N.v.a'iTY OF 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 SAN DIEGO 
 
 RELATIONS 
 
 . OF CALIFORNIA 
 WITHDRAWN
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN 
 GOVERNMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES
 
 William Howard Taft.
 
 A DECADE OF 
 AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 
 
 IN THE PHILIPPINES 
 
 1903-1913 
 
 BY 
 DAVID P. BARROWS, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL SCIENCE IN THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. FORMERLY 
 CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MA- 
 NILA, 1900-01; CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF 
 NON-CHRISTIAN TRIBES OF THE PHILIP- 
 PINES, 1901-03; DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION 
 FOR THE PHILIPPINES, 1903-09 
 
 WAU OF I! *IL RELATIONS 
 
 WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
 
 YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 
 
 1914
 
 PUBLISHER'S NOTE. 
 
 A Decade of American Government in the Philippines 
 was prepared as an additional chapter to a third edition of 
 the author's History of the Philippines, first published in 
 1903, and is separately printed for the convenience of 
 those desiring a brief historical review of the events of 
 the last ten years. For some account of the ethnology of 
 the islands, their discovery and development under Span- 
 ish rule, and of the first years of American occupation 
 from 1898 to 1902, reference is made to the larger work, 
 also published by World Book Company. 
 
 BUR. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 
 
 Copyright, 1914, by WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
 All rights of reproduction and translation reserved 
 BDAGP 2
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PROLOGUE vii 
 
 POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES 1 
 
 ACHIEVEMENTS OF GOVERNOR TAFT 2 
 
 LADRONISM 3 
 
 EPIDEMICS 5 
 
 AGRICULTURAL DISTRESS AND ECONOMIC CRISIS 6 
 
 SETTLEMENT WITH THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 8 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOK-GENEHAL WRIGHT 10 
 
 ECONOMIC POLICY 11 
 
 BUILDING OF RAILROADS 11 
 
 ROADS AND HIGHWAYS 12 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE SYSTEM 13 
 
 REORGANIZATION OF THE ADMINISTRATION 13 
 
 CHANGES IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT 16 
 
 IMPROVEMENTS TO THE CITY OF MANILA 19 
 
 POLITICAL DIFFICULTIES AND DISORDERS 20 
 
 THE PULAHAN 22 
 
 VISIT OF SECRETARY TAFT AND PARTY 23 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR-GENERAL IDE 24 
 
 REFORM OF CURRENCY 25 
 
 OPIUM LEGISLATION 26 
 
 STANDARD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 27 
 
 POSTAL SAVINGS 27 
 
 SURRENDER OF THE CAHECILLAS 28 
 
 FILIPINO PARTIES 29 
 
 ELECTIONS OF 1905 AND 1906 32 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF NEW PARTIES 33 
 
 INAUGURATION OF GOVERNOR-GENERAL SMITH 35 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY 36 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE CENSUS 39 
 
 QUALIFICATIONS OF ELECTORS 40 
 
 THE FIRST SESSION OF THE ASSEMBLY .41
 
 Vi CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE SECOND SESSION OF THE ASSEMBLY 44 
 
 CHANGES IN THE COMMISSION 45 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR-GENERAL FORBES 46 
 
 CONGRESSIONAL INVESTIGATION OF THE FRIAR LANDS 47 
 
 AGRICULTURAL PROSPERITY 49 
 
 DAMAGE FROM TYPHOONS 50 
 
 THE TAAI. DISASTER 51 
 
 VISIT OF SECRETARY DICKINSON 52 
 
 THE NON-CHRISTIAN PEOPLES 52 
 
 THE MOROS 54 
 
 SUMMARY AND RETROSPECT 59 
 
 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 60 
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 61 
 
 THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE AND THE UNIVERSITY 62 
 
 FILIPINO ASPIRATIONS 62 
 
 THE DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION 63 
 
 INAUGURATION OF GOVERNOR-GENERAL HARRISON 63
 
 PROLOGUE. 
 
 The possession of the Philippines came suddenly and 
 unexpectedly to the American people. A succession of 
 events which were not anticipated, but which could not 
 properly be avoided, bound the islands to us. In April 
 1898, war was commenced to end Spanish domination in 
 Cuba, but the first blow was struck in the Far East. For 
 a long period the United States had kept a small squadron 
 in Asiatic waters, and at the beginning of the war, no 
 American naval base then existing, it was gathered at 
 Hongkong. The British government, complying with its 
 duty as a neutral, ordered the American ships to depart. 
 Three possible directions were open to the Navy Depart- 
 ment : " interne " at Hongkong and remain under British 
 control for the period of the war ; return to the United 
 States, passing from port to port for those limited supplies 
 of fuel which international regulations permit ; or take a 
 base from the enemy. This last course was adopted, and 
 on May 1, Commodore Dewey entered the harbor of Ma- 
 nila, destroyed the Spanish fleet, and captured the naval 
 station at Cavite. 
 
 All sound principles of warfare recommend that a suc- 
 cessful blow be followed up and efforts repeated to demor- 
 alize the enemy and compel him to sue for peace. Thus 
 the battle of Manila Bay was succeeded by the dispatch of 
 a military expedition to the Philippines, the encourage- 
 
 vii
 
 Viii PROLOGUE. 
 
 ment of the Filipinos to renew their rebellion against 
 Spain, and the capture of Manila, which yielded to an 
 American assault on August 13. Before this final action, 
 however, on July 22, Spain had sued for peace ; and on 
 August 12 a protocol had been signed in which Spain 
 yielded the primary objects of the war, and a suspension of 
 hostilities was declared. Owing to the cutting of the 
 cable between Manila and Hongkong, news of this pro- 
 tocol did not reach the Philippines to stay the assault, 
 and, like the battle of New Orleans, the taking of Manila 
 occurred after the formal ending of war. 
 
 The capture and occupation of the capital of the Philip- 
 pines exerted important influences upon the final terms of 
 peace. The protocol of August 12 had provided that 
 Spain should relinquish Cuba, cede Porto Rico and an 
 island of the Ladrones, and that commissioners should be 
 appointed to meet at Paris for the final settlement of the 
 terms of peace. The disposition of the Philippines was 
 left to this commission. 1 
 
 After the meeting of the peace commissioners, the gov- 
 ernment of the United States determined to compel the 
 cession of the Philippines. The Spanish commissioners 
 yielded after a bitter and protracted dispute, and the 
 treaty was signed on December 10. The motives of the 
 American government in thus extending its demands have 
 been denounced repeatedly as lust of empire, cupidity, or 
 the intoxication of military success. These charges by no 
 means explain the situation. The dominant motive quite 
 clearly was to protect the islands from further bloodshed 
 and turmoil. Aguinaldo and the Filipinos had had the 
 
 1 Treaty of Peace between the United States and Spain, Sen. Doc. 
 No. 62, part I, 55th Congress, 3rd session, p. 274, 277.
 
 PROLOGUE. IX 
 
 encouragement of the American forces against Spain and 
 they had co-operated in some degree in the taking of Ma- 
 nila. The American commanders had employed only legit- 
 imate means of warfare in encouraging the rebellion of the 
 enemy's subjects, but this very encouragement had created 
 a responsibility to protect the Filipinos from the conse- 
 quences of their temerity in rising once more against Spain. 
 The termination of the war released for action in the Phil- 
 ippines the Spanish forces employed in Cuba, and had the 
 Filipinos been left to settle their cause alone, Spain would 
 have swept the islands once more with a besom of destruc- 
 tion. These considerations were, I believe, the dominant 
 motives with the American government and people. Ac- 
 quisition seemed to be unavoidable except by a repudiation 
 of clearly existing responsibility. The United States 
 Senate, however, debated the ratification of this treaty for 
 many days, and final approval was not given until Febru- 
 ary 10, 1899, after the outbreak of hostilities between the 
 Filipinos and Americans. 
 
 The period from the capture of Manila to the 4th of 
 February was a most critical one in the Philippines, and 
 it is impossible to study its course without regrets. 
 While the discussion of the treaty dragged on at Paris, 
 while the American people strove to discover what was 
 demanded by their interests or their duty, the Filipinos 
 rapidly extended their operations against the Spanish, 
 awoke quite generally to aspirations of independence, and 
 organized for administration and for war. The Filipino 
 revolutionary leader, General Emilio Aguinaldo, had in 
 May returned to Manila with the aid of American officers 
 and raised again the standard of revolt against Spain. 
 At Cavite on June 18 he proclaimed a "Dictatorial Gov-
 
 X PROLOGUE. 
 
 eminent " with local ordinances. On June 23 he issued 
 another decree substituting a " Revolutionary Government" 
 with an organized plan for an executive department and 
 provision for a revolutionary congress to be popularly 
 elected. During this period he had been joined by Apoli- 
 nario Mabini, who is generally regarded as the most able 
 exponent of the Filipino national movement and who from 
 this time on was a most active supporter of Philippine 
 independence. About the end of July Aguinaldo was 
 asked by the American authorities to evacuate Cavite. 
 Me accordingly transferred his headquarters to Bakoor 
 and afterwards, about September 1, to Malolos, forty miles 
 north of Manila in Bulakan. Here was held the famous 
 Filipino congress which proclaimed the " Malolos Consti- 
 tution " (January 23, 1899). Shortly thereafter fighting 
 began between the American army in Manila and the 
 Filipino troops who had encircled the city, and the rev- 
 olutionary government broke up in disagreement, many 
 members seeking the American lines and throwing their 
 influence on the side of the Americans, while the " irrec- 
 oncilables " continued to wage a disastrous resistance. 
 
 The history of this attempt on the part of the Filipinos 
 to organize a government, frame a constitution, and legis- 
 late for the improvement of their social interests is a sub- 
 ject of great interest which has not been adequately or 
 impartially described. The opponents of the American 
 action have claimed that a genuine republic was suppressed 
 and a native movement of promise extinguished. On the 
 other hand, the Malolos Congress never represented more 
 than a mere fraction of the people of the single island of 
 Luzon and was largely composed of men of Tagalog birth. 
 The system of local government, which previous to the
 
 PROLOGUE. xi 
 
 commencement of hostilities appeared in some places to be 
 moving quietly and successfully, undoubtedly soon began 
 to exhibit those unfortunate tendencies which transformed 
 it into a system of terrorism enforced by assassination. 1 
 This is not the place to give an account of the Philippine 
 Insurrection. Suffice it to say that after the first fighting 
 around Manila on February 5, the American army pushed 
 northward and captured Malolos on March 31. The Fili- 
 pino forces retired northward beyond the Rio Grande de 
 Pampanga, with headquarters at Tarlak. After the sum- 
 mer rainy season, operations were resumed by the Amer- 
 icans which led in November to the complete disbandment 
 of the Filipino army. Aguinaldo escaped into the moun- 
 tainous country of northern Luzon and disappeared from 
 view until his capture at Palanan by General Funston in 
 May, 1901. The American army gradually occupied all 
 portions of the Archipelago inhabited by civilized peoples. 
 The Philippine resistance took the form of a secret mili- 
 tary organization existent in practically all towns. Inces- 
 sant attacks were made upon American troops and the 
 population was prevented from submission by a policy of 
 
 1 The First Annual Report of General Otis gives the American view. 
 Some light is afforded by testimony before the American Peace Commis- 
 sioners at Paris. The proclamations of Aguinaldo are available in several 
 published forms. While an exile on Guam, Mabini wrote a history of 
 the revolution, only a part of which has been printed. This was pub- 
 lished in English translation by Mr. James B. Le Roy in the American 
 Historical Review. The Insurgent War Records, edited by Captain 
 Taylor, can probably now be consulted through the courtesy of the 
 War Department. A valuable narrative with critical notes is Felipe 
 Calderon's La Revolucidn Filipino,. Calderon gives a detailed account of 
 the Malolos Congress, of which he was a member. The Malolos Consti- 
 tution is printed in Ecpt. Phil. Corn., 1900 (vol. I, exhibit IV), and in 
 Sen. Doc. 208 (part I, p. 207 ).
 
 Xll PROLOGUE. 
 
 terrorism. This condition lasted for many months and 
 was exceedingly discouraging to the American command- 
 ers. It was found necessary to garrison all parts of the 
 the Archipelago, and in the fall of 1900 the United States 
 had in the Philippines an army of 75,000 effective troops 
 divided into more than 550 separate detachments. There 
 was an average of three engagements a day. 
 
 Meanwhile Congress took no definite action with respect 
 to the future of American sovereignty in the islands. 
 The definite will of the American people could not be de- 
 termined before the election of President McKinley in Nov- 
 ember, 1900. To supplement the efforts of the army in 
 winning the natives to a recognition of American rule and 
 to reorganize the political institutions of the islands, Pres- 
 ident McKinley in April, 1900, appointed the Philip- 
 pine Commission. 1 The work of this memorable Com- 
 mission will stand as one of the most striking events in 
 American history. It was ably constituted. Its Presi- 
 dent was Judge William H. Taft of Ohio. The other 
 members were Professor Dean C. Worcester, of the Uni- 
 versity of Michigan, Honorable Luke E. Wright of Ten- 
 nessee, Honorable Henry C. Ide of Vermont, Professor 
 Bernard Moses of the University of California. Mr. 
 Wright had been Attorney-General of Tennessee; Mr. Ide, 
 Judge of the Supreme Court of Samoa under the tripartite 
 protectorate of the United States, Great Britain, and Ger- 
 many ; Professor Worcester had three times previously vis- 
 
 1 This Commission is to be distinguished from a previous commission 
 headed by President Schurman of Cornell, which was sent to the Philip- 
 pines in 1899 to secure information as to the actual conditions. The re- 
 port of the Schurman Commission is published in four volumes, Wash- 
 ington, 1900.
 
 PROLOGUE. xiii 
 
 ited the islands, twice as a naturalist and once as a mem- 
 ber of the Schurman Commission ; Professor Moses had for 
 many years been a student of Spanish colonial history and 
 institutions. The Commission reached Manila in June, 
 1900, and commenced its legislative labors September 1. 
 Its work in this capacity was remarkable. Between the first 
 of September 1900 and August 1902, it enacted 449 laws, 
 organizing with considerable completeness an entire form 
 of government composed of insular bureaus and provin- 
 cial and municipal administrations. In much of this work 
 the way had already been opened by the efforts of the 
 Army and the general orders of the military commander. 
 The revenues, derived mainly from customs, were from the 
 beginning of the Commission's efforts adequate for all 
 civil expenditures in the Archipelago. On July 4, 1901, 
 Judge Taft was inaugurated Civil Governor and the exec- 
 utive power, which up to this time had been exercised 
 through the military commander, was organized as a civil 
 administration. The positive evidences of the liberal 
 American policy in the Philippines which the work of the 
 Commission was able to offer, together with the active op- 
 erations of the American army, brought an end to the 
 Philippine Insurrection in the spring and summer of 1901, 
 when the Filipino "zone commanders," who for many 
 months had been exercising practically independent author- 
 ity in the different provinces of the Archipelago, were cap- 
 tured or forced to surrender. They were all promptly 
 paroled and allowed to return to their homes. Not one 
 of these revol utionary leaders ever broke his parole or took 
 up arms against the United States. 
 
 The work of pacification and organization of govern- 
 ment in the Philippines was accomplished under the au-
 
 xiv PROLOGUE. 
 
 thority of the President of the United States. It was an 
 extension of the war and treaty making powers. Congress, 
 after a long and detailed examination and debate of the 
 Philippine situation, on July 1, 1902, validated the acts of 
 the President and the Philippine Commission and passed a 
 general measure for the government of the islands and the 
 establishment of civil rights. This " Philippine Bill " is 
 the legislative basis of the American government in the 
 islands. 1 
 
 1 Material for the study of the American occupation of the islands is 
 to be obtained from the reports of the Philippine Commission, 1900 to 
 1913. From 1901 to 1908 these reports were issued annually in several 
 volumes, and beside the reports of the Commission and the secretaries 
 of the executive departments, contain complete reports of the bureaus. 
 Since 1909 the report is issued in a single volume and the bureau reports 
 are published separately. The reports of the Military Governors of the 
 Philippines for 1899 to 1901 give the work of the Army. Valuable tes- 
 timony of Governor Taf t, other Philippine officials, and army officers be- 
 fore the Senate Committee in the spring of 1902 is published as a Senate 
 Document. The laws of the Commission were published as they ap- 
 peared and have been republished in six octavo volumes, Acts 1 to 1800, 
 September, 1900 to October, 1907.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 
 1903-1913 
 
 No one can review the achievements of the past decade 
 in the Philippines without granting it to be a signal tri- 
 umph over unusual difficulties and misunderstandings. 
 This is a brief period as measured by the usual progress of 
 society, but in colonial administration it has frequently 
 happened that great changes have not waited upon long 
 lapse of time. Caesar was in Gaul only eight years ; 
 Olive's famous Indian governorship lasted less than six ; 
 Raffles was in Java only five. A decade of co-operative 
 effort between Americans and Filipinos has changed the 
 future of the Archipelago. Difficult as the task is by 
 reason of its proximity to us, it is the intention here to 
 summarize the historical events of this decade. 
 
 Policy of The United States. Throughout the decade 
 the Republican Party was in power in the United States, 
 and the policy originally outlined by President McKinley, 
 and developed by Mr. Root and Mr. Taft, continued to be 
 the guiding principle of Americans in administering the 
 government of the islands. This policy, first laid down 
 in the President's Instructions to the Taft Philippine 
 Commission, while fully accepting and insisting upon 
 American responsibility for the Archipelago, was a policy 
 of conciliation and generous concession. It contemplated
 
 2 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 the largest possible participation of Filipinos in legisla- 
 tion and administration and an increasing measure of au- 
 tonomy as enlightenment and experience advanced ; the 
 conservation of the natural resources and the public do- 
 main ; the education of the masses, and the training of 
 Filipinos for leadership. Assailed at first by opponents 
 from both quarters, this policy finally gained general 
 recognition among Americans and Filipinos. 
 
 Although the Republican Party controlled the adminis- 
 tration, the Philippine question was not regarded or treated 
 as a partisan matter. Of the four governors-general who 
 succeeded Mr. Taft, Mr. Ide was a Republican, Mr. 
 Wright and Mr. Smith were Democrats, and Mr. Forbes 
 had never been prominently identified with either party. 
 Appointments to the Philippine service, with a few excep- 
 tions, were made without reference to political affiliations 
 in the United States. 
 
 Achievements of Governor Taft. Mr. Taft left Manila 
 in December, 1903, to become Secretary of War in Pres- 
 ident Roosevelt's Cabinet. He left the Philippines with 
 unconcealed reluctance, having previously in the year de- 
 clined the coveted position of associate justice of the Su- 
 preme Court of the United States in order to continue at 
 the head of Philippine affairs. His governorship had been 
 one beset with immense difficulties. Active revolution 
 ended in the spring of 1901 with the surrender and parole 
 of all but a few of the revolutionary zone commanders and 
 with the capture of General Aguinaldo; but guerrilla war- 
 fare continued, in Batangas under General Malvar until 
 June, 1902, in Samar under General Lukb,.n until Febru- 
 ary, 1902, and in Bohol and Cebu for some months after 
 Mr. Taft's inauguration. July 4, 1902, saw all of these
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 3 
 
 provinces organized under the general provincial govern- 
 ment plan. 1 
 
 Ladronism. In several provinces, including the vicinity 
 of Manila, numerous subordinate chieftains refused to fol- 
 low their leaders in submission and, falling back into the 
 old life of " tulisanes " or " ladrones," kept up a period of 
 raid and pillage which was not ended until 1906. This 
 persistence of " ladronism " was perhaps the most discour- 
 aging problem that faced the new and untried civil gover- 
 ment. Parts of the Philippines had not been free from 
 tulisanes for many decades. Among the common people 
 they enjoyed a kind of popularity, while their habitual 
 acts of cruelty and retaliation terrorized the barrio popula- 
 tion. Landowners, failing of public security for their 
 crops and carabaos, had for years followed the practice of 
 paying for protection, thus implicating themselves in 
 keeping ladronism alive. To meet this situation the Com- 
 mission in November, 1902, added to the Penal Code an 
 act creating and defining the crime of brigandage or " ban- 
 dolerismo.'' Membership or participation in any armed 
 band of robbers engaged in robbery, carabao stealing, or 
 roaming the country with deadly weapons, was punishable 
 by death or imprisonment for not less than twenty years. 
 The activities of the constabulary led to the arrest of thou- 
 sands of offenders charged under this act. The courts 
 were overwhelmed with the duty of their trial and men 
 were frequently convicted in companies. The barbarities 
 practised by the ladrones, the fact that they delayed all 
 progress and occasioned untold misery, warranted the 
 severest measures ; but it was impossible to do individual 
 
 1 Act 85.
 
 4 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 justice, and men suffered punishment who were rather the 
 victims of misfortune than deliberate criminals. Jails 
 were overcrowded and the hygiene of the thousands of 
 prisoners suffered. The evil could only be reached by 
 substantial co-operation between the government and the 
 barrio people, upon whom fell both the depredations of 
 ladrones and the punitive measures of the police, and in 
 the state of misunderstanding and inexperience which 
 existed there was at first no accord. It would be impos- 
 sible within the limits of this chapter to give an idea of 
 the extent and injury of ladronism. No less than half the 
 provinces were seriously affected during the years 1902- 
 06, and bands more or less formidable appeared in practi- 
 cally all. On June 1, 1903, the Commission, by Act 781, 
 authorized the Governor-General to place municipal police 
 under the orders of the constabulary, to grant immunity 
 from arrest by ordinary police to officers or members of 
 the constabulary, and, upon resolution of the Commission, 
 to " reconcentrate " the barrio population in town centers 
 where the district was infested with ladrones and where 
 protection could not be afforded to the people nor could they 
 be prevented from supplying the ladrones with food and 
 resources. This policy was practised in Albay to secure 
 the bandit Ola and later in Cavite, without effect, against 
 Sakay and Felizardo. 
 
 Another measure, the " Vagrancy Act," was directed not 
 at Filipino outlaws but at abandoned and dissolute Ameri- 
 cans, both white and colored, who were a disturbing 
 element in many towns. On conviction they were de- 
 ported from the islands. 1 
 
 Act 519.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 5 
 
 Epidemics. But lawlessness was not the sole affliction 
 of this trying period. Pestilence and famine descended 
 upon the country. The sanitary service first organized in 
 Manila by the American army achieved a triumph in 1903 
 in the extirpation of bubonic plague. But smallpox, until 
 controlled by a resumption of general vaccination, swept 
 many parts of the islands for a number of years. And in 
 March, 1902, appeared a terrible visitation of cholera. 
 The disease had riot been officially recognized in the 
 islands since the epidemic of 1888-9, although it may 
 have been endemic during the entire period. 1 In Manila 
 the epidemic lasted until the end of February, 1904, and 
 killed 4386 victims. In the provinces, owing to the inef- 
 ficiency of sanitary measures, the absence of medical help, 
 and the inexperience of officials in combatting epidem- 
 ics, it swept unhindered until it had devastated all the 
 Archipelago expect the mountainous region of Lepanto- 
 Bontok and the islands of Palawan and Batanes. There 
 are no trustworthy figures as to the sick and dead. The 
 official reports seem excessively low to one who saw the dis- 
 ease in several provinces. The census figures, which ac- 
 count for over 200,000 deaths, are probably still under the 
 truth. The cholera, introduced into island after island by 
 the visits of infected ships and native boats, spread from 
 town to town at about the rate of a walking man. No rem- 
 edial measures were known or tried. General sanitation, 
 removal of filth, precautions in cooking and care of food, 
 were advocated, but .in many localities the disease raged 
 until it seemed that only the immune were spared. There 
 was no panic. The natives took it with tragic sub- 
 
 1 This is apparently the opinion of Professor Worcester. See his 
 History of Asiatic Cholera in the Philippine Islands, Manila, 1908.
 
 6 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 mission. Processions in honor of San Roque and other 
 ceremonies were practised, but the population was beyond 
 the influence of such expert advice as was offered. 
 American officials in the provinces, teachers, and scout 
 and constabulary officers, with very few exceptions, stood 
 to their tasks with heroic fidelity. Not a few fell victims. 
 For months the normal industrial life, the work of the 
 schools, and the operation of the newly established local 
 goverments were demoralized. 1 
 
 Disease assailed the animals as well. Surra killed most 
 of the horses in the islands and a still more serious calam- 
 ity, the rinderpest, destroyed the cattle and carabaos indis- 
 pensable to rice cultivation. Agriculture was paralyzed. 
 
 Agricultural Distress and Economic Crisis. The eco- 
 nomic crisis was serious. For years the islands had not 
 raised their own food in adequate amounts. The develop- 
 ment of the culture of tobacco, hemp, copra, and sugar 
 had lessened the rice cultivation, and Saigon and Burma 
 had supplied the deficiency. In 1903 the importations of 
 rice reached 20,000,000 pesos ; in 1904 they rose further 
 to 23,097,628 pesos. The army, which had kept a great 
 deal of money in circulation, had been much reduced and 
 this economic support was gone. By the summer of 1902 
 in many parts of the islands there was suffering for lack of 
 food. The price of rice was rising rapidly in Manila and 
 there was evidence that a combination had been formed 
 among importers to control its price. Under these circum- 
 stances the Commission, by Act No. 495, appropriated 
 2,000,000 pesos to buy and distribute rice to needy dis- 
 tricts, selling it at reasonable prices. The transaction oc- 
 
 1 Census of the Philippine Islands, vol. Ill, p. 47.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 7 
 
 casioned a loss to the government of $100,000, but it 
 broke the corner. 
 
 Drought of unusual length continued through many 
 months of 1903 and locusts invaded nearly every province. 
 The earliest records of Spanish occupation rehearse the 
 losses through the armies of these winged invaders, and 
 beginning with an early date, ordinances of Philippine gov- 
 ernors had authorized the general levy of the population 
 to destroy the young of the locusts. This practice was 
 authorized by new legislation and an appropriation made 
 to aid the provinces in their efforts at extermination. The 
 introduction of a fungus fatal to locusts was tried also, 
 but without results. The relief fund of $3,000,000 voted 
 by Congress, the only appropriation ever made by the 
 United States government for the aid of the islands, was 
 used to supply food to populations engaged in fighting lo- 
 custs as well as for building roads and constructing school- 
 houses. Efforts were also made to restock the islands 
 out of this fund with carabaos from China and the Malay 
 states. 
 
 The economic distress was further aggravated by the de- 
 preciation of silver, which impaired the purchasing power 
 of the Mexican money in general circulation, by the ab- 
 sence of markets for such exports as tobacco and sugar, 
 and by the unfamiliar character of the local taxation. 
 
 The prestige and success of the new government were 
 greatly damaged by a number of defalcations of disbursing 
 and property officers. The system of audit was inadequate, 
 untried men had been entrusted with responsibilities be- 
 yond their ability or integrity, the number of officers at 
 first charged with the receipt and disbursement of funds 
 was unnecessarily large, and numerous irregularities oc-
 
 8 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 curred. The offenders were swiftly prosecuted and un 
 sparingly punished, but their behavior was a great morti 
 fication to the Commission and to the community. 1 
 
 These are some of the difficulties under which the ad- 
 ministration of Governor Taf t labored. That progress was 
 made is eloquent tribute to him and his associates. Busi- 
 ness was suffering from the loss of army trade, from cur- 
 rency disorder, and from failure of products, but the finan- 
 ces of the Government were kept solvent. Public order 
 suffered from ladrones and from constabulary operations, 
 but gradually friendships were established between Ameri- 
 cans and Filipinos and co-operation was attained. The 
 schools, in spite of delays of organization and the lack of 
 means of communication, made progress and were attended 
 in 1902-3 by about 150,000 pupils. 
 
 The personality of Governor Taft went far to reassure 
 Filipinos and conquer their distrust and antipathy, but 
 the American business community did not sympathize 
 with his policy of " the Philippines for the Filipinos." He 
 was continually embarrassed by the lack of support from 
 men who preferred the military regime, who clamored for 
 a free hand in appropriating the natural wealth of the is- 
 lands and for legislation favoring exploitation. One of 
 Mr. Taft's last services was the delivery of an address in 
 Manila on the eve of his departure entitled, " The Duty 
 of Americans in the Philippines." This was perhaps the 
 fullest and ablest defense of the American policy in the 
 Philippines ever made. 2 
 
 Settlement with the Catholic Church. - Mr. Taft had la- 
 bored to complete one other task. This was the purchase 
 
 1 Report, 1903, vol. I, p. 70. 
 
 2 Official Gazette, vol. I, p. 68.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 9 
 
 of the " Friar Lands/' These lands, the possession of the 
 Augustinian, Franciscan, Dominican, and Recollect orders, 
 amounted to about 425,000 acres, 275,000 acres being in 
 the vicinity of Manila. Some had belonged to the orders 
 for centuries, but the Augustinian estate in the Kagayan 
 valley had been granted to that order in 1880 and the San 
 Jose estate in Mindoro had been granted to the Recollects 
 in 1894. Filipino feeling against the clerical ownership 
 of these properties was intense. After 1896 it had never 
 been possible to collect rentals from the tenants. The 
 Malolos Convention which adopted the constitution of the 
 Filipino Republic had decreed the secularization of these 
 lands. The Schurman Commission had recommended 
 their purchase by the government, their subdivision and 
 sale to tenants. The Philippine Commission adopted this 
 plan. It was urged by Mr. Taft in Washington in the 
 spring of 1902, and sanctioned by Congress in the Act of 
 July 1. On his way back to the Philippines in 1902, Mr. 
 Taft went to Rome, hoping by direct application to the 
 Pope to secure a contract for the purchase of the estates 
 and the entire withdrawal of the friars from the islands. 
 This effort was unsuccessful, but a new Apostolic Dele- 
 gate, Monsignor Guidi, was appointed to the Philippines, 
 and after long negotiations it was agreed in December, 
 1903, that the friar lands should be purchased by the 
 Philippines government for $7,237,000. Subsequently 
 other disputes involving the ownership of property, in- 
 cluding the San Jose College, were settled or compromised 
 in a manner generous to the church, and the difficult 
 questions involved in the separation of government and 
 church were met without inheritance of ill feeling. Fur- 
 thermore, by Act of March 26, 1908, Congress appropriated
 
 10 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 $403,030.19 for the benefit of the Roman Catholic Church 
 to settle its claims for damages to church property during 
 the Spanish War and the Insurrection. 1 
 
 Meanwhile the religious predominance of the Roman 
 Catholic Church in the Philippines had been menaced by 
 a remarkable secession which found its strength in hostil- 
 ity to the continued service of the friars as curates of the 
 parishes. This schism was led by a Filipino priest, Gre- 
 gorio Aglipay, who proclaimed himself Pontifex Maximus 
 of the Independent Catholic Church of the Philippines. 
 Hundreds of towns fell in with this movement, and their 
 churches were turned over by the people to the Aglipay 
 leaders. The Roman Catholic Church authorities de- 
 manded of the government that the churches be restored 
 to their bishops by armed interference of the constabulary, 
 but the government maintained a neutral attitude and re- 
 quired the matter to take its way in the courts. Deci- 
 sions of the Supreme Court of the Philippines eventually 
 gave the title of all these churches to the Roman Catholic 
 bishops. 
 
 Administration of Governor-General Wright. Following 
 Mr. Taft's departure, Mr. Luke E. Wright was inaugu- 
 rated on February 1, 1904. 2 In his inaugural address Mr. 
 Wright dwelt upon the need of industrial development 
 and of transportation, especially railroads, and urged that 
 
 1 See Report War Dept. 1900, 1, part 4, pp. 502-8; Report Phil. Com. 
 1902, pp. 22-33; Ib. 1903, Exhibits F. G.H.I.; Ib. 1904, Exhibit I.; Cor- 
 respondence between the Holy See and Hon. Wm. H. Taft, Manila, 
 1902. Sen. Doc. 190, 56th Cong. 2nd sess.; Special Report of Secretary 
 Taft, Washington, 1908. 
 
 2 Congress by Act of Feb. 6, 1905, the " Cooper Act," changed the 
 designation of the chief executive of the Philippines from Civil Governor 
 to that of Governor-General.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 11 
 
 encouragement and friendliness be shown to all who de- 
 sired to enter the islands for their legitimate development. 
 The policy, he said, should be one of " equal opportunities 
 to all." 
 
 Economic Policy. This announcement was welcomed 
 by Americans who had opposed Mr. Taf t, as indicating more 
 favorable concessions to business and foreign capital, while 
 Filipinos were to some degree disturbed. It was apparent 
 that Mr. Wright's sympathies inclined more toward meas- 
 ures for industrial development than to the political train- 
 ing of the Filipinos or to public instruction of the child. 
 As Secretary of Commerce and Police he had already given 
 extensive study to the question of increasing railroad fa- 
 cilities in the islands, and the most important achievement 
 of his administration was the interesting of American cap- 
 ital in railroad building. President Roosevelt appointed to 
 the Commission to succeed Mr. Wright as Secretary of 
 Commerce and Police, Mr. W. Cameron Forbes of Mass- 
 achusetts, then a young man of thirty-four, who had had 
 successful experience in financial reorganization of electric 
 roads and similar business in the United States. 
 
 Building of Railroads. Except for a short steam tram- 
 way running from Manila to Malabon, the islands had but 
 one railway, of 196 kilometers length, running north from 
 Manila through the rich level plain of Luzon to Dagupan 
 on the Gulf of Lingayen. The royal decree granting a con- 
 cession was dated April 25, 1885, the grant following in 
 1887 when construction work commenced. The road was 
 opened to traffic in several sections from 1891 to 1894. 
 The Spanish decree had controlled the fixing of rates and 
 regulation of service and this control continued to be ex- 
 ercised by the government under the United States. The
 
 12 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 Commission served as a public utilities commission. 1 The 
 conditions authorized by Congress and published by the 
 Philippine government were somewhat different from those 
 of the Spanish period. The presence of revolution and dis- 
 order and the uncertainty of the political future of the is- 
 lands had made foreign capital distrustful of Philippine 
 investments. In order to attract investors, it was found 
 necessary for the government to guarantee interest at four 
 per cent, for a period of thirty years on the bonds of rail- 
 way companies making contracts for the building of rail- 
 ways, the government reserving the right to supervise the 
 construction and operation. 2 
 
 Under these terms 725.8 kilometers of railway have 
 been constructed on Luzon, uniting with Manila the 
 provinces of Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, and Tayabas; 
 118.74 kilometers on Panay joining the coast of Kapis 
 with Iloilo ; and 98.83 kilometers along the eastern coast 
 of Cebu. These roads have all been operated with profit 
 and there will apparently be no necessity for the Philip- 
 pines government to give financial aid. 
 
 Roads and Highways. The public road policy inaug- 
 urated by Governor Wright was less fortunate. Moun- 
 tain roads from Iba to Tarlak, from Pagbilao to Atimonan, 
 a road designed to cross the island of Samar, and a road 
 built across Cebu, were practically not utilized by the 
 people and relapsed into ruin. Local roads built at 
 heavy expense afforded scant returns. The absence of 
 draft animals frequently made it impossible to use such 
 
 1 Later a board of rate regulation was created by Act 1779, composed 
 of the Governor-General, the Secretary of Commerce and Police, and 
 one other person. ( Rep. 1908, p. 33.) 
 
 2 Reoort 1905, p. 3, sq.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 13 
 
 roads when built. There was not provided, as later, an 
 organized service to keep them in repair, and the damage 
 by storms and typhoons each year was great. This last 
 difficulty has been too little heeded. Road building in 
 the Philippines is a different task from that in British Ma- 
 laysia or Java, where mere dirt roads suffice and macadam 
 with reasonable attention will stand unaffected season af- 
 ter season. In the Philippines the rainfall accompanying 
 a typhoon disturbance is enormous, and even roads of most 
 durable construction suffer heavy damage. 
 
 Unable to utilize these improvements fully, the people 
 resented the burden of their maintenance. It would seem 
 as if the Philippines, like Mexico and some Spanish 
 American countries, would most economically pass from 
 the stage of trails and paths to that of steam or electric 
 roads. The islands have abundant water power that could 
 be utilized, and the heavy expenses incurred for wagon 
 roads would have sufficed in many cases to build light 
 railways affording immediate transportation to a people 
 lacking both horses and vehicles. 
 
 Civil Service System. Mr. Wright was a strong friend 
 of the civil service system, which had been planted in the 
 islands at the very beginning of the work of the Commis- 
 sion. Amplification of the law having been found desir- 
 able, an additional act, regulating the service and settling 
 questions of absence and leave, was enacted on January 
 12, 1904, and on the first of September following were 
 promulgated revised civil service rules further systematiz- 
 ing the service and strengthening the merit principle on 
 which it was based. 
 
 Reorganization of the Administration. The insular ad- 
 ministration had been created with great rapidity and on
 
 14 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 the whole with admirable results, but it now appeared that 
 the cost of the government might be reduced and a higher 
 efficiency reached by a reorganization of bureaus and a 
 standardizing of office methods. On April 1, 1905, Gov- 
 ernor Wright appointed a committee, with Mr. Forbes as 
 chairman, which carried out a series of bureau investiga- 
 tions and recommended certain changes which were in 
 large measure adopted by the Commission and incorpo- 
 rated in Act No. 1407, enacted October 16, 1905. This 
 measure, known as the " Reorganization Act," consoli- 
 dated certain branches of the government. The bureaus 
 of Archives and of Patents, Copyrights and Trade Marks 
 were united to the Executive Bureau. The Civil Service 
 office, which had before been a board of three members, 
 after the usual American pattern, was changed to a bu- 
 reau. The Board of Health likewise became a bureau 
 and to its custody were added the Civil Hospital, the 
 Baguio Sanatorium and the health of Bilibid Prison. The 
 Bureau of Government Laboratories became the Bureau 
 of Science and the Mining Bureau was consolidated with 
 it. The Bureau of Architecture was abolished and its 
 work given to the Bureau of Public Works. The com- 
 missary and supply store in Manila organized by the con- 
 stabulary was transferred to the insular purchasing agent, 
 whose office became the Bureau of Supply. The tele- 
 graph system operated by the constabulary was transferred 
 to the Bureau of Posts. The Ethnological Survey (pre- 
 viously the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes) and the Ma- 
 nila Library were added to the Bureau of Education, the 
 first to be transferred a little later to the Bureau of 
 Science and the latter in 1908 to be reorganized under the 
 Philippine Library Board. The resulting reorganization
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT.' 15 
 
 and administration of the insular government was as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 The Governor-General retained under his executive su- 
 pervision the Executive Bureau and the Bureau of Civil 
 Service. 
 
 The Department of the Interior embraced the Bureaus 
 of Health, Lands (newly created to administer the acquired 
 friar lands and other public domain), Science, Agriculture, 
 Forestry, Quarantine Service, and Weather, with general 
 supervision over the non-Christian tribes except the Moros, 
 and over Philippine fisheries. 
 
 The Department of Commerce and Police embraced the 
 Bureaus of Constabulary, Public Works, Navigation, Posts, 
 Port Works, and Coast and Geodetic Survey, with super- 
 vision of corporations except banks. 
 
 The Department of Finance and Justice embraced the 
 Bureaus of Justice, Audits, Customs, Internal Revenue, 
 Insular Treasury, and the city of Manila, together with 
 general supervision of banking, coinage, and currency. 
 
 The Department of Public Instruction embraced the Bu- 
 reaus of Education, Supply, Prisons, Printing, and Cold 
 Storage, with general supervision over libraries, public 
 charities, and museums. In 1908 a Bureau of Labor was 
 added to the Department of Commerce and Police and in 
 1910 the Bureau of Agriculture was transferred to the 
 Department of Public Instruction. 1 
 
 By this act the centralized system of administration was 
 confirmed. Executive authority is centralized in the Gov- 
 ernor-General and the Secretaries of Departments, who ex- 
 ercise administrative control over the bureaus. The heads 
 of the bureaus, uniformly styled by this act "directors," 
 
 1 (Act 1912 of Philippine Legislature.)
 
 16 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 are the responsible heads with authority over the person- 
 nel and the undertakings of their bureaus. This form of 
 administration, modelled as it is upon successful continen- 
 tal and American federal experience, is a great improve- 
 ment over the ordinary decentralized and ununitied admin- 
 istration of American states. Its advantages have been 
 fully demonstrated. Only in a few instances has the Phil- 
 ippine government shown a disposition to adopt the irre- 
 sponsible and disunited " board type " of administration so 
 common in American state governments. The administra- 
 tion of the University of the Philippines, however, has fol- 
 lowed the usual American plan, being committed to a Board 
 of Regents, partly ex-officio and partly appointed by the 
 Governor-General. The Library Board and the Board of 
 Industrial Sales Exhibit are recent innovations of the board 
 type of administration. 
 
 The above reorganization somewhat improved the admin- 
 istration. It did not greatly reduce the office personnel 
 or simplify the methods except in the field of disburse- 
 ments, where authority was consolidated and the for- 
 mer system of auditing replaced by a system of pre-audit 
 and a better property accountability. The Philippine 
 Government was perhaps the first under the American flag 
 to investigate and reform its administration in the interests 
 of economy and efficiency and the effort is correspond- 
 ingly interesting to the student of administration. 
 
 Changes in Local Government This is a suitable place 
 to notice certain modifications in the plan of provincial and 
 municipal government. The American government in the 
 Philippines had retained the Spanish administrative divi- 
 sions, the " provinces," but had attempted to introduce 
 the principle of local autonomy. Almost without excep-
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 17 
 
 tion modern colonial governments place the district or pro- 
 vincial administration directly under the head of the colony 
 and fill the chief post of responsibility with a trained ap- 
 pointive official. But the American Commissioners had in 
 view the American county as a model and were impressed 
 with the evils of " centralization" and " autocracy." They 
 undertook to decentralize, and created provincial govern- 
 ments of the " commission type" ostensibly autonomous in 
 their powers. However, these governments were never en- 
 trusted with important branches of the service or utilized 
 by the insular authorities as local agents. Education, con- 
 stabulary, forests, mines, lands, and posts were committed 
 to insular bureaus with headquarters in Manila and repre- 
 sentatives in all parts of the islands. At first, roads and 
 similar public improvements were constructed by the pro- 
 vincial boards, but in 1905 the office of "supervisor'" was 
 abolished and provincial road work entrusted to district 
 engineers of the insular Bureau of Public Works. The 
 place of the supervisor on the provincial board was taken 
 by the division superintendent of schools. Local boards of 
 health also were abandoned in favor of sanitation by the 
 Bureau of Health. These arrangements indicate a failure 
 of the plan of decentralized provincial governments, and a 
 disposition not to entrust them with any real powers. The 
 Reorganization Act made a decisive change toward admin- 
 istrative oversight by providing that the Executive Secre- 
 tary should have general supervision over the provincial 
 treasurers and provincial administration, review the action 
 of provincial boards in assessing the land tax, and approve 
 all appointments to the subordinate personnel of the pro- 
 vincial governments. The provincial governments, how- 
 ever, were obviously too expensive for the slender duties
 
 18 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 left to them. Economy was gained by uniting several 
 small provinces with larger (Marinduki with Tayabas, An- 
 tiki with Iloilo, Abra with Ilokos Sur, Masbate with Sor- 
 sogon), and by consolidating the offices of governor and 
 secretary, or secretary and treasurer. The separate court 
 for Abra was abolished, 1 and the office of fiscal in two 
 different provinces was united in a number of instances. 
 Several years later an effort was made to increase the re- 
 sponsibilities of the provincial governments and the third 
 member of the board was made elective, like the governor. 
 More recently the terms of office of both these officials have 
 been extended to four years. In spite of the lack of any 
 sound theory in the plan of provincial governments, they 
 have interested the people and have accomplished some 
 notable improvements, including the erection of many ex- 
 cellent provincial buildings. 
 
 The Commission had originally adopted the " pueblos " 
 as the basis of municipal government. But the plan pro- 
 vided by the Municipal Code of 190 1 2 was overelaborate 
 and artificial, required too many paid officials and was too 
 expensive for the average town. Consolidation was early 
 resorted to. In 1903 the number of municipalities was 
 reduced by over four hundred. Many former town cen- 
 ters were thus left without local officials ; buildings and 
 plazas were neglected. The whole civic spirit, which 
 with Filipinos centers in their locality, was hurt. More 
 recent years have seen the reincorporation of many of 
 these towns. The Governor-General was given authority 
 to effect this rehabilitation, and the return of more pros- 
 perous years has brought improvement in the manner 
 
 1 Act 1345, May 19, 1905. 
 
 2 Act 83.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 19 
 
 in which municipal goverment is conducted, though many 
 of the initial defects remain. As in the case of the pro- 
 vincial governments, no adequate administrative super- 
 vision for the municipalities has ever been created. 
 
 Improvements to the City of Manila Other public un- 
 dertakings which date from this time are the Manila 
 harbor and the replanning of the city. To a large degree 
 the Americans followed plans which the Spaniards had 
 originated but had pressed with insufficient energy to real- 
 ize in their time. 
 
 The port of Manila had remained for centuries unpro- 
 tected from heavy winds and typhoons. Cavite offered 
 the only passable anchorage for ships too large to enter 
 the Pasig river. Ocean-going steamers at Manila lay two 
 miles or more off shore and transferred their freight and 
 passengers to lighters, exposed to danger during the sea- 
 son of typhoons. A splendid port was formed by build- 
 ing an immense breakwater southward from the mouth of 
 the Pasig, behind which the sea was deepened. The ex- 
 cavated mud formed a great fill along the Malecon diive 
 and the Luneta, and was also pumped into the old moats 
 and " contrafoso " around the city, these depressions be- 
 ing converted into sunken gardens. Steel and concrete 
 piers were constructed where the largest ocean craft in the 
 Pacific can be docked. The filled area added two hun- 
 dred acres of new land to the water front, to be leased 
 for warehouse and transportation facilities. These im- 
 provements, practically complete by May, 1908, cost over 
 $4,000,000. 
 
 Other needs of Manila were equally imperative. The 
 old water works, provided by the munificence of Carriedo, 
 were inadequate. There was no system of sewerage except
 
 20 THE PHILIPPINES 
 
 open drains and a few stone cloacsB which discharged into 
 the half-filled moat or into open estuaries. In the last de- 
 cades of Spanish authority steps had been taken toward 
 better city planning. The Botanical Garden had been laid 
 out. Certain radial avenues were opened and the great 
 circling thoroughfare, the Paseo Azcarraga and its exten- 
 sions, dedicated to traffic, but still the streets of the 
 city and its many suburbs were narrow, crooked, and ill 
 planned. In 1904, the Commission engaged the famous 
 landscape architect, Mr. D. H. Burnham, to come to Ma- 
 nila and develop a comprehensive plan for improvement 
 and growth of the city. Breaches were made in the old 
 walls in several places to allow new streets to enter, but 
 the noble and interesting gateways as well as all valuable 
 parts of the wall were preserved. The flat and low site 
 of the city made a sewerage plan difficult, but work begun 
 at this time has gradually produced a comprehensive sys- 
 tem of waste disposal and drainage. The water system 
 was greatly enlarged and improved, at an expense of about 
 $2,000,000, the Marikina river being dammed 25 miles 
 from Manila and water secured from high in the moun- 
 tains above all human habitations. The Commission did 
 not seek to municipalize other public services. Franchises 
 were given or renewed for a telephone service and for 
 street railways and for electric lighting. These were ob- 
 tained by American companies. The electric car service 
 was opened in 1904. 
 
 Political Difficulties and Disorders. On the political 
 side Mr. Wright's administration was less impressive. 
 A considerable body of irreconcilable Filipino opposition 
 still existed, and there was neither confidence nor under- 
 standing between the American authorities and those
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 21 
 
 Filipinos most able to support the American government 
 and its policies. The production of incendiary literature 
 and dramas had led in November, 1901, to the passage 
 of the Sedition Act and to prosecutions thereunder. Early 
 in 1903 the Filipinos who had been taken as prisoners to 
 Guam at the close of 1900, were pardoned and returned. 
 The most prominent was Mabini, who took the oath of al- 
 legiance, landed in Manila, and a few weeks later fell a 
 victim to cholera. One of these radicals, Ricarte, refused 
 to take the oath, and was sent to Hongkong. He returned 
 secretly to Manila shortly after and raised a revolt in 
 Rizul province. Due to his influence a company of con- 
 stabulary in Bigan, Ilokos Sur, mutinied. Another noto- 
 rious leader, San Miguel, was defeated and killed in a 
 retired spot near Manila, called Corral-na-bato, in March, 
 1903. A number of other outlaws in Cavite and Batangas, 
 however, defied the constabulary. These men, Sakay, 
 Montalon, Felizardo, de Vega and a number more, were 
 perhaps the most desperate and cruel leaders in the history 
 of the insurrection. They had arms and they increased 
 their followers by forced recruiting whenever a raid was 
 made. By terrorism, assassination, and robbery they kept 
 the provinces of Rizal, Cavite, and Batangas in a constant 
 state of disorder and alarm. On January 24, 1905, the 
 town of Malabon was raided by these outlaws. The sur- 
 geon on duty with the command of scouts was killed, and 
 the wife of General Trias, a former insurgent leader, was 
 carried away. These disturbances demanded increased ac- 
 tivity. The outlaws were few, but they were elusive and 
 the constabulary had little success in pursuing them ; con- 
 sequently American troops were called upon. Governor- 
 General Wright put the province under martial law and
 
 22 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 with the consent of the Commission authorized the con- 
 centration of the barrio population. It appears certain 
 that in this last step Mr. Wright was ill-advised. He was 
 not on terms of confidence with the Filipinos whose coun- 
 sel and help would have availed much and he allowed sus- 
 picion to fall upon men who were capable of furnishing 
 loyal support. Some of the measures resorted to by con- 
 stabulary officers were lawless and indefensible and were 
 neither properly investigated nor punished. The recon- 
 centration was a grievous hardship to many thousands of 
 innocent people. Crops were lost, property was destroyed, 
 and a feeling of most ominous bitterness was aroused. 
 
 The Pulahan. Besides these difficulties in Luzon and 
 in the immediate neighborhood of Manila, the island of 
 Samar was swept by a frightful outbreak of fanatics, 
 known as the " Pulahan." The name seems to be derived 
 from " pula," meaning red, and to refer to the red trousers 
 at one time worn by these devotees. Their origin dates 
 back at least to the '80s and is connected with supersti- 
 tious beliefs in the power of magical charms, " anting-ant- 
 ing," which make the possessor invisible or invulnerable. 
 Such a band assaulted the town of Borongan on the east 
 coast of Samar in 1886, was badly punished by the 
 Guardia Civil stationed there, but under their leader Otoy 
 continued to maintain an outlaw existence in the interior 
 of this very rugged island during the last years of Spanish 
 sovereignty and the early years of American occupation. 
 In 1904 some of these men, with recruits from the barrio 
 population of the towns, rebelled. They had apparently 
 some -grievances of a solid character. The local officials, 
 including the presidents of the municipalities, were agents 
 of the hemp-buying companies and had used their author-
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 23 
 
 ity to rob and exploit the humbler classes. These now 
 took a terrible revenge. Town after town was swept 
 away by pillage and fire. The Gandara valley on the west 
 coast was desolated and on the Pacific coast not a muni- 
 cipality was left undestroyed except the heavily garrisoned 
 town of Borongan. Several engagements were desperate 
 and disastrous. Two detachments of scouts stationed at 
 Oras and Dolores were practically annihilated. The Pula- 
 han's favorite weapon was a long heavy knife, broad at 
 the end and running to a sharp point with which he thrust 
 as he charged. Inspired with fanatical belief in his own 
 invulnerability he was a most desperate foe man. Ameri- 
 can troops were finally thrown into the island and with the 
 able and tactful administration of Mr. George Curry, who 
 was appointed governor, brought the devastation to an 
 end. Otoy, who seems to have been the originator of the 
 movement, was not killed, however, until 1910. 
 
 Visit of Secretary Taf t and Party. Advices of these 
 alarming disturbances and of the prevailing alienation of 
 Filipinos from the government induced Mr. Taft, the Sec- 
 retary of War immediately responsible for Philippine af- 
 fairs, to visit the islands in 1905. He was attended by a 
 distinguished party of Americans which included a num- 
 ber of United States Senators and members of Congress, 
 newspaper correspondents, and the daughter of the Presi- 
 dent. The visit was the occasion of many interesting re- 
 ceptions, conferences, and trips to several parts of the is- 
 lands. Before the departure of the party an open meeting 
 was held by congressmen for the frank report of all criti- 
 cisms. The visit improved feeling and led to a betterment 
 of the constabulary service. In December Governor 
 Wright returned to Washington on business for the islands,
 
 24 
 
 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 and while there was appointed to the newly created post of 
 ambassador to Japan. He filled this position with distinc- 
 tion and in the last months of Mr. Roosevelt's administra- 
 tion he became Secretary of War. 
 
 Administration of Governor-General Ide Mr. Henry 
 Clay Ide, who had been vice-governor and secretary of 
 finance and justice, became acting governor-general on 
 
 November 4 and was in- 
 augurated governor-gen- 
 eral on April 12, 1906. 
 Before becoming chief 
 executive of the islands, 
 Mr. Ide had done ex- 
 tremely valuable service 
 on the Commission. His 
 management of Philip- 
 pine finances had been 
 able and prudent. He 
 
 V "> -^^^g ^ vas largely the framer of 
 
 i'lfW the Code of Civil Pro- 
 ''^f cedure adopted by Act 
 190, in August, 1901. 
 He was likewise the 
 principal author of the 
 Governor-General ide. Internal Revenue Law 
 
 of 1904, enacted when it became apparent that the customs 
 and other revenues would not suffice to support the gov- 
 ernment. This law, which laid increased taxes on the 
 manufacture of intoxicants and tobacco, on banks and in- 
 surance companies, lightened the burdens on other indus- 
 tries and in spite of opposition at the commencement 
 proved a valuable tax measure and regulatory law.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 25 
 
 Reform of Currency. To Mr. Ide in large measure 
 must be ascribed the reform of the Philippine currency, 
 one of the most brilliant achievements of the American ad- 
 ministration. The common money of the Far East is 
 Mexican silver. The Spanish government of the Philip- 
 pines late in its life established a Spanish-Filipino coinage 
 and a mint was created in Manila. It was located in the 
 building called Casa de Moneda, now occupied as office 
 quarters by the Bureau of Education. At the commence- 
 ment of American occupation Mexican money flowed back 
 into the Archipelago and became with other foreign coins 
 the common medium of exchange. There was a lack of 
 coinage, especially of small coins. In Northern Luzon 
 copper forgeries, called " sipings," made by the Igorot of 
 Mankayan district, freely circulated. During the first two 
 years of American occupation Mexican pesos were valued 
 at half an American dollar. But in 1901 the value of sil- 
 ver began to fall all over the world and a Mexican dollar 
 ceased to be worth fifty cents gold. The depreciation con- 
 tinued by gradual downward stages throughout succeed- 
 ing months until in March, 1903, it required 2 pesos and 
 66 centavos to equal in value a dollar of gold. The loss 
 to labor and to business was very great. A person receiv- 
 ing a wage or salary in silver found the purchasing power 
 of his income was rapidly lessening. Prices were disturbed. 
 As the government was still receiving Mexican money in 
 payment of taxes and customs its revenues were seriously 
 affected. From January to October, 1902 alone, its losses 
 were nearly a million pesos. The losses to individuals ran 
 into untold sums. On the urgent recommendation of the 
 Philippines Commission, Congress on May 2, 1902, passed 
 an act authorizing a coinage system for the Philippines
 
 26 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 with a standard Philippine dollar, or " peso," worth fifty 
 cents of American money and exchangeable at government 
 treasuries for this amount. The designs for the peso, half 
 peso, peseta, and centavo were made by a Filipino, Mr. 
 Melecio Figueroa. Over seventeen million dollars of these 
 attractive coins were received in 1903. Furthermore, 
 paper certificates, furnishing a portable and convenient 
 currency, were printed at Washington, the most commonly 
 used piece, two pesos, bearing the effigy of Jose Rizal. 
 Mexican money, no longer acceptable for taxes or legal 
 tender, was driven out of the islands, while the old Span- 
 ish-Filipino coins were redeemed by the government. 
 This creation of a sound and convenient money was one of 
 the finest triumphs of the government. Its advantages 
 were appreciated immediately by all classes, and contrary 
 to expectations the Filipinos even in remote parts of the 
 islands quickly familiarized themselves with the paper cur- 
 rency and accepted it willingly. 
 
 Opium Legislation. In 1903 it became evident that 
 the habit of using opium was rapidly extending among 
 Filipinos, particularly in the Kagayan valley, in Sam bales, 
 and in the Moro country. Spanish laws had forbidden 
 the drug to Filipinos but had permitted its use to Chinese 
 in licensed smoking establishments. The failure to regu- 
 late left the vice free to spread. A regulatory measure 
 on the lines of previous Spanish law was prepared by 
 General Smith, Secretary of Public Instruction, and laid 
 before the Commission in 1903. Much opposition was 
 expressed to it, especially by the " Evangelical Union," 
 and after several discussions of the measure the Com- 
 mission determined to postpone action pending further 
 investigation. A committee was provided, consisting of 
 
 I
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 27 
 
 Major Carter of the United States Army, who had been 
 head of the sanitary service, Dr. Jose Albert, and Bishop 
 Charles H. Brent of the Protestant Episcopal Church. 
 This committee visited neighboring countries and studied 
 opium laws abroad, and on their return recommended a 
 measure modelled largely upon Japanese legislation in 
 Formosa, which aimed to suppress the use of the drug 
 completely. Such a law was enacted and under its rig- 
 orous enforcement this vice has ceased to be a factor in 
 the problems of the islands. The splendid moral power 
 shown by the Chinese people in recent years in throwing 
 off this habit has doubtless helped to reduce to a min- 
 imum the use of opium in the Philippines. 
 
 Standard Weights and Measures. In 1906 after a 
 careful study of the matter by government experts in the 
 Bureau of Science, the system of weights and measures 
 was reformed and legalized. Standards of weight and 
 capacity had become deplorably falsified and irregular. It 
 was commonly said that the only reliable unit of measure 
 remaining was a Standard Oil can. The debasement and 
 frauds practised fell heaviest, as such irregularities do, 
 upon the poorest purchasers. It was decided to adopt the 
 international metric system which the Spanish government 
 had decreed, and it was found possible to standardize the 
 native measures, the " kaban," "ganta," and "chupa" in 
 terms of the metric system. A ganta was made exactly 
 equal to three liters and such local standards were author- 
 ized until January 1, 1909. 1 
 
 Postal Savings. In October, 1906, there was estab- 
 lished under the Bureau of Posts a " Postal Savings 
 
 Act 1510, enacted August 3, 1906
 
 28 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 Bank," a measure wisely designed to encourage money sav- 
 ing and thrift among those too poor to avail themselves of 
 ordinary banking facilities. 1 The measure proved popular. 
 Its use was taught in the schools, where prizes were offered 
 for savings among pupils, and in June, 1908, it was re- 
 ported that there were 245 offices with deposits of over a 
 million pesos, credited to 5389 depositors, 45 per cent of 
 them being Filipinos. This measure so commended it- 
 self to Mr. Taft that as President he secured the enact- 
 ment by Congress of a similar system for the people of the 
 United States. 
 
 Surrender of the Cabecillas, Mr. Ide's governorship saw 
 the final destruction of the tulisan or ladron leaders, who 
 for so many years had filled central Luzon with murder 
 and disorder. The rigorous policy authorized by Gov- 
 ernor-General Wright in Cavite, which has been referred to 
 above, secured the breaking up of the bands and the cap- 
 ture of numerous firearms, but it did not apprehend the 
 leaders or " cabecillas." Later in 1905, however, Felizardo 
 was killed by some of his own followers and a few months 
 later the others, Sakay, Montalon, de Vega, and Villa- 
 fuerte, were induced to surrender. The circumstances of 
 this event did not produce a favorable impression, glad as 
 all were to be freed of these bandits. Early in 1906 
 Governor-General Ide authorized the constabulary to use 
 the services of the political agitator, Dr, Dominador Gomez, 
 who had supposedly been in occasional communication with 
 these cabecillas during their period of outlawry. What 
 terms the goverment made with him has never been dis- 
 closed. The executive was careful to stipulate that no 
 
 Act 1493, Mav 24. iftrtft.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 29 
 
 terms were to be offered to the outlaws and that the sur- 
 render should be unconditional. The men, with what 
 expectations will perhaps never be known, came out of 
 the mountains north of Lake Bay where they had con- 
 cealed themselves, appeared at Manila, and, after a confer- 
 ence, surrendered. They were tried in Cavite before an 
 able Filipino judge who sentenced them to death. 
 Meanwhile Mr. Ide had retired and the appeal for their 
 reprieve came before the new executive, Governor- General 
 James F. Smith. This conscientious executive with ex- 
 haustive patience faced the whole body of facts in the 
 case and in an able and convincing summary extended 
 clemency to two and sent the others to the gallows. 1 
 
 Filipino Parties. The governorship of Mr. Ide marked 
 the beginning of renewed political activity among the Fili- 
 pinos. As early as 1900 the active efforts of Mr. Taft 
 and his associates to reach an understanding with the Fili- 
 pinos had led to the formation of the first political party 
 in the history of the Philippines, the Partido Federal. 
 It was organized to secure peace under the sovereignty of 
 the United States. Its first platform was adopted Decem- 
 ber 23, 1900. 2 Its program renewed the "assimilation" 
 idea of a time while the islands were still under Spain. 
 " The Federal Party," wrote Dr. Pardo, " is constantly la- 
 boring to show to the Filipino people that nothing will 
 benefit them as much as an unconditional adoption of 
 American civilization, in order that they may at the proper 
 time constitute a state similar to others of the Union. 
 
 1 Report 1907, I, pp. 37-42. 
 
 2 Printed in Mr. Taft's testimony before the Senate Committee in 
 1902; also in part 2, Report of Lieutenant-General Commanding Army, 
 for 1902, p. 122; see also a history of the party in appendix to the Re- 
 port of the Philippine Commission, December, 1901 .
 
 30 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 This is the final purpose of its platform which clearly ex- 
 plains the aspirations of the party, which are, briefly, as 
 follows : a steadily increasing autonomy, the separation of 
 church and state, representation of the Philippines in the 
 Federal Congress, and the adoption of the American Con- 
 stitution, culminating at last in the admission of the is- 
 lands as one of the states of the Union. 1 " The party was 
 governed by a " directorate " of seven members and by a 
 " council of government " of twenty-five members. Affil- 
 iated committees existed in all the provinces. A party 
 assembly or convention was held at Manila in 1901 and 
 a memorial presented to Congress. At subsequent con- 
 ventions in 1902, 1904, and 1905, policies were debated, 
 Congress petitioned, and the discipline of the party per- 
 fected. During this period the party included some of 
 the ablest men in the archipelago, whose labors of co- 
 operation entitled them to the confidence and gratitude 
 of the government. Of their ranks were most of the 
 Filipinos selected during this period for public appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Persons who held more radical views and upheld the 
 principle of independence maintained no organization for 
 a number of years. The existence of rebellion and bri- 
 gandage down to 1906 made the agitation for independ- 
 ence dangerous and such advocacy was forbidden by the 
 " Treason and Sedition Law." This law penalized every 
 form of secret association and provided that until it had 
 been officially proclaimed that a state of war or insurrec- 
 tion no longer existed in the Philippines, it should be un- 
 lawful for any person to advocate orally, or by writing or 
 
 page 164, Report, 1901.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 31 
 
 printing, or like methods, the independence of the Philip- 
 pine Islands or their separation from the United States. 1 
 
 The government was not left free, however, from 
 troubles occasioned by agitators or revolutionists. Among 
 the prominent " irreconcilables " (intransigentes) who re- 
 turned from exile was Mr. Isabelo de los Reyes, who dur- 
 ing the period of active insurrection had published in 
 Europe an anti-American journal entitled Filipinas ante 
 Europa. He was joined by Dr. Dominador Gomez, who 
 had been in the medical service of the Spanish army. 
 They started what was ostensibly a labor organization 
 called La Uni6n Obrera. In October, 1903, Reyes began 
 the publication of a labor and socialist organ La Redencitin 
 del Obrero? The government regarded this union as an il- 
 legal association and Dr. Gomez was three times unsuc- 
 cessfully prosecuted on the charge of founding and sup- 
 porting such an organization. About the same time the 
 *' Nationalist Party " was organized by Mr. Pasqual 
 Poblete, the editor of a Manila paper called El G-rito del 
 Pueblo. This paper advocated amnesty to the ladron 
 leaders or " cabecillas " and urged these revolutionists to 
 surrender on condition that the United States would 
 promise independence. 
 
 The disturbed condition which had prevailed during 
 Mr. Wright's administration, the sedition in Manila, the 
 brigandage that prevailed in Cavite and Batangas, and 
 the Pulahan devastation on Samar had all retarded the 
 participation of the Filipinos in political affairs, and 
 caused the government to look with suspicion upon such 
 activity as that above described. But the improved con- 
 
 1 Act 292, enacted Nov. 4, 1901. 
 
 2 See Nos. 11 and 15 of this publication for a history of the organiza- 
 tion.
 
 32 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 ditions of order made it possible for Mr. Ide to adopt a 
 more friendly attitude toward political groups whose proxi- 
 mate aim was independence. Expectations of the early 
 inauguration of the Philippine Assembly were bringing 
 forward many ambitious young Filipinos disposed to enter 
 public life and willing to co-operate with the American 
 authorities for the advance of the country. 
 
 Elections of 1905 and 1906. The biennial elections for 
 municipal officers occurred in December, 1905, and those 
 for provincial governors in the following February. Un- 
 usual interest attended them. Good order was main- 
 tained everywhere, but the number of disputed elections 
 was very great. In some provinces every municipal elec- 
 tion was contested. In one province 19 successive bal- 
 lots for governor were necessary before a candidate was 
 chosen. Of the 32 provinces organized under the Pro- 
 vincial Government Act, governors were popularly elected 
 in 29. In Cavite, Samar, and Isabela, where political 
 rights had been suspended, the governors were appointees 
 of the Governor-General. Of the above 29 men chosen 
 by representatives of the people, only one, Mr. Reynolds in 
 Albay, was an American. The others for the most part 
 were representatives of a new spirit. They were notice- 
 able for their youth, progressive attitude, and eagerness 
 to prove themselves able and efficient in their positions. 
 Their election marked a general advance in the spirit of 
 co-operation between the provincial authorities and Ma- 
 nila. Several, like Cailles in Laguna, Luna in Ilokos Sur, 
 Zialcita in Bataan, and Sandiko in Bulacan had been lead- 
 ers in the insurrection against American authority a few 
 years before. Others had not previously been conspicuous 
 in public affairs. Such were Osmena in Cebu, de Veyra
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 33 
 
 in Leyte, Queson in Tayabas, Borja in Bohol, Gabaldon 
 in Nueva Ecija, Arnedo in Pampanga, and Artacho in 
 Pangasinan. The ability displayed by these men as gov- 
 ernors led to their taking a leading part in the subsequent 
 politics of the country and in the Philippine Assembly. 
 The large influence subsequently exerted by Mr. Osmena, 
 who was to be the first speaker of the Assembly, gives in- 
 terest to a petition framed under his influence that was 
 presented to Secretary Taft and party on their visit to 
 Cebu, August 15, 1905. This memorial petitioned for a 
 declaration by Congress of its ultimate policy for the 
 Philippines, the creation of positions of undersecretaries of 
 departments to be filled by Filipinos, greater limitations 
 upon executive and legislative authority, modifications in 
 the criminal procedure in favor of the criminal, for the 
 assignment and transfer of judges of first instance by the 
 Supreme Court rather than the executive, for greater 
 economy in certain branches of administration, for the 
 reorganization of the constabulary on a popular basis, for 
 the removal of treasurers from the classified civil service, 
 for the protection of Filipino labor, and protested the 
 grant of perpetual and irrevocable franchises. 
 
 The time had come for the free organization of the 
 Filipinos into political parties, and several parties now 
 appeared. 
 
 Organization of New Parties The immediate independ- 
 ence party, Partido Independista Inmediata, was founded 
 July 1, 1906. 1 The membership embraced the more 
 radical of those seeking to attain independence by legal 
 means. Among their members were Messrs. Ledesma, 
 
 1 See El Renacimiento of July 2, 1906, for an account of organiza- 
 tion and for the platform.
 
 34 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 Barretto, Sandiko, Osmena, Fernando Maria Guerrero, 
 and Dr. Lukban, a brother of the insurgent general. A 
 committee of the party waited upon Governor Ide to inform 
 him of their legal intentions. They were affably received. 
 The periodical La Independentia was founded as the organ 
 of the party, which also had the active support of the very 
 influential Filipino journal El Renatimiento. 
 
 A party of more moderate workers for independence 
 who were opposed to immediate separation from the United 
 States formed the Partido Union Nationalist a on March 12, 
 1907. Among their members were such influential Fili- 
 pinos as del Pan, Apacible, Liougson, Ocampo, and Pro 
 fessor Leon Maria Guerrero. 
 
 Numerous attempts to solidify these elements have grad- 
 ually resulted in uniting those working for early independ- 
 ence of the islands into a single national party. It is to 
 be observed, however, that all of these parties proclaimed 
 for a guaranteed independence, or an independence un 
 der American protection. The only political element ex- 
 pressing its advocacy of immediate independence without 
 American support of any kind was the radical association 
 of Dr. Dominador Gomez. Meanwhile, the Federal Party 
 continued its activities and still appeared to be the best or- 
 ganized and most strongly supported political aggregation. 
 Its early policy of entrance into the American Union had 
 become demonstrably hopeless and ultimate nationality 
 was too attractive and legitimate an aspiration to be de- 
 nied. At a conference held in January, 1907, the Federal 
 Party, while reaffirming its adhesion to principles pub- 
 lished in 1905, changed its name to the " Progressive 
 Party '\Partido National Progresuta), and its program to 
 one of ultimate nationality. The party organ continued 
 to be La Democratia.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 35 
 
 Inauguration of Governor-General Smith. In the midst 
 of these active political movements Mr. Ide retired from 
 the service of the islands and General James F. Smith 
 
 was inaugurated Gov- 
 ernor-General on Sep- 
 tember 20, 1906. A 
 week later Mr. W. 
 Morgan Shuster, Col- 
 lector of Customs, was 
 appointed Commis- 
 sioner and Secretary 
 of Public Instruction. 
 General Smith was a 
 native Californian and 
 at the outbreak of 
 the Spanish- American 
 War an attorney in 
 San Francisco. He 
 was a member of the 
 first military expedi- 
 tion to the Philip- 
 Governor-General Smith. pines> and col()nel of 
 
 t'.ie 1st California. After military service in the vicinity 
 of Manila he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers 
 and military-governor of the island of Negros, where the 
 people had organized an independent government and 
 sought American sovereignty. Subsequently he became 
 Collector of Customs for the Philippines, Associate Justice 
 of the Supreme Court, and on January 1, 1903, Philip- 
 pine Commissioner and Secretary of Public Instruction. 
 He possessed wide acquaintance with the Filipinos, and 
 sympathy for their aspirations. '
 
 36 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 Immediately upon his inauguration the Governor-Gen* 
 eral assembled the provincial governors in Manila in a con- 
 ference, which opened on October 1. Governor Osmena of 
 Cebu was chosen presiding officer. The conference consid- 
 ered a number of matters submitted by the chief executive, 
 among them the new election law, the question of the land 
 tax, road construction, financial conditions, agriculture, 
 sanitation, and municipal economy. As a result of its 
 recommendations two important changes were made in the 
 provincial governments, the third member became elec- 
 tive and the boards were empowered to impose or suspend 
 the land tax. This tax had been provided in 1901 for the 
 support of local government, but it was foreign to Philip- 
 pine fiscal experience and was unpopular. The method of 
 assessment was imperfect. Owing to these facts and to 
 the agricultural depression, the Commission had twice sus- 
 pended its operation, providing for local needs by insular 
 appropriations. Now, faced by the alternative of impos- 
 ing the tax themselves or foregoing local funds, the provin- 
 cial boards in all but two provinces imposed the tax in 
 1907. 
 
 The Philippine Assembly. The opening of the Philip- 
 pine Assembly was the distinguishing incident of General 
 Smith's administration, as well as the culmination of the 
 legislative program of Congress for the Philippines. To 
 many students of colonial government the creation of this 
 native legislature appeared radical and dangerous. It was 
 without precedent in tropical colonies. Spain never per- 
 mitted the establishment of a legislative body in any of 
 her great dependencies of either America or Asia, legisla- 
 tive power being strictly reserved to the home government 
 where it took the form in the early centuries of Spanish
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 37 
 
 empire of statutes of the Council of the Indies and later of 
 ministerial decrees. Nor was there precedent for a native 
 legislature in the colonial governments worked out by 
 England, France, and other colonial powers. The "legis- 
 lative councils " of the British Crown Colonies contain 
 members appointed from the natives of the locality, but 
 these representatives never constitute a separate body, are 
 always in the minority, and, if elected and not appointed 
 by the government, are chosen as representatives of partic- 
 ular interests. The principle of popular representation 
 has been considered a dangerous and improper one to ap- 
 ply to the governance of tropical colonies. 1 But in many 
 particulars Americans in the Philippines had preferred 
 more liberal policies than those sanctioned by colonial 
 experience elsewhere. The political ambitions of the 
 Filipinos had seemed legitimate and promising. The 
 Schurman Commission of 1900 proposed a legislature of 
 two chambers on the model of an American territorial 
 legislature. The Taft Commission in its early reports 
 outlined a plan of government to consist of an upper 
 house of appointed members, partly official and partly 
 non-official, with the chief executive of the islands as pres- 
 ident, and a lower house elected by restricted suffrage. 
 The creation of a Filipino assembly was urged by 
 Mr. Taft at the time of his appearance before Congress 
 in the winter and spring of 1902. Republicans in the 
 
 1 See several criticisms of the American plan by Professor Reinsch, Pro- 
 ceedings of the American Political Science Association, 1904, and 
 "Municipal Government in the Philippines," Nat. Conf. City Govt., 
 1903, pp. 194-201 ; Mr. Alley ne Ireland, Outlook, vol. 78 ; Mr. John For- 
 man, Contemporary Review, vols. 86 and 91 ; Mr. Hugh Clifford, Living 
 Age, 251.
 
 38 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 House generally supported the project, but the Senate was 
 more conservative. 1 
 
 The two houses of Congress compromised by providing 
 for an assembly, but deferring its inauguration until two 
 years after the taking of a census of the islands and sub- 
 ject to a condition of peace and order to be determined by 
 the President of the United States. The law further pro- 
 vided that the Philippines should be represented after the 
 manner of American territories by two resident commis- 
 sioners at Washington with seats in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, but without votes. 
 
 One feature of the proposed assembly deserves special 
 mention. The two houses of the legislature, namely the 
 appointed commission and the elected assembly, were to 
 have co-ordinate legislative powers. Bills could be intro- 
 duced in either body and the consent of both bodies was 
 necessary in order that any bill become a law. The his- 
 tory of two-chamber legislatures has usually been that the 
 more popular house has acquired control of the govern- 
 ment through refusal to vote supplies. It was not the 
 wish of the framers of the Philippine assembly law that 
 this body, when created, should be able in the historical 
 manner to coerce the Commission. Consequently it was 
 provided that in the event of the two houses being unable 
 to agree upon appropriations, the budget of the preceding 
 fiscal period would remain in force, the definite sums ap- 
 propriated for specific purposes being considered reappro- 
 priated for the ensuing period. This curious device seems 
 
 1 Interesting light upon the history of this measure is afforded by Mr. 
 Taf t's speech at the inauguration of the Assembly and by an address of 
 Senator Beveridge ( who in Congress opposed the grant of -an assembly) 
 at the meeting of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 
 in Philadelphia in 1907.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 39 
 
 to have been borrowed from the Constitution of Japan 1 in 
 which it was presumably inserted by the great constitu- 
 tion maker Prince Ito. It may be further presumed that 
 Ito derived the idea from the experience of Bismarck and 
 the Prussian Diet. 2 
 
 The Philippine Census. The insurrection was reported 
 officially to be at an end September 8, 1902. The census 
 was organized by an army officer, General J. P. Sanger, 
 who had taken the census of Cuba, assisted by Mr. Henry 
 Gannett of the United States Geological Survey, and Mr. 
 Victor Olmsted of the Bureau of Statistics. The census 
 was taken during the year 1903, largely through employ- 
 ment of local officials. It was proclaimed and published 
 March 27, 1905. It showed the total population of the 
 archipelago to be 7,635,426 of whom 6,987,686 were 
 Christian peoples. 3 The law establishing the Assembly 
 restricted its jurisdiction to those parts of the islands not 
 inhabited by Mohammedans and pagan peoples, and thus 
 the Christian provinces alone were entitled to choose rep- 
 resentatives. The census determined with approximate 
 exactness the population of each province, municipality, 
 and barrio in the islands and afforded a basis for the dis- 
 tribution of representation to a popularly elected legisla- 
 ture. Two years after the proclamation of the census the 
 election was proclaimed, the date being set for July 30, 
 1907. 
 
 ' See Japanese Constitution, article LXXI. 
 
 2 It may be noted further that the provision has been introduced 
 also into the constitution of the island of Porto Rico, since a deadlock 
 between the upper and lower chambers of the legislature of that Amer- 
 ican possession. 
 
 a The Census of the Philippines, 4 vots. Washington, 1905.
 
 40 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 Qualifications of Electors. In anticipation of the elec- 
 tions for the Assembly the Commission had on January 9, 
 1907, enacted a new election law (Act No. 1582) which 
 divided the Christian provinces into 78 assembly districts 
 with two additional districts for Manila. The law pro- 
 vided a non-partisan board of inspectors in each munici- 
 pality and an official secret ballot, and penalized corrupt 
 practices. The conditions of suffrage remained as origi- 
 nally provided in the Municipal Act of 1901, l which had 
 followed somewhat the provisions of the " Maura Law " 
 proclaimed by the Spanish government in 1893. Voters 
 were restricted to male persons twenty-three years of age, 
 not subjects of any other power, with a residence of six 
 months in their district, who, prior to August 13, 1898, 
 had held local office, or who owned real property to the 
 value of five hundred pesos, or who could speak, read, 
 and write either the English or Spanish language. The 
 total number of voters registered for the election of the 
 Philippine Assembly of 1907 was 104,966. Of these 
 34,227 declared themselves Nacionalistas and 24,234 
 Progresistas. 2 
 
 1 Act 82 Philippine Commission, enacted January 31. 
 
 2 In the election of November 2, 1909, the registration was almost 
 double that of July, 1907, amounting to 208,845, and 92.40 per cent, 
 of the registered electors voted. Incomplete returns made at the date 
 of the report of the Executive Secretary for 1912 showed the registra- 
 tion for that year 249,805, of whom 61,805 exercised the suffrage by 
 reason of having held office, 60,533 through property qualifications, and 
 81,916 by the possession of educational qualifications. This total regis- 
 tration was equal to 3| per cent, of the census population and showed 
 that the proportion of literate voters to the population was 1.47 per 
 cent,
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 41 
 
 The first Assembly in session. 
 
 The First Session of the Assembly. The result of the 
 election of 1907 and of both subsequent elections was to 
 indicate a large preponderance of Nationalist strength. 
 Election to this first Assembly was greatly coveted. 
 Unusual efforts were made by candidates. The Election 
 Law, following a doubtful American practice, required 
 delegates to be " residents " of the districts choosing them. 
 This provision caused a general exodus of politicians from 
 Manila to the provinces. Mr. Taft, the Secretary of 
 War, who had been so largely responsible for the creation 
 of the Assembly, came to the islands for its inaugura- 
 tion. He and his party arrived in Manila October 15, 
 1907, and on the following morning at nine o'clock the 
 inauguration took place in the Grand Opera House. 
 The provisions of the law and of executive orders were
 
 42 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 read, addresses were made by Governor-General Smith 
 and Secretary Taft, prayer was offered by Bishop Barlin 
 of Nueva Caceres, the roll of delegates was called and the 
 Assembly declared opened. The meeting adjourned to 
 meet at the Ayuntamiento in the afternoon. In this latter 
 meeting Mr. Osmeiia was chosen " speaker " and an 
 organization begun. In the first days of the session 
 rules were adopted, committees formed, and a procedure 
 developed. A considerable number of bills had been pre- 
 pared by different members and were soon introduced. 
 The first to be passed was the " Gabaldon Act " providing 
 a million pesos for building barrio schools. The inau- 
 gural session was followed by the " first session " and that 
 by a " special session," the legislature finally adjourning 
 June 19, 1908. The second session of the First Legis- 
 lature was held February 1 to May 20, 1909. Sixty-nine 
 bills passed both bodies and became laws. 1 About half 
 of those which passed the Assembly and a number 
 which passed the Commission failed to pass both houses. 
 Several bills were enacted after " conference committees" 
 had dicussed them. During the same period the Com- 
 mission enacted six laws for the government of non- 
 Christian peoples. 
 
 A general appropriation bill was among those enacted. 
 The preparation of a budget is properly an executive 
 matter, and for some years the regular annual budget had 
 been prepared in the office of the Executive Secretary for 
 submission to the Commission. The American Congress, 
 however, has always prepared the appropriation bill in 
 
 1 Among these were bills establishing a Bureau of Labor (Act 1868), 
 creating the University of the Philippines (Act 1870), and providing 
 general appropriations for the governmut (Act 1873).
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 43 
 
 the House Committee on Ways and Means without the 
 aid of an executive budget. Unfortunately and unscien- 
 tifically this example influenced the Commission to turn 
 this function over to the Assembly. 
 
 On the whole the attitude of the first legislature was 
 commendably prudent and conservative and relations be- 
 tween Commission and Assembly were harmonious and 
 
 helpful, much being 
 
 ^I^JMMH^^ _ due to the tact and in- 
 
 fluence of the Govern- 
 or-General. Toward 
 the end of the first ses- 
 sion strong influence 
 was exerted to pass 
 through the Assembly 
 a resolution calling up- 
 on Congress to grant 
 independence. Many 
 delegates had been 
 elected on the promise 
 of securing such ac- 
 tion. The resolution 
 was not passed, but in 
 a rather singular man- 
 
 HOH. Sergio osmena. nc>1> endorsement was 
 
 given to the policy of independence by a vote approving 
 the sentiment of an address to the Assembly made by 
 Speaker Osmena in which was asserted the capacity of the 
 Filipinos for self government. The most dramatic feature 
 of the session was the prolonged but unsuccessful effort of 
 Dr. Dominador Gomez to secure a seat. The Assembly 
 finally voted him to be ineligible to election.
 
 44 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 The first legislature chose as Resident Commissioners at 
 Washington, Mr. Benito Legarda of the Commission and 
 Mr. Pablo Ocampo de Leon. In 1909, Mr. Legarda and 
 Mr. Manuel Queson of the Assembly were chosen Resi- 
 dent Commissioners by unanimous vote of both houses 
 sitting separately. In 1913 the Resident Commissioners 
 were Mr. Queson and Mr. Manuel Earnshaw, a manufac- 
 turer of Manila. 1 
 
 The Second Session of the Assembly. The Second As- 
 sembly, chosen in 1909, showed a still larger Nationalist 
 preponderance. Some of the most prominent members of 
 the preceding legislature were not re-elected. The Second 
 Legislature held a special session March 28 to April 19, 
 1910 ; a first session October 17, 1910, to February 3, 
 1911 ; a second session October 16, 1911, to February 1, 
 1912; and a final special session February 2 to February 
 6, 1912, Congress by Act of February 27, 1909, having 
 changed the law so as to provide a four-year term. This 
 Assembly was more radical than the first. The number 
 of disagreements with the Commission over legislation was 
 large. Many measures failed to pass more than one body. 
 The effort to pass an appropriation bill failed at each ses- 
 sion and the budget of 1908 continued to be the current 
 appropriation. Among Assembly measures rejected by 
 the Commission were bills repealing the treason and se- 
 dition act, the " bandolerismo act," the "flag act" and the 
 race-track law ; to abolish the death penalty ; to suppress 
 
 1 Materials for the study of the Philippine Legislature are found in 
 the Journal of The Philippine Commission, vols. I to VI, Manila, 1908 
 to 1913; Diario de Sesiones de la Asemblea Filipina, vols. I to VII, and 
 in the Laws and Resolutions of the Philippine Legislature, commencing 
 with vol. VH.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 45 
 
 the Civil Service Bureau ; bills to extend the powers of 
 local governments, and numerous bills carrying appropria- 
 tions of money. The two houses were unable to agree 
 upon the choice of Resident Commissioners to Washing- 
 ton, for the term commencing March 4, 1911. Congress 
 by Act of February 15, 1911, provided that incumbents 
 should hold office until their successors were chosen. On 
 December 10, 1910, the Assembly passed a joint resolution 
 requesting Congress to accord the Filipino people the 
 right to frame and adopt a constitution of their own for 
 the Archipelago. The Commission, by a nearly unanimous 
 vote, laid this resolution on the table. 1 
 
 Changes in the Commission. Meanwhile the Philippine 
 Commission had undergone many changes. Congress by 
 Act of May 12, 1908, increased the number of members 
 to nine and authorized the President to increase by one 
 the number of secretaryships. On July 1, 1908, Mr. 
 Forbes was appointed Vice-Governor-General and Mr. 
 Gregorio Araneta, the attorney-general, Secretary of Fi- 
 nance and Justice, this position having been vacant since 
 the appointment of Mr. Ide as Governor-General in 1900. 
 Judge Newton W. Gilbert, who for several years had been 
 judge-at-large of the court of first instance, and Mr. Rafael 
 Palma, a member of the Assembly from Cavite, were ap- 
 pointed commissioners. Early in 1909 Secretary Sinister 
 returned to the United States, his resignation being ac- 
 cepted on March 1, and Mr. Gilbert succeeded him as 
 Secretary of Public Instruction. On the same date was 
 accepted the resignation of Dr. Pardo de Tavera, and 
 Judge Juan Suniulong of Rizal province was appointed to 
 
 i See Commission Journal, No. 4, pp. 267, 340-47.
 
 46 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 succeed him. Mr. Frank A. Branagan, the insular treas- 
 urer, was appointed commissioner on March 4. In May 
 Governor-General Smith retired, to be succeeded by Mr. 
 Forbes ; and a little later Mr. Charles B. Elliott of Michi- 
 gan was appointed Secretary of Commerce and Police. 
 Thus only two members, Secretary Worcester and Mr. 
 Luzuriaga, remained of the eight who had begun the no- 
 table work of government and legislation in 1901. 
 
 Administration of Governor-General Forbes. Governor- 
 General Forbes was exceedingly interested in the indus- 
 trial and economic sides of the Philippine problem. He 
 
 inclined to the view 
 expressed by many 
 students of colonial 
 government, that edu- 
 cation and political 
 participation should 
 wait upon economic 
 development. He in- 
 sisted upon curtailing 
 the program for the 
 general education of 
 the people. In public 
 addresses he coun- 
 selled the Filipinos to 
 devote less thought to 
 politics and more to 
 private business. In 
 
 view, however, of the 
 Governor-General Forbes. great eagerness o f Fil _ 
 
 ipinos for education, their surprising ability to advance 
 themselves as soon as their ignorance is relieved, and their
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 47 
 
 intense preoccupation in the political future of their coun- 
 try, it seems idle to urge them to diminish their interest 
 in the intellectual and political advance of their race and 
 unstatesmanlike not to recognize that the problems of 
 consummate difficulty in the Philippines will continue to 
 he political in character. 
 
 Both as Secretary of Commerce and Police and as Gov- 
 ernor-General, Mr. Forbes secured the devotion of many 
 millions of dollars to public improvements, including the 
 Benguet Road, the " summer capital " at Bagnio, and a 
 great program of highways. Some of these works may 
 never be fully justified by the use given them by a popula- 
 tion living mainly on the coasts and largely deprived of 
 vehicles and draft animals, but other improvements origi- 
 nated or advanced by Mr. Forbes are of demonstrated bene- 
 fit. Such are the port works of Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu, 
 artesian wells furnishing pure drinking water to hundreds 
 of municipalities, and the use of reinforced concrete for 
 the public buildings of the islands. 
 
 Congressional Investigation of the Friar Lands. Since 
 the heated debates of Congress in the spring of 1902, the 
 question of the Philippines has seldom been treated in a 
 partisan manner and Congress had exhibited every mark 
 of confidence in the integrity of the government in the 
 Philippines. In 1910, however, charges were made by 
 Representative John A. Martin of Colorado that friar 
 lands had been illegally and corruptly disposed of. On 
 June 25, 1910, the House by resolution ordered an investi- 
 gation. In November, Secretary Worcester and other of- 
 ficials concerned went to Washington and appeared before 
 the committee. The charges of malfeasance appear to 
 have been very recklessly made and were entirely dis-
 
 48 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 proved. Nor had lands been disposed of in a manner con- 
 trary to the law. Congress in legislating in 1902 had 
 provided that grants from the national domain in the 
 Philippines should be in the form of homesteads of not 
 more than 16 hectares to an individual nor more than 
 1000 hectares to a single corporation. The Commission in 
 disposing of the friar lands had not felt bound by these 
 limitations. The Philippine public domain was property 
 of the United States and subject to disposal under such 
 conditions as Congress had determined, but the friar lands 
 were entirely distinct and were the possession of the Phil- 
 ippines government. Several large tracts were leased to 
 single individuals, including an official, and the Mindoro 
 estate was sold to an American sugar corporation. If 
 made generally, these large disposals would be inimical to 
 the policy of developing small landowners, but the situa- 
 tion of the Mindoro estate on an uninhabited and undevel- 
 oped coast strongly recommended its sale to a corporation 
 with resources sufficient to develop it and encourage the 
 settlement of that island. In view of the criticism which 
 the sale or lease of large tracts had awakened, the adminis- 
 tration at Washington instructed the Philippines govern- 
 ment to seek only small lessees and occupants. The policy 
 of the United States to open the public lands of the Philip- 
 pines to homesteaders has never been successfully carried 
 out by the Philippine government. The population is not 
 naturally migratory and its ignorance and helplessness has 
 pi-evented the general pre-emption of vacant lands. It 
 may be questioned whether the efforts of the government 
 to settle the public domain by Filipino homesteaders have 
 been adequate and intelligent and whether the proper pol- 
 icy for the government would not be to adopt a more pa-
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 49 
 
 ternjil attitude, lease lands to tenants, in necessary cases 
 supply certain improvements, and retain the title in the 
 government. 
 
 Agricultural Prosperity. Industrial conditions were 
 greatly benefited by the passage of the Payne Tariff Act, 
 October 6, 1909. Since the acquisition of the islands 
 Congress had steadily refused to admit their products to 
 the markets of the United States free of duties. Philip- 
 pine sugar and tobacco had sought markets elsewhere 
 without success. The copra had largely gone to France. 
 Hemp had been injured by the competition of the henne- 
 quin of Yucatan. After years of effort, however, President 
 Taft succeeded in securing practical free admission of Phil- 
 ippine products. 1 The effect on Philippine agriculture 
 was immediate. The area of cultivated land in Occidental 
 Negros increased about 50 per cent, in the year. Prices 
 rose for the tobacco growers in the Kagayan. Business 
 felt the effect and both exports and imports were stimu- 
 lated. The total foreign trade of the Philippines for the 
 fiscal year 1912 was $104,869,816, of which 40 per cent, 
 was with the United States. The partial] suppression of 
 the rinderpest which had destroyed the herds of. the islands 
 in 1902 and had since been endemic, was secured by the 
 use of general and local quarantine. In 1911 it was be- 
 lieved the carabaos had increased to over 1,000,000, while 
 the loss from animal plague had been reduced to approxi- 
 mately 3,000 per annum. 
 
 Tropical agriculture, while rewarding under good con- 
 ditions, is peculiarly subject to losses. Plant and animal 
 
 1 Rice is excepted, and the amounts of sugar and tobacco are 
 limited. The Philippines, however, have exported no rice for many de- 
 cades and in 1011 sugar shipments to the United States reached only 55 
 per cent, of the tree limit and cigars 46 per cent.
 
 50 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 diseases, fluctuations of prices and instability of markets, 
 unite with uncertain conditions of labor to produce dis- 
 couragement. To all these difficulties the Philippine gov- 
 ernment has given much attention, seeking to destroy pests, 
 introduce new crops, and improve methods of farming. 
 The condition of the agriculturist differs much in different 
 parts as well as the rate of wages and the standard of liv- 
 ing. In the hemp regions wages are high. In certain 
 provinces there are many small landowners or peasant pro- 
 prietors ; in others the land forms large estates or " hacien- 
 das" and the cultivator is a tenant or laborer. One of the 
 foremost aims of the work of education has been to in- 
 crease and enlighten the class of small farmers. 
 
 Damage from Typhoons From one great source of 
 
 loss, however, no protection suffices, and this is the annual 
 injury done by typhoons. The situation with respect to 
 these hurricanes is peculiar. The fertile East Indies to the 
 south are entirely spared. Occasionally the coasts of Indo- 
 China and southern China are visited and Japan frequently 
 suffers, but the Philippines lie immediately in the path of 
 these cyclonic movements and each year the loss mounts 
 into the millions. The Weather Bureau with its service 
 of skilled Jesuit observers furnishes warnings of these 
 storms and yet the loss of life is sometimes great. In 
 1905 the " Cantabria typhoon " sunk the coasting steamer 
 of that name with the loss of all on board and the coast- 
 guard cutter " Leyte " with loss of all but two. In 1906 
 no less than four " first class " typhoons swept different sec- 
 tions of the archipelago, and in Kagayan the loss to human 
 life was very large. In 1912 a most disastrous typhoon 
 swept the city of Cebu and is believed to have occasioned 
 the death of a thousand people. In estimating the relative
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 51 
 
 backwardness of certain improvements in the Philippines 
 allowance must be made not only for the rapidity of decay 
 but tor the persistent destruction of these storms. 
 
 The Taal Disaster The Philippines are of volcanic 
 
 formation. Activity has diminished in historic times and 
 losses from eruption and earthquake are seemingly less 
 than in earlier centuries. There are, however, no less than 
 twelve volcanoes still more or less active. Of these the 
 most notable is Mayon, which was in eruption at least 
 twenty-five times in the nineteenth century, and next in 
 activity is Taal. In 1754 this volcano erupted with vio- 
 lence and destroyed the towns of Taal, Lipa and Tanawan 
 which at that time were built on the shores of the lake in 
 the midst of which the volcano rises. From that date, 
 while constantly active and an object of great interest, 
 Taal volcano inflicted no damage until the night of Jan- 
 uary 30, 1911, when after some hours of premonitory 
 quaking and exploding it suddenly erupted with terrific 
 force, emitting deadly blasts of gas and dropping masses 
 of scalding mud for miles southward. The light of incan- 
 descent gases was witnessed at Manila 40 miles away, and 
 the explosion was heard at Dagupan, 160 miles distant. 
 Numbers of villages about the lake were utterly destroyed 
 and at least 1300 people perished. The extent of the trag- 
 edy was not at first appreciated at Manila, until adventur- 
 ous officials traversed the locality and discovered hun- 
 dreds of half buried bodies among the ruined villages. 
 Then relief forces were sent, including constabulary and 
 Red Cross representatives, and attention was given to such 
 injured as survived. The following year the government 
 established a seismological station on the shore of the lake 
 to observe future phenomena and give warning of danger.
 
 52 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 Visit of Secretary Dickinson Between July and Octo- 
 ber, 1910, the Philippines were visited by the Secretary 
 of War in Mr. Taft's Cabinet, Hon. J. M. Dickinson. Dur- 
 ing his stay a lengthy address was presented to him by 
 the Nationalist Party, reviewing the question of the ca- 
 pacity of the Filipinos for independence. A joint memo- 
 randum from both political parties was also presented to 
 him in which certain " reforms " were asked. These in- 
 cluded the repeal of limitations on the legislature, the " sepa- 
 ration of powers " in the Commission, an elective Senate, 
 and especially the extension of the Assembly's jurisdiction 
 to those considerable portions of the Archipelago inhabited 
 by pagan and Mohammedan peoples which were governed 
 exclusively by the Commission. 1 
 
 The Non-Christian Peoples. The problem of the non- 
 Christian peoples is one of the most serious obstacles to 
 those advocating an early independence for the Philippines. 
 The events of recent years, the revolution against Spain, 
 the insurrection against American authority, and espe- 
 cially the efforts of the government to unite the Filipinos 
 by education in a common language and by training under 
 common liberal institutions have gone far toward making 
 the ten or eleven distinct Christian peoples a single nation. 
 But the pagan peoples form an unassimilated stock, and 
 between Christian and Moro persists the enmity left by 
 centuries of piracy and war. Congress in providing a 
 Philippine Assembly judged that these peoples should prop- 
 erly have no representation, while the principle of self gov- 
 ernment for Filipinos did not necessitate subjecting the 
 non-Christian peoples to the legislation of the Christian. 
 
 1 See report of J. W. Dickinson, Secretary of War, to the President 
 on the Philippines, Washington 1910, Appendices B and C.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 53 
 
 The results of American effort in behalf of the pagan peo- 
 ples would appear to justify leaving them to the exclusive 
 jurisdiction of the Commission. Late in 1901 the Com- 
 mission created the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes to 
 make a general exploration of those portions of the islands 
 inhabited by these peoples, investigate their character and 
 condition, and recommend legislation for their government. 
 A preliminary reconnaissance of the pagan and Mohamme- 
 dan peoples was completed by officers of this bureau in 
 about two years. Several provincial governments of a 
 special type with appointed officials were organized. The 
 Reorganization Act placed all these regions under the spe- 
 cial administrative oversight of the Secretary of the Inte- 
 rior and from this time gratifying progress was made. In 
 the great Cordillera Central of northern Luzon, inhabited 
 by several hundred thousand Igorot, relations between 
 Americans and mountaineers were exceptionally friendly. 
 Trails were built, headhunting abated, and schools founded. 
 In August, 1908, by Act No. 1876 the government of 
 this region was consolidated in one jurisdiction known as 
 the Mountain Province, with seven sub-provinces, Benguet, 
 Amburayan, Lepanto, Bontok, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Apa- 
 yao. The capital was placed at the large native town of 
 Bontok in the heart of the Cordillera. Other provinces 
 under the special administration of the Commission were 
 Nueva Vizcaya, where the Christian inhabitants are few; 
 Mindoro, with an unexplored interior inhabited only by 
 forest Mangyan, and Palawan, where the Christian popu- 
 lation is confined to the small islands of Kuyo and little 
 settlements elsewhere. In August, 1907, the lower and 
 middle valley of the Agusan river and the interior of the 
 province of Misamis, as far south as the eighth parallel
 
 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 of latitude, were separated from the Christian provinces of 
 Surigao and Misamis and formed into a non-Christian prov- 
 ince called Agusan 
 with two sub-provin- 
 ces, Butuan and Bu- 
 kidnon. 1 The inhabi- 
 tants of these regions 
 of Mindanao are all 
 pagan forest people, 
 Manobo, Mandaya, 
 and Bukidnon. They 
 had been entirely neg- 
 lected by the pro- 
 vincial authorities and 
 were in need of gov- 
 ernment and of pro- 
 tection from the ex- 
 ploitation of traders 
 from the coast. The 
 work accomplished in 
 all these regions for 
 the civilization and well being of the natives is one of the 
 most interesting and commendable features of American 
 government in the islands. 2 
 
 The Moros. If the reasons for not placing the pagan 
 peoples under the government of Filipinos were valid, 
 they would seem to be doubly so in the case of Moros. 
 By historical and religious ties the peoples of southern 
 
 1 Act 1693. 
 
 2 See the reports of the Secretary of Interior for years 1908 to 1913 
 inclusive. Also several remarkably illustrated articles by Mr. Worcester 
 in the National Geographic Magazine for March, 1911, September,1912, 
 and November, 1913. 
 
 Hon. Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of the 
 Interior, 1900-1913.
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 55 
 
 Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago are connected not 
 with the northern inhabitants of the Philippines but with 
 the Mohammedan Malays to the south. The Sultan of 
 Sulu is nominal sovereign of North Borneo. As in the 
 rest of the East Indies, trade connections are with Singa- 
 pore rather than Manila. The long piratical wars of the 
 Spaniards with the Sultanates of Magindanao and Sulu 
 left the Moros still the aggressors until the middle of the 
 last century. The arrival of steam gunboats and the de- 
 struction of the Samal pirates in 1848 freed the Philip- 
 pines from the raids of the corsairs, but Spain's authority 
 was not fully asserted even at the end of her rule. In 
 1860 a royal decree established the politico-military gov- 
 ernment of Mindanao. The town of Jolo was captured 
 by the Spaniards in 1876 and two years later the Sulu 
 archipelago was added to the above jurisdiction. The 
 Treaty of 1878 with the Sultan of Sulu was the final ex- 
 pression of relation with Spain. It left the Sultanate in 
 the position of a protectorate rather than a dependent 
 state. 1 Spain's sovereignty over this archipelago was 
 questioned by England and Germany, but in 1882 she 
 made her authority effective by placing garrisons on 
 Bongao, Siasi, and Tawitawi. 
 
 The subjugation of Mindanao was no less difficult. 
 War was waged against Datu Utu in the Rio Pulangi 
 valley in 1887, and in 1888 Weyler began an invasion of 
 the Lanao region which established the Spaniards at 
 Marawi but left unsubjugated the lake basin. Such were 
 the conditions when in May, 1899, the Spaniards evacua- 
 ted and American garrisons took their places at Sambo- 
 
 i See Saleeby, History of Sulu, for history of relations aud texts.
 
 56 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 anga, Jolo, and Cotabato. The situation was a difficult 
 one for the Americans. The Filipino insurrection which 
 had broken out employed the bulk of their forces. Every 
 consideration recommended an avoidance of trouble with 
 the Moros. Under instructions from the commanding 
 general, a treaty was negotiated with the Sultan of Sulu 
 by Gen. J. C. Bates somewhat after the form of the Span- 
 ish treaty of 1878. Owing to imperfections of transla- 
 tion, however, both sides gained an erroneous idea of what 
 had been conceded. 1 
 
 This was the situation until 1903. Fighting with 
 the Moros was avoided except for an expedition which 
 penetrated to Lake Lanao from the south coast and estab- 
 lished an American post on the south side of the lake. 
 American garrisons occupied important points and naval 
 detachments Isabela de Basilan and Pollok, but there was 
 little interference with native affairs outside of these 
 stations. Conditions throughout the Moro country, how- 
 ever, were most unsatisfactory. Slave parties were ac- 
 tive ; the tribes of Mindanao were raided and oppressed ; 
 there was violence and disorder everywhere. The Sultan 
 of Sulu, Jamalul Kiram, was a weak man and his feudal 
 datus defied him. The Sultan of Magindanao, Mangingin, 
 had fled from the Cotabato valley in fear of a rival, Datu 
 Ali, and was a refugee on Dumankilas Bay. Such condi- 
 tions could not be ignored and it was felt that American 
 authority must be exerted. On June 1, 1903, the Com- 
 mission passed an act for the organization and government 
 of the Moro Province, which was made to embrace the 
 
 ^'Treaty with the Sultan of Sulu, Message of the President." Sen- 
 Doc. 136, 56th Cong. 1st sess. The authentic reading of the Moro copy 
 is given in Saleeby's History of Suln,
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 57 
 
 five districts or sub-provinces of Sulu, Samboanga, Lanao, 
 Cotabato, and Davao. The law was based mainly on a 
 draft prepared by Gen. Geo. W. Davis, who had been 
 in command of the American forces in this region. It 
 entrusted the government of the Moro province to a 
 board of six members, a governor, secretary, treasurer, 
 engineer, attorney, and superintendent of schools. This 
 board was given large legislative powers subject to ratifi- 
 cation by the Commission. The board was specifically 
 empowered to create local governments among the Moros 
 and pagan peoples and to collect and codify the Moro 
 customary law, giving it such application as seemed 
 proper in suits between the Moros. It was particularly 
 charged to suppress slavery and slave raiding. A gov- 
 ernor, secretary, and treasurer were to be appointed for 
 each district. A special constabulary force was authorized 
 in which the Moros could be enlisted. Forestry taxes and 
 customs receipts collected at any ports in the provinces 
 were to be returned to the provincial treasury. The law 
 provided that army officers might be detailed for the 
 executive positions, and as the continued employment of 
 American troops was necessary, this was naturally done. 
 The first governor was Gen. Leonard Wood, who had 
 been governor-general of Cuba during the American occu- 
 pation. He was succeeded in 1906 by Gen. Tasker H. 
 Bliss and he in 1909 by Gen. John J. Pershing. The 
 policy inaugurated by General Wood for restoring order 
 generally ignored the traditional authority of the sultans 
 and the datus. For the first time in their history the Mo- 
 ros found their internal affairs interfered with and their 
 local governments threatened. There was little under- 
 standing and much prejudice on both sides and severe
 
 58 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 fighting followed on the island of Jolo, around Lake Lanao 
 and in the Pulangi valley. While the losses from these 
 wars were severe among the Moros and resulted in the 
 death of their most turbulent leaders and fighting men, 
 the resisting spirit of the race was unbroken. Military 
 posts continued to be imperilled by attacks of fanatical 
 devotees, called " juramentados," and outlaws with a few 
 followers continued to murder and raid. One such outlaw 
 and pirate, named Jakiri, was finally killed in a cave near 
 Jolo in 1909. As late as 1912 a numerous band of rene- 
 gades occupied an extinct crater on Jolo island and were 
 exterminated only after severe campaigning. In several 
 parts of the province progress has been made by the 
 establishment of general markets or " exchanges " and 
 some successful schools have been conducted. 
 
 The Davao region contains but few Moro inhabitants, 
 the native people being scattered communities of pagans, 
 Bagobo, Mandaya, and Tagakaolo. Here the abundance 
 of unoccupied land suited to the raising of hemp attracted 
 a considerable number of American planters. Trouble 
 with labor supply occasioned the introduction of settlers 
 from Cebu and results have been fairly encouraging, 
 although the hill people have occasionally committed 
 murders and depredations and in 1906 the district gov- 
 ernor, Lieutenant Bolton, was murdered by a Tagakaolo 
 chieftain or " bagani." 
 
 An exceedingly difficult task undertaken by General 
 Pershing was the disarming of the Moros. The importa- 
 tion of arms from Borneo and other quarters had always 
 been difficult to prohibit, and the Moros themselves are 
 famed forgers of native swords, krises, and barongs. Ev- 
 ery datu possessed a number of brass cannon or " lantaka."
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 59 
 
 The surrender of these arms has weakened the resisting 
 power of the Moros and lessened the incentive to violence 
 and slave raiding. 
 
 Whatever the future of these Moro peoples, policy 
 would seem to dictate their being left to unhampered 
 American authority. That this, rather than Filipino 
 government, is their own preference was sufficiently 
 indicated by the passionate statements of several Moro 
 datus to Secretary Dickinson on his visit to Samboanga 
 in 1910. 
 
 Summary and Retrospect. Looking back over the 
 decade which has here been reviewed, the distinctive 
 features of a noble and generous policy can be seen. 
 Peace and order have been won from a long and desperate 
 period of commotion and discontent; a judicial system 
 has been established with codes of law which make justice 
 prompt and effective ; great material improvements have 
 been undertaken, railroads built, navigation developed, 
 agriculture revived, and commerce expanded to a point of 
 importance in the world's trade. But these attainments, 
 great as they are, would not entitle the Philippines to the 
 special attention of the student of dependencies. Like 
 benefits have been attained elsewhere by just and able 
 colonial governments. Given a well-peopled country of 
 natural wealth and such results are not difficult to men 
 who can draw upon the organized resources and trained 
 effectiveness of the modern world. The distinctive achieve- 
 ment of the American administration in the Philippines is 
 in the social and spiritual transformation of the Filipinos 
 themselves : the pains taken to make better men. Ameri- 
 can claims of contributing to the world's experience in the 
 governance of empire lie in the personal and political lib-
 
 60 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 erty guaranteed to the Filipinos and in the success of 
 popular education. 
 
 Public Instruction. The public school system has been 
 at the basis of the effort and exemplifies the idealism of 
 the American plan. The law establishing the Bureau of 
 Education authorized the employment of a thousand Amer- 
 ican teachers. Nearly that number were at work in all 
 parts of the islands in 1902. Subsequently the adminis- 
 tration was developed. Superintendents were appointed, 
 one for each province, and in 190-4 the provinces were di- 
 vided into more than 400 distiicts, each in charge of a su- 
 pervising teacher, and the effort was made to attain a com- 
 plete system of primary schools, adequate to give to eveiy 
 child a brief training of three or four years. The most ad- 
 vanced pupils of the American teachers were employed as 
 primary teachers under close supervision and hundreds of 
 schools opened in rural barrios where the population had 
 no opportunities of learning. The response of the Filipi- 
 nos to this program was immediate. The complete rudi- 
 mentary education of the islands was brought within 
 promise of attainment when by 1908, 600,000 children 
 were under instruction in these schools. English has 
 been diffused throughout the Archipelago and a force of 
 8000 Filipino teachers trained to give primary instruction 
 in this language. In 1905 intermediate schools were be- 
 gun which offer three-year courses folio wing the primary 
 course. These have developed into industrial schools 
 with a variety of practical courses. Graduates of these 
 schools may be found in a very great number of useful 
 occupations, including the civil service. Completing the 
 public school plan are the high schools, one in each prov- 
 ince. They are actually colleges or institutes and have
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 61 
 
 ample grounds, numerous buildings, shops, and dormito- 
 ries. The high schools are the real intellectual and social 
 centers for each province and have commanded the fullest 
 enthusiasm of the Filipinos, who have made sacrifices to 
 gain them. Two interesting features of the public school 
 work which have had much emphasis are industrial work 
 and athletics. The industrial work in primary schools 
 consists in instruction in the many beautiful native arts 
 and industries which thus become household employments 
 and contribute to the income of families. This industrial 
 teaching was especially encouraged and standardized for 
 all primary schools by Mr. Frank R. White who became 
 Director of Education in December, 1909, and who died in 
 Manila, August 7, 1913, after nearly twelve years of edu- 
 cational service in the Philippines. In intermediate and 
 high schools the courses of an industrial character are of 
 foreign introduction and include mechanical drawing, wood 
 and iron working, agriculture, commercial branches, do- 
 mestic science, and nursing. 
 
 Public Health. The physique of the Filipino is also 
 being modified for the better. The race is physically 
 small, but agile, athletic, and comely. The schools have 
 introduced everywhere the games of ball and athletic 
 sports of America to the notable moral benefit of the pop- 
 ulation. The old sports of cock fighting and gaming have 
 failed to interest the rising generation. The Bureau of 
 Health has scored repeated triumphs in combatting dis- 
 eases and in educating the people to a new attitude 
 toward sickness and death. Bubonic plague has been 
 practically non-existent since 1903. Smallpox was finally 
 checked after complete vaccination of the population in 
 1908. Cholera, which has appeared sporadically since the
 
 62 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 epidemic of 1902-3, has been promptly controlled. Tu- 
 berculosis and beriberi are yielding before improved diet 
 and a better standard of life. Leprosy formerly claimed 
 many victims. These have been isolated at the leper 
 colony on the island of Kulion and necessary steps taken 
 against the ravages of this dread affliction. 
 
 The Bureau of Science and the University. Closely 
 associated with the work of public health is the Bureau of 
 Science. It has combined biological, medical, and chemi- 
 cal research with the advance of pure science along many 
 lines. It is one of the most remarkable and noble estab- 
 lishments for the discovery of useful knowledge in the 
 tropical world. It is a monument to its first director, Dr. 
 Paul C. Freer, who died in the islands in 1912. 
 
 The University of the Philippines was created by act of 
 the legislature in 1908. It includes colleges of Arts, 
 Medicine, Engineering, Law, Agriculture, Veterinary 
 Science, and a school of Fine Arts. 
 
 Filipino Aspirations In the face of these benefits the 
 
 Filipinos are not unappreciative, but they demand still 
 more. Naturally an ambitious, self-confident, and daring 
 race, they believe themselves already sufficiently numer- 
 ous, compact, and disciplined to begin independent life 
 as a nation. The policy inaugurated by President Me Kin- 
 ley, Secretary Root, and Governor Taf t has never been hos- 
 tile to the Filipinos' ambition for nationality. It has ever 
 treated this aspiration as legitimate. It has, however, 
 taken due count of the difficulties and of the dangers from 
 its too early realization. Having accepted American re- 
 sponsibility for the Archipelago, it has guarded the final 
 supremacy of American authority. It is apparent, how- 
 ever, that a complete accord has not yet been reached be-
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 63 
 
 tween Americans and Filipinos and that a new basis of 
 relationship is to be attempted. 
 
 The Democratic Administration. The year 1913 wit- 
 nessed the end of a definite period in the history of admin- 
 istration in the Philippines and the introduction of another 
 policy under the auspices of the Democratic Party. Since 
 the Spanish-American war the two great parties in the 
 United States have been no more sharply divided on any 
 issue than on that of the Philippines. In the election of 
 1900 the Democrats made "imperialism" the "para- 
 mount issue. " Again in 1904 attacks upon what had 
 been done in the Philippines were a large part of their 
 campaign. In 1908 and 1912, while the Philippines were 
 little considered, the platforms of the Democratic party 
 continued to denounce the retention of the islands and to 
 advocate their earliest possible separation. The election 
 of President Wilson and a Democratic Congress in 1912 
 was thus assumed both in the Philippines and the United 
 States to presage the end of one policy and the commence- 
 ment of a radically different one. Following the inaugu- 
 ration of President Wilson, the members of the Philippine 
 Commission placed their resignations in his hands. While 
 the Philippine service had never been treated as a partisan 
 field by the Republican party, all these resignations were 
 accepted except that of one Filipino commissioner, Mr. 
 Palma. A complete reorganization of the Commission 
 resulted. 
 
 Inauguration of Governor-General Harrison. To the 
 post of Governor- General was appointed Mr. Burton Har- 
 rison, a Democratic congressman from New York, who 
 reached the islands October 6, 1913. Mr. Forbes had al- 
 ready departed and Vice-Governor-General Gilbert and
 
 64 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 Secretary Worcester retired immediately. The position 
 of Secretary of Commerce and Police had been vacant for 
 more than a year. Thus at the commencement of his ad- 
 ministration Governor-General Harrison had not a single 
 department head nor one American colleague. In his in- 
 augural speech he announced on behalf of the President 
 a promise to appoint to the Commission a majority of Fili- 
 pino members, thus giving to the people of the islands 
 control of the upper branch of the legislature, and the 
 power to ratify all appointments and to exercise jurisdic- 
 tion over the non-Christian peoples. The following ap- 
 pointments were announced in fulfillment of this promise : 
 Mr. Justice Mapa of the Supreme Court to be Secretary 
 of Finance and Justice ; and Mr. Jaime de Veyra, former 
 governor of Leyte and member of the Assembly, Mr. Vi- 
 cente Singson, member of the Asssembly from Ilokos Sur, 
 and Mr. Vicente Ilustre of Batangas, to be commission- 
 ers. As American members President Wilson appointed 
 Mr. Henderson E. Martin of Kansas, Vice-Governor-Gen- 
 eral and Secretary of Public Instruction ; Mr. John L. 
 Riggs, Secretary of Commerce and Police ; and Mr. Win- 
 fred T. Denison of New York, Secretary of the Interior. 
 Many changes in the subordinate positions of the 
 Philippines followed Mr. Harrison's taking of office, in- 
 cluding the dismissal of several heads of bureaus. One 
 important step was the retirement from the Moro province 
 of General Pershing with the complete withdrawal of the 
 American regiments which had been stationed there for 
 defence against the Moros, and the appointment as Moro 
 Governor of Mr. Frank Carpenter, the Executive Secre- 
 tary. This was expected to end the participation of the 
 army in the government of the Moros. It was announced
 
 A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 65 
 
 that the vacant parts of the Moro province would be 
 colonized by Filipinos and the effort made to assimilate 
 the Moros into the Filipino nation. To the place at the 
 head of the Executive Bureau was appointed the Attorney- 
 General, Judge Ignacio Villamor. 
 
 The Assembly convened on October 16. Mr. Harrison 
 read his message at the opening. It called attention to a 
 threatened deficit of more than four million dollars and 
 advocated rigorous retrenchment, reduction of salaries, and 
 elimination of superfluous positions. It announced that 
 no more American employees would at present be engaged. 
 
 These steps seemed to presage the intention of the 
 Democratic administration to seek from Congress an early 
 separation of the islands, a solution provided for by a bill 
 introduced into the House of Representatives by Con- 
 gressman Jones of Virginia, which had the appearance of 
 being the party measure. This bill provided for Philip- 
 pine independence through the establishment of a republic 
 in 1921. It further imposed upon the President to seek 
 for this republic an international status of neutrality. 1 
 
 There would seem, however, to be but two probable 
 futures before the Philippines either a continuance of 
 the policy of the last decade, the islands remaining under 
 American sovereignty with a government wherein ultimate 
 
 1 Since the above paragraph was written the "Jones Bill " has been 
 reported in a much modified form. Philippine independence is no 
 longer promised in 1921 but deferred to a future date ; the Commission 
 is abolished and a " Senate " chosen by the Filipinos is provided as an 
 upper chamber. The executive power remains in a governor-general 
 appointed by the President of the United States. This combination of 
 a native legislature and a foreign appointed executive seems to revive 
 the discredited type of colonial government which prevailed in the 
 American colonies before their rebellion against Great Britain.
 
 66 THE PHILIPPINES. 
 
 authority is vested in the representatives of the United 
 States, or the complete abandonment of the islands to their 
 own support. The latter is an intelligible policy and 
 would have advocates in the United States, but the final 
 judgment of history will not relieve from odium the party 
 or the people which dissipates the achievements of the 
 last ten years. The establishment of orderly and progres- 
 sive society is too precious a thing to civilization to save 
 from execration those who would suffer it to sink in strife 
 and sedition and permit its elements to be scattered over 
 the China Sea like the debris of a typhoon.
 
 3TI7
 
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