a burning 
 building will break the windows and imperil an exposed building distant 
 even 60 feet or more. The combustibility of the contents of the buildings 
 and the direction of the wind would control results somewhat, but the height 
 of the exposed building would have even greater influence upon its safety. 
 
 The difficulty of a fire department maintaining its position in front of a 
 vigorously burning building in a street 50 feet or less in width, with the 
 wind blowing in that direction, is well known._ If the fire fighting force 
 cannot maintain such position the danger to the exposed building is apparent, 
 and if the building is over 5 stories high the hazard of the fire entering 
 the windows is greatly increased. 
 
314 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 z. All openings in a side wall above and facing on the roof qf an adjoining 
 building of other than fireproof construction, shall be protected by fire 
 doors or fire windows to a height of 50 feet above the roof measured in a 
 vertical line. If the adjoining building has a fireproof roof, all openings 
 in the said, side wall shall be protected from the level of the adjoining roof 
 to a height of 50 feet measured in a straight line from the adjacent edge 
 of the nearest skylight or other opening in the adjoining roof, to the top 
 of the opening in the wall. 
 
 3. All openings in a side wall above and facing on the roof of a building 
 of other than fireproof construction which is separated from the side wall 
 by a horizontal distance less than 50 feet, shall be protected by fire doors 
 or fire windows from the roof level of the exposing building to a height of 
 50 feet measured from the top of the adjacent parapet wall to the top of 
 the opening in the wall; or 50 feet from the adjacent edge of the nearest 
 skylight or other opening in the? roof of the exposing building, if the roof 
 be of fireproof construction. 
 
 4. All exterior wall openings more than 75 feet above the curb in all 
 buildings, shall be protected by fire doors or fire windows. 
 
 5. In business buildings over four stories or 55 feet in height, the windows 
 which are not fire windows, shall have a distance of at least 3 feet between 
 the top of a window sill, and the bottom of the lintel of a window directly 
 beneath. No such window shall be arranged to open within i foot of the 
 ceiling surface, but the wall construction between the window opening and 
 the ceiling, may, if desired, be replaced by a fire window in fixed sash and 
 frame. 
 
 NOTE i. The tendency of fire in a building to travel upwards from story 
 to story by way of the windows is well known. This danger is reduced by 
 separation of the openings through which flames may issue. The National 
 Fire Protection Association recommends 5 feet between windows for a 
 "Standard Building"; such separation is very desirable where it is possible 
 to obtain it. The provision of at least a foot of space between a window 
 head and the ceiling is for the purpose of banking the flames, and deflecting 
 them downward as they escape to the outside air. The hazard can be still 
 further reduced by making the whole upper half of such windows of wired 
 glass in fixed metal sash and frames. Full size windows should be installed 
 wherever possible. 
 
 NOTE 2. The prevalent practice of enclosing factories and some com- 
 mercial buildings almost entirely with glass, is dangerous. If plain glass be 
 used, the construction is doubly unwise, for an uncontrolled fire in any of 
 the lower stories is sure to reach the stories above .by way of the windows. 
 Even with wired glass the hazard is excessive for it is not a resistant to 
 radiated heat, and there is always serious risk that combustible material in 
 any story will be ignited from that cause. 
 
 6. Approved fire shutters may be substituted in place of the fire windows 
 required in paragraphs i, 2 and 3. In such cases at least one row in every 
 three vertical rows of shutters shall ibe arranged to be readily opened from 
 the outside, and a distinguishing mark satisfactory to the Chief of the Fire 
 Department shall be provided on these shutters. 
 
 NOTE. It is strongly recommended that all window openings exposed to 
 buildings within 15 feet where considerable fire hazard exists shall be pro- 
 tected by approved shutters or outside open sprinklers in addition to fire 
 
 about i, 600 F., when the glass will melt and drop from the sash. This 
 temperature is frequently reached in an exposure fire. 
 
 7. Occupants of buildings shall close all fire doors, shutters, and windows 
 at the close of business each day. 
 
 NOTE. For complete details of construction and installation of fire doors, 
 shutters and windows, see pages 367 to 433. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 315 
 
 SECTION 89. PROTECTION OF INTERIOR WALL OPENINGS. 2. In buildings 
 of all classes, all openings into halls or adjoining rooms from rooms in which 
 paints, oils, varnishes, spirituous liquors, or drugs or other highly inflammable 
 liquids or materials are stored for purpose of sale or otherwise; or in which 
 manufacturing processes, or business operations are conducted which are 
 generally recognized as hazardous as regards fire, shall be protected by self- 
 closing fire doors, or fire windows. 
 
 Openings in fire walls, Sec. 29, par. 2. 
 
 Openings in fire exit partitions, Sec. 47, par. 4. 
 
 Openings in shafts, Sec. 90, par. 12 and 13. 
 
 Protection of Vertical Openings 
 
 SECTION 90. ENCLOSURES FOR STAIRWAYS, ELEVATORS, ESCALATORS AND OTHER 
 SHAFTS IN FIREPROOF BUILDINGS. i. All interior shafts containing stairways 
 required to be enclosed by Section 45, paragraph i, and except in dwellings, 
 all shafts exceeding 6 square feet in area containing elevators, escalators, 
 hoistways, chutes, ventilating ducts, or used for any other purpose, shall 
 be continuously enclosed with fireproof walls or partitions built as follows: 
 
 (a) Brick or plain solid concrete not less than 8 inches in thickness for 
 the uppermost 30 feet, increasing 4 inches in thickness for each lower section 
 of 30 feet or part thereof; or 8 inches in thickness for the entire height 
 when wholly supported at vertical intervals not exceeding 30 feet. 
 
 (b) Reinforced stone or gravel concrete not less than 6 inches in thickness 
 for the uppermost 30 feet, increasing 2 inches in thickness for each lower 
 section of 30 feet or part thereof; or 5 inches in thickness for the entire 
 height when supported at vertical intervals not exceeding 20 feet and braced 
 where necessary with lateral supports or suitable steel uprights. 
 
 (c) Reinforced cinder concrete not less than 5 inches in thickness for the 
 entire height when supported at vertical intervals not exceeding 15 feet, 
 and braced where necessary with lateral supports or suitable steel uprights. 
 
 (d) Semi-porous - or porous terra cotta tile, or solid gypsum blocks not less 
 than 6 inches in thickness for the entire height when supported at vertical 
 intervals not exceeding 20 feet, and securely anchored by steel reinforce- 
 ment encased in the construction. 
 
 Terra cotta tile shall have not less than two cells in its thickness, with 
 shells and webs not less than % inch thick. 
 
 All openings in such partitions shall have substantial steel framing, the 
 vertical members of which shall be securely attached to the floor construc- 
 tion above and below. 
 
 2. Enclosure partitions supporting floor loads shall be of materials and 
 thickness required for bearing walls. 
 
 3. Portland cement mortar shall be used for all masonry work in shaft 
 construction, except that gypsum mortar may be used to set gypsum blocks. 
 
 4. Concrete walls or partitions shall conform to the requirements of the 
 sections on concrete construction. 
 
 5. The bottom of such enclosure, and the top when not extended through 
 the roof, shall be of fireproof material not less than 4 inches in thickness. 
 
 6. When such shafts extend to the top story, they shall continue through 
 the roof, and shall project not less than 6 inches above the roof surface. 
 All such shafts shall be enclosed above the roof by at least 5 inches of brick, 
 or stone concrete. 
 
 7. Every shaft which extends above the roof shall have a skylight, covering 
 nt least three-fourths of the area of the shaft. 
 
 Construction of skylights, see page 423. 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 8 All steel used to support shaft enclosures, as required in this section, 
 shall so far as possible, be embedded in the fireproofing material, and shall 
 be protected on all sides, in the manner required for steel in fireproo: 
 buildings. See Section 112. 
 
 9. W T hen the compartment that contains the machinery for operating an 
 elevator communicates with an elevator shaft, it shall be enclosed with fire 
 proof partitions as required for the shaft. 
 
 10. A shaft shall not contain more than two elevators. The separating 
 partitions shall be not less than 2 inches thick. 
 
 11. A stairway and elevator shall not be permitted within the same shaft 
 enclosure. 
 
 12. All door openings into such shafts shall be protected by fire Joors 
 and shall be self-closing except for elevator doors. No glass shall i>e per- 
 mitted in such doors, except when doors in elevator shafts open upon an 
 enclosed hallway a wired glass panel not exceeding 2 square feet inay be 
 provided in each door. Care shall be exercised to insure that all such doors 
 shall fit the opening as closely as practicable. 
 
 NOTE. It is necessary that sliding doors on elevator shafts be made to 
 
 fit snugly, otherwise in case of fire the shaft fills with smoke and hot 
 
 gases and becomes untenable and dangerous. The accumulation of such hot 
 gases is very liable to cause an explosion. 
 
 In factories and warehouses where elevator shafts open directly into a 
 work or storage room, no wired glass shall be permitted in the doors. The 
 size of such door openings shall not exceed 5 feet 4 inches by 7 feet 6 inches. 
 
 13. Windows shall not be permitted in shaft enclosures, except those open- 
 ing to the outside air, and which are at least 3 feet distant from .my other 
 opening; all such windows shall be stationary or automatic closing fire 
 windows. 
 
 14. Where an elevator, escalator, or stairway as required in paragraph 
 (i), connects two floors only in a building, it shall be enclosed in the same 
 manner as for a continuous shaft, except that it may be left open in one 
 story if enclosed in the other. Such elevator or escalator shall not be 
 included in calculations for required means of exit, and no such stairway 
 shall be considered as an exit from more than one floor. 
 
 NOTE. The reasons for excluding elevators and escalators as exits are 
 obvious. The reason for restricting the above described stairway as an exit 
 for one floor only, is that if it were used by people coming from a floor 
 above they would be obliged to pass through the open room at the head of 
 the stairway, and this would be extremely dangerous if that room were afire. 
 
 Fire doors and windows, Sec. 88. 
 
 SECTION 91. ENCLOSURES FOR DUMBWAITERS AND OTHER SHAFTS NOT EX- 
 CEEDING 6 SQUARE FEET IN AREA IN FIREPROOF BUILDINGS. i. All dumb- 
 waiter and other shafts or thutes not exceeding 6 square feet in area, except- 
 ing dumbwaiter shafts which do not extend more than one story above the 
 cellar or basement floor in dwellings, shall be continuously enclosed by 
 partitions of brick, terra cotta, concrete, metal lath and cement plaster, 
 gypsum blocks, or other approved fireproof material not less than 3 inches 
 thick, which may meet the test specified in Section 174, paragraph 4. Such 
 walls or partitions shall rest upon incombustible foundations, and shall be 
 braced between floors with approved incombustible framing. Gypsum blocks 
 may be set in gypsum mortar; all other blocks shall be set in Portland 
 cement mortar. 
 
 2. When dumbwaiter or other small shafts are constructed of blocks or 
 tile, all corner blocks or tile shall be held by metal angle clips or anchors, 
 or be secured by other approved means. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 317 
 
 3. Where a dumbwaiter shaft extends into the cellar or basement of a 
 building, it shall be enclosed in that story with walls of masonry not less 
 than 5 inches thick. 
 
 4. The bottom of such shaft shall be of fireproof material, and where such 
 shaft does not extend through the roof, the top of the shaft shall be of 
 fireproof material of at least the thickness of the enclosing partitions. 
 
 5. When such a shaft penetrates the roof it shall project at least 6 inches 
 above the roof, and shall be covered with fireproof material and have a 
 skylight covering at least three-fourths the area of the shaft. 
 
 6. All openings in dumbwaiter shafts shall be provided with approved self- 
 closing fire doors. 
 
 7. No woodwork other than the guides and car shall be permitted in the 
 construction of any such shaft. 
 
 Dumbwaiter shafts in frame buildings, Sec. 190, par. 4. 
 
 SECTION 92. LIGHT AND VENT SHAFTS. i. The walls of all light or vent 
 shafts, whether exterior or interior, shall extend not less than 3 feet above 
 the level of the roof and be coped. 
 
 2. In all buildings other than private dwellings and frame buildings, all 
 windows opening into light and vent shafts shall be protected by fire windows. 
 
 SECTION 93. ENCLOSURES FOR STAIRWAY, ELEVATOR AND OTHER SHAFTS IN 
 NON-FIREPROOF BUILDINGS. i. In non-fireproof buildings of ordinary con- 
 struction, all shafts defined in Sections 90, 91 and 92, shall be constructed 
 as specified in those sections, except as herein provided, and except that the 
 enclosing walls or partitions may be of semi-porous or porous two cell terra 
 cotta, or of solid gypsum blocks, not less than 5 inches in thickness; or 4 
 inches of reinforced concrete. The thickness of 'new material permitted under 
 test as specified in Section 90, shall be not less than 4 inches. Such parti- 
 tions shall be supported by steel structural framework at intervals not 
 exceeding 20 feet. In all respects the reinforcement, bracing, and protection 
 of steelwork shall conform to the requirements of Section 90. 
 
 Any woodwork other than guides and car, exposed on the inside of the 
 shaft, shall be covered with metal, or metal lath and % inch of cement or 
 cement-tempered plaster, or their equivalent. 
 
 2. Dumbwaiter and other small shafts shall be constructed the same as 
 required in Section 90, except as provided in paragraph 3. 
 
 3. Every shaft in a non-fireproof building that extends to the t^-> f^ 
 shall continue through the roof and at feast 3 feet above it. In all other 
 respects, shafts in non-fireproof buildings of ordinary construction, shall con- 
 form to the requirements of Sections 90 and 91. 
 
 4. When such partitions rest upon timber construction, they shall be fire- 
 stopped with incombustible material the full depth of the floor beams at each 
 floor level in the manner specified in Section 97, paragraphs 2 and 3. The 
 fire stopping shall be placed to form a complete cut-off between the interior 
 of the building and the shaft. 
 
 Enclosures for stairway and other shafts in frame buildings, Sec. 190, par. 4. 
 When stair hallway shall be enclosed same as stairway, Sec. 116, par. 4. 
 
 Miscellaneous Construction Requirements 
 
 SECTION 96. FLOOR LIGHTS. Floor lights shall have metal or reinforced 
 concrete frames, and shall be of the same strength as the floors in which 
 they are placed. The glass in floor lights shall be not less than % inch in 
 
318 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 thickness, and if any glass measures more than 16 square inches, there shall 
 be a wire mesh, either in the glass or under it. 
 
 SECTION 97. FIRE-STOPPING. i. Furred Walls. For all walls furred with 
 wood the masonry between the ends of wooden beams shall project the 
 thickness of the furring beyond the inner face of the wall for the full 
 depth of the beams; or a course of masonry above and below the beams, 
 shall project the full thickness of the furring beyond the face of the wall. 
 Fig. 27. In cases where floor beams are parallel to a wall furred with wood, 
 there shall be a space of not less than 2^ inches between such wall and the 
 nearest' beam. This space shall be filled in solidly with brickwork, or con- 
 crete for the full depth of the floor beams. 
 
 2. Studded-off Spaces. Where walls are studded-off, the space between the 
 inside face of the wall and the studding at the floor level shall be fi; estopped 
 
 FIG. 27. Method of fire-stopping furred brick walls. 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 with brickwork or other approved fireproof material. The beams directly 
 over the studded-off space shall be deadened with not less than 6 inches of 
 fireproof material, which shall be laid on boards cut in between the beams. 
 The under side of such beams shall be protected by a covering of metal lath, 
 or plaster board, and plastered to a total thickness of %-inch. 
 
 3. Partitions. Where stud partitions rest directly over each other, and 
 cross the wooden floor beams at any angle, they shall run down between 
 the floor beams and rest on the top plate of the partition below, and shall 
 have the studding filled in solid between the uprights the depth of the floor 
 beams and at least 4 inches above each floor level with brickwork or other 
 approved incombustible materials. Such stops shall be arranged to entirely 
 separate the spaces between floor beams and those between partition studs 
 in a manner to effectually cut off draft openings from story to story. Fig. 28. 
 
 When sliding doors are pocketed in partitions, care shall be exercised to 
 insure that such pockets be completely fire-stopped at top and bottom. 
 
 4. .Wainscoting. The surface of the walls or partitions behind wainscoting 
 shall be plastered flush with the grounds and down to the floor line. 
 
 5. Stairs. The space between stair carriages shall be fire-stopped at least 
 once in the middle portion of each run. 
 
 V 
 
X. \TIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 
 
 319 
 
 6. No fire-stops shall be covered or in any manner concealed from view 
 until approved in writing by the Superintendent, who shall inspect the same 
 within 48 hours after receiving written notice, Sundays and legal holidays 
 excepted. 
 
 7. Pipes, Shafts and Belts. All exposed pipes or power shafting passing 
 through any floor or wall shall have the surrounding air space closed off 
 at the ceiling and the floor line; also on each side of the wall by close fitting 
 metal caps. See Note, Sec. 183. In fireproof construction it is preferable 
 to have the pipes or shafts fit neat in the floor or wall. 
 
 All belt drives through floors shall be continuously enclosed by steel 
 framework covered with metal lath and cement plaster, or other approved 
 incombustible material. Where possible all such belts shall be placed in a 
 special shaft. 
 
 Brick or other 
 firestoppin<5 
 
 Joists 
 
 Supporting 
 Partition ^ 
 
 Joists 
 
 Partition cap 
 
 or 
 Girder 
 
 FIG. 28. Fire-stopping of partitions. 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 8. Ducts and Chases. Ducts, chases, or shafts for pipes, wires, cables 
 and for similar purposes, shall be constructed as required in Sections 90-93, 
 or shall be fire-stopped at each floor. 
 
 Fire-stops around chimneys, Sec. 77, par. 4. 
 
 Fire-stops in frame buildings, Sec. 190, par. 5. 
 
 SECTION 98. REQUIREMENTS IN NON-FIREPROOF BUILDINGS USED FOR BUSI- 
 NESS AND RESIDENCE. All ordinary construction non-fireproof buildings of 
 Classes C and D over two stories or 35 feet high, where the lower stories 
 or portions thereof are used for business, and the stories above for resi- 
 dence purposes, shall have all partitions and ceilings separating the business 
 portions from the residence portions, covered with metal lath or ^-inch fibre 
 plaster board and plastered with cement or cement-tempered plaster, to a 
 total thickness of % inch; or plaster board may be covered with sheet metal. 
 Other equivalent fireproofing may be used. There shall be no windows in 
 such partitions, and all other openings shall be protected by fire donrs. 
 
 Stairway, elevator and other shafts in such buildings, shall be constructed 
 in conformity with requirements of Section 93. 
 
320 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Fire-stops shall also be provided at the line of the ceilings to completely 
 cut off all communication to floors above through hollow stud partitions or 
 side walls, as required by Section 97, paragraphs i, 2 and 3. 
 
 NOTE. Sheet metal, unless backed by an unbroken layer of at least % inch 
 of plaster or plaster board, is not considered equivalent to either of the 
 above mentioned methods of protection. 
 
 Fireproof Construction, and Fireproofing 
 
 SECTION no. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FIREPROOF BUILDINGS. i. The 
 walls of every fireproof building shall be constructed as specified in Sections 
 21-30. The floor and roof construction shall aonform to the construction and 
 test requirements specified in Sections 111-113. Reinforced concrete buildings 
 constructed as specified in Part XXII, shall be classed as fireproof con- 
 struction. 
 
 2. The space between the floor arches or slabs and the floor finish shall 
 be solidly filled with concrete as specified in Section 172. The filling beneath 
 wooden flooring shall be made flush with the under side of the fjpor boards. 
 
 3. In buildings of Class E, except stables, also in apartment houses, clubs 
 and hotels, when of fireproof construction, the floors shall be made impervious 
 to water; they shall also be arranged to drain to scuppers or interior drainage 
 pipes, provision being made to discharge water at the rate of 300 gallons per 
 minute per each 1,000 square feet of floor area. 
 
 NOTE. This requirement is made on the assumption that in case of a fire 
 there would be at least one hose stream playing upon each 1,000 square feet 
 of floor area A certain amount of such water would find its way naturally 
 to stairway and elevator shafts, but with well constructed shaft doors the 
 flow of water at such outlets would be greatly retarded, except when the 
 doors were open for fire fighting purposes or for other cause. Accumulation 
 of water upon an prdinary floor is sure to produce very serious damage to 
 stock, fittings, and decorations upon all floors below. It is not infrequent 
 that the major portion of the resultant loss from a fire in a fireproof building, 
 is due to water rather than fire. Terra cotta and cinder concrete floor con- 
 struction as usually installed, leak badly when flooded with water. When 
 a fire occurs in any story of a building having such construction, and con- 
 siderable water is used to extinguish it, the property loss in stories below 
 due to water is always high unless waterproof floor surfacings are used. The 
 free flow of water through such floors is seriously criticised by firemen. It 
 is not only extremely disagreeable, but it hampers their work and introduces 
 the danger of falling ceilings as well as possibility of overloading floors which 
 are heavily stocked with absorbent material. 
 
 Incombustible floor surfacing^ should be made continuous with the base on 
 all sides of the room to a height of at least 6 inches. Flashings should be 
 provided around all openings through floors except those where a discharge 
 of water would produce a minimum of damage. If scuppers are not desir- 
 able to remove surplus water, drainage pipes connecting to gratings located 
 in the baseboard or at other suitable points may be provided. When floors 
 have a granolithic finish, care should be exercised to make the mixture as 
 dense as possible. The addition of iq to 15 per cent by volume of hydrated 
 lime is recommended to reduce porosity. Wooden floor surfacing should be 
 made as waterproof as practicable. Waterproof paper is sometimes used be- 
 tween the laj'ers of rough and finished flooring, but this increases the danger 
 from dry rot, unless care be exercised to have the sleepers and rough flooring 
 thoroughly dry before sealing it down with the paper. Antiseptic treatment 
 is the most reliable. See Note to paragraph 5. Similar precautions shall be 
 tiken around openings through wooden floorings as for other floorings, and 
 the joints between walls or partitions shall be made as tight as practicable. 
 The lowest floor of the building should be provided with adequate facilities 
 for removing surplus water. 
 
 4. Except as permitted in Section 45, paragraph i, all shafts and public 
 hallways shall be enclosed and separated from the rest of the floor space 
 by fire-resistive enclosures, as specified in Sections 90 and 115, and shall 
 have floor surfaces and trim of approved incombustible material. The stairs 
 and stairway landings shall be of approved incombustible material. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 321 
 
 5. No woodwork or other combustible material shall be used in the con- 
 struction of any fireproof building, except wooden floor sleepers, grounds, 
 bucks, and nailing blocks when entirely embedded in incombustible material; 
 also the finish flooring, and interior doors and windows, when not otherwise 
 specified, with their frames, trim, and casings; also interior finish when 
 backed solidly with fireproof material, may be of wood. Wooden wainscotings 
 more than 3 feet high, or wooden ceilings, shall not be permitted. 
 
 NOTE i. Attention is called to the grave danger of dry rot attacking floor 
 sleepers which are embedded in concrete and then sealed from the air by the 
 floor covering. Instances of rapid decay and serious damage from this cause 
 are numerous. Well seasoned heartwood timber is best suited for this pur- 
 pose, and antiseptic treatment is recommended. Coal tar antiseptics are not 
 suitable for this purpose in most buildings. The odor and the oily surfaces 
 are disagreeable, and the danger from fire is increased. Wood treated with 
 zinc chloride or corrosive sublimate is not subject to such criticism. 
 
 NOTE 2. For the highest grade of fireproof building, incombustible surface 
 flooring and metal trim should be used. Buildings of such construction are 
 being erected in numerous cities, and are considered first-class investments. 
 
 6. Exterior wall openings shall be protected as required in Section 88. 
 SECTION in. FIREPROOFING, FLOOR AND ROOF CONSTRUCTION. i. Fireproof 
 
 construction between steel floor or roof beams, shall consist of segmental 
 arches of brick or concrete, or of segmental or flat arches of hollow terra 
 cotta, or reinforced cinder, stone, or gravel concrete; or of such other equally 
 fire-resisting material or construction as may be approved after fire, water, 
 and strength tests. 
 
 2. All segmental arches shall have a rise of i% inches to the foot of span. 
 Steel tie-rods of proper size, spacing, and location shall be used in all arches 
 to properly resist the thrust. Such tie rods shall be completely encased to a 
 depth of at least 2 inches in fireproofing material which shall extend into 
 and be anchored to the arch. 
 
 NoTE.Tie-rods are an important feature of segmental and flat arch floor 
 construction between steel beams. In general the rods should be placed as 
 near the bottom flanges of the beams as consistent with proper protection by 
 fireproofing. It is good practice to double the number of tie-rods for all 
 outer arches. 
 
 Tie-rods in reinforced concrete fireproof construction, Sec. 171. 
 
 3. The spacing of floor or roof beams in fireproof construction shall not 
 exceed 8 feet on centers except when the slabs between them are composed 
 of reinforced stone or gravel concrete, in which case they shall be limited 
 by the design. 
 
 4. Brick Arches. Segmental arches of brick shall have a thickness of not 
 less than 4 inches for spans of 5 feet or less, and 8 inches for spans exceeding 
 5 feet and not exceeding 8 feet. Brick arches shall be composed of good, 
 hard common or hollow brick. The brick shall be laid to a line on the 
 centers and properly and solidly bonded; each longitudinal line of brick shall 
 break joints with the adjoining lines. The arches shall spring from suitably 
 designed solid skewbacks made of the same materials as the arches, and be 
 properly keyed. The brick shall be well wet before laying, and the joints 
 solidly filled with mortar. 
 
 5. Terra Cotta Arches. Hollow terra cotta tile used for floor or roof arches 
 shall be hard burned or semi-porous and of uniform density and hardness. 
 All terra cotta arches shall be properly keyed. The key blocks shall always 
 be placed within the middle third of the span. 
 
 Segmental arches shall have sufficient depth between the top and bottom 
 faces to carry the load to be imposed, but not less than 6 inches. The tile 
 shall have at least two cellular spaces in the depth. 
 
322 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Flat arches shall have a depth of not less than i% inches for each foot of 
 span between the beams, this not to include any portion of the depth of 
 tile that projects below the under side of the. beams. The total depth shall 
 in no case be less than 9 inches, and the tile shall have not less than three 
 cellular spaces in the depth. 
 
 The shells of arch blocks shall be not less than % inch in thickness, and 
 the webs shall be not less than % inch in thickness. Every arch block shall 
 have at least one continuous vertical internal web for each 4 inches in width. 
 There shall be rounded fillets at all internal intersections. The skewbacks of 
 all hollow tile arches shall be of such form and section as to accurately fit 
 the beams and properly receive the thrust of the arches, and shall have 
 shells at least i inch thick, and webs not less than % inch thick. 
 
 The safe working load on terra cotta arches shall be determined by design 
 or by test. The allowable extreme fibre stress in compression in terra cotta 
 floor tile shall be taken as 500 pounds per square inch on net section. 
 
 7. Roofs. Hollow terra cotta or concrete tile, or solid gypsum blocks, may 
 be used for fireproofing between the steel framework of roof construction; 
 but such tile or blocks shall be not less than 3 inches thick, and the sup- 
 porting steel members shall be spaced not mor,e than 25 inches on centers. 
 When solid blocks or tile are properly reinforced to resist the bending stresses, 
 the steel supporting members may be spaced not to exceed 30 inches apart. 
 The bottom flanges of steel mernbers shall be protected as elsewhere provided. 
 
 Thickness of stone concrete roofs, Sec. 137. 
 
 Thickness of cinder concrete roofs, Sec. 169. 
 
 Roof coverings, Sec. 80. 
 
 SECTION 112. FIREPROOFING, PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS. i. Pro- 
 tection of Wall Columns. All columns which support steel girders carrying 
 exterior walls, and all columns which are built into walls and support floors 
 only, shall be protected against corrosion by a coating of Portand cement 
 mortar at least % inch thick, and against moisture and fird by a casing of 
 masonry, which shall be not less than 4 inches of brick or 3 inches of con- 
 crete on all surfaces; all to be well bonded into the masonry of the enclosing 
 walls. 
 
 NOTE. Stonework is not reliable protection for steelwork against fire. A 
 fire of only moderate intensity is practically sure to cause it to be ruined 
 by spalling, and the metal structural members behind it may thereby be 
 exposed. 
 
 2. PROTECTION OF WALL GIRDERS. The wall girders shall have a casing 
 of Portland cement mortar and the same masonry protection as required for 
 wall columns, all to be securely tied and bonded; but the extreme outer 
 edge of the flanges of beams, or plates or angles connected to the beams 
 may project within 2 inches of the outside of surface of such casing. The 
 inside surfaces of the girders shall be similarly protected by masonry, or if 
 projecting inside the walls, they shall be protected by concrete, terra cotta, or 
 other approved fireproof material not less than 2 inches thick. 
 
 3. All metal structural members which support loads or resist stresses, other 
 than those provided for by the two preceding paragraphs, shall have a pro- 
 tection of fireproofing as herein specified. The protection material shall be 
 brick, concrete, terra cotta, or gypsum block. Concrete shall be of the quality 
 prescribed in Sections 162-168; terra cotta may be solid or hollow, and shall 
 be porous or semi-porous, neither shells nor vO'ebs shall be less than % inch 
 thick; gypsum blocks shall be solid and of quality approved by the Superin- 
 tendent. Plaster shall not be considered a part of' any required fireproofing 
 for metal structural members except where specifically mentioned as such. 
 See paragraph 8, also Section 114. 
 
NATIONAL UOAUD BUILDING Coin; 
 
 323 
 
 4 All bricks or blocks used for fireprooring shall be set in Portland cement 
 mortar, except that gypsum blocks may be set in gypsum mortar. See note 
 to paragraph 5, Section 115. 
 
 5. Interior Columns. (a) The protection shall cover the columns at all 
 points to a thickness of not less than 3 inches and be continuous from the 
 base to the top of the column. The extreme outer edges of lugs, brackets, 
 and similar supporting metal may project to within i inch of the outer sur- 
 face of the protection. 
 
 NOD:. Much has yet to be learned regarding the necessary thickness and 
 methods of application of different column coverings to produce efficient fire 
 protection. The investigations on this subject now in progress at the Under- 
 writers' Laboratories in Chicago, will furnish much needed information. When 
 secured, it may justify changes in the requirements herein made. 
 
 (b) If brick or blocks are used for fireeproofing columns, they shall be 
 accurately fitted, laid with broken joints, and all spaces between the outside 
 layer and the metal solidly filled with masonry; or a concrete filling may be 
 used. No voids between the metal and the protecting casing shall be permitted. 
 
 (c) Galvanized steel wire not smaller than No. 12 gauge, shall be securely 
 wrapped around block column coverings so that every block is crossed at least 
 once by a wire. The wire shall not be wound spirally around the column, 
 but each turn or band shall be a separate unit and shall be twisted tightly 
 or otherwise securely bound. Other equivalent anchorage may be employed 
 if approved. No block used for this purpose shall exceed 12 inches in 
 vertical dimension. 
 
 NOTE. Any method which would securely lock the blocks in place, or hold 
 them by substantial interior metal ties, would be superior to the wire wrapping 
 above described. 
 
 (d) Columns located in damp places shall receive a coat of at least i inch 
 of Portland cement mortar before application of the fireproofing. 
 
 (e) Columns made of steel or wrought iron pipe filled with concrete, shall 
 be protected by at least i j , inches of fireproofing. 
 
 (f) Where the fireproofing of columns is exposed to damage from trucking 
 
 Concrete 
 
 Protection 
 
 /---^S^%2Zg5~rv--fc 
 
 I 3T 
 
 Reinforcement should be 
 held in fixed position 
 approximately <ss indicated. 
 
 Concrete 
 
 Protection 
 
 '\\frong Practice 
 Reinforcement too 
 close to flande to furnish 
 proper support for concrete. 
 
 FIG. 29. Diagrams indicating proper and improper reinforcement for concrete 
 fire protection to bottom of beams. 
 
 Reproduced by permiason Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
324 FIR$ PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 or handling of merchandise, the fireproofing shall be jacketed on the outside 
 for a height of not less than 3 feet from the floor with metal or other 
 approved covering. 
 
 6. Protection of Steel^ Girders and Beams. (a) The protection of the webs 
 and bottom flanges of girders, and all members of trusses shall have a thick- 
 ness of not less than 2 inches at all points. The protection of the webs and 
 bottom flanges of beams, lintels, and all other structural members shall be 
 not less than i 1 /^ inches at any point. 
 
 (b) If hollow terra cotta tile be used for protection, the lower flanges of 
 beams and similar members shall be encased either by lugs which lorm part 
 of the skewbacks and extend around the flanges meeting at the middle; or 
 by tile slabs held in position by dove-tailed lugs projecting from the skewbacks. 
 In either case care shall be taken to insure that all joints be solidly filled 
 with mortar. 
 
 7. Concrete protection for all structural members shall be held in position 
 by suitably designed interior steel anchors hooked securely around the flanges 
 or angles of the members, at intervals not exceeding 8 inches apart; these 
 anchors shall be not less than % inch in thickness if flat or i/io inch in 
 diameter if of wire, and shall be located at a distance not less than % inch, 
 or more than i inch from the outside surface. Fig. 29. Provision shall be 
 made to prevent displacement of anchors while concrete is being deposited. 
 When the flange width of steel members exceeds 6 inches, the wire used for 
 anchoring the concrete protection shall be not less than % inch diameter. 
 
 8. Steel angle or channel struts, or other structural framing not else- 
 where provided for, which are used for support in any wall, partition, or 
 other construction, shall be fireproofed as required in Jhis section, or in 
 Section 115, paragraph 4. 
 
 9. Metal fronts on the exterior of buildings over one story high shall be 
 backed up or filled in with masonry not less than 8 inches thick. 
 
 SECTION 113. MISCELLANEOUS FIREPROOFING PROVISIONS. i. Defective or 
 damaged fireproofing materials shall not be used. All fireproof construction 
 injured or damaged after being erected shall be repaired to the satisfaction 
 of the Superintendent before any filling or finish is placed over same. 
 
 2. No pipes, wires, cables or other material shall be incased within or 
 embedded in the required fireproof protection of columns or other structural 
 members. 
 
 3. All metal lath and plaster ceilings shall be supported by hnngers or 
 clamps attached to the floor or roof construction in an approved manner. 
 Such supports shall be of such section and weight as will support the wet 
 plaster without deflecting more than 1/30 inch per foot of span. 
 
 4. All studding for metal lath partitions or wall furring shall be made 
 from steel stock weighing not less than 0.5 of a pound per lineal foot, shall 
 be spaced not over 16 inches center to center and shall be securely fastened 
 to the floor and ceiling construction. 
 
 5. Metal lath shall be of galvanized steel weighing not less than 54 oz. 
 per square yard. Wire lath shall be not less than No. 20 gauge, and sheet 
 metal lath not less than No. 24 gauge. Metal lath shall be laced to the sup- 
 porting furring or studs at intervals not exceeding 6 inches. 
 
 6. After floors are constructed, no opening greater than 2 square feet shall 
 be cut through them unless suitable metal framing or reinforcing is provided 
 around the opening. After pipes or conduits are in place, all openings around 
 them shall be filled in solidly with fireproofing material unless approved close 
 fitting indivdual sleeves are provided as specified in Section 97, paragraph 7. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 325 
 
 SECTION 114. PROTECTION OF METAL STRUCTURAL, MEMBERS IN NON-FIRE- 
 PROOF BUILDINGS. Steel girders and steel or iron columns which support 
 masonry walls, other than those facing upon a street, shall be protected by 
 at least 2 inches of fireproofing of the same materials and applied in the 
 manner specified in Section 112; or by 2 inches of metal lath and cement 
 plaster; the latter being applied in two layers with an air space between them. 
 All other iron or steel columns shall be protected by at least i inch of metal 
 lath and cement plaster or its equivalent. .The lath shall be of quality speci- 
 fied in Section 113, paragraph 5. 
 
 NOTE. -The protection of metal structural members in non-fireproof build- 
 ings is made obligatory only for members supporting walls and main floor 
 sections which in a fire are likely to collapse suddenly with serious danger 
 to firemen and wrecking of the building. 
 
 [fc is very desirable, however, that other metal members which support 
 important parts of a non-fireproof building, such as roof beams and trusses, 
 should have at least a minimum protection of i inch of metal and cement 
 plaster, or other equivalent protective material. 
 
 It is well known that steel begins to lose its strength at about 500 Fahr., 
 and at 1,000 Fahr., approximately 70 per cent of its strength is gone. Tem- 
 peratures such as these are easily reached in an ordinary fire, and if main- 
 tained even for a short time are almost sure to produce collapse of exposed 
 steel structural members. Loaded cast iron columns are very liable to frac- 
 ture and collapse when highly heated, especially when struck by a stream 
 of water. A simple sub-standard protection as here suggested would prevent 
 such failures, and might easily save a building from complete ruin. 
 
 Heavy timber construction will resist collapse from fire better than unpro- 
 tected steel work. The wooden members will burn and help spread a fire, 
 but it takes considerable time to burn them deep enough to reduce the strength 
 sufficient to cause failure. 
 
 SECTION 115. PARTITIONS IN FIREPROOF BUILDINGS. i. In "fireproof build- 
 ings, all partitions enclosing public halls or separating the spaces occupied by 
 different tenants, and all other permanent partitions, shall be built not less 
 than 4 inches thick, of solid or hollow brick, terra cotta, concrete, or gypsum 
 blocks or tile; or not less than 3 inches thick of reinforced concrete or solid 
 metal lath and cement plaster; or of such other incombustible materials and 
 thickness as shall meet the requirements of the partition fire test. The 
 required thickness for block or tile partitions shall be exclusive of plaster. 
 All such partitions shall be securely fastened to the fireproof construction 
 of the floor and ceiling. All bricks, blocks or tile shall be laid with broken 
 joints. 
 
 2. All partitions not enumerated above shall be of incombustible materials, 
 except for woodwork permitted in Section no, paragraph 5. 
 
 3. All partitions in fireproof buildings shall be independently supported at 
 each floor level, and where lateral support is not sufficient they shall be 
 stiffened by such steel reinforcement encased in the construction as the 
 Superintendent may require and approve. 
 
 4. Structural steel members necessary for supporting a partition, or for 
 framing doorways or other openings through it, shall be protected by at 
 least i inch of fireproofing. Cement plaster, or cement-tempered plaster may 
 be accepted for this purpose if properly keyed. 
 
 NOTE. The importance of fireproofing structural framework, or reinforcing 
 me'mbeis in partitions, must not be ignored or underestimated. It is a fatal 
 weakness in a large proportion of otherwise very efficient constructions of 
 this class. In nearly every fire of any magnitude, involving high grade 
 construction, fire resistive partitions are rendered worthless by excessive ex- 
 pansion of unprotected steel framework contained in them. In some cases 
 expansion joints in such steel members have been used with success. 
 
 5. Reinforced concrete for partitions shall be as required in Sections 120-125 
 and 162-168. Terra cotta tile shall be porous or semi-porous in quality, and 
 
326 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 if hollow, shall have two cells in the thickness, with the thickness of shells 
 inclusive of plaster key, not less than % . inch, and the thickness of webs 
 not less than % inch. The shells and webs of hollow gypsum or concrete 
 blocks or tile shall be not less than % inch. Gypsum shall be used only in 
 dry locations. Metal lath and studding shall conform to the requirements 
 of Section 113. 
 
 NOTE. Gypsum blocks, or so-called " plaster blocks," or " cinder plaster 
 blocks," have a high percentage of absorption, and when wet they lose con- 
 siderable of their strength. They should not be used in contact with damp 
 surfaces, or where likely to become wet. Such blocks are also liable to 
 deteriorate when subjected to temperatures in excess of 200 Fahr. for 
 considerable periods of time. They should not be used where such unusual 
 temperatures prevail. 
 
 6. All openings in public hallway partitions shall be protected by approved 
 fire doors or fire windows. Approved fire doors may be permitted in a parti- 
 tion separating tenants in a building, but no glnss shall be permitted in open- 
 ings in such partitions. 
 
 NOTE. Openings of any kind in partitions separating tenants are to be 
 avoided wherever possible. They are always a source of danger in case 
 of fire. 
 
 7. If a stair hallway be considered as a part of the stairway, and the 
 latter is not separately enclosed as required by Section 90, then the enclosing 
 partitions for the hallway shall be considered as the stairway shaft, md shall 
 be built according to the requirements of Section 90. 
 
 8. If the partition surrounding a public hallway be erected in accordance 
 with the requirements for a fire exit partition, it may be considered as a 
 horizontal exit for an occupancy equal to area of the hallway in square feet 
 divided by three. 
 
 NOTE. The requirements for partitions specified in this section, should not 
 be interpreted to exclude the use of cork or other material not readily 
 flammable, when used in refrigeration plants for insulating purposes, and 
 when installed in a manner satisfactory to the Superintendent. 
 
 Fire exit partitions, Sec. 47. 
 
 Horizontal exits, Sec. 46, par. 2 (c). 
 
 SECTION 116. FIRE-RESISTIVE PARTITIONS IN NON-FIREPROOF P.UJI.DINGS. 
 i. In non-fireproof buildings of Classes P>, C, D, and E, all partitions enclos- 
 ing public hallways, or separating the spaces occupied by different tenants, 
 shall either be built as required in Section 115, or they may be built of not 
 less than 3-inch approved solid or hollow partition blocks or tile, or by 
 3-inch hollow or 2-inch" solid metal studding and lath with cement 
 plaster, or by 2x4 inch wooden studding with metal lath and % inch of 
 cement or cement-tempered plaster on each side; or of any other materials 
 and thickness as shall meet the requirements of the partition fire test. Wooden 
 studs shall be set with the 4-inch dimension at right angles to the plane of 
 the wall. 
 
 2. All such partitions shall be fire-stopped the full, depth of the floor beams 
 at each floor level in the manner specified in Section 97. 
 
 3. Openings in such partitions shall be protected by fire doors and windows 
 as specified in Section 115. 
 
 4. The principles governing hallway partition construction as stated in 
 Section 115, paragraphs 7 and 8, shall apply to the construction/ of like 
 partitions in non-fireproof buildings, consistent with the requirements of 
 Section 93 for such construction. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 327 
 
 Reinforced Concrete Construction 
 General Requirements 
 
 SECTION 117. DEFINITION. The term "reinforced concrete" in this Code 
 shall mean an- approved concrete mixture in which steel is embedded in such 
 a manner as to resist the tensile stresses and to add rigidity and strength 
 to concrete in compression. 
 
 SECTION 118. APPROVED FOR ALL TYPES OF BUILDINGS. Reinforced concrete 
 will be approved for all types of building construction, provided the design 
 conforms with good engineering practice, and the working stresses do not 
 exceed those herein specified. The construction shall meet the requirements 
 of this Code in all respects, and in addition shall conform to such other 
 rules as may be issued by the Superintendent of Building Construction or 
 State authorities having jurisdiction. 
 
 SECTION 119. CONSTRUCTION PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. i. The plans 
 and specifications required to be filed with the Superintendent shall be 
 accompanied by stress computations and descriptions showing the general 
 arrangement of the entire construction in all important details, including the 
 size, length, and points of bending of all reinforcement, the qualities, pro- 
 portions, and methods of mixing the materials used in the concrete and the 
 dead and live loads each floor is designed to carry. 
 
 2. All such plans and specifications shall be signed by the architect, 
 engineer, contractor or person applying for the permit. In no case shall the 
 construction deviate from the approved plan? and specifications except by 
 written consent of the Superintendent of Building Construction. 
 
 Specifications for Materials 
 
 SECTION 120. QUALITY OF CONCRETE. i. The concrete shall consist of a 
 mixture of a plastic or viscous consistency of one part of cement to not 
 more than six parts of aggregate, fine and coarse, either in the proportion 
 of one part of cement, two parts of sand and four parts of stone or gravel, 
 or in such proportion as to produce a maximum density. Such concrete shall 
 develop a crushing strength of at least 2,000 Ibs. per square inch at 28 days 
 when made under laboratory conditions of manufacture ; the materials and 
 consistency being practically the same as that used in the field. Test 
 specimens shall be removed from moulds as soon as well set and stored in 
 damp sand until tested. 
 
 NOTE. For important work the best proportions of the component materials 
 should be carefully determined by density experiments and the relative pro- 
 portions changed to meet varying sizes of fine and coarse aggregate to secure 
 maximum density. 
 
 The concrete mixture should be of such consistency that tamping will 
 readily bring water to the surface, but should not be so wet that the coarse 
 aggregate will tend to separate and settle at the bottom. Excess of water 
 usually leaks from the forms carrying cement with it, thus weakening the 
 concrete, and leaving it porous or " honey-combed." 
 
 Weight of concrete, Sec. 63. 
 
 2 Concrete in the proportion of one part of cement to four an 1 one-half 
 parts of aggregate, which may be desirable for special work such as columns, 
 shall develop a crushing strength of not less than 2,400 pounds p/?r square 
 inch at 28 days, and the working stress of such concrete may be increased 
 -?o j.er cent over that permitted elsewhere in this Part. 
 
 3. Each test shall consist of a set of at least three duplicate specimens 
 j in the shape of cylinders with a height of double the diameter; or cubes 
 
 having a least dimension of 6 inches. Cubes shall be tested standing on bed 
 
 
328 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 and 75 per cent of the resulting test strength shall be assumed as the strength 
 of the standard cylinder specimen 8 inches in diameter and 16 inches high. 
 The average of the three tests shall be taken as the result for record. The 
 smallest dimension of the test piece should be at least four times the size 
 of the coarsest particle of stone. 
 
 NOTE. The standard form of concrete test specimen generally recom- 
 mended by testing authorities is a cylinder 8 inches in diameter and 16 inches 
 high. This shape of specimen is advised. Moulds for such specimens are 
 easily made by splitting sections of ordinary stove pipe. 
 
 Quality of cinder concrete, Sec. 167. 
 
 SECTION 121. QUALITY OF CEMENT. All cement used in reinforced con- 
 crete shall be Portland cement. 
 
 SECTION 122. QUALITY OF FINE AGGREGATE. i. Fine aggregate shall con- 
 sist of sand, crushed stone, or gravel screenings, passing when dry a screen 
 having ^ inch diameter holes and not more than 6 per cent passing a 
 sieve having 100 meshes per lineal inch. It "shall be clean and free from 
 quicksand, vegetable loam, perishable organic matter, or other deleterious 
 materials. 
 
 NOTE. Sand with a gradation of grains from fine to coarse is desirable. 
 Silt in sand which contains a small percentage of organic materials, such as 
 vegetable loam, renders the aggregate unfit for use. Clay in small quantities, 
 not exceeding 6 per cent, is not necessarily injurious, and may be beneficial 
 by increasing the density. Pit and stream sands are usually of good quality, 
 but drift sand is ordinarily of too fine a grain to make good concrete. It is 
 recommended that the mesh composition of sand shall be such that 100 per 
 cent passes a ^4-inch mesh sieve; that not more than 75 per cent, and not 
 less than 40 per cent, by weight, passes a 20-mesh sieve; that not more than 
 30 per cent, and not less than 2 per cent, passes a so-mesh sieve; and that 
 not more than 6 per cent passes a loo-mesh sieve. 
 
 The quality of the sand used in concrete, is as important as the quality of 
 the cement. Failure to recognize this fact has produced many disastrous 
 results. 
 
 2. Fine aggregate shall always be tested. It shall be of such quality that 
 mortar composed of one part Portland cement and three parts fine aggregate 
 by weight, when made into briquettes shall show a tensile strength at least 
 equal to the strength of i :3 mortar of the same consistency made with the 
 same cement and standard Ottawa sand, and shall show a tensile strength 
 of at least 180 Ibs.' per square inch at the age, of 7 days. If the aggregate 
 be of poorer quality, the proportion of cement should be increased to secure 
 the desired strength. 
 
 NOTE. Standard Ottawa sand is a natural sand obtained at Ottawa, Illinois, 
 which is prepared and sold by the Ottawa Silica Company under the direc- 
 tion of the Special Committee on Uniform Tests of Cement of the American 
 Society of Civil Engineers. It is graded in size to pass a screen having 20 
 meshes, and be retained on a screen having 30 meshes per linear inch. 
 
 SECTION 123. QUALITY OF COARSE AGGREGATE. i. Coarse aggregate shall 
 consist of crushed stone or gravel which is retained on a screen having ^ 
 inch diameter holes, and shall be graded in size from small to large particles. 
 The maximum size shAll be such that all the aggregate will pass through a 
 1*4 inch diameter ring. The particles shall be clean, hard, durable, and 
 free from all deleterious material. 
 
 Aggregates for fireproofing, Sec. 164. 
 
 2. Gravel shall be free from clay or loam except such as naturally adheres 
 to the particles. If clay or loam is in such quantities that it cannot be 
 readily removed by dipping in water or brushing lightly with the band the 
 gravel shall be washed. When bank-run gravel is used, it should be screened 
 from the sand and remixed in the proper proportion for fine and coarse 
 aggregate. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 329 
 
 NOTE. It is strongly recommended that all gravel used for reinforced 
 concrete be thoroughly washed. Attention is also called to the fact that pure 
 quartz gravel is not as good a fire-resisting aggregate as trap; also that lime- 
 stone or dolomite is likely to calcine and granite to spall when exposed to 
 high heat. Conglomerates consisting essentially of coarse grained sandstones 
 make good concrete, but slate and shale give poor results as a rule. 
 
 SECTION 124. QUALITY OF REINFORCEMENT. All steel used in reinforced 
 concrete shall meet the requirements of the current Standard Specifications 
 for Billet-Steel Concrete Reinforcement Bars of the American Society for 
 Testing Materials. No reinforcement produced from re-rolled rails or 
 second-hand materials shall be used in any structure without the written 
 permission of the Superintendent. If such reinforcement be permitted, it 
 shall meet the requirements of the current Standard Specifications for Rail- 
 Steel Concrete Reinforcement Bars of the American Society for Testing 
 Materials. Cold drawn steel wire made from open hearth billets of the 
 grade of rivet steel or from Bessemer billets, may be used in floor and roof 
 slabs, column hooping, and reinforcement for temperature and shrinkage 
 stresses. It shall have an ultimate strength of not less than 85,000 Ibs. per 
 square inch and test specimens shall bend 180 degrees around their own 
 diameter without fracture. 
 
 i 
 
 Factors Controlling Design 
 
 SECTION 125. ALLOWABLE UNIT WORKING STRESSES. In the design of 
 reinforced concrete structures when the concrete is mixed in the proportions 
 of 1:2:4, an d satisfies the strength requirements of Section 120, the fol- 
 lowing working stresses for concrete and steel shall be used: 
 
 Lbs. per 
 Sq. in. 
 
 Extreme fibre stress on concrete in compression 650 
 
 Concrete in direct compression 500 
 
 Shearing stress in concrete when diagonal tension is not resisted by steel 40 
 
 Shearing stress, in concrete when web reinforcement is proportioned to 
 
 resist two-thirds of the external vertical shear 120 
 
 Bond stress between concrete and plain reinforcing bars :... 80 
 
 Bond stress between concrete and deformed bars 100 
 
 Tensile stress in steel reinforcement 16,000 
 
 Bearing on a concrete surface having a total area at least three times the 
 area of the loaded portion, may be taken at 37% per cent of the ultimate 
 strength of the concrete, when all other stresses are properly provided for. 
 
 Compressive stress in steel as specified in Sections 142, 143 and 144, or 
 in the ratio of the moduli of elasticity of steel to concrete. 
 
 In continuous beams the extreme fibre stress in concrete in compression 
 may be increased 15 per cent adjacent to the supports. 
 
 In proportioning the section of concrete for shearing stresses, the effective 
 depth from center of compression area to center of steel shall be used. 
 
 Stresses in concrete mixed in the proportions of i:i%:3 in accordance with 
 Section 120 may be increased 20 per cent in excess of the above stresses. 
 
 Working stresses on concrete in walls, Sec. 147. 
 
 Working stress on cinder concrete, Sec. 167, par. 5. 
 
 Other working stresses on concrete, Sec. 65, par. 3. 
 
 SECTION 126. GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS. As a basis for calculating the 
 strencth of beams and slabs, the following assumptions shall be made: 
 
 (a) A plane section before bending remains plane after bending. 
 
 (b) The modulus of elasticity of concrete in compression remains constant 
 within limits of working stresses fixed in this Code. 
 
 (c) The adhesion between concrete and reinforcement is perfect. 
 
330 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (d) Concrete has no value in resistance to tension. 
 
 (e) Initial stress in the reinforcement clue to contraction or expansion in 
 the concrete is negligible. 
 
 (f) The ratio of the moduli of elasticity of 1:2:4 stone or gravel concrete 
 and steel inflexure shall be taken as 1:15. 
 
 (g) The ratio of the moduli of elasticity of i:i%:3 stone or gravel concrete 
 and steel inflexure shall be taken as 1:12. , 
 
 The span length for beams, and slabs shall be taken ns the distance from 
 center to center of supports, but need not lie taken to exceed the clear span 
 plus the over-all depth of beam or slab. Brackets shall not be considered as 
 reducing the clear span in the sense here intended. 
 
 Weight of concrete, Sec. 63. 
 
 Bending Moments of Uniformly Loaded Floor and Roof Slabs 
 
 SECTION 127. BENDING MOMENTS OF SLABS SUPPORTED ON Two SIDES. 
 The bending moments of slabs due to uniformly distributed loads .shall be 
 taken as not less than: 
 
 % WL, at center when simply supported. 
 
 i/ 10 WL, at center and continuous support when supported at one end 
 and continuous at the other. 
 
 j/12 WL, at center and intermediate supports when continuous over more 
 than two supports. 
 
 W = Total distributed dead and live loads. 
 
 L = Length of span. 
 
 SECTION 128. BENDING MOMENTS OF SLABS SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES. 
 The bending moments of uniformly loaded slabs supported on four sides and 
 reinforced in both directions shall lie taken as: 
 
 y& WL, at center in each direction when simply supported. 
 
 iyio WL, at center and continuous support when continuous ever one 
 support. 
 
 i 1 12 WL, at both center and supports when continuous over two or more 
 supports. 
 
 SECTION 129. DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS. The distribution of loads on square 
 and rectangular slabs supported on four sides, shall be determined by the 
 following formula: 
 
 /* 
 
 ~ /* + b* 
 
 in which r = the proportion of the load supported by the transverse reinforce- 
 ment. 
 
 / = length of slab. 
 
 b = breadth of slab. 
 
 If the length of the slab exceeds i^j times its width, the transverse reinforce- 
 ment shall be designed to carry the entire load. 
 
 Bending Moments of Uniformly Loaded Beams and Girders 
 
 SECTION 130. TERM BEAM DEFINED. The term beam ns used in this section 
 shall be understood to include the term girder, unless specific distinction 
 be made. 
 
 SECTION 131. BEAMS WITH SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS SUPPORTS. The bending 
 moments of uniformly loaded beams shall be taken as: 
 
 l /s WL, at center when simply supported. 
 
 i/io WL, at center and over continuous support when supported 'at one 
 end and continuous at the other. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 331 
 
 i/i 2 WL, at both center and supports when continuous over more than 
 two supports. 
 
 SECTION 132. BEAMS SUPPORTING RECTANGULAR SLABS. i. Beams sup- 
 porting rectangular slabs reinforced in both directions, shall be assumed to 
 take the proportions of load as determined by the formula in Section 129. 
 
 2. The bending moments of slabs, beams or girders which are continuous 
 for two spans only, shall be taken as 1 A WL over the central support and 
 \ 1 10 \VL near the middle of the span. 
 
 General Design Requirements for Beam and Slab Construction 
 
 SECTION 133. SPECIAL MEMBERS. The bending moments for slabs or beams 
 with spans of unusual length or due to other than uniformly distributed loads, 
 shall be more exactly computed according to accepted theory. 
 
 SECTION 134. CONTINUOUS FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. In continuous slabs, 
 beams or girders, full provision shall be made for the negative bending 
 moments over the supports by placing sufficient negative reinforcement near 
 the top of the members to resist the stress. This reinforcement shall pass 
 beyond the point of inflection in beams or girders and be anchored in the 
 compression concrete of the member a sufficient distance to develop the full 
 strength of the steel through bond stress. The critical section of continuous 
 construction is over the support. l! *V 
 
 NOTE. -It is not considered best practice to design a beam as simply sup- 
 1 .i>iu<l, \vith a bending moment of % WL at the center, and to provide an 
 arbitrary amount of reinforcement over the support, such as one-half of that 
 at the center. 
 
 SECTION 135. WEB REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS. i. Members of web re- 
 inforcement in beams shall be designed for diagonal tensile stresses, using 
 the calculated vertical siiearing stress as a measure of these tensile stresses. 
 They shall not be spaced to exceed three-fourths of the depth of the beam 
 in that portion where the web stresses exceed the allowable value of the 
 concrete in shear. It shall be assumed that two-thirds of the external vertical 
 shear is provided for by the steel in calculating the stresses in stirrups, 
 diagonal web members, and bent up bars; and the remaining one-third of the 
 shear shall be assumed as taken by the concrete, in accordance with Sec- 
 tion 125. 
 
 2. Web members such afe stirrups, when not rigidly attached to the longi- 
 tudinal steel at both top and bottom, shall be carried around and bent over 
 the longitudinal members or otherwise sufficiently anchored in the com- 
 pression concrete to develop the tensile stresses existing in them. Diagonal 
 members shall be rigidly attached to the longitudinal steel on the tension side. 
 Stirrups at the ends of continuous girders shall be inverted with the free 
 ends anchored in the compression concrete at the bottom of the beam. The 
 length of stirrups or diagonals embedded in compression concrete shall be 
 sufficient to develop their entire tensile stresses by adhesion. 
 
 SECTION 136. T BEAMS. i. Where adequate bond is provided at junction 
 between slab and beam, and the two are cast at the same time as a unit, 
 the slab may be considered as an integral part of the beam, provided its 
 elective width shall not exceed on either side of the beam one-sixth of the 
 ?pan length of the beam, nor be greater than four times the thickness of the 
 slab on either side of the 1>eam; the measurements being taken from line of 
 intersection between slab and beam. 
 
 2. In beams with T sections the width of the stem only shall be used in 
 calculating longitudinal shear and diagonal tension. An effective bond shall 
 be provided at the junction of the beam and slab when the principal slab 
 
332 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 reinforcement is parallel to the beam, by the use of transverse reinforcement 
 extending over the beam and well into the slab. 
 
 3. In the design of T beams acting as continuous beams, sufficient com- 
 pression area shall be provided on the under side at the support, either by 
 the use of properly designed brackets or by embedding additional compression 
 steel in the concrete extending to the point of inflection. 
 
 SECTION 137. MINIMUM THICKNESS OF SLABS. The minimum, thickness of 
 concrete floor slabs shall be 4 inches, and for roof slabs 3 1 / inches. 
 
 SECTION 138. FLOOR FINISH. Cement or concrete floor finish shall not 
 be considered in calculating the strength of floor members unless it be laid 
 at the same time they are cast. 
 
 SECTION 139. COMPOSITE FLOORS. The design of composite floors consist- 
 ing of rows of hard-burned terra cotta tile^ concrete blocks, sheet steel^ or 
 other approved fire resistive material, separated by ribs or beams of reinforced 
 stone or gravel concrete, shall conform to all the provisions of this Part so 
 far as they are applicable. The ribs shall be at least 5 inches wide. The 
 tile or blocks shall be regarded only as fillers, and shall not be t.onsidered 
 in the design except as dead load. If designed as a T-beam, the slab portion 
 above the fillers shall be at least 2^ inches thick, and shall consist of the 
 same mixture used for the ribs, and shall be cast at the same time; under 
 these conditions it may be considered in the design of the ribs. Tile or 
 concrete block fillers shall be lai<J<lnvith Portland cement mortar joints, and 
 shall be thoroughly wet before the concrete is poured. The protection for 
 steel bars in bottom of ribs shall be the same as for other beams. 
 
 To resist expansion stresses, reinforcement bars not less than ^ inch 
 diameter, shall be placed in the concrete at right angles to the ribs and above 
 the fillers, at intervals not exceeding 30 inches. 
 
 Design of Columns and Walls 
 
 SECTION 140. LENGTH OF COLUMNS. The length of columns shall be taken 
 as the maximum unsupported length. 
 
 The unsupported length of columns shall not exceed fifteen times the least 
 side or diameter, and in no case shall the least side or diameter be less than 
 12 inches. The length shall include any corbel or knee brace attached to the 
 column. 
 
 SECTION 141. COLUMNS WITHOUT HOOPS. Axial compression in reinforced 
 concrete columns without hoops, bands, or spirals, containing not less than 
 % per cent, nor more than 3 per cent of vertical reinforcement, secured 
 against lateral displacement by steel ties placed not farther apart than fifteen 
 diameters of the vertical rods, nor more than 12 inches, shall not exceed 
 500 pounds per square inch on the effective area of the concrete, plus 6,000 
 pounds per square inch on the vertical reinforcement. The percentage of 
 reinforcement shall be calculated upon the effective area of the column,* which 
 is the area within the reinforcement. Steel ties shall be not less than */4 inch 
 in diameter or least dimension. At least four vertical bars shall be used 
 in every reinforced column, and no bar shall have an area of less than y 
 square inch. 
 
 NOTE. Round reinforced concrete columns are better adapted to resist fire 
 than square ones. The latter spall badly at the corners, due to unequal 
 expansion, when attacked by intense heat. A round column or one approxi- 
 mating that shape should be used wherever liable to be subjected to fire. 
 Some authorities advocate the encasing of concrete columns by a protective 
 covering of some material to prevent spalling. Round concrete columns pro- 
 tected by only an inch of plaster on metal lath, are known to have resisted 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 333 
 
 an intense fire excellently; this indicates that even such protection is worthy 
 of careful consideration. In such construction the metal lath should be held 
 si-i-urely in place by metal clips anchored into the concrete. Wraoping the 
 lath with wire is not sufficient. 
 
 Strength test requirements for concrete and steel, Sees. 120 and 124. 
 
 SECTION 142. COLUMNS WITH HOOPS. Axial compression in reinforced 
 concrete columns with not less than i per cent of hoops or spirals (that is, 
 a volume of steel equal to i per cent of the volume of concrete within the 
 hoops or spirals for a unit length of column) spaced not farther apart than 
 one-sixth of the diameter of enclosed column, but in no case more than 3 
 inches, with not less than one nor more than 4 per cent of vertical reinforce- 
 ment, shall not exceed 759 pounds per square inch on the effective area of 
 the concrete, plus 9,000 pounds per square inch on the vertical reinforcement. 
 The hoops or spirals shall be uniformly spaced, and shall be rigidly attached 
 to at least four vertical bars in each convolution. 
 
 Columns required to be settled before being built upon, Sec. 157, par. 2. 
 
 SECTION 143. STRUCTURAL STEEL AND CONCRETE COLUMNS. Axial com- 
 pression in structural steel columns thoroughly encased in concrete having 
 a minimum thickness of 4 inches and reinforced with not less than i per 
 cent of steel (fhat is, a volume of steel equal to i per cent of the volume 
 of concrete within the hoops) equally divided between vertical reinforcement 
 and hoops or spirals spaced not more than 12 inches apart, may be taken 
 at 16,000 pounds j>er square inch on the net section of the structural steel, 
 no allowance being made for the concrete casing. The hoops or spirals shall 
 be placed not nearer than i inch from the structural steel, or nearer than 
 lU inches from the outer surface of the concrete. The ratio of length to 
 least radius of gyration of the structural steel section shall not ex-reed 120. 
 
 Working stresses for structural steel, Sec. 65. 
 
 SECTION 144. COLUMNS CONSTRUCTED WITH SPECIAL CONCRETE. In rein- 
 forced concrete columns the compression on the concrete may be increased 
 20 per cent when the fine and coarse aggregates are carefully selected, and 
 the proportion of cement to total aggregates increased to one part of cement 
 to not more than four and one-half parts of aggregate, fine and coarse, either 
 in proportion of one part of cement, one and one-half parts of sand and 
 three parts of stone or gravel, or in such proportions as will secure the 
 maximum density. The unit stress on the vertical reinforcement in such 
 columns shall not exceed twelve times the unit stress on the concrete. 
 
 SECTION 145. COLUMNS ECCENTRICALLY LOADED. Bending stresses in columns 
 due to eccentric loads, shall be provided for by increasing the section of con- 
 crete or steel so that the total unit stress shall not exceed the allowable 
 working stress in flexure. 
 
 SECTION 146. STEEL BASE PLATES. Suitable steel base plates or castings 
 shall be provided at the bottom of columns to distribute the loads over the 
 footings, and the vertical reinforcement bars shall bear squarely on these 
 plates, or the reinforcing bars shall be carried down into an enlarged footing 
 to distribute the load thrjugh bond stress. 
 
 SECTION 147. WALLS. Exterior and interior bearing and non-bearing wa:is 
 of reinforced concrete shall be securely anchored to all intersecting walls, 
 columns, and floors, and the allowable compressive stress shall not exceed 
 250 pounds per square inch. The thickness shall be not less than two-thirds 
 that specified for brick walls, and in no case less than 8 inches. All such 
 "alls shall be reinforced with steel running both horizontally and vertically. 
 The amount of reinforcement shall be not less than 1/5 of i per cent of the 
 cross-section of the wall, and shall be equally disposed near each face of 
 the wall; except that in walls or partitions 8 inches or less in thickness, the 
 
334 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 reinforcement may be placed as a single layer in the middle. Reinforcement 
 shall not be spaced more than 18 inches apart. Additional reinforcement shall 
 be placed around wall openings, and all vertical and horizontal reinforcement 
 shall be wired or have other mechanical bond at intervals not exceeding 18 
 inches in either direction. 
 
 Reinforced concrete partitions, Sees. 90 and 115. 
 
 General Provisions for Design of Girderless Floors or Flat 
 
 Slabs 
 
 SECTION 148. GIRDKKLKSS FLOORS. i. Girderlees floors or flat slabs con- 
 sisting of reinforced concrete slabs resting upon columns with flaring heads, 
 with or without drop heads or column caps, and in which no beams or girders 
 are used, except around openings in the floor or along walls, shall be designed 
 in accordance with the bending moment coefficients and stresses specified in 
 this Code. No empirical formulas based on the results of tests shall be 
 permitted t but the design shall in general be based upon the principles of 
 continuous or cantilever construction as herein indicated. 
 
 2. The methods of analysis shall be as follows: 
 
 (a) The portion of the slab adjacent to the column shall be considered as 
 a circular plate supported at the center forming the cantilever portion. The 
 remainder of the slab shall be considered as a simply supported portion 
 suspended from the cantilever plates. The cantilever portion shall be 
 designed for a uniform load over its area equal to the live and dead load 
 on that area plus a concentrated load on its perimeter equal to the floor 
 load resting on the suspended portion of the slab. The radius of the cantilever 
 plate shall be the average distance from the center of the column to the points 
 of inflection of the slab. 
 
 (b) Or the slab may be considered as consisting of a series of continuous 
 broad, flat, x girders reinforced with bands of steel consisting of rods sup- 
 ported at the top of the slab over the columns and depressed to the bottom 
 of the slab at the center of the span. These bands of reinforcement may be 
 arranged to run in two directions directly from column center to column 
 center; or in four directions, the former bands being combined with rein- 
 forcement running diagonally from column to column. 
 
 SECTION 149. COLUMNS FOR* GIRDERLESS FLOORS. i. The column capital 
 shall have a diameter or least side at the top in no case less than 0.225 L 
 where L is the length of side of the square equivalent to the area of the 
 rectangle included between four adjacent columns. The thickness of the 
 column capital at this diameter shall be not less than 1*4 inches. The slope 
 of the column capital shall nowhere exceed an angle of 45 degrees with the 
 vertical. 
 
 2. A depressed head or " drop " may be cast above the column capital and 
 the dimensions of this cap shall be not less than 0.4 of the side of the 
 equivalent square panel. 
 
 3. The point of inflection shall be assumed iJ6 V3^ from the center 
 of the column. 
 
 4. The width of bands shall be such as to properly cover the panel area, 
 but shall not be wider than 0.4 times the side of the square panel. Where 
 steel is provided in two directions only, the central portion of the panel 
 shall be considered as a slab supported on four sides. 
 
 5. Punching shear shall be calculated at the edge' of the column shaft 
 iatnd shall not exceed 120 Ibs. per sq. inch. In computing shearing stress for 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 335 
 
 the pin pose uf determining resistance to diagonal tension, a point shall be 
 taken at a distance out from the column capital equal to the effective depth 
 of the slab. 
 
 6. Working stresses and coefficients shall in general comply with Sections 
 i _'5, and 127 to 132, inclusive, of this Code. In rectangular panels, the long 
 dimension shall not be more than four thirds times the short dimension. 
 Interior columns shall be capable of resisting the unbalanced bending moment 
 produced by a panel with live load adjacent to a panel without live load. 
 Floor slabs at walls shall be considered as simply supported on walls or 
 wall beams. If the proportion of the slab adjacent to a wall column is 
 assumed as a cantilever, the wall column or pier shall be capable of resisting 
 the unbalanced moment produced by such cantilever. Bars for negative 
 tending moment shall extend at least to the quarter point of the span, and if 
 the bars have a greater diameter than % inch, special attention shall be 
 given to bond and anchorage. 
 
 Requirements for Reinforcement 
 
 SECTION 150. EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL DEFECTS. All reinforcement shall 
 be free from excessive rust, scale, grease, paint or any coating which would 
 tend to reduce or destroy the bond between the steel and the concrete. Bars 
 shai' also be free from injurious seams, slivers, flaws, and other mill defects. 
 The weight of any lot of bars shall not vary more than 5 per cent from 
 the standard weight of the lot as given by manufacturers' handbooks. 
 
 SECTION 151. PLACING AND SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT. All reinforce- 
 ment shall be accurately located and mechanically secured against displacement 
 during the placing of the concrete. Reinforcement bars for slabs shall not 
 be spaced farther apart than two and one-half times the thickness of the 
 slab. The spacing of parallel bars in beams shall be not less than three 
 diameters from center to center, nor less than one inch. The clear spacing 
 between two layers of bars shall be not less than one inch. In restrained 
 or cantilever construction reinforcement shall extend beyond the supports 
 into adjacent construction for full and effective anchorage, except that when 
 this is not practicable, anchorage shall be obtained by other means acceptable 
 t" the Superintendent. Special reinforcement shall be provided to resist 
 concentrated loads. Slabs reinforced in one direction only, shall have 
 shrinkage rods not less than *4 inch in diameter placed above the reinforce- 
 ment and spaced not over 2 feet apart. All reinforcement shall be assembled 
 \vill in advance of the placing of the concrete, and shall be inspected and 
 approved by the Superintendent before concrete, is deposited. 
 
 SECTION 152. PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT. Steel reinforcement shall 
 IKIVO a minimum protection of concrete on all side's as follows: 
 
 In columns and girders, 2 inches; in beams and walls, i% inches; and 
 in floor slabs, i inch. 
 
 'I lie steel in footings for walls and columns shall have a minimum protec- 
 tion of 4 inches of concrete. 
 
 SECTION 153. SPLICES IN REINFORCEMENT. Splices in reinforcing bars 
 shall be designed to transfer the calculated stress at the joint either by 
 bond and shear through the concrete, or by bearing between the steel. 
 Splices at ^points of maximum stress shall be avoided where possible. Lap 
 splices of bars shall be of sufficient length to develop the required stress in 
 the joint without exceeding the bond stress permitted. In columns where 
 necessary to splice vertical bars having areas in excess of i*4 sq. inches, 
 it shall be done by cutting the bars squarely at the ends and enclosing them 
 in a close-fitting pipe sleeve, or uniting them by a threaded splice or other 
 
336 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 mechanical connection that will transfer the load from one to the other 
 without stressing the adjoining concrete excessively. The middle point of 
 such splices shall be within one foot above the floor level. Splices in column 
 hooping where necessary, shall be sufficient to develop the full strength of 
 the hooping. 
 
 Workmanship for Concrete 
 
 SECTION 154. MIXING. i. The separate ingredients of concrete shall be 
 accurately measured, and thoroughly mixed in a manner to produce a homo- 
 geneous mass of uniform color and of such a viscous consistency that it will 
 flow to all parts of the forms without separation of the coarse aggregate 
 from the mortar. 
 
 NOTE. It is usual practice to consider a bag of Portland cement weighing 
 not less than 94 Ibs., as equivalent to one cubic foot. 
 
 2. Except when limited quantities are required, or when the conditions of 
 the work make hand mixing preferable, mixing shall be done in a mechanical 
 batch mixer from which a complete batch shall be discharged before another 
 is received. All ingredients shall be mixed together for at least one minute, 
 the mixer making at least 20 revolutions. The speed of the mixer shall not 
 exceed 20 revolutions per minute. In all cases, the mixing shall be continued 
 until the consistency is constant. 
 
 SECTION 155. DEPOSITING. i. Concrete shall be deposited, thoroughly 
 tamped and worked to place before initial set begins, and shall then be kept 
 free from shocks and disturbances of every kind until it has fully hardened. 
 Retempering of concrete after its initial .set shall be prohibited. 
 
 2. When the work of placing concrete is suspended, all necessary grooves 
 for joining future work shall be made before the concrete sets. 
 
 3. Before depositing new concrete upon concrete already set, the contact 
 surfaces shall be roughened, cleaned of all laitance and loose material, and 
 then drenched with water and slushed with a grout consisting of one part 
 Portland cement and not more than two parts fine aggregate immediately 
 before placing the fresh concrete. If a watertight joint is desired, or if 
 granolithic is to be deposited on old concrete, it is necessary that a neat 
 cement grout be used. 
 
 SECTION 156. DRYING AND FREEZING. i. When fresh concrete is exposed 
 to rapid drying conditions, precautions shall be taken to keep it moist for a 
 period of at least seven days after being deposited. Where practical this 
 shall be done by a covering of wet sand, burlap or some other equally effec- 
 tive method. Thorough wetting twice a day is recommended. 
 
 2. In freezing weather all materials used in making concrete, particularly 
 the coarse aggregate, shall be heated, and precautions shall be taken to prevent 
 the concrete freezing while being 'deposited; and thereafter it shall be kept 
 above 40 degrees until the concrete has obtained its final set, but such period 
 shall be not less than 72 hours. 
 
 SECTION 157. JOINTS. i. Construction joints shall be avoided wherever 
 practicable, but when they are necessary they s^iall be located at such sections 
 as will least affect the structural strength and shall be made at right angles 
 to the direction of principal compressive stress. In members of floor systems, 
 joints shall be made within the middle third of the span where practicable. 
 In columns, joints shall only be permitted at the bottom face of the lowest 
 connecting floor members. Temperature changes and shrinkage during setting 
 necessitate joints in independent walls at intervals of 50 to 80 feet when 
 not otherwise provided for by effective reinforcement. 
 
 NOTE. To provide for stresses due to contraction in setting and atmospheric 
 temperature changes in long reinforced concrete buildings, it is customary to 
 construct expansion joints across the buildings at intervals of about 200 feet. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 337 
 
 2. Girders, beams, and slabs shall not be cast upon freshly formed columns 
 until a period of 4 to 6 hours have elapsed to permit settlement. 
 
 SECTION 158. CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS. i. Forms shall be substantial and 
 unyielding, and care shall be exercised to make them as nearly water-tight 
 as practicable. 
 
 2. Care shall be taken to insure that all debris is removed from forms, 
 and that they are thoroughly greased or wetted before concrete is deposited 
 in them. Beam forms shall be so designed that at least one side may be 
 removed without disturbing the bottom portion of the forms and its sup- 
 ports; and column forms, so that they may be removed without disturbing 
 beam and slab forms. Cleanout holes shall be provided .in the bottom of 
 column forms where necessary to insure the removal of wood chips or other 
 debris. 
 
 NOTE. jf i s considered good practice to give a slight camber to forms for 
 beams and girders to overcome the effects of the unavoidable settlement. 
 
 SECTION 159. REMOVAL OF FORMS. i. The time for the removal of forms 
 shall always be subject to approval by the Superintendent. 
 
 NOTE. It is recommended that forms shall in no case be removed in less 
 time than fixed in the following schedule, except by written permit from the 
 Superintendent. This schedule presupposes that the concrete has been de- 
 posited while the outside temperature was above 40 Fahr., with a rising 
 temperature, and that ample supports are left to carry the construction and 
 any superimposed loads. 
 
 Schedule 
 
 i: >tt<iin of slabs, spans of 6 feet 4 days 
 
 Plus i day extra for each additional foot of span. 
 
 I'.ottom of beams and girders of ordinary length 14 days 
 
 Reams of span of 20 feet 21 days 
 
 Sides of lintels, girders and beams 3 days 
 
 Columns 3 days 
 
 Thin wall-, 3 days 
 
 j. Girders of 25-foot span or over shall be considered as special -cases and 
 shall be subject to the inspection of the Superintendent before removal of 
 the supports. 
 
 3. Composite floors, same as for ordinary beams. 
 
 4. All reinforced concrete shall be carefully inspected to insure its sound- 
 ness and reliability before main supports are removed. 
 
 5. No loads shall be placed upon a reinforced concrete floor before the 
 removal of the form supports, which would in any way tend to overstress 
 such supports or those below. 
 
 6. Special care shall be observed in removing forms when the concreting 
 lias been done in cold weather. Concrete which has frozen accidentally before 
 setting, shall be thawed and kept thawed until it is determined whether the 
 cement will set. In this case, sufficient water shall be provided for the 
 cement to hydrate during this action. 
 
 NOTK. A special permit should be obtained for removal of forms from 
 concrete deposited when the outside temperature was below 32 Fahr.; and 
 the number of days required should be increased in proportion to the amount 
 of time the temperature remained below 32 Fahr. after the concrete was 
 deposited. \ 
 
 SECTION 161. INSPECTION. Every reinforced concrete building shall be 
 erected under the constant supervision of a reputable and competent inspector 
 furnished by the owner or architect, and acceptable to the Superintendent. 
 It shall be th# duty of the inspector to keep a daily record of the work 
 done, to observe whether the materials employed, and the methods of con- 
 struction are in all respects in accord with the specifications filed with the 
 Superintendent, and the requirements of this Code; and to make record of 
 
338 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 all variations therefrom. . A copy of these daily reports shall be filed with 
 the Superintendent, who is empowered to stop any improper construction until 
 its faults are corrected, or to cause the removal of any defective work which 
 he may consider dangerous. 
 
 A set of plans shall be on file at the building upon which the Superin- 
 tendent shall mark in ink the progress of the work,, and state, the time, and 
 dates -on which concrete for each portion of the structure was deposited; 
 and the Superintendent shall indicate thereon the date upon w.hich the forms 
 may be removed. Record shall also be made of the date upon which foms 
 were actually removed. 
 
 NOTE.- For theory of design and allowable practice in reinforced concrete 
 construction, see Report of the Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced 
 Concrete, as published by the American Society for Testing Materials. 
 
 i..) jhritol .<! ....i,,,,-. !;:;.; v.,i ;< -! .,.. f. ;I ...l.l,:i.>j ft; M -jro/; 
 
 Reinforced Concrete for Fireproofing 
 
 SECTION 162. APPROVED CONSTRUCTION.--!. Concrete is approved for all 
 fire-resistive construction, also for the protection of steel structural memhjers, 
 or for any other fire-proofing purposes in any building. 
 
 2. Any system of reinforced concrete construction may t>e approved for 
 the construction of floor or roof panels, or partitions in skeleton frame or 
 any other type of fire-resistive building, provided that the unit stresses in 
 the materials do not exceed those specified in this Code as permissible for 
 use in such design; and that the concrete and the construction conform to 
 the various other requirements herein specified for such use, including the 
 fire test. 
 
 SECTION 163. MIXTURE. Concrete for fireproofing purposes shall consist 
 of a mixture of viscous consistency of one part Portland cement ,to not 
 more than seven parts of fine and coarse aggregate by volume. The aggre- 
 gate shall be mixed in the ratio of two parts of fine to not more than five 
 parts of coarse, or in such proportions as will give the densest mixture. 
 
 NOTE. A mixture of 1:2:4 is recommended as giving very satisfactory 
 results. It is particularly advantageous for floor and roof slabs by reason 
 of its density and consequent increase in waterproofness, as well as strength. 
 
 SECTION 164. AGGREGATES. Fine aggregates shall be of quality described 
 in Section 122. 
 
 Coarse aggregates shall consist of gravel, crushed stone, hard burned' brick, 
 terra cotta, slag, or steam boiler cinders, and shall be clean, ha'rd, and free 
 from deleterious material. All aggregates shall be sized to pass a i inch 
 screen and be retained lipon a % inch screen, and shall be reasonably dry 
 when screened. 
 
 SECTION 165. MANIPULATION. Corict'ete for fireproofing shall be mixed, 
 deposited, and protected in accordance with the requirements of Sections 154 
 to 159, inclusive, of this Code. 
 
 SECTION 166. REINFORCEMENT. i. The steel reinforcement in concrete 
 used for fireproofing, shall be of quality required by Section 124, and the 
 installation shall be in accordance with the specifications of Section 151. The 
 longitudinal members in mesh reinforcement shall not be spaced more than 
 4 inches center to center, and the least dimension of mesh opening shall be 
 2 inches. Mesh metal fabrics of all kinds shall have a side lap of not less 
 than 3 inches. 
 
 2. All reinforcement essential to secure the required strength of arches 
 or slabs, shall be fully embedded in the concrete, and shall have a protection 
 of at least i inch of concrete on the under side. 
 
 3. Exposed metal centering or exposed metal of any kind shall not be con- 
 
NATIONAL HOARD UUILDING CODE 339 
 
 sidered a factor in the strength of any part of any concrete construction 
 subject to fire; and a plaster finish applied over the metal shall not be accepted 
 as sufficient protection. 
 
 SECTION 167. CINDER CONCRETE- i. Cinder concrete may be used con- 
 structively as fireproofing, only for floors and roofs between steel beams, 
 and for interior non-bearing walls or partitions. 
 
 j. Cinders shall be composed of hard, well burned, vitreous clinker, free 
 from sulphides, fine ashes and foreign matter. The use of gas-hcuse, or 
 locomotive cinders, or stove or heating furnace ashes, is prohibited. 
 
 3. In the selection of cinders for concrete, care shall be exercised to 
 insure that they carry only a small percentage of unburned coal or coke. 
 The amount shall not exceed 15 per cent. 
 
 NOTE. Attention is called to the fact that a properly proportioned concrete 
 made from carefully selected cinders is a most excellent fire-resistive material; 
 but the use of inferior cinders or an improper mixture, that is, one which is 
 too lean 01* too dry, may be productive of danger, due either to weakness, 
 or linhilitv to produce corrosion of metal in contact with the concrete. 
 
 Unburned coal and coke in cinders serve to introduce sulphur into the 
 concrete, which is likely to corrode metal embedded in it unless the concrete 
 is sufficiently wet and rich enough to furnish a coating of cement on the 
 metal. Sulphides will also tend to deteriorate the concrete under conditions 
 of oxidation. 
 
 Soft coal cinders should be used with the utmost caution. Satisfactory 
 concrete can be made from clean, thoroughly calcined, soft coal clinker; but 
 >"ft coal is very liable to carry with it considerable free sulphide of iron 
 (iron pyrites), and cinders from such coal are almost sure to contain an 
 excess of sulphides, which are fatal to good concrete. 
 
 4. Cinder concrete in the proportions of 1:2:5 to qualify for use for fire- 
 proofing, except when used as fill above the floor arch proper, shall develop 
 an average crushing strength of not less than 800 pounds per sq. inch at 
 28 days, when tested in accordance with the method of test prescribed for 
 stone concrete in Section 120. 
 
 5. The allowable extreme fibre stress in compression ,in cinder concrete 
 slabs between steel beams shall not exceed 300 pounds per sq. inch. The 
 ratio of the moduli of elasticity of 1:2:5 cinder concrete and steel shall be 
 taken as i to 30. 
 
 NOTE. Cinder concrete is very porous, and while this property adds to its 
 fire-resisting qualities, it is a serious defect as regards resistance to water. 
 See Note, Section 110, paragraph 3. 
 
 Weight of cinder concrete and fill, Sec. 63. 
 
 SECTION 169. FLOOR SYSTEMS APPROVED ON DESIGN. i. Segmental con- 
 crete arches or flat slabs shall be approved" 1 for fireproofing if designed and 
 constructed in accordance with the requirements of Parts XXII and XXIII 
 in so far as they are applicable; but the permissible stresses for cinder concrete 
 shall be taken as specified in Section 167. 
 
 2. The span of concrete arches or slabs for fireproofing, shall be taken 
 as the distance center to center of the supporting steel beams, and shall not 
 exceed 8 feet unless the coarse aggregate in the concrete be either stone or 
 gravel, in which case the span shall be limited by the design. 
 
 NOTE. When the span of cinder concrete floor slabs exceeds 6 feet, special 
 care should be exercised in inspecting the details of construction, and the 
 removal of forms. 
 
 3. The minimum thickness of arches or slabs of cinder concrete for floor 
 and roof construction, shall be 3% inches, and in no case less than one 
 eighteenth of the span length between supporting beams. 
 
 SECTION 171. TIE RODS. i. Segmental arches shall have a rise of not less 
 than % inch per foot of span, and steel tie rods of proper size, spacing, 
 
340 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 and location to resist the thrust shall be used. The rods shall be protected 
 as required in Section in, paragraph 2. 
 
 2. In flat arches, if tie rods are omitted, the reinforcement shall be con- 
 tinuous, or the ends of the bars shall be hooked over the beams or otherwise 
 securely fastened to them at intervals not exceeding 3 feet. 
 
 SECTION 172. CONCRETE FILL. Concrete for fill shall consist of one part 
 cement and not more than ten parts of aggregate. Aggregates shall be as 
 specified in Section 164. All concrete fill shall be well mixed, thoroughly 
 wet, tamped to place, and brought to a level at the required height. See 
 Section no, paragraph 2. 
 
 Chimneys, Flues and Heating Apparatus. 
 
 SECTION 178. CHIMNEYS, SMOKE FLUES, GAS FLUES AND FIREPLACES. i. 
 All chimneys hereafter erected shall be of brick or stone laid ;n Portland 
 cement mortar without addition of lime, reinforced concrete or other approved 
 incombustible material, extending at least 3 feet above the point of contact 
 with a flat roof or 2 feet above the ridge of a pitch roof, and shall be prop- 
 erly capped with terra cotta, stone, cast iron, or other approved incombustible 
 weatherproof material. 
 
 NOTE. Portland cement mortar is very superior to lime mortar in resisting 
 the action of heat t and flue gases. The latter disintegrates in time, and is 
 liable to fall out of the joints, thus producing a hole through which a fire 
 is likely to originate. 
 
 2. The brickwork or reinforced concrete of the smoke flues of all boilers, 
 furnaces, baker's ovens, large cooking ranges, large .laundry stoves, and all 
 flues used for a similar purpose shall be at least 8 inches in thickness. Walls 
 of smoke flues used exclusively for ordinary stoves or open firepbces shall 
 be not less than 4 inches thick. Brick set on edge shall not be permitted 
 in chimney construction. 
 
 3. Where two or more smoke flues are contained in the same chimney, the 
 walls between the several flues shall be not less than 4 inches thick. The 
 walls of stone smoke flues shall be 4 inches thicker than required for brick 
 or reinforced concrete. No smoke flue shall have smoke pipe connections 
 in more than one story of a building. 
 
 Lined hole fi 
 sinoke pip'e. 
 
 FIG. 29. Indicates method of building in flue tile during construction of 
 
 chimney 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 341 
 
 4. Every smoke flue contained in a chimney hereafter erected shall have 
 ah area of at least 64 square inches and, unless required to be lined with 
 fire brick, shall be lined with hard burned terra cotta or fire clay flue lining 
 made smooth on the insfde. The flue lining shall start from the bottom of 
 the flue, or from the throat of the fireplace if the flue starts from a fire- 
 place, and shall be carried up continuously the entire height of the flue. 
 If the thickness of the masonry surrounding the throat be less than 8 inches 
 in any part, the lining shall start at bottom of the lintel. The ends of the 
 sections of all such lining tile shall be laid in cement mortar and the tile 
 shall be built in as the flues are carried up. Fig. 29. 
 
 No parging mortar nor plaster shall be used on the inside of any fireplace, 
 chimney, or flue. 
 
 NOTE. While walls 4 inches thick and lined are permitted for chimneys 
 serving as flues where high temperatures are not maintained, a minimum 
 wall thickness of 8 inches is strongly recommended, especially in localities 
 subject to long, severe winters, and continuous hot fires are a necessity. 
 
 5. In every building, where one or more smoke flues start from the cellar 
 or lowest story, at least one such smoke flue shall have an internal cross- 
 sectional area of at least 96 square inches and shall start at least 3 feet 
 below the ceiling. 
 
 6. In no case shall a chimney be corbeled more than 8 inches from the 
 wall, and such corbeling shall consist of at least five courses of brick. Piers 
 which support chimneys shall start from the foundation on the same line with 
 the chimney breast. They shall be not less than 12 inches on the face and 
 shall be properly bonded into the walls. No chimney shall rest upon, nor 
 be carried by woodwork. No combustible furring or sheathing shall be 
 placed against any smoke flue or chimney breast. 
 
 7. The walls of flues used only for gas burning appliances shall be of 
 brick or concrete at least 4 inches thick and lined as required in paragraph 
 4 of this section. Where two .or more such flues are contained in the same 
 chimney, the walls between the several flues shall be not less than two thick- 
 nesses of the tile lining with joints broken, except that at least every third 
 partition shall be not less than 4 inches thick of brick or its equivalent, and 
 bonded into the walls. Not more than one appliance or utensil in which 
 gas is used as fuel shall be connected to a single flue, nor shall any such 
 appliance or utensil be connected to any flue to which a smoke pipe is con- 
 nected. 
 
 8. The smoke flue of every high pressure steam boiler and every appliance 
 producing a corresponding temperature in the smoke flue shall, if built of 
 brick, stone, reinforced concrete or other approved masonry, be lined on 
 all sides with not less than 4 inches of fire brick laid in fire mortar for a 
 distance of at least 25 feet from the point where the smoke connection of 
 the boiler enters the flue. 
 
 9. Interior vertical smoke stacks or flues for steam boilers or other furnaces, 
 and similar heating devices producing a corresponding temperature, may be 
 of metal not less than No. 10 U. S. gauge, properly riveted, jointed, and 
 braced at intervals of at least 20 feet. Such stacks shall either be enclosed 
 by approved masonry walls not less than 8 inches thick with an air space 
 of at least 4 inches between lining and wall; or if such stacks or flues are 
 not enclosed with masonry they shall have a clearance from all combustible 
 material of not less than one-half the diameter of the stack, but not less 
 than 24 inches, unless the combustible material be properly guarded by loose 
 fitting metal shields, in which case the distance shall be not less than 12 
 inches. Where such a stack passes through a wooden framed roof, it shall 
 be guarded by a galvanized iron ventilating thimble extending from at least 
 
342 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION . 
 
 9 inches below the underside of the ceiling or roof beams to at least 9 
 inches above the roof, and the ventilating thimble shall have a clearance of 
 not' less than-- 18 inches, except that for stacks for^ low grade furnaces such 
 as hot air, hot water, and low pressure steam heating furnaces, coffee roasting 
 ovens, candy furnaces, etc., the clearance may be reduced to 12 inches. 
 Metal smoke stacks shall not be permitted to pass through floors. Smoke 
 flues shall not be permitted inside of vent flues for ranges. 
 
 10. Exterior metal smoke flues for boilers, large cooking ranges, and 
 similar heating devices, shall be of approved construction and supported on 
 approved masonry foundations, and shall have a clearance of at least 4 
 inches from the outside wall. \Such flues having an area not exceeding 255 
 square inches shall be constructed of not less than No. 16 U. S. gauge metal; 
 if the area exceeds 255 square inches the thickness of the metal shall be not 
 less than No. 10 U. S. gauge. 
 
 n. The smoke flue of every smelting furnace and of every other similar 
 device which heats the flue to an extremely high temperature, shall be built 
 with double walls of thickness suitable for the temperature. There shall be 
 an air space between the walls, and the inside wall shall be of firebrick not 
 less than 4 inches thick. 
 
 12. Chimneys of cupola-furnaces, blast-furnaces, and similar devices, shall 
 extend at least 10 feet above the highest point of any roof within a radius 
 of so feet, and no woodwork shall be within 3 feet of any part of any 
 such device or its chimney. 
 
 Substantial Iron Door 
 for removing ashes 
 
 30. A thoroughly safe and substantial form of fireplace construction. 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 343 
 
 13. When a building or structure extends more than 10 feet above the 
 roof of an adjoining building or structure, the owner of the higher building, 
 if requested in writing during its construction by the owner of the adjoining 
 building or structure, shall at his own expense extend the adjoining flues 
 of such adjoining building to the same height as the chimneys of his build- 
 ing, or shall supply sufficient flues connecting such adjoining flues with the 
 chimneys of his building. 
 
 14. All fireplaces and chimney breasts where mantels are placed, whether 
 intended for ordinary fireplace use or not, shall have trimmer arches or 
 other approved fireproof construction supporting hearths. The arches and 
 hearths shall be at least 20 inches in width measured from the face of the 
 chimney breast, Fig. 30. The arches shall l>e of brick, stone, terra cotta 
 or reinforced concrete of approved thickness. The length of the trimmer 
 arch and the length of the hearth shall be not less than the width of the 
 chimney breast. The hearth shall be of brick, stone, tile or other approved 
 fireproof material. False fireplaces shall only be permitted against unfurred 
 masonry walls. 
 
 15. No coal burning heater shall be placed in a fireplace, which does not 
 conform to the foregoing requirements and have an incombustible mantel. 
 No wood mantel or other woodwork shall be placed within 8 inches of the 
 side nor within 12 inches of the top of any open fireplace. No combustible 
 summer piece or fireboard shall be used in connection with any open fireplace. 
 The firebacks of all fireplaces shall be of solid masonry not less than 8 
 inches thick. 
 
 1 6. When a grate is set in a fireplace, a lining of firebrick at least 2 
 inches in thickness shall be added to the fireback, or soapstone, tile or cast 
 iron may be used, if solidly backed with brick or concrete. 
 
 All flue-holes when not in use shall be closed with tight-fitting metal covers. 
 
 Protection of woodwork around chimneys, Sec. 77. 
 
 SECTION 179. SMOKE PIPES. i. No smoke pipe shall pass through any 
 floor, nor through a non-fireproof roof. Smoke pipes for large cooking 
 ranges, hot air furnaces, low pressure steam or hot water boilers shall be 
 not less than 18 inches below any wood lath and plaster or other com- 
 bustible ceiling, unless at least the upper half of such smoke pipe is properly 
 protected by r inch or more of asbestos covering or its equivalent, or by a 
 incfal casing spaced 2 inches from the upper half of the pipe. If so pro- 
 tected smoke pipes shall be not less than 9 inches from any wood lath and 
 plaster construction, woodwork or other combustible material. Smoke pipes 
 from ordinary stoves shall be not less than 9 inches from any exposed 
 woodwork. 
 
 2. Where a smoke pipe passes through a wood lath and plaster or other 
 combustible partition or wall, a section of the partition or wall shall be 
 removed and the smoke pipe so placed that no part of it shall be nearer 
 thnn 12 inches to any remaining combustible part of the partition. The 
 section of the partition or wall so removed shall be replaced by approved 
 fireproof material only, and an air space of at least 2 inches shall be pre- 
 served on all sides of the smoke pipe. 
 
 SECTION 180. HEATING FURNACES AND APPLIANCES. i. High pressure 
 steam boilers, bakery ovens or furnaces in which fires are maintained pro- 
 ducing a high degree of heat, shall rest on the ground, a trimmer arch. 
 or a fireproof floor constructed in accordance with Section in. 
 
 2. Low pressure heating boilers, coffee roasters, fireheated candy kettles, 
 laundry stoves, coal ranges without legs, and similar appliances where hot 
 fires are used, shall rest upon fireproof foundations as above described. 
 However, the Superintendent's written permission may allow thrm to be 
 
344 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 placed upon wooden floors if the floors are protected by sheet metal or a % 
 inch layer of asbestos building lumber, covered with not less than 4 inches 
 of masonry set in cement mortar. Such masonry shall consist of one course 
 of 4 inch hollow terra cotta, or of two courses of brick or terra cotta, at 
 least one of which shall be hollow and be laid to preserve a free circulation 
 of air throughout the whole course. Concrete may be substituted for a 
 course of solid brick if desired. The masonry work shall be covered by 
 sheet metal of not less than No. 26 gauge, so arranged as not to obstruct 
 the ventilating passages beneath. Such hearths shall extend at least 12 
 inches on the sides, back, and front of the furnace, range or similar heating 
 appliance; if solid fuel is used, the front extension shall be at least 24 inches. 
 All stoves or ranges with legs shall be set on incombustible material which 
 shall extend at least 24 inches in front when solid fuel is used. 
 
 NOTE. Solid brickwork will conduct heat quite freely. There are records 
 of numerous fires starting by the ignition of wooden flooring underneath 
 single layers of brick which supported furnaces or ranges in which hot fires 
 were maintained. Hence the necessity for the double layer and air space. 
 
 3. Any woodwork or wooden lath and plaster partition within 4 feet of 
 the sides or back, or 6 feet from the front of any such boiler, furnace, or 
 heating appliances, shall be covered with metal shields or other approved 
 incombustible material to a height of at least 4 feet above the floor. This 
 covering shall extend the full length of the boiler, furnace, or heating ap- 
 pliance, and to at least 5 feet in front of it. Such metal shields shall be 
 so attached as to preserve an air space behind them. In no case shall such 
 combustible construction be permitted within 2 feet of the sides or back 
 of the heating appliance, or 5 feet in front of same. 
 
 4. Heating boilers shall be encased on sides and top by incombustible pro- 
 tective covering not less than i% inches thick, and the overhead clearance of 
 such covered boilers and hot air furnaces shall be not less than 15 inches. 
 Any woodwork within 2 feet of the top of such boilers or furnace shall be 
 protected by a loose fitting metal shield, but such shields shall not be placed 
 so as to form concealed spaces. 
 
 NOTE. It is recommended that the room or rooms in which boilers and all 
 power and operating machinery are located, shall be separated from other 
 portions of the building by an 8-inch wall, having an approved fire door at 
 each opening; such rooms not to have direct communication with the floor 
 above. 
 
 All boilers to be separated from operating machinery by 8-inch walls, with 
 approved .fire doors at openings. 
 
 SECTION 181. STOVES AND RANGES. i. No kitchen range or stove in any 
 building shall be placed less than 3 feet from any woodwork or wooden 
 lath and plaster partition, unless the woodwork or partition is properly 
 protected by metal shields, in which case the distance shall be not less than 
 1 8 inches. Metal shields shall be so attached as to preserve an air space 
 behind them. 
 
 2. Hotel and restaurant ranges shall be provided with a metal hood placed 
 at least 1 9 inches below any wooden lath and plaster or wooden ceiling, and 
 have an individual pipe outlet connected with a flue. The pipe shall be 
 protected by at least i inch of asbestos covering, or its equivalent. 
 
 3. No furnace, boiler, range or other heating appliance shall be placed 
 against a wall furred with wood. 
 
 SECTION 182. HOT AIR PIPES AND REGISTERS. i. All stone or brick hot air 
 flues shall be lined with tin or other suitable sheet metal or burnt clay pipe. 
 
 2. Horizontal hot air furnace pipes shall be placed at least 6 inches below 
 wooden floor beams or wooden lath and plaster ceiling; if the floor beams 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 
 
 345 
 
 or ceijing are protected by metal lath and plaster, or if the woodwork be 
 covered with loose fitting tin, or the pipe be covered with at least % inch 
 of corrugated asbestos, the distance from the woodwork may be reduced to 
 not less than 3 inches. 
 
 3. Cold air ducts for hot air furnaces shall be made of incombustible 
 material. 
 
 4. Hot air pipes where passing* through combustible partitions or floors, 
 must be doubled tin pipes with at least i inch air space between them. 
 
 No hot air pipe shall be placed in a wooden stud partition or any wooden 
 enclosure unless it be at least 8 feet horizontal distance from the furnace. 
 Hot air pipes contained in combustible partitions shall be placed inside another 
 pipe arranged to maintain !/ inch air space between the two on all sides, 
 or be securely covered with */% inch of corrugated asbestos. Neither the 
 
 Cross-section Through Stud P&i'tition 
 ng Hot Air Pipe 
 
 Wooden studs* 
 
 Metal covered studs/ * 
 
 'Double pipe or fa" cor r agate d J 
 asbestos 
 
 Metdl lath 
 
 FIG. 31. Protection o'f hot air pipe in wooden stud partition 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 outer pipe nor the covering shall be within i inch of wooden studding, and 
 no wooden lath shall be used to cover the portion of the partition in which 
 the hot air pipe is located, Fig. 31. Hot air pipes in closets shall be double, 
 with a space of at least i inch between them on all sides. The air space 
 between pipes shall be open at bottom and closed at top. 
 
 5. Every hot air furnace shall have at least one register without valve 
 or louvres. 
 
 6. A register located over a brick furnace shall be supported by a brick 
 shaft built up from the cover of the hot-air chamber; said shaft shall be 
 lined with a metal pipe, and no woodwork shall be within 2 inches of the 
 outer face of the shaft. 
 
 A register box placed in the floor over a portable furnace shall have an 
 open space around it of not less than 4 inches on all sides, and be sup- 
 ported by an incombustible border. 
 
 Hot air registers placed in any woodwork or combustible floors shall be 
 surrounded with borders of incombustible material, not less than 2 inches 
 wide, securely set in place. 
 
 The register boxes shall be of metal, and be double; the distance between 
 the two shall be not less than i inch; or they may be single, if covered 
 with asbestos not less than Vs inch in thickness, and if all woodwork 
 within 2 inches be covered with metal. 
 
346 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 SECTION 183. STEAM AND HOT WATER PIPES. No steam or hot water 
 pipe shall be within i inch of any woodwork. Every steam or hot water 
 pipe passing through combustible floors, or ceilings, or wooden lath arid 
 plaster partitions, shall be protected by a metal tube i inch larger in diameter 
 than the pipe and be provided with a close-fitting metal cap on each side 
 of the floor or partition. Fig. 32. All wooden boxes, or casings enclosing 
 steam or hot water heating pipes, or wooden covers to recesses in walls 
 in which steam or hot . water heating pipes are placed, shall be lined with 
 metal, and the pipes shall be kept at least i inch away from the walls of 
 the box. Steam and hot water pipe coverings shall lie of incombustible 
 material. 
 
 NOTE. Where waterproof floors are provided, it is important that metal 
 sleeves which encase shafts or steam pipes should extend at least 6 inches 
 above the floor level and be capped as above required. This provides a dam 
 to prevent water flowing to floors below, if from any cause the floor should 
 become flooded. 
 r .. ,.'. V .; - - j . . ...... A \ ' . ,.. , -V, 
 
 ,- Steam pips 
 /Floorplate 
 
 Ceiling plate 
 
 FIG. 32. Protection of pipe or shaft openings through floors 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 Steam pipes can ignite wood work in the following manners: 
 First If the water is allowed to run low the steam becomes 
 superheated, causing a true combustion. 
 
 Second Pipes containing steam at the usual temperature may 
 cause the secondary phenomenon of spontaneous combustion, as the 
 steam pipes may slowly dry the wood, the moisture in time being 
 vaporized which causes the wood to assume a state resembling 
 charcoal, in which condition the glowing or combustion ; well known 
 in the case of charcoal takes plac^ spontaneously. The porosity of 
 charcoal admits of the absorption of oxygen from the air, which 
 may condense sufficiently to cause oxidation and heat the charcoal 
 up to the ignition point. The' sides of timber can readily bear a 
 strong dead heat for an indefinite period without igniting, unless 
 a cross section of the fibre, as exists around a live, knot, presents 
 itself to the heated surface, or if the end surface of the timber is 
 exposed. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 347 
 
 It is by the end that a piece of wood exposed to heat most 
 readily ignites, as the gases which are generated in the timber 
 pores are afforded a more liberal vent through the ends, thus 
 exposing the inflammable gases to the direct action of the heat. 
 Materials in the form of lint or dust, being in a finely divided state 
 will oxidize more readily than when the same materials are in 
 solid masses; such conditions can readily arise in flour mills, coal 
 mines, or where any organic matter may be converted into dust. 
 Iron may be prepared in such a finely divided state as to take fire 
 on exposure to the air. 
 
 Frame Buildings 
 
 In no case shall a frame building with wooden siding be erected or 
 altered, to extend within 5 feet of the side or rear lot line, nor within 10 
 feet of another building, unless the space between the studs on such side 
 he filled solidly with no.t less than 2* inches of brickwork or other equivalent 
 incombustible material, and the entire exposed side be covered with at least 
 a % inch layer of asbestos board, or % inch of plaster board back of the 
 wooden siding. When such walls are thus filled and covered, their distance 
 from a side or rear lot line may be reduced to 3 feet; or to 5 feet from 
 another building. If the adjacent walls of two buildings have no openings, 
 and are filled and covered as above specified, there need be no limitation as 
 to distance between them. 
 
 NOTE. It is recommended that when such buildings are nearer than 3 
 feet to a side or rear lot line, or 5 feet to another building, the cornices 
 and overhanging eavea on the side, or rear walls shall be of, or covered with, 
 incombustible material. See Note in Section 85. 
 
 Floor beams and rafters in frame buildings shall be not less than 2 
 inches in thickness. All frame or wood buildings exceeding 15 feet in 
 height shall have their sills secured to the foundations in an approved manner 
 and l>e erected with sills, posts, girts and plates of suitable size and materials 
 with proper mortise and tenon framing and braced with studs at all angles, 
 but this shall not prohibit the use of balloon framing with proper sills and 
 ribbon strip not less than i% by 5 inches where diagonal sheathing is used, 
 and provided that the outside walls are fire stopped at each floor level as 
 required by Section 190, paragraph 3. 
 
 Timber stresses, Sec. 65. 
 
 SECTION 189. FOUNDATIONS FOR FRAME BUILDINGS. i. The foundation walls 
 of frame buildings or structures exceeding 15 feet in height shall test on 
 footings of stone or concrete not less than 8 inches in thickness. All footings 
 shall extend at least 4^ inches outward from each side of the bottom of 
 the foundation walls which rest upon them. 
 
 2. The bottom of footings for frame buildings shall rest upon solid ground 
 at a depth at least equal to the frost line below the surface, unless solid 
 rock occurs above this point; or upon piles or ranging timbers of wood 
 where necessary. The foundation \valls of frame structures exceeding 15 
 feet in height, if of stone, shall be not less than 16 inches thick, and if of 
 brick or concrete, not less than 12 inches to the grade and 8 inches thick 
 to th under side of the sill. If the foundation and first story walls are 
 constructed of brick or concrete, the foundation walls shall be not less than 
 12 inches thick to the first tier of beams and 8 inches thick from the first 
 to the second tier of beams, or if these walls are constructed of stone, they 
 
348 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 shall be not less than 18 inches for the foundation walls and 16 inches for 
 the first story wall. 
 
 3. Foundation walls of hollow building blocks shall be not less than 12 
 inches thick in any part. 
 
 4. For one story structures not used for dwellings, the thickness and depth 
 of the foundation walls may be modified at the discretion of the Superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 5. Footings and foundation walls shall be laid in cement mortar. 
 SECTION 190. WALLS AND PARTITIONS IN FRAME BUILDINGS. i. In rows 
 
 of frame houses, the dividing walls or partitions between houses shall be 
 built of brick, terra cotta, concrete, or other approved incombustible material; 
 or they may be built with 4 inch studs, filled solidly with brickwork laid 
 in mortar, or with other incombustible material and covered on each side 
 with at least % inch of metal lath and plaster, or plaster board. Such 
 dividing partitions shall rest on masonry walls or wooden girders and shall 
 extend to under side of roof boards, and a flush mortar joint shall be made 
 between the roof boards and the wall or partition. In rows of more than 
 three houses, every alternate division wall or partition shall be constructed 
 of brick or concrete not less than 8 inches thick. These walls shall extend 
 from front to rear, be solid without openings, and shall extend at least 2 
 feet above the roof, and be coped. If such parapet be of concrete, or if the 
 top six courses of brick be laid in Portland cement the coping may be 
 omitted. 
 
 Fire walls in frame buildings, Sec. 29. 
 
 2. The ends of floor beams entering such walls from opposite sides shall 
 be so staggered or separated that there shall be not less than 4 inches of 
 masonry between the beams where they rest on the walls. 
 
 3. Timber posts and girders or other approved supports may be used 
 instead of brick fore and aft partitions, in cellars of frame buildings. 
 
 4. All stairway and other interior shafts in frame buildings which are 
 required to be enclosed, including dumbwaiter shafts, may be constructed 
 of wood, but they shall be covered with metal lath, or fibre plaster board 
 
 Brick or other 
 Firestopping 
 
 'Brick orothef 
 
 FIG. 33. Fire-stopping of floor in FIG. 34. ^ire-stopping of floor in 
 frame building supported on founda- frame building supported by timber 
 tion wall. wall girt. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
NATIONAL BOARD BUILDING CODE 349 
 
 at least ! /j inch thick, and plastered to a total thickness of % inch; or the 
 plaster board may be covered with sheet metal. Doors opening into such 
 shafts shall be incombustible. 
 
 5. In 'all frame buildings which are to be lathed and plastered or other- 
 wise sheathed on the inside, all stud walls and all partitions which rest 
 directly over each other, shall be completely fire-stopped with brick work 
 or other suitable incombustible material at each floor level. The spaces 
 between the ends of floor joists which rest upon masonry foundation walls 
 or upon wall girts, shall be filled solidly with fire-stopping material to the 
 full depth of the joists, and the spaces between the studs shall be filled in 
 the same manner to a height of 6 inches above the floor level. See Figs. 
 33 and 34. Partitions which rest over each other shall be firestopped as 
 required in Section 97, paragraph 3. The firestopping shall be arranged to 
 cut off all concealed draft openings, and form an effectual horizontal fire 
 barrier between stories. 
 
 SECTION 191. CELLAR CEILING IN FRAME BUILDINGS. The ceiling over 
 the cellar or lowest floor in every frame building more than one story in 
 height, except dwellings, shall be covered with metal lath and at least a % 
 inch coat of cement or cement-tempered plaster; or by a % inch layer of 
 plaster board covered with a *4 inch coat of plaster of with a layer of sheet 
 metal. 
 
 SECTION 192. CHIMNEYS. All chimneys in frame buildings shall conform 
 to the requirements for chimneys in Section 178. 
 
MILL CONSTRUCTION 
 
 This type of construction has Undergone the test of time and has 
 repeatedly demonstrated its merits both from an economic stand- 
 point- and as a source of protection against severe fire loss. 
 
 This title is often misapplied to structures which contain but a 
 fractional portion of the salient features which are necessary in 
 their entirety to warrant this title, as well as the merits due this 
 type of construction. 
 
 The primary object of mill construction is to retard the progress 
 of fire in its incipiency and in order to accomplish such a result 
 a number of conditions are involved in the planning of this type of 
 structure; the structural materials, arrangement of stairs and ele- 
 vators; belt t6wers, floor areas, division of hazards due to the class 
 of occupancy, and the proper fire protective devices must all be con- 
 sidered in their entirety, and if these conditions are not provided 
 for as a whole the structure is defective in comparison with the 
 standard type of mill construction. The paramount requirement of 
 mill construction is stability; to ascertain the correct conditions as 
 to the needs of the structure is of the utmost importance ; the f actors 
 of the proposed floor loads due to machinery and merchandise, the 
 possible amount of deflection, and conditions conducive to vibra- 
 tion, must first be determine'd before the arrangement and sizes of 
 the structural members can be properly calculated. Special condi- 
 tions due to the class of occupancy and the nature of the surround- 
 ing buildings have a direct bearing in the formulation of plans, all 
 of which should be carefully considered in the planning of this type 
 of construction. 
 
 Foundations. Tht conditions as to the nature of the soil and 
 underground strata should be positively determined over the entire 
 area to be occupied by the structure before the plans are prepared ; 
 provision 1 should be made to guard against unequal settlement, due 
 to the arrangement of special foundations for machinery, tank 
 towers, stacks, etc. Unequal settlement is a danger to be especially 
 guarded against in mill construction. The supports for tanks used 
 in connection with fire protective apparatus should be considered, 
 unless such tanks are to be arranged on special independent towers. 
 
 Walls. Good hard burned brick laid in best of lime or cement 
 mortar is considered the best material for wall construction ; walls 
 
MILL CONSTRUCTION 
 
 
 PINTLE OVST IN ~i\wo Pieces 
 
 - GOOD PLANK AMP TIMBER 
 
 CONSTRUCTION - 
 
 Standard feacin* for Po& P|NTLE <* ST 1N OMfL ^ | o 
 
 and Girders MILL XONSTRUCTKTN 
 
 
 
 * 18 to2b Ffc -^ 
 
 
 
 14 b 
 
 !6ft-> 
 
 Po^t - 
 
 
 
 ii. T 
 
 Mam 6irders <J 
 
 l! 
 ind R:>sts wic 
 
 dy 
 
 spaced^witn infcermediafce bc^his 
 arranAed to Support FVxw Plartc. 
 
 PLAN 
 
 POST CAP 
 
 FIG. 35 
 
352 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 in top story to be at least one foot thick and increased in thickness 
 in the lower stories to support the required loads ; outside walls 
 as a rule arranged of pier or pilaster construction to admit of maxi- 
 mum window areas. Such walls should be well laid and all joints 
 flushed up full with cement ; piers in upper stories should be not 
 less than twenty inches thick, non-bearing walls or walls between 
 piers to be not less than one foot thick. Fire walls or walls exposed 
 to fire from outside surroundings should be parapeted by carrying 
 same at le"ast three feet above roof lines ; the top of such walls 
 should be covered with a durable non-combustible coping, prefer- 
 ably terra cotta, such walls to be laid up in cement. 
 
 Fire Walls. As fire walls, division walls and party walls should 
 act as direct barriers to retard the progress of fire a sufficient thick- 
 ness of brick work is required to make such a wall absolutely self- 
 sustaining in case of fire ; a minimum thickness of sixteen inches 
 is considered necessary. If such walls are over sixty feet in length 
 an additional thickness is necessary or proper piers or buttresses 
 should be provided for the strengthening of wall. It is preferable 
 to have no beams enter fire or division walls, but where the same 
 are necessary there must be at least eight inches of solidly, built up 
 brickwork between the ends of beams if they enter walls at opposite 
 sides. 
 
 Window and door arches should be of brick, window sills of 
 brick laid on edge in cement, or sand stone. Door openings in divi- 
 sion walls should be arranged for the installation of standard fire 
 doors, the sills for fire doors to be made of non-combustible mate- 
 rials. All openings in any walls where fire can communicate between 
 floors or rooms to be arranged for the installation of fire doors. 
 Where angle walls exist at adjoining sections which are cut off 
 from each other by fire or division walls the two angle walls should 
 be treated as exposed walls for a distance of at least thirty feet 
 from the corner, and windows, if any, in this space should be of 
 wired glass in standard metal frames. 
 
 Stairs, Elevators, Belt Enclosures, Pipe Shafts, etc. The 
 
 proper treatment of these features is of vital importance in the 
 planning of mill construction. The floors must be continuous from 
 wall to wall without holes through the same for stairways, elevators, 
 belts or pipe shafts in order that a fire may be confined to the floor 
 in which it originates, and stairways, elevators, and main belts 
 should be enclosed in brick towers, with the communicating open- 
 ings into main buildings protected with standard fire doors which 
 should be self-closing. In modern mills belts or ropes which may 
 be used for transmission of power to the various floors are arranged 
 
MILL CONSTRUCTION 353 
 
 in vertical belt towers, the walls of which are constructed of brick 
 or non-combustible materials, and the power is transmitted by shafts 
 through the walls in the several stories. Where openings are 
 necessary they should be protected by standard fire doors. 
 
 Floors. The floor planking should be of spruce or yellow pine 
 three or more inches in thickness according to the spacing of the 
 bay timbers and nature of the floor loads and machinery. The 
 planking should be spiked directly to the floor timbers and kept at 
 least two inches clear of the inside face of brick walls to allow for 
 expansion; a quarter round moulding is generally placed around 
 the inside along the wall and around columns. 
 
 The planking should be grooved for hard wood splines. 
 
 In bays eight feet and under, three inch splined plank is generally 
 used/ For bays eight to ten feet, four inch splined plank; in bays 
 ten to twelve feet, six inch plank or two inch by six inch timbers 
 placed solidly side by side on edge ; in bays twelve to fourteen feet 
 wide, planking should be eight to twelve inches thick, generally 
 arranged with two inch by twelve inch timbers placed solidly side 
 by side, thus giving the required thickness. 
 
 In the best work a double top floor is laid on the planking, the 
 lower one being laid diagonally upon the plank. The upper or wear- 
 ing floor should be of maple or birch laid lengthwise. With the 
 double floor the worn sections may readily be replaced. The diagonal 
 subfloor braces the entire floor area, reduces vibration and tends to 
 distribute the floor load to the best advantage. 
 
 Between the planking and the top floor there should be two or 
 three layers of heavy tarred paper laid to break joints, each layer 
 to be mopped with hot tar or similar material to secure a reason- 
 ably water-tight and dust-tight floor. Floor scuppers should be 
 arranged to reduce water damage in lower stories. 
 
 Basement or lower floors should preferably be . of cement as 
 rapid decay or dry rot is likely to ensue if wood floors are laid in 
 such locations unless special provision is made to protect the wooden 
 floors from deterioration. 
 
 The best method where wooden floors are required is to prepare 
 a foundation of crushed stone, cinders or slag, covering the same 
 with a thick layer of hot tar concrete, over which is laid tarred 
 felt well mopped with hot tar or asphalt. The wood floor should 
 be of-two inch well seasoned plank, and pressed on the hot tar or 
 asphalt foundation floor. The plank should be nailed on edge with- 
 out perforating the waterproofing under it ; the finished hardwood 
 floor boards should be nailed across the plank. Suitable provision 
 should be made for draining basement floors. 
 
354 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Roofs to be of three inch splined pine plank spiked to the roof 
 timbers and covered with five-ply tar and gravel or approved com- 
 position roofing; roofs should pitch one-half inch to three-fourths 
 inch per foot. Where there are exposing buildings the walls should 
 be parapeted and coped with terra cotta. 
 
 Timbers and Columns. No timbers less than six inches in 
 width should be used. Timber should be of sound Georgia pine. 
 Single sticks are preferred for sizes up to fourteen by sixteen 
 inches, but owing to the market conditions large timbers are not 
 always available, in which event it is customary to bolt two seven 
 or eight inch by sixteen inch timbers together, without air space 
 between. Timbers should not be painted, varnished or filled for 
 several years on account of danger due to dry rot. The ends of 
 timbers should be protected against dry rot by providing an air 
 space in the masonry around the same. All timbers should be 
 arranged to rest on cast iron plates or beam boxes in the walls 
 and on cast iron caps on the columns. Beam boxes are of value 
 as they strengthen the walls and distribute the loads evenly. The 
 laying of the brickwork and erecting the beams is also facilitated. 
 The proper air space around end of beams is also insured by this 
 arrangement. 
 
 Columns to be of southern pine. There should be a one and 
 one-half inch hole bored through the centre, and one-half inch 
 vent holes top and bottom. In making calculations to safely bear 
 the superimposed loads allowance should be made to provide for 
 sectional areas of columns which will carry the loads after two 
 inches of their diameter have been reduced to charcoal by fire. 
 
 Columns should be accurately set on pintles, which may be cast 
 in one piece including the cap, or separately. 
 
 Where floor loads are heavy, cast iron or steel columns are often 
 found more practical than wood, but the use of structural metal 
 should be avoided unless it is thoroughly fireproofed. No ordinary 
 fire is likely to consume an upright post of twelve inches diameter, 
 since the charring of the surface tends to preserve the inner and 
 untouched core ; experience has demonstrated the value of mill con- 
 struction, especially when buildings are equipped with proper fire 
 protective devices, but it is seldom wise to incorporate this type of 
 construction in buildings over four stories in height. In fact with 
 the competitive costs of fire proof construction, it is becoming more 
 feasible to construct buildings requiring calculations for heavy floor 
 loads entirely of fireproof materials, especially structures over four 
 stories in height and where the floor loads are 150 pounds to the 
 square foot and over. 
 
MILL CONSTRUCTION 355 
 
 Mill construction or slow-burning construction requires the as- 
 sembling of the heavy timbers in such a manner as to retain the 
 full strength of the timbers, whether in columns, beams or girders. 
 As all timber is more or less subject to shrinkage due to the present 
 methods of seasoning, and, in addition, the physical changes con- 
 stantly taking place in manufacturing or warehouse properties, this 
 condition must be properly met and curtailed as much as possible 
 in the assembling of the beams and girders. Otherwise, the settle- 
 ment in girders or beams might necessitate cutting out the flooring, 
 or where shafting is arranged in connection with hangers supported 
 by the beams, the unequal alignment is likely to cause hot bearings 
 in addition to constant expenditures in the maintenance of proper 
 alignment. 
 
 Mill construction originally involved the assembling of the posts 
 and girders in such a manner that the posts were spaced from eight 
 to ten feet apart, the girders being supported directly over the posts. 
 Modern requirements demand the maximum available amount of 
 unobstructed floor space thus eliminating as many posts as possible, 
 with the result of a change in the method of supporting the floor 
 planking. The elimination of posts requires the adoption of main 
 girders to carry intermediate beams ; the method of supporting the 
 beams from the girders largely determines the proper rating of 
 this class of construction, as, the framing is governed by the effi- 
 ciency of the connecting support or hanger. ( 
 
 Wrought iron and steel stirrups have been used extensively for 
 the support of floor beams, headers, and girders, and until recent 
 years no comparative tests have been made. Several accidents and 
 scientific tests have demonstrated the inherent weakness which 
 always exists in this form of support. There is a tendency to fail 
 by the bending of the stirrup as well as the crushing of the wood 
 at the top of the supporting beam which causes the stirrup to rise 
 on the opposite side, with the constant danger of the stirrup slipping 
 over the carrying beam. 
 
 Patent joist hangers are on the market which have been success- 
 fully tested and are now approved by the underwriters' organiza- 
 tions. These hangers have been designed with a view to minimizing 
 settlement due to shrinkage in the main supporting beams and 
 girders. 
 
 Wall hangers should incorporate the same principles as joist 
 hangers; the object being to secure a proper distribution of the 
 loads over the bearing surface of the masonry, while at the same 
 time possessing the requisite tensile strength in the sides and bot- 
 tom. A proper wall hanger will meet the following requirements: 
 
356 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ist. The regular bond of masonry will not be broken. 2d. The 
 bearing of timbers on the walls will be adequate. 3d. Secure 
 anchorage will be maintained. 4th. Dry-rot will be reduced to a 
 minimum. 5th. The timbers will be self-releasing in case of fire. 
 
 SEMI-MILL CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Semi-mill or compromise construction is the stepping stone be- 
 tween the ordinary joisted construction and standard mill construc- 
 tion ; instead of a number of joist spaced from twelve to eighteen 
 inches apart, heavier timbers are used and spaced from three to 
 six feet apart, these timbers being designated as beams in semi-mill 
 construction. In both joisted and semi-mill construction the joist 
 and beams are generally carried by main girders which are spaced 
 from sixteen to twenty-five feet apart, the common method being 
 to support the beams on iron hangers or stirrups where they inter- 
 sect the main girders. This arrangement is ,used frequently instead 
 of the preferable method of allowing the beams to rest on top of 
 the girders, the stirrup arrangement being used to save head room. 
 Large beams are frequently hung in stirrups having but two or 
 three inches .of bearing, which requires extra ties or straps. With 
 such an arrangement the beams are not self-releasing and are likely 
 to cause severe damage in case of shock or vibration, or of condi- 
 tions ,due to unequal loading on the floors. 
 
 The arrangement of floor timbers in semi-mill construction often 
 defeats an object which is of vital importance, that is, in securing 
 the utmost effectiveness from the fire protective devices, whether 
 from hose streams or automatic sprinklers, as the beams often 
 obstruct the full action of the hose streams or automatic sprinklers. 
 There is a variance of opinion as to the consistent arrangement 
 and number of automatic sprinklers required for the proper pro- 
 tection 1 of buildings so constructed owing to the obstruction to dis- 
 tribution occasioned by the beams. 
 
 The stairs and elevators in this type of building are often ar- 
 ranged within the main areas instead of within substantial brick 
 towers as in standard mill construction. 
 
 The introduction of wood sheathing and light frame partitions 
 is a frequent condition found, which defeats the object of good 
 construction. The roof construction is frequently of light timbers, 
 with the introduction of unnecessary hip or valley rafters which 
 complicate and add to the expense of automatic sprinkler equip- 
 ments. While buildings of this type are as a rule superior to joisted 
 or quick burning construction they are vastly inferior to a mill of 
 standard construction. 
 
MILL CONSTRUCTION 357 
 
 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION STEEL AND PLANK 
 
 The requirements for certain classes of manufacture call for a 
 maximum amount of unobstructed floor space, or clear girder spans 
 which are impractical by the use of plank and timber forms of 
 construction. Well seasoned, sound timber, suitable for girders of 
 long spans, is rapidly becoming scarce in most markets, or else the 
 prices are becoming prohibitive. Solid sticks of timber for spans 
 over 25 feet are impractical when used for floor girders in connec- 
 tion with manufacturing or warehouse properties. Structural steel 
 I beams fill the requirements for spans up to 30 feet. Building 
 operations in the zone of the steel markets, where the materials 
 and expert labor are available, have been successful through the 
 employment of structural steel columns and girders, with the intro- 
 duction of plank floors. 
 
 In the designing of this type of construction, it is necessary to 
 fabricate the metal to meet the class of proposed occupancy. The 
 conditions as to fixed or vibrating machinery should be well con- 
 sidered in the design and spans of the structural members. Pro- 
 vision should always be made for the proper tieing of the structural 
 members to the wall masonry, and the possible deflection or vibra- 
 tion of beams and girders should be considered in the design. 
 
 As structural metal work is readily destroyed under the, influence 
 of fire, provision should be made in the designing of columns, to 
 arrange the units or sections in such a manner as to readily admit 
 pf the application of fireproofing materials. 
 
 The columns in this class of construction are usually fireproofed 
 by the application of wire lath and cement plaster. Some engineers 
 prefer to encase the columns in solid concrete, which is poured in 
 wooden forms arranged around the structural metal work. A 
 minimum thickness of 2 inches between the metal and concrete 
 should always be provided. With the column solidly encased in 
 concrete, the danger from rust is remote ; and with solidly encased 
 columns and beams, these structure members become more monolith 
 in character, which tends to reduce vibration and deterioration. 
 
 The floor planking is secured to the I beams by arranging a 
 timber, usually 4 inches thick, on the top flange of the beam. In 
 order to secure a maximum amount of rigidity this timber, or nail- 
 ing piece, should be bolted to the flange of the beam, suitable holes 
 having .been punched at the steel mill for this purpose. The splined 
 plank and hardwood wearing floor can be arranged similarly to the 
 standard mill constructed floor. 
 
 The desired stiffness of the floor between the girders may be 
 secured by providing a suitable thickness of planking, which would 
 
358 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 be governed by the spacing of the girders and conditions due to 
 floor loads or specific kind of machinery. 
 
 As this type of floor is practically a single unit, and as longi- 
 tudinal contraction is likely to ensue under certain conditions, espe- 
 cially where the floors may be constructed by joists or timbers on 
 edge spiked together, provision should be made for a continuous 
 joint in the under flooring, at intervals. 
 
 The spacing of columns and girders is governed by the require- 
 ments of the structure; girder spacings of from 6 to 12 feet are 
 often adopted and columns are spaced from 8 to 20 feet.' In the 
 greater widths, the cross girders are often arranged to bear on main 
 longitudinal girders running from column to column. 
 
 This type of construction admits of a maximum amount of floor 
 area; permits provision being made for a maximum amount of 
 light, and, with the plank floors, machinery and shafting can be 
 rearranged or installed at a minimum cost. Machine shops and 
 light manufacturing processes have been successfully arranged in 
 this type of structure. Properties constructed for tenant purposes 
 are a success in this form of construction as changes or new instal- 
 lations in machinery can be accomplished without destroying the 
 floor construction, and such changes can be made at a minimum cost. 
 
 FIREPROOF FLOORS BETWEEN STEEL BEAMS 
 Monolithic Construction 
 
 Monolithic Construction. This type of construction consists of 
 a structural steel frame with segmental arches or flat slabs between 
 or over the steel beams. The material is generally placed in posi- 
 tion in a plastic state on temporary wood or permanent metal cen- 
 tering and allowed to set or harden. In the monolithic construction 
 the thrust is largely eliminated and there is no liability of settling 
 or displacement of parts. If the insulating material is properly 
 made and applied, such material should be of a nature to resist the 
 action of fire with the resultant expansion stresses due to sudden 
 application of hose streams. Sufficient material should be used to 
 insure adequate protection to the structural members. A concrete 
 made of cinders in' such a manner that the voids will be well filled 
 provides a good protection for structural steel against corrosion as 
 well as fire. Cinder concrete, however, in a damp atmosphere where 
 the cinders are not imbedded in a sufficient matrix of cement mor- 
 tar would be conducive to the rapid corrosion of the structural metal 
 work. It is important that the structural metal be cleaned of mill 
 scale and rust prior to the placing of the protective materials. Some 
 authorities advocate covering the surface of the metal with a simple 
 mixture of Portland cement and sand as an extra precaution. 
 
MILL CONSTRUCTION 
 
 359 
 
 Finished Hardwood Flcxir 
 
 piece for floor j( - Bolts. 
 
 ALTERNATE. METHOD 
 
 Rods 'if 1 used may be sharpens 
 and driven and Fastened with J 
 
 heavy staple. 7 
 
 Provide at least J- in. of 
 plaster outside the lath two 
 coatworK 
 
 K 
 
 :or rods wrap 
 
 lower hanfc wth piece of metal 
 lath to prwicjc ample thickness of 
 pkshr wer Flande. 
 
 3 inch Splmed 
 
 ^Channel- punched for 
 2 inch wire nails 
 
 Mdal Lath- to be veil 
 stapled on to the wood 
 
 % m . rod or^r- in. channd, 
 Spaced every 18m vhere< 
 beam is more than 10 in 
 deep.- MetaJ lath to be 
 wined to channel or rod- 
 
 <an be cut axd/for hanacrs 
 and pomted up after han&rs 
 are in place. 
 
 STEETL COLUMNS 5t FLCX)R BEAMS 
 
 ARRANGED FOR PLANK FLOORS 
 
 Buildings liavino combustible contents all structurdh 
 metal should oc FIREPRCXDFED. 
 
 CROSS SECTJON OF RCX5f? 
 
 ^ Ift "in. to 20 inT Beas *~~ 
 
 TYPICAL FLOOR PLAN. 
 
 FIG. 36 
 
360 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Construction Consisting of Assembled Parts 
 
 Assembled Parts. This system involves the use of segmental or 
 flat arches constructed of hollow tile, which arrangement makes it 
 necessary to provide for the proper tieing of the floor beams to take 
 up the thrust of the arches. It is of vital importance that the arches 
 be properly erected, and that all joints be perfect, allowing full 
 bearing over the entire surface of the joints. Special precautions 
 should be taken in the case of " End Construction " that is where 
 the cellular spaces and webs run at right angles to the beams, 
 the blocks should be accurately set so that the adjacent ribs or 
 webs come opposite each other and form a continuous rib or web 
 from skewback to skewback. With imperfect joints arches of this 
 class will settle, causing cracks, which will not only destroy the 
 finished ceiling, but cause failure as a fire retardant. 
 
 In arches adjacent to exterior walls the tie rods should be care- 
 fully protected so as to prevent thrust against the walls in case 
 of fire. 
 
 Construction with Light Metal Constituents 
 
 Construction with Light Metal Constituents. Fireproofing 
 material in the form of a flat arch or flat slab acts like a beam, the 
 upper portion of the section being in compression and the lower 
 portion in tension. As no building materials adapted for this pur- 
 pose are as strong in tension as in compression, light metal elements 
 or units are introduced to strengthen that portion of the section 
 that is in tension. By the use of metal as a reinforcing material a 
 much thinner and lighter construction of the requisite strength may 
 be obtained. In assembled construction the metal elements are im- 
 bedded in the mortar joints. In monolithic construction the metal 
 is imbedded in the material while in a plastic state. 
 
 The metal generally consists of steel in the form of wire, rods, 
 bars, or sheet metal expanded into open meshes. If properly im- 
 bedded the metal adds greatly to the strength of the construction. 
 As that portion of the material which is in tension is usually the 
 underside of the beam or slab, the metal in order to develop its 
 maximum efficiency should be located as far as possible from the 
 neutral axis or near the under surface of the construction. In this 
 position, however, it is very much exposed and in case of fire of 
 any magnitude the heat would soon render the metal constituents 
 valueless. As an element of strength in constructions of this class, 
 the imbedded metal should be located as far as practicable from the 
 under surface. 
 
 Fireproofing. Types of fireproof floors in which the under sur- 
 face of the materials of construction is below the lower flange of 
 
FLOOR DRAINAGE AND SCUPPERS 361 
 
 the steel beams afford generally a better protection for the beams 
 than those types in which the beams project below the flooring and 
 are protected by a covering. In the latter case three sides of the 
 beam or girder covering are exposed to the flame, and heat in case 
 of fire. The thickness of covering in such forms of construction 
 should be carefully designed so as to provide suitable protection 
 as the special conditions may warrant. 
 
 For warehouses, factories, stores and such buildings which may 
 he filled with inflammable and other goods, and in which the floors 
 are subject to heavy moving or jarring loads, the segmental arch 
 form of construction will generally be found the strongest, safest 
 and most economical. 
 
 For public buildings, libraries, and other high class buildings in 
 which expensive interior finish enters, the monolithic construction 
 with flat ceilings gives the best results. The finished ceilings are 
 generally suspended under the rough constructive members, the 
 finished plastering being applied to wire or expanded metal. The 
 monolithic construction will preserve the integrity of the floor 
 finish and the wire ceilings if properly constructed will prevent 
 the cracking and discoloration of the finished plaster work. 
 
 FLOOR DRAINAGE AND SCUPPERS 
 
 Water damage in many cases is much in excess of the actual 
 fire loss. To guard against this, thoroughly waterproof floors are 
 essential ; even in apartments, as evidenced by the heavy water 
 damage in the Alwyn Apartment fire in New York, this water- 
 proofing should be provided. In this case, although the building 
 was fireproof, the water necessary to extinguish a fire on one floor 
 seeped through to several floors below, because sufficient attention 
 had not been paid to waterproofing. 
 
 In joisted buildings, the flooring is usually so thin and poorly 
 laid as to readily let water through, but even with such floors, if 
 a proper pitch is given to the floor to drain to a doorway, stairwell 
 or elevator opening, much damage can be prevented by salvage 
 corps and firemen by sweeping the water away. 
 
 In mill or iireproof buildings the waterproofing is a simpler 
 matter and requires only a little care in the laying or "placing of 
 the floors and the flashing around the walls. 
 
 It is considered good practice to build floors with a pitch of one 
 inch in twenty feet; basement floors should be pitched towards 
 and drained to elevator pits which should be three feet deep and 
 connected to sewer or a well to carry off the water. 
 
 Standard brick stair and elevator towers often provide good 
 means for disposing of water but there is more or less delay in 
 
362 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 sweeping up, especially where the floors are not properly graded 
 or where the floor areas are large ; the drains and pits at bottom 
 of elevator shafts are frequently too small to carry off quantities of 
 water, such a condition could readily lead to heavy water losses 
 in. basements containing perishable materials. 
 
 To secure an efficient watertight floor, it is necessary to arrange 
 not only a suitable surfacing, but special precautions should be 
 taken at all openings where pipes or conduits extend through the 
 floors, watertight metal thimbles should be arranged around pipes, 
 suitable curbing should be arranged at the walls and around columns. 
 
 In all buildings where goods are stored or manufactured, and 
 especially if the building is equipped with sprinklers, there should 
 be properly designed scuppers of sufficient capacity to prevent the 
 water rising to a height that will damage goocls. 
 
 Several makes of scuppers are on the market but these are 
 patented. The most common type is one extending through the 
 side wall, with a slight slant and with a wider mouth on the inside. 
 Another type consists of pipes extending down through the various 
 stories with inlet slots. 
 
 There are no insurance regulations covering scuppers; a National 
 Fire Protection Association Committee issued an advance report 
 on this subject at the annual meeting in 1915, but it was not adopted, 
 because it described patented articles. 
 
 There are several features which must be covered : they must 
 be of such design as not to allow any water to stand on the floor 
 before starting discharge, must not allow passage of fire or smoke 
 from one floor to another and must be of such capacity and in such 
 number as to prevent water from a reasonable number oi sprinkler 
 heads or fire streams flooding the floor sufficiently to wet goods 
 on 4 to 6-inch skids. In addition they must be so located and pro- 
 tected as to give a free opening and not be stopped up by the piling 
 of goods. Also they must not be of a design that will allow such 
 an amount of cold air in the winter time that there will be a ten- 
 dency to stuff paper or rags in the opening. 
 
 ROOF COVERINGS 
 
 Roof Coverings inspected and classified in accordance with Underwriters' 
 Laboratories' " Standard for Roof Coverings, Test Specifications and Classifi- 
 cation Schedule," bear labels attached to each container of finished roofing 
 or roofing material. Labels for different classes are lettered and colored as 
 follows : 
 
 Letter Color Background Lettering 
 
 Class A White Orange 
 
 Class B White/ Red 
 
 Class C Red Yellow 
 
 Class D Yellow Red 
 
 Class E. . . Red White 
 
 Class F .Orange. . . . . White 
 
ROOF COVERINGS 363 
 
 As regards the fire hazard, roof coverings are classified as (i) Standard, 
 (2) Fire Retarding, and (3) Flammable. 
 
 1. Standard. Includes the Underwriters' Laboratories' Classes A and B. 
 
 2. Fire Retarding. Includes the Underwriters' Laboratories' Classes C, D, 
 E and F. 
 
 3. Flammable. Includes the Underwriters' Laboratories' Classes G and H. 
 For dwellings, standard or fire retarding roof coverings are acceptable. 
 
 Where flammable roof coverings are used on this class of property, the 
 increased fire hazard should be recognized. 
 
 For mercantile and other business property standard roof coverings should 
 be used. In general where fire retarding or flammable roof coverings are 
 used on this class of property, the differences in the fire hazard should be 
 recognized. 
 
 Class A includes roof coverings which are not flammable and do not carry 
 or communicate fire; which afford a very high degree of heat insulation to 
 the roof deck; which possess no flying brand hazard; which do not slip from 
 position when exposed to high temperature, and which are durable and do not 
 require frequent repairs. 
 
 Class B includes roof coverings which are not readily flammable and do 
 not carry or communicate fire; which afford a high degree of heat insula- 
 tion to the roof deck; which possess little or no flying brand hazard; which 
 do not slip from position to a serious degree when exposed to high tem- 
 perature, and which are durable and do not require frequent repairs. 
 
 Class C includes roof coverings which are not readily flammable and do not 
 carry or communicate fire to a serious degree; which afford at least a moderate 
 degree of heat insulation to the roof deck; which possess little or no flying 
 brand hazard; which do not slip from position to a serious degree when 
 exposed to high temperatures, and which are durable but may require occa- 
 sional repairs. 
 
 Class D includes roof coverings which are not readily flammable and do 
 not carry or communicate fire to a serious degree; which afford at least a 
 slight degree of heat insulation to the roof deck; which may possess a slight 
 flying brand hazard; which do not slip from position to a serious degree 
 when exposed to high temperatures, and which are durable, but may require 
 occasional repairs. 
 
 Class E includes roof coverings which are not readily flammable but will 
 carry and communicate fire when exposed to severe fire conditions; which 
 afford at least a slight degree of heat insulation to the roof deck; which 
 may possess a slight flying brand hazard; which do not slip from position 
 to a\ serious degree when exposed to high temperatures; which are durable 
 but may require maintaining. 
 
 Class F includes roof coverings which are not readily flammable but will 
 carry and communicate fire when exposed to severe" fire conditions; which 
 afford but little heat insulation to the roof deck; which may possess a slight 
 flying brand hazard; which do not slip from position to a serious 'degree 
 when exposed to high temperatures, and which are durable but may require 
 maintaining. 
 
 Class G includes roof coverings which are flammable and will carry and 
 communicate fire when exposed to fire conditions; which afford little or no 
 heat insulation to rpof deck; which possess a serious flying brand hazard; 
 which slip from position to a serious degree when exposed to high tempera- 
 tures, and which may require frequent repairs and renewals. 
 
 Class H includes roof coverings which are a menace to property and which 
 have repeatedly demonstrated their hazardous nature as conflagration breeders. 
 The following manufacturers are equipped to furnish labeled roofings and 
 roofing materials as described below: 
 
364 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Built Up Type 
 CLASS A. 
 
 Barrett Specification Roof Coverings with gravel or crushed slag com- 
 posed of Barrett Specification Roofing materials. 
 
 Built up type, non-combustible surfaced. Five plies. Flashings and trim- 
 mings of 1 6 oz. copper or heavier. Assembled in accordance with Barrett 
 specifications. Attached by nailing, mopping of pitch, or both. Limited to 
 non-combustible roof decks of standard construction having inclines not 
 exceeding i inch to foot horizontal. 
 
 New York, Barrett Mfg. Co., 17 Battery PI. 
 
 J. M. Specification Asbestos Roof Coverings, three-ply pattern, composed 
 of J. M. Specification Asbestos Roofing materials. 
 
 Built up type, smooth surfaced. Three plies. Flashings and trimmings. 
 J. M. Asbestos Flashing Material or 16 oz. copper or heavier. Assembled 
 in accordance with J. M. specifications laid directly over and attached by 
 cement and nails to non-combustible roof decks having inclines riot exceeding 
 3 inches to foot horizontal. 
 
 Mew York, Johns-Manville Co., H. W., Madison Ave. and 4ist St. 
 
 CLASS B. 
 
 Barrett Specification Roof Coverings with gravel or crushed slag com- 
 posed of Barrett Specification Roofing materials. 
 
 Built up type, non-combustible surfaced. Five plies. Flashings and trim- 
 mings of 1 6 oz. copper or heavier. Assembled in accordance with Barrett 
 specifications. Attached by nailing, mopping of pitch, or both. Limited to 
 combustible and non-combustible roof decks having inclines not exceeding 3 
 inches to foot horizontal. 
 
 New York, Barrett Mfg. Co., 17 Battery PI. 
 
 J. M. Specification Asbestos Roof Coverings, three-ply pattern, composed 
 of J. M. Specification Asbestos Roofing materials. 
 
 Built up type, smooth surfaced. Three plies. Flashings and trimmings. 
 J. M. Asbestos Flashing Material or 16 oz. copper or heavier. Assembled 
 in accordance with J. M. specifications laid directly over and attached by 
 cement and nails to non-combustible roof decks having inclines not. exceeding 
 6 inches to foot horizontal. 
 
 Four and five-ply patterns. 
 
 Built up type, smooth surfaced. Four or five plies. Flashings and trim- 
 mings J. M. Asbestos Flashing Material or 16 oz. copper or heavier. Assem- 
 bled in accordance with J. M. specifications, laid directly over and attached 
 by cement and nailing to combustible and non-combustible roof decks, capable 
 of receiving and retaining nails, where inclines do not exceed 6 inches to 
 foot horizontal. 
 
 New York, Johns-Manville Co., H. W., Madison Ave. and 4ist St. 
 
 Prepared Type 
 
 CLASS B. 
 
 Brooks Brand Asbestos Roof Coverings. Four-ply pattern. Composed of 
 Brooks Brand Asbestos Roofings. 
 
 Prepared type, smooth surfaced. Single thickness. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving 
 and retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 3 ins. to ft. horizontal. 
 
 New York, Johns-Manville Co., H. W., Madison Ave. and 4ist St. 
 
 CLASS C. 
 
 Brooks Brand Asbestos Roof Coverings. Three-ply pattern. Composed of 
 Brooks Brand Asbestos Roofings. 
 
ROOF COVERINGS 365 
 
 Prepared type, smooth surface. Single ' thickness. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks- capable of receiving 
 and retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 3 ins. to ft. horizontal. 
 
 New York, Johns-Manville Co., H. W., Madison Ave. and 4ist St. 
 
 CLASS I*'. 
 
 Arc Ready Roof Coverings. Two and three-ply patterns. Composed of 
 Arc Ready Roofings. 
 
 Prepared type. Smooth, sanded, or grit surfaced, single thickness. At- 
 tached by nailing. Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks 
 capable of receiving and retaining nails and to inclines not exceeding 3 
 inches to foot horizontal. 
 
 Chicago, Amalgamated Roofing Co.,' 431 S. Dearborn St. 
 
 Mule-Hide Roof Coverings. Two, three and four-ply patterns. Composed 
 of Mule-Hide Roofings. 
 
 Prepared type. Smooth surfaced. Single thickness. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving 
 and retaining nails and to inclines not exceeding 3 inches to foot horizontal. 
 
 Chicago, Lehon Co., The, W. 45th St. and Oakley Ave. 
 
 Arrow and Protection Brands Asphalt Ready Roof Coverings. Composed 
 of Arrow or Protection Brand Roofings. 
 
 Prepared type, grit surfaced. Single thickness. Attached by nailing. Lim- 
 ited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving and 
 retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 3 ins. to the ft. horizontal. 
 
 New York, N. Y., Asphalt Ready Roofing Co., 9 Church St. 
 
 Regal Brand Asbestos Roof Coverings. Two and three-ply patterns. 
 Composed of Regal Brand Asbestos Roofings. 
 
 Prepared type, smooth surface. Single thickness. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving 
 and retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 3 ins. to ft. horizontal. 
 
 New York, Johns-Manville Co., H. W., Madison Ave. and 4ist St. 
 
 Ru-ber-oid Roof Coverings. Heavy and extra heavy patterns; and colored 
 Ru-ber-oid heavy pattern. Composed of Ru-ber-oid roofings. 
 
 Prepared type, smooth surfaced. Single thickness. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving 
 and retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 3 inches to the foot horizontal. 
 
 New York, Standard Paint Co., The, Wool worth Bldg. 
 
 Vulcanite Prepared Asphalt Roof Coverings. Two, three and four-ply 
 standard, extra heavy patterns. Composed of Vulcanite Prepared Roofings. . 
 
 Prepared type. Smooth, sanded and grit surfaced. Single or laminated. 
 Attached by nailing. Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks 
 capable of receiving and retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 3 inches 
 to the foot. 
 
 Chicago, 111., Patent Vulcanite Roofing Co., Oakley Ave. and 49th St. 
 
 Shingle Type 
 
 CLASS E. 
 
 Asbestos Century Shingle Roof Coverings. Composed of Asbestos Century 
 shingles. 
 
 Thatched type, smooth surfaced. Three thicknesses. Flashings and trim- 
 mings i6-oz. copper, No. 26 gauge galvanized iron or heavier, and Asbestos 
 Ridge Rolls. Assembled at building, laid directly over and attached by nailing 
 to roof decks capable of receiving and retaining nails, where inclines exceed 
 4 inches to the foot horizontal. 
 
 Asbestos Century Shingle Roof Coverings, laid American method. Com- 
 posed of Asbestos Century Shingles. 
 
366 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Thatched type, smooth surfaced: . Two thicknesses. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving 
 and retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 4 inches to foot horizontal. 
 
 Ambler, Pa., Keasby & Mattison Co. 
 
 J.-M Transite Asbestos Shingle Roof Coverings. Two thicknesses. Laid 
 American method. Composed of J-M Transite Asbestos Shingles. 
 
 Thatched type, smooth surfaced. Flashings and trimmings i6-oz. copper, 
 No. 26 gauge galvanized iron or heavier, and J-M Transite Asbestos Ridge 
 Rolls. Attached by nailing. Limited to decks capable of receiving and 
 retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 4 inches fall to the foot horizontal. 
 
 New York, Johns-Manville Co., H. W., Madison Ave. and 4ist St. 
 
 CLASS C. 
 
 Asbestos Century Shingle Roof Coverings, laid French method. Composed 
 of Asbestos Century Shingles. 
 
 Thatched type, smooth surfaced. One thickness. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to decks capable of receiving and retaining nails and to inclines 
 exceeding 4 inches fall to foot horizontal. 
 
 Ambler, Pa., Keasbey & Mattison Co. 
 
 J-M Transite Asbestos Shingle Roof Coverings. One thickness. Laid 
 French method. Composed of J-M Transite Asbestos Shingles. 
 
 Thatched type, smooth surfaced. Flashings and trimmings i6-oz. copper, 
 No. 26 gauge galvanized iron or heavier, and J-M Transite Asbestos Ridge 
 Rolls. Attached by nailing. Limited to decks capable of receiving and 
 retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 4 inches fall to the foot horizontal. 
 
 New York, Johns-Manville Co., H. W., Madison Ave. and 4ist St. 
 
 CLASS E. 
 
 Nu-tile Asphalt Shingle Roof Coverings. Extra heavy pattern. Com- 
 posed of Nu-tile Asphalt Shingles. 
 
 Thatched type, grit surfaced. Three thicknesses. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving 
 and retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 4 inches to foot horizontal. 
 
 Chicago, 111., Amalgamated Roofing Co., 431 S. Dearborn St. 
 
 Reynolds Flexible Asphalt Slate Shingle Roof Coverings. Composed of 
 Reynolds Flexible Asphalt Slate Shingles. 
 
 Thatched type, grit surfaced. Three thicknesses. Flashings and trim- 
 mings of same material, i6-oz. copper, No. 26 gauge galvanized iron or 
 I. C. Terne Plate, 2o-lb. coating or heavier. Assembled at buildings, laid 
 directly over and attached by nailing to roof decks capable of receiving and 
 retaining nails, where inclines exceed 4 inches to the foot horizontal. 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich., Reynolds Asphalt Shingle Co., H. M. 
 
 CLASS F. 
 
 Nu-tile Asphalt Shingle Roof Coverings. Heavy pattern. Composed of 
 Nu-tile Asphalt Shingles. 
 
 Thatched type, grit surfaced. Three thicknesses. Attached by nailing. 
 Limited to combustibje and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving and 
 retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 4 inches to foot horizontal. 
 
 Chicago, 111., Amalgamated Roofing Co., 431 S. Dearborn St. 
 
 Arc-Strip Shingle Roof Coverings. Heavy pattern. Composed of Arc 
 Shingle Strips. 
 
 Thatched type, grit surfaced. One thickness. Attached by nailing. Lim- 
 ited to combustible and non-combustible roof decks capable of receiving and 
 retaining nails and to inclines exceeding 4 inches to foot. 
 
 Chicago, 111., Amalgamated Roofing Co., 431 S. Dearborn St. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS* 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION (CLASS A) OF 
 
 OPENINGS IN DIVISION WALLS BETWEEN 
 
 SEPARATE BUILDINGS OR SECTIONS 
 
 OF BUILDINGS 
 
 The great importance of fire walls as a safeguard to life and in prevent- 
 ing the spread of fire, and the fact that they are liable to be severely exposed 
 to fire for considerable periods, makes it essential that all openings in such 
 walls be protected by the most efficient methods. Only such fire retardants 
 are included in this class as have been shown by experience and tests to 
 furnish a high degree of fire protection when installed on both sides of 
 the wall, and if used as exit doors, to offer no serious accident hazard under 
 normal or emergency conditions in this situation. 
 
 General Regulations 
 
 i and 2. NUMBER SIZE OF WALL OPENINGS. The number and size of 
 openings in fire walls should be proportionate to the number of occupants 
 who may have to use the openings as a means of exit at time of fire. It is 
 important that openings in fire walls be as small as the circumstances will 
 permit; they should not exceed 80 square feet, except in some cases for the 
 ground floor, where wagons, etc., must be passed through. Generally speak- 
 ing, the openings should be as remote from each other as possible. From 
 the fire protection viewpoint, the number of openings should be as few as 
 possible, as there is always the chance that fire doors will be open at time 
 of fire, either through neglect to close them, failure of the automatic closing 
 devices, or inability to close doors that have been opened to afford better 
 opportunity for fighting fire. For these reasons openings found to be un- 
 necessary should be closed with masonry well bonded in. 
 
 3. NUMBER OF DOORS. Each side of the wall at every opening in an interior 
 fire wall to be provided with an approved self-closing or automatic fire door, 
 except openings in enclosing walls to fireproof rooms separating specially 
 hazardous processes from the remainder of the building may be provided 
 with doors on one side of the wall. 
 
 NOTE. Self-closing doors are normally closed doors, which, when opened, 
 will close and latch or lock. Automatic doors are doors arranged to close 
 when released by the action of heat. 
 
 4. MASONRY AT WALL OPENINGS. (a) Walls to be plumb and true, and 
 present smooth masonry surfaces without any wood or combustible trim at 
 openings. 
 
 (b) Where swinging tin-clad fire doors shut into a brick rabbet in wall, 
 rabbet to be at least 3x4 inches, and to have true sides and angles so that 
 door will close snugly. 
 
 * Regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, issued in 1915. 
 Illustrations are reproduced from original cuts by permission of the National 
 Board. 
 
 367 
 
3 68 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 5. SILLS. On account of the number of methods specified, inspection de- 
 partments having jurisdiction should be consulted before the installation of 
 sills. 
 
 (a) Concrete for sills to be made of one part Portland cement, two parts 
 clean sharp sand, and four parts clean broken stone which will pass through 
 %-inch mesh. To be thoroughly mixed, well tamped and finished smooth and 
 flush with the upper surface of the sill. Concrete to be a wet mixture. 
 
 Fiq- 1. Angle Iron and Concrete Sill. 
 
 Ficj. 2 Anqle Iron ar\d Concrete Sill, 
 with Plate on Top ' 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (b) To be of concrete not less than 4 inches in thickness, and placed 
 between a 3^ x 5 x %-inch steel angle on each side of the wall. Angles 
 to extend at least 6 inches past the opening on each side. Long side of 
 angles to rest against the face of the wall, and short side to extend out 
 under the bottom of the door. Upper face of angles to be covered with 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 369 
 
 a tread having an anti-slip surface flush with the floor and sill. Angles 
 to be fastened together through the wall by %-ineh bolts placed close to 
 each side of the wall opening, and not to exceed 18 inches apart at any 
 point. Bolts to have nuts at each end. See Figure i. 
 
 NOTE. Where sliding fire doors are used, the upper face of the angle should 
 be notched out at one end on each side of the wall, or angles drilled, and 
 %-inch bolts installed so as to permit the proper installation of the stay 
 
 Fl.3.Anle Iron and Concrete Sill- 
 SuplDoHed by a Corbel of Two Courses of Brick. 
 
 (T4.Anle Iron and Concrete Sill. 
 1 S uftjorfed byaCorbel of Three Courses of BricK 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 roll for holding the door in position. In new buildings this should be done 
 before the angles are installed. 
 
 Where the wall is rabbeted for a swinging fire door, a steel plate not 
 less than %-inch thick and 5 inches wide may be used in place of the 
 steel angle on that side of the wall, or the steel angle may be installed so 
 that the short side extends into the wall. 
 
370 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (c) To be constructed as specified in Role b and covered with a tread 
 having an anti'slip surface extending out flush with the outer edges of the 
 angles on each side of the wall and held securely in position by %-inch 
 counter sunk machine screws spaced not to exceed 9 inches apart. See 
 Figure 2. 
 
 (d) To be of concrete not less than 3% inches in thickness and placed 
 between a 3^ x 6 x % inch steel angle on each side of the wall. Angles 
 
 Fig. 5. Z Bar and Concrete Sill 
 
 Ficj.6.6tee\ PI ate Sill. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 to extend at least 6 inches past the opening on each side. The short side 
 of the angle to be parallel with and set out 4 inches from the face of the 
 wall. The long side of the angle to extend into the wall. Angles to be 
 fastened together through the wall as specified in Rule sb. 
 
 In new walls, two courses of brick work to be corbeled out to support 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 371 
 
 the angles, the upper course to be i 1 /^ inches back from the perpendicular 
 face of the angle. See Figure 3. 
 
 Where a large amount of heavy trucking is done, the concrete should 
 be at least 6 inches in thickness, the steel increased proportionately, and 
 three courses of the brick corbeled out to the outer edges of the sill. See 
 Figure 4. 
 
 Raised Anle Iron and Concrete 
 Sill with Inclines. 
 
 Fig. 8. Z Bar and Concrete Sill with Inclines. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 In old walls Z-bars made of two 4-inch angles % inch thick bolted together 
 or equivalent solid Z-bars may be used in place of the steel angles and 
 corbeling. The concrete to be not less than 7 inches in thickness, and the 
 Z-bars fastened together by %-inch wall bolts through both perpendicular 
 faces. See Figure 5. 
 
372 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 NOTE. When sliding fire doors are used the angles or Z-bars should be 
 drilled and %-inch bolts installed so as to permit the proper installation of 
 standard stay roll for holding the door in position. In new buildings this 
 should be done before the steel work is placed in the sill. 
 
 Where the wall is rabbeted for a swinging fire door, a steel plate not less 
 than % inch thick and 8 inches wide may be used in place of the angles 
 or Z-bars. 
 
 (e) To consist of an iron or steel plate having an anti-slip surface securely 
 attached to concrete support not less than 6 inches thick. Concrete support 
 
 . 9 
 
 Steel Lintel 
 
 Fig. 10 
 Steel Lintel 
 
 11 
 Cast Iron Lintel 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 to be built into wall at least 6 inches on each side of the opening and extend 
 under and flush with the outer surface of the door. Three courses of the 
 brick work under sill to be corbeled out flush with the outer surface on 
 each side of the wall. See Figure 6. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 373 
 
 NOTE. Where sliding fire doors are used, the plate should be notched out 
 at one end and on each side of the wall so as to permit the proper installa- 
 tion of the stay roll for holding the door in position. In new buildings 
 this should be done before the tread is installed. 
 
 (.0 To be constructed in accordance With any of the above methods raised 
 i l /2 to 2 inches above the surface of the floor and provided with inclines on 
 each side, and at each end having a pitch not more than i inch vertical to 
 6 inches horizontal. 
 
 NOTE. Raised sills are of advantage in preventing water from running 
 through the door openings at time of fire, but offer an appreciable accident 
 hazard and should, therefore, be avoided at openings used as exits. 
 
 (g) To consist of an iron or steel plate having an anti-slip surface raised 
 2 inches above the surface of* the floor and extended out flush with the 
 face of the wall on each side. Plate to be attached to a 3 x 4 x % inch steel 
 angle on each side of the wall by %-inch machine screws spaced not exceeding 
 9 inches. Ends of angles to be securely attached to steel wall frame. Angles 
 to be fastened together through the wall by %-inch bolts spaced not exceeding 
 18 inches. Space between wall and sill plate to be filled solid with concrete 
 or cement grout. See Figures 14, 28, 29 and 30. 
 
 NOTE. This sill is designed for solid steel fire doors where a raised sill 
 is required. The channel for sliding doors is bolted or riveted to the sill 
 angles on each side of the wall. 
 
 6. LINTELS. A brick arch is preferable, but lintels made of steel, cr.st iron 
 or reinforced concrete may be used if constructed as specified in the following 
 rules. Stone or tin-clad wooden lintels are prohibited. 
 
 (a) To be of standard steel sections securely riveted or bolted together, 
 protected by at least 4 inches of solid brickwork flush with the face of the 
 wall on each side and provided with a full header course of brick just above 
 the steel work. Spaces between sections to be filled solid with brickwork, 
 concrete or grout. See Figures 9 and 10. 
 
 (b) To be of cast-iron tee sections not less than i inch in thickness, pro- 
 tected by not less than 4 inches of solid brickwork flush with the face of the 
 wall on each side. See Figure 1 1 . 
 
 (c) To be of solid reinforced concrete the full thickness of the wall. 
 Reinforcing members to be protected by at least i l / 2 inches of concrete on 
 exposed faces. 
 
 7. WALL FRAMES.- Steel wall frames are of particular value where swinging 
 tin-clad doors are mounted flush with the face of the wall, and for mounting 
 steel fire doors. They provide for a tight-fitting door, serve to protect the 
 brickwork from injury, furnish a secure fastening for the hardware, and are 
 neat in appearance. Where used they should be constructed and installed in 
 accordance with the following rules: 
 
 (a) Frames for tin -clad doors to be made of 3^s x 3% x % inch steel angles 
 at the sides and top of the opening on each side of the wall. Angles to be 
 riveted together at upper corners, to extend into the sill at least 2 inches, 
 to be bolted in position by %-inch bolts spaced not exceeding 24 inches, and 
 provided with % x ^ inch stops attached by %-inch rivets spaced not exceed- 
 ing 12 inches. Catches for the latches and the pin blocks to receive the 
 hinges to be of heavy steel and properly riveted to the frame by at least 
 two %-inch rivets. See Figure 12. 
 
 (b) Frames for tin-clad doors to be made of 3 x 3 x % inch steel angles 
 set into rabbets in the brickwork at sides and top on each side of the wall. 
 Angles to be riveted together at upper corners, to extend into the sill at 
 least 2 inches and to be fastened in position by iV4 x 14 inch bars spaaed 
 not exceeding 24 inches apart all around. Bars to be fastened to angles 
 
374 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 by two %-inch countersunk rivets or bolts at each end. Catches for the 
 latches and hinge pins or pin blocks to be of heavy steel properly riveted 
 to the frame by at least two %-inch rivets. See Figure 13. 
 
 NOTE. Where the frames are mounted during the construction of the 
 wall the connecting bars should be attached to the legs of the angles to 
 which the catches and pin blocks are attached. 
 
 -betdil- 
 
 Iron Door Frame -for ' 
 Tin Clad Fire Doors. 
 
 Useful when door openings are made 
 after wall hds been erected- 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (c) Frame for solid steel doors to be made of 4 x 3 x % inch steel angles 
 at the sides and top of the opening on each side of the wall. Angles to 
 be riveted together at upper corners, to extend into the sill at least 2 inches, 
 and to be fastened in position by i*4 x }4 inch bars spaced not exceeding 24 
 inches apart all around. Bars to be fastened to angles by two %-inch counter- 
 sunk rivets or bolts at each end. Catches for the latches, hinge pins or hinge 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 375 
 
 blocks, and binders for sliding doors to be of heavy steel properly riveted 
 to the frame by at least two %-inch rivets. See Figure 14. 
 
 XOTE. The thickness of the wall should be accurately measured so that 
 the bars fastening the wall frame together can be cut to exact length. 
 Where sliding doors having channels at the bottom, or swinging doors 
 having raised sills are used, the wall frame should be securely attached to 
 the sill angles as specified in Rule sg. Channels for sliding doors to be 
 riveted or bolted to the sill angles. 
 
 Fio-13 Rabbeted Ancjle Iron 
 
 for Tin Clad Fire Doors. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (d) Wall frame used to protect the brickwork from injury to be made 
 of 4 x 4 x % or 4 x 4 x Va inch steel angles at sides and top of the opening 
 on each side of the wall. Frames to be held in position as described in 
 Rule 7c or provided with plate fillers on the face of the jambs securely 
 riveted to the angles on each side of 'the wall. 
 
376 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 NOTE. Angles extending only part way up on the sides of the wall opening 
 prevent the fire doors from forming a tight closure at the upper portion of 
 the wall opening and are prohibited. 
 
 8. MEASUREMENTS FOR SIZE OF FIRE DOORS. Openings in walls to be care- 
 fully measured before the doors are built. Where wall frames are not used, 
 the measurements to be from the edges of the brickwork, irrespective of any 
 
 Rfi. 14 Angle Iron Wai I Frame for Iron 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Ed. of Fire Und's. 
 
 steel work in the opening. Where wall frames are employed, the size of 
 the door is determined by the size of the opening in the frame. 
 
 9. SLIDING FIRE DOORS. Doors of this type to be employed unless features 
 relating to exit facilities, service requirements, location or installation make 
 other types preferable. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 377 
 
 NOTE. Sliding fire doors can be mounted close to the wall, require only 
 a small amount of floor space, are less likely than many other types to be 
 rendered inoperative by obstructions. They can be counterbalanced so as 
 to be operated without great difficulty and can be made to close automatically 
 without the use of complicated apparatus. They are particularly suitable 
 for large opening, but the method of operating them is not as obvious as 
 that of swinging doors, and they are more subject to injury from falling 
 materials at times of fire than doors that close flush with the 'face of the 
 wall. They can be used only where there is sufficient wall space at the 
 side of the wall opening. 
 
 10. SWINGING FIRE DOORS. Doors of this type may be employed where the 
 character and size of the opening make the use of this type of door advisable. 
 Where egress is in one direction only the doors should open in the direction 
 of travel. 
 
 NOTE. Where egress is in one direction only, swinging doors are easier 
 to operate than any other type of door, especially under emergency con- 
 ditions. Swinging fire doors require considerable clear door space, arc 
 more liable to be rendered inoperative by obstructions than sliding fire 
 doors, and are difficult to make automatic without the use of complicated 
 apparatus. Swinging doors in pairs do not furnish as satisfactory protection 
 against fire as single doors. 
 
 11. VERTICAL DOORS. Doors of this type may be employed where hori- 
 zontally sliding or swinging doors cannot be used, and where the doors do 
 not serve as exit doors at time of fire. 
 
 NOTE. Vertical doors require considerable head room above the door 
 opening and must be counterweighted to render them operative. They can 
 be made automatic without the use of complicated apparatus They are 
 difficult to operate, especially after they have closed automatically, and 
 their use in any given case should be considered in its relation to effect 
 upon hazard to life. 
 
 12. ROLLING STEEL FIRE DOORS. Doors of this type may be employed where 
 the transmission of heat through the doors is not liable to result in the 
 spread of fire, and where the doors do not serve as exit doors at time of fire. 
 
 NOTE. Rolling doors are capable of being installed in locations where 
 space limitations prevent the installation of other types of doors. They can 
 be mounted flush with the face of the wall so that no floor space is required, 
 and are less likely than many other types to be rendered inoperative by 
 obstructions. They can be counterbalanced so as to operate without great 
 difficulty, but the method of operating them is not as obvious as that of other 
 types of doors, and some types of rolling doors are difficult to operate after 
 they have closed automatically. The type and use of these doors in any 
 given case should be considered in its relation upon hazard to life. 
 
 13. NORMALLY CLOSED DOORS. To be arranged to close by gravity, or 
 equipped with an approved door check or device to insure proper closing 
 after the door has been opened. 
 
 14. AUTOMATIC DOORS. To be operated by at least one approved releasing 
 device above the door and close to the ceiling. Where desired the door 
 may be also arranged to close by the operation of an additional releasing 
 device near the top of the door opening. 
 
 15. OPENINGS FOR SHAFTING^- Where a shaft passes through a fire wall, the 
 hanger to be placed on one side of the wall, and the opening around the 
 shaft bricked up as closely as possible without touching the shaft. The 
 remaining space around the shaft to be finished with cement mortar, leaving 
 a hole one inch larger in diameter than the shaft and concentric with the 
 shaft. 
 
 NOTE. In some cases it may be necessary to place a hanger on each side 
 of the wall. The space around the shaft permits adjustment and insures 
 clearance between shaft and wall. 
 
 16. OPENINGS FOR BELTS. To be protected by two approved sliding doors 
 coming together in the middle of the opening through the wall. Doors to 
 
378 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 slide in approved upper and lower guard rails or channels retaining them 
 in place, and be provided with suitable fastenings for holding them together 
 in the closed position. Guard rails to be long enough to retain the doors 
 when open, and secured by %-inch bolts through the wall. 
 See Figure 34 showing tin-clad doors used for this purpose. 
 
 NOTE. Care is necessary to see that the slots are of sufficient size to 
 insure free and unobstructed belt travel. The dimensions of the slots will 
 vary considerably with the size of the belt, length of span, tightness of 
 belt, presence or absence of guide rolls and other local conditions. 
 
 17. CARE AND MAINTENANCE. (a) Fire doors should be ready for instant 
 use at all times, therefore it is necessary to keep the surroundings clear of 
 everything that would be likely to obstruct or interfere with their free 
 operation. They should be kept closed and fastened nights, Sundays and 
 holidays, and whenever the openings are not in use. 
 
 (b) Never tack any tin on a tin-clad door. When tin becomes worn 
 substitute new sheets in the same manner as when covering a new door. 
 Damaged parts of other types of fire doors should be replaced! by new parts. 
 
 (c) The following notice should be posted at each opening protected by 
 fire doors, preferably stenciled on each side of the fire door itself, " Keep 
 This Fire Door Shut." 
 
 (d) Doors of the sliding pattern should be stenciled on both sides with 
 the words " To Open," and an arrow indicating the direction. Swinging 
 doors should be stenciled, " Turn Knob and Push " (or pull), or " Press 
 Down Lever and Push " (or pull), as the case may be. 
 
 1 8. PAINTING FIRE DOORS. (a) Solid steel doors and rolling steel doors 
 to be given one good coat of paint before they leave the shop and one coat 
 after installation. Rolling steel doors not to be opened (coiled up) until the 
 paint has dried sufficiently to prevent adhesion between the parts. Paint 
 to be satisfactory to inspection departments having jurisdiction. 
 
 NOTE. Where possible, both coats of paint should be applied to steel 
 rolling doors before they are erected. 
 
 (b) When subject to rapid deterioration as a result of corrosion, tin-clad 
 and sheet metal doors to be given at least two good coats of paint which 
 is satisfactory to inspection departments having jurisdiction. 
 
 NOTE. Doors of this type do not require painting where they are used 
 in clean, dry localities. 
 
 Tin-Clad Fire Doors 
 GENERAL 
 
 Standard tin-clad fire doors are fairly substantial in construction, prac- 
 tical under most conditions, and easy to install. Doors on both sides of the 
 wall furnish a high degree of resistance to fire and to the transmission of 
 heat for long period of exposure, and resist fire streams well. Under adverse 
 conditions of service they are liable to deteriorate rapidly and are difficult 
 to maintain. 
 
 19. VENT HOLE. Cut a hole 4 inches in diameter through the middle plate 
 on the exposed side of the door, but not through the wood core. Secure the 
 tin around this opening with small nails, and thoroughly paint, the wood thus 
 exposed. See Figure 19. 
 
 NOTE. The hole will prevent excessive bulging of the tin covering and 
 rupture of the joints between the plates by permitting the escape of gases 
 generated from the wood core when the door is exposed to fire. Care should 
 he taken to ascertain which is the exposed side of the door before the hole 
 is made. Usually the hole should be made after the door is mounted. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 379 
 
 20. MOUNTING TIN-CLAD DOORS. The doors should be completely tinned 
 before the hardware is attached, and only such hardware as has been found 
 satisfactory after examination and test, should be used. (See list of approved 
 hardware.) 
 
 Read all of the rules for mounting before starting. 
 
 ficj.15.Door Closed g, Properly 
 Onetra<;K bolt under each hanqer 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 SLIDING TIN-CLAD DOORS 
 
 21. SIZE AND SHAPE OF DOORS. Doors to overlap sides and top of wall 
 opening 4 inches. Where steel lintels are used doors to overlap the brick- 
 work 4 inches above upper edge of steel unless such lintels are fireproofed 
 in a manner satisfactory to the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 Top of door to conform to incline of track, % inch to one foot. 
 
380 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 22. MOUNTING SLIDING DOORS. (a) Mounting Track. Length of track to 
 be equal to twice the width of the wall opening plus 21 inches. 
 
 Wall bolts to be so spaced that one bolt will be located directly opposite 
 each hanger when the door is closed, and so that front and back bumpers 
 can be attached. Holes to be 13/16 inch in diameter. 
 
 NOTE. Doors for openings in excess of 6 feet in width require three 
 hangers. 
 
 Track to have an incline of % inch to one foot when mounted. 
 
 Place door in proper position over opening with % inch of blocking between 
 sill and bottom, and ^4-inch strip on upper edge of door. Place track in 
 exact position over door, and carefully mark circles on wall at holes for 
 track bolts. Mark long crosses through circles after track has been removed 
 so that centers of holes can be maintained, and carefully drill holes through 
 wall. Bolt track in the position first marked, placing a wall bracket at each 
 bolt. The front and back bumpers should also be installed when the track 
 is bolted in position. 
 
 Never attach track to wood frame, even if frame is tin-clad, and never 
 use wood or lead plugs in the wall to support wall bolts. 
 
 (b) Attaching Hangers. Doors for openings six feet and less in width 
 to be provided with two hangers. Doors for openings in excess of six feet 
 to have three hangers. 
 
 Place hangers on track directly opposite wall bolts, and carefully mark 
 location of bolt holes on door. Bore holes exactly where marked, and bolt 
 hangers to door, using %-inch special countersunk carriage bolts, and placing 
 heads of bolts on the back of the door. 
 
 Remove blocking from under door and from between door and track. 
 
 (c) Attaching Binders. Two binders are required, the upper binder to 
 be placed about 24 inches from the top of the door, and the lower binder 
 about 1 8 inches above the sill. 
 
 When the door is in contact with the front bumper place the binders in 
 contact with the edge of . the door so that it will strike both binders and 
 bumper in closing, and mark and drill the wall as described for track bolts. 
 Bolts for fastening the binders to be % inch in diameter, and extended 
 through the wall. See Figure 15. 
 
 NOTE. Care should be taken not to make the bolt holes unnecessarily large. 
 In some cases it may be advisable to set the binders in cement when they 
 are bolted to the wall. A mixture of one-half clean, sharp sand and one- 
 half Portland cement is recommended for this purpose. 
 
 (d) Attaching Stay Roll. Chip out brickwork carefully, so that the stay 
 roll will be flush with the surface of wall and sill, and carefully mark and 
 drill wall for through bolt and eye bolt at the side of the door opening. Set 
 the parts with cement, if necessary, and bolt firmly to wall. When the door 
 is closed adjust the roller against the wedge at the end of the chafing strip 
 so that the door will be held close to, but not tightly, against the wall. 
 See Figure 16. v ; 
 
 NOTE. The brickwork should be chipped out, and the stay roll fitted to 
 the wall before the door is in position. It can then be more easily installed 
 after the door is hung. Where stay rolls are bolted together through the 
 wall see last part of Rule a. The stay rolls shown in Figures i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 7, 8 and 17 are bolted to the steel work of the sill, and are recommended 
 for new work. 
 
 (e) Attaching Chafing Strips. Three chafing strips required. Two half 
 oval strips on the back of the door, with flat companion strips on the front 
 of the door, and one flat strip on the front of the door near the bottom. 
 
 Strips on the back of the door to be placed one third the distance from 
 the top and about 24 inches from the bottom. Length of the strips to be 4 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 381 
 
 inches less than the door opening. Strips to be parallel with the door track 
 and bolted through the door to the flat strips on the front of the door with 
 ^4-inch bolts spaced, not exceeding 9 inches, placing the end bolt one inch 
 from the ends of the strips. See Figures 18, 19 and 15. 
 
 Strip on the front of the door to be parallel with the door track and so 
 placed as to take the wear of the stay roller. To be 5 inches less than the 
 width of the door and fastened to the door by i%-inch wood screws, spaced 
 not exceeding 12 inches apart. See Figures 19 and 15. 
 
 
 16. \j Sh^ed Stay Roll 
 Used with Old and Concrete^: 
 and Steel Plate 5i I la. ^ 
 
 Fig. 1 7. Opening Protected by 
 ' Standard Double Slidir Doors 
 Mounted withStandard Hardware. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (f) Attaching Wedge. To be placed back of the stay roll when the door 
 is closed, and to be fastened to the door by one 1^4-inch and one 2-inch wood 
 screw. See Figure 19. 
 
 (g) Attaching Bumper Shoes. Four necessary, one opposite each bumper 
 
382 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 and one opposite each binder. To be fastened to the edges of the door 
 by ii/4-inch wood screws. See Figures 18 and 19. 
 
 NOTE. The front and back bumpers are mounted with the track. See 
 Rule 223. 
 
 (h) Attaching Handles. Flush pull oji the back of the door to be counter- 
 sunk flush with the surface of the door. Heavy, bow-shaped handle to be 
 
 Fig.1 8. Rear View of Door witK Trimmings. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 attached to front of door. Handles to be bolted together through the door 
 or otherwise securely attached. See Figures 18, 19 and 15. 
 
 (i) Bolts and Washers. Bolts for track, binders and stay roll to be % 
 inch in diameter, to extend through the wall, and to be provided with washers 
 4 inches in diameter on opposite side of the wall. See Figures 15 and 17. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 383 
 
 NOTE. Where the above members are bolted together through the wall 
 the washers are unnecessary. 
 
 Use %-inch bolts in attaching stay roll shown in Figures i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 
 8 and 17 to the steel work of the sill. 
 
 (j) Operation of Door. The ^3oor should hang and operate freely. If 
 the wall is unusually rough and uneven it may be necessary to dress it off, 
 so as to remove all obstructions and prevent the destruction of the tin 
 covering by cliating. The introduction of thin plates (1/16 to % inch) be- 
 
 
 
 Fig. 1 9. Front View of Door with Trimmings. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 twcen the wall and brackets on the portion of the track at the side of the 
 opening will sometimes remedy the defects due to slight unevenness in 
 the wall. 
 
 The holes for the track bolts should be drilled with sufficient accuracy so 
 
384 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 that the door will not sag and chafe on the sill. If the door does sag, 
 substantial metal strips should be installed under the track bolts so as to 
 raise the door sufficiently to prevent chafing. Short length of %-inch gas 
 pipe around the track bolts will often remedy this defect. 
 
 (k) Slatted Framework. When necessary, a framework of slats should 
 be built outside of sliding doors to prevent piling of stock, etc., against 
 them. 
 
 Fig 20. Wall Eye and Pin 
 
 If x 2i inches. 
 
 tinch Rn 
 
 Fig. 21 . Hinges with Eye or Pin. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (1) Protection of Covering. When the front edge of door is' liable to 
 injury from trucks, etc., a continuous U-shaped strip made of No. 14 U. S. 
 gauge steel, and extending high enough to prevent injury, should be installed. 
 Strips should lap the sides of the dwor 4 to 6 inches and should be fastened 
 on by i ^4-inch wood screws on each side of the door, spaced not exceeding 
 12 inches apart and staggered. The above strip will render the lower bumper 
 shoe unnecessary. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 385 
 
 SWINGING TIN-CLAD DOORS 
 
 J3. SIZE AND SHAPE OF DOORS. Doors to shut into rabbet in wall, into 
 approved wall frame, or, when acceptable to inspection departments having 
 jurisdiction, doors may overlap sides and top of wall openings as required 
 for sliding doors. See Rules 4, 7, a, b, d, 8 and 10. 
 
 Fiq-22 Swmqmq Door in Rabbeted Frame 
 
 Reproduced by permission Xat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 24. MOUNTING SINGLE SWINGING DOORS. (a) Attachment of Wall Eyes, 
 Wall Pins and Catches. To be built in the wall, bolted through the wall 
 with %-inch bolts with 3/1 6-inch steel washers on each side of wall, or to 
 be securely fastened to approved steel wall frames. See Figures 12, 13, 20, 
 21, 22 and 23. 
 
386 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (b) Attachment of Hinges. Doors in excess of 7 feet in height or 6 
 feet in width to be provided with three hinges. 
 
 Place door in proper position at wall openings, with ^-inch blocking 
 between bottom of door and sill on hinge side and i^-inch blocking on lock 
 side. Place hinges in exact position on door arid carefully mark location of 
 bolt holes on door. Bore holes exactly where marked and bolt hinges to 
 door using %-inch carriage bolts or machine bolts with washers under heads 
 on the back of the door. Nuts to bear against the hinges. 
 
 Rcj.23 Swirxcjinc} Door without Rabbet 
 in wall. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 Remove blocking and see that door opens and closes properly. 
 
 (c) Attaching Latches. Doors in excess of 5 feet in height, to be pro- 
 vided with at least three latches working together. Upper and lower latches 
 to be spaced not to exceed 12 inches from top and bottom of door opening. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 Latches to be operated from either side of door and so as not to interfere 
 with the hinges. See Figures 22 and 23. 
 
 Place latches in exact position on door with latches in catches, and with 
 connecting bar adjusted for expansion allowances. Carefully mark location 
 of bolt holes for operating handle and pivot plates. Bore holes exactly 
 where marked and bolt latches to door, using %-inch machine bolts with 
 bearing plates on back of door. Attach operating handle. 
 
 Fiq-24 Vertical Balance Automatic Door 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Hod's. 
 
 NOTE. The bar connecting the latches should be adjusted so that it will 
 not lift the latches by expansion when heated. 
 
 Place keepers in position over latches making allowance for the move- 
 ment of the latches. Mark location of bolt holes on door, bore holes and 
 bolt keepers to door, . using %-inch machine bolts with bearing plates on 
 back of door. See Figures 22 and 23. 
 
388 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 N OTE . Where the door is mounted on the face of the wall, the keepers 
 should be placed about 5 inches back from the edge of the door, so that 
 the plates and bolt heads on the back of the door will not be in contact 
 with the wall when the door is closed. 
 
 Attach spring to prevent rebound of latches and insure latching when 
 door is slammed. 
 
 NOTE. The destruction of the spring at time of fire does not affect the 
 reliability of the hardware. 
 
 (d) Operation of Door. The door should swing easily and freely on its 
 hinges. The latches should operate freely on their pivots and ride up the 
 inclines on the catches and snap into position when the door is slammed 
 shut or closed with moderate force. 
 
 25. MOUNTING SWINGING DOORS IN PAIRS. The rules for mounting single 
 doors apply to doors in pairs with the following additions. 
 
 (a) Attaching Door Bolts. The standing door of the pair to be pro- 
 vided with a %-inch steel bolt at top and bottom. Both bolts. to enter sub- 
 stantial strike plates or catches securely fastened into arch and sill. 
 
 Place door bolts in exact position on the back of the door and carefully 
 mark location of bolt holes. Bore holes exactly where marked and bolt door 
 boJts to the door, using %-inch machine bolts with bearing plates on front 
 of. the door. Where door bolts are operated together, the handle to be 
 bolted in position through the door. 
 
 With the standing door in the closed position, carefully mark the posi- 
 tion where the door bolts strike the head and sill of the door opening and 
 securely anchor or bolt the strike plates or catches in exact position. 
 
 (b) Attaching Catches. With both doors closed, place the catches in 
 exact position under the latches and mark position of bolt holes on door. 
 Bore holes exactly where marked and bolt catches to door, using %-inch 
 machine bolts and plates on back of door. 
 
 (c) Attaching Astragal. Place astragal in exact position on edge of door, 
 mark position of bolt holes, bore holes and bolt to door, using %-inch 
 machine bolts, with washers under heads on back of door. 
 
 VERTICAL TIN-CLAD DOORS 
 
 26. SIZE AND SHAPE OF DOORS. Doors to overlap sides and top of wall open- 
 ing 4 inches. When steel lintels are used, doors to overlap brickwork 4 
 inches above upper edge of steel, unless such lintels are fireproofed in a 
 manner satisfactory to the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 27. MOUNTING VERTICAL DOORS. (a) Mounting Guides. Place door in 
 proper position over opening with side -edges plumb. Place guides in exact 
 position with %-inch strip between door and guide on each side. Carefully 
 mark circles on wall at holes for wall bolts, remove guides and carefully 
 drill holes through wall. Replace guides and bolt to wall with %-inch bolts, 
 placing 4-inch washers on the back of the wall. Remove spacing strips. 
 See Figure 24. 
 
 (b) Attachments to Door. Place attachments in exact position on door 
 and carefully mark location of bolt holes. Bore holes exactly where marked 
 and bolt each piece to door, using plates or washers on back of door. See 
 Figure 24. 
 
 (c) Pulleys and Counterweight.^-Attach pulleys for counterweight cable 
 securely in position above door, attach the wire cable and permanent counter- 
 weight. See Figure 24. 
 
 (d) Automatic Device. Attach pulleys for auxiliary counterweight securely 
 in position above door, attach cord to bottom of door and install auxiliary 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 389 
 
 counterweights, placing a fusible link in the cord near the bottom of the 
 door and also near the ceiling when the door is open. See Figure 24. 
 
 Solid Steel Fire Doors- 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 Standard solid steel fire doors are substantial in construction and prac- 
 ticable under most conditions. Doors on both sides of wall furnish a high 
 degree of resistance to fire and a fairly high resistance to the transmission 
 
 Fi& 25 Sliding Iron Door, Closed. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Xat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 of heat for long periods of exposure and resist fire streams well. They are 
 
 durable and easy to inspect and maintain, but are somewhat difficult to install. 
 
 28. SETTING WALL FRAMES. Solid steel fire doors to be mounted on steel 
 
 wall frames, which should be set perfectly level and plumb and bricked into 
 
390 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 the wall. If the frame is installed in an old wall, the opening should be 
 cut larger than the frame and the brickwork built up to the frame and 
 well bonded to the wall, using cement mortar and thoroughly painting up 
 around the frame. See Rule 7c for the construction of wall frame. 
 
 SLIDING SOLID STEEL DOORS 
 
 29. SIZE OF DOORS. Doors in excess of 4 feet in 
 sides of wall frame at least 2 inches and at least i 
 
 width to overlap the 
 inch at top. Angle 
 
 Wheel ^'x 44"lnches 
 Track i'*z 
 Wai I Frame 4 xi"' * 
 
 Machine BOIT - J ^T 
 
 Door Plate - 1 - 
 
 Panel Frame 
 
 2x2'|nches 
 
 5crew l-ieThreads^ | 
 
 Sill 
 
 Plate 35x1 -^ 
 
 ai I Showing Han^randTopandBoTTom Channels 
 for Sliding Iron Doors 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Ed. of Fire Und's. 
 
 at bottom of door to extend at least i inch into groove at sill. The angle 
 at bottom of door and groove in sill may be omitted for doors 4 feet and 
 less in width. See Figures 25, 26, 27 and 28. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 391 
 
 30. Top AND BOTTOM CHANNELS. (a) Doors in excess of 4 feet in width 
 to operate in channels or grooves at top and bottom. The groove at bottom 
 may be omitted for doors 4 feet and less in width. Length of upper channel 
 to be equal to twice the width of the opening in the wall frame plus 8 
 inches. Upper channel to be provided with a * x % inch steel strip to serve 
 as a track for the wheels of the door hangers. Lower channel or groove, 
 
 ~b CD 
 
 b 
 
 I 
 
 I ... 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 c c 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 where used, to extend beyond the wall frame at least 12 inches on the side 
 toward which the door opens. See Figures 25 and 26. 
 
 (b) Upper and lower channels to be attached to wall frame by %-inch 
 rivets or bolts spaced not exceeding 12 inches. Upper channels to be attached 
 to wall by %-inch bolts spaced not exceeding 14 inches. 
 
392 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 31. MOUNTING SLIDING DOORS. (a) After the wall frame is set, place the 
 upper and lower channels in position and bolt them to the frame. Care- 
 fully mark circles on wall at holes in upper channel for wall bolts. / Remove 
 upper channel and mark long crosses through circles so that centers of 
 holes can be maintained, and carefully drill holes through wall. Place the 
 door in proper position over opening with %-inch blocking between sill and 
 bottom of door. Place upper channel in position under the hanger wheels 
 
 FiQ.28.Detdi\ s nbwlFTcj Latch , B i nder and 
 Incline To Sill for Sliding Iron Doors 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 and bolt it to the wall frame and through the wall, placing washers between 
 the channel and wall, and on the opposite side of the wall at wall bolts. 
 Remove blocking from under door. Door should slide freely and should be 
 forced close to the wall frame by the binders when closed and latched. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 393 
 
 (b) When necessary a framework of slats should be built outside of 
 sliding doors to prevent piling of stock, etc., against them. 
 
 32. AUTOMATIC SLIDING DOORS. (a) To be so arranged that when the 
 releasing device is operated by heat, a sufficient excess in weight will be 
 exerted to pull and latch the door closed. 
 
 RCJ. 29 Swinqino Iron Door. 
 Showing Hm^es, Latches and Catches. 
 
 Reproduced by pernesion Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 (b) Substantial phosphor bronze or galvanized steel wire cable or approved 
 chain to be used for attaching the weights to the door. Cables or chains 
 to pass over sheaves so designed that they cannot jump the grooves. 
 
 (c) The weights used to close the door, to be enclosed in a suitable box 
 from floor to top of weights in extreme upward position. 
 
 (d) Door latch to be provided with a suitable coiled spring to hold it in 
 proper position and insure fastening. 
 
394 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 SWINGING SOLID STEEL DOORS 
 
 33. SIZE OF DOORS. Door plates to overlap the sides and top of the wall 
 frame at least i inch. Where doors are used in pairs, swinging door to 
 overlap the standing door at least i inch when they come together. 
 
 34. MOUNTING SINGLE SWINGING DOORS. After the wall frame is set, 
 place the door in proper position over the opening with sufficient blocking 
 
 % 30 Double Swinging Doors inPairs. 
 Showing Spring Catch. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 between the bottom of the door and sill to elevate it so that the hinges and 
 latches will engage properly. Jnstall the hinge pins and remove the blocking. 
 Door should turn easily and freely on the hinges. The latches should 
 operate freely and ride up the inclines on the catches and snap into position 
 when the door is slammed shut or closed with moderate force. See Figure 29. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 395 
 
 NOTE. Solid steel doors are provided with at least 3 hinges and at least 
 3 latches working together. The doors and frames are completed and the 
 hardware attached at the shop. 
 
 35. MOUNTING SWINGING DOORS IN PAIRS. The rules for mounting single 
 doors apply to doors in pairs. Standing door of the pair . to be provided 
 with spring bolts at top and bottom which enter substantial strike plates or 
 catches at head and sill. See Figure 30. 
 
 36. AUTOMATIC SWINGING DOORS. (a) To be so arranged that when the 
 releasing device operates by heat, a sufficient excess in weight will be 
 exerted to pull and latch the door closed. 
 
 (b) Substantial phosphor bronze or galvanized steel wire cable or approved 
 chain to be used for attaching the weights to the door. Cable or chain to 
 pass over sheaves so designed that they will not jump the grooves. Cables 
 or chain to be sufficiently weighted to keep them taut when the doors are 
 opened and closed. 
 
 (c) The weights used to close the door to be enclosed in a suitable box 
 from Hoor to top of weights in the extreme upward position. 
 
 (d) Automatic swinging doors in pairs to be so arranged that the standing 
 door must close and latch before the swinging door. This requires the use 
 of an automatic stop or trigger which will hold the swinging door in the 
 open position until the standing door has closed. 
 
 Sheet Metal Sliding Fire Doors 
 
 Standard sheet metal fire doors are fairly substantial in construction, prac- 
 tical under most conditions and easy to install. Doors on both sides of wall 
 furnish a high degree of resistance to fire and to the transmission of heat 
 for long periods of exposure. They resist fire streams well and are durable 
 and easy to maintain. 
 
 37. SIZE AND SHAPE OF DOORS. Doors to overlap sides and top of wall 
 opening 4 inches. Where steel lintels are used, doors to overlap the brick- 
 work 4 inches above upper edge of the steel, unless such lintels are fire- 
 proofed in a manner satisfactory to the Inspection Department having juris- 
 diction. Top of the door to conform to incline of track, %-inch to the foot. 
 
 38. MOUNTING SLIDING DOORS. (a) The rules for mounting sliding tin-clad 
 doors should be followed except as specified in the following rules. 
 
 NOTE. Parts of the hardware for mounting sheet metal doors are espe- 
 cially designed, and members such as chafing strips, bumper shoes, handles 
 and necessary reinforcements are installed before the doors leave the shop. 
 
 (b) Mounting Track. -The space between the top of the door and the track 
 to be at least i inch to allow for the upward expansion of the door when 
 heated. 
 
 NOTE. Sheet metal doors are provided with track binders or lugs which 
 engage the track and hold the door in position in case the hanger wheels 
 are lifted from the track by expansion. 
 
 (c) Attaching Hangers. Hangers to be bolted to door when in position. 
 
 NOTE. Sheet metal doors are provided with bolt holes and any necessary 
 reinforcements for the attachment of the hangers before they leave the shop. 
 
 (d) Attaching Binders. Track binders to lap the track at least % inch. To 
 be located 2 inches to one side of the center line of the wall bolts when 
 the door is closed. 
 
 NOTE. The track binders are located to one side of the track bolts so 
 that they will clear the track brackets when the door expands upward. 
 
 Where possible, doors are to be provided with one or more rear binders in 
 addition to the front binders and stay roll specified for tin-clad doors. Rear 
 
396 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 binders to be equally distributed between top and bottom of door and attached 
 by through bolts as specified for front binders. 
 
 Rolling Steel Fire Doors 
 
 Standard rolling steel fire doors are substantial in construction and prac- 
 ticable under most conditions but are somewhat difficult to install. Doors 
 on both sides of wall furnish a high degree of resistance to fine, and a fairly 
 high resistance to the transmission of heat for long periods of exposure. They 
 resist fire streams well, and are durable, fairly easy to maintain and are 
 capable of being installed in locations where space limitations prevent the 
 installation of other types of doors. Some types of rolling doors are difficult 
 to operate after they have closed automatically. The type and use of these 
 doors in any given case should be considered in its relation to the effect 
 upon hazard to life. 
 
 39. POSITION OF DOORS. (a) Doors subject to damage from falling materials 
 at time of fire, to be mounted in reveal of wall so that no portion projects 
 beyond the face of the wall. 
 
 NOTE. The brackets and hood of rolling steel doors mounted on the face 
 of the wall project materially from the wall and are especially subject to 
 damage by falling material at time of fire. 
 
 (b) Doors not subject to damage from falling materials at time of fire 
 may be mounted on the face of the wall. Inspection departments having 
 jurisdiction to be consulted before installation. 
 
 NOTE. Doors mounted on the face of fire walls should usually be confined 
 to fireproof buildings where there is little if any danger of the collapse 
 of the building and injury to the door from falling materials. 
 
 40. SIZE OF DOORS. Doors to overlap the sides of the wall opening. Hood 
 to fit closely against the lintels or where the door is mounted on the face 
 of the wall; hood to be placed above the top of the opening so that bottom 
 of the curtain will be flush with or above the top of the opening when 
 the door is fully open. 
 
 41. MOUNTING ROLLING DOORS. Rolling steel doors are complicated in con- 
 struction and not easily installed by workmen unfamiliar with them. Where 
 possible, their installation should be under the supervision of the manufac- 
 turer. Specifications and ' blue prints should be furnished covering the 
 details of installation. 
 
 (a) Mounting Guides. Place one of the guides in proper position at side 
 of wall opening (on highest side if sill is not perfectly level) and see that 
 it is plumb and that proper clearance is allowed for expansion between 
 bottom of guide and sill. Mark slots on wall at holes for wall bolts. Remove 
 g/iide and mark long crosses at end of slots furthest from fixed end of 
 guide and carefully drill holes through wall. Place opposite guide in posi- 
 tion on wall and bolt both guides together with %-inch through bolts, care 
 being taken to see that guides are plumb and in proper position after bolting. 
 
 Mark a level line horizontally from top of guides to opposite side of wall 
 opening, and install guides on this side as described above. Use gauge 
 stick to maintain proper horizontal distance between the bottom of grooves 
 in guides. 
 
 NOTE. Each guide is provided with slotted holes spaced not more than 
 18 inches, and plates with slip joints to allow for expansion of the guides 
 when heated. Sufficient clearness is provided between the sides of the 
 curtains and the bottom of the grooves in- the guides to allow for the 
 expansion of the curtain when heated. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 397 
 
 (b) Mounting Brackets. Place brackets in proper position at top of guides 
 and mark holes on lintel or wall. Remove brackets and drill holes for 
 bolts. Bolt brackets in position, care being taken to see that they are plumb 
 and true, that they are the proper distance apart, that the bearings are 
 level with each other, and that the mouth of the brackets register perfectly 
 with the grooves. 
 
 NOTE. Clearance is provided between the ends of the barrel and the 
 brackets to allow for expansion when the barrel is heated. The mouth of 
 the bracket must register with the grooves in order to prevent interference 
 with the movement of the curtain. 
 
 (c) Mounting Barrel. Place barrel in position in bearings so that it is 
 perfectly level and will turn without binding. Install attachments to barrel. 
 
 (d) Mounting Curtain. Remove one guide and bolt top section of curtain 
 to barrel or rings. Slip the lower sections of curtain together and fasten 
 by end locks when in position. Replace guide and balance curtain by adjust- 
 ment of spring. 
 
 NOTE. The curtains of some doors are installed without being separated 
 into sections. 
 
 (e) Mounting Hoods. Place hoods in position and bolt to brackets and 
 lintel. When mounted on face of wall, attach wall piece of hood securely 
 to the wall by bolts or nailing into mortar joints. Bolt housing on outside 
 of brackets in position. 
 
 (f) Test. Test operation of the doors after installation and alter adjust- 
 ments if necessary to make them operate freely. 
 
 Hollow Metal Swinging Fire Doors 
 
 Standard Class A hollow metal fire doors are provided with insulated 
 stiles and rails at least i% inches in thickness, and insulated panels at least 
 i inch in thickness. In moderate sizes they are substantial in construction, 
 practical under most conditions, fairly easy to install and permit the use of 
 concealed hardware. Mounted on both sides of the wall, they furnish a 
 high degree of resistance to fire and to the transmission of heat for long 
 periods of exposure. They resist fire streams well, are durable and are easy 
 to operate, and fairly easy to maintain. 
 
 42. SIZE OF DOORS. (a) Single swinging doors not to exceed 4 feet in 
 width or 8 feet in height, to shut into rabbets formed by the t stops on the 
 wall frame and fit the opening closely. 
 
 (b) Swinging doors in pairs not to exceed 6 feet in width or 8 feet in 
 height, to shut into rabbets formed by the stops on the wall frame, to fit 
 the opening closely, and to be provided with rabbeted edges or an astragal 
 where they come together at the middle. 
 
 43. MOUNTING SINGLE SWINGING DOORS. (a) To be mounted in approved 
 wall frames properly installed in the wall. 
 
 (b) Doors not exceeding 3^ feet in width or 5 feet in height to be 
 provided with at least two approved hinges. Doors in excess of 5 feet and 
 not more than 7^ feet in height to be provided with at least 3 approved 
 hinges. Doors in excess of 7% fee^t and not more than 8 feet in height to 
 be provided with at least 4 approved hinges. 
 
 (c) To be equipped with an approved three-point locking mechanism. The 
 latch bolts to engage catches in the jamb of the wall frame at least % inch. 
 
 44. MOUNTING SWINGING I>OORS IN PAIRS. (a) Doors to be mounted in 
 an approved wall frame properly installed in the wall. 
 
 (b) Each door to be provided with approved hinges as specified for single 
 doors. See Rule 43"- 
 
398 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (c) The active door of the pair to be provided with an approved three- 
 point locking mechanism as specified for single doors. The latch bolts to 
 engage catches in the stile of the opposite door at least % inch. 
 
 (.d) The standing or normally stationary door to be provided with an 
 approved two-point locking mechanism engaging catches in the head and 
 sill at least % inch. " 
 
 (e) Doors to be provided with an approved interference device to prevent 
 the wrong door from closing first. 
 
 45. OPERATION OF DOORS. Doors to be mounted in such a manner that they 
 will swing easily and freely on their hinges and close accurately against 
 the stops on the wall frame, fitting the opening snugly but without binding. 
 The latch bolts should operate easily and register properly with the catches, 
 securely fastening the door when closed easily or with considerable force. 
 
 NOTE. Doors installed in new buildings may require several readjustments 
 of the locking mechanism to insure proper operation of locks and engage- 
 ment of the latches, as slight settlements" in new buildings are practically 
 unavoidable and sometimes disarrange the proper registration of the latch 
 bolts. 
 
 Constant operation of the door causes the hinges to wear, and this wear 
 may in time be sufficient to cause the door to bind in the frame. Hinges 
 should therefore be examined at fairly frequent intervals, and repaired or 
 replaced if necessary. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION (CLASS B) OF 
 
 OPENINGS IN ENCLOSURES TO VERTICAL 
 
 COMMUNICATIONS, THROUGH 
 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 Enclosures to vertical openings through buildings are of the greatest im- 
 portance in safeguarding life, are next in importance to fire walls in pre- 
 venting the spread of fire, and require the use of doors that can be reliably 
 operated at exits, and of fire retardants of a high order at all wall openings. 
 While ihese enclosures are subject to fire exposures of the same severity as 
 fire walls, the conditions in these situations in buildings are such that a 
 single 'fire retardant can be safely employed in standard shafts. This is 
 made possible by the fact that the failure of two fire retardanls, always 
 located a considerable distance apart, must occur before fire can pass from 
 one fire section to another or from story to story. Only such fire retardants 
 are included in this class as have been shown by experience and tests to 
 furnish a high degree of fire protection when installed on one side of the 
 wall, and, if .used as exit doors, to offer no serious accident hazard under 
 normal or emergency conditions in this situation. 
 
 Fire retardants fulfilling . the requirements for division can be employed 
 for openings into vertical shafts where the type and pattern are suitable. 
 
 General Regulations 
 
 46. NUMBER AND SIZE OF WALL OPENINGS. See Rules i and i, page 367. 
 
 48. NUMBER OF DOORS. (a) Each opening in standard shafts communicat- 
 ing with more than one building or section of a building to be provided 
 with an approved fire door. Doors to be of the normally closed or auto- 
 matic type. 
 
 NOTE. -Normally closed doors are preferable where the nature of the 
 business is such that they are not likely to be blocked open. 
 
 (b) Each opening in sub-standard shafts communicating with more than 
 one building or section of a building to be provided with an approved 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 399 
 
 fire door, and in addition, each opening into the shaft through the fire wall 
 to be provided with an approved door for 'division walls. Doors to be 
 of the normally closed or automatic type. 
 
 49. MASONRY AT WALL OPENINGS. See Rule 4, page 367. 
 
 50. SILLS. (a) Any of the flush sills specified in Rule 5 may be used 
 in shaft openings. 
 
 (b) To be substantial metal threshold plates with anti-slip surface, extend- 
 ing into the masonry at each side of the opening and anchored to the 
 masonry beneath them. 
 
 NOTE. Where the threshold plates specified above are used in connection 
 \sith metal frames, they may be attached to -such frames in lieu of projec- 
 tion into the masonry at the sides of the opening. 
 
 (c) In buildings with non-combustible floors no special sill construction 
 is necessary, if the floor structure is extended through the opening. 
 
 51. LINTELS. Any of the lintels specified in Rule 6, page 373, may be 
 used in shaft openings. 
 
 5J. WALL FRAMES. (a) Any of the frames specified in Rule 7, page 373, 
 may be used in shaft openings. 
 
 (b) Frames to be made of substantial structural steel channels at the sides 
 and top of the opening* Channels to be securely fastened together at the 
 upper corners and to the sill, or threshold plate where used. In case no 
 sill is used, channels at sides of opening to extend into iloor structure at 
 least 3 inches. Jambs to be securely anchored to masonry at sides of open- 
 iuj>;, at intervals nut exceeding 24 inches. Where swinging doors are used, 
 head and jambs to be provided with metal door stops projecting at least l fa 
 inch and securely fastened to the frame members. These stops may be 
 formed in special sheet metal channels overlapping the structural steel 
 channels. 
 
 Where channel iron frames do not overlap both sides of the wall, anchors 
 to extend back in such a manner as to engage the masonry at the middle 
 of the wall. 
 
 (c) Frames for swinging doors may be made . of channel shaped sections 
 uf sheet metal at least No. 18 U. S. gauge hi thickness. Channels to be at 
 least 5 inches wide, securely fastened together at the upper corners and to 
 the sill or threshold plate if one is used. In case no sill is used, channels at 
 sides of opening to extend into floor structure at least 3 inches. Jambs to 
 be secured to masonry at sides of opening at intervals not more than 24 
 inches. Where flanges of channels do not lap both sides of the wall, anchors 
 to extend back in such a manner as to engage the masonry at the center of 
 the wall. 
 
 Head and jambs to be provided with metal door stops projecting at least 
 \-2 inch, securely fastened to the frame members. These stops may be formed 
 in special sheet metal channels overlapping the channel in contact with 
 the masonry. i , 
 
 53. MEASUREMENT FOR SIZE OF FIRE DOORS. See Rule 8, page 376. 
 Openings in walls to be carefully measured before doors are built and 
 
 maximum dimensions used in determining overlap of doors. Where wall 
 frames are employed the size of the door is determined by the opening in 
 the frame. 
 
 54. TYPE OF DOOR, DIRECTION OF OPERATION. -(a) Doors at openings to 
 stairways to be of the swinging type where practicable. To open in the 
 direction of exit travel in such manner as not to obstruct the passage or 
 the operation of other doors: 
 
 NOTE. Properly installed swinging doors are easier to operate, especially 
 under emergency conditions, than any other type and offer less resistance to 
 rapid and emergency egress. 
 
4OO FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (b) Horizontally sliding doors may be used at openings to stairways 
 where conditions prevent the use of swinging doors. To open in such manner 
 as not to obstruct the passage or the operation of other doors. 
 
 NOTE. Sliding doors are more difficult to operate than swinging doors, 
 especially at times of emergency, but are less objectionable at exits than 
 vertical sliding or rolling doors. 
 
 (c) Vertical doors and rolling doors not to be used at, openings to stairways. 
 NOTE. Doors of this type are usually difficult to operate, and the method 
 
 of operating them is not obvious or as well understood as the methods of 
 operating swinging or horizontally sliding doors. They may be safely em- 
 ployed at openings in enclosures to vertical shafts that are not used as 
 emergency exits. 
 
 55. AUTOMATIC DOORS. Doors at openings to enclosures to vertical com- 
 munications through buildings to be of the normally closed or automatic 
 types. Doors not to be provided with attachments that will prevent the 
 operation of the closing devices. 
 
 NOTE. Normally closed doors are doors arranged to close by gravity, or 
 doors equipped with an approved door check or device to insure proper 
 closing after the door has been opened. Automatic doors are doors equipped 
 to close by the action of heat if left open. 
 
 56. CARE AND MAINTENANCE. (a) Doors should be ready for instant use 
 at all times. Therefore, it is necessary to keep surroundings clear of every- 
 thing that would be likely to obstruct or interfere with their free operation. 
 They should be kept closed and fastened as much of the time as possible. 
 
 (b) Where subject to deterioration from corrosion, doors should be painted 
 at fairly frequent intervals. 
 
 (c) Hardware should be examined at frequent intervals, and any parts 
 rendered inoperative should be promptly replaced. 
 
 (d) Hinges are especially subject to wear and for this reason should be 
 inspected frequently and kept in repair. 
 
 (e) Guides and bearings to be kept well greased to facilitate operation. 
 
 (f) Doors of the sliding pattern should be stenciled on the room side 
 with the words, " To Open," and an arrow indicating the direction. Swing- 
 ing doors should be stenciled, " Turn Knob and Push," or " Press Down 
 Lever and Push," as the case may be. 
 
 Swinging Hollow Metal Fire Doors- 
 Standard Class B hollow metal fire doors are provided with insulated 
 stiles and rails at least i% inches in thickness, and insulated panels at least 
 14 inch in thickness. In moderate sizes they are substantial in construc- 
 tion, practical under most conditions, fairly easy to install, and permit the 
 use of concealed hardware. Mounted on one side of vertical shaft walls, they 
 furnish a high degree of resistance to fire and a fairly high degree of 
 resistance to the transmission of heat for long periods of 'exposure. They 
 resist fire streams well, are durable and easy to operate, and fairly easy to 
 maintain. 
 
 See Rulee 42 to 45 inclusive, pages 397 and 398. 
 
 Tin-Clad Fire Doors 
 
 Standard Class B tin-clad fire doors are the same as Class A tin-clad 
 doors, except that the cores are made of two plies. In moderate sizes they 
 are fairly substantial in construction, practical under most conditions, and 
 easy to install. Mounted on one side of the wall, they furnish a high degree 
 of resistance to fire and to the transmission of heat for fairly long periods 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 401 
 
 of exposure, and resist fire streams fairly well. Under adverse conditions 
 of service they are liable to deteriorate rapidly, and are difficult to maintain. 
 The rules covering vent holes, size and shape of doors, and mounting 
 sliding and swinging Class A tin-clad fire doors to apply to two-ply tin-clad 
 fire doors for Class B situations. Se Rules 19 to 27 inclusive, pages 378 
 to 388, and list of Approved Hardware for these doors. 
 
 Rolling Steel Elevator Doors 
 
 Standard rolling steel doors are substantial in construction, practical 
 under most conditions, but are somewhat difficult t6 install. Mounted on 
 one side of vertical shaft walls they furnish a high degree of resistance to 
 fire for long periods of exposure, and a sufficient resistance to the trans- 
 mission of heat in these situations. They resist fire streams well, are durable, 
 fairly easy to maintain, and capable of being installed in locations where 
 space limitations prevent the installation of other types of doors. 
 
 Some types of rolling steel elevator doors are difficult to operate after 
 they have closed automatically. The type and use of these doors in any 
 given case should be considered in its relation to effect upon hazard to life." 
 
 POSITION OF DOORS. (a) Doors in enclosing walls of elevator shafts which 
 communicate with more than one fire section, and which are subject to 
 damage from falling materials at time of fire, to be mounted in icveal of 
 wall so that no portion projects beyond the face of the wall. 
 
 (b) Doors in enclosing walls of elevator shafts which do not communicate 
 with more than one fire section, and doors which are not subject to damage 
 from falling material ai time of fire, may be mounted on the face of the 
 wall. Inspection departments having jurisdiction to be consulted before 
 installation. 
 
 NOTE. Doors mounted on the face of the wall should usually be confined 
 to elevator shafts in fireproof buildings, and to elevator shafts serving a 
 single fire section only. 
 
 SIZE OF DOORS. Doors not to exceed sizes suitable for openings 8 feet in 
 width and 9 feet in height. To overlap the sides of the wall opening. Hood 
 to fit closely against the lintel, or where the door is mounted on the face 
 of the wall, hood to be placed above the top of the opening so that the 
 bottom of the curtain will be flush with or above the top of the opening 
 when the door is fully open. 
 
 MOUNTING ROLLING DOORS. The rules for mounting rolling steel doors at 
 openings in fire walls to be followed, except that doors are installed only 
 on one side of wall. See Rule 41 a to f inclusive, page 396. 
 
 Counterbalanced Elevator Doors 
 
 Standard counterbalanced elevator doors are substantial in construction, 
 practical in many elevator enclosures, but are somewhat difficult to install. 
 Mounted on one side of shaft walls they furnish a high degree of resistance 
 to fire for long periods of exposure and a sufficient resistance to the trans- 
 mission of heat in these situations. They resist fire streams well, are durable 
 and generally easy to maintain. 
 
 SIZE OF DOORS. (a) Doors not to exceed sizes suitable for openings 8 feet 
 in width and 10 feet in height. To lap the opening at least 2 inches on 
 the sides, and at least 3 inches at top and bottom. 
 
 (b) Door sections to engage the guides on each side at least i inch with 
 %-inch clearance in each guide for lateral expansion. 
 
462 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 MOUNTING COUNTERBALANCED ELEVATOR DOORS. Counterbalanced elevator 
 doors are not easily installed by workmen unfamiliar with them. Where 
 possible, their installation should be under the supervision of the manufac- 
 turer. Specifications and blue prints should be furnished covering the 
 details of installation. The elevator should be available during the installa- 
 tion of doors. 
 
 (a) Mounting Wall Guides. Place the guides in proper position at sides 
 of opening and see that they are perfectly plumb, th^ proper distance apart, 
 and that the attachments on each guide are directly opposite each other on 
 a level line. Mark slots on wall at holes for wall bolts, remove guides 
 and mark long crosses at ends of slots furthest away from the fixed point 
 on the guides and drill holes through wall exactly where marked. Replace 
 guides and bolt to wall with ^-inch through bolts, placing washers on 
 opposite side of wall. 
 
 NOTE. The guides are assembled at the shop in unit lengths approxi- 
 mately equal to story heights, 2 inches being allowed between units for 
 clearance and expansion. The guides are provided with one round hole 
 and slots spaced not more than 18 inches at the door opening and not more 
 than 42 inches above the door opening. The wall bolt at the round hole 
 is the fixed point on the guides. 
 
 Where the doors are mounted on non-standard enclosing walls, the ends 
 of the wall guides to be securely anchored to the 'floor structure at floor levels. 
 
 NOTE. If securely attached to the floors, the wall guides serve as struc- 
 tural supports to both door and wall. 
 
 Wall guides may be attached to standard wall frames by slotted clips and 
 bolts. See Rules 7 and 52b, pages 373 and 399. 
 
 NOTE. The wall frames are liable to bulge when exposed to fire and 
 affect the fire retardant properties of doors attached to them, unless slotted 
 connections are employed. 
 
 (b) Mounting Door Sections. Place door sections in position in guides 
 so that latches and stops engage properly, attach chains to counterbalancing 
 mechanism, and adjust so that the door closes and latches properly when 
 operated. 
 
 Metal-Clad Doors 
 
 Standard Class B metal-clad fire doors are provided with framed wooden 
 cores, covered with sheet metal, with stiles and rails at least i% inches in 
 thickness and with depressed panels. In moderate sizes they are fairly sub- 
 stantial in construction, practical under most conditions, fairly easy to install, 
 but do not permit of concealed hardware. Mounted on one side of vertical 
 shaft walls they furnish a high degree of resistance to fire and to the trans- 
 mission of heat for fairly long periods of exposure, and resist fire streams 
 fairly well. Under adverse conditions of service they are liable to deteriorate 
 rapidly and are difficult to maintain. h^.">,-;i; 
 
 SWINGING METAI,-CLAD DOORS 
 
 StZE OF DooRs.^ (a) Single swinging doors not to exceed 4 feet in width 
 of 8 feet in height, to shut into rabbets formed by the stops on the wall 
 frame and fit the opening closely. 
 
 (b) Swinging doors in pairs not to exceed 6 feet in width or 8 feet in 
 height, to shut into rabbets formed by the stops on the wall frame, to fit 
 the opening closely, and to be provided with rabbeted edges or an astragal 
 where they come together at the middle. 
 
 MOUNTING SINGLE SWINGING DOORS. (a) To be mounted in approved 
 wall frames properly installed in the wall. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL < )PENINGS 403 
 
 (b) Doors not exceeding 3 1 /-. feet in width or 5 feet in height to be pro- 
 vidt-d with at least two approved hinges. Doors in excess of 5 feet, and not 
 inure than 7% feet in height to be provided with at least 3 approved hinges. 
 Doors in excess of 7% feet and not more than 8 feet in height to be provided 
 with at least 4 approved hinges. 
 
 (c) Doors to be equipped with an approved three-latch mechanism, in- 
 stalled as nearly as possible in the manner specified for swinging tin-clad fire 
 doors. See Rule 24C, page 386. 
 
 MOUNTING SWINGING DOORS IN PAIRS. (a) To be mounted in approved 
 wall frames properly installed in the wall. 
 
 (b) Each door to be provided with approved hinges as specified for 
 single doors. 
 
 (c) The active door of the pair to be equipped with an approved three- 
 latch mechanism, installed as nearly as possible in the manner specified for 
 swinging tin-clad fire doors. See Rule 24C, page 386. 
 
 (d) The standing or normally stationary door to be equipped with an 
 approved door belt at top and bottom and with catches for the latches on 
 the active door, installed as nearly as possible in the manner specified for 
 tin-clad doors. See Rules 253, b, page 388. 
 
 (e) Doors to be provided with an approved interference device to prevent 
 the wrong door from closing first. 
 
 OPERATION OF DOORS. Doors to be mounted in such a manner that they 
 will swing easily and freely on their hinges, and close accurately against the 
 stops on the wall frame without binding. The latches should operate freely 
 on their pivots and ride up the inclines on the catches and snap into position 
 when the door is slammed shut or closed with moderate force. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION (CLASS C) OF 
 OPENINGS IN CORRIDOR AND ROOM PARTITIONS 
 
 Partitions used for the subdivision of fire sections of buildings are of 
 very considerable value in safeguarding life and preventing the rapid spread 
 of fire through buildings. While of lesser importance from the fire protec- 
 tion viewpoint than fire walls and enclosures to vertical communications 
 through buildings, all openings in interior partitions should be provided with 
 effective barriers to the passage of fire. This can be accomplished by the 
 use of fire retardants that fulfill all service requirements but do not possess 
 the qualifications for the protection of openings in fire walls, openings 
 in enclosing walls to rooms containing specially hazardous processes, and 
 vertical shafts. Only such fire retardants are included in this class as have 
 been shown by experience and tests to prevent the spread of fire for fairly 
 long periods when installed on one side of corridor and room partitions, and 
 to offer no serious accident hazard under normal or emergency conditions 
 in this situation. 
 
 Fire retardants fulfilling Class A and Class B requirements can be em- 
 ployed for openings in corridor and room partitions where the type and 
 pattern are suitable. 
 
 General Regulations 
 
 NUMBER AND SIZE OF OPENINGS. Openings to he in sufficient number and 
 of ample size to provide for rapid egress toward the exits, otherwise to be 
 as few and as small as the circumstances will permit. 
 
 THRESHOLDS. To be made of non-combustible material with upper surface 
 treated to prevent slipping. 
 
404 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 LINTELS. Lintels to be of non-combustible material capable of safely sus- 
 taining the superimposed loads, or partitions to be so constructed that the 
 frame will not be subjected to material stress. 
 
 WALL FRAMES. (a) To consist of structural or sheet steel channels of 
 sufficient width to lap the sides of the partition. 
 
 (b) To be securely anchored to partition, and where they extend from 
 floor to ceiling, to be securely anchored at top and bottom. 
 
 FINISH AT OPENINGS. The casing and trim at openings to be preferably 
 of non-combustible material. 
 
 '! ' * . 
 
 Hollow Metal and Metal-Clad Doors 
 
 Standard Class C doors of these patterns may be provided with wired glass 
 upper panels, and limited amounts of heat insulating materials. In moderate 
 sizes they are fairly substantial in construction, practical under most condi- 
 tions, and fairly easy to install. Mounted in corridor and room partitions 
 they furnish a fairly high degree of resistance to fire for limited periods 
 and sufficient resistance to the transmission of heat in this situation. When 
 equipped with wired glass panels they afford only a limited resistance to 
 fire streams. Under adverse conditions of service the metal-clad doors are 
 liable to deteriorate rapidly and are difficult to maintain. 
 
 SIZE OF DOORS. (a) Single swinging doors not to exceed 4 feet in width 
 or 9 feet in height, ,to shut into rabbets formed by the stops on the wall 
 frame and fit the opening closely. 
 
 (b) Swinging doors in pairs not to exceed 8 feet in width or 9 feet in 
 height, to shut into rabbets formed by the stops on the wall frame, to fit 
 the opening closely, and also to fit together closely where they come together 
 at the middle. 
 
 MOUNTING SWINGING DOORS. (a) To be mounted in approved wall frames 
 properly installed in the wall or partition. 
 
 (b) Doors not exceeding 3% feet in width or 5 feet in height to be pro- 
 vided with at least 2 approved hinges. Doors in excess of 5 feet and not 
 more than 7% feet in height to be provided with at least 3 approved hinges. 
 Doors in excess of 7% feet and not more than 9 feet in height to be provided 
 with at least 4 approved hinges. 
 
 (c) Doors to be equipped with the ordinary heavy hardware. 
 
 (d) Doors to be mounted in such a manner that they will swing easily 
 and freely on their hinges and open and close without binding. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION (CLASS D) OF 
 
 OPENINGS IN EXTERIOR WALLS SUBJECT TO 
 
 SEVERE FIRE EXPOSURE 
 
 The importance of exterior walls as a safeguard to life at time of fire, 
 and in preventing fire from entering and spreading through buildings, makes 
 it essential that all openings in such walls subject to severe exposing fires 
 be protected by efficient methods. Only such fire retardants are included in 
 this class as have been shown by experience and tests to furnish a high 
 degree of fire protection when installed on one side of the wall, and, if 
 used at exit openings, to offer no serious accident hazard under normal or 
 emergency conditions in this situation. 
 
 Fire retardants fulfilling Class A or Class B requirements can be employed 
 for the protection of openings in exterior walls subject to severe fire ex- 
 posure where the type and pattern are suitable. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 405 
 
 General Regulations 
 
 NUMBER AND SIZE OF WALL OPENINGS. Openings to be in sufficient num- 
 ber and of ample size to provide for rapid egress from the building, and 
 to turnish sufficient light and ventilation, otherwise to be as few and small 
 as the circumstances will permit. 
 
 MASONRY AT WALL OPENINGS.' Walls to be plumb and true and present 
 smooth masonry surfaces without combustible trim at openings. 
 
 SILLS. (a) To be of non-combustible material suitable for the service 
 intended, and provided with any grooves, holes or recesses necessary for the 
 proper installation of the fire retardants used to protect the openings. 
 
 (b) To be firmly embedded in mortar, and securely bonded or anchored to 
 the masonry. 
 
 LINTELS. To be of non-combustible material and designed for the proper 
 installation of the fire retardants used to protect the openings. 
 
 NOTE. The lintels specified for openings in fire walls may be used for 
 openings in exterior walls, particularly for door openings. See Ruie 6, page" 
 373- 
 
 WALL FRAMES. Wall frames for exterior door openings to conform in all 
 essential particulars with the requirements for openings in fire walls or 
 vertical communications through buildings. See Rules 7, page 373, and 52, 
 page 399. 
 
 MEASUREMENT FOR SIZE OF FIRE RETARDANTS. Openings in exterior walls 
 to be carefully measured before the doors or shutters are built. Where wall 
 frames are employed, the size is to be determined by the opening in the 
 frame. 
 
 NOTE. Openings in exterior walls are very apt to vary from the sizes 
 given on plans. The size and shape of the opening in wall frames is fre- 
 quently altered by distortion incidental to shipment and installation. It is 
 important therefore that the openings be carefully measured before the 
 doors or shutters are built. 
 
 TYPE OF DOORS DIRECTION OF OPERATION. Doors at openings used as 
 exits to be of the swinging type where practicable. To open in the direction 
 of exit travel in such a manner as not to obstruct the passage or the opera- 
 tion of other doors. 
 
 CARE AND MAINTENANCE. (a) Exterior fire doors and shutters should be 
 ready for instant use at all times, therefore it is necessary to keep the sur- 
 roundings clear of everything that would be likely to obstruct or interfere 
 with their free operation. They should be kept closed and fastened nights, 
 Sundays and holidays, and whenever the openings are not in use. 
 
 (b) Never tack any tin on tin-clad doors or shutters. When tin becomes 
 worn, substitute new sheets in the same manner as when applying the original 
 covering. 
 
 PAINTING. Exterior doors and shutters to be given one good coat of paint 
 before they leave the shop, and at least one coat after they are installed. 
 Rolling steel doors and shutters not to be opened (coiled up) until the paint 
 has dried sufficiently to prevent adhesion between the parts. Exterior doors 
 and shutters to be repainted at fairly frequent intervals to prevent deteriora- 
 tion. Paint to be satisfactory to inspection departments having jurisdiction. 
 
 Tin-Clad Fire Shutters 
 
 87. SIZE AND SHAPE OF SHUTTERS. Shutters to overlap sides and top of 
 window opening 4 inches, or close into the opening. Shutters in pairs to 
 fit closely where they come together at the middle. 
 
406 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 NOTE. Shutters in pairs do not furnish as reliable protection as single 
 shutters. Joints between shutters may be protected by % x 2% inch steel 
 astragal bolted to one shutter by carriage bolts spaced 10 inches. The window 
 openings should be carefully measured before the shutters are built. 
 
 88. MOUNTING SHUTTERS. (a) Attachment of Pin or Eye Blocks. To be 
 securely set in wall or bolted through wall. 
 
 (b) Attachment of Hinges. Shutters in excess of 7 feet in height or 6 
 feet in width to be provided with three hinges. Hinges to be secured by 
 
 r^Os PS vT** V 
 
 Fig. 31 . Tin Clad Fire Shutters. 
 
 Reproduced hy permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 bolts passing through the shutter, placing washers under bolt heads. The 
 rules for attaching hinges to tin-clad fire doors should be followed as far 
 as possible. See Rule 24 b, page 386. 
 
 (c) Attaching Latches. Shutters to be secured shut by at least two steel 
 bars or latches working together and spaced about one third the distance 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 407 
 
 from top and bottom of the window opening. Latches to pivot on %-inch 
 holts through the shutters. See Figure 31. 
 
 (d) Attaching Catches, To be securely set in wall. Catches for shutters 
 in pairs to be provided with a flare and attached to the shutter by two %-inch 
 through bolts. Hooks or gravity catches securely attached to wall to be 
 provided to hold the shutter in position when open. See Figure 31. 
 
 (c) Operation. At least one shutter in three on each story above the first 
 
 
 Fig. 32. Iron Shutters.Open. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 and below the seventh, and shutters next to fire escapes and above adjoining 
 buildings to he constructed so that they can be operated from both inside 
 and outside. 
 
 89. SLIDING SHUTTERS. Sliding shutters not to be used if avoidable. If 
 used on the outside, metal shields should be provided to prevent accumula- 
 tion of snow and ice on track. 
 
408 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Solid Steel and Sheet Metal Shutters 
 
 90. SIZE AND SHAPE OF SHUTTERS. Shutters to overlap sides and top of 
 window opening at least i% inches or close into the opening. Bottom of 
 shutter to fit the sill closely where it is not practical to lap it. Shutters 
 in pairs to lap each other at least i% inches when they come together at 
 the middle. See Figures 32 and 33. 
 
 ! % Cl osed. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Uncl's. 
 
 NOTE. The window openings should be carefully measured before the 
 shutters are built. 
 
 QT. MOUNTING SHUTTERS. (a) Attachments of Pin or Eye Blocks. To be 
 securely set in wall or bolted through wall. 
 
 (b) Attachment of Hinges. Hinges not to exceed 24 inches apart when 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 409 
 
 shutter is in excess of 6 feet in height. Set the shutters in positions with 
 ends of hinges in position on pin or eye blocks. Shutters should turn easily 
 and freely on the hinges. See Figures 32 and 33. 
 
 NOTE. The hinges are attached to solid steel and sheet metal shutters 
 at the top. 
 
 (c) Attaching Latches. Shutters to be provided with at least two latches, 
 and where more than 6 feet in height latches not to exceed 24 inches apart. 
 
 Fi34 Dcx>rtocoverBelTHole Opening. 
 D oTted 1 i nes show open i n t hrougji wo 1 1 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 Latches to work together and to be installed before the shutter is mounted. 
 Latches to extend at least one third the distance across the opposite shutter 
 when shutters in pairs are used. See Figures 32 and 33. 
 
 (d) Attaching Catches. To be securely set in wall, or where shutters are 
 in pairs, to be securely riveted to the standing shutter of the pair. Hooks 
 
4IO FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 or gravity catches securely attached to wall to be provided to hold the 
 shutter in position when open. See Figures 32 and 33. 
 
 (e) Operation. At least one shutter in. three on each story above the . 
 first and below the seventh, and shutters next to fire escapes and above 
 adjoining buildings, to be constructed so that they can be operated from 
 both inside and outside. 
 
 Rolling Steel Fire Shutters 
 
 92. POSITION OF SHUTTERS. Shutters to be mounted on the face of wall 
 or coil may be mounted in the wall when the shutter is so designed that the 
 curtain is located outside of the window frame when the shutter is closed. 
 
 93. SIZE OF SHUTTERS. Shutters not to exceed sizes suitable for .window 
 openings 10 feet wide by 10 feet in height, and to overlap openings at the 
 sides and top. Hood to be placed above the top of the opening, or in the 
 wall over the opening so that the bottom of the curtain will be flijsh with 
 or above the top of the opening when the shutter is fully open. 
 
 94. MOUNTING ROLLING SHUTTERS. Rolling steel shutters are complicated 
 in construction and not easily installed by workmen unfamiliar with them. 
 Where possible, their 'installation should be under the supervision of the 
 manufacturer. Specifications and blue prints should be furnished covering 
 the details of installation. 
 
 The rules for mounting rolling steel fire doors to be followed in mounting 
 rolling shutters, except that doors are installed only on one side of wall. 
 See Rules 413 to 43, inclusive, pages 396 and 397. 
 
 95. TESTING ROLLING SHUTTERS. Shutters to be tested after installation, 
 and adjustments altered, if necessary, to make them operate freely. 
 
 NOTE. Rolling shutters should be provided with approved attachments for 
 conveniently testing their operation from the inside of the building, and 
 with approved safety attachments to prevent their operation, while windows 
 are being washed. These attachments to be so designed that the shutters 
 cannot be left in an inoperative condition. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION (CLASS E) OF 
 
 OPENINGS IN EXTERIOR WALLS SUBJECT TO 
 
 MODERATE FIRE EXPOSURE 
 
 Openings in exterior walls, not subject to severe fire exposure, may be 
 efficiently protected by devices which will not safely withstand t|he high 
 temperatures of severe fire exposures on the exterior of buildings, or the 
 temperatures of fires on the interior of buildings. Only such fire retardants 
 are included in this class as have been shown by experience and tests to 
 furnish a high degree of fire protection when installed on one side of 
 exterior walls not subject to severe fire exposure, and, if used at exit open- 
 ings, to offer no serious accident hazard under normal or emergency condi- 
 tions in this situation. 
 
 Fire retardants fulfilling Class A, B or D requirements can be employed 
 for the protection of openings in exterior walls not subject to seyere fire 
 exposure, where the type and pattern are suitable. 
 
 . (*-. i vtit n</:j.;.*;yf ,,j i-mil.nipJI 
 
 General Regulations- 
 
 96. NUMBER AND SIZE OF WALL OPENINGS. Opening^ , to be sufficient in 
 number and of ample size to provide for rapid egress from the building, 
 and to furnish sufficient light and ventilation, otherwise to be as few and 
 as smajl as the circumstances will permit. 
 
For Proper Window 'Protection 
 Against Fire and Breakage 
 Specify 
 
 WIRE GLASS 
 
 MISSISSIPPI WIRE GLASS Co. 
 
 220 FIFTH AVENUE 
 CHICAGO NEW YORK ST. Louis 
 
INTERIOR of FACTORY glazed with 
 Mississippi Wire Glass, showing abund- 
 ance of natural illumination, aside from 
 this, the maximum protection against fire 
 and breakage is obtained. 
 
 These POINTS ARE SURELY worthy of 
 YOUR careful consideration as proper 
 protection is the most important subject in 
 modern construction. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI WIRE GLASS Co. 
 
 220 Fifth Avenue 
 
 7 W. Madison St. ATV -\r i 4070 N. Main St. 
 
 Chicago, 111. 1N6W lOFK St. Louis, Mo. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 411 
 
 07. MASONRY AT WALL OPENINGS. Walls to be plumb and true, and to 
 present smooth masonry surfaces at edges without combustible trim at 
 openings. 
 
 98. SILLS AND LINTELS. To be of non-combustible material suitable for the 
 service intended, designed for the proper installation of the retardants used 
 to protect the openings, and firmly embedded in mortar and securely bonded 
 or anchored in position. 
 
 XOTE. The sills and lintels specified for openings in fire walls may be 
 used for openings in exterior walls when suitable. See Rules 5 and 6, 
 page 373. 
 
 99. WALL FRAMES FOR DOORS. Door frames specified for openings in Class 
 A and B situations may be used for door openings in exterior walls. See 
 Rules .7 and 52, pages 373 and 399. 
 
 too. MULLIONS. (a) Bearing mullions to be of masonry or of structural 
 members protected by at least 2 inches of fireproofing material on all sides. 
 
 (b) Non-bearing mullions and horizontal structural dividing members to 
 consist of steel I-beams not smaller than 5 inches, securely fastened to the 
 wall and protected by at least 2 inches of fireproofing material on the flanges 
 and at least 2^ inches next on the web. 
 
 101. CARE AND MAINTENANCE. Fire ;retardants at exterior openings to be 
 kept well painted to prevent deterioration, to be kept clean of everything that 
 would be likely to obstruct or interfere with their free operation, and to be 
 frequently tested and maintained in perfect working order. 
 
 Fire Windows 
 
 \Vire4 glass windows are fairly substantial in construction, practical under 
 most conditions, easy to install and to maintain, furnish a fairly high 
 degree of resistance to fire, but their use is restricted by inherent limitations 
 of the glass which transmits heat readily, and melts at comparatively low 
 temperatures. For situations where the exposure is not severe they will 
 prevent the spread of fire from one building to , another or from one story 
 to another in the same building. 
 
 102. SIZE OF FIRE WINDOWS. Metal frame containing the sash or glass not 
 to exceed 5 feet by 9 feet between supports. Larger openings to be reinforced 
 at every point of division by mullions or horizontal structural members con- 
 structed as specified in Rule looa and b. 
 
 103. SIZE OF GLASS FOR FIRE WINDOWS. Area of wired glass between sup- 
 ports not to exceed 720 square inches, and the longer dimension of the glass 
 not to exceed 48 inches. 
 
 104. INSTALLATION OF FIRE WINDOWS. (a) Sills of hollow metal window 
 frames to be filled with non-combustible material capable of pi eventing 
 distortion. 
 
 (b) Frames to be set upon a bed of mortar and supported by shims or 
 wedges to be removed after masonry is completed. Vertical members to be 
 plumb and true, and horizontal members level. Frames to be securely braced 
 in position until held by the masonry or other attachments. 
 
 (c) Frames installed before the sashes are in position to be securely cross 
 braced to prevent distortion while the wall is being built. 
 
 (d) Masonry to be set close to walling in flanges, weight pockets or ex- 
 tending portions of the window frame, and wall anchors to be properly set 
 into the masonry as the work progresses. Joints between the frame and 
 wall to be carefully pointed up on both sides of the window. 
 
 (e) Arches or lintels to be set with reference to extending frame mem- 
 bers and at least ^4-inch clearance allowed, so as not to subject the frame 
 
I 
 
 412 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 to loads by settlements. Joints between frame and arch or lintel to be filled 
 with mortar and made tight by pointing. 
 
 NOTE. New masonry is liable to settle slightly and distort the frame if 
 proper allowances are not made in setting. 
 
 (f) Frames set in old openings to be firmly secured to the wall structure, 
 first wetting old masonry to prevent the rapid absorption of moisture in 
 mortar. All joints between frame and wall to be filled -with mortar and 
 made tight by pointing. 
 
 (g) Window frames to be thoroughly protected by boxing if window 
 opening is used for the introduction of building materials. 
 
 (h) Directions for installation to be furnished for windows, covering 
 which published installation rules do not apply. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIRE 
 WINDOWS * 
 
 . Hollow metallic windows may be divided into six general types, namely: 
 Sliding Windows, Pivoted Windows, Casement Windows, Top Hinged Win- 
 dows, Stationary Windows, and Tilting Windows. 
 
 SLIDING WINDOWS. Sliding windows are windows having two sashes 
 ordinarily designed to slide up and down. The motions of these sashes 
 may be independent of each other and controlled by weights, in which case 
 the window is called a double hung window, or one sash may counterbalance 
 the other, in which case the window is called a counterbalanced v.mdow. 
 
 While it is possible to design windows which will slide horizontally, such 
 windows are seldom made and the term " sliding window " is, therefore, 
 generally considered as applying exclusively to the vertical sliding type. 
 
 PIVOTED WINDOWS. A pivoted window is a window having one or more 
 of the sashes mounted on pivots allowing each movable sash to be turned 
 on an axis. 
 
 CASEMENT WINDOWS. A casement window is a Vindow having the sashes 
 attached to the frame by hinges at a vertical edge and operating in the same 
 manner as a door. 
 
 TOP HINGED WINDOWS. A top hinged window is a window having the 
 sash attached to the frame by hinges at the upper horizontal edge. 
 
 STATIONARY WINDOWS. A stationary window is a window having the sash 
 fixed in one position. 
 
 TILTING WINDOWS. A tilting window is a window in which the sashes are 
 attached to the frame, and to each other in such a manner that a sliding 
 and tilting movement of the sashes is secured. 
 
 TWIN WINDOWS. A twin window is a window the sashes of which are 
 mounted side by side instead of vertically. 
 
 COMBINATION TYPES. Windows which are combinations of the above types 
 have names which indicate their construction. For instance, a window having 
 a pivoted upper sash and stationary lower sash is called a pivoted upper, 
 fixed lower sash window. A window having two sashes, both of which are 
 pivoted, is called a double pivoted window. A window having a single 
 pivoted sash is called a single pivoted window. A window having a top 
 hinged upper sash and double hung lower sash is usually called a double 
 hung window with top hinged transom, etc. 
 
 Owing to the fact that a type of window having the upper sash pivoted and 
 the lower sash stationary, is more generally used than other types of pivoted 
 windows, a pivoted window is now generally understood as being a two-sash 
 
 * Issued by the Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALLJ OPENINGS 413 
 
 window having the upper sash pivoted and the lower sash fixed. Windows 
 having the upper sash fixed and the lower sash pivoted, are often spoken of 
 as reverse pivoted windows. 
 
 FRAMES AND FRAME MEMBERS. Hollow metallic windows of any type con- 
 sist of a frame and one sash or more. Frames formed with offsets or 
 shoulders to receive masonry are called rabbeted frames. Frames not pro- 
 vided with rabbets are generally formed with metal wings or flanges. Flanges 
 designed to be built into the masonry are called walling-in flanges. The 
 frames of all windows having *a single sash and the frames of sliding sash 
 windows having two sashes are composed of two horizontal members called 
 the head and sill, and two vertical members called the jambs. 
 
 The head is that portion of the frame which forms the top, the lower 
 surface of the head being called the soffit and the upper surface the top of 
 the member. 
 
 The sill is that portion of the frame which forms the bottom, and the 
 upper surface is called the tread and the lower surface the base. 
 
 The jambs form the sides of the frame, the part in contact with masonry 
 being called the back of the jamb and the part in contact with the sash the 
 front of the jamb. Projections on the front of the jambs, designed to limit 
 the movement of a movable sash, are called stops. Sliding sash windows 
 are frequently equipped with stops which may be separated from the jamb 
 and these separable 'strips are frequently spoken of as sash guide strips, the 
 strip dividing the two sashes being frequently called the sash parting bead. 
 
 The frame of a pivoted window having two sashes is composed of the 
 saire members as the frame of a sliding sash window and an additional 
 horizontal member which is called the transom bar. 
 
 The frame of a twin window is composed of a head sill, two jambs and a 
 vertical division member which separates the sashes. 
 
 That part of the wall structure which divides windows from each other is 
 called the mullion. This mullion may be an integral part of the wall structure 
 or may be built in with the window. 
 
 SASHES AND SASH MEMBERS. The sash is that part of the window con- 
 struction which holds the glass, and may be permanently attached to the 
 frame, in which case it is called a fixed or stationary sash, or may be so 
 constructed that its position can be changed, in which case it is called a 
 movable sash. 
 
 Each sash is composed of horizontal and vertical sash members. 
 
 The horizontal members at the top and bottom of the sash are called the 
 RAILS. In sliding sash windows the rails which join each other at the 
 middle of the window when the sashes are closed, are called the meeting 
 rails. 
 
 The vertical members at the sides of the sash are called the STILES. In 
 casement windows, the stiles to which the hinges are attached are called the 
 hinge stiles, and the stiles to which the locking mechanism is attached are 
 called the lock stiles. When casement windows are made in two parts, 
 meeting at the middle, the stiles in contact with each other are called the 
 meeting stiles. 
 
 The intermediate members separating the panes of glass are called MUN- 
 TIN'S. If the muntin is installed in a vertical position, it is called a vertical 
 muntin. If it is installed in a horizontal position, it is called a horizontal 
 muntin. Munting which are so designed that one part may be removed for 
 glazing are called separable type muntins, and muntlns which cannot be 
 taken apart for glazing purposes are called non-separable type muntms. 
 
 NOTE. In architecture, the word muntin is used to designate the vertical 
 sash members dividing the lights from each other, while the horizontal mem- 
 
414 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 hers are called bars. Window manufacturers usually term these members 
 vertical and horizontal nluntins, which terms have been adopted in this 
 guide. 
 
 The illustrations show the various members of a window and the names 
 of the various parts, Fig. 37 showing a double hung window; Fig. 38, a pivoted 
 window; Fig. 39, a tilting window on each side of a masonry mullion. Fig. 
 40 shows a twin top hinged window, the two sashes being separated by a 
 vertical division member. 
 
 Rules Relating to Glazing 
 
 APPROVED GLASS. Glass to be an approved make and comply with the 
 Rules and Requirements of the National Board of Fire Underwriters as 
 given below: 
 
 Double Hung Window Mailed in Brick Wall. 
 Fig, 37 
 
 ^a) "To have a thickness of at least Vi inch at t,he thinnest point. 
 
 (b) "Wire mesh to be not larger than . % inch and wire used for such 
 mesh to be not smaller than No. 24 B. & S. gauge* The plane of the wire 
 mesh to be practically midway between the two surfaces of the glass. 
 
 (c) " Selvage to be removed from the glass before framing." 
 
 BEARING OF GLASS IN GROOVES. Actual bearing of glass in grooves to be 
 at least % inch at all points. 
 
 As the maximum depth of the grooves is % inch, a space of % inch is 
 allowed between the bottom of the groove and the edge of the glass. Careful 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 415 
 
 glazing is necessary to prevent one edge of the glass from resting on the 
 bottom of the groove, thus decreasing the bearing surfaces on the opposite 
 side. (See Figs. 47, 48, 49.) 
 
 FILLING OF GROOVES. : Glass to be set in putty and all space between glass 
 and melal forming the sides and bottom of grooves to be well filled with the 
 same material. Surface of putty to be Hush with the top of the groove 
 and finished smooth. 
 
 The putty joint should be made in such a manner as to prevent water from 
 remaining in contact with the sheet metal and thus causing corrosion. 
 
 The filling of the space between the edge of the glass and the bottom of 
 the groove with putty insures the proper spacing of the glass in the grooves. 
 
 Wai ling in Flange 
 -Head 
 Jamb 
 -Upper Hail 
 Stile 
 -Stop 
 
 - -Transom Bar 
 
 -Vertical MunTin 
 
 Horizontal Muntin 
 
 Silf 
 
 Fig. 38 
 
 Pivoted Window before Installation. 
 
 FASTENING OF SASH MEMBERS AFTER GLAZING. All sash members removed 
 tor glazing purposes to be securely fastened in place after glazing. 
 
 Hollow metal window frames for wired glass are designed to permit reglazing 
 by either one or the other of two methods. In the first of these methods, 
 the glass is inserted through the top rail of each sash, necessitating the removal 
 of the closure piece at the top of the rail and the cap piece of the groove. 
 
 The second method is used when the window is of such a design as to 
 permit the removal and replacement of the metal forming one side of some 
 of the grooves. The removable pieces are generally the inside parts of the 
 muntins, although in some makes of windows the metal forming the sides 
 of the grooves in stiles or. rails may be removed from the inside of the 
 window. The removable pieces can generally be distinguished by the exposed 
 heads of the screws with which they are fastened. See Fig. 50 and 51. 
 
 UKOKEN GLASS. All broken glass to be replaced by unbroken lights of 
 approved quality and dimensions. 
 
416 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 While cracks do not materially injure the glass from a fire retardant view- 
 point, provided the wire is not broken, such cracks may permit moisture to 
 come in contact with the reinforcement and affect the fire retardant properties 
 of the glass by corroding the wire. It is also probable that cracked glass would 
 soon be replaced by the owners of the building where the windows are in- 
 stalled, and such replacement might be made by inexperienced glaziers using 
 improper methods of installation or non-standard glass. 
 
 Rules Relating to Operation 
 
 PROPER INSTALLATION OF SASHES IN FRAMES. Sashes to be securely mounted 
 in frames. Movable sash to operate easily and engage the stops properly. 
 
 Fig. 39 
 
 Tilting Windows Separated by Brick hullion. 
 
 Any distortion of frame or sash due to rough handling or improper installa- 
 tion, is liable to cause binding of the sashes in the frames and prevent easy 
 operation and proper registration between interlocking parts. (See Figs, s- 
 and 53.) 
 
 OPERATION OF HARDWARE. Hinges and pivots to be so adjusted as to permit 
 easy movement of sashes in . frames. 
 
 Pulleys to operate freely and be so placed as to prevent chafing of chains 
 or rubbing of weights against the metal forming the weight pockets. 
 
 Locking mechanism to be so placed and adjusted that the latches will 
 engage the catches securely and easily. 
 
 While it is desirable that the latches should engage the catches easily, the 
 fastenings should not permit excessive movement of the sash after being 
 secured in position. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 417 
 
 OPERATION OF AUTOMATIC DEVICES. Action of automatic mechanism to be 
 positive and reliable. 
 
 Locking mechanisms designed to latch automatically should be so constructed 
 that the engagement between the latches and catches is positive when the 
 sash closes gently and when it closes with considerable force. 
 
 Sash should close immediately upon being released by the fusing of the 
 link, and the position of the link should be such as to insure its fusing in 
 the event of windows^ being subjected to severe exposure from a fire outside 
 the building. 
 
 1 1 should not be possible to turn the sashes of pivoted windows to such a 
 position that they will not close automatically. 
 
 Division 
 Member 
 
 Fig. 40 
 Twin Hinged Windows 
 
 Suggestions Covering Methods of Inspection to be Used in 
 
 Determining the Character of the Installation and 
 
 Compliance with the Rules 
 
 It is desirable that window installations should be inspected as often as 
 possible while the walls of the building are in course of construction, as 
 compliance with the rules relating to the formation of masonry around the 
 backs of the jambs cannot be determined except by observation at the time 
 of erection. 
 
 In inspecting a window already installed, careful attention should be given 
 to the character of the joint between the window and the wall structure. 
 This joint should be made in such a manner as to prevent entrance of 
 moisture or passage of air between the frame and masonry. 
 
 A straight-edge may be applied to all surfaces of the window in order to 
 determine whether or not settlement of surrounding masonry has caused 
 deflection of the frame members. 
 
4 i8 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Bowing of frame members causes binding of the sash in the frame and 
 often prevents proper action of the locking mechanism. 
 
 Masons should be cautioned not to force bricks against the window frames, 
 as the use of excessive force in pressing the bricks into place is liable to 
 cause distortion of the window. 
 
 The corners of the frame may be tried with a square in order to deter- 
 mine whether or not settlement of masonry or rough handling during in- 
 stallation has caused any distortion. 
 
 The sides of the frame may be tested with a plumb level or line to 
 determine whether or not they are set vertically in the wall. This is espe- 
 
 Fig. 41 
 
 Jamb with Rabbets or 
 Offsets to receive Masonr^ 
 
 cially important in the case of double hung windows, as rubbing of the 
 weights would result from material misalignment of the jambs. 
 
 A slight variation from the perpendicular in the setting of a window does 
 not render it open to criticism unless such variation is pronounced enough 
 to interfere with the movement of the sash. This may often be determined 
 by operating the sash. 
 
 All frames of whatever construction should be firmly secured to the wall 
 structure. In cases where the wall structure is of unusual character, the 
 frames are generally made with long flanges which are designed to provide 
 overlapping pieces which may be fastened to the wall by spikes or screws 
 threaded into structural iron. Owing to the many different types of wall 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 419 
 
 construction, a specific rule applying to each type cannot be formulated, but 
 no installation should be approved unless the frames are securely held in 
 place. 
 
 When windows are glazed at the factory, the factory inspection covers the 
 glazing, and in such cases the label may be taken as evidence that the glazing 
 is properly done. The notice of shipment states whether or not windows 
 are glazed at the factory. 
 
 Whenever possible, windows should be inspected while glazing is in progress, 
 as the size of the glass used, the bearing in the grooves and the filling of 
 the grooves with putty may be checked up most easily at that time. 
 
 Fig. 42 
 
 Mortar Joint 
 at Junction of 
 Jamb and Wall 
 
 In case it is impracticable to visit the building while glazing is in progress, 
 the details regarding the fastening of sash members, the make of glass used 
 and damaged glass may be determined by an inspection of the completed 
 window. Other details, such as the bearing of the glass in the grooves and 
 the completeness with which the grooves are filled with putty, may be 
 checked by taking off the removable parts of the sash. 
 
 It is well to require the submission of sales sheets showing the size of 
 glass provided for glazing the windows, as the dimensions of the glass furnished 
 may not be in accordance with the dimensions furnished by the window 
 manufacturer and checked up at factory inspection on the windows. 
 
 The inspector must use his own discretion as to the percentage of windows 
 in a building that it will be necessary to inspect in this manner, the number 
 
420 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 depending somewhat upon the character of the workmanship shown by the 
 first samples inspected. The window contractor should have straight-edge, 
 square and plumb level or line available for use by the inspector. 
 
 When the windows comprising an installation are glazed through the top 
 rail, the inspector should not attempt to remove the top closure piece and 
 cap for the grooves, but should make an appointment with the parties respon- 
 sible for the glazing in order that these removable pieces may be taken off 
 and replaced by them. 
 
 V/alling-in 
 flange. 
 
 Fig. 43 
 Frame with Walling-in Flange? 
 
 All movable sashes should be tested to determine their freedom of opera- 
 tion and the sashes should be so set in the frames that they will move 
 easily without material rubbing of parts. 
 
 The sash chains of a double hung window should be securely attached to 
 the sashes and to the weights in the jamb. 
 
 The screws fastening the latches, catches, pivots, pulleys, etc., in place 
 shonld be set tightly. 
 
 The meeting rails of double hung windows should register with each other 
 in such a manner as to enable the locks to be operated without the use 
 of excessive force. 
 
 The latches of pivoted windows should engage the catches v/hen the 
 windows are opened and allowed to fall through a distance of 6 inches, and 
 should also engage positively when the sashes are opened fully and allowed 
 to drop through their entire travel. 
 
PROTECTION OF WALL OPENINGS 
 
 421 
 
 The locking mechanism of a pivoted window should not allow the sash 
 to rebound after closing. 
 
 Pivoted windows should not be equipped with chains of sufficient length 
 to retard the proper action of the locks. 
 
 The locking mechanism of hinged windows should be subjected to the same 
 tests as those of pivoted windows. 
 
 Automatic devices used in connection with wired glass windows should be 
 of such a character that their failure to operate cannot possibly interfere 
 with the working of the sashes as manually operated devices. Inspectors 
 should, therefore, make such tests as appear advisable in order to determine 
 
 r-Flange spiked To brickwork 
 
 Fig. 44 
 Frame Installed in Old Wall Owning. 
 
 that chains released by the action of a fusible link cannot possibly fall to 
 such a position as to prevent the window from closing. 
 
 Fusible links should be so placed that they will be on the weather side 
 of the window when the sash is opened. In inspecting windows equipped 
 with automatic closing devices, a certain percentage of the windows should 
 be tested as nearly as possible under actual service conditions. This is 
 especially desirable in the case of pivoted windows. In the case of automatic 
 mechanisms attached to double hung windows, the inspector before test 
 should assure himself that the automatic devices may be put in good order 
 easily, or should delay the test until a representative of the window manu- 
 facturer is present in order that the mechanisms may be put into working 
 condition immediately after the test. 
 
 Inspectors should carefully guard against leaving automatic mechanisms 
 in an inoperative condition as a result of inspection, and it should not be 
 possible to place a pivoted sash in an open position from which it will not 
 close by gravity. 
 
422 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 PRISM GLASS FRAMES USED AS A FIRE RETARDANT* 
 
 Prisms, as installed for the purpose of increased light, are 
 usually not contained in frames which are designed to withstand 
 severe heat, as the requirements for strength under the different 
 conditions of actual installation do not necessitate a frame which 
 can be relied on as a fire retardant. 
 
 The metallic ribbons between the prisms used for the purpose 
 of light only are not heavy enough, are not continuous and un- 
 broken in both directions and are not attached to the metal border 
 securely enough to withstand severe conditions of heat. The rib- 
 bons in one direction are usually formed of short pieces slipped 
 
 in between the unbroken ribbons running in the opposite direction, 
 and are held in position by solder. 
 
 In frames' for this service the ribbons are usually of compara- 
 tively light metal and are fastened to the metallic border by 
 soldering. 
 
 It has been demonstrated by fire tests that prism frames con- 
 structed as described do not possess sufficient fire resisting prop- 
 erties to warrant consideration. But whe're constructed for the 
 purpose of withstanding severe conditions of heat they may be 
 made of service. 
 
 In all cases where electro-glazed frames are to be installed as a 
 protection against fire they should be specially constructed for this 
 purpose and framed in as careful and secure a manner as wired 
 glass. 
 
 * Regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
SKYLIGHTS 423 
 
 The window frame and sash containing the prism glass frame 
 to fulfill the requirements for hollow metallic or wrought iron 
 frames for wired glass. 
 
 Size. The dimensions of the unsupported electroglazed panel 
 not to exceed 50 inches in either direction. 
 
 This will permit the use of standard metal frames for wired glass. 
 
 Borders. The metal border at the edges of the electro-glazed 
 panel to be of rolled copper or brass tubing at least */> inch wide 
 by ^ inch in thickness. The corners to be securely fastened to- 
 gether by substantial knees of the same metal inserted in the tubing. 
 
 Glass. Polished plate or prism glass units not to exceed four 
 inches in either direction and to have a thickness of at least 3/16 
 inch. 
 
 Ribbons. The ribbons or metal strips between the glass units 
 to be of unbroken strips of rolled copper, 4/32 inch in thickness and 
 9/32 inch in width, interlocked at each intersection. All ends to 
 pass entirely through the borders and be clinched on the outer edge. 
 
 Electrolytic Deposit. All joints at the corners of the border, 
 at the fastenings of the ribbons to the border and at the intersec- 
 tions of ribbons to be securely fixed by a sufficient electrolytic 
 deposit of copper to form a rigid framing, and to retain the glass 
 units securely in place. 
 
 The border to be retained in a rabbet or groove in the sash at 
 least l / 2 an inch in depth. In windows having a width of over 24 
 inches the border to be bolted to the upper rail of the sash. 
 
 SKYLIGHTS AND OTHER ROOF STRUCTURES 
 Class- A Skylights* 
 
 TYPES. By the term skylights as considered in these rules is meant any 
 opening through roof of building for the admission of light. 
 
 The following types with their modifications and combinations, which are 
 included, are noted: Flat Skylights, plane or inclined; Peaked Skylights; 
 Cupola Skylights; Monitor and, Lanterns; Sawtoothed roofs; Raised Sections 
 of roofs with vertical sash; Ventilating Skylights; Dormers, etc.; also Special 
 Skylights as over stair, elevator or dumbwaiter shafts, and over stage por- 
 tions of theaters. 
 
 Construction 
 
 i. GLASS. (a) For all skylights, plane or inclined not over 45 degrees, 
 to be either of standard wired glass not less than ^ inch thick or y% inch 
 thick glass protected with approved wire screens. Panes to be not over 18 
 or 20 inches, wide, and not to exceed 720 square inches in area. 
 
 (b) For vertical skylights or sash, or such as are inclined at an angle 
 of over 45 degrees, may be wired glass as noted under (a), i^-inch thick 
 glass without screens, or glass not less than % inch thick, provided the sash 
 or skylights are protected by suitable screens. 
 
 (c) For vertical skylights or sash, or such as are inclined at an angle 
 of over 45 degrees, when exposed in such a manner that the wall openings 
 in buildings would require standard fire shutters or standard wired glass 
 (or doors) against such exposures, standard wired glass only must be used. 
 
 (d) For skylights over fireproofecl stair, elevator, dumbwaiter, air or 
 
 Regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
424 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 similar shafts not over % inch glass, either on top or at sides of cupola 
 skylight, if surmounted by that type, protected by suitable screens. 
 
 (e) For skylights over stage sections of theaters not over l / s inch glass, 
 protected by suitable screens. 
 
 NOTE. Substitutes for glass such as wire cloth with a coating of trans- 
 lucent, combustible substance or similar material are not approved. 
 
 2. SASH. (a) Materials. Sash to be constructed entirely of met.nl, either 
 galvanized iron, wrought iron or angle iron. 
 
 (b) Construction. To be constructed with interlocking seams or rivets in 
 accordance with, the rules and requirements of the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters for wired glass windows. 
 
 (c) Glazing. Glass to be secured to the sash by means of metal strips 
 
 held in position by bolts or screws in such a manner as to form joints suf- 
 ficiently elastic to allow for proper expansion and contraction, and to be 
 weather proof. 
 
 3. FRAMES. Frames for : low flat or small cupola skylights to be entirely 
 of galvanized iron secured to angle irons, all properly riveted together and 
 securely fastened to roof. All joints to be tight and weather proof. 
 
 4. CURBS FOR SKYLIGHTS. (a) If on buildings of fireproof construction, 
 to be constructed of approved fire-proof materials reinforced with angle iron 
 properly protected by approved fire-proof material. 
 
 (b) If on buildings of slow-burning construction, may be either (i) of not 
 less than 4 x 4-inch framework, filled in with brick, terra cotta, cement or 
 other approved fire-proof materials, tin-clad on the outside; (2) double 
 boarded, tongued and grooved, boards at right angles to each other, tin-clad 
 on the outside; (3) of not less than 2%-inch tongued and grooved, or splined 
 plank, tin-clad on the outside. 
 
 (c) On all other buildings, if not in accordance with, the foregoing, to be 
 thoroughly tin-clad on the outside. 
 
SKYLIGHTS 
 
 425 
 
 (d) Curbs must be securely fastened to framework of roof, and when on 
 roofs of joisted construction must be supported on doubled joists. 
 
 5. MONITOR OR LANTERN SKYLIGHTS. (a) Construction. To conform in 
 general with roof construction of buildings of which they form a part, and 
 as specifically noted under Curbs, section 4, class A. 
 
 (b) Sash. To conform in all particulars to sections i and 2, class A. 
 
 (c) Frames. (i) If for skylights on tops of monitors or lanterns to con- 
 form with section 3, class A. (2) If in sides of monitors or lanterns of 
 fire-proof construction to be constructed in accordance with the requirements 
 for Wired Glass Windows, page 244. (3) For all monitors or lanterns where 
 
 cood 
 
 Bad 
 
 
 
 Joint not well filled 
 with Pulty x. 
 
 Glass nor 
 centered inGroove 
 
 Glass resting on 
 bottom of 
 jNGroove 
 
 Fig. 47 
 Section of Rails showing Proper ^ImproperGlazing 
 
 woodwork is permissible, see under (a), this section, the frames, if of wood, 
 must be thoroughly protected by galvanized iron, including the rabbets, if 
 any, or recessed portions, receiving the sash. 
 
 6. SAWTOOTHED SKYLIGHTS. (a) Construction. To conform in general 
 with roof construction of buildings of which they form a part, and as 
 specifically noted under Curbs, section 4, class A. 
 
 (b) Sash. To conform in all particulars with sections i and 2, class A. 
 
 NOTE. Usually this type of skylight is one continuous frame. The 
 muntins or rails must conform in manner of construction and securing to the 
 requirements of the National Board of Fire Underwriters for the construction 
 of frames for wired glass. Any deviations of this arrangement will be 
 governed by the rules or requirements of the types or kinds under which 
 they may come. 
 
426 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 7. VERTICAL SASH UNDER RAISED SECTIONS OF ROOFS. This includes also 
 a row of sash or sections of wall" entirely of glass, above the wall proper 
 and underneath the roof. 
 
 Must conform in general with the rules and requirements noted under 
 sections 5 and 6, class A, in so far as these apply. 
 
 8. VENTILATING SKYLIGHTS OR SKYLIGHT SASH. Frequently portions of 
 skylights (sometimes the entire sash) are arranged that they may be opened 
 for purposes of ventilation; if top sash are so arranged they are . generally 
 hinged at the highest point, while side sash are hinged either at the top, 
 or near the center line, turning either on a horizontal or vertical axis. Sash 
 hung at the top are usually secured by hinges, those hung near the central 
 line by trunnions or pivots. 
 
 (a) Hinged and Pivoted Sash. To be provided with hardware, and hung 
 
 Sections of Stiles and MunUns Showing Improper and 
 Proper Glazing. 
 
 and arranged in such a manner as to conform to the requirements for the 
 construction of frames for wired glass. 
 
 (b) Protection. All ventilating skylights or skylight sash must be pro- 
 tected by wire cloth screens as specified, in such a manner that the screen 
 will allow full freedom of operation. In no case must the operation of the 
 sash require the removal of the screen or any portion of same. The screens 
 should be entirely independent of this type of skylights or sash and shall be 
 of ample size to completely protect the opening. 
 
 9. WINDOWS IN ROOF STRUCTURES. All window openings in roof struc- 
 tures, such as shafts extending above roofs, pent houses, high curbs, ends 
 of sawtoothed or monitor or lantern sklights, etc., must conform to sections 
 i, 2 and 5, class A, in so far as these apply. 
 
 10. DORMER WINDOWS. (a) Construction. To conform in, general with 
 roof construction of buildings of which they form a part, and as specifically 
 noted under Curbs, section 4, class A. 
 
 (b) Sash and Frames. To conform in all particulars to sections ;i and 2 
 and section 5, class A, respectively, in so far as these apply. 
 
SKYLIGHTS 
 
 427 
 
 ii. SKYLIGHTS ON STAIR, ELEVATOR, DUMBWAITER, LIGHT, AIR and similar 
 shafts, if of fire-proof construction and cut off at floors. 
 
 (a) Construction. To be constructed with metal frames and sash in ac- 
 cordance with sections 3 and 2, class A. 
 
 (b) Glazing. Top sash of cupola skylights, if any, to be glazed with wired 
 glass, or % inch thick glass protected, see section i, class A, sides should be 
 glazed with glass not over ^ inch thick; plane skylights to be glazed with 
 glass not over % inch thick; protected by suitable wire screens. Glazing to 
 be done in accordance with section 2, class A. 
 
 Good 
 
 Fig. 49 
 Proper and Improper Qlazing. 
 
 (c) Ventilation. Where ridge ventilators, or louvers in ends or sides ot 
 such skylights are provided, these must be protected by suitable wire cloth 
 screens, properly secured. 
 
 12. THEATER STAGE SKYLIGHTS. (a) Construction. Curb or frame, and 
 sash to be constructed in accordance with the rules and requirements of sec- 
 tions 2, 3 and 4, class A. 
 
 (b) Glazing. To be glazed with glass not over % inch thick, in accordance 
 with section 2, class A, each pane measuring not less than 300 square inches. 
 
 (c) Operating. Sash to be in two movable sections, so arranged as to be 
 opened readily by the action of heat from below on a fusible link or series 
 of links; or similar device, which upon parting will allow the sash to open 
 automatically, and also by means of the cutting of a hempen cord, extending 
 to the stage floor and within reach of fly gallery. 
 
428 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (d) Types. Two types of skylfghts for this purpose are suggested. 
 
 (i) Two counterbalanced sash, hinged to the outer edges of the curbing 
 or frame, which should be slightly hip shaped, the upper edges coming together 
 when the sash are closed, and arranged in such a manner- that one is provided 
 with an overhanging lip or batten to keep out the weather. Each sash to 
 have extension rods or bars at the lower (hinged) edge, projecting beyond 
 the curb for a distance not less than the width of the sash, to which bars 
 should be securely attached a weight not less than 50 per cent heavier than 
 the weight of the sash. Hinges to be of heavy brass, bolted to the sash 
 and curb or frame, and set well back from the edges of the frame. 
 
 Fig. 50 
 
 Method ofTnser ring G lass thro ugh TOJD Rai 1 . 
 
 (2) Two rolling sash, fitted with brass wheels not less than 2% inches in 
 diameter, set inside of outer edge of sash for a distance of not less than 
 2 inches, well secured to sash. The wheels to roll on brass tracks properly 
 secured to the curb or frame and rails extending beyond same on either side 
 to roof. Curb or frame to be hip shaped, the slopes to be such that the 
 sash shall be inclined at not less than an angle of 30 degrees. 
 
 The height of the curb or frame shall be such that the lowest portion of 
 the tracks on which the sash slide, shall not be less than 12 inches above 
 the roof. 
 
 (e) Protection. Either type of skylight for this purpose shall be protected 
 by suitable steel wire cloth, properly secured in such a manner as not to 
 interfere with the operation of the sash and of sufficient size to cover the 
 entire opening properly, as well as to protect the sash when open. 
 
SKYLIGHTS 
 
 429 
 
 Protection 
 
 All skylights, except those glazed with wired glass, or glass % inch thick 
 or over, when inclined at an angle of over 45 degrees or vertical (unless 
 exposed as noted under section i, rule c, class A) should be protected by 
 wire screens of galvanized steel wire cloth. 
 
 13. WIRE CLOTH. (a) Kind. All wire cloth shall be woven (not twisted) 
 of steel wire, galvanized after weaving. 
 
 (b) Sizes. (i) For plane skylights, or skylights ) inclined at an angle of 
 45 degrees or less (unless glazed with wired glass), cloth of not lighter 
 than No. 12 wire and not over i-inch mesh shall be used. 
 
 (2) For vertical skylights or sash, or such as are inclined at an angle of 
 
 Fig. 51 
 
 Method of Inserting Glass 
 JinMndows having Separable Munnns" 
 
 over 45 degrees, with wired glass or glass not less than */ inch thick, unless 
 exposed (see class A, rule i, section c), cloth of not lighter than No. 12 
 wire and not over i-inch mesh shall be used. 
 
 (3) For all ventilating skylights, or hinged or pivoted or sliding sash, care 
 must be taken that opening is thoroughly protected against the ingress of 
 sparks. 
 
 14. SECURING WIRE CLOTH. All wire cloth shall be securely fastened to 
 frames by means of galvanized iron wire or by means of special metal strips 
 and rivets, bolts or screws. 
 
 15. FRAMES. (a) Materials. Frames for wire cloth screens shall be con- 
 structed of iron rods, pipes or angles as follows: (i) For screens not over 
 
430 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 3 feet in any direction, %-inch rods, i/i-inch pipe or %-inch angles. (2) For 
 screens over 3 feet and under 4 feet in any direction, %-inch rods, %-inch 
 pipe or %-inch angles. (3) For screens over 4 feet and under 6 feet in 
 any direction, %-inch rods, %-inch pipe or i-inch angles. (4) For screens 
 over 6 feet and under 10 feet in any direction, i-inch rods, i^-inch pipes 
 or i %-inch angles. (5) For screens of larger sizes, proportionately larger 
 sized materials shall be used, in which case angles are to be preferred. 
 
 (b) Reinforcing. Where dimensions exceed 3 feet in any direction, cross 
 bars, placed not over 3 feet apart, or over 3 feet distant from outer bars, shall 
 
 i 
 
 U 
 
 Fig. 52 
 
 Binding of Sash in Frame Caused by Distortion of Jambs. 
 
 be provided for reinforcing the frames. These reinforcing bars shall con- 
 form in size to the rods, pipes or angles under (a), this section, increasing 
 in size as noted according to span. 
 
 (c) Supports. Upright supports, to correspond with materials specified 
 under (a), this section, and at end of each reinforcing member, and to be 
 not less in size than the bars supported. 
 
 (d) Braces. All enclosing frames over 3 feet high and more than 6 feet 
 in length shall have braces extending from the upper angles to the base 
 line, one in each corner of each side. 
 
 (e) Construction. The frames should be strongly assembled. 
 
 (i) If constructed of rods these should be welded together, or threaded 
 and securely joined by threaded malleable iron fittings, and upright members 
 shall be properly shaped at lower ends to permit fastening by means of 
 
SKYLIGHTS 
 
 431 
 
 screws; or if size permits, to be threaded and provided with threaded malleable 
 iron base or foot plates drilled for three bolts or screws each. 
 
 (2) Jf constructed of pipes, these should be threaded and secured by 
 means of threaded malleable iron fittings, and upright members shall be 
 threaded and provided with threaded malleable iron base or foot plates, drilled 
 for three bolts or screws each. 
 
 (3) If constructed of angle irons these should be welded together or fastened 
 at the corners by fillet angles securely riveted in place. Upright members 
 shall be shaped at base to permit fastening by at least four screws or bolts 
 each. 
 
 Improber Engagement of Meeting Rai Is 
 Caused by Deflection of Head 
 
 (f) Securing Frames. All frames for screens to be secured to roofs or 
 frames of permanent skylights, monitors, lanterns, etc., by means of lag 
 screws or bolts. 
 
 1 6. DISTANCE OF SCREENS FROM SKYLIGHTS, ETC., TO BE PROTECTED. (a) All 
 screens slr:ll be placed 6 inches or over above skylights to be protected, and 
 shall project the same distance beyond edges of skylights as raised above them. 
 
 (b) All screens used for protecting side lights shall be placed not less 
 than 6 inches from lights or openings so protected. 
 
 17. RAISED SKYLIGHTS. Screens for raised skylights having top and side 
 sash contiguous shall have the frames on top secured to those on the sides 
 as noted under (e), section 15, and wire cloth shall cover the entire frame- 
 work and come within 6 inches of roof. 
 
432 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 \ 
 
 1 8. VERTICAL OR SAWTOOTHED SKYLIGHTS OR SASH, OR THOSE INCLINED AT 
 AN ANGLE OF OVER 45 DEGREES. Screens for vertical or sawtoothed skylights 
 or sash, or those inclined at an angle of over 45 degrees, shall be turned 
 in at the top and sides in such a manner as to exclude embers or sparks 
 from space between the screens and glass. 
 
 19. REMOVABLE SCREENS. Where for any purpose it becomes necessary that 
 screens or portions of screens used in protecting side lights must be remov- 
 able, these screens or portions of screens shall be framed as specified under 
 section 15, and similarly constructed frames placed around such openings. 
 Such screens or sections of screens shall be secured to the permanent frame 
 by means of riveted wrought iron hinges and be provided with strong wrought 
 iron latches, bolts or hooks. 
 
 Class B Ventilators 
 
 TYPES. By ventilators, as considered in these rules, are meant all struc- 
 tures designed for the emission of air, gases or vapors from the building, 
 separate rooms or compartments, and include louver openings as well as 
 ridge ventilators on tops of skylights. 
 
 20. MATERIALS. To be constructed entirely of galvanized iron at least No. 
 24 gauge, copper at least No. 20 gauge, or of other approved fire-iesistive 
 materials. 
 
 21. CONSTRUCTION AND PROTECTION OF VENTILATORS. (a) If flues, either 
 extending through roofs or sides of buildings, these should be provided 
 either (i) with cowls or hoods projecting the same distance beyond outer 
 edge of flue that they are raised above same, but in no instance less than 
 3 inches, and opening must be protected with a screen of galvanized steel 
 wire cloth, of not less than No. 16 wire or more than No. 3 (1^3 inch) mesh, 
 properly secured and completely covering the opening; or (2) edges of cowls 
 may be carried beyond and underneath projecting or flanged edges of the 
 flues in such a manner as to provide two turns in passage of opening; or 
 (3) flue may be bent in such a manner as to form an inverted U. 
 
 (b) Louver ventilators, or ridge ventilators, or louvers in raised or hip 
 skylights, shall be constructed entirely of galvanized iron of at least No. 24 
 gauge or copper at least 20 gauge, as specified under section 3, class A. 
 Slats of louvers to be of galvanized iron or copper as specified, properly 
 reinforced, and riveted to the frames. All such ventilating openings shall 
 be protected with a .screen of galvanized steel wire cloth, of not less than 
 No. 1 6 wire or more than No. 3 (1/3 inch mesh), properly secured to the 
 frames and completely covering the openings. 
 
 (c) Ventilating Monitors or similar structures, to conform in general with 
 roof construction of buildings of which they form a part, and as specifically 
 noted under section 4, class A. Louver or ventilating slats to be of galvan- 
 ized iron or copper, as specified, properly reinforced and riveted to frames. 
 All such ventilating openings to be protected by galvanized steel wire cloth, 
 of not less than No. 16 wire or more than No.. 3 (1/3 inch) mesh, properly 
 secured and completely covering the openings. 
 
 (d) Frame Ventilating Structures, similar to those referred to under a, 
 b and c, section 21, class B, but constructed of other materials, shall be 
 protected by galvanized steel wire cloth of not less than No. 16 wire or 
 more than No. 3 (1/3 inch) mesh, properly secured and completely covering 
 the opening. 
 
 Class C Door Landings, Pent Houses or Bulkheads 
 
 22. (a) On all buildings of fireproof construction to be constructed of ap- 
 proved fireproof materials, reinforced with angle iron, properly protected by 
 
PROTECTION OF BELT DRIVES 433 
 
 approved fireproof materials. DOORS to be standard. WINDOWS to be 
 of standard wired glass, in standard metal frames. 
 
 (b) On buildings of slow-burning construction may be either (i) of not 
 less than 4 x 4-inch framework, filled in with brick, terra cotta, cement or 
 other approved fireperoof materials, tin-clad on the outside; (2) double 
 boarded, tongued and grooved, boards at right angles to each other, tin-clad 
 on the outside; (3) of not less than 2%-inch tongued and grooved, or splined 
 plank, tin-clad on the outside. DOORS to be double battened, tin-clad on 
 the outside, with tinning re-turned over the edges. WINDOWS to be of 
 standard wired glass in standard metal frames or as noted under b and c, 
 section i; b, section 13, and section 18, class A. 
 
 (c) On all other buildings, if not in accordance with the foregoing, and 
 of frame, to be thoroughly tin-clad on the outside. DOORS to be tin-clad 
 on the outside and WINDOWS protected as noted under b and c, section i ; 
 b, section 13; and section 18, class A. 
 
 Class D Scuttles 
 
 23. CONSTRUCTION. (a) If on buildings of fireproof construction to be of 
 (i) No. 12 gauge sheet iron or steel, reinforced by 2 x 2 x *4-inch angle 
 iron, or (2) double battened wood, standard tin-clad on all sides, edges and 
 in all angles, and be provided with proper chafing plates where fitting over 
 combing. 
 
 (b) If on buildings of slow-burning construction to be as noted under 
 (a), this section, or of double battened wood, tin-clad on the outside, the 
 tinning to return over the lower edges. 
 
 (c) On other buildings, if not in accordance with the foregoing, to be 
 thoroughly tin-clad on the outside, the tinning to return over the lower edges. 
 
 24. FASTENING. All scuttles are to be fastened by means of strong steel 
 or wrought iron, galvanized hinges, bolted to scuttle and combing or roof. 
 
 25. STOPS. All scuttles to be provided with suitable stops, consisting prefer- 
 ably of a strong chain, bolted to scuttle and combing, allowing the scuttle 
 to open slightly beyond a vertical position. 
 
 26. LADDERS. Permanent ladders should be provided, giving access to 
 scuttles. 
 
 Class E Open Air or Light Shafts 
 
 27. LIGHTS. All lights at bottoms of open shafts or wells, if not of thick 
 glass prisms set in substantial cast-iron frames, shall be in accordance with 
 sections i, 2, 3 (or 4), 13 (provided wired glass not less than 1/3 inch thick 
 and no wire cloth of less than No. 12 wire or over i-inch mesh be used), 
 14, 15 and 1 6, class A, and furthermore conform to the rules governing other 
 types of skylights as noted under class A if such types of lights are used. 
 
 28. PROTECTION OF SHAFTS. The tops of all open shafts shall be covered 
 by galvanized steel wire cloth screens of not less than No. 12 wire nor 
 over i -inch mesh, constructed and secured in accordance with section 15, 
 class A. 
 
 THE PROTECTION OF MAIN BELT DRIVES WITH 
 FIRE RETARDANT PARTITIONS* 
 
 The importance of safeguarding stairways by placing them in 
 
 towers well cut off from the remainder of the building and of pro- 
 
 ' tecting the openings made by elevators through the floors has long 
 
 * Journal of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, by C. H. Smith. 
 
434 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 been recognized. Today more, than formerly, these features are 
 taken care of in the design of manufacturing buildings, including 
 also well arranged towers for the main belts or ropes where this 
 method of driving is employed. Fig. 54 shows how these features 
 may be taken care of in a textile mill. 
 
 The following remarks apply more particularly to the older manu- 
 facturing buildings and to those of more recent construction where 
 the best principles of design of stair and elevator towers and belt 
 and ropeways have not been followed. Neglect to safeguard ver- 
 tical openings through floors has resulted in serious loss of life 
 
 L I 
 
 Boiler 
 
 n^ 
 
 
 \ House 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 x , 
 
 
 II ' 1 
 
 PLAN 
 
 f BKLT, STAIRWAY AND ELEVATOR TOWERS 
 
 FIG. 54. 
 
 among occupants of the building, who found themselves cut off from 
 their accustomed exists by the rapid spread of fire up through' such 
 unprotected openings. 
 
 In mills insured with the Mutual companies stairs and elevators 
 have generally been well arranged, and the fire protective devices 
 such as automatic sprinkler systems, etc., have shown their value 
 not only in reducing the loss of property by fire to a minimum, but 
 also it has been demonstrated that approved construction, high 
 standards of general order and neatness and efficient fire protection 
 works as well to safeguard the lives of operatives employed. 
 
 At the present time there are approximately 1,500,000 people em- 
 
PROTECTION OF BELT DRIVES 
 
 435 
 
 ployed in the 2800 industrial works insured with the Mutual com- 
 panies, located in 29 states of the Union and Canada. Since the 
 inception of the system in 1835, there have been but 32 deaths caused 
 directly by fires in these properties and 21 were in a fire in an un- 
 sprinklered mill in 1876 before sprinklers were in general use. This 
 would indicate that under present conditions, the loss of life would 
 average less than I per year per 1,000,000. 
 
 Of the total of 32 lives lost, poorly constructed beltways which 
 allowed the rapid spread of smoke and flame were to a large extent 
 responsible for the deaths of 25 persons. The need of safeguarding 
 
 Ring, Spinning 
 {driven from below) 
 
 SECTION SHOWING BELTS AND WOODEN BOXING BEFORE FIRE OF 
 SEPTEMBER 1-*. 1907 
 
 FIG. 53 
 
 the vertical openings through floors around the main driving belts 
 had been less fully appreciated. Conditions at these drives were 
 aggravated moreover, because it was the general custom to enclose 
 the belts with boxes of wood, which in some cases were about head 
 high and in others extended to the ceiling. The boxes tended to 
 become oil soaked and to accumulate lint. A fire once starting at or 
 near them would rapidly make headway, being carried by the natural 
 draft up through the mill. Such a fire would also be more or less 
 sheltered from the action of the sprinklers in the room. 
 
 The recurrence of several large property losses from this source 
 led to consideration of this matter and measures were taken which 
 have to a great extent eliminated the open beltway hazard from 
 Mutual risks. In the experience of these companies there have been 
 
436 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 about 20 fires occurring in the vicinity of main drives in which the 
 open beltway was an important factor in the spread of the fire. 
 These 20 fires resulted in a total loss of $2,721,635, an average of 
 
 Knee-. 
 
 tofborgpci/ina. If length of partition is more 
 than 20. space stiffencrs about 10 apart, 
 " z i' r -3' 
 
 Wired Glass- 
 Section B-B 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PLASTER 
 Scratch Coat ( T o be put onfirst): 
 Sports Portland Cement.tf parts Sand, /part 
 thdnrMUme. tuffidentamovntHair fomate 
 mortar Kprk/Dropcr/y.thou/d be mixed in small 
 batches. No material thathas been mixed nith 
 water longer than 30 min. should be used. 
 
 Finish Coat 
 
 (One coat inside & one outside.trowelled smooth) 
 I part Portland Cement, tyopartSand, '/To 
 part Hydrated Lime rtisfy. 
 
 WiredGlctss 
 fo\ 
 
 rnr 
 
 &ove Bolts nith Washers' 
 Window(About3>'5'; 
 Framing 
 
 'Ironfrcfme 
 Spr+'m 
 
 A-Recess tor Bearing 
 
 Details of Construction for Fire Retardant Belt Enclosures 
 FIG. 56 
 
 $136,082 per fire. Some of the larger of these losses occurred in the 
 days before sprinkler protection was as complete as now, but the 
 statistics showed that even with complete protection the open belt- 
 way was a serious hazard. 
 The last bad fire from this source occurred September 15, 1907, 
 
PROTECTION OF BELT DRIVES 
 
 437 
 
 at a cotton manufacturing establishment in Fall River. This is a 
 stone mill, 339 ft. long, 74 ft. wide and five stories and basement in 
 height with a 4-story wing, 94 ft. long and 65 ft. wide, projecting 
 from the rear at the center of the mill. The engine room was 
 located in the first story of this wing. The belts were boxed with 
 wood and most of these were cut off head high in the several stories. 
 Fig- 55 shows the general arrangement of the drive. 
 
 Sunday forenoon a bearing in the beltway just above the fly-wheel 
 was being repaired. While the man doing the work stated that he 
 had no knowledge of anything that could cause the fire, it is prob- 
 
 Rm Spinning 
 (dr.ven from below) 
 
 Ring Spinning 
 
 Carding 
 
 | Wood 
 
 | Plank Tops 
 
 Plaster on Expanded Metal 
 r:;:'i?J Galvanized Iron 
 
 Pickers 
 
 Weaving 
 
 Weavmg, 
 
 Weaving, 
 
 SECTION SHOWING MAIN DKIVE AS xo\v I'KOTECTED BY FIRE HETARDANV 
 
 FIG. 57. 
 
 able that its origin was connected with his work. After completing 
 the job he left the localit\-. On returning 10 minutes later, he saw 
 fire just below where he had been at work, and gave the alarm. 
 
 The fire j>assed up through the wooden belt boxing into all stories 
 as far as the fourth floor where the drive terminated. The mill 
 filled with heat and smoke so rapidly that in 5 minutes no one 
 could enter the rooms. This was hi spite of 650 sprinklers which 
 opened, but in justice to the sprinkler equipment, it should be 
 stated that the water pressure at this mill was weak. A section 
 about 50 ft. wide was badly burned on each side of the main drive 
 up through the mill. 
 
 After this fire plans were worked out to enclose the main drives 
 with partitions of a fire retardant character, so as to approximate 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 FIG. 58. Harness Room, Second Story, Directly Over Flywheel, Showing 
 Protection of Belts "Leaving Wheel 
 
 FIG. 59. Weave Room, Second Story. Note Fire Door with Removable 
 Panels Above to Allow Access to Pulley on Lineshaft 
 
PROTECTION OF BELT DRIVES 439 
 
 the standard belt tower with brick walls, such as are found in many 
 mills of modern design. 
 
 The limitations of cost, available space, etc., which prevail in 
 many places where the belt tower is not a part of the original design, 
 make necessary special construction such as was adopted in this case, 
 and has been successfully used in many others of the older mills. 
 
 The plan provided for inclosing the main drives with partitions 
 of expanded metal and cement construction from 2 in. to 2^2 in. 
 thick depending on the story heights. A framework is constructed 
 of expanded metal wired to I in. or i}4 in. channel iron studs 
 spaced 12 in. apart, and secured to the floor and ceiling. Longi- 
 tudinal stiffeners of the same material as the studs are used. Where 
 necessary, as in the case of a continuous partition of more than 10 
 ft., additional stiffness is secured by providing 2.y 2 in. tee-bar up- 
 riprhts. On the frame so constructed Portland cement mortar is 
 applied by plastering to make a solid partition, all of the iron frame 
 being embedded in the cement with the exception of the door jamb<. 
 These partitions, being comparatively light in weight, could be set 
 up anywhere on the heavy mill floors without the necessity of 
 strengthening them, although where possible it was arranged to 
 have the partitions come over the beams. Although this form of 
 construction for partitions has been largely used and with satis- 
 faction, it would be possible of course to employ some of the 
 special forms of studding now on the market which combine the 
 studs and lathing in one sheet of metal. Details of the construc- 
 tion used are shown in Fig. 56. 
 
 While in general the enclosures occupy only the floor space neces- 
 sary for the, main belts, it was endeavored to have them as roomy 
 as conditions of machinery installation would permit, in order to 
 facilitate inspection and repairs to the main belts. Provision was 
 made for taking down the lineshafting without disturbing the body 
 of the partitions, usually by placing the fire doors which gave access 
 to the enclosure under the lineshaft, and providing removable wood 
 tin-clad panels constructed like fire doors above the latter. The 
 main bearings were generally left outside the enclosures and to 
 accomplish this the panels in front of the pulleys were sometimes 
 recessed. 
 
 It was also the endeavor to arrange these enclosures so that they 
 would be as well lighted as possible by including in them windows 
 in the side wall of the building or providing wired glass windows in 
 metal frames to admit light to the belt way from the room. Fig. 57 
 shows diagrammaticjilly the completed work at the Fall River mill, 
 and Figs. 58, 59, 60 and 61 are photographs of belt enclosures in 
 different stories. The adaptability of the construction is evidenced 
 
440 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 FIG. 60. Card Room, Third Story. Ends Sloped to Economize Space. Note 
 Wire Glass Window and Fire Door with Removable Panels Above 
 
 FIG. 61. Card Room, Third Story. End View of Belt Enclosure. Bearings 
 
 All Outside 
 
PROTECTION OF BELT DRIVES 441 
 
 in the sloping sides and offsets which it was necessary to make in 
 many cases on account of crowded conditions in the vicinity of the 
 main belts. 
 
 While there is no claim that these partitions are as efficient in 
 withstanding the action of a severe fire as a brick wall would be, 
 they are undoubtedly effective in preventing the dangerous draft up 
 through an open beltway. In an actual fire in one of the mills 
 where this construction was installed these enclosures were success- 
 ful in confining the fire to narrow limits, and undoubtedly prevented 
 a very serious loss. 
 
WOODEN BEAMS AND COLUMNS 
 
 The following text and tables relating to wooden beams and 
 columns are reprinted by permission, from " Cambria Steel," a 
 handbook of information relating to structural steel, prepared and 
 compiled by George E. Thackray, C. E., structural engineer, Cam- 
 bria Steel Company. 
 
 The results of a series of studies of wooden beams and columns 
 of various kinds of American timber are contained in the Proceed- 
 ings of the Fifth Annual Convention of the Association of Railway 
 Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings, October, 1895, at which 
 the Committee on Strength of Bridge and Trestle Timbers pre- 
 sented a report, portions of which have been used in preparing cer- 
 tain of the tables on the following pages, but as noted thereon the 
 arrangement and values in many cases have been modified by later 
 information from various sources. 
 
 The publications of the Forestry Division of the United States 
 Department of Agriculture, Bulletins Nos. 8 and 12, and Circular 
 No. 15, contain reports of tests. of American woods, and deductions 
 drawn therefrom. Extracts and tables from these reports are given 
 on the following pages. 
 
 The tables of safe loads for wooden beams and table of strength 
 of wooden columns, given on the following pages, have been spe- 
 cially calculated for this book, using the information regarding the 
 properties of the various species contained in the reports above 
 referred to, as modified in some cases by later data. 
 
 Explanation of the Tables of Safe Loads in Pounds, Uni- 
 formly Distributed for Rectangular Wooden Beams One Inch 
 Thick, Pages 450 to 455 Inclusive. General. For convenience 
 in use, three of these tables have been prepared, from which the 
 safe loads of the various species can be obtained, either directly 
 or by proportion as stated in the footnotes. 
 
 The values given in the tables are the safe loads in pounds uni- 
 formly distributed, including the weight of the beam itself, for 
 rectangular beams one inch thick for spans from four to forty feet 
 and for depths from four to twenty-four inches. The safe load for 
 a beam of any thickness may be found by multiplying the values 
 given in the tables by the thickness of the beam in inches. 
 
 The last column of each of the three Tables of Safe Loads for 
 Rectangular Wooden Beams gives a coefficient of deflection, by 
 
 442 
 
\\UODEN BEAMS AND COLUMNS 443 
 
 means of which the deflection for any beam may be obtained, cor- 
 responding to the given span and safe load, by dividing the coeffi- 
 cient by the depth of the beam in inches, which will give approxi- 
 mately the deflection in inches under the given conditions. 
 
 In each table the deflection coefficient is given for only one 
 species of wood, as shown, but the deflections for other species may 
 be obtained from these by proportion as explained hereafter. 
 
 For the reason that wood has no well-defined limit or modulus 
 of elasticity the deflections obtained by the use of the coefficients 
 are only approximate and will vary, according to the moisture con- 
 tent of the wood and the character of the loading. The deflections 
 thus obtained are, therefore, useful only as a general indication of 
 the amount of bending to be expected under the given conditions 
 and are not exact as in the case of materials like steel which has 
 a well-defined limit and modulus of elasticity. 
 
 The safe loads for other species of woods than those stated in 
 the headings of the tables may be obtained from those given, by 
 direct proportion, dependent upon the ratio of their allowable unit 
 stress as compared with that for which the table is figured, as stated 
 in the footnotes at the bottom of the tables. 
 
 Explanation of the Table of Safe Loads for Rectangular 
 Beams of White Pine, Cedar, Spruce or Eastern Fir. The values 
 for the various species of woods, which are included in this table, 
 are calculated for an allowable fibre stress, for flexure, of 700 
 pounds per square inch. 
 
 The deflection coefficients are given for white pine, and are based 
 upon a modulus of elasticity of 1,000,000 pounds per square inch. 
 
 The lower dotted line crossing the table indicates the limits of 
 spans for which the deflection will exceed 1-360 of the span for the 
 kind of wood for which the deflection coefficient is given. For 
 spans below the line the safe loads given in the tables will produce 
 a deflection greater than 1-360 of the span, while those above the 
 line will produce less than this, which is the usual limit of deflec- 
 tion, in order to prevent cracking of plastered ceilings. Similarly, 
 the upper dotted line indicates the limit of deflection for the kind 
 of wood for which the deflection coefficients is given, corresponding 
 to a modulus of elasticity of 500,000 pounds per square inch, which 
 should be considered in cases where the "deflection should be more 
 closely limited. 
 
 The coefficients of deflection for Cedar corresponding to moduli 
 of 7004300 and 350,000 may be obtained by multiplying those of the 
 table by 10-7 and 20-7 respectively, and Spruce and Eastern Fir 
 corresponding to moduli of 1.200,000 and 600,000 by multiplying 
 those of the table by 5-6 and 5-3 respectively. 
 
444 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 The full zig-zag line in the table gives the limits of the safe loads 
 corresponding to the allowable shearing stress along the neutral 
 axis of the beam. The safe loads above the line, which are based 
 upon the extreme fibre strains, will produce shearing stresses along 
 the axis or with the grain in excess of that allowable, which, in the 
 case of White Pine and the other woods of this table, is 100 pounds 
 per square inch. 
 
 The position of this line, which indicates the limit of safe loads 
 for shearing along the neutral axis, was determined by the aid of 
 the following formula: ,^ 
 
 W= 
 in which 3 
 
 W == safe load in pounds uniformly distributed, 
 d = depth of beam in inches, 
 b =i breadth of beam in inches. 
 
 s = allowable shear in the direction of the grain in pounds 
 per square inch. 
 
 Explanation of the Table of Safe Loads for Rectangular 
 Beams of Short-leaf Yellow Pine. The table is calculated for an 
 allowable fibre stress, for flexure, of 1,000 pounds per square inch. 
 
 The deflection coefficients are figured for a modulus of elasticity 
 of 1,200,000 pounds per square inch, but may be used for other 
 moduli, after obtaining the corresponding coefficients by proportion 
 as heretofore explained. , 
 
 The lower dotted line across the table indicates the limits of spans 
 for which the safe load will produce deflections greater than 1-360 
 of the length of the beam. Values above the line will give less 
 deflection than this, and those below will give greater, based on a 
 modulus of 1,200,000 pounds per square inch. Similarly, the upper 
 dotted line indicates the limit of deflection corresponding to a 
 modulus of elasticity of 600,000 pounds per square inch. 
 
 The full zig-zag line across the table indicates the limiting spans 
 and loads based on the allowable intensity of shearing stress along 
 the neutral axis of the beam. The values above the full zig-zag line 
 correspond to shearing stresses greater than the allowable stress in 
 the direction of the grain for Short-leaf* Yellow Pine, while those 
 below the line correspond to shearing stresses less than that allow- 
 able, which, in this case, is assumed to be 100 pounds per square 
 inch. 
 
 Explanation of Tables of Safe Loads for Rectangular Beams 
 of White Oak and Long-leaf Yellow Pine. This table is com- 
 puted for an allowable fibre stress of 1,200 pounds per square inch, 
 
WOODEN BEAMS AND COLUMNS 445 
 
 for flexure, and the deflection coefficients are calculated for a 
 modulus of elasticity of 1,500,000 pounds per square inch. 
 
 The limit for a deflection of 1-360 of the span is indicated by 
 the lower dotted zig-zag line on the tables, the values below which 
 correspond to deflections greater than, and those above to deflec- 
 tions less than, the limiting deflections. The upper dotted zig-zag 
 line similarly indicates the limits of deflection for a modulus of 
 elasticity of 750,000 pounds per square inch. 
 
 The lower full zig-zag line indicates the limit of allowable shear- 
 ing stress along the axis corresponding to the allowable intensity, 
 for Yellow Pine, of 150 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Similarly, the upper full zig-zag line indicates the limits for 
 shearing along the axis for White Oak, based on an allowable 
 intensity of 200 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Moisture Classification. The following statements are made in 
 Bulletin No. 12, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of 
 Forestry : 
 
 " Since the strength of timber varies very greatly with the moist- 
 ure contents (see Bulletin 8 of the Forestry Division), the econom- 
 ical designing of such structures will necessitate their being separ- 
 ated into groups according to the maximum moisture contents in use. 
 
 "Class A (moisture contents, 18 per cent.). Structures freely 
 exposed to the weather, such as railway trestles, uncovered bridges, 
 etc. 
 
 "Class B (moisture contents, 15 per cent.). Structures under 
 roof but without side shelter, freely exposed to outside air, but pro- 
 tected from rain, such as roof trusses of open shops and sheds, 
 covered bridges over streams, etc. 
 
 " Class C (moisture contents, 12 per cent.). Structures in build- 
 ings unheated, but more or less protected from outside air, such as 
 roof 'trusses of barns, enclosed shops and sheds, etc. 
 
 "Class D (moisture contents, 10 per cent.). Structures in build- 
 ings at all times protected from the outside air, heated in the winter, 
 such as roof trusses in houses, halls, churches, etc. 
 
 " For long-leaf pine add to all the values given in the tables, ex- 
 cept those for moduli of elasticity, tension and shearing, for Class 
 B, 15 per cent. ; for Class C. 40 per cent. ; and for Class D, 55 per 
 cent. For the other species add to these values, for Class B, 8 per 
 cent.; for Class C, 18 per cent., and for Class D, 25 per cent." 
 
 Based upon the above classification of structures, the two follow- 
 ing tables have been figured to facilitate calculations of allowable 
 loads for wooden beams and columns. 
 
446 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION* AND PROTECTION 
 
 PROPORTION OF THE VALUES GIVEN IN THE "TABLES OF SAFE 
 LOADS FOR WOODEN BEAMS," PAGES 450 TO 455, IN- 
 CLUSIVE, TO BE USED IN ORDER TO OBTAIN 
 THE SAFE LOADS FOR THE VARIOUS 
 CLASSES OF STRUCTURES RE- 
 FERRED TO ABOVE 
 
 Classes 
 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 All Others 
 
 C'ass A 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 Class B 
 Class C 
 
 1.15 
 1 40 
 
 1.08 
 1 18 
 
 Class D 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.25 
 
 SAFETY FACTORS TO BE APPLIED TO THE VALUES GIVEN IN THE 
 
 TABLE OF " STRENGTH OF SOLID WOODEN COLUMNS," 
 
 PAGES 456 AND 457, IN ORDER TO OBTAIN THE 
 
 SAFE LOA.DS FOR THE VARIOUS CLASSES 
 
 OF STRUCTURES REFERRED TO ABOVE 
 
 Classes 
 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 All Others 
 
 Class A 
 Class B 
 
 ( 
 0.20 
 0.23 
 
 0.20 
 0.22 
 
 Class C...-. 
 Class D 
 
 0.28 
 31 
 
 0.24 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT PER FOOT FOR VARIOUS 
 KINDS OF TIMBER 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 Name of Wood 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Weight per 
 Cubic Foot 
 
 per Foot, 
 Board 
 
 
 
 
 Measure 
 
 White Oak 
 
 0.80 
 
 49.94 
 
 4.16 
 
 White Pine 
 
 38 
 
 23 72 
 
 1 98 
 
 Southern Long-leaf or Georgia Yellow Pine. 
 
 0.61 
 
 38.08 
 
 '3.17 
 
 Douglas Fir 
 
 51 
 
 31 84 
 
 2 65 
 
 Short-leaf Yellow Pine 
 
 0.51 
 
 31.84 
 
 2 . 65 
 
 Red Pine (Norway Pine) 
 
 50 
 
 31 21 
 
 2 60 
 
 Spruce and Eastern Fir 
 
 0.40 
 
 24.97 
 
 2.08 
 
 Hemlock 
 
 40 
 
 24 97 
 
 2 08 
 
 Cypress 
 
 46 
 
 28 72 
 
 2 39 
 
 Cedar 
 
 0.37 
 
 23.10 
 
 1.93 
 
 Chestnut i 
 
 66 
 
 41 20 
 
 3 43 
 
 California Redwood. .. 
 
 0.39 
 
 24.16 
 
 2.01 
 
 California Spruce 
 
 40 
 
 24 97 
 
 2 08 
 
 
 
 
 
 The specific gravities and weights given above are the averages 
 of a large number of determinations by various authorities, for 
 woods containing less than 15 per cent, of moisture or such as are 
 commercially known as dry timber. The weights of green or un- 
 
\\H)DKN r,L-:.\MS AND COLUMNS 
 
 447 
 
 seasoned woods will be from 20 to 40 per cent, greater than those 
 given in the above table; as given on page 305, the Building Code 
 of the National Board of Fire Underwriters assumes somewhat 
 heavier weights. i 
 
 SAFE UNIT STRESSES FOR TIMBER 
 
 Recommended in Bulletin No. 12, U. S. Department of Agriculture 
 Division of Forestry 
 
 Safe Unit Stresses at 18% Moisture 
 
 
 M js 
 
 ' 
 
 D 
 
 fl 
 
 5c n 
 
 -C.C 
 
 s* 
 
 
 C o 
 
 
 G"S 
 
 
 M 'S u 
 
 
 
 
 JJ VG 
 C/2 3 
 
 P 
 
 '55 
 
 l.g 
 
 c g^c 
 
 S~ 
 
 g- 5 
 
 Species 
 
 *%$ 
 g5- 
 
 ll 
 
 *l 
 
 .yu 
 
 ||| 
 
 bo-*-* 3 
 
 || 
 
 .C CT 
 
 
 g & 
 
 3 a3 
 
 s a 
 
 &* 
 
 3 4J 
 
 u a 
 
 <ps. 
 
 l 
 
 |& 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Long-leaf Pine (Pinus palus- 
 tris) D 
 
 1550 
 
 720000 
 
 1.30 
 
 1000 
 
 215 
 
 12000 
 
 125 
 
 Short-leaf Pine (Pinus echi- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nata) D 
 
 1300 
 
 600000 
 
 1.30 
 
 840 
 
 215 
 
 9000 
 
 100 
 
 White Pine (Pinus strobus) . . 
 
 880 
 
 435000 
 
 1.00 
 
 700 
 
 147 
 
 7000 
 
 75 
 
 Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa) 
 
 1090 
 
 566000 
 
 
 760 
 
 143 
 
 
 
 Colorado Pine (Pinus pon- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rlprt)S3^ 
 
 980 
 
 444000 
 
 
 630 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga 
 douglasii) 
 
 1320 
 
 690000 
 
 
 880 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 Redwood (Sequoia semper- 
 virens) 
 
 1440 
 
 226000 
 
 
 650 
 
 115 
 
 
 
 Red Cedar (Juniperus virgin- 
 iana) 
 
 1000 
 
 335000 
 
 
 700 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 Bald Cypress (Taxodium dis- 
 tichum) D 
 White Oak (Quercus alba) D. 
 
 1000 
 1200 
 
 450000 
 550000 
 
 1.10 
 1.25 
 
 675 
 800 
 
 120 
 400 
 
 6000 
 10000 
 
 60 
 
 200 
 
 Factor of Safety 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The figures for the species marked " D " were obtained from 
 experiments made by the Forestry Division, the others from various 
 sources, chiefly the loth Census Report, but so modified as to give 
 results comparable with Forestry Division values. To arrive at 
 true average values of strength multiply safe loads by factor of 
 safety given in each column. The values for resilience and tensile 
 strength are the ultimate values. The former is practically never 
 used in designing. The latter is a factor impossible to develop in 
 practice, since the piece will always fail in some other way, usually 
 by shearing. 
 
 The crushing strength across the grain in above is based upon a 
 crushing of 3 per cent, of the cross sectional height of the piece. 
 
448 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 AVERAGE ULTIMATE BREAKING UNIT 
 
 Kind of Timber 
 
 TENSION 
 
 With 
 Grain 
 
 Across 
 Grain 
 
 White Oak . .... 
 
 12000 
 7000 
 12000 
 8000 
 9000 
 8000 
 8000 
 6000 
 6000 
 7000 
 8500 
 7000 
 
 2000 
 500 
 600 
 
 '566 
 500 
 500 
 
 White Pine 
 
 Southern Long-leaf or Georgia Yellow Pine .... 
 
 
 Short-leaf Yellow Pine 
 
 Red Pine (Norway Pine) 
 
 Spruce and Eastern Fir 
 
 
 Cypress . 
 
 Cedar 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 California Redwood 
 
 California Spruce 
 
 
 
 AVERAGE SAFE ALLOWABLE WORKING UNIT 
 
 Kind of Timber 
 
 With 
 Grain 
 
 Across 
 Grain 
 
 Factor of Safety 
 
 Ten 
 
 Ten 
 
 White Oak 
 
 1200 
 
 200 
 
 White Pine 
 
 700 
 
 50 
 
 Southern Long-leaf or Georgia Yellow Pine 
 Douglas Fir 
 
 1200 
 800 
 
 60 
 
 Short-leaf Yellow Pine 
 
 900 
 
 50 
 
 Red Pine (Norway Pine) 
 
 800 
 
 50 
 
 Spruce and Eastern Fir 
 
 800 
 
 50 
 
 Hemlock . . . 
 
 600 
 
 
 Cypress . 
 
 600 
 
 
 Cedar 
 
 700 
 
 
 Chestnut... 
 
 850 
 
 
 California Redwood 
 
 700 
 
 
 California Spruce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TENSION 
 
 The above tables are based on those recommended by the committee on 
 intendents of Bridges and Buildings at their Fifth Annual Convention, in October, 
 data from various sources. 
 
WOODEN BEAMS AND COLUMNS 
 
 STRESSES, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH 
 
 449 
 
 COMPRESSION 
 
 TRANSVERSE 
 
 SHEARING 
 
 With Grain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Extreme 
 Fihrp 
 
 fylodulus of 
 
 With 
 
 Across 
 
 
 Columns 
 
 Grain 
 
 .r lore 
 Stress 
 
 Elasticity 
 
 w iin 
 Grain 
 
 Grain 
 
 End 
 
 Under 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bearing 
 
 15 Diams. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7000 
 
 5000 
 
 2000 
 
 7000 
 
 1500000 
 
 800 
 
 4000 
 
 5500 
 
 3500 
 
 700 
 
 4000 
 
 1000000 
 
 400 
 
 2000 
 
 7000 
 
 5000 
 
 1400 
 
 7000 
 
 1500000 
 
 600 
 
 5000 
 
 5700 
 
 4500 
 
 800 
 
 5000 
 
 1400000 
 
 500 
 
 
 6000 
 
 4500 
 
 1000 
 
 6000 
 
 1200000 
 
 400 
 
 4666 
 
 5000 
 
 4000 
 
 800 
 
 5000 
 
 1130000 
 
 
 
 6000 
 
 4000 
 
 700 
 
 4000 
 
 1200000 
 
 '466 
 
 3000 
 
 
 4000 
 
 600 
 
 3500 
 
 900000 
 
 350 
 
 2500 
 
 5666 
 
 4000 
 
 700 
 
 5000 
 
 900000 
 
 
 
 5500 
 
 3500 
 
 700 
 
 4000 
 
 700000 
 
 '400 
 
 i5o6 
 
 
 4000 
 
 900 
 
 5000 
 
 1000000 
 
 600 
 
 2000 
 
 
 4000 
 
 600 
 
 4500 
 
 700000 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 4000 
 
 
 5000 
 
 1200000 
 
 
 
 STRESSES, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH 
 
 COMPRESSION 
 
 TRANSVERSE 
 
 SHEARING 
 
 With Grain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Extreme 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p:u__ 
 
 
 With 
 
 
 
 Columns 
 
 Across 
 Grain 
 
 r lore 
 Stress 
 
 IVlOQuIUS OI 
 
 Elasticity 
 
 w iin 
 Grain 
 
 /vcross 
 Grain 
 
 End 
 
 Under 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bearing 
 
 15 Diams. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Five 
 
 Five 
 
 Four 
 
 Six 
 
 Two 
 
 Four 
 
 Four 
 
 1400 
 
 1000 
 
 500 
 
 1200 
 
 750000 
 
 200 
 
 1000 
 
 1100 
 
 700 
 
 200 
 
 700 
 
 500000 
 
 100 
 
 500 
 
 1400 
 
 1000 
 
 350 
 
 1200 
 
 750000 
 
 150 
 
 1250 
 
 1100 
 
 900 
 
 200 
 
 800 
 
 750000 
 
 130 
 
 
 1200 
 
 900 
 
 250 
 
 1000 
 
 600000 
 
 100 
 
 1666 
 
 1000 
 
 800 
 
 200 
 
 800 
 
 565000 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 800 
 
 200 
 
 700 
 
 600000 
 
 166 
 
 '750 
 
 
 800 
 
 150 
 
 600 
 
 450000 
 
 100 
 
 600 
 
 1666 
 
 800 
 
 200 
 
 800 
 
 450000 
 
 
 
 1100 
 
 700 
 
 200 
 
 700 
 
 350000 
 
 '166 
 
 '466 
 
 
 800 
 
 250 
 
 800 
 
 500000 
 
 150 
 
 500 
 
 
 800 
 
 150 
 
 750 
 
 350000 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 
 800 
 
 600000 
 
 
 
 
 "Strength of Bridge and Trestle Timbers" of the Association of Railway Super- 
 1895, but the arrangement and values in many cases are now modified by later 
 
450 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 SAFE LOADS IN POUNDS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR 
 
 CEDAR AND SPRUCE 
 
 Allowable fibre stress 700 pounds per square inch. Safety 
 Safe loads for other safety factors may be obtained as follows: 
 
 
 ,;,, 
 
 Deflec- 
 
 
 ! '' 
 
 tion 
 
 
 
 Coeffi- 
 
 
 DEPTH OF BEAM IN INCHES 
 
 cient 
 
 Span 
 
 
 for 
 
 in 
 
 
 White 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 Pino 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 irinc 
 
 V 
 
 4 
 
 311 
 
 486 
 
 700 
 
 953 
 
 1244 
 
 1575 
 
 1944 
 
 2352 
 
 2800 
 
 3286 
 
 3811 
 
 .34 
 
 5 
 
 240 
 
 389 
 
 560 
 
 762 
 
 996 
 
 1260 
 
 1556 
 
 1882 
 
 2240 
 
 2629 
 
 3049 
 
 .53 
 
 6 
 
 207 
 
 324 
 
 467 
 
 635 
 
 830 
 
 1050 
 
 1296 
 
 1569 
 
 1867 
 
 2191 
 
 2521 
 
 .76 
 
 7 
 
 178 
 
 278 
 
 400 
 
 544 
 
 711 
 
 900 
 
 1111 
 
 1344 
 
 1600 
 
 1878 
 
 2178 
 
 1.03 
 
 8 
 
 156 
 
 243 
 
 350 
 
 476 
 
 622 
 
 788 
 
 972 
 
 1176 
 
 1400 
 
 1643 
 
 1906 
 
 1.34 
 
 9 
 
 138 
 
 216 
 
 311 
 
 423 
 
 553 
 
 700 
 
 864 
 
 1046 
 
 -1244 
 
 1460 
 
 1694 
 
 1.70 
 
 10 
 
 124 
 
 194 
 
 280 
 
 381 
 
 498 
 
 630 
 
 778 
 
 941 
 
 1120 
 
 1314 
 
 1524 
 
 2.10 
 
 11 
 
 113 
 
 177 
 
 155 
 
 346 
 
 453 
 
 573 
 
 707 
 
 856 
 
 1018 
 
 1195 
 
 1386 
 
 2.54 
 
 12 
 
 103 
 
 162 
 
 233 
 
 318 
 
 415 
 
 525 
 
 648 
 
 784 
 
 933 
 
 1095 
 
 1270 
 
 3.02 
 
 13 
 
 96 
 
 150 
 
 215 
 
 293 
 
 383 
 
 485 
 
 598 
 
 724 
 
 862 
 
 1011 
 
 1173 
 
 3.55 
 
 14 
 
 89 
 
 139 
 
 200 
 
 272 
 
 356 
 
 450 
 
 556 
 
 672 
 
 800 
 
 930 
 
 1089 
 
 4.12 
 
 15 
 
 83 
 
 130 
 
 187 
 
 254 
 
 332 
 
 420 
 
 519 
 
 627 
 
 747 
 
 876 
 
 1016 
 
 4.73 
 
 16 
 
 78 
 
 122 
 
 175 
 
 238 
 
 311 
 
 394 
 
 486 
 
 588 
 
 700 
 
 821 
 
 953 
 
 5.38 
 
 17 
 
 73 
 
 114 
 
 165 
 
 224 
 
 ' 293 
 
 371 
 
 458 
 
 554 
 
 659 
 
 773 
 
 897 
 
 6.07 
 
 18 
 
 69 
 
 108 
 
 156 
 
 212 
 
 277 
 
 350 
 
 432 
 
 523 
 
 622 
 
 730 
 
 847 
 
 6.80 
 
 19 
 
 65 
 
 102 
 
 147 
 
 201 
 
 262 
 
 332 
 
 409 
 
 495 
 
 589 
 
 692 
 
 802 
 
 7.58 
 
 20 
 
 
 97 
 
 140 
 
 191 
 
 249 
 
 315 
 
 389 
 
 471 
 
 560 
 
 657 
 
 762 
 
 8.40 
 
 21 
 
 
 93 
 
 133 
 
 182 
 
 237 
 
 300 
 
 370 
 
 448 
 
 533 
 
 626 
 
 726 
 
 9.26 
 
 22 
 
 
 88 
 
 127 
 
 173 
 
 226 
 
 286 
 
 354 
 
 428 
 
 509 
 
 597 
 
 693 
 
 10.16 
 
 23 
 
 
 85 
 
 122 
 
 166 
 
 216 
 
 274 
 
 338 
 
 409 
 
 487 
 
 572 
 
 663 
 
 11.11 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 117 
 
 159 
 
 207 
 
 263 
 
 324 
 
 392 
 
 467 
 
 548 
 
 635 
 
 12.10 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 152 
 
 199 
 
 252 
 
 311 
 
 376 
 
 448 
 
 526 
 
 610 
 
 13.13 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 108 
 
 147 
 
 191 
 
 242 
 
 299 
 
 362 
 
 431 
 
 506 
 
 586 
 
 14.20 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 141 
 
 184 
 
 233 
 
 288 
 
 349 
 
 415 
 
 487 
 
 565 
 
 15.31 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 136 
 
 178 
 
 225 
 
 278 
 
 336 
 
 400 
 
 469 
 
 544 
 
 16.46 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 97 
 
 131 
 
 172 
 
 217 
 
 268 
 
 325 
 
 386 
 
 453 
 
 526 
 
 17.66 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 127 
 
 166 
 
 210 
 
 259 
 
 314 
 
 373 
 
 438 
 
 508 
 
 18.90 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 123 
 
 161 
 
 203 
 
 251 
 
 304 
 
 361 
 
 424 
 
 492 
 
 20.18 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 119 
 
 156 
 
 197 
 
 243 
 
 294 
 
 350 
 
 411 
 
 476 
 
 21.50 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 115 
 
 151 
 
 191 
 
 236 
 
 285 
 
 339 
 
 398 
 
 462 
 
 22.87 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 146 
 
 185 
 
 229 
 
 277 
 
 329 
 
 387 
 
 448 
 
 24.28 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 109 
 
 142 
 
 180 
 
 222 
 
 269 
 
 320 
 
 376 
 
 436 
 
 25.73 
 
WOODEN BEAMS 
 
 451 
 
 RECTANGULAR BEAMS ONE INCH THICK OF WHITE PINE, 
 OR EASTERN FIR 
 
 factor 6. Modulus of rupture 4200 pounds per square inch. 
 
 6 
 
 New safe load = Safe load from table X . 
 
 New factor 
 
 
 
 Deflec- 
 
 Span 
 
 
 tion 
 
 in 
 
 
 Coeffi- 
 
 Feet 
 
 DEPTH OF BEAM IN INCHES 
 
 cient 
 
 
 
 for 
 
 
 
 White 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 me 
 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 
 9 
 
 1944 
 
 2212 
 
 2498 
 
 2800 
 
 3120 
 
 3457 
 
 3811 
 
 4183 
 
 4571 
 
 4978 
 
 1.70 
 
 10 
 
 1750 
 
 1991 
 
 2248 
 
 2520 
 
 2808 
 
 3111 
 
 3430 
 
 3764 
 
 4114 
 
 4480 
 
 2.10 
 
 11 
 
 1601 
 
 1810 
 
 2044 
 
 2291 
 
 2552 
 
 2828 
 
 3118 
 
 3422 
 
 3740 
 
 4073 
 
 2.54 
 
 12 
 
 1458 
 
 1659 
 
 1873 
 
 2100 
 
 2340 
 
 2593 
 
 2858 
 
 3137 
 
 3428 
 
 3733 
 
 3.02 
 
 13 
 
 1346 
 
 1531 
 
 1729 
 
 1938 
 
 2160 
 
 2393 
 
 2638 
 
 2896 
 
 3165 
 
 3446 
 
 3.55 
 
 14 
 
 1250 
 
 1422 
 
 1606 
 
 1800 
 
 2056 
 
 2222 
 
 2450 
 
 2689 
 
 2939 
 
 3200 
 
 4.12 
 
 15 
 
 1167 
 
 1328 
 
 1499 
 
 1680 
 
 1872 
 
 2074 
 
 2287 
 
 2510 
 
 2743 
 
 2987 
 
 4.73 
 
 16 
 
 1094 
 
 1244 
 
 1405 
 
 1575 
 
 1755 
 
 1944 
 
 2144 
 
 2353 
 
 2571 
 
 2800 
 
 5.38 
 
 17 
 
 1029 
 
 1171 
 
 1322 
 
 1482 
 
 1652 
 
 1830 
 
 2018 
 
 2214 
 
 2420 
 
 2635 
 
 6.07 
 
 18 
 
 972 
 
 1106 
 
 1249 
 
 1400 
 
 1560 
 
 1728 
 
 1906 
 
 2091 
 
 2286 
 
 2489 
 
 6.80 
 
 19 
 
 921 
 
 1048 
 
 1183 
 
 1326 
 
 1478 
 
 1637 
 
 1805 
 
 1981 
 
 2165 
 
 2358 
 
 7.58 
 
 20 
 
 875 
 
 996 
 
 1124 
 
 1260 
 
 1404 
 
 1556 
 
 1715 
 
 1882 
 
 2057 
 
 2240 
 
 8.40 
 
 21 
 
 833 
 
 948 
 
 1070 
 
 1200 
 
 1337 
 
 1481 
 
 1633 
 
 1793 
 
 1959 
 
 2133 
 
 9.26 
 
 22 
 
 795 
 
 905 
 
 1022 
 
 1145 
 
 1276 
 
 1414 
 
 1559 
 
 1711 
 
 1870 
 
 2036 
 
 10.16 
 
 23 
 
 761 
 
 866 
 
 977 
 
 1096 
 
 1221 
 
 1353 
 
 1491 
 
 1637 
 
 1789 
 
 1948 
 
 11.11 
 
 24 
 
 729 
 
 830 
 
 937 
 
 1050 
 
 1170 
 
 1296 
 
 1429 
 
 1569 
 
 1714 
 
 1867 
 
 12.10 
 
 25 
 
 700 
 
 796 
 
 899 
 
 1008 
 
 1123 
 
 1244 
 
 1372 
 
 1506 
 
 1645 
 
 1792 
 
 13.13 
 
 26 
 
 673 
 
 766 
 
 865 
 
 969 
 
 1080 
 
 1197 
 
 1319 
 
 1448 
 
 1582 
 
 1723 
 
 14.20 
 
 27 
 
 648 
 
 737 
 
 833 
 
 933 
 
 1040 
 
 1152 
 
 1270 
 
 1394 
 
 1524 
 
 1659 
 
 15.31 
 
 28 
 
 625 
 
 711 
 
 803 
 
 900 
 
 1003 
 
 1111 
 
 1225 
 
 1344 
 
 1469 
 
 1600 
 
 16.46 
 
 29 
 
 603 
 
 687 
 
 775 
 
 869 
 
 968 
 
 1073 
 
 1183 
 
 1298 
 
 1419 
 
 1545 
 
 17.66 
 
 30 
 
 583 
 
 664 
 
 749 
 
 840 
 
 936 
 
 1037 
 
 1143 
 
 1255 
 
 1371 
 
 1493 
 
 18.90 
 
 31 
 
 565 
 
 642 
 
 725 
 
 813 
 
 906 
 
 1004 
 
 1106 
 
 1214 
 
 1327 
 
 1445 
 
 20.18 
 
 32 
 
 547 
 
 622 
 
 703 
 
 787 
 
 877 
 
 972 
 
 1072 
 
 1176 
 
 1286 
 
 1400 
 
 21.50 
 
 33 
 
 534 
 
 603 
 
 681 
 
 764 
 
 850 
 
 943 
 
 1039 
 
 1141 
 
 1247 
 
 1358 
 
 22.87 
 
 34 
 
 515 
 
 586 
 
 661 
 
 741 
 
 826 
 
 915 
 
 1009 
 
 1107 
 
 1210 
 
 1318 
 
 24.28 
 
 35 
 
 500 
 
 569 
 
 642 
 
 720 
 
 802 
 
 880 
 
 980 
 
 1076 
 
 1176 
 
 1280 
 
 25.73 
 
 36 
 
 486 
 
 553 
 
 624 
 
 700 
 
 780 
 
 864 
 
 953 
 
 1046 
 
 1143 
 
 1244 
 
 27.22 
 
 37 
 
 473 
 
 538 
 
 608 
 
 681 
 
 759 
 
 841 
 
 927 
 
 1017 
 
 1112 
 
 1211 
 
 28.75 
 
 38 
 
 460 
 
 524 
 
 592 
 
 663 
 
 739 
 
 819 
 
 9(53 
 
 991 
 
 1083 
 
 1179 
 
 30.32 
 
 39 
 
 449 
 
 511 
 
 576 
 
 646 
 
 720 
 
 798 
 
 880 
 
 965 
 
 1055 
 
 1149 
 
 31.94 
 
 40 
 
 438 
 
 498 
 
 562 
 
 630 
 
 702 
 
 778 
 
 858 
 
 941 
 
 1029 
 
 1120 
 
 33.60 
 
452 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 SAFE LOADS IN POUNDS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED, 
 
 SHORT-LEAF 
 
 Allowable fibre stress 1000 pounds per square inch. Safety 
 Safe loads for other safety factors may be obtained as follows: 
 
 Span 
 in 
 Feet 
 
 DEPTH OF BEAM IN INCHES 
 
 Deflec- 
 tion 
 Coeffi- 
 cient 
 
 V 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 444 
 
 694 
 
 1000 
 
 1361 
 
 1778 
 
 2250 
 
 2778 
 
 3361 
 
 4000 
 
 4694 
 
 5444 
 
 .40 
 
 5 
 
 356 
 
 556 
 
 800 
 
 1089 
 
 1422 
 
 1800 
 
 2222 
 
 2689 
 
 3200 
 
 3756 
 
 4356 
 
 .63 
 
 6 
 
 296 
 
 463 
 
 667 
 
 907 
 
 1185 
 
 1500 
 
 1852 
 
 2241 
 
 2667 
 
 3130 
 
 3630 
 
 .90 
 
 7 
 
 254 
 
 397 
 
 571 
 
 778 
 
 1016 
 
 1286 
 
 1587 
 
 1921 
 
 2286 
 
 2683 
 
 3111 
 
 1.23 
 
 8 
 
 222 
 
 347 
 
 500 
 
 681 
 
 889 
 
 1125 
 
 1389 
 
 1681 
 
 2000 
 
 2347 
 
 2722 
 
 1.60 
 
 9 
 
 198 
 
 309 
 
 444 
 
 605 
 
 790 
 
 1000 
 
 1235 
 
 1494 
 
 1778 
 
 2086 
 
 2420 
 
 2.03 
 
 10 
 
 178 
 
 278 
 
 400 
 
 544 
 
 711 
 
 900 
 
 1111 
 
 1344 
 
 1600 
 
 1878 
 
 2178 
 
 2.50 
 
 11 
 
 162 
 
 253 
 
 364 
 
 495 
 
 646 
 
 818 
 
 1010 
 
 1222 
 
 1455 
 
 1707 
 
 1980 
 
 3.03 
 
 12 
 
 148 
 
 231 
 
 333 
 
 454 
 
 593 
 
 750 
 
 926 
 
 1120 
 
 1333 
 
 1565 
 
 1815 
 
 3.60 
 
 13 
 
 137 
 
 214 
 
 308 
 
 419 
 
 547 
 
 692 
 
 855 
 
 1034 
 
 1231 
 
 1444 
 
 1675 
 
 4.23 
 
 14 
 
 127 
 
 198 
 
 286 
 
 389 
 
 508 
 
 643 
 
 794 
 
 960 
 
 1143 
 
 1341 
 
 1556 
 
 4.90 
 
 15 
 
 119 
 
 185 
 
 267 
 
 363 
 
 474 
 
 600 
 
 741 
 
 896 
 
 1067 
 
 1252 
 
 1452 
 
 5.63 
 
 16 
 
 111 
 
 174 
 
 250 
 
 340 
 
 444 
 
 563 
 
 604 
 
 840 
 
 1000 
 
 1174 
 
 1361 
 
 6.40 
 
 17 
 
 105 
 
 163 
 
 235 
 
 320 
 
 418 
 
 529 
 
 654 
 
 791 
 
 941 
 
 1105 
 
 1281 
 
 7.23 
 
 18 
 
 99 
 
 154 
 
 222 
 
 302 
 
 395 
 
 500 
 
 617 
 
 747 
 
 889 
 
 1043 
 
 1210 
 
 8.10 
 
 19 
 
 94 
 
 146 
 
 211 
 
 287 
 
 374 
 
 474 
 
 585 
 
 708 
 
 842 
 
 988 
 
 1146 
 
 9.03 
 
 20 
 
 89 
 
 139 
 
 200 
 
 272 
 
 356 
 
 450 
 
 556 
 
 672 
 
 800 
 
 939 
 
 1089 
 
 10.00 
 
 21 
 
 85 
 
 132 
 
 190 
 
 259 
 
 339 
 
 429 
 
 529 
 
 640 
 
 762 
 
 894 
 
 1037 
 
 11.03 
 
 22 
 
 81 
 
 126 
 
 182 
 
 247 
 
 323 
 
 409 
 
 505 
 
 611 
 
 727 
 
 854 
 
 990 
 
 12.10 
 
 23 
 
 77 
 
 121 
 
 174 
 
 237 
 
 309 
 
 391 
 
 483 
 
 585 
 
 696 
 
 816 
 
 947 
 
 13.23 
 
 24 
 
 
 116 
 
 162 
 
 227 
 
 296 
 
 375 
 
 463 
 
 560 
 
 667 
 
 782 
 
 907 
 
 14.40 
 
 25 
 
 
 111 
 
 160 
 
 218 
 
 284 
 
 360 
 
 444 
 
 538 
 
 640 
 
 751 
 
 871 
 
 15.63 
 
 26 
 
 
 107 
 
 154 
 
 209 
 
 274 
 
 346 
 
 427 
 
 517 
 
 615 
 
 722 
 
 838 
 
 16.90 
 
 27 
 
 
 103 
 
 148 
 
 202 
 
 263 
 
 333 
 
 412 
 
 498 
 
 593 
 
 695 
 
 807 
 
 18.23 
 
 28 
 
 
 99 
 
 143 
 
 194 
 
 254 
 
 321 
 
 -397 
 
 480 
 
 571 
 
 671 
 
 778 
 
 19.60 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 ,188 
 
 245 
 
 310 
 
 383 
 
 464 
 
 552 
 
 648 
 
 751 
 
 21.03 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 133 
 
 181 
 
 237 
 
 300 
 
 370 
 
 448 
 
 533 
 
 626 
 
 726 
 
 22.30 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 129 
 
 176 
 
 229 
 
 290 
 
 358 
 
 434 
 
 516 
 
 606 
 
 703 
 
 24.03 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 170 
 
 222 
 
 281 
 
 347 
 
 420 
 
 500 
 
 587 
 
 681 
 
 25.60 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 165 
 
 215 
 
 273 
 
 337 
 
 407 
 
 485 
 
 569 
 
 660 
 
 27.23 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 118 
 
 160 
 
 . 209 
 
 265 
 
 327 
 
 395 
 
 471 
 
 552 
 
 641 
 
 29.90 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 114 
 
 156 
 
 203 
 
 257 
 
 317 
 
 384 
 
 457 
 
 537 
 
 602 
 
 30.63 
 
 Safe loads for any fibre stress may be readily obtained from this table by pro- 
 portion. 
 
WOODEN BEAMS 
 
 453 
 
 FOR RECTANGULAR BEAMS ONE INCH THICK, OF 
 YELLOW PINE 
 
 factor 6. Modulus of rupture 6000 pounds per square inch. 
 
 6 
 New safe load = Safe load from table X 
 
 New factor 
 
 Span 
 in 
 Feet 
 
 DEPTH OF BEAM IN INCHES 
 
 Deflec- 
 tion 
 Coeffi- 
 cient 
 
 V 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 2778 
 
 3160 
 
 3568 
 
 4000 
 
 4457 
 
 4038 
 
 5444 
 
 5975 
 
 6531 
 
 7111 
 
 2.03 
 
 10 
 
 2500 
 
 2844 
 
 3211 
 
 3600 
 
 4011 
 
 4444 
 
 4900 
 
 5378 
 
 5878 
 
 6400 
 
 2.50 
 
 11 
 
 2273 
 
 2586 
 
 2919 
 
 3273 
 
 3646 
 
 4040 
 
 4455 
 
 4889 
 
 5343 
 
 5818 
 
 3.03 
 
 12 
 
 2083 
 
 2370 
 
 2676 
 
 3000 
 
 3343 
 
 3704 
 
 4083 
 
 4481 
 
 4898 
 
 5333 
 
 3.60 
 
 13 
 
 1923 
 
 2188 
 
 2470 
 
 2760 
 
 3085 
 
 3419 
 
 3769 
 
 4137 
 
 4521 
 
 4923 
 
 4.23 
 
 14 
 
 1786 
 
 2032 
 
 2294 
 
 2571 
 
 2865 
 
 3175 
 
 3500 
 
 3841 
 
 4198 
 
 4571 
 
 4.00 
 
 15 
 
 1667 
 
 1896 
 
 2141 
 
 2400 
 
 2674 
 
 2963 
 
 3267 
 
 3585 
 
 3919 
 
 4267 
 
 5.63 
 
 16 
 
 1563 
 
 1778 
 
 2007 
 
 2250 
 
 2507 
 
 2778 
 
 3062 
 
 3361 
 
 3674 
 
 4000 
 
 6.40 
 
 17 
 
 1471 
 
 1673 
 
 1889 
 
 2118 
 
 2359 
 
 2614 
 
 2882 
 
 3463 
 
 3458 
 
 3765 
 
 7.23 
 
 18 
 
 1389 
 
 1580 
 
 1789 
 
 2000 
 
 2228 
 
 2469 
 
 2722 
 
 2988 
 
 3265 
 
 3556 
 
 8.10 
 
 19 
 
 1316 
 
 1497 
 
 1690 
 
 1895 
 
 2111 
 
 2339 
 
 2570 
 
 2830 
 
 3004 
 
 3368 
 
 9.03 
 
 20 
 
 1250 
 
 1422 
 
 1606 
 
 1800 
 
 2006 
 
 2222 
 
 2450 
 
 2689 
 
 2939 
 
 3200 
 
 10.00 
 
 21 
 
 1190 
 
 1354 
 
 1529 
 
 1714 
 
 1910 
 
 2116 
 
 2333 
 
 2561 
 
 2799 
 
 3048 
 
 11.03 
 
 22 
 
 1136 
 
 1293 
 
 1460 
 
 1636 
 
 1823 
 
 2020 
 
 2227 
 
 2444 
 
 2672 
 
 2909 
 
 12.10 
 
 23 
 
 1087 
 
 1237 
 
 1396 
 
 1565 
 
 1744 
 
 1932 
 
 2130 
 
 2338 
 
 2556 
 
 2783 
 
 13.23 
 
 24 
 
 1042 
 
 1185 
 
 1338 
 
 1500 
 
 1671 
 
 1852 
 
 2042 
 
 2241 
 
 2449 
 
 2667 
 
 14.40 
 
 25 
 
 1000 
 
 1138 
 
 1284 
 
 1440 
 
 1604 
 
 1778 
 
 1960 
 
 2131 
 
 2351 
 
 2560 
 
 15.63 
 
 26 
 
 962 
 
 1094 
 
 1235 
 
 1385 
 
 1543 
 
 1700 
 
 1885 
 
 2068 
 
 2261 
 
 2462 
 
 16.00 
 
 27 
 
 926 
 
 1053 
 
 1189 
 
 1333 
 
 1486 
 
 1646 
 
 1815 
 
 1992 
 
 2177 
 
 2370 
 
 18.23 
 
 28 
 
 893 
 
 1016 
 
 1147 
 
 1286 
 
 1433 
 
 1587 
 
 1750 
 
 1921 
 
 2099 
 
 2286 
 
 19.60 
 
 29 
 
 862 
 
 981 
 
 1107 
 
 1241 
 
 1383 
 
 1533 
 
 1690 
 
 1854 
 
 2027 
 
 2207 
 
 21.03 
 
 30 
 
 833 
 
 948 
 
 1070 
 
 1200 
 
 1337 
 
 1481 
 
 1633 
 
 1793 
 
 1959 
 
 2133 
 
 22.50 
 
 31 
 
 806 
 
 918 
 
 1036 
 
 1161 
 
 1294 
 
 1434 
 
 1581 
 
 1735 
 
 1896 
 
 2065 
 
 24.03 
 
 32 
 
 781 
 
 889 
 
 1003 
 
 1125 
 
 1253 
 
 1389 
 
 1531 
 
 1681 
 
 1837 
 
 2000 
 
 25.60 
 
 33 
 
 758 
 
 862 
 
 973 
 
 1091 
 
 1215 
 
 1347 
 
 1485 
 
 1630 
 
 1781 
 
 1939 
 
 27.23 
 
 34 
 
 735 
 
 837 
 
 944 
 
 1059 
 
 1180 
 
 1307 
 
 1441 
 
 1582 
 
 1728 
 
 1882 
 
 28.90 
 
 35 
 
 714 
 
 813 
 
 917 
 
 1029 
 
 1146 
 
 1270 
 
 1400 
 
 1537 
 
 1677 
 
 1829 
 
 30.63 
 
 36 
 
 694 
 
 780 
 
 894 
 
 1000 
 
 1114 
 
 1235 
 
 1361 
 
 1494 
 
 1633 
 
 1778 
 
 32.40 
 
 37 
 
 676 
 
 769 
 
 868 
 
 973 
 
 1084 
 
 1201 
 
 1324 
 
 1453 
 
 1589 
 
 1730 
 
 34.23 
 
 38 
 
 658 
 
 749 
 
 845 
 
 947 
 
 1056 
 
 1169 
 
 1289 
 
 1415 
 
 1547 
 
 1684 
 
 36.10 
 
 39 
 
 641 
 
 729 
 
 823 
 
 923 
 
 1028 
 
 1140 
 
 1256 
 
 1379 
 
 1507 
 
 1641 
 
 38.03 
 
 40 
 
 625 
 
 711 
 
 803 
 
 900 
 
 1003 
 
 1111 
 
 1225 
 
 1344 
 
 1469 
 
 1600 
 
 40.00 
 
 Safe loads for beams of California Redwood, three-quarters of above. 
 
454 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 SAFE LOADS IN POUNDS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED, 
 
 WHITE OAK AND 
 
 Allowable fibre stress 700 pounds per square inch. Safety 
 Safe loads for other safety factors may be obtained as follows: 
 
 Span 
 in 
 Feet 
 
 DEPTH OF BEAM IN INCHES 
 
 Deflec- 
 tion 
 Coeffi- 
 cient 
 
 V 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 533 
 
 833 
 
 1200 
 
 1633 
 
 2133 
 
 2700 
 
 3333 
 
 4033 
 
 4800 
 
 5633 
 
 6533 
 
 .38 
 
 5 
 
 427 
 
 667 
 
 960 
 
 1307 
 
 1707 
 
 2160 
 
 2667 
 
 3227 
 
 3840 
 
 4507 
 
 5227 
 
 .60 
 
 6 
 
 356 
 
 556 
 
 800 
 
 1089 
 
 1422 
 
 1800 
 
 2222 
 
 2689 
 
 3200 
 
 3756 
 
 4356 
 
 .86 
 
 7 
 
 305 
 
 476 
 
 686 
 
 933 
 
 1219 
 
 1543 
 
 1905 
 
 2305 
 
 2743 
 
 3219 
 
 3733 
 
 1.18 
 
 8 
 
 267 
 
 417 
 
 600 
 
 817 
 
 1067 
 
 1350 
 
 1667 
 
 2017 
 
 2400 
 
 2817 
 
 3267 
 
 1.54 
 
 9 
 
 237 
 
 370 
 
 533 
 
 726 
 
 948 
 
 1200 
 
 1481 
 
 1793 
 
 2133 
 
 2504 
 
 2904 
 
 1.94 
 
 10 
 
 213 
 
 333 
 
 480 
 
 653 
 
 853 
 
 1080 
 
 1333 
 
 1613 
 
 1920 
 
 2253 
 
 2613 
 
 2.40 
 
 11 
 
 194 
 
 303 
 
 436 
 
 594 
 
 776 
 
 982 
 
 1212 
 
 1467 
 
 1745 
 
 2048 
 
 2376 
 
 2.90 
 
 12 
 
 178 
 
 278 
 
 400 
 
 544 
 
 711 
 
 900 
 
 1111 
 
 1344 
 
 1600 
 
 1878 
 
 2178 
 
 3.46 
 
 13 
 
 164 
 
 256 
 
 369 
 
 503 
 
 656 
 
 831 
 
 1026 
 
 1241 
 
 1477 
 
 1733 
 
 2010 
 
 4.06 
 
 14 
 
 152 
 
 238 
 
 343 
 
 467 
 
 610 
 
 771 
 
 952 
 
 1152 
 
 1371 
 
 1610 
 
 1867 
 
 4.70 
 
 15 
 
 142 
 
 222 
 
 320 
 
 436 
 
 569 
 
 720 
 
 889 
 
 1076 
 
 1280 
 
 1502 
 
 1742 
 
 5.40 
 
 16 
 
 133 
 
 298 
 
 300 
 
 408 
 
 533 
 
 675 
 
 833 
 
 1008 
 
 1200 
 
 1408 
 
 1633 
 
 6.14 
 
 17 
 
 125 
 
 196 
 
 282 
 
 384 
 
 502 
 
 635 
 
 784 
 
 949 
 
 1129 
 
 1325 
 
 1537 
 
 6.94 
 
 18 
 
 119 
 
 185 
 
 267 
 
 363 
 
 474 
 
 600 
 
 741 
 
 896 
 
 1067 
 
 1252 
 
 1452 
 
 7.78 
 
 19 
 
 112 
 
 175 
 
 253 
 
 344 
 
 449 
 
 568 
 
 702 
 
 849 
 
 1011 
 
 1186 
 
 1375 
 
 8.66 
 
 20 
 
 107 
 
 167 
 
 240 
 
 327 
 
 427 
 
 540 
 
 667 
 
 807 
 
 960 
 
 1127 
 
 1307 
 
 9.60 
 
 21 
 
 102 
 
 159 
 
 229 
 
 311 
 
 406 
 
 514 
 
 635 
 
 768 
 
 914 
 
 1073 
 
 1244 
 
 10.58 
 
 22 
 
 97 
 
 152 
 
 218 
 
 297 
 
 388 
 
 401 
 
 606 
 
 733 
 
 873 
 
 1024 
 
 1188 
 
 11.62 
 
 23 
 
 93 
 
 145 
 
 209 
 
 284 
 
 371 
 
 470 
 
 580 
 
 701 
 
 835 
 
 980 
 
 1136 
 
 12.70 
 
 24 
 
 89 
 
 139 
 
 200 
 
 ' 272 
 
 356 
 
 450 
 
 556 
 
 672 
 
 800 
 
 939 
 
 1089 
 
 13.82 
 
 25 
 
 85 
 
 133 
 
 192 
 
 261 
 
 341 
 
 432 
 
 533 
 
 645 
 
 768 
 
 901 
 
 1045 
 
 15.00 
 
 26 
 
 
 128 
 
 185 
 
 251 
 
 328 
 
 415 
 
 513 
 
 621 
 
 738 
 
 867 
 
 1005 
 
 16.22 
 
 27 
 
 
 123 
 
 178 
 
 242 
 
 316 
 
 400 
 
 404 
 
 598 
 
 711 
 
 835 
 
 968 
 
 17.50 
 
 28 
 
 
 119 
 
 171 
 
 233 
 
 305 
 
 386 
 
 476 
 
 576 
 
 685 
 
 805 
 
 933 
 
 18.82 
 
 29 
 
 
 115 
 
 166 
 
 225 
 
 294 
 
 372 
 
 460 
 
 556 
 
 662 
 
 777 
 
 901 
 
 20.18 
 
 30 
 
 
 HI 
 
 160 
 
 218 
 
 284 
 
 360 
 
 444 
 
 538 
 
 640 
 
 751 
 
 871 
 
 21.60 
 
 31 
 
 
 108 
 
 155 
 
 211 
 
 275 
 
 348 
 
 430 
 
 520 
 
 619 
 
 727 
 
 843 
 
 23.06 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 204 
 
 267 
 
 338 
 
 417 
 
 504 
 
 600 
 
 704 
 
 817 
 
 24.58 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 145 
 
 198 
 
 259 
 
 327 
 
 404 
 
 489 
 
 582 
 
 683 
 
 792 
 
 26.14 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 141 
 
 192 
 
 251 
 
 318 
 
 392 
 
 ' 475 
 
 565 
 
 663 
 
 769 
 
 27.74 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 187 
 
 244 
 
 309 
 
 381 
 
 461 
 
 549 
 
 644 
 
 747 
 
 29.40 
 
 Safe loads for beams of Douglas Fir, Red Pine (Norway Pine), Cypress, Chest 
 nut and California Spruce, two-thirds of above. 
 
WOODEN BEAMS 
 
 455 
 
 FOR RECTANGULAR BEAMS ONE INCH THICK, OF 
 LONG-LEAF YELLOW PINE 
 
 factor 6. Modulus of rupture 7200 pounds per square inch. 
 
 6 
 
 New safe load = Safe load from table X . 
 
 New factor 
 
 Span 
 in 
 Feet 
 
 DEPTH OF BEAM IN INCHES 
 
 Deflec- 
 tion 
 Coeffi- 
 cient 
 
 V 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 3333 
 
 3793 
 
 4281 
 
 4800 
 
 5348 
 
 5926 
 
 6533 
 
 7170 
 
 7837 
 
 8533 
 
 Z.94 
 
 10 
 
 3000 
 
 3413 
 
 3853 
 
 4320 
 
 4813 
 
 5333 
 
 5880 
 
 6453 
 
 7053 
 
 7680 
 
 2. 10 
 
 11 
 
 2727 
 
 3103 
 
 3503 
 
 3927 
 
 4376 
 
 4848 
 
 5355 
 
 5867 
 
 6412 
 
 6892 
 
 2.90 
 
 12 
 
 2500 
 
 2844 
 
 3211 
 
 3600 
 
 4011 
 
 4444 
 
 4900 
 
 5378 
 
 5878 
 
 6400 
 
 3.46 
 
 13 
 
 2308 
 
 2626 
 
 2964 
 
 3323 
 
 3703 
 
 4103 
 
 4523 
 
 4964 
 
 5426 
 
 5908 
 
 4.06 
 
 14 
 
 2143 
 
 2438 
 
 2752 
 
 3086 
 
 3438 
 
 3810 
 
 4200 
 
 4610 
 
 5038 
 
 5486 
 
 4.70 
 
 15 
 
 2000 
 
 2276 
 
 2569 
 
 2880 
 
 3209 
 
 3556 
 
 3920 
 
 4302 
 
 4702 
 
 5120 
 
 5.40 
 
 16 
 
 1875 
 
 2133 
 
 2408 
 
 2700 
 
 3008 
 
 3333 
 
 3675 
 
 4033 
 
 4433 
 
 4800 
 
 6.14 
 
 17 
 
 1765 
 
 2008 
 
 2267 
 
 2541 
 
 2831 
 
 3137 
 
 3459 
 
 3796 
 
 4149 
 
 4518 
 
 6.94 
 
 18 
 
 1667 
 
 1896 
 
 2141 
 
 2400 
 
 2674 
 
 2963 
 
 3267 
 
 3585 
 
 3819 
 
 4267 
 
 7.78 
 
 19 
 
 1579 
 
 1796 
 
 2027 
 
 2274 
 
 2533 
 
 2807 
 
 3095 
 
 S 3396 
 
 3712 
 
 4042 
 
 8.66 
 
 20 
 
 1500 
 
 1707 
 
 1927 
 
 2160 
 
 2407 
 
 2667 
 
 2940 
 
 3227 
 
 3527 
 
 3840 
 
 9.60 
 
 21 
 
 1429 
 
 1625 
 
 1835 
 
 2057 
 
 2292 
 
 2540 
 
 2800 
 
 3073 
 
 3359 
 
 3657 
 
 10.58 
 
 22 
 
 1364 
 
 1552 
 
 1752 
 
 1964 
 
 2188 
 
 2424 
 
 2678 
 
 2933 
 
 3206 
 
 3491 
 
 11.62 
 
 23 
 
 1304 
 
 1484 
 
 1675 
 
 1878 
 
 2093 
 
 2319 
 
 2557 
 
 2806 
 
 3067 
 
 3339 
 
 12.70 
 
 24 
 
 1250 
 
 1422 
 
 1606 
 
 1800 
 
 2006 
 
 2222 
 
 2450 
 
 2689 
 
 2939 
 
 3200 
 
 13.82 
 
 25 
 
 1200 
 
 1365 
 
 1541 
 
 1728 
 
 1925 
 
 2133 
 
 2352 
 
 2581 
 
 2821 
 
 3072 
 
 15.00 
 
 26 
 
 1154 
 
 1313 
 
 1482 
 
 1662 
 
 1851 
 
 2051 
 
 2262 
 
 2482 
 
 2713 
 
 2954 
 
 16.22 
 
 27 
 
 1111 
 
 1264 
 
 1427 
 
 1600 
 
 1783 
 
 1975 
 
 2178 
 
 2390 
 
 2612 
 
 2844 
 
 17.50 
 
 28 
 
 1071 
 
 1219 
 
 1376 
 
 1543 
 
 1719 
 
 1905 
 
 2100 
 
 '2305 
 
 2519 
 
 2743 
 
 18.82 
 
 29 
 
 1034 
 
 1177 
 
 1329 
 
 1490 
 
 1660 
 
 1839 
 
 2028 
 
 2225 
 
 2432 
 
 2648 
 
 20.18 
 
 30 
 
 1000 
 
 1138 
 
 1284 
 
 1440 
 
 1604 
 
 1778 
 
 1960 
 
 2151 
 
 2351 
 
 2560 
 
 21.60 
 
 31 
 
 968 
 
 1101 
 
 1243 
 
 1394 
 
 1553 
 
 1720 
 
 1897 
 
 2082 
 
 2275 
 
 2477 
 
 23.06 
 
 32 
 
 938 
 
 1067 
 
 1204 
 
 1350 
 
 1504 
 
 1667 
 
 1838 
 
 2017 
 
 2217 
 
 2400 
 
 24.58 
 
 33 
 
 909 
 
 1034 
 
 1168 
 
 1309 
 
 1459 
 
 1616 
 
 1785 
 
 1956 
 
 2137 
 
 2327 
 
 26.14 
 
 34 
 
 822 
 
 1004 
 
 1133 
 
 1271 
 
 1416 
 
 1569 
 
 1729 
 
 1898 
 
 2075 
 
 2259 
 
 27.74 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 35 
 
 857 
 
 975 
 
 1101 
 
 1234 
 
 1375 
 
 1524 
 
 1680 
 
 1844 
 
 2013 
 
 2194 
 
 29.40 
 
 36 
 
 833 
 
 948 
 
 1070 
 
 1200 
 
 1337 
 
 1481 
 
 1633 
 
 1793 
 
 1909 
 
 2133 
 
 31. l6 
 
 37 
 
 811 
 
 923 
 
 1041 
 
 1168 
 
 1301 
 
 1441 
 
 1589 
 
 1744 
 
 1906 
 
 2076 
 
 32.85 
 
 38 
 
 789 
 
 893 
 
 1014 
 
 1137 
 
 1267 
 
 1404 
 
 1547 
 
 1698 
 
 1856 
 
 2021 
 
 34.66 
 
 39 
 
 769 
 
 875 
 
 988 
 
 1108 
 
 1234 
 
 1368 
 
 1508 
 
 1655 
 
 1809 
 
 1969 
 
 36.50 
 
 40 
 
 750 
 
 853 
 
 963 
 
 1080 
 
 1203 
 
 1333 
 
 1470 
 
 1613 
 
 1763 
 
 1920 
 
 38.40 
 
 Safe loads for beams of Hemlock, one-half of above. 
 
456 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 STRENGTH OF SOLID WOODEN COLUMNS OF DIFFERENT KINDS 
 
 OF TIMBER 
 
 I 
 For various values of . 
 
 d 
 
 1 = length of column in inches, d = least diameter in inches. 
 Based on the Formula of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of 
 Forestry. 
 
 700 + 15c 
 
 P = F X . 
 
 700 + 15c + c^ 
 P =iultjmate strength in pounds per square inch. 
 
 F == ultimate crushing strength of timber, c = . 
 
 Values of F are those given in table on pages 448 and 449 herein. 
 
 ULTIMATE STRENGTH IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH 
 
 
 White Oak 
 and Southern 
 
 Douglas Fir 
 and 
 
 Red Pine (Norway Pine), 
 Spruce or Eastern Fir, 
 
 White 
 Pine 
 
 
 Long-leaf 
 or Georgia 
 
 Short-leaf 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 Hemlock, Cypress, Chest- 
 nut, California Redwood 
 
 and 
 Cedar 
 
 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 
 and California Spruce 
 
 
 F 
 
 5000 
 
 4500 
 
 4000 
 
 3500 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4937 
 
 4475 
 
 3978 
 
 3481 
 
 3 
 
 4940 
 
 4446 
 
 3952 
 
 3458 
 
 4 
 
 4897 
 
 4407 
 
 3918 
 
 3428 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 5 
 
 4844 
 
 4359 
 
 3875 
 
 3391 
 
 6 
 
 4782 
 
 4304 
 
 3826 
 
 3347 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 4713 
 4638 ' 
 
 4242 
 4174 
 
 3770 
 3710 
 
 3299 
 3247 
 
 9 
 
 4558 
 
 4102 
 
 3646 
 
 3190 
 
 10 
 
 4474 
 
 4026 
 
 3579 
 
 3132 
 
 11 
 
 4386 
 
 3948 
 
 3509 
 
 3070 
 
 12 
 
 4297 
 
 3867 
 
 3438 
 
 3008 
 
 13 
 
 4206 
 
 3785 
 
 3365 
 
 2944 
 
 14 
 
 4114 
 
 3703 
 
 3291 
 
 2880 
 
 15 
 
 4022 
 
 3620 
 
 , 3217 
 
 2815 
 
 1 
 
 3930 
 3838 
 3748 
 
 3537 
 3455 
 3373 
 
 3144 
 3071 
 2998 
 
 2751 
 2687 
 2624 
 
 19 
 
 3659 
 
 3293 
 
 2927 
 
 2561 
 
 For safety factors for various classes of structures to be used in connection 
 with the above table, see p. 446. 
 
WOODEN BEAMS 
 
 457 
 
 STRENGTH OF SOLID WOODEN COLUMNS OF DIFFERENT KINDS 
 
 OF TIMBER 
 
 For various values of . 
 
 d 
 
 1 = length of column in inches, d = least diameter in inches. 
 Based on the Formula of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of 
 Forestry. 
 
 700 + 15c 
 
 P = F X . 
 
 700 + 15c + c* 
 P = ultimate strength in pounds per square inch. 
 
 F = ultimate crushing strength of timber, c = . 
 
 d 
 Values of F are those given in table on pages 448 and 449 herein. 
 
 ULTIMATE STRENGTH IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH 
 
 
 White Oak 
 
 Douglas Fir 
 
 Red Pine (Norway Pine), 
 
 White 
 
 
 and Southern 
 
 and 
 
 Spruce or Eastern Fir, 
 
 Pine 
 
 
 Long-leaf 
 or Georgia 
 
 Short-leaf 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 Hemlock, Cypress, Chest- 
 nut, California Redwood 
 
 and 
 Cedar 
 
 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 
 and California Spruce 
 
 
 F 
 
 5000 
 
 4500 
 
 4000 
 
 3500 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 3571 
 
 3214 
 
 2857 
 
 2500 
 
 21 
 
 3486 
 
 3137 
 
 2788 
 
 2440 
 
 22 
 
 3402 
 
 3061 
 
 2721 
 
 2381 
 
 23 
 
 3320 
 
 2988 
 
 2656 
 
 2324 
 
 24 
 
 3240 
 
 2916 
 
 2592 
 
 2268 
 
 25 
 
 3162 
 
 2846 
 
 2529 
 
 2213 
 
 26 
 
 3086 
 
 2777 
 
 2469 
 
 2160 
 
 27 
 
 3013 
 
 2711 
 
 2410 
 
 2109 
 
 28 
 
 2941 
 
 2647 
 
 2353 
 
 2059 
 
 29 
 
 2872 
 
 2585 
 
 2298 
 
 2010 
 
 30 
 
 2805 
 
 2524 
 
 2244 
 
 1963 
 
 32 
 
 2677 
 
 2409 
 
 2142 
 
 1874 
 
 34 
 
 2557 
 
 2301 
 
 2046 
 
 1790 
 
 36 
 
 2445 
 
 2200 
 
 1956 
 
 1711 
 
 38 
 
 2340 
 
 2106 
 
 1872 
 
 1638 
 
 40 
 
 2241 
 
 2017 
 
 1793 
 
 1569 
 
 42 
 
 2149 
 
 1934 
 
 1719 
 
 1505 
 
 44 
 
 2063 
 
 1857 
 
 1650 
 
 1444 
 
 46 
 
 1982 
 
 1784 
 
 1586 
 
 1388 
 
 48 
 
 1907 
 
 1716 
 
 1525 
 
 1335 
 
 50 
 
 1835 
 
 1652 
 
 1468 
 
 1285 
 
 For safety factors for various classes of structures to be used in connection 
 with the above table, see p. 446. 
 
SPECIFICATIONS FOR VAULTS* 
 CLASS A VAULTS 
 
 Vaults designed to afford the maximum degree of protection and intended 
 for the use of banks, trust companies, and others having large values to 
 protect. This type of vault involves massive Construction, designed to 
 resist long continued fire, impact of falling objects, and attack by burglars 
 (in so far as this feature can properly be incorporated in these specifications). 
 
 MATERIAL. i. Reinforced Concrete. Walls, roofs, and floors shall be of 
 reinforced concrete, and mixture not poorer than one part of Portland 
 cement to six parts of aggregate, so proportioned as to give maximum density. 
 
 Coarse aggregate shall consist of trap rock, broken, hard burned or vitreous 
 bricks, or thir equivalent, and pass over a %-inch screen and through a 
 i -inch ring. Stones which calcine or spall readily shall be avoided. 
 
 While not recommended, it is possible that under certain conditions the 
 use of a first class quality of hard burned brick laid in cement mortar may 
 be advisable for walls, or a combination of an exterior brick shell and an 
 interior concrete wall may be used. 
 
 2. Reinforcing Material. Reinforcement for concrete shall consist of 
 steel rods at least % inch in diameter, spaced 4 inches on centres, and 
 running in both directions at right angles to each other. These rods shall 
 be securely wired together at intersections not over 12 inches apart in 
 both directions, and shall be installed with one set placed 3 inches from 
 each face of each wall. 
 
 Any other form of reinforcing, of equal or greater cross section, may 
 be used. 
 
 Rolled beams or rails are frequently used for roof and floor reinforcement 
 and are occasionally .used in walls as well, both to secure fire and burglar 
 resisting powers. They are advised in the case of roofs, because of their 
 impact resisting powers. 
 
 3. Continuous construction. Concrete work should be carried on continu- 
 ously as nearly as practicable and be thoroughly tamped and spaded. Walls 
 should be carried up uniformly. 
 
 WALLS. -4. Support. Shall be built on ground (on rock if possible) in 
 non-fireproof buildings, and preferably also in fireproof ones. 
 
 Where supported on steel framework of a building, supporting steel shall 
 have especially large factor of safety, shall be protected with at least 6 
 inches of reinforced concrete, and reinforcing material around columns and 
 beams shall be securely anchored. 
 
 NOTE. Concrete is specified for protection to steel, because both materials 
 have approximately the same co-efficient of expansion. 
 
 5. Independent. Walls of vaults shall be entirely independent of those 
 of building, and at a sufficient distance to permit of inspection. 
 
 6. Carrying Floors. Floors of building shall preferably be independent of 
 vault walls, but, if connected, shall be so arranged that in event of building 
 collapsing they will pull away without reducing the strength or fire-resisting 
 qualities of the vaults. 
 
 *As given in the regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 458 
 
SPECIFICATIONS FOR VAULTS 459 
 
 7. Thickness. Reinforced concrete wall shall he at least 16 inches thick. 
 Brick walls shall be at least 20 inches thick. If concrete wall is protected 
 with a brick shell, concrete shall be at least 12 inches, and brick at least 
 8 inches thick. 
 
 ROOF. 8. Thickness. Shall be at least 4 inches greater than for walls, 
 and. in buildings where great impact possibilities exist, frequently much 
 thicker. 
 
 9. Strength. Shall have strength of spans consistent with surrounding 
 conditions, especially possible impact of falling bodies, such as walls, safes, 
 and machinery. 
 
 10. Interior Columns. Where span is sufficiently large, the introductions 
 of interior columns or girders or division walls may be necessary. Steel 
 columns or girders shall be protected with at least 2 inches of reinforced 
 concrete. 
 
 FLOORS. ii. Thickness. Shall be at least 12 inches thick where laid upon 
 ground, or on beams to permit inspection, and thicker if deemed necessary. 
 
 NOTE. To permit of inspection to protect against tunneling into vaults, 
 floors are sometimes placed on parallel beams. 
 
 Where vault is over one story high, and where each story is entered 
 separately, the floors between stories shall be at least 6 inches thick and 
 not pierced. 
 
 12. Flooring. No combu tible surface flooring shall be used. This is not 
 intended to prohibit the limited use of non-flammable runners. 
 
 ENTRANCE ENCLOSURES. 13. Entrance enclosures are recommended to pro- 
 tect doors of very important vaults against fire and against attack by mobs. 
 
 DOORS. 14. Single d^ors (without inner doors, creating dead air spaces) 
 shall be at least 16 inches thick, and shall contain at least 6 inches of con- 
 crete filling of as large an area as the design will permit. 
 
 15. When double doors are used, outer doors shall be at least 8 inches 
 thick, and shall contain at least 3 inches of concrete filling, and of as large 
 an area as the design will permit. 
 
 1 6. Emergency doors, if provided, shall be equal in strength and thick- 
 ness to main door, and an interference device shall be provided to prevent 
 the main door being closed until the emergency one is closed and locked. 
 
 17. Fit. Outer door shall be stepped or tongued and grooved, or both, 
 in order to protect against fire, smoke, and water. 
 
 Important doors should have doors and jambs ground to a fit, should be 
 provided with packing,, and such doors and jambs should be tested for 
 waterproofness after erection. 
 
 It is suggested that packing may advantageously be provided on inner 
 doors as additional protection. 
 
 18. When double doors are used, inner doors shall be of steel plate, at 
 least % inch thick, reinforced to give stability, and provided with suitable 
 locking mechanism. 
 
 19. The air space between inner and outer doors shall be at least 12 inches. 
 INTERFERENCE MECHANISM. 20. Shall preferably be provided so as to make 
 
 it necessary to close inner doors before outer ones, when double doors 
 are used. 
 
 WATER-TIGHTNESS.- -2 1. Walls, roof, and floors to be effectively water- 
 proofed, but no combustible material shall be used for this purpose. 
 
 Where vaults are located in basements" or at other low points, special 
 provision to prevent entrance of water, such as raised sills, large area floor 
 drains for basement, and packing in grooves may be warranted. 
 
 Storage vaults often can have raised sills without inconvenience. Operat- 
 ing vaults, where travel through openings, including that by trucks, is 
 
460 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 frequent, can usually not , have a sill more than a few inches high, even 
 where provided with a sloping approach. 
 
 Where there is a possibility of water entering vaults, contents that can 
 be damaged by water should not be placed close to the floor. 
 
 VENTILATION. 22. Ventilation of interior shall be only through doors. 
 Walls, floors, and roofs shall not be pierced. For large vaults, inside perma- 
 nent duct systems, fed by temporary section of ducts when doors are open, 
 are used. 
 
 INTERIOR EQUIPMENT.- 23. Shelving, stairs, book lifts, and all other in- 
 terior equipment shall be entirely of metal. Designs embodying compart- 
 ments with doors shall be used for the storage of papers or other com- 
 bustible materials. 
 
 LIGHTING. 24. a. Shall be by electricity only, and wiring shall be in- 
 stalled in accordance with the National Electrical Code. 
 
 b. Where possible it is recommended that current be secured through a 
 cord carried from an inside connection to an outside one and after the 
 opening of the door. 
 
 c. If wiring enters the vault except through the door opening, it shall 
 enter the vault wall near the floor, be encased near the outer surface of 
 the wall to a point near the ceiling of the vault, and then enter the vault. 
 
 d. The closing of the door shall automatically cut off current except that 
 some emergency lighting may remain in service, and that provision may 
 be made for telephone, annunciator, and alarm connections. 
 
 e. Pendant cords shall be avoided. If used, they shall be of reinforced 
 type, and lamps shall have guards. 
 
 CLASS B VAULTS 
 
 NOTE. Vaults usually erected in tiers and designed to afford a large 
 measure of protection to their contents, assuming even the total burn-out of 
 the building in which the vault is located. 
 
 AREA. i. Inside floor area shall not exceed 150 square feet. Height 
 will naturally be similar to that of stories where a tier of vaults is built. 
 
 MATERIAL. 2. Concrete or Brick. Reinforced concrete of same quality 
 specified for Class "A" Vaults, or hard burned brick laid in Portland cement 
 mortar shall be used. 
 
 3. Reinforcement. If reinforced concrete is used, the reinforcing material 
 shall consist of steel rods at least % inch in diameter, spaced 4 inches 
 on centres and running in both directions at right angles to each other. 
 These rods shall be securely wired together at intersections not over 12 
 inches apart in both directions, and be installed in centre of wall. 
 
 Any other form of reinforcing, of equal or greater cross section, may 
 be used. 
 
 Rolled beams or rails are frequently used for floor and roof reinforcement 
 and are occasionally used in walls as well, both to secure fire and burglar 
 resisting powers. They are advised in the case of roofs because of their 
 impact resisting powers. 
 
 4. Continuous Construction. The principles laid down for Class "A" 
 Vaults shall be followed where reinforced concrete is used. 
 
 WALLS. 5. Support. Shall preferably lie built on the ground, on rock if 
 possible, and shall have footings capable of carrying the load without danger 
 of settling. 
 
 Where walls do not rest upon the ground, they shall rest upon steel 
 framework, which is insulated against heat with concrete in the same manner 
 specified for Class "A" Vaults. 
 
SPECIFICATIONS FOR VAULTS 461 
 
 6. Independent. Shall preferably be independent of the walls of the 
 building, but, if not, shall be effectively bonded to the building walls. 
 
 7. Thickness. Concrete walls shall be not less than 12 inches thick for 
 3 upper stories, and not less than 16 inches thick for next 3 stories below. 
 Brick walls shall be not less than 16 inches thick for 3 upper stories, and 
 not less than 20 inches thick for next 3 stories below. 
 
 8. Carrying of Floors. Building floors shall preferably not be carried 
 by vault walls, but if so carried the wall thickness at no point to be less 
 than 12 inches in the case of concrete and not less than 16 inches in that 
 of brick, and floor beams shall be self-releasing. 
 
 ROOF. 9. Thickness. When of reinforced concrete shall be not less than 
 12 inches thick, and, where top of vault is below roof of building, thickness 
 may need to be increased to provide strength to resist impact. 
 
 Brick arch roofs, while not objectionable, are not recommended. If used, 
 minimum thickness of arch shall be 16 inches. Tie rods may be needed. 
 
 10. Strength. Shall have strength of spans consistent with surrounding 
 conditions, especially possible impact of falling bodies, such as walls, safes 
 and machinery. 
 
 FLOORS. n. Thickness. Shall be not less than 8 inches thick if of rein- 
 forced concrete and not less than 12 inches thick if brick arched. 
 
 12. Flooring. No combustible flooring shall be used. 
 
 DOORS. These specifications closely follow the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters' Regulations for the Construction and Installation of Fire 
 Doors and Shutters; see page 367. 
 
 INKER DOORS. 19. a. Plates to be not less than % inch iron or steel. 
 Plates to be reinforced around all edges with i^ x ^4 inch bar iron, or 
 equivalent, secured with rivets at least % inch in diameter and spaced not 
 over 9 inches on centres. 
 
 b. Doors to be provided with at least two hinges each, material to be 
 not less than i% x *4 inch, secured with at least two rivets to both frame 
 and door. 
 
 c. Latches to engage at top and bottom, and at least at one point on 
 meeting edges of doors. Doors to fit frames tightly. 
 
 AIR SPACE. 20. Between inner and outer doors there shall be at least 12 
 inches of air space. 
 
 INTERFERING MECHANISM, WATER-TIGHTNESS, VENTILATION, INTERIOR EQUIP- 
 MENT and LIGHTING. Same as for Class "A" Vaults. 
 
 CLASS C VAULTS 
 
 Vaults erected upon the framework of fireproof buildings; the safety of 
 such vaults is directly dependent upon the fireproof qualities of the build- 
 ings. Vaults built in vertical lines make it possible to provide particularly 
 good fireproofing for bays in which such vaults are located. 
 
 SIZE. i. Inside floor area /shall not exceed 100 square feet. 
 
 Clearance between top of vault and lowest structural member of floor 
 above shall not be less than 12 inches, and space between top of vault and 
 floor above shall be closed up with non-combustible material which will 
 readily crush in event of deflections of floors. 
 
 MATERIAL. 2. Shall be of reinforced concrete of the same quality as 
 specified for Class "A" Vaults. 
 
 Reinforcement for concrete shall consist of steel rods at least % inch in 
 diameter, spaced 4 inches on centres and running in both directions at right 
 angles to each other. These rods shall be securely wired together at 
 intersections not over 12 inches apart in both directions, and be installed 
 centrally in each wall. 
 
462 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Any other form of reinforcement, of equal or greater cross section, may 
 be used. 
 
 WALLS. 3. Thickness. Shall be at least 8 inches thick. 
 
 Supports. Shall be, in so far as possible, built upon the girders and 
 beams of the building. Special framework, to take care of the vault loads, 
 is often advisable. Special care shall be exercised in fireproofing these 
 supporting members. Columns shall not pass through vaults or their walls. 
 
 4. Independent. Shall be independent of walls of buildings, of partitions, 
 and of fireproofing of columns. Each vault preferably shall be independent 
 of other vaults. 
 
 FLOORS. 5. Floors of vaults may serve as floors of buildings provided the 
 reinforcing material is protected with at least 2 inches of concrete. 
 
 6. Thickness. Shall be at least 8 inches thick. 
 
 7. Flooring. No combustible flooring shall be permitted. 
 ROOFS. 8. Reinforcement. Same as for floors. 
 
 9. Thickness. Shall be at least 8 inches thick, and the top of any vault 
 one or more stories below the roof of the building in which it is located 
 shall be at least 12 inches thick, providing there is no other vault imme- 
 diately above it. 
 
 10. Independent. Roofs of vaults shall be independent of floors, roofs, 
 or ceilings of buildings. 
 
 DOORS. ii. Single doors, not less than 8 inches thick, and containing not 
 less than 3 inches of concrete, are considered desirable for this class of 
 vault. By means of packing and a pressure mechanism considerable water- 
 tightness can be secured. Otherwise the double type of door shall be used, 
 as per the Class " B " Vault specification. 
 
 INTERFERING MECHANISM, WATER-TIGHTNESS, VENTILATION, INTERIOR EQUIP- 
 MENT and LIGHTING. Same as for Class "A" Vaults. 
 
PROTECTION 
 
 FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 In his testimony before the State Factory Investigating Commis- 
 sion in 1912, Mr. Rudolph P. Miller, Superintendent of the Bureau 
 of Buildings for the Borough of Manhattan, recommended the 
 adoption of radical measures, substantially as follows, for the pro- 
 tection against fire of factory workers and others : 
 
 Systematic inspection to see that safe conditions are maintained 
 should be provided. Ample authority should be given to the ad- 
 ministrative officer to secure compliance with the provisions of law. 
 The necessary exit facilities and physical safeguards should be pre- 
 scribed in sufficient detail to fix a safe standard. The number of 
 occupants should be limited by law in accordance with the exit 
 facilities provided. 
 
 The occupancy of a new building or the change of occupancy of 
 an existing building should be prohibited until a certificate has been 
 issued by the proper authority. Fire drills, or at least adequate 
 instructions to employees as to safeguarding life, should be de- 
 manded in all workshops and factories. The jurisdiction over exit 
 facilities and inspection in connection therewith should be vested 
 with the same officials that administer the building law. 
 
 Stairs. No door, stair or passageway 'shall be less than 3 ft. 4 in. 
 in the clear. At least two separate staircases, with the necessary 
 doors and passageways, shall be provided for any building over 
 three stories in height or over 3,000 sq. ft. in area. When more 
 than one is required the stairs shall be so placed that at least one 
 is always accessible to the occupants in case any one of the others 
 is rendered impassable for some reason, and that it shall not be 
 necessary to travel more than 80 ft. in a direct horizontal line to 
 reach either one of any two. All stairs shall be enclosed in an 
 approved fireproof construction and shall have a direct exterior 
 outlet to the street or to a court leading to a street, at the ground 
 floor. The risers and treads of stairs shall be so proportioned that 
 the stairs furnish a safe and comfortable line of travel. . . . No 
 flight of stairs shall have a vertical rise of more than 12 ft. between 
 floors or intermediate platforms; and in straight runs platforms 
 shall be spaced equidistant between upper and lower limits. 
 
 463 
 
464 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Doors and Passageways. The aggregate clear width of doors 
 and passageways intended to serve as exits from any building or 
 part of a building shall be at least 12 in. for every twenty persons 
 to be accommodated, provided none is less than 40 in. wide. 
 
 The aggregate clear width of stairs and stair halls shall be such 
 that the stairs in any story of a building may accommodate at one 
 time the total number of persons ordinarily occupying or permitted 
 to occupy any one floor above the flight of stairs under considera- 
 tion, on the basis that at least 20 in. of width and one and one-half 
 treads are required per person. 
 
 When the building is of thoroughly fire-proof construction, with 
 no communication from floor to floor except by elevators in solid 
 fireproof enclosures and stairs in fire towers constructed as ^herein 
 elsewhere described and all openings to the outer air are protected 
 by metal and wire glass windows or doors of approved construction, 
 a reduction of 20 per cent, in the aggregate width may be made. 
 
 When an approved equipment of automatic sprinklers is installed 
 in any building, a reduction of 25 per cent, in the aggregate width 
 specified may be made. 
 
 When fire walls, of such strength and construction as to resist 
 fire for at least 30 minutes, equipped with adequate openings pro- 
 tected by approved automatic fire doors, are provided, a reduction 
 f 33 l /3 per cent, in the aggregate width specified may be made. 
 From the Engineering Record, Sept. 14, 1912. 
 
 Improvement to Existing Fire Escapes. Considerable atten- 
 tion has been given to the improvement of fire escape facilities in 
 the Borough of Manhattan, New York, by the Bureau of Buildings. 
 Although exterior fire escapes are considered as more or less un- 
 satisfactory makeshifts on account of their, exposure to flame and 
 smoke and for other reasons, some valuable improvements have 
 recently been made in them. 
 
 In New York ordinary outside fire escapes generally consist of 
 a series of iron balconies at the several stories, connected by stairs 
 and provided with a movable ladder to be let down from the lowest 
 balcony if necessary. It was found that these ladders, although 
 limited in length and strength, were often too heavy to be safely 
 handled by the people forced to use the fire escape, and that fire- 
 men were frequently required to assist people down the fire escapes. 
 It is, therefore, recommended that the lowest ladder shall be bal- 
 anced with a counterweight and furnished with guides to insure its 
 control. 
 
 In cases where a large number of people are to be cared for 
 balanced iron stairs are recommended to give a higher capacity 
 than is possible with ladders. As the use of balancing ladders or 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 465 
 
 stairs permits them to be longer the height of the lowest balcony 
 above the street may be increased and recourse may be had to inter- 
 mediate platforms, as shown in the view of balanced first-escape stairs. 
 For factories, schools and other buildings where there are apt to 
 be large numbers of people, exterior stairways with steel supports 
 have been required. The capacities of some ordinary outside fire 
 escapes have been greatly increased by arranging two intersecting 
 stairs in the form of an X in the spaces between successive balconieb 
 usually occupied by a single stair. From The Engineering Record. 
 Sept. 21, 1912. 
 
 Means of Egress- from Buildings. In a report made by the 
 National Fire Protection Association Committee on Safety to Lift 
 is the following statement: 
 
 " It has long been recognized that the common outside form of iron 
 ladder-like stairway anchoied to the side of the building is a pitiful delusion. 
 This device for a quarter of a century has contributed the principal clement 
 of tragedy to all fires where panic resulted. Passing successively the window 
 openings of each floor, tongues of flame issuing from the window of any 
 one floor cut off the descent of all on floors above it. Iron is quickly 
 heated and is a good conductor of heat, and expansion of the bolts, stays 
 and fastenings soon pulls the framework loose, so that the weight of a 
 single body may precipitate it into the street or alley. Many a human 
 being has grasped the hot rail of such a ' fire escape,' only to release it 
 with a scream and leap from it in agony. Its platforms are usually pitifully 
 small, and a rush to them from several floors at once jams and chokes them 
 hopelessly. It is a makeshift creation of the cupidity of landlords, frequently 
 rendered still more useless by the ignorance of tenants, covered up with 
 milk bottles, ice boxes and other obstructions." 
 
 This powerful arraignment unquestionably is deserved by a very large 
 percentage of the outside fire escapes in use to-day. The following common 
 defects exist on many: 
 
 (a) Inaccessible to many portions of buildings, except by going into the 
 halls, which may be impassable owing to flames and smoke. 
 
 (b) Unshielded against fire in lower stories. 
 
 (c) Poor design, especially as regards steepness and lack of width. 
 
 (d) Poor supports. Expansion bolts and even lag screws in wooden 
 plugs have been used to support fire escapes. 
 
 (e) Absence of any form of ladder or stair from the second floor to the 
 ground, or complicated and inefficient arrangement of vertical drop ladders. 
 
 (f) Poor condition. Fire escapes are generally regarded as a necessary, evil, 
 and receive very little attention. 
 
 (g) Ice and snow covering, 
 (h) Used for storage. 
 
 Covered by Model Building Code. Part IX of the Building 
 Code of the National Board of Fire Underwriters covers this sub- 
 ject in great detail; as it is daily becoming more generally recog- 
 nized that the question of safety to life in the modern factory and 
 office building is one worthy of considerable expenditure of money, 
 and as the treatment of the question in the Building Code covers 
 
466 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 the subject better than any other description now before the public, 
 this entire chapter is reprinted below. The reference to sections 
 is to other parts of the code. Any section under 44 and over 49 
 will be found on pages 293 to 349, inclusive. 
 
 SECTION 44. NUMBER AND WIDTH OF EXITS AND DOORS. i. Every build- 
 ing, except dwellings, and every story in each building above the first, 
 shall have at least two means of exit remote from each other; one of these 
 shall open to a street or fireproof passage leading to a street, and one may 
 open to a yard or other space deemed safe by the superintendent and of 
 sufficient area to accommodate all persons in the building. Two means of 
 exit remote from each other shall be provided from each story of dwellings 
 when over three stories in height. 
 
 2. In every building except buildings of Class D, all required exit doors 
 in the first story, including the doors of vestibules, shall open outwards. 
 This requirement shall not prohibit the use of doors which swing both in- 
 wards and outwards, nor of sliding or rolling doors in stables, garages, 
 storerooms, and the shipping and receiving rooms of manufacturing, mer- 
 cantile and industrial buildings, where approved by the superintendent. 
 
 3. When exit doorways have a clear width of at least 40 inches each, 
 the aggregate widths of such doorways shall be equal to the required width 
 of corridor or stairway served by same. When individual doors are less 
 than 40 inches wide, there shall be one doorway for each 22 inches of 
 required width of corridor or stairway leading to same. Every doorway 
 shall be at least 28 inches wide in the clear. All passageway exit doors 
 shall swing in the direction of exit travel, except in case of horizontal exits 
 where direction of travel may be indeterminate. 
 
 All exit doors leading from rooms having an occupancy of 15 or over, 
 shall open in the direction of exit travel, except in schools where fire drills 
 are organized under control of the teachers. 
 
 NOTE. In schools where pupils ^are trained in fire drill, it is considered 
 essential that classroom doors should open inwards, as they are better adapted 
 to positive control by the teachers in time of panic. If necessary, a teacher 
 can back against a door and hold it until the pupils are in marching order, 
 and the proper time arrives for them to file out. 
 
 4. The opening of one door shall not be permitted to obstruct another, 
 and the arc of opening of doors which open upon stairway landings or 
 platforms shall not reduce the width of the passageway to less than the 
 required width of the stairs. 
 
 5. Every room having an occupancy of more than 75 persons shall have 
 at least two doorways remote from each other leading to exits. 
 
 6. Hallways or corridors at the street or court level furnishing exit from 
 stairways, shall be not less in width than the aggregate width of the required 
 stairways which they serve. Every hallway or corridor which may serve 
 as an exit for 50 or more persons, shall have at least 44 inches of width 
 for the first 50 persons and 6 inches additional for each additional 50 persons 
 to be accommodated thereby. This computation shall be based on the number 
 of persons in the story having the largest occupancy served by said corridor. 
 
 7. At all times when any loft or space is occupied for manufacturing or 
 mercantile purposes, the fastenings or locks on exit doors shall be such as 
 may be easily opened from the inside without the use of keys. 
 
 8. A clearly painted sign marked " EXIT " in letters not less than 6 
 inches in height, shall be placed over all exits in the above specified buildings. 
 The elevators shall be provided with similar signs marked " ELEVATOR." 
 Such signs shall be illuminated when necessary by means of artificial lighting. 
 The color of such light shall be green. 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 467 
 
 NOTE. It has been customary to designate an exit by a red light, but State 
 and National Safety Organizations have adopted green as the standard color 
 to indicate safety, and red to signify danger. It is therefore consistent that 
 exit signs which betoken safety, should be marked by green lights. 
 
 9. Elevators, escalators and revolving doors shall not be considered in 
 calculating exit requirements. 
 
 10. Entrances and doors in tenement houses, theatres, motion picture 
 theatres, and places of public or private entertainment, shall be as else- 
 where provided. 
 
 SECTION 45. STAIRS AND STAIRWAYS, CONSTRUCTION OF. i. All buildings 
 which are used above the first floor for manufacturing or business purposes, 
 or for public assemblage, or for any purpose whatever if over three stories 
 ur 40 feet high, except armories, court houses, dwellings, fire houses, jails, 
 libraries, museums, police stations, prisons, railway stations, and similar 
 buildings, shall have the required stair shafts separately and continuously 
 enclosed, as specified in Sections 90 and 93. In fireproof buildings all stairs, 
 platforms, landings, and stair hallways, including the flooring, shall be of 
 fireproof construction. 
 
 Enclosure for stair hallway, same as stair shaft, Sec. 115, par. 7. 
 
 _. All stairs, platforms, landings, balconies and stair hallways, shall be 
 of sufficient strength to sustain safely a live load of not less than 100 
 pounds per square foot for interior construction, and 150 pounds per square 
 foot for exterior construction, with a factor of safety of 4 in each case; 
 and except in dwellings shall conform to nil the requirements of th's section 
 as to hand rails, newels, landings, widths, exits, and prohibition against 
 winding treads. The space beneath any stairway built in whole or in part 
 of combustible material shall be left entirely open or be completely enclosed 
 without door or other opening. 
 
 3. No stories in any building shall be connected by an open shaft or 
 stairway except dwellings and buildings provided in paragraph i. 
 
 4. Stairways used as required means of exit shall be at least 44 inches 
 wide between faces of walls, or 40 inches wide between face of wall and 
 an open balustrade, or between two open balustrades. All such widths 
 shall be clear of all obstructions except that hand rails attached to walls 
 may project not more than 3% inches within them. If newels project above 
 tops of rails, a clear width of at least 44 inches shall be provided between 
 the faces of the newel and the face of the wall or newel opposite. All 
 stairs shall have walls or well-secured balustrades or guards on both sides, 
 and except in dwellings, shall have hand rails on both sides. A stairway 
 of 7 feet or more in width shall be provided with a continuous intermediate 
 hand rail substantially supported. All stairs shall have treads and risers of 
 uniform width and height throughout each flight; the rise shall be not more 
 than 7% inches, and the tread exclusive of the nosing not less than g l / 2 
 inches. Stairways exceeding 12 feet in height shall have an intermediate 
 landing, at least 3 feet in length. 
 
 NOTE. For stairways in primary schools it may be advisable to reduce 
 the height of risers here given. 
 
 Buildings in which there may be a congregation of people for civic, political, 
 educational, religious or amusement purposes, except as provided for theatres 
 and in those used for the care or treatment of persons, all stairs exceeding 
 8 feet in height shall have an intermediate landing at least 3 feet in length. 
 
 5. No arrangement of treads known as winders shall be permitted in 
 required stairways between the level of the top floor and the street, excepting 
 in public and other special buildings where the use and arrangement is 
 approved by the superintendent. 
 
468 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Smokeproof Tower with Outside jBdlcony Infra nee 
 
 Plan 
 
 Inferior or 
 Building 
 
 Fire Z)oor 
 
 Outside bale on 
 Solid -floo 
 
 Outside 
 Wall 
 
 '{. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ffevafion 
 
 , - 
 
 ..-. 
 
 
 1 , 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ~\ 
 
 1 
 
 \ \ 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 Uil V 
 
 Balcony 
 
 | 
 
 Smokeproof Tower with Vestibule Entr 
 
 Plan 
 
 Tnterior of 
 Building 
 
 Elevation 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vestibule 
 opening 
 extends 
 from floor" 
 to 
 ceilinjj. 
 
 -. 
 ? 
 
 ^Railind 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 r/oorLme 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 !; . 
 
 Railing ^Vestibule Opening 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 62. Diagrams showing different arrangements for smoke-proof towers. 
 No direct communication with the building. 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 469 
 
 6. Whenever the treads or landings are of slate, marble, stone or com- 
 position, they shall be supported for their entire length and width by a 
 solid metal plate at least % inch thick, securely fastened. If stairs are 
 of incombustible material, other than metal, and treads and landings are 
 each solidly supported for their entire length and width by masonry, metal 
 supports for treads may be omitted. 
 
 7. All stairways that serve as required means of exit for one or more 
 of the upper four stories of every building shall be continued their full 
 width to the roof, and shall lead by a direct line of travel to the first 
 story, and open directly on the street, or to an open-air or fireproof passage 
 leading to the street, or to a yard or court connected with the street. Such 
 fireproof passage shall be not less than 7 feet in height. 
 
 8. The continuity of all stairs which may be used for exit purposes, shall 
 be interrupted at street level by partitions or doors or other means which 
 will make clear the direction of egress to the street. 
 
 NOTE. The purpose of this is to prevent trapping in the basement of 
 people who are trying to escape to the street. 
 
 9. Every enclosed stairway shall be provided with an adequate system, of 
 lighting, arranged to insure reliable operation when through accident or 
 other causes the regular lighting is extinguished. 
 
 10. All required-stairways shall be constructed in one of the following 
 three ways, and shall be known as stair exits: 
 
 (a) Enclosed Interior Stairways. The stairs, landings, platforms, and 
 passageways connected therewith, shall be completely enclosed by fireproof 
 partitions of the standard required in Sections 90 and 93, except that no 
 glass panels shall be permitted in the doors in buildings of Class A not 
 exempted in paragraph i. 
 
 (b) Smokeproof Tower. The stairs, landings, and balconies or platforms, 
 shall be solid and completely enclosed as required for interior stairways in 
 Section 90, and shall extend from the sidewalk, court, or yard level, to and 
 above the roof to form a bulkhead. There shall be no openings in any wall 
 separating the stairway from the building, but fixed or automatic fire-windows 
 sufficient for lighting purposes are not objectionable in the exterior walls, 
 provided they are not subject to fire exposure hazard from the same or 
 nearby buildings. Access shall be provided to the stairway from every story 
 of the building by outside baloncies of steel or masonry, or by vestibules 
 within the walls of the building but open on at least one side. Every such 
 balcony or vestibule shall have an unobstructed width of at least 44 inches, 
 and shall open upon an open space not less than 100 square feet in area. 
 The balcony or vestibule shall be provided with a solid incombustible floor. 
 Railings of steel, or other approved incombustible material, shall be provided 
 not less than 4 feet high. Access to the balcony or vestibule from the 
 building and to the stairways from the balcony or vestibule shall be by 
 approved self-closing fire doors not less than 40 inches wide and 7 feet high, 
 which shall swing in the direction of exit travel. The doors shall be pro- 
 vided with locks or latches with visible fastenings requiring no keys to open 
 them. A wired glass panel not exceeding 720 square inches shall be provided 
 in the door opening into the stair shaft. The level of the balcony or 
 vestibule floor shall be not more than 7% inches below the door sill of the 
 building. Landings in such stairways shall be of a width that the doors 
 in opening into the stairway shall not reduce the free passage-way of the 
 landing to a width less than the width of the stairway. Figure 62 shows 
 typical arrangements for smokeproof towers. Figures 64 to 68 are photo- 
 graphs illustrating different architectural treatment of epcterior balcony 
 connection to smokeproof towers. 
 
470 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 NOTE i It is recommended that the balustrades enclosing the balconies 
 of smokeproof towers be of sheet metal or other suitable solid material. 
 This would give confidence to the timid, and afford valuable protection 
 from smoke and flames issuing from a door or window beneath the balcony. 
 
 For the same reasons, the balustrades of outside exit stairways, where 
 directly over or near wall openings, should be enclosed in the same manner. 
 
 NOTE 2 The use of a smokeproof tower or stairway is recommended a* 
 one of the best-known means of safe escape from a burning building. At 
 the same time it provides a protected position from which firemen can 
 attack a fire on any floor. 
 
 Plan or Smokeproof Tower wifh Vestibule 
 Entrance Common to Two >uildin6s 
 
 Party Wall 
 
 Interior of 
 Build in6 
 
 Interior of 
 Building 
 
 Open Air Vestibule 
 
 Opening 
 ]in6 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 63. Diagram of smokeproof tower adapted for use of two adjoining 
 
 buildings 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 471 
 
 (c) Outside Exit Stairways. Such stairs shall be connected to each story 
 by means of an approved self-closing fire door and incombustible balcony. 
 The door shall be not less than 40 inches wide, and the balcony shall be 
 the same width as the stairs. All wall openings within 10 feet of such 
 stairs shall be protected by approved self-closing fire doors on doorways, 
 and automatic or fixed fire windows on window openings. No riser on such 
 
 Reproduced by permission Xat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 64. Smokeproof tower with outside balcony 
 entrance. Note solid platform, an excellent 
 construction. 
 
 stairs shall be nearer than 4 feet to any such wall opening, except to doors 
 giving access to the same. Metal mesh or other rigid guards at least 4 
 feet high shall be provided on each side of such stairway throughout. Figs. 
 69 to 73 illustrate different methods of construction. Provisions shall be made 
 to properly drain the stairs and landings. 
 
 NOTE i It is very important that outside exit stairways be so placed that 
 they are not in front of or over windows. Although the windows be pro- 
 tected by wired glass, the heat radiated through them from a fire in the 
 building might easily make it impossible for people to pass, and there is 
 
472 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 always the added danger of flame and smoke from a window which for some 
 reason is open. If such windows are strictly necessary, the stairway should 
 be set away from the building not less than four feet, as required. Portions 
 of such stairways over or near windows should be made solid, and additional 
 safety for travel in cold and wet weather would be secured by making all 
 treads and landings with non-slipping surfaces. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 65. Smokeproof tower Con the right) connected to 
 building by open balcony. Arrangement is good, ex- 
 cept the windows opening upon the balcony, and the 
 metal grating flooring. 
 
 NOTE 2 The ordinary so-called " fire escapes," consisting of steel-framed 
 balconies attached to a wall and connected by narrow steel ladders or 
 steps leading from openings in the floors of the balconies, are considered very 
 inefficient and unsafe means of ekit. If any considerable number of people 
 attempt to use such an exit in time of fire panic, it quickly becomes so 
 congested that travel is very much impeded or entirely blocked. If fire 
 occurs on the floor below that from which people are endeavoring to escape, 
 and the windows facing such exit are not protected by wired glass, the 
 fire escape is worthless; and even with wired glass the exit is of doubtful 
 value because of the intense heat which radiates through the windows. Such 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 473 
 
 means of exit should never be permitted except upon existing buildings, 
 where the number of people to be accommodated by them is small, and where 
 structural conditions are such that it is impossible to secure anything better. 
 They are not recognized as a required means of exit in this code. 
 
 The horizontal exit and the three types of stairways specified in section 45 
 are all efficient and safe means of exit. The outside exit stairway is the leabt 
 desirable of the four, since when wet or covered with ice or snow it is more 
 difficult to travel. A roof over the stairway would lessen this defect. Com- 
 pletely enclosing the stairway would render it nearly as efficient as a smoke- 
 proof tower. 
 
 Horizontal exit, Sees. 46, par. -2, (c), and 47. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Xat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 66. An artistic arrangement of a smokeproof tower, which does 
 not disfigure a building 
 
 The Committee on Safety to Life of the National Fire Protec- 
 tion Association reports: 
 
 Except they be enclosed in a tower, outside stairs, even if well designed 
 and erected, are not recommended on buildings over six stories in height. 
 The fundamental reason lies in the timidity of persons at a considerable 
 height, no matter how safe the conditions may actually be. 
 
474 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Also that: 
 
 After being erected, outside stairs shall be painted. 
 
 Outside stairs shall be scraped and painted at least once a year thereafter. 
 
 Outside stairs shall be kept clear of incumbrances. 
 
 Outside stairs shall be promptly cleaned after snow or ice has accumulated 
 upon them. 
 
 No obstructions such as lighting or telephone wires, shall be permitted on 
 or near outside stairs. 
 
 Particular attention should be paid to possible interference by awnings at 
 windows or over sidewalk, and to other obstructions at or near the street 
 level. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 67.. An excellent arrangement of two types of approved emergency fire 
 exits communicating to the same building. Smokeproof tower on the 
 left, and outside stairway on the right. Solid floors would be an improve- 
 ment. 
 
 SECTION 46. REQUIREMENTS FOR EXITS AND STAIRWAYS. i. Every building 
 hereafter erected, and every building altered or converted to increase its 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 475 
 
476 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 occupancy, excepting dwellings, tenement houses, theatres, and assembly halls, 
 which are elsewhere provided for, shall have exits and stairways as required 
 in this section. 
 
 2. (a) The term floor area in this section shall mean the entire space in a 
 given story between exterior walls, fire walls or fire exit partitions, except 
 that in computing such area the space occupied by walls, partitions, columns, 
 and all shafts may be excluded. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 69. Two types of outside exit stairways. One with stair flights parallel, 
 and the other at right angles to the building. The former has the defect 
 of windows facing the stairway. In time of panic, such stairs would be 
 safer if constructed with risers. 
 
 (b) The term stair exit in this section shall be as required in paragraph 
 10, Section 45. 
 
 (c) The term horizontal exit shall be understood to mean one or more 
 openings through or around a fire wall, fire exit partition, or any wall 
 separating two buildings; no such opening shall be less than 30 inches wide: 
 Or such an exit may be an exterior bridge or balcony connecting two 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 477 
 
 buildings or two floor areas of the same building. Where there is a dif- 
 ference in level between connected buildings or floor areas, gradients shall 
 be provided of not more than i foot in 6 feet where practicable. The 
 bridges or balconies shall be not less than 44 inches wide, and shall be 
 constructed of incombustible material, and enclosed on the sides at least 4 
 feet high. All exterior exposing openings in connected buildings or floor 
 areas within 10 feet of bridge or balcony shall be protected by fire doors 
 
 Reproduced by permission Xat'l Bd. of Fire Und's, 
 
 FIG. 70. Another method of outside exit stairway con- 
 struction. Compare framing with similar stairway 
 on left of Fig. 69. The windows opening upon both 
 stair flights and landings are a serious defect. 
 
 or fire windows with fixed or automatic sash. The floor of a bridge or 
 balcony shall be not more than 7% inches below the door sill opening upon 
 it; the connecting floor within the building shall be not more than i inch 
 below the sill. Every such bridge or balcony when enclosed shall be pro- 
 vided with means for lighting. 
 
 Fire exit partitions to provide horizontal exits, Sec. 47. 
 
 Fire walls as horizontal exits, Sec. 29, par. 4. 
 
478 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 All horizontal exits shall be provided with self-closing fire doors. Such 
 doors shall be kept unlocked during the occupancy of any portion of the 
 floor areas or connected buildings. No glass shall be used in such doors 
 when used on exits through fire walls as provided in Section 29, paragraph 4. 
 Wired glass may be used in doors in other horizontal exits provided it 
 conforms to the requirements of Section 47, paragraph 4. 
 
 Requirements for self-closing fire-doors, Sec. 29, par. 4, Note. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bel. of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 71. Very safe arrangement of outside exit stairway. Arrow 
 indicates a metal guard plate 3 feet wide erected to protect land- 
 ings from flames that might issue from windows. 
 
 The available floor 'area on each side of a horizontal exit shall be sufficient 
 for the joint occupancy on the basis of not less than 3 square feet of 
 unobstructed space per person, and shall be provided with at least one 
 stairway as defined in Section 45. - 
 
 NOTE. As a means of rapid and safe egress from a burning building, the 
 use of horizontal exits through or around a fire wall or a fire exit partition 
 are very strongly recommended. Such an exit would afford an area of 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 479 
 
480 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 quick refuge upon either side. An important feature of the horizontal exit 
 is that it removes necessity for hasty flight down long stairways in case of 
 fire. The physical effort of hurrying down stairs from a height of even 
 eight or ten stories is excessive, especially for those who are not strong. 
 In still higher buildings there is always danger of stairways becoming blocked 
 by people collapsing from exhaustion before reaching the street level. Much 
 of this danger is removed when people know they are safe. 
 
 The efficiency of a horizontal exit as a means of escape from fire, is 
 considered three times that of an equal width of stairway. See Note in 
 paragraph 6. 
 
 3. (a) In all buildings not exempted in paragraph i of this section, one 
 of the two required means of exit from every floor area above the first 
 floor shall be a stair exit, and the other may be a stair exit or a horizontal 
 exit. No part of any floor area above the first floor, excepting buildings 
 of Class F, shall be more than 100 feet distant from an entrance to one 
 such means of exit. 
 
 When a building over 35 feet in height is occupied for business purposes 
 on the lower floors and for the home of not more than two families on 
 the floors above, at least one continuous enclosed stairway shall be provided 
 to the street level through the stories occupied for business. 
 
 (b) In buildings of Class E, over 55 feet high, except office buildings, 
 one of the two required means of exit shall be either a smokeproof tower 
 or an interior enclosed stairway with self-closing doors- opening into hall- 
 ways which are also enclosed with fireproof partitions as specified in Section 
 115, paragraph i. 
 
 (c) In every building over 90 feet in height one of the required means 
 of exit shall be a smokeproof tower or a horizontal exit as herein defined. 
 
 4. In determining the occupancy of any building, the width of stairways 
 required for any floor area above the first floor shall be determined by the 
 number of persons occupying such floor area, computed on the basis of 
 fourteen persons for each 22 inches width of stairway, plus one person 
 for every 3 square feet of hallway floor and stairway landings in the story 
 height of such floor, excepting that .in any building where a system of 
 automatic sprinklers is installed throughout the entire building, the number 
 and width of stairways may be computed on the basis of twenty-one persons 
 for each 22 inches width of stairway; and excepting that when horizontal 
 exits are provided as requited- in paragraph 2 (c) of this section, the number 
 and widths of required stairways for floor areas above the first floor may be 
 diminished to a basis of fifty persons for each 22 inches width of horizontal 
 exit, provided that in no case there shall be less stairway or means of exit 
 than required in paragraph 3, (a) and (b) .of this section. 
 
 NOTE. In all building codes the treatment of exits must necessarily be 
 largely theoretical until more systematic study of the subject has been made, 
 and the correctness of conclusions based thereon have been demonstrated 
 under practical service conditions. 
 
 As a fundamental principle, exit requirements are a function of the occu- 
 pancy of a building and not of the area. To promote safety to life, two 
 means of egress should be required from every floor of every building subject 
 to exit specifications, irrespective of its area. Beyond this, exit calculations 
 should be based solely upon the number of occupants. 
 
 The method herein employed for computing exit requirements, is not claimed 
 to be all that could be desired. It is an attempt to provide safety without 
 too drastic demands,- and is based upon the best information available. Ex- 
 perience may prove that changes should be made. 
 
 5. Exits shall also be provided from the cellar, basement, and first story 
 of every building as may be required by the superintendent. 
 
 NOTE. In buildings where large numbers of people are employed it is 
 urged that fire drills be organized and .practiced frequently enough to keep 
 the employees familiar with their operation. The employees should also 
 be taught that when once they have entered an enclosed stairway, or passed 
 
FIRE PROTECTION FOR PEOPLE IN BUILDINGS 481 
 
 Reproduced by permission Xat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 
 FIG. 73. Outside balconies and stairway with balanced flight at the bottom. 
 Stairways of this type permissible on existing moderate height buildings 
 where occupancy is not large. Windows protected by wired glass in 
 metal frames. 
 
482 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 through a horizontal exit, they are safe, and can then proceed leisurely to 
 the street with no necessity for undue haste or crowding. Conspicuous 
 notices explaining these facts should be posted in all exit stairways. 
 
 SECTION 47. FIRE EXIT PARTITIONS. i. Partitions, erected to furnish hori- 
 zontal exits, shall be built of fireproof materials. No construction shall be 
 used for such partitions less than 5 inches thick, unless it has been approved 
 after a fire test; in no case shall such partition be less than 4 inches thick 
 if of block or tile construction, or less than 3 inches thick if of reinforced 
 concrete or solid metal lath and cement plaster construction, except as herein 
 permitted for non-fireproof buildings. 
 
 When tile or block partitions are less than 5 inches thick, substantial pro- 
 tected reinforcement shall be provided at intervals not exceeding 20 feet in 
 length to resist the effect of buckling due to heat. 
 
 Requirements for horizontal exits, Sec. 46, par. 2, (c). 
 
 2. Fire exit partitions shall be supported at each floor, and shall be securely 
 Anchored to the walls, floor, and ceiling of the rooms which they subdivide. 
 In fireproof buildings such partitions shall rest upon the fireproofing of the 
 floor. 
 
 3. In non-fireproof buildings five exit partitions shall be not less than 3 
 Inches thick if of block or tile construction, and not less than 2% inches 
 thick if of reinforced concrete or solid metal lath and cement plaster con- 
 struction, and shall be continuous through all stories of the buildings and 
 be placed one above the other. The space between floor joists included 
 between the top of a partition in one story, and the bottom of the corre- 
 sponding partition in the story above, shall be completely fire-stopped with 
 incombustible material. 
 
 Fire-stopping of partitions, Sec. 97, par. 3. 
 
 NOTE. In non-fireproof buildings it is recommended that fire exit parti- 
 tions be of masonry construction not less than 8 inches thick, extending con- 
 tinuously from cellar to roof. 
 
 4. Doorways in fire exit partitions shall be not more than 60 feet apart, 
 but doorways may be omitted if approved means of exit around the parti- 
 tions are provided. No openings other than doorways protected by fire 
 doors, shall be placed in such partitions except that fire windows not exceed- 
 ing ty of i per cent of the area of the partition may be permitted where 
 strictly necessary for purposes of observation. Such fire windows shall have 
 fixed sash, and may be placed either in the partition itself or in the doors. 
 Windows placed in partitions shall also be protected by automatic closing 
 iire shutters. No single pane shall exceed 144 square inches in area, and 
 not more than one pane shall be placed in a door. 
 
 NOTE i. The amount of glazed surface in such partitions should be kept 
 as small as possible owing to the danger that in case of fire, the heat 
 radiating through the glass would make the area of refuge untenable before 
 the people who fled to it. could escape by other exits. There would also 
 fee the added danger of panic if a large portion of the burning area were 
 tfreely exposed to view. 
 
 NOTE 2. To promote safety to life it is recommended that buildings of 
 Class C, also office buildings and tenements, should not have above tne 
 first story, floor areas in excess of 2,000 square feet without providing a 
 horizontal exit. In buildings of that type this provision can be easily and 
 inexpensively accomplished in a variety of ways. 
 
 SECTION 48. EXITS AND PROTECTION FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS. i. Where 
 the exit facilities of existing buildings are found by the superintendent of 
 building construction to be. inadequate, additional exits, sprinklers, or other 
 protection shall be provided of approved types. 
 
 NOTE. The construction of fire exit partitions to provide horizontal exits 
 in existing buildings, is probably the simplest, cheapest, and most efficient 
 method of affording real safety to occupants in case of fire. They are par- 
 ticularly applicable to floor areas where many persons are employed or 
 liable to congregate, also in the upper stories of buildings where outside 
 succor would be difficult or impossible. See Note, Sec. 46, par. 2, (c). 
 
 SECTION 49. ENGINEERS' STATIONARY LADDERS. Every building in which 
 high-pressure steam boilers are placed in the cellar or lowest story shall 
 have stationary iron ladders or stairs from such story leading direct to a 
 manhole through the sidewalk or other outside exit in addition to another 
 approved means of entrance and exit. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 
 
 Ranking only slightly below automatic sprinkler systems as a 
 life-saver and property guardian against fires are the various sig- 
 nalling systems. These are of several kinds and Combinations, 
 from simple gongs or whistles which can be pulled from different 
 places in the plant to the modern automatic system operated by 
 thermostats. 
 
 Whatever form of signalling system is adopted, if it depends upon 
 a human agency to put it in operation, it is of vital importance to 
 impress upon every one in the plant that the first duty on the dis- 
 covery of a fire is to make sure the fire alarm lias been sent in, and 
 only after that to attempt to extinguish the fire. Delayed alarms 
 have been the cause of many of the holocausts of recent years. A 
 few seconds quicker sounding of the alarm often means the lives 
 of many of the workers, and generally means saving the plant, as 
 notwithstanding how well trained and powerful the private brigade 
 is, the help that can be obtained from the public fire department is 
 often inestimable. 
 
 Interior Fire Alarm Service 
 
 Auxiliary fire alarms come under the head of private fire noti- 
 fication, and form a very valuable adjunct to the municipal systems. 
 The necessity of having alarms transmitted promptly to the fire 
 department by whoever discovers fire would seem to be self-evi- 
 dent, and yet comparatively little attention has been paid to this 
 feature as regards ability to send out the alarm from inside the 
 risk. In a few cases we find that a private city fire alarm box has 
 been installed, but this is not common. Much ingenuity as well as 
 money has been spent on the fire department house and its appur- 
 tenances to save every second possible after alarm has been re- 
 ceived ; also, as regards the city fire alarm system, that no delay 
 may be occasioned after alarm box has operated; but when we 
 come to the risk itself we find, as a rule, no means of using to 
 
 483 
 
484 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 best advantage the public alarm or the fire department, owing to 
 the fact that whoever discovers fire frequently must waste several 
 valuable minutes in reaching the fire alarm box, which may be 
 several blocks distant. Even supposing there is a fire alarm box 
 at risk, the fire may be located at some distance from the box, as 
 on, the top floor of a high building, or in some other building of 
 the risk, necessitating a considerable delay where seconds count. 
 The auxiliary fire alarm system largely eliminates this defect, and 
 its use should, therefore, be encouraged. The system is simple, 
 and when properly installed with auxiliary boxes located on each 
 floor and at such points that not more than 200 feet will have to 
 be traversed in order to reach a box, we have a device which will 
 save valuable time at the start, and thereby we can make full use 
 of the public fire department, which is maintained at a great ex- 
 pense and able to render efficient service if promptly notified of fire. 
 
 Pneumatic and Electric Thermostat Systems 
 
 Of the greatest value in any plant must be placed the thermostat 
 signalling system; these are ever on the watch for a fire and if 
 properly maintained can be counted upon to sound alarms for fires 
 one or two minutes before sprinklers operate and in many cases 
 quite a time before the fire would be discovered by a watchman in 
 his rounds. One of the disadvantages to a system of this kind has 
 been that thoroughly reliable thermostats had not been brought out. 
 Only in recent years have any been approved by the Underwriters' 
 Laboratories, and the unapproved ones have given much trouble on 
 account of false alarms and other trouble. 
 
 Every hazardous-process plant, and all having many employees 
 whose life would be endangered by fire should be equipped with 
 thermostat alarm systems. It is probably only a question of time 
 before these will be required by law in department stores, loft build- 
 ings and many factories. 
 
 The Underwriters' Laboratories list two types of thermostat sys- 
 tems, pneumatic and electric; the first is known by the trade name 
 of "Aero " when sold by one company and '" Compensating " by 
 another company ; the electric are the " May-Oatway " and the 
 "Reichel." These are described as follows: 
 
 PNEUMATIC THERMOSTAT. These systems utilize the principle of the expan- 
 sion under heat of air contained in a small copper tube which is installed 
 along ceilings or pipings. Tube leads to contact-closing and test devices of 
 special type. ' The expansion of air in tube actuates a diaphragm closing an 
 electric circuit whereby signal is transmitted. 
 
 These devices as sold by the manufacturers are standard subject to the fol- 
 lowing conditions: 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 485 
 
 1. Inspection departments having jurisdiction to be consulted in all cases 
 before installations are made. 
 
 2. Tubing to be installed to comply as to location, distribution and spacing 
 with the following requirements: 
 
 a. Each circuit having but one electrical contact device must consist of 
 a continuous length of tubing not exceeding 1,000 feet in length, without 
 branches or alternative paths. 
 
 b. Where two or more electrical contact devices are connected to a single 
 line of tubing one such device must be placed not more than 1,000 feet from 
 each end of the tubing circuit, and adjacent contact devices must not be 
 more than 1,500 feet apart. 
 
 c. Where necessary, tubing must be protected against mechanical injury 
 as may be required by the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 d. Tubing must be enclosed in conduit, or otherwise insulated or lagged 
 where this is necessary in order properly to isolate the signals on the 
 annunciator. 
 
 e. In every enclosed space or separate room there must be at least two 
 and one-half per cent of the total length of the tubing comprising the 
 circuit where only one electrical contact device is used, or two and one-half 
 per cent of the length of tubing between any contact device and an end of 
 the circuit, or of the length between adjacent contact device where more 
 than one per circuit is used. 
 
 f. In no case shall less than 10 feet of tubing be used in any enclosed 
 space or separate room. 
 
 g. Lines of tubing shall be so disposed throughout the area to be protected 
 that they shall be not more than 30 feet apart, and so that no point on 
 the ceiling will be more than 15 feet from the nearest point of the tubing. 
 
 h. Tubing may be run either directly on ceilings, or on side walls, if the 
 tubing is placed not more than 20 inches below ceilings, or on the lower 
 sides of timbers or projections. 
 
 i. In rooms where timbers or other projections form bays more than one 
 foot deep, each bay must be treated as a separate fire area. 
 
 3. Central station equipments, local equipments, electric devices and circuits 
 and other portions of this system other than the tubing and the pneumatic 
 devices connected with it to comply in all respects with the. general require- 
 ments for automatic fire alarm systems. 
 
 4. Labels. Tubing for these systems constructed according to standard 
 specifications and inspected at factory under the supervision of Underwriters' 
 Laboratories, bears tag reading: " Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., Inspected 
 
 Tubing for Automatic Fire Alarm No (50 feet). This tag must 
 
 be preserved after tubing is installed." One such tag for each length of 
 tubing installed should be preserved in transmitter case at risk as permanent 
 record of tubing used. Each detector, annunciator and transmitter for this 
 system constructed according to standard specifications and inspected at fac- 
 tory under supervision of Underwriters' Laboratories, bears label reading as 
 above. 
 
 ELECTRIC THERMOSTAT. Electric, closed-circuit central-station systems, with 
 detectors, transmitting, recording and testing devices. Central station and 
 local equipments, devices, circuits and portions of these systems other than 
 detectors or thermopiles to comply with the general requirements for auto- 
 matic fire alarm systems. 
 
 Labels. Each indicator set, detector, thermopile, transmitter, manual box, 
 
486 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 and central station relay constructed according to standard specifications and 
 tested under the supervision of Underwriters' Laboratories bears a label. 
 
 May-Oatway. The thermostat or detector of this system consists of a 
 copper wire hung beneath a steel bar and provided with an electric contacting 
 device at its middle point. 
 
 Detectors to be installed to comply as to location, distribution and spacing 
 with the following requirements: Maximum floor area for one 7%-foot 
 detector, 750 square feet. Maximum floor area for one s-foot' detector, 500 
 square feet. Maximum distance apart between detectors, in general, 40 feet; 
 in corridors, 60 feet. Maximum distance between centers of detectors nearest 
 walls and such walls, 20 feet (30 feet from ends of corridors). 
 
 " Reichel." This system employs thermopiles of special design connected 
 in a series circuit with special alarm, testing and transmitting devices. Cur- 
 rent generated in the thermopiles by heat resulting from a fire actuates the 
 transmitting device. Thermopiles are to be installed to comply as to location, 
 distribution and spacing with the following requirements: Maximum floor 
 area for one thermopile, 400 square feet. Maximum distance apart between 
 centers of thermopiles, in general, 25 feet; in corridors, 40 feet. Maximum 
 distance between centers of thermopiles nearest walls and such walls, 10 
 feet (20 feet from ends of corridors). 
 
 As a safeguard against water damage especially, and also to 
 enable a quick response of the fire department in case it is needed, 
 every automatic sprinkler system should have a sprinkler-flow alarm 
 system provided. Also to ensure the proper maintenance of the 
 sprinkler system, the supervisory alarm is absolutely necessary. 
 
 As mentioned above, an early notification of the public fire depart- 
 ment is of vital importance ; the use of manual fire alarm system or 
 auxiliary service to a street fire alarm box furnishes ready means 
 of obtaining this and is usually considerably cheaper than some of 
 the other forms. This auxiliary fire alarm service is used exten- 
 sively in all the larger cities, particularly in office buildings and 
 large factories, where someone is usually available at all times ; its 
 service is very 'satisfactory where the apparatus is properly main- 
 tained. Although recognized by the underwriters by a reduction in 
 rates in many parts of the country, no regulations have been issued 
 by the National Board of Fire Underwriters covering its use or 
 installation. 
 
 In the preamble to the requirements issued by the National Board 
 of Fire Underwriters for other signalling systems, which are given 
 below, it is stated that: 
 
 Especial importance is placed upon the methods employed in testing, in- 
 specting and maintaining signaling systems. None of these systems is suf- 
 ficiently automatic to do away with the necessity for periodical inspections 
 and working tests of all of their parts. Such systems must be under the 
 supervision of a responsible person, satisfactory to the municipal authorities 
 and the Inspection Department having jurisdiction, who shall cause proper 
 tests and inspections to be made at frequent intervals and have general 
 charge of all alterations and additions. Records of such tests and inspec- 
 tions should be kept accessible to the Inspection Department and others 
 Interested. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 487 
 
 SIGNALLING SYSTEMS* 
 
 Part I 
 Class A Wiring for all Systems 
 
 NOTE. For other rules governing wiring for signaling systems which are 
 hazardous only because of their liability to become crossed with electric light, 
 heat or power circuits, reference should be made to the " National Electrical 
 Code." 
 
 1. UNDERGROUND WIRES. To secure the largest measure of safety and 
 efficiency in the operation of signaling systems all wires outside of buildings 
 should be placed underground. 
 
 2. AERIAL WIRES. Where from the nature of the case it is impracticable 
 to place wires underground the following rules must be observed: 
 
 a. Must be equipped at points where they enter buildings with approved- 
 heavy current protectors. 
 
 b. Must be equivalent in conductivity and tensile strength to No. 14 
 galvanized iron (12 B. & S.) where single wires are used, and to No. 16 
 B. & S. hard drawn copper where cables are used. 
 
 c. Must have an approved insulating covering. Line wires must have a 
 good weatherproof covering, consisting of a thoroughly saturated and filled 
 braided covering at least 1/32 inch in thickness. Wires in cables to have 
 same covering as single wires and in addition a substantial filled covering 
 around the several wires. Service wires to building and boxes must have 
 an approved rubber covering. See list of Electrical Fittings. 
 
 d. Must, when strung on poles, be supported at least every 150 feet, and 
 as far as possible, run under rather than over electric light and power wires. 
 
 Where wires are carried along the outside walls of buildings, they must 
 have an approved rubber insulating covering, and must be supported at least 
 every 12 feet. 
 
 3. WIRES INSIDE BUILDING. a. Must be equivalent in conductivity and 
 tensile strength to No. 16 B. & S. copper wire where single wires are used, 
 and to No. 18 B. & S. copper wire where cables are used. 
 
 NOTE For the wiring in Central Stations Sections " c " and " f " may be 
 modified as circumstances demand. 
 
 b. Must have an approved covering, consisting, except as noted below, of a 
 rubber insulation at least one thirty-second of an inch in thickness and a 
 substantial braid both constructed in accordance with the National Electrical 
 Code for rubber wire. For open work in dry places and for tubing and 
 wooden moulding a filled braided covering at least 1/32 inch in thickness 
 may be used. 
 
 c. Unless encased in approved tubing or thoroughly filled moulding must, 
 except as hereinafter provided, be run in plain sight and entirely supported 
 on non-combustible insulators placed not more than 8 feet apart, and so 
 arranged that the insulating covering of the conductors will come in contact 
 with no other substances than the designed supports, the protecting bushings 
 and the connecting instruments. 
 
 d. Must be protected from abrasion and from accidental contact with other 
 conductors. Where subject to severe mechanical injury, substantial boxing or 
 iron conduit must be used on side walls, otherwise approved moulding may 
 be used. Wires should be run over rather than under pipes, and their cover- 
 
 * Regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
488 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ings must be separated from contact with all pipes by a solid insulating sub- 
 stance creating a separation of at least % inch. Special attention must be 
 paid to the mechanical execution of the work. Careful and neat running, 
 taping of wire, and attaching and securing of fittings are required. 
 
 e. Must be installed as far as possible without joints. Where joints are' 
 necessary, they must be mechanically and electrically secure, and covered 
 with an insulation equal to that on the conductors. 
 
 f. Must, in bay construction, follow contour of ceiling, and not be strung 
 from beam to beam. In joisted construction, unless run parallel with joists, 
 must be placed in moulding or have a 4-inch wide wood backing strip with 
 knobs or cleats fastened to the bottom of this strip. 
 
 g. Must, where exposed to mechanical injury, and between batteries, trans- 
 mitters, testing apparatus, annunciators, bells, etc., be enclosed in boxing, 
 moulding or approved conduit. 
 
 h. Must, when passing through iron, brick, stone or any damp partition 
 or through any floor, be protected by approved bushings. 
 
 NOTE. Glass and porcelain are approved for bushings. Where from the 
 nature of the case, it is impossible to use glass or porcelain, approved flexible 
 tubing may be used. See list of Electrical Fittings. 
 
 Class B Energy for all Systems 
 
 4. CENTRAL ENERGY. The following sources of energy are given in their 
 order of preference: 
 
 1. Storage Batteries. To be in duplicate sets, each set capable of operat- 
 ing the system at full capacity for 60 hours, installation to be in a room 
 provided with suitable ventilation and effectually separated from that contain- 
 ing other fire alarm apparatus. 
 
 Cells should be mounted on glass and porcelain supports, secured to metallic 
 frames suitably protected from corrosion, except that when cells too large 
 to be so mounted are used, such cells may be mounted on suitable glass 
 insulators. 
 
 At least two reliable independent sources of charging current to be pro- 
 vided. It is preferable that the voltage of the charging circuit be not over 
 250 volts. Batteries to be "protected by approved enclosed fuses in tight 
 metal cabinets at the battery terminals. 
 
 NOTE. It is recommended that all copper conductors in battery room be 
 coated with lead applied directly on the copper. 
 
 Suitable provision to be made on a switchboard for charging the batteries, 
 with approved means of protecting them against injury due to interruption 
 of charging current, to reverse charging current or to excessive rate of 
 charge; also provision for shifting the respective batteries from charging 
 to working and from working to charging without opening any of the work- 
 ing circuits during the process of shifting, and so that charging current 
 cannot be accidentally connected to any of the working lines during the 
 process of shifting. 
 
 2. Motor Generators. A sufficient number of motor generators to be pro- 
 vided to supply all circuits without overloading any machine, and with a 
 reserve capacity equivalent to one-half of the total capacity of the station. 
 Motor generators to be driven from all available independent exterior sources 
 of energy, and also by a special generating plant in the headquarters build- 
 ing, driven by some form of prime mover constantly available for immediate 
 operation. 
 
 With either battery or motor generator source of energy the voltage applied 
 to maintain normal line current on circuits must be such that the line current 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 489 
 
 will not be reduced below safe operating value by the simultaneous action of 
 eight (8) transmitters. 
 
 5. LOCAL BATTERIES. In cities having a complete system of underground 
 distribution for electric light, heat or power, the Inspection Department having 
 jurisdiction may permit connection with such system in lieu of local batteries. 
 
 a. Must be located in a place favorable to their operation and maintenance. 
 
 b. Must be enclosed to prevent mechanical injury, but be readily accessible 
 for inspection. 
 
 Class C Central Stations 
 
 Before acceptance is obtained for any equipment operating through a central 
 station, the company must file with the Inspection Department having juris- 
 diction, a general description of the apparatus it proposed to install, together 
 with such detailed information and drawings as are necessary to the complete 
 understanding of the operation of the system. It must also furnish such daily 
 reports to its customers and the Inspection Department having jurisdiction, as 
 may be required. 
 
 If the Inspection Department requires it, the operating company shall also 
 furnish: 
 
 First. Diagrams showing the manner in which it proposes to connect the 
 various equipments to its central station and deliver signals to the patrol and 
 city department. 
 
 Second. A satisfactory guarantee as to its ability to render this service 
 and as to the maintenance and efficiency of its system. 
 
 6. HEADQUARTERS. a. Must be located in a building provided with fire 
 protection, satisfactory to the Inspection Department having jurisdiction, and 
 be equipped with the necessary instruments of an approved pattern for auto- 
 matically receiving and recording all signals. The time of the receipt of 
 signals must also be recorded, preferably by an automatic device. 
 
 b. Must have at least two competent men on duty constantly, and in addi- 
 tion, maintain a runner service so arranged that any building protected can 
 be reached within 15 minutes. 
 
 All runner service maintained must be sufficient so that the two operators 
 will always be in attendance, except that only in an extreme case one of 
 the operators may be used as a runner. All runners shall be of mature age, 
 and one such man shall also be in charge of the central station. 
 
 c. Must have two independent means of transmitting alarms to the fire 
 department. 
 
 d. One approved hand chemical extinguisher and six sand pails to be pro- 
 vided for each 2,500 sq. ft. of floor area. When any portion of the building 
 is occupied as a stable, garage, machine shop or for storage purposes used in 
 connection with the maintenance of the system, the part thus occupied to 
 be protected by an approved system of automatic sprinklers. 
 
 DEVICES, CIRCUITS, ETC. a. Must be designed and installed so as to suc- 
 cessfully meet the most severe conditions obtained in practice and no change 
 nor alteration shall be made in same without approval. 
 
 b. Must be arranged so that interference of signals will be impossible 
 under any conditions likely to be met in practice. 
 
 c. Must automatically register at the central station distinctive trouble 
 signals when any part of the wiring system is grounded, broken or impaired, 
 so as to prevent the normal operation of the system. 
 
 d. Must, from the risk to the central station, under normal conditions, 
 employ complete metallic circuit for the transmission of signals and depend 
 upon an earth return circuit, if at all, only for transmitting trouble signals, 
 
49 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 except that where fire signals are transmitted over two independent circuits 
 by the same piece of apparatus, the two circuits may have earth return. 
 
 e. Must be arranged to receive, record and transmit to fire department and 
 insurance patrol the box number of the building from which an alarm has 
 been received. 
 
 f. A terminal board of slate or marble must be provided. Each side of 
 each entering circuit must be equipped with protectors especially approved 
 for this service. 
 
 g. Approved automatic devices to be provided, by means of which openings 
 of circuits will be immediately announced by visual and audible signals. 
 Manual tests of all circuits to be made at least four times during each 24 
 hours. 
 
 In every case facilities must be provided for making the following test 
 current strength on each circuit; this current to be adjusted to normal 
 before making the other tests. Voltage across terminals of each circuit at 
 the inside terminals of protective devices. Voltage between ground and 
 each side of each circuit. Voltage between positive side of each circuit 
 and negative side of all other circuits. 
 
 Class D Manual Fire Alarm Systems 
 
 8. BOXES AND MANUALS. a. Must be of an approved type; be used for no 
 other purpose, and must be arranged to give a signal from each box or manual. 
 
 NOTE. A box such as is approved for Central Station Night Watch and 
 Fire Alarm Systems may, however, be used if desired. 
 
 b. Must be located near all main exits and, in addition, must conform to 
 the following: 
 
 1. Must be located so that from any part of the plant equipped not more 
 than 200 feet will have to be traversed in order to reach a box. 
 
 2. Must, where buildings are more than one story in height, have a box 
 on the first story, and at least one in alternate stories; i. e., 3d, sth, 7th, etc. 
 Where buildings have single floor area of 7,500 square feet or over, there 
 shall be at least one box on each floor. 
 
 NOTE. If risk has multiple tenant occupancy, Inspection Departments may 
 require additional boxes to those called for above. 
 
 3. Must, where any plant or building equipped is divided into sections, 
 have the boxes in each section to agree with above rules, account not being 
 taken of the boxes in any other section. 
 
 c. Not over 40 boxes or transmitters shall be permitted on a single circuit. 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. This was amended in 1916 to permit 50 boxes. 
 
 9. TESTS. All boxes to be tested at least monthly, a record of these tests 
 being made. 
 
 Class E Automatic Fire Alarm Systems and Thermostats 
 
 NOTE. Only systems operating through a Central Station are approved. 
 
 10. CIRCUITS AND APPARATUS. a. Must be arranged to transmit to central 
 station the box number of the building in which a thermostat has operated, 
 and unless floor number is transmitted with alarm, must automatically register 
 the floor number on an annunciator located as required by the Inspection 
 Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 b. Must be so arranged that not more than fifteen building equipments 
 will be connected on a single circuit unless the circuit is mainly underground, 
 in which case the number of equipments shall not exceed twenty-five (25), 
 except by special permission of the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 491 
 
 c. Transmitters, manual alarm boxes, testing boxes and annunciators must 
 be of an approved make, and so located that a considerable jar cannot start 
 their mechanism. i 
 
 it. INSTALLATION OF THERMOSTATS. For all Systems. a. Must be placed 
 throughout premises, including inside of all closets, in basements, lofts, ele- 
 vator wells and under stairs. Special instructions must be obtained relative 
 to placing them under large shelves, decks, benches, tables, overhead storage 
 racks, and platforms, and inside small enclosures, such as drying and 
 heating boxes, caul boxes, tenter and dry room enclosers, chutes and cup- 
 boards. No portion of the premises shall be excepted without written 
 consent. 
 
 Special instructions must be obtained from the Inspection Department hav- 
 ing jurisdiction as to the location of high test thermostats in boiler rooms, 
 heating boxes, skylights, etc. 
 
 b. The distance from wall or partition not to exceed one-half the distance 
 between thermostats in the same direction. 
 
 c. A line of thermostats to be run on each side of partition. This rule 
 applies to both solid and slatted partitions. 
 
 d. Special instructions to be obtained from the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction relative to location of thermostats under floors *md roofs 
 of panels or other unusual construction and for which provision is not 
 hereinbefore made. 
 
 e. Must be supported in all cases indepndently of their attachment to the 
 wires, except when cleats or knobs are within one foot of each side of 
 thermostats. 
 
 f. Thermostats for hatch closers must be placed at the top of the elevator 
 well or hoistway equipped, and on the ceiling below each floor opening in 
 such numbers and so arranged in each case as may be required by the Inspec- 
 tion Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 FOR SYSTEMS EMPLOYING THERMOSTATS OPERATING AT A FIXED TEMPERATURE. 
 g. Under mill ceilings (smooth solid plank and timber construction, 6 to 
 12 feet bays) one line of thermostats should be placed in center of each 
 bay and distance between the thermostats on each line not to exceed the 
 following: 8 feet in 12 foot bays; 9 feet in n foot bays; 10 feet in 10 
 foot bays; n feet in 9 foot bays; 12 feet in 6 to 8 foot bays. 
 
 Measurements to be taken from center to center of timbers. 
 
 Special instructions should be asked where rule allows thermostat spacing 
 to be over 10 feet, because special conditions may require the Inspection 
 Department having jurisdiction to modify the rule. 
 
 h. Under joisted ceiling, open finished, distance between thermostats not to 
 exceed 8 feet at right angles with joists or 10 feet parallel with jcists. 
 
 Exception. An exception may be made to this rule if the conditions war- 
 rant, viz., special permission may be given to install but one line of thermo- 
 stats in bays 10 to 11% feet wide from center to center of the timbers which 
 support the joists. In all cases where such bays are over n% feet wide, two 
 or more lines of thermostats should be installed in each bay as required by 
 the rules for spacing. This does not apply where beams are flush with the 
 joists, in which case thermostats may be spaced as called for in Rule h. 
 Where permission is given, the thermostats should be placed closer together 
 on a line so that in no ca'se will the area covered by a single thermostat 
 exceed 80 square feet. Also see Rule d. 
 
 i. Under smooth cheathed or plastered ceiling in bays 6 to 12 feet wide 
 (measurement to be taken from center to center of timber, girder or other 
 projection or support forming the bay) one line of thermostats to be placed 
 in center of each bay, and distance between the thermostats on each line 
 not to exceed the following: 8 feet in 12 foot bays; 9 feet in n loot bays; 
 
492 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 10 feet in 6 to 10 foot bays. Bays in excess of 12 feet in width and less 
 than 23 feet in width to contain at least two lines of thermostats; bays 23 
 feet in width or over to have lines therein not over 10 feet apart. In bays 
 in excess of 12 feet in width, not more than 100 sq. ft. ceiling area to be 
 allotted to any one thermostat. 
 
 j. Under a pitched roof sloping more steeply than i foot in 3, one line 
 of thermostats to be located in peak of roof, and thermostats on either side 
 to be spaced according to above requirements. Distance between thermostats 
 to be measured on a line parallel with roof. Where the roof meets the floor 
 line there should be a line of thermostats placed not over 3% feet from 
 where roof timbers meet floor. 
 
 NOTE. Two lines of thermostats not ..more than 2% feet distance each way 
 from the peak of the roof, measured on a line with the roof, may be used in 
 lieu of one line of thermostats located in peak of roof. Also see Section d. 
 
 k. Under open finish, joisted construction floors, decks and roofs, the 
 thermostats should be " staggered " spaced so that the heads will be opposite 
 a point half way between thermostats on adjacent lines, the end thermostats 
 on alternate lines to be not more than two feet from wall or partition. Also 
 see Section b. 
 
 NOTE. This regulation does not except thermostats within a bay, whether 
 on one, two or more lines. Special instruction to be obtained in each case as 
 to whether staggered spacing shall be required under open joist construction, 
 where the channel spaces between joists are positively blocked off within the 
 territory of any two adjacent thermostats. 
 
 FOR SYSTEMS EMPLOYING THERMOSTATS OF ALL OTHER TYPES. For thermo- 
 stats not of the fixed temperature type special rules and requirements are 
 established. These rules and requirements will be found in the List of 
 Approved Fire Appliances, copies of which may be obtained from Inspection 
 Departments, which should in all cases be consulted before these thermostats 
 are installed. 
 
 12. MANUAL ALARMS. Manual alarm boxes must be of an approved pattern, 
 must be used for no other purposes, and must be located as required for 
 Manual Fire Alarm Boxes. (See Rule 8, Section b.) 
 
 NOTE. Manual boxes, may be of the type such as is approved for Watch- 
 man's Time Recording Apparatus, Central Station Systems, if desired. 
 
 Class F Automatic Journal Alarms 
 
 13. CIRCUITS AND CONNECTIONS. a. Circuits must be so sub-divided that not 
 more than 25 thermostats will be on any one circuit. There must be a finding 
 switch for each boot in grain elevator equipments and elsewhere when called 
 for by the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. All the finding switches 
 in one circuit must be located in one Jbox. The finding switches to be wired 
 so that the cutting out of one group or boot will not cut off the current 
 from any of the other groups in the same circuit and will show a broken 
 wire when the test is made by the testing apparatus. 
 
 b. Connections must be made by running circuit wire without break from 
 the binding posts. Where there is liability of mechanical injury, conductors 
 must be encased in approved flexible, armored or iron conduits as the special 
 needs of each case require. Armored or iron conduit must be securely 
 fastened in place so as to prevent any strain on the conductors. 
 
 Where bearings are not fixed, such as tighteners, etc., a special approved 
 flexible stranded conductor must be used. 
 
 c. Circuits must be all metallic and must normally test free from grounds. 
 When open circuit systems are used they must be so arranged that a single 
 break will not prevent an alarm being transmitted. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 493 
 
 d. Thermostats must be on every bearing throughout grain elevators, excep- 
 tions only being made by consent of the Inspection Department having juris- 
 diction. Bearings must be drilled to the full depth of thermostat base where 
 practicable and thermostats must be securely fastened in place. 
 
 e. Thermostats must be so arranged that they can readily be taken out of 
 the bearings and disconnected without impairing the wiring or connections 
 in any way, and their connections must be so arranged that journal boxes 
 can be removed and replaced without breaking the wires. 
 
 f. Thermostats must be set to give an alarm at approximately 165 degrees 
 Fahr., except by special consent of the Inspection Department having juris- 
 diction when thermostats may be set at not over 212 degrees. 
 
 g. An annunciator must be located near the testing apparatus with the 
 indexes plainly marked to show the various circuits. It must be enclosed 
 in a dust-proof case arranged so that the indexes can be reset from the 
 outside of the case. 
 
 h. Independent relays must be used for each circuit; they must be enclosed 
 in a dust-proof case and have spring knife edge contact points in addition to 
 the ordinary relay contacts. 
 
 14. GONGS. a. When vibrating gongs are used, all gongs must be of the 
 regular vibrating pattern (not single stroke) and the system must be so 
 arranged that the failure of any one gong to vibrate can in no way inter- 
 fere with the proper action of any of the other gongs. 
 
 b. There must be one 8-inch gong placed over the annunciator in the engine 
 room, which gong shall ring continuously in case of short circuit on system. 
 This gong to be on a relay and separate set of batteries. 
 
 c. There must be no gongs in the journal alarm circuit when in normal 
 condition. All gongs must ring from a relay. 
 
 d. There must be a 6-inch gong placed near each set of " finding switches," 
 which shall ring continuously in case of short circuit on system. This gong 
 to be on a relay and separate set of batteries. 
 
 e. Unless there is a spare man in engine room who can answer journal 
 alarms, there must be an auxiliary system whereby the circuit number can 
 be transmitted to each floor. Such a system to consist of an 8-inch vibrating 
 gong located near center of each floor, gongs being on separate relay circuits. 
 Approved transmitting and testing devices to be provided. 
 
 15. TESTING APPARATUS. a. When all the wires of the system are not 
 under constant battery test, there shall be a testing apparatus located in the 
 engine room or where there is some employee on duty the entire time. 
 Entire test to be made daily by operation of mechanism which, after test is 
 completed, shall automatically leave the system in normal condition, or else 
 give a continuous trouble alarm. 
 
 b. Testing apparatus shall record on dials continuity of all open circuits, 
 shall ring all open circuit bells, and shall throw indexes of annunciators, a 
 proper record not being obtained when any of the circuits or bells are out 
 of order. Weakening of the batteries shall prevent the recording on dials 
 before it has progressed sufficiently to impair the journal alarm. 
 
 1 6. GENERAL. a. All journal alarm apparatus must be of an approved type, 
 b. Permanently fixed ladders must be provided wherever needed to make 
 
 bearings readily, accessible. 
 
 Class G Watchmen's Time Recording Apparatus 
 
 17. CENTRAL STATION SYSTEMS. a. Must not have more than forty boxes 
 connected on a single circuit, nor shall more than five watchmen report on a 
 single circuit. 
 
494 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 b. Must be so arranged that fire signals which shall be distinct from watch 
 signals can be sent from each station installed. 
 
 c. Watch boxes must be of an approved pattern, must be used for no other 
 purpose, and must be located as required by the Inspection Department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 When specific locations of watch boxes are not furnished by the Inspection 
 Department having jurisdiction, they must be located so that the watchman 
 in his rounds will cover plant, and, in addition, must conform with the 
 following: 
 
 Must be located so that from any part of the plant equipped, not more 
 than 200 feet will have to be traversed in order to reach a box. 
 
 Must, where buildings are more than one story in height, have a box 
 on the first story, and at least one in alternate stories; i. e., 3d, sth, 7th, 
 etc. Where buildings have single floor area of 7,500 square feet, or over, 
 there shall be at least one box on each floor. 
 
 Must, where any plant or building equipped is divided into sections, have 
 the boxes in each section located to agree with above rules, account not 
 being taken of boxes in any other section. 
 
 d. Complete and satisfactory tests of all transmitters must be made by 
 installing companies monthly and results reported to the Inspection Depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction. 
 
 18. LOCAL OR PRIVATE STATIONARY SYSTEMS. a. The clock used must run 
 for at least eight days without rewinding, and must be so encased that watch 
 record dials cannot be seen without opening door, and so arranged that 
 opening or closing of door will make a distinctive record on dial, this to be 
 done by mechanical means. 
 
 b. Records must be made by perforating a paper dial and the puncturing 
 device must be so arranged that it is not liable to stick in, adhere to, or 
 tear the dial. 
 
 c. Magnetos must be used for the transmission of signals, must be of an 
 approved type, and may be either portable or fixed at each station. 
 
 NOTE. Where single station clocks are employed the recording apparatus 
 may be operated by an approved mechanical device. 
 
 d. Stations must be, placed as required by the Inspection Department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 19. PORTABLE WATCH CLOCKS. a. The clock used must run for at least 
 48 hours without rewinding, must be substantially mounted and strongly 
 encased. It must be made so that the watch record dial cannot be seen 
 without opening the case and so that it cannot be opened without puncturing 
 or cutting the dial. 
 
 b. Records must be made by embossing or puncturing the dial and must 
 be easily legible. Dial must be of sufficient size so that time at which the 
 record is made can be accurately determined. 
 
 c. Stations must be located as required by the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction, and fixed so they cannot be removed without giving evi- 
 dence of the fact. 
 
 Keys must be made so that they are difficult to duplicate, and must be 
 of a pattern susceptible of variations tending to reduce the probability that 
 a set of keys fitted for one clock will operate other clocks. 
 
 Class H Automatic Sprinkler Alarm and Supervisory Systems 
 
 20. CENTRAL STATION. a. From the central office to the protected risk, 
 there must be two (2) separate circuits, one for the water flow alarm, and 
 the other for the supervision features. Manuals must not be installed on the 
 supervision circuit unless of approved non-interfering pattern. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 495 
 
 b. The central office must, at all times, be able to determine from the signal 
 received, the particular feature of the sprinklered risk which is out of order 
 and when it has been restored. 
 
 This may be accomplished by having separate transmitters for each feature 
 of the service or distinctive signals from the same transmitter or by a com- 
 bination of both methods. 
 
 21. DEVICES, CIRCUITS, ETC. a. Must be so arranged that devices cannot 
 easily be tampered with or removed without giving a signal in the central 
 office. 
 
 b. All circuits and electrical apparatus must comply with the requirements 
 stated under Class A. It is, however, strongly recommended that all interior 
 circuits be entirely run in approved conduit piping, wire to be such as is 
 required in damp places, under Rule 3, Section b, Class A. 
 
 c. All pipe connections to sprinkler system must be made in a workmanlike 
 manner, equal in all respects to the regular standard required for sprinkler 
 work. 
 
 d. Not more than twenty-five (25) sets of transmitters or not exceeding 
 one hundred (100) break wheels must be connected on a single circuit. 
 
 22. TESTS. Complete and satisfactory tests of all transmitters must be 
 made by installing companies monthly and results reported to the Inspection 
 Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 Supervision Details 
 
 23. GATE VALVES. a. Connection, by means of approved devices, must be 
 made to all gate or other stop valves, under control of the assured, in feed 
 pipes to sprinklers, including all valves on tanks, fire pump, steam and dis- 
 charge connections, city main connections, pump suction, post Indicator 
 valves, and where necessary, on small valves used in installation of the 
 service. Devices to be so attached as not to interfere with the operation 
 of the valve nor obstruct the view of indicator or access to stuffing boxes. 
 
 b. Attachments on all valves must give a signal between the first and second 
 revolutions of the hand wheel, tending to move the valve from its proper 
 position; or when valve is not controlled by hand wheel, signal must be given 
 before the valve has moved 1/5 of the stem movement from its proper 
 position. 
 
 Two separate and distinctive automatic signals will be required for the 
 gate valve alarm, one signal to show that a valve has been removed from its 
 normal position, and another distinctive and different signal to show that the 
 valve has been returned to its normal position. The latter signal shall not be 
 given until all valves have been returned to their normal position, or at least 
 to the point where the first or trouble signal was given. 
 
 24. PRESSURE. a. All tanks or their sources of pressure, including steam 
 supply for fire pumps, also pressure on dry pipe system, must be provided 
 with separate and independent attachments, unless otherwise specified by the 
 Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 Pipe to which supervisory devices are connected, must be provided with 
 a plugged test gauge connection and a stop and relief valve of satisfactory 
 pattern; the whole to be so arranged that pressure on attachment and plugged 
 connection can be released for testing purposes. 
 
 b. Pressure tank attachment must give a high and low pressure signal 
 at ten (10) pounds below and thirty (30) pounds above the normal pressure. 
 
 Steam pressure attachment must give a low pressure signal at forty-five 
 (45) pounds. 
 
 Attachment to dry pipe pressure system must give a high and low pressure 
 signal at ten (10) pounds variation above or below normal pressure. 
 
496 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 In special cases and for other pressure sources, specific instructions must 
 be obtained from the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 Two separate and distinctive automatic signals will be required for pressure 
 alarm, one to show that the pressure has gone below or above the required 
 amount and another distinctive and different signal to show that the normal 
 pressure has been restored. 
 
 25. WATER LEVELS. a. All pressure and surge tanks, gravity tanks, cisterns 
 and reservoirs used as a supply for sprinkler systems, must be equipped with 
 separate and independent attachments unless otherwise specified by Inspec- 
 tion Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 All devices used for this purpose must be designed to withstand corrosion 
 and possible mechanical obstructions. 
 
 b. Must give a low water signal in all supplies, except pressure tanks, when 
 water droRS 12 inches below the required level. Pressure tank device must 
 give a signal when water drops 4 inches below or rises 4 inches above the 
 required level. 
 
 Two separate and distinctive automatic signals will be required for water 
 alarm, one to show that water has changed from the required level, and 
 another to show that the proper water level has been restored. 
 
 26. TEMPERATURE. a. All gravity tanks, cisterns and reservoirs for sprinkler 
 service in which water might freeze, must be equipped with suitable tempera- 
 ture indicator, located two feet below the required water level. 
 
 NOTE. Where tanks, cisterns or reservoirs are located in houses in which 
 water might freeze, Inspection Department having jurisdiction may require 
 suitable temperature indicators for such houses. 
 
 b. The indicator must give a separate and distinctive signal when tempera- 
 ture falls below 40 degrees Fahr., or rises above 160 degrees Fahr., and 
 another distinctive and different signal to show that water has been restored 
 to the proper temperature. 
 
 27. FIRE PUMPS. Where automatic fire pumps are used, a complete super- 
 vision shall be provided in each case, for which special instructions must 
 be obtained. 
 
 28. WATER FLOW ALARM DETAILS. a. At the base of each system riser, 
 satisfactory and positive connections must be made by an approved device 
 for indicating the flow of water in the sprinkler system, except that due to 
 waste surges or variable pressure. 
 
 b. The device must indicate at the central station any leak or flow of water 
 in the sprinkler system, equal to or greater than at the rate of ten (10) 
 gallons per minute. 
 
 Trouble signal to be distinctive and different from the water flow signal. 
 
 c. Where any private local water flow alarm system is in use the super- 
 visory water flow alarm must be so arranged that it shall not be dependent 
 upon the operation of or interfered with by trouble on the local private 
 alarm circuit. 
 
 29. MANUAL ALARMS. Where a sprinklered risk is provided with either a 
 central station water flow or a central station supervision alarm, or both, and 
 has not an approved and properly maintained automatic fire alarm system, 
 or watchman's central station time recording system, a manual fire alarm 
 system installed in accordance with rules 8 and 9 must be provided. 
 
 30. SIGNALS AND REPORTS. a. Arrangements must, if possible, be made by 
 the operating company, by which they shall have access to premises under 
 supervision, at all hours of the day and night. Where such arrangements 
 cannot be made and it might become necessary to force an entrance to the 
 building, a proper guard shall be placed over the building so long as required. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 497 
 
 XOTE. It will, of course, be understood that all arrangements, under the 
 above paragraph, should be made with the owner of the property and must be 
 subject to the approval of the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 b. Arrangements must be made to furnish such reports of signals that 
 may be received and in such form as may be required by the Inspection 
 Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 31. DISPOSITION OF SIGNALS. a. Upon receipt of signals referring to matters 
 of purely equipment maintenance, the operating company must immediately 
 send a runner to investigate and, if possible, see that the trouble is remedied 
 at once. 
 
 They shall also notify the assured by telephone or by the quickest method 
 available. 
 
 Written notice should be given the assured in all cases. 
 
 b. Upon receipt of signals showing flow of water in the system, the central 
 office must notify the nearest insurance patrol and such other parties as the 
 Inspection Department having jurisdiction may require. 
 
 They shall also dispatch a runner to the risk. 
 
 They shall also notify the assured by telephone or the quickest method 
 available. 
 
 In addition to which, written notice should be given to the assured. 
 
 In all cases where notification is required to parties with whom private 
 lines of communication have not been provided, the quickest available means 
 of communication must be used. 
 
 c. If, at any time, a combination signal is received, which from its nature, 
 is indicative of water flow on the premises equipped, such combination signal 
 must be treated by the central office as a fire alarm. 
 
 All manual alarms are to be treated as fire alarms. Fire alarms received 
 from sprinkler supervisory service must be transmitted to the city fire alarm 
 office and patrol or such other places as required by the Inspection Depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction, and should at all times be treated as still alarms. 
 
 Local Systems 
 
 32. ALARM DETAILS. a. Must be arranged to give signals at points desig- 
 nated by the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 These connections should be chosen from the following, choice being made 
 in the order given. 
 
 1. Fire department house within 2,500 feet, having men and horses sta- 
 tioned therein. 
 
 NOTE. In certain large cities the above connection alone will be required. 
 
 2. Fire department house within 2,500 feet, having " bunkers " and horses 
 at night. 
 
 3. House of engineer or fireman of risk, when same is within i.r-oo feet. 
 
 4. House of owner or superintendent of risk, when same is within 1,200 feet. 
 
 5. House of chief engineer or foreman of local fire department, when either 
 is within 1,200 feet. 
 
 6. House of regular employee, other than those above mentioned, when 
 same is within 1,200 feet. 
 
 When it is impossible to obtain any of the above, special instruction shall 
 be obtained. 
 
 Connection to city or town fire alarm box is not allowable. 
 
 ?3. GONGS. Must be not less than 6 inches in diameter. Where there 
 is only one outside connection, gong shall be of vibrator pattern. Where 
 there are two outside connections, gongs to be wired in series, a vibrator 
 being placed in principal one, and a single stroke in the other. 
 
498 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 34. TESTING OF LOCAL ELECTRIC ALARMS. a. System to be tested daily 
 by closing a circuit through the binding posts of the alarm valve. Test to 
 be recorded by a device which shall make a series of punctures on a dial 
 showing the vibration of the main gong. This device to be of single stroke 
 pattern normally out of main circuit (i. e., in the test circuit connecting 
 the binding posts) in series with and vibrated by main gong. 
 
 NOTE. Inspection Department haying jurisdiction should be consulted as to 
 the necessity for installing the testing device, called for below. 
 
 b. Switches for cutting out alarms are prohibited. 
 
 The following requirements were submitted by the Committee on 
 Signalling Systems at the 1915 meeting of the National Fire Protec- 
 tion Association. Up to the time this book went to press, they had 
 not been finally approved by the Executive Committee nor adopted 
 by the National Board of Fire Underwriters; they are given here 
 as advisory to any one installing such a system, as many parts will 
 not be changed in any modification which may be made by the com- 
 mittee, as they are standard practices in present good installations. 
 The sections on which objections were raised are indicated herein. 
 
 Part II 
 Fire Alarm Signal Systems to Supplement Factory Fire Drills * 
 
 For use in factories, workshops and institutions where occupants are under 
 discipline and control. 
 
 (These regulations are not considered generally acceptable for hotels, apart- 
 ment houses or department stores.) 
 
 NOTE. The portion of these rules relating to the design and construction 
 of appliances is but a partial outline of requirements. A device which fulfills 
 the conditions herein outlined, and ne more, will not necessarily be accept- 
 able. Samples of all appliances should be submitted to Underwriters' Labora- 
 tories, Inc., for examination and report before being introduced for use. 
 
 i. GENERAL. (a) All devices and equipment constructed and installed under 
 these rules and requirements shall be expressly approved for the purpose for 
 which they are intended. 
 
 (b) Before acceptance is obtained for any equipment, the building owner 
 must file with the inspection department having jurisdiction a general descrip- 
 tion of the apparatus he proposes to install together with such detailed 
 information and drawings as are necessary for a complete understanding of 
 the installation and operation of the system. 
 
 (c) Call systems now in use employing a signal code, or when installed 
 in any factory building covered by these rules and requirements, must employ 
 sounding devices of a distinctive type from those used in the fire alarm 
 system. 
 
 (d) More than one class of fire alarm boxes shall not be installed generally 
 throughout a factory building. Owners desiring to retain or secure the pro- 
 tection afforded by connection with the municipal fire department may com- 
 bine such service with the equipment covered by these regulations. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. An objection having been made as to the wording of this 
 sub-section, it will probably be changed in the final draft. 
 
 If the inspection department requires it, the building owner shall also 
 furnish: 
 
 * Reported by the Committee on Signalling Systems at the National Fire 
 Protection meeting in 1915, but not yet finally adopted. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 499 
 
 L J 
 
 First. Specifications, wiring diagrams and floor plans in duplicate showing 
 the complete equipment including the source of electrical energy and the 
 location of firm alarm boxes, signaling devices, exits, stairways, elevators 
 and partitions, also the make and type of fire alarm .equipment to be used 
 and a schedule of signals indicating each floor. A copy of the approved 
 plans and specifications will be returned as authority to proceed -with the 
 work. 
 
 Second. A satisfactory guarantee as to the maintenance, operation and 
 efficiency of the system. 
 
 2. WORKMANSHIP AND SUPPORTS. (a) All work must be done in a work- 
 manlike manner to the entire satisfaction of the inspection department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 (b) All material must be rigidly secured in position, and when attached to 
 masonry walls, shall be properly fastened by metal expansion shields or 
 toggle bolts. Wooden plugs will not be acceptable. When deemed necessary 
 to mount fire alarm apparatus upon a back board, such back board must not 
 be less than seven eights of an inch in thickness, filled with a non-nbsorptive 
 compound, with an air space of at least one quarter of an inch behind the 
 back board for the free circulation of air. 
 
 3. TEST. All systems must normally test free of grounds and, upon the 
 completion of the fire alarm system, a satisfactory test of the entire equip- 
 ment shall be made in the presence of and under the direction of the inspec- 
 tion department having jurisdiction. 
 
 4. ACCESSORIES. Automatically operated circuit-breakers and engine stops 
 for shutting down machinery in extremely noisy or hazardous premises may 
 be required, connected with and made a part of the fire alarm system. In 
 no case shall such circuit-breakers or engine stops be installed in such a manner 
 as to cut off the power for lighting or to operate elevators. 
 
 5. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEMS. (a) A supervised system in the intent of these 
 rules is one in which, when any part of the wiring system except open 
 circuit portion of ringing circuit is grounded, broken or impaired, so as to 
 prevent the normal operation of the system, a distinctive trouble signal is 
 automatically registered at an approved central station of a supervising 
 company. 
 
 (b) Boxes in all cases must be on closed circuits. Signaling devices may 
 be on either open or closed circuits. 
 
 NOTE. A switchboard for closed-circuit electro-mechanical bell systems is 
 shown in diagram No. 3, and one for combined open and closed circuit systems 
 (vibrating, bells) is shown in diagram No. 4. 
 
 (c) For the transmission of an alarm on non-supervised systems a current 
 flow must be employed of not less than 100 milli-amperes through an all 
 closed circuit system, and 50 milli-amperes through circuits containing boxes 
 only. 
 
 6. CIRCUITS. (a) In all combined open and closed circuit systems, the 
 open or signal portion of the system must be divided into at least two circuits 
 in any one building. 
 
 NOTE. For example, in a six-story building requiring two signaling devices 
 on each floor, one on each floor must be on one circuit. When two or 
 more signaling devices are located on any floor they must be divided approxi- 
 mately equally between the two circuits. 
 
 (b) If primary batteries are used to furnish the actuating energy, each 
 open circuit must be operated by an independent battery of approved wet 
 or semi dry cells as indicated (K. K.) in wiring diagram No. 2. 
 
 In combined open and closed circuit systems employing storage batteries 
 to furnish the actuating energy, the gong circuits and box circuits may 
 be operated from the same battery. 
 
500 .FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (c) No circuit in which vibrating bells are connected in multiple shall 
 contain more than eight bells. 
 
 No relay shall control more than sixteen vibrating bells or more than two 
 open circuits. (See wiring diagram No. i.) 
 
 (d) When an alarm has been sent in from any one of the alarm boxes, 
 all the signaling devices on the various floors of the building shall auto- 
 matically sound the number indicating the floor from which the alarm was 
 sent, and shall repeat the signal at least four times. 
 
 (e) The fire alarm system must be used for no other than fire protective 
 purposes. A milli-ammeter shall be provided in every closed circuit except 
 in supervised systems. 
 
 (f) All signaling devices, alarm boxes, relay boxes and alarm box enclosing 
 cases must be finished in red to distinguish them from other signaling 
 apparatus. 
 
 7. TROUBLE SIGNALS. (a) An enclosed trouble bell not less than 3 inches 
 in diameter with magnets wound to not less than 10 ohms resistance, except 
 in supervised systems, must be provided in connection with each closed 
 circuit to ring continuously in case of weak batteries or an opening of the 
 circuit. The bell, which shall be of an approved design of the vibrating 
 type, must be placed in the engine room or other central point. At least 
 four cells of open circuit battery of approved make and type must be pro- 
 vided for the bell. The bell and battery shall connect with the contact of 
 a relay having the magnet windings in series with the closed circuit. !, ,.i,; 
 
 (b) Systems deriving energy from storage batteries may employ the reserve 
 set of batteries to operate the trouble bell under conditions acceptable to 
 the inspection department having jurisdiction. (See winding diagram No. 4.) 
 
 8. MAINTENANCE. The system must be tested every morning before the 
 hour of starting work in the building to insure the system and the batteries 
 being in an operative condition. The test signal shall consist of two taps 
 or blasts. Each alarm box must be operated at least once every month to 
 prove that the mechanism is in perfect working order, in addition to necessary 
 use -of boxes in fire drills. All apparatus operated by springs requiring 
 winding shall be rewound 'after each alarm, and kept in normal condition 
 for operation. A complete record shall be kept of the operation of each 
 system, which shall be subject fo examination by the inspection department 
 having jurisdiction. 
 
 Fire Alarm Boxes 
 
 9. GENERAL. There must be one or more fire alarm boxes on each floor 
 of the building. Boxes shall be of an approved type and make and must be 
 operated by a lever or by breaking glass. The box must be so designed 
 that when once started the proper transmission of a complete set of signals 
 cannot be interfered with by manipulation of its starting device. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. An objection was made to this last requirement. 
 Boxes should be so arranged that the alarm shall begin to sound not more 
 than two seconds after the box has been started. Each box must be arranged 
 to send a definite code of signals to indicate the floor or portion of same 
 on which it is located. Not less than three taps or blasts shall be sounded 
 at each revolution of the break wheel. The following suggestion is offered 
 as a guide to assist in the arrangement of the signal code, but it is not to 
 be considered as mandatory: 
 
 r ist floor 2-1 
 
 Single Building of sd floor 2-2 
 four floors and J 30! floor 2-3 
 basement 4th floor 2-4 
 
 ^ Basement 2-5 ' 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 501 
 
 10. DURATION OF SIGNALS. (a) Whenever fire alarm boxes are made a 
 part of the system in which electro-mechanical gongs are employed, break 
 wheels should be so designed that the signal duration shall be not less than 
 one-halt second with silent interval of not less than one-half second between 
 signals, except between numbers consisting of two or more digits and silent 
 period between sounds. 
 
 (b) Boxes used in systems in which whistles, vibrating bells or horns are 
 employed should be so designed that the signal duration shall be not less than 
 one second, nor more than one and one-half seconds with silent intervals 
 of three quarters of a second to one second, except between numbers con- 
 sisting of two or more digits and between sounds. 
 
 11. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. (a) There must be a metal case completely 
 enclosing the movement and made dust-proof as far as possible by the use 
 of gaskets or other suitable means. The metal case shall be drilled and 
 tapped to receive standard conduit at top and bottom. 
 
 (b) All parts of the mechanism must be of the best grade and workman- 
 ship. Contact points operated by a break wheel, and contact points on test- 
 ing devices shall be of commercially pure platinum or silver, and shall be 
 of the scraping type. All contact points must be secured in a substantial 
 manner to phosphor bronze springs, and all current-carrying parts shall be 
 insulated from the mechanism of the box. The break wheel shall be made 
 of suitable non-conducting material, or insulated from the carrying shaft, and 
 shall not be employed in any manner as an electrical conductor. 
 
 Provision must be made for a silent test of the box mechanism without 
 operating the signaling devices. The testing device must be of a design 
 which will prevent any person, except those in authority, from operating 
 same. Testing devices must be so designed as to prevent possibility of box 
 being ieft inoperative. 
 
 (c) Lever boxes must be designed to wind automatically when the lever 
 is pulled for an alarm. 
 
 Lever box cases must be fitted with a door which can readily be opened, 
 so constructed as to protect the pull lever against accidental injury and on 
 which a handle is rigidly secured. The wording " In case of Fire open 
 Door and pull down Lever as Far as it will go," or equivalent instructions 
 must appear on the door. If used in exposed places, the box shall be enclosed 
 in a suitable weatherproof outer shell. 
 
 Approved types of break-glass boxes will be acceptable with no additional 
 protection except where made necessary by weather conditions, and every 
 break-glass type fire alarm box shall be provided with suitable hammer on 
 chain which shall be attached to or near the box, so that the glass can readily 
 be broken. All break-glass boxes shall have lettered on the fronts the word.; 
 " Fire Alarm In case of fire break glass." All boxes requiring glass replace- 
 ments shall be so arranged that replacement cannot be made until the 
 mechanism is reset for another alarm. 
 
 Signaling Devices 
 
 12. GENERAL. Signaling devices may consist of bells of approved type or 
 other devices acceptable to the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 There shall be installed on each floor of the building one or more alarm 
 devices sufficient in number and efficiency to be plainly heard throughout 
 the floor above the noise of the machinery and other sounds. Where floors 
 are divided by fire walls, each section may be deemed a separate floor for 
 the purpose of these requirements. 
 
 Systems consisting of several types of sounding apparatus should be avoided. 
 
 13. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. (a) All signaling devices must be of an 
 
5O2 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 approved type, and the movement enclosed in a substantially dust-proof metal 
 casing insulated from all current-carrying parts. Where conditions require 
 it, moisture-proof casings must be provided. Signaling devices shall be placed 
 with their lowest parts about eight feet from the floor. Wherever there is 
 danger of mechanical injury, the entire device shall be enclosed in a pro- 
 tecting case made of approved wire netting or perforated metal. 
 
 (b) Gongs must be made of a high grade of cast bell metal, or other 
 approved material, and shall be, except by special permission, not less than 
 8 inches in diameter. 
 
 (c) Adjustments must be of such a character that they can be securely 
 locked in an approved manner. 
 
 (d) Cohtact points must be ample in area, not only to take care of current 
 used in operation, but to insure long life, and shall be of commercially 
 pure silver, platinum, carbon, or other approved material. ' 
 
 (e) Hammer rods must be protected against mechanical injury or derange- 
 ment by the use of a guard or other suitable means. 
 
 14. HORNS AND WHISTLES. When' conditions in a factory building make 
 the use of fire alarm horns necessary, they may be required and shall be 
 installed in a manner acceptable to the inspection department having juris- 
 diction. A difference of potential of not less than 30 volts, nor in excess 
 of 50 volts shall be provided on horn circuits. Horn field and armature 
 windings shall be of a resistance value suitable for the voltage employed. 
 
 Electrically controlled whistles may be required as auxiliary equipment, 
 and shall be installed in a manner acceptable to the inspection department 
 having jurisdiction. 
 
 ' i ( , . Relays 
 
 15. DESIGN AND INSTALLATION. (a) All relay must be mounted in a vertical 
 position, magnets up, and be enclosed in an approved metal case under lock 
 and key and located where there is no danger of sparking contacts igniting 
 inflammable gases or flyings. 
 
 (b) Relays must be mounted where they will be least affected by vibra- 
 tion in building, and in no case shall they be mounted on the same back- 
 board with sounding apparatus, or so that they will be affected by the vibra- 
 tion caused by such sounding apparatus, and shall be plainly marked with 
 the maximum and minimum operating current values to which such relays 
 will safely respond. 
 
 Wiring 
 
 1 6. WIRING. (a) All conductors must be run in approved metallic conduits 
 or armored cable installed as follows: Conduits and armored cables, when not 
 terminated in drilled and tapped fittings, shall be rigidly secured to all fittings 
 by approved locknuts and bushing. Conduits shall be not less than i^-inch 
 internal diameter where not more than four conductors are used, and where 
 a greater number of conductors is used, the internal diameter of the conduit 
 shall be at least 3/16 of an inch larger, than the outside diameter of the 
 bunched wire it is to accommodate. 
 
 Fire alarm conduits shall not contain any foreign wires whatever. The 
 conduit system shall be permanently and effectually grounded. 
 
 '(b 1 ) All wires must be rubber covered, and braided National Electrical 
 Code standard. ; Wiring in all systems shall be installed after the manner 
 prescribed under National Electrical Code rules as applying to conduit and 
 armored cable installation. 
 
 (c) Except for supervised systems, no conductor of less than No. 14 
 B. & S. gauge, riot having a rubber Insulation wall of less than 3/64 of an 
 inch thick will be approved. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 
 
 503 
 
 For supervised systems, wires must have an approved covering consisting, 
 except as noted below, of a rubber insulation at least 1/32 inch in thickness 
 and a substantial braid. 
 
 Multiple conductor cables consisting of three or more wires may be not 
 less than No. 16 B. & S. gauge, and have an approved rubber insulation not 
 less than 1/32 of an inch in thickness. 
 
 (d) Where wires pass from one building to another, they must be enclosed 
 in rigid conduit underground between buildings wherever possible, and when 
 so installed must be lead encased. 
 
 (e) Wires between buildings when not run in conduit must be at least 
 equivalent in conductivity and tensile strength to No. 12 B. & S. copper 
 for box and signaling circuits. They must be supported at least every 75 
 feet on approved glass insulators and brackets. As far as possible, they 
 should be run under rather than over electric light or power wires. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF WIRE 
 
 Size, 
 B. & S. 
 Gage 
 
 Area, 
 Square 
 Inches 
 
 Area, 
 Circular 
 Miles 
 
 Resistance, 
 Ohms per 
 1000 feet 
 
 Weight 
 per Mile, 
 Lbs. 
 
 Breaking 
 Strength, 
 Lbst 
 
 Tensile 
 Strength, 
 Lbs. per 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Copper Wire, Hard-drawn 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 16 
 
 .0163 
 .0130 
 .0103 
 .0082 
 .0051 
 .0032 
 .00203 
 
 20820 
 16510 
 13090 
 10380 
 6530 
 4107 
 2583 
 
 0.5085 
 0.6413 
 0.8087 
 1.0197 
 1.6218 
 2.5780 
 4.0996 
 
 332. 
 264. 
 209. 
 166. 
 104. 
 65.7 
 41.3 
 
 990 
 788 
 630 
 506 
 318 
 202 
 140 
 
 60000 
 60500 
 61100 
 61600 
 62400 
 63100 
 68000 
 
 Aluminum Wire, Average Grade A75 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 
 .0163 
 .0130 
 .0103 
 .0082 
 .0051 
 .0032 
 
 20820 
 16510 
 13090 
 10380 
 6530 
 4107 
 
 0.86 
 1.105 
 1.367 
 1.724 
 2.741 
 4.467 
 
 100.21 
 79.46 
 62.99 
 48.71 
 31.43 
 19.76 
 
 586 
 481 
 402 
 328 
 214 
 141 
 
 36000 
 37000 
 39000 
 40000 
 42000 
 44000 
 
 B. W. G. 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 16 
 
 .0213 
 .0172 
 .0141 
 .0113 
 .0094 
 .0054 
 .0033 
 
 Iro 
 
 27225 
 21904 
 17956 
 14400 
 11881 
 6889 
 4225 
 
 n Wire, E. 
 
 2.36 
 2.93 
 3.57 
 4.45 
 5.39 
 9.29 
 15.16 
 
 B. B. 
 
 378. 
 305. 
 250. 
 200. 
 165. 
 96. 
 59. 
 
 1134 
 915 
 750 
 600 
 495 
 288 
 177 
 
 18800 
 18800 
 18800 
 18800 
 18900 
 18800 
 18700 
 
 DOUBLE GALVANIZED TELEGRAPH WIRE 
 
 Size 
 B. W.G. 
 
 Diam., 
 Inches 
 
 Weight, 
 Lbs. 
 per 
 Mile 
 
 Breaking Strength, 
 Lbs. 
 
 Resistance Ohms per 
 Mile 
 
 E. B. B. 
 
 B. B. 
 
 Steel 
 
 E. B. B. 
 
 B. B. 
 
 Steel 
 
 4 
 6 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 
 .238 
 .203 
 .165 
 .148 
 .134 
 .120 
 .109 
 .083 
 
 811 
 590 
 390 
 314 
 258 
 206 
 170 
 99 
 
 2433 
 1770 
 1170 
 942 
 774 
 618 
 510 
 297 
 
 2676 
 1947 
 1287 
 1036 
 851 
 680 , 
 561 
 327 
 
 3000 
 2183 
 1443 
 1162 
 955 
 762 
 629 
 366 
 
 5.98 
 8.14 
 12.43 
 15.44 
 18.80 
 23 . 54 
 28.53 
 49.00 
 
 7.15 
 9.83 
 14.87 
 18.47 
 22.48 
 28.15 
 34.12 
 58.58 
 
 8'. 32 
 11.44 
 17.31 
 21.62 
 26.16 
 32.76 
 39.70 
 68.18 
 
504 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 COPPER AND COPPER-CLAD WIRES 
 
 Comparison of Hard Drawn Copper and Forty Per Cent Copper 
 Clad Steel 
 
 
 Bo c 
 
 Weight, 
 Lbs. per Mile 
 
 Breaking Strength, 
 Lbs. 
 
 Resistance, 
 Ohms per Mile 
 
 . & b. 
 Gage 
 
 Copper 
 
 Copper 
 Clad 
 
 Copper 
 
 Copper 
 Clad 
 
 Copper 
 
 Copper 
 Clad 
 
 6 
 
 419 
 
 390 
 
 1237 
 
 1800 
 
 2.18 
 
 5.45 
 
 7 
 
 332 
 
 309 
 
 980 
 
 1450 
 
 2.76 
 
 6.90 
 
 8 
 
 264 
 
 245 
 
 778 
 
 1200 - 
 
 3.49 
 
 8.73 
 
 9 
 
 209 
 
 194 
 
 617 
 
 975 
 
 4.39 
 
 10.97 
 
 10 
 
 166 
 
 154 
 
 489 
 
 800 
 
 5.49 
 
 13.72 
 
 11 
 
 131 
 
 122 
 
 388 
 
 650 
 
 6.90 
 
 17.25 
 
 12 
 
 104 
 
 97 
 
 307 
 
 510 
 
 8.70 
 
 21.75 
 
 13 
 
 83 
 
 77 
 
 244 
 
 410 
 
 10.01 
 
 27.57 
 
 14 
 
 66 
 
 61 
 
 193 
 
 330 
 
 13.44 
 
 34.85 
 
 15 
 
 52 
 
 49 
 
 153 
 
 250 
 
 17.57 
 
 43.92 
 
 16 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 133 
 
 200 
 
 21.95 
 
 54.97 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 77 
 
 130 
 
 35.71 
 
 89.27 
 
 Weights of Copper and Copper Clad Weather-proof Wire, pounds 
 per Mile 
 
 B. & S. 
 Gage 
 
 Diam., 
 Inches 
 
 Double Braid 
 
 Triple Braid 
 
 Copper 
 
 Copper Clad 
 
 Copper 
 
 Copper Clad 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 .2294 
 .2043 
 1819 
 1620 
 1285 
 1144 
 1019 
 0808 
 .0641 
 
 993 
 800 
 644 
 528 
 349 
 284 
 250 
 158 
 106 
 
 918 
 748 
 608 
 499 
 330 
 268 
 229 
 151 
 102 
 
 1059 
 866 
 736 
 591 
 402 
 330 
 285 
 185 
 132 
 
 991 
 818 
 673 
 560 
 376 
 310 
 268 
 178 
 127 
 
 Three per cent variation allowed. 
 
 Sources of Electrical Energy 
 
 The following sources of energy may be employed: 
 
 1. Storage batteries in duplicate. 
 
 2. Electric Light or Power system (Public Service or isolated plant), sup- 
 plemented by storage batteries controlled by automatic throw, over device. 
 
 NOTE. By special permission of the inspection department having juris- 
 diction the storage batteries may be omitted. 
 
 3. -Primary batteries in duplicate., 
 
 17. STORAGE BATTERIES. '(a) Storage batteries may be employed if under 
 competent supervision and equipped with reliable charging and controlling 
 devices. 
 
 (b) Storage batteries must be of approved make and type. Each set must 
 be capable of maintaining the system efficiently for ,' seven days without 
 recharging, and must be of not less than 24-ampere-hour capacity. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 
 
 505 
 
 
 Wiring: Diagram No. i. 
 
506 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (c) A sufficient number of storage cells must be provided in battery to 
 secure thoroughly satisfactory operation, the required number in each in- 
 stallation to be designated by the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 (d) Storage batteries must be installed in an approved manner in properly 
 ventilated protecting cabinets and, wherever possible, must be placed in a 
 room not containing other fire alarm apparatus. If these batteries are 
 placed in a separate room with proper ventilation and where they will not 
 be subject to mechanical injury, protecting cabinets will not be required. 
 
 (e) The ' batteries must not be disconnected from the fire alarm system 
 during working hours in the factory. 
 
 (f) A difference of potential of more than 60 volts will not be allowed 
 on working circuits of storage battery systems when the current flow at 
 any time through any part of the system is more than one ampere. 
 
 (g) A full description of the operation of each system, together with 
 instructions for its proper care and maintenance, must be posted in a con- 
 spicuous place and in a substantial manner, accessible to the person in charge 
 of the system. 
 
 (h) It is preferable that the voltage of the charging circuit be not over 
 250 volts. 
 
 (i) Suitable provision to be made on a switchboard for charging the batteries, 
 with approved means of protecting them against injury due to interruption 
 of charging current; also provision for shifting the respective batteries from 
 charging to working and from working to charging without opening any of 
 the working circuits during the process of shifting. 
 
 Fixed resistance units (of approved type and design) to be provided, one 
 in each leg of the charging circuit of such a value as operating conditions 
 may warrant but in no case shall the charging rate be in excess of two thirds 
 of the normal charging rate of the storage cells unless a variable charging 
 rate is required. 
 
 One third of the total resistance to be used shall be fixed in each leg of 
 the charging circuit, and the balance provided with approved shifting device 
 for varying the charging rate; the minimum resistance to be such that the 
 batteries cannot be charged in excess of their normal charging rate. Resistance 
 in any case must not unduly heat. 
 
 Lamps will not be permitted for resistance. 
 
 Fuses 50 per cent in excess of normal load and not in excess of allowable 
 carrying capacities of wire must be provided at battery terminals, and on 
 all working circuits. All fuses must be of the enclosed type. 
 
 (j) Motor generators of suitable capacity and standard design may be used 
 for charging storage batteries, and when used must be installed in accordance 
 with the National Electrical Code rules, and a proper field regulator must be 
 provided in addition to regular switchboard equipment referred to above, except 
 that resistance in charging circuits will not be required. 
 
 (k) For alternating, current when alternating current is used for charging 
 storage batteries, approved motor generators or rectifying sets with necessary 
 transformer must be provided, ' together with regular switchboard equipment 
 above specified. 
 
 NOTE. Electrolytic rectifiers will only be allowed when under competent 
 supervision, and when employed a reserve set of electrodes and charge of 
 salts must be kept on hand. 
 
 1 8. ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER (PUBLIC SERVICE OR ISOLATED PLANT), SUP- 
 PLEMENTED BY STORAGE BATTERIES. Systems of this character are special, and 
 complete details of installation must be submitted for approval in each case 
 to the inspection department having jurisdiction, which may, by special 
 permission, authorize the omission of the supplementary storage batteries. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 
 
 507 
 
 r'l'lffl 
 
 ri 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 e. 
 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 Wiring Diagram No. 2. 
 
508 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 19. PRIMARY BATTERIES. (a) The battery on the closed circuit must be in 
 duplicate and be provided with an approved single pole, double throw, knife 
 blade switch, so arranged that when changing from one set of batteries to 
 another the "circuit cannot be broken, and shall consist of approved standard 
 closed circuit cells of not less than 3oo-amperes-houi j s capacity. Approved 
 heat-resisting glass jars are preferred, but at least one glass jar shall be 
 used in each series for the purpose of observing the condition of the elements. 
 The working voltage of approved closed circuit cells is .65 volts per cell. 
 Dry cells shall not be used as actuating energy in any closed circuit, except 
 in supervised systems. 
 
 (b) The .battery on the open circuits as indicated (K. K.) in wiring dia- 
 gram No. ,i, shall consist of high grade open circuit, wet or semi-dry cells 
 of approved type and make. A reserve set of batteries must be provided 
 and chemicals furnished with them, in a dry state, and as any set becomes 
 exhausted, they shall immediately be prepared for service. Multiples of dry 
 cells in approved containers may be substituted for wet or semi-dry cells in 
 each open or bell circuit under conditions acceptable to the inspection depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction. A sufficient number of cells must be provided in 
 each battery to secure thoroughly satisfactory operation. 
 
 (c) The current flow from any primary battery shall not exceed 2 amperes. 
 
 (d) All batteries must be coupled together . by means of battery con- 
 nectors of-'approved type. 
 
 20. CABINETS FOR PRIMARY BATTERIES. (a) All : primary batteries must be 
 placed hi substantial well-fitted cabinets, elevated -not less than six inches and 
 not moije than six feet above the floor and located in a clean, dry place where 
 the teniperature will not fall below 40 degrees Fahr. nor rise above 100 
 degrees 'Fahr. 
 
 (b) Cabinets must be provided with shelves of wood not less than %-inch 
 in thickness or of other approved material, properly fastened and secured to 
 prevent sagging. 
 
 Supports for dry batteries must be so constructed that it will be impossible 
 for the cells to come in contact with each other or with the metal enclosures. 
 
 Main battery cabinets must be so constructed that the condition of the 
 elements may be observed without disturbing the cells. 
 
 (c) Metal cabinets must be of approved type, constructed of sheet iron 
 or steel J of ;not : less than No. 14 U. S. metal gauge. 
 
 Doorsj must be provided with lock and key and kept . closed. 
 
 The interior and the exterior of metal cabinets must be painted* with two 
 coats of asphaltum compound, each coat to be thoroughly dried before the 
 next is Applied. Baked enamel will be accepted in lieu of the above. 
 
 (d) Wooden battery cabinets must be constructed of the best grade of 
 kiln dried wood not less than %-inch thick. Doors must be provided with 
 a padlock ,and kept ; closed. 
 
 Wooden cabinets must be painted on the interior with two coats of asphaltum 
 compound and on the exterior with two coats of lead paint, varnish or asphal- 
 tum compound. 
 
 Automatic Equipment 
 
 . 
 
 21. SPECIAL PERMISSION REQUIRED. Approved automatic fire alarm devices 
 and thermostat systems arranged automatically to set in motion transmitting 
 devices in connection with the manual fire alarm systems covered by the 
 foregoing rules, may be allowed by special permission of the inspection 
 department having jurisdiction. 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 
 
 509 
 
 Closed Circuit D. C. Control Board 
 for Electric Mechanical Gongs. 
 
 Wiring Diagram No. 3. 
 
5io FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Wiring Diagram No. i 
 
 In this wiring diagram an outline has been given of a satisfactory method 
 of installing a combined open and closed circuit system employing vibrating 
 bells as signaling devices. 
 
 It is suggested that the resistance, voltage and current values given below 
 be followed : 
 
 A. Multiple contact master combination relay. Magnets shown connected 
 into the closed or box circuit be wound to 25 ohms resistance. Relay to be 
 mounted in a vertical position, magnets up, and enclosed in a metal case 
 under lock and key. 
 
 B. Fire alarm trouble relay wound to 25 ohms resistance mounted in a 
 metal case under lock and key, in a vertical position, magnets up. 
 
 D. Single pole double throw switch. 
 
 E Duplicate closed circuit batteries consisting of 3bo-ampere-hour closed 
 circuit cells sufficient in number to cause a current flow through the closed 
 circuit of 50 milli-amperes based on an E. M. F. of .65 volt per cell. 
 
 F. Local battery of approved cells. 
 
 G. Vibrating bells. 
 
 H. Covered trouble bell not less than 3. inches in diameter, with magnets 
 wound to not less than 10 ohms resistancte. 
 
 K. Open circuit batteries consisting of approved, cells. A sufficient number 
 of cells to be provided in each battery tq secure thoroughly satisfactory 
 operation: 
 
 X, Milli-ammeter scale to read o-ioo milli-amperes. 
 
 Storage batteries may - be substituted to supply actuating energy in this 
 system (see diagram No. 4). 
 
 All wiring to be installed in rigid iron conduit or steel armored calle. 
 
 For additional details, see specifications. 
 
 Wiring Diagram No. 2 
 
 In this wiring diagram an outline has been given of a satisfactory method 
 of installing a. closed circuit electro-mechanical bell system. 
 
 Tt is suggested that the resistances, voltage and current values given below 
 be followed. 
 
 B. Fire alarm relay mounted in a metal case under lock and key, in a 
 vertical position, magnets up. 
 
 C. Single pole double throw switch. 
 
 E. Duplicate batteries consisting of 3oo-ampere-hours approved closed 
 circuit cells sufficient in number to cause a current flow through the closed 
 circuits of 100 milli-amperes based on an E. M. F. of .65 volt per cell. 
 
 Storage batteries may be substituted. (See specifications and diagram 
 No. 3.) 
 
 F. Local battery of approved cells. 
 
 H. Covered trouble bell not less than 3 inches in diameter of approved 
 type with magnets wound to not less than 10 ohms resistance. 
 
 E, M. Electric-mechanical gongs of approved single stroke type wound to 
 not less than 30 ohms resistance. 
 
 X. Milli-ammeter scale to read 0-200 milli-amperes. 
 
 All wiring to be installed in rigid iron conduit or steel armored cable. 
 
 For additional details, see specificatons. 
 
 Watchman Time Recording Apparatus. As an auxiliary to 
 any signalling system, and a necessity where the signalling system 
 is not automatic, such as a thermostat or sprinkler flow system, is 
 
SIGNALLING SYSTEMS 
 
 Wiring Diagram K.o. 4. 
 
512 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 the service of a watchman. Not only is he of value in discovering 
 fires, but also in preventing them, by turning off carelessly left gas 
 or electric current on heaters, etc., and cleaning up rubbish which 
 may ignite spontaneously. 
 
 To be of full value, assurance of his being on duty is a requisite, 
 and as a general rule underwriters insist that he be checked up in 
 his rounds by being made to punch a clock at stated times, or to 
 send in a signal to a central station. These clocks or signal sta- 
 tions must be of such a design that they can not be tampered with, 
 or the records changed. Practically the only assurance that such 
 apparatus is properly safeguarded from tampering is by insisting 
 on a system or a time recorder labeled by the Underwriters' Labora- 
 tories, who have listed to date one make of watchman's call and fire 
 alarm box for use in connection with standard normally-closed cir- 
 cuit central station watchman's time recording apparatus, eleven 
 manufacturers of portable time recorders and key boxes, and four- 
 teen manufacturers of stationary recorders. 
 
 In any watch service it is strongly recommended that the old 
 idea of employing superannuated men for watchmen be discarded ; 
 the service, although probably not showing immediate returns on 
 the profit side of the books, such as other workmen's services 
 about a plant do is of really such great value that only men in 
 their prime should be employed, and a sufficient wage paid to 
 get good, sober, efficient men, who can be properly trained. 
 With such a watchman a plant is far better protected than the 
 average. 
 
 We safeguard you 
 
 FIRE against WATER 
 
 We Watch Your Watchman. 
 
 We Supervise Your Sprinkler System. 
 
 We Send the Fire Department. 
 
 We Ring the Local Fire Drill Gongs. 
 
 We Operate All Kinds of Signal Systems. 
 
 Offices Everywhere 
 
 Controlled Companies of 
 
 AMERICAN DISTRICT TELEGRAPH COMPANY 
 
 Main Office, 195 Broadway, New York 
 
THE DESIRABILITY OF HIGH PRESSURE 
 FIRE SYSTEMS* 
 
 1 lie immense aggregations of values in the buildings and their contents 
 in the business districts of metropolitan cities, and the possibility of con- 
 tl.ig rations, with their tremendous losses and disastrous effects on business 
 and civic growth, are striking arguments in favor of providing the most 
 elective known means of preventing such catastrophes. 
 
 Although there is a tendency at the present time to replace old buildings 
 with others of fireproof construction, such being required for certain heights 
 and areas by city building laws, the number of buildings of such construction 
 is comparatively small. The probability of serious fires originating in these 
 buildings is small, but with the general lack of protection against exposure 
 across narrow streets and passageways, they would not withstand the attack 
 of a fire from adjacent and neighboring buildings of other classes. 
 
 Although a sprinkler equipment will effectively control a fire originating 
 within the building in which it is installed, it does not make that building 
 a conflagration barrier; and since most of the equipments are connected to 
 the system of street mains, the efficiency of the supply to all these equip- 
 ments may be seriously impaired, and the ability to resist exposure fires 
 K -setied, by the, breaking of service connections to one or more buildings in 
 which a fire has got beyond control. 
 
 btructural conditions, occupancies and other features tend to produce a 
 high conflagration hazard particularly in sections which consist of large-area 
 blocks, with crowded and poorly accessible interiors, no floor-opening or 
 window protection where especially needed, and numerous large floor areas, 
 affording opportunity for the rapid spread of fire. 
 
 It is therefore evident that, taken as a whole, the chances for sweeping 
 tires in large cities are considerable, even though the fire department is 
 efficient and well maintained. All that .is required, under existing weak 
 building conditions, is the right combination of circumstances to make a 
 fire too large for the department to handle. This combination of circUm*- 
 stances nearly occurred in Boston on August 9, 1910, when two serious simul- 
 taneous fires, as described hereinafter, called out practically the entire 
 IV.ston tire department and much apparatus from the surrounding cities. 
 Had either .of these fires been a little larger, or had a third fire occurred 
 almost anywhere in the city, for example, in any of the number of con- 
 ucstcd frame residential sections, which are becoming increasingly hazardous, 
 n had conflagration would undoubtedly have occurred. 
 
 Ft is in realization of the possibilities of such conditions that the larger 
 American cities are making every effort to install the most powerful fire- 
 rightin.cr facilities available. Systems of high pressure water mains used 
 exclusively for fire protection are installed in New York (one in Manhattan, 
 i-ne in Brooklyn and one at Cdney Island), Philadelphia, Toronto, Ont., 
 Winnipeg, Man., Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, Oakland, San Francisco and 
 Baltimore. Portland, Ore., Toledo, Ohio, Boston and Cincinnati have 
 started them. 
 
 * Abstracted from a pamphlet issued by the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers. 
 
 513 
 
514 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ; Philadelphia has used its system for nearly 12 years, and Manhattan and 
 Brooklyn about 7 years; the experience in these cities proves the feasibility 
 of separate high pressure fire systems and their superiority over fire engines, 
 especially for large fires which tend to assume conflagration proportions. 
 
 The Manhattan system illustrates the possibilities and advantages of such 
 equipments. The main features are a gridrironed system of underground 
 pipes, 12 to 24 inches in diameter, to which is connected two pumping stations 
 taking water from the city mains and delivering into the high pressure 
 system at pressures of 125 to 300 pounds. Each station is equipped with 
 6 centrifugal pumps, driven by direct connected induction motors. Each 
 pump was guaranteed to deliver 3,000 gallons of water per minute at 300 
 pounds pressure, and at the acceptance tests did deliver an average of 3,600 
 gallons per minute, a total of 43,000 gallons for both stations. The delivery 
 is' proportionately greater at lower pressures, and reaches a total of about 
 62,000 gallons per minute at 200 pounds pressure. Fresh water is used, as 
 ' it causes less 'damage to stock than salt water, and also because it has less 
 effect on 'tlie pine of the 'system; however, the stations are located close 
 to tide water and all necessary connections are made for the use of salt 
 water in emergency. The precautions taken to insure the integrity of the 
 pumping stations and the reliability of operation include: Pumping stations 
 of fireproof construction throughout, protected against exposure fires and 
 located outside the conflagration zone; power for operating the pumps sup- 
 plied from 5 different power stations of the New York Edison Company, 
 with duplicate sets of underground cables to each pumping station; dupli- 
 cate mains from the pumping stations to the gridiron system, and automatic 
 relief and pressure-regulating valves at each station. Pressure is not kept 
 up at all times; when a fire alarm comes in from the district covered by 
 the system the pumps are started and pressure raised to 125 pounds. This 
 takes less than one minute, so that the water is always ready before the fire 
 department can Jay a line of hose and connect to a hydrant. 
 
 Large post hydrants, to which 4 or 5 lines of hose may be attached, are 
 the only connections through which water can be drawn from the system, 
 and the possibility is avoided of connections inside buildings breaking and 
 bleeding the system. Each hydrant is capable of supplying at high pressure 
 as much water as 5 ordinary fire engines of the first size. 
 
 The tendency in all modern fire departments is to use large, penetrating 
 streams, as these alone are effective on a fire well under way in the ordinary, 
 large-area building filled with combustible stock. Each large stream requires, 
 under the most favorable circumstances, cne first size or larger engine or 
 two smaller ones, working up to full capacity, while one hydrant on the 
 high pressure system can supply 4 or 5 such streams. 
 
 A signalling system is provided, by means of which the officers in charge 
 at a fire can communicate with the pumping stations from any location in 
 the district covered. More pressure can be ordered at any time and is 
 immediately available. As many of the pumps are operated as are necessary 
 to maintain the desired pressure and this pressure can be sustained for any 
 length of time. Mr. I. M. de Varona, Chief Engineer of the Department 
 of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, New York, reports as follows on 
 January 26, 1909: 
 
 " The high pressure fire system in New York, which was put officially 
 into service on July 6, 19,08, has been successfully operated since that date 
 at one hundred and fifteen fires, but it had its crucial test, and one to which 
 it will not probably be subjected again in years, on the 7th, 8th and gth of 
 
DESIRAMIUTY or Ilic.n PRESSURE SYSTEMS 515 
 
 January, 1909, when it was brought into service for five simultaneous fires, 
 three of them of much more than the usual extent and activity, one par- 
 ticularly so. 
 
 " These fires occurred at Hudson and Franklin streets, Hester street and 
 the Bowery, Houston street and Broadway, Sixth avenue and I7th street, 
 and Houston street and the Bowery. The situation became so dangerous 
 that every engine south of 37th street i. e., forty engines was summoned, 
 as well as a force consisting of twelve battalion chiefs and more than 600 
 men, but there was- no need to use a single one of the fire engines. The fire 
 at Franklin and Hudson streets was particularly severe, and described by 
 Chief Croker as a ' 3-9 ' fire. But even in that case, the extraordinarily 
 effective work of the high pressure fire streams prevented the spread of the 
 (lames beyond the building in which the fire originated, and successfully 
 extinguished it a result which the Fire Department Chief declared could 
 never have been accomplished with the old system. The result was the 
 same at the four other fires. 
 
 " The area of buildings, number of alarms and time of service were as 
 follows: 
 
 "At Hudson and Franklin streets, where the largest fire occurred, the 
 area of the building affected was 13,400 square feet. For this fire, four 
 alarms were received, the first at 7:22 p. M., on January 7th, and the service 
 was shut down at 10:34 A. M., on January gth. 
 
 "At Hester street and Bowery, the area of building affected was 3,600 
 square feet. Three alarms were received, the first at 7:52 p. M., January 7th. 
 
 "As the violence of the fire increased, additional pumps were brought into 
 service, so that at one fine four pumps and motors were in commission at 
 the Oliver and South Street Station and three pumps at the Gansevoort and 
 West Street Station, delivering 33,500 gallons per minute against an average 
 pressure of 225 pounds at the pumps and 205 pounds at the hydrants." 
 
 Chief Croker of the New York Fire Department is of the opinion that 
 several fires have been checked by the use of the high pressure system which 
 would otherwise have assumed disastrous proportions. This is due to the 
 ability of the department to put in operation a large number of powerful 
 streams in much less time than could be done with fire engines and without 
 the confusion attendant upon their use. 
 
 The other high pressure systems in operation and in course of construction 
 involve the same general features, differing, according to local conditions, 
 in capacity, in type of pumps and in motive power; in addition to centrifugal 
 pumps and electric motors, reciprocating pumps and steam, gas and oil 
 engines are successfully used. The Muffalo, Detroit and Milwaukee 
 systems are not provided with pumping stations, fire-boats being used for 
 this purpose; this has such serious disadvantages that most of these cities 
 are contemplating the erection of a pumping station when money is available. 
 
 In the area covered by a high pressure system, it is possible to dispense 
 with a number of fire engines and substitute large hose wagons; in Man- 
 hattan, eight engines have been thus replaced. The number of pieces of 
 apparatus necessary is reduced and the engines replaced can be removed to 
 districts where they may be needed. Not much additional apparatus would 
 have to be provided, as the hose wagons and hose with which the department 
 is now equipped could be used in connection with the system. An engine 
 company of 13 or 14 men equipped with a large hose wagon can lay 3 or 
 4 lines and handle as much water as could be delivered by twice that number 
 of engines. This means that 2 of the men required to operate and drive 
 an engine would not be needed for this purpose and would be available for 
 hose duty in each company converted from an engine to a high pressure 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 hose company. Two of the high pressure wagons may be put in the quarters 
 which now house a single engine company, thus the protection of the district 
 covered from one station can be greatly increased. 
 
 Another great advantage of such a system, as brought out in the report 
 quoted above, is that the high pressure companies- responding on first alarms 
 can handle fires which, under the present system, require second or third 
 alarms, being able to quickly put powerful streams in operation on the fire 
 and also to handle in the early stages as many streams as can be obtained 
 from the engines responding on third alarms. The average time between 
 the receipt of a first alarm and the sending of a second alarm for the 
 same fire is 6 minutes in Boston, and it will take an average of 5 minutes 
 more before the second alarm companies are at work, under the most 
 favorable conditions. Thus, with the high pressure system there is a saving 
 of time at the most vital stage of a fire; this saving will be at least as 
 much as the time between the first and second alarms, and for fires which 
 would now require a third alarm the saving is even more. 
 
 But of all points justifying the installation of a special high pressure 
 system, probably the most important is the unprotected condition of the con- 
 gested value district, if fire engines are depended upon, during the progress 
 of a seriosu fire of several hours' duration in another part of the city. This 
 was exemplified in Boston on August 9, 1910: An alarm was received at 
 6:17 P. M. from Box 58 (corner of Dover and Albany streets) for a fire 
 which started in the lumber yard of Blacker & Shepard Lumber Company, 
 at 350 Albany street. The fire had attacked adjoining property when the 
 first apparatus arrived, and in. a few minutes crossed Albany street into a 
 frame tenement block, the fire department repair shop and a wood-working 
 factory. Boxes 56 and 112 were also pulled for this fire, and alarms from 
 Bpx 58 were sent as follows: Second at 6:23, third at 6:27, fifth at 6:28, 
 and sixth or general at 6:30 P. M. These alarms called to the fire 38 engines, 
 2 fife-boats, 16 ladder companies, 5 chemical engines and 3 water towers. This 
 left, for the immediate protection of the city, 7 engines, 1 1 ladder and 8 
 chemical companies. At 6:28 p. M., while the fire was still spreading, the 
 fire alarm office began calling for assistance from the surrounding towns 
 and, cities; 17 engine and hose, 2 hose and a ladder company were sent 
 and began to arrive in about 30 minutes. The first of this apparatus, 9 
 engines in all, went directly to the fire. Three engines and one ladder com- 
 pany went into quarters to cover districts without protection. 
 
 At 7:50 P. M., while the fire on Albany street was still burning fiercely 
 and not as yet well under control, an alarm was received from Box 44 for 
 a fire in a 5-story granite building, 55-59 High street, occupied by the 
 H. W. Johns-Manville Company. Four engine, 4 ladder and 3 chemical 
 companies of the Bostori department, which were in quarters, responded and 
 out-of-town, apparatus on the way to the Albany street fire began to arrive 
 soon after. This fire was very stubborn and at 8:43 a second alarm was sent 
 from Box 44. At that time the only apparatus in fire stations in the City 
 of Boston consisted of a ladder, a chemical and two engine companies in 
 East Boston, a ladder company and a chemical engine in Charlestown, an 
 engine, a chemical and a ladder company in Brighton, an engine, a ladder 
 and a chemical company in Roxbury and West Roxbury, an engine, a ladder 
 and a chemical company in Dorchester, and 2 chemical engines in the down- 
 town and Backbay districts. None of this apparatus responded to this 
 alarm, 6 engine and 4 ladder companies, a chemical engine and 3 water 
 towers being ordered from the .Albany street fire, which was then under 
 control. The time required for these companies to pick up, go to the High 
 street fire and get to work was of course much longer than it would take 
 
DESIRABILITY OF HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS 517 
 
 second alarm apparatus to get to work under ordinary conditions. (So that 
 for over two hours during these two fires, 41 engines (7 from out of town), 
 2 fireboats, 12 ladder companies and 4 chemical engines were working at 
 the Albany street fire, while 16 engines (8 from out of town), 8 ladder 
 companies and 4 chemical engines were working on the High street fire, 
 and the 3 water towers were at one fire or the other. Companies began 
 to return to quarters after 11 p. M., but until the following day the protec- 
 tion of many sections of the city was very weak, and during much of this 
 time the protection in the adjoining cities was seriously weakened. From 
 6:30, when the general alarm was given, until u p. M., the situation was 
 serious, and would have been much more so except for the assistance sent 
 in from the surrounding towns. Such conditions are liable to occur at any 
 time and are a strong argument for providing the additional protection of 
 a high pressure system. 
 
 To sum up the advantages of the high pressure fire system: A large 
 number of powerful streams can be concentrated on a fire in much shorter 
 time and with fewer men and less apparatus than with fire engines, and at 
 the same time the protection of the rest of the city would not be weakened 
 to the extent now necessary on third and fourth alarms from the district 
 covered by the system. It will deliver its full capacity at any point in the 
 district covered and at any desired pressure, and can sustain this pressure 
 as long as wanted. It eliminates the confusion entailed in the operation 
 of a large number of fire engines, tends to prevent the misunderstanding 
 of orders and in every way simplifies operation. Above all, it provides pro- 
 tection to the congested value district even with a general alarm fire under 
 headway in another part of the city and is the greatest insurance against 
 conflagration, forming an effective barrier against fires starting outside the 
 district, and affording the most efficient check of fires in the district which 
 might otherwise involve a number of large blocks. 
 
 Practical experience has shown that the following requirements should be 
 met in the design of a separate high pressure fire system to insure good 
 fire protection in districts it is to cover: 
 
 A fireproof pumping station, with all openings protected in an approved 
 manner and removed from the zone of sweeping conflagrations. Station to 
 lie equipped with sufficient pumping units of moderate capacity to aggregate 
 a total capacity of 20,000 gallons per minute at 300 pounds pressure, taking 
 Auction from a fresh water supply, and delivering into the gridiron system 
 through well looped and gated discharge connections. 
 
 The distribution system to be connected with the pumping station through 
 duplicate supply mains and to be so designed as to deliver the full capacity 
 of 20,000 gallons per minute about any block within the area served, without 
 excessive loss of head; to contain no pipes less than 12 inches in diameter, 
 no dead ends and be connected at all intersections. Connections to be pro- 
 vided to the system so that the fire-boats may be used as auxiliary pumping 
 stations in case of emergencies, and system to be provided with gate valves 
 so placed that not more than 500 feet of pipe will have to be cut out at one 
 time. 
 
 Hydrants to be of ample dimensions, with 4 independently gated hose out- 
 lets and connected to the mains through 8-inch gated connections; to be so 
 distributed that the average area served by each shall not exceed 40,0*00 square 
 feet. 
 
MINOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS 
 
 Fire Extinguishing Agents. Water is the universal extinguish- 
 ing agent for use on fires, its principal value being the cooling 
 effect it has ; only when applied to a small fire or in very large 
 quantities on a large fire, or in such a manner as to completely 
 surround the burning object can it serve as an excluder of oxygen. 
 The best extinguishers are those of a gaseous nature ; carbon 
 dioxide, sulphur dioxide and ammonia and the gases liberated by 
 carbon-tetrachloride when applied to a heated object. 
 
 Of the three gases mentioned above, carbon dioxide is to be 
 preferred, being cheaper, more easily obtainable, and safer to work 
 with than the. others, which are far more dangerous to man. When 
 present in sufficient quantity (about 10 per cent) carbon dioxide 
 and in some instances sulphur dioxide as well will render explosive 
 mixtures of air and gases harmless. 
 
 In all cases where water is inadmissible, dry fine sand is suitable, 
 and the blanketing effect of sawdust and like substances has been 
 used successfully, if thrown on to the seat of the fire. Once used, 
 especially when fires of oil or resin are in question, such sand, etc., 
 should be thrown aside, and not employed again. 
 
 For extinguishing fire in special cases, the following substances 
 and methods have proved most useful : 
 
 Fires of oil, fats, mineral oils, waxes, ozokerit, tar, resins, lacquer, 
 varnish, carbon disulphide, alcohol, ether, benzol, acetone, wood 
 spirit, and similar substances: 
 
 In the open : application of carbon tetrachloride, ammonia, chloro- 
 form, sand, earth, ashes, bags and clothes; 
 
 In closed rooms : exclusion of air, introduction of quenching 
 gases or steam; 
 
 In lanks : putting on the covers ; 
 
 \yith the oils and fats water should never be used. 
 
 Fires concerning acids, acid carboys and nitrating liquid : 
 
 Water must be used in all cases \ never sand, earth, or even 
 ashes. Tan, sawdust, or organic substances will only feed the fire. 
 Fires of gases, vapors, mixtures of air with gas or vapor: 
 
 In the open : chloroform, carbon tetrachloride. 
 
 Indoors: steam, exclusion of air. 
 
 In tanks.: putting on the covers. 
 
MINOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS 519 
 
 Fires in the centre of coal heaps : 
 
 At the outset: dividing into smaller heaps (surface cooling); 
 
 In advanced stages : water, but only in the event of a sufficient 
 supply being available to thoroughly drench the whole heap ; partial 
 quenching will merely favor the progress of the fire. 
 
 Fires in waste heaps, dumped soda waste, pyrites, or substances 
 containing metallic sulphides : 
 
 In the advanced stage (mostly internal conflagrations }, water 
 must never be used, on account of the risk of oxyhydrogen gas 
 being formed, and of the liberation of combustible sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Furthermore, when extensive heaps take fire there is nothing to 
 be done but to stop up all openings, so as to prevent access of air. 
 Small heaps should be opened out, thrown apart, and then quenched 
 with water, if surface cooling does not effect the desired result. 
 
 Fire Pails. Because everyone knows enough to throw a pail of 
 \vater on a fire, the underwriters consider fire pails an added protec- 
 tion to any plant. The principal fault to be found with them is 
 that usually when needed they are not in their regular place, but 
 are being used in the boiler room to mix boiler scale compound, or 
 out on construction work as water pails, or in any of a hundred 
 different places or uses that a hand pail can be put to. To prevent 
 this most fire pails are made so they will not be handy to use in 
 this way. 
 
 Another cause of complaint is that they are seldom kept filled 
 with water. Regular and systematic inspections is the only cure 
 for this, although partial remedying of it can be obtained by pro- 
 viding a tank or barrel near by into which the pail can be dipped. 
 
 A very convenient form for fire pails is the combined pail and 
 tank, the pail or pails nesting in the tank. 
 
 No set rules can be laid down for the number of fire pails neces- 
 sary for every plant; there cannot be too many, particularly if the 
 labor employed is ignorant and unskilled, and probably would not 
 know how to use other appliances. In the Regulations on Fire 
 Pails issued by the National Board of Fire Underwriters ip 1903, 
 the number and arrangement of pails was given as follows: 
 
 NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT. To be placed as required by the underwriters 
 having jurisdiction, not less than one dozen to every 5,000 ft. floor area, 
 and to be hung on hooks or set on shelves arranged so that bottom of pail 
 shall be not less than 2 feet or top of pail more than 5 feet from floor. 
 Where other than flat bottom pails are used, the holes cut in shelves shall 
 be only large enough to receive the oval, the flanges to rest on top of the 
 shelf. 
 
 Three pails and i filled cask of at least 60 gallons capacity, or i approved 
 portable extinguisher and 6 pails to be considered the equivalent of 12 pails. 
 
520 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 NOTE. In all cases there must be at least the number of pails on each 
 floor as required by the rule of 12 to each square feet floor area, i. e., only 
 one-half of the pails 'required on each floor can be replaced by one or 1 more 
 chemical extinguishers. 
 
 It 'is ; very important, with all form of 'fire extinguishers, that a 
 sign be placed immediately by it, to the effect that SO i UNDING' tf FHE > 
 ALARM OF FIRE IS THE FIRST CONSIDERATION. It is 
 impossible for the person to tell whether he is going to ; control the 
 fire or not, and if he does not, and spends valuable time in the 
 futile attempt, it will probably be too late for assistance from the 
 fire 'brigade or public fire department to be of any use by the time 
 he sends in the alarm after being defeated in his efforts of extin- 
 guishing the blaze. It was just such a cage that resulted in j 'the 
 almost total destruction of the Edison plant in 1914. 
 
 Regulations for the construction of fire pails were last istied by 
 the National Board of Fire Underwriters in 1903 and were as 
 follows : 
 
 FIRE PAiLS.-^Size 8, 10, 12 or 14 quart, the medium size of 12 quart 
 being the most generally used. 
 
 Bottom. Flat, oval or cone shape (s^-inch pitch), or with rounded band 
 across, at least % x i inch, bent to circumference of bottom, two rivets at 
 "each end. 
 
 Material. Galvanized iron, raw sheet from stock to be not lighter than 
 No. 28 gauge (.015 inch). 
 
 Construction. To be assembled with lock-joints soldered or galvanized. 
 Beaded rim around top of not less than No. 9 wire, and handles to be of 
 not less than No. 6 wire. Ears for handles to be riveted to pail. 
 
 Covers. -Not considered essential but desirable. If used, to be of sheet 
 iron stamped with depression fitting inside of top of pail and fiat ?dge 
 extending over edge. Knob or ring to be provided to remove cover. 
 
 Galvanizing. To be done after the pail is made, entire pail -to be dipped. 
 
 Painting; To be painted red on oiitside and stenciled ' tf Fire " in black 
 letters 2^/2 inches high. 
 
 Painting inside of pail not required, but it is regarded an item of economy, 
 in that it prolongs the life of the pail. 
 
 Marking. Each pail must be plainly and permanently marked ' with its 
 trade-name and the name, initials or trade-mark of the manufacturer. 
 
 These have been modified somewhat in their application by the 
 Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc. In the list of Fire Appliances 
 
 issued by the Laboratories the following statement is made: 
 
 ' ... .. ,.:;.. ' . ; .IITKMI -.'it 
 
 Hand Fire Extinguishers made of iron, steel or fibre; pail type; operated 
 by throwing liquid from pail; extinguishing agent used, water or solutions 
 containing anti-freezing ingredients. 
 
 These appliances have been shown to be effective on incipient fires where 
 water or solutions containing large percentages' of water are effective, but 
 on account of their form their use is limited to fires which may be readily 
 reached by the liquid thrown from a pail. Their use on ' electrical ar'cs or 
 machinery or wiring carrying high voltage, may be dangerous on account of 
 the conductivity of the liquid. They are of little service in liquids of a 
 flammable nature. 
 
MINOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS 521 
 
 \\hcii water only is used they must be protected against frost. Where 
 it i> desired to protect the contents of exposed pails against freezing, by 
 the addition of calcium chloride or other salts, inspection departments having 
 jurisdiction should be consulted. 
 
 Protective users should first ascertain from the inspection department having 
 jurisdiction under what conditions extinguishers of this type will be accepted, , 
 and should make contracts subject to approval by them of the setting, dis- 
 tribution and number to be used in respect to floor area. 
 
 Pails in Tanks. The Underwriters' Laboratories give under this 
 heading, the following : 
 
 Hand Fire Extinguishers consisting of six nested iron or steel pails 
 immersed in water or suitable non-freezing solution in cylindrical steel tank. 
 Tank capacities 22 to 40 gallons; pails 10 to 14 quarts. 
 
 These tanks are made to take the place of ordinary fire pails and have 
 the advantage of storing liquid in a tight receptacle so that there is prac- 
 tically no evaporation. 
 
 Hand Pumps. In the earlier days, and to a small extent by 
 fire departments now, use was made of a small pump which set 
 ki a bucket and from which a stream could . be delivered for a 
 considerable distance. This has now been superseded by chemical 
 extinguishers. 
 
 Chemical Extinguishers. Various attempts have been made to 
 apply the principle of generating gas chemically in a closed con- 
 tainer and thus provide sufficient pressure back of a column of 
 water to permit its use as a fire extinguisher. 
 
 SODA AND ACID TYPE. Of the different forms the most common 
 is the soda and acid extinguisher, in wfiich the action of sulphuric 
 acid on a solution of bicarbonate of soda generates sufficient car- 
 bonic acid gas to expel the water with good force. The gas itself 
 acts as an extinguishing agent, and the soda solution, which must 
 be of sufficient strength not to leave a trace of the sulphuric acid, 
 as the acid would injure goods, has a slightly greater extinguishing 
 effect than plain water. 
 
 The acid must necessarily be securely contained, to prevent a too 
 early application, but must also have its container of such a type 
 that sureness of operation will be obtained. Two general types are 
 in use, one where the acid stopper fits loosely in the container and 
 drops out when it is inverted and the other with a container which 
 is ruptured by puncturing or pressure. 
 
 Such extinguishers can be made in any size, but usually are suffi- 
 ciently small to be portable, whether on wheels or by hand. The 
 sizes generally used are the 33-gallon wheeled tank for factory use, 
 the 2^-gallon (standard size) hand extinguisher and the I ^-gallon 
 hand extinguisher; the last is primarily for use by women and 
 children and has approximately 60 per cent of the value of a 
 standard extinguisher. Their construction, in so far as satisfac- 
 
522 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 tion to the Underwriters is concerned, is covered by the inspection 
 service of the Underwriters' Laboratories'. In the list of fire 
 extinguishers, the following is given : 
 
 These appliances are effective on fires where water or solutions containing 
 large percentages of water, are effective. Their use on electric arcs or 
 wiring carrying high voltage may be dangerous on account of the conduc- 
 tivity of the liquid. They are of limited service in hazardous liquid fires. 
 They must be protected from freezing. Subject to the above limitations these 
 extinguishers are standard for general use. 
 
 All forms of fire extinguishers which have met the tests of the 
 Laboratories have labels soldered on them, and as there is consid- 
 erable danger of poorly constructed appliances being ruptured by 
 the gas when put in use, it is strongly advised that labeled extin- 
 guishers be insisted upon, to lessen such danger. 
 
 COMPRESSED AIR TYPE. A form of extinguishers used in large 
 chemical engines of fire departments and to a less degree developed 
 for small extinguishers is one making use of compressed air for 
 the force to expel the fluid, which may be only pure water or may 
 have ammonia or soda in solution. With 2 to 5 per cent solution 
 of soda, it is claimed that the extinguishing force is greatly in- 
 creased, the heat driving off carbon dioxide which settles around 
 the fire and smothers it out; about 15 per cent of this gas in the air 
 will extinguish flame. The larger of these air pressure systems, as 
 used by the fire department, has a separate tank or tanks which are 
 charged with air at high pressure ; when put in use, the air is let 
 into the solution tank through a regulating valve and discharges the 
 liquid. These have some points not in their favor, principally the 
 danger of leakage of the air and the need of maintaining an air 
 pump of considerable power. 
 
 In some of the small hand extinguishers use is made of air or 
 carbonic acid gas in a metal capsule similar to those used in charg- 
 ing vichy or seltzer. When these are punctured the liberated air 
 or gas expels the liquid. None of these have been listed by the 
 Underwriters' Laboratories, but it is believed they will be as they 
 are further perfected, especially in connection with small extin- 
 guishers of the type described below. 
 
 Carbon Tetrachloride Type. A form of extinguisher developed 
 in recent years that has met the approval of the Underwriters is 
 the small hand extinguisher seen generally around places where oils 
 are kept or used. These as described by the Underwriters' Labora- 
 tories are : 
 
 Hand Chemical Fire Extinguishers of about one quart capacity, utilizing 
 as extinguishing agents special liquids. 
 
 These appliances are effective on incipient fires in hazardous liquid, calcium 
 carbide and rapidly burning materials (such as celluloid and celluloid products), 
 and on incipient fires in cotton and fabrics. They are of service in fires 
 
MINOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS 523 
 
 not easily extinguished by water. They are especially adapted for garages, 
 automobile and motor boat use, and for electric arcs. 
 
 Ik-cause of the low: freezing point of the extinguishing liquids (minus 50 
 degrees P.), these extinguishers are recommended for service where low 
 temperatures prevail. They can be handled by women. 
 
 The various manufacturers furnish the liquid for recharging 
 these containers and advise against using any other liquid ; although 
 the exact composition of these liquids is not known, the basis is 
 carbon-tetrachloride in all of them, probably refined to remove 
 some of the impurities that might cause corrosion of some of the 
 parts. The earlier types were mainly sheet iron or tin, but these 
 would not meet the Laboratories' tests, and now they are made of 
 copper. The first type made was equipped with a pump, which 
 worked inside the cylinder and discharged the liquid ; improvements 
 were made including the substitution of a double-acting pump. 
 Other types have attempted the use of compressed air, but these, 
 although better fitted for fire fighting, because of the greater ease 
 in handling and in directing the stream, have not received the 
 approval of several investigating bodies, including the New York 
 Bureau of Fire Prevention and the Underwriters' Laboratories. 
 The liquid absorbs the air and then the pressure is gradually re- 
 duced, until the extinguisher is useless. Frequent inspections and 
 tests of the extinguishers, by meuns of the ordinary Schraders' tire 
 tester, will prevent this possible loss of pressure being a danger, 
 and where such tests can be made sure of, it is a very valuable form 
 ..if extinguisher. 
 
 Other forms involve plungers which are operated by hand or air 
 and drive the liquid out. 
 
 Chemical Extinguishers in Connection with Standpipes and 
 Sprinkler Systems. A recent development of the chemical extin- 
 guisher has been that of a stationary chemical-holding tank attached 
 to a standpipe system, and this is being further developed to make 
 it applicable to an automatic sprinkler system. For the system a? 
 perfected for standpipes, the Underwriters' Laboratories report: 
 
 Stationary Chemical Fire Extinguishers; for connection to a standpipe 
 system provided with hose _ stations; cylindrical, tank made of Allegheny 
 iron; liquid capacity 100 gal.; chemicals used, bicarbonate of soda and sul- 
 phuric acid. Extinguisher placed in operation by inversion of the acid 
 receptacle, this being accomplished by creating a pressure difference between 
 tank and distributing piping. This pressure difference is created by a fairly 
 sudden reduction in pressure in piping, due to opening any hose valve, system 
 normally being under air pressure. 
 
 This air pressure is required to cause operation of extinguisher, it is 
 necessary that system of piping be tight, and that air pressure be maintained 
 in system. 
 
 When properly installed, charged, and maintained in operative condition, 
 these extinguishers may be expected to give satisfactory service in fires 
 where water, or solutions containing large quantities of water are effective. 
 
524 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 
 
 FIG. 74 
 
 FIG. 75 
 
MINOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS 525 
 
 Their use on electric arcs, or machinery or wiring carrying high voltages, 
 may be dangerous on account of the conductivity of the liquid. They are 
 probably of limited service on fires in large quantities of volatile liquids of 
 a flammable nature. They must be protected against freezing. 
 
 Inspection departments having jurisdiction should be consulted before in- 
 stallation in regard to location of tank and standpipe, location of hose sta- 
 tions, quantity of hose at each station, provision for preventing tampering 
 with device, and provisions for inspection and maintenance service. 
 
 Chemical Extinguishers for Tanks* Holding Inflammable Li- 
 quids. The principal difficulty in fighting fires in tanks has been to 
 obtain a reliable extinguishing medium which could be easily applied. 
 Because of the nature of the fire, the only good extinguishing agent 
 is one having a blanketing effect, thus cutting off the oxygen from 
 the fire and smothering it out. Steam has been the common agent 
 used, but with little success as it tends to rise and is hard to confine 
 to the surface sufficiently to exclude the air. 
 
 A recently perfected system, passed upon favorably by the Labo- 
 ratories, makes use of the principle on which chemical extinguishers 
 work. This system, known as the Erwin, consists of a tank holding 
 a solution of bicarbonate of soda and soap bark in water. By means 
 of fusible links extending over and into the inflammable liquid in 
 the tank to be guarded, a hammer is held up, which, when released, 
 breaks a bottle holding sulphuric acid. This combines with the soda 
 solution and generates carbon dioxide, which, because of the soap 
 bark, forms a foam; this foam is discharged onto the burning 
 liquid and spreads over it several inches thick and thus smothers 
 the fire out. 
 
 These installations arc made in two forms, one called a " stand- 
 pipe method " and the other, to be used where there is danger of 
 freezing, called the " underground method." The system is reported 
 by the Laboratories as being suitable for all tanks up to 55,000 
 barrels capacity. 
 
 Figures 74 and 75 are views of a test made of a tank 114^ feet 
 in diameter, with a fire started in the middle; Figure 76 was taken 
 3 minutes and 20 seconds after the tank was. ignited and just as the 
 extinguisher began working; Figure 78 was taken just before the 
 fire was extinguished, which required I minute and 35 seconds 
 after the foam first appeared. 
 
 In an article on oil fire-extinguishers for naval vessels, by Henry 
 Williams, printed in the Engineering News June 5. 1912, is the 
 following account of the use of a form of foam extinguisher: 
 
 The adoption of oil fuel for' naval vessels has introduced an element of 
 considerable danger from fire. Due to leakage, which it is practically impos- 
 sible to prevent, from manholes, pipe connections, pumps and seams in tanks, 
 oil collects in the bilges of the fire rooms. The surfaces with which it comes 
 in contact remain coated wifli a film of oil, which burns freely when ignited 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 FIG. 76 
 
 FIG. 77 
 
MINOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS 527 
 
 or heated, communicating the fire to any oil that may be exposed. This con- 
 stitutes a danger and already there have been several fires which fortunately 
 have not resulted in serious danger to the ships, though all of them presented 
 that possibility. 
 
 The extinction of such fires, once they have gained headway, is difficult. 
 Water has no effect, as the burning oil simply floats on the surface' of the 
 water. Sand is more effective, acting to smother the fire. It must cover, 
 however, the entire surface that is burning, and as it does not flow, must be 
 applied locally. This is difficult for portions of the bilges under boilers or 
 other obstructions, and the use of sand thus does not offer an entirely satis- 
 factory guarantee against oil fires. 
 
 Recognition of these circumstances led the Bureau of Construction and 
 Repair of the Navy Department to undeitake experiments looking to the 
 development of suitable fire-extinguishing appliances to meet the possibility 
 of such fires and to insure their prompt extinction. A board was 1 appointed 
 to investigate the subject and to undertake the necessary experiments to 
 determine the suitability of the various systems. 
 
 The most promising methods that presented themselves to the board were 
 those whereby advantage is taken of a heavy foam mixture which, when 
 applied to burning surfaces of oil, flows over them and smothers the flame 
 by shutting off its air supply. These foam mixtures have been tested ex- 
 tensively abroad, especially in Germany, and have given results uniformly 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Portable extinguishers were designed similar in shape and sizes to the 
 chemical fire extinguishers seen in buildings on shore. These have the liquids 
 in separate compartments and by inverting the extinguisher, or in later 
 models breaking the acid container, the foam mixture is obtained and suffi- 
 cient force generated to throw the foam a distance of about 20 feet. Two 
 extinguishers of this type are supplied in each fireroom of oil-burning vessels. 
 The question is under consideration of making stationary installations of 
 greater capacity in the firerooms of oil-burning torpedo boat destroyers, and 
 experimental installations of this character are being made. It is by no 
 means sure, however, that this system of extinguishing oil fires will prove a 
 success on shipboard, though it may be accepted that its efficiency for shore 
 purposes has been demonstrated beyond doubt. One of the most important 
 difficulties that may be encountered is the possible effect on the crew of the 
 carbon-dioxide gas given off by the foamy mixture. Ten per cent of this gas 
 m air has been known to prove fatal, and continued breathing of 2 per cent 
 is dangerous. In closed spaces, such as firerooms, where fires aw apt to 
 occur, especial care will need to be taken to prevent accumulation of this gas 
 when the apparatus has been used. 
 
 Another difficulty and one that may render the system ineffective when 
 needed is the liability to deterioration of the mixtures or the loss by evapora- 
 tion of the water in which the solutions are made. 
 
 The corrosive action of the acid mixture on the containers and piping has 
 been met in shore installations by lead-lining them. The excessive weight 
 required, however, is an obstacle to this means being adopted for shipboard 
 installations, and in those now being fitted up reliance is placed on acid- 
 resisting paint to prevent corrosion. It seems probable that this will not 
 prove adequate and that corrosion of the tanks and piping will take place, 
 and that such valves as are used will be rendered ineffective in a short time. 
 
5 28 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
MINOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS 529 
 
 The formulas for the mixtures are as follows: 
 
 LIQUID No. i 
 
 Parts by 
 Weight. 
 
 ( ;iuc i 
 
 ( Ilueose , *k 
 
 Soda IJicarhonatc 7^ 
 
 Salicylic acid % 
 
 Water 100 
 
 LIQUID No. 2 
 
 Parts by 
 Weight. 
 
 Aluminum sulphate 10 
 
 Sulphuric acid , . . ' j 
 
 Water. .* 100 
 
 Carbon-dioxide gas is generated by the mixture of the soda bicarbonate and 
 aluminum sulphate. The glue renders the liquid viscous and causes it to 
 produce the foam. The salicylic acid is added . as a preservative for the 
 glucose, which is intended as a stabilizer to prevent the too sudden precipita- 
 tion of the aluminum hydroxide. The sulphuric acid aids in starting the 
 reaction and acts also as a stabilizer. It is possible that it may be found 
 that the acid itself can be omitted and in such an event the corrosive effect 
 of the mixture on the container and piping will be reduced considerably. 
 
STANDPIPES IN BUILDINGS 
 
 Functions of Standpipes. The functions of standpipes in build- 
 ings are two-fold, to enable the occupant to extinguish a small fire 
 and to be an auxiliary for the fire department or a trained fire 
 brigade in coping with serious fires, either in the building equipped 
 or in a near by building. Because of these differences the National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters has considered it necessary to divide 
 the requirements into two sections in treating the subject in the 
 latest revision of the National Board's Building Code, from which 
 the requirements given below are copied. 
 
 Occupant's Use. The first function, that of use by the occu- 
 pant, is one which is applicable to practically all buildings, but is 
 not considered an essential unless the building is of considerable 
 size ; in the smaller buildings, chemical extinguishers, pails of water, 
 etc., are usually sufficient to control the fire until the arrival of 
 the fire department. For use of untrained men, small hose is a 
 necessity, and also small hose permits quicker and surer work 
 and does not tend to give the excessive water damage that usually 
 results ffom untrained handling of large hose and nozzles. As a 
 standpipe for this use must be immediately available it is necessary 
 to have water constantly in the system ; there will not have to 
 be a large supply available to maintain this flow, as if the fire 
 can not be controlled within about 30 minutes, such streams will 
 be of no avail. As given in the requirements below, it is recognized 
 that one standpipe system can serve both purposes, but in build- 
 ings of excessive area this is not feasible unless branches are run 
 on the various floors to give the proper distribution of the smaller 
 lines. 
 
 Fire Department's Use. In considering standpipes for fire de- 
 partment or fire brigade use, it must be recognized that one of the 
 principal uses is in fighting a fire in an adjoining building or 
 one across the street; this has not been very general in the past, 
 but fire chiefs are awakening to the advantage thereby gained and 
 in a few more years it will be a very general practice. In the 
 Equitable building fire in New York, every standpipe in nearly 
 every building was put in service. As exemplified in this fire, as 
 many as 4 lines may be taken from one standpipe and because 
 of this it is very essential that the old idea of providing a 2- or 
 3-inch standpipe must be discarded, and one of liberal size required. 
 
 530 
 
STANDPIPKS IN BUILDINGS 531 
 
 It is practically impossible for a fire department to fight a fire 
 in a high building or one of great depth, using only lines from 
 the outside; to lay hose lines up ladders and stairs to above the 
 4th floor is a tedious and long task giving a fire a great chance 
 to spread, but where the engines can connect to the Siamese 
 inlet of a standpipe and the firemen have only their nozzles and 
 one or two rolled lengths of hose to carry up the stairs tor 
 elevator, quick work can be done. 
 
 Standpipe Hose. It is a more or less general practice for fire- 
 men to use their own hose from standpipe outlets and not that 
 provided by the buildings' owner. This is due in part to the fact 
 that they are not familiar with linen hose, the type recommended 
 because of durability, and consider it unreliable because it will 
 leak until the strands have time to swell ; but an even greater 
 defect exists, it is often in too poor a condition to be used. As 
 the firemen so seldom use it and smaller hose must be provided 
 for the use of the occupant, it might be argued that there was 
 no necessity in providing 2^-inch hose on fire department stand- 
 pipe ; it is the opinion, however, of some of the more progressive 
 chiefs, that it should be provided, as at times it is used and in 
 such cases it is of vital value. 
 
 Water Supply for Standpipe. Where provided primarily for 
 use of the fire department, a standpipe docs not have to be pro- 
 vided with a water supply, as this can not easily be provided in 
 sufficient quantities for an extensive fire and the supply can be 
 obtained from the fire engines through the Siamese connection at 
 the base. In the western coast cities standpipes for fire depart- 
 ment use are required in conjunction with or near the fire escape; 
 it is considered that this is satisfactory, although greater use 
 could probably be made of it if it were inside the building. 
 
 FRICTION IN POUNDS IN STANDPIPE PER 100 FEET* 
 
 Gallons f 4-Inch 6-Inch 
 
 200 2 0.3 
 
 300 4 0.6 
 
 400 7 0.9 
 
 500 10 1.4 
 
 600 14 2.0 
 
 700 19 2.7 
 
 800 24 3.4 
 
 900 30 4.3 
 
 1000 37 5.2 
 
 1200 52 7.5 
 
 1400 69 10.0 
 
 * An allowance equal to 100 feet of pipe should be made for loss at Siamese, 
 in bends, etc. 
 
532 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 STANDPIPES FOR PRIVATE PROTECTION* 
 
 1. In existing and new buildings three stories and higher, except as given 
 below, there shall be provided a standpipe, not less than 2 inches in 
 diameter, with water supply constantly maintained or furnished automatically 
 with the opening of a hose valve. 
 
 Exceptions: Buildings equipped with inside standpipe for fire department 
 use (see page 533) and having also i%-inch connections with hose attached, 
 and automatic water supply, all as provided in paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 of 
 thi<^ section; 
 
 Dwellings; 
 
 Churches; 
 
 Other buildings having maximum undivided fire section of less than 2,500 
 square feet area and provided with at least one 2 t /-gallon approved chemical 
 extinguishers to each fire section; 
 
 Sprinklered buildings where the requirements of this section are met by 
 connecting hose to sprinkler riser. 
 
 2. Supply shall be from one of the following sources: 
 
 Street main, where pressure is sufficient to maintain not less than 25 
 pounds at hose outlet in top story; 
 
 Gravity tank of 2,500 gallons capacity, with bottom 25 feet above outlet 
 in top story; 
 
 Pressure tank of 3,750 gallons capacity, located in top story or on roof', 
 
 Automatic pump of at least 250 gallons a minute capacity. 
 
 Provided that, if standpipe is intended also for fire department use (see 
 page 533), tank or pump capacity shall be at least double that given above. 
 
 3. Where a standpipe is connected to fire pump or provided, with Siamese 
 connection, a straightway check valve shall be provided in connecting pipe 
 to tank, and tank filled by a separate pipe; and where the water in such 
 tank is also used for house supply, the house supply pipe shall extend 
 above the bottom of the tank to such a height as will reserve for fire pur- 
 poses not less than the quantities required in paragraph 2. 
 
 4. Standpipes shall extend from the cellar to the roof, with a i^-inch 
 hose connection and gate valve, not over 5 feet above floor level, in each 
 story, including cellar and roof. 
 
 Hose sufficient to reach to all parts of the fire section, but not in excess 
 of 100 feet, shall be attached to each outlet; hose for roof outlet may be 
 placed on rack in top floor near the scuttle leading to the roof. Hose shall 
 be 1^/2 inches in diameter, and provided with nozzle having %-inch dis- 
 charge outlet. 
 
 Editor's Note. In a report on standpipes made by a committee 
 of the National Fire Protection Association in 1914, it was recom- 
 mended that no hose line of over 50 feet be allowed, as with the 
 longer lines, the troubles in handling was much greater and the 
 hose was more liable to kink. Semi-automatic hose racks were 
 recommended ; several of these are approved by the Underwriters 
 Laboratories and are reported as " Suitable for use in connection 
 with inside standpipe systems at pressures not in excess of 150 
 pounds to the square inch. Designed to permit one man to accom- 
 plish all the operations necessary in putting a line of hose into 
 service." 
 
 5. Standpipes ' and hose shall comply with the requirements of Standpipes 
 for Fire Department Use (page 533), paragraphs 3, 4, 7 and 9, except that 
 150 pounds test pressure will be required. 
 
 *A given in the 1915 edition of Building Code recommended by the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
STANDPIPES IN BUILDINGS 533 
 
 STANDPIPES FOR FIRE DEPARTMENT OR FIRE 
 BRIGADE USE* 
 
 1. In existing buildings not already provided with a 4-inch or larger 
 standpipe, and in buildings hereafter erected, there shall be provided: 
 
 a. For buildings in excess of four stories or 55 feet in height, and not 
 within 75 feet of exposing buildings, ' a standpipe not less than 4 inches in 
 diameter; 
 
 ^ b. For other buildings in excess of four stories or 55 feet in height, a 
 standpipe not less than 5 inches in diameter; 
 
 c. For buildings in excess of six stories or 75 feet in height, a standpipe 
 not less than 6 inches in diameter. 
 
 2. Standpipes shall be located within fireproof stairway inclosures. Pro- 
 vided that, where existing buildings do not have such inclosures, the stand- 
 pines shall be as near stairway as possible, or shall be on the outside of, 
 embedded within or immediately inside an exterior wall and within i foot 
 of a fire escape or fire tower. 
 
 3. One standpipe shall be provided for each separate fire section exceeding 
 2,500 square feet area, with at least one standpipe within 75 feet of every 
 exterior wall in the building. 
 
 4. Where more than one standpipe is required in a building they shall 
 be connected at their bases by pipes of size equal to that of largest 
 standpipe, so that water from any source will supply all the standpipes. 
 
 5. Standpipes shall extend from the cellar to and through the roof, with 
 ;i _' o-inch hose connection and gate valve, not over 5 feet above floor level, 
 in each story, including cellar, and two 2 1 X 5 -inch hose connections, with 
 gate valve for each, in the roof; roof connections to have a controlling gate 
 valve under the roof and arranged to be operated both from aJ.ove and 
 below the roof, with three-quarter-inch drain pipe and valve to prevent 
 freezing. Valves to be of a type giving a straight 2 1 /-inch water way. 
 
 Note. Gate valves are not suitable for these outlets, as it is 
 practically impossible to keep them tight. An angle globe valve, 
 similar to that used on boiler blow-offs, is recommended. 
 
 6. Where standpipes are located inside of building, hose sufficient to 
 reach to all parts of the fire section, but not in excess of 100 feet, shall 
 be attached to each outlet, with hose for roof-hydrant either in hose house 
 on roof or on rack in top story near roof scuttle. Hose shall be not less 
 than 2 1/5 inches in diameter, and provided with standard couplings in use 
 by the local fire department. 
 
 7. Hose to be approved linen in so-foot lengths, made under specifica- 
 tions recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 8. Each line of hose shall be provided with washers at both ends, and 
 be fitted with smooth-bore brass play pipe or nozzle at least 12 inches long, 
 with discharge outlet i % inches in diameter. One spanner to be located 
 at each hose connection. 
 
 9. Standpipes shall be wrought iron or steel, galvanized; valves, fittings 
 and connections shall be of cast steel, brass or malleable iron. They shall 
 be of such strength as to safely withstand at least 300 pounds' water pressure 
 to the square inch when ready for service, without leaking at joints, valves 
 or fittings; such test to be made by the chief of the fire department. 
 
 10. Standpipes shall be connected by a pipe of diameter equal to that of 
 the largest standpipe supplied, to a Siamese steamer connection outside of 
 
 V- given in the 1915 edition of Building Code recommended by the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
534 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 the building, on each street front, except that corner buildings having 
 one street frontage of less than 50 feet may have only one connection. 
 Siamese shall be about one foot above the curb level, and shall be provided 
 with check valves, and substantial caps to protect thread on the connection; 
 the thread shall be uniform with that used by the local fire department. A 
 suitable iron plate with raised letters shall be provided, reading: " To 
 Standpipe." 
 
 Just inside of the building, in a horizontal section, shall be placed a 
 straightway check valve. A drip pipe, with valve to same, shall he placed 
 between said check valve and Siamese connection to properly drain this 
 section to prevent freezing. Similar drip pipes shall be provided for all 
 pockets or low places which will not normally drain. 
 
 n. Fire pumps, permanently connected to the standpipe system, shall be 
 provided for buildings eight stories or more in height and in any building 
 in excess of 10,000 square feet area, with capacities as follows: 
 
 One 5-inch standpipe, pump capacity not less than 500 gallons a minute; 
 
 One 6-inch standpipe or two inter-connected 5-inch standpipes, pump 
 capacity not less than 750 gallons a minute; 
 
 Two 6-inch standpipes, pump capacity not less than 1,000 gallons a minute. 
 
 Pump to have an adequate source of power and be supplied from street 
 main or from well or cistern containing at least* one hour's full supply; 
 suction piping to be well installed. 
 
 12. In every building exceeding one hundred feet in height, at least 
 one passenger elevator shall be kept in readiness for immediate use by 
 the fire department during all hours of the night and day, including holidays 
 and Sundays. 
 
 Special Standpipe Fittings. It has been argued that in the 
 higher buildings, that is, buildings of a height too great for water 
 tower streams, a means should be provided by which a powerful 
 stream could be thrown on to the fire on any floor without the 
 firemen going inside the building or to the floor on which the 
 fire exists. Buildings of this class could of course be protected 
 by sprinkler systems but a fire getting beyond the control of the 
 sprinklers, as sometimes happens, would be a serious matter to 
 fight without a standpipe to aid. A standpipe embodying this 
 feature has beqn patented and installed in several buildings; in 
 general design, it consists of a 4- or 6-inch standpipe of the usual 
 form, but so hung and fastened at each floor that raising or turning 
 the pipe is possible. The raising is accomplished by having the 
 bottom of the standpipe in the form of a plunger, which, by means 
 of the water pressure available, permits the standpipe to be raised 
 at will. Revolving the standpipe is accomplished manually. Small 
 brass pipes extend from a control box at the bottom of the stand- 
 pipe to hydraulic valves on each floor which control the flow through 
 nozzles attached to the standpipe, thus permitting any story to be 
 swept at will. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 In all matters of fire protection it is recognized that if an ex- 
 tinguishing agent is applied in the incipient stage of the fire, it 
 will tend largely towards preventing a serious fire; this is par- 
 ticularly true where a hazardous or quick burning substance is 
 present. 
 
 The most efficient means of applying the extinguishing agent 
 during the early stages of a fire is the automatic sprinkler. Be- 
 cause of cost, such systems are generally designed and supplied 
 on the basis of extinguishing only a small fire and never one requir- 
 ing the opening of more than the sprinklers in one fire section of 
 any story. They are, however, provided with steamer connections, 
 tnrough which the fire department can pump water, or have a con- 
 nection to a fire pump. By this means, much larger flows can 
 be obtained, thus making a sprinkler system of great aid to the 
 fire department in fighting a fire which has reached large pro- 
 portions. It has, in this connection, the great advantage of placing 
 the water directly on the fire, a condition which can not be obtained 
 in a smoke-filled room with hand lines. For this reason some fire 
 protectionists recommend installing sprinkler piping throughout a 
 city, with only steamer connections, to be used by the fire depart- 
 ment. In many cities, the requirement is made by ordinance that 
 cellars and basements be equipped in this way. 
 
 There can be no doubt that such a system is of value, but it 
 does not have the full automatic feature, as no water supply is 
 available until the fire department connects into it, and in many 
 cities this would not be done. To be of full value, it must come 
 into service with good force in the very earliest stages of a fire. 
 
 PRIVATE FIRE CONNECTIONS FROM CITY MAINS. 
 There has been much discussion of this subject in the past few 
 years, both as to the advisability of making such connections and 
 as to the necessity of limiting the sizes of the connections or 
 otherwise restricting them. Some have thought that no restric- 
 tions should be placed by the city authorities on the size and 
 number of connections; that they should be limited only by the 
 size of the street mains and the desires of the building owners, 
 while others have gone so far in the other direction as to contest 
 any large connections whatever. It is evident there should be a 
 
 535 
 
536 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 happy medium, connections which will be small enough for safety 
 and yet large enough for efficiency. In this connection a glance 
 at the experience of the Associated Mutual Fire Insurance Com- 
 panies will be of value, as they have had more experience with 
 automatic sprinklers than any other organization. These com- 
 panies are purely mutual,, and their efforts are directed toward the 
 prevention of fires and the development of appliances designed to 
 reduce the fire loss. 
 
 In the '6os and early '/os the automatic sprinkler had not been 
 invented, but mill buildings were quite generally equipped with 
 standpipes and perforated pipe sprinklers, normally empty, with 
 outside gates to be opened in case of fire. In those days the cost 
 of mutual insurance, which is the actual loss plus a small amount 
 for inspection work, etc., was about 32 cents per $100 of value 
 insured. In the decade 1900 to 1910, with nearly all mutual mills 
 sprinklered, the cost was 6^2 cents per $100 of value, or in other 
 words, the fire loss had been reduced 80 per cent. The mutual 
 companies are unanimous in ascribing by far the larger part of 
 this saving to the automatic sprinkler. In the 'Sbs, there were 
 still some doubts as to the efficiency of sprinklers, so a table was 
 compiled of fires in mills, between 1877 and 1887, with this result: 
 at 759 fires in sprinklered buildings, the average loss per fire 
 (including the water damage of course) was $1,080, or only one- 
 seventh as great as in the unsprinklered mills. This you will note 
 was in large buildings, mainly with highly inflammable stocks, and 
 is a most remarkable showing, for at that time the automatic 
 sprinkler was far from its present perfected state. 
 
 Although automatic sprinklers have been in use now for many 
 years and have proven their efficiency and value over and over 
 again, yet it is still impossible to convince the average business 
 man against his will that they would be desirable or profitable in 
 his particular case. In fact, about the only way the average con- 
 cern can be induced to install them is by the reduction of insurance 
 premiums by 50 to 75 per cent. The building ordinances of most 
 cities offer no encouragement to the would-be progressive citizen, 
 such as limiting areas or heights of buildings except where im- 
 proved construction or automatic sprinklers are used, and many 
 fire departments are loath to make use of the evident advantage 
 offered by the sprinkler connections, of providing means whereby 
 water may be thrown directly into the heart of a fire, in places 
 and under cqnditions where no fireman could live. As for the water- 
 works officials, their ideas may be often summed up as: All you 
 care to pay for at meter rates, and what is left over, for fires. 
 Some water departments, in the endeavor to make a good showing 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 537 
 
 in the ledger account, charge extortionate prices for water supplies 
 for private tire protection, thus nullifying the efforts of the fire 
 department and insurance interests to secure such installations. 
 
 In order to determine the general practice of waterworks officials 
 with regard to fire service connections to city mains, in 1912, a 
 National Hoard engineer communicated with 75 representative 
 American cities, and asked a series of questions covering the 
 subject, with the following results: About four-fifths of the city 
 works and one-third to one-half of the private works make no 
 charge or only a nominal charge for fire connections; the rest 
 charge all tin- way from $22.50 to $120 per annum for various 6-inch 
 connections, the companies generally charging the higher figures. 
 Strch rates as $105 and $120, which two western cities charge for 
 connections used only for lire purposes, together with the expense 
 of installation, interest, etc., will go far toward balancing any 
 saving in rates the ordinary 1 property owner would make by in- 
 -talling standpipes or sprinklers, and in effect act to penalize him 
 for reducing his hazard and the exposure to his neighbors. Of 
 course the taxpayer must also pay his share of the general city fire 
 protection. About one-third do not limit size of connections; 
 where any limit is placed there is a decided leaning toward six 
 inches as a maximum. As to measuring devices on connections, 
 over half do not require meters, one-third require detector meters 
 and the rest other types. This corresponds well with the insurance 
 requirements, that either no meters he used or some form, such as 
 a detector, which will not retard heavy flows. As regard gates 
 and check valves, there is great diversity, but about half of the 
 cities have no rules or only require a gate at the street mains; 
 the rest require also one or more checks, especially if there is 
 another source of supply from which contaminated water might 
 work back into the street mains. There are numerous schemes to 
 prevuit or discover theft of water; inspection alone appears un- 
 satisfactory, but in conjunction with sealed outlets seems to work 
 all right; the detector type of meter appears satisfactory, but 
 is expensive. Several cities state that meters will be installed if 
 any water is used illegally. The experience of the majority appears 
 to be that illegal use of water may be prevented with a fair amount 
 of certainty. Where the detector meters are objected to on account 
 of expense, the prohibition of other connections from fire lines, 
 sealing of test and draw-off valves, hose gates, etc., and regular 
 and careful inspections have been found effective; the property 
 owner would not object to a charge sufficient to pay for monthly 
 inspections or tests. 
 
538 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 The usual sources of supply to automatic sprinklers are: 
 
 1. From a gravity tank above the highest line of sprinklers. 
 
 2. From a pressure tank; to be above the highest line of sprink- 
 lers if possible. 
 
 3. From the public water supply by direct connections. 
 
 4. From the public water supply through the fire department, 
 hose and Siamese connections. 
 
 5. From stationary fire pumps, which may be supplied from a 
 stream, reservoir or cistern, or from water mains. 
 
 For a standard sprinkler equipment, two sources of supply are 
 required. At least one of these should be automatic and one should 
 be capable of furnishing water under heavy pressure. 
 
 The standard rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, 
 as recommended by the National Fire Protection Association, state 
 that the pressure connections should be capable of furnishing 25 
 pounds static pressure, at all hours of the day at the highest line 
 of sprinklers and also able to maintain 10 pounds pressure on the 
 highest sprinklers with the water flowing through the number of 
 sprinkler heads liable to be opened by fire at one time. This num- 
 ber would probably be all the sprinklers on one floor dependent 
 on one riser. The requirement for 25 pounds static pressure at 
 all hours appears high, and would bar out many cities where the 
 public supply will furnish only 10 or 15 pounds at the top of a 
 5-story building. This would mean 25 to 40 pounds at the street 
 level, which is a common figure in the large cities and in parts 
 of almost any city. Even though not up to standard, 10 or 15 
 pounds will produce very effective sprinkler streams. 
 
 The Committee on Fire Prevention of the National Board of 
 Fire Underwriters has for a long time recommended that automatic 
 sprinkler equipments be required in buildings which, by reason of 
 size, construction or occupancy, either singly or combined, might 
 act as conflagration breeders. For such equipments it recommends 
 direct connections from the street mains where pressures are high 
 enough to be effective, with controlling valve in the street. 
 
 If the street mains are large enough to provide ample supply, 
 even at low pressure, this is no doubt the most reliable source, next 
 to a detached, elevated tank. How large shall the connections be 
 and how arranged? The National Fire Protection Association, 
 which is the best authority on these questions, says that for sprink- 
 ler equipments or standpipes in closely built districts, 4-inch con- 
 nections should be used where they will furnish ample water. 
 Usually this can be arranged by dividing the system into 2 or 
 more sections or taking 4-inch connections from well separated 
 points on the street mains or from different mains on separate 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 539. 
 
 streets, as where a building is on the street corner or runs through 
 the block to another street. Where pressures are low or the street 
 mains small, often 4-inch connections will not furnish enough 
 water and 6-inch pipes must be used, as it is well-known that the 
 friction loss in 4-inch pipe is about seven times as great as in 
 6-inch pipe. 
 
 The original theory of sprinklers was that a few heads would 
 open and control a fire at the start, and if a fire should gain head- 
 way, or should be communicated from an unsprinklered building, 
 the sprinklers probably would not hold it. But it was found by 
 experience that liberal supply pipes and ample water would permit 
 the sprinklers to do much greater work ; thus, they could protect 
 the centers of large buildings or the upper floors of high buildings 
 or similar areas, which would be out of the range of hose streams. 
 
 In many cities where joisted buildings are being but slowly 
 replaced by improved construction, the sprinkler is the chief means 
 by which sweeping fires can be prevented. Even in high fireproof 
 buildings, where contents are combustible, sprinklers are the only 
 means of preventing severe losses ; they could have prevented the 
 terrible loss of life at various factory fires in recent years. 
 
 But there is another feature to be considered. During a large 
 fire, pipes will break, water leak out and, if the leak is big enough, 
 thi- whole public system will be so bled as to make hydrants worth- 
 less, and cripple the fire department; such was the case in the 
 Salem conflagration. So that we must find some happy medium, 
 such size of supply pipes as will not endanger the public supply 
 if broken and yet will be large enough to furnish ample water 
 under working conditions. Then the supply must be safeguarded 
 so that a broken line can be shut off speedily and securely. 
 
 Sprinkler experts tell us that in large installations the cost of 
 two 4-inch connections and risers is not appreciably greater than 
 for one 6-inch (except for meters), and the arrangement presents 
 decided advantages, especially the possibility of maintaining partial 
 protection during shutdowns due to repairs or alterations. In some 
 cities we find connections to sprinklers as large as 8- or lo-inch. 
 This is now regarded as bad practice, except perhaps for isolated 
 buildings, from which fires could not spread to other property and 
 where broken mains could be shut off at the street corner without 
 robbing the fire engines of water for the protection of neighbors. 
 I ; or it is evident that a broken 6-inch or larger connection would 
 cripple the fire department in the immediate vicinity until the 
 controlling gates could be closed. Therefore, it is recommended 
 that sprinkler and standpipe services shall have an outside con- 
 trolling valve set in one of these ways : 
 
54O FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 a. At the curb, with an indicator post. 
 
 b. At the building line, with an indicator post in a recess in 
 the wall. 
 
 c. In a valve pit in the street or at the curb. 
 
 d. In bad cases, the connection to be looped back and the gate 
 set at the opposite curb across the street, or opposite an adjacent 
 building. 
 
 There have been various fires where falling walls or other wreck- 
 age, snow, or ice, etc., have prevented the shutting off of the large 
 sprinkler connections, after the fire got beyond control of the 
 sprinklers and reduced the pressure in the mains so that direct 
 hydrant streams were valueless and the engines could not obtain 
 sufficient water. All the fire department could do was to save the 
 surrounding property. If the sprinkler connections had been at the 
 corner of the building or a little beyond the front, in these cases, 
 it would have been a simple matter to close the gate. Sometimes 
 the connection can be gated in front of a stair tower or heavy 
 division wall, where there is less chance of falling walls making 
 it inaccessible. 
 
 The fire department should keep track of these connections and 
 be sure that they are properly marked to be quickly located at need. 
 The waterworks men are frequently not available at such times and 
 the prompt closing of a broken connection may make a vast differ- 
 ence in the eventual outcome of a fire. It is not always a falling 
 wall that makes, trouble ; many things may cause a serious break 
 inside a building a floor or roof falling, or heavy machinery or 
 safes dropping and, when the break occurs, then the sprinkler 
 connection becomes a detriment instead of a help to the firemen. 
 Care should be taken that any main supplying automatic sprinkler 
 systems or standpipes shall be properly gated at each end of the 
 block, so that in extreme cases it will be feasible to cut a short 
 section out of service without interfering with other supplies. In 
 a narrow street the heat of a fire will often render gate valves 
 inaccessible, or in winter the snow may be piled up so they can 
 not be quickly located. 
 
 There should also be a check valve, or preferably two, in the 
 connection. between the indicator gate and the riser, so that water 
 will not be drained from the tank during shutdowns of the street 
 mains, etc., and also in case of systems having stationary pumps, 
 so that water, possibly infected -with disease germs, may not bo 
 pumped back into the street mains. 
 
 A recent suggestion for safeguarding fire connections is to place 
 an electrically operated valve in a concrete vault in the street or 
 at the curb. This can' be controlled from any distant point, as 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 541 
 
 each end of the block, or at the nearest fire alarm box, where a 
 small locked box with controlling switch may be placed, the key to 
 be in possession of the fire chief. Then if for any reason the chief 
 should find the sprinkler or standpipe connection taking too much 
 of the supply for his engines, he could at once and with certainty 
 shut them off. Of course, this apparatus must be properly installed 
 and regularly tested ; it would seem specially valuable where con- 
 nections are made to high pressure systems and the additional 
 expense would not be a deterrent feature compared with the need 
 of certain means of control. As a substitute for the electrically 
 operated valve, there is the hydraulically operated valve; this may 
 be designed to use the water pressure in the pipe for closing, or 
 an arrangement could be made by which it could be closed by 
 pumping oil or water through a small pipe from a tank located at 
 some distant point. 
 
 There has been much discussion as to the advisability of allowing 
 connections from high pressure systems for private protection ; 
 either to yard hydrants, standpipes or sprinklers. To the yard 
 hydrants there is little objection, if they are made to withstand 
 the high pressures and are regularly inspected like street hydrants. 
 The sprinklers and standpipes are not ordinarily designed for such 
 high pressure, and especially the severe " hammer " or shock caused 
 6y sudden increase of pressure. One can imagine what might happen 
 to an automatic sprinkler system if suddenly subjected to the 300 
 pounds pressure of the New York High Pressure System, or even 
 to 200 pounds. Recent improvement in design of regulating valves 
 has probably overcome much of this danger, however. These valves 
 may be attached at the gate in the street and set to limit the 
 pressure to the sprinklers at any desired figure; they are claimed 
 to be so reliable that pressures may be held within 5 pounds of 
 the predetermined figure, no matter how much higher the pressure 
 in the street mains may rise. But there is the danger of private 
 connections being so used as to bleed the high pressure system 
 and render it ineffective for fire department use. During the gfcat 
 Dreamland fire at Coney Island, in May, 1911, it is stated that 
 over 20 streams were used by adjacent property owners who had 
 standpipe connections, to wet down buildings and roofs. As the 
 total capacity of the Coney Island High Pressure System was only 
 4,500 gallans per minute, and one of the pumps broke down, leaving 
 only 3,000 gallons per minute during most of the fire, it will readily 
 be seen that few efficient hydrant streams could be obtained by the 
 fire department. On the whole, it seems best to reserve these high 
 pressure systems solely for fire department use and to take no 
 chances of lost pressure in an emergency, unless it shall be found 
 
54 2 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 safe to' use some combination of electrically-controlled gate valves 
 and pressure reducing valves, as explained above. Where the 
 systems are properly designed, with multiple outlet hydrants closely 
 spaced, it is readily feasible to run short lines of hose from the 
 nearest hydrant to the Siamese connections of the sprinklers and 
 standpipes, thus giving ample water for severe fires. Any properly 
 designed sprinkler outfit should have sufficient tank capacity to 
 feed the system until the firemen can attach these lines; especially 
 in these days of motor apparatus and speedy response. 
 
 To sum up the experience of many years has proven con- 
 clusively that automatic sprinklers are of immense value as fire 
 extinguishers and conflagration stoppers, therefore all should unite 
 in urging and extending their use. To secure best results, a large 
 and reliable supply of water is needful; this in most cases will 
 mean connections to the city water mains. These connections 
 should be large enough to furnish the required supply, but not so 
 large as to hamper the fire department and endanger neighboring- 
 buildings in case of breaks. 
 
 Both theory and practice indicate that in most cases one or more 
 4-inch connections properly arranged are sufficient for well designed 
 standpipe or sprinkler systems, and that 6-inch connections are the 
 largest that can be safely permitted in a built-up district. Every 
 such installation is of value both in controlling fires originating 
 in the protected premises and in preventing the spread of fires in 
 adjacent buildings. 
 
 The waterworks officials should encourage such installations by 
 refraining from prohibitive rates and regulations for fire connec- 
 tions, and the fire departments should keep fully informed as to 
 the location of gate valves and Siamese connections, so that in case 
 of fire, water may be pumped to the sprinklers so long as these 
 work, and in case of accident, gates may be promptly closed to 
 stop leakage of water and toss of supply for the engines. 
 
 THE INSTALLATION OF AUTOMATIC AND OPEN 
 ' :! ; SPRINKLER EQUIPMENTS* 
 
 The rules contained herein .cover the general details of a sprinkler 
 equipment only. Before an equipment in installed, or before a 
 present equipment is remodelled, complete working plans should 
 be submitted for approval to the Inspection Department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 These plans should be drawn to an indicated scale; give correct 
 address and points of compass ; show sectional elevations of the 
 buildings ; and the essential features of the construction, viz., size, 
 
 Regulations prescribed by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 543 
 
 location and direction of joists, timbers or other structural mem- 
 bers. They should also indicate the location and size of water 
 supplies, connecting pipes, feed mains and risers, gate, check, alarm 
 and dry-pipe valves, as well as the location, spacing, number and 
 type of sprinklers. 
 
 Inspection Department having jurisdiction and the lists pub- 
 lished by the Underwriters Laboratories should be consulted as to 
 standard makes of automatic and open sprinklers, gate, check, 
 alarm and dry-pipe valves, indicator posts and hydrants. 
 
 Section A General Information 
 
 1. Preparation of Building. Many buildings require prepara- 
 tion for sprinkler equipment. All needless ceiling sheathing, hollow 
 siding, tops of high shelving, needless partitions or decks should 
 be removed. Necessary " stops " to check draft, necessary new 
 partitions, closets, decks, etc., should be put in place, or provided 
 for, so that the equipment may conform to same. The top flooring 
 should be made thoroughly tight. Paper or similar light inflam- 
 mable ceiling sheathing is objectionable and unnecessary. (See 
 Section B, Rule 13.) 
 
 2. Accessory Construction. Sprinkler equipments require acces- 
 sory construction, dry pipe valve closets, ladders, anti-freezing 
 boxing for tank pipes, etc. This work should be promptly attended 
 to if not let with sprinkler contract. 
 
 3. Vertical or Horizontal Drafts. Floor or wall openings tend- 
 ing to create vertical or horizontal drafts, or other structural de- 
 fects that would prevent the prompt operation of automatic sprink- 
 lers by preventing the banking up of the heated air from the fire, 
 should be properly " stopped " in order to permit specific control by 
 the local sprinklers. 
 
 Satisfactory curtain-boards and other draft-stops must be pro- 
 vided to overcome such structural defects. 
 
 Except in special cases the main feeders to sprinklers are only 
 of sufficient size to supply the sprinklers on one floor, consequently 
 it is absolutely essential that these requirements for protection of 
 vertical shafts should be carried out in every detail, and where 
 extraordinary conditions exist and there is likelihood of fire pass- 
 ing through unprotected openings, pipe sizes should be increased 
 accordingly. 
 
 4. Clear Space Below Sprinklers. Full effective action of sprink- 
 lers requires about 24 inches wholly clear space below the sprink- 
 lers, so they may form an unbroken spray blanket from sprinkler 
 to sprinkler and sides of room. Any stock piles, racks or other 
 obstructions interfering with such action are not permissible. 
 Sprinkler piping should not be used for the support of stock, cloth- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 5. Experienced Workmen Recommended. Sprinkler installa- 
 tion is a trade in itself. Inspectors cannot be expected to act as 
 working superintendents, or correct errors of beginners. Sprinkler 
 work should be entrusted to none but fully experienced and re- 
 sponsible parties. 
 
544 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Care must be taken that after pipes are cut they are properly 
 reamed in order to remove all burrs and fins ; also that threads are 
 cut to standard so that joints will be properly ma'de without obstruct- 
 ing waterway. In applying the joint compound, care should be 
 taken to place it on the pipe and not the fitting. 
 
 All distributing pipes must be straightened befo're .installation, 
 in order to prevent pockets between hangers which would interfere 
 with the proper drainage of the system. 
 
 6. All Portions of Buildings to be Protected. Experience 
 teaches that sprinklers are often necessary wtiere seemingly least 
 needed. Their protection is required not alone where a 'fire may 
 begin, but also wherever any fire might extend, including wet or 
 damp locations. 
 
 7. Degree of Protection. A maximum protection cannot be ex- 
 pected where sprinklers are at more or 'less permanent disadvan- 
 tage, as in the -case of stocks very 'susceptible to smoke and water 
 damage, buildings having deep piles of hollow goods, excessive 
 draughts, explosion or flash fire hazards, or large amounts of 
 benzine or similar^fluid. 
 
 8. Necessary Cut-offs. Sprinklers cannot be expected '19 keep 
 out fire originating in unsprinklered territory. Stringent measures 
 should be used to properly cut off all unsprinklered portions, of 
 buildings or exposures. 
 
 9. Communications. When a building fully equipped witih 
 sprinklers communicates with another not so equipped, the openings 
 must be protected by standard fire doors on both sides of the walls, 
 one of which must be automatic.' 
 
 10. Protection Against Exposures. The : , danger bf : sprinkler 
 protection being impaired by exposure, fires should be reduced by 
 providing at exposed openings one or more df the following: 
 Shutters, wired glass or open sprinkler protection.' 
 
 Section B Location of Automatic Sprinklers. 
 
 11. Position of Sprinkler. Shall be located in an upright posi- 
 tion. 
 
 When construction or occupancy of a rcjom or enclosure makes it preferable, 
 permission may be given, except on dry-pipe systems, to locate sprinklers in a 
 pendant position. 
 
 12. Position of Deflectors. Sprinkler deflectors shall be parallel 
 to ceilings, roofs or the incline of stairs, but when installed in the 
 peak of a pitched roof they shall be horizontal. Distance of deflec- 
 tors from ceilings of mill or other, smooth construction^ ur Bottom 
 of joists of open joist construction-, shall be not less than 3 inches 
 nor more than 10 inches; 6 to 8 inches, is the best distance with 
 average pressure and present types of sprinklers. Note particularly 
 that the rule for distance refers to the deflector of the sprinkler. 
 
 In the case of fireproof buildings, the distance between deflectors 
 and ceilings may be increased where conditions warrant; i. e., 
 under panel ceilings. In semi-mill, or other upusual construction, 
 consult the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 13. Detailed Locations. Sprinklers shall be placed throughout 
 premises, including basement and., lofts, under stairs, inside. elevator 
 wells, in belt, cable, pipe, gear and pulley boxes, inside small. en- 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 545 
 
 closures, such as drying and heating boxes, tenter and dry-room 
 enclosures, chutes, conveyor trunks and all cupboards and closets 
 unless they have tops entirely open, and are so located that sprink- 
 lers can properly spray therein. Sprinklers are not to be omitted 
 in any room merely because it is damp, wet or of fireproof con- 
 struction. 
 
 Special instructions should be obtained from Inspection Depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction relative to placing sprinklers inside show 
 windows, telephone booths, boxed machines, metal air ducts, ven- 
 tilators and concealed spaces, and under large shelves, benches, 
 tables, overhead storage racks, platforms and similar water-sheds, 
 and over electrical generating and transforming apparatus and 
 switchboards. 
 
 14. Protection of Vertical Shafts. In vertical shafts having 
 inflammable sides, a sprinkler shall be provided within shaft for 
 each 200 square feet of the inflammable surface, in addition to 
 sprinklers at tops of shafts. Such sprinklers should be installed 
 at each floor when practicable, and always when shaft is trapped. 
 
 Where practicable, sprinklers should be " staggered " at the alter- 
 nate floor levels, particularly when only one sprinkler is installed 
 ;it each floor level. 
 
 Section C Spacing of Automatic Sprinklers 
 
 15. Distance from Walls. The distance from wall or partition 
 t<> first sprinkler shall not exceed one half the allowable distance 
 between sprinklers in the same direction. Additional sprinklers 
 may also be required in the narrow pockets formed by bay timbers 
 
 or beams and wall. 
 
 16. Partitions. A line of sprinklers should be run on each side 
 of partition. Cutting holes through a partition to allow sprinklers 
 m one side thereof to distribute water to the other side is not 
 effectual. This rule applies to both solid and slatted partitions. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE: See Appendix for Amendment adopted in 1916. 
 
 17. Mill Construction. Under mill ceiling (smooth solid plank 
 and timber construction, 5 to 12 foot bays) one line of sprinklers 
 should be placed in center of each bay and distance between the 
 sprinklers on each line should not exceed the following: 
 
 8 feet in 12 foot bays. 
 
 9 feet in 1 1 foot bays. 
 
 10 feet in 10 foot bays. 
 
 1 1 feet in 9 foot bays. 
 
 12 feet in 5 to 8 foot bays 
 
 Measurements should be taken from center to center of timbers. 
 
 Ceilings of modified mill construction having bays less than 
 three feet should be treated as open joist construction and sprinkler 
 heads spaced accordingly. 
 
 Bay timbers spaced three feet or more on centers, but less than 
 five feet on centers, will require special ruling by the Inspection 
 Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 18. Joisted Construction. Under open finish joisted construc- 
 tion, ceilings, floors, decks and roofs, the lines shall be run at right 
 angles to the joists and the sprinklers " staggered spaced," so that 
 heads will be opposite a point half way between sprinklers on 
 adjacent lines, and the distance between sprinklers not exceeding 
 
546 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 8 feet at right angles to the joists or 10 feet parallel with joists; 
 the end heads on alternate lines being not more than 2 feet from 
 wall or partition. 
 Also see Rule 15. 
 
 Exception. An exception may be made to this rule if the conditions war- 
 rant, viz., special permission may be given to install but one line of sprinklers 
 in bays 10 to 11% feet wide from center to center of the timbers which sup- 
 port; the joists. Tn all cases where such bays are over ii 1 /^ feet wide, two 
 
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 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 FIG. 80 
 
 or more lines of sprinklers should be installed in each bay as required by 
 the rules for spacing. This does not apply where beams are flush with the 
 joists, in which case sprinklers may be spaced as called for in Rule 18. Where 
 permission is given, the sprinklers should be placed closer together on a line 
 so that in no case will the area covered by a single sprinkler exceed 80 square 
 feet. Also see Rule 22. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 547 
 
 19. Smooth Finish, Sheathed or Plastered Ceilings. Under 
 smooth finish, sheathed or plastered ceilings, in bays 6 to 12 feet 
 wide (measurement to be taken from center to center of timber, 
 girder or other projection or support, forming the bay), one line 
 of sprinklers shall be placed in center of each bay, and distance 
 between the sprinklers on each line should not exceed the follow- 
 
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 ing: 8 feet in 12 foot bays; 9 feet in u foot bays; 10 feet in 6 
 to 10 foot bays. Bays in excess of 12 feet in width and less than 
 23 feet in width should contain at least two lines of sprinklers; 
 bays 23 feet in width or over should have the lines therein not over 
 10 feet apart. In bays in excess of 12 feet in width not more than 
 loo square feet ceiling area should be allotted any one sprinkler. 
 
548 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 20. Pitched Roofs. Under a pitched roof sloping more steeply 
 than i foot in 3, sprinklers shall be located in peak of roof, and 
 those on either side of peak spaced according to above require- 
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 parallel with roof. Where the roof meets the floor line, sprinklers 
 should be placed not over 3^2 feet from where roof timbers meet 
 floor. 
 
 Sprinklers not more than 2^2 feet distant each way from the peak 
 of roof, measured on a line with the roof, may be used in lieu of 
 sprinklers located in peak of roof as above. Also see Rule 22. 
 
 In sawtooth roof, the end sprinklers on the branch line shall 
 be not over 2,^/2 feet from the peak of the sawtooth. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 549 
 
 21. Fireproof Construction. The rules for slow-burning con- 
 struction should apply as far as practicable. The rule may be 
 modified, however, the intent being to arrange the spacing of 
 sprinklers to protect the contents rather than the ceilings ; but in 
 no case shall the distance of a sprinkler on a line exceed 12 feet 
 to a sprinkler on an adjoining line. 
 
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 U. '-~~ 
 O 'ul 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 j5 s 
 
 u) 
 
 E 3 
 
 o * 
 
 P "* 
 
 ^ i- I 
 
 tt^- S 
 
 ^"< h 
 
 S?< 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 FIG. 83 
 
 22. Unusual Construction. Special instructions should be ob- 
 tained from Inspection Department having jurisdiction relative to 
 location of sprinklers under floors and roofs of semi-mill, panel 
 or other unusual construction which may interfere with distribution 
 of water, and for which provision is not hereinbefore made. 
 
550 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 These types of construction are so varied that no absolute rules 
 can be given to cover all cases. 
 
 " Semi-mill " is the term here applied to plank and timber con- 
 struction with narrow bays generally less than 5 feet in width. 
 
 " Panel " construction is where the ceiling is divided by the 
 timbers into panels or pockets. Narrow bay panels come under 
 the head of " semi-mill " construction, and may usually be protected 
 in the same way. 
 
 Sprinkler lines should usually run at right angles to the timbers, 
 with heads staggered under alternate timbers, in alternate bays, 
 or alternately under the timbers and in the bays, the arrangement 
 depending on the width of the bay, the size of the timbers and the 
 distance between supporting girders, as well as upon the occupancy 
 and water pressure. 
 
 Ordinarily, where the timbers are not larger than 6 x 10 inches, 
 the best distribution is obtained by placing the heads under the 
 timbers. 
 
 The distance between lines will depend somewhat upon the dis- 
 tance between the girders suppoiting the timbers, the number of 
 lines in these transverse bays being governed largely by the distance 
 between the heads on the lines. 
 
 Section D Pipe Sizes 
 
 23. General Schedule. In no case should the number of sprink- 
 lers on a given size pipe on one .floor of one fire section exceed 
 the following : 
 
 Size of Maximum No. of 
 
 Pipe. Sprinklers Allowed. 
 
 %-inch i sprinkler 
 
 . 2 sprinklers 
 
 3% 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 55 
 
 80 
 
 140 
 
 200 
 
 Where practicable, it is desirable to arrange the piping so that the number 
 of sprinklers on a 'branch line will not exceed eight. 
 
 Where feed mains supply branch lines of only two sprinklers 
 each, the conditions approach those of long single lines. Such 
 feeds should usually be centrally supplied where there are over 
 eight or ten branch lines. Lines up to fourteen in number may be 
 fed from end, provided 2^-inch pipe supplies not more than sixteen 
 sprinklers. 
 
 Buildings having slatted floors, or large unprotected floor openings 
 without approved stops, should be treated as one room with refer- 
 ence to the pipe sizes, and the feed main should be of sufficient 
 size to accommodate the number of sprinklers called for. Larger 
 pipe sizes than called for in the schedule may be required wherever 
 the construction or conditions introduce unusually long runs of pipe 
 or many angles. Buildings with blind attics with small unprotected 
 openings to floor below, may be piped from the system on the 
 ceiling of floor below, provided pipe size schedule is not overloaded 
 on sizes 3 inches or under. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 551 
 
 Section E Feed Mains and Risers 
 
 24. Location of Risers. " Center central " or " side central " 
 feed to sprinklers is recommended. The former is preferred, espe- 
 cially where there are over six sprinklers on a branch line. In 
 high buildings, allowance must be made for frictional loss and 
 sizes of risers increased accordingly. Risers should not be located 
 close to windows, and should be properly protected from mechanical 
 injury or a possible freezing. 
 
 25. Supporting of Risers. Risers should be properly supported. 
 In buildings of heavy construction and where riser is not supported 
 at the ground level, . floor plates or clamps and pipe couplings 
 should be provided at the first (ground) floor level, and also at 
 every fourth floor above same, where a building is over five stories 
 in height, except that in buildings nine to ten stories high no floor 
 plate nor coupling would be needed above the fifth floor. 
 
 'This would call for such supports at the first (ground) and fifth 
 floors in a building seven to ten stories high, and floor plates and 
 couplings at the first (ground), fifth and ninth floors in buildings 
 eleven to fourteen stories high, etc. In buildings of light construc- 
 tion, additional supports will be needed. 
 
 Where risers are supported at the ground level, provide such 
 supports at every fourth floor above same. (See Appendix for 
 modification made in 1916.) 
 
 Where sprinkler risers, or those from tanks, are in vertical shafts, 
 they should be supported equivalent to the above. 
 
 Where risers, drains, heating pipes, etc., pass through cinder con- 
 crete, a sleeve or other suitable means should be provided to prevent 
 corrosion. Neat cement or seven per cent lime mortar around the 
 pipe will protect same. 
 
 26. Size of Risers. There should be one or more separate risers 
 in each building and in each section of the building divided by fire 
 walls. Each riser should be of sufficient size to supply all the 
 sprinklers on said riser on any one floor, as determined by the 
 standard schedule of pipe sizes. If the conditions warrant, special 
 permission will be granted allowing the sprinklers in a fire section 
 of small area (total number of sprinklers not to exceed 48 per 
 floor) to be fed from the riser in another section. 
 
 Stair or other towers without approved stops between floors, 
 if piped on independent riser, should be treated as one room with 
 reference to pipe sizes, i. e., feed main should be of sufficient size 
 to accommodate the total number of sprinklers. 
 
 27. Connections to Systems. All main water supplies should 
 connect with sprinkler system at foot of riser. 
 
 Exception. Where a gravity or pressure tank or both, constitute the only 
 automatic source of water supply, special permission may be given to connect 
 the tank or tanks with the sprinkler system at the top of the riser, provided 
 lower level control to several fire sections is not required. 
 
 The connection between the wrought iron or steel and cast iron 
 pipe from underground main should preferably be flange and spigot 
 pipe properly strapped together. 
 
 Where bell and spigot pipe is used, the wrought iron or steel and 
 cast iron pipes should be properly strapped together. A flanged 
 connection should be used on the wrought iron or steel pipe and 
 not simply clamps with set-screws. For 8-inch pipes and smaller, 
 the rod to be ^ inch, for larger pipe, ^ inch. Straps or rods, if 
 
552 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 to be buried, should be protected against corrosion by painting with 
 tar, asphaltum, or by other suitable means. Where practicable, 
 connections should run underground to the foot of the riser; but 
 in any event, the cast-iron pipe should extend above ground, and 
 no cinders or other corrosive material should be placed against 
 either pipe. See Rule 28. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 FIG. 84 
 
 28. Protection Against Frost. (See Figure 84.) Where sup- 
 ply pipes or risers in low basements or low spaces under ground 
 floors are exposed to frost, they should be properly protected. An 
 acceptable method, ^especially where the space is over 18 inches high, 
 is by an enclosure properly heated or filled with heavy earth or 
 other suitable material, such as mineral wool or sawdust. Enclosure 
 
A i TOMATIC SPRINKLERS 553 
 
 should extend below bottom of pipe and through the top flooring 
 of ground floor. In severe climates, where space is filled, the 
 enclosure should be of sufficient size to permit of a filling of not 
 less than four (4) feet, all sides around the pipe. Enclosure should 
 preferably be of brick, but may be of wood, and if the latter, should 
 be at least double with tar paper between. Where the space is not 
 more than 18 inches high, the flooring of ground floor may be 
 cut away and the space around the pipe enclosed according to either 
 of the above methods, but the area may be reduced so there will 
 be not less than one (i) foot clear space all sides around the pipe, 
 thus exposing pipe to the heated room above. Opening at floor 
 level should not be covered except by a metal grid. 
 
 Tn any case where wood is used, it should be of a kind that will 
 endure underground, and in addition, should be treated with creosote 
 or other acceptable preservative. 
 
 Care should be taken in laying the underground connection, to 
 extend it sufficiently far into the building to give the required 
 spaces called for above, the pipe to be offset if desired, at or above 
 the floor level. 
 
 The laying of connections in raceways exposed to frost should 
 be avoided, owing to the difficulty of protecting the pipe near the 
 surface and in the space between the surface of the \vat-r and t he- 
 floor of the building. Such connections, if they cannot be avoided, 
 should go through the wall of the race below the frost line, and 
 enter the building through the solid ground, and far enough back 
 from the side of the race to avoid frost. 
 
 Section F Valves and Fittings 
 
 29. Types of Valves to be Used. All valves on connections to 
 water supplies and in supply pipes to sprinklers should be standard 
 outride screw and yoke or other standard indicator pattern. 
 
 Underground gate valves of standard pattern equipped with stand- 
 ard indicator posts fulfill this rule.. 
 
 Drip and/or test pipes should be of a standard type. 
 
 Check valves should be of a standard straight-way pattern, and 
 installed in horizontal pipe, unless suitably designed for vertical 
 position. 
 
 30. Valves in Connection to Water Supply. The pipe con- 
 necting each source of water supply with the sprinkler system shall 
 be provided with a gate and a check valve. The gate valve should 
 be located close to the supply, as at the tank, or near base of tank 
 trestle, pump, or in the pipe connecting the riser with the water- 
 works system, and the check valve should be located as far as 
 possible from source of supply, preferably underground. 
 
 Check valves on public water connections and large tanks or 
 reservoirs should have a gate valve on each side so that check 
 may be repaired without shutting off the water supplies. 
 
 . The underground waterworks valve on the waterworks connection 
 may be considered satisfactory for one of these valves. 
 
 For tanks on trestles a post indicator valve at foot of trestl* is recom- 
 mended. Where near tank, should be made readily accessible by permanent 
 ladder and platform. 
 
 31. Check or Gate Valve on Pump or Tank Discharge. When 
 a pump, not located in a non-combustible pump house, or exposed 
 to danger from fire or falling walls, or a tank discharges into a 
 
554 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 yard main fed by another supply, a check valve or post gate valve 
 should be placed in this discharge pipe at a safe distance outside 
 the building, underground. 
 
 Check valves on tank connections may be placed inside buildings, when 
 located underground and at a safe distance from the tank riser. 
 
 32. Valves in Supply Pipes to Sprinklers. Each system shall 
 be provided with a gate valve so located as to control all sources 
 of water supply except that from steamer connections. All gate 
 valves controlling water supplies for sprinklers should be located 
 where readily accessible. 
 
 Inspection Department having jurisdiction should be consulted 
 regarding floor equipment valves. 
 
 Where valves are not within easy access from ground or floor 
 level, permanent ladders, clamped treads on risers, chains and 
 wheels, or other means satisfactory to the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction, should be provided. 
 
 33. Indicator Posts for Gate Valves. Where sprinklers are 
 supplied from yard main, place, if possible, a standard outside post 
 indicator gate valve in connecting pipe at safe distance from 
 building. 
 
 Post indicator valves should, if possible, be located not less than 
 40 feet from buildings; but where necessary to place a valve close 
 to a building, it should be located between windows or at a blank 
 part of wall. 
 
 34. Pit for Underground Check Valves. Where not in pits, 
 the location should be properly marked by some permanent mark- 
 ing. Where in pits, the pit should conform to the National Fire 
 Protection Association standard, and should be of ample size to 
 permit of easy access to the valve for examination and repairs. 
 
 35. Straps. All gate valves in supply pipes to automatic sprink- 
 lers, whether or not of indicator or post pattern, should be kept 
 secured open with padlocked or riveted leather straps. An excep- 
 tion to this rule may be made" only where a reliable system is 
 maintained for permanently sealing all valves and for immediate 
 notification of broken seals. 
 
 No sealing or strapping is required where sprinkler system has a 
 supervisory system to the approval of the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction. 
 
 36. Fittings. Extra heavy fittings should be employed where 
 the normal pressure in the pipe system exceeds one hundred and 
 fifty pounds. 
 
 All fittings and pipes shall have threads cut to standard, and care 
 should be taken that the pipe does not extend into fitting sufficiently 
 to reduce the waterway. 
 
 Long turn fittings will be required for 2^ inches and larger 
 risers and supply mains, the fittings to be flanged on at least one 
 end. 
 
 Couplings. Couplings shall not be used except where it is prac- 
 tically unavoidable. 
 
 The use of any considerable number of couplings in an equip- 
 ment is considered as prima facie evidence of poor workmanship. 
 
 Reducers. A one-piece reducing fitting of good design shall be 
 used wherever a change is made in the size of pipe. Bushings shall 
 not be used for reducing the size of the openings of fittings. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 555 
 
 37. Hangers. Hangers shall be of an approved type and either 
 round wrought-iron "U" (factory made and bent hot), malleable 
 cast-iron ring clip or other adjustable patterns. 
 
 \\'rought-iron hangers are preferable to cast iron, and " U ' 
 hangers are for this reason best where their use is possible. 
 
 Flat-iron " U " hangers may be accepted, provided the thickness 
 of the metal be in no case less than 3/16 inch, and of sufficient 
 width to allow plenty of metal each side of the screw holes. 
 
 Screws and Rods. Wood screws for adjustable clip hangers 
 should not be smaller than No. 17, and must penetrate ceiling beam 
 or joist at least 1^4 inches. For 2-inch pipes and smaller two 
 screws should be used, and for larger pipes four screws should 
 be used. 
 
 The size of rod and screws for hangers should be as given in 
 the following tables: 
 
 Size of Size Size of 
 
 Size of Size of Single Rod of Drive Coach 
 
 1'ipe U Rod if Threaded Screws Screws 
 
 :; ," to 2" 5/i6" %" No. 16x2" 
 
 - 1 -" %" W 
 
 3" %" %" 
 
 3Ms" 7/16" Jfc" 
 
 4" 7 /i 6" 
 
 s" 9 /i 6" ;" 
 
 6" %" %" 
 
 8" %" %" 
 
 Drive screws should be used only in a horizontal position as in 
 the side of a beam. 
 
 Screws in the side of a timber or joist should not be less than 
 _ >r < inches from the lower edge, when supporting branch lines. A 
 greater distance is desirable for larger pipes. 
 
 Position of Hangers. Hangers should not be near enough to 
 sprinklers to obstruct distribution of water. Ordinarily, they should 
 not be nearer than 12 inches from sprinkler, except in the case of 
 round iron hangers where a space of not less than 3 inches may be 
 permitted under ceilings of " fire-proof " and " slow-burning " con- 
 struction. 
 
 The f^-inch pipe at the end of all branch lines when over ( 6 
 feet in length shall have two hangers. 
 
 For concrete construction : The cast-iron inserts should be 
 installed during the construction of the building, or provision made 
 for attaching the hangers to the beams. If in buildings already 
 constructed expansion bolts are used, they should 'be of a type 
 satisfactory to the Inspection Department having jurisdiction and 
 if possible installed in a horizontal position. 
 
 For new concrete buildings, the location of sprinkler pipes and 
 hangers shall be determined previous to building operations, in 
 order that proper provision may be made during the construction 
 for the installation. 
 
 Where pipes are run through concrete beams, the sleeves should 
 be large enough to accommodate pipe at least two sizes larger 
 than it is intended to install. 
 
 38. Drip Pipes. Drip pipes shall be provided to drain all parts 
 of the system. Drip pipes at the main risers should be -not smaller 
 than two (2) inches, and when exposed to the weather to be fitted 
 with hood or down-turned elbow to prevent stoppage with ice. 
 
556 FIRE PREVENTION ATSTD PROTECTION 
 
 Drip pipes shall be so arranged as not to expose any part of the 
 sprinkler system to frost, and so connected, either by check valves 
 or other means, that they will not overflow domestic service or 
 other connections there may be to. the same sewer or drain. 
 
 Drips for small sections shut off in winter shall be located in a 
 warm room or below frost, so as to drain all portions of pipe where 
 freezing can occur. 
 
 Drain, drip or draw-off pipes shall not terminate in blind spaces 
 under the buildings. The water from these washes the soil away, 
 exposing the supply pipe and may undermine the structure pro- 
 tecting the pipe. 
 
 Cold air enters draw-off pipes and may cause freezing of the 
 valves. 
 
 All drips should have at least 4 feet of pipe exposed in the 
 warm room. 
 
 See also Section G, Alarm System. 
 
 39. Drainage. All sprinkler pipe and fittings shall be so installed 
 that they can be thoroughly drained, and, where practicable, all 
 piping should be arranged to drain at the main drips. On wet-pipe 
 systems the horizontal branch pipes shall be pitched not less than 
 l /4 inch in 10 feet. (See also Section H, Rule 49.) 
 
 In wet systems 24-inch composition plugs may be allowed where 
 a few low heads are involved, as under stairways. Limit the extra 
 drips to as small a number as possible. 
 
 40. Test Pipes. Alarm. On wet systems a test pipe of not less 
 than 24-inch in diameter shall be connected directly with each 
 riser in upper story and arranged to discharge, through a ^4 -inch 
 brass outlet, preferably to a point where it can readily be seen. 
 With long runs or many angles, size of test pipe should be increased 
 to i inch or larger. 
 
 Water Flowing. It is very essential that either drains or test 
 pipes should be provided so that proper flowing tests may be made 
 to determine if the water supplies and/or the connections from 
 yard mains to inside of buildings are in order. Any such drain 
 or test pipe should be not less than 2 inches in size, and so installed 
 that the controlling valves may be opened wide for a sufficient time 
 to assure a proper test without overflowing any service connec- 
 tions there may be to the same drain, or cause any water damage. 
 A pressure gauge should be installed in each case, connection for 
 it should not -be less than y^. inch in size, controlled by a valve 
 with arrangements for draining, and, located on the main pipe and 
 not on the drain or test pipe. On a wet system, where the con- 
 trolling valves and drains may be located in a detached pit or valve 
 house, test pipes should be provided inside of the buildings on the 
 various connections to the sprinkler system. The Inspection De- 
 partment having jurisdiction should determine the method to be 
 used in each case. See illustrations for various types of test pipes, 
 and also Rule 41. 
 
 Dry-pipe Systems. See Section H, Rule 50. 
 
 41. Pressure Gauges. A standard make, 5-inch dial, spring, 
 pressure gauge should be connected with the discharge pipe from 
 each water supply, including each connecting pipe from public 
 waterworks, and also as follows: 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 557 
 
 In each sprinkler system above and below the alarm check or 
 dry-pipe valve. 
 
 At the air pump supplying the pressure tank. 
 
 At the pressure tank. 
 
 In each independent pipe from air supply to dry-pipe systems. 
 
 At test pipes as above, Rule 40. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und'a. 
 FIG. 85 
 
 Gauges shall have a maximum limit equivalent to twice the nor- 
 mal working pressure where installed. Should also be connected 
 direct with riser, but with sufficient clearance to permit of easy 
 removal, connection being tapped into drain tee, preferably opposite 
 
558 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 the drainpipe, but not on drainpipe. Gauges should be located in 
 a suitable place and where water will not freeze. Each should 
 be controlled by a valve with arrangement to drain. A plugged 
 outlet should be located between each valve and gauge, for the 
 purpose of installing the inspector's gauge, size to be not less 
 than as noted in Rule 40. 
 
 Section G Alarm System 
 
 42. Gongs and Connections. Every automatic sprinkler system 
 should contain an alarm apparatus so constructed that a flow of 
 water through same will operate an electric gong, a mechanical 
 
 Cast Iron coupling *itb 
 aide bolt 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 FIG. 86 
 
 gong, or both, as the character of the property and circumstances 
 may require. On wet-pipe systems, or partially so, this apparatus 
 should consist of an alarm valve and attachments ; on dry-pipe 
 systems, attachments to dry-pipe valve (see Section H), except 
 that where there is an approved supervisory system to a central 
 station, one of the local alarms may be omitted at the discretion 
 of the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. In other places, 
 especially in small towns, alarm valve or dry-pipe valve may be 
 connected with public fire department house, or some other suitable 
 place. 
 
 The use of both electric and mechanical gongs is strongly recom- 
 mended. The gong of the latter type can be located on the outside 
 of building or any other desirable place on the premises. When 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 559 
 
 located on the outside, all gongs shall be protected from the weather. 
 Electric bells shall be of standard type. . 
 
 Rotary gong should be located as near alarm valve or dry-pipe 
 valve as possible. Attention is called to the necessity of avoiding 
 lung runs or many angles in pipe to rotary gong. The total length 
 <>f pipe horizontally should not exceed 75 feet, and vertically 20 feet. 
 
 All pipe between alarm valve, dry-pipe valve and rotary gong 
 
 fksture Gauge h> bt 
 
 Sbndsrd j/je If mfAe 
 
 T&sfpipe ivherr there is outside confrol. 
 Also applicable- fo any other Infer /or r/ser. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 FIG. 87 
 
 should be galvanized or brass of a size not less than 34 inch, and 
 larger for long runs of piping or Where pressures are low; and 
 arranged to drain properly through not larger than a ^-inch orifice, 
 brass bushed. 
 
 Water motor and gong should be properly aligned and so in- 
 stalled as not to be liable to get out of adjustment. 
 
 The drain from the water motor should be properly connected. 
 See Rules 38, 40 and 47. 
 
 43. Alarm Apparatus. Shall be so located that the passing of 
 water through any of the automatic sources of supply to any of 
 the sprinklers will cause its action. 
 
560 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 44. Approval. Alarm valve or other alarm apparatus should be 
 approved by the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 45. Wiring and Energy for Electric Alarms. Should be in- 
 stalled in accordance with the rules of the National Board of Fire 
 Underwriters. (See Signaling Systems.) 
 
 46. Alarm Valve Installation. The alarm valve, retarding cham- 
 ber and circuit closer shall be so located that all parts will be readily 
 accessible for inspection, repair or removal, and all shall be sub- 
 stantially supported. Suitable valves shall be provided in the con- 
 nections to the retarding chamber to permit repair or removal 
 without shutting off sprinkler system. These valves should be 
 arranged to be readily secured open. 
 
 47. Drains. A vent should be provided for circuit closer. Where 
 used, should be properly piped to a drain. 
 
 Drains at alarm valve and at the variable pressure chamber, 
 circuit closer and rotary gong connected with valve, shall be so 
 arranged that there will be no danger of freezing, and also so 
 protected, by checks or otherwise, that there will be no overflowing 
 at the alarm apparatus or' of domestic connections that may be on 
 the same drain, with the sprinkler drains wide open. Where checks 
 are used, they should have the equivalent of at least a four foot 
 head, and not installed in a vertical position " looking down." 
 
 Drains from retarding chamber and circuit closer should dis- 
 charge either to open cones connected as above, or the drain from 
 alarm valve run separate from the other drains to the sewer or 
 ground drain, a union or plug being inserted in each drain to 
 permit of inspection. 
 
 Where drains are connected with a sewer, proper trap shall be 
 provided. 
 
 Cold air has been known to enter drainpipes from retarding 
 chambers of alarm valves sufficiently to cause trouble by freezing 
 in the alarm check valve. Where exposed to frost and it is neces- 
 sary to drain alarm valves outside the wall, an open discharge 
 cone should be provided inside to break the pipe line so cold will 
 not be conducted directly into the retarding chamber. (See Sec- 
 tion F, Rule 38.) 
 
 Section H Dry-Pipe System and Fittings 
 
 ' 48. Where Necessary. A dry-pipe system should be required 
 only where a wet-pipe system is impracticable, as in rooms or build- 
 ings which cannot be properly heated by the exercise of reasonable 
 precaution. The use of an approved dry-pipe system is, however, 
 far preferable to entirely shutting off the water supply during cold 
 weather. 
 
 Where it is necessary to have but twenty-five (25) per cent or 
 less of the total number of sprinklers on an air system, only such 
 sprinklers should be thus piped ; the remainder to be placed on 
 wet system. 
 
 This rule requires small dry-pipe systems for show windows, 
 blind attics or other minor portions exposed to freezing. 
 
 Air pressure should be maintained on dry-pipe systems through- 
 out the year, unless changed by consent of the Inspection Depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction. 
 
 (See also Section K, Rule 77.) 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 561 
 
 49. Drainage. Sprinklers shall be located in an upright position. 
 All sprinkler pipes and fittings shall be so installed that they can 
 be thoroughly drained and, wKere practicable, all pipes should be 
 arranged to drain at the main drip, ordinarily located at the dry- 
 pipe valve. The tops of branch lines should pitch at least y 2 inch 
 in 10 feet, and more where settling may occur. A pitch of ^ inch 
 to i inch is usually not impracticable with short branch lines, and 
 should be provided where there is a chance of settling. 
 
 Where settling may occur and deprive a dry-pipe system of its 
 drainage, the ends of lines should not be raised to violate Section 
 B, Rule 13. The drainage should be restored by shortening the 
 vertical piping. 
 
 Extra Drips/ When conditions are such that additional drip 
 valves are necessary, such as under stairs, low platforms, etc., 
 these should be conveniently located, so that they may be accessible 
 for inspection and test. Drip valves should have soft metal seats 
 and composition plugs. 
 
 Connection from Top of Pipe. Where the supply for these low 
 sprinklers is taken from a large pipe, such as a trunk main, the 
 connection should be made from or near the top of the large 
 pipe, so as to prevent condensation in same entering the small 
 pipe. This can be accomplished by looping back the connection. 
 
 Where feasible, the drains for these low portions should be 
 carried back into warm rooms, and the drip valves located there. 
 
 ^> -inch Test Pipe. In cold climates, where there may be a con- 
 siderable number of sprinklers or a low point in large pipe drained 
 by a separate drip, requiring a drain valve 1% inch or more in 
 size, it is advisable to provide either a condensation drip or a */>- 
 inch drip valve back of and below the larger drain valve. This 
 latter arrangement will permit the blowing out of these low pipes 
 through the y^-inch valve, when there might be danger of upsetting 
 the system by opening the larger drain. 
 
 Care should be taken to support the piping in a secure manner, 
 and to see that the sprinklers do not violate the rules for position. 
 (See Section B, Rule 12.) 
 
 50. Supply and Test Pipe. All water supplies to sprinklers shall 
 enter the system below the dry-pipe valve, shall be properly pro- 
 tected from freezing, and provided with a 2-inch test pipe placed 
 directly under the dry-pipe valve. Test pipe should be provided 
 with a standard valve and be properly connected to a drain, so as 
 to permit of the valve being opened wide for a water flowing 
 test. Pressure gauges should also be provided as called for in 
 Section F, Rule 41. 
 
 51. Size of Dry System. The number of sprinklers dependent 
 upon one dry-pipe valve should preferably not exceed 300, and 400 
 heads should be the maximum allowed, except in very special cases. 
 
 If there is a considerable length of pipe between the dry-pipe 
 valve and the sprinklers, thus materially increasing the air capacity 
 of the system, the number of heads equivalent to this additional 
 capacity, based on one head per gallon contents of this pipe, should 
 be considered when estimating the total number of sprinklers. 
 
 Where more than 400 sprinklers are necessary in buildings con- 
 taining two or more floors, the system preferably should be divided 
 horizontally by consecutive floors and supplied through two or more 
 dry-pipe valves. It will be allowable, however, where this rule 
 
562 . FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 would necessitate increase in the number or size of the dry-pipe 
 valves, or involve a complication of the piping to provide for ver- 
 tical sub-division. 
 
 Sub-division of System.- A dry-pipe system may be still further 
 sub-divided by the insertion of check valves in the different branches 
 of the system, thus quickening the operation of the dry-pipe valve. 
 Holes % inch in diameter should be bored in the clappers of the 
 checks to equalize the air pressure under normal conditions, and a 
 drain, properly connected, should be provided in front of each 
 check valve. 
 
 The dry-pipe valve should be located in an accessible place and 
 as near as practicable to the sprinkler system it supplies. 
 
 Dry-pipe Underground. When it is necessary to place pipe which 
 will be under air pressure underground, it is desirable that it be 
 buried below frost, so as to prevent any trouble from the heaving 
 action of frozen ground. This pipe should be wrought iron or 
 steel, and have at least two coats of some good rust-proof paint, 
 such as asphaltum, tar, etc., one coat to be applied before the pipe 
 is laid, and 'the other after all joints are made up, final turn. 
 
 No lead-jointed, cast-iron pipe shall be used under air pressure, 
 and all pipe liable to corrosion, where underground or exposed to 
 chemical fumes, for example, shall be painted or otherwise so 
 treated as to reduce to a minimum this deterioration, which, with 
 the pipes unprotected, might soon cripple the system. To further 
 safeguard the piping against corrosion, it is advised that after 
 the joints are made up and before the second coat of paint is 
 applied, the pipe should be wrapped tightly with burlap and burlap 
 painted on outside; also that the' pipe should be laid in a box or 
 split tile conduit for still additional protection. 
 
 Pressure to be Carried. High air pressure in dry-pipe systems 
 is undesirable, and 35 pounds has been found to be the maximum 
 which it is necessary to carry in most cases. Under these condi- 
 tions, .to avoid pumping oftener than once a week, the system 
 should not lose more than about 10 pounds air pressure per week, 
 and an equipment which leaks more than this cannot be considered 
 acceptable. (See also Section K, Rule 77.) 
 
 52. Alarm Attachments. Where a dry-pipe valve is not located 
 on the system side of an alarm valve, it should be provided with 
 both mechanical and electrical alarms, installed in accordance with 
 the requirements for alarm valves (Section G). Dry-pipe valve 
 should be fitted with an. approved alarm-testing device, this to be 
 connected with water supply so that alarms can be tested without 
 disturbing main gates or air system. 
 
 Pressure gauges should be provided as called for in Section -F, 
 Rule 41. 
 
 53. Protection of Dry-pipe Valve. Dry-pipe valve in any loca- 
 tion should be properly protected from mechanical injury. 
 
 Where exposed to cold, the dry-pipe valve should be located in 
 an approved underground pit, or in a valve room or closet. Room 
 should be of sufficient size to give at least 2^2 feet free space on 
 all sides of, and above or below dry-pipe valve or valves, and this 
 room, if feasible, should not- be built until the valve is in position. 
 Valve room should be well- lighted, preferably by electric light, and 
 properly heated by steam, electric heater (installation to comply 
 with the National Electric Code), gas or lard oil lantern. If fire 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 563 
 
 heat is used, some ventilation will be necessary to supply the air 
 for combustion. 
 
 Valve room should preferably be of fireproof construction, and 
 in exposed locations the walls should be double with 2-inch air 
 space. If the valve room is of wood, it should have double walled 
 top, sides and bottom, with 4-inch hollow space. Space may be 
 filled with tan-bark, mineral wool, etc., as desired. Where lantern 
 or other fire heat is used in wooden valve rooms, all inside wood- 
 work should be thoroughly tinned. The room should also be con- 
 structed so that it can be kept reasonably dry. This will call for 
 a means of ventilation to prevent condensation where the climatic 
 conditions are severe. One or more sprinklers, depending upon 
 size of room, should be installed, wet pipe, and controlled by a 
 valve. 
 
 54. Independent Air Filling Connection. The connection from 
 the air pump should enter the system in the main riser above the 
 dry-pipe valve, and on this supply at this point a shut-off valve 
 with soft metal seat should be placed, and immediately back of it 
 a check valve. 
 
 See Appendix for rule on Anti-Columning pipes. 
 
 55. Air Compressor. Pump should be of sufficient capacity to 
 increase air pressure at an average rate of not less than one pound 
 per two minutes pumping (preferably faster). 
 
 A relief valve should be provided on every system. 
 
 A direct steam or electrically driven air purrip is preferred to a 
 power pump. The air supply should be taken from outside or 
 from a room having dry air, in order to avoid carrying moisture 
 into the system. The intake should be protected by a screen. 
 
 In extensive systems subject to extreme cold, the air supply 
 should be taken from the room where the lowest temperature and 
 driest air prevail, and drawn through a reservoir or tank of about 
 thirty gallons' capacity containing from ten to fifteen pounds of 
 granulated calcium chloride. 
 
 56. Flanged Dummy. A flanged section of pipe, with drain 
 outlet same size as on dry-pipe valve, to take the place of dry-pipe 
 valve, in case of repairs, should be provided for each type and size 
 installed, and kept at the valve. 
 
 Section I Water Supplies 
 
 57. Double Supply. For a standard equipment two independent 
 supplies are required. At least one of the supplies should be auto- 
 matic and one. capable of furnishing water under heavy pressure. 
 The choice of water supplies for each equipment should be deter- 
 mined by the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 58. Public Water (except high pressure systems; also applicable 
 to private reservoir and standpipe systems). One or more con- 
 nections from a reliable public water system of good pressure and 
 adequate capacity furnishes an ideal " primary supply." A high 
 static water pressure should not, however, be a criterion by which 
 the efficiency of the supply is determined. The supply should give 
 not less than 25 pounds static pressure at all hours of the day 
 at highest line of sprinklers, and also be satisfactory to the Inspec- 
 tion Department having jurisdiction in its ability to maintain 10 
 pounds pressure at highest sprinklers, with the water flowing 
 
564 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 through the number of sprinklers judged liable to be opened by 
 a fire at any one time. Street mains should be of ample size, in 
 no case smaller than 6 inches. Dead end mains should be avoided 
 if possible by arranging main to be fed both ways. No pressure 
 regulating valve should be used in water supply for sprinklers, 
 except by special permission of Inspection Department having jur- 
 isdiction, and where meters are used they should be of a standard 
 type, 
 
 Where connections are made from public waterworks systems, 
 it is often desirable to have double check valves. Only check valves 
 of special design and standardized for this purpose should be used. 
 
 See also Section E, Rule 27. 
 
 Connections to public waterworks systems should, where feasible, 
 be controlled by post indicator valves of a standard type and located 
 not less than 40 feet from the buildings protected ; or, if this can- 
 not be done, placed where they will be readily accessible in case 
 of fire and not liable to injury.: See Rules 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 97 
 and 98. Where post indicator valves cannot readily be used, as 
 in a city block, underground gates should conform to the above 
 as far as possible and their locations and direction to open be plainly 
 marked on the buildings. 
 
 Connections for domestic or standpipe use over 2 inches in size 
 should conform to the above. 
 
 All post indicator valves should be plainly marked with the 
 service they control. 
 
 For the construction and installation of the following devices, 
 see elsewhere in this book, or the special pamphlets issued by the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters : 
 
 Steam Fire Pumps. 
 
 Rotary Fire Pumps. 
 
 Centrifugal Fire Pumps. 
 
 Gravity and Pressure Tanks. 
 
 59. Pumps. A well-located fire pump is, under most conditions, 
 the most satisfactory source of the " secondary supply," as with 
 ample water supply it is capable of maintaining a high pressure 
 over a long period of time. 
 
 The capacity of the pumping plant, the kind of pump and its 
 source of water supply, should be determined by conditions, and 
 should be the subject of special consideration in each case by the 
 Inspection Department having jurisdiction. The capacity of pump 
 should never be less than 500 gallons per minute when it supplies 
 sprinklers only, and not less than 750 gallons when it supplies 
 hydrants also. 
 
 60. Tanks. Gravity. The capacity arid elevation should be de- 
 termined by the Inspection Department having jurisdiction; but 
 where a tank is also drawn upon for hose streams it should riot 
 be of less than 30,000 gallons capacity, and should preferably be 
 installed with the bottom not less than 75 feet above the yard level. 
 In any case the bottom of the tank should be at least 20 feet 
 above the highest sprinklers. 
 
 Tanks. Pressure. Capacity of tank should be specified by the 
 Inspection Department having jurisdiction, but should be not less 
 than 4,500 gallons total capacity, except by special permission, and 
 tank should not be located below the upper story of building, and 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 565 
 
 be used as a supply to automatic sprinklers and hand hose only. 
 (See Section K, Rule 75 ) 
 
 5i. Penstocks or Flumes. Where connections are made from 
 these, either as a direct supply to automatic sprinklers or as a suc- 
 tion for fire pumps, they should be arranged to avoid mud and 
 sediment. Connections should also be provided with removable 
 screens installed to the requirements of the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction. Where connections are made from rivers or 
 lakes they should be provided with removable screens similar to 
 those for pump suction. 
 
 62. Size of Connection. Connection from water suppjy or main 
 pipe system to sprinkler riser should be equal to or larger in size 
 than the riser. Connections for domestic use should not be taken 
 from the fire system. See also Section E, Rule 27, and Under- 
 ground Pipes, Section M. 
 
 Section J Steamer Connections 
 
 63. Recommendations. In addition to the above required double 
 supply, it is recommended that a hose inlet pipe to sprinkler system 
 be provided for connection from hose or steamer of public fire 
 department. 
 
 64. Pipe Size. Should be not less than four inches in size 
 except by special consent of Inspection Department having juris- 
 diction, and fitted with a straightway check valve, but not with a 
 gate valve. Siamese connections should be provided with check 
 valves in the " Y." 
 
 Connections should be so located as to provide for prompt and 
 easy attachment of hose. 
 
 65. Drain and Dirt Pocket. Each connection should be arranged 
 to properly drain the piping between the check valve and the out- 
 side hose coupling, and also to prevent entry of foreign matter, 
 by installing a refuse collector or dirt pocket, and a i-inch ball 
 type of drip. 
 
 66. Where Attached. To equipments having a single riser 
 attach on the system side of the gate valve in the riser if a wet 
 system, but on the supply side of the dry valve if a dry system. 
 
 To equipments having two or more risers attach on the supply 
 side of the gate valves, so that with any one riser shut off the 
 supply will feed all the remaining sprinklers. 
 
 Any underground pipe used to attach steamer connections to 
 system should be cast iron, and the wrought and cast iron pipes 
 should be properly strapped together. 
 
 All steamer connections should be so arranged that they have 
 proper support. 
 
 67. Threads. Each hose connection should be made of good 
 brass, having thread to fit coupling of public fire department. 
 Standard cast iron, malleable iron or brass caps, properly secured, 
 and arranged for easy removal by public fire department, should be 
 provided in each connection. 
 
 Each hose connection should be designated by raised letters at 
 least i inch in size, cast in the fitting in a clear and prominent 
 manner and reading: "Auto, spkr." 
 
 68. Number of Connections. Should be specified by the Inspec- 
 tion Department having jurisdiction in each case. 
 
566 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Section K Miscellaneous Rules 
 
 69. Circulation in Pipes. Circulation of water in sprinkler pipes 
 is very objectionable, owing to greatly increased corrosion, deposit 
 of sediment and condensation drip from pipes; sprinkler pipes not 
 to be used in any way for domestic service. 
 
 70. Painting, Whitewashing or Bronzing. Where pipes are 
 painted, whitewashed or bronzed for appearance, the moving parts 
 of sprinkler heads should not be so coated. 
 
 71. Protection of Pipes and Sprinklers Against Corrosion. 
 In places where chemical fumes or much moisture is present, 
 sprinkler pipes, hangers and heads should be protected against cor- 
 rosion, method to be determined by the Inspection Department hav- 
 ing jurisdiction; but the following are recommended: 
 
 Protection of Pipes. Where subject to corrosive influences, 
 sprinkler piping and fittings should be thoroughly protected. 
 
 In some places it will be satisfactory to paint annually with red 
 lead and linseed oil paint, this usually giving sufficient protection 
 when exposed to moisture only. 
 
 When chemical fumes are present, the piping should be coated 
 with some good chemical-resistive paint which should be in itself 
 chemically inert and at the same time form a good bond with the 
 exterior of the pipe. Extra care should be used in applying such 
 paint ; it should not be applied on a damp day, nor upon damp or 
 cold surfaces; the piping should be thoroughly cleaned of all scale 
 and dirt (the use of a stiff wire bristle brush is good for this), 
 grease and oil; the paint should be kept thoroughly stirred and 
 well applied, and after drying thoroughly a second coat should be 
 applied. Two coats are usually better than more. 
 
 In some extremely exposed cases the piping has been protected 
 by painting it with graphite paint and wrapping it with rubberized 
 tape (such as the trimmings from rubber and canvas belts), after 
 which the whole is given another coating of graphite paint. Cases 
 have been known of piping protected in this way showing absolutely 
 no sign of corrosion after six years of extremely severe exposure. 
 
 The use of galvanized piping is not very satisfactory; the cutting 
 of the threads on the pipe removes the protective coating near the 
 fittings where the pipe is of course the weakest, and further, the 
 zinc forming the protective coating furnishes little protection against 
 a great many corrosive vapors found in commercial practice. 
 
 Protection of Sprinklers. The manufacturers of standardized 
 sprinklers can furnish heads specially protected against corrosion, 
 and these should be used wherever sprinklers are exposed to cor- 
 rosion. At the present time two types of sprinklers are available, 
 one being a sprinkler with a glass cover, hermetically sealed, and 
 the other being a head coated with a corrosion-resisting compound. 
 Care should be taken in screwing the sprinkler into the fitting not 
 to injure this protection, otherwise its effectiveness is destroyed. 
 
 72. Alterations. It is not permitted to change, plug up or remove 
 the fittings pertaining to dry-pipe valve, pressure tanks, pumps, 
 gauges, etc. If such fittings leak or become deranged, they are 
 to be put in order. 
 
 73. Extra Sprinklers. There should be maintained on the prem- 
 ises a supply of extra sprinklers (never less than six), to promptly 
 replace any fused or in any way injured. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 567 
 
 Sprinklers should be of the various degrees that may be used 
 in the risk. 
 
 74. Use of High Degree or Hard Sprinklers. High degree 
 sprinklers should be used only when absolutely necessary and In- 
 spection Department having jurisdiction should be consulted in 
 each instance. When used, the following table should be referred 
 to: 
 
 For ceiling temperature exceeding 100 degrees but not 150 
 degrees, install 212 degree heads. 
 
 For ceiling temperatures exceeding 150 degrees but not 225 
 degrees, install 286 degree heads. 
 
 For ceiling temperatures in excess of 225 degrees, install 360 
 degree heads. 
 
 Ordinary degree sprinklers should be substituted for high degree 
 sprinklers where the latter are made unnecessary by change in 
 occupancy. 
 
 75. Hand Hose Connections. Hand hose, to be used for fire 
 purposes only, may be attached to sprinkler pipes within a room 
 under the following restrictions: 
 
 Pipe nipple and hose valve should be i inch. 
 Hose to be \ l / 2 inches or i l / 4 inches. 
 Nozzle should not be larger than l / 2 inch. 
 
 Hose should not be connected to any sprinkler pipe smaller than 
 j r 'j inches and never attached to a dry-pipe system. 
 
 76. Concealed Pipe Systems. Concealed piping is prohibited 
 except when the Inspection Department having jurisdiction gives 
 consent. When installation is permitted, it should be in accordance 
 with the following : 
 
 (a) Pipe should be of standard weight wrought iron or steel, 
 painted with two coats of good protective paint, one before and 
 one after installation. 
 
 (1)) Should be placed in properly constructed ducts or thoroughly 
 encased in Portland cement or equivalent. In no case shall the 
 pipe system be installed so as to form a part of the floor arch 
 reinforcement. 
 
 (c) When installed in the concealed space between the floor arch 
 and ceiling, pipe should be supported by standard hangers, and all 
 pipe, fittings and hangers should be given two coats of good pro- 
 tective paint. 
 
 77. Tests After Installation. All systems should be tested at 
 not less than 150 pounds pressure for 2 hours, and at 50 pounds 
 in excess of the normal pressure when the normal pressure is in 
 excess of 100 pounds. Emergency tests of dry-pipe systems, under 
 at least 60 pounds air pressure, should be made at seasons of the 
 year which will not permit testing out under water pressure. 
 
 Brine or other corrosive chemicals should not be used for testing 
 systems. 
 
 To prevent the possibility of serious water damage in case of a 
 break, pressure should be maintained by a small pump, the main 
 controlling gate being meanwhile kept shut. 
 
 In the case of dry systems with differential type of dry-pipe 
 valve, the valve should be held off its seat during the test to prevent 
 injuring the valve. 
 
568 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 In dry systems an air pressure of 40 pounds should be pumped 
 up, allowed to stand 24 hours, and all leaks stopped which allow a 
 loss of pressure of over \y 2 pounds for the 24 hours. 
 
 A working test of dry-pipe valve should be made, if possible, 
 before acceptance. 
 
 All tests should be made by contractor in presence of inspector 
 of Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 78. Relief Valves or Air Chambers. Where connections are 
 made from public mains, subject to severe water hammer (espe- 
 .cially where pressure is in excess of TOO pounds), it is advisable 
 to provide a relief valve, properly connected to a drain ; or an air 
 chamber in the s connection. If an air chamber is used, it should be 
 located close to where the pipe comes through wall, and back of 
 all other valves, and at right angle to other valves, so as to take 
 the full force of water hammer. Air chamber shall have a capacity 
 of not less than 4 cubic feet, shall be controlled by a standard 
 O. S. & Y. gate valve, and shall be provided with a drain at the 
 bottom. If an air vent is deemed desirable by the inspection depart- 
 ment, it shall consist only of a plugged outlet. 
 
 79. Preliminary Inspection of Sprinkler Equipments. Before 
 asking final approval of an automatic sprinkler equipment by the 
 Inspection Department having jurisdiction, the installing company 
 should furnish a written statement, countersigned by the assured, 
 to the effect that the work has been completed in accordance with 
 the approved specifications and plans. The object is to secure a 
 reasonable amount of supervision of the equipment by the assured 
 as the work progresses, a larger knowledge on their part of its 
 functions and proper maintenance, and also to prevent needless 
 waste of time of the Inspection Department. Inspection Depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction should furnish the necessary blanks for 
 the above purpose. 
 
 Section L Open Sprinklers 
 
 {For Protection Against Exposure} 
 Window Sprinklers 
 
 80. Discharge Orifice. Where there is but one horizontal line 
 of window sprinklers, each head should have a smooth bore taper- 
 ing outlet with an unobstructed orifice % inch in diameter. Where 
 the conditions call for more than one line the following size orifices 
 should be used: 
 
 2 lines. 3 lines. 4 lines. 5 lines. 6 lines. 
 Top line. %-in. %-in. 
 
 Next low. s/i6-in. 5/i6-in. 
 
 Next low. 
 Next low. 
 
 in. %-in 
 
 n. %-in 
 
 5/i6-in 
 5/i6-in 
 
 Next low. %-in. %-in 
 
 Next low. %-in 
 
 Where there are over six horizontal lines of windows it may 
 be preferable to omit sprinklers on the first story or possibly even 
 on the second story, but if over six lines are used the system should 
 be divided horizontally with independent risers, and in some cases 
 this may be desirable even where six lines or less are used. Thus 
 where eight lines would be required, the four uppr lines should 
 be on one riser according to the above table and the four lower 
 lines similarly arranged on another riser. Where over six lines 
 are used, size of orifice should be left to the Inspection Depart- 
 ment having jurisdiction. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 569 
 
 Each open sprinkler head should be clearly marked on the out- 
 side as to whether it is f^-inch, 5/i6-inch or ^-inch orifice. 
 
 Where windows are 3 feet or less in width a size smaller orifice than required 
 by this rule may be used, except that in no case should a size smaller than 
 *4 inch be used. 
 
 Si. Pipe Sizes. No branch line should have over six sprinklers 
 where central riser system is used. Where gridiron system (i. e.. 
 a ri^er at each side with sprinklers located on the connected pipes) 
 is used, the lines between side risers should not have over twelve 
 heads. Branch line pipe sizes should be as follows, this applying 
 with either central riser or gridiron system. With the gridiron 
 system the end head is considered as being the one directly in 
 the center (or on either side of center if the number on line be 
 even). 
 
 (a) For -)^-inch orifice: one head on a ^-inch pipe; two heads 
 on a i-inch pipe; four heads on a 1^4-inch pipe; six heads on a 
 i ^2-inch pipe. 
 
 (b) For 5/i6-inch orifice: one head on a ^-inch pipe; three 
 heads on a i-inch pipe; six heads on a i^-inch pipe. . 
 
 (c) For l /4 -inch orifice: one head on a %-incn pipe; five heads 
 on a i-inch pipe; six heads on a i^-inch pipe. 
 
 \Vhere heads are over twelve feet apart special pipe sizes in excess of the 
 requirements given below should be used. 
 
 8.2. Risers and Feed Mains. Central feed risers. 
 
 1 i <> inch. Not over 6 heads. 
 
 2 inch. Not over 10 heads. 
 2% inch. Not over 20 heads. 
 
 3 inch. Not over 36 heads. 
 3!^ inch. Not over 55 heads. 
 
 4 inch. Not over 72 heads. 
 
 For gridiron side feed risers, use the same sizes counting to the 
 center of each line. If number on line is odd the center head may 
 lie neglected in figuring size of side risers, except that pipe feeding 
 both risers must take into account all sprinklers which it feeds. 
 Where feed main (including risers to the first branch line) is ovrr 
 twenty-five feet in length, feed main should be at least a size larger 
 than the tables require. Where there is more than one riser, size 
 of feed mains should be determined by the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction but should never be less than the full equiva- 
 lent of the two largest risers. 
 
 At all dead ends a tee instead of an elbow should be used and 
 a piece of pipe 6 inches long with brass plug in end should be 
 screwed into tee to form a pocket for collecting dirt. 
 
 Where sprinklers run on two adjoining sides of a building with 
 separate controlling valve for each side, the end lines should be 
 connected together with check valves so located that one head 
 around the corner will operate when valve is opened. 
 
 Strainers of a standard type should be installed at base of risers, 
 or in connection to same. Strainers should be so located as to be 
 easily accessible for cleaning. 
 
 83. Pipe. Galvanized wrought iron (or other standard) pipe 
 should be used for the equipment as far hack as the cast iron pipe. 
 All galvanizing of pipe should be done in a careful and thoroughly 
 workmanlike manner. 
 
 Pipe should be securely supported in a manner fully equal to 
 that required for automatic sprinklers. 
 
570 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 All pipe should be carefully inspected before being installed. 
 
 84. Valves. Where central feed risers are used each should have 
 a controlling valve. Where side feed risers are used they are to 
 be connected together at bottom and one valve so located as to 
 control the two risers. Valves should be of standard type as re- 
 quired for automatic sprinkler systems. Distinct marking of each 
 valve by letters not less than one-half inch high is required. Riser 
 valves should be so located as to be easily accessible, preferably 
 in first story. 
 
 85. Drainage. All pipes and fittings should be carefully arranged 
 and pitched so as to thoroughly drain the entire system as far back 
 as the inside riser controlling valve. Drip pipes should be not less 
 than i inch in size. 
 
 86. Location and Number of Sprinklers. For windows not 
 exceeding five 'feet wide- one sprinkler should be placed at center 
 near top, so located that the water discharge therefrom will thor- 
 oughly wet the upper part of the window, and by running down 
 over the sash and glass wet to the greatest extent the entire window. 
 Where windows are over five feet wide, or where mullions inter- 
 fere, two or more heads should be used ; this, together with size 
 of orifice, should be determined by the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction, it being understood that two ^-inch heads are 
 approximately the equivalent of one ^-inch. 
 
 For windows five to six feet wide one sprinkler may be used by special 
 consent of the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 
 87. Water Supply and Control. Supply to open sprinklers 
 should be town waterworks, standpipe, pump or steamer connec- 
 tion, but never pressure or gravity tank used to supply automatic 
 sprinklers, except that such gravity tank may be used in case addi- 
 tional capacity is provided. 
 
 Where water supplies feed other fire protective appliances, such 
 as automatic sprinklers or hydrants, system should be so arranged 
 that there is no danger of impairing the efficiency of such other 
 devices, and water supply should be of sufficient capacity to ade- 
 quately feed such appliances even with the open sprinklers in opera- 
 tion. Supply should be of sufficient capacity to feed all sprinklers 
 designed to be operated at one time and maintain not less than 10 
 pounds pressure at top of riser for a length of time depending on 
 conditions, but not less than 60 minutes. Where steamer connec- 
 tions are used they shall be locate'd so as to be safe from the ex- 
 posing fire, as in the rear of building if exposure is on the front. 
 Where other water supplies are used and it is desirable or neces- 
 sary to save such supplies for other service in case the open sprink- 
 lers are ineffectual, locate a controlling valve or valves outside 
 the building itself and accessible as regards the exposure fire. Such 
 valves may be located in properly cut off valve rooms or pits by 
 special consent of the Inspection Department having jurisdiction. 
 Underground controlling valves should be in approved pits with 
 manhole or be fitted with standard post indicators. 
 
 88. Sprinklers. Only such types of window, cornice, side wall 
 or ridge pole sprinklers should be installed. as have been standard- 
 ized for such use. 
 
 89. Gauge Connections. Plugged outlets for gauge connections 
 should be provided at the top of each riser and just below the con- 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 571 
 
 trolling valve of each riser. Such outlets should be piped into the 
 building for the purpose of conveniently attaching a test pressure 
 gauge. 
 
 Cornice, Side Wall or Ridge Pole Sprinklers 
 
 (For use in protecting frame buildings, mansard roofs, etc.) 
 
 90. Location, Size of Orifice and Number. Where one line only 
 is required, as for the mansard roofs of a brick building or for 
 low frame buildings, the heads should not be less than ^-inch 
 ciritice and not over eight feet apart on the line. Pipe sizes and 
 arrangement should be the same as for window sprinklers. Where 
 the number of sprinklers and water supplies admit, it may be 
 desirable to use a 7/16- or ^-inch orifice with pipe sizes not less 
 than the following: i on i-inch; 3 on i^-inches, 5 on 154-inches, 
 8 on 2-inches. Where frame buildings are over two stories high 
 it will be generally necessary to have two or more horizontal lines, 
 preferably one line at each of the upper stories beginning at the 
 eaves line, the heads located over each vertical row of windows 
 where windows are not over eight feet center to center. Size 
 of orifice and pipe sizes should be same as for window sprinklers 
 except by special consent of the Inspection Department having 
 jurisdiction. The value of open sprinklers for frame buildings is 
 much enhanced by the use of wood shutters at all window openings. 
 
 Section M Underground Pipes and Fittings 
 
 91. Weights. Should not be less than those specified in the fol- 
 lowing table, where the normal pressures do not exceed 125 pounds. 
 Where- the normal pressures are in excess of 125 pounds heavier 
 piping should be used : 
 
 Weight per ft. 
 Pipe Including Sockets 
 
 4 inches. . . .' 23.0 pounds 
 
 6 inches 35.8 pounds 
 
 8 inches 52.1 pounds 
 
 i o inches 70.8 pounds 
 
 12 inches 91.7 pounds 
 
 14 inches 116.7 pounds 
 
 1 6 inches 143-8 pounds 
 
 Pipe should be made in accordance with the essential features of the 
 " Standard Specifications for Cast-Iron Pipe and Special Castings," adopted 
 by the American Water Works Association, May 12, 1908. The inspector 
 referred to in the Specifications should preferably be a representative of an 
 independent inspection bureau making a business of examinations and tests 
 f pipe of this character. In cases where the amount of pipe to be installed 
 does not warrant the expense involved in a social examination, a certificate 
 from the manufacturer, stating that the pipe has been made and tested as 
 required, may be accepted by Inspection Department having jurisdiction, to 
 whom the matter should be referred in advance of closing the contract. 
 
 92. Hydrant Main. No 4-inch pipe shall be used. 
 
 93. For Pipes Extending to a Dead End: 
 
 (a) Allow 200 feet 6-inch pipe with one 3-way hydrant. 
 
 (b) Allow 500 feet 6-inch pipe with one 2-way hydrant. 
 This might be extended in special cases. 
 
 (c) Allow 1,000 feet 8-inch pipe with one 3-way hydrant. 
 
 (d) Allow 500 feet 8-inch pipe with one 4-way hydrant or its 
 equivalent in hose streams. 
 
 (e) Allow 300 feet 8-inch pipe to first hydrant, where there is a 
 hydrant equivalent of 6 streams. 
 
572 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (f) Limit for Four Streams. Whereas the above limitations 
 for 8-inch pipe are low, it is deemed undesirable to have over 4 
 streams on a dead end, and the loop system would ordinarily be 
 employed where it is intended to concentrate over 4 streams at one 
 point. 
 
 (g) Limit for Three Streams. Never allow more than three 
 (3) streams on 6-inch branch pipe. 
 
 94. For Loop Systems: 
 
 (a) For Two 3-Way Hydrants. With two 3-way hydrants, say 
 250 feet apart, allow 250 feet 6-inch pipe from each hydrant toward 
 source (preferably use 8-inch pipe with 3-way hydrant systems). 
 
 (b) For Two 2- Way Hydrants. With two 2-way hydrants, say 
 250 feet apart, allow 500 feet pipe from each hydrant toward source. 
 
 (c) For Three 2-Way Hydrants. With three 2-way hydrants, 
 250 feet apart, allow 250 feet 6-inch pipe from end hydrants toward 
 source. 
 
 (d) For Four 2-Way Hydrants. To feed four 2-way hydrants, 
 or their equivalent, use 8-inch main feed pipes and allow 500 feet 
 of 8-inch pipe each way from end hydrant to water supply, rest 
 of pipe 6-inch, if desired. 
 
 (e) For Five 2-Way Hydrants. To feed five 2-way hydrants 
 or their equivalent, use 8-inch main feed and allow 250 feet from 
 end hydrants to water ( supply. 
 
 (f) For Over Four Streams. Where water supplies are such 
 that over four streams can be obtained, loop, pipes should never be 
 less than 8-inch. | i i i ' ' I 
 
 (g) For Over Six Streams. In laying out a loop system where 
 it is intended to concentrate 4 to 6 streams at any one point, an 
 8-inch loop should be amply sufficient even 'if it is 'as much as 1,000 
 feet from supply to point of concentration. 
 
 (h) For Large Number of Streams. Under conditions where 
 a large number of streams can be concentrated at one point, it 
 would sometimes be desirable to use lo-inch or 12-inch pipe. 
 
 95. Rules for Laying Cast-iron Mains. Depth of Earth Cover. 
 The depth of covering should be determined by the Inspection 
 Department having jurisdiction, but will vary from 2.y 2 feet in 
 the Southern States to 10 feet in the northern part of Canada. 
 Depth of covering should be measured from top of pipe to ground 
 level. In a loose, gravelly soil, or in rock, the depth should be 
 greater than in compact, clayey soil. A safe rule to follow is to 
 bury the top of the pipe not less than one foot below the lowest 
 frost line for the locality. As there is normally no circulation of 
 water in private fire mains, they require a greater covering than 
 the public mains. 
 
 Placing pipes over raceways or near embankment walls should 
 be avoided as far as possible, and special attention given to pro- 
 tection against frost where it is necessary to so locate them. 
 
 Where mains are laid in raceways or shallow streams, care should 
 be taken that there will be a sufficient depth of running water 
 between the pipe and the frost line during all seasons of frost, 
 and a safer method is to bury the main under the bed of the water- 
 way not less than one foot. Care should also be taken to keep 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 573 
 
 the mains back from the hanks a sufficient distance to avoid any 
 danger of freezing through the side of the bank above the water 
 line, and with low banks mains should be buried below the frost 
 line where entering the water. 
 
 96. Care in Laying. Pipes should be clean inside when put in 
 trenches, and open ends plugged when work is stopped, to prevent 
 stones rolling inside. 
 
 Pipes should bear throughout their length, and not be supported 
 by the bell ends only. 
 
 Specials. Specials should be used for making offsets and bends, 
 and reducers for changing size of pipes, as thick lead joints or 
 joints with lead mostly on one side are liable to leak. 
 
 Back Filling. Back filling should be well tamped under and 
 around pipes to prevent settlement or lateral movement, and should 
 contain no ashes, cinders or other corrosive materials. 
 
 Rocks should not be rolled into trenches and allowed to drop 
 on pipes. 
 
 All plugs at blanked openings and all bends in soft ground 
 should either be strapped or secured by masses of concrete against 
 the ends or sides of trenches to avoid any possibility of joints 
 blowing apart. 
 
 In trenches cut through rock, back filling should preferably be 
 entirely of earth, but earth shall be used under and around pipe, 
 and for at least 2 feet above same. If soil is of quicksand it may 
 be necessary to suoport piping on piers. Under railroad tracks, 
 pipe should be provided with special supports and reinforcement 
 at joints. Underground, through buildings, flanged cast-iron pipe 
 with metallic gaskets or other standard pipe should be used. 
 
 Mains should not be laid under piles of coal or other material 
 liable to make the ground settle and cause leaks. 
 
 Steep Inclines. Down steep hills mains should be properly an- 
 chored. A general rule is to anchor the pipe at the bottom of the 
 hill, at any turns, and otherwise on straight runs about every forty- 
 eight feet. The anchoring should be done either to natural rock 
 or by means of brick or concrete piers. The piers should be built 
 around the pipe, or an iron rod not less than s/\ inch in diameter 
 placed around the pipe and the ends anchored in the piers. Bell 
 ends should be uphill. 
 
 Blow-off. Where feasible, blow-off should be provided at low 
 point of underground main, and it is also advisable where an under- 
 ground main crosses water. 
 
 Clamps. 'Clamp rods where used for strapping pipe should pref- 
 ably run from the bell to the next bell or fitting, but may be run 
 to clamps on pipe, provided clamps are not less than \\A inches 
 wide and not less than ^ inch thick. For 8-inch pipe and smaller, 
 clamp rods should not be less than ^ inch in diameter; for larger 
 pipe not less than fy inch. Clamps, straps or rods should be pro- 
 tected against corrosion by painting with tar, asphaltum or by other 
 suitable means. 
 
 Leading Joints. Joints should be carefully leaded, and packing 
 should be in the smallest quantity necessary to stop the lead. Rings 
 should be shrunk on ends of short length of pipe to form beads. 
 These are very essential in order to prevent yarn and lead from 
 passing into pipe, and also to make joint hold. Socket joints should 
 not be located in, or close to, foundations. 
 
574 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 97. Locating, and Setting Hydrants. Hydrants should be of a 
 standard type (see special pamphlet on Valves, Indicator Posts 
 and Hydrants), and wherever possible placed about 50 feet from 
 the buildings protected. Where it is impossible to place them at 
 this distance, they may be put nearer, provided they are set in 
 locations where the chance of injury by falling walls is small, and 
 from which men are not likely to be driven by smoke or heat. 
 Usually in crowded mill yards they can be placed beside low build- 
 ings, near brick stair towers, or at angles formed by substantial 
 brick w-alls which are not likely to fall. Hydrant should be set 
 on flat stone and about half a barrel of small stones placed about 
 the bottom to insure quick drainage from the drip. They should 
 not be placed near retaining walls where there is danger of frost 
 through the wall. 
 
 Hydrants should be fastened to pipe by strap from lugs cast on 
 hydrant or other means acceptable to the Inspection Department 
 having jurisdiction. 
 
 Where soil is of such a nature that the hydrants will not drain 
 properly under the above arrangement, the hydrant drain should 
 be connected to a sewer or ground drain by not less than a 2-inch 
 cast-iron pipe ; or some other means acceptable to the Inspection 
 Department having jurisdiction should be provided to keep the 
 hydrant barrels clear of water. 
 
 For hose house and equipment, see page 661. 
 
 98. Valves. Every connection from a yard main to a building 
 should be provided with a post indicator valve of a standard type, 
 and the name of the service controlled should be clearly stencilled 
 on the valve. 
 
 When surroundings are such that the indicator post will interfere 
 wiith the passing of teams or cars, the best practice is to use a 
 valve of the outside screw and yoke pattern placed in a pit built 
 in accordance with the National Board of Fire Underwriters' Regu- 
 lations. (See special pamphlet on Tanks.) A wrench or crow- 
 foot with long handle should be provided for each valve, and kept 
 in the pit where it can be reached from the yard level. The location 
 of the valve should be clearly marked on neighboring buildings, 
 and the cover of the pit should be kept at all times free from dirt 
 and snow. 
 
 Large yard systems should have sectional controlling valves, and 
 a valve should be provided on each bank where a main crosses 
 water. 
 
 99. Testing. All piping when completed should be tested for not 
 less than two hours at a pressure of not less than 150 pounds, and 
 if the normal pressure exceeds 100 pounds, for not less than 50 
 pounds in excess of that pressure. 
 
 Where feasible, test should be made with fire pumps running, 
 and every hydrant should be opened and closed so as to test it, and 
 at the same time produce some water hammer on the piping, as 
 in the case of actual fire. The system should also be thoroughly 
 flushed out by opening the various hydrants wide, thus drawing 
 large quantities of water and cleaning out small stones, sand and 
 other obstructions which will plug play pipes and sprinklers if 
 allowed to remain until the time of fire. 
 
ATTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 575 
 
 Branches to the inside sprinkler equipment should also be flushed 
 out before connecting the sprinkler riser. 
 
 If fire pumps are not available, underground piping may be tested 
 out by means of a hand pump. 
 
 In any event, the system should be tested under water pressure 
 to detect leaks which, even if small, when running continuously, 
 cause large waste of water, and if possible pressure should be put 
 on the pipes before the joints are covered, in order that any leaks 
 may be readily located. Tests should be made by contractor in 
 presence of inspector of the Inspection Department having juris- 
 diction. 
 
 EDITOR'S NOTE. See Appendix for section N, rules 100 to 103, 
 inclusive. 
 
 FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE AND FITTINGS 
 
 Kind and Age of Pipe. On the tables on pages 578 and 579 are 
 given the friction loss, as calculated on the Hazen-William's hydrau- 
 lic slide rule, in cast-iron pipe 15 to 20 years old and ordinary 
 vvrought-iron pipe. The discharge is approximately 80 per cent, 
 of these figures for cast-iron pipe 30 to 40 years old ancl old 
 vvrought-iron pipe. For cast-iron pipe about 5 years old, smooth new 
 wrought-iron and ordinary wood-stave pipe and cement-lined pipe, 
 the carrying capacity is about 20 per cent, greater than the table for 
 the same friction loss. Ordinary straight brass, lead, glctes and tin 
 pipe has a capacity about 30 per cent, greater than the figures given. 
 
 Bends and Other Fittings. The loss of head at bends and at 
 enlargement and contraction of pipe sizes is usually figured as a 
 function of the velocity head. For any flow, the velocity head can 
 be obtained by the formula 
 
 Where v. h. equals the velocity head in pounds, q equals the 
 quantity in gallons per minute, and d equals the diameter of the 
 pipe in inches. 
 
 From tests made by Inspection Department of the Associated 
 Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies: 
 
 Long-turn ells give a loss equal to about 0.3 velocity head or the 
 same friction loss as 4 feet of straight pipe of the same size, while 
 short-turn ells have a loss equivalent to i.o velocity head or 9 feet 
 of pipe. 
 
 Long-turn tees have a loss equal to i.o velocity head or are the 
 equivalent of -g feet of straight pipe, while short-turn tees have a 
 loss of 1.5 velocity head or are the equivalent of 17 feet. 
 
 Six-inch straight way check valve (Pratt & Cady pattern) is the 
 equivalent of 50 feet of 6-inch pipe. 
 
 Four-inch Pratt & Cady check valve is the equivalent of 25 feet 
 of 4-inch pipe. 
 
576 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Six-inch Grinnell dry pipe valve (old style differential) is the 
 equivalent of 80 feet of 6-inch pipe. 
 
 Six-inch English alarm check is the equivalent of 100 feet of 
 6-inch pipe. 
 
 Four-inch Grinnell dry pipe valve (old style differential) and 
 4-inch English alarm check are each the equivalent of 47 feet of 
 4-inch pipe. 
 
 Tests made by. the National Board of Fire Underwriters indicate 
 a loss as follows : 
 
 Pressure regulators have a loss of about 10. velocity head or about 
 that due to 150 feet of pipe. 
 
 Globe valves show about the s;ime loss as regulators. 
 
 Angle valves have a loss of about 2 velocity heads, or the equiva- 
 lent of 20 feet of pipe. 
 
 APPROXIMATE COST OF LAYING CAST IRON PIPE 
 
 Based on $30.00 per ton for pipe, macadam at $0.60 per sq. yd. 
 and block, brick, wood, etc., at $2.00 per sq. yd. Paving figured 
 2 feet wider than trench. 
 
 These figures will not pay for large gates, but some allowance is 
 made for specials. 
 
 Hydrants set, including connection, $40.00. 
 
 Diameter 
 of pipe, 
 inches 
 
 Wice 
 per foot, 
 laid 
 
 Repaying 
 at $0.60 per 
 square yard 
 
 Repaying 
 at $2.00 per 
 square yard 
 
 Cost per foot, 
 macadam 
 pavement 
 
 Cost per foot, 
 block, brick 
 or asphalt 
 pavement 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 $0.80 
 1.10 
 
 $0.26 
 0.26 
 
 $0.88 
 0.88 
 
 $1.06 
 1.36 
 
 n.68 
 
 1.98 
 
 10 . 
 12 
 
 1.40 
 1.75 
 
 0.26 
 0.26 
 
 0.88 
 0.88 
 
 1.66 
 2.01 
 
 2.28 
 2.63 
 
 16 
 20 
 
 2.50 
 3.50 
 
 0.29 
 0.31 
 
 0.96 
 1.02 
 
 2.79 
 3.81 
 
 3.46 
 4.52 
 
 24 
 30 
 
 4.50 
 6.00 
 
 0.33 
 0.36 
 
 1.10 
 .1.22 
 
 4.83 
 6.36 
 
 5.60 
 7.22 
 
 36 
 42 
 
 7.50 
 9.50 
 
 0.40 
 0.43 
 
 1.34 
 1.44 
 
 7.90 
 9.93 
 
 8.84 
 10.94 
 
 48 
 
 12.00 
 
 0.47 
 
 1.56 
 
 12.47 
 
 13.56 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 577 
 
 "E: 
 
 * o i 
 
 ^.M 
 
 , , 
 
 omNOOO 
 
 113 
 to* 
 
 c- r^ oi c oo ro 
 r^ r; ^? tc 
 
 
 i 
 
 24 
 
 m 
 
 <* 
 
 ;8. 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 
 in co 
 
 3' 
 
 CM 
 
 2" 
 
 
 
 OCM 
 
 8 
 
 .- 
 
 8 
 
 in 
 
 8 
 
 CO 
 
 g 
 
 CO 
 
 fi 
 
 fcCN 
 
 [8 
 
 cow 
 
 : s 
 
 Or- 
 
 s 
 
 t* 
 
 o 
 
 oo in 
 
 ^ ~ _ 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -toOW 
 
 r-l 
 
 g 
 
 oinrn 
 
 ' 12 
 
 OCO 
 
 c 
 
 COIN 
 
 ' in 
 
 4 
 
 c 
 
 I 
 
 2. 
 
 ft 
 
 O 
 
 ~H,:r N 
 
578 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 FRICTION LOSS IN ORDINARY WROUGHT IRON AND 
 CAST IRON PIPE 
 
 GALLONS 
 
 Loss IN POUNDS PER 100 FEET OF PIPE 
 
 Per 
 minute 
 
 Per day 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 1* 
 
 u* 
 
 ir 
 
 2* 
 
 2J* 
 
 3" 
 
 4" 
 
 5' 
 
 5 
 
 7,200 
 
 18 
 
 4.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 14,400 
 
 64 
 
 16 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 21,600 
 
 135 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 28,800 
 
 
 59. 
 
 18. 
 
 4.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 36,000 
 
 
 89. 
 125. 
 
 27. 
 
 ,7.1 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 43,200 
 
 
 39. 
 
 10. 
 
 4.7 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 50,400 
 
 
 165. 
 
 51. 
 
 13. 
 
 6.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 
 . 40 
 
 57,600 
 
 
 
 66. 
 
 17. 
 
 8.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 45 
 
 64,800 
 
 
 
 82. 
 
 21. 
 
 10. 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 72,000 
 
 
 
 99. 
 
 26. 
 
 12. 
 
 4.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 86,400 
 
 
 
 140. 
 
 38. 
 
 17. 
 
 6.1 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 70 
 
 100,800 
 
 
 
 
 
 49. 
 
 23. 
 
 8.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 80 
 
 115,200 
 
 
 
 63. 
 
 29. 
 
 10.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 0.1 
 
 90 
 
 129,600 
 
 
 
 
 78. 
 
 36. 
 
 13. 
 
 4.3 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 100 
 125 
 
 144,000 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 96. 
 
 44. 
 
 15. 
 
 5.1 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.2 
 0.3 
 0.4 
 
 180,000 
 
 
 
 
 144. 
 
 66. 
 
 24. 
 
 7.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 150 
 
 216,000 
 
 
 
 
 200. 
 
 93. 
 
 33. 
 
 11. 
 
 4.6 
 
 1.1 
 
 175 
 
 252,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 125. 
 
 44. 
 
 15. 
 
 6.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 200 
 
 288,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 158. 
 
 56. 
 
 19. 
 
 7.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.6 
 
 250 
 
 360,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 84. 
 
 28. 
 
 12. 
 
 2.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 300 
 
 432,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 114. 
 
 40. 
 53. 
 
 16. 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 350 
 
 504,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 151. 
 
 22. 
 
 5.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 400 
 
 576,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 68. 
 
 28. 
 
 6.9 
 
 2.3 
 2.9 
 3.5 
 
 450 
 
 648,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 84. 
 
 35. 
 
 8.6 
 
 500 
 
 720,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 102. 
 
 42. 
 
 10. 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,440,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 154. 
 
 37. 
 
 13. 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,160,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 135. 
 
 ,44. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 579 
 
 FRICTION LOSS IN ORDINARY WROUGHT IRON AND 
 CAST IRON PIPE Continued 
 
 GALLONS 
 
 Loss IN POUNDS PER 1,000 FEET OF PIPE 
 
 Per 
 
 minute 
 
 Per day 
 
 6' 
 
 8' 
 
 10' 
 
 12* 
 
 14' 
 
 16' 
 
 18' 
 
 20' 
 
 24' 
 
 25 
 
 36,000 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 72,000 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 144,000 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 288,000 
 
 2.7 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 432,000 
 
 5.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 576,000 
 
 9.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 .03 
 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 720,000 
 
 15. 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,440,000 
 
 52. 
 
 13. 
 
 4.3 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 1,500 
 
 2,160,000 
 
 111. 
 
 27. 
 
 9.1 
 
 3.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.9 
 1.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,880,000 
 
 190. 
 
 47. 
 
 16. 
 
 6.5 
 
 2.9 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 2,500 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 287. 
 
 71. 
 
 24. 
 
 10. 
 
 4.4 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 3.000 
 
 4,320,000 
 
 
 99. 
 
 33. 
 
 14. 
 
 6.6 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.5 
 
 3,500 
 
 5,040,000 
 
 
 132. 
 
 44. 
 
 18. 
 
 8.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 4,000 
 
 5,760,000 
 
 
 166. 
 
 56. 
 
 23. 
 
 11. 
 
 5.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.8 
 
 4,500 
 
 6,480,000 
 
 
 208. 
 
 70. 
 
 29. 
 
 14. 
 
 7-. 2 
 
 4.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 5,000 
 
 7,200,000 
 
 
 252. 
 
 86. 
 
 35. 
 
 17. 
 
 8.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 2.9 
 
 1.2 
 
 Table 6ho,n, ^..volant valu 
 
 S3 
 
 |l 
 
 3- 10 C=IOO 
 
 Diameter of Pipe in Inches 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantify 
 
 VH 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 fl 
 
 10 
 
 1? 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 b4 
 
 <oO 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 3 87 
 
 592 
 
 550 
 
 257 
 
 
 88-w 
 
 591 
 
 415 
 
 23l 
 
 14. J 
 
 795 
 
 494 
 
 328 
 
 231 
 
 170 
 
 129 
 
 
 
 6C 
 54 
 
 46^ooxx 
 
 364 
 341 
 
 1239 
 938 
 
 428 
 324 
 
 20o 
 
 51 S 
 
 li I 2 
 
 844 
 
 69 o 
 52 3 
 
 459 
 
 323 
 245 
 
 I8.o 
 
 11.12 
 844 
 
 6.19 
 469 
 
 3.84 
 29l 
 
 255 
 194 
 
 1.80 
 1 36 
 
 132 
 
 1 
 
 
 bo 
 54 
 
 46 
 
 25,70qooo 
 
 3.17 
 
 689 
 
 238 
 
 ill 2 
 
 619 
 
 3S4 
 
 256 
 
 I8o 
 
 100 
 
 6 i9 
 
 344 
 
 2 *4 
 
 142 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 18.100,000 
 
 291 
 
 4S6 
 
 
 784 
 
 43t, 
 
 27.0 
 
 \S-o 
 
 127 
 
 704 
 
 43<. 
 
 242 
 
 ISO 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 -42 
 
 3b 
 
 12 o3c(ooo 
 
 264 
 
 323 
 
 IU.2 
 
 S22 
 
 29 J 
 
 ISO 
 
 12 
 
 842 
 
 4.64 
 
 290 
 
 I bi 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 7470,000 
 
 23S 
 
 2oo 
 
 691 
 
 324 
 
 iS o 
 
 11.13 
 
 743 
 
 J-22 
 
 2.91 
 
 1 <e 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 4,150,000 
 
 2 04 
 
 HI. 2 
 
 3f4 
 
 IS.O 
 
 '00 
 
 619 
 
 4 13 
 
 290 
 
 161 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 2.570,ooo 
 
 182 
 
 6S9 
 
 238 
 
 11.12 
 
 19 
 
 384 
 
 256 
 
 180 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 1,430000 
 
 158 
 
 334 
 
 133 
 
 6.19 
 
 34S 
 
 214 
 
 I 42 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 l,OOS,ooo 
 
 145 
 
 269 
 
 93) 
 
 435 
 
 2*Z 
 
 1-50 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '14 
 
 12 
 
 67oooo 
 
 132 
 
 ISO 
 
 6.2J 
 
 290 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 3*4 
 
 1-90 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 231,000 
 
 102 
 
 619 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 c 
 
 1 of. ooo 
 
 AS 
 
 290 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 37OOO 
 
 U 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
580 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 11 3 MS jo 
 
 IFMS jo "3 
 ssaujpiqx 
 
 188 
 
 aad 
 
 1PMS jo -g 
 ssauipiqx 
 
 q 
 aad 
 
 8 2 
 
 IPMS J u 
 
 ssauipiqx 
 
 LO LO 
 
 t> CO O5 
 
 t> I"- 00 
 
 aad 
 
 o o o o 
 
 S 8 
 
 IPMS J u 
 ssau>piqx 
 
 O CD CM CO O 
 00 00 C7l O CM 
 
 J3d 
 
 o o 
 
 CO 00 
 
 00 O 
 
 in CD 
 
 qi 
 aad i 
 
 | g 2 
 
 CM co in 
 
 ssau^otqx 
 
 in CD 
 
 CM 00 CO 
 
 IPHS JO 
 
 SCO CD 
 CD CD 
 
 a 
 
 9d!d 
 
 2 g 
 
 * 00 
 CO CO 
 
 CM' O !.,O> 
 
 co in i> o 
 in m m CD 
 
 Tf CD 1 00. O 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 o 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 s s % % 
 
 in t^- as w 
 
 ^-1 co r- co M N in o in co -r 
 
 N CO ^" ^OOOMlOt^OOCOLO 
 
 4iJ 
 
 1 S 
 
 l 5' 
 
 -r o vc 
 
 M CM 
 
582 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 On the following pages will be found illustrations of more than 100 auto- 
 matic sprinkler heads of different varieties. Many of these are of obsolete 
 designs, and , are not now manufactured, and for that reason are likely to 
 puzzle the average inspector when he meets them in his rounds. These illus- 
 trations should aid in the identification of practically all sprinkler heads 
 which are in use, whether installed recently or in the earlier years of this 
 form of protection, and will doubtless render valuable assistance to inspectors 
 and surveyors, and also to property owners desirous of describing the equip- 
 ment of their premises. 
 
 The index presented below will enable the render to readily find the picture 
 of any desired type of sprinkler, while the titles (referred to by number) 
 given at the bottoms of pages, will identify by name any selected illustration. 
 
 I * 
 INDEX TO SPRINKLER ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 "No. 
 
 Babcock; 1900 75 
 
 Barnes ; perforated . '. '. .' 58 
 
 Barnes; lever and link; 1880 59 
 
 Bishop; old water joint; 1881 , 6 
 
 Bishop; 1885 80 
 
 Bishop; 1888 78 
 
 Bishop; old water joint; open 7 
 
 Bishop; later water joint . 8 
 
 Brown; No. i; 1881 20 
 
 Brown ; No. i ; open 21 
 
 Brown; No. 2; 1883 22 
 
 Buell ; old -54 
 
 Buell; 1873 . . . ; 82 
 
 Buell; later; 1882 55 
 
 Buell; 1884 83 
 
 Buell; 1884 .. 76 
 
 Buell; 1885 79 
 
 Buell ; 1892 77 
 
 Burritt; perforated; 1877 i 
 
 Burritt; water joint deflector; 1881 3 
 
 Burritt; 1883 84 
 
 Burritt; water joint ' 2 
 
 Clapp; 1887 : 86 
 
 Clapp ; 1891 70 
 
 Draper '. \ . . . . 60 
 
 Draper Differential ....'. 85 
 
 Esty ; older 73 
 
 Esty ; 1 896 74 
 
 Evans; 1902 no 
 
 Gleason , 62 
 
 Gray ; old ; long nipple 1 6 
 
 Gray ; old ; long nipple ; open ' 17 
 
 Gray; old; short nipple ; 18 
 
 Gray; new; 1891 19 
 
 Grinnell; old; pendant; wide seat rings; lead discs; 1882; to 1884; tin; 
 1884 to 1886; narrow seat rings, tin; 1886 to 1888; babbitt metal, from 
 
 April, 1888 23 
 
 Grinnell ; old ; pendant ; open 24 
 
 Grinnell; old; upright; 1883 25 
 
 Grinnell; new; Oct. 2, 1890 26 
 
 Grinnell ; open ; eaves 27 
 
 Gunn 63 
 
 Harkness; old; 1885 56 
 
 Harkness; later; 1891 57 
 
 Harris; 1883 1 !.. 15 
 
 Hibbard ; 1894 .- . 69 
 
 Hill; older; 1883 71 
 
 Hill; later; 1887 72 
 
 Hopedale 33 
 
 Independent 1 09 
 
 Jahn; 1891 88 
 
 John Kane; 1881 89 
 
 John Kane; 1900 91 
 
 Kane Eclipse 41 
 
 Kane Eclipse ; open '. 42 
 
 Kane; old 43 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 Kane new 
 
 No. 
 44 
 
 
 45 
 
 Kersteter' older* 1887 
 
 64 
 
 
 : 6s 
 
 
 : 87 
 
 Kersteter' 1898 
 
 90 
 
 McLauthlin' 1894 
 
 101 
 
 Mackev: 1881 . 
 
 . 99 
 
 Mackey; box; 1884 4 6 
 
 Mackey; disc 47 
 
 Mackey; later pendant; 1888 48 
 
 Manufacturers; flat screw; pendant; 1892 49 
 
 round screw; pendant; 1894 5 
 
 mutual 5 1 
 
 yoke; upright; 1894 . 5 2 
 
 duck bill ; upright -. 53 
 
 .... 61 
 
 Manufacturers; 
 Manufacturers; 
 Manufacturers; 
 Manufacturers; 
 Xagle; 1886 . 
 
 Nagle; 1891 92 
 
 Naylor; 1895 93 
 
 Xeracher; lawn; 1882 28 
 
 Neracher; yoke link; 1883 29 
 
 Xeracher; side links; 1884 30 
 
 Xeracher; regular; older; 1888 1 31 
 
 Xeracher; regular; later 32 
 
 Xe wton ; 1 892 f. 68 
 
 Xew York & New Haven; thimble; 1883 
 link . 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 '. . . . ii 
 
 1888 12 
 
 later ; elbow 1 3 
 
 I::::::::::::::::::::: X 
 
 vertical 107 
 
 4 
 
 New York & New Haven 
 
 New York & New Haven; link; open 
 
 New York & New Haven; older; elbow; 
 
 New York & New Haven 
 
 New York & New Haven; later; elbow; open 
 
 New York & New Haven ; elbow 
 
 New York & New Haven 
 
 Parmalee; 1878 
 
 Parmalee ; open 
 
 Pierce ; older 66 
 
 Pierce; later; 1892 67 
 
 Ruthenburg; 1885 '. .". 98 
 
 Shaffer Mascot; 1887 102 
 
 Star; 1886 108 
 
 Swan; 1895 94 
 
 Talcott; 1882 96 
 
 Up to Date; 1899 
 Wai Worth; old; pendant; 1883 
 
 97 
 
 : 34 
 
 Walworth ; 
 Walworth ; 
 
 old ; pendant ; open 
 old; upright 
 
 35 
 36 
 
 Walworth; 
 
 old ; upright ; open 
 
 37 
 
 Walworth; 
 
 new; upright; turbine 
 
 38 
 
 Walworth ; 
 Walworth; 
 
 new; upright; turbine; open 
 new ; disc 
 
 39 
 4 
 
 Walworth; 
 
 with soldered arm 
 
 95 
 
 Walworth; 
 
 1898 
 
 IuO 
 
 Walworth; 
 
 upright ; closed 
 
 103 
 
 Walworth ; 
 
 upright; open 
 
 104 
 
 Walworth; 
 
 pendant ; closed 
 
 105 
 
 Walworth ; 
 
 pendant ; open 
 
 106 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 i Burritt; perforated, 1877. 2 Burritt; water joint. 3 Bur- 
 ritt; water joint; deflector; 1881. 4 Parmalee; 1878. 5 Parma- 
 lee; open. 6 Bishop; old water joint; 1881. 7 Bishop; old water 
 joint; open. 8 Bishop; later water joint. 9 New York & New 
 Haven; thimble; 1883. 10 New York & New Haven; link, n 
 New York & New Haven; link; open. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 12 New York & Xew Haven; older; elbow; 1888. 13 New York 
 & New Haven; later; elbow. 14 New York & New Haven; later; 
 elbow; open. 15 Harris; 1883. 16 Gray; old; long nipple; 1886. 
 17 Gray; old; long nipple; open. 18 Gray; old; short nipple. 19 
 Gray; new; 1891. 20 Brown; No. i; 1881. 
 
586 ' FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 21- Brown; No. i; open. 22 Brown; No. 2; 1883. 23 Grinnell; 
 old; pendant; wide seat rings; lead discs, 1882 to 1884; tin, 1884 to 
 1886; narrow seat rings, tin, 1886 to 1888; babbitt metal, from April, 
 1888. 24 Grinnell; old; pendant; open. 25 Grinnell; old; upright; 
 1883. 26 Grinnell; new; Oct. 2, 1890. 27 Grinnell; open; eaves. 
 28 Neracher; lawn; 1882. 29 Neracher, yoke link; 1883. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 587 
 
 35 
 
 30 Neracher; side links; 1884. 31 Neracher; regular; older; 
 1888. 32 Neracher; regular; later. 33 Hopedale. 34 Walworth; 
 old; pendant; 1883. 35 Walworth; old; pendant; open. 36 Wal- 
 worth; old; upright. 37 Walworth; old; upright; open. 38 W r aJ- 
 worth; new; upright; turbine. 
 
S88 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 
 ^.'391 Walworth; new; Upright; turbine; open. 40 Walworth; new; 
 di^c. 41- Kane Eclipse. 42 Kane Eclipse; open. 43 Kane; old. 
 , 44 Kane; ne\^. 45 ICane; universal. 46 Mackey; box; 1884. 
 47 Mackey; disc. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 48 Mackey; later pendant; 1888. 49 Manufacturers; flat screw; 
 pendant; 1892. 50 Manufacturers- round screw; pendant; 1894. 
 51 Manufacturers; mutual. 52 Manufacturers; yoke; upright; 
 1894. 53 Manufacturers; duck hill; upright. 54 Buell; old. 55 
 Buell; later; 1882. 56 Harkness; old; 1885. 
 
590 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 65 
 
 57 Harkness; later; 1891. 58 Barnes; perforated. 5,9 Barnes; 
 lever and link; 1880. 60 Draper. 61 Nagle; 1886. 62 Gleason. 
 63 Gunn. 64 Kersteter; older; 1887. 65 Kersteter; later. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 1 591 
 
 66 Pierce; older. 67 Pierce; later; 1892. 68 Newton; 1892. 
 69 Hibbard; 1894. 70 Clapp; 1891. 71 Hill; older; 1883. 72 
 Hill; later; 1887. 73 Esty; older. 74 Esty; 1896. 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROJECTION 
 
 75 Rabcock; 1900. . 76 Buell; 1884., 77 Buell; 1892. 78 
 Bishop; 1888. 79 Buell; 18:85. 80 Bishop; 1885. 81 New York 
 & New Haven; elhow. 82 Buell; 1873. 83 Buell; 1884. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 593 
 
 85 
 
 91 
 
 84 Burritt; 1883. 85 Draper Differential. 86 Clapp; 1887. 
 87 Kersteter; 1888. 88 Jahn; 1891. 89 John Kane; 1881. 90 
 Kersteter; 1898. 91 John Kane; 1900. 92 Nagle; 1891. 
 
594 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 101 
 
 93 Naylor; 1895. 94 Swan; 1895. 95 Walworth, with soldered 
 arm. 96 Talcott; 1882. 97 Up to Date; 1899. 98 Ruthenburg; 
 1885. 99 Mackey; 1883. 100 Walworth; 1898. 101 McLauth- 
 lin; 1894. l 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 595 
 
 102 
 
 103 
 
 104 
 
 105 
 
 (07 
 
 106 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 ioj Shaffer Mascot; 1887. 103 Walworth; upright; closed. 104 
 -Walworth; upright; open. 105 Walworth; pendant; closed. 106 
 \Val worth; pendant; open. 107 New York & New Haven; verti- 
 cal. 108 Star; 1886. 109 Independent. 110 Evans; 1902. 
 
596 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 
 Grinnell Improved 1903 Sprinklers , 
 
 (Glass 'Sealed) 
 General Fire Extinguisher Co. 
 
 o 
 
 Evans, Issue B. 
 Merchants and Evans Co. 
 
 Crowder, Issue A. 
 Crowder Bros. 
 
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 
 
 597 
 
 
 Manufacturers, Issue C. 
 Automatic Sprinkler Co. of America 
 
 Associated, Issue B. 
 Associated Automatic Sprinkler Co. 
 
 Niagara, Issue B. 
 Automatic Sprinkler Co. of America 
 
 International, Issue ]'>. 
 International Sprinkler Co. 
 
FIRE PUMPS 
 
 
 Uniform specifications for Fire Pumps are now used throughout 
 the whole country, having been agreed upon ifi joint conference 
 by representatives of the different organizations interested in this 
 class of work. They are known as " The National Standard " and 
 have been, up to this time, adopted by the following Associations : 
 
 Associated Factory Mutual Fire Ins. Go's. 
 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 National Fire Protection Association. 
 
 These specifications are followed by all the leading manufac- 
 turers ; a few makes of pumps have been examined and listed by 
 the Underwriters' Laboratories as complying with the specifica- 
 tions, but in general, manufacturers have not submitted their 
 products for examination and underwriting organizations are 
 accepting of any reliable maker the pump catalogued as an " Un- 
 derwriters' Fire Pump." 
 
 The principal points of difference between a fire pump and the 
 ordinary commercial pump are: 
 
 ROTARY FIRE PUMP 
 
 (a) The water passages are made larger than in most pumps hitherto built, 
 so that there is less loss of pressure in getting water to and from the pump. 
 
 (b) The pump is " rust-proofed " so that it may start instantly after disuse, 
 
 5 Bucket Cam. T ducket Cam. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 FIG. 88. Rotary Pumps 
 
 >1 !;>:.' -I'/ I ,.'! W-'r.\ 
 
 598 
 
FIRE PUMPS 
 
 599 
 
 by making its working cams and water casing of solid composition instead of 
 cast iron. 
 
 (c) The shafts are made heavier and the bearings more liberal, with special 
 arrangements for keeping these bearings oiled and in readiness for instant use. 
 
 (d) A single pair of forged steel gears is supported on each side. These are 
 accurately cut and run in oil. 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Uud's. 
 FIG. 89 
 
 (e) A special discharge casting and air chamber with certain fittings is fur- 
 nished with each pump. These fittings include a pressure gauge, a relief valve 
 and cone, a priming pipe and valve, a starting valve, two to six hose valves, 
 and a capacity plate. 
 
6oo 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 STEAM DUPLEX FIRE PUMP 
 
 1. Its steam ports and water passages and air chamber are made much 
 larger than in common trade pumps, so that a larger volume of wafer can 
 be delivered in an emergency without water hammer. 
 
 2. It is "rust proofed " that it may start instantly after disuse, by making 
 its piston rods and valve rods of Tobin bronze, instead 'of steel; its water 
 pistons, stuffing boxes and rock-shaft bearings of brass, instead of cast-iron. 
 Its valve levers are made of steel or wrought-iron forgings, or of steel 
 castings. 
 
 3. The following necessary attachments are all included in the price of the 
 "National Standard Pump," viz. : a vacuum chamber, two' pressure gauges, 
 a relief valve, a set of brass priming pipes, 2 to 6, hose valves, a stroke 
 gauge, a capacity plate, an oil pump, a sight feed lubricator; and a casti-iron 
 relief-valve discharge-cone. 
 
 By reason of th0 larger p6rts, passageways and pipes its larger number 
 of valves, and the added attachments, and general superior construction a 
 " National Standard " pump costs more than a common trade fire pump, but 
 the cost per gallon which these pumps can deliver in an emergency by reason 
 of their large passageways, etc., ,is no greater than for the old style of fire 
 pump and is well worth this extra cost. 
 
 NATIONAL STANDARD PUMP SIZES 
 Steam Duplex Pumps 
 
 Pump Sizes 
 
 Ratio of 
 Piston 
 
 Areas 
 
 Capacity at 100 Lbs., 
 at Pump 
 
 Boiler 
 Power 
 Required 
 
 Full Speed 
 
 B 
 1 
 
 C/3 
 
 |4| 
 
 8 
 
 $ 
 
 (U 
 JaA 
 O 
 Z 
 V) 
 
 Number of 
 1 i-in-i- Streams- 
 
 Nominal Gals, 
 per Minute 
 
 """" { '7TTC 1 
 
 Actual Gals, 
 per Minute 
 
 <u 
 
 L 
 
 E 
 
 "Steam Pressure 
 at Pump, Lbs. 
 
 Revolutions 
 per Minute 
 
 Piston Travel, 
 Feet per Minute 
 
 About 
 
 14 x 
 12 x 
 
 7 x 12 
 7J x 12 
 
 4 to 1 
 
 Two 
 
 500 
 
 483, 
 520 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 140 
 
 16 x 
 
 9 x 12 
 
 3 to 1 
 
 Three 
 
 750 
 
 ! _ 
 
 1 .1: 
 806', 
 
 115 
 
 45 
 
 70 
 
 . 140 
 
 18 x 
 18* x 
 
 10 x 12 
 10i x 12 
 
 3 to 1 
 
 Four 
 
 1000 
 
 m 
 
 1050 
 
 150 
 
 '45 
 SO 
 
 70 
 
 140 
 160 
 
 20 x 
 
 12 x 16 
 
 21 to 1 
 
 Six 
 
 1500 
 
 1655 
 
 200 
 
 60 
 
 ROTARY FIRE PUMPS " 
 
 Nominal' 
 Gallons per 
 Minute 
 
 Approximate 
 Width of 
 Buckets 
 
 Approximate 
 Distance 
 Between 
 
 Centers 
 
 Approximate 
 Speed, 
 Revolutions 
 per Minute 
 
 Number of 
 1 i-inch 
 Streams 
 
 Approximate 
 Horse Power 
 Required 
 for 100 Lbs. 
 Pressure* 
 
 500 
 750 
 1000 
 1500 
 
 Inches 
 '8 
 9 or 10 
 10 
 12 
 
 Inches 
 7 or 8 
 8 or 9 
 9 or 10 
 10 or 12 
 
 "275 
 '.u 275 
 250 
 250 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 6 
 
 60 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 180 
 
 * Somewhat less horse power will drive the pump when spur gears are used 
 and conditions are favorable. 
 
FTRE PUMPS 
 CENTRIFUGAL FIRE PUMPS 
 
 601 
 
 Centrifugal pumps are those in which the water is given a high velocity 
 by revolving imjiellers. The velocity of the water on leaving the .impeller 
 is reduced by suitably arranged passages and appears as pressure. Higher 
 
 Reproduced by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 FIG. 90 
 
 pressures may be secured by increasing the speed or by arranging two or 
 more impellers in series. To avoid excessively high speeds the latter method 
 is usually employed, forming the multi-stage pump. 
 
 It is the intent of these specifications to prescribe limits within which 
 manufacturers may work to secure a pump, comparable in reliability and 
 
602 , FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 efficiency with the present steam or rotary pump. High efficiencies, however 
 desirable, should not be secured at the expense of simplicity and reliability 
 under average fire-service conditions. 
 
 Although by these specifications it is expected to secure centrifugal 
 pumps satisfactory for fire purposes, it is recognized that the art is in a 
 progressive state, and experience may subsequently show some modifications 
 from these requirements to be desirable. In the meantime, however, it is 
 expected that manufacturers will conform to the specifications as herein 
 printed. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps should not be accepted until the conditions in each 
 case have been examined and the suitability of such a pump has been 
 determined. 
 
 The centrifugal pump , is well adapted for driving by an electric motor 
 or by a steam turbine, as the speed of the pump and the prime mover may 
 readily be made the same, thus permitting direct connection. Whether or 
 not the motor drive may be accepted in any case is largely a question of the 
 reliability of the electric current driving the motor in the event of a fire in 
 the property itself, or in adjoining buildings which might threaten the 
 property. To make a motor-driven pump acceptable, the electric power 
 supply should be as reliable as the steam supply in the average property for 
 the ordinary steam fire pump. Each case must, therefore, be specially con- 
 sidered and decided upon its merits. Other methods of driving, where reliable, 
 will be acceptable. 
 
 TYPE. (a) Either the horizontal-shaft or the vertical-shaft type may be used. 
 
 (b) If the vertical-shaft type be used, some form of thrust bearing must 
 be provided to take the weight of the impeller and its shaft, and a separate 
 thrust bearing provided for taking the weight of the driving shaft. Means 
 must be provided to adjust each thrust bearing independently of the other. 
 
 It is probable that the horizontal type will be the less expensive and for 
 many situations, will be preferable. There are likely to be, however, situa- 
 tions for which the vertical-shaft type will be better suited, such as a very 
 high suction lift, or where it is not expedient, by reason of dirt and damp- 
 ness, to place the moj:or or other prime mover at the same level as the 
 pump. In such cases, by placing the pump down within easy reach of the 
 water and extending the shaft to a higher level where the motor can be 
 connected and better cared for, the outfit can then be made comparable in 
 reliability to the horizontal type at low lifts. Such an arrangement would 
 call for the two thrust bearings above mentioned, independently adjustable 
 to take the weight of ' the revolving parts. 
 
 STAGES. The pump must be of not less than two stages and not more than 
 four. 
 
 To obtain a fire pressure of 100 pounds two stages at least appear to be 
 necessary, in order to avoid very large impellers and to secure a reasonably 
 good efficiency. 
 
 It is also recognized that there are advantages in the four-stage pump, 
 permitting of lower speeds; and in some makes they admit of a more perfect 
 balancing of end thrusts without the added complication of balancing -pistons 
 and thrust bearings. The four-stage pump being of smaller diameter, also 
 permits of a stronger design of casting. One stage pump may be satis- 
 factory when driven by steam turbines. 
 
 Whether one, two, three, or four stages are adopted, the utmost simplicity 
 and ruggedness of design, together with the avoidance of all dispensable com- 
 plications, will be required. 
 
 CAPACITY AND SPEED. (a) The four standard sizes for centrifugal pumps 
 will be as follows: 
 
 SIZE OF PUMP 
 
 Gals, per Min. No. 1J* Streams 
 
 500 2 
 
 750 3 
 
 1,000 4 
 
 1,500 >r> ,>\i$ fi 
 
FIRE PUMPS 603 
 
 (b) The speed of pump must not exceed 1,800 revolutions per minute. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps will be most frequently driven by electric motors, and 
 it is desirable to bring their speeds into conformity with the larger number 
 of standard motors now being built. 
 
 Somewhat higher speeds, not to exceed 2,500 r. p. m., may be allowed 
 for pumps driven by steam turbines. But in such cases permission should 
 be obtained from the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 Steam turbines must be capable of driving pump at rated speed and 
 pressure, with steam pressures varying from 75 to 150 pounds. 
 
 EFFICIENCY AND POWER. The pump must be able to discharge its full 
 rated capacity at its rated speed against 100 Ibs. pressure, with substantially 
 a zero suction lift, and at an efficiency not less than as given in the table 
 following: 
 
 Size of Pump Per Cent Efficiency 
 500 gallons per minute 50 to 55 
 
 750 55 to 60 
 
 1,000 " " " 60 to 65 
 
 1,500 65 to 70 
 
 The efficiency of centrifugal pumps falls away rapidly on the small sizes. 
 These efficiencies are required, not because the cost of the power used 
 during the fire is of importance, but because a much lower efficiency would 
 mean a larger motor, consequently more first cost, and, when running, a 
 larger tax on transmission lines and power stations. 
 
 The power required to drive these four different sizes of pumps at their 
 full rated capacity, based on the required efficiencies, will be about as follows: 
 
 Size of Pump 
 
 Efficiencies Horse Power Required 
 
 500 gallons per minute 
 750 " 
 1,000 " 
 1,500 
 
 50 to 55 64 to 60 
 55 to 60 88 to 80 
 60 to 65 107 to 100 
 65 to 70 148 to 138 
 
 The theoretical power required to 
 pressure of 100 Ibs. and with a zero 
 
 discharge 250 gallons a minute at a 
 suction lift, is 14.6 horse power. For 
 
 a pump of 60 per cent efficiency this would mean that an input to pump 
 of about 25 horse power would be needed per 250 gallons per minute delivery 
 at 100 Ibs. pressure. For efficiencies other than this or for any material 
 suction lift or head, some modification in horse power required will be 
 demanded. In anv event the power provided should be sufficient to guard 
 against any appreciable overload of the motor at the rated discharge in 
 pressure. 
 
 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES. (a) The design of the impeller blades must be 
 such that it will not be possible to overload the driving motor more than 
 25 per cent. 
 
 Electric motors ordinarily will be used for driving pumps of this type. 
 It is important to have the pump so designed that the motor could not 
 be burned out, either by shutting off streams or by connecting more streams 
 than the rated capacity of the pump. Motor builders are ready to guarantee 
 their motors against overload of 25 per cent for 2 hours. A greater over- 
 load than this should not be maintained except momentarily. 
 
 (b) For 'pumps driven by a constant speed motor a steep characteristic 
 curve should ordinarily be adopted as shown in Figure 91. 
 
 The wide range of pressures and capacities obtainable from a steam fire 
 pump are not possible with a centrifugal pump driven by a constant speed 
 motor. Some compromise, however, is feasible by the adoption of a steep 
 characteristic, whereby a much high pressure than the rating is possible 
 at the smaller flows, as indicated in Figure 91. This higher pressure is very 
 desirable where long lines of hose are required, or in the event of a fire 
 in a very high or wide building. 
 
 In those instances where pumps take their water supply under a consid- 
 eiable head, the steep characteristics should not be adopted; or, in any event, 
 one so steep as to result in excessive pressures on the yard system. 
 
 (c) For pumps driven by an adjustable speed motor or prime mover, a 
 flat characteristic curve should ordinarily be adopted as shown in Figure 92. 
 
 The higher cost of such adjustable speed pumping units have usually pre- 
 vented their adoption. But their obvious advantage in many instances makes 
 their tt'citicn well worth while. 
 
6o 4 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (d) For pumps taking their water under considerable head, the flat char- 
 acteristic curve 'should ordinarily be adopted, or one which will not in con- 
 junction with the inlet pressure result in unduly high pressures on the 
 fire system. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 If. 
 
 
 *** 
 
 _ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 s_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !*> 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 X, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *!> 
 
 X 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t ] r 
 
 60) TO 8M 90 
 
 Gallon* 
 
 p 
 
 XI 1100 i.-OO 1X0 MO bOO WOO 110 
 er Mmute .,.,.,. 
 
 *l 
 
 Of 
 
 W 
 
 FIG. 91 
 
 Centrifugal pumps are being extensively used in cities as " booster " pumps, 
 taking their water supply from the street mains at pressures from 20 to 
 50 pounds. 
 
 With the steep characteristic curve shown in Figure 91, there might result 
 undue pressures on the fire system at the smaller flows. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 no 
 "5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 "IM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ 'A 
 
 o xo *xi bta <oo TC 
 
 i * 
 
 GUI 
 
 900 KXO It 
 
 ons per 
 
 u c 
 V. 
 
 oo'uoouooiujowoiTCioaooBcojw 
 
 nuta 
 
 FIG. 92 
 
 If the inlet pressure is to remain nearly constant, pump impellers can be 
 designed to suit, and high pressures avoided. However, as these pressures 
 are sometimes reduced materially under large flows, no allowances for this 
 suction head should be made, unless assured that it is of a constant character. 
 
 For these reasons the flat characteristic curve will ordinarily better safe- 
 
FIRE PUMPS 605 
 
 guard the fire systems, and if the situation demands higher pressures, the 
 adjustable speed motor or steam turbine should then be adopted. 
 
 In any installation where unduly high pressures result, and the above 
 suggestion cannot be adopted, the relief valve should be set at some reason- 
 able safe pressure, say 125 Ibs., and allowed to discharge the excess capacity 
 at the smaller flows. 
 
 There have been a few pumps built of the 3 stage type, operated by a 
 constant speed motor, that permit variable pressures. Ordinarily only two 
 of the impellers are running, giving pressures of 90 to 100 Ibs. But by 
 throwing into commission the third impeller, pressures 35 per cent to 40 
 per cent higher are available. In some cases, such equipments would satis- 
 factorily meet the conditions mentioned in e. 
 
 (e) For a constant speed the characteristic curve of pressure and capacity 
 must be one constantly rising as th6 discharge decreases. 
 
 At no point in this curve should the pressure be higher than at the shut- 
 off point. 
 
 As the pressure gauge is the only indicator of the pump discharge, it is 
 important that this gauge should indicate only one discharge capacity for any 
 given pressure and speed. 
 
 (f) For a constant speed and a steep characteristic curve, the pressure 
 at shut-off point should be not less than 30 per cent higher than pressure 
 at rated capacity, and the discharge capacity should be 50 per cent higher 
 than rated discharge at- a pressure not less than 70 per cent of that at rated 
 discharge. 
 
 INSTALLATION OF PUMPS 
 
 LOCATION. Pumps must be so located as to secure the following features. 
 
 (a) They must be safe from damage from falling floors or machinery, 
 and by suitable cut-offs be safeguarded from any influence such as smoke, 
 fire ,or flood that might drive away the operator. A one-story building 
 isolated from the main group is to be preferred. 
 
 Where brick or reinforced concrete is not feasible, expanded metal and 
 cement is recommended as an inexpensive and desirable construction for 
 such a room. 
 
 The practice of locating centrifugal pumps in basements not cut off but 
 with pump arranged to s'tart from outside of building is not desirable, and 
 if used care must be taken that all starting devices, priming valve and all 
 other similar valves be arranged to be operated from the same point. 
 
 Where there are several pumps in different buildings not all subject to 
 one fire, the requirement concerning cutting off of pump may sometimes be 
 waived. 
 
 (b) The pump room must be of ample size to afford access at all times 
 for operating and overhauling. It should not be used for miscellaneous 
 storage. 
 
 (c) Its location must permit of practicable pipe connections, the suction 
 pipe receiving first consideration. 
 
 (d) Some means must be provided for maintaining the temperature of 
 pump room above the freezing point. 
 
 Artificial light must be provided, and provision made for drainage and 
 ventilation. 
 
 A lantern, preferably two, with safety matches sh'ould be kept in pump 
 room. 
 
 FOUNDATION AND SETTING. (a) Fire pumps must, be placed upon solid 
 foundations, preferably built of concrete or, if desired, of brick laid in 
 strong hydraulic cement. 
 
 It is desirable to give these foundations a batter fore and aft of about i 
 to 4 in order to secure ampfe bearing upon the sub-foundation. This will 
 insure stability during the fast running demanded of fire pumps. Where 
 foundation is built of bricks, a capping of stone or cast iron under bed 
 plate is an advantage in tying together the upper part of the foundation. 
 
 In some cases it may be necessary to support the pump on I-beams or a 
 framework of structural iron. The bed plate should then be bolted securely 
 fo the beams. 
 
6o6 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (b) Pumps must be set level, with foundation bolts in position, and 
 the joint between the foundation and the bedplate must be made solid by 
 grouting with thin, pure cement. When thoroughly set, the bolts should 
 then be tightened up. 
 
 (c) Care should be taken not to spring bedplate, thereby throwing out 
 of line the respective shafts of motor and pump. The interposed flexible 
 coupling will take care of only slight inaccuracies in alignment. 
 
 SUCTION SUPPLY. An inexhaustible supply of water is to be preferred. 
 Where a stored supply only is available, it should be large enough to supply 
 the pump for two hours, more or less, depending upon local conditions. 
 Some reliable means should be provided for filling such reservoir through 
 a 4-inch or 6-inch pipe. 
 
 SUCTION PIPE. (a) Where the pump takes its water under a head, suction 
 pipe may be of the same size as opening in pump; but with a suction lift 
 of 10 feet or more, and a length of pipe exceeding 20 feet, or with more 
 than two elbows, suction pipe two inches larger must be used, and a special 
 reducing casting must be provided to connect this pipe with the pump. 
 
 (b) A short suction pipe, if well supported, should preferably be of flanged 
 pipe with rubber gaskets. If of some length and in yielding soil, bell-and- 
 spigot pipe should be used, and the joints filled with -lead and tightly calked. 
 Yarn "and similar materials should not be used as a substitute for lead in 
 suction pipe joints. 
 
 (c) Great care should be taken in laying the suction pipe, so that it shall 
 have a constantly ascending grade from the water supply to the pump. 
 
 If high places or summits are permitted, they are likely to give constant 
 trouble by the accumulation of air, thereby cutting down the area of the 
 pipe and reducing the amount of water possible to be delivered at the pump. 
 
 (d) Extremely long suction pipes should be avoided wherever possible. 
 When exceeding 100 feet, effort should be made to provide an intake well 
 as near as practicable to pump and supply the well through a large tile pipe 
 laid on a down grade from the source of water supply. This inlet pipe 
 should be provided with a gate valve. 
 
 FOOT VALVE. Except with duplex pumps, with less than 18 feet lift, all 
 situations involving a lift require a foot valve Any foot valve that may 
 be installed should have bronze seats and be faced with some suitable yield- 
 ing material, such as leather, and should be of a design and construction 
 that will not unduly restrict the flow of water toward the pump. The foot 
 valve should be so located as to be readily accessible and be provided with 
 handholes. 
 
 FIG. 93. A Foot valve of Good Design 
 
 (f) Wherever a strainer is advisable, it should be so constructed and 
 arranged that it can be cleaned or repaired without disturbing the suction 
 pipe itself. A brass or copper wire screen of about one-half inch mesh 
 
FIRE PUMPS 
 
 607 
 
 and No. 10 B. & S. wire, secured to a frame sliding vertically at the entrance 
 to the intake, makes a serviceable arrangement, and permits of ready clean- 
 ing and overhauling. The screen should have an effective area of one 
 square inch for every rated gallon per minute size of pump. Double screens 
 are advised, so arranged that either can be removed for cleaning while the 
 other remains in service. The ordinary combination foot valve and strainer 
 should be avoided. 
 
 (g) Where the pump takes its water under a lift, the suction pipe must 
 not be used to supply any other pump. 
 
 DISCHARGE PIPE. An approved indicating flanged gate valve should be 
 placed in the discharge pipe and located next to the pump. There should 
 also be in this same pipe a check valve located preferably outside of the pump 
 house in the ground. If the valve is located inside the pump room it should 
 be as near the building wall as possible, and, in any event, the valve and 
 the pipe from it to the outside system should be thoroughly protected 
 against injury. 
 
 By placing the discharge valve at the pump,., any accident to the discharge 
 piping, either in the pump room or outside, will not cripple the pump, for 
 by closing the valve the pump will still be available for service through hose 
 lines connected to the hose valves on the pump. 
 
 Unless the check valve in the discharge pipe is well protected against 
 breakage, an accident to the pump or piping in the pump room may also 
 damage the check valve, in which case the water from the other supplies 
 may be seriously wasted. 
 
 1 
 
 rViwn$ Valve at 
 
 convenient location Check Valve 
 
 nearRimp 
 
 oitzi j 
 
 Discharge Casting 
 
 Discharge Ge?e or Hose Connection piece 
 can be .;onnected to any one of the side 
 openings in Discharge " 
 
 j'l}M Discharge Vafve 
 
 i ; t ! '. 
 
 Suction Valve should \ ~< 
 be provided when PWp 
 takes water under head 
 
 Relief Vafve 
 
 Note Full lines show 
 parts furnished 
 by ftjmp Manu- 
 facturers- 
 
 Reproducd by permission Nat'l Bd. of Fire Und's. 
 FIG. 94 
 
 RELIEF VALVE WASTE PIPE. The relief valve waste pipe should preferably 
 pass directly from its discharge cone to the atmosphere. If connected to any 
 underground drain, care should be taken that no steam drains enter near 
 enough to work back through the cone and into the pump room. The waste 
 
608 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 pipe should be run the full .size called for by the outlet of cone, and if 
 more than one elbow is employed the next size larger pipe should be used 
 to complete the connection. This waste pipe may at times be called upon 
 to carry the entire discharge of pump at full speed. 
 
 When the supply of water is limited, as from a special suction reservoir 
 or cistern, the waste pipe must drain into such reservoir or cistern, entering 
 as far from the pump suction as is necessary to prevent the pump from 
 draughting air which may be carried down into the cistern by the discharge 
 from the waste pipe. 
 
 Size of waste pipes to be as follows: 
 
 Size of Pump Size of Waste Pipe 
 
 500-gallon 5" 
 
 750-gallon 6' 
 
 1,000-gallon 7' 
 
 1, 500-gallon 8' 
 
 PRIMING. Pumps should preferably take their suction supply under a 
 slight head; centrifugal pumps have no lifting ability until primed," 'and 
 rotary pumps may get in this condition. Where this is not practicable, some 
 kind of priming equipment must be provided. For this purpose one of the 
 following methods is recommended: , '.! 
 
 (a) Provide a priming tank of capacity at least three times the volume 
 of the pump and suction pipe (in no case less than 250 gallons). Connect 
 tank to the discharge side of pump at such a point as will insure that all 
 priming water enters the pump, and is not wasted in the pipes leading "from 
 the pump. This connection should include a straightway outside-screw-and- 
 yoke valve and a swing check valve with pipe sizes as follows: 
 
 Size of pump (gals, per min.) 500 750 1,000 1,500 
 
 Size of priming pipe for suction 
 
 pipe not over 25 feet long 2 ^ inch 3 inch 3 } inch 4 inch 
 
 For longer suction pipes, larger priming connections may be advised. 
 
 The bottom of this tank should be at least 2 feet above the top of the 
 pump to insure a good working head. Means for keeping tank filled must 
 be provided, either by an auxiliary pump, or a connection to a public supply 
 through a good sized ball and cock arrangement. A connection between 
 fire pump and tank is also advised to permit of filling same at close of 
 any test. 
 
 Where an' ample public water supply is available, arid the liability of 
 freezing is not present, it will be well to connect this supply direct to dis- 
 charge side of pump with a swing check and valve, thereby maintaining a 
 filled system ready for instant starting. This, of course, is in addition to 
 the tank above specified. 
 
 The liberal priming tank and large connecting pipe is. necessary so that 
 the pump could be primed, and primed quickly, even if there were considerable 
 leakage at the foot valye. As the priming arrangement is so vital a feature 
 to the successful starting of the pump, a considerable factor of safety is 
 needed. 
 
 (b) Where the .conditions warrant, such as an unusually long" suction 
 pipe, a small centrifugal pump driven by a separate motor or other power 
 may be installed, preferably with the pump submerged, and its discharge 
 connected between the main fire pump and its discharge check valve. This 
 will enable the entire main suction pipe, : including the pump, to be com- 
 pletely filled prior, to the starting of the main pump. , For such an outfit, 
 in case it is not practicable to submerge the priming, pump, a moderate-sized 
 tank must be provided for priming it, arranged as outlined in paragraph a. 
 
FIRE PUMPS 609 
 
 Such an arrangement would not be advised for short suction pipes and 
 low lifts, as the method described in "A" would be better suited for such places. 
 
 (c) Where a reliable steam supply or separate water supply under good 
 pressure is available, a liberal-sized exhauster or siphon ejector may be 
 connected up between the pump and discharge check valve. 
 
 Such an arrangement has been successfully employed in exhausting the air 
 from pump and suction pipe and permitting a prompt starting up of the 
 main pump. 
 
 (d) Some type of mechanically operated exhauster may be provided, driven 
 by a sparate motor so designed as to quickly pump the air out of the 
 suction pipe and pump. 
 
 The exhauster should be connected between pump and discharge check 
 valve, so as to completely fill suction pipe and pump. A gate valve should 
 be placed in this exhauster connection, of approved indicating type, to be 
 closed as soon as pump is primed. 
 
 Driving Connections 
 
 The best method of driving a rotary pump will depend upon the conditions 
 present at a given situation. The following methods may be used, and the 
 conditions governing their adoption are indicated. 
 
 PUMP SHAFT CONNECTED TO AN INDEPENDENT SOURCE OF POWER. (a) This 
 involves a separate water wheel motor or other prime mover of ample 
 power running at the same rated speed of pump.. No clutch is necessary, 
 but some form of coupling, to allow for slight end play of shaft is needed, 
 thereby preventing end thrust of cams on pump casing and a resultant wear. 
 This makes the preferred arrangement. 
 
 (b) If speed of prime mover is not the same as the rated speed of pump, 
 cut spur gears, or a silent chain drive may be employed to secure the desired 
 speed. Such gears should be kept in mesh at all times. No clutch or coupling 
 is necessary. 
 
 Co) If an electric motor is the source of power, the motor and pump 
 should be bolted rigidly to the same bed plate. 
 
 PUMP CONNECTED THROUGH SPUR GEARING TO THE MAIN SHAFT OF THE 
 MILL WATER WHEEL. (a) In this case some form of clutch of the rim 
 friction type should be used between the driving gear and the wheel shaft. 
 A silent chain drive can also be used in place of the gears, being specially 
 useful in cases where the pump cannot be located near enough to main 
 shaft to permit spur gears of reasonable diameter. The chain drive should 
 not be used in wet places. 
 
 Under some conditions the plain square jawed clutch may be used in place 
 of the rim friction clutch, where other reliable and independent pumps are 
 available on the same system. 
 
 The old type of sliding spur gears, formerly used to some extent, is not 
 advised, as there is always the danger in the excitement of a fire of throw- 
 ing the gears into mesh while power is running, and stripping the teeth. 
 
 PUMP CONNECTED THROUGH A PAIR OF FRICTION GEARS TO THE MAIN SHAFT 
 OF THE MILL WATER WHEEL. (a) This method is probably the most com- 
 mon in use. The gears are simple and inexpensive, and when properly 
 fitted up will give fairly good service. They have the advantage over spur 
 gears in that they can be thrown into mesh while power is running. They 
 are nor so efficient, however, being liable to slip, and consume power by 
 being pressed tightly together. There is a tendency for such gears to' get 
 out of line due to axial movement of wheel shaft. Flat places are sometimes 
 worn on their periphery, decreasing their efficiency. To be acceptable careful 
 attention should be given to the following features: 
 
6io FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (b) The gear on main shaft should be truly centered by giving, when 
 possible, its finishing cut after being keyed on to a shaft. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS will probably be driven by electric motors in most 
 cases, though any reliable form of prime mover may be adapted to the 
 service. The preference will naturally be for such driving methods as permit 
 of a direct connection without speed-changing devices. With motor driving 
 the main question will be the reliability of the current supply, and this 
 can be determined only by a careful study of the conditions in each case. 
 
 Where the speed of motor or prime mover is not the same as pump speed, 
 the transmission may be either by a single pair of cut spur gears, preferably 
 of the herring bone type, or a silent chain drive of approved construction. 
 
 TESTS FOR ACCEPTANCE 
 Steam Duplex Pumps 
 
 TEST FOR SMOOTHNESS OF ACTION. a. Provide outlets for the water; start 
 the pump slowly, gradually open steam-throttle to bring the pump to full 
 speed. The pump should run smoothly at the rated full speed of 70 revolu- 
 tions per minute (or 60 revolutions if a i,soo-gallon pump) with full length 
 of stroke, and meanwhile maintain a water pressure of 100 pounds per 
 square inch. 
 
 If the hose lines are short, or discharge is too free, partly close 'the 
 water outlet valves, thus throwing an extra back pressure on the pump 
 equivalent to that which would be produced through a greater length of hose. 
 
 During this trial it is preferable to discharge the water through lines of 
 -?%-inch cotton rubber-lined hose, preferably each 150 feet long, each con- 
 nected directly to the hose outlets on the pump, and each line having a i^-inch 
 smooth nozzle at its outer end. Two lines should be connected for a 500- 
 gallon pump, three for a 750, and so on, having as many lines as rating 
 of pump requires. 
 
 A hose line i.=;o feet long, with an inside surface of average smoothness, 
 and with a i^-inch nozzle attached, will require about So pounds pressure 
 at the pump to discharge 250 gallons per minute, and the nozzle pressure will 
 be about 45 pounds. Therefore, with lines attached as above, a pressure at 
 the pump of about 80 pounds should represent a discharge about equal to 
 the rated capacity of the pump, and would ordinarily correspond with the 
 rated full speed revolutions. 
 
 If the pump runs smoothly under these conditions, it is well to open 
 the throttle somewhat further, and bring the pressure at the pump up to 
 100 pounds. This will give a discharge of about 280 gallons per stream, 
 or about 12 per cent in excess of the rated capacity. The revolutions will, 
 of course, correspondingly increase, and under all ordinary conditions a pump 
 should run smoothly at this higher capacity, though a little more vibration 
 and pounding would be expected than when running simply at its rated 
 sneed. 
 
 After cushion valves are adjusted there should be no noteworthy water 
 hammer or valve-slatn. Sometimes valve-slam is not the fault of the pump, 
 but arises from an obstructed suction pipe. It is objectionable to doctor 
 water hammer in a pump by snifting air into the suction, as this cuts 
 down the efficiency and is a poor expedient. 
 
 The quietness of that part of the hose near the pump, or its freedom 
 from rubbing back and forth crosswise an inch or more with each pulsation 
 of the pump, is a good index of the pump maker'* skill in securing uniform 
 delivery. Bad pulsation quickly wears holes in the hose, and to reveal this 
 is the object of testing with hose connected directly to the pump. 
 
 TEST OF THE INTERNAL FRICTION. a. This is shown by the reading of 
 steam chest gauge compared with water pressure gauge at air chamber. 
 
 Tests have generally run about as follows, for pumps running at full 
 rated speed: 
 
FIRE PUMPS 
 
 611 
 
 
 
 
 
 Excess of 
 
 Actual 
 
 Size, 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 
 Steam 
 
 Steam 
 
 Steam 
 
 Gallon? 
 
 Steam Piston 
 
 Water 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Pressure 
 
 per 
 Minute 
 Capacity 
 
 Area to 
 Water Piston 
 Area 
 
 Pressure, 
 Lbs. per 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Theoretically 
 Necessary, 
 Disregarding 
 Friction 
 
 Needed to 
 Overcome 
 Friction, 
 Back 
 
 Found 
 Necessary 
 at the 
 Pump 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pressure, etc. 
 
 
 500 
 
 4 times 
 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 750 
 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 45 
 
 1,000 
 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 45, 
 
 1,500 
 
 2| " 
 
 100 
 
 36.5 
 
 13.5 
 
 50 
 
 b. The steam pressure needed will vary slightly with the freedom of the 
 exhaust pipe and with the tightness of the packings, etc., but a steam pressure 
 of 45 pounds at the steam chest should suffice for 100 pounds water pressure 
 on pump in proper adjustment. 
 
 TEST OF STRENGTH AND TIGHTNESS. a. First, shut the main valve between 
 the pump and the fire system to avoid possible injury to joints or fittings, 
 thus shut all water outlets nearly, but not quite tight, so pump will move 
 very slowly. Screw safety valve down hard. Slowly and carefully admit 
 steam pressure sufficient to give 240 pounds per square inch water pressure. 
 
 b. With this extreme pressure all joints should remain substantially tight, 
 and the slow motion of the pump should be tolerably smooth and uniform. 
 (The leakage of a few drops here and there and a little unsteadiness of 
 motion are to be expected.) 
 
 c. If boiler pressure is above 85 pounds, the safety valve on pump should 
 be attached and screwed down only enough to hold the required pressure. 
 For with 100 pounds or more of steam the water pressure might he carried 
 too high. 
 
 After completing the above test slack off on safety valve, setting it so 
 that it will begin to open at about 100 pounds pressure. 
 
 TEST OF CAPACITY OF RELIEF VALVE. a. The relief valve may next be 
 tested by first adjusting it to pop at 100 pounds, then shut the main outlet 
 to pump, and then shut the hose gates one by one, and thus force all the 
 discharge through the relief valve, meanwhile opening steam throttle, so as 
 to run pump first at two-thirds speed or about fifty revolutions per minute, 
 and finally at full speed (seventy revolutions). The safety valve (relief 
 valve) should carry all this and not let the pressure rise above 125 pounds. 
 
 The pressure in a quick-moving fire-pump necessarily fluctuates 5 to 15 
 pounds at different points in stroke, and an air chamber of reasonable size 
 cannot wholly remove this. Therefore the safety valve must be set at about 
 15 pounds higher than the intended average working pressure; otherwise it 
 will get to jumping with almost every stroke. 
 
 TEST OF INTERNAL LEAKAGE OR SLIP. a. Set safety valves at 115 pounds, 
 shut all water outlets, admit steam enough to give 100 pounds water pressure, 
 then pump will move very slowly under the influence of the leakage past 
 plungers; about one revolution of pump per minute shows a proper accuracy 
 of fit. Anywhere from one-third to two revolutions per minute is satisfactory. 
 
 Too tight a fit is bad, as if not exceedingly uniform it induces scoring 
 or fretting of the metals. Moreover, should pump happen to be run dry 
 for a few minutes before catching its suction a slight warming and expansion 
 of the plunger may cause it to stick and fret. 
 
 TEST WITH MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE. a. For this, alternately shut 
 down the main outlet gate and adjust the hand-wheel of the safety valve, 
 and open up on the throttle as may be required, running pump at say one- 
 
612 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 half speed (or, in experienced hands, at full rated speed), and note the 
 greatest water pressure which the full boiler pressure (unless boiler pressure 
 is aboye 85 pounds) will yield with pump at full speed. 
 
 Sometimes it may be necessary to force water through very long lines of 
 hose, or to an unusual height. 
 
 Steam fire engines are not infrequently called on to give 200 pounds per 
 square inch water pressure. 
 
 To test short hose lines with anywhere near so high a pump-pressure is 
 dangerous, lest the nozzle kick and pull itself away from the man holding 
 it and thresh around; but the ability of the pump may be tested by putting 
 this high-pressure delivery mainly through the safety valve, or in part through 
 the partially closed main outlet gate. 
 
 It Us not advisable to carry this water pressure above 200 pounds in the 
 field test, although in the shop test the water pressure is carried to 240 
 pounds, and engine driver should stand with his hand on the throttle. 
 
 TEST FOR MAXIMUM DELIVERY. a. This can best be tried by adding one or, 
 in some cases, two more streams than the pump is rated to deliver by attaching 
 the extra lines of hose to some hydrant near, and then speed up the pump 
 gradually, to see how fast it may be run before violent pounding or slam- 
 ming of valves begins. 
 
 Sometimes the increased delivery .can be drawn off through an open hydrant- 
 butt meanwhile holding sufficient back pressure to show 100 pounds on the 
 water gauge by partly closing the discharge valve. 
 
 The engine driver should stand with his hand on or near the throttle 
 when thus speeding the pump. 
 
 It is all right to run a fire-pump up to the utmost speed possible before 
 water hammer begins, and very often a pump, while new and if favorably 
 set up. can deliver 25 to 50 per cent more than rated capacity; nevertheless, 
 although expert treatment can force 1,000 gallons from a 16x9x12 pump we 
 can rate it r>s only a 75o-gallon pump. There must be some margin to allow 
 for wear and for the possible absence of the expert at time of fire. 
 
 Rotary Pumps 
 
 Tests similar to those for duplex pumps should be run for: Smoothness 
 of action; maximum working pressure; maximum delivery, and capacity of 
 relief valve. 
 
 Centrifugal Pumps 
 
 (a) The pump must be able to discharge its full rated capacity at 100 
 Ibs. pressure at the pump, assuming a zero suction lift, and maintain this 
 condition indefinitely without objectionable heating of bearings or at motor, 
 or exceeding the rated power of the motor and with an efficiency not less 
 than specified. 
 
 The efficiency of pump for any delivery is to be based on the electrical 
 H. P. output of motor and the hydraulic H. P. output of pump. For a D. C. 
 motor this power output is to be computed from the readings of voltmeter 
 and ammeter, allowance being made for motor efficiency. 
 
 For an A. C. motor this computation will of course involve the considera- 
 tion of the power factor of the circuit. 
 
 (b) Shut off one stream after another until all are closed, and note the 
 quantity delivered, and the pressure at the pump under the different con- 
 ditions. Also note the power required and compute the efficiency for the 
 several points. 
 
 (c) Put on one or more streams in addition to the number for which 
 the pump is rated, and note the quantity delivered and the pressure, also 
 the power required under this excessive discharge, and compute the efficiency. 
 Under this test the nump should work with entire smoothness, and the 
 motor should not be overloaded more than provided for by Article No. 433. 
 
 (d) If provision is made for varying the speed of the motor, try the 
 motor at different speeds under conditions which would be likely to be 
 
FIRE PUMPS 613 
 
 met with in case of fire, noting quantities and pressures, and compute 
 efficiencies. Under all conditions the motor and pump should run smoothly 
 and without trouble in any part which would prevent continuous running, 
 should occasion require it. 
 
 (e) Let all water out of the suction pipe, note the lift, and make several 
 tests to determine how long it takes the priming apparatus to get the pump 
 again into service. Especially note whether the pump shows any sign of 
 heating or other distress where the priming equipment requires it to be 
 run a short time before it is flooded with water. 
 
 The pump to be acceptable must meet all these tests satisfactorily and 
 in accordance with the requirements of the specifications. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRICAL DRIVING AND 
 CONTROL OF FIRE PUMPS 
 
 I'efore. installing an electrically driven pump the matter should be taken 
 up with the inspection department having jurisdiction in order that an inves- 
 tigation may be made to determine whether the reliability of the current 
 supply is such as to make the electric service dependable. The question of 
 reliability of the service depends on so many factors that in many cases 
 it can only be settled on the ground. 
 
 All -details of construction, materials and apparatus pertaining to the elec- 
 trical equipment, except as modified or provided for by these requirements, 
 must comply with the requirements of the National Electrical Code. 
 
 POWER STATION. (a) When current is taken from a single power station 
 the station must be of non-combustible construction, so located or protected 
 as to be free from chances of serious damage by exposure from fire, and 
 the design and arrangement of apparatus within it such that there will be 
 but little chance of interruption of service. 
 
 (b) Where current is taken through a substation, this substation must 
 also meet the requirement of Section a, and in addition the number and 
 arrangement of cables between the station and the substation must be such 
 as to practically guarantee continuous power at the substation. 
 
 (c) Where service cannot be obtained from a power station or Euhstation 
 meeting these requirements, it must be obtained from two or more stations 
 or substations so located and equipi>ed that an accident or fire at one will 
 not cause an interruption of the service supplied by the others. 
 
 A private generating plant located on the premises served by the fire 
 pump, if in a separate power house or cut off from main buildings, will 
 be considered as a power station, and may be used as one source of current 
 supply. 
 
 TRANSMISSION LINES. (a) The lines between the power plants and the 
 pump room must be of such number, so arranged and so located that there 
 will be small chance of an interruption of service to the motor, due to 
 accident to the lines. All wiring in the pump room must be in approved 
 conduit. 
 
 Where the values involved are large and the crippling of this pump service 
 would seriously affect the protection of the property, at least two separate 
 lines from the power plant or plants to the pump installation must be pro- 
 vicVd. The lines must be run by separate routes or in such manner that a 
 failure of both at the same time will be only a remote possibility. 
 
 Where current is taken from an underground Edison 3-wire system it will 
 be considered that two independent lines have been provided if connections 
 are brought into the pump room from two street mains or feeders not 
 terminating directly in the same junction box. 
 
 A complete underground circuit from generating station to pump is strongly 
 recommended and should be obtained when practicable. When such con- 
 
614 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 struction is not available, an overhead circuit may be allowed, but that part 
 of the circuit adjacent to the plant or exposing plants must be run with 
 special reference to damage in case of fire. Where the pump room is a 
 part of, or in close proximity to, the plant which the pump is designed to 
 protect, the wires for some distance from the pump room must be under- 
 ground. 
 
 (b) Each line between the power plant and pump room must be of such 
 size that its safe carrying capacity, as given by Rule 18 of the National 
 Electrical Code, will not be exceeded by the load carried. 
 
 Where direct current motors are used, the voltage at the motors must 
 not drop more than 5 per cent below the voltage rating of the motors when 
 the pumps are being driven at rated output, pressure and speed, and the 
 lines between motors and power stations are carrying their peak loads. 
 
 When alternating current motors are used, the voltage at the motors 
 under these same conditions, must not drop more than 8 per cent below 
 the voltage rating of the motors. 
 
 (c) The overload protective devices at the power plants, and where pro- 
 vided at various points on the lines, must be of such rating and so set 
 that they will open the circuit only under short circuit conditions. 
 
 Approved fuses may be used, if desired, except for the protection of the 
 pump motor where circuit breakers are required. The fuses, however, must 
 be of such size that an overload or short circuit at the motor or its control 
 apparatus will not cause them to open the circuit, but instead, the circuit 
 breaker protecting the motor. 
 
 TRANSFORMERS. (a) Must be located in a separate non-combustible, well- 
 ventilated building or room thoroughly cut off from other buildings or rooms. 
 Access to room must be from the outside of the building. Transformers 
 may be located outdoors by special permission where conditions are favorable. 
 
 (b) Transformers supplying current to the lights and motors in the build- 
 ings served by the fire pump may also supply the pump motor, provided 
 all load except the pump motor load can be quickly cut off when necessary. 
 Switches for doing this must be in the pump room unless transformer room 
 is near pump room, in which case they may be in transformer room. 
 
 (c) Room containing transformers installed solely for the purpose of 
 supplying current to a pump motor must be dry and heated in cold weather, 
 or else the transformers must be normally left connected to the supply lines. 
 
 MOTOR. (a) Direct current motors must be of the shunt wound type. 
 
 Alternating current motors must be of the wound motor or squirrel cage 
 induction types. The squirrel cage motor must be used only when the 
 conditions are such that it will surely start and attain full speed. 
 
 This will prevent the use of the squirrel cage motor with pumps of the 
 positive displacement types such as rotary and plunger pumps, and will 
 require that the electric service be such that the heavy starting current 
 will not cause the voltage to drop sufficiently to prevent the motor starting. 
 
 (b) Motor must be of such capacity and design that at rated voltage its 
 full load ampere rating will not be exceeded when the pump it drives is 
 delivering its rated output at specified pressure and speed, and when running 
 under this load for eight consecutive hours followed by an overload of 25 
 per cent for two hours, and an overload of 50 per cent for one minute, 
 the rises in temperature at its various parts gbove the temperature of the 
 surrounding air must not exceed those recommended in the standardization 
 rules of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. No electrical nor 
 mechanical weakness should develop during these tests. 
 
 (c) Motor and control apparatus must be protected from water coming 
 from possible leakage, or breakage of any connection at the pump or other 
 
 piping in its vicinity, including hose lines which may be connected to the 
 pump. 
 
FIRE PUMPS 615 
 
 This can probably be best accomplished by the erection of a non-combustible 
 partition between motor and pump, extending from floor to ceiling, and 
 laterally sufficiently far to protect the motor and other electrical apparatus 
 not otherwise protected. Such an arrangement will permit the use of the 
 open type of motor, and for most situations will prove the least expensive. 
 The enclosed type, with fan or blower system may be used, but preference 
 is given to the arrangement described. 
 
 (d) Motor windings should be thoroughly impregnated with waterproofing 
 compound. 
 
 Controlling Equipments 
 
 The following specifications cover the construction and ihstallation of 
 controlling equipments of both the manual and the combined manual and 
 automatic types for electric motors driving fire pumps. 
 
 Before plans are completed for such equipment the inspection department 
 having jurisdiction should be consulted as to whether the manual or the 
 combined manual and automatic type will be acceptable for the proposed 
 installation, and also with reference to the location of the controlling equip- 
 ment and its enclosures or protection against mechanical injury. 
 
 In materials, details of construction, test and installation, except as 
 modified or supplemented by these requirements, all parts 'of the equipment 
 must comply with the requirements of the National Electrical Code. 
 
 All equipments must be specifically approved for fire pump controlling 
 purposes. 
 
 Construction 
 
 DESIGN. (a) The design of all parts must be such as to secure simplicity, 
 strength, durability and ease of operation. 
 
 (b) All parts must be mounted on one or more panels of slate or marble, 
 supported in a substantial manner on an iron frame, and the entire equip- 
 ment must comply with the requirements for switchboards in the National 
 Electrical Code. 
 
 (c) All parts, such as bearings, cams and latches,' the operation of which 
 is liable to be interfered with by corrosion, must be made of phosphor 
 bronze or similar metal, except where magnetic qualities are essential. Springs 
 must be of phosphor bronze or similar metal, or protected against corrosion 
 in an approved manner. , 
 
 OPERATING MECHANISM, MANUAL TYPE. (a) The operation shall be such 
 that the motor is directly started by a single lever, which, except in auto 
 starters or compensators, shall be arranged to move in one direction from 
 the initial to the final position. , 
 
 (b) Electrical actuating devices will not be approved. 
 
 (c) Devices must automatically return to the off position in case of 
 failure of voltage or in case the operator releases the handle in any but 
 the full running position. 
 
 (d) Where direct current is used, an auxiliary field resistance may be 
 provided which can be used to 'increase the motor speed 10 per cent. 
 
 RESISTANCES. Starting resistances must be, unless inside of the motor, of 
 the grid type, and comply with the requirements for tests of starting duty 
 rheostats as given in the National Electrical Code. 
 
 AUTO STARTERS OR COMPENSATORS. Must comply with the requirements of 
 these rules and also with those of the National Electrical Code for the 
 construction of auto starters. 
 
 OVERLOAD PROTECTION. (a) Each motor lead must be protected by a circuit- 
 breaker. With direct current motors, leads must be protected by a single 
 
616 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 pole circuit-breaker in each lead, or by an approved double coil, double pole 
 circuit-breaker so designed that each pole must be closed independently of 
 the other. 
 
 (b) Circuit-breakers to be calibrated to 400 per cent of normal motor 
 current, and with squirrel-cage motors must also be equipped with time- 
 element relays. 
 
 (c) No fuses nor other overload release devices except circuit-breakers 
 are .permitted, except in instrument and pilot light leads. 
 
 WIRING. Insulation on all conductors in connection with controller equip- 
 ment must be of approved type. 
 
 SWITCH. A. double throw knife switch for two independent sources of 
 supply must be provided, having one pole for each supply wire in circuit. 
 
 PILOT LAMP AND INSTRUMENTS. (a) A pilot lamp connected on the motor 
 side of the circuit-breakers must be provided to indicate the presence of 
 voltage on the line. 
 
 (b) A voltmeter and ammeter must be provided and suitably mounted and 
 connected as a part of the control equipment, ajid space must be provided 
 on the panel for mounting a watt-hour meter. 
 
 MARKING. (a) A name plate must be provided giving the name of the 
 manufacturer and/ the rating of the equipment ih volts and amperes. 
 
 (b) All line and motor terminal connections must be suitably marked 
 so that they can be readily identified. 
 
 OPERATING MECHANISM, COMBINED MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC TYPE. (a) The 
 automatic operation shall be initially actuated by an approved pressure gov- 
 ernor acting directly on the winding of a solenoid or other device or devices, 
 which in turn shall close the main contact, and a series of rheostatic switches 
 admitting current to and cutting out starting resistance from the motor 
 circuits. 
 
 (b) The period of motor acceleration shall not exceed TO seconds, when 
 operating automatically, and such acceleration period shall be governed 
 either electrically or by a suction air dash-pot or other mechanical device, 
 but in all cases the governing action must be such that urider the most 
 severe conditions the entire starting operation will 'be positively and reliably 
 completed. 
 
 (c) The manual operation shall be obtained from a crank or lever by 
 which, without change of motion, the same main contact and rheostatic 
 switches that are controlled automatically shall be mechanically closed in 
 proper order. 
 
 (d) All devices must automatically return to the off position in case 
 of failure of voltage or in case the operator releases the handle in any but 
 the full running position. 
 
 (e) The arrangement must be such that when the motor is started and 
 brought to full speed manually its operation cannot be affected by the 
 pressure governor. 
 
 PANEL AND CABINET. (a) Panel must be constructed of a high-class elec- 
 trical slate or marble, supported by an iron, frame, all to be enclosed in a 
 ventilated, splash-proof enclosing cabinet made of sheet iron or steel not 
 less than No. 12 U. S. gauge in thickness. 
 
 (b) The cabinet must be provided with hinged doors of the same material 
 as the cabinet both front and rear, and the swinging radius of these doors 
 must not exceed 24 inches. 
 
 (c) The supporting frame must be so arranged that the bottom of the 
 panel will be. not less than 24 inches above the floor. 
 
 (d) The resistance elements . may, if desired, be mounted in a well ven- 
 
FIRE PUMPS 617 
 
 tilated extension of the enclosing cabinet. Glass bull's eyes must be pro- 
 vided in the doors, one directly in front of each pilot light. 
 
 Installation 
 
 MANUAL TYPE. (a) Must be located close to and within sight of the 
 motor. If a pump room used for no other purpose, and containing no other 
 apparatus except the fire pump, its motor and its accessory appliances, is 
 provided, the controlling equipment must be placed in this room. 
 
 (li) Must be so protected that it will not be injured by water escaping 
 from pump or connections. 
 
 (c) Except where special exception is made by the inspection department 
 having jurisdiction, the controlling equipment must be protected against 
 mechanical injury by one of the following methods: 
 
 (d) Grill or lattice partitions so placed as to completely enclose the control 
 panel and starter. 
 
 (e) The entire equipment of panel or starter may be enclosed at the 
 sides, front, back and top in a thoroughly substantial, ventilated sheet iron 
 or steel cabinet, not less than No. 12 U. S. metal gauge in thickness, with 
 hinged doors, and so arranged that the bottom of the panel and the starter 
 will be not less than 24 inches above the floor. 
 
 (f) Resistance elements may, if desired, be mounted in a well ventilated 
 extension of the enclosing cabinet. 
 
 (g) A glass bull's eye must be provided in the door, directly in front 
 of the pilot light. 
 
 COMBINED MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC TYPE. (a) Must be located in the 
 pump room except by special permission of the inspection department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 (b) A steel compression tank of a capacity satisfactory to the inspection 
 dcpaitment having jurisdiction will be required as part of the equipment 
 employing automatic controllers. 
 
 ( 
 
 Test for Acceptance 
 
 MANUAL AND COMBINED EQUIPMENTS. The test shall consist of not less 
 than two nor more than four hours of continuous and successful operation, 
 figuring not less than three complete operations of starter per minute. The 
 cabinet shall be closed at the beginning of the test and remain closed until 
 after the end cf the test. The temperature inside at the top of the cabinet 
 in front of the panel must not rise more than 90 degrees Ce.itigrade (162 
 degrees Fahr.) above the temperature of the room at the end of the test. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS* 
 
 WOODEN TANKS 
 
 1. SIZE. (a) The standard sizes of wooden tanks for fire protection are 
 from 10,000 to 50,000 gallons capacity, although they are sometimes made 
 larger. 
 
 The difference between sizes is usually 5,000 gallons. Tanks of less than 
 10,000 gallons capacity are not included under these specifications, and if used 
 these specifications should be followed as closely as possible. 
 
 When a large quantity of water is to be stored above a building, two or 
 more tanks should be used so that the protection will not be completely cut 
 off when repairing cnc tank. 
 
 (b) The capacity of the tank should represent the volume of water available 
 for fire service and is to be the computed volume between the maximum 
 water level and the outlet level. < 
 
 2. SHAPE. Tanks may be either cylindrical or tapered but must be cir- 
 cular in section. If tapered the taper on each side must not exceed i inch 
 per foot. 
 
 3. MATERIAL. (a) White cedar, cypress, white and red pine, Douglas or 
 Washington fir (Oregon pine) or Redwood must be used. Lumber must be 
 free from sap, loose or unsound knots, worm holes and shakes; and be 
 thoroughly air-dried. 
 
 Tanks of the best white cedar and those of good cypress are about equally 
 durable, and will last at least fifteen years and commonly twenty or twenty- 
 five years. 
 
 Climatic conditions should be considered in selecting the most desirable 
 wood for any location. 
 
 4. DRESSING OF LUMBER. (a) Staves and bottom must be made of 2%-inch 
 (dressed both sides to about 2%-inch) stock, for tanks not exceeding 16 feet 
 diameter or 16 feet deep. For larger tanks, 3-inch (dressed both sides to 
 about 2%-inch) stock must be used. 
 
 (b) All plank must be full length and without splices. 
 
 (c) The edges of staves and bottom planks must be jointed on a planing 
 machine and hand jointed with a fore-plane or machine sawn. 
 
 (d) The croze (groove for receiving the bottom") must be cut in a true 
 line and at a uniform distance from the bottom of the staves and not 
 deeper than specified in table on page 621. (The croze must be cut with 
 due regard for the pitch of the stave when in position and circular in 
 shape so as to be completely filled by tank bottom when staves are well 
 driven up. The lower edge of the bottom must be beveled by planing and 
 the upper edge slightly beveled so as to furnish a smooth surface to fit 
 the croze. 
 
 (e) A hole must be bored in both edges of each stave, about .10 inches 
 from the top for %-inch maple dowels or larger, or, small metal dogs must 
 be driven into the top of the staves to hold them in position during 
 erection. 
 
 (f) The edges of each bottom plank must be bored with holes not over 
 3 feet apart for %-inch maple dowels or larger. 
 
 5. HOOPS. (a) The hoops must be round in cross section. 
 
 * Regulations prescribed by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 618 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 619 
 
 The strength of a tank depends chiefly on its hoops. Experience shows that 
 flat hoops, especially those of steel, rust from the back side where they bear 
 against the staves, and serious accidents have happened by hoops bursting 
 on account of this unobserved corrosion. 
 
 (b) The hoops must be made of wrought iron or mild steel of good 
 quality. Wrought iron is preferable, however, because it is more rust- 
 resisting. 
 
 The wrought iron must have a tensile strength of at least 50,000 pounds 
 per square inch. Steel must have a tensile strength of 55,000 to 60,000 
 pounds per square inch. 
 
 (c) There must be no welds in the hoops. Where more than one length 
 of iron is necessary, lugs must be used to make the connections, and the 
 several pieces constituting each hoop must be tied together for shipment. 
 
 Hoops with "upset" ends are not allowed, because: first, 'the metal is 
 likely to be burned in upsetting unless done under careful supervision; and 
 second, the additional diameter is likely to be gained by welding bolt ends 
 to smaller rods, thus introducing a weak place at the welds. 
 
 When the screw threads are cut directly on the ends of a hoop the 
 unthreaded portion may be corroded to a depth equal to the depth of the 
 threads without weakening the hoop. The screw thread itself is not so liable 
 to serious corrosion as is the portion of the hoop which bears against the 
 staves, since the latter is subjected to moisture from the wood. 
 
 (d) The hoops must be bent in the shop so that they will fit closely to 
 the staves all around. 
 
 (e) The screw threads on the ends must be made tight fits in the nuts, 
 and they must be U. S. standard as follows: 
 
 Diameter of screw ends %" %" i" i%" 
 
 Number of threads per inch 10 9 8 7 
 
 (f) The hoops must be of such a size and spacing that the stress will 
 not exceed 12.500 pounds per square inch when computed from area at root 
 of thread. Hoops must not be less than %-inch diameter. 
 
 The following table gives proper working strength for hoops of sizes 
 commonly used based on this allowable stress: 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 Area of Section 
 
 Net Area at 
 
 Safe Working 
 
 Round Rod, 
 
 of Rod, 
 
 Root of Thread, 
 
 .Load, 
 
 Inches 
 
 Square Inches 
 
 Square Inches 
 
 Pounds 
 
 | 
 
 .44 
 
 .30 
 
 3,750 
 
 | 
 
 .60 
 
 .42 
 
 5,250 
 
 1 
 
 .79 
 
 .55 
 
 6,875 
 
 !i 
 
 .99 
 
 .69 
 
 8,625 
 
 (g) The top hoop must be placed within 2 inches of the top of staves. 
 No space between hoops to exceed 21 inches. The hoops must be so placed 
 that lugs will not come in a vertical line. At least three of the staves 
 should be marked before leaving the shop, showing the location of each 
 hoop. 
 
 (h) The spacing of hoops may be figured or found from the diagram on 
 page 620. 
 
 The depth referred to is the distance from overflow to point where hoop 
 is to be located. 
 
 The following example will best show the use of the diagram: How far 
 apart should i-inch hoops be placed, at 15 feet from the top; on a tank 
 20 feet diameter? 
 
62Q 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 15x20 = 300. Follow up the right side of the diagram where marked 
 "Product of diameter (feet) x depth (feet)" till you come to 300; then 
 follow the horizontal line to the left till it intersects the diagonal line 
 marked " i-inch Hoop;" then follow downward to the bottom of the 
 diagram, and it will be seen that the hoops under conditions above stated 
 may be spaced 8% inches apart. 
 
 In a similar way the spacing for any hoop for any size tank may be found. 
 
 Spacing of Hoops in Inches. 
 
 DIAGRAM SHOWING ALLOWABLE SPACING OF HOOPS 
 
 Spacing of Hoops in inches 
 
 - e L * d for given Ho P 
 2.6 x dia. (ft.) x depth (ft.) 
 
 (i) Extra hoops must be provided near the bottom to take the additional 
 load due to the swelling of the bottom planks. For -tanks up to 20 feet 
 in diameter, one hoop of the size used next above it must be placed around 
 the bottom opposite the croze. For tanks 20 feet or more in diameter 
 two hoops must be used as above. 
 
 The hoop or hoops at the croze are to be counted upon as taking ^the 
 water pressure of half the space above. 
 
 (j) The sketches on pages 622 and 623 show the proper spacing of hoops 
 for tanks of standard sizes. 
 
(iKAVlTY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 621 
 
 0. LUGS. (a) Malleable iron lugs as strong as the hoop iron must be used. 
 An acceptable form of lug is slnuvn in Figure 95. Lugs of other patterns 
 may be used, however, after first having been approved. 
 
 Cast-iron lugs, not malleableizcd, are not acceptable, as they are liable 
 to crack. 
 
 FIG. 95 Lug for Hoops 
 
 7. DIMENSIONS FOR TANKS OF STANDARD SIZES. (a) For convenience and 
 illustration the following table giving dimensions for a few tanks of certain 
 sizes is added. The number and size of hoops are stated and the spacing 
 is shown on pages 622 and 62$. The proj>er size ami spacing of hoops for 
 tanks of other dimensions can readily be computed by use of the diagram 
 on page 620, as explained under Article sh. 
 
 Approx. 
 
 SIZE 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 > e 
 
 
 
 ^E 
 
 nj 
 
 
 Net 
 
 
 Lumber 
 
 en tl 
 
 sl 
 
 E 
 
 HOOPS 
 
 Capac- 
 
 (Outside 
 
 After Briri" 
 
 n-OS 
 
 
 
 
 ity 
 
 Dimensions) 
 
 Machined 
 
 SJ 
 
 11 
 
 r- 4> C 
 
 o|l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 Diam., 
 
 Length 
 of Stave 
 
 Staves 
 
 Bottom 
 
 if 
 
 "5 >>- 
 
 f 1 " 
 
 No. of 
 
 Size 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Ft.-In. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 w~ 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 In. 
 
 10,000 
 
 13-4 
 
 12 
 
 2t 
 
 2} 
 
 3* 
 
 1 
 
 2! 
 
 11 
 
 \ 
 
 15,000 
 
 14-6 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 2} 
 
 3* 
 
 1 
 
 2| 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 15-6 
 
 16 
 
 2i 
 
 2} 
 
 3* 
 
 I 
 
 2! 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 25,000 
 
 17-6 
 
 16 
 
 2! 
 
 2! 
 
 31 
 
 ; 
 
 2| 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 18-0 
 
 18 
 
 2| 
 
 21 
 
 3* 
 
 i 
 
 2! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 40,000 
 
 19-6 
 
 20 
 
 2! 
 
 2! 
 
 34 
 
 i 
 
 2i 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 50,000 
 
 22-0 
 
 20 
 
 2] 
 
 2? 
 
 3j 
 
 f 
 
 2f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 l 
 
 Table Giving Dimensions of Wooden Tanks of Standard Sizes 
 
622 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 8. SETTING UP. (a) The joint between staves should not be permitted to 
 come nearer than % inch in line with a joint between the bottom planks. 
 f (b) In setting up the nuts on the hoops, special care should be taken 
 that they are not set up so tight that a heavy initial stress is put on the 
 hoops. 
 
 (c) At least one extra stave should be sent with each tank, because an 
 extra piece may be needed to complete the tank on account of shrinkage. 
 The last stave should be fitted into place by jointing off to size required. 
 
 (d) The tank must not be exposed to the weather before it is set up 
 and pipe connections should be made promptly after setting up so that 
 the tank may be filled as soon as possible. 
 
 .f 
 
 <o 
 
 lr. 
 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 11 Hoops I'dia. MHoops I'dia. SHoops I'dia. 4 Hoops I'dia. 
 JIHoopsi'dia. l Hoops i'dia. 
 
 PROPER SPACING OF HOOPS 
 
 Allowable working stress 12,500 Ibs. per square inch on section at root 
 of thread. 
 
 (e) Tanks should be painted on the outside of staves and bottom 
 planks. The hoops should first be painted with red lead, zinc oxide and 
 linseed oil as described in Article 363. 
 
 (f) Tank must be made absolutely water-tight without the use of any 
 caulking or lining material. 
 
 Leaks are due to faulty material or poor workmanship. 
 
 9. ROOF. (a) Tanks located outdoors must be covered with a double roof, 
 an acceptable construction being shown in Figure 96. It must consist of a 
 tight flat cover made of matched boards supported by joists and above this 
 a conical roof. In the larger sizes the conical roof must be supported by 
 rafters extending from the top of the tank to the peak of the roof. 
 
 (b) The conical roof must be covered with galvanized sheet iron or a 
 good composition roofing which is not readily ignitible. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 (c) The joint between the conical roof and the flat cover must be made 
 tight in order to keep out the wind and maintain a dead air space between 
 the two covers. One method of making a tight joint is shown in Figure 96. 
 
 10. HATCHES. (a) Hatches must be provided in both the conical and flat 
 covers so as to give easy access to the interior of the tank. The hatch 
 covers must be made so they will not bind when swollen from dampness, 
 and the hinges and fastenings must have bearings of non-corrodible metal 
 such as brass. The covers must make a tight joint at the hatch edges, the 
 one in conical roof to have edges turn down over raised edges of hatch. 
 
 16 Hoops f dia. 
 
 W Hoops i*dia. 
 |1 Hoops I'dia, 
 
 4Hoops f dia. 
 IJHoops I dia. 
 
 'ROPER SPACING OF HOOPS 
 
 Allowable working stress 
 of thread. 
 
 12,500 Ibs. per square inch on section at root 
 
 (b) The hatch cover in tne conical roof, when hinged, must be arranged 
 to open to one side (preferably to the right) in order that it may be 
 reached in all positions by a man on the ladder. When cover is arranged 
 to Slide it must move upwards to open. 
 
 The hatch cover in flat cover may be set loosely in place without hinges 
 or guides, and be furnished with a handle so that it can be readily lifted 
 off and set to one side. 
 
 Hatch to be located preferably on southern side of tank and must not 
 be less than 20 inches by 26 inches, inside measure, in size. 
 
624 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 11. SUPPORTS. (a) The weight of the tank must be supported entirely from 
 its bottom; and in no event should any weight come on bottom of staves. 
 
 (b) There must be a clear space of at least i inch between bottom or out- 
 side of staves and balcony when used. 
 
 12. DISCHARGE PIPE. (a) The discharge pipe must be made up of cast-iron 
 or wrought pipe, flanged or coupled. Copper gaskets must be used between 
 flanges. 
 
 (b) Size of discharge pipe to be specified by inspection department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 The size of discharge pipe should not ordinarily be less than 6 inches. 
 In small equipments with a short run of pipe a 4-inch or 5-inch pipe may 
 be used. For sizes 20,000 to 75,000 gallons inclusive an 8-inch pipe is sug- 
 gested, and for sizes over 75,000 gallons a lo-inch pipe. 
 
 FIG. 96 Arrangement of Double Cover 
 
 (c) The pipe should preferably kave the tank bottom at its center. 
 
 (d) When the pipe drops vertically to the ground level the pipe must 
 be supported on an underground elbow having a foot piece resting on a 
 concrete foundation, and the elbow should preferably be flange-connected 
 to the underground pipe. If bell and spigot connection is used the joint 
 should be strapped. 
 
 (e) Except where tank is the only supply to the system, an approved 
 check valve must be placed in the tank discharge pipe, underground where 
 feasible, and as far from the tank as practicable. 
 
 NOTE. For tanks on detached trestles, check valve may be near the 
 footing elbow. It is desirable to enclose the check valve in an approved 
 pit so as to be readily accessible for inspection and repairs. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 625 
 
 (f) Tank discharge must be controlled by two approved gate valves, one 
 on each side of the check valve. Where tank discharge pipe runs through 
 a building, the gate valve in the tank side of the check must be located 
 in the building near where tank pipe enters. With tanks on detached trestles 
 where discharge pipe enters the ground the gate valves may be either outside- 
 screw-and-yoke or other approved indicator valves in pit with check, or, of 
 the post indicator valve type. 
 
 With small tanks on trestles the valve nearest the tank may be omitted 
 with the permission of the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 The pipe and valves must be installed promptly so that the tank may be 
 filled as soon as possible after erection to avoid drying and warping of 
 the staves. 
 
 (g) The pipe must be braced laterally at girt connections to the tower 
 and not over 40 feet apart. Four adjustable diagonal rods not less than 
 r> s-inch diameter to be used. Where standard boxing is used, the rods may 
 be attached to boxing or to pipe. 
 
 13. FILLING PIPE. (a) Filling pipe must be at least i% inches diameter. 
 ' (b) When tank is exposed to the weather, the pipe must be carried up 
 
 inside the frost-proof casing, and extend through tank bottom to discharge at 
 top of tank above water level. The portion of pipe inside tank" must be 
 brass. The pipe may be run up outside of tanks located inside buildings, 
 (c) Large tanks, particularly those located at some distance from the 
 source of supply, may be filled through a by-pass, around check valve. Size 
 to be 2 inches for discharge pipe of 6 inches or less in diameter, 3 inches 
 for 8-ineh discharge and 4 inches for lo-inch discharge or larger. An 
 approved globe, outside-screw-and-yoke or post indicator valve, ordinarily kept 
 closed, to be provided in the by-pass. 
 
 14. DRAIN. (a) An approved 2-inch outsMe-screw-and-yoke gate or globe 
 valve must be provided on nipple connected to discharge pipe above valves 
 to drain tank and riser. 
 
 (b) A suitable outlet must be placed, in tank bottom to drain the settling 
 basin. 
 
 15. EXPANSION JOINT. (a) When a tank is supported by a structure 30 feet 
 or more in height, whether on the ground or on a building, an expansion 
 joint of the type shown in Figure 97 must be provided in the discharge pipe 
 at the tank connection. 
 
 In cases where a tank is located in a heated enclosed tower, a four-elbow 
 swing joint may be used. 
 
 (b) The tank connection may be made by threading a half coupling over 
 the stuffing box and bearing against an annular washer, as shown in Figur: 
 3, or by bolts passing through the tank bottom. 
 
 (c) The gland must be of brass and a brass ring must be provided at 
 bottom of packing space so that sliding contact will be between brass and 
 iron surfaces. 
 
 Expansion joints having iron to iron sliding contact have given trouble 
 in service because of breakage of fittings and loss of water from tank due 
 to rusting and sticking together of the parts. 
 
 (d) The gland bolt nuts must be of brass. 
 
 (e) A minimum clearance of % inch must be provided between the riser 
 pipe and the cast-iron stuffing box. 
 
 (f) The stuffing box casting must be extended to project 4 inches within 
 the tank to insure a minimum capacity for a settling basin to prevent 
 sediment depositing in the pipe system and to keep the packing free from 
 sediment. The riser pipe must also be fitted so that the upper end is about 
 5 inches below top of expansion joint. 
 
626 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 NOTE. The extension piece is installed to insure a settling basin of the 
 desired depth even if the discharge pipe should be cut somewhat shorter 
 than intended. 
 
 (g) A large packing space, i inch wide by 5 inches deep, must be pro- 
 vided so as to make it unnecessary to repack the joint except at long intervals. 
 
 (h) A good packing, such as asbestos wicking soaked with rape oil and 
 graphite, must be provided in stuffing box. 
 
 1 6. OVERFLOW. (a) The overflow pipe must be 2 inches in diameter for 
 tanks up to 30,000 gallons capacity and 3 inches in diameter for larger tanks. 
 
 A short length of 2-inch pipe will discharge about 100 gallons per minute 
 when the surface of the water is three inches above the center of the pipe. 
 
 (b) The top of the overflow pipe must be placed 3 inches below the 
 top of the staves. 
 
 (c) The overflow pipe must extend through the bottom or side of tank. 
 In the latter, case it must project beyond the balcony. 
 
 (d) The overflow pipe should not be brought out through the riser boxing. 
 This arrangement has caused trouble on account of freezing. 
 
 FIG. 97 -Expansion Joint for Wooden Tanks 
 
 17. HEATING. (a) Arrangements must be made to warm the water in 
 tanks where subject to freezing. The temperature of the water should not 
 be allowed to go below 40 degrees F. or above 160 degrees F. 
 
 NOTE. When the tank is in an enclosure such as a mill tower, the heating 
 system of the mill may be used to heat the tower so that no further heating 
 apparatus will be needed. 
 
 The following heating methods are acceptable: 
 
 i. Circulation of Warm Water. The heater to consist of coils of pipe, 
 preferably of brass, enclosed by a water jacket. The discharge pipe from 
 heater must be enclosed in the frost-proof boxing or other covering of tank 
 drop and terminate in an open tee at about the middle of tank. Discharge 
 pipe at no point to be lower than the heater; must be provided with ex- 
 pansion joint or four elbows, and must be properly braced near its top 
 inside of tank. There should be a properly designed relief valve on this 
 pipe between the heater and discharge valve. 
 
 The return pipe to heater must be connected to tank drop on the tank 
 s;de of tank check and must be without pockets. Heater must be so located 
 that there will be circulation of water in all of the pipe exposed to frost, 
 and always be located at or near the base of tank drop and below frost 
 line when tank drop is exposed for its full length and enters the ground. 
 
 When the tank is on a tower, which is close to a building or above It, 
 the heater may be placed within the building. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 627 
 
 The heater may be operated by either: (a) Steam, if constant and of 
 sufficient pressure, and preferably by a direct pipe from boiler. A steam 
 trap must be provided at heater for condensed steam, with a high pressure 
 boiler (10 pounds or over); (b) Hot water if constant and of proper tem- 
 perature; (c) A small coal or gas heater of ample strength to resist tank 
 pressure. Heating capacity ample for size of tank must be provided, and 
 if necessary two or more heaters should be installed. If heater is in a pit 
 under tank tower, pit must be of ample size to allow ready access for 
 inspection and maintenance. If coal or gas is used for heat, tbe heater 
 must be installed in a fire-resistive enclosure. A thermometer must be located 
 in the return pipe at or near the heater to give the temperature of the 
 water. Where the discharge and return pipes of the heater are run inside 
 of a building, it is advisable to provide gate valves on these as close to 
 where they leave the building as possible, so as to save water damage in 
 the building in case of a break in the pipes. 
 
 2. Steam Coil. A steam coil of brass pipe may be placed in tank securely 
 fastened 6 inches above the bottom. This must be supplied by a steam 
 pipe of ample size running direct from boiler below frost line up through 
 the frost-proof boxing. Return pipe should be run along v side of the feed 
 pipe. Condensed steam must, be properly cared for by a trap. 
 
 3. Steam Jet. This may be used, where conditions warrant, with the per- 
 mission of the Underwriters having jurisdiction. A steam pipe at least i 
 inch in diameter should be run direct from boilers, below frost line where 
 necessary, and up through the frost-proof boxing of the tank discharge 
 through bottom of tank. It should extend to a point above the surface 
 of the water and then turn down at least 3 feet. A vent must be provided 
 at upper level of pipe to prevent siphoning back. 
 
 18. FROST-PROOFING FOR PIPES. (a) The discharge and hot water or steam 
 pipes, and separate filling pipe when one is needed, for a tank on a tower 
 on the ground or roof of a building, must be protected from freezing by a 
 frost-proof covering in addition to having the water in the discharge pipe 
 heated. 
 
 The frost-proof covering should not be depended upon to prevent freezing 
 of the "pipes \vithout some heat being added. Most tanks for fire protective 
 purposes have no draft from them except in case of fire, therefore the 
 water in the discharge pipes has little or no circulation. For this reason, 
 these pipes need more thorough protection than do pipes in similar positions 
 which discharge from tanks in which there is nearly constant circulation, 
 as for example in a village supply. Therefore the amount of protection 
 to be provided for a certain pipe must be decided with due regard to the 
 severity of exposure to cold winter winds, frequency of circulation in the 
 pipe and amount of heat to be supplied. 
 
 The standard frost-proof boxings are made of wood and are circular or 
 square in section as shown in Figures 98 and 99 respectively. 
 
 The boxings may be made more durable by using stock which has been 
 antiseptically treated. 
 
 (b) A good tight joint must be made between boxing and bottom of tank. 
 The lower end of boxing must be supported by the sides of the pit, which 
 must extend about a foot above ground. The woodwork must be well painted. 
 
 Sheet lead or tarred paper should be placed between bottom of boxing 
 and the pit to avoid absorption of moisture. 
 
 (c) The upper part of boxing must be constructed so as to permit of access 
 to the expansion joint without the necessity of destroying any portion of 
 the boxing. 
 
 (d) The boxing must be made four-ply, with two air spaces, for tanks in 
 Northern Canada. It must be three-ply, with two air spaces, as shown in 
 Figures 98 and 99 for tanks in New England, New York, Southern Ontario, 
 
628 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Michigan and Wisconsin. Two-ply boxing with two air spaces must be 
 used in states immediately south of this section. This boxing may also 'be 
 used in the Southern States or else the pipes may be wrapped with felt 
 and tar paper and covered with canvas well painted. 
 
 19. GAUGED (a) An approved form of telltale for showing the height of 
 water in' the tank must be provided. 
 
 (b) The following telltales are aceptable: 
 
 1. Approved Sprinkler Supervisory Device. (Signaling Rules.) 
 
 2. Mercury Gauge. 
 
 (a) As this gauge is connected to the yard pipe it is a separate fitting 
 which is not furnished by the tank builders unless definitely included in 
 
 <s 
 
 Round 
 hoop 
 at each 
 
 FIG. 98 Circular Frost-Proof Boxing 
 
 their contract. The gauge will usually be furnished by the sprinkler con- 
 tractor who installs the riser pipe, although it may be installed by the 
 owner if desired. Mercury should be filtered. 
 
 (b) An approved design of gauge is shown in Figure 100. 
 
 (c) The gauge must be installed in a convenient, warm, inside location 
 so that the graduated board will be in plain sight for reading, and the 
 mercury pot easily accessible for maintenance. 
 
 As a first rough approximation, the distance of the center of the mercury 
 pot below the center of the gauge board may be taken as 7% per cent of 
 the height of the top of the tank above the board. 
 
 When a location thus chosen proves satisfactory, set up apparatus as 
 shown in Figure 6, placing the board more exactly by locating the top of 
 the scale "A" a distance in feet above "B" equal to 17 per cent of the 
 pressure at " B " in pounds per square inch (or 7.4 per cent of height in 
 feet of the water level above " B "), when the tank is full. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 629 
 
 Connect pipe " C " to the tank riser on the tank side of the check valve, 
 burying all underground pipe "well below frost and protecting other pipe 
 where exposed to frost. 
 
 Locate air and test cock " D " at a convenient point for testing with 
 gauge board in plain sight. Remove plug " E " and with valve '" F " closed, 
 fill the mercury pot with mercury through opening at " E " until the glass 
 window " G " is covered, then fill to overflowing with water and insert 
 plug " E." Open valve " F " and cock " D " until water flows fr % eely, then 
 close cock " D." Finally with the tank filled to level of the overflow, 
 adjust gauge board so that the " full " mark comes opposite the mercury 
 level in the glass tube, and then secure the board firmly in place. 
 
 (d) The gauge should be tested occasionally to insure that it is in proper 
 operative condition as follows: 
 
 FIG. 99 Square Frost-Proof Boxing 
 
 ist, Open cock " D." This should cause mercury level to lower. Close 
 " D " and note if mercury level rises to former point. If it does not, then 
 valve " F " is probably closed or pipe " C " is plugged. 
 
 2nd, Note if mercury can be seen through glass window " G." If not, 
 close valve " F " and fill mercury pot as directed above. 
 
 Be sure to leave valve " F " open and sealed. 
 
 3. Float telltales. 
 
 Float telltale to consist of a float of ample size and buoyancy, such as 
 a tight cask, connected to a non-corrosive chain or flexible cable of ample 
 strength. This should run over suitable non-corrosive pulleys and must 
 be boxed where exposed to weather. Chain should run down through a 
 pipe of not less than *-inch diameter and register on a dial located either 
 at foot of trestle or in first story of building. Dial must be marked off 
 in feet, must be solid on back and sides and be protected by netting or 
 glass on front. 
 
 Where upper part of tank is used for factory service or where there is 
 a reliable ball float with Constant water pressure in filling pipe, the telltale 
 may be omitted by permission of the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 20. LADDERS. (a) A steel ladder must be provided on the outside of the 
 
 tank, extending to the top, so as to afford easy access to the hatch in the 
 tank roof. 
 
 (b) The ladder must be constructed with not less than 2 x %-inch flat 
 
630 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 side bars, spaced not less than 14 inches apart, and not less than %-inch 
 round or %-inch square rungs, spaced not more than 12 inches apart. The 
 rungs must be riveted through slotted holes in the side bars to prevent 
 their turning. The square rungs must be placed corner up. 
 
 (c) Ladder must be secured to steel grillage or balcony supports by flat bar 
 brackets in such a way as to properly support the weight of the ladder and 
 
 The gauge 
 board shown is 
 for a tank 20 ft 
 deep. Similar 
 boards to be 
 provided ac 
 cording to 
 depth of tank 
 
 Connection 
 to tank riser 
 on tank side of 
 check valve. 
 Pipe to be as 
 short as possi- 
 ble and with- 
 out air pock- 
 eta to avoid 
 false reading. 
 
 FIG. 100 Mercury Gauge 
 
 1,000 pounds in addition. Ladder must be at least 6 inches from side of 
 tank. 
 
 (d) The ladder must extend about 18 inches above the side of tank, then 
 arch downward to the cover to form a handrail, as shown in Figure 96, so that 
 a man standing near its top can readily reach up and open with his right 
 hand the hatch cover in tank roof. The handrail should be made of not less 
 than %-irich round rod. 
 
 (e) A substantial wooden ladder must be provided inside of the tank extend- 
 ing from the trap door to bottom of tank. Must be made of at least 2-inch 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 6 3 i 
 
 by 4-inch side pieces and i-inch by 2-inch cleats securely set in and spiked 
 to the side pieces. 
 
 21. LIGHTNING ROD*. Wooden or concrete tanks in locations subject to 
 thunder storms must be equipped with lightning rods. These must be in- 
 stalled according to the rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 STEEL TANKS ON TRESTLES 
 
 22. SIZE. (a) The usual sizes of steel tanks for fare protection are from 
 20,000 to 150,000 gallons capacity although they are sometimes made larger. 
 
 When a large quantity of water is to be stored above the building, two 
 or more tanks should be used so that the protection will not be entirely 
 cut off when repairing one tank. 
 
 (b) The capacity of the tank should represent the volume of water which 
 is available for fire service and is to be the computed volume between the 
 maximum water level and the outlet level. 
 
 CAPACITIES OF CYLINDERS AND TANK BOTTOMS 
 U. S. GALLONS 
 
 
 Gallons per 
 
 Gallons in 
 
 
 Gallons per 
 
 Gallons in 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Vertical 
 
 Hemispher- 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Vertical 
 
 Hemispher- 
 
 in Feet 
 
 Feet of 
 
 ical 
 
 in Feet 
 
 Feet of 
 
 ical 
 
 
 Cylinder 
 
 Bottom > 
 
 
 Cylinder 
 
 Bottom 
 
 10 
 
 587.5 
 
 1,958 
 
 31 
 
 5,646 
 
 58,342 
 
 11 
 
 711 
 
 2,607 
 
 32 
 
 6,016 
 
 64,170 
 
 .12 
 
 846 
 
 3,385 
 
 33 
 
 6,398 
 
 70,378 
 
 13 
 
 993 
 
 4,303 
 
 34 
 
 6,792 
 
 76,976 
 
 14 
 
 1,152 
 
 5,374 
 
 35 
 
 7,197 
 
 83,965 
 
 15 
 
 1,322 
 
 6,610 
 
 36 
 
 7,614 
 
 91,368 
 
 16 
 
 1,504 
 
 8,022 
 
 37 
 
 8,043 
 
 99,197 
 
 17 
 
 1,698 
 
 9,621 
 
 38 
 
 8,484 
 
 107,464 
 
 18 
 
 1,904 
 
 11,422 
 
 39 
 
 8,936 
 
 116,168 
 
 19 
 
 2,121 
 
 13,432 
 
 40 
 
 9,400 
 
 125,333 
 
 20 
 
 2,350 
 
 15,667 
 
 41 
 
 9,876 
 
 134,972 
 
 21 
 
 2,591 
 
 18,137 
 
 42 
 
 10,364 
 
 145,096 
 
 22 
 
 2,844 
 
 20,853 
 
 43 
 
 10,863 
 
 155,703 
 
 23 
 
 3,108 
 
 23,828 
 
 44 
 
 11,374 
 
 166,819 
 
 24 
 
 3,384 
 
 27,073 
 
 45 
 
 11,897 
 
 178,455 
 
 25 
 
 3,672 
 
 30,600 
 
 46 
 
 12,432 
 
 190,624 
 
 26 
 
 3,972 
 
 34,421 
 
 47 
 
 12,978 
 
 203,322 
 
 27 
 
 4,283 
 
 38,547 
 
 48 n 
 
 13,536 
 
 216,576 
 
 28 
 
 4,606 
 
 42,991 
 
 49 
 
 14,106 
 
 230,398 
 
 29 
 
 4,941 
 
 47,763 
 
 50 
 
 14,688 
 
 244,800 
 
 30 
 
 5,288 
 
 52,877 
 
 
 
 
 23. FORM. (a) Tanks must be cylindrical with hemispherical or elliptical 
 bottoms, except where conditions do not permit a curved bottom, in which case 
 a flat bottom may be used. 
 
 24. PLATES. (a) The steel for tank plates must be made by the open 
 hearth process. The cylindrical plates must have an ultimate strength of 
 from 55,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch, and the bottom plates, 45,000 
 to 55,000 pounds per square inch. The steel must withstand a coH bending 
 test of 180 degrees flat upon itself to a diameter not greater than thickness 
 of plate without fracture of the outside bent surface. 
 
 (h) The thickness of the plates for the tank and balcony must be not 
 less than % inch. For 6o,ooo-gallon tanks and larger the plates of the 
 lowest cylindrical ring must be not less than 5/16 inch thick, and for 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 tanks 75,000 gallons and larger the bottom plates must ( be not less than 
 5/i 6 inch thick. Flat bottom plates must be made % inch thicker than the 
 lowest cylindrical ring in all sizes. 
 
 The thickness of the roof plates must be not less than % inch. 
 
 (c) The rings of plates of the cylindrical portion must be placed with 
 the lower edges outsid,e the upper edges at the lap joints. 
 
 (d) The joint between the cylindrical portion and the bottom must be 
 made by lapping the lowest ring over the plates of the bottom on the outside. 
 
 (e) The joints for the seams of the bottom cylindrical plates must be 
 lapped. 
 
 (f) The plates must all be formed cold. 
 
 25. RIVETS. (a) The steel for rivets must be made by the open hearth 
 process. It must have an ultimate strength of from 48,000 to 58,000 pounds 
 per square inch, an elastic limit not less than one half the ultimate strength, 
 and an elongation of 26 per cent. 
 
 (b) The shearing stress on rivets must not exceed 7,500 pounds and 
 bearing stress 15,000 pounds per square inch* 
 
 (c) Rivets must have full heads concentric with rivet of a height not less 
 than 6/10 the diameter on outside of tank, but low cone heads are acceptable 
 for inside. 
 
 (d) Rivets when driven must completely fill the holes and be in full 
 contact with surface, or be countersunk when so required. ! 
 
 26. RIVET SOLES. (a) Plates *4 inch to % inch in thickness may be 
 punched. The diameter of the punch must not exceed the diameter of the 
 rivet by more than 1/16 inch. 
 
 (b) Plates % inch to % inch in thickness must be subpunched with a 
 punch i/i 6 inch smaller in diameter than the nominal size of the rivets 
 and must be reamed to a finished diameter not more than 1/16 inch larger 
 than rivet. 
 
 (c) Plates thicker than % inch must be drilled i to a diameter not v more 
 than i/i 6 inch larger than rivet. 
 
 27. RIVETING. (a) All rivets must be entered from the outside of the 
 tank and driven from the inside. 
 
 (b) The joints of the tank plates must be riveted, so that the Unit stresses 
 on the net section of the plates and rivets will not exceed those specified. 
 
 (c) The spacing between rivets along the caulked edges of plates, except 
 at column connections, must not be greater than ten times the thickness of 
 plates. The spacing along the edges of plates which are not caulked must 
 not exceed 6 inches nor 16 times the thickness of the thinnest outside plate. 
 
 28. ASSEMBLING. (a) Drift pins must be used only for bringing the parts 
 together and must not be driven with such force as to disturb the metal 
 around the rivet hole. 
 
 (b) The tank must be made absolutely water-tight by caulking along the 
 edges from the inside of the tank with a round nosed tool. Caulking must 
 be done before painting. 
 
 Foreign material such as lead, copper filings, cement, etc,, must not be used 
 in the joints between the plates. 
 
 29. CIRCULAR GIRDER/ (a) When the posts have a batter, it is necessary 
 to oppose the inward thrust exerted by them on the tank by a circular girder 
 placed in such a position with regard to the connection that the bending 
 moment produced in the posts is a minimum. . 
 
 The use of structural steel members within the tank in place of the 
 circular girder is not acceptable. 
 
 '(b) The girder must be not less than 24 inches in width except when 
 posts are vertical, when it may be reduced to 18 inches, and must have a 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 633 
 
 web plate not less than *4 inch thick. It must be stiffened at the edges by 
 flange angles, channels or other structural shapes. It must be designed to 
 support a i.ooo-pound concentrated load applied vertically at any point. 
 
 (c) When it is necessary to cut into the web of the girder at the post 
 connections to the tank, the depth of the cut must be kept a minimum and 
 the opening must be thoroughly reinforced. 
 
 (d) Where splices are made in the girders, there must be sufficient 
 strength at these points to carry the load of the inward thrust. 
 
 (e) Holes must be punched in the web of the girder to allow drainage. 
 
 30. BALCONY. (a) A balcony must be provided on all tanks on towers 
 30 feet or higher. The circular girder will serve as a balcony for steel tanks. 
 
 (b) A railing about 3 feet high must be provided around the balcony. It 
 should be built of angle irons and well stiffened sidewise. 
 
 (c) Drain holes must be provided in the balcony floor when design is 
 such that it does not allow water to run over edge. 
 
 31. CoNNECTi6N OF POSTS TO TANK. (a) In order -to avoid eccentric 
 loading in the ; posts and local stresses in the tank plates, the connection 
 between the posts and the tank must be made in such a manner that the 
 center of gravity of the column section shall intersect the tank at the center 
 of the girder Connection. An acceptable design is shown in Figure 101. 
 Other designs are also acceptable, but these should be approved by the 
 inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 32. EXPANSION JOINT. (a) When a tank is supported by a structure 30 
 feet or more in height, whether on the ground or on a building, an expansion 
 joint of the type shown in Figure 102 must be provided in the discharge pipe 
 at the tank connection. 
 
 In cases where a tank is located in a heated enclosed tower, a four-elbow 
 swing joint may be used. 
 
 (b) The expansion joint may be connected to tank by rivets, as shown 
 in Figure 102, br by bolts with lead gaskets and steel washers. 
 
 (c) The gland must be of brass and a brass ring must be provided at 
 bottom of packing space so that sliding contact will be between brass and 
 iron surfaces. 
 
 Expansion joints having iron to iron sliding contact have given trouble 
 in service because of breakage of fittings and a loss of water from tank 
 due to rusting and sticking together of the parts. 
 
 (d) The gland bolt nuts must be of brass. 
 
 (e) A minimum clearance of % inch must be provided between the riser 
 pipe and the cast-iron stuffing box. 
 
 (f) The stuffing box casting must be extended to project 18 inches within 
 the tank to insure a minimum capacity for a settling basin to prevent sedi- 
 ment depositing in the pipe system, and to keep the packing free from sedi- 
 ment. A wrought iron pipe may be threaded into the casting to form an 
 extension piece if desired. The riser pipe must also be fitted so that the 
 upper end is about 12 inches below top of expansion joint. 
 
 See note under isf. 
 
 (g) A large packing space, i inch wide by 5 inches deep, must be pro- 
 vided so as to make it unnecessary to repack the joint except at long intervals. 
 
 (h) A good packing, such as asbestos wicking soaked in rape oil and 
 graphite, must be provided in stuffing box. 
 
 33. ROOF. (a) A sheet metal roof, not less than %-inch thick and conical 
 in shape, must be provided on tanks located outdoors. The joints of the 
 plates must be lapped and riveted. The joints between the roof and the 
 top of the tank must be made tight in order to keep out the wind and 
 maintain a closed air space above the surface of the water. 
 
634 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 The appearance of the tank is improved by having the roof project beyond 
 the tank the same distance as the balcony. 
 
 (b) A finial made of cast iron, zinc or galvanized sheet iron must be 
 tightly fitted to apex of roof. 
 
 34. HATCHES. -(a) A hatch not less than 20 inches by 26 inches, inside 
 measure, must be provided in the roof (on south side when feasible), so 
 *?.' ii ,.v : :,: >-.; ,i ; , ..:! .'. i. till in JJM'T: : >tsr, ,:>x 
 
 * J 
 
 FIG. lor Post Connection to Tank 
 
 as to give easy access to the interior of the tank. The hinges and fastenings 
 must be made of some non-corrodible metal, such as brass, or have non- 
 corrodible hinge pins and bearings. The cover must make a tight joint and 
 its edges must turn down over raised edges of hatch. 
 
 (b) The hatch cover, when hinged, must be arranged to open to one 
 Side (preferably to the right), in order that it may be reached in all positions 
 by a man on the ladder. When cover is arranged to slide, it must move 
 upwards to open. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 635 
 
 35. PAINTER'S TROLLEY. (a) Some reliable form of trolley or other accept- 
 able device must be provided to facilitate repainting of the tank. 
 
 36. PAINTING. (a) The plates must be given a priming coat at the shop. 
 The surface of the metal must be thoroughly cleaned of mill scale, rust 
 and grease and the surface must be perfectly dry before applying the paint. 
 
 A good paint for the first coat may be made by mixing 20 pounds of red 
 lead and 10 pounds of zinc oxide with about 3 quarts of boiled linseed oil, 
 the red lead and zinc oxide being ground in. This will cover about 50 
 square yards of surface. 
 
 (b) A second coat must be applied after the tank is erected. For this 
 coat a more durable oil or asphaltum paitit must be used. 
 
 FIG. 1 02 Expansion Joint for Steel Tanks 
 
 37. TYPICAL DIMENSIONS FOR TANKS OF STANDARD SIZES. (a) The fol- 
 lowing table gives the typical dimensions of cylindrical, hemispherical bottomed 
 tanks of standard sizes. Other dimensions which provide the full net capacities 
 are equally acceptable. 
 
 CAPACITY GJ 
 
 Rated or 
 
 
 
 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Actual Net 
 
 Total 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Height 
 
 Net 
 
 
 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 30,036 
 
 30,516 
 
 15-0 
 
 18-1 
 
 40,000 
 
 40,045 
 
 40,610 
 
 17-0 
 
 18-3 
 
 50,000 
 
 50,004 
 
 50,613 
 
 18-0 
 
 20-7 
 
 60,000 
 
 60,148 
 
 60,800 
 
 19-0 
 
 22-4 
 
 75,000 
 
 75,089 
 
 75,788 
 
 20-0 
 
 25-7 
 
 100,000 
 
 100,166 
 
 100,959 
 
 22-0 
 
 28-2 
 
 150,000 
 
 150,223 
 
 151,164 
 
 25-0 
 
 32-10 
 
 SIZE FEET AND INCHES 
 
 The height given is that of the cylindrical portion. The method of calcu- 
 lating the net capacity is explained in Article 2ib. 
 
 38. GENERAL FEATURES. (a) The requirements for discharge and filling 
 pipes, overflow, drain, heating and frost-proofing, mercury gauge ancl ladders 
 are given in section on wooden tanks, except as follows: 
 
6 3 6 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (b) The ladder must be securely fastened by flat bar brackets of sufficient 
 strength to carry the weight of the ladder and 1,000 pounds additional. The 
 ladder must extend about 18 inches above the side of tank, then arch down- 
 ward to the cover to form a handrail, as shown in Figure 2, so that a man 
 standing near its top can readily reach up and open with his right hand 
 the hatch cover in tank roof. The handrail should be made of not less than 
 %-inch round rod. A steel ladder of the same construction as for outside 
 ladders must be provided inside tank. The ladder must extend down to 
 within easy reach of the expansion joint. 
 
 (c) Top of overflow pipe to take out one inch from top of tank. 
 
 CARE OF TANKS 
 
 39. GENERAL. (a) Tanks fir fire protection should not be used for other 
 purposes except with the permission of the inspection department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 The practice of using a foot ! or scj of water for mill purposes from the 
 top of a tank is objectionable;: because' when so used the tank collects a 
 larger amount of sediment if rom ,the water which is constantly being supplied 
 than it does when used for fire' service only. This sediment is likely to 
 settle in the sprinkler pipes, and either to clog the,m completely, or, in case 
 sprinklers open, to seriously interfere with their discharge. If water is 
 drawn from the bottom for mill purposes, the tank may, of course, be empty 
 when needed for the fire service. Furthermore the fluctuation of water 
 level is liable to result in shrinkage of the upper ends of the staves, and 
 leakage. 
 
 Where water is clean and without sediment, part of the tank may be 
 used for domestic purposes with permission of the inspection department 
 having jurisdiction. "'.-' 
 
 (b) Tanks should be thoroughly examined at least twice a year to see 
 that they are in good order. 
 
 (c) The sediment which collects in the tank bottom should be cleaned 
 out when it reaches the top of the expansion joint casting. 
 
 (d) Examine flat hoops on old tanks very carefully to see if they are 
 rusting from the back. If they are found to be corroded so as to materially 
 weaken, them, the tank should be strengthened by placing new hoops of 
 round iron between the flat hoops, or by replacing the flat ones with round 
 hoops of proper size and spacing. 
 
 A flat hoop may be in perfect condition at one point and nearly rusted 
 off within six inches of that point. Flat hoops rust more rapidly where they 
 do not fit tightly against the staves, because dirt collects there and holds 
 the dampness. In making an , examination of flat hoops place a round hoop 
 on each side of one of the lower flat ones, within easy reach, then strike 
 this flat hoop with a pointed hammer at intervals of a few inches to detect 
 thin places. 
 
 Particular attention should be given to tanks located on roofs and covered 
 with corrugated iron as, unfortunately, som building laws require. The 
 hoops corrode very rapidly on account of the dampness held between the 
 corrugated iron and the staves, and they mky be found nearly rusted off 
 in a few years after erection. 
 
 (e) The inside and outside jof the tank should be repainteid frequently or 
 when the paint shows signs of peeling. The : surface must fijrst be carefully 
 cleaned by a sand blast or by steel brushes and scrapers. The metal must 
 be thoroughly :dried before thfc paint is applied. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL TOWERS 
 
 These specifications are intended to produce steel towers which are strong 
 and reliable and involve no features which necessitate radical changes in 
 present shop practice or equipments. The towers must, in addition to con- 
 forming to the specifications, be satisfactory in the composition of materials, 
 construction of the parts and workmanship. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 637 
 
 40. HEIGHT. (a) The height of the tower shall be the vertical distance 
 from the top of the capstpnes of the foundations to the outlet level within 
 the tank. 
 
 41. FORM. (a) Towers for supporting tanks of sizes up to and including 
 150,000 gallons capacity should preferably have four posts. In those few 
 cases where larger tanks are used, the towers may have six posts. Short 
 towers for tanks on buildings may have three posts.' 
 
 Four-posted trestles are considered preferable to those of more posts, for 
 the reason that the members are larger and less liable to be impaired by 
 corrosion and also more likely to carry the proportion of the load for which 
 they are designed. 
 
 In designing a tank trestle, there should be as few angles, corners and 
 plnces which are difficult to paint, as possible. 
 
 42. BATTER OF POSTS. (a) The post panels must have a batter of not 
 less than i to 12, except wb/ere conditions do not permit. 
 
 43. MATERIAL. (a) The steel for the structural members must be made of 
 medium grade of from 55,000 to 65,000 pounds ultimate strength and an 
 elastic limit of not less than one half of the ultimate strength. Before or 
 after heating to a low cherry red and cooling in water to 82 degrees F., 
 the steel must stand bending to a curve whose inner radius is i% times the 
 thickness of the sample without cracking. 
 
 (b) The thickness of the metal of structural members carrying load 
 must be not less than *4 inch except in the case of channels. This speci- 
 fication does not apply to auxiliary fittings such as fillers, railing, balcony 
 brackets on grillage, etc. 
 
 44. RIVETS. Rivets must have full heads concentric with rivet of a height 
 not less than 6/10 the diameter. 
 
 See also Section 253 and d, and Section 57. 
 
 45. RIVETING. (a) All connections must be riveted except those of the 
 wind rods when made adjustable, and the balcony railing. 
 
 See also 48 b. 
 
 (b) The minimum distance between centers of rivet holes must be three 
 diameters of the rivets, but the distance shall preferably be not less than 3 
 inches for %-inch, 2% inches for %-inch and 2 inches for %-inch rivets. 
 
 (c) The maximum distance between centers of rivet holes must never 
 exceed 6 inches. 
 
 (d) The maximum pitch in the line of stress for members composed of 
 plates and shapes must be 6 inches for %-inch, 5 inches for %-inch, and 4 
 inches for %-inch rivets, and must not exceed twice this amount where there 
 are two or more gauge lines. 
 
 (e) The minimum distance from the center of any rivet hole to sheared 
 edge must be i% inches for %-inch, 1*4 inches for %-inch, i inch for %-inch 
 rivets, and to a rolled edge 1% inches, i% inches and % inch, respectively. 
 
 (f) The maximum distance from edge must be eight times the thickness of 
 the plate, but must not exceed 6 inches. 
 
 (g) The diameter of rivets in any angle carrying calculated stress must not 
 exceed *4 the width of the leg in which they are driven. In minor parts 
 %-inch rivets may be used in 3-inch angles, %-inch in 2%-inch angles and 
 ^'i-inch rivets in 2-inch angles. 
 
 (h) The pitch of rivets at the ends of built-up compression members must 
 not exceed four diameters of the rivets for a length equal to i% times the 
 maximum width of the member. 
 
 (i) Hand-driven rivets must not be larger than %-inch diameter. 
 
 46. COMPRESSION MEMBERS. (a) The metal in compression members must 
 be concentrated as much as possible in webs and flanges, and the numbers 
 must be of approved types. 
 
6 3 8 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (b) Cover plates must have a thickness not less than 1/40 of the distance 
 between rivet lines. When cover plates are used, only one should be provided 
 on each post. 
 
 The posts should be constructed so that all parts are accessible for paint- 
 ing, for which reason the use of two cover plates is not allowable. 
 
 (c) Post members built up of two angles placed star-shape, must have pairs 
 of tie plates or tie angles, spaced so that the distance between pairs will not 
 exceed the following: 
 
 Size -of post angle 4" 5" 6" 8" 
 
 Spacing of ties 24" 36" 42" 48" 
 
 There must be at "least two rivets connecting each tie to each angle, the 
 number to be increased with increase in size of post angle. 
 
 (d) Struts must be connected to columns through gusset plates and in 
 such a manner that the columns are rigidly supported. 
 
 (e) Abutting joints in compression members must be faced for bearing so 
 that the surfaces will be finished as smoothly as by milling. 
 
 (f) The joints must be spliced on four sides to carry the maximum tension, 
 or half the maximum compression, in the posts, the design requiring the most 
 riVets to be used. There must not be less than two rows of rivets on each 
 side of the joint where size of post member permits. Joints with abutting 
 faces not finished equal to milling must be fully spliced so that rivets will 
 transmit the compression load. 
 
 (g) Joints must be placed as near panel points as possible and never more 
 than 1 8 inches above. 
 
 (h) Where foundations are set in soft clay or comparatively loose earth a 
 lower chord should be provided. 
 
 47. LATTICE. (a) The size of rivets for latticing channel flanges of various 
 widths must be as follows: %-inch rivets for flanges less than 2*4 inches 
 wide, %-inch rivets for flanges 2% inches to 3^ inches wide and %-inch 
 rivets for flanges 3^ inches and wider. 
 
 (b) The minimum width of lattice bars for compression members built up 
 of channels must conform to the size of rivets used as follows: 2^ inches 
 for %-inch, 2% inches for %-inch, 2 inches for %-inch rivets. 
 
 (c) The thickness of lattice bars must be not less than 1^/40 the distance 
 between end rivets for single lattice and 1/60 for double lattice. 
 
 (d) The inclination of lattice bars with the axis of the member must be 
 not less than 45 degrees. 
 
 (e) When the distance between rivet lines in the flanges is more than 15 
 inches, if single riveted bar is used, the lattice must be doubled and riveted 
 at the intersection. 
 
 48. GRILLAGE. (a) For towers to support wooden tanks, a grillage of steel 
 I beams must be provided. These are to be supported by and bolted to post 
 cap I beams which must be braced by steel work or be strapped to the cap 
 beams to prevent overturning. An acceptable form of construction is shown 
 in Figure 103. 
 
 (b) When struts are not provided at top of posts below the post cap beams, 
 the latter must be riveted to the cap plates. When struts are provided, the 
 beams may be bolted to the plates. 
 
 (c) The grillage beams must be spaced so as to properly support the tank 
 bottom and not to exceed 18 inches in the clear between flanges. 
 
 (d) A balcony should be installed on every tank. 
 
 (e) The balcony supports must consist of steel members riveted to the 
 grillage beams. They must carry a i,ooo-pound concentrated load applied 
 vertically at any point. An acceptable form of support is shown in Figure 103. 
 
 49. CAP AND BASE PLATES. (a) The cap and base plates must be made of 
 steel. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 639 
 
 (b) The base plates must be of sufficient thickness, size and properly stif- 
 fened so that the masonry shall be loaded uniformly and not overstressed. 
 An acceptable design of base plate for angle iron posts is shown in Figure 104. 
 and for channel posts in Figure 105. Other designs which are equally good 
 are also acceptable but should be approved by the inspection department having 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 50. ANCHOR BOLTS. (a) The columns must be anchored to the foundations 
 by means of anchor bolts made of wrought iron or mild steel without upset 
 ends. 
 
 (b) The diameter of bolt at root of thread must be such as to withstand 
 the maximum uplift produced by the wind. No bolt shall be less than %-inch 
 diameter. The bolts must also be of sufficient strength to resist the shearing 
 force at the column footing. 
 
 (c) The bolts must have anchor plates not less than ^-inch thick under 
 the nut and set in the foundation pier several inches above the bottom. 
 
 FIG. 103 Arrangement of Grillage 
 
 When structural steel shapes are used as plates they may be less th?*i 
 '..inch thick. 
 
 51. WIND BBACING. (a) The wind bracing may be made either of wrought 
 iron or steel rods arranged for tightening or built up of riveted structural 
 members. 
 
 (b) The rods may be either round or square and if provided with upset 
 ends must comply with Franklin Institute standard and in no case have less 
 than 15 per cent excess area at the root of the thread over the nominal cross 
 section of the rod. 
 
 (c) The ends of the rods must be fitted with either clevis nuts or forked 
 ends. Clevis nuts must be made to dimensions of the Cleveland City Forge 
 and Iron Co. standard. The design of forked ends is shown in Figure 106 
 and the dimensions are given in the table. 
 
 (d) Rods having forked ends must have turn-buckles for tightening. All 
 turn-buckles must be of the open type and made to dimensions of the Cleve- 
 land City Forge and Iron Co. standard. 
 
640 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 FIG. 104 Base Plate for Angle Post 
 
 FIG. 105 Base Plate for Channel Post 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 641 
 
 (c) All screw threads must he made tight fits in the nuts and turn-buckles. 
 They must he U. S. standard except for diameters greater than i% inches 
 when they must have six threads per inch as follows: 
 
 Diameter of screw ends, i" i%" i*4" i%" and greater 
 
 X umber of threads per inch, 8 7 7 6 
 
 FIG. 1 06 Forked Ends 
 
 D 
 
 S 
 
 U 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 4* 
 
 * 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 3 
 
 9-16 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 11-16 
 
 H 
 1J 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 5i 
 
 13-16 
 
 H 
 
 U 
 
 5J 
 
 i 
 
 l| 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1! 
 
 21 
 
 5f 
 
 1 1-16 
 
 P should be made large enough to give a bearing stress for the pin not 
 exceeding 20,000 pounds per square inch'. G equals thickness ot plate 
 plus 1/16 inch. 
 
 52. PINS. (a) The pins must be made of rolled steel. 
 
 (b) The pins must have a head on one end, and provided with a nut at the 
 other end. They must be inserted downwards. It is advised that bolts be 
 headed over the nut. 
 
 53. FOUNDATION PIERS. (a) The piers must be pyramidical in shape, with 
 full or stepped sides, and the height must be not less than the mean width. 
 
 (b) When columns are inclined, the piers must be designed so that the 
 resultant of the vertical and horizontal forces due to direct loads shall pass 
 through the center of gravity. 
 
 (c) The piers must be carried below frost line and the tops must be about 
 12 inches above ground. 
 
 In no case should earth or ashes be filled in about the steel work, as 
 this might result in severe corrosion of it. 
 
 (d) The weight of the pier when buried for at least two-thirds of its height 
 must be equivalent to the calculated net uplift; otherwise, the weight must be 
 one and one-half times this amount. 
 
 (e) The piers must be constructed of concrete, consisting of one part Port- 
 land cement, three parts clean sand and five parts broken stone or gravel. 
 
 (f) The capstones, if constructed of concrete, must consist of one part 
 Portland cement, one and one-half parts clean sand and three parts broken 
 stone. 
 
 (g) The top of pier must be of such size that there will be at least 3 inches 
 all around the base plate, as shown in Figures 104 and 105. 
 
 54. LADDERS. (a) A steel ladder must be provided on one post extending 
 from a point within easy reach from the ground to the balcony. It must not 
 tip outward from the vertical at any point. 
 
642 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (b) The ladder must be constructed with not less than. 2 x %-inch flat side 
 bars, spaced not less than 14 inches apart, and not less than %-inch round or 
 %-inch square rungs, spaced not more than 12 inches apart. The rungs must 
 be riveted through slotted holes in the side bars to prevent their turning. The 
 square rungs must be placed corner up. 
 
 (c) The sections of the ladder must be connected by single butt straps of 
 the same size as the side bars and have at least two i/^-inch bolts in each side 
 of strap. 
 
 (d) The ladder must be secured to the post every 10 feet by flat bar 
 brackets about 6 inches long, of sufficient strength to carry the weight of the 
 ladder and 1,000 pounds additional. The brackets must be connected at each 
 end by at least two %-inch bolts. The ends of the bolts must be riveted 
 over the nuts. 
 
 55. PAINTING. (a) The steel work must be painted as directed in Article 36, 
 items a and b. 
 
 56. LOADS. (a) The dead load shall consist of the weight of the tank, 
 structural and ornamental steel work, platforms, roof, piping, etc. 
 
 (b) The live load shall consist of the weight of the total volume of water, 
 the movable load on the platform, and the wind load. 
 
 (c) The live load on the platform shall be assumed to be 30 pounds per 
 square foot. 
 
 (d) The wind pressure shall be assumed to be 30 pounds per square foot 
 acting in any direction. In calculating the wind load on the tank, this 
 pressure is assumed to act on 6/10 the projected area of the tank including 
 the roof, and in the case of steel tanks the hemispherical bottom. 
 
 (e) The total wind pressure on posts, struts, wind rods, ladders and riser 
 boxing shall be assumed to be 200 pounds per foot of height of tower. 
 
 (f) All parts of the structure must be proportioned so that the sum of the 
 dead and live loads shall not cause the stresses to exceed those which are 
 allowable. 
 
 57.. UNIT STRESSES AND PROPORTION OF PARTS. The maximum stresses must 
 not exceed the following amounts in pounds per square inch: -. 
 
 Axial tension: on net section, wind and anchor rods 15*000 
 
 Plates 1 0,000 
 
 Axial compression on gross section of columns and struts 12,000 
 
 This stress shall be reduced by the formula 17,100 57 where 
 
 " ! ' is the unsupported length of the member from center to 
 center of connections in inches, and " r " is the least radius of 
 
 gyration of section in inches. The ratio must not exceed 125 
 
 for columns and 150 for struts and minor members. 
 Bending: on extreme fibres of rolled shapes, built sections, struts and 
 
 steel castings; net section ...16,000 
 
 Footing I beams set on brickwork or concrete; net section 12,000 
 
 Pins . . 20,000 
 
 Shearing: shop driven rivets and pins 10,000 
 
 Field driven rivets ;..... 7,500 
 
 . Bolts .' . 6,000 
 
 Plates. 1 0,000 
 
 Bearing: shop driven rivets and pins . 20,000 
 
 Field driven rivets. . j 15,000 
 
 58. ALLOWABLE PRESSURES ON BEARING PLATES. (a) In proportioning the 
 size of bearing plates, the following allowable pressures, in pounds per square 
 inch, should be used: 
 
 Portland cement concrete : ; ; . . . i ; . .'; . . :': 400 
 
 Sandstone (first class) , 400 
 
 Limestone (first class) . . . 500 
 
 Granite (first class) '. . . .'.'.. 600 
 
 Hard brick with Portland cement mortar '..'....' 1 ... : '. '.' i. . '. . ; 200 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 643 
 
 \\ hen bearing plate is to support .tank above roof of building, the brick- 
 work (hard brick) with Portland cement mortar should be figured on the 
 basis of 125 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Allowable pressures on soil will range from i to 5 tons per square foot, 
 depending on whether the soil is soft clay, ordinary clay, dry sand and clay, 
 hard clay, or gravel and coarse sand. 
 
 PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 59. CAPACITY. Total capacity of tank must be specified by the inspection 
 department having jurisdiction. 
 
 Si /AS less than 4,500 or over 9,000 gallons are not recommended. In 
 where pressure tanks are the primary supply to dry-pip systems it Is 
 advisable to provide a larger tank capacity than would be required for an 
 equivalent number of sprinklers on a wet-pipe system. 
 
 60. LOCATION. Tank not to be located below upper story of building. 
 
 61. TANK SERVICE. Tanks to be used only as a supply to automatic 
 sprinkler systems and hand hose. 
 
 62. CONSTRUCTION. (a) Material. Must be of open hearth flange steel con- 
 forming to the American Society for Testing Materials Specifications. Each 
 plate must have a test mark 12 inches from each corner and one in the center. 
 
 Thickness of plates of the cylindrical shell must be determined by the 
 following formula: 
 
 T = 
 
 Px r x 5 
 
 T = Thickness of cylindrical shell plate in inches. 
 
 r = Radius of cylindrical tank. 
 
 5 = Factor of safety. 
 
 S = Ultimate tensile strength of steel. 
 
 P = Normal working pressure in pounds per square inch. 
 
 % Efficiency of longitudinal seam. 
 
 (b) Heads. 
 formula: 
 
 Thickness of heads must be determined by the following 
 Pxr x 5 
 
 T = 
 
 Ofix S 
 
 Radius of dish of head must be equal to the diameter of the tank. 
 
 In case of tanks of odd diameters the inspection department having juris- 
 diction may allow a variation of 3 inches either above or below the diameter. 
 
 Radius to be used in formula for heads to be the radius of the tank which 
 is one-half the radius of the head. 
 
 Heads must be dished concave to the pressure. Corner radius of dished 
 heads to be not less than one-sixteenth of the radius of the tank, the corner 
 radius to be measured on the concave side of the head. 
 
 (c) Scams. Longitudinal seams must be butt joint, with inside and outside 
 butt straps and placed below the water line. Not more than one seam is 
 allowed in each course. 
 
 The minimum thickness of butt straps must be as follows: 
 
 Thickness of Minimum Thickness 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 Minimum Thickness 
 
 Shell Plates of Butt Straps 
 
 Shell Plates 
 
 of Butt Straps 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 33' 
 
 V 
 
 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 4* 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 K 
 
 jt; 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 T f * 
 
 it'- 
 
 
 
644 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Butt straps to be rolled or formed to the proper curvature on forms made 
 for that purpose. Maximum length of continuous longitudinal joint not to 
 exceed 12 feet. Girth seams may be lap joint, single riveted, but must have 
 a factor of safety of at least 5. 
 
 Rivets. Rivet steel to conform to the American Society for Testing Mate- 
 rials Specifications for Rivet Steel. On longitudinal joints, the distance from 
 the center of the rivet hole to the edge of the plate, except rivet holes in 
 the ends of butt straps, shall not be less than 1^2 times the diameter of the 
 rivet hole. Rivet holes must be drilled in place, or punched % inch smaller 
 and reamed to size. Seams must be caulked tight outside under test pressure. 
 All caulking must be done by a round nose tool. 
 
 In calculating the efficiency of seams, unless data is available from actual tests 
 of materials, the following constants are to be used: 
 
 Ultimate tensile strength of steel plate; Ibs. per sq. in 55,000 
 
 Ultimate crushing strength of steel plate, Ibs. per sq. in. . 95,000 
 
 Shearing strength of rivets: 
 
 Iron rivets in single shear 38,000 
 
 Iron rivets in double shear 70,000 
 
 Steel rivets in single shear 42,000 
 
 Steel rivets in double shear 78,000 
 
 (d) Manhole. Must be placed below the water line, and not exceed u'x 15 
 inches in size. The manhole frame or other reinforcing ring should be of 
 wrought iron or cast steel, and have a net cross sectional area, on a line 
 parallel to the axis of the shell, not less than the cross sectional area of the 
 shell plate removed on the same line, and this reinforcement should be at 
 least as thick as the shell plate. The strength of the rivets in shear on all 
 manhole frames and reinforcing rings must be not less than the tensile 
 strength of the plate removed, on a line parallel to the axis of the shell, 
 through the center of the manhole. The short axis of the manhole opening 
 must be parallel with the axis of the shell,' to facilitate reinforcement. 
 
 (e) Outlet and Other Openings. Discharge fitting must be placed in the 
 bottom of the tank projecting 2 inches within the tank to prevent sediment 
 depositing in the sprinkler pipes. Fitting may also be used for connecting 
 the i^-inch water filling pipe to the tank. Inlet for air supply to be i inch, 
 and placed at proper point for upper gauge glass nipple, where suitable con- 
 nections can be made for both purposes; or 2-inch inlet may be made at a 
 proper point above the water line into which both the 1%-inch water filling 
 pipe and the i-inch air filling pipe may connect to proper valves to be pro- 
 vided, as noted in Rule 64 d. 
 
 Brass nipples must be provided for these inlets arid also for the %-inch 
 fitting .needed to complete the gauge glass connections. An approved auto- 
 matic valve must be provided at each end of gauge glass. A 2-inch nipple 
 extending at least 6 inches into tank should also be provided at the end of 
 water inlet, to prevent surging or " foaming " of water when tank is being 
 filled. Any opening for a threaded pipe connection i inch in diameter or 
 over must have not less than the minimum number, of threads in such opening, 
 as shown in the following table: 
 
 Size of pipe connection in inches .... 1* and 1J* 1$* and 2" 2$'-4" 4$'-6' 
 
 Number of threads per inch .!,!': 11$ 11$ 8 8 
 
 Minimum number of threads required 
 
 in opening '. . . 4 5 7 8 
 
 Minimum thickness of material re- 
 quired to give above number of 
 threads ., . .348' .435' .875' 1' 
 
 If the thickness of the material in the tank is not sufficient to give such 
 number of threads, there shall be a standard commercial pressed or cast 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 
 
 645 
 
 steel flange or steel plate, substantially riveted to the tank so as to give 
 the required number of threads. 
 
 Size of discharge must be 4 inches in tanks up to 5,000 gallons capacity 
 and must be 6 inches for larger sizes. 
 
 There should be a swing joint in discharge pipe directly under or near 
 the tank. 
 
646 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 63. TEST. Tank must be tested at the shop and proved tight at a hydro- 
 static pressure of at least 50 per cent in excess of the normal working 
 pressure required. After erection, the tank, two-thirds full of water, must 
 be tested at the working air pressure required. In this condition and with 
 all valves closed, tank must not show loss of pressure in excess of % pound 
 in 24 hours. 
 
 PRESSURE TANK FOR SPRINKLER SYSTEM 
 
 END VIEW AND DETAIL OF PIPING 
 
 NOTATION 
 
 A connection from tank. 
 B connection from tank. 
 
 C shut-off valves of best quality, to be kept closed. 
 D water gage of best quality. 
 E shut-off valve of best quality. 
 F check valve of best quality. 
 G shut-off valve of best quality. 
 H check valve of ^ best quality. 
 
 I shut-off valve of best quality, to be secured open. 
 J dial pressure gage of best quality reading, to 150 Ibs. 
 K shut-off valve of best quality, to be secured closed. 
 L brass plug secured by chain; opening is for testing gage. 
 M man-hole. 
 N discharge outlet for connection to sprinkler system. 
 
GRAVITY AND PRESSURE TANKS 647 
 
 TABLE OF HEIGHT OF WATER IN HORIZONTAL CYLINDRICAL 
 PRESSURE TANK 
 
 Tank two-thirds full 
 
 Diameter Tank in Inches 
 56 
 
 II 
 
 I'o 
 
 61 
 62 
 
 II 
 I 
 
 69 
 70 
 
 72 
 73 
 74 
 75 
 76 
 Pressure tanks can he made at any boiler works. 
 
 64. FITTINGS AND CONNECTIONS. (a) .Gauge Glass. Must be placed on the 
 end of horizontal and side of upright tank so that the two-thirds line will 
 be at the center of the glass. Gauge glass valves must be of the best quality 
 angle globe pattern. 
 
 The two valves in the water gauge connections to be of approved automatic 
 type and to be kept closed, and opened only to ascertain the amount of 
 water in the tank, as breaking of or leakage about glass will cause the 
 escape of pressure. 
 
 (b) Pressure Gauge. Must be placed directly on the upper , gauge glass 
 nipple and provided with a separate shut-off valve. 
 
 (c) Filling Point. Tank must be kept two-thirds full of water and have 
 a fixed metallic horizontal line opposite gauge glass, indicating this water 
 level. A conspicuous sign indicating minimum air pressure allowed should 
 be stamped on the fixed metallic plate indicating the water level. 
 
 For horizontal tanks the two-thirds line to be determined by the following 
 formula: Distance above the bottom equals 1.265 x radius of tank in inches. 
 
 (d) Filling Pipes. Water for supplying tank must be conveyed through 
 fixed iron piping not less than i% inch in size. Sprinkler piping not to 
 be used for this purpose. 
 
 Pipe from air pump must be at least i inch in diameter, connect with 
 tank above the water level, and must be independent of water supply pipe, 
 except as noted under Section 626. 
 
 See also Section 68 as to safety valve. 
 
 (e) Drain Pipe. Provision must be made to drain each tank independently 
 of other tanks and the sprinkler system by a pipe not less than i% inches 
 in diameter. 
 
 The practice of placing drain valves at lower levels and accessible from 
 the exterior of buildings is not approved. 
 
 65. PRESSURE. When the bottom of the tank is located on a level with 
 the highest sprinklers an air pressure not less than 75 pounds should be 
 maintained in order that a pressure of not less than 15 pounds will be 
 
648 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 furnished at the highest line of sprinklers when all water has been discharged 
 from the tank. 
 
 When the bottom of the tank is located lower than the highest sprinklers 
 a pressure in excess of 75 pounds should be maintained. This excess pressure 
 must be equal to three times the pressure, due to the height of the sprink- 
 lers above the bottom of the tank. 
 
 66. FILLING. Arrangements must be made for filling the tank so that the 
 proper water level may be restored at any time without reducing the air 
 pressure. 
 
 67. MAINTENANCE. Tank must be painted inside and outside, with a good 
 quality of lead paint, must be cleaned, scraped and repainted when neces- 
 sary. Tank must have a hydrostatic pressure test similar to one noted 
 in Section 63, once in two years. 
 
 68. AIR COMPRESSOR. A steam or electrically driven air compressor having 
 sufficient capacity to increase the air pressure at an average rate of at least 
 one pound in two minutes should be provided. 
 
 A properly designed safety valve must be installed at the air compressor, 
 or in the pipe from it to tank, so that an excessive air pressure may not 
 be pumped into tank. 
 
 Where the compressor is also used to maintain dry-pipe systems, the air 
 supply should be taken from the outside or from a room having dry air.- 
 in order to avoid carrying moisture into the pipe system. The intake should 
 be protected by a screen. 
 
 69. TANK HOUSE. Tank must be properly protected from frost, and if 
 located above the roof must be enclosed in a house of substantial construc- 
 tion, .of easy' access, 'and of ample size to provide free access, on all sides. 
 
 Must be arranged so that it can be properly lighted at all times. 
 
 There should be a space at least 3 feet at end where gauges are located 
 and, ^ window should be provided opposite gauges. , r ,, ,-,,j,-, 
 
 Tank house must be constructed in accordance with the requirements oi 
 municipal of ' building authorities where they exist. 
 
 70. SUPPORTS FOR TANKS. Tank to rest on a cradle of cast iron, concrete 
 or' other equ'ally rigid material which will prevent possible sagging or vibra- 
 tion. Wood is not approved for this purpose. ' Supports must be prb- 
 pbrtioned so as to safely carry the' load, using a factor of safety of at least 
 four, arid rtiust be' installed tinder the ' requirements of the municipal or 
 building authorities where they exist. 
 
 lov-ii v.i, ..7 -)ift viil-.;f.i >}!!<( -/ulrr:oc f.-.yH '.;.: r". \.-><i'.)tnr- 
 
 ':;;!3?ANKs ON BUILDINGS 
 
 ' {a) Tanks should be located on buildings only when this is Absolutely 
 necessary as tanks so located are a p| menace to life and property unless the 
 best of care is taken regarding the supports. 
 
 (b) Before supporting a tank on a building great care should be taken 
 to make sure .that the building -is strong enough, to carry the extra weight 
 that the tank imposes. 
 
 (c) In a building about to be erected special arrangements for the tank 
 should be macje in .the plans of the building itself. With buildings already 
 constructed it is necessary to haye an expert pass on the strength of the 
 supports. It will often be ' desirable to arrange for the required capacity 
 by two tanks instead of one. 
 
 (d) Tanks on buildings should be supported either by steel beams laid 
 across brick, stone or concrete walls, carried above the roof to the necessary 
 height or by a substantial trestle of the necessary height built 1 in accordance 
 with preceding rules so far as they apply. 
 
 If, a trestle is used it should be supported entirely by brick, stone or 
 
CONCRETE- RESERVOIRS 649 
 
 concrete walls, posts or piers. If the tank is supported wholly or in part 
 by steel columns within a building, these should be riveted and fireproofed. 
 An exception to this is in case the whole building is of wood, when a tank 
 may be supported by wood columns only by special permission of the inspec- 
 tion department having jurisdiction. 
 
 (e) In designing trestle footings for tanks on buildings the safe load on 
 any brick work must not be figured at over 125 pounds per square inch. 
 The trestle should be strongly and securely anchored to the building to 
 guard against any possible overturning due to the action of the wind when 
 the tank is empty. 
 
 Special attention ts called to the necessity of safeguarding against corrosion 
 at the point where steel supports pass through the roof. 
 
 CONCRETE RESERVOIRS* 
 
 See Figures 107 to no inclusive. 
 
 Concrete work shbuld be entrusted only to experienced and responsible 
 parties, as even the best material will give poor results unless properly used. 
 
 Workmanship should be first class and in conformity with best engineering 
 practice. 
 
 The time of construction should be chosen so as to avoid freezing weather, 
 as concrete is likely to be unsatisfactory and unsafe if laid when temperature 
 is below freezing unless great precautions are taken. 
 
 Specifications for Reservoirs 
 
 It is believed that concrete proportioned for maximum density, properly 
 reinforced and carefully mixed and placed is the best material that can 
 br used for water-tight reservoirs. Either rectangular or circular form may 
 be used. The circular form admits of a more economical arrangement of 
 reinforcement and gives the greatest resistance against both external and 
 internal pressure. 
 
 1. MATERIALS. i. The cement shall be Portland cement, and shall meet the 
 requirements of the Standard Specifications of the American Society for 
 Testing Materials. 
 
 2. The aggregate shall be sand and stone or other hard durable material. 
 Frozen material must never be used. Both sand and stone to be free from 
 dust, loam, vegetable or other organic matter. 
 
 (a) Fine Aggregate. Fine aggregate shall consist of sand, crushed stone 
 or gravel screenings, graded from fine to coarse and passing, when dry, a 
 screen having one-quarter (*4) inch diameter holes, and not more thar 
 three (3) per cent passing a sieve having one hundred (100) meshes per 
 linear inch. 
 
 (b) Coarse Aggregate. Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, 
 gravel or similar material, graded in size, retained on a screen having one- 
 quarter (14) inch diameter holes and the maximum size which shall be such 
 as to pass a one and one-quarter (i*4) inch ring. 
 
 Natural mixed aggregates shall not be used as tfrey come from the deposit 
 but shall be screened and remixed to agree with the proportions specified. 
 
 3. Water shall be free from oil or excess of acid, alkali or vegetable matter. 
 
 4. The reinforcing metal shall meet the current requirements of the Stand- 
 ard Specifications for Steel Reinforcement of the American Railway Engineer- 
 inn Association. 
 
 2. FOUNDATIONS. 5. Average earth, except loam, will safely support from 
 two to four tons per square foot. In doubtful cases the service of a com- 
 petent engineer should be secured and a proper foundation specified by him. 
 
 * Regulations prescribed by National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
650 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 3. SUB-GRADE. 6. Depth. (a) If a sub-base is required, the sub-grade 
 shall not be less than eleven (n) inches below the finished surface of the 
 floor. 
 
 (b) If a sub-base is not required, the sub-grade shall not be less than 
 five (5) inches below the finished surface of the floor. 
 
 r 
 
 i 
 
 U~ 
 
 
 .___ _. ^..j 
 
 3 
 
 7. Preparation of Surface. All soft and spongy places shall be removed 
 and all depressions filled with suitable material which shall be thoroughly 
 compacted in layers not exceeding six (6) inches in thickness. 
 
 8. Drainage. When required, a suitable drainage system shall be installed. 
 4. SUB-BASE. 9. The sub-base shall consist of a layer of suitable material, 
 
 clean and hard, and not exceeding four (4) inches in the largest dimension. 
 To be spread on the sub-grade and rolled or tamped to a surface at least 
 five (5) inches below the finished grade of the floor. 
 
CONCRETE RESERVOIRS 651 
 
 10. Wetting. While compacting the sub-base, the material shall be kept 
 thoroughly wet, and shall be in that condition when the concrete is deposited. 
 
 5. CONSTRUCTION. n. The forms shall be substantial, unyielding and so 
 constructed that the concrete will conform to the designed dimensions and 
 shall also be tight to prevent the leakage of mortar. The forms shall not 
 be removed in less than ten (10) days after the concrete is placed, and 
 then only with the consent of the engineer in charge. 
 
 12. The reinforcement shall be free from rust, scale or coatings of any 
 character which will tend to reduce or destroy the bond, and shall be placed 
 and held in position so that it will not become disarranged during the deposit- 
 ing of the concrete. 
 
 13. Joints in Concrete. For concrete construction it is desirable to place 
 the entire structure .at one operation, but as this is not always; possible, 
 especially in large structures, it is necessary to stop the work at some 
 convenient point. This point should be selected so that the resulting joint 
 may have the least possible effect on the strength of the structuiie. It is 
 therefore recommended that the joints in columns be made flush with the 
 lower side of the girders; that the joints in girders be at a point midway 
 between supports, but should a beam intersect a girder at this p^oirit, the 
 joint should be offset a distance equal to twice the width of t&e beam; 
 that 'the joints in the members of a floor system should in general.be made 
 at or near the center of the span. 
 
 14. Joints in columns should be perpendicular to the axis of the column, 
 and in girders, beams, and floor slabs perpendicular to the plane of their 
 surfaces. 
 
 15. Joints in Reinforcement. Wherever it is necessary to splicfc tension 
 reinforcement, the length of lap should be determined on the basis of the 
 safe bond stress, the stress in the bar, and the shearing resistance of the 
 concrete at . the point of splice; or a connection should be made, between 
 the bars of sufficient strength to carry the stress. Splices at points of 
 maximum stress should be avoided. In columns, bars more than %-inch 
 in diameter, not subject to tension, should be properly squared and butted in 
 a suitable sleeve; smaller bars may be treated as indicated for tension 
 reinforcements, or the stress may be cared for by embedment in large masses 
 of concrete. At foundations, bearing plates should be provided for supporting 
 the bars, or the bars may be carried into the footing a sufficient distance 
 to transmit the stress of the steel to the concrete by means of the bearing 
 and bond resistance; in no case shall the ends of the -bars be permitted 
 merely to rest on concrete. 
 
 6. MEASURING ANIX MIXING. 16. The materials for the concrete, including 
 water, to be measured separately in such a manner- as to insure uniform pro- 
 portions at all times. A bag of Portland cement (94 Ibs. net) shall be 
 considered one (i) cubic foot. 
 
 17. The ingredients of the concrete or mortar shall be thoroughly mixed 
 dry, sufficient water added to obtain the desired consistency and the mixing 
 continued until the materials are uniformly distributed and the mass is 
 homogeneous and uniform in color. 
 
 (a) Machine Mixing. When the conditions will permit, a machine mixer 
 of a type which insures the uniform mixing of the materials, shall be used. 
 
 (b) Hand Mixing. When it is necessary to mix by hand, the mixing 
 shall be on a water-tight platform and according to the above requirements. 
 
 18. Retempering, that is, remixing mortar or concrete that has partially 
 hardened with additional water, will not be permitted. 
 
 7. FLOORS. 19. Thickness. The floors shall be thick enough to stand the 
 necessary strains and in no case have a thickness of less than four (4) inches. 
 
652 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 20. Proportions. The mixture of concrete shall be as rich as the fol- 
 lowing (by volume), one (i) part Portland cement, two (2) parts fine 
 aggregate, and four (4) parts coarse aggregate. 
 
 21. Consistency. The materials shall be mixed wet enough to produce a 
 concrete of a consistency that will flow into the forms and about the 
 reinforcement, but which can be conveyed from the mixer to the forms 
 without the separation of the coarse aggregate from the mortar. 
 
 t/J-f m/xrvr* of /. 
 
 CONCR3TE RESERVOIR. 
 
 FIG. i 08 
 
 22. Placing. The concrete shall be placed in a manner to insure a smooth 
 surface, and thoroughly worked around the reinforcement and into the 
 recesses of the forms. It shall be brought to a surface at least one (i) inch 
 below the finished surface of the floor, and before it has dried out ,the 
 wearing course shall be applied. Workmen shall not be permitted to walk 
 on freshly laid concrete, and if sand or dust collects on the base, it shall 
 be carefully removed before the wearing course is applied. 
 
 23. Wearing Course, Proportions. The mortar shall be mixed in the 
 
CONCRETE RESERVOIRS 653 
 
 manner hereinbefore specified in the proportion of one (i) part Portland 
 cement and not more than two (2) parts fine aggregate. 
 
 24. Wearing Course, Consistency. The mortar shall be of a consistency 
 that water will flush to the surface only under heavy, thorough working 
 with a wood float. 
 
 25. Wearing Course, Thickness. The wearing course of the floor shall 
 have a thickness of at least one (i) inch. 
 
 26. Wearing Course, Placing. The wearing course shall be placed imme- 
 diately after mixing. 
 
 27. Wearing Course, Finishing. After the wearing course has been brought 
 to the established grade, it shall be worked with a wood float in a manner 
 which will thoroughly compact it. When required, the surface shall be 
 troweled smooth, but excessive working with a steel trowel shall be avoided. 
 If excessive moisture occurs on the surface, it must be taken up with a 
 rag or mop, and in no case shall dry cement or a mixture of dry cement 
 and sand be used to absorb this moisture or to hasten the hardening. 
 
 8. SUMP. 28. A sump consisting of a recess at least three feet square 
 and three feet deep to be located so as to come under manhole in roof. The 
 surface of the floor to be carefully graded to produce a uniform pitch to 
 the sump. 
 
 9. WALLS. 29. Proportions. (Same as floors.) 
 
 30. Walls to be properly designed to resist the stresses to be sustained 
 with reservoir full or empty. Thickness to be not less than four (4) inches. 
 
 31. They shall be built true .to planes by means of suitable forms, securely 
 braced against movement. 
 
 32. The surface next to forms shall be thoroughly spaded by means of 
 a suitable spading tool so as to insure a smooth face when the forms are 
 removed. Care shall be exercised to prevent disturbing the position of the 
 reinforcing melal during the placing of concrete. 
 
 33. Where sections of walls are stopped during construction, a groove 
 shall be formed in the face of the joint. On joining the next succeeding 
 section, the face of the joint shall be carefully cleaned with water and coated 
 with neat cement. 
 
 34. A permanent ladder to be provided from top to floor of reservoir. 
 
 10. ROOF AND COLUMNS. 35. Proportions. (Same as floors.) 
 
 A covered reservoir is preferable to an open one, as it is stronger, less 
 liable to freeze, and water is kept cleaner. If it is desired to omit the 
 roof, permission should be obtained from the inspection department having 
 jurisdiction. Where no cover is used, suitable provision should be mp-le 
 to prevent excessive freezing. 
 
 36. Roof and columns to be properly designed to fit existing conditions. 
 
 37. If reservoir is completely roofed over, ^a trap door at least 20 by 26 
 inches to be provided in the roof so arranged as to be easily opened. Perma- 
 nent ladder to be accessible from this opening. 
 
 38. The forms for the entire roof should preferably be built so that the 
 placing can be done in one operation. 
 
 11. FINISH. 39. Should porous or void spaces appear when the forms 
 are removed, the same shall be cut out until solid work is exposed, and 
 the hole thus made filled with a mixture of rich cement mortar. 
 
 40. When the reservoir is completed, it shall be cleaned out, and the walls 
 washed with two coats of cement wash applied to the entire walls and 
 floors. Additional means of waterproofing may be used if desired. 
 
 12. LEAKAGE. 41. Leakage for the first 24 hours after filling shall not be 
 more than 5 per cent of the total reservoir capacity. If more than 5 per 
 
654 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 cent, water to be drawn oft" and porous concrete cut out and spaces filled 
 with rich cement mortar. 
 
 42. Reservoir must be substantially water-tight after having been filled with 
 water 1 4 days. 
 
 13. WORKING STRESSES. 43. Concrete composed of materials meeting the 
 
 requirements of these regulations shall develop a compressive strength at 
 28 days equal to that given in the following table for the respective pro- 
 portions and materials used, when tested as 8-inch diameter cylinders 16 
 inches long under laboratory conditions of manufacture and storage, using 
 the same consistency as is used in the field: 
 
CONCRETE RESERVOIRS 655 
 
 TABLE OF CO-MPRESSIVE STRENGTHS OF DIFFERENT MIXTURES OF CONCRETE 
 
 (In Pounds per Square Inch) 
 
 AGGREGATE 1:1:2 1:1J:3 1:2:4 1:2*:5 1:3:6 
 
 Granite, trap rock 3300 2800 2200 1800 1400 
 
 Gravel, hard limestone and hard 
 
 sandstone 3000 2500 2000 1600 1300 
 
 Soft limestone and sandstone 2200 1800 1500 1209 1000 
 
 Cinders 890 700 600 500 400 
 
 For variations in the moduli of elasticity see Paragraph 53. 
 
 On this basis the following stresses, given in the form of percentages of 
 the compressive strength of the concrete to be used, shall be allowed in 
 construction: 
 
 a. Bearing compression, 32.5 per cent of the compressive strength. 
 
 b. Compression in extreme fibre, 32.5 per cent of the compressive strength. 
 With increase of 15 per cent near supports in continuous beams. 
 
 o. Axial compression in columns without hoops, 22.5 per cent of the 
 compressive strength and 6,750 pounds per square inch on vertical reinforce- 
 ment. 
 
 d. Axial compression in columns with i per cent of hooping, 27 per cent 
 of the compressive strength, and 8, too pounds per square inch on vertical 
 reinforcement. 
 
 e. Axial compression in columns with i per cent of hooping and i to 4 
 per cent of vertical reinforcement, 32.5 per cent of the , compressive strength 
 and 9,750 pounds per square inch on the vertical reinforcement. 
 
 44. The bars in the base of columns shall bear on a plate or casting, 
 or shall be enlarged so as to reduce the bearing stress at the bottom to the 
 stress given in paragraph 433. In lieu of plate or the enlargement for 
 bearing, the stress may be distributed to the footing by means of dowels 
 with flat upper ends, length of the dowels being sufficient to distribute 
 the stress by means of the bond of the dowel. 
 
 45. In the footing, the concrete bond stress to be as given in paragraph 
 50. The footings supporting columns where hooping vertical reinforcement 
 is used shall be enlarged at the top to at least six inches on each side of 
 the column, measurements being taken from the hooping. 
 
 46. Bars composing longitudinal reinforcement in columns shall be straight 
 and shall have sufficient lateral support to be securely held in place until 
 the concrete is set. 
 
 47. The clear spacing of bands or hoops shall not be greater than one- 
 fourth the diameter of the enclosed column. Adequate means must be pro- 
 vided to hold bands or hoops in place so as to form a column, the core 
 of which shall be straight and well centered. 
 
 48. Bending stresses due to eccentric loads must be provided for by 
 increasing the section until the maximum stress does not exceed the values 
 above specified. 
 
 49. Compression on columns reinforced with structural steel units which 
 thoroughly encase the concrete core, 27 per cent of the compressive strength 
 of the concrete and 8,100 pounds per square inch on the structural steel. 
 
 50. Web stresses. In calculating web reinforcement the concrete shall 
 be considered to carry 2 per cent of the compressive strength of the con- 
 crete, the remainder to be provided for by means of reinforcement in tension. 
 
 51. Members of web reinforcement shall be imbedded in the compression 
 portion of the beam so that adequate bond strength is provided to fully 
 develop the assumed strength of all shear reinforcement. They shall not 
 be spaced to exceed three-fourths (%) of the depth of the beam in that 
 portion where the shearing stresses exceed the allowable shearing value of 
 the concrete. Web reinforcement, unless rigidly attached, shall be placed 
 
656 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 at right angles to the axis of the beam and looped around the extreme 
 tension member. 
 
 52. Bond between plain bars and concrete, 4 per cent of the compressive 
 strength of the concrete of surface of bar; where adequate mechanical' bond 
 is provided the stress shall not exceed 7.5 per cent of the compressive strength 
 of the concrete. 
 
 
 
 
 ,!T,',J I''.')* ,:H j., 
 I'.-V r. 
 
 FIG. no 
 
 .j;->i;MT-'f .', I.I-KII .-M ,i ;n -11 1. .-I'C'Ufr / iivi, .; >! ': ,'iniir.ii"n t;{l : :( 
 
 ' f' j.'.i i ..ilitll :'! lii.i : I." ,fj, ,-..!.') f'i'K ' </> > .f'jifir->i/^ 
 
 53. The ratio of moduli of elasticity of concrete to steel shall be considered 
 as. 1:15 when the strength of the concrete is taken as less than 2,200 pounds 
 per square inch; or 1:12 when taken between 2,200 and 2,900 pounds per 
 square inch; or.i:io when taken over 2,900 pounds per square inch. 
 
 54. The allowable tensile stress in reinforcement ,to be 15,000 pounds per 
 
CONCRETE RESERVOIRS 
 
 657 
 
 square inch for medium steel And 20,000 pounds per square inch for high 
 elastic limit steel with adequate mechanical bond. 
 
 55. Size and capacity. Conditions vary so greatly that no definite re- 
 quirements for dimensions can be laid down. The depth should not exceed 
 15 feet and preferably should be 10 feet. 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
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 --|vf- --- -1 t\ 
 
 JL..., 
 
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 VALVE TIT. 
 
 FIG. in 
 
 The following sizes and capacities are suggested, and in most cases will 
 prove the most economical, for the reason that contractors may use standard 
 forms, thereby reducing the cost of construction. 
 
 CIRCULAR RESERVOIRS 
 
 Capacity 
 
 33 ft. diameter by 10 ft 60,000 gals. 
 
 46 ft. diameter by 10 ft 120,000 gals. 
 
 56 ft. diameter by 10 ft 180,000 gals. 
 
 64 ft. diameter by 10 ft 250,000 gals. 
 
6 5 8 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Dimensions 
 15 ft. x 60 ft. 
 15 ft. x 120 ft. 
 15 ft. x 180 ft. 
 15 ft. x 240 ft. 
 30 ft. x 60 ft. 
 30 ft. x 90 ft. 
 30 ft. x 120 ft. 
 45 ft. x 60 ft. 
 45 ft. x -75 ft. 
 60 ft. x :60 ft. 
 
 I I 
 
 RECTANGULAR RESERVOIRS 
 
 Capacity 
 60,000 gals. 
 120,000 gals. 
 180,000 gals. 
 240,000 gals. 
 
 10ft 
 
 10ft ..... 
 
 10ft 
 
 10ft...,. >^ 
 
 10 ft '.': 120,000 gals. 
 
 10 ft 180,000 gals. 
 
 10 ft . . 240,000 gals. 
 
 10 ft .180,000 gals,. 
 
 10 ft 240,000 gals. 
 
 10 ft. . , 240,000 gals. 
 
 ; .:;-.';>-A-.-f '.:-? :>-;:> 
 'WV'V '?" 
 
 '- f ' .' " X>^. /^. J 
 
 i 
 
 b r, 
 
 f'. ;i 
 
 m 
 
 '/& 
 
 m 
 
 & 
 
 4i'.v* 
 
 i 
 
 IV,'.. 
 
 B-J 
 
 VALVE PIT. 
 FlG. 112 
 
VALVE PITS* 
 
 See Figures in, 112 and 113. 
 
 The rules for materials, mixtures, forms, etc., given for large reservoirs, 
 also apply to small reservoirs and valve pits. 
 
 1. SIZE. The size should be ample so that there will be a space of at 
 least 12 inches around all valves. 
 
 2. FLOOR. Concrete to be at least 4 inches thick and reinforced with 
 metal lathing or rods. 
 
 3. WALLS. Walls to be of concrete at least 4 inches thick and reinforced 
 in a similar manner to floor. 
 
 4. ROOF. a. To be not less than 6 inches thick and properly reinforced 
 to carry load to which it is liable to be subjected. 
 
 - - - /-v. .-< c-i,-"r <"r.T n'^r **. r^rJf^ . *y ;. 
 
 *&sJ2?&&&i*. 1 ^^ 
 
 VALVK PIT. 
 FIG. 113 
 
 b. A standard manhole cover to be placed in the top of each pit. Six 
 inches below the iron cover a second cover of 2-inch plank to be placed on 
 a ledge formed in the concrete. Ledge to be at least 2 inches wide. In 
 regions where extremely cold weather occurs it is advisable to fill pit with 
 suitable insulating material, such as hay or straw. 
 
 5. DRAINAGE. If thought necessary in suitable soil such as sand and gravel, 
 drainage hole may be provided. To be at least 4 inches in diameter. 
 
 6. WATERPROOFING.--I f a waterproof pit is necessary, as in water-bearing 
 ground, the entire outside surface of pit should be thoroughly waterproofed. 
 
 The following method is advised. Surface to be painted with hot tar or 
 asphalt and then covered with at least two layers of tarred felt and hot 
 tar or asphalt alternately. Felt to be lapped 18 inches. 
 
 * Regulations prescribed by National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
660 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 CONCRETE TANKS* 
 
 Where there are building ordinances or special regulations by municipal 
 authorities relating to the construction of tanks or structures, they are to 
 be followed except that when such ordinances permit of a weaker con 
 struction than is herein specified, these requirements should be followed. 
 
 Concrete would probably not be used except for tanks of considerable size 
 and the design and construction should be entrusted only to competent 
 engineers. 
 
 The design of concrete tanks should in general follow the requirements 
 for concrete reservoirs, but as the field experience with such tanks is very 
 limited it is not deemed desirable to give detailed specifications. l . 
 
 1. REINFORCEMENT. a. Tank to be reinforced so that all tensile stress shall 
 be borne by the reinforcing metal. 
 
 b. Radial bars at least eight feet long to be embedded in floor and carried 
 up at least four feet into the walls. Bars to be at least %-inch in diameter 
 and to be spaced not over 12 inches at the circumference of tank. 
 
 c. Horizontal hoops in walls from the floor to a height of three feet shall 
 not have a stress of over 8,000 pounds per square inch with tank full. Above 
 this point, stress may be increased gradually to not over 12,500 pounds. 
 
 d. Laps in hoops to be fastened mechanically so as to safely develop the 
 working stress. 
 
 e. Hoops to be accurately spaced and supported so they cannot lie moved 
 out of place while concrete is being filled in. Reinforcement at top of 
 tank to be designed to resist pressure from ice in case the tank freezes over. 
 
 f. All reinforcing metal to be covered by at least i inch of concrete. 
 
 2. WALLS. a. Walls to be not less than 4 inches thick at any point. 
 
 b. Where inlet and outlet pipes pass through the wall, thickness to be 
 increased to at least twice the normal thickness. 
 
 3. TIGHTNESS. Tank to be tight, showing no leaks before being accepted. 
 
 * Regulations prescribed by National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 AND EQUIPMENT OF HOSE HOUSES 
 
 FOR MILL YARDS 
 
 Standard Hos'e Houses. The following specifications for 
 Standard Hose Houses are now used throughout the whole coun- 
 try, having been agreed upon in joint conference by representatives 
 of the different organizations interested in this class of work. They 
 are known as " The National Standard " and have been, up to this 
 time, adopted by the following associations : 
 
 Associated Factory, IVJutual Fire Insurance Companies. 
 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 National Fire Protection Association. 
 
 The Standard Hose House specified herein provides an accessible 
 place where the hose and the small equipment for mill yard fire 
 protection may be assembled and kept ready for instant use. 
 
 Hose and appliances stored in towers or buildings may be made 
 inaccessible by fire or smoke and the entire equipment of pump, 
 water mains and hydrants thus rendered useless for hose service. 
 Serious delay may also be occasioned by placing the hose and ap- 
 pliances at distant parts of the yard. 
 
 The increased efficiency, economy and the prolonged life of hose 
 stored on slatted shelves in well ventilated houses, render the 
 installation of properly equipped Standard Houses essential to a 
 mill 3'ard. , 
 
 These specifications cover two types for a two or three-way 
 hydrant, and one type for a four-way hydrant, having two lengths 
 of attached hose. The latter house is seldom necessary, except 
 between buildings or in the center of a plant where it may be of 
 advantage to have the hose so attached that it can be run off in 
 either direction without delay. The designs given for the two and 
 three-way houses are practically those which have been used in 
 some localities for a number of years. The Underwriters having 
 jurisdiction should be consulted as to the best type for use in each 
 individual case. 
 
 Construction 
 
 1. LOCATION. Houses to be located so that two or three-way hydrants will 
 be as close to the front of the house as possible and still allow sufficient 
 room back of the doors for the hose gates and attached hose. 
 
 2. FOUNDATIONS. To consist of a brick pier at each corner, 12 inches 
 square and 8 inches high, above ground. 
 
 NOTE. Depth of the foundation should be sufficient to prevent serious dis- 
 placement by frost. 
 
 3. MATERIAL To be of good lumber, free from injurious knots, and 
 
 66l 
 
662 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 seasoned to prevent serious warping. Sheathing, roof and doors to be of 
 %-inch matched stuff dressed on one side. 
 
 4. SIZE. Frame to be 6 feet 4 inches wide, 6 feet deep and about 7 feet 
 high, for two or three-way hydrants, and 8 feet square and 7 feet high for 
 four-way hydrants. See Figs. 115 and 118. 
 
 5. FRAME. To be made of 2x3, 2x4 and 3x4 inch material, constructed 
 as illustrated in Figs. 116 and 119. 
 
 6. ROOF. To be made weather-tight by tinning or its equivalent and to 
 be properly inclined for drainage. 
 
 NOTE. The ornamental roof shown in Fig. 120 or 121 may be used if desired. 
 
 7. DOORS. a. To be in pairs, to open the full width of the front, to be 
 hung on heavy tee hinges bolted on and to swing one foot clear of the ground. 
 
 b. To be provided with substantial battens at top and bottom and a suitable 
 diagonal cross brace well nailed on. Nails to be clinched. 
 
 NOTE. Care should be taken to select well-seasoned stuff in order to 
 prevent warping. Extra wide battens and cross-braces should also be used. 
 
 c. Two sets of doors opening on opposite sides to be provided when the 
 four-way hydrant is used. See Fig. 120. 
 
 8. HOSE SHELVES. a. To be made of 3-inch slats %-inch thick and spaced 
 i/^-inch apart and supported as shown in Figs. 115, 118 or 120. 
 
 NOTE. The object of the slats is to permit the circulation of air around 
 the hose. The spacing named should not be exceeded, as the hose is liable 
 to catch in wider openings. 
 
 b. Two shelves supported on the horizontal framing and extending across 
 the house to be provided when the two or three-way hydrant is used. 
 
 NOTE. The lower shelf is designed to hold 100 feet of hose attached to 
 the hydrant. The upper shelf is designed to hold the spare hose. 
 
HOSE HOUSES FOR MILL YARDS 
 
 c. Three shelves supported on one side and extending from door to door 
 to be provided where the four-way hydrant is used. Shelves to be pro- 
 vided with 6-inch sideboards and the two lower shelves to be provided with 
 endboards at opposite ends. The flooring, if any, may serve as the lower 
 shelf. 
 
 leather loop two feet tulr 
 o prevent hose rubbing when 
 door is open 
 
 H.avv Tc Hinge bolted > 
 
 Ifcroujh' door and frame to msur. 
 trcnjrh and durability 
 
 ' 2-9" 
 
 . 3'- 3"- 
 
 FIG. 115 
 
 NOTE. The two lower shelves are each designed to hold too feet of hose 
 attached to the hydrant on opposite sides. The upper shelf is designed to 
 hold the spare hose. 
 
 9. FLOORS. Where used, to be constructed of *%-inch stuff, not exceeding 
 4 inches wide and laid open. 
 
 NOTE i. Ordinarily no flooring is necessary, but in case the house is 
 locked to guard against theft, a slatted floor may be used. The foundation 
 pier and framing in front of the hydrant in Fig. 1 14 is unnecessary in case 
 the house is not floored. 
 
 NOTE 2. If necessary, the flooring may be cut away around the hydrant 
 so as not to interfere with the swing of spanners at any outlet. See Fig. 1 1 7. 
 
664 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 10. VENTILATION. An opening permitting the free circulation of air to 
 be provided under the eaves. The opening to be protected by a strip as 
 illustrated in Figs. 115, 118 or 122. 
 
 11. HARDWARE. a. Hinges to be extra heavy wrought tee pattern, 16 inches 
 long. To be securely bolted through the doors and framing of the house 
 by %-inch bolts. ,/., 
 
 NOTE i. The hinges, should be installed so as to allow the doors to swing 
 back against the sides of the house. The bolts should be provided with 
 washers next to the woodwork. 
 
 FIG. 116 
 
 NOTE 2. The use of galvanized hardware is advised especially for the 
 hinges. 
 
 b. Hasp. Doors on the five-sided house, shown in Fig. 115, to be pro- 
 vided with a hasp made of i*4 x ^4-inch iron, bent to conform to the angle 
 of the doors when closed. The staples at each end of the hasp to be 
 securely bolted or clinched to the doors. 
 
 c. Latch. Doors on houses shown in Figs. 117 and 120 to be provided with 
 a latch made of i 1 /^ x i/4-inch iron at least 24 inches long. Latch to be 
 loosely bolted to one door near the center, to be provided with a handle 
 and arranged so as to drop into a catch on the opposite door. See Fig. 123. 
 Catch to be made of 2 x ^4,-inch iron bolted through the door by at least 
 two bolts. 
 
 NOTE. The hasp and latch specified do away with the necessity for an 
 upright post in the center of the doorway and provide for fastening two large 
 doors without bolting one on the inside. 
 
HOSE HOUSES FOR MILL YARDS 
 
 66 5 
 
 d. Door Fastening. A light bar of round iron pointed and hung to 
 bottom of- door, to be provided for holding each door open. See Figs. 114 and 
 117. 
 
 e. Locks. Ordinarily hose houses should not be locked, but where it is 
 necessary to guard against theft they may be locked with a specially designed 
 lock having a substantial appearance, but which can be easily broken in 
 case of necessity. 
 
 f. Chafing Strip. A substantial leather loop two feet high to be placed 
 at each side of the house to protect the hose from injury by rubbing against 
 the sharp edges at the jambs. 
 
 FIG. 117 
 
 NOTE i. The leather should be installed while the doors are against the 
 
 sides of the house so as to insure unrestricted movement of the doors. 
 
 12. PAINTING. House to be thoroughly painted on the outside with two 
 good coats. 
 
 Equipment 
 
 13. HOSE. a. Two or three-way hydrant houses to be supplied with 100 
 feet of hose, attached 'to the hydrant and laid in laps on the lower shelf as 
 shown in Figs. 114 and 117. This hose to have standard play pipe attached. 
 
 XOTE. Hose stored and attached as shown can be pulled off without twist- 
 ing short at the coupling. 
 
 1>. Four-way hydrant houses to be supplied with two loo-foot lengths attached 
 on opposite sides, as shown in Fig. 120. 
 
666 
 
 t PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 c. Each house to be supplied with 100 or more feet of spare hose on the 
 upper shelf. This hose to be stored in coils of 50 feet, with the female 
 coupling outside. 
 
 NOTE. The amount ot extra hose necessary depends somewhat on circum- 
 stances and may be varied by Underwriters having jurisdiction. 
 
 d. All hose to be National Standard 2%-inch cotton rubber-lined. 
 NOTE. See list of approved hose. 
 
 14. COUPLINGS. To be interchangeable with the public service or nearest 
 plant from which assistance may be obtained, if there be no public service. 
 
 15. PLAY PIPES. To be made in accordance with the National Standard 
 specifications. 
 
 NOTE. This specification requires a Play Pipe with swivel handles, a per- 
 fectly smooth tapering tube 30 inches long wound and painted and a i%-inch 
 
HOSE HOUSES FOR MILL YARDS 
 
 66 7 
 
 smooth bore nozzle. Nozzles with larger openings should not be used except 
 with the consent of the Underwriters having jurisdiction, and where there 
 is ample water supply. 
 
 See specifications for Play Pipe on page 668. 
 
 1 6. SPANNERS. The Tabor Spanner is recommended, as it is easily handled 
 by an inexperienced person and will operate in either direction. See 
 Kip- 124- 
 
 17. MISCELLANEOUS. a. Each house to be supplied with two axes, two 
 bars, one extra play pipe, two ladder straps, four spanners, one extra hydrant 
 
 FIG. 119 
 
 wrench and one heavy mill lantern, arranged as shown in Figs. 114, 117, or 120. 
 
 b. Coils of one-half inch rope to suit the height of buildings should be 
 hung in each house. A liberal supply of rubber hose washers should also 
 be provided and hung in a conspicuous place. 
 
 c. Hydrant wrench to be always on the hydrant. 
 
 NOTE i. The equipment for the four-way house should be increased in 
 proportion to the special demands in each case. 
 
 NOTE 2. A substantial 1 2-inch hand wheel attached to the hydrant may 
 be substituted for the hydrant wrenches otherwise required. 
 
668 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Rack for Washing and Drying Hos-e 
 
 A hose drying rack similar to that shown in Fig. 125 is recommended. 
 This is a rack for drying hose after it has been wet either at a fire or at 
 a test. The rack should be 52 feet long, one foot high at the lower end 
 and at least 3 feet high at the upper end. 
 
 NOTE. This is a simple and effective arrangement and does away with 
 the necessity of hoisting the hose on the outside of a tower or building. 
 
 The rack facilitates the proper care of the hose, which will tend to prolong 
 its life and thus reduce the cost of the one perishable part of the equipment. 
 
 The cut shows a rack in three sections, 3 to 4 feet wide, and with slatted 
 top so that half a dozen lines of hose may be dried at one time. 
 
 FIG. i 20 
 Specifications for National Standard Play Pipe 
 
 1. LENGTH. To be 30 inches long over all. 
 
 2. MOUNTINGS. All mountings to be of brass. 
 
 3. PIPE. a. To be of rolled brass 1/16 inch thick or seamless drawn 
 copper 0.05 inch thick. 
 
 b. To have an inside diameter of 2 17/32 inches at the base and i% 
 inches at the throat. 
 
 c. To extend through the brass mounting at the throat. 
 
 d. Waterways to be absolutely free from rough drops of solder or other 
 projections and to have a smooth surface throughout. 
 
 NOTE. For best results waterway should be smooth as a gun barrel. 
 c. To be wound with cord and painted. 
 
 4. BUTT. To be threaded to fit as ordered. 
 
 NOTE. Always use City Fire Department standard thread so as to have 
 all hose and pipes interchangeable. A , recess should be provided back of 
 the threads for retaining washer. 
 ' 5. 'HANDLES. To be of the swivel pattern securely attached. 
 
HOSE HOUSES FOR MILL YARDS 
 
 669' 
 
 6. NOZZLE. a. To be 5 inches long and have an inside diameter of i 25/32 
 inch at the base and i % inch at the discharge. 
 
 NOTE. The nozzle is made slightly larger than the end of the pipe to 
 prevent possibility of corner projecting against current. 
 
 b To have a straight taper finished off at discharge with an easy curve. 
 
 c. The tip of the nozzle to be extra heavy and cut out at the discharge 
 orifice to prevent bruising. 
 
 FIG. 121 
 
 One -inch opening J 
 along sides for) 
 Ventilation ' 
 
 FIG. 122 
 
 d. Inside of the discharge orifice to be straight for % inch. 
 
 e. The brass mounting to which the nozzle is screwed to be provided 
 with an outside groove for retaining the washer, to be 2 5/16 inch diameter 
 outside the threads and threaded with the Providence thread (12 to the 
 inch). 
 
670 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 NOTE. The washer is placed outside to prevent it from projecting inside 
 the pipe and disturbing the stream. A projecting lip covering the edge of 
 the washer prevents its being blown out by the pressure. 
 
 7. WORKMANSHIP. All parts to be made, fitted and finished in a first- 
 class workmanlike manner throughout. 
 
 8. MARKING. The maker's name and the year of manufacture to be 
 stamped on the butt and the words " National Standard " stenciled on the 
 cord winding. 
 
 NOTE. The name " Underwriter " has been largely used for a considerable 
 time to designate this play pipe. \Vhile our preferences are against the use 
 of this word as designating any piece of apparatus, objection will not b? 
 raised to its continuance in this case. 
 
 FIG. 123 
 
 FIG. 124 
 
 FIG. 125 
 
WATER SUPPLY FOR FIRE PROTECTION 
 
 Quantity Required. No definite statement can be given as to 
 the amount of water required for protection of an industrial plant, 
 store or warehouse. This depends upon the area and height of 
 the building, type of construction, exposure by other buildings and 
 class of occupancy. 
 
 For sprinkler supply, the requirements are as given on page 
 564. This means a supply of about 2,000 gallons a minute for 
 a building of 25,000 square feet, the maximum area allowed for a 
 fireproof building in the recommended building code of the National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 For use as hose lines, it is even harder to fix upon a required 
 quantity, as not only does the question of how much is needed 
 enter in, but also as to how much could be used by the fire fighting 
 force which would be called in in case the plant was completely 
 involved. It is safe to say that the minimum should never be 
 less than 500 gallons a minute available for at least 3 hours for 
 any plant or building desiring protection from hose lines. It is 
 safe to assume a flow of 500 gallons from a hydrant and that 
 all the hydrants within 500 feet of any one part of a building 
 will be in use at time of a serious fire, and for the extensive plant 
 or a group of individual factories, all the hydrants within 500 
 feet of the largest building may be in use, giving a possible maxi- 
 mum required fire draft of 5,000 to 10,000 gallons a minute. 
 
 Flow Tests. In all cases there should be absolute assurance 
 of a good water supply for fire protection ; it should be the aim 
 of the owner or his engineer to see that the public water supply, 
 if one is available, is at sufficient pressure and can maintain an 
 adequate pressure during the maximum draft that the system may 
 be called upon to deliver. If dependence is placed entirely or 
 partly upon a private system, the same .consideration must be 
 given. It is possible in some cases for an engineer to calculate 
 sufficiently close to give this assurance of adequacy of water 
 supply, and in the past it has often been assumed that if pressure 
 were sufficiently high and the main in the street was of good 
 diameter, even calculation would not be necessary. Such assump- 
 tions should no longer be depended upon ; simple methods of mak- 
 ing tests are applicable and are used by insurance inspectors to 
 
 671 
 
672 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 great advantage. These should be adopted and used by the owners 
 of valuable property to a greater extent and by water works and 
 insurance engineers whose duty it is to see that a good water 
 supply is provided. 
 
 It is not feasible to open up enough sprinkler heads to demon- 
 strate whether the supply is .ample, and it results in a large amount 
 of hose being used if a duplication of possible fire conditions is 
 attempted. Equally as good results can be obtained by measuring 
 the flow from open hydrant outlets and simultaneously observing 
 the drop in pressure on the system. Test should be made at least 
 yearly, as it is only by comparative tests that the effect of age 
 on a water works system can be kept track of. Also such tests 
 often show that some important gate valve has been left closed. 
 
 FIRE FLOW TESTS AS MADE BY THE COMMITTEE 
 
 ON FIRE PREVENTION OF THE NATIONAL 
 
 BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS 
 
 11 vT {>.: it' ! > .-.'. ". ',. Jmi .ft' i'it'1 . 
 
 METHOD. The method of conducting " Fire Flow Tests " as practised by 
 the engineers of the Committee on Fire Prevention of the National Board 
 of Fire Underwriters is a development of the scheme of measuring dis- 
 charges from smooth-bore fire department nozzles by means of the Pitot tube 
 and gage, originated by Mr. John E;. Freeman and , now .used 1 ' by the 
 National Board in its tests of fire engines. 
 
 Discharges directly from the open butts of hydrants are subject to less 
 accurate measurement than those from smooth-bore nozzles; the orifice is 
 often not completely filled, especially in the case of steamer outlets (4- or 
 4%-inch), and the velocity of discharge is not uniform throughout the >part 
 that is filled; neither of these features is so marked in the 2^-inch outlets 
 as in the steamer outlets. 
 
 HYDRANT DISCHARGES. It is possible to measure hydrant discharges with 
 considerable accuracy -by the use of short lines of hose and large nozzles; 
 however, in cities where the normal hydrant pressures are low, .only a 
 small part .of the total quantity available for engine ( supply may be obtained 
 in this way, and much more time and labor is consumed than when open 
 butt discharges .are measured. For these reasons, ; and in order that a repre- 
 sentative number 'of tests might be made in a reasonable time in the 
 various cities reported on by the National Boardj the present scheme was 
 worked out. It is believed that the . results obtained will show not more 
 than 5 per cent of error. 
 
 The number of hydrants in a group, all of which are opened simul- 
 taneously, varies from 2 to 6, or even more in exceptional cases, depending 
 upon the quantity of water available, the pressures and the character of 
 the district in which the test is made. It is usual to open all available 
 outlets on the hydrants used; however, if the pressures are high enough 
 to furnish effective streams direct from hydrants, it is better to open only 
 enough outlets to lower,, the pressure in the mains to a figure 'assumed , to 
 be the minimum consistent with good fire service, : which will range from 
 60 to 75 pounds or more, depending upon the character of the district. 
 Diameters of outlets are recorded to the nearest sixteenth of an inch. 
 
 PRESSURE GAGED. The pressure in the mains before and during the tests 
 
WATER SUPPLY FOR FIRE PROTECTION 
 
 673 
 
 is determined by attaching a gage to a hydrant preferably located near 
 the center of the group to be tested; it is sometimes advisable to have 
 another gage at a hydrant outside the group, to determine the loss of head 
 in the main arteries, or a recording gage located near the center of the 
 distribution system may serve the purpose for a number of groups. Know- 
 
 DIAGRAM 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 REDUCTION OF AREA OF FREE DISCHARGE 
 
 FROM 
 STEAMER OUTLET OF HYDRANT 
 
 TO BE USED IN PlTOT MEASUREMENT 
 
 Flowi 
 
 ng 
 
 Area of 4/ 2 
 
 inch 
 
 Outlet = 
 
 1590 
 
 
 
 
 full 
 
 with 
 minus 
 
 Uniform Veloci 
 
 A*= 1543 + 
 
 ty Gives 100 
 
 15.90 97% 
 
 % of 
 
 Table Fi 
 of Table 
 
 gures 
 Figures 
 
 >j 
 
 " 
 
 A' = 
 
 14.36 -5- 
 
 15.90 
 
 = 90% 
 
 " ^0 
 
 n 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 > 
 
 A'* = 
 
 12.76 -*- 
 
 15.90 
 
 = 80 % 
 
 " Vs 
 
 ,, 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 A 2 = 
 
 10.69 ^ 
 
 15.90 
 
 = 67% 
 
 " z /3 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 B* = 
 
 15.26 *- 
 
 15.90 
 
 = 96% 
 
 " % 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 f9 
 
 ft 
 
 B 1 = 
 
 14.02 ^ 
 
 15.90 
 
 = 88% 
 
 7 /a 
 
 
 
 ,. 
 
 > 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 B'^ = 
 
 12.28 -s- 
 
 15.90 
 
 - 77 % 
 
 " -J^ 
 
 
 
 tt 
 
 ,. 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 2 = 
 
 10. 1 9 -s- 
 
 15.90 
 
 - 66% 
 
 " */a 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 
 C"* = 
 
 13.44 -i- 
 
 15.90 
 
 = 85 % 
 
 " S /6 
 
 
 
 
 
 99 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 C ? = 
 
 1 1.66 - 
 
 15.90 
 
 = 73 % 
 
 " % 
 
 M 
 
 rr 
 
 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 
 Hole 
 
 / 2 "H 
 
 igh, Deduct y$z 
 
 from 
 
 Discharge in Table 
 
 
 . 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 Ab t< 
 
 j '/8 " 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 IV 
 
 M 
 
 fa t( 
 
 >'A " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ** " YA to /4 
 
 > 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 " 
 
 FIG. 126 
 
674 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 DISCHARGE THROUGH CIRCULAR OUTLETS IN GALLONS PER 
 Coefficient .90 
 
 Pres- 
 sure 
 
 21' 
 
 2-x 5 e " 
 
 21* 
 
 2yV 
 
 2Y 
 
 2 T V 
 
 2f" 
 
 2-H' 
 
 31" 
 
 3*1" 
 
 31' 
 
 311' 
 
 } 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 110 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 270 
 
 280 
 
 290 
 
 300 
 
 1 
 
 140 
 
 140 
 
 150 
 
 160 
 
 170 
 
 180 
 
 180 
 
 190 
 
 380 
 
 390 
 
 400 
 
 420 
 
 li 
 
 170 
 
 180 
 
 190 
 
 200 
 
 210 
 
 220 
 
 230 
 
 240 
 
 460 
 
 480 
 
 490 
 
 510 
 
 2 
 
 190 
 
 200 
 
 210 
 
 230 
 
 240 
 
 250 
 
 260 
 
 270 
 
 530 
 
 550 
 
 570 
 
 590 
 
 2* 
 
 220 
 
 230 
 
 240 
 
 250 
 
 270 
 
 280 
 
 290 
 
 310 
 
 600 
 
 620 
 
 640 
 
 660 
 
 3 
 
 240 
 
 250 
 
 260 
 
 280 
 
 290 
 
 310 
 
 320 
 
 340 
 
 660 
 
 680 
 
 700 
 
 720 
 
 3i 
 
 250 
 
 270 
 
 280 
 
 300 
 
 310 
 
 330 
 
 350 
 
 360 
 
 710 
 
 730 
 
 760 
 
 780 
 
 4 
 
 270 
 
 290 
 
 300 
 
 320 
 
 340 
 
 350 
 
 370 
 
 390 
 
 760 
 
 780 
 
 810 
 
 830 
 
 4| 
 
 290 
 
 300 
 
 320 
 
 340 
 
 360 
 
 370 
 
 390 
 
 410 
 
 800 
 
 830 
 
 860 
 
 890 
 
 5 
 
 300 
 
 320 
 
 340 
 
 360 
 
 380 
 
 390 
 
 410 
 
 430 
 
 850 
 
 880 
 
 900 
 
 930 
 
 5i 
 
 320 
 
 340 
 
 350 
 
 370 
 
 S90 
 
 410 
 
 430 
 
 450 
 
 890 
 
 920 
 
 950 
 
 980 
 
 6 
 
 330 
 
 350 
 
 370 
 
 390 
 
 410 
 
 430 
 
 450 
 
 470 
 
 930 
 
 960 
 
 990 
 
 1020 
 
 6* 
 
 350 
 
 370 
 
 390 
 
 410 
 
 430 
 
 450 
 
 470 
 
 490 
 
 960 
 
 1000 
 
 1030 
 
 1060 
 
 7 
 
 360 
 
 380 
 
 400 
 
 420 
 
 440 
 
 470 
 
 490 
 
 510 
 
 1000 
 
 1030 
 
 1070 
 
 1100 
 
 7* 
 
 370 
 
 390 
 
 410 
 
 440 
 
 460 
 
 480 
 
 510 
 
 530 
 
 1040 
 
 1070 
 
 1110 
 
 1140 
 
 .8 
 
 380 
 
 410 
 
 430 
 
 450 
 
 480 
 
 500 
 
 520 
 
 550 
 
 1070 
 
 1110 
 
 1140 
 
 1180 
 
 8* 
 
 400 
 
 420 
 
 440 
 
 460 
 
 490 
 
 510 
 
 640 
 
 560 
 
 1100 
 
 1140 
 
 1180 
 
 1220 
 
 9 
 
 410 
 
 430 
 
 450 
 
 480 
 
 500 
 
 530 
 
 550 
 
 580 
 
 1130 
 
 1170 
 
 1210 
 
 1250 
 
 9* 
 
 420 
 
 440 
 
 470 
 
 490 
 
 520 
 
 540 
 
 570 
 
 600 
 
 1170 
 
 1210 
 
 1240 
 
 1280 
 
 10 
 
 430 
 
 450 
 
 480 
 
 500 
 
 530 
 
 560 
 
 580 
 
 610 
 
 1200 
 
 1240 
 
 1280 
 
 1320 
 
 10 J 
 
 440 
 
 470 
 
 490 
 
 520 
 
 540 
 
 570 
 
 600 
 
 630 
 
 1230 
 
 1270 
 
 1310 
 
 1350 
 
 11 
 
 450 
 
 480 
 
 500 
 
 530 
 
 560 
 
 590 
 
 610 
 
 640 
 
 1250 
 
 1300 
 
 1340 
 
 1380 
 
 Hi 
 
 460 
 
 490 
 
 510 
 
 540 
 
 570 
 
 600 
 
 630 
 
 660 
 
 1280 
 
 1330 
 
 1370 
 
 1410 
 
 12 
 
 470 
 
 500 
 
 520 
 
 550 
 
 580 
 
 610 
 
 640 
 
 670 
 
 1310 
 
 1350 
 
 1400 
 
 1440 
 
 12* 
 
 480 
 
 510 
 
 540 
 
 560 
 
 590 
 
 620 
 
 650 
 
 690 
 
 1340 
 
 1380 
 
 1430 
 
 1470 
 
 13 
 
 490 
 
 520 
 
 
 570 
 
 610 
 
 640 
 
 670 
 
 700 
 
 1360 
 
 1410 
 
 1460 
 
 1500 
 
 13* 
 
 500 
 
 530 
 
 560 
 
 590 
 
 620 
 
 650 
 
 680 
 
 710 
 
 1390 
 
 1440 
 
 1480 
 
 1530 
 
 14 
 
 510 
 
 540 
 
 570 
 
 600 
 
 630 
 
 660 
 
 690 
 
 730 
 
 1420 
 
 1460 
 
 1510 
 
 1560 
 
 14* 
 
 520 
 
 550 
 
 580 
 
 610 
 
 640 
 
 670 
 
 700 
 
 740 
 
 1440 
 
 1490 
 
 1540 
 
 1590 
 
 15 
 
 530 
 
 560 
 
 590 
 
 620 
 
 650 
 
 680 
 
 720 
 
 750 
 
 1470 
 
 1510 
 
 1560 
 
 1610 
 
 15* 
 
 540 
 
 570 
 
 600 
 
 630 
 
 660 
 
 700 
 
 730 
 
 760 
 
 1490 
 
 1540 
 
 1590 
 
 1640 
 
 16 
 
 540 
 
 570 
 
 610 
 
 640 
 
 670 
 
 710 
 
 740 
 
 780 
 
 1510 
 
 1560 
 
 1610 
 
 1670 
 
 16| 
 
 550 
 
 580 
 
 620 
 
 650 
 
 680 
 
 720 
 
 750 
 
 790 
 
 1540 
 
 1590 
 
 1640 
 
 1690 
 
 17 
 
 560 
 
 590 
 
 620 
 
 660 
 
 690 
 
 730 
 
 760 
 
 800 
 
 1560 
 
 1610 
 
 1660 
 
 1720 
 
 17* 
 
 570 
 
 600 
 
 630 
 
 670 
 
 700 
 
 740 
 
 770 
 
 810 
 
 1580 
 
 1640 
 
 1690 
 
 1740 
 
 18 
 
 580 
 
 610 
 
 640 
 
 680 
 
 710 
 
 750 
 
 780 
 
 820 
 
 1600 
 
 1660 
 
 1710 
 
 1770 
 
 18* 
 
 590 
 
 620 
 
 650 
 
 690 
 
 720 
 
 760 
 
 790 
 
 820 
 
 1630 
 
 1680 
 
 1740 
 
 1790 
 
 19 
 
 590 
 
 630 
 
 660 
 
 700 
 
 730 
 
 770 
 
 810 
 
 840 
 
 1650 
 
 1700 
 
 1760 
 
 1820 
 
 19* 
 
 600 
 
 640 
 
 670 
 
 700 
 
 740 
 
 780 
 
 820 
 
 860 
 
 1670 
 
 1730 
 
 1780 
 
 1840 
 
 20 
 
 610 
 
 640 
 
 680 
 
 710 
 
 750 
 
 790 
 
 830 
 
 870 
 
 1690 
 
 1750 
 
 1810 
 
 1860 
 
 21 
 
 620 
 
 660 
 
 690 
 
 730 
 
 770 
 
 810 
 
 850 
 
 880 
 
 1730 
 
 1790 
 
 1850 
 
 1910 
 
 22 
 
 640 
 
 670 
 
 710 
 
 750 
 
 790 
 
 830 
 
 870 
 
 910 
 
 1770 
 
 1830 
 
 1890 
 
 1960 
 
 23 
 
 650 
 
 690 
 
 730 
 
 760 
 
 810 
 
 850 
 
 890 
 
 930 
 
 1810 
 
 1880 
 
 1940 
 
 2000 
 
 24 
 
 670 
 
 700 
 
 740 
 
 780 
 
 820 
 
 860 
 
 910 
 
 950 
 
 1850 
 
 1920 
 
 1980 
 
 2040 
 
 25 
 
 680 
 
 720 
 
 760 
 
 800 
 
 840 
 
 880 
 
 920 
 
 970 
 
 1890 
 
 1950 
 
 2020 
 
 2080 
 
 26 
 
 690 
 
 730 
 
 770 
 
 810 
 
 860 
 
 900 
 
 940 
 
 990 
 
 1930 
 
 1990 
 
 2060 
 
 2130 
 
 27 
 
 710 
 
 750 
 
 790 
 
 830 
 
 870 
 
 920 
 
 960 
 
 1010 
 
 1970 
 
 2030 
 
 2100 
 
 2170 
 
 28 
 
 720 
 
 760 
 
 800 
 
 840 
 
 890 
 
 930 
 
 970 
 
 1020 
 
 2000 
 
 2070 
 
 2140 
 
 2210 
 
 29 
 
 730 
 
 770 
 
 820 
 
 860 
 
 310 
 
 950 
 
 990 
 
 1040 
 
 2040 
 
 2110 
 
 2170 
 
 2240 
 
 30 
 
 750 
 
 790 
 
 830 
 
 870 
 
 920 
 
 970 
 
 1010 
 
 1060 
 
 2070 
 
 2140 
 
 2210 
 
 2280 
 
 31 
 
 760 
 
 800 
 
 840 
 
 890 
 
 940 
 
 980 
 
 1030 
 
 1080 
 
 2110 
 
 2180 
 
 2250 
 
 2320 
 
 32 
 
 770 
 
 810 
 
 860 
 
 900 
 
 950 
 
 1000 
 
 1040 
 
 1100 
 
 2140 
 
 2210 
 
 2280 
 
 2360 
 
 33 
 
 780 
 
 830 
 
 870 
 
 920 
 
 970 
 
 1010 
 
 1060 
 
 1110 
 
 2170 
 
 2250 
 
 2320 
 
 2390 
 
 34 
 
 790 
 
 840 
 
 880 
 
 930 
 
 980 
 
 1030 
 
 1070 
 
 1130 
 
 2210 
 
 2280 
 
 2350 
 
 2430 
 
 35 
 
 810 
 
 850 
 
 900 
 
 940 
 
 990 
 
 1040 
 
 1090 
 
 1140 
 
 2220 
 
 2310 
 
 2390 
 
 2470 
 
 36 
 
 820 
 
 860 
 
 910 
 
 960 
 
 1010 
 
 1060 
 
 1110 
 
 1160 
 
 2270 
 
 2340 
 
 2420 
 
 2500 
 
WATER SUPPLY FOR FIRE PROTECTION 
 
 6/s 
 
 MINUTE FOR INDICATED VELOCITY PRESSURE IN POUNDS 
 
 4" 
 
 41'' 
 
 4|* 
 
 4-V 
 
 4J* 
 
 4iV 
 
 4i' 
 
 4 T 7 8 ' 
 
 4*' 
 
 4 T V 
 
 4f 
 
 4*4' 
 
 Pres- 
 sure 
 
 300 
 
 310 
 
 320 
 
 330 
 
 340 
 
 350 
 
 370 
 
 380 
 
 390 
 
 400 
 
 410 
 
 i420 
 
 1 
 
 430 
 
 440 
 
 460 
 
 470 
 
 490 
 
 500 
 
 520 
 
 530 
 
 550 
 
 560 
 
 570 
 
 590 
 
 1 
 
 530 
 
 540 
 
 560 
 
 580 
 
 600 
 
 610 
 
 630 
 
 650 
 
 670 
 
 690 
 
 700 
 
 720 
 
 u 
 
 610 
 
 630 
 
 650 
 
 670 
 
 690 
 
 710 
 
 730 
 
 750 
 
 770 
 
 790 
 
 810 
 
 840 
 
 2" 
 
 680 
 
 700 
 
 720 
 
 750 
 
 770 
 
 790 
 
 820 
 
 840 
 
 860 
 
 890 
 
 910 
 
 940 
 
 21 
 
 750 
 
 770 
 
 790 
 
 82'0 
 
 840 
 
 870 
 
 900 
 
 920 
 
 940 
 
 970 
 
 1000 
 
 1020 
 
 3 
 
 810 
 
 830 
 
 860 
 
 880 
 
 910 
 
 940 
 
 970 
 
 990 
 
 1020 
 
 1053 
 
 1070 
 
 1100 
 
 31 
 
 860 
 
 890 
 
 920 
 
 950 
 
 970 
 
 1000 
 
 1030 
 
 1860 
 
 1090 
 
 1120 
 
 1150 
 
 1180 
 
 4 
 
 910 
 
 940 
 
 970 
 
 1000 
 
 1030 
 
 1060 
 
 1090 
 
 1120 
 
 1160 
 
 1190 
 
 1220 
 
 1250 
 
 41 
 
 960 
 
 990 
 
 1020 
 
 106C 
 
 1090 
 
 1120 
 
 1150 
 
 1190 
 
 1220 
 
 1250 
 
 1280 
 
 1320 
 
 5 
 
 1010 
 
 1040 
 
 1070 
 
 1110 
 
 1140 
 
 1180 
 
 1210 
 
 1240 
 
 1280 
 
 1310 
 
 1350 
 
 1390 
 
 51 
 
 1050 
 
 1090 
 
 1120 
 
 1160 
 
 1190 
 
 1230 
 
 1260 
 
 1300 
 
 1330 
 
 1370 
 
 1410 
 
 1450 
 
 6 
 
 1100 
 
 1130 
 
 1170 
 
 1200 
 
 1240 
 
 1280 
 
 1310 
 
 1350 
 
 1390 
 
 1430 
 
 1470 
 
 1510 
 
 61 
 
 1140 
 
 1170 
 
 1210 
 
 1250 
 
 1290 
 
 1330 
 
 1360 
 
 1400 
 
 1440 
 
 1480 
 
 1520 
 
 1560 
 
 7 
 
 1180 
 
 1210 
 
 1250 
 
 1290 
 
 1330 
 
 1370 
 
 1410 
 
 1450 
 
 1490 
 
 1530 
 
 1570 
 
 1620 
 
 71 
 
 1210 
 
 1250 
 
 1290 
 
 1340 
 
 1380 
 
 1420 
 
 1460 
 
 1500 
 
 1540 
 
 1580 
 
 1620 
 
 1670 
 
 8 
 
 1250 
 
 1290 
 
 1330 
 
 1380 
 
 1420 
 
 1460 
 
 1500 
 
 1540 
 
 1590 
 
 1630 
 
 1680 
 
 1720 
 
 81 
 
 1290 
 
 1330 
 
 1370 
 
 1420 
 
 1460 
 
 1500 
 
 1540 
 
 1590 
 
 1630 
 
 1680 
 
 1720 
 
 1770 
 
 9 
 
 1320 
 
 1370 
 
 1410 
 
 1460 
 
 1500 
 
 1540 
 
 1590 
 
 1630 
 
 1680 
 
 1720 
 
 1770 
 
 1820 
 
 91 
 
 1360 
 
 1400 
 
 1450 
 
 1490 
 
 1540 
 
 1580 
 
 1630 
 
 1670 
 
 1720 
 
 1770 
 
 1820 
 
 1870 
 
 10 
 
 1390 
 
 1440 
 
 1480 
 
 1530 
 
 1580 
 
 1620 
 
 1670 
 
 1720 
 
 1760 
 
 1810 
 
 1860 
 
 1910 
 
 101 
 
 1430 
 
 1470 
 
 1520 
 
 1570 
 
 1610 
 
 1660 
 
 1710 
 
 1760 
 
 1810 
 
 1860 
 
 1910 
 
 1960 
 
 11 
 
 1460 
 
 1500 
 
 1550 
 
 1600 
 
 1650 
 
 1700 
 
 1750 
 
 1800 
 
 1850 
 
 1900 
 
 1950 
 
 2000 
 
 111 
 
 1490 1540 
 
 1580 
 
 1640 
 
 1690 
 
 1730 
 
 1780 
 
 1840 
 
 1890 
 
 1940 
 
 1990 
 
 2050 
 
 12 
 
 1520 
 
 1570 
 
 1620 
 
 1670 
 
 1720 
 
 1770 
 
 1820 
 
 1870 
 
 1930 
 
 1980 
 
 2030 
 
 2090 
 
 121 
 
 1550 
 
 1600 
 
 1650 
 
 1700 
 
 1750 
 
 1800 
 
 1860 
 
 1910 
 
 1970 
 
 2020 
 
 2070 
 
 2130 
 
 13 
 
 1580 1630 
 
 1680 
 
 1730 
 
 1790 
 
 1840 
 
 1880 
 
 1950 
 
 2000 
 
 2060 2110 
 
 2170 
 
 131 
 
 1610 1660 
 
 1710 
 
 1770 
 
 1820 
 
 1870 
 
 1930 
 
 1980 
 
 2040 
 
 2090 
 
 2150! 2210 
 
 14 
 
 1640 1690 
 
 1740 
 
 1800 
 
 1850 
 
 1910 
 
 1960 
 
 2020 
 
 2080 
 
 2130 
 
 21901 2250 
 
 141 
 
 1660 
 
 1720 
 
 1770 
 
 1830 
 
 1880 
 
 1940 
 
 1990 
 
 2050 
 
 2110 
 
 2170 
 
 2230 2290 
 
 15 
 
 1690 
 
 1750 
 
 1800 
 
 1860 
 
 1920 
 
 1970 
 
 2030 
 
 2090 
 
 2150 
 
 2200 
 
 2260 2330 
 
 151 
 
 1720 
 
 1770 
 
 1830 
 
 1890 
 
 1950 
 
 2000 
 
 2060 
 
 2120 
 
 2180 
 
 2240 
 
 2300 
 
 2360 
 
 16 
 
 1750 
 
 1800 
 
 1860 
 
 1920 
 
 1980 
 
 2030 
 
 2090 
 
 2150 
 
 2210 
 
 2270 
 
 2330 
 
 2400 
 
 161 
 
 1770 
 
 1830 
 
 1890 
 
 1950 
 
 2010 
 
 2060 
 
 2120 
 
 2180 
 
 2250 
 
 2310 
 
 2370 
 
 2440 
 
 17 
 
 1800 
 
 1850 
 
 1910 
 
 1980 
 
 2040 
 
 2090 
 
 2160 
 
 2220 
 
 2280 
 
 2340 
 
 2400 
 
 2470 
 
 171 
 
 1840 
 
 1880 
 
 1940 
 
 2000 
 
 2060 
 
 2130 
 
 2180 
 
 2250 
 
 2310 
 
 2370 
 
 2440 
 
 2510 
 
 18 
 
 1850' 1910 
 
 1970 
 
 2030 
 
 2090 
 
 2150 
 
 2220 
 
 2280 
 
 2350 
 
 2410 
 
 2470 
 
 2540 
 
 181 
 
 1870 
 
 1930 
 
 1990 
 
 2060 
 
 2120 
 
 2180 
 
 2250 
 
 2310 
 
 2380 
 
 2440 
 
 2510 
 
 2580 
 
 19 
 
 1900 
 
 1960 
 
 2020 
 
 2090 
 
 2150 
 
 2210 
 
 2280 
 
 2340 
 
 2410 
 
 2470 
 
 2540 
 
 2610 
 
 191 
 
 1920 1980 
 
 2050 
 
 2110 
 
 2180 
 
 2240 
 
 2300 
 
 2370 
 
 2440 
 
 2500 
 
 2570 
 
 2640 
 
 20 
 
 1970 2030 
 
 2100 
 
 2160 
 
 2230 
 
 2290 
 
 2360 
 
 2430J 2500 
 
 2560 
 
 2630 
 
 2710 
 
 21 
 
 2020 2080 
 
 2150 
 
 2220 
 
 2290 
 
 2350 
 
 2420 
 
 24901 2560 
 
 2620 
 
 2700 
 
 2770 
 
 22 
 
 2060l 2120 
 
 2190 
 
 2270 
 
 2340 2400 
 
 2470 
 
 2540! 2610 
 
 2690 
 
 2760 
 
 2820 
 
 23 
 
 2110 
 
 2170 
 
 2240 
 
 2310 
 
 2380 2460 
 
 2520 
 
 2600 2670 
 
 2740 
 
 28201 2900 
 
 24 
 
 2150 
 
 2220 
 
 2280 
 
 2360 
 
 2430 2510 
 
 2580 
 
 2650 2720 
 
 2800 
 
 2870 2960 
 
 25 
 
 2190 
 
 2260 
 
 2330 
 
 2410 
 
 2480! 2550 
 
 2630 
 
 2700 2780 
 
 2850 
 
 2930 i 3020 
 
 26 
 
 2230 
 
 2300 
 
 2380 
 
 2450 
 
 2530 
 
 2600 
 
 2680 
 
 2760 2830 
 
 2910 
 
 2990! 3070 
 
 27 
 
 2280 
 
 2350 
 
 2420 
 
 2500 
 
 2580 
 
 2650 
 
 2730 
 
 2800 2880 
 
 2960 
 
 3040| 3130 
 
 28 
 
 2320 
 
 2390 
 
 2460 
 
 2540 
 
 2620 
 
 2700 
 
 2770 
 
 2850' 2940 
 
 3020 
 
 3090J 3180 
 
 29 
 
 2380 
 
 2430 
 
 2510 
 
 2590 
 
 2670 
 
 2740 
 
 2820 
 
 2900 ' 2990 
 
 3070 
 
 3150} 3240 
 
 30 
 
 2390 
 
 2470 
 
 2550 
 
 2630 
 
 2710 
 
 2790 
 
 2870 
 
 2950 3030 
 
 3120 
 
 32001 3290 
 
 31 
 
 2430 
 
 2500 
 
 2590 
 
 2670 
 
 2750 
 
 2830 
 
 2920 
 
 3000! 3080 
 
 3170 
 
 3250 
 
 3340 
 
 32 
 
 2470 
 
 2550 
 
 2630 
 
 2720 
 
 2800 
 
 2880 
 
 2960 
 
 3040 l 3130 
 
 3220 
 
 3300 
 
 3390 
 
 33 
 
 2510 
 
 2580 
 
 2670 
 
 2760 
 
 2840 
 
 2920 
 
 3000 
 
 3090 i 3190 
 
 3260 
 
 3350 
 
 3440 
 
 34 
 
 2540 
 
 2620 
 
 2710 
 
 2800 
 
 2880 
 
 2960 
 
 3050 
 
 3140i 3210 
 
 3310 
 
 3400 
 
 3500 
 
 35 
 
 2590 
 
 2660 
 
 2740 
 
 2830 
 
 2920 
 
 3000 
 
 3090 
 
 3180 
 
 3270 
 
 3360 
 
 3450 
 
 3540 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
676 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ing the loss of head due to ordinary consumption, and the additional loss 
 due to the measured flow from hydrants, a close approximation may be 
 made of the quantity available at any given pressure. 
 
 AREA OF " No FLOW." It has already been noted that hydrant outlets, 
 especially the large ones, are not completely filled by the stream; the area 
 of no flow is almost always a segment in the bottom of the outlet, of 
 varying height depending upon the design of the hydrant and somewhat 
 upon the velocity of the stream. Any projection into the waterway, such 
 as the end of the stem of an independent valve or a roughness of the 
 nipple, will also produce small " holes " in the stream. The area of no 
 flow is in most cases fairly well denned, and the shape of the " hole " 
 is sufficiently uniform to enable its proportion to the total area to be deter- 
 mined by measuring its height with a rule v ; for instance, with a 4%-inch 
 outlet, a " hole " i inch high forms 10 to 12 per cent of the area of the 
 outlet, a i%-inch hole 20 to 25 per cent, and so on. The correction to be 
 made may be determined by referring to Figure 126. 
 
 VELOCITY. In determining the average velocity of the stream issuing 
 from the outlet, the Pitot tube is moved throughout the area, and the 
 observer will soon train himself by this traverse to fix upon a substantially 
 accurate average; readings noted at the center and near the ends of the 
 horizontal . and vertical diameters will usually suffice, and the center reading 
 in a small outlet is in most cases very near the average for the whole 
 area. Readings should not be taken closer than ^4-inch to the sides of the 
 orifice, since there is a noticeable retardation of velocity caused by friction 
 against the walls of the hydrant nipple. This retardation necessitates applying 
 a coefficient of discharge, which has been determined by experiment on three 
 different makes of hydrants, with outlets of various sizes and with velocities 
 of discharge ranging from % to 28 pounds; the discharges as measured 
 by the Pitot tube were compared with those determined variously by Venturi- 
 meter, Pitometer in supply main, and by a Worthington current meter. The 
 coefficient of discharge ranged from 0.85 to 0.96, with an average of 0.91. 
 It is therefore concluded that a coefficient of 0.90 is a fair one to use; this 
 is to be applied after allowance has been made, as above noted in the case 
 of outlets not completely filled by the stream. From the tables on pages 
 674 and 675 results can be readily figured, or for any other size of outlet, a 
 discharge can be obtained as given in the formula on page 699. 
 
 The Pitot tube used in determining discharges from hydrant outlets has 
 a straight blade about 4 inches long, which is threaded into one end of a 
 piece of ^4-inch brass pipe 8 or 10 inches long, on the other end of which 
 is screwed the gage by which the velocity of discharge is determined; a 
 union may be used to keep the joints tight in whatever position the gage may be. 
 
 GAGE USED. The gage which appears to be best suited for this work is 
 3-inch, graduated in half pounds, from o to 50 pounds. Such a gage may 
 be read easily to the nearest quarter pound; corrections should be made 
 as indicated by calibrations before and after using; either by means of 
 a weight tester or by comparison with an accurate test gage. 
 
 Velocity heads of i pound or more are desirable, since they are read 
 with greater accuracy by the ordinary observer, and also because any 
 inaccuracy in the gage reading has less effect on the correctness of the 
 discharge figures. However, discharges may be determined with considerable 
 accuracy in cases where the velocity head is as low as *4 pound. It is 
 better where discharges are small to use only one small outlet, rather than 
 two small ones or a large one. 
 
WATER SUPPLY FOR FIRE PROTECTION 677 
 
 FIRE ENGINE TESTS AND FIRE STREAM TABLES* 
 
 The National Board of Fire Underwriters issued a pamphlet 
 in 1910 on '* Fire Engine Tests and Fire Stream Tables," which 
 is reprinted in this and following pages by permission of the Na- 
 tional Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 This pamphlet has been prepared for the purpose of assisting 
 fire department officials and others who may wish to determine 
 the condition of fire engines. It may also be of service in testing 
 the capacity of new engines with a view to their acceptance by 
 a city. 
 
 Tests similar to those outlined herein have been adopted by many 
 fire departments and are being made by our engineers in their 
 investigation of cities throughout the country, so that by corre- 
 sponding with this Board, the location of the nearest field party 
 may be ascertained and if desired, an opportunity afforded to 
 observe such tests. 
 
 The appended fire stream tables, on pages 702 to 723, are based 
 on tests of rubber-lined fire hose made in October, 1909, by our 
 engineers, with the assistance of the New York Fire Department 
 and the co-operation of the Department of Water Supply of New 
 York City. These tables may also be used to find the approximate 
 amount of water used at a fire, if engineers will observe from time 
 to time the water pressure carried and the length of time at work. 
 With an approximate average of the water pressure at each engine, 
 the amount of water delivered per minute can be found for each 
 line if the size of nozzle and length of hose is also known. Copies 
 of this pamphlet will be sent to such captains of companies and 
 engineers of steamers as would use them in keeping accurate 
 records of the performance of their engine at fires. 
 
 NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS. 
 COMMITTEE ON FIRE PREVENTION, 
 
 76 William Street, 
 August, 1915. New York. 
 
 PRACTICAL TESTS FOR FIRE ENGINES 
 
 It is the purpose of this manual to set forth convenient and practical meth- 
 ods of making fire engine tests which will show the physical condition of 
 engines, their capacity for delivering water at a reasonable pressure and the 
 ability of the operating crews. The method described has been in use for a 
 number of years and has been found practical, exact and of great value. 
 Although methods similar to that described below are in use in some depart- 
 ments, the character of tests made in many cities, and especially those for 
 acceptance, are usually more spectacular than exact. The throwing of a 
 stream over a church spire, city hall or court house does not necessarily show 
 that the engine is capable of delivering its full rated capacity at a proper 
 working pressure. 
 
 Investigation has shown that where regular and systematic tests of engines 
 are not made, even in well managed fire departments, defects often exist 
 
 * Copyrighted, 1910, by the National Board of Fire Underwriters; reprinted 
 in this book by permission. 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND' PROTECTION 
 
 PLATE I. Apparatus for Testing Fire Engines 
 
TESTS OF FIRE PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES 
 
 which may continue unsuspected for considerable periods and become manifest 
 under the stress of a large fire, where the engine is called upon to deliver its 
 full capacity under suitable working pressures. Furthermore, regular tests 
 are a most valuable drill for engine crews, for in only a few departments do 
 they receive sufficient training in operating engines to capacity. The break- 
 down of an engine at a fire or the inability of the crew to operate it to 
 capacity may be the direct cause of confusion and the needless loss of 
 property and perhaps of life, to the discredit of the department. 
 
 Contracts for new fire engines usually contain guarantees that the engine 
 will deliver a certain quantity of water, but often do not specify the pressure 
 at which it is to be delivered, nor provide for any definite tests which will 
 accurately determine whether the engine has fulfilled the guarantee; or, in 
 other words, if the department is getting what it is paying for. In several 
 cities, engines are required to fill large measured tanks in a specified time, but 
 this is a cumbersome method at best, and such tanks are frequently unavailable; 
 this usually gives no definite results as to pressure obtained and power 
 developed. 
 
 STEAM FIRE ENGINES 
 
 WHAT TEST SHOULD SHOW. A practical test should show, with fair accur- 
 acy, the condition of both water and steam ends' of pumps and the condition 
 of the boiler; determine the amount of water which the engine will pump 
 at a reasonable working pressure, such as would be required when operating 
 at a large fire; demonstrate the ability of the engine to draft water, whether 
 the pumps and waterv r ays are tight under high pressures and steam valves 
 are properly set, and whether the coal used is quick steaming and free from 
 objectionable impurities. In addition, the test should be of such a character 
 as to approach the working condition at a serious fire where the full capacity 
 of the engine would be required, and at the same time be easily understood. 
 The following tests are intended to bring out all of these points. 
 
 DISPLACEMENT TEST. The displacement test indicates very closely the 
 actual condition of the pumps as a whole and, in conjunction with the high 
 pressure and valve tests, the condition of the plungers, pump valves, packing, 
 etc. The high pressure test, in connection with the results obtained from 
 the capacity test, indicates the setting of steam valves and condition of steam 
 cylinders and packed joints. The capacity test shows the steaming quality 
 of the boiler under heavy draft and the ability of the engine to make suf- 
 ficient speed to develop its capacity when working against a reasonable 
 water pressure. If the test is made from a cistern or reservoir, it will 
 show the ability of the engine to draft; if made from a hydrant, the per- 
 centage of slip obtained will indicate this feature, as an engine showing 
 less than 7 per cent slip may be depended upon to take suction satisfactorily. 
 Incidentally, the test also shows the ability of the engine crew in operating 
 and stoking the engine. 
 
 Any machine, when new, should be capable of greater work than after sev- 
 eral years of service; for this reason, a new engine should be given an accept- 
 ance test at least as severe as any work it may have to perform in actual 
 service. This test should bring out not only the capacity to puftip the actual 
 volume of water specified by the maker as the rated capacity, but also to do 
 this at a good working pressure. 
 
 A good specification, applying equally well to steam fire engines and automo- 
 bile fire engines, is that the engine should deliver its full rated capacity at 120 
 pounds net pressure and 50 per cent, of its rated capacity at 200 pounds net 
 pressure. This will assure sufficient bciler capacity in steam fire engines and 
 motors of high enough power in automobile fire engines. 
 
6;8b 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Engines in service need not be given as severe a test as those being 
 accepted, as it is mainly their general condition that is to be ascertained; 
 for this reason, 100 pounds net water pressure would seem a sufficiently 
 high requirement for the ordinary capacity test, which should X be made at 
 least yearly. 
 
 APPARATUS NECESSARY FOR TESTING. For the tests outlined below, no 
 elaborate or costly outfit is needed, the only special appliances absolutely 
 required being as shown on Plate I and listed below: 
 
 A revolution or speed counter (Figures 7, 13 and 18). 
 
 A stop-watch and wrist strap (Figure n). 
 
 A small Pitot tube (Figure 5). 
 
 An air chamber on Pitot (Figure 6). 
 
 Two or more pressure gages (Figures 2 and 3). 
 
 A set of smooth bore nozzles (Figures 9 and 10). 
 
 A hydrant or engine discharge cap (Figure i). 
 
 Appliances for attaching counter (Figures 14 and 15 or Figure 16). 
 
 For convenience, it is desirable to have a Pitot bracket (Figure 17). 
 
 This is shown attached in Figure 8, with a special form of elbow (Figure 4) 
 and ^4-inch bent rod (Figure 12). 
 
 NOZZLE STREAM PITOT 
 
 Scale Full Size 
 , To be of brass and finished-smooth 
 
 The revolution counter should be of a type easily attached to the engine 
 frame, or any convenient part, and so made as to register accurately at 
 any speed likely to be reached by a reciprocating engine and be easily read. 
 
TESTS OF FIRE PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES 679 
 
 The counter may be provided with straps for attaching to engine, or with 
 the clamp and angle iron shown on Plate I, Figures 14 and 15, and Plate II, 
 or with bolts and slotted lugs as shown in Plate I, Figure 16. 
 
 For high speeds, and particularly where the speed is uniform, as with motor 
 driven pumps, the speed counted, Figure 13, is best; 30 second or i minute 
 readings can be taken from some shaft at frequent intervals. 
 
 Most Tachometers and speed indicators are unsuitable for steam fire engine 
 work, as the vibration is apt to render their readings unreliable, and the vari- 
 ation in speed makes their readings of little value. 
 
 A stop-watch can be purchased for less than $10, although an ordinary 
 watch can be used. 
 
 The Pitot tube may be any of several suitable types now on the market, 
 or may be readily constructed; dimensions are given below. It should be con- 
 nected by ^4-inch brass pipe fittings to a pressure gage; to prevent vibration 
 of the needle, an air chamber should 'be provided as shown in Plate I. 
 
 The pressure gages should be preferably not more than 3% inches in diam- 
 eter,! in order that they may be conveniently handled. They should be without 
 a rest pin for the needle, in order that any disarrangement of the needle may 
 be readily observed; one capable of indicating a vacuum should be provided 
 if a gage is used on the suction; the Pitot gage should read up to 200 pounds, 
 and be divided preferably for every pound and marked every 5 or 10 pounds; 
 the pressure gage should read up to 300 pounds, and where tests to 250 
 pounds are made, to 400 pounds, and may be divided only for every 5 pounds. 
 Gages, especially those used with the Pitot, should be of good quality and 
 accurate. They should be carefully calibrated (tested) with a weight tester 
 or a standard gage before each day's work. 
 
 NOZZLES. Nozzles suitable for testing are usually found in the regular 
 equipment of every fire department. Only smooth bore tapered nozzles should 
 be used, as discharges from ring nozzles are uncertain. Care should be 
 taken that the tips are not nicked or otherwise injured, and that washers 
 do not project into the pipe, as a perfectly smooth waterway is essential. 
 The ring nozzles on many engines have loose rings, which may be slipped 
 out by unscrewing the end cap, leaving a suitable smooth-bore tip. Shut-off 
 nozzles should not be used, as these generally have interior projections or 
 breaks in the waterway, likely to cause eddies in the stream. Where much 
 testing is to be done, it is better to set aside nozzles, keeping them solely 
 for that purpose. The bore of nozzles should be accurate to size within 
 1/1,000 of an inch and carefully measured. f 
 
 CHECKING ENGINE GAGE. The engine-discharge cap, or hydrant cap (in 
 most cities these have the same thread) is tapped for 14-inch pipe thread 
 and fitted with a nipple and stop-cock for attaching the test gage. By attach- 
 ing to the discharge outlet of the engine as shown on Plate II, the engine 
 water gage and the test gage may be compared to determine if the engine 
 gage is correct. Where there is time to detach the water gage and a 
 testing set is available, the gage can be more accurately checked. The steam 
 gages are less likely to get out of order, being less subject to sudden 
 fluctuations, and a comparison of readings of 'side and rear steam gages will 
 usually be sufficient. If the engine has no suction gage or tapped suction 
 cap, the engine or hydrant cap should be used on the second outlet of the 
 hydrant when testing an engine at a double outlet hydrant. 
 
 PERSONNEL. Tests are best made by a supervisor (as the master mechanic 
 or other officer conducting the test will hereafter be called), with an assistant 
 accustomed to reading gages. Tables showing the discharge at various 
 pressures through different nozzles, for use with Pitot tube readings, are 
 to be found on pages 704 and 705. A suitable form for recording data of 
 
68o 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 PLATE II. Method of Attaching Gages and Counter for Testing Engines 
 
TESTS OF FIRE PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES 681 
 
 tests is shown on page 686, and until the supervisor becomes familiar with 
 tests, it is advisable to use a similar form at the tests in order not to over- 
 look any necessary data. Later, a pocket note-book will doubtless be found 
 more convenient, care being taken to record all the necessary data. 
 
 PRELIMINARY TO TEST. If possible, calibrate gages of engine before the 
 test, by detaching and comparing on a portable gage-testing set. They 
 should be calibrated in the position in which they are to be used, either 
 horizontally or vertically. If this is not done, check water and suction 
 gages at test, as explained below. 
 
 If it is desired to determine the ability of the regular engine crew, the 
 engine should, of course, be operated by them; if the condition and capacity 
 of the engine are the unknown factors, a crew known to be efficient should 
 be selected. 
 
 If there is any convenient body of water, or cistern, where water may 
 be drafted with at least 10 feet of lift, then test should be made at draft; 
 otherwise, attach engine to hydrant, care being taken to get a hydrant attached 
 to a large main (8-inch or larger), and that the hydrant pressure is not 
 excessive, preferably below 40 pounds. Four-inch or larger suction should 
 be used. After suitably stationing engine, light the fire; note the time 
 when, smoke comes from stack, when steam gage needle moves, at 50 pounds 
 of steam, at 100 pounds, and pressure and time of blowing off. If engine 
 has hot water in boiler, this may be omitted, noting only the pressure at 
 whitih safety valve blows off. Then, if water gage on engine has not been 
 calibrated (checked), attach hydrant cap and 200-pound test gage to engine 
 discharge outlet. Record zero of all three gages water, suction and test 
 gages; open hydrant and record static pressure on all three gages; then with 
 churn (hand relief) valve partly open and discharge gates shut, pump up 
 pressure and compare test and water gages at 80 pounds, 100, no, 120, etc., 
 up to 120 pounds over the static or hydrant pressure. If engine has no 
 suction gage, one of the suction caps on the engine can be tipped to connect 
 the gage or the engine or hydrant cap provided with the second gage should 
 be attached to one hydrant outlet. 
 
 Let supervisor and assistant compare watches and set second hands 
 together, or nearly so; this is more quickly accomplished if one watch has a 
 stop-hand. The supervisor will find it convenient to tie his watch to coat 
 or wrist in order to leave his hands free to hold note-book or Pitot. A 
 leather watch holder and wrist strap, as shown on Plate I, such as any 
 harness maker can make, is a convenient appliance for this purpose. Attach 
 the revolution counter and connect with one of the eccentric strap oil 
 cups or studs by a short length of cord, have engine started slowly and 
 adjust counter cord so that each revolution registers. 
 
 DISPLACEMENT AND CAPACITY TEST. While the engine is getting up steam, 
 have firemen lay hose and connect nozzle. If testing on a paved street, 
 it is best to lay nozzle down in gutter. Use a play-pipe holder or lie nozzle 
 to any convenient post, in order to prevent pipe getting way from pipeman 
 and doing damage. 
 
 For the larger engines, attach a line of hose on each side of the engine 
 and connect into the Siamese of a deluge set. 
 
 With the smaller size engines, it is usually more convenient to use a 
 single line from one side of the engine; when deluge sets are not available, 
 single lines may be used on the larger engines. In the tables on pages 
 692 and 693, the length of hose and size of nozzle best adapted for testing 
 engines of various sizes are given. In testing with the Siamesed lines, 
 start the engines with both lines open and bring it up to speed; if the 
 desired water pressure is not obtained, close the discharge gate on one line 
 
682 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 slowly until the gage indicates the proper pressure. Similarly, with a 
 single line attached, the gate is closed slowly after engine has obtained its 
 full speed until the desired pressure is obtained. 
 
 The supervisor can, from time to time, regulate this discharge gate to 
 keep the desired water pressure, although if the crew operates the engine 
 properly but little change will have to be made throughout the test. The 
 engineer can be instructed to direct all his attention to operating his 
 engine to full capacity, and the supervisor or testing engineer can regulate 
 the water pressure, take the readings of the revolution counter, steam, water 
 and suction gages, while his assistant takes readings of the nozzle pressure 
 throughout the test. 
 
 When Siamesed lines are used, should the engine not be able to maintain 
 the desired water pressure with one line shut off entirely, add another 
 length of hose to each side, or use a nozzle Vs-inch smaller. With single 
 lines, when the engine cannot maintain the desired pressure without undue 
 throttling of the discharge valve, use a smaller nozzle or add another length 
 of hose. The nozzle readings should, if possible, be over 40 pounds, as 
 below this point readings must be very nearly constant to give accurate 
 results. 
 
 Should water pressure at the engine be too high with both lines wide 
 open, use a larger nozzle or cut out a length of hose from each side. 
 
 Relief valves should be closed, sprinkler used only as needed, and feed 
 pumps operated regularly. The capacity test should last at least 20 minutes 
 from the time the engine reaches full speed. During this time the water 
 pressure at the engine should be constant and such as to give a ne't water 
 pressure over the suction pressure of 100 to 120 pounds. Unless the rubber 
 tires cause undue vibration, a modern engine, if in good condition, can 
 safely run for an indefinite period at 400 to 425 feet of piston travel per 
 minute, that is, 300 to 320 revolutions for an 8-indh stroke. 
 
 It is usually better to hold about 10 pounds over the pressure actually 
 required, when the water pressure fluctuates much, as most engineers read 
 the top of swing of a gage needle, while the supervisor, of course, should 
 read the middle of the vibration. Gages may be throttled to prevent excessive 
 vibration, but should always show some vibration to get true readings. A 
 better method of preventing excessive vibration of needle on gage is to 
 attach a small air chamber to the connection near the gage; such an appli- 
 ance is shown attached to gage used on Pitot tube. During the capacity 
 test, the supervisor should read counter (exactly at minute) and steam, 
 water and suction gages each minute in regular order, and note the handling 
 and stoking, feed water, leaks, uneven steam pressure, blowing off, foaming 
 of boiler, accidents, and the other little details which his experience teaches 
 him to observe. Meanwhile the supervisor's assistant should read the nozzle 
 pressure every *4 minute. Special care should be taken in reading the nozzle 
 pressure. The Pitot should be held in the middle of the stream, with the 
 tip about one-half the diameter of the bore from the end of the nozzle. 
 Gage should be horizontal or vertiqal, according to the position in which it 
 was calibrated, and at the same level as the end of the nozzle. This is 
 shown on Plate III. 
 
 HIGH PRESSURE TEST.-^-After a run of 20 minutes in which there were 
 no serious interruptions to readings, and pressure was maintained at an 
 average of at least 100 pounds net, stop stoking; shut down, close discharge 
 gates, partly open churn valve and get steam down to between 70 and 80 
 pounds, drawing fire if necessary. Then start engine slowly, and gradually 
 close churn valve tight. See that all other openings, feed pumps, sprinklers, 
 relief cocks, etc., are shut. Let engine turn in this condition for one or 
 
TESTS OF FIRE PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES 683 
 
 PLATE III. Showing Use of Nozzle Pitot 
 
684 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 two minutes; observe the number of revolutions, and the water, steam and 
 suction (now static) pressures; note any uneven motion of engine, blowing 
 through 'of steam or imperfect valve setting, leaks in steam or water ends, 
 or fittings, etc. If pumps are in good condition and valves set correctly, 
 speed should not be over one revolution in 10 seconds in any modern type 
 engine. (This does not apply to a Silsby or a Button.) With 70 pounds 
 steam and 50 pounds suction, water pressure will reach about 250 pounds; 
 this is perfectly safe and not a severe test, as such pressures are frequently 
 met in operation when long lines are used. 
 
 VALVE TESTS. After taking the observations for the high pressure test, 
 shut off throttle of engine and open cylinder drips. Note the drop in water 
 pressure for say one-half minute. The manner in which this pressure holds 
 up is an indication of the condition, of the discharge valves. A drop of not 
 over 15 pounds in one-half minute, provided there are' no external leaks 
 visible around the pump, indicates a fairly good condition of the valves. 
 
 SUCTION TEST. If the engine has been tested at a hydrant, its ability to 
 draft may be determined as follows, provided it is equipped with a compound 
 suction gage or one of the suction caps is tapped to receive a compound 
 gage: Disconnect engine from hydrant while there is still some steam 
 pressure on boiler, put both suction caps on tight, open one of the discharge 
 gates and then open throttle, allowing engine to run at a moderate speed, 
 observe the reading of the compound gage while running, and also after 
 shutting down. The drop of the vacuum after shutting down is an indication 
 of the condition of the suction valves, provided all joints are good. 
 
 To FIGURE DISPLACEMENT. (Displacement is figured as indicated for sample 
 test, pages 688 and 689.) In averaging the nozzle, steam, water and suction 
 pressures, subtract % of first and last readings from sum of readings used 
 (see page 689 and sample test sheet). Average the nozzle pressure during a 
 period in which the engine ran steadily, water pressure was well maintained 
 and the nozzle pressure varied the least. When possible, use a 2o-minute 
 period in figuring the displacement; if for any reason there is much variation 
 in the nozzle pressure, say over 10 per cent during any one minute, select 
 as long a period as possible, but at least 10 minutes, during which the 
 pressure has been well maintained. Correct for gage error. Take out 
 corresponding gallons from table, pages 700 and 701 interpolating for odd 
 pressures or for odd-size nozzles. 
 
 Example: i%" nozzle, 61 pounds nozzle pressure: 
 
 62 pounds nozzle pressure gives 525 gallons 
 
 - 60 517 gallons 
 
 or 2 pounds give a difference of 8 gallons 
 
 and i pound gives % of this, or 4 gallons 
 
 Therefore, 61 pounds nozzle pressure z=Si7+4 
 
 nz52i gallons 
 Example: i 9/16" nozzle, 60 pounds nozzle pressure: 
 
 60 pounds through i%" nozzle gives 607 gallons 
 
 60 i%" 517 gallons 
 
 or %" difference in nozzle diameter gives 90 gallons 
 
 and 1/16" " 45 gallons 
 
 Therefore, i 9/16" nozzle at 60 pounds gives 517+45 
 
 2^562 gallons 
 
 For odd-size nozzles, the discharge can be accurately obtained by using 
 the formula on page 696. 
 
 Divide the average gallons discharged by the average revolutions per 
 minute to obtain the actual net displacement of the pumps. The nominal 
 displacement will be found from the table, page 690, allowing for the pump 
 
TESTS OF FIRE PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES 685 
 
 rods. The dimension of the pumps, such as stroke, diameter of pump barrel 
 and pump rods, should be accurately measured, if in question. The difference 
 between actual and nominal displacements is the slip, which should be 
 from 3 to 5 per cent of the nominal displacement in a new engine (6 per 
 cent in a rotary); of this, about % per cent is due to the feed water (i 
 per cent with a Button or Silsby engine). After engine has been in use a 
 few months, slip will generally increase about i per cent; thereafter, if 
 valves and packings are given proper attention, there should be only a slight 
 increase. A slip of 10 per cent or over indicates broken or displaced valve 
 springs, and more than this, a' badly worn plunger or pump barrel, or 
 possibly a leaky suction. In a rotary, the wear is principally in the pump 
 cam slides, which will also stick at times, causing increased slip even if 
 not worn. 
 
 To FIGURE CAPACITY. When the engine is run for 20 minutes at a uniform 
 speed during the displacement test, the average discharge measured at the 
 nozzle by the Pitot is the capacity of the engine. If only a lo-minute period 
 of the tun is used for figuring the displacement, the capacity of the engine 
 is determined by multiplying the actual displacement (found in the dis- 
 placement test) by the average revolutions per minute during a 2o-minute 
 period in which the engine worked at its full capacity. Steam, water and 
 suction pressures during the capacity run should be averaged and corrected 
 for gage error. In figuring percentage of capacity delivered, for a new fire 
 engine, it is well to use contract figures for the rated capacity which the 
 engine is guaranteed to deliver. A capacity due to a piston travel of 400 
 to 420 feet per minute (300 to 315 revolutions for 8-inch stroke) less a 3 
 per cent allowance for slip, is reasonable for a modern engine; older types 
 vary considerably. 
 
 AUTOMOBILE AND MOTOR DRIVEN FIRE ENGINES 
 
 In so far as they apply, the same tests are desirable for automobile and 
 motor driven pumping engines as for steam fire engines; the same methods 
 for measuring the water discharged, calibrating (testing) water gauges, calcu- 
 lating the actual and nominal displacement and slip of the pumps, and aver- 
 aging the net water pressure may be used. Valve and suction tests may be 
 made in much the same manner as with steam fire engines, for piston or rotary 
 displacement pumps; for centrifugal or rotary gear pumps, they will not apply. 
 
 Owing to the characteristics of the gasoline motor, certain modifications and 
 additional tests are advisable. The capacity test should be run longer than is 
 usually necessary with a steam engine. It is suggested that, for acceptance, 
 engines of this type be required to deliver their full rated capacity at 120 
 pounds average net pressure for 2 hours, 50 per cent, of their rated capacity 
 at 200 pounds average net pressure for % hour, and 33 per cent, of their 
 rated capacity at 250 pounds average net pressure for % hour. Tests should 
 preferably be made when drafting with about 10 feet of lift, especially if the 
 engine may be required to draft water from a river, canal or cistern when in 
 service. With a motor driven pump the high pressure test recommended on 
 page 682 for steam engines becomes inadvisable. The %-hour runs at high 
 pressures serve to show the action of motor and pump under high pressures, 
 and whether the gear ratios are properly arranged. The tables on pages 692 
 and 693 may be used to determine the length of hose and size of nozzles to be 
 used with an engine of any given or guaranteed capacity. If two streams are 
 preferred for the capacity test, the tables beginning on page 702 will be found 
 convenient in laying out the length of hose and size of nozzles to be used. 
 If the relief valve connection between discharge and suction side of pump is 
 
686 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 small or tortuous, it may be desirable to make an additional test with a i%- 
 inch shut-off nozzle on a line of about 300 feet in length, and with the engine 
 pumping at 120 pounds pressure. The relief valve should be set to operate at 
 about 10 pounds higher than the pressure to be carried, and when the nozzle 
 is closed should permit the engine to run with an increase of not over 30 
 pounds pressure. The motor should start the pump readily with the hand relief 
 valve open and the discharge gates closed. 
 
 For a two-hour run, nozzle and engine pressures may be recorded every 
 5 minutes, after the engine is brought up to speed, as with any reliable motor 
 the speed and pressure will be nearly uniform. If it is inconvenient to attach 
 a continuous reading counter to the pump, the speed may be taken for one 
 minute, during each five-minute interval, using a speed counter. On some 
 makes' of pumps it is feasible to take the pump speed directly from the end 
 of the pump shaft, by removing a toot board or bracket; on other makes, 
 speed may be taken at the engine, on the end of a circulating pump shaft, 
 timing shaft, or possibly on the fan drive-wheel shaft; if pump speed is 
 obtained, the engine speed may be computed from the gear ratio. IMotes should 
 be made of any faults of construction, such as: Clutch slipping, absence of 
 locks or stops for control levers, inadequate gasoline or lubricating oil supply, 
 inaccessibility of parts, magneto and sparking circuit not waterproof, etc. The 
 feed of lubricating oil is especially important in an automobile pump, where 
 many parts are enclosed or not quickly accessible, and should be carefully 
 looked into by the supervisor. 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 A. L. A. M. FORMULA FOR HORSE-POWER OF GASOLENE MOTORS. 
 
 Horse-Power = 
 
 Bore X Bore x No. of Cylinders 
 
 2-5 
 Example. Six-cylinder motor, 4^-inch bore. 
 
 REASONABLE CAPACITIES OF MODERN FIRE ENGINES. 
 
 Bore of Pumps, 
 
 
 Capacity, 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Stroke, Inches. 
 
 Gallons per Minute. 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 1,100 
 
 5% 
 
 8 or 9 
 
 1,000 
 
 M 
 
 8 
 
 900 
 
 5M 
 
 8 or 9 
 
 850 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 750 
 
 \K 
 
 8 
 
 700 
 
 4% 
 
 7 or 8 
 
 600 
 
 4H 
 
 7 or 8 
 
 550 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 500 
 
 RATED 
 
 CAPACITY OF SILSBY 
 
 ENGINES. 
 
 
 Nominal Displacement 
 
 
 Maker's 
 
 per Revolution, 
 
 Rated Capacity, 
 
 Size. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 ' Gallons per Minute. 
 
 Extra First 
 
 1.261 
 
 1,000 
 
 First 
 
 1.141 
 
 900 
 
 Second 
 
 0.952 
 
 700 
 
 Third 
 
 0.804 
 
 600 
 
 Fourth 
 
 0.675 
 
 500 
 
 Fifth 
 
 o-5*3 
 
 400 
 
688 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 LOG OF FIRE ENGINE TEST 
 
 ENGINE: Size. 
 DIMENSIONS: Cylinder 
 ER: T>j P e_ 
 
 Pomp Bore ... 
 
 Height-....*?.^-.'' ......... 
 
 tttk 
 
 2C 
 
 43 
 
 34 
 
 /IS. 
 
 <!'/ 
 
 Jfl 
 
 2 
 
 is 
 
 .2 
 
 2235. 
 
 I4.i> 
 
 14$.. 
 
 7K/f 
 
 .V* 
 
 DISPLACEMENT TEST 
 
 CAPACITY TEST 
 
 H OH PRESSURE TEST 
 
 MECOIWTgP R.PM STEAM 
 
 VALVET TEST 
 
 t2 
 
 jQllans per min 
 
 ...Corrp.crfirl prp<i. 
 
 .Gallon-i per min 
 
 .Revaper min 
 
 SUCTION CAGE 
 
 Disptor.gmpnt 
 
 _3^L 
 
 Slippftrrffnt 
 
 Figured 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 689 
 
 CALCULATIONS FOR ENGINE TESTS. 
 
 (FOR TEST ON OPPOSITE PAGE.) 
 
 DISPLACEMENT TEST. 
 
 AVERAGE DISCHARGE. 
 To obtain Average Nozzle Pressure; 
 Sum Column "Min." .......... 1,870 
 
 Subtract 14 sum of first and 
 last figures .................. 85 
 
 1,785 
 Sum Column "J" ............ 1,791 
 
 "H" ............ 1,795 
 
 " " "%" ............ 1,802 
 
 Divide by80 .............. ) 7,173 
 
 Average Nozzle Reading. . 89.7 
 Correction from Gage Test 
 Sheet ................ ........ +2.0 
 
 Average Nozzle Pressure. 91.7 
 From Discharge Tables for 1%" 
 
 Nozzle: 
 92 Ibs. gives ............ 751 gallons. 
 
 90 * " ...743 " 
 
 1.7 Ibs. gives.. 
 Then 91. 7 Ibs. = 
 
 8 
 
 6.8 
 
 749.8 gallons. 
 
 2.311 
 
 AVERAGE R. P. M. 
 
 Counter at 3.59 4,858 
 
 " " 3.39 7,870 
 
 Divide by 20 ) 6,488 
 
 Average R. P. M. = 324.4 
 ACTUAL DISPLACEMENT. 
 Average Discharge _ 749.8 
 Average R. P. M. ~ 324.4 
 
 NOMINAL DISPLACEMENT. 
 From Engine Displacement Table: 
 
 W Bore, 8" Stroke 2.455 
 
 !J4"PumpRod 085 
 
 Nominal Displacement = 2.370 
 
 SLIP, IN PER CENT. 
 
 Nom. Displacem't Act. Displacem't 
 Nominal Displacement 
 2.370 - 2.811 _ 
 
 2.370 = " 
 
 CAPACITY TEST. 
 AVERAGE R. P. M. 
 
 Same as for Displacement Test in 
 this case. 
 
 GALLONS PER MINUTE. 
 Same as for Displacement Test in 
 this case. 
 
 AVERAGES OF PRESSURES. 
 Steam: 
 
 Sum of Column 2,787 
 
 H of first and last figures 133 
 
 Divide by 20 ) 2,654 
 
 Average Steam Reading. . 132.7 
 Water: 
 
 Sum of Column 8,065 
 
 ^ of first and last figures. . . 142 . 5 
 
 Divided by20 ) 2,922.5 
 
 Average Reading 146.1 
 
 Correction from Test of 
 Gage and Test Sheet, for 
 Gage No. 119 1.0 
 
 Average Water Pressure 145. 1 
 Suction: 
 
 Sum of Column 746 
 
 J^ of first and last figures 35 
 
 Divide by20 ) 711 
 
 Average Reading 85.6 
 
 Correction from Test of Gage 4- 1 .0 
 
 Average Suction Pressure 36 . 6 
 Net Pressure: 
 
 Average water pressure 145 . 1 
 
 Average suction pressure. . 36.6 
 
 Average net pressure. . 108.5 
 PERCENTAGE OF CAPACITY OBTAINED. 
 Reasonable capacity of 
 Pumps based on 400 Ft. 
 Piston Travel per Min. = 700 gals. 
 
 Obtained at Test 750 gals. 
 
 or 107.V of Rating. 
 
690 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ENGINE DISPLACEMENT TABLE. 
 
 DOUBLE PUMPS. 
 
 PLUNGER DISPLACEMENT. 
 GALLONS PER REVOLUTION. 
 
 PUMP ROD CORRECTION. 
 GALLONS PER REVOLUTION. 
 
 Bore 
 of Pump 
 Inches. 
 
 Stroke in Inches. 
 
 789 
 
 Diameter 
 of 
 Pump Rods. 
 
 Stroke in Inches. 
 
 789 
 
 3 1/2 
 
 .166 1.333 1.500 
 
 " 
 
 0.047 0.054 0.061 
 
 3 6/8 
 
 .251 1.430 1.609 
 
 1/16 
 
 0.053 O.OGl 0.069 
 
 3 3/4 
 
 .339 1.530 1.721 
 
 1/8 
 
 0.060 0.069 0.078 
 
 3 7/8 
 
 .430 1.634 1.838 
 
 3/16 
 
 0.067 0.077 0.087 
 
 4 
 
 .523 1.740 1.958 
 
 1/4 
 
 0.074 0.085 0.096 
 
 4 1/8 
 
 .620 1.851 2.082 
 
 5/16 
 
 0.081 0.093 0.105 
 
 4 1/4 
 
 1.719 1.965 2.211 
 
 3/8 
 
 0.089 0.102 0.115 
 
 4 3/8 
 
 1.822 2.083 2.343 
 
 7/16 
 
 C.098 0.112 0.126 
 
 4 1/2 
 
 1.928 2.203 2.478 
 
 1/2 
 
 0.107 0.122 0.138 
 
 ' 4 5/8 
 
 2.036 2.327 2.618 
 
 9/16 
 
 0.116 0.133 0.150 
 
 4 3/4 
 
 2.148 2.455 2.762 
 
 5/8 
 
 0.126 0.143 0.162 
 
 4 7/8 
 
 2.263 2.586 2.909 
 
 11/16 
 
 0.136 0.155 0.174 
 
 5 
 
 2.380 2.720 3.060 
 
 1 3/4 
 
 0.146 0.167 0.188 
 
 5 1/8 
 
 2.500 2.858 8.215 
 
 
 
 5 1/4 
 
 2.624 2.999 3.374 
 
 
 5 3/8 
 
 2.750 3.143 3.536 
 
 Subtract pump rod correction from 
 
 5 1/2 
 6 5/8 
 6 3/4 
 
 2.880 3.291 3.702 
 3.012 8.442 3.872 
 3.147 3.597 4.047 
 
 plunger displacement to obtain cor- 
 rect displacement of engine. 
 For single-pump engines, use one- 
 half of result obtained. 
 
 5 7/8 
 
 3.286 8.755 4.225 
 
 For single-acting pumps, do not 
 
 6 
 
 8.427 3.917 4.407 
 
 subtract pump rod correction. 
 
 Example: Engine with 5^-inch pump, 9-inch stroke and l^-inch pump 
 rod. 
 
 From Table above : 
 
 Displacement of Plunger 
 Correction for Rod 
 
 3.374 gallons. 
 0.138 gallons. 
 
 Nominal Displacement = 3.236 gallons 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 691 
 
 Below is given a table for use when engines are worked at 
 draft, either in actual service or in testing. A study of it will 
 show that where a high lift is necessary, small suctions will 
 restrict the capacity of an engine ; the table indicates clearly what 
 sizes are necessary under different conditions. The figures are 
 based on the ability of the pumps to maintain a vacuum of 23 
 inches. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING MAXIMUM LIFT, IN FEET, WHEN 
 DRAFTING VARIOUS QUANTITIES OF WATER 
 WITH A FIRE ENGINE IN GOOD CONDITION. 
 
 Quantity of 
 Water, 
 Gallons per 
 Minute. 
 
 MAXIMUM LIFT IN FEET, ENGINE DRAFTING. 
 
 3" Suction. 
 
 3V Suction, 4" Suction. 
 
 4!" Suction. 
 
 5" Suction. 
 
 300 
 400 
 5 00 
 600 
 
 800 
 000 
 1,000 
 1,100 
 1,200 
 1,30 
 1,300 
 
 16 
 8| 
 
 20 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 41 
 length 
 
 22* 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 22* 
 20* 
 
 24* | 
 
 o 
 24 
 
 23 J 
 21 g> 
 
 19* i 
 
 
 iSi 
 
 15 
 
 1 6 
 
 6 
 
 of sue 
 
 17 
 H| 
 
 8 
 
 IO C 
 
 .2 
 17 1 
 
 12 ^ 
 
 el ? 
 
 7* 
 4 
 
 lion. 
 
 95 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 ines of 3 
 or 
 es of 214 
 ozzle 
 
 * *i 
 
 2 a 
 |l|l 
 
 es of 
 Nozz 
 
 nes of 2U 
 Nozzle 
 
 C N 
 
 
 MN 
 
 N 
 
 fl 
 
 e 
 N 
 
 - 0) 
 
 II 
 
 Si 
 
 
 8S 
 
 ft 
 
 N i i 
 
 o ! , 
 
 V- N 
 ON 
 
 ine of 2U 
 Nozzle t 
 
 82 
 
 3 
 
 o .J3 
 
 PHU, 
 
 s 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 693 
 
 .1 
 
 ' m 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B| 
 
 Oft 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 ,"- r - T 
 
 ^is 
 
 k 
 
 :s 
 
 
 B. ... 
 O a) 
 
 D 
 
 S 
 
 r? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 CM 
 
 
 *-t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 en CB 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tu o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 | 
 
 55 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * ^3 ' 
 
 fc 3 
 
 ,9 
 
 Q 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 O ^ ^ 
 
 o a 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 i bt 
 
 2JS 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 eo i, 
 
 -4 
 
 ^fe 
 
 !sk 
 
 k 
 
 9R 
 
 
 8 n 
 
 3 Is 
 
 i? 
 
 M H 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 SING SINC 
 
 >eed and R< 
 Add Auoth 
 
 TO DELIVEI 
 :D PRESSUR 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ngle 50-f ool 
 " or 2" 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 1- - 
 
 i. : 
 
 1 
 
 k 
 
 travel per i 
 
 3 >o 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 "13 
 
 a *-" H 
 
 M 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 111 
 
 ~ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 |lf 
 
 ||f 
 
 H 
 
 ti 
 
 fc 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 64 
 
 J 
 
 S 
 
 , 8 * 
 
 : 
 
 : 
 
 n about 400' 
 
 So ~J 
 
 O 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 S' 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 |g 
 
 I 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 s|| 
 
 *'^n 
 j{*d sa< 
 
 'X^IOt 
 
 dirc 
 
 >II0 
 duo 
 
 S-B8H 
 
 I 
 
 iC O 
 
 {- i - 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 o 5 
 
 2^ 
 
 | 
 
 
 : 
 
 s r 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 o^| 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 if 
 
 f 
 
 ^? 
 
 \i 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 3^1 
 
 | 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 "O 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 u. 
 
 S 
 
 
 O-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
694 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 These tables are arranged to show the pressures required at the hydrant 
 or fire engine, while stream is flowing, to maintain nozzle pressures given 
 in the first columns, through various lengths of 2^-, 3- and 3%-inch rubber 
 lined hose in single lines and two lines of 2%-inch hose siamesed. 
 
 Nozzle pressures of 40 to 60 pounds from i%- and i%-inch nozzles will 
 give streams which may be classed as good and which can be handled without 
 special appliances; for deluge sets, turret pipes, etc., with i%-inch and larger 
 nozzles, 60 to 90 pounds nozzle pressure is desirable for effective fire fighting; 
 the height, area and general character of the building are factors in deter- 
 mining at what pressure a stream may be considered good, as well as in 
 determining whether a nozzle is of sufficient size to furnish an effective 
 stream, nothing less than i%-inch being considered as effective for outside 
 work, except for fires in small buildings. In this connection it should be 
 noted that a i- or i%-inch ring tip delivers a stream about % inch smaller 
 than the diameter of the tip. 
 
 The pressure at the hydrant or fire engine is that indicated by a gage 
 attached to the hydrant or fire engine while the stream is flowing. The 
 pressure at the nozzle is that indicated by a Pitot gage held in the stream. 
 
 The hydrant (or engine) pressures are obtained by adding to the nozzle 
 pressure the friction loss in the hose, and also the small additional loss in 
 the hydrant outlet or engine discharge. 
 
 Friction losses in hose are based on tests of best quality rubber-lined fire 
 hose and are for loo-foot lengths measured without pressure applied. Diam- 
 eters of hose, as measured under 75 pounds pressure, assumed as the average 
 working condition, were as follows: For nominal 2^-inch, 2.575 or about 
 2 9/16 inches; for nominal 3-inch, 3.125 or 3% inches; for nominal 3 1 /-inch, 
 3.685 or about 3 11/16 inches. 
 
 The smoothness of the lining has a very considerable effect on the friction 
 loss, some samples tested showing losses 50 per cent in excess of those given. 
 A slight variation in diameter also produces a marked difference in friction 
 loss; in the case of 2%-inch hose, a variation of 1/16 inch in diameter will 
 result in 10 per cent difference in loss. If properly beveled 2%-inch couplings 
 are used on 3-inch hose, the loss of pressure due to them will be less than 
 5 per cent of that gained by the use of the larger hose. For instance, for 
 a flow of 300 gallons per minute, the loss in 2i^-inch hose will be about 
 21 pounds, in 3-inch hose with 3-inch couplings about 8 pounds, and in 
 3-inch with 2%-inch couplings about 8% pounds. 
 
 For siamesed lines, an allowance was made for the loss in the Siamese 
 connection and for 20 feet of 3%-inch lead hose. 
 
 The pressures given are for the nozzle at the same elevation as the 
 hydrant or engine discharge outlet. Add or subtract i pound to the pressure 
 given for each 2 1^3 feet difference in elevation. The arrangement of the 
 table allows a comparison to be readily made of the results obtainable with 
 3-inch hose and siamesed lines against single lines of 2%-inch hose. 
 
 An approximate formula for the friction loss in 2^-inch hose is as follows: 
 
 Pressure loss in each hundred feet, in pounds = 2 Q 2 -j- Q, where Q is tne 
 quantity in gallons divided by 100. 
 
 The approximate figure for the friction loss in other sizes for the same quan- 
 tity flowing can be obtained by dividing the friction loss in 2^-inch hose by 
 the following factors, shown in bold face type: 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 SINGLE LINES 
 
 695 
 
 1.66 
 
 3" 
 2.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 4" 
 11.0 
 
 19.5 
 
 5" 
 32.0 
 
 1-2%' 
 
 6.1 
 
 SIAMESED LINES OF EQUAL LENGTH 
 2-2%" 3-3%" 2-3" 3-3" 
 
 3.6 7.75 9.35 20.4 
 
 t-2%" 6-2%" 4-3" 2-2%" 2-3" 
 
 12.4 27.0 32.0 11.6 15.0 
 
 RATING OF GASOLINE MOTORS 
 
 (Bore)* X Number of Cylinders 
 = H. P. 
 
 Horse Power 
 
 
 2Cyl. 
 
 4Cyl. 
 
 6Cyl. 
 
 3 
 
 7 2 
 
 14 4 
 
 21 6 
 
 3J. .. 
 
 8.4 
 
 16.9 
 
 25.3 
 
 3J. .. 
 
 9 8 
 
 19 6 
 
 29 4 
 
 3J 
 
 11.2 
 
 22.5 
 
 33.7 
 
 4 
 
 12 8 
 
 25 6 
 
 38 4 
 
 4J 
 
 14 5 
 
 29 9 
 
 43 4 
 
 4i 
 
 16 2 
 
 32.4 
 
 48.6 
 
 4}. . . 
 
 18 1 
 
 36 1 
 
 34 2 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 5J.. 
 
 22 1 
 
 44 1 
 
 66.2 
 
 sf 
 
 24 2 
 
 48 4 
 
 72 6 
 
 5| . 
 
 26 5 
 
 52.9 
 
 79.4 
 
 6 
 
 28 8 
 
 57 6 
 
 85.4 
 
 
 31.2 
 
 62.5 
 
 93.7 
 
 gi 
 
 33 8 
 
 67 6 
 
 101.4 
 
 6} 
 
 36 4 
 
 72 9 
 
 109.3 
 
 7 ::::::::; : 
 
 39.2 
 
 78.4 
 
 117.6 
 
 
 42 1 
 
 84 1 
 
 126.2 
 
 7k. . 
 
 45.0 
 
 90.0 
 
 135.0 
 
 7\. 
 
 48.1 
 
 96.1 
 
 144.2 
 
 8 
 
 51.2 
 
 102.4 
 
 153.6 
 
 
 
 
 
696 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 TABLE OF NOZZLE FACTORS 
 
 For use in obtaining discharge from smooth nozzle larger 
 than those given in tables on pages 704 and 705, when nozzle 
 pressure is obtained with a Pitot gage. 
 
 The discharge in gallons per minute is equal to the square 
 root of the pressure multiplied by the factor. 
 
 
 FACTORS. 
 
 Diameter of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nozzle in inches. 
 
 For Fresh 
 
 Water. 
 
 For Salt (sea) Water. 
 
 2 
 
 118. 
 
 96 
 
 1*7 45 
 
 2 i 
 
 150. 
 
 56 
 
 148.64 
 
 2\ 
 
 185. 
 
 88 
 
 183.50 
 
 2f 
 
 224 
 
 9' 
 
 222.05 
 
 3 
 
 267. 
 
 66 
 
 264 25 
 
 3i 
 3* 
 
 364- 
 
 13 
 32 
 
 310.13 
 359 68 
 
 3f 
 
 418 
 
 23 
 
 412.90 
 
 4 
 
 475- 
 
 85 
 
 469 79 
 
 4i 
 
 537- 
 
 19 
 
 530.35 
 
 4i 
 
 602. 
 
 25 
 
 594.58 
 
 4! 
 
 671. 
 
 02 
 
 662.48 
 
 5 
 
 743- 
 
 51 
 
 734-03 
 
 6 
 
 i ,070 . 
 
 6 4 
 
 1,057 oo 
 
 For any size nozzles, the discharge, for fresh water, can be 
 determined by the following formula: 
 Gallons per minute = 29.83 c d 2 Vp. 
 
 Where d =: diameter of nozzle in inches, measured to i/iooo 
 of an inch. 
 
 p = pressure recorded on Pitot gage in pounds. 
 
 c = a constant, varying from 0.990 for i-inch nozzle to 0.997 
 for 6-inch nozzle. 
 
 For ordinary use, the formula can be reduced to: 
 Gallons per minute = 29.7 d 2 Vp, 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 697 
 
 FORMULA FOR OBTAINING APPROXIMATE NOZZLE 
 
 OR ENGINE PRESSURES, LENGTH OF LINE 
 
 AND SIZE OF NOZZLE BEING GIVEN. 
 
 Engine Pressure 
 
 Nozzle Pressure in pounds = ^ ^ 
 
 I.I -|- K L 
 
 Engine Pressure in pounds = Nozzle Pressure (i.i -f- K L). 
 L = Number of 5o-foot lengths of hose. 
 
 K Constant, varying with size of nozzle and hose. See Table 
 following. 
 
 Size Nozzle, 1 
 Inches. 
 
 K FOR 
 
 Single ' 
 Line 
 2^ Hose. 
 
 Single 
 Line 
 3" Hose. 
 
 Single 
 Line 
 M' Hose. 
 
 Two 
 2^" Lines 
 Siamesed. 
 
 * 
 
 Two 
 3" Lines 
 Siamesed. 
 
 * 
 
 3 Lines 
 W Hose. 
 
 I 
 
 .105 
 
 .038 
 
 
 025 
 
 .... 
 
 
 I* 
 
 .167 
 
 .062 
 
 
 
 043 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 4 
 
 .248 
 
 .092 
 
 39 
 
 066 
 
 .023 
 
 .028 
 
 ij 
 
 341 
 
 137 
 
 .059 
 
 .006 
 
 034 
 
 043 
 
 ij 
 
 .505 
 
 .I 9 2 
 
 .084 
 
 135 
 
 .051 
 
 .061 
 
 i| 
 
 .680 
 
 .266 
 
 ii3 
 
 .184 
 
 .068 
 
 .084 
 
 it 
 
 .907 
 
 351 
 
 .152 
 
 .242 
 
 093 
 
 .115 
 
 2 
 
 1.550 
 
 .605 
 
 .250 
 
 .418 
 
 157 
 
 .190 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Allowance is made for loss in deluge set; these values will 
 also give approximately correct figures for turret nozzles and water 
 tower, except that in the latter, pressure equal to 0.434 times the 
 height of tower must be subtracted from the engine pressure, before 
 solving for nozzle pressure. 
 
 [EDITOR'S NOTE. The value of K for 2 I / 2 -'mch hose and any size 
 nozzle can be found by squaring the diameter of the nozzle, squaring 
 the answer and dividing by 10. For any other size of hose or any 
 siamesed lines, K can be found by dividing the K for 2j4-inch hose 
 by the Factor for the other hose given on page 696.] 
 
698 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 EFFECTIVE REACH OF FIRE STREAMS. 
 
 SHOWING THE DISTANCE IN FEET FROM THE NOZZLE AT 
 
 WHICH STREAMS WILL DO EFFECTIVE WORK WITH A 
 
 MODERATE WIND BLOWING. WITH A STRONG WIND 
 
 THE REACH is GREATLY REDUCED., 
 
 
 
 SIZE OF NOZZLE. 
 
 i-Inch. 
 
 ij-lnch 
 
 ij-lnch. 
 
 ij-Inch. 
 
 i^-Inch. 
 
 ^H 
 
 rt 
 
 Si 
 
 zi 
 
 o 
 
 t . 
 
 ej 
 
 gi 
 
 ii 
 
 $i 
 
 li 
 
 oi 
 
 .2 . 
 C| 
 
 3 
 
 ,-t* 
 
 X'~ 
 
 -fa 
 
 5 
 
 * ^ 
 
 "* 
 
 fa 
 
 rt j- 
 
 - 
 
 "rtftt, 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 t 2 
 
 O rt 
 
 Is 
 
 is 
 
 J* 
 
 II 
 
 **" 
 
 N C 
 
 t, a 
 
 |f 
 
 II 
 
 %S 
 
 .So- 
 li 
 
 8 
 
 "is 
 
 1* 
 
 H 
 
 orizoni 
 tance, 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 K 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 3 6 
 
 38 
 
 3 6 
 
 ~39" 
 
 ~& 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 ~42~ 
 
 25 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 30 
 
 5i 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 35 
 
 58 
 
 5i 
 
 59 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 64 
 
 55 
 
 65 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 62 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 69 
 
 66 
 
 45 
 
 69 
 
 58 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 74 
 
 7i 
 
 50 
 
 73 
 
 61 
 
 75 
 
 66 
 
 75 
 
 69 
 
 77 
 
 72 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 55 
 
 76 
 
 64 
 
 79 
 
 69 
 
 80 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 75 
 
 83 
 
 78 
 
 60 
 
 79 
 
 67 
 
 83 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 77 
 
 87 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 82 
 
 70 
 
 86 
 
 75 
 
 87 
 
 78 
 
 88 
 
 79 
 
 90 
 
 82 
 
 :o 
 
 85 
 
 72 
 
 88 
 
 77 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 9' 
 
 82 
 
 92 
 
 84 
 
 75 
 
 87 
 
 74 
 
 90 
 
 79 
 
 92 
 
 82 
 
 93 
 
 84 
 
 94 
 
 86 
 
 80 
 
 89 
 
 76 
 
 92 
 
 81 
 
 94 
 
 84 
 
 95 
 
 86 
 
 96 
 
 88 
 
 85 
 
 9i 
 
 78 
 
 94 
 
 83 
 
 96 
 
 87 
 
 97 
 
 88 
 
 98 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 92 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 85 
 
 98 
 
 89 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 00 
 
 9i 
 
 NOTE. Nozzle pressures are as indicated by Pitot 
 vertical distances are based on experiments by Mr. John 
 Am. boc. C. E., Vol. XXI. 
 
 tube. The horizontal and 
 R. Freeman, Transactions, 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 699 
 
 FRICTION LOSS IN FIRE HOSE. 
 
 BASED ON TESTS OF BEST QUALITY RUBBER LINED FIRE HOSE.* 
 
 Flow, Gallons per 
 Minute. 
 
 PRESSURE Loss IN EACH 
 loo FEET OF HOSE, 
 POUNDS PER SQ. INCH. 
 
 Flow, Gallons per 
 Minute. 
 
 PRESSURE Loss IN 
 EACH loo FEET OF 
 HOSE, POUNDS PER 
 SQ. INCH. 
 
 2*- 
 Hose. 
 
 Hose. 
 
 3*" 
 Hose. 
 
 2 Lines of 
 
 2|" 
 
 Siamesed. 
 
 Hose. 
 
 3V 
 
 Hose. 
 
 2 Lines of 
 
 2" 
 
 Siamesed. 
 
 140 
 
 5-2 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.4 
 
 525 
 
 23-2 
 
 10.5 
 
 16.6 
 
 160 
 
 6.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 I .2 
 
 1.9 
 
 55o 
 
 25.2 
 
 11.4 
 
 18.1 
 
 1 80 
 
 8-3 
 
 3-2 
 
 i-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 575 
 
 27.5 
 
 12.4 
 
 19.0 
 
 200 
 
 10. I 
 
 3-9 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 600 
 
 29.9 
 
 13-4 
 
 21.2 
 
 220 
 
 12.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 2. I 
 
 3-3 
 
 625 
 
 32.0 
 
 14.4 
 
 23.0 
 
 240 
 
 T4.I 
 
 5-4 
 
 2.5 
 
 3-9 
 
 650 
 
 34-5 
 
 15 5 
 
 2 4 .8 
 
 260 
 
 I6. 4 
 
 6.3 
 
 2. 9 
 
 4-5 
 
 675 
 
 37-0 
 
 16.6 
 
 26.5 
 
 280 
 
 I8. 7 
 
 7-2 
 
 3-3 
 
 5.2 
 
 700 
 
 39-5 
 
 17.7 
 
 28.3 
 
 300 
 
 21 .2 
 
 8.2 
 
 3-7 
 
 5-9 
 
 725 
 
 42-3 
 
 18.9 
 
 30.2 
 
 320 
 
 2 3 .8 
 
 93 
 
 4.2 
 
 6.6 
 
 750 
 
 45.0 
 
 20.1 
 
 32-2 
 
 340 
 
 26.9 
 
 10.5 
 
 4-7 
 
 7-4 
 
 775 
 
 47-8 
 
 21.4 
 
 34-2 
 
 3 60 
 
 30.0 
 
 11.5 
 
 5-2 
 
 8.3 
 
 800 
 
 50.5 
 
 22.7 
 
 36.2 
 
 3 80 
 
 33-o 
 
 12.8 
 
 5-8 
 
 9-2 
 
 825 
 
 53-5 
 
 24.0 
 
 38.4 
 
 400 
 
 36.2 
 
 14.1 
 
 6-3 
 
 10. I 
 
 850 
 
 56.5 
 
 25.4 
 
 40.7 
 
 425 
 
 40.8 
 
 15-7 
 
 7.0 
 
 H-3 
 
 875 
 
 59-7 
 
 26.8 
 
 43-1 
 
 45 
 
 45.2 
 
 17-5 
 
 7-9 
 
 12.5 
 
 900 
 
 63.0 
 
 28.2 
 
 45.2 
 
 475 
 
 50.0 
 
 19-3 
 
 8-7 
 
 13.8 
 
 1,000 
 
 76.5 
 
 34-3 
 
 55-o 
 
 300 
 
 55.0 
 
 21.2 
 
 9-5 
 
 15.2 
 
 1,100 
 s 
 
 91-5 
 
 41.0 
 
 65.5 
 
 *Rough rubber lining is liable to increase the losses given in the table as 
 much as so per cent. 
 
700 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 DISCHARGE TABLE FOR SMOOTH NOZZLES. 
 
 NOZZLE PRESSURE MEASURED BY PITOT GAGE. 
 
 Nozzle 
 Pressure 
 in Ibs. per 
 sq. inch. 
 
 NOZZLE DIAM IN INCHES. 
 
 i iy a 1*4 1% iy 2 
 
 Nozzle 
 Pressure 
 in Ibs. per 
 sq. inch. 
 
 NOZZLE DIAM. IN 
 1 1*6 1*4 
 
 INCHES. 
 
 1** 
 
 Gallons 
 
 per minute. 
 
 Gallons per Minute. 
 
 6 
 
 66 
 
 84 
 
 103 
 
 125 
 
 149 
 
 60 
 
 229 
 
 290 
 
 357 
 
 434 
 
 51? 
 
 6 
 
 72 
 
 92 
 
 113 
 
 137 
 
 163 
 
 62 
 
 233 
 
 295 
 
 363 
 
 441 
 
 525 
 
 7 
 
 78 
 
 99 
 
 122 
 
 148 
 
 176 
 
 64 
 
 237 
 
 299 
 
 369 
 
 448 
 
 531} 
 
 8 
 
 84 
 
 106 
 
 131 
 
 158 
 
 188 
 
 66 
 
 240 
 
 804 
 
 375 
 
 455 
 
 54^ 
 
 9 
 
 89 
 
 112 
 
 139 
 
 168 
 
 200 
 
 68 
 
 244 
 
 808 
 
 881 
 
 462 
 
 550 
 
 10 
 
 93 
 
 118 
 
 146 
 
 177 
 
 211 
 
 70 
 
 247 
 
 313 
 
 886 
 
 469 
 
 558 
 
 12 
 
 102 
 
 130 
 
 160 
 
 194 
 
 231 
 
 72 
 
 251 
 
 318 
 
 391 
 
 475 
 
 566 
 
 14 
 
 110 
 
 140 
 
 173 
 
 210 
 
 49 
 
 74 
 
 254 
 
 322 
 
 897 
 
 482 
 
 571 
 
 16 
 
 118 
 
 150 
 
 185 
 
 224 
 
 267 
 
 76 
 
 258 
 
 326 
 
 402 
 
 488 
 
 5S2 
 
 18 
 
 125 
 
 159 
 
 196 
 
 237 
 
 283 
 
 78 
 
 261 
 
 330 
 
 407 
 
 494 
 
 589 
 
 20 
 
 132 
 
 167 
 
 206 
 
 250 
 
 298 
 
 80 
 
 264 
 
 335 
 
 413 
 
 500 
 
 596 
 
 22 
 
 139 
 
 li'5 
 
 216 
 
 263 
 
 313 
 
 82 
 
 268 
 
 339 
 
 418 
 
 507 
 
 G04 
 
 24 
 
 145 
 
 183 
 
 226 
 
 275 
 
 327 
 
 84 
 
 271 
 
 348 
 
 423 
 
 513 
 
 611 
 
 26 
 
 151 
 
 191 
 
 235 
 
 286 
 
 840 
 
 86 
 
 274 
 
 347 
 
 428 
 
 519 
 
 616 
 
 28 
 
 157 
 
 198 
 
 244 
 
 297 
 
 853 
 
 88 
 
 277 
 
 351 
 
 433 
 
 525 
 
 626 
 
 80 
 
 162 
 
 205 
 
 253 
 
 307 
 
 3C5 
 
 90 
 
 280 
 
 355 
 
 438 
 
 531 
 
 633 
 
 82 
 
 167 
 
 212 
 
 261 
 
 317 
 
 377 
 
 92 
 
 283 
 
 359 
 
 443 
 
 537 
 
 G40 
 
 84 
 
 172 
 
 218 
 
 269 
 
 827 
 
 889 
 
 94 
 
 286 
 
 363 
 
 447 
 
 543 
 
 647 
 
 86 
 
 177 
 
 224 
 
 277 
 
 336 
 
 400 
 
 96 
 
 289 
 
 367 
 
 452 
 
 549 
 
 054 
 
 88 
 
 182 
 
 231 
 
 285 
 
 345 
 
 411 
 
 98 
 
 292 
 
 870 
 
 456 
 
 554 
 
 660 
 
 40 
 
 187 
 
 237 
 
 292 
 
 854 
 
 422 
 
 100 
 
 295 
 
 374 
 
 461 
 
 560 
 
 607 
 
 42 
 
 192 
 
 243 
 
 299 
 
 863 
 
 432 
 
 105 
 
 303 
 
 383 
 
 473 
 
 574 
 
 683 
 
 44 
 
 196 
 
 248 
 
 806 
 
 872 
 
 442 
 
 110 
 
 810 
 
 892 
 
 484 
 
 588 
 
 699 
 
 46 
 
 200 
 
 254 
 
 813 
 
 380 
 
 452 
 
 115 
 
 317 
 
 401 
 
 495 
 
 600 
 
 715 
 
 48 
 
 205 
 
 259 
 
 320 
 
 388 
 
 462 
 
 120 
 
 824 
 
 410 
 
 505 
 
 613 
 
 730 
 
 50 
 
 209 
 
 265 
 
 326 
 
 896 
 
 472 
 
 125 
 
 381 
 
 418 
 
 516 
 
 626 
 
 745 
 
 62 
 
 213 
 
 270 
 
 333 
 
 404 
 
 481 
 
 130 
 
 337 
 
 427 
 
 526 
 
 638 
 
 760 
 
 64 
 
 217 
 
 275 
 
 839 
 
 412 
 
 490 
 
 135 
 
 843 
 
 485 
 
 536 
 
 650 
 
 775 
 
 56 
 
 221 
 
 280 
 
 345 
 
 419 
 
 499 
 
 140 
 
 850 
 
 443 
 
 546 
 
 662 
 
 789 
 
 68 
 
 225 
 
 285 
 
 351 
 
 426 
 
 508 
 
 145 
 
 356 
 
 450 
 
 556 
 
 674 
 
 803 
 
 60 
 
 229 
 
 290 
 
 357 
 
 484 
 
 517 
 
 150 
 
 362 
 
 458 
 
 565 
 
 686 
 
 817 
 
 Assumed coefficient of discharge = .99 .99 .99 .99% -99 V 2 
 
 NOTE. Coefficients of discharge are based on experiments by Mr. John' R. 
 Freeman, Transactions Am. Soc. C. E. f Vols. XXI and XXIV, 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 701 
 
 DISCHARGE TABLE FOR SMOOTH NOZZLES. 
 
 NOZZLE PRESSURE MEASURED BY PITOT GAGE. 
 
 NOZZLE DIAM. IN INCHES. 
 
 
 NOZZLE DIASI. IN 
 
 INCHES. 
 
 Nozzle 
 
 l*Wa 
 
 iJl^ 
 
 1^6 
 
 2 
 
 Ol/j 
 
 Nozzle 
 
 
 iJtX 
 
 1^/6 
 
 2 
 
 O|Z 
 
 Pressure 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pressure 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in Ibs. per 
 sq. inch. 
 
 Gallons per Minute. 
 
 in libs, per 
 sq. inch. 
 
 Gallons per Minute. 
 
 5 
 
 175 
 
 203 
 
 234 
 
 263 
 
 337 
 
 60 
 
 607 
 
 704 
 
 810 
 
 920 
 
 1167 
 
 6 
 
 192 
 
 223 
 
 256 
 
 292 
 
 369 
 
 62 
 
 617 
 
 716 
 
 823 
 
 936 
 
 1187 
 
 7 
 
 207 
 
 241 
 
 277 
 
 315 
 
 899 
 
 64 
 
 627 
 
 727 
 
 836 
 
 951 
 
 1206 
 
 8 
 
 222 
 
 257 
 
 296 
 
 336 
 
 427 
 
 66 
 
 636 
 
 788 
 
 850 
 
 965 
 
 1224 
 
 9 
 
 235 
 
 273 
 
 314 
 
 857 
 
 452 
 
 68 
 
 646 
 
 750 
 
 862 
 
 980 
 
 1242 
 
 10 
 
 248 
 
 288 
 
 330 
 
 876 
 
 477 
 
 70 
 
 655 
 
 761 
 
 875 
 
 994 
 
 1260 
 
 12 
 
 271 
 
 315 
 
 362 
 
 412 
 
 522 
 
 72 
 
 665 
 
 771 
 
 887 
 
 1008 
 
 1278 
 
 14 
 
 293 
 
 340 
 
 891 
 
 445 
 
 564 
 
 74 
 
 674 
 
 782 
 
 900 
 
 1028 
 
 1296 
 
 16 
 
 313 
 
 364 
 
 418 
 
 475 
 
 603 
 
 76 
 
 683 
 
 792 
 
 911 
 
 1036 
 
 1813 
 
 18 
 
 332 
 
 386 
 
 444 
 
 504 
 
 640 
 
 78 
 
 692 
 
 803 
 
 924 
 
 1050 
 
 1330 
 
 20 
 
 850 
 
 407 
 
 468 
 
 532 
 
 674 
 
 80 
 
 700 
 
 813 
 
 935 
 
 1068 
 
 1347 
 
 22 
 
 867 
 
 427 
 
 490 
 
 557 
 
 707 
 
 82 
 
 709 
 
 823 
 
 946 
 
 1076 
 
 1864 
 
 24 
 
 884 
 
 446 
 
 512 
 
 582 
 
 789 
 
 84 
 
 718 
 
 833 
 
 959 
 
 1089 
 
 1380 
 
 26 
 
 400 
 
 464 
 
 533 
 
 606 
 
 769 
 
 86 
 
 726 
 
 848 
 
 970 
 
 1102 
 
 1396 
 
 28 
 
 415 
 
 481 
 
 554 
 
 629 
 
 799 
 
 88 
 
 735 
 
 853 
 
 981 
 
 1115 
 
 1412 
 
 80 
 
 429 
 
 498 
 
 572 
 
 651 
 
 826 
 
 90 
 
 743 
 
 862 
 
 992 
 
 1128 
 
 1429 
 
 82 
 
 443 
 
 514 
 
 591 
 
 673 
 
 854 
 
 92 
 
 751 
 
 872 
 
 1002 
 
 1140 
 
 1445 
 
 84 
 
 457 
 
 530 
 
 610 
 
 693 
 
 880 
 
 94 
 
 759 
 
 881 
 
 1012 
 
 1152 
 
 1460 
 
 36 
 
 470 
 
 546 
 
 627 
 
 713 
 
 905 
 
 96 
 
 767 
 
 890 
 
 1022 
 
 1164 
 
 1476 
 
 38 
 
 483 
 
 561 
 
 645 
 
 733 
 
 930 
 
 98 
 
 775 
 
 900 
 
 1032 
 
 1176 
 
 1491 
 
 40 
 
 496 
 
 575 
 
 661 
 
 752 
 
 954 
 
 100 
 
 788 
 
 909 
 
 1043 
 
 1189 
 
 1506 
 
 42 
 
 508 
 
 589 
 
 678 
 
 770 
 
 978 
 
 105 
 
 803 
 
 932 
 
 1070 
 
 1218 
 
 1542 
 
 44 
 
 520 
 
 603 
 
 694 
 
 788 
 
 1000 
 
 110 
 
 822 
 
 954 
 
 1095 
 
 1247 
 
 1570 
 
 46 
 
 531 
 
 617 
 
 710 
 
 806 
 
 1021 
 
 115 
 
 840 
 
 975 
 
 1120 
 
 1275 
 
 i6r. 
 
 48 
 
 543 
 
 630 
 
 725 
 
 824 
 
 1048 
 
 120 
 
 858 
 
 996 
 
 1144 
 
 1303 
 
 1649 
 
 60 
 
 554 
 
 643 
 
 740 
 
 841 
 
 1065 
 
 125 
 
 876 
 
 1016 
 
 1168 
 
 1329 
 
 1683 
 
 52 
 
 565 
 
 656 
 
 754 
 
 857 
 
 1087 
 
 130 
 
 893 
 
 1036 
 
 1191 
 
 1356 
 
 171? 
 
 64 
 
 576 
 
 668 
 
 769 
 
 to 
 
 1108 
 
 135 
 
 910 
 
 1056 
 
 1213 
 
 1382 
 
 1750 
 
 66 
 
 586 
 
 680 
 
 782 
 
 889 
 
 1129 
 
 110 
 
 927 
 
 1076 
 
 1235 
 
 1407 
 
 1780 
 
 58 
 
 590 
 
 692 
 
 796 
 
 905 
 
 1149 
 
 145 
 
 944 
 
 1095 
 
 1257 
 
 1432 
 
 1812 
 
 CO 
 
 C07 
 
 704 
 
 810 
 
 920 
 
 1168 
 
 150 
 
 960 
 
 1114 
 
 1279 
 
 1456 
 
 1843 
 
 Assumed coefficient of discharge 
 
 = .995 .995 .996 .997 .997 
 
702 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 i-lNCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 
 
 Nozzle Pressure 
 Indicated by 
 Pitot Gage. 
 
 en 
 
 C 
 
 ^o 
 
 y 
 
 s 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR 
 MAINTAIN NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN 
 LENGTHS OF BEST QUALITY 
 
 Single 2^-inch Lines. 
 
 100 
 
 Feet. 
 
 200 
 
 Feet. 
 
 300 
 
 Feet. 
 
 400 
 Feet. 
 
 500 
 Feet. 
 
 600 
 Feet. 
 
 700 
 
 Feet 
 
 800 
 
 Feet, 
 
 20 
 
 132 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 53 
 
 58 
 
 25 
 
 148 
 
 31 
 
 37 
 
 43 
 
 49 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 30 
 
 162 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 5i 
 
 58 
 
 65 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 85 
 
 35 
 
 175 
 
 44 
 
 52 
 
 59 
 
 67 
 
 75 
 
 83 
 
 9i 
 
 98 
 
 40 
 
 187 
 
 50 
 
 59 
 
 68 
 
 77 
 
 86 
 
 94 
 
 103 
 
 1 12 
 
 45 
 
 198 
 
 56 
 
 66 
 
 76 
 
 86 
 
 96 
 
 106 
 
 H5 
 
 125 
 
 50 
 
 209 
 
 62 
 
 73 
 
 84 
 
 95 
 
 1 06 
 
 117 
 
 128 
 
 139 
 
 55 
 
 219 
 
 68 
 
 80 
 
 92 
 
 104 
 
 116 
 
 128 
 
 140 
 
 152 
 
 60 
 
 229 
 
 75 
 
 88 
 
 101 
 
 114 
 
 127 
 
 140 
 
 153 
 
 1 66 
 
 65 
 
 238 
 
 81 
 
 95 
 
 109 
 
 123 
 
 137 
 
 151 
 
 165 
 
 179 
 
 70 
 
 247 
 
 87 
 
 102 
 
 117 
 
 132 
 
 147 
 
 162 
 
 177 
 
 192 
 
 75 
 
 256 
 
 93 
 
 109 
 
 125 
 
 141 
 
 157 
 
 173 
 
 189 
 
 205 
 
 80 
 
 264 
 
 99 
 
 116 
 
 133 
 
 150 
 
 167 
 
 183 
 
 200 
 
 217 
 
 85 
 
 272 
 
 105 
 
 123 
 
 141 
 
 159- 
 
 177 
 
 195 
 
 212 
 
 230 
 
 90 
 
 280 
 
 in 
 
 130 
 
 149 
 
 167 
 
 1 86 
 
 205 
 
 224 
 
 243 
 
 95 
 
 287 
 
 117 
 
 137 
 
 157 
 
 177 
 
 196 
 
 216 
 
 236 
 
 256 
 
 100 
 
 295 
 
 123 
 
 144 
 
 165 
 
 185 
 
 206 
 
 227 
 
 247 
 
 268 
 
FIKK STREAM TABLES 
 
 703 
 
 2 i a- AND 3-INCH HOSE. 
 
 FIRE ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOWING, TO 
 IN FIRST COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS 
 2\- AND 3-iNCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 > 
 
 a; T3 rt 
 -^ ^ 
 
 
 Single 3-inch Lines. 
 
 Two 2|-inch 
 Lines Siamesed. 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 800 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 2.000 
 
 &~ 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 68 
 
 77 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 33 
 
 '40 
 
 46 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 95 
 
 43 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 59 
 
 4i 
 
 49 
 
 .57 
 
 25 
 
 99 
 
 112 
 
 52 
 
 57 
 
 62 
 
 70 
 
 49 
 
 59 
 
 68 
 
 30 
 
 114 
 
 130 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 57 
 
 68 
 
 79 
 
 35 
 
 130 
 
 148 
 
 68 
 
 75 
 
 82 
 
 92 
 
 65 
 
 78 
 
 90 
 
 40 
 
 145 
 
 165 
 
 77 
 
 84 
 
 92 
 
 103 
 
 72 
 
 86 
 
 99 
 
 45 
 
 160 
 
 182 
 
 85 
 
 93 
 
 102 
 
 114 
 
 80 
 
 95 
 
 no 
 
 50 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 199 
 
 93 
 
 102 
 
 112 
 
 125 
 
 88 
 
 105 
 
 121 
 
 55 
 
 192 
 
 218 
 
 102 
 
 112 
 
 122 
 
 137 
 
 96 
 
 114 
 
 132 
 
 60 
 
 207 
 
 235 
 
 no 
 
 121 
 
 I 3 I 
 
 148 
 
 103 
 
 122 
 
 141 
 
 65 
 
 222 
 
 252 
 
 118 
 
 130 
 
 141 
 
 159 
 
 in 
 
 132 
 
 152 
 
 70 
 
 237 
 
 269 
 
 127 
 
 139 
 
 151 
 
 170 
 
 120 
 
 142 
 
 164 
 
 75 
 
 2 5 I 
 
 285 
 
 135 
 
 148 
 
 161 
 
 181 
 
 128 
 
 151 
 
 175 
 
 80 
 
 266 
 
 302 
 
 143 
 
 I 5 6 
 
 170 
 
 191 
 
 135 
 
 159 
 
 184 
 
 85 
 
 280 
 
 
 I5i 
 
 I6 5 
 
 1 80 
 
 202 
 
 143 
 
 I6 9 
 
 195 
 
 90 
 
 295 
 
 
 158 
 
 173 
 
 189 
 
 211 
 
 150 
 
 177 
 
 204 
 
 95 
 
 310 
 
 
 167 
 
 I8 3 
 
 199 
 
 223 
 
 157 
 
 186" 
 
 215 
 
 100 
 
704 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 I/8-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE.- 
 
 % s 
 
 NJ O 
 
 Discharge, Gallons 
 per Minute. 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR FIRE 
 NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN FIRST 
 QUALITY 2|- AND 
 
 Single 2|-inch Lines. 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 8<u 
 1> 
 
 O <u 
 
 O <L> 
 H [T , 
 
 "C 
 O v 
 
 <L> 
 
 49 
 
 
 J"5 
 <u 
 fT, 
 
 64 
 
 8<u 
 <U 
 
 oj 
 o <u 
 
 CC PL, 
 
 92 
 
 4> 
 n_ <u 
 
 20 
 
 I6 7 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 56 
 
 71 
 
 78 
 
 107 
 
 25 
 
 I8 7 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 53 
 
 62 
 
 71 
 
 79 
 
 88 
 
 97 
 
 115 
 
 '33 
 
 30 
 
 205 
 
 42 
 
 52 
 
 63 
 
 73 
 
 84 
 
 95 
 
 105 
 
 116 
 
 137 
 
 I 5 8 
 
 35 
 
 221 
 
 49 
 
 61 
 
 73 
 
 85 
 
 97 
 
 IIO 
 
 122 
 
 134 
 
 158 
 
 I8 3 
 
 40 
 
 2J7 
 
 55 
 
 69 
 
 83 
 
 96 
 
 no 
 
 124 
 
 I 3 8 
 
 i5i 
 
 179 
 
 206 
 
 45 
 
 251 
 
 62 
 
 77 
 
 93 
 
 1 08 
 
 123 
 
 139 
 
 154 
 
 169 
 
 200 
 
 230 
 
 50 
 
 265 
 
 69 
 
 86 
 
 103 
 
 120 
 
 137 
 
 154 
 
 171 
 
 1 88 
 
 222 
 
 2 5 6 
 
 55 
 
 277 
 
 76 
 
 94 
 
 112 
 
 131 
 
 149 
 
 1 68 
 
 1 86 
 
 204 
 
 241 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 60 
 
 2 9 
 
 83 
 
 103 
 
 123 
 
 143 
 
 163 
 
 183 
 
 203 
 
 223 
 
 263 
 
 304 
 
 65 
 
 V 3 oi 
 
 89 
 
 in 
 
 132 
 
 154 
 
 175 
 
 197 
 
 218 
 
 240 
 
 283 
 
 326 
 
 70 
 
 313 
 
 96 
 
 119 
 
 142 
 
 I6 5 
 
 1 88 
 
 211 
 
 234 
 
 257 
 
 303 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 85 
 00 
 05 
 100 
 
 324 
 
 335 
 '345 
 355 
 365 
 374 
 
 103 
 
 IIO 
 
 116 
 123 
 
 136 
 
 128 
 136 
 144 
 152 
 160 
 1 68 
 
 '52 
 162 
 171 
 
 181 
 191 
 
 201 
 
 177 
 
 1 88 
 199 
 
 210 
 
 222 
 233 
 
 202 
 2I 5 
 
 226 
 240 
 2 5 2 
 265 
 
 227 
 241 
 
 254 
 269 
 283 
 297 
 
 252 
 267 
 282 
 298 
 
 329 
 
 276 
 327 
 
 325 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 705 
 
 a 1/2= AND 3-INCH HOSE. 
 
 ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOWING, TO MAINTAIN 
 COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST 
 3-iNCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 3 O 
 
 t i *O 
 O OS 
 
 Single 3-inch Lines. 
 
 Two 2^-inch Lines 
 Siamesed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l| 
 32 
 
 & 
 
 oo 
 
 *l 
 
 "' 
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 D <U 
 00^ 
 
 - 
 
 *- 
 
 i-l 
 
 OO^ V 
 
 37 
 
 43 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 62 
 
 71 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 46 
 
 53 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 53 
 
 60 
 
 67 
 
 77 
 
 8 7 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 25 
 
 47 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 7i 
 
 79 
 
 9 1 
 
 103 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 74 
 
 82 
 
 30 
 
 55 
 
 65 
 
 74 
 
 83 
 
 93 
 
 107 
 
 121 
 
 62 
 
 69 
 
 76 
 
 86 
 
 1 96 
 
 35 
 
 63 
 
 73 
 
 84 
 
 95 
 
 105 
 
 121 
 
 137 
 
 70 
 
 78 
 
 86 
 
 97 
 
 108 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 82 
 
 94 
 
 106 
 
 118 
 
 135 
 
 153 
 
 79 
 
 87 
 
 95 
 
 108 
 
 121 
 
 45 
 
 78 
 
 9i 
 
 104 
 
 H7 
 
 130 
 
 ISO 
 
 I6 9 
 
 88 
 
 98 
 
 107 
 
 121 
 
 135 
 
 50 
 
 86 
 
 100 
 
 114 
 
 128 
 
 142 
 
 164 
 
 I8 5 
 
 96 
 
 107 
 
 117 
 
 I 3 2 
 
 147 
 
 55 
 
 93 
 
 109 
 
 124 
 
 139 
 
 155 
 
 I 7 8 
 
 201 
 
 105 
 
 116 
 
 127 
 
 H3 
 
 160 
 
 60 
 
 101 
 
 117 
 
 134 
 
 I5i 
 
 167 
 
 I 9 2 
 
 217 
 
 114 
 
 126 
 
 138 
 
 I 5 6 
 
 174 
 
 65 
 
 108 
 
 126 
 
 144 
 
 162 
 
 i So 
 
 206 
 
 233 
 
 122 
 
 135 
 
 148 
 
 I6 7 
 
 1 86 
 
 70 
 
 III 
 
 135 
 
 154 
 
 173 
 
 192 
 
 221 
 
 249 
 
 I 3 
 
 144 
 
 157 
 
 I 7 8 
 
 198 
 
 75 
 
 124 
 
 144 
 
 165 
 
 185 
 
 206 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 267 
 
 I 3 8 
 
 153 
 
 167 
 
 l8 9 
 
 210 
 
 80 
 
 i3i 
 
 153 
 
 174 
 
 195 
 
 217 
 
 249 
 
 28l 
 
 147 
 
 163 
 
 178 
 
 201 
 
 224 
 
 85 
 
 139 
 
 161 
 
 184 
 
 207 
 
 229 
 
 263 
 
 297 
 
 I 5 6 
 
 172 
 
 1 88 
 
 212 
 
 237 
 
 90 
 
 146 
 
 170 
 
 194 
 
 218 
 
 242 
 
 277 
 
 313 
 
 I6 4 
 
 181 
 
 198 
 
 224 
 
 249 
 
 95 
 
 *54 
 
 178 
 
 203 
 
 228 
 
 253 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 190 
 
 208 
 
 235 
 
 26l 
 
 100 
 
706 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 1/4-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 
 
 Nozzle Pressure In- 
 dicated by Pitot 
 Gage. 
 
 V) 
 
 jD 
 O | 
 
 ffc 
 
 o, 
 
 (/) 
 
 5 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR FIRE 
 PRESSURES GIVEN IN FIRST COLUMN, 
 
 "2\- AND 3-INCH 
 
 Single 2|-inch Lines. 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 | 
 
 <u 
 
 oj 
 cOf T| 
 
 
 & 
 
 75 
 
 aj 
 fa 
 
 & 
 
 tu 
 
 O a; 
 00 l-M 
 
 <U 
 
 O_ a; 
 
 4J 
 (S qj 
 
 20 
 
 206 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 53 
 
 6 4 
 
 85 
 
 9 6 
 
 107 
 
 128 
 
 149 
 
 25 
 
 230 
 
 40 
 
 53 
 
 66 
 
 79 
 
 92 
 
 105 
 
 118 
 
 131 
 
 I 5 8 
 
 184 
 
 30 
 
 253 
 
 48 
 
 63 
 
 79 
 
 95 
 
 no 
 
 126 
 
 142 
 
 157 
 
 l8 9 
 
 220 
 
 35 
 
 273 
 
 55 
 
 73 
 
 9i 
 
 109 
 
 127 
 
 H5 
 
 163 
 
 181 
 
 217 
 
 253 
 
 40 
 
 292 
 
 63 
 
 83 
 
 104 
 
 124 
 
 144 
 
 I6 5 
 
 185 
 
 206 
 
 2 4 6 
 
 287 
 
 45 
 
 309 
 
 70 
 
 93 
 
 116 
 
 138 
 
 161 
 
 183 
 
 206 
 
 229 
 
 274 
 
 319 
 
 50 
 
 326 
 
 78 
 
 103 
 
 128 
 
 '53 
 
 178 
 
 203 
 
 228 
 
 253 
 
 303 
 
 
 
 55 
 60 
 65 
 70 
 75 
 SO 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 * 
 
 342 
 357 
 372 
 386 
 
 399 
 4i3 
 425 
 
 438 
 449 
 461 
 
 86 
 93 
 
 101 
 
 108 
 116 
 124 
 131 
 139 
 146 
 
 153 
 
 133 
 
 142 
 152 
 
 172 
 191 
 
 201 
 
 140 
 
 164 
 176 
 188 
 
 201 
 248 
 
 167 
 196 
 
 210 
 
 224 
 240 
 
 254 
 
 269 
 
 295 
 
 194 
 
 211 
 
 244 
 
 279 
 
 295 
 312 
 327 
 
 222 
 241 
 260 
 2 7 8 
 297 
 
 249 
 270 
 
 312 
 333 
 
 276 
 
 300 
 323 
 
 330 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 707 
 
 a i/a- AND 3-INCH HOSE. 
 
 ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOWING, TO MAINTAIN NOZZLE 
 
 THROUGH VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST QUALITY 
 
 RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 ^ Nozzle Pressure In- 
 dicated by Pitot Gage. | 
 
 Single 3-inch Lines. 
 
 Two 2i-inch Lines 
 Siamesed. 
 
 37 
 
 "& 
 
 $1 
 
 O <D 
 
 f^ <U 
 
 
 OO <L) 
 
 1 
 
 cg^ 
 
 45 
 
 5i 
 
 5* 
 
 ^7 
 
 8s 
 
 OO <U 
 
 46 
 
 54 
 
 62 
 
 70 
 
 83 
 
 95 
 
 39 
 
 57 
 
 47 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 77 
 
 87 
 
 102 
 
 117 
 
 48 
 
 55 
 
 62 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 91 
 
 25 
 
 56 
 
 68 
 
 81 
 
 93 
 
 105 
 
 123 
 
 142 
 
 57 
 
 66 
 
 74 
 
 83 
 
 96 
 
 109 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 79 
 
 92 
 
 106 
 
 120 
 
 141 
 
 161 
 
 66 
 
 76 
 
 86 
 
 95 
 
 no 
 
 125 
 
 35 
 
 74 
 
 89 
 
 105 
 
 120 
 
 I 3 6 
 
 159 
 
 183 
 
 75 
 
 87 
 
 99 
 
 no 
 
 127 
 
 144 
 
 40 
 
 83 
 
 100 
 
 117 
 
 135 
 
 152 
 
 I 7 8 
 
 204 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 109 
 
 121 
 
 140 
 
 158 
 
 45 
 
 9i 
 
 in 
 
 130 
 
 149 
 
 1 68 
 
 I 97 
 
 226 
 
 93 
 
 107 
 
 121 
 
 135 
 
 155 
 
 176 
 
 50 
 
 ICO 
 
 121 
 
 142 
 
 *6 3 
 
 184 
 
 216 
 
 247 
 
 102 
 
 117 
 
 I 3 2 
 
 H7 
 
 169 
 
 192 
 
 55 
 
 109 
 
 I 3 2 
 
 '55 
 
 178 
 
 201 
 
 235 
 
 270 
 
 III 
 
 128 
 
 144 
 
 160 
 
 185 
 
 2 IP 
 
 60 
 
 118 
 
 '43 
 
 167 
 
 192 
 
 217 
 
 254 
 
 291 
 
 120 
 
 137 
 
 155 
 
 173 
 
 199 
 
 225 
 
 C5 
 
 127 
 
 ^54 
 
 180 
 
 206 
 
 233 
 
 272 
 
 
 
 I2 9 
 
 147 
 
 1 66 
 
 185 
 
 213 
 
 241 
 
 70 
 
 136 
 
 I6 4 
 
 192 
 
 220 
 
 248 
 
 290 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 157 
 
 177 
 
 197 
 
 227 
 
 257 
 
 75 
 
 153 
 162 
 
 170 
 179 
 
 '75 
 184 
 
 195 
 205 
 215 
 
 205 
 216 
 228 
 240 
 252 
 
 235 
 
 247 
 26l 
 275 
 
 288 
 
 265 
 279 
 295 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 147 
 I 5 6 
 
 173 
 182 
 
 169 
 179 
 189 
 198 
 208 
 
 190 
 
 201 
 
 213 
 
 223 
 
 235 
 
 212 
 224 
 
 237 
 2 4 8 
 26l 
 
 244 
 
 258 
 
 273 
 286 
 300 
 
 2 7 6 
 2 9 2 
 
 323 
 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 . . L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
708 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 3/8-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 
 
 3 <u 
 
 tfl 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR FIRE 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN FIRST 
 
 3 
 
 3| 
 
 QUALITY 2|- AND 
 
 
 
 ?! 
 
 rt v. 
 
 r^ <D 
 
 Single 2j-inch Lines. 
 
 
 li 
 
 S 
 
 80J 
 -, ^ 
 
 O qj 
 
 M 
 
 &! 
 
 o "Sj 
 
 II 
 
 8 ^ 
 
 l| 
 
 o z 
 
 O <L> 
 
 M (i. 
 
 old 
 
 O <u 
 
 20 
 
 250 
 
 37 
 
 52 
 
 68 
 
 83 
 
 98 
 
 H3 
 
 128 
 
 144 
 
 34 
 
 45 
 
 25 
 
 280 
 
 46 
 
 64 
 
 83 
 
 102 
 
 121 
 
 139 
 
 158 
 
 177 
 
 4i 
 
 '56 
 
 30 
 
 , 307 
 
 55 
 
 77 
 
 99 
 
 121 
 
 144 
 
 1 66 
 
 1 88 
 
 210 
 
 50 
 
 67 
 
 35 
 
 331 
 
 64 
 
 89 
 
 115 
 
 140 
 
 1 66 
 
 191 
 
 217 
 
 242 
 
 58 
 
 78 
 
 40 
 
 354 
 
 73 
 
 102 
 
 I3i 
 
 1 60 
 
 1*9 
 
 218 
 
 247 
 
 2 7 6 
 
 67 
 
 89 
 
 45 
 
 ; 376 
 
 81 
 
 114 
 
 146 
 
 I 7 8 
 
 211 
 
 243 
 
 275 
 
 307 
 
 74 
 
 99 
 
 50 
 
 396 
 
 90 
 
 125 
 
 161 
 
 1 9 6 
 
 222 
 
 257 
 
 293 
 
 328 
 
 82 
 
 109 
 
 55 
 
 415 
 
 99 
 
 137 
 
 176 
 
 2I 5 
 
 254 
 
 292 
 
 33i 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 121 
 
 60 
 
 434 
 
 107 
 
 149 
 
 191 
 
 
 276 
 
 318 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 65 
 
 411 
 
 116 
 
 
 706 
 
 211 
 
 2Q7 
 
 
 
 
 1 06 
 
 141 
 
 70 
 
 4.60 
 
 
 
 222 
 
 27O 
 
 3IQ 
 
 
 
 
 I 14 
 
 I 12 
 
 75 
 
 !' 485 
 
 134 
 
 I8 5 
 
 237 
 
 289 
 
 
 
 
 
 122 
 
 162 
 
 80 
 
 : 500 
 
 142 
 
 1 9 6 
 
 251 
 
 305 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 3 
 
 172 
 
 85 
 
 116 
 
 I1i 
 
 2OQ 
 
 267 
 
 321 
 
 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 l83 
 
 90 
 
 
 I 1O 
 
 2 2O 
 
 28l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.6 
 
 IQ4. 
 
 95 
 
 146 
 
 1 68 
 
 232 
 
 2Q7 
 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 
 1 13 
 
 2O 7 
 
 100 
 
 560 
 
 177 
 
 244 
 
 312 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 162 
 
 215 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 709 
 
 a i/a- AND 3-INCH HOSE. 
 
 ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOWING, TO MAINTAIN 
 COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST 
 
 1S$ 
 
 3-iNCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 Nozzle Pressure 
 | cated by Pilot. ( 
 
 Single 3-inch Lines. 
 
 Two 2-inch Lines Siamesed. 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 O * 
 
 8^j 
 
 
 *> 
 
 
 
 O <u 
 
 -Tfc 
 
 -r 
 
 8* 
 
 i-T (JH 
 
 OO <U 
 
 fc 
 
 $ 
 
 8 % 
 
 O <U 
 
 O QJ 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 68 
 
 80 
 
 92 
 
 109 
 
 37 
 
 4 6 
 
 54 
 
 63 
 
 71 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 20 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 99 
 
 H3 
 
 135 
 
 46 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 78 
 
 88 
 
 104 
 
 119 
 
 25 
 
 84 
 
 101 
 
 118 
 
 135 
 
 161 
 
 56 
 
 68 
 
 81 
 
 93 
 
 1 06 
 
 124 
 
 H3 
 
 30 
 
 97 
 
 117 
 
 137 
 
 157 
 
 187 
 
 65 
 
 80 
 
 94 
 
 108 
 
 122 
 
 H3 
 
 165 
 
 35 
 
 112 
 
 134 
 
 157 
 
 I 80 
 
 214 
 
 74 
 
 90 
 
 106 
 
 122 
 
 138 
 
 162 
 
 1 86 
 
 40 
 
 125 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 200 
 
 238 
 
 83 
 
 101 
 
 119 
 
 137 
 
 155 
 
 182 
 
 209 
 
 45 
 
 137 
 
 ^64 
 
 192 
 
 220 
 
 267 
 
 92 
 
 j ii 
 
 131 
 
 151 
 
 171 
 
 201 
 
 230 
 
 50 
 
 151 
 
 182 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 288 
 
 100 
 
 122 
 
 144 
 
 I6 5 
 
 I8 7 
 
 219 
 
 252 
 
 55 
 
 163 
 
 196 
 
 229 
 
 262 
 
 .... 
 
 109 
 
 133 
 
 156 
 
 180 
 
 203 
 
 238 
 
 273 
 
 60 
 
 177 
 
 212 
 
 2 4 7 
 
 282 
 
 
 118 
 
 H3 
 
 1 68 
 
 194 
 
 2I 9 
 
 257 
 
 294 
 
 65 
 
 I8 9 
 
 215 
 229 
 241 
 
 267 
 
 227 
 
 243 
 
 257 
 274 
 289 
 
 265 
 300 
 
 303 
 
 
 128 
 
 H5 
 153 
 162 
 170 
 179 
 
 155 
 I6 5 
 
 175 
 
 1 86 
 196 
 
 217 
 
 182 
 194 
 206 
 
 230 
 254 
 
 209 
 223 
 
 250 
 264 
 
 277 
 291 
 
 2 3 6 
 252 
 
 298 
 313 
 329 
 
 277 
 295 
 
 317 
 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 i 1/2-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 
 
 1 
 
 "N "C 
 
 0) 
 
 c 
 
 
 13 
 
 .s 
 
 as 
 
 rt u 
 X! OJ 
 
 .2 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR FIRE 
 NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN FIRST 
 QUALITY 2|- AND 
 
 Single 2|-inch Lines. 
 
 Single 
 
 8 *> 
 
 R 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 R v 
 
 8 *> 
 
 8 < 
 
 8^ 
 
 8 % 
 
 8 * 
 
 8^ 
 
 >2 rt 
 
 /-I CJ 
 
 Q 
 
 " 
 
 8 S 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 5 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 298 
 
 44 
 
 65 
 
 86 
 
 107 
 
 128 
 
 149 
 
 170 
 
 191 
 
 39 
 
 55 
 
 71 
 
 25 
 
 333 
 
 54 
 
 80 
 
 106 
 
 132 
 
 158 
 
 184 
 
 210 
 
 236 
 
 48 
 
 68 
 
 88 
 
 30 
 
 365 
 
 65 
 
 95 
 
 126 
 
 157 
 
 1 88 
 
 219 
 
 250 
 
 280 
 
 58 
 
 81 
 
 105 
 
 35 
 
 394 
 
 75 
 
 IIO 
 
 145 
 
 181 
 
 216 
 
 251 
 
 287 
 
 322 
 
 67 
 
 94 
 
 122 
 
 40 
 
 422 
 
 85 
 
 126 
 
 1 66 
 
 206 
 
 246 
 
 286 
 
 327 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 107 
 
 139 
 
 45 
 
 447 
 
 96 
 
 141 
 
 185 
 
 230 
 
 275 
 
 320 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 120 
 
 155 
 
 50 
 
 472 
 
 106 
 
 155 
 
 205 
 
 254 
 
 304 
 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 133 
 
 171 
 
 55 
 
 494 
 
 116 
 
 170 
 
 224 
 
 278 
 
 332 
 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 H5 
 
 I8 7 
 
 60 
 
 '517 
 
 126 
 
 184 
 
 242 
 
 301 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 113 
 
 I 5 8 
 
 203 
 
 65 
 
 
 136 
 
 198 
 
 261 
 
 324 
 
 
 
 
 
 122 
 
 I7O 
 
 218 
 
 70 
 
 558 
 
 146 
 
 213 
 
 781 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 783 
 
 21C, 
 
 75 
 
 578 
 
 156 
 
 228 
 
 299 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 I 9 6 
 
 251 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 66 
 
 24.2 
 
 318 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 208 
 
 ^67 
 
 85 
 
 614 
 
 176 
 
 2C7 
 
 7-57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22O 
 
 282 
 
 90 
 
 633 
 
 187 
 
 272 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I6 7 
 
 233 
 
 298 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 6 co 
 
 107 
 
 ?86 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 176 
 
 24 C 
 
 
 100 
 
 667 
 
 207 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I8 5 
 
 257 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 711 
 
 a 1/2- AND 3-INCH HOSE. 
 
 ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOWING, TO MAINTAIN 
 COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST 
 3-iNCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 3 
 ~ >> 
 
 D rt 
 
 3-inch Lines. 
 
 Two 2 1-inch Lines Siamesed. 
 
 *l 
 
 q 
 
 1 
 
 ~ 
 
 II 
 
 $ 
 
 O a) 
 
 O ^ 
 
 D ^ 
 
 8.8 
 
 ^ 
 
 vr 4j 
 
 1 
 
 87 
 
 104 
 
 120 
 
 144 
 
 33 
 
 45 
 
 56 
 
 68 
 
 79 
 
 9i 
 
 108 
 
 126 
 
 20 
 
 108 
 
 128 
 
 148 
 
 178 
 
 41 
 
 56 
 
 70 
 
 84 
 
 99 
 
 ii3 
 
 135 
 
 I 5 6 
 
 25 
 
 129 
 
 153 
 
 177 
 
 212 
 
 49 
 
 66 
 
 83 
 
 100 
 
 117 
 
 134 
 
 160 
 
 I8 5 
 
 30 
 
 149 
 
 177 
 
 204 
 
 245 
 
 . 57 
 
 77 
 
 96 
 
 116 
 
 135 
 
 155 
 
 184 
 
 214 
 
 35 
 
 170 
 
 201 
 
 232 
 
 279 
 
 65 
 
 88 
 
 no 
 
 132 
 
 155 
 
 177 
 
 2IT 
 
 244 
 
 40 
 
 189 
 
 224 
 
 2 5 8 
 
 ... 
 
 73 
 
 97 
 
 122 
 
 146 
 
 171 
 
 196 
 
 233 
 
 269 
 
 45 
 
 209 
 228 
 248 
 
 247 
 270 
 293 
 
 286 
 
 ... 
 
 81 
 88 
 96 
 
 108 
 118 
 128 
 
 136 
 I 4 8 
 
 161 
 
 163 
 178 
 193 
 
 190 
 208 
 225 
 
 218 
 237 
 
 257 
 
 259 
 
 305 
 
 3 00 
 327 
 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 
 .... 
 
 
 267 
 
 
 .... 
 
 ... 
 
 104 
 
 139 
 
 J74 
 
 208 
 
 243 
 
 278 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 287 
 307 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 112 
 120 
 127 
 135 
 H3 
 152 
 
 i6c 
 
 149 
 160 
 170 
 179 
 190 
 
 201 
 212 
 
 1 86 
 
 199 
 
 212 
 
 224 
 237 
 
 264 
 
 223 
 
 254 
 268 
 
 316 
 
 261 
 
 279 
 296 
 
 298 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
712 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 i 5/8-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 "g So 
 
 2 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR FIRE 
 
 S.f 
 
 
 
 NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN FIRST 
 
 fi 
 
 O 3 
 
 QUALITY 2|- AND 
 
 <U i 1 
 
 1! 
 
 Single 2|-inch Lines. 
 
 Single 3-inch 
 
 ^5 
 
 88, 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 O rt 
 
 ,s 
 
 8k 
 
 8 S 
 
 8 ? 
 
 88 
 
 8 S 
 
 8 
 
 O CJ 
 
 8 8 
 
 o "S 
 o <u 
 
 8 w 
 
 
 
 ~fe 
 
 Wfc 
 
 "HXH 
 
 ^fe 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^>fe 
 
 N fe 
 
 ^fe 
 
 VO pt, 
 
 oo fe 
 
 20 
 
 350 
 
 52 
 
 80 
 
 1 08 
 
 136 
 
 165 
 
 193 
 
 4 6 
 
 68 
 
 00 
 
 112 
 
 25 
 
 392 
 
 65 
 
 IOO 
 
 135 
 
 170 
 
 205 
 
 240 
 
 57 
 
 84 
 
 III 
 
 I 3 8 
 
 30 
 
 429 
 
 77 
 
 118 
 
 1 60 
 
 201 
 
 242 
 
 284 
 
 68 
 
 IOO 
 
 132 
 
 164 
 
 35 
 
 463 
 
 89 
 
 136 
 
 184 
 
 231 
 
 279 
 
 326 
 
 78 
 
 115 
 
 152 
 
 I8 9 
 
 40 
 
 496 
 
 101 
 
 155 
 
 208 
 
 262 
 
 316 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 131 
 
 173 
 
 215 
 
 45 
 
 C2C 
 
 
 177 
 
 277 
 
 2Q7, 
 
 
 
 IOO 
 
 146 
 
 JQ7 
 
 27,0 
 
 50 
 
 CC4 
 
 12? 
 
 
 
 ^24 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 16? 
 
 214 
 
 
 55 
 
 58l 
 
 
 2IO 
 
 2g2 
 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 178 
 
 27,4. 
 
 20O 
 
 60 
 
 607 
 
 14.0 
 
 -7-78 
 
 7,06 
 
 
 
 
 
 JQ7 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 6 3 I 
 
 162 
 
 246 
 
 330 
 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 209 
 
 275 
 
 . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 g 
 
 177 
 
 2 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22^ 
 
 204. 
 
 
 75 
 
 678 
 
 
 "8T 
 
 
 
 
 
 T6 
 
 277 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 7OO 
 
 107 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 174 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 722 
 
 2OQ 
 
 7,17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 743 
 
 2 2O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 195 
 
 284 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 763 
 
 232 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 205 
 
 299 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 783 
 
 244 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 216 
 
 3H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 713 
 
 AND 3-INCH HOSE. 
 
 ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOWING, TO MAINTAIN 
 COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST 
 3-iNCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 Nozzle Pressure 
 Indicated 
 by Pitot Gage. 
 
 Lines. 
 
 Two 2^-inch Lines Siamesed. 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 O "flJ 
 
 C* <U 
 
 &i 
 
 &i 
 
 cy <u 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 ! 
 
 O 1u 
 
 <U 
 \Q fj 
 
 134 
 165 
 196 
 226 
 257 
 286 
 
 156 
 
 192 
 228 
 263 
 299 
 
 37 
 47 
 56 
 65 
 74 
 82 
 
 IOO 
 
 109 
 118 
 126 
 
 144 
 
 170 
 179 
 
 53 
 66 
 
 79 
 
 104 
 116 
 
 128 
 140 
 
 153 
 164 
 176 
 189 
 
 201 
 213 
 
 237 
 249 
 
 68 
 
 85 
 
 102 
 
 117 
 
 134 
 149 
 
 165 
 
 181 
 196 
 
 211 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 289 
 
 319 
 
 8 4 
 104 
 125 
 144 
 164 
 182 
 202 
 221 
 240 
 258 
 2 7 6 
 
 314 
 
 IOO 
 
 123 
 148 
 170 
 194 
 215 
 239 
 
 283 
 
 305 
 326 
 
 143 
 171 
 197 
 224 
 248 
 275 
 301 
 327 
 
 139 
 171 
 205 
 2 3 6 
 269 
 2 9 8 
 331 
 
 162 
 
 200 
 240 
 2 7 6 
 314 
 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 65 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 I 3/4-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 
 
 ^ i> 
 
 CA 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR FIRE 
 
 JS * 
 
 
 
 NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN FIRST 
 
 'J-H +J 
 
 3 O 
 
 O 3 
 
 QUALITY 2^- AND 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 c5 JM 
 
 Single 2|-in. Lines. 
 
 Single 3-inch 
 
 u 
 
 la 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 .2 
 
 Q 
 
 8S 
 
 O oi 
 
 83 
 
 o ti 
 
 O <L> 
 ^[T! 
 
 8| 
 
 1 
 
 &! 
 
 || 
 
 &! 
 
 I! 
 
 20 
 
 407 
 
 63 
 
 100 
 
 138 
 
 175 
 
 40 
 
 55 
 
 71 
 
 86 
 
 101 
 
 116 
 
 25 
 
 455 
 
 77 
 
 123 
 
 169 
 
 215 
 
 49 
 
 67 
 
 8 4 
 
 102 
 
 120 
 
 138 
 
 30 
 
 498 
 
 9i 
 
 145 
 
 i 99 
 
 253 
 
 58 
 
 79 
 
 100 
 
 121 
 
 142 
 
 163 
 
 35 
 
 538 
 
 106 
 
 169 
 
 231 
 
 294 
 
 68 
 
 92 
 
 117 
 
 141 
 
 1 66 
 
 190 
 
 40 
 
 575 
 
 <I2O 
 
 191 
 
 262 
 
 333 
 
 77 
 
 104 
 
 132 
 
 159 
 
 187 
 
 215 
 
 45 
 
 609 
 
 135 
 
 215 
 
 294 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 118 
 
 149 
 
 1 80 
 
 211 
 
 241 
 
 50 
 
 643 
 
 ISO 
 
 237 
 
 325 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 130 
 
 164 
 
 199 
 
 233 
 
 267 
 
 55 
 
 674 
 
 164 
 
 259 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 142 
 
 179 
 
 216 
 
 254 
 
 291 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 704 
 
 177 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 114 
 
 154 
 
 194 
 
 234 
 
 274 
 
 3H 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 732 
 
 I 9 I 
 
 302 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 1 66 
 
 209 
 
 ^252 
 
 2 9 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 761 
 
 206 
 
 02 C 
 
 
 
 i w 
 
 180 
 
 227 
 
 27^ 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 787 
 
 22O 
 
 
 
 
 H3 
 
 192 
 
 242 
 
 2 9 I 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 813 
 
 234 
 
 
 
 
 152 
 
 204 
 
 257 
 
 309 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 8^8 
 
 247 
 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 21 "5 
 
 27O 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 862 
 
 26l 
 
 
 
 
 T6n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 88; 
 
 tJA 
 
 
 
 
 178 
 
 2AO 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 909 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 88 
 
 253 
 
 317 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 715 
 
 a i/i- AND 3=INCH HOSE. 
 
 ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOWING, TO MAINTAIN 
 COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST 
 3-iNCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 || 
 
 o 75 
 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 65 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 100 
 
 Lines. 
 
 Two 2|-inch Lines Siamesed. 
 
 Si 
 
 CO p^ 
 
 147 
 
 173 
 205 
 
 239 
 270 
 
 303 
 
 *- 
 
 177 
 209 
 
 247 
 288 
 
 325 
 
 M 
 
 43 
 53 
 64 
 74 
 84 
 
 95 
 104 
 
 114 
 
 144 
 153 
 
 174 
 183 
 194 
 204 
 
 & 
 
 v 
 V 
 
 ^Tfr . 
 
 t> 
 
 O q_> 
 vO ^ 
 
 "84" 
 I0 3 
 125 
 
 143 
 162 
 
 183 
 201 
 2I 9 
 239 
 257 
 275 
 
 293 
 313 
 
 I0 5 
 128 
 
 155 
 I 7 8 
 201 
 
 227 
 
 249 
 272 
 206 
 
 125 
 154 
 I8 5 
 2I 3 
 241 
 271 
 2 9 7 
 324 
 
 146 
 179 
 2I 5 
 248 
 280 
 315 
 
 33 
 40 
 
 49 
 56 
 64 
 
 73 
 80 
 88 
 96 
 104 
 in 
 118 
 127 
 
 135 
 
 142 
 150 
 158 
 
 53 
 65 
 79 
 
 103 
 117 
 128 
 140 
 153 
 
 177 
 1 88 
 
 201 
 
 214 
 225 
 
 237 
 250 
 
 6 4 
 78 
 94 
 109 
 123 
 
 139 
 152 
 167 
 
 195 
 
 210 
 223 
 239 
 
 266 
 206 
 
 74 
 
 no 
 126 
 
 143 
 161 
 177 
 193 
 
 210 
 
 243 
 2 5 8 
 
 293 
 308 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
716 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 2-INCH SMOOTH, NOZZLE. 
 
 3 O 
 
 tn 
 
 O 3 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR FIRE 
 NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN FIRST 
 QUALITY 2|- AND 
 
 1/5 *! 
 
 
 * 
 
 -. 
 
 M 
 
 oj >-, 
 
 x; <u 
 
 Single 2^- 
 inch Lines. 
 
 Single 3-inch Lines. 
 
 " 
 
 en 
 
 IOO 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 IOO 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 40O 
 
 500 
 
 <- 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 20 
 
 532 
 
 90 
 
 152 
 
 214 
 
 52 
 
 76 
 
 IOO 
 
 124 
 
 148 
 
 25 
 
 594 
 
 in 
 
 187 
 
 263 
 
 65 
 
 94 
 
 123 
 
 152 
 
 182 
 
 30 
 
 651 
 
 132 
 
 222 
 
 312 
 
 77 
 
 112 
 
 147 
 
 181 
 
 216 
 
 85 
 
 703 
 
 152 
 
 255 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 129 
 
 169 
 
 209 
 
 249 
 
 40 
 
 752 
 
 173 
 
 200 
 
 
 102 
 
 147 
 
 193 
 
 238 
 
 283 
 
 45 
 
 797 
 
 193 
 
 323 
 
 .... 
 
 "3 
 
 163 
 
 213 
 
 263 
 
 314 
 
 50 
 
 841 
 
 214 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 182 
 
 277 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 88 1 
 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 1 00 
 
 260 
 
 1-71 
 
 
 60 
 
 9o 
 
 
 
 
 I CO 
 
 216 
 
 282 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 958 
 
 ..... 
 
 ...'.. 
 
 
 162 
 
 233 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2CI 
 
 227 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 i 020 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 187 
 
 268 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 T 063 
 
 
 
 
 IOO 
 
 28C 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 I OOC 
 
 
 
 
 211 
 
 ^02 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 I 128 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1TQ 
 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 1,189 
 
 
 
 
 247 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 717 
 
 3 i/a- AND 3=INCH HOSE. 
 
 ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOWING, TO MAINTAIN 
 COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST 
 3-iNCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 rt 5 
 >, 
 
 "s"S 
 
 Z o 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 65 
 70 
 75 
 SO 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 100 
 
 
 Two 2^-inch Lines Siamesed. 
 
 600 
 Feet. 
 
 800 
 Feet. 
 
 IOO 
 
 Feet. 
 
 200 
 
 Feet. 
 
 300 
 Feet. 
 
 75 
 93 
 
 I 10 
 
 128 
 146. 
 162 
 1 80 
 
 197 
 213 
 
 248 
 264 
 280 
 297 
 314 
 
 400 
 Feet. 
 
 500 
 Feet. 
 
 600 
 
 Feet. 
 
 800 
 Feet. 
 
 1,000 
 
 Feet. 
 
 195 
 
 240 
 
 284 
 329 
 
 172 
 
 211 
 
 251 
 
 289 
 
 220 
 
 270 
 321 
 
 41 
 51 
 
 61 
 
 7i 
 81 
 90 
 
 IOO 
 I IO 
 
 119 
 129 
 
 148 
 
 158 
 167 
 
 177 
 
 1 86 
 196 
 
 58 
 72 
 86 
 
 IOO 
 
 126 
 
 153 
 1 66 
 
 1 80 
 
 206 
 219 
 232 
 245 
 258 
 272 
 
 92 
 114 
 135 
 
 178 
 198 
 
 240 
 260 
 281 
 302 
 322 
 
 no 
 
 135 
 1 60 
 1 86 
 
 211 
 
 234 
 260 
 284 
 3 08 
 
 127 
 156 
 185 
 214 
 
 243 
 270 
 
 161 
 198 
 
 234 
 271 
 308 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
7 i8 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 l i/4-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE 3 1/2-INCH HOSE. 
 
 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HY- 
 
 I 
 
 '3 oi 
 
 n 
 
 r* 
 
 DRANT OR FIRE ENGINE, WHILE 
 
 3& 
 
 $5P 
 
 
 
 STREAM IS FLOWING, TO MAIN- 
 
 3 
 
 gW 
 
 33 
 
 OM 
 
 TAIN NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN 
 
 v^ 
 
 u 
 
 |o 
 
 | 
 
 FIRST COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS 
 
 P 2 
 
 II 
 
 jQ 
 
 ft 
 
 LENGTHS OF BEST QUALITY 3^- 
 INCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 < 
 
 ** 
 
 3fi 
 
 N 
 
 gS 
 
 ** 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 8<J 
 <u 
 oo <u 
 
 ^fa 
 
 w 
 
 11 
 
 o 
 
 Q <U 
 vSfe 
 
 O <U 
 
 O <u 
 
 t^Un 
 
 *! 
 
 M 
 
 S 
 
 fc 
 
 
 o 
 
 fc 
 
 5 
 
 u-t <U 
 
 _"fe 
 
 20 
 
 206 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 49 
 
 55 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 230 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 60 
 
 67 
 
 25 
 
 80 
 
 253 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 63 
 
 7i 
 
 79 
 
 30 
 
 85 
 
 2/3 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 73 
 
 82 
 
 9i 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 2 9 2 
 
 62 
 
 65 
 
 69 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 83 
 
 93 
 
 104 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 309 
 
 69 
 
 73 
 
 77 
 
 81 
 
 85 
 
 93 
 
 104 
 
 116 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 326 
 
 77 
 
 81 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 94 
 
 102 
 
 H5 
 
 128 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 342 
 
 84 
 
 89 
 
 94 
 
 99 
 
 103 
 
 112 
 
 126 
 
 141 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 357 
 
 92 
 
 97 
 
 102 
 
 107 
 
 112 
 
 122 
 
 137 
 
 153 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 372 
 
 99 
 
 105 
 
 110 
 
 116 
 
 121 
 
 I 3 2 
 
 149 
 
 165 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 386 
 
 107 
 
 U3 
 
 118 
 
 124 
 
 130 
 
 142 
 
 160 
 
 177 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 399 
 
 114 
 
 120 
 
 127 
 
 133 
 
 139 
 
 152 
 
 171 
 
 190 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 413 
 
 122 
 
 128 
 
 135 
 
 142 
 
 I 4 8 
 
 162 
 
 182 
 
 202 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 425 
 
 128 
 
 135 
 
 142 
 
 149 
 
 I 5 6 
 
 170 
 
 191 
 
 212 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 438 
 
 136 
 
 143 
 
 151 
 
 158 
 
 I6 5 
 
 1 80 
 
 202 
 
 225 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 449 
 
 143 
 
 IS' 
 
 159 
 
 167 
 
 175 
 
 100 
 
 214 
 
 237 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 461 
 
 151 
 
 159 
 
 167 
 
 175 
 
 I8 4 
 
 200 
 
 225 
 
 249 
 
 100 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 719 
 
 3/8-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 3 I/2-INCH HOSE 
 
 1 
 
 en 
 C 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR 
 FIRE ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOW- 
 
 !| 
 
 II 
 
 if 
 
 O 3 
 it 
 
 Q 
 
 ING, TO MAINTAIN NOZZLE PRESSURES 
 
 GIVEN IN FIRST COLUMN, THROUGH 
 VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST QUALITY 
 3^-iNCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 j| 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 si 
 
 20 
 
 I? 
 
 & 
 
 Jv 
 
 
 8<u 
 <u 
 
 ^ 
 
 Si 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 *- 
 
 20 
 
 250 
 
 3* 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 6 7 
 
 25 
 
 280 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 49 
 
 52 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 307 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 54 
 
 58 
 
 62 
 
 70 
 
 78 
 
 89 
 
 101 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 331 
 
 54 
 
 58 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 90 
 
 103 
 
 117 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 354 
 
 61 
 
 66 
 
 71 
 
 76 
 
 81 
 
 9i 
 
 101 
 
 116 
 
 I3 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 376 
 
 69 
 
 74 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 91 
 
 1 02 
 
 H3 
 
 130 
 
 1 47 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 396 
 
 76 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 95 
 
 101 
 
 113 
 
 126 
 
 144 
 
 163 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 4i5 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 97 
 
 104 
 
 in 
 
 124 
 
 I 3 8 
 
 158 
 
 179 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 434 
 
 9i 
 
 98 
 
 106 
 
 H3 
 
 121 
 
 135 
 
 150 
 
 172 
 
 195 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 451 
 
 98 
 
 106 
 
 114 
 
 122 
 
 130 
 
 146 
 
 161 
 
 185 
 
 209 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 469 
 
 106 
 
 114 
 
 123 
 
 131 
 
 140 
 
 157 
 
 174 
 
 199 
 
 225 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 485 
 
 113 
 
 122 
 
 131 
 
 140 
 
 149 
 
 167 
 
 185 
 
 212 
 
 239 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 500 
 
 120 
 
 I 3 
 
 140 
 
 149 
 
 159 
 
 178 
 
 197 
 
 226 
 
 255 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 5<6 
 
 127 
 
 I 3 8 
 
 148 
 
 I 5 8 
 
 1 68 
 
 1 88 
 
 208 
 
 239 
 
 269 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 53i 
 
 135 
 
 I 4 6 
 
 156 
 
 I6 7 
 
 178 
 
 199 
 
 221 
 
 253 
 
 285 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 546 
 
 142 
 
 153 
 
 165 
 
 I 7 6 
 
 187 
 
 209 
 
 232 
 
 266 
 
 299 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 560 
 
 150 
 
 . 161 
 
 173 
 
 I8 5 
 
 197 
 
 220 
 
 244 
 
 279 
 
 315 
 
 100 
 
\ 
 
 720 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 i/2-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 3 1/2-INCH HOSE. 
 
 .i 
 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HY- 
 
 .JL 
 
 "c w 
 
 05 
 
 DRANT OR FIRE ENGINE, WHILE 
 
 C CdO 
 
 ( 1 ctf 
 
 jo . 
 
 STREAM IS FLOWING, TO MAIN- 
 
 * i re 
 
 i- ^_, 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 TAIN NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN 
 
 ~ 
 
 | 2 
 
 .0.1 
 
 FIRST COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS 
 
 5> 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 <ug 
 
 LENGTHS OF BEST QUALITY 3!- 
 
 <u S-i 
 
 PH^ 
 
 rt o3 
 
 INCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 d< j* 
 
 ^ T3 
 
 J= OH 
 
 
 OJ _-. 
 
 "N <u 
 
 O 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 O " 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 15 
 
 Ij3 
 
 s 
 
 ?! 
 
 ^ 
 
 $& 
 
 ~ 
 
 O <L> 
 O <u 
 
 XX 
 -Tfn 
 
 *& 
 
 $ 
 
 1 s 
 
 20 
 
 298 
 
 28 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 58 
 
 65 
 
 76 
 
 87 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 333 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 53 
 
 62 
 
 71 
 
 80 
 
 93 
 
 107 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 365 
 
 42 
 
 53 
 
 63 
 
 74 
 
 85 
 
 96 
 
 112 
 
 128 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 394 
 
 49 
 
 61 
 
 73 
 
 86 
 
 5 8 
 
 III 
 
 129 
 
 148 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 422 
 
 55 
 
 69 
 
 83 
 
 97 
 
 in 
 
 125 
 
 146 
 
 167 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 447 
 
 62 
 
 78 
 
 93 
 
 109 
 
 125 
 
 140 
 
 I6 4 
 
 187 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 472 
 
 69 
 
 86 
 
 103 
 
 121 
 
 138 
 
 155 
 
 181 
 
 207 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 494 
 
 76 
 
 94 
 
 H3 
 
 132 
 
 151 
 
 170 
 
 198 
 
 226 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 517 
 
 82 
 
 102 
 
 123 
 
 143 
 
 163 
 
 183 
 
 214 
 
 244 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 537 
 
 89 
 
 III 
 
 133 
 
 154 
 
 176 
 
 I 9 8 
 
 231 
 
 263 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 558 
 
 96 
 
 II 9 
 
 143 
 
 1 66 
 
 189 
 
 2I 3 
 
 248 
 
 283 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 578 
 
 103 
 
 128 
 
 153 
 
 178 
 
 203 
 
 228 
 
 265 
 
 303 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 596 
 
 109 
 
 I 3 6 
 
 162 
 
 1 88 
 
 215 
 
 241 
 
 281 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 614 
 
 116 
 
 144 
 
 172 
 
 200 
 
 228 
 
 2 5 6 
 
 298 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 633 
 
 123 
 
 152 
 
 182 
 
 211 
 
 241 
 
 271 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 6co 
 
 129 
 
 1 60 
 
 IQI 
 
 222 
 
 2 - 
 
 284 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 w D W 
 
 667 
 
 136 
 
 1 68 
 
 XT 
 
 2OI 
 
 233 
 
 265 
 
 2 9 8 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 721 
 
 i 5/8-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE.-3 I/3-INCH HOSE. 
 
 J^ 
 
 3 "O 
 
 (A -M 
 
 Gallons 
 .nute. 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HY- 
 DRANT OR FIRE ENGINE, WHILE 
 STREAM IS FLOWING, TO MAIN- 
 TAIN NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN 
 FIRST COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS 
 
 j^ . 
 
 eS 
 
 if 
 
 O <tf 
 
 1* 
 
 s 
 
 LENGTHS OF BEST QUALITY 3*- 
 INCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 rt 
 
 8| 
 
 O "v 
 
 || 
 
 8<L> 
 <D 
 00^ 
 
 || 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 20 
 
 350 
 
 31 
 
 41 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 94 
 
 109 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 392 
 
 38 
 
 51 
 
 63 
 
 75 
 
 87 
 
 99 
 
 118 
 
 136 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 429 
 
 46 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 89 
 
 I0 3 
 
 118 
 
 139 
 
 161 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 463 
 
 53 
 
 70 
 
 86 
 
 103 
 
 120 
 
 136 
 
 161 
 
 1 86 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 496 
 
 61 
 
 79 
 
 98 
 
 117 
 
 I 3 6 
 
 155 
 
 183 
 
 211 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 525 
 
 68 
 
 89 
 
 IIO 
 
 131 
 
 152 
 
 173 
 
 205 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 554 
 
 76 
 
 99 
 
 I 22 
 
 145 
 
 1 68 
 
 192 
 
 226 
 
 26l 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 58i 
 
 83 
 
 1 08 
 
 133 
 
 158 
 
 184 
 
 209 
 
 247 
 
 284 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 607 
 
 90 
 
 ii/ 
 
 144 
 
 172 
 
 199 
 
 226 
 
 267 
 
 308 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 631 
 
 97 
 
 127 
 
 I 5 6 
 
 isr 
 
 215 
 
 244 
 
 289 
 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 655 
 
 105 
 
 136 
 
 I6 7 
 
 199 
 
 230 
 
 262 
 
 309 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 678 
 
 112 
 
 H5 
 
 179 
 
 212 
 
 245 
 
 279 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 96 
 100 
 
 700 
 722 
 
 743 
 763 
 
 783 
 
 127 
 
 134 
 141 
 149 
 
 155 
 165 
 174 
 .183 
 193 
 
 191 
 202 
 
 214 
 22 5 
 237 
 
 226 
 240 
 254 
 26 7 
 28l 
 
 262 
 278 
 294 
 39 
 
 297 
 316 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
722 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 I 3/4-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 3 1/2-INCH HOSE. 
 
 *O bo 
 * J 
 
 |1 
 
 tr> 
 
 
 ~ aj 
 
 Cy 4-j 
 
 II 
 
 M 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HYDRANT OR 
 FIRE ENGINE, WHILE STREAM is FLOW- 
 ING, TO MAINTAIN NOZZLE PRESSURES 
 
 GIVEN IN FIRST COLUMN, THROUGH 
 VARIOUS LENGTHS OF BEST QUALITY 
 3J-INCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 :le Pressure Indi- 
 d by Pitot Gage. 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 _ . 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 $ 
 
 80J 
 
 \f\ v 
 
 O <D 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 N 2i 
 
 O rt 
 
 20 
 
 407 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 41 
 
 4 8 
 
 54 
 
 Ci 
 
 74 
 
 87 
 
 101 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 455 
 
 35 
 
 43 
 
 5' 
 
 59 
 
 67 
 
 75 
 
 9i 
 
 107 
 
 123 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 498 
 
 4i 
 
 5* 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 79 
 
 89 
 
 1 08 
 
 127 
 
 146 
 
 30 
 
 85 
 
 538 
 
 48 
 
 59 
 
 /o 
 
 81 
 
 92 
 
 103 
 
 124 
 
 146 
 
 1 68 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 575 
 
 55 
 
 67 
 
 80 
 
 92 
 
 105 
 
 117 
 
 142 
 
 167 
 
 191 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 609 
 
 62 
 
 75 
 
 89 
 
 103 
 
 117 
 
 131 
 
 158 
 
 1 86 
 
 213 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 643 
 
 68 
 
 84 
 
 99 
 
 US 
 
 130 
 
 145 
 
 176 
 
 206 
 
 237 
 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 674 
 
 75 
 
 92 
 
 109 
 
 125 
 
 142 
 
 159 
 
 192 
 
 225 
 
 259 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 704 
 
 82 
 
 100 
 
 118 
 
 136 
 
 154 
 
 172 
 
 208 
 
 244 
 
 280 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 732 
 
 89 
 
 1 08 
 
 127 
 
 147. 
 
 1 66 
 
 1 86 
 
 224 
 
 263 
 
 302 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 761 
 
 95 
 
 116 
 
 137 
 
 158 
 
 178 
 
 199 
 
 241 
 
 282 
 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 787 
 
 102 
 
 124 
 
 146 
 
 1 68 
 
 190 
 
 212 
 
 257 
 
 301 
 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 813 
 
 I0 9 
 
 132 
 
 156 
 
 179 
 
 203 
 
 226 
 
 273 
 
 320 
 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 838 
 
 lie 
 
 IAO 
 
 165 
 
 i go 
 
 214 
 
 239 
 
 289 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 W J" 
 
 862 
 
 J 
 
 122 
 
 T^ 
 
 148 
 
 J 
 
 174 
 
 y 
 
 2OO 
 
 *T 
 
 227 
 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 885 
 
 128 
 
 A *f <- 
 
 I 5 6 
 
 * / *T 
 
 211 
 
 "T/ 
 
 238 
 
 266 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 909 
 
 135 
 
 164 
 
 193 
 
 222 
 
 251 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 723 
 
 2-INCH SMOOTH NOZZLE. 3 1/2-INCH HOSE. 
 
 -i 
 
 
 PRESSURES REQUIRED AT- HY- 
 
 
 C b 
 
 ii 
 c 
 
 DRANT OR FIRE ENGINE, WHILE 
 
 3 v 
 
 *v O 
 
 
 
 STREAM IS FLOWING, TO MAINTAIN 
 
 t 1 0] 
 
 b <-. 
 
 "rt *- 
 
 NOZZLE PRESSURES GIVEN IN FIRST 
 
 o;O 
 
 w 
 
 *"*.! 
 
 COLUMN, THROUGH VARIOUS 
 
 w 
 
 /\ 
 
 s 
 
 LENGTHS OF BEST QUALITY 3$- 
 
 g 
 
 *< >* 
 
 dj^ 
 
 jis. 
 
 INCH RUBBER LINED HOSE. 
 
 >, 
 
 13 "O 
 
 rj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j^j . 
 
 N <U 
 
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 532 
 
 33 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 65 
 
 76 
 
 87 
 
 109 
 
 130 
 
 20 
 
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 594 
 
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 54 
 
 67 
 
 80 
 
 93 
 
 1 06 
 
 133 
 
 59 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 651 
 
 49 
 
 64 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
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 127 
 
 158 
 
 189 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 703 
 
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 75 
 
 93 
 
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 129 
 
 147 
 
 183 
 
 219 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 752 
 
 65 
 
 85 
 
 105 
 
 126 
 
 146 
 
 1 66 
 
 207 
 
 247 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 797 
 
 72 
 
 95 
 
 118 
 
 140 
 
 163 
 
 185 
 
 231 
 
 276 
 
 45 
 
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 841 
 
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 130 
 
 155 
 
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 205 
 
 255 
 
 395 
 
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 116 
 
 143 
 
 170 
 
 197 
 
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 279 
 
 
 55 
 
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 920 
 
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 60 
 
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 85 
 
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 1,128 
 
 
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 272 
 
 
 
 
 
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724 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 
 
 
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FIRE STREAM TABLES 725 
 
 METHODS OF DETERMINING APPROXIMATE NOZZLE 
 
 OR ENGINE PRESSURES WITH HOSE LINES 
 
 MADE UP OF TWO DIFFERENT SIZES OF 
 
 HOSE, SIAMESED LINES OR A SINGLE 
 
 LINE BRANCHING INTO TWO 
 
 A fairly common form of example in hose layouts is one involv- 
 ing siamesed lines, or a line made up of two different sizes of 
 hose. These can be worked easiest by reducing the siamesed lines, 
 or the different sizes of hose all to an equivalent length of 2^-inch 
 hose that is, to a length of 2^-inch hose which will give the same 
 total friction loss as the siamesed line or the combined lines. To 
 enable this to be done, the factors on page 695, based upon the 
 relative friction loss of the different sizes and combination of hose, 
 can be used. 
 
 For an example indicating the use of the factors : From a high 
 pressure hydrant, one 4OO-foot line of 2^-inch hose and one 400- 
 foot line of 3-inch hose is siamesed into a 6oo-foot line of 3-inch 
 hose, which connects to a 4OO-foot line of 2^-inch hose having a 
 1 54 -inch tip; what pressure will be necessary at the hydrant to give 
 50 pounds nozzle pressure? 
 
 The factor for siamesed lines of 3-inch and 2^2-inch is 6.1; then 
 the length of 2^-inch hose equivalent to the 400 feet of siamesed 
 
 400 
 lines is , or 65 feet. 
 
 6.1 
 The factor for 3-inch hose is 2.6; then the length of 2^-inch hose 
 
 600 
 equivalent to the 600 feet of 3-inch is , or 230 feet. 
 
 2.6 
 
 Therefore the total equivalent 2j^-inch line is 65 plus 230 plus 
 400 feet, or 695 feet, which can be assumed as 14 lengths. 
 
 Using the constant (K) for i%-inch nozzle, as given on page 697, 
 we can solve the problem with ease, as follows : 
 
 Engine Pressure = 50 (i.i + .246 X 14) 
 = 50(1.1+347) 
 = 50 X 4-57 
 = 228 pounds 
 
 For siamesed lines of hose of same diameter, but of different 
 length, the following rules may be used: 
 
 Siamesed line, one twice as long as the other, equal one line 
 one-third the length of the shortest. 
 
 Example: One line 300 feet and one line 600 feet siamesed, 
 are equal to one line 100 feet long. 
 
726 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Siamesed lines, one three times as long as the other, equal 
 one line 0.4 the length of the shortest. 
 
 Example: One line 500 feet and one line 1,500 feet siamesed 
 are equal to one line 0.4 X 500, or 200 feet long. 
 For the problem involving a single line of hose branching into 
 two lines, each with a separate nozzle, it is necessary to find the 
 length of a single line having the same friction loss as the two 
 parallel lines, and the size of a single nozzle, equivalent to the two 
 on the lines in question. Equivalent nozzle sizes may be taken from 
 the table on page 727 and the equivalent length of a single line may 
 be found by the use of the factors given in the preceding problem. 
 
 It is 'not always possible to find a nozzle size, for use in the 
 formula on page 697, which is the exact equivalent of two or more 
 smaller nozzles, but a close approximation can usually be made or 
 a value of K for an odd size can be calculated as given at the 
 bottom of page 697. 
 
 For an example indicating the method of working out this prob- 
 lem, consider a single . 5oo-foot line of 3-inch hose branching into 
 two 3oo-foot lines of 2 ^2-inch hose, each with a i^-inch nozzle. 
 Assume a pressure of 150 pounds at the engine and determine the 
 nozzle pressure. 
 
 Two i y$ -inch nozzles are approximately the equivalent of 
 one i^-inch nozzle. 
 The factor of 3-inch hose is 2.6, and the length of 2^-inch 
 
 500 
 hose equivalent to 500 feet of 3-inch is or 192 feet. 
 
 2.6 
 
 The factor for two lines of 2^-inch hose is 3.6, and the 
 length of a single line of 2^-inch hose equivalent to two 
 
 300 
 300-foot lines is or 83 feet. 
 
 3-6 
 
 This combination of hose and nozzles is, therefore, the equivalent, 
 that is, will deliver about the same amount of water, as one i^-inch 
 nozzle on the end of a line of 2^2-inch hose, 1924-83 feet long = 
 275 feet. Using the formula on page 700, we have then: 
 
 150 
 Nozzle Pressure = - = 31 pounds 
 
 1. 1 +5-5X0.68 
 
 By using the table on page 700 to determine the discharge at 31 
 pounds nozzle pressure through a i^-inch nozzle, and table on page 
 699 to determine the friction loss in 500 feet of 3-inch hose and two 
 3OO-foot lines of 2^-inch hose, we find that the solution is not 
 exactly correct, since the 31 pounds nozzle pressure in the problem 
 above will actually require, allowing about 3 pounds loss at the 
 engine outlet and the same at the Y branch, only 146 pounds 
 engine pressure. The error in this case arises from the fact that 
 the two i^-inch nozzles are not quite the equivalent of one i-Hr 
 inch. The solution of the problem given above is, however, suffi- 
 ciently close for all practical purposes. 
 
FIRE STREAM TABLES 
 
 727 
 
 APPROXIMATE COMPARISON OF NOZZLES 
 
 Number of Nozzles I 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5-8' 
 
 3-4" 
 
 7-8' 
 
 1' 
 
 1 1-8' 
 
 1 1-4' 
 
 1 3-8' 
 
 1 1-2' 
 
 1 5-8' 
 
 1 3-4' 
 
 1 7-8' 
 
 2* 
 
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 If 
 
 If 
 
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 2f 
 
 3 
 
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 H' 
 
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 5 
 
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 3f 
 
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 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
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 24' 
 
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 2ft' 
 
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 Method of Using. To find which size nozzle equals two i%-inch nozzles: On 
 the line marked 2, the size nozzle (i%) in the column i%" will be the 
 corresponding size. 
 
INSPECTION REPORTS 
 
 Below is presented an address by F. C. White, Executive Assist- 
 ant of the New York Underwriters Agency, before the Fire Un- 
 derwriters Uniformity Association, which deals with the subject 
 in a practical manner, with particular reference to what the Fire 
 Insurance Companies expect a reoort to cover. 
 
 A Complex Subject. The subject, "What the Companies Ex- 
 pect from Inspection Reports," is so important, and in a sense 
 so complex, that while I was glad to accept the invitation of your 
 president to speak on it, believing that by so doing I might assist 
 in the good work you are undertaking, I approached the task with 
 considerable diffidence. 
 
 In preparing the subject matter for this paper I have endeavored 
 to give a general idea of all companies' needs in the matter of 
 inspection reports, based upon such data as I have been able to 
 gather in the limited time at my disposal, rather than to confine 
 myself to an expression of purely personal convictions. 
 
 One point respecting inspection reports upbn which all com- 
 panies are agreed is the urgent need of uniformity. The impor- 
 tance of this phase of the subject under consideration is sufficient 
 to warrant serious thought, and leads me to devote some time to 
 it before taking up other details. 
 
 Varying Reports Costly. Lack of uniformity in inspection re- 
 ports is, in my belief, not only costly to the companies by reason 
 of the additional length of time required to pass upon them, but 
 is also the direct cause of loss' of business, or overlines, from quite 
 natural misconceptions on the part of examiners. To illustrate my 
 meaning let me give you some statistics from our own office, 
 statistics whiich are duplicated, or approximated, in the offices of 
 all companies doing a country-wide business. Through our Special 
 Risk Department we handle, in round numbers, 60,000 inspection 
 reports per annum. Our agency departments pass nearly 20,000 
 more. All of these reports must be read. They come to us from 
 thirty inspection bureaus and rating' organizations, and each differs 
 from the others to a greater or less degree. Now consider for a 
 moment the mental agility required of the men whose duty it is 
 to read and analyze these differing reports. First comes a report 
 with a summary epitomized to the last safe degree, prominently 
 set forth on the first page. An ideal condition. Next, one with the 
 summary on the last page, and then one with no summary at all. 
 One report covering twenty buildings in a plant, and then twelve 
 reports covering twelve buildings in another plant, including sep- 
 arate reports for the dry kiln and oil house. One report giving 
 the grading as a sprinklered risk "97.8 per cent," the next " 7-ioths 
 of the standard," and the next "good to fair." I. had before me 
 a few days ago two reports from different bureaus covering the 
 same risk. One gave the sprinkler equipment a grading of 95 per 
 
 728 
 
INSPECTION REPORTS 729 
 
 cent, the other credited it with 44.4 per cent. Compiled as they 
 were in acordance with the system in vogue in each bureau, both 
 gradings were probably correct. To continue, one bureau gives a 
 loss estimate in plain figures, substantiated by a statement of values. 
 A report from another bureau gives no statement of values but 
 does contain the opinion, if we may call it an opinion, " Prefer 
 to believe that the fire department would effect a saving of 15 
 per cent." The examiner works his way through the reports as 
 best he can, at times using his knowledge of the men responsible 
 for them in attempting to estimate what effect the weather condi- 
 tions may have had upon the expressed opinions, and in other 
 cases heartened by the knowledge that he is dealing with facts, 
 set down in the order of greatest importance, and in the plainest 
 language. There can be no doubt that many mistakes would be 
 obviated if all information reached the companies in uniform re- 
 ports. Your association has done much toward bringing about 
 this result. The service of those bureaus which have adopted the 
 uniform report blank is most valuable to their subscribers, and the 
 value of that service will increase as the scope of the reports is 
 broadened (always uniformly, I hope), to cover all details that 
 may be reasonably desired. 
 
 Proper Reports. Now passing on to the question of the proper 
 substance and extent of inspection reports, we may say, speaking 
 broadly, that the companies ( want in each original report every f att 
 that has any bearing on the intelligent underwriting of the risk 
 reported on ; and in each succeeding report they want a condensed 
 statement of such facts brought down to date. There is without 
 doubt a difference of opinion among companies on the question 
 of what constitutes a proper report, but I am sure a careful 
 analysis of the difference would show that it lies more in the 
 form in which the facts should be set forth, than in the extent 
 of the information needed. In my judgment the form of an ideal 
 report blank would vary little, if any, from the blank adopted 
 as the standard of this association. I am sure all companies 
 would be well satisfied if every report contained just the informa- 
 tion required to make a complete story under all heads provided 
 in that blank, with perhaps a very slight amplification of which 
 I shall speak later. To illustrate my conclusions as regards the 
 difference of opinion among companies in respect to inspection 
 reports, we will divide the companies into two general classes. 
 
 Conservative Special Hazard Writers. In the first class we 
 will put the companies that accept lines on special hazards and 
 sprinklered risks conservatively, and maintain no special depart- 
 ments to handle those classes. I find that in their offices inspection 
 reports are usually passed by the regular examiners, who also pass 
 daily reports for all classes. These men have a great many details 
 to handle and usually read inspection reports for only such risks 
 as their companies have lines upon. The liability assumed on each 
 risk is comparatively light, so a careful analysis of distribution 
 of values and other details is not deemed a vital necessity. In fact, 
 I find that in some offices it is the practice to " make assurance 
 doubly sure " by discounting inspection bureau loss estimates as 
 much as 50 per cent in fixing lines. Now these companies value 
 inspection service, but you will readily understand that to be obliged 
 
73 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 to read a multitude of details in reports would, under their system 
 of handling the business, be burdensome. For them, the summary 
 that prefaces the standard uniform report would seem to be ideal. 
 Companies Writing Special Hazards Freely. The second class 
 comprises those companies that specialize on sprinklered risks, 
 traction properties, and other large line special hazards. This 
 business they handle through special departments, and they desire 
 that inspection reports be complete in all details of construction, 
 fire protection, hazards, distribution of values, etc. The reason 
 for this I think you all understand very well. The lines written 
 are usually large, and the acceptance of them involves great respon- 
 sibility, which can be safely assumed only with a full knowledge of 
 all conditions. No inspection bureau or rating organization can 
 properly perform the underwriting functions of these companies, 
 nor would it be fair to expect such service from them. 
 
 Uniform Blank Meets All Requirements. So we have the two 
 classes of companies that must be served through the same form 
 of report : one desiring a sort of arctic explorer's tabloid meal, 
 the other with members whose appetites can- be appeased only by 
 a complete collection of details. Both classes can be satisfied by 
 a faithful observance of all requirements of the uniform report 
 blank. The information provided in the condensed summary can 
 be set forth only after collecting the details necessary for the com- 
 plete report, and then boiling them down. The details once ob- 
 tained may be incorporated in the report without serious expense, 
 for the use of those who claim to need them. 
 
 Extent of Information Desired. First repeating my belief that 
 the standard uniform report blank, with a few minor additions, 
 will furnish all information that any company needs, provided that 
 all of its requirements are observed, I will refer as briefly as pos- 
 sible, to the extent of the information, required under 'some of the 
 principal heads of that blank, giving you such thoughts as have 
 occurred to me, or have been suggested by those gentlemen with 
 whom I have taken occasion to confer on the subject. The first 
 head to which reference need be made is 
 
 Name of Broker. Not all reports give information on this 
 point, which by the companies is considered an important one. It 
 is usually not difficult to obtain the name of broker or agent who 
 carries the most of the insurance or places the line. 
 
 Map or Plan. The companies which make a specialty of the 
 classes of risks reported on by inspection bureaus value the plans 
 which some bureaus furnish with reports on sprinklered risks, 
 and would like to see the practice of sending out such plans made 
 universal. The plans should be complete and uniform. 
 
 Raw Stock. A complete list of materials should appear in each 
 report. It requires trained inspectors to know what to look for 
 in each risk. The importance of the information can hardly be 
 overestimated. 
 
 Processes. This is also a very important subject, and the re- 
 marks just made apply equally to it. 
 
 Machinery. Under this head should be brought out any condi- 
 tions that would have a bearing in classifying the risk. For ex- 
 ample, cards in a woolen mill using some cotton stock should be 
 
INSPECTION REPORTS 731 
 
 described so that it may be known whether cotton is being worked 
 on open wool cards or otherwise. On the other hand, full lists 
 of machinery in such risks as machine shops, sash, door and blind 
 factories, etc., are of minor importance. The presence of any 
 special machinery should always be noted. 
 
 Location of Values. Fully appreciating that it is very often 
 difficult to gather information under this head, I cannot state 
 too emphatically that it is highly important that every report 
 contain a statement of values, even though it be obtained at the 
 expense of much effort. 
 
 Prominently Desirable Features and Prominently Undesirable 
 Features. Full information under these heads affords the quick- 
 est means of analyzing a risk, and is one of the first things looked 
 for in making an estimate. In some cases the undesirable features 
 are so serious that a decision to decline the risk may be arrived 
 at without reading further. 
 
 Construction. Information should be full and complete, as 
 provided for in the uniform report blank. Reports should give 
 the percentage of each type of construction, and any unusual con- 
 ditions should be brought out. 
 
 Common Hazards and Special Hazards. Here again the 
 trained inspector has opportunity to point out any unusual hazards, 
 chemical combinations, etc. The description of all hazards should 
 be made complete in all essential details. 
 
 Administration. The imprtance of the information under this 
 head is appreciated by all who examine inspection reports. It is 
 one of the subjects turned to first in reports which contain the 
 information. A succession of reports showing lax administration 
 is usually sufficient warrant for declining the risk. 
 
 Exposure. Information should be full and complete in accord- 
 ance with the requirements of the uniform report blank. Lines 
 cannot be fixed intelligently without a full knowledge of the ex- 
 posures and the protection against same. Here again I would 
 emphasize the necessity for facts, rather than opinions unsub- 
 stantiated by details. 
 
 Protection. All details provided for in the uniform report blank 
 are essential. The size of the street main and the static water 
 pressure may mean very little without a statement of what is back 
 of them. A full knowledge of public fire defenses cannot be had 
 without making working tests. Some of our bureaus include an 
 analysis of the town fire protection in their reports, and the facts 
 brought out through their work are highly important. The value 
 of street main connections to yard hydrants and sprinkler equip- 
 ments cannot be determined accurately without such analysis. 
 
 Automatic Sprinkler Equipment. Nothing short of a full state- 
 ment in accordance with the requirements of the uniform report 
 blank would be sufficient under this important head. It should be 
 borne in mind that most companies desire all details regarding 
 sprinkler equipments, even though some of them may impress the 
 compiler of the reports as being immaterial. Reference to sprink- 
 ler alarms or other devices may not properly be omitted from re- 
 ports because in the opinion of the author of the reports they are 
 so fallible as to merit no mention. The reports in this respect, 
 
732 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 as well as all others, should consist 'of statements of facts, and 
 should not contain opinions which find expression in the omission 
 of what may by some be considered important details. By this is 
 not meant to suggest the omission of definitely expressed opinions, 
 so long as they are not substituted for facts. The last of the sub- 
 heads for this subject in the uniform report blank reads: 
 
 Equipment in General. Here the inspector has opportunity to 
 cover much information of importance. Every inspection 'of a 
 sprinkler equipment should include a careful examination of the 
 tanks and their supports, including bearing walls. The hoops 
 should be examined for deterioration, and any rotting of supports, 
 or settling or cracking of walls, should be noticed in reports, and 
 the attention of--the insured should be drawn to same before the 
 inspector leaves the premises. The companies encourage the in- 
 stallation of sprinklers, and they owe it to the insured to advise 
 them on such points even though the companies might not suffer 
 directly through a failure to do so. For the same reason the 
 inspector should also report on any improperly heated sections of 
 buildings, improperly insulated piping, or dry valve closets. He 
 should report on any poorly supported piping, or sections of equip- 
 ment subject to injury by settling of buildings, or dangerous proxim- 
 ity of belts to sprinklers, or any arrangement of stock piles that 
 might endanger sprinkler risers or piping. In fact, every defect 
 in the sprinkler equipment should be reported, and pointed out to 
 the insured, even though such defects might not, in the inspector's 
 opinion, seriously threaten the integrity of the sprinkler protection. 
 
 Record of Fires. This is important information, and should be 
 brought down to date in each succeeding report. 
 
 Improvements Recommended. Recommendations covering vital 
 improvements should be separated in reports from suggestions for 
 improvements to make risks standard. I believe it is the general 
 opinion that a proper function of all inspection bureaus is to bring 
 'about improvements in risks they inspect. It is important that 
 vital defects be corrected whenever possible before the inspector 
 leaves the risk. When this cannot be accomplished, the com- 
 panies should be furnished reports of progress at short' intervals, 
 until improvements have been completed, or abandoned. The fore- 
 going is the practice of some of our bureaus, and I believe the 
 companies would willingly assume such additional expense as might 
 be occasioned through the extension of the practice to all of them. 
 
 Reinspection Reports. And now for the reinspection report. 
 I will take up but a moment on this subject. The information re- 
 quired under the uniform reinspection blank with slight additions, 
 should, I believe, satisfy all companies, but nothing short of that 
 would suffice. At first glance it might seem unnecessary to repeat 
 in the reinspection reports the information given in the original 
 reports, but doing so would result in a saving of time to the com- 
 panies more than sufficient to balance the additional expense of 
 the longer reports. I know of nothing more irritating than to be 
 obliged to run through a number of partial reports back to the 
 last original in order to make a proper estimate of a risk. 
 
 In the commencement I stated my belief that the uniform report 
 blank with slight amplifications would satisfy all companies. My 
 thought was that three heads should be added to the blanks to 
 
INSPECTION REPORTS 733 
 
 make them complete. I would suggest " REMARKS," " USE AND 
 OCCUPANCY," and "GRADING," as those heads. Each of them 
 is being used by some of the bureaus, and I think that the adoption 
 of them as a part of the uniform report blank would be welcomed. 
 Under 
 
 Remarks might be 'included such information as the inspector 
 can gather regarding the prosperity of the risk, including state- 
 ment of whether or not the plant is running full, and the reasons 
 for any partial shut-down. Of course, if the plant is idle, the 
 fact should be stated and reasops given. Press notices from local 
 papers indicating financial troubles are sometimes valuable. In 
 fact, any information on this subject would be appreciated. There 
 will be opposition in many minds to this suggestion. Think it over 
 and see if a definite scope cannot be worked out that all may safely 
 observe. Under this head, too, the inspector might properly be 
 permitted to express his personal opinions. The opinions of quali- 
 fied inspectors would be welcomed so long as they did not take 
 the place of facts. 
 
 Use and Occupancy. Your association has adopted a uniform 
 Use and Occupancy Report blank, which provides for all needed 
 information on that subject. The companies who write the class 
 (and their number is increasing), would value a summary of that 
 information in each general inspection report. 
 
 Uniform Grading of Sprinkler Equipments. The question of 
 a uniform schedule for grading sprinkler equipments, 1 believe is 
 still in the hands of your committee. That this is one of the most 
 perplexing subjects with which you have to contend is readily 
 understandable. The question I have in mind is whether any grad- 
 ing schedule that may be worked out will be of material help to 
 the companies as a whole. I am quite certain that a schedule pro- 
 viding charges for deficiencies in the sprinkler systems based wholly 
 on the rules for sprinkler installation and arrangement of build- 
 ings, and giving the results in percentages, would be misleading 
 to a great many men who pass upon business for the companies. 
 I have often heard some such remark as this made, " That is a fine 
 risk, the bureau gives it a grading of 95 per cent." Perhaps the 
 risk was a wholesale dry-goods store, and the statement quoted 
 was sound. On the other hand, it might have been a risk so filled 
 with combustible stock, or so constructed, as to make sprinkler 
 control extremely doubtful, but provided the sprinkler equipment 
 were properly installed and had approved water supplies, it too 
 might grade 95 per cent. Personally I incline to a system that will 
 admit of grading a risk in plain language, as, Excellent, Good, 
 Fair, Indifferent, Poor. This plan is now in use in some bureaus, 
 and seems to have general approval. There is no doubt but that 
 any system should have as a basis some fixed and uniform method 
 of arriving at a grading, but all that need appear in the reports 
 is, for example, " Grading as a sprinklered risk, excellent," this 
 grading to be arrived at with due consideration given to all favor- 
 able and unfavorable condition. 
 
 Inspectors. No discussion of the subject of this paper would 
 be complete without giving some time to the question of inspectors. 
 That the companies cannot expect to receive through inspection 
 reports the information they need, unless the men on the firing 
 
734 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 line who gather the data are thoroughly qualified for the work 
 they have to do, goes without saying. What constitutes proper 
 qualifications is a question not so easily disposed of, for my in- 
 vestigations indicate that there is a marked difference of opinion, 
 among managers, of inspection bureaus at least, on that point. 
 Using the uniform inspection blank as a standard, it would seem 
 that there should be no quarrel with the statement that a properly 
 qualified inspector is one who possesses the ability to gather and 
 present, in the prescribed manner, all the information provided for 
 under each head of that blank. I .shall not attempt to touch upon 
 questions of temperament and industry here, for I believe there 
 is little difference of opinion respecting the necessities under those 
 heads. The point I feel most strongly about has been stated, and 
 I cannot but believe that there is as mucfy necessity for a uniform 
 standard of qualifications for inspectors as there is for the other 
 standards being worked out by your association. It has been my 
 good fortune to be associated with many inspectors during the 
 time I have been in this business, and I want to say here that as 
 a class they measure high. I wonder at times if we realize fully 
 just how important to the companies and the insured is the work 
 being done by this little army of bright men. I wonder if we 
 realize, to the full, the necessity for very high qualifications in 
 these men upon whose statements, to a large extent, the com- 
 panies are risking immense sums. In the old days we hewed our 
 inspectors from the raw material, and they made good inspectors. 
 But the hewing took time, and directly or indirectly cost money. 
 In some cases the result was not highly finished. The technical 
 schools now furnish good material for our work, fully equipped 
 in the commencement, and needing only the finish that experience 
 alone can furnish. Now I would not go so far as to say that none 
 but college-bred men should be employed as inspectors, but it is 
 apparent that such men have an immense advantage over those 
 who have to pick up the technical knowledge after they take up 
 field work, even though the latter finally become wholly qualified. 
 As between the college-bred engineer, and the inspector who has 
 knowledge of only a part of the subjects which must be covered 
 in his reports, there can be no comparison. The inspection reports 
 which I read daily give evidence of the point I am endeavoring to 
 elucidate. Some reports are well balanced, furnishing full infor- 
 mation under each head in a manner that leaves no doubt in the 
 reader's mind as to the inspector's complete qualification for his 
 work. Others give very full and intelligent description of the fire- 
 defense equipment, but are lamentably weak in other particulars. 
 My belief is that the specialist in a single branch of insurance 
 engineering is not the most satisfactory inspector, which leads me 
 to repeat that there is need for a standard of qualifications for 
 inspectors. 
 
 FIRE UNDERWRITERS' UNIFORMITY ASSOCIATION 
 Standard Uniform Blank for Inspection Report, Adopted 1906 
 
 1. Standard form of inspection report. 
 
 2. Confidential. 
 
 3. Original Sprinklered Risk Report [when such is the case]. No. 
 
 4. Name of Association or Bureau. 5. Address. 
 
INSPECTION REPORTS 735 
 
 6. Inspected [Date] Name Inspector. 
 
 7. Insurance. [Inserted here are the columns and spaces for 
 information as to policies, lines, dates, etc."! 
 
 8. Name of Broker. 
 
 9. Survey of [if tenant plant or] Class of Risk [as Shoe Factory] 
 [Omnibus occupancy, give name of owner of plant.] [Exceptions: 
 If principal tenant leases whole plant and sublets portions, or if he 
 occupies most of plant, give his name instead of owner.] 
 
 10. Location. 
 
 11. Map or Plan. Volume, Name, Date or Date of Correction, 
 Sheet, Block No. 
 
 12. Buildings owned by, [Give ownership of individual build- 
 ings when plant comprises a group.] 
 
 13. Machinery owned by. 
 
 14. Occupied by. [Include number of hands employed, how many 
 in full force, hours. In omnibus occupancy group 13 to 18 for 
 each tenant.] 
 
 15. Goods made or sold. 
 
 16. Raw Stock. [In order used, and any important information, 
 such as proportions of wool, cotton or shoddy, whence supply of 
 latter.] 
 
 17. Process. [Describe in order of occurrence, main processes 
 first; then processes of side Products.] 
 
 18. Machinery. [Described in order of processes. Mention ma- 
 chinery unused or in reserve.] 
 
 19. Location of values. 
 
 20. Summary. 
 
 21. A complete epitome of report in sequence as herein given. 
 Class of Risk. Construction, including cut-offs [per centum of 
 values subject to one fire]. Exposure. Common hazards. Special 
 hazards. Administration. Protection [accessibility]. Automatic 
 Sprinkler Equipment, grading of sprinkler equipment. Fires. 
 [Prosperity.] Miscellaneous items. 
 
 22. Prominent Desirable Features. 
 
 23. Prominent Undesirable Features. 
 
 24. Remarks. 
 Construction. 
 
 i. Age and repair. 2. Height [including any blind attics]. 
 
 3. Area. 4. Walls. Materials. Thickness (mention but- 
 
 tresses or pilasters, if any). Finish. Parapet. Coping. Partitions. 
 
 5. Roofs (and supports). Material. Cornice. Skylights. 
 
 6. Floors and supports. 7. Ceilings. 
 
 8. Floor openings. Stairs. Elevators (and hatchways). Light 
 Wells (and air shafts). Chutes. Dumb Waiters, etc. 
 
 9. Fire Divisions. Kind, number, etc. 
 
 10. Occupancy to be shown by floors for each building (lowest 
 first). 
 
 Note: (a) Where there is a general group or where there are 
 groups of buildings, those of similar construction may be described 
 together, using the same general order as separate buildings, (b) 
 Those that are radically different in construction should be de- 
 scribed separately. 
 
736 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Exposures. 
 
 Distance. Height. Material. Class and Protection against same 
 for North, East, South and West. 
 Common Hazards. 
 
 1. Power. Steam. Electric. Water. Gas or Gasolene Engine. 
 
 2. Heating. Steam. Hot Air. Electric. Stoves or Furnaces. 
 Gas. 
 
 3. Lighting. Electricity. Gas. Oil Lamps and Torches. Gaso- 
 lene or vapor Lamps. Candles. 
 
 4. Lubricating Oils, etc. 
 Special Hazards. 
 
 Follow order of processes, including drying. Hazards of individ- 
 ual tenants. 
 Administration. 
 
 Management, order, cleanliness; disposition of refuse, oily waste, 
 ashes; smoking, matches, spittoons; shafting; elevator drip pans; 
 master, mechanic's knowledge ; Assured's care and inspection of fire 
 appliances. 
 
 Values And Insurance 
 Buildings Buildings 
 
 Machinery Machinery 
 
 Average Stocks Average Stocks 
 
 Use and Occupancy. 
 Rents 
 Protection. 
 
 1. Private inside protection except Automatic Sprinklers. Stand- 
 pipe Equipment and Water Supplies; Casks, pails and hand chem- 
 icals. Other features. 
 
 2. Alarm service (including watchman's service, and light he 
 uses. Thermostats, auxiliary fire alarm boxes). "" '''." 
 
 3. Private Outside Protection. Private Hydrant System and 
 Water Supplies. Private Brigade. Open Sprinkler. 
 
 4. Public Protection. Water Supply. Public Hydrants. Public 
 Fire Department. 
 
 5. Outside Protection as a Whole. 
 
 Automatic Sprinkler Equipment. 
 
 1. Name of sprinkler. Type or form. Upright or pendant Heads. 
 
 2. Portions Sprinklered. By whom put in and When. Wet or 
 what Dry System and Where. Water Column. Dry all year. 
 What Air Pressure. Type. Location of Dry Valve. Enclosed. 
 
 ,3. Portions not Sprinklered. Portions cut off during winter. 
 4. Public pressure. 5. Gravity Tank. 6. Pressure Tank. 
 
 7. Pump. 8. Valves. 9. Alarm Valves and Apparatus. 
 
 10. Sprinkler Supervisory Equipment. .-. ... n. Size of Risers. 
 
 12. Hydrants, Hose or Service Connections on System (including 
 condition of heads; obstruction of valves). 
 
 13. Equipment in general (including general information not pro- 
 vided for in above paragraphs). 
 
 Record of Fires. 
 Improvements recommended. 
 Improvements promised. 
 
INSPECTION OF BUILDINGS 737 
 
 INSPECTION OF BUILDINGS BY FIRE DEPARTMENTS 
 
 At the 1915 annual convention, in Cincinnati, Ohio, of the Inter- 
 national Association of Firo Engineers, which is the official name 
 of the organization of firt chiefs, there was an able report by a 
 committee, of which Chief Kenlon was chairman, outlining the 
 ?cope and duties of a fire prevention bureau in our American fire 
 departments. In this report the statement is made : 
 
 A careful review of the different fire prevention movements, or- 
 ganizations and bureaus effected to carry on the actual work of 
 fire prevention indicates that only a very few of these have been 
 so organized and empowered that the number of fires ordinarily 
 originating from arson, fraud or carelessness was materially reduced. 
 
 In the United States and Canada we have, in our effort to save 
 property from loss by fire, directed our efforts mostty towards im- 
 proving our fire fighting facilities. The losses can be kept down to 
 a certain margin by increasing the efficiency and strength of our 
 departments, but any additional strength beyond that is largely as 
 security against conflagrations. Some of our fire departments have 
 already reached or are approaching that stage of development. 
 Therefore, if we hope to reduce our losses to the .figure at which 
 it is reasonable to expect they should be kept, we' must turn our 
 attention to the question of fire prevention. In the same way that 
 the State and municipality have directed their efforts to health regu- 
 lations, which have resulted in a lower death rate and an extension 
 of the average life of man, so will the State and municipality have 
 to turn attention to fire prevention regulations. 
 
 So far as the municipality is concerned, the time is rapidly ap- 
 p'roaching when every city and town will be compelled to incor- 
 porate in its fire department, not only the work of fire extinguish- 
 ment but the work of fire prevention also, particularly if it expects 
 to keep its losses low. 
 
 It is seen from the above that it is becoming generally recognized 
 that one of the duties of a fire department is to have remedied 
 hazardous conditions and to order the introduction of protective 
 devices, and to do this they must make inspection, judge of condi- 
 tions and issue regulatory specifications. In this last they have 
 wisely adopted many of the very excellent regulations and suggested 
 ordinances of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, and every 
 year sees more and more cities carrying out the underwriters' recom- 
 mendations for more stringent laws on common hazards and proper 
 construction. 
 
 It is to the first two duties inspection and judging conditions 
 that attention has to be called. Not every one can make an inspec- 
 tion ; any underwriters' inspection bureau can vouch for this, as it 
 is only after months of careful coaching and through the use of 
 inspection blanks compiled after careful study that a real good 
 inspection can be obtained from even the best of material. Firemen 
 have not in the past had the training, and the time they can put on 
 
738 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 it is so limited by other duties that it will take even longer for them 
 to become proficient. It is because of this that much of the fire pre- 
 vention work started will have no material effect for some years, as 
 it will take this long to have the firemen well qualified in their 
 duties as inspectors. 
 
 This lack of previous experience in inspection work, together 
 with the fact that the men and officers have been so occupied in fire 
 fighting that they have not had time to master the intricacies of fire 
 prevention, also lessens their ability to judge of the seriousness of 
 hazards and the best method of eliminating them, or the proper fire 
 protection features to be provided. 
 
 In both of these matters inspection and judgment of conditions 
 the underwriters have had long years of training and have become 
 most expert. Evidently, considering this, and that all prevention 
 work is of most vital importance to the fire underwriters, it is their 
 duty to assist the fire departments in every way possible. 
 
 There have been numerous cases where an underwriters' in- 
 spector has found such " horrid " conditions that he has felt it his 
 duty to call the 'fire chief's attention to it, but this is not sufficiently 
 general. After the Salem fire, the fire department and the insur- 
 ance interest condemned each other for the hazardous storage of 
 film scrap, which resulted in burning up millions of dollars in 
 property. The insurance interests blamed the fire department for 
 allowing this storage, in this poorly protected manner, and the fire 
 department condemned the insurance inspectors for not notifying 
 them of it when the inspectors had found such poor conditions. 
 
 It is to offset this that there is a real duty for the underwriters. 
 With every inspection of importance, if possible, have a fireman 
 detailed along, to see first-hand the conditions found. In many 
 cases this will not be feasible, either for lack of firemen or for dis- 
 inclination on the part of the fire department officials. As an alter- 
 native, almost as good, file with the fire department a duplicate of 
 the inspection blank, not only as to the conditions found, which in 
 many cases will be more completely covered than any inspection by 
 a fireman, but also as to the changes necessary. 
 
 These inspection blanks thus filed will be a constant reminder to 
 the Chief of conditions existing md will also enable him to check up 
 the thoroughness of any individual inspections made by 'members 
 of the fire force. 
 
 With the advice of the underwriters' inspector on file as to the 
 changes and improvements judged necessary, the fire chief will be 
 enabled to furnish information at any time to an owner wishing to 
 make changes in a plant, and even where conditions are somewhat 
 
TABLES 739 
 
 different, the precedent offered by some other report may be of 
 sufficient value to result in material changes. 
 
 In all large cities there are well organized underwriters' inspection 
 bureaus, and these should by all means co-operate to the fullest 
 extent with the fire department to remedy conditions. It might even 
 be possible, by ordinance or legislative enactment, to make the un- 
 derwriters' inspector a deputy inspector of the fire department, as 
 has been done in some cases with electrical inspectors, and on the 
 Pacific Coast with the city Fire Marshal, who is an insurance bureau 
 employee. . * 
 
 METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 Metric Weights 
 
 Milligram (1/1000 gram) equals 0.0154 grain 
 
 Centigram (1/100 gram) equals 0.1543 grain 
 
 Decigram (1/10 gram) equals 1.5432 grains 
 
 Gram equals 15.432 grains 
 
 Decagram (10 grams) equals 0.3527 ounce 
 
 Hectogram (100 grams) equals 3.5274 ounces 
 
 Kilogram (1000 grams) equals 2.2046 pounds 
 
 Myriagram (10,000 grams) equals 22.046 pounds 
 
 Quintal (100,000 grams) equals 220.46 pounds 
 
 Millier or tonnea ton (1,000,000 grams) equals 2,204.6 pounds 
 
 Metric Dry Measures 
 
 Milliliter (1/1000 liter) equals 0.061 cubic inch 
 Centiliter (1/100 liter) equals 0.6102 cubic inch. 
 Deciliter (1/10 liter) equals 6.1022 cubic inches 
 Liter equals 0.908 quart 
 Decaliter (10 liters) equals 9.08 quarts 
 Hectoliter (100 liters) equals 2.838 bushels 
 Kiloliter (1000 liters) equals 1,308 cubic yards 
 
 Metric Liquid Measures 
 
 Milliliter (IjylOOO liter) equals 0.0338 fluid ounce 
 
 Centiliter (1^100 liter) equals 0.338 fluid ounce 
 
 Deciliter (l;ylO liter) equals 0.845 gill 
 
 Liter equals 1.0567 quarts 
 
 Decaliter (10 liters) equals 2.6418 gallons 
 
 Hectoliter (100 liters>equals 26.417 gallons 
 
 KiloHter (1000 liters) equals 264.18 gallons 
 
 Metric Measures of Length 
 
 Millimeter (1/1000 meter) equals 0.0394 inch 
 
 Centimeter (1/100 meter) equals 0.3937 inch 
 
 Decimeter (1/10 meter) equals 3.937 inches 
 
 Meter equals 39.37 inches 
 
 Decameter (10 meters) equals 393.7 inches 
 
 Hectometer (100 meters) equals 328 feet 1 inch 
 
 Kilometer (1000 meters) equals 0.62137 mile (3,280 feet 10 inches) 
 
 Myriameter (10,000 meters) equals 6.2137 miles 
 
 Metric Surface Measures 
 
 Centare (1 square meter) equals 1,550 square inches 
 Are (100 square meters) equals 119.6 square yards 
 Hectare (10,000 square meters) equals 2.471 acres 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 Troy Weight 
 
 24 grains = 1 pwt. 12 ounces = 1 pound 
 
 20 pwts. = 1 ounce 
 
 Used for weighing gold, silver and jewels 
 
 Apothecaries' Weight 
 
 20 grains = 1 scruple 8 drams = 1 ounce 
 
 3 scruples = 1 dram 12 ounces = 1 pound 
 
 The ounce and pound in this are the same as in Troy weight 
 
740 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight 
 
 27 11/32 grains = 1 dram 4 quarters = 1 cwt. 
 
 16 drams = 1 ounce 2,000 Ibs. = 1 short ton 
 
 16 ounces = 1 pound 2,240 Ibs. = 1 long ton 
 
 24 pounds = 1 quarter 
 
 Dry Measure 
 
 2 pints = 1 quart 4 pecks = 1 bushel 
 
 8 quarts = 1 peck 37 bushels = 1 chaldron 
 
 Liquid Measure 
 
 4 gills = 1 pint 31 1/2 gallons = 1 barrel 
 
 2 pints = 1 quart 2 barrels = 1 hogshead 
 4 quarts = 1 gallon 
 
 Long Measure 
 12 inches = 1 foot 40 rods = 1 furlong 
 
 3 feet = 1 yard 8 furlongs = 1 sta. mile 
 5 1/2 yards = 1 rod 3 miles = 1 league 
 
 Mariner's Measure 
 
 6 feet = 1 fathom 5,280 feet = 1 stat. mile 
 120 fathoms 1 cable length 6,085 feet = 1 naut. mile 
 
 7 1/2 cable lengths = 1 mile 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 3 inches = 1 palm 18 inches = 1 cubit 
 
 4 inches = 1 hand 21.8 inches = 1 Bible cubit 
 6 inches = 1 span 2 1/2 feet = 1 military pace 
 
 Square Measure 
 
 144 square inches = 1 square foot 40 square rods = 1 rood 
 
 9 square feet = 1 square yard 4 roods = 1 acre 
 
 30 1/4 square yards = 1 square rod 640 acres = 1 square mile 
 
 Surveyors' Measure 
 
 7.92 inches = 1 link 10 sq. chains or 160 sq. rods 1 acre 
 
 25 links = 1 rod 640 acres = 1 square mile 
 
 4 rods = 1 chain 36 sq. miles (6 miles sq.) = 1 township 
 
 Cubic Measure 
 
 1,728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot 1 cubic foot = about 4/5 of a bushel 
 
 27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard 128 cubic feet = 1 cord (wood) 
 
 2,150.42 cu. in. = 1 standard bushel 40 cubic feet = 1 ton (shipping) 
 
 231 cu. in. = 1 standard gallon 
 
 HORSE POWER 
 
 A horse power is the energy required to raise 33,000pounds one foot in a minute. 
 
 The horse power of a boiler is its capacity to evaporate 30 pounds of water 
 per hour at 70 gauge pressure (temperature 318.4 deg.) from 100 deg. feed water 
 for every horse power. 
 
 The indicated horse power of an engine is the power developed by the steam 
 on the piston without any deduction for friction. 
 
 The effective horse power of an engine is the actual and available horse power 
 delivered to the belt or gearing, and is always less than the indicated. 
 
 The horse power of an engine is 
 
 a x p x v 
 
 33,000 
 
 a Area of piston in square inches. 
 
 p Means effective pressure of the steam on the piston per square inch, 
 v Velocity of piston per minute. 
 
 Rule to Ascertain Horse Power of Compound Engine 
 
 Multiply stroke of piston in feet by the number of revolutions per minute; 
 multiply this product by the boiler pressure by gauge and take the square root 
 of this result, which multiply by the square of the diameter of the low pressure 
 cylinder. This product, divided by 8,500, will be the estimated horse power of 
 the engine. 
 
 An indicated horse power requires, in the best condensing engines, about 1 } 
 gallons of water evaporated per hour. 
 
 An indicated horse power, in large non-condensing engines, requires about 2$ 
 gallons of water evaporated per hour. 
 
 An indicated horse power, in small non-condensing engines, requires from 3 to 
 10 gallons of water evaporated per hour. 
 
TABLES 
 
 741 
 
 BOILER House POWER (BASED ON 30 POUNDS or WATER PER HOUR) 
 
 10 ZO 50 40 50 60 TO 80 9O WO 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ;^ N 
 
 
 -- ~~"\ . . io 
 
 
 
 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^ \ 
 
 DUTY IN MIU.ION FOOT POUNDS 
 
 ^ * ^ ~ " 
 
 s.L.^-^^^-' 7 - :^__ e 
 
 OCR 100 POUNDS COAL 
 
 STEAM BOILER PROPORTIONS . 
 
 Proportion of grate and heating surface required for a given horse power. The 
 -m horse power here means capacity to evaporate 34.5 Ibs. of water from and 
 
 Average proportions for maximum economy for land boilers fired with good 
 anthracite coal: 
 
 Heating surface per horse power 10 . sq. ft. 
 
 Grate surface per horse power 1/3 sq. ft. 
 
 Ratio of heating to grate surface 30.0 sq. ft. 
 
 Water evaporated from and at 212 degs. per sq. ft. H. S. per hour 3 Ibs. 
 
 Combustible burned per H. P. per hour 3 Ibs. 
 
 Coal with 1/6 refuse pounds per H. P. per hour 3.6 Ibs. 
 
 Combustible burned per sq. ft. grate per hour 9 Ibs. 
 
 Coal with 1/6 refuse Ibs. per sq. ft. grate per hour 10.8 Ibs. 
 
 Water evaporated from and at 212 degs. per Ib. combustible .... 11.5 Ibs. 
 Water evaporated from and at 212 degs. per Ibs. coal (i refuse) . . 9.6 Ibs. 
 
 HORSE POWER OF CYLINDRICAL FLUE BOILER 
 
 G = Fire grate surface in square feet 
 
 H = Nominal horse power 
 
 S = Heating surface in square yards 
 
 H' H* 
 
 =S =G 
 
 V SG = H G S 
 
 For cylindrical two-flued boilers an approximate rule is: 
 Length x diam. 
 
 = nominal horse power. 
 
 6 
 
 To find the weight of the rim of the fly-wheel for an engine: 
 Nominal H. P. x 2000 
 
 = Weight in cwts. 
 
 The square of the velocity of the circumfer- 
 ence in feet per second 
 
742 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 AVERAGE EVAPORATIVE POWER OF FUELS 
 
 1 pound of pure Carbon evaporates 
 
 1 pound of Hydrogen evaporates 
 
 1 pound of Sulphur evaporates 
 
 1 pound of Oak wood evaporates 
 
 1 pound of White Pine wood evaporates 
 
 1 pound of Oak charcoal evaporates 
 
 1 pound of Bituminous coal evaporates 
 
 1 pound of Anthracite coal evaporates 
 
 1 pound of Coke evaporates 
 
 12.4 pounds of water 
 
 53. pounds of water 
 
 3 . 44 pounds of water 
 
 6.47 pounds of water 
 
 7 . 65 pounds of water 
 
 11.7 pounds of water 
 
 12.62 pounds of water 
 
 10.9 pounds of water 
 
 11.85 pounds of water 
 
 THE RELATIVE VOLUME OF STEAM AND WATER ARE 
 
 At 15 pounds to square inch 1669 to 1 
 
 At 30 pounds to square inch 881 to 1 
 
 At 60 pounds to square inch 467 to 1 
 
 At 120 pounds to square inch 249 to 1 
 
 / L COMPARATIVE TABLE WEIGHT AND GRAVITY 
 Liquids Lighter than Water at 60 degrees F. 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Actual 
 Weight 
 per 
 Gallon 
 
 Billing 
 Weight 
 per 
 Gallon 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Actual 
 Weight 
 per 
 Gallon 
 
 Billing 
 Weight 
 per 
 Gallon 
 
 10 
 
 1.0000 
 
 8.32 
 
 
 43 
 
 .8092 
 
 6.74 
 
 6 
 
 
 11 
 
 .9929 
 
 8.27 
 
 
 44 
 
 .8045 
 
 6.70 
 
 6 
 
 
 12 
 
 .9859 
 
 8.21 
 
 
 45 
 
 .8000 
 
 6.66 
 
 6 
 
 
 13 
 
 .9790 
 
 8.16 
 
 
 46 
 
 .7951 
 
 6.63 
 
 6 
 
 
 14 
 
 .9722 
 
 8.10 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 .7909 
 
 6.59 
 
 6 
 
 
 15 
 
 .9655 
 
 8.04 
 
 
 48 
 
 ' 78.65 
 
 6.55 
 
 6J 
 
 
 16 
 
 .9589 
 
 7.99 
 
 
 49 
 
 .7821 
 
 6.52 
 
 6 
 
 
 17 
 
 .9523 
 
 7.93 
 
 
 50 
 
 .7777 
 
 6.48 
 
 6 
 
 
 18 
 
 .9459 
 
 7.88 
 
 
 51 
 
 .7734 
 
 6.44 
 
 6 
 
 
 19 
 
 .9395 
 
 7.83 
 
 
 52 
 
 .7692 
 
 6.41 
 
 6 
 
 
 20 
 
 .9333' 
 
 7.78 
 
 
 53 
 
 .7650 
 
 6.37 
 
 61 1 
 
 21 
 
 .9271 
 
 7.72 
 
 
 54 
 
 .7608 
 
 6.34 
 
 61 
 
 22 
 
 .9210 
 
 7.67 
 
 
 55 
 
 .7567 
 
 6.30 
 
 61 
 
 23 
 
 .9150 
 
 7.62 
 
 7 
 
 
 56 
 
 .7526 
 
 6.27 
 
 6:' 
 
 24 
 
 .9090 
 
 7.57 
 
 7 
 
 
 57 
 
 .7486 
 
 6.24 
 
 6 
 
 
 25 
 
 .9032 
 
 7.53 
 
 7 
 
 
 58 
 
 .7446 
 
 6.20 
 
 6 
 
 
 26 
 
 .8974 
 
 7.48 
 
 . 7 
 
 
 59 
 
 .7407 
 
 6.17 
 
 6 
 
 
 27 
 
 .8917 
 
 7.43 
 
 7 
 
 
 60 
 
 .7368 
 
 6.14 
 
 6 
 
 
 28 
 
 .8860 
 
 7.38 
 
 7 
 
 
 61 
 
 73.29 
 
 6.11 
 
 6 
 
 
 29 
 
 .8805 
 
 7.34 
 
 7 
 
 
 62 
 
 .7290 
 
 6.07 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 .8750 
 
 7.29 
 
 7 
 
 
 63 
 
 .7253 
 
 6.04 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 .8695 
 
 7.24 
 
 7 
 
 
 64 
 
 .7216 
 
 6.01 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 .8641 
 
 7.20 
 
 7 
 
 
 65 
 
 .7179 
 
 5.98 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 .8588 
 
 7.15 
 
 7 
 
 
 66 
 
 .7142 
 
 5.95 
 
 53 
 
 
 34 
 
 .8536 
 
 7.11 
 
 7| 
 
 67 
 
 .7106 
 
 5.92 
 
 5 
 
 
 35 
 
 .8484 
 
 7.07 
 
 7 
 
 68 
 
 .7070 
 
 5.89 
 
 5 
 
 
 36 
 
 .8433 
 
 7.03 
 
 7 
 
 69 
 
 .7035 
 
 5.86 
 
 5 
 
 
 37 
 
 .8383 
 
 6.98 
 
 7 
 
 70 
 
 .7000 
 
 5.83 
 
 5 
 
 
 38 
 
 .8333 
 
 6.94 
 
 6 
 
 
 75 
 
 .6829 
 
 5.69 
 
 5 
 
 
 39 
 
 .8284 
 
 6.90 
 
 6 
 
 
 80 
 
 .6666 
 
 5.55 
 
 5i 
 
 
 40 
 
 .8235 
 
 6.86 
 
 6 
 
 
 85 
 
 .6511 
 
 5.42 
 
 5j 
 
 
 41 
 
 .8187 
 
 6.82 
 
 6 
 
 
 90 
 
 .6363 
 
 5.30 
 
 
 42 
 
 .8139 
 
 6.78 
 
 6 
 
 
 95 
 
 .6222 
 
 5.18 
 
 
 NOTE. This table of Baume's hydrometers has been used for many years as 
 the basis for all instruments employed in the petroleum trade. It is calculated 
 
 140 
 for a temperature of 60 Fahr. and is based on the formulae: = Specific 
 
 gravity and 
 
 140 
 
 130 = Bo. 
 
 B + 130 
 This table has the official sanction 
 
 Specific gravit 
 
 ity 
 of S 
 
 of the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. 
 
TABLES 
 
 743 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE WEIGHT AND GRAVITY 
 Liquids Heavier than Water at 60 Degrees F. 
 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Pounds 
 in Gallon 
 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Pounds 
 in Gallon 
 
 1 
 
 1.0069 
 
 8.38 
 
 36 
 
 1.3302 
 
 11.09 
 
 2 
 
 1.0139 
 
 8.46 
 
 37 
 
 1.3425 
 
 11.18 
 
 3 
 
 1.0211 
 
 8.51 
 
 38 
 
 1.3551 
 
 11.29 
 
 4 
 
 1.0283 
 
 8.56 
 
 39 
 
 1.3679 
 
 11.39 
 
 5 
 
 1.0357 
 
 8.63 
 
 40 
 
 1.3809 
 
 11.51 
 
 6 
 
 1.0431 
 
 8.69 
 
 41 
 
 1.3942 
 
 11.61 
 
 7 
 
 1.0507 
 
 8.75 
 
 42 
 
 1.4077 
 
 11.72 
 
 8 
 
 1.0583 
 
 8.81 
 
 43 
 
 1.4215 
 
 11.34 
 
 9 
 
 1.0661 
 
 8.88 
 
 44 
 
 1.4356 
 
 11.96 
 
 10 
 
 1.0740 
 
 . 8.94 
 
 45 
 
 1.4500 
 
 12.08 
 
 11 
 
 1.0820 
 
 9.01 
 
 46 
 
 1.4646 
 
 12.21 
 
 12 
 
 1.0902 
 
 9.09 
 
 47 
 
 1.4795 
 
 12.33 
 
 13 
 
 1.0984 
 
 9.15 
 
 48 
 
 1 . 4949 
 
 12.46 
 
 14 
 
 1 . 1068 
 
 9.21 
 
 49 
 
 1.5104 
 
 12.58 
 
 15 
 
 1.1153 
 
 9.29 
 
 50 
 
 1.5263 
 
 12.72 
 
 16 
 
 1 . 1240 
 
 9.36 
 
 51 
 
 1.5425 
 
 12.85 
 
 17 
 
 1 . 1328 
 
 9.43 
 
 52 
 
 1.5591 
 
 12.99 
 
 18 
 
 1.1417 
 
 9.51 
 
 53 
 
 1.5760 
 
 13.13 
 
 19 
 
 1 . 1507 
 
 9.59 
 
 54 
 
 1 . 5934 
 
 13.27 
 
 20 
 
 1.1600 
 
 9.67 
 
 55 
 
 1.6111 
 
 13.42 
 
 21 
 
 1 . 1693 
 
 9.74 
 
 56 
 
 1 . 6292 
 
 13.57 
 
 22 
 
 1.1788 
 
 9.81 
 
 57 
 
 1.6477 
 
 13.72 
 
 23 
 
 1 . 1885 
 
 9.90 
 
 58 
 
 1 . 6666 
 
 13.87 
 
 24 
 
 1 . 1983 
 
 9.99 
 
 59 
 
 1.6860 
 
 14.04 
 
 25 
 
 1 . 2083 
 
 10.07 
 
 60 
 
 1.7056 
 
 14.20 
 
 26 
 
 1.2184 
 
 10.16 
 
 61 
 
 1.7261 
 
 14.38 
 
 27 
 
 1 . 2288 
 
 10.24 
 
 62 
 
 1.7469 
 
 14.55 
 
 28 
 
 1.2393 
 
 10.32 
 
 63 
 
 1 . 7682 
 
 14.72 
 
 29 
 
 1.2500 
 
 10.41 
 
 64 
 
 1.7901 
 
 14.91 
 
 30 
 
 1.2608 
 
 10.51 
 
 65 
 
 1.8125 
 
 15.10 
 
 31 
 
 1.2719 
 
 10.59 
 
 66 
 
 1.8354 
 
 15.29 
 
 32 
 
 1.2831 
 
 10.69 
 
 67 
 
 1 . 8589 
 
 15.48 
 
 33 
 
 1 . 2946 
 
 10.78 
 
 68 
 
 1.8831 
 
 15.68 
 
 34 
 
 1.3063 
 
 10.84 
 
 69 
 
 1.9079 
 
 15.89 
 
 35 
 
 1.3181 
 
 10.98 
 
 70 
 
 1.9333 
 
 16.10 
 
 NOTE. This table of Baume's hydrometer was adopted in 1903 as the basis 
 for all instruments employed in the manufacture of acids and alkalies by the 
 Manufacturing Chemists' Association of the United States. It has the official 
 sanction of the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. 
 
 It is calculated for a temperature of 60 degrees Fahr. and is based upon the 
 
 145 145 
 formulae: = Specific gravity and 145 = B. 
 
 B + 145 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
744 
 
 FlRE PREVENTI6N AND PROTECTION 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE WIRE AND SHEET METAL GAUGES 
 
 imber of 
 Sauge 
 
 |!l 
 
 h/l- ro 
 
 cjSO 
 13 S 
 
 erican or 
 3wn and 
 pe Gauge 
 
 & 
 
 <a c 3 
 
 .3(5 
 
 bfl.O 1 -' 
 
 Its 
 
 "11 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 British Im'perial 
 Standard 
 Wire Gauge 
 
 (Legal Standard 
 
 llll 
 
 "W MIH _ 
 
 imber of 
 jauge 
 
 ^j *> 
 
 z 
 
 .fia5g 
 
 CQ 
 
 J 
 
 *! 
 
 rS ^ 
 
 |g 
 
 in Great Britain 
 since 
 
 rifftfl 
 
 ,-J re C C 
 
 ;- ^" 
 
 
 
 
 K *$ 
 
 
 March 1, 1884) 
 
 i-JQ re re 
 
 
 
 inch 
 
 inch 
 
 inch 
 
 inch 
 
 inch 
 
 millim. 
 
 inch 
 
 
 0000000 
 
 
 
 .49 
 
 
 .500 
 
 12.7 
 
 .5 
 
 7/0 
 
 000000 
 
 
 
 .46 
 
 
 .464 
 
 11.78 
 
 .469 
 
 6/0 
 
 00000 
 
 
 
 .43 
 
 
 .432 
 
 10.97 
 
 .438 
 
 5/0 
 
 0000 
 
 .454 
 
 .46 
 
 .393 
 
 
 .4 
 
 10.16 
 
 .406 
 
 4/0 
 
 000 
 
 .425 
 
 . 40964 
 
 .362 
 
 
 .372 
 
 9.45 
 
 .375 
 
 3/0 
 
 00 
 
 .38 
 
 .3648 
 
 .331 
 
 
 .348 
 
 8.84 
 
 .344 
 
 2/0 
 
 
 
 .34 
 
 .32486 
 
 .307 
 
 
 .324 
 
 8.23 
 
 .313 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 .3 
 
 .2893 
 
 .283 
 
 .227 
 
 .3 
 
 7.62 
 
 .281 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 .284 
 
 .25763 
 
 .263 
 
 .219 
 
 .276 
 
 7.01 
 
 .266 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 .259 
 
 . 22942 
 
 .244 
 
 .212 
 
 .252 
 
 6.4 
 
 .25 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 ,238 
 
 .20431 
 
 .225 
 
 .207 
 
 .232 
 
 5.89 
 
 .234 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 . 18194 
 
 .207 
 
 .204 
 
 .212 
 
 5.38 
 
 .219 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 ^203 
 
 .16202 
 
 .192 
 
 .201 
 
 .192 
 
 4.88 
 
 .203 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 .18 
 
 . 14428 
 
 .177 
 
 .199 
 
 .176 
 
 4.47 
 
 188 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 .165 
 
 . 12849 
 
 .162 
 
 .197 
 
 .16 
 
 4.06 
 
 .172 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 .148 
 
 .11424 
 
 .148 
 
 .194 
 
 .144 
 
 3.66 
 
 .156 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 .134 
 
 . 10189 
 
 .135 
 
 .191 
 
 .128 
 
 3.25 
 
 .141 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 .12 
 
 .09074 
 
 .12 
 
 .188 
 
 .116 
 
 2.95 
 
 .125 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 .109 
 
 .08081 
 
 .105 
 
 .185 
 
 .104 
 
 2.64 
 
 .109 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 .095 
 
 .07196 
 
 .092 
 
 .182 
 
 .092 
 
 2.34 
 
 .094 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 .033 
 
 . 06403 
 
 .08 
 
 .180 
 
 .08 
 
 2.03 
 
 .078 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 .072 
 
 .05707 
 
 .072 
 
 .178 
 
 .072 
 
 1.83 
 
 .07 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 .053 
 
 . 05082 
 
 .063 
 
 .175 
 
 .064 
 
 1.63 
 
 .0625 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 .058 
 
 .04526 
 
 .054 
 
 .172 
 
 .056 
 
 1.42 
 
 .0563 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 .049 
 
 .0403 
 
 .047 
 
 .168 
 
 .048 
 
 1.22 
 
 .05 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 .042 
 
 .03589 
 
 .041 
 
 .164 
 
 .04 
 
 1.02 
 
 .0438 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 .035 
 
 .03196 
 
 .035 
 
 .161 
 
 .036 
 
 .91 
 
 .0375 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 .032 
 
 .02846 
 
 .032 
 
 .157 
 
 .032 
 
 .81 
 
 .0344 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 .028 
 
 .02535 
 
 .028 
 
 .155 
 
 .028 
 
 .71 
 
 .0313 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 .025 
 
 .02257 
 
 .025 
 
 .153 
 
 .024 
 
 .61 
 
 .0281 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 .022 
 
 .0201 
 
 .023 
 
 .151 
 
 .022 
 
 .56 
 
 .025 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 .02 
 
 .0179 
 
 .02 
 
 .148 
 
 .02 
 
 .51 
 
 .0219 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 .018 
 
 .01594 
 
 .018 
 
 .146 
 
 .018 
 
 .46 
 
 .0183 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 .016 
 
 .01419 
 
 .017 
 
 .143 
 
 .0164 
 
 .42 
 
 .0172 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 .014 
 
 .01264 
 
 .016 
 
 .139 
 
 .0148 
 
 .38 
 
 .0156 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 .013 
 
 .01126 
 
 .015 
 
 .134 
 
 .0136 
 
 - .35 
 
 .0141 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 .012 
 
 .01002 
 
 .014 
 
 .127 
 
 .0124 
 
 .31 
 
 .0125 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 .01 
 
 ,00893 
 
 .013 
 
 .120 
 
 .0116 
 
 .29 
 
 .0109 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 .009 
 
 . 00795 
 
 .013 
 
 .115 
 
 .0108 
 
 .27 
 
 .0101 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 .008 
 
 . 00708 
 
 .011 
 
 .112 
 
 .01 
 
 .25 
 
 . 0094 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 .007 
 
 .0063 
 
 .01 
 
 .110 
 
 .0092 
 
 .23 
 
 .0086 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 .005 
 
 .00561 
 
 .00 
 
 10 > 
 
 .0084 
 
 .21 
 
 .0078 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 .004 
 
 .005 
 
 .009 
 
 .10$ 
 
 .0076 
 
 .19 
 
 .007 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 
 . 00445 
 
 .0085 
 
 .103 
 
 .0068 
 
 .17 
 
 .0066 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 
 .00396 
 
 .008 
 
 .101 
 
 .006 
 
 .15 
 
 .0063 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 
 .00353 
 
 .0075 
 
 .099 
 
 .0052 
 
 .13 
 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 
 .00314 
 
 .007 
 
 .097 
 
 .0048 
 
 .12 
 
 
 40 
 
TABLES 
 
 745 
 
 TABLE FOR CONVERTING PRESSURE IN FEET HEAD OF 
 WATER INTO POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 4.33 
 
 4.76 
 
 5.20 
 
 5.63 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.50 
 
 6.93 
 
 7.36 
 
 7.80 
 
 8.23 
 
 20 
 
 8.66 
 
 9.10 
 
 9.53 
 
 9.96 
 
 10.39 
 
 10.83 
 
 11.26 
 
 11.69 
 
 12.13 
 
 12.56 
 
 30 
 
 12.99 
 
 13.43 
 
 13.86 
 
 14.29 
 
 14.73 
 
 15.16 
 
 15.59 
 
 16.02 
 
 16.46 
 
 16. g9 
 
 40 
 
 17.32 
 
 17.76 
 
 18.19 
 
 18.62 
 
 19.06 
 
 19.49 
 
 19.92 
 
 20.36 
 
 20.79 
 
 21.22 
 
 50 
 
 21.65 
 
 22.09 
 
 22.52 
 
 22.95 
 
 23.39 
 
 23.82 
 
 24.25 
 
 24.69 
 
 25.12 
 
 25.55 
 
 60 
 
 25.99 
 
 26.42 
 
 26.85 
 
 27.28 
 
 27.72 
 
 28.15 28.58 
 
 29.02 
 
 29.45 
 
 29.88 
 
 70 
 
 30.32 
 
 30.75 
 
 31.18 
 
 31.62 
 
 32.05 
 
 32.48 
 
 32.91 
 
 33.34 
 
 33.78 
 
 34.21 
 
 80 
 
 34.65 
 
 35.08 
 
 35.51 
 
 35.95 
 
 36.38 
 
 36.81 
 
 37.25 
 
 37.68 
 
 38.11 
 
 38.58 
 
 90 
 
 38.98 
 
 39.41 
 
 39.84 
 
 40.28 
 
 40.71 
 
 41.14 
 
 41.58 
 
 42.01 
 
 42.44 
 
 42.88 
 
 100 
 
 43.31 
 
 43.74 
 
 44.18 
 
 44.61 
 
 45.04 
 
 45.47 
 
 45.91 
 
 46.34 
 
 46.77 
 
 47.21 
 
 110 
 
 47.64 
 
 48.07 
 
 48.51 
 
 48.94 
 
 49.37 
 
 49.81 
 
 50.24 
 
 50.67 
 
 51.10 
 
 51.54 
 
 120 
 
 51.97 
 
 52.40 
 
 52.84 
 
 53.27 
 
 53.70 
 
 54.14 
 
 54.57 
 
 55.00 
 
 55.44 
 
 55.87 
 
 130 
 
 56.30 
 
 56.73 
 
 57.17 
 
 57.60 
 
 58.03 
 
 58.48 
 
 58.90 
 
 59.33 
 
 59.77 
 
 60.20 
 
 140 
 
 60.63 
 
 61.07 
 
 61.50 
 
 61.93 
 
 62.37 
 
 62.80 
 
 63.23 
 
 63.661 64.10 
 
 64.53 
 
 150 
 
 64.96 
 
 65.40 
 
 65.83 
 
 66.26 
 
 66.70 
 
 67.13 
 
 67.56 
 
 68.00 
 
 68.43 
 
 68.86 
 
 160 
 
 69.29 
 
 69.73 
 
 70.16 
 
 70.59 
 
 71.03 
 
 71.43 
 
 71.89 
 
 72.33 
 
 72.76 
 
 73.19 
 
 170 
 
 73.63 
 
 74.06 
 
 74.49 
 
 74.92 
 
 75.36 
 
 75.79 
 
 76.22 
 
 76.66 
 
 77.09 
 
 77.52 
 
 180 
 
 77.96 
 
 78.39 
 
 78.82 
 
 79.26 
 
 79.69 
 
 80.12 
 
 80.55 
 
 80.99 
 
 81.42 
 
 81.85 
 
 190 
 
 82.29 
 
 82.72 
 
 83.15 
 
 83.59 
 
 84.02 
 
 84.45 
 
 84.89 
 
 85.32 
 
 85.75 
 
 86.19 
 
 200 
 
 86.62 
 
 87.05 
 
 87.48 
 
 87.92 
 
 88.35 
 
 88.78 
 
 89.22 
 
 89.65 
 
 90.08 
 
 90.52 
 
 210 
 
 90.95 
 
 91.38 
 
 91.82 
 
 92.25 
 
 92.68 
 
 93.11 
 
 93.58 
 
 93.98 
 
 94.41 
 
 94.85 
 
 220 
 
 95.28 
 
 95.71 
 
 96.15 
 
 96.58 
 
 97.01 
 
 97.45 
 
 97.88 
 
 98.31 
 
 98.74 
 
 99.18 
 
 230 
 
 99.61 
 
 100.04 
 
 100.48 
 
 100.91 
 
 101.34 
 
 101 . 78 
 
 102.21 
 
 102.64 
 
 103.08 
 
 103 . 51 
 
 240 
 
 103 .94 
 
 104.38 
 
 104.81 
 
 105.25 
 
 105.68 
 
 106.11 
 
 106.54 
 
 106.97 
 
 107.41 
 
 107.84 
 
 250 
 
 108.27 
 
 108.71 
 
 109.14 
 
 109.57 
 
 110.01 
 
 110.44 
 
 110.87 
 
 111.30 
 
 111.74 
 
 112.17 
 
 260 
 
 112.60 
 
 113.04 
 
 113.47 
 
 113.90 
 
 114.34 
 
 114.77 
 
 115.20 
 
 115.64 
 
 116.07 
 
 116.50 
 
 270 
 
 116.93 
 
 117.37 
 
 117.80 
 
 118.23 
 
 118.67 
 
 119.10 
 
 119.53 
 
 119.97 
 
 120.40 
 
 120.83 
 
 280 
 
 121.27 
 
 121.70 
 
 122.13 
 
 122.56 
 
 123.00 
 
 123.43 
 
 123.86 
 
 124.30 
 
 124.73 
 
 125.16 
 
 290 
 
 125.60 
 
 126.03 
 
 126.46 
 
 126.90 
 
 127.33 
 
 127.76 
 
 128.19 
 
 128.63 
 
 129.06 
 
 129.49 
 
 300 
 
 129.93 
 
 130.36 
 
 130.79 
 
 131.23 
 
 131.66 
 
 132.09 
 
 132.53 
 
 132.96 
 
 133.39 
 
 133.82 
 
 310 
 
 134.26 
 
 134.69 
 
 135.13 
 
 135.57 
 
 136.00 
 
 136.44 
 
 136.87 
 
 137.31 
 
 137.74 
 
 138.08 
 
 320 
 
 138.51 
 
 138.95 
 
 139.38 
 
 139.85 
 
 140.39 
 
 140.75 
 
 141.19 
 
 141.62 
 
 142.05 
 
 142.48 
 
 330 
 
 142.89 
 
 143.32 
 
 143.75 
 
 144.19 
 
 144.62 
 
 145.05 
 
 145.49 
 
 146.92 
 
 146.35 
 
 146.78 
 
 340 
 
 147.22 
 
 147.65 
 
 148.08 
 
 148 . 52 
 
 148.95 
 
 149.38 
 
 149.81 
 
 150.24 
 
 150.67 
 
 151.12 
 
 350 
 
 151.58 
 
 152.01 
 
 152.44 
 
 152.88 
 
 153.31 
 
 153 . 75 
 
 154.18 
 
 154.62 
 
 155.05 
 
 155.49 
 
 TABLE OF HORSE POWERS REQUIRED TO PUMP ONE MILLION 
 GALLONS OF WATER FROM 10 TO 209 POUNDS 
 
 Pounds 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10- 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.46 
 
 4.86 
 
 5.27 
 
 5.67 
 
 6.08 
 
 6.48 
 
 6.89 
 
 7.30 
 
 7.70 
 
 20 
 
 8.1 
 
 8.5 
 
 8.9 
 
 9.3 
 
 9.7 
 
 10.1 
 
 10.5 
 
 10.9 
 
 11.3 
 
 11.7 
 
 30 
 
 12.1 
 
 12.5 
 
 13.0 
 
 13.4 
 
 13.8 
 
 14.2 
 
 14.6 
 
 15.0 
 
 15.4 
 
 15.8 
 
 40 
 
 16.2 
 
 16.6 
 
 17.0 
 
 17.4 
 
 17.8 
 
 18.2 
 
 18.6 
 
 19.0 
 
 19.4 
 
 19.8 
 
 50 
 
 20.3 
 
 20.7 
 
 21.1 
 
 21.5 
 
 21.9 
 
 22.3 
 
 22.7 
 
 23.1 
 
 23.5 
 
 23.9 
 
 60 
 
 24.3 
 
 24.7 
 
 25.1 
 
 25.5 
 
 25.9 
 
 26.3 
 
 26.7 
 
 27.1 
 
 27.6 
 
 28.0 
 
 70 
 
 28.4 
 
 28.8 
 
 29.2 
 
 29.6 
 
 30.0 
 
 30.4 
 
 30.8 
 
 31.2 
 
 31.6 
 
 32.0 
 
 80 
 
 32.4 
 
 32.8 
 
 33.2 
 
 33.6 
 
 34.0 
 
 34.4 
 
 34.8 
 
 35.3 
 
 35.7 
 
 36.1 
 
 90 
 
 36.5 
 
 36.9 
 
 37.3 
 
 37.7 
 
 38.1 
 
 38.5 
 
 38.9 
 
 39.3 
 
 39.7 
 
 40.1 
 
 100 
 
 40.5 
 
 40.9 
 
 41.3 
 
 41.7 
 
 42.1 
 
 42.6 
 
 43.0 
 
 43.4 
 
 43.8 
 
 44.2 
 
 110 
 
 44.6 
 
 45.0 
 
 45.4 
 
 45.8 
 
 46.2 
 
 46.6 
 
 47.0 
 
 47.4 
 
 47.8 
 
 48.2 
 
 120 
 
 48.6 
 
 49.0 
 
 49.4 
 
 49.8 
 
 50.3 
 
 50.7 
 
 51.1 
 
 51.5 
 
 51.9 
 
 52.3 
 
 130 
 
 52.7 
 
 53.1 
 
 53.5 
 
 53.9 
 
 54.3 
 
 54.7 
 
 55.1 
 
 55.5 
 
 55.9 
 
 56.3 
 
 140 
 
 56.7 
 
 57.1 
 
 57.5 
 
 58.0 
 
 58.4 
 
 58.8 
 
 59.2 
 
 59.6 
 
 60.0 
 
 60.4 
 
 150 
 
 60.8 
 
 61.2 
 
 61.6 
 
 62.0 
 
 62.4 
 
 62.8 
 
 63.2 
 
 63.6 
 
 64.0 
 
 64.4 
 
 160 
 
 64.8 
 
 65.3 
 
 65.7 
 
 66.1 
 
 66.5 
 
 66.8 
 
 67.3 
 
 67.7 
 
 68.1 
 
 68.5 
 
 170 
 
 68.9 
 
 69.3 
 
 69.7 
 
 70.1 
 
 70.5 
 
 70.9 
 
 71.3 
 
 71.7 
 
 72.1 
 
 72.6 
 
 180 
 
 73.0 
 
 73.4 
 
 73.8 
 
 74.2 
 
 74.6 
 
 75.0 
 
 75.4 
 
 75.8 
 
 76.2 
 
 76.6 
 
 190 
 
 77.0 
 
 77J4 
 
 77.8 
 
 78.2 
 
 78.6 
 
 79.0 
 
 79.4 
 
 79.8 
 
 80.3 
 
 80.7 
 
 200 
 
 81.1 
 
 81.5 
 
 81.9 
 
 82.3 
 
 82.7 
 
 83.1 
 
 83.5 
 
 83.9 
 
 84.3 
 
 84.7 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 ACETYLENE APPARATUS 
 
 At the meeting of the National Fire Prevention Association in 
 May, 1916, a revision of the regulations covering the above was 
 submitted ; to a large extent it was a rewording of the rules given 
 herein on pages 187 to 190 inclusive. The principal changes were 
 a recommendation that the carbide be kept in the generator house 
 and that rating of generators be on capacity of carbide and rate 
 of generation in cubic feet of gas, rather than on the basis of num- 
 ber of lights, as heretofore, and a g-hour lighting period is called for. 
 
 The following introductory is inserted : 
 
 General Precautions 
 
 Failure to observe the following precautions and specifications will en- 
 danger life as well as property. 
 i. CHARACTERISTICS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 (a) Acetylene becomes an explosive compound under certain conditions 
 and must be handled with care. 
 
 (b) Mixtures of acetylene and air very explosive and must be carefully 
 guarded against. 
 
 (c) Under no conditions must acetylene be subjected to more than 15 
 pounds pressure unless it is dissolved in acetone or other approved solvent 
 and contained in a cylinder of the type described in Classi E. 
 
 Self-compression generators which develop pressures above 15 pounds to 
 the square inch are absolutely prohibited. 
 
 (d) The use of liquid acetylene, or gas generated therefrom is absolutely 
 prohibited. 
 
 (e) Tests of generators or piping for leaks must not be made with a 
 flame, and a flame must never be applied to an outlet from which the 
 burner has been removed. Tests for leaks should be made with soap and 
 water. 
 
 (f) Soldering irons should not be used on acetylene generators until it 
 is certain that all gas has been removed. Soldering irons should never be 
 used on acetylene cylinders under any conditions. 
 
 In determining the size of generators, each pound of carbide in 
 the charge is assumed as capable of producing 4^ cubic feet of 
 gas, and an allowance of not more than ^ cubic foot per hour 
 per pound of carbide in the charge may be made. The suggested 
 regulations omit the requirements on pipe sizes for the house piping, 
 but this is being worked up in conjunction with the U. S. Bureau 
 of Standards as Part 4 of a National Safety Code and will be 
 included later. 
 
 In addition to the regulations for Classes A, B and C, regula- 
 tions were also compiled for Classes D and E; these are as follows: 
 
 747 
 
748 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Class D Stationary Automatic Generators Permitted for Out- 
 side Installation 
 
 1. SIZE AND STYLE OF GENERATOR 
 
 (a) The capacity of any generator of the automatic type shall be suf- 
 ficient to furnish acetylene continuously for the maximum lighting period 
 to all lights installed. A lighting period of at least nine hours shall be 
 provided for in every case and for conditions of service requiring lighting 
 periods of more than nine hours shall be of sufficient capacity to avoid re- 
 charging by artificial light. In determining the size of generator required 
 each pound of carbide in the charge may be estimated as capable of pro- 
 ducing four and one-half cubic feet of gas. 
 
 (b) In selecting a generator, an allowance of not more than one-half 
 cubic foot of acetylene per hour shall be made for each pound of carbide 
 in the rated charge. 
 
 (c) A small generator shall never be installed to supply a large number 
 of lights, even though it seems probable that only a few lights' will be used 
 at a time. 
 
 (d) Burners are usually marked to indicate the cubic feet of acetylene 
 which they consume per hour. 
 
 2. MAKERS INSTRUCTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED 
 
 (a) When installing generators, the instruction card furnished by the 
 maker should be carefully read and its directions followed in every detail. 
 
 (b) Approved warning and instruction cards provided by the maker should 
 be posted in a well lighted position near the generator so that the operator 
 may consult them conveniently from time to time. 
 
 3. LOCATION 
 
 Generators of this class when installed in accordance with Rule 2, are 
 to be installed 30 feet from buildings where possible but never less than 
 10 feet removed and so as not to expose openings into buildings. 
 
 4. ACCESSIBILITY TO UNAUTHORIZED PERSONS 
 Generators shall be kept under lock and key. 
 
 5. PROTECTION AGAINST FREEZING 
 
 Generators must be protected against freezing. No salt or other corrosive 
 chemical is permissible as a protection against freezing. 
 
 6. WATER SUPPLY CONNECTION 
 
 Water must not be supplied through a continuous connection leading into 
 the generator. In cases where generators are supplied with water from 
 city water mains or house pipes, no direct pipe connection with the gen- 
 erator is permitted. The supply pipe must terminate some distance above 
 the regularly provided opening for filling so that the water can be observed 
 as it enters the generator. 
 
 7. DRAIN CONNECTION 
 
 Machines of the carbide-feed type must not be fitted with continuous 
 drain connections leading to sewers, but must discharge into suitable open 
 receptacles which may have such connections. 
 
 8. CARE OF GENERATORS 
 
 (a) In the care of generators, always clean and recharge the generating 
 chambers at regular intervals regardless of the number of burners actually 
 used. This work should be done at a regular time, during daylight hours 
 only. 
 
 (b) Where generators are not used throughout the entire year, always 
 
APPENDIX 749 
 
 first remove all carbide and then drain and clean thoroughly at the end 
 of the season in which they are in service. 
 
 (c) In order to remove all gas from the machine, it is generally neces- 
 sary to take out the bell portion and invert it so that the gas can readily 
 escape. This should never be done in the presence of artificial light or fire 
 of any kind. 
 
 (d) Whenever repairs are to be made or the generator is to be charged 
 or carbide is to be removed, the water chamber should be full during this 
 operation to avoid the danger of explosive mixture of air and gas within 
 the water space and also to prevent the dropping of fresh carbide into 
 sufficient water. 
 
 9. RECHARGING GENERATORS 
 
 (a) The carbide added each time the generator is recharged should be 
 sufficient to completely fill the space provided for carbide without packing 
 or ramming the charge. 
 
 (b) When recharging carbide-feed generators, observe the following order 
 of operations strictly: first, clean out generating chamber; second, imme- 
 diately fill with clean water; third, fill hopper with carbide. Never attempt 
 to introduce carbide until after generating chamber is completely filled with 
 water. Be careful not to place in the generators less than one gallon of 
 water for each pound of the carbide capacity and not to bring the water 
 above the point marked on the machine as the proper level. 
 
 (c) Whenever any fresh carbide is added to the supply in a carbide-feed 
 generator, this must be done only after the water supply has been com- 
 pletely replenished in accordance with paragraph b above. This precaution 
 is necessary to avoid otherheating during generation and accumulation of 
 a heavy deposit of residuum in the generating chamber. 
 
 (d) In the type of generators where the hopper is lifted out for recharging, 
 care should be taken that the hopper is set in a dry place, not on damp 
 ground or snow which would cause slacking of the carbide around the 
 feeding mechanism. 
 
 10. MANIPULATION BY DAYLIGHT REQUIRED 
 
 All charging and cleaning of apparatus and execution of repairs shall 
 be done during daylight hours and by natural light only. 
 
 Never use a lighted match, lamp, candle, lantern or any other flame near 
 the generator, 
 u. PIPING 
 
 (a) Rules for house piping are to be the same as those for Standard 
 Automatic Generators for Inside Installation. 
 
 (b) Outside piping connecting generator with buildings shall be sharply 
 graded to the lowest point outside of buildings and where condensation is 
 not provided for by the piping draining into the generator, a drip shall 
 be provided at such lowest point to take care of condensation. This drip 
 must be so constructed as to permit draining or pumping out the condensa- 
 tion at necessary intervals. 
 
 (c) All underground piping 'to be galvanized and exposed threads covered 
 with a non-corrosive covering. 
 
 (d) Underground piping shall be of an even slope from any direction to 
 the low point. Substantial block supports should be put under the piping 
 at intervals especially at the joints. 
 
 (e) Gas cock should be provided inside of all buildings where it can be 
 conveniently reached near the point of entrance so as to permit shutting of 
 gas supply from any building. 
 
750 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Class E Dissolved Acetylene Under Pressure for Use in 
 Lighting Systems 
 
 1. CYLINDERS 
 
 Cylinders accepted for transportation in Interstate Commerce and bearing 
 labels to the effect that they comply with Interstate Commerce Commission 
 regulations or bearing test marks as prescribed in paragraph 14 of Interstate 
 Commerce Commission .shipping container specifications No. 8, effective Octo- 
 ber ist, 1914, shall be considered suitable for employment in any acetylene 
 lighting installation. 
 
 2. INSTALLATION 
 
 a. Cylinders shall be installed on outside of any building or in well 
 ventilated compartments of vessels. 
 
 b. Where installed for house lighting must be protected against mechanical 
 injury or tampering by suitable ventilated box of durable construction arranged 
 to be kept locked. 
 
 c. Cylinders should be connected to the permanent house or vessel piping 
 with extra heavy steel tubing or pipe. 
 
 d. Between cylinders and low pressure piping there shall be installed a 
 pressure gauge to serve as an indicator of pressure in the cylinder or 
 cylinders provided such gauge is not a permanent part of cylinder, and an 
 automatic pressure regulator designed to reduce the high pressure of the 
 cylinders to the low pressure employed in the lighting systems. 
 
 On the low pressure side of the automatic pressure regulator shall be 
 installed an approved type of mechanical or mercury pressure relief arranged 
 to release pressure from cylinders in the event of derangement of pressure 
 reducing mechanism which would otherwise allow the accumulation of high 
 pressure from cylinders to enter the low pressure system. 
 
 Such pressure release is of mercury to be of self-restoring type releasing 
 direct to outside and to be simple in design and construction. 
 
 3. PIPING 
 
 Permanent piping in houses or on vessels to be of standard iron pipe or 
 of seamless brass tubing, such tubing to be of not less than one-fourth inch 
 outside dimension, having sufficient internal diameter to insure adequate 
 supply of gas within the working range of the low pressure of 5 Ibs. per square 
 inch maximum in the system. 
 
 Seamless brass tubing to withstand a test pressure of 500 Ibs. per square 
 inch and to be installed as per item 530 and notes to same (from rules 
 nronosed for installation and use of Class C, semi-portable automatic 
 apparalus). 
 
 Seamless brass tubing to be made up with connections of the compression 
 coupling type (these being in our opinion far superior to soldered joints or 
 flared union couplings). 
 
 1916 REPORT OF NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION 
 
 ASSOCIATION COMMITTEE ON AUTOMATIC 
 
 SPRINKLERS 
 
 Dry Pipe Sprinkler Systems in Refrigeration Rooms 
 
 Ice formations of such a character as to seriously impair the 
 automatic sprinkler protection have been reported in a number of 
 cold storage warehouses, following detailed examinations of the 
 piping by several inspection departments. 
 
 Your committee was requested to consider this subject, recom- 
 mend a uniform method for conducting further tests, and solicit 
 
APPENDIX 751 
 
 co-operation of the various inspection departments, with a view 
 to ascertaining if these formations may be expected generally in 
 properties of the class, and if so, if adequate preventive meas- 
 ures have been or can be devised. A uniform blank has, there- 
 fore, been distributed by the committee among such of the active 
 members as it should interest and the promise of co-operation has 
 been very satisfactory. As, however, the blank was not issued 
 until after the first of the year, there has not been sufficient time 
 to furnish the required information for any extended committee 
 report at this time. 
 
 Technically, there is danger of such ice formation from the 
 presence alone of the priming water of the dry pipe valve, ignor- 
 ing entirely any moisture that may enter the system through the 
 air compressor or by other means. Until there is opportunity, 
 however, to secure details from the further examinations, and to 
 enquire particularly into remedial measures which have already 
 been adopted and said to be effective, or that have been proposed, 
 your committee would prefer not to recommend any action through 
 the sprinkler regulations. Permission is, therefore, requested to 
 continue the matter further, and the co-operation of anyone inter- 
 ested in this particular subject is earnestly solicited. 
 
 Among the various measures that have already been adopted 
 or recommended are: Calcium chloride reservoir in the discharge 
 line from the air compressor, ammonia cooled dessicator or freezer, 
 oil seal on priming water of dry pipe valve, calcium chloride reservoir 
 in the main riser above the dry pipe valve, separator in the dis- 
 charge line from the air compressor, air suction from freezer 
 room, by-passes in the sprinkler lines in which the ice crystals 
 may build up leaving the sprinkler pipes free, greater pitch to the 
 sprinkler piping and use of a greater number of flanged connec- 
 tions, maintaining at least one foot air space where possible between 
 the sprinkler piping and the refrigeration coils or insulation of 
 piping where in contact with or in close proximity to such coils, 
 rearranging present methods of air connections, connection of anti- 
 columning pipe where used to be within the warm dry pipe valve 
 enclosure, where feasible sprinkler piping for freezer sections to 
 be kept entirely separate from the sprinkler piping in the rest 
 of the property. 
 
 In this connection, your committee would point out that any 
 pre-drying arrangement is ineffective if the air connection enters 
 the system in such a manner that the air will pass through the 
 priming water, or any drainage that may lie on top of the priming 
 water, as is extremely likely to be the case in the method adopted 
 for air connection with some types of dry pipe valves. Par- 
 ticular attention is called to rule 54 of the sprinkler regulations 
 in this respect, which states that the air connection should enter 
 the system in the main riser above the dry pipe valve. 
 
 Method of Conducting the Tests 
 First to remove pipes where crossing, closest to, or in contact 
 
 with refrigeration coils, or where pipes are encased in ice; to 
 
 remove any other piping deemed necessary. 
 
 To lower weight down riser pipes to see if clear. 
 
 Give approximate thickness of ice formed inside pipe as well 
 
 as diameter of pipe. State whether ice appears snowy or hard. 
 
752 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 On ground plans mark with solid lines any sprinkler pipes or 
 heads found completely out of service from frost; and mark with 
 broken lines any partly out of service and note percentage of 
 system out of commission. 
 
 Take photographs of any interesting conditions where possible, 
 and illustrate by drawings such conditions where photos cannot 
 be taken. Group illustrations with the subject matter they depict, 
 and not separately. 
 
 Take temperatures of water supplies. 
 
 Take temperature of air where it enters the system. 
 
 Object of Tests 
 
 To ascertain if ring ice formation is a necessary result from 
 present methods of installation. 
 If so, the cause : 
 
 (a) From moisture pumped into system. 
 
 (b) Evaporation of priming water. 
 
 If system has been properly maintained, the precautions taken; 
 or any suggested remedy. 
 
 Cubical Contents of a Sprinkler System 
 
 To ascertain this accurately, it will be necessary to measure up 
 each system. Capacities of pipes in one foot lengths are as 
 follows : 
 
 Diameter 
 in 
 inches 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 U. S. 
 gallons, 
 231 cu. ins. 
 
 Diameter 
 in 
 inches 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 U. S. 
 gallons, 
 231 cu. ins. 
 
 f. 
 
 0031 
 
 0230 
 
 3^ 
 
 0668 
 
 4998 
 
 1 
 
 0055 
 
 0408 
 
 4 
 
 0873 
 
 6528 
 
 U . 
 
 0085 
 
 0638 
 
 5 
 
 1364 
 
 1 020 
 
 I! :- 
 
 .0123 
 .0218 
 
 .0918 
 1632 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 .1963 
 3491 
 
 1.469 
 2 611 
 
 I". ::::::::: 
 
 .0341 
 .0491 
 
 .2550 
 3672 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 .5454 
 7854 
 
 4.08 
 5 875 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The approximate capacity can be obtained by allowing about one 
 gallon per sprinkler. This includes riser and all distribution pipes 
 within the risk, but does not include any long runs from the 
 dry pipe valve to the system. This figure (one gallon per head) 
 applies specially to systems piped from center with 75 to 115 heads 
 on each floor. If system of 115 heads is fed from end instead 
 of center, contents will be about i l /4 gallons per head. For large 
 systems, with 6 inch riser and about 250 heads per floor, contents, 
 if riser in center, will be about i l /4 gallons per head, and if riser 
 is at one end, will be i^ gallons per head. 
 
 Note. If the run of pipe from the dry pipe valve to the system 
 is in excess of 12 feet, add the capacity of this excess (by above 
 table) to the figures and divide the total by 7.48 (the number of 
 gallons in one cubic foot), which will give the number of cubic 
 feet in the system. 
 
 Example. 400 sprinklers = 400 gallons ; 62 ft. of 5-inch pipe 
 from dry pipe valve to the system (50 ft. in excess of 12 ft.) 
 adds 50 gallons, making a total of 450 gallons, which divided by 
 7.48 gives 60.294 cubic feet. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 753 
 
 Amount of Moisture Pumped into System 
 
 This will depend on the humidity of the atmosphere, the tight- 
 ness of the system (frequency of pumping), if there is any drying 
 arrangement such as a calcium chloride reservoir and the pounds 
 pressure raised. The following table illustrates the amount of 
 moisture at different temperatures : 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT IN GRAINS OF THE WATER CONTAINED 
 AS VAPOUR IN i CUBIC FOOT OF AIR AT DIFFERENT TEM- 
 PERATURES AND PERCENTAGE HUMIDITY 
 
 PER CENT HUMIDITY 
 
 Temp. 
 F 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100% 
 
 20 
 
 .017 
 
 .033 
 
 .050 
 
 .066 
 
 .083 
 
 .100 
 
 .116 
 
 .133 
 
 .149 
 
 .166 
 
 10 
 
 .028 
 
 .057 
 
 .086 
 
 .114 
 
 .142 
 
 .171 
 
 .200 
 
 .228 
 
 .256 
 
 .285 
 
 
 
 .048 
 
 .096 
 
 .144 
 
 .192 
 
 .240 
 
 .289 
 
 .337 
 
 .385 
 
 .433 
 
 .481 
 
 10 
 
 .078 
 
 .155 
 
 .233 
 
 .310 
 
 .388 
 
 .466 
 
 .543 
 
 .621 
 
 .698 
 
 .776 
 
 20 
 
 .124 
 
 .247 
 
 .370 
 
 .494 
 
 .618 
 
 .741 
 
 .864 
 
 .988 
 
 1.112 
 
 1.235 
 
 30 
 
 .194 
 
 .387 
 
 .580 
 
 .774 
 
 .968 
 
 1.161 
 
 1.354 
 
 1.548 
 
 1.742 
 
 1.935 
 
 40 
 
 .285 
 
 .570 
 
 .855 
 
 1.140 
 
 1.424 
 
 1.709 
 
 1.994 
 
 2.279 
 
 2.564 
 
 2.849 
 
 50 
 
 .408 
 
 .815 
 
 1.223 
 
 1.630 
 
 2.038 
 
 2.446 
 
 2.853 
 
 3.261 
 
 3.668 
 
 4.076 
 
 60 
 
 .574 
 
 1.149 
 
 1.724 
 
 2.298 
 
 2.872 
 
 3.447 
 
 4.022 
 
 4.596 
 
 5.170 
 
 5.745 
 
 70 
 
 .798 
 
 1.596 
 
 2.394 
 
 3.192 
 
 3.990 
 
 4.788 
 
 5.586 
 
 6.384 
 
 7.182 
 
 7.980 
 
 80 
 
 1.093 
 
 2.187 
 
 3.280 
 
 4 . 374 
 
 5.467 
 
 6.560 
 
 7.654 
 
 8.747 
 
 9.841 
 
 10.934 
 
 90 
 
 1.479 
 
 2.958 
 
 4.437 
 
 5.916 
 
 7.395 
 
 8.874 
 
 10.353 
 
 11.832 
 
 13.311 
 
 14.790 
 
 100 
 
 1.977 
 
 3.953 
 
 5.930 
 
 7.9061 9.883 
 
 11.860 
 
 13.836 
 
 15.813 
 
 17.789 
 
 19.766 
 
 110 
 
 2.611 
 
 5.222 
 
 7.834 
 
 10.445 
 
 13.056 
 
 }5.667 
 
 18.278 
 
 20.890 
 
 23 . 501 
 
 26.112 
 
 APPLICATION. Capacity of a sprinkler system is say 60 cubic 
 feet. With the air at 70 Fahr. and 100% humidity there will be 
 7.980 grains of water vapour at atmosphere pressure (14.7 Ibs. per 
 sq. inch). To raise the pressure to 40 Ibs. from zero in such a 
 system will require 
 40 
 
 x 60 = 163.3 cubic feet of air, 
 
 14-7 
 which will introduce 
 
 . 163.3 x 7.980 
 
 - = .1861 Ib. of water vapour, 
 7000 
 
 provided no change of temperature results. Most of this water will 
 be condensed at the pump since the air is already saturated, and 
 only that amount necessary to saturate 60 cubic feet will be in- 
 troduced into the system. 
 
 Second Example. Suppose air at 70 and 50 % humidity is 
 pumped in, practically the same amount of moisture will be intro- 
 duced since a pressure increase to 30 Ibs. will cause saturation. Less 
 moisture will be condensed, however, at the pump. 
 
 In general, it may be safe to say that the air on the high 
 pressure side beyond the heat of compression will be saturated at 
 whatever temperature the air passes into the cooling rooms. This, 
 of course, may not hold on winter days, when the air temperature 
 is low. 
 
754 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 It will be seen, however, that moisture will be introduced into 
 the system even if a drying tube is put in the suction pipe, because 
 of the presence of the priming water in the dry pipe valve. It 
 may be asked why under normal working conditions this does not 
 dry up? The answer is obvious, when the condensation of moisture, 
 due to the compression, is taken into account, which more than 
 offsets any evaporation from this source into the sprinkler pipes. 
 
 In calculating the amount of moisture introduced, the tempera- 
 tures should be taken in the air pipe where it enters the system, 
 a special thermometer to be installed for this purpose. The com- 
 pression pump should be in full operation and the compression heat 
 at its maximum. When a system requires frequent pumping (daily 
 or every few days) the sum total of the moisture introduced may 
 be considerable. 
 
 Estimate of Amount of Moisture Pumped in and Volume of 
 Snowy Ice Formed 
 
 In our first example we found that .186 Ib. of water was intro- 
 duced by the compression. Of this we may exclude all but that 
 required to saturate the air at 70 Fahr. on the high pressure side 
 (no more moisture can be introduced than that required to main- 
 tain the maximum vapour pressure no matter what the air pressure 
 may be). Hence we have: 
 
 7.980 x 60 
 .0684 x 26 = 1.778 Ib. 
 
 7000 
 of water vapour introduced ' in one pumping. 
 
 If the system is pumped up once a week for say six months (26 
 weeks) we have 
 
 .0684 x 26 = 1.788 Ib. 
 
 of water introduced. If this were all condensed we would have 
 1.7 pints of water or 49.1 cubic inches. 
 
 Various estimates are given for the volume of snowy ice, com- 
 pared with an equal weight of water, which range from 4 to 40 
 times in bulk. 
 
 Suppose we take the most conservative estimate and make the 
 increase only four times, then the volume of snowy ice or hoar 
 frost deposited in the pipes passing through a room kept at say 
 20 F. would be practically 
 
 49.1 x 4 = 196.4 cubic inches. 
 
 Referring to the next table it will be seen that this is more than 
 enough to completely block a foot of 4 inch pipe, or three and 
 one-half feet of 2j/2-inch pipe. 
 
 Now, in reality, the increase in volume when water is converted 
 into snowy ice is generally taken as 10 times, hence it will be 
 appreciated how easily a sprinkler system may become blocked or 
 the pipes in the coldest rooms become seriously reduced in volume. 
 
 It should also be borne in mind that if a sprinkler system is 
 once filled with water, it is never completely drained of moisture, 
 since even when pipes are properly pitched, small amounts of 
 moisture are retained at the fittings when system is set. With 
 poorly drained systems, the amount of moisture is of course 
 greater. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 755 
 
 TABLE SHOWING CUBICAL CONTENTS OF PIPES IN RELATION OF 
 ACCUMULATION OF SNOWY ICE 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Amount of water, when converted into snowy ice 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 which would fill one foot length of pipe 
 
 inches 
 
 cubic inches 
 
 taking increase of vol. = 10 times 
 
 * - 
 
 5.357 
 
 .0742 gill 
 
 1 
 
 9.504 
 
 .132 gill 
 
 li 
 
 14 69 
 
 203 gill 
 
 if 
 
 21.25 
 
 294 gill 
 
 2 
 
 37 67 
 
 523 giil 
 
 2i.. 
 
 58.93 
 
 815 gill 
 
 3 
 
 84.85 
 
 1.172 gills 
 
 3J 
 
 115 42 
 
 1 594 gills 
 
 4- 
 
 150.83 
 
 2.083 gills 
 
 5 
 
 235 70 
 
 3 26 gills 
 
 6 
 
 339.20 
 
 4.70 gills 1.18 pints 
 
 8 . 
 
 603 25 
 
 8 35 gills 2 09 pints 
 
 10. . . 
 
 942.5 
 
 13 02 gills 3 . 25 pints 
 
 12 
 
 1357.3 
 
 18.8 gills 4. 70 pints 
 
 Under a law of physics, all moisture, either liquid or solid, will 
 seek the places of lower vapour pressure from those of higher 
 vapour pressure. In a dry pipe sprinkler system, the^place of highest 
 vapour pressure under normal conditions is in the dry pipe valve 
 enclosure, and the places of lowest vapour pressure in a cold stor- 
 age warehouse are the rooms with the lowest temperature (sharp 
 freezers). Look first, therefore, for ice formation in the rooms 
 with the lowest tempe/ature, or where the sprinkler pipes are in 
 contact with or in close proximity to the refrigeration coils. In 
 an unheated building of even temperature, the ice formation is 
 more likely to be spread uniformly throughout the entire sprinkler 
 piping outside of the warm dry pipe valve enclosure. In a build- 
 ing heated on some floors, look for ice formation in the unheated 
 sections. Same applies to unheated blind attics or roof spaces. 
 If a system is tight and it can be ascertained by tests that very 
 little moisture is being pumped in and the dry pipe valve has not 
 tripped, it is reasonable to assume that if ice is found it is prin- 
 cipally from the evaporation of the priming water with a small 
 percentage from the moisture left in the system when drained to 
 set dry pipe. 
 Formation of Hard or Black Ice and the Bursting of Pipes 
 
 When water collects in a pipe due to insufficient draining and 
 freezes, it forms ordinary solid or black ice distinguished by 
 its non-uniform distribution over the walls of the pipe, and more 
 or less clear consistency. Such ice increases only slightly in 
 volume when compared to water approximately 10%). Should 
 the pipe be full of water before freezing takes places, bursting 
 almost inevitably results. 
 
 Where a pipe is filled by the deposition of snowy ice from the 
 freezing of the vapour, the crystals are deposited uniformly over 
 the walls of the pipe, gradually closing it until only a small hole 
 is left. When a pipe so filled becomes completely closed no extra 
 pressure is brought into play, and no bursting should result. 
 Snowy ice can be readily distinguished from hard or black ice 
 
756 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 (i) by the general appearance, the former being white, and (2) 
 by the manner of distribution in the pipe itself. 
 
 CONVERSION TABLE WEIGHT AND MEASURES 
 
 1 gill =0.261 pound = 7.29 cubic inches. 
 
 4 gills = 1 pint =1.042 pounds = 28.875 cubic inches. 
 
 2 pints = 1 quart = 2.084 pounds = 57.75 cubic inches. 
 
 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 8.336 pounds = 231 cube inches, U. S. measure. 
 
 1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches = 7.4805 U. S. gallons. 
 
 1 British imperial gallon = 10 pounds = 1 . 20 U. S. gallons. 
 
 Rules for the Installation of Automatic Sprinklers in Railway 
 
 Car House 
 
 To appear as section " N " in the sprinkler regulations, with 
 consecutive numbers following section " M." 
 
 SECTION " N." RAILWAY CAR HOUSES. Foregoing rules are ^ to 
 be observed in protecting this class of property, and in addition 
 thereto the special features as herein recommended are to apply. 
 
 In car houses of fire resistive construction, with all steel work 
 protected in accordance with the requirements of the N. B. F. U., 
 of a height not in excess of 25 feet, and with areas not in excess 
 of 20,000 square feet, aisle line sprinklers or ceiling sprinklers, 
 but not both, may be modified or eliminated by the inspection 
 department having jurisdiction. 
 
 loo.- CEILING CURTAINS. Permanent ceiling curtains are recom- 
 mended in buildings having a height of over 25 feet from floor 
 to ceiling. These curtains may be constructed of rigidly sup- 
 ported noncombustible material, or of not less than i-inch tongue 
 and grooved boards, coated on both sides with standard fire re- 
 tarding paint ; curtains to sub-divide ceiling into pocket areas 
 not exceeding 5,000 square feet each, and to be of a depth from 
 ceiling to trolley wire. Inspection department having jurisdiction 
 should be consulted as regards the specific location of these curtains. 
 
 101. AISLE SPRINKLERS, (a) In addition to the regular ceiling 
 installation, sprinklers shall be placed on both sides of each track, 
 in an upright position, on horizontal pipe lines parallel with tracks, 
 and shall be so located that water will spray directly into cars 
 through side windows of car bodies; the sprinklers must be at 
 such a height that their deflectors will be from two to four inches 
 below the upper sash rail of car windows. 
 
 (b) When the distance between sides of cars on adjacent tracks 
 does not exceed 4 feet, one line of sprinklers shall be placed in 
 the center of each aisle between tracks. 
 
 (c) When the distance between sides of cars on adjacent tracks 
 exqeeds 4 feet, two lines of sprinklers must be installed. Sprink- 
 lers shall not be placed less than 6 inches nor more than 12 inches 
 from the sides of cars to be protected. 
 
 (d) When the distance between the sides of cars on adjacent 
 tracks is less than 12 inches, or where aisle lines in accordance 
 with this section may not be practicable, as at curves, switches, 
 transfer tables, car elevators, repair and paint shops, special in- 
 structions from inspection department having jurisdiction should 
 be obtained as regards installing raised or altered lines. 
 
 (e) Sprinklers must be placed between cars and partitions, 
 division or outer walls, not less than 6 inches nor more than 12 
 inches from the sides of cars to be protected. 
 
APPENDIX 757 
 
 (f) Distance between sprinklers on aisle lines shall not exceed 
 8 feet. 
 
 (g) The standard pipe schedule shall govern installations of 
 aisle lines, except that no pipe smaller than one inch may be 
 used. 
 
 (h) Sprinklers on all aisle lines shall be staggered spaced. 
 
 102. SUPPLY MAINS TO AISLE SPRINKLERS, (a) Ceiling and 
 aisle sprinklers shall be installed upon separate dry valves or 
 alarm valves. 
 
 (b) In small car houses or sections of an area not great enough 
 to require at least two dry valves, ceiling and aisle lines may be 
 installed, supplied by one dry valve, in which case separate con- 
 nections are to be taken from above and close to the dry pipe 
 valve, and shut-off valves shall be provided for ceiling and aisle 
 systems, so arranged that either may be controlled independently. 
 
 (c) Aisle lines must not be supported by nor connected to ceiling 
 sprinkler piping. Special hangers or supports must be provided 
 that aisle lines may be rigidly secure. 
 
 (d) Troughing shall be installed over trolley wires in such a 
 manner as to preclude the possibility of a short circuit being 
 caused, between grounded metal work and trolley wire, by the 
 trolley pole. 
 
 103. PITS AND UNDER FLOOR SPACE. Where the under floor 
 space does not communicate with the pits, is tightly enclosed, and 
 is not used for any purpose, sprinklers may be omitted in such 
 under floor space by special consent, in each instance, of the 
 inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 Suggested Amendments to Present Regulations 
 (See edition of 1915) 
 
 SECTION " C." RULE 16. Partitions to add a second paragraph 
 reading as follows: 
 
 " Where no inflammable material is stored close to the ceiling, 
 the inspection department having jurisdiction may waive the re- 
 quirement for providing extra sprinklers in narrow pockets formed 
 by beams and partitions where the construction is entirely fire- 
 proof, including the partitions." 
 
 SECTION " E." RULE 25. Supporting of Risers to add to the 
 present third paragraph at foot of page 15 a new paragraph as 
 follows : 
 
 " In lieu of floor plates and couplings as called for above, extra 
 hangers near the risers and so arranged as to properly support 
 the weight, may be accepted." 
 
 SECTION " H." DRY PIPE SYSTEM AND FITTINGS. Preceding 
 present rule 54, to insert a new one reading: "Anti-Columning 
 Pipes. When anti-columning pipes are used, they shall be either 
 lead lined or of brass." 
 
 RULE 56. Flanged Dummy to change same to read : 
 
 "A flanged section of pipe with drain outlet same size as dry 
 pipe valve, to take the place of dry pipe valve, in case of repairs, 
 should be provided for each type and size installed, and kept 
 at the valve " 
 
758 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
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 ;./-IENTEST 
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 THE SAFE-CABINET COMPANY 
 
 Originators and Sole Manufacturers of 
 THE SAFE-CABINET 
 
 Department M 
 
 MARIETTA, OHIO 
 
INDEX 
 
 NOTE. On pages 24 to 47 inclusive is an alphabetical list of substances, 
 with their principal hazards mentioned, as compiled by the Bureau of Ex- 
 plosives of the American Railway Association; likewise, under Manufacturing 
 Hazards, pages 48 to 96, is an alphabetical list of processes, appliances and 
 materials; reference should also be made to these, as the index below does 
 not include all of the articles mentioned. 
 
 Acetylene apparatus 
 
 PAGE 
 
 185, 747 
 
 Acids: 
 
 See alphabetical list under Defi- 
 nitions, pages 24 to 47 inclusive, 
 and page 78. 
 
 Alcohol 26, 132 
 
 Ammonium nitrate mixtures . . 22 
 
 Areas allowable floor 303 
 
 Arches 256, 257, 321 
 
 Asbestos 279 
 
 Brake linings 283 
 
 Cellular insulations 283 
 
 Ebonized wood 286 
 
 Filled insulations 283 
 
 Furnace linings 286 
 
 Lumber 285 
 
 Plaster 287 
 
 Roofing material 284 
 
 Shingles 285 
 
 Use in filters 283 
 
 Yarn and cloth 282 
 
 Ash cans 225 
 
 Automatic sprinklers: 
 
 General information 543 
 
 Location of 544 
 
 Spacing of 545 
 
 Pipe sizes 550 
 
 Feed mains and risers 551 
 
 Valves and fittings 553 
 
 Alarm system 558 
 
 Dry pipe 560 
 
 Report on (see Appendix) . . . 750 
 
 Water supply for 563 
 
 Steamer connection 565 
 
 Miscellaneous rules 566 
 
 High degree 567 
 
 Tests 567 
 
 Underground pipes and fit- 
 tings 57i 
 
 Bake ovens 97 
 
 Bale openers 79 
 
 Banana ripeners 79 
 
 Bark mills 79 
 
 Basins, catch 81 
 
 Batch warmers 79 
 
 Beams: 
 
 Built up 231 
 
 Wcoden 307, 442, 450 
 
 Keinforced concrete 331 
 
 Binding 79 
 
 Benzine 80 
 
 Bleachers, grain 105 
 
 Bleaching 80 
 
 Blower systems 204 
 
 Board scrapings 80 
 
 Boilers 51, 98 
 
 Box 1 cornices 230 
 
 Brake linings, asbestos 283 
 
 Branding 80 
 
 Brass furnaces 99 
 
 Brick arches 321 
 
 Brickwork, effect of heat on.. 241 
 
 Buffing 80 
 
 Buffing wheels 02 
 
 Buildings: 
 
 Comparative cost and value 
 
 261, 267 
 
 Cost of concrete 185 
 
 Frame 295, 302, 347, 348, 349 
 
 Non fireproof 295, 319 
 
 Building blocks 304 
 
 Defined 304 
 
 Test requirements 305 
 
 Built up beams 231 
 
 Bunsen burners . 80 
 
 759 
 
7 6o 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Bureau of Explosives of the 
 American Railway Association 
 general information issued 
 
 by 19 
 
 Calciners. 53 
 
 Candles 80 
 
 Candling eggs 83 
 
 Candy furnaces 102 
 
 Carbon disulphide 133 
 
 Carbon tetra chloride extin- 
 guishers 522 
 
 Carriers of oxygen 216 
 
 Cast iron columns, failure of 255 
 
 Cast iron pipe, cost of laying. . 576 
 
 Catch basins 81 
 
 Cellular insulation, asbestos. . 283 
 
 Celluloid 31, 81 
 
 See also Pyroxylin plastic 
 
 Chemical 81 
 
 See also alphabetic?! list, 
 pages 25 to 47 inclusive 
 
 Common names of 47 
 
 Chemical fire and explosion risk 215 
 
 Chemical extinguishers 521 
 
 In connection with stand- 
 
 pipes 523 
 
 For tanks holding inflam- 
 mable liquids 525 
 
 Carbon tetra chloride extin- 
 guishers 522 
 
 Chimneys: . ) j , : * 
 
 Construction of 340 
 
 Lining of 340 
 
 Mortar for 340 
 
 Wooden beams separated 
 
 from 312 
 
 Chimneys and flues 229 
 
 Chlorate mixtures 22 
 
 Cinder concrete construction.. 339 
 
 Classification of buildings: 
 
 By construction 295 
 
 By occupancy 296 
 
 Clay pipe, national standard... 668 
 
 Cleaning substitutes 130 
 
 Coal gas producers 191 
 
 Coffee roasters 103 
 
 Columns construction of rein- 
 forced concrete 332 
 
 Failure of cast iron 255 
 
 Combustion 238 
 
 Comparative cost and value of 
 
 buildings 261, 267 
 
 Composite construction 357 
 
 Concrete blocks, effect of heat 
 
 on 242 
 
 Concrete buildings, cost of... 267 
 
 Concrete construction cinder.. 339 
 
 Concrete, effect of fire on 245 
 
 Concrete reservoirs 649 
 
 Concrete tanks 660 
 
 Construction of chimneys 340 
 
 Cinder concrete 339 
 
 Composite 357 
 
 Converters, Bessemer 50 
 
 Cookers 74 
 
 Core ovens 104 
 
 Cornices 313 
 
 Box 230 
 
 Corn shellers 104 
 
 Cost and value of buildings, 
 
 comparative 261, 267 
 
 Cost of concrete buildings.... 267 
 
 Crematories 54 
 
 Cupolas 53, 104 
 
 Cyclone dust collectors 104 
 
 Dangerous combinations 217 
 
 Defective construction 228 
 
 Foundations 228 
 
 Definitions, in National Board 
 
 Building Code 293 
 
 Depreciation of Buildings.... 258 
 
 Digesters 75 
 
 Dipping 83 
 
 Dip tanks 157 
 
 Discharge through circular out- 
 lets 674 
 
 Discharge from smooth nozzles 
 
 700, 70 i 
 
 Doors, elevator 401 
 
 See also fire doors 
 
 Doors, rolling steel fire 396 
 
 Sheet metal sliding fire.... 395 
 
 Solid steel fire 389 
 
 Doors, metal clad 402, 404 
 
 Drainage, floor 361 
 
 Driers : 
 
 See alphabetical list, pages 
 62 to 74 
 
 Drip pans 104 
 
 Dry cleaning 155 
 
 Dry rooms : 
 
 See alphabetical list, pages 
 62 to 74 
 
 Dry rot 231 
 
 Dumbwaiters and other small 
 
 shafts 316 
 
 Dust collectors, Cyclone 104 
 
INDEX 
 
 76! 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Dust hazard 83 
 
 Dynamite - 20 
 
 Ebonized wood 286 
 
 Egg candling 83 
 
 Egress: 
 
 See Fire Protection for Peo- 
 ple in Buildings 
 
 Electrical hazard 83 
 
 Electricity no 
 
 Electro plating and typing 84 
 
 Elevator doors: 
 
 Rolling steel . 401 
 
 Counterbalanced 401 
 
 Elevators, grain 88 
 
 Embossers 84 
 
 Enclosures to vertical communi- 
 cations, protection to openings 398 
 
 Enclosure: 
 
 Stair, elevator and belt in 
 
 mill construction 352 
 
 Enclosure walls : 
 
 Tor shafts in fireproof build- 
 ings 315 
 
 For shafts in non fireproof 
 
 buildings 317 
 
 For stairway and elevator 
 
 shafts in frame buildings. 348 
 
 Engines 84 
 
 Gasoline 160 
 
 Gas 159 
 
 Oil, kerosene or fuel..,, 161 
 
 Erwin foam extinguisher 525 
 
 Equivalent value of pipe ca- 
 pacities 579 
 
 Etching 85 
 
 Ethereal oils 134 
 
 Ethers 133 
 
 Explosives 85 
 
 Explosives 19 
 
 See also alphabetical list un- 
 der Definitions, pages 24 
 to 47 .inclusive, and under 
 Manufacturing Hazards, 
 pages 78 to 96. 
 Explosives: 
 
 Storage and handling 211 
 
 Forbidden explosives 211 
 
 Exposed structural metal 231 
 
 Extinguishers, chemical 521, 
 
 522, 523, 525 
 
 Failure of cast iron columns. . 255 
 
 Felt, paper 284 
 
 Finishing. . . 85 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fire alarm systems 483, 498 
 
 See also Signalling Systems 
 Fire doors: 
 
 See also Tin Clad Fire 
 Doors, Solid Steel Fire 
 Doors, Sheet Metal Fire 
 Doors, Rolling Steel Fire 
 Doors, Hollow Metal Fire 
 Doors, Elevator Doors, 
 Metal Clad (Class B) 
 Doors 
 
 Fire Doors, suitability of slid- 
 ing 376 
 
 Swinging 377 
 
 Vertical 377 
 
 Rolling Steel 377 
 
 Normally closed 377 
 
 Automatic 377 
 
 Fire, effects of on concrete. . 245 
 Fire escapes: 
 
 See Fire Protection for Peo- 
 ple in Buildings 
 
 Fire extinguishing agents 518 
 
 Fire flow tests 672 
 
 Fire pails 519, 521 
 
 Fireplaces, construction of.... 343 
 
 Fireproof construction : 
 
 Allowable floor areas in.... 303 
 
 General requirements for.... 320 
 
 Limits of height of 302 
 
 When required 296 
 
 Fireproof floors between steel 
 
 beams. . . 358 
 
 Firej. roofing: 
 
 Miscellaneous provisions . . . 324 
 Of metal structural members 
 
 in fireproof buildings 322 
 
 Of metal structural members 
 
 in non fireproof buildings.. 325 
 
 Reinforced concrete for 338 
 
 Fireproofing of structural steel 251 
 Fire Protection for People in 
 
 Buildings: 
 
 Stairs 463 
 
 Doors and passageways 464 
 
 Existing fire escapes 464 
 
 Means of egress 465 
 
 National Board Building Code 
 
 requirements 465, 474 
 
 Smoke proof towers 469 
 
 Objection to outside stairs. 473 
 
 Rotary 598 
 
 Steam duplex 600 
 
762 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fire Pumps : 
 
 Standard sizes of 600 
 
 Centrifugal 60 1 
 
 Installation of 605 
 
 Driving connections 609 
 
 Tests for acceptance. . .610, 676 
 
 Electric drive and control... 613 
 
 Fire service mains 571, 572 
 
 Fire stopping: 
 
 Around chimneys 312 
 
 For furred walls and parti- 
 tions 318 
 
 For pipe shafts, ducts and 
 
 chases 319 
 
 For sliding doors, wainscot- 
 ing and stairs 318 
 
 In frame buildings 348 
 
 Fire stream tables 6.87 
 
 Fire systems, high pressure. 5 13, 517 
 
 Fire walls: 
 
 In fireproof buildings 297 
 
 In non-fireproof buildings . . 297 
 
 Protection of openings in... 297 
 Protection of openings in, 
 when used for emergency 
 
 exit 299 
 
 Fire windows, general 411 
 
 Construction 412 
 
 Types 412 
 
 Inspection of 417 
 
 Flash point 136 
 
 Floor and roof construction,, 
 
 fireproofing 321 
 
 Floor drainage 361 
 
 Floors, loads allowable 317 
 
 Floors, mill construction 353 
 
 Flow tests on water systems. . 671 
 
 Forges 50, 53, 6 <> 
 
 Forge, oil burning rivet or 
 
 portable. . . 172 
 
 Foundations, defective 228 
 
 Frame buildings 347 
 
 Cellar ceilings in 349 
 
 Defined 295 
 
 Fire stopping in 348 
 
 Foundations for 347 
 
 Height 302 
 
 Walls and partitions in 348 
 
 Friction loss in hose 699, 724 
 
 Fuel oil systems 86 
 
 Furnaces : 
 
 See alphabetical list pages 
 A.8 to 61 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Furnaces 230 
 
 Brass 99 
 
 Candy 102 
 
 Converter type 102 
 
 Soft metal 104 
 
 Furnace linings, asbestos... 286 
 
 Garages 146 
 
 Gas engines 159 
 
 Gas producers 54 
 
 Gas purifiers 87 
 
 Gas stoves 87 
 
 Gas shut-off valves 193 
 
 Gas stack, retorts 54 
 
 Gases and vapors 181 
 
 Gases : 
 
 Compressed 23 
 
 See alphabetical list under 
 Definitions, 24-47 
 
 Gases: 
 
 Explosive temperatures 181 
 
 Limits of explosibility 181 
 
 Ventilation for 182 
 
 Containers 183 
 
 Gasoline 130 
 
 Gasoline engines 160 
 
 Gasometers 87 
 
 Glory holes 56 
 
 Grain bleachers 105 
 
 Grain dust, explosibility of... 198 
 
 Grain elevators 88 
 
 Gravity and pressure tanks... 618 
 
 Care of 636 
 
 Steel towers for 636 
 
 Wooden tanks .' 618 
 
 Steel tanks 631 
 
 Pressure tanks 643 
 
 On buildings 648 
 
 Concrete tanks 660 
 
 Gravity of liquids table 740, 
 
 / 741, 743 
 
 Gypsum 270 
 
 Effect of fire on 271 
 
 Hand pumps 5 21 
 
 Hazard of electric lamps 192 
 
 Hazardous materials and pro- 
 cesses 24-47, 48-96 
 
 Hearths. . . . 56 
 
 Heat 236 
 
 Heaters 50, 60, 63 
 
 Heaters, soldering iron 109 
 
 Heating, furnaces and boilers 343 
 
 Heating systems, with blowers, 204 
 
INDEX 
 
 763 
 
 Height of buildings, affecting 
 
 construction 396 
 
 High pressure fire systems: 
 
 Desirability of 513 
 
 Requirements of 517 
 
 Hints to the insured 13 
 
 Holes, glory 56 
 
 Hollow metal fire doors 397 
 
 Class B 400 
 
 Class C 404 
 
 Hollow spaces 230 
 
 Hose houses: 
 
 Construction 661 
 
 Equipment 665 
 
 Rack for washing hose 668 
 
 Hot air pipes and registers.... 344 
 
 Hot water pipes 346 
 
 Houses, hose 66 1 
 
 Inflammable liquids: 
 
 Classification of inflammable 
 
 liquids 136 
 
 Storage of Class I and II 
 near exits, etc 137 
 
 Two exits required in stores 
 and jobber's plants 137 
 
 Handling limited in buildings 
 occupied by families 137 
 
 Storage limited in frame and 
 other buildings 137 
 
 Requirements for special 
 
 storage rooms 138 
 
 Restrictions to storage of 
 
 Class II liquids 138 
 
 Exposed window must have 
 
 wired glass 138 
 
 Restriction as to new manu- 
 facturing plants 138 
 
 Restriction as to existing 
 manufacturing plants .... 138 
 
 Manufacturing plants pro- 
 hibited in buildings occu- 
 pied as dwelling 138 
 
 Restrictions as to kettles, 
 vats, etc 138 
 
 Ventilation required 138 
 
 Extinguishers required .... 139 
 
 Storage of barrels and drums 
 
 limited 139 
 
 Drums and barrels must be 
 kept closed 139 
 
 Smoking prohibited 139 
 
 Lighting shall be by elec- 
 tricity 139 
 
 Requirements for wheel-tanks. 139 
 
 Drawing prohibited near 
 
 open light, etc 139 
 
 Storage must be outside 
 
 buildings 139 
 
 Underground storage limited 139 
 Above ground outside tanks 
 
 limited 141 
 
 Requirements for above 
 
 ground tanks 142 
 
 Above ground tanks labeled. 142 
 
 Thickness of tanks 142 
 
 Special material permitted for 
 
 tanks 143 
 
 Construction of tanks 143 
 
 Foundation of tanks 143 
 
 Stationary tanks in buildings 144 
 Xo connections to drains... 144 
 
 Vent pipe 144 
 
 Valves in drawing-off pipes. 144 
 Valve near tank if above 
 
 ground 144 
 
 Valve required at pump.... 144 
 Piping must drain to tank 
 
 where underground 144 
 
 Requirements for piping. . . . 144 
 
 Leaky piping 145 
 
 Pipes for Class I and II in 
 
 rooms containing open 
 
 lights 145 
 
 Filling pipe 145 
 
 Deliveries to storage tanks. 145 
 
 Pumps required 145 
 
 No gravity feed permitted.. 145 
 Pumps for engines and fuel 
 
 equipments 145 
 
 Containers painted distinctive 
 
 colors 145 
 
 Inflammable liquids 23 
 
 See also under Definitions, 
 
 pages 24 to 47 inclusive, 
 
 arranged alphabetically 
 
 Inflammable liquids: 
 
 General 129 
 
 Properties of, as classified by 
 the Underwriters Labora- 
 tories 129 
 
 Storage, hazard of as viewed 
 from insurance stand- 
 point 135 
 
 Storage from the insurance 
 
 viewpoint 135 
 
 Classification of 136 
 
 Storage tanks 139 
 
 Storage in buildings 137 
 
;6 4 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Storage and handling rooms 138 
 
 Manufacturing plants 138 
 
 Underground storage 140 
 
 Above ground tanks 141 
 
 Thickness of tank material.. 142 
 Piping and other appurten- 
 ances 144 
 
 Inspections by fire departments 737 
 
 Inspection reports 728 
 
 Standard form 734 
 
 Insulation, cellular asbestos... 283 
 
 Magnesia 283 
 
 Interior columns, protection of 323 
 
 Interior fire alarm service 483 
 
 Iron and steel, effect of heat on 243 
 
 Japan ovens 66, 105 
 
 Kettles: 
 
 See alphabetical list, 74 to 78. 
 Kettles: 
 
 Rendering 108 
 
 Kilns 57 
 
 Also alphabetical list, pages 
 62 to 74. 
 
 Lacquering stoves 135 
 
 Lamps, hazard of electric 192 
 
 Laundries. . . 195 
 
 Leers 57 
 
 Light and vent shafts 317 
 
 Lightning, protection against... 112 
 
 Linings, asbestos brake 283 
 
 Lining of chimneys 340 
 
 Linings, asbestos furnace 286 
 
 Lintels. 373 
 
 Liquids: 
 
 See Inflammable Liquids: 
 
 Loads, live, defined 304 
 
 Lockers for oily clothing 92 
 
 Lumber, asbestos 285 
 
 Magazines for explosives 212 
 
 Magnesia insulation 283 
 
 Mains for fire service: 
 
 Size required 571 
 
 Rules for laying 572 
 
 See also Water Pipe 
 
 Manufacturing hazards 48-96 
 
 Matches 38, 39, 90 
 
 Metal clad doors : 
 
 Swing type 402 
 
 Class C for partitions 404 
 
 Metal shutters 408 
 
 Mills, bark 79 
 
 Mill or slow burning construc- 
 tion 350 
 
 Foundations and walls 350 
 
 Limits of height and area. . . 302 
 
 Mill construction: 
 
 Floors 
 
 Timbers and columns 
 
 Caps 
 
 Fire walls 
 
 Window and door arches... 
 
 Mortar for chimneys 
 
 Motion piqture theatres, booths 
 
 and machines 
 
 National Building Code defini- 
 
 tions. 
 
 PAGS 
 
 353 
 
 354 
 
 355 
 352 
 352 
 340 
 
 124 
 293 
 
 National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers: 
 
 Functions 
 
 Regulations, list of 
 
 Suggested ordinances issued 
 
 by. . . 
 
 National Fire Protection Asso- 
 ciation 
 
 National standard, clay pipe. . 
 
 4 
 668 
 
 Nitro-cellulose: 
 
 See Pyroxylin Plastic 
 Nitro-cellulose and nitro-starch 
 
 explosives 21 
 
 Nitroglycerine 20 
 
 Non-fireproof buildings: 
 
 Classified '. 295 
 
 .When used for business and 
 
 residence 319 
 
 Nozzles, discharge from smooth 
 
 700, 701 
 Nozzle or engine pressure. . .702-724 
 
 With hose lines 698-723 
 
 Method of calculating. . .696, 697 
 
 Oil: 
 
 See Inflammable Liquids 
 
 Oils. 91 
 
 Oil burning equipments 162 
 
 Compressed air delivery. . .163-174 
 
 For household use 175 
 
 Railway Fire Protection As- 
 sociation report 164-174 
 
 Oil conveyors or carriers 175 
 
 Oil equipments: 
 
 Receivers, accumulators, 
 standpipes and auxiliary- 
 tanks 161, 164 
 
 Oil engines, kerosene or fuel. 161 
 
 Oils, ethereal 134 
 
 Oil lighting systems 179 
 
 Oil separator 147 
 
 Open air or light shafts 433 
 
 Openers, bale 79 
 
INDEX 
 
 765 
 
 Openings for belts 377 
 
 Openings for shafting 377 
 
 Ordinary lumber construction. 309 
 
 Ovens: 
 
 See alphabetical list, pages 
 48 to 61 
 
 Ovens, bake 
 
 Ovens, core 
 
 Ovens, Japan 
 
 Ovens, patent leather enamel. . 
 
 Oxygen, carriers of 
 
 Pails, fire 519,. 
 
 Painting 
 
 Pans, drip 
 
 Vacuum 
 
 Paper felt 
 
 Parapet walls, on exterior or 
 
 party walls 
 
 Parker building fire 
 
 Partitions: 
 
 In non-fireproof buildings. . . . 
 
 In fireproof buildings 
 
 Protection to openings in.. 
 Patent leather enamel ovens. . 
 Penetration of heat in earth . . 
 
 Pent houses 
 
 Picric acid and picrates 22, 
 
 Pickers 96, 
 
 Pipe capacities, equivalent value 
 
 of 
 
 Pipe, cost of laying cast iron. . 
 Pipes: 
 
 Hot air 
 
 Water. 
 
 Steam 
 
 Stove 
 
 Pitching apparatus 
 
 Plaster, asbestos 
 
 Plaster partitions: 
 
 Effect of fire on 
 
 Plaster of Paris 
 
 Pot arches 
 
 Powder : 
 
 Black. . . ' 
 
 Smokeless 
 
 Pressing irons and heaters 
 
 Pressure tanks 
 
 Diagram of pressure 
 
 Table of height of water in 
 
 cylindrical tanks 
 
 Prism glass as a fire retardant 
 
 Producers, gas 
 
 Protection of belt drives... 
 
 97 
 104 
 105 
 
 69 
 216 
 521 
 
 9i 
 104 
 
 78 
 284 
 
 299 
 253 
 
 326 
 325 
 403 
 
 69 
 140 
 432 
 
 78 
 1 06 
 
 579 
 576 
 
 344 
 346 
 230 
 229 
 58 
 287 
 
 271 
 
 270 
 
 58 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 107 
 643 
 645 
 
 6 47 
 422 
 
 54 
 433 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Protection, of metal structural 
 
 members from corrosion... 309 
 Of metal structural members, 
 
 fireproofing 322 
 
 Of wall openings 313 
 
 Of vertical openings 315 
 
 Protection of openings: 
 
 In enclosures to vertical 
 
 communications. 
 
 In corridor and room parti- 
 tions 
 
 In exterior walls, severe ex- 
 posure 
 
 In exterior walls, moderate 
 
 exposure 
 
 Pumps, fire, see fire pumps... 
 
 Pumps, hand 
 
 Purifiers, gas 
 
 Pyroxylin plastic : 
 
 General 
 
 Storage of film. . . . 
 Handling of films. 
 
 Ranges 
 
 59- 
 
 Ranges : 
 
 Coal 
 
 Gas 
 
 Ranges and stoves 
 
 Rer.ch of fire streams 
 
 Refiners, banana 
 
 Refuse burners 
 
 Registers, hot air 
 
 Reinforced concrete 288, 
 
 Reinforced concrete 327, 
 
 Beams 
 
 Columns for girderless floors 
 
 Design 
 
 Floors, systems approved on 
 design 
 
 For fireproofing 
 
 Forms construction and re- 
 moval of 
 
 Materials. . . 
 
 Reinforcement, requirements 
 for. . 
 
 Walls 
 
 Workmanship requirements 
 
 for 
 
 Rendering kettles 
 
 Retorts 
 
 Retorts, gas stack 
 
 Risks, chemical fire and ex- 
 plosion 
 
 398 
 403 
 404 
 
 410 
 598 
 521 
 87 
 
 117 
 
 121 
 I2 3 
 
 107 
 
 107 
 1 08 
 
 344 
 698 
 79 
 59 
 344 
 331 
 338 
 331 
 334 
 329 
 
 339 
 338 
 
 337 
 327 
 
 335 
 333 
 
 336 
 
 1 08 
 
 59 
 
 54 
 
 215 
 
7 66 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Rivet or portable forge: 
 
 Oil burning 
 
 Roof construction 
 
 Roof coverings: 
 
 Underwriters standards 
 
 Roofing material, asbestos 
 
 Roofs, mill construction 
 
 Rolling steel fire doors 
 
 Rolling steel shutters 
 
 Roofs and roof structures 
 
 Safety cans: 
 
 Construction of 
 
 Scrapings, board 
 
 Scuppers, for floor drainage . . . 
 
 Scuttles 
 
 Semi-mill construction 
 
 Separator oil 
 
 Sheet metal sliding fire doors 
 
 Shelters, corn 
 
 Shingles, asbestos 
 
 Shaving vaults 
 
 Shutters: 
 
 Tin clad 
 
 Steel or sheet metal 
 
 Rolling steel 
 
 Signalling systems 
 
 Wiring, all systems 
 
 Energy, ' all systems 
 
 Central stations 
 
 Manual fire alarm 
 
 Automatic fire alarm 
 
 Thermostats 485, 
 
 Journal alarm 
 
 Time recording 
 
 Sprinkler alarm . . . .494, .559, 
 
 Supervisory systems 
 
 Supervision details 
 
 Local systems 
 
 Supplementary to fire drills. 
 Skylights 
 
 Monitor 
 
 Sawtooth 
 
 Ventilating 
 
 For stairs, elevators, light, 
 etc 
 
 Theatre stage 
 
 Protection of 
 
 Slow burning or mill construc- 
 tion 302, 
 
 Smoke houses 
 
 Soldering iron heaters 
 
 Solid steel fire door: 
 General. . 
 
 172 
 321 
 
 362 
 284 
 354 
 396 
 410 
 312 
 
 177 
 80 
 361 
 433 
 356 
 I 47 
 395 
 104 
 285 
 94 
 
 405 
 408 
 410 
 483 
 487 
 488 
 489 
 490 
 490 
 490 
 492 
 493 
 563 
 494 
 495 
 497 
 498 
 423 
 425 
 425 
 426 
 
 427 
 427 
 429 
 
 350 
 
 7i 
 
 109 
 
 389 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sliding type 390 
 
 Swinging type 394 
 
 Spontaneous combustion 219 
 
 Sprinklers, automatic 543 
 
 Sprinklers: 
 
 See Automatic Sprinklers 
 
 Open 568 
 
 Cornice, side wall or ridge 
 
 pole. . .' 571 
 
 Illustrations of old types 582 
 
 Illustrations of approved 
 
 types 596 
 
 Stacks : 
 
 Iron. 103 
 
 Stalls 60 
 
 Standard forms of inspections 734 
 
 'Standpipes 530 
 
 Water supply for 531 
 
 For private protection 532 
 
 For fire department use.... 533 
 
 Special standpipes 534 
 
 Fire connection for city 
 
 mains 535 
 
 Steam boilers, flues for 341 
 
 Steam pipe 230, 346 
 
 Steel 291 
 
 Steel shutters 408, 410 
 
 Steel tanks on trestles 631 
 
 Dimensions for standard size 635 
 
 Care of 636 
 
 Steel towers for tanks 636 
 
 Stills 60 
 
 Stock conveyors, blower 207 
 
 Stone work 229 
 
 Effect of heat on 240 
 
 Storage and handling of ex- 
 plosives 211 
 
 Stoves 60, 61, 109 
 
 Installation in laundries 196 
 
 Gas 87 
 
 Laquering 135 
 
 Stoves, busheling 53 
 
 Stove pipes 229 
 
 See Stacks, Iron- 
 Stoves and ranges, regulations 
 
 for. 344 
 
 Smoke pipes for 340 
 
 Structural metal exposed 231 
 
 Structural steel, fireproofing of. 231 
 Stucco on metal lath, specifi- 
 cations for 274 
 
 Tables, fire stream 687 
 
 of gravity of liquids 740, 
 
 741, 743 
 
INDEX 
 
 767 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tanks, concrete 660 
 
 Dip iS7 
 
 Pressure 643 
 
 On steel trestles 631 
 
 Gravity and pressure 618 
 
 Taps and services: 
 
 Loss of head through 577 
 
 Temperatures 237 
 
 Terra cotta, effect of heat on . . 242 
 
 Terra cotta, for fireproofing 243 
 
 Tests 672 
 
 Fire flow 677 
 
 Of fire pumps 614 
 
 Of steam fire engines 6783 
 
 Of automobile fire engines... 685 
 Test of, effect of fire on build- 
 ing material 247 
 
 Theatres, motion picture 124 
 
 Tin clad fire doors: 
 
 Class B . . 400 
 
 General 3?8 
 
 Sliding type 379 
 
 Swinging type 385 
 
 Vertical type 388 
 
 Tin clad fire shutters 405 
 
 Tenter frames 73 
 
 Torches, welding 173 
 
 Underwriters Laboratories ... 6 
 
 Fire appliances listed by. ... 10 
 Gas, oil, mechanical and 
 chemical appliances listed 
 
 by ii 
 
 Vacuum pans 78 
 
 Value and cost of building, 
 
 comparative 261, 267 
 
 Valves, gas shut-off 193 
 
 Valve pits 659 
 
 Vapors, gases and 181 
 
 Varnishes 134 
 
 Varnishing 95 
 
 Vaults: 
 
 Class A 458 
 
 Class B 460 
 
 Class C 461 
 
 Vaults: 
 
 For refuse 209 
 
 Shaving 94 
 
 Ventilating systems 204 
 
 For cooking appliances 206 
 
 Ventilation: 
 
 For gases 182 
 
 Ventilators 432 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vertical communications: 
 
 Protection to openings in en- 
 closures 398 
 
 Vertical openings: 
 
 Elevator, stairway and belt. 232 
 
 Walls : 
 
 Curtain, height and thickness 
 of 
 
 Fire 
 
 Furred construction of 
 
 Hollow 
 
 Hollow block 
 
 Panel, for skeleton construc- 
 tion 
 
 Parapet or party 
 
 Protection of openings in. 3 13, 
 
 Recesses and chases in ..... 
 
 Reinforced concrete 
 
 .Thickness for brick walls . . 
 298, 
 
 Walls, enclosure 3, 5, 317, 
 
 Wall frames for fire doors.... 
 
 Wall openings: 
 
 Protection to 
 
 Warmers, Batch 
 
 Waste cans 
 
 Watchman's time recording ap- 
 paratus 
 
 Water pipe: 
 
 See Mains for Fire Service 
 
 Friction loss in pipe and fit- 
 tings 575, 
 
 Weights of 
 
 Cost of laying 
 
 Water pressure in feet reduced 
 
 to pounds 
 
 Weight of materials 
 
 Welding torches: 
 
 Portable oil burning 
 
 Wheels, buffing 
 
 Whitewash 
 
 Windows, fire ......411, 412, 
 
 Wire gauges 
 
 Wired glass windows 
 
 Wire, properties of 
 
 Wood, fire resisting 
 
 Woodwork: 
 
 Hazard of varnished 
 
 Protection with sheet metal. 
 Wooden beam's 309, 
 
 Bearing of ends of 
 
 Safe loads for 
 
 297 
 297 
 302 
 302 
 301 
 
 297 
 299 
 .367 
 302 
 332 
 
 302 
 348 
 373 
 
 367 
 
 79 
 
 224 
 
 577 
 58o 
 576 
 
 745 
 305 
 
 173 
 
 IO2 
 240 
 417 
 
 744 
 245 
 503 
 239 
 
 232 
 232 
 441 
 309 
 307 
 
7 68 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Separated from masonry 
 
 chimneys 312 
 
 Separation in walls 309 
 
 Tables for calculating 450 
 
 Wooden beams 307, 442, 45^0 
 
 Wooden tanks 618 
 
 618 
 618 
 618 
 618 
 621 
 
 621 
 622 
 623 
 624 
 
 
 
 Material 
 
 
 Hoops. . 
 
 
 Lugs. . . 
 
 
 Dimensions 
 sizes. . . 
 
 for standard 
 
 Roof 
 
 
 Hatch. . . . 
 
 
 Supports. . . 
 
 
 PACE. 
 
 Discharge pipe 624 
 
 Filling pipe 624 
 
 Drain 625 
 
 Expansion joint 625 
 
 Heating 626 
 
 Frost-proofing of piping 627 
 
 Gauge 628 
 
 Ladders 629 
 
 Care of 636 
 
 Working stresses, for building 
 
 blocks 304 
 
 For cast iron columns 307 
 
 For steel columns 307 
 
 For structural materials 306 
 
 For wooden columns 307, 
 
 442, 456 
 
 Yarns and cloth, asbestos 282 
 
 INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS 
 
 Agents' and Inspectors' Pocket 
 
 Book of Fire Protection 775 
 
 American District Telegraph Co. 512 
 
 Asbestos Textile Co 776 
 
 Childs Co., O. J 773 
 
 Cook, A. D 775 
 
 Empire Rubber & Tire Co 776 
 
 Fire Appliances 771 
 
 Gabler, Inc., F. M 771 
 
 Gamewell Fire Alarm & Tele- 
 graph Co 769 
 
 Gutta Percha and Rubber Mfg. 
 
 Co., The, 778 
 
 Hersey Mfg. Co 772 
 
 Kennedy Valve Manufacturing 
 
 Co 778 
 
 Miller Chemical Engine Co.... 771 
 
 Mississippi Wire Glass Co..opp. 410 
 
 New England Tank & Tower Co. 774 
 Publications, The Spectator 
 
 Company 777 
 
 Quincy Elevator Gate Co 771 
 
 Ramcke & Son, John 775 
 
 Relc Extinguisher Corp. of 
 
 America 777 
 
 Safe-Cabinet Company, The. . . . 758 
 
 Safety Fire Extinguisher Co. . . 774 
 
 Tippett & Wood 776 
 
 Wood & Co., R. D 773 
 
 York Manufacturing Co....*... 770 
 
 ADDENDUM 
 
 ROOFINGS. The Underwriters' Laboratories, since the date of 
 printing the major part of this book, have reclassified the grading 
 of Roof Coverings as given herein on page 362. As now classified 
 there are three classes, A, B and C; roughly. Class A includes former 
 Classes A and B ; Class B includes former Classes C and D, and 
 Class C includes former Classes E and F. 
 
 Page v, CONTENTS. 
 of 149. 
 
 . ERRATUM 
 Dry Cleaning folio should be 155 instead 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 769 
 
 To Utilize Instantly the Fire Fighting 
 Facilities of Municipal Fire Departments 
 
 THE GAMEWELL 
 AUXILIARY FIRE ALARM SERVICE 
 
 Extends the Public Fire Alarm Service into Interiors 
 
 of Mercantile and Manufacturing Premises, and into Hotels, 
 Theatres, Hospitals, Educational, Charitable and Penal 
 Institutions, and is thereby one of the Most Important 
 Modern Agencies for Saving Life and Property from Loss 
 by Fire. It has been established for more than Fifteen 
 Years, and is now installed in more than Six Thousand 
 Establishments, in many important cities. 
 
 The United States Government has adopted this Serv- 
 ice for many of its buildings, including the White House 
 at Washington, and has installations at Colon for the 
 Panama Canal. 
 
 Insurance Approval. The Gamewell Auxiliary was ap- 
 proved by the Chicago Laboratories for the "Western 
 Union" in 1901 and rate allowances for its use are made 
 by the New York, Philadelphia, New England, Middle 
 Department, Pacific and other Boards of Underwriters. 
 It is installed in many Factories insured by the Manu- 
 facturers Mutuals, and in hundreds of "Sprinklered Risks, " 
 and Modern Fireproof Office Buildings. 
 
 It is absolutely the Only Interior Fire Alarm Service 
 
 which connects with Public Fire Alarm Systems, directly, 
 instantly and without repetition, and calls out the Full 
 Department Force which responds to Public Box Alarms. 
 
 Its short and easily protected circuits and its simplicity 
 of mechanism and methods of operation cause it to be in- 
 comparably the most prompt, positive, accurate and re- 
 liable Interior Fire Alarm Service now in use. 
 
 FOR FULL INFORMATION ADDRESS 
 
 THE GAMEWELL 
 Auxiliary Fire Alarm Company 
 
 5708 GRAND CENTRAL TERMINAL, NEW YORK 
 
770 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 
 YORK REFRIGERATING 
 APPARATUS 
 
 has behind it years of practical experience in this 
 one specialty. 
 
 If you would participate in the benefits of this 
 experience, consult us freely as to your require- 
 ments. There is no charge for YORK CON- 
 SULTING SERVICE. 
 
 Our facilities are complete in every detail. Our 
 Organization is such that we can successfully 
 execute any order for Refrigerating or Ice Making 
 Machinery, no matter how large or how small. 
 
 If you want QUALITY and SERVICE, send 
 your inquiries to 
 
 YORK MANUFACTURING CO. 
 
 (Ice-Making aud Refrigerating Machinery exclusively) 
 
 YORK, PA. 
 
 BRANCHES IN ALL PRINCIPAL CITIES 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 771 
 
 THE MILLER 
 
 FIRE EXTINGUISHER 
 
 Capacity 2S Gallon. 
 
 Can be tested any time 
 without the loss of liquid, the 
 solution being discharged back 
 into the shell through the filler. 
 
 Sole Manufacturers 
 
 MILLER 
 STANDARD 
 
 SODA AND ACID 
 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 
 
 Approved By The 
 
 National Fire Protective 
 
 Association 
 
 MILLER 
 
 WAREHOUSE 
 
 CHEMICAL TRUCK 
 
 18 and 25 Gallon Capacity 
 
 Easily Wheeled or Carried 
 
 MILLER 
 
 CHEMICAL ENGINES 
 
 45 to 60 Gallon Capacity 
 
 Adapted For Use In 
 
 Warehouses, Yards. 
 
 Small City Departments, Etc. 
 
 MILLER CHEMICAL 
 ENGINE CO. 
 
 Builders General Fire Appliances 
 CHICAGO, U. S. A. 
 
 Quincy Elevator 
 Gate Company 
 
 SAFETY GATES- 
 STEEL and WOOD 
 full and semi- 
 automatic for 
 freight elevators :: 
 
 Fire Doors AH Kinds 
 
 Installations made to meet 
 requirements of state 
 
 labor laws and 
 underwriters' specifications 
 
 29 BROADWAY 
 NEW YORK 
 
 TELEPHONE SPRING 9340 
 
 F. M. GABLER, 
 
 INC. 
 
 FIRE PROTECTION AND 
 FIRE INSURANCE WORK 
 
 MAUFACTURERS 
 AND ERECTORS OP 
 FIRE PROOF DOORS 
 
 118-Leroy Street 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
772 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 APPROVAL 
 
 HERSEY 
 DETECTOR METER 
 
 THE Hersey Detector Meter has 
 been accepted for eleven years 
 in 3", 4', 6", 8", 10" and 12'; sizes 
 without any restrictions or conditions 
 of any kind by every Insurance Com- 
 pany, Stock and Mutual, doing busi- 
 ness in the United States, and by 
 the Water Departments and Water 
 Companies in more than 500 Cities 
 and Towns for use on over 3000 
 Fire Services protecting nearly 
 $2,000,000,000 worth of Insured 
 Property. 
 
 HERSEY MANUFACTURING COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON COLUMBUS, O. SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA LOS ANGELES 
 
 CHICAGO ATLANTA PORTLAND, ORE. 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 773 
 
 CHEMICAL APPARATUS 
 
 "UTICA HOLLOWAY" and "UTICA CHAMPION" 
 Copper Tanks 
 
 HOSE REELS OR BASKETS AND FULL 
 EQUIPMENT FOR FIRE APPARATUS 
 
 Hand Extinguishers for Every Purpose 
 
 Village Chemicals with Copper Tanks same as 
 used on City Fire Department Apparatus 
 
 WRITE FOR OUR NEW CATALOGUE No. 10 
 
 O. J. CHILDS CO. 
 
 Manufacturers Fire Apparatus 
 UTICA, N. Y. 
 
 R. D. WOOD & CO. 
 
 ENGINEERS IRON FOUNDERS 
 
 MACHINISTS 
 
 400 Chestnut Street Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Mathews' Single and Double Valve 
 
 Fire Hydrants 
 
 Gate Valves, Valve Indicator Posts 
 
 Manufacturers of All Kinds and Sizes of 
 
 CAST IRON PIPES 
 
774 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 SAFETY FIRE BUCKET TANK 
 SAFETY FIRE EXTINGUISHER 
 
 UNDERWRITERS' FIRE HOSE 
 
 Unlined Linen, Cotton Rubber Lined. Hose Racks, Hose 
 
 Carts, Hose Pipes, Hose Valves, Chemical Fire Engines, 
 
 Fire Axes, Fire Hooks, Packing Bins, Fire Pails, 
 
 Gasoline Cans, Skylight Work, Signs, Exit, 
 
 No Smoking, Etc. Ash and Sweeping 
 
 Cans, Watchman's Clocks, Gongs. 
 
 Estimates on all Fire Protection Work Made by Oar Experts 
 
 The Safety Fire Extinguisher Company 
 
 291-293 Seventh Ave., Between 26th and 27th Streets 
 NEW YORK 
 
 WATER TANKS J 
 STEEL TANK TOWERS 
 
 Elevated Tanks for fire protection in- 
 stalled anywhere. Also pumping and 
 storage plants for factory and domestic 
 supply. Ask for estimate. 
 
 Mercury Column Water Gauge 
 
 may be located at any point in the 
 factory or pumping station and shows 
 correctly the depth of water in tank. 
 
 New England Tank & Tower Company 
 
 BOSTON, MASS. 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 775 
 
 Water Supply 
 
 From Deep Wells 
 
 is obtained at a minimum 
 cost by use of our deep 
 well pumps. 
 
 Write for Bulletin 26 
 explaining the use of 
 Cook's Patent Brass Tube 
 Well Strainer. 
 
 A. D. COOK 
 
 Lawrenceburg, Indiana, U. S. A. 
 
 Manutacturers of a complete 
 
 line of 
 DEEP WELL SUPPLIES 
 
 including Steam, Belt and 
 
 Motor Driven 
 DEEP WELL PUMPS 
 
 Wind-Mill and Hand Pumps, 
 
 Working Barrels and Valves, 
 
 Pump Rods and Pump Rod 
 
 Joints, Drill Rods and Drill 
 
 Rod Joints, Drilling and Well 
 
 Tools. 
 
 Catalogue Mailed Upon Request 
 
 Telephone Wabash 531 
 
 JOHN RAMCKE 
 &SON 
 
 BUILDERS 
 
 Appraising Fire Losses 
 a Specialty 
 
 1801 Insurance Exchange 
 
 175 W. Jackson Blvd. 
 CHICAGO 
 
 AGENTS' AND INSPECTORS* 
 
 POCKET BOOK OF FIRE PROTECTION 
 
 By GEORGE VELTEN STEEB 
 ASSOCIATE MEMBER NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION. 
 
 MEMBER PHILADELPHIA ALUMNI, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. 
 Author of "Fire Insurance Agents' and Surveyors' Pocketbook of Information" 
 
 and "Special Agents' and Adjusters' Handbook." 
 
 An up-to-date and comprehensive work which should be in the possession of every Special 
 Agent, I nspector and Local Agent. An idea of the broad scope of this work may be 
 obtained by a glance at the chapter titles given below, although this list gives no intimation of 
 the numerous details presented in the book. 
 
 Other Fire Appliances. 
 
 Oils, Varnishes, Benzine, etc. 
 
 Oily Waste and Other Spontaneously 
 
 Combustible Material. 
 Waste and Rubbish. 
 Special Information. 
 
 XI. 
 XII. 
 XIII. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 I. Construction. 
 
 II. Special Construction and Notes. 
 III. Fire Doors and Shutters 
 IV. Heating. 
 
 Lighting. XIV. 
 
 Electric Light and Power Installa- XV. 
 
 tion. XVI. 
 
 VII. Sprinkler Equipment. 
 
 VIII. Fire Pumps. XVII. 
 
 IX. Fire Pumps and Notes. 
 X. Reservoirs and Other Sources of XVIII. 
 
 Water Supply for Fire Pumps. 
 
 There is a copious Index which will enable the reader to locate quickly any particular item 
 of information. 
 Prices of the AGENTS' AND INSPECTORS' POCKET-BOOK or FIRE PROTECTION (Bound in 
 
 Red Russia Leather): 
 
 Per copy, - - $2.50 25 Copies, ----- $48.00 
 
 12 Copies, ----- $24.00 50 Copies, ----- $90.00 
 
 100 Copies, - $150.03 
 
 TUB SPECTATOR OOIVIPAIVY 
 
 Watchman and Watchman's Time 
 
 Recording Apparatus. 
 Miscellaneous Information and 
 
 Tables. 
 Hazards. 
 
 Chicago Office; Insurance Exchange 
 
 135 William Street, New York 
 
776 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Asbestos Textile Company 
 
 EVERYTHING IN ASBESTOS 
 
 Fibre Packing Brake Lining 
 
 Yarn Gaskets Gloves 
 
 Cloth Sheet Leggins 
 
 Tape Theatre Curtains Aprons 
 
 Woolworth Building New York City 
 
 Water Towers, Stand Pipes and Tanks 
 
 For Fire Protection and Domestic 
 Service 
 
 Send for Catalogue 
 TIPPETT & WOOD, Phillipsburg, N. J. 
 
 Empire Fire Hose 
 
 has twice stood 1000 Ibs. pressure 
 in New York Fire Department's 
 tests I without bursting October 
 19, 1913, and November 4, 1915. 
 
 Last test length picked at random 
 from delivery of 30,000 feet 
 
 Empire Double Jacket Fire Hose 
 
 WRITE US ABOUT IT 
 
 Empire Rubber & Tire Co. 
 
 TRENTON, N. J. 
 
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 777 
 
 "RELC" STATIONARY CHEMICAL ENGINE 
 
 Chemical Streams from Interior 
 Standpipes 
 
 The "Relc" Chemical Engine connected to interior stand- 
 pipe and hose systems, employing small piping, with the 
 customary number of outlets on each floor of a building 
 furnishes an effective defense against fires that cannot be 
 extinguished with portable apparatus. 
 It has been used successfully to supply Automatic Sprink- 
 ler Systems in the more hazardous parts of buildings, 
 where fires cannot ordinarily be controlled by water alone. 
 The principle of the "RELC" Chemical Engine has been 
 endorsed by the Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., Chicago, 
 111., and reductions have been made in fire insurance rates 
 for this protection where application for credits have been 
 made to the proper rating organization. 
 
 Relc Extinguisher Corporation of America 
 
 120 Broadway, - - NEW YORK 
 Empire Building, ATLANTA, GA. 
 
 THE SPECTATOR COMPANY 
 
 PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS OF 
 
 INSURANCE WORKS 
 
 PUBLISHERS OF AND SELLING AGENTS FOR THE FOLLOWING IMPORTANT 
 FIRE AND MARINE PUBLICATIONS: 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA OF FIRE PREVENTION AND INSURANCE. In four volumes, dealing 
 with all branches of the subjects indicated by the title, including fire losses; fireproof con- 
 struction; building code; combustion; underwriters' regulations; fire protection; reports; 
 inspection; hazards; underwriting; ratings; policy; law; and adjusting. Completely indexed. 
 Price, for the set, bound in half morocco, with heavy buckram sides, $17, delivered. 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE AND HOW TO BUILD. By the late F. C. Moore. Price, $5.00. 
 
 GRINNELL'S ESTIMATOR AND BUILDERS' POCKET COMPANION A book of 
 especial value to fire insurance adjusters. Price, per copy, 81.00. 
 
 HALL ON INSURANCE ADJUSTMENTS. By Thrasher Hall. Second edition. 1916. 
 Revised and enlarged. A practical guide for ad justers of fire losses. Price, per copy, $3.50. 
 
 INSURANCE YEAR BOOK', THE. Issued July of each year. Dealing with insurance 
 companies throughout the world. Price of each volume: Life, Casualty and Miscellaneous 
 Insurance, S7.00; Fire and Marine Insurance (including "Fire Departments and Water SUD- 
 ply"), $7.00; both volumes when ordered together, $12.00. 
 
 SPECIAL AGENTS' AND ADJUSTERS' HANDBOOK. By George Velten Steeb. A 
 standard reference work for fire insurance field men, containing much data relating to special 
 hazards, adjustment rules, tables of weights and measurements, depreciation, costs, etc. 
 Price, per copy, bound in flexible leather, 1.50. 
 
 SPECTATOR, THE An American Review of Insurance; published weekly. Price, $4.00 
 
 POT flrwUIDt 
 
 ALSO NUMEROUS OTHER STANDARD INSURANCE WORKS 
 A Catalogue of Insurance Publications will be forwarded on receipt of six cents in postage stamps. 
 
 THE SPECTATOR 
 
 Chicago Office: Insurance Exchange 135 William Street, New York 
 
778 FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 
 
 Indicator, Devices and Valves 
 
 FOR 
 
 Automatic Sprinkler Systems 
 
 Indicator shows automatically whether 
 valve is open or shut 
 
 "NEWTYPE" HYDRANTS 
 for Mill Yards 
 
 All Acceptable to Insurance Inspection Bureaus 
 
 The Kennedy Valve Manufacturing Co. 
 
 Works and Main Office : 
 ELMIRA, N. Y. 
 
 81 John Street Western Union Building 
 
 New York Chicago 
 
 The Gutta Percha & Rubber Mfg. Co. 
 
 Manufacturers of 
 
 FIRE HOSE 
 
 Sole Proprietors of 
 
 The Old Reliable Maltese Cross Brand 
 
 (A Four Ply RUBBER Fire Hose) 
 
 The BAKER FABRIC Brand 
 
 (5, 4 and 3 Ply Solid Multiple Woven COTTON Fire Hose) 
 
 and Double and Single Jacket Fire Hose of all Kinds 
 
 Obtain our prices before purchasing 
 ESTABLISHED 1855 
 
 Executive Office: 126-128 Duane Street, New York 
 
 Branch Offices : 
 
 301 West Randolph St., Chicago, 111. 71 Pearl St., Boston, Mass. 
 34 Fremont St., San Francisco, Gal. 
 
HI 
 
 THIS BOOK is DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL PINE OP 25 CENTS 
 
 !i" BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 
 SEVENTH DAY 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY