Ed/Psych 
 Lib. 
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 1031 
 C12 
 
 M-^ 
 
 Bnrk 
 
 Individual Instruction
 
 
 m 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 J3 
 C \^ 
 
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 LB 
 
 LATA OF TWO XYA'Rii' I.XPE1-IENCE IN 
 OPKHATIQN OF A SYSTEI.i OF 
 INDIVIDUAL INHTRUGTION 
 
 BY 
 
 I ^ 
 
 BURK. FREDERICK 
 
 ^
 
 
 Southern Branch 
 of the 
 
 University of California 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 \ «3\
 
 s:> 
 
 s\ \^'^j: 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 MONOGRAPH C 
 
 IN RE 
 
 EVERYCHILD, a minor, 
 
 vs. 
 LOCKSTEP SCHOOLING 
 
 A Suit in Equity 
 
 Data of Two Years' Experience in Operation 
 of a System of 
 
 INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 Accelerated Rates of Pupils' Progress 
 
 Elimination of Wastes of School Time 
 Actual Saving in Cost of Schooling 
 
 Adaptability to Various Schools 
 
 THBRB ARE NO MISFIT CHILDREN. 
 There are misfit schools, misHt texts and studies, misfit 
 dogmas and traditions of pedants and pedantry. There are 
 misfit homes, misfit occupations and diversions. In fact, there 
 are all kinds and conditions of misfit clothing for children 
 but — In the nature of things there can be NO MISFIT 
 CHILDREN. 
 
 California 
 
 State Pbintinq Office 
 
 1915 
 
 19474
 
 MONOGRAPH C 
 
 IN RE 
 
 EVERYCHILD, A MINOR, 
 
 vs. [ A Suit in Equity 
 
 LOCKSTEP SCHOOLING 
 
 The business of schools is to shape themsekrs to the pupils. 
 Bach child is a special creation, and, strictly speaking, education 
 cannot be the same for any two pupils. That it is the business 
 of schools to saxc; to plane and to compress pupils into fixed 
 school molds, is the smug impertinence of an ancient, persistent, 
 and preposterous pedantry. Until this pedantry is uprooted, 
 trunk and branch, schools must fail to fulfill their purpose. 
 
 Data of Results, Methods and Costs 
 of Operating Schools by 
 
 INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 4 o 9 [- 2 ^^^'^' 
 
 COMPILED BY 
 
 FREDERIC BURK 
 
 President San Francisco State Normal 
 
 19474
 
 SAN FRANCISCO STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 Hiram W. Johnson, 
 
 Governor. 
 Judge George E. Crotiiers. 
 James B. Davidson. 
 
 Board of Trustees. 
 
 Edward Hyatt, 
 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
 Philip M. Fisher, 
 Joseph S. Thompson. 
 Frank S. Brittain. 
 
 Primary Reading. 
 
 Corinne H. Johnstone. 
 Mabel Arleigh. 
 
 Faculty. 
 
 Oral Reading and Expression. 
 Lucj' Alsnuson Smith. 
 Douglas Whitehead. 
 
 General Reading and Literature. 
 Mabel Ashley. 
 
 History and Civics. 
 P. F. Valentine. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Mary A. Ward. 
 Margaret E. Brennfleck. 
 Irene Norris. 
 Willard Beatty. 
 Louise lyes. 
 
 Composition, Language, Etc. 
 Effie B. McFadden. 
 Ethel G. Smith. 
 A. S. Boulware. 
 Pha?be Cole. 
 Florine Falk. 
 
 Science. 
 
 Mabel Ashley. 
 
 Carleton W. Washburne. 
 
 Geographi/. 
 
 F. W. Hoflfman. 
 Eugenia Schmidt. 
 
 Music. 
 
 Estelle Cai-penter. 
 Mary W. McCauley. 
 Eva A. Levy. 
 
 Kindergarten. 
 
 Anna Stovall. 
 Gail Harrison. 
 Miriam Barbour. 
 
 H&nschold Arts. 
 Alice Spelman. 
 
 Physical Edvcation. 
 
 Harriet Randall Flandei's. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Freda Grunig 
 Hilda Smith. 
 
 Executive Management. 
 Eva A. Levy. 
 Florence Vance. 
 Archibald B. Anderson. 
 Frederic Burk.
 
 THE CONCLUSIONS OF THIS MONOGRAPH 
 
 An individual system of school instruction has been in operation in 
 the elementary department (first to eighth grades) of the San Francisco 
 State Normal School for the past two years. Records of progress of each 
 pupil have been kept and compiled. From the compilation of this data 
 of experience, this monograph will show the following conclusions : 
 
 I. THE RATE OF PROGRESS. That the slowest pupils, in normal 
 health of body and mind, will complete the usual eight grades of the ele- 
 mentary school in not more than seven years ; that the fastest will finish in 
 not more than five years ; that between these extremes, the rates are very 
 evenly distributed; that, in consequence, pupils who enter school at 6 years 
 of age will complete the eight grades between the ages of 10 and 13 years. 
 
 II. ALL PUPILS WILL FINISH THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL- 
 ING. The appalling fact that 60 per cent or more of the youth of the 
 country enter upon world life without the equipment at least of an ele- 
 mentary schooling will be dissipated by the simple solution that prac- 
 tically all pupils will complete the course before they reach the ages at 
 which they at present seek to leave the schools. 
 
 III. GREATER THOROUGHNESS. That the individual system 
 must upon principle, and does in fact, give a thoroughness and efficiency 
 to every pupil quite beyond any possibility of the lockstep schooling. 
 
 IV. INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION COSTS LESS THAN CLASS 
 INSTRUCTION. The current hasty conclusion to the contrary is due to 
 the fact that the largest item in the cost of schooling by the class sys- 
 tem — unnecessary waste amounting to considerably more than 50 per 
 cent — is entirely overlooked. Among the huge wastes inherent in the 
 lockstep of the class system are those due (1) to repetition of grades, 
 (2) to inability to use the gains of accelerated rates of progress, (3) to the 
 reg-ulations that all pupils must learn what only a few have the need of, 
 or the ability to learn, and (4) to certain frictional losses in the teaching 
 of large classes. Individual instruction cuts out these wastes by elimi- 
 nating their causes. 
 
 V. THE NUMBER OF PUPILS PER TEACHER. It has also been 
 a hasty conclusion that to operate an individual system would require 
 many more teachers than the lockstep method. This conclusion over- 
 looks the fact that if pupils make faster progress through the grades, the 
 number of pupils in any one class will be reduced proportionally to the 
 increase in rapidity of progress. Our data goes to show the size of 
 classes of 40 to 50 pupils will be automatically reduced to 25 to 30 under 
 individual instruction which eliminates the repeaters, introduces accelera- 
 tion, and economizes time in other ways. 
 
 (3)
 
 THE SCOPE OF THIS MONOGRAPH. 
 
 In the fall of 1913 Monograph A, under the title of ' ' Lockstep School- 
 ing and a Remedy," was issued. This monograph presented an indict- 
 ment of the class system of instruction by which all pupils in our schools, 
 indiscriminately, and without regard to differences of mentality, tempera- 
 ment, inborn -talents, or tastes, health, absences, etc., are marshaled 
 through the grades by platoons in tight lockstep. To this condition, as a 
 chief cause, was traced the retardation by which betAveen 30 and 50 per 
 cent of all pupils now in the schools of the United States have lost one, 
 two, three and more years. To this condition was also traced the chief 
 cause of the fact that over 60 per cent of all pupils in the United States 
 leave school before they have completed the elementary grades, and are 
 ushered into the struggle of life without the rudiments of education ; and 
 finally to this condition were traced the roots of the apathy, the indiffer- 
 ence, and the inefficiency in our schools, and the inability to accomplish 
 what they undertake to accomplish. 
 
 These facts leave no room for cavil or palliation. There is obviously 
 something radically faulty in some large fundamental underpinning of 
 the school system. The class system, by the requirement that all pupils 
 in a given class shall maintain the same rate of progress, makes the 
 impossible assumptions that all pupils possess the same mental powers in 
 exactly the same degree ; that no individuals can ever be absent ; that all 
 shall maintain, simultaneously, the same degree of forced attention 
 throughout each school lesson. Such assumptions are obviously impos- 
 sible, and the existing system thereby creates, by its own hand, the army 
 of laggards. There is no remedy for this laggardism, in the present 
 system, except for the victims to repeat grades — and this is not a remedy. 
 The statistics testify to the results. 
 
 Monograph A pointed out that the only remedy must be a new system 
 of schooling which should be made to fit these conditions of manifest 
 differences in pupils, giving to each full opportunity to gain an education 
 at his own rate, and according to situations individual to him. The 
 beginnings of such a system, then just inaugurated in the elementary 
 department, were outlined. The present monograph continues the report 
 of this work, giving data, compilations and consequences of this new 
 sj^stem., 
 
 Our Elementary Department consists of the eight grades of primary 
 and grammar school work and has been attended by 500 to 600 children, 
 ranging from 6 to 15 ,or 16 years of age. Distinctly subnormal pupils 
 are not admitted and in all statements it must be understood their 
 absence is assumed. The pupils are taught, not by paid teachers with 
 the assistance of students as is usual- in Normal Schools, but directly 
 by the students themselves under direction of faculty supervisors. While 
 
 (4)
 
 our records of the progress of any iiidividiuil pupil will not extend 
 over two years, yet the whole field of the eight-year course has been 
 covered and our compilations are upon this basis. In the consideration 
 of the data Ave have to ollfer, we wish a distinctly clear understanding of 
 just what our data shows, just what we have accomplished and an equally 
 distinct understanding of Avhat we have not accomplished or have not 
 attempted to accomplish. 
 
 We have worked out into actual practice, under conditions of an ele- 
 mentarj'- school, used primarily and essentially for the purpose of training 
 teachers, a system of individual instruction. This principle of individual 
 instruction is the same in this school as it would be in any other school — 
 rural, city, or special; and it can be used in any school; but the form of 
 administration is entirely different necessarily. Our form of administra- 
 tion, dominated and complicated by the wholly irrelevant problem of train- 
 ing inexperienced young teachers, offers little, even suggestively, for appli- 
 cation to city school systems. "With slight modifications, our plans may. 
 however, be used in rural schools, in "special" classes of city schools, and 
 in most night schools. 
 
 AVhat we have done during the past two years has been to determine 
 the actual variation in the rates of progress of pupils when each pupil is 
 permitted to learn at his own rate ; to compile exercise books in the several 
 school subjects ; to make individual instruction in general practicable ; and 
 to invent and put into successful operation an administrative system under 
 the special conditions of Normal Training Schools. 
 
 The devising of an administrative plan for city schools can only be 
 worked out in a city school. We show that it can be accomplished, finan- 
 cially, with saving to the school treasury. As for the difficulties, it may at 
 least be said that the project is ea.sy, compared with that of adapting the 
 individual principle to a Normal Training School, complicated by the dis- 
 tracting conditions of wholly inexperienced teachers, changing classes three 
 times per day, and changing subjects three times per year. With trained 
 and permanent teachers, the problem of inventing an administrative system 
 for individual instruction is new, but it certainly can not be difficult. 
 
 We wish to make this fact quite clear, for so many visit us expecting to 
 find in our training school, not only the principle of individual instruction, 
 but also a system of administration exactly fitted and shaped to their own 
 various and particular school conditions. 
 
 THE MACHINERY OF INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLING. 
 
 The adaptation of texts to make the length of lesson elastii-ally fit differ- 
 ent pupils, promotion in each subject separately', the establishment of grade 
 standards upon the basis of the slowest diligent pupil's rate of progress, 
 and the adaptation of a report card to show the individual facts truthfully, 
 constitute the chief mechanical devices for the operation of an individual 
 system. 
 
 •2—19474 (u)
 
 The Elastic Lesson. Jf it is impossible to teach a class of fifty pupils 
 en massf. it is clearly as impossible to make texts by which pupils may be 
 expected to learn en masse. lu fact, the difficulties are multiplied. Our 
 school texts, at best, are constructed, not as teaching- books, but as condensed 
 essences of knowledge in form salable to school boards. The real task of 
 adaptin^r them as teaching tools has been left to the personal ingenuity of 
 teachers. As well might a farmer be supplied with cold pig iron in the 
 expectation that he could adapt from it his plow, his ax and his shovel! 
 As a consequence, the best results under class teaching have as a rule been 
 obtained by the least use of the texts, comlnned with the greatest use of 
 teachers of very exceptional ingenuity. But the frequency of teacher 
 geniuses for this ta.sk necessarily is so occasional, that the results are what 
 they are. The necessity of a system which shall not depend chiefly upon 
 such occasional accidents of teaching genius is obvious. The form of texts 
 is particularly handicapping to our plan of individual instruction. 
 
 It is to this task of inventing and compiling exercise books in adaptation 
 of texts that the members of the faculty have been devoting their extra 
 energies for two years. We have now completed exercise bool<s in arith- 
 metic, language, grammar, history and geography, which have been printed. 
 We are also using, in mimeograph or manuscript form, handbooks in read- 
 ing, writing, music, drawing and literature, which will probably be printed 
 later. 
 
 The lessons to teach new principles or processes are constructed upon an 
 elastic plan. There are duplicate exercises and generally more of them 
 than most pupils will need to work. If a pupil works accurately certain of 
 these exercises he skips the duplicates and passes on to the next lesson. A 
 tremendous premium is thereby oiiPered for accuracy. The pupils of slower 
 grasp do as many of the duplicates, under an automatic system, as may be 
 necessary to secure accuracy in efficient degree. By this device of an elastic 
 length of lessons the text is made to fit the individual needs of the different 
 pupils and no iiupil i)roceeds until he has laid a safe foundation. On the 
 other hand, pupils do no more than is necessary for the purpose. 
 
 Automatic Reviews. Subsequent reviews, eml)()died in the regular 
 lessons, take care of the retention of what is once learned and the system of 
 elasticity is made to apply also to these reviews in a definite, automatic way. 
 Instead of testing pupils' thoroughness of comprehension at intervals of a 
 year or six months, these automatic tests are inserted at short intervals, and 
 if a pupil needs more drill, it is given immediately, l)efore he meets greater 
 difficulties. It is far more economical in time to see that each brick of the 
 foundation is firm rather than to wait until the whole foundation is laid 
 with the possibility of being obliged to commence all over again. These 
 review tests generally are worked into the body of the lessons so that the 
 pupil does not recognize them as such. The tests are followed by corrective 
 exercises; those pupils who do the test without error skip the corrective 
 exercises while only those who need corrective work are given it. 
 
 (6)
 
 Promotion by Subjects. Tiider the class system, not only must 
 pupils keep in loekstei) one with another, hut also each pupil must mak.' 
 even progress in the six to ten or more sul)jects he may he studying- at one 
 time. If he keeps well the step in reading, geography, history, drawing, 
 etc., and yet falls behind in one sub.jeet— let us say arithmetic— then at the 
 end of the grade he nuist retrace the year's work not only in tlie .sul)jeet in 
 which he failetl. hut also in six, seven, eight or ninr suhjcrts in which he 
 succeeded. It looks inhuman— it is inhuman. But there is and can be no 
 help for it luider the class system of administration. There is no way by 
 which a pupil can go forward in certain subjects and retrace work in 
 another. Such a modification would lead inevitably to individual instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 By adopting the plan of indivichial instruction the ilifhcidty disappears. 
 Since the i)upil is working by himself, independent of others, it is entirely 
 practicable to tnke time from subjects in which he makes rapid progress, in 
 order to repair shortcomings in subjects with which he has difficulty. Con- 
 sequently, our first step is to separate the subjects one from the other, to 
 establi.sh grade standards for each subject and to issue a promotion certifi- 
 cate for each subject whenever the pupil completes the grade's work in this 
 subject. If the i)upil tends to run ahead in certain subjects and behind in 
 others, it is an easy matter to adjust the daily time allotments for each pupil 
 in a way to secure evenness of ])rogress so far as this may be necessary. 
 
 Grading. What constitutes a grade's work is necessarily a matter of 
 guesswork under the class system. It is merely an arbitrary rating fixed 
 by a Board of Education, usually upon the basis of texts. It is supposed, 
 in a rough way, to be what the "average" pupil should cover.' It is fixed 
 under the frank realization that a considerable number can not cover it and 
 will become decided "misfits"; that many others will be obliged to mark 
 time. Under the class system these two lo.sses are necessary. louder the 
 individual system the exact rate of progress for each luipil in completion of 
 a unit of progress can be found. The rate of the slowest is taken as the 
 standard for the grade. The more rapid pupils will finish sooner and pass 
 into the next half grade, or. if we deem it wise, we may shorten the daily 
 allotment of time given to arithmetic by these pupils, giving the surplus to 
 subjects in which they may need extra time. At any rate, under this 
 arrangement, all pupils, fast, slow, or medium, in a given subject, are 
 adjusted satisfactorily. 
 
 If the number of hours re(iuired by the slowest pupil with reasonable 
 diligence should prove more than allowed by our schedule, we have four 
 alternative means of correction: (1) to increase the allowance by taking 
 time from other subjects; (2) to shorten the amount of ground to be covered 
 in the grade; (3) to inspect the coui'se to discover whether or not some dead 
 limbs of useless knowledge could not be cut out; or (4) to inspect the time- 
 consuming difficulties and their causes with a view of inventing means for 
 faster progress. If we keep proper records of each pupil's work and 
 
 (7)
 
 progress, these various items will show themselves in a very definite way 
 and we are in a position to find suitable remedies. 
 
 If the alternatives mentioned enable us to correct emergency diseases, 
 they also suggest the more important means of constant improvement of our 
 system. With records of progress before us we may be constantly alert to 
 make improvements in methods, or to cut out dead wood in the subject- 
 matter with a view to greater efficiency of all pupils or of certain pupils. 
 If we can, by any legitimate means, shorten the time of the slowest pupils 
 we shorten the grade standard. 
 
 These records stand as a constant indicator of our teaching efficiency 
 and as a vigorous, stimulating challenge to improve upon it. We are no 
 longer working in the dark, but in the clear light of day with a definite 
 measure of the effectiveness of every stroke. The cost in time and energy 
 of teaching this or that supposedly valuable item of education, and the 
 practicability of this or that process of instruction is checked and laid before 
 us by the merciless test of visible results. As a result, an intelligent and 
 earnest teacher is constantly upon her mettle to improve conditions — because 
 they can be improved. ^Moreover, the work is exhilarating mentally, 
 morallj' and phj'sically. 
 
 Report Cards. There has ahvays been trouble in making truthful 
 report cards. If a pupil is very diligent and yet can not keep up with the 
 class, the teacher has never known what to do about it. The fact that the 
 pupil is lagging behind the arbitrary standard set for class promotion indi- 
 cates that he is doing poor work. To be honest the teacher should mark 
 accordingly and thus inform the parent. But to mark thus a diligent pupil 
 who is earnestly doing the best he and his ancestry permit him to do, takes 
 a heart harder than most teachers possess. Besides, to do so, hopelessly 
 discourages him who needs all the encouragement he can get. 
 
 The situation is clearly impossible of any sensible or serviceable solution. 
 At the end of the term there is more trouble. If the teacher has marked 
 the pupil "poor" throughout, then the failure to be promoted has proven 
 to him the hopelessness and folly of effort. If she has marked him "fair" 
 or "satisfactory," and nevertheless can not promote him, then injustice is 
 added to injury. If she promotes him into the next grade she may ruin 
 him for life. The parent thereupon confronts the teacher with the evidence 
 of her own report, and there is an inexplicable situation. 
 
 Under the individual plan this dilemma does not occur. The grade 
 standard is the rate of the slowest pupil exercising reasonable diligence. A 
 pupil, poor in diligence, may fall below the grade standard of progress 
 because of his lack of diligence, but if a pupil of satisfactory diligence 
 should fall below the standard set, it would be evidence that the grade 
 standard, not the pupil, must be corrected. By this system a truthful 
 report, serviceable to pupil and parent, is possible. 
 
 Our report cards also have, for most subjects, two other markings — 
 "neatness of written work" and "self-reliance." In order to estal)lish the 
 
 (8)
 
 habit of neat, legible writing, we insist that all written work, in < ru-ij snh- 
 jcct, sliall be earefully and neatly done. "Self-reliance" indicates that the 
 pupil does his work l)y his own initiative — not because he is forced, not 
 because he is urged or cajoled, or artificially stimulated — but that he applies 
 himself to his own work with a businesslike attention to his own interest. 
 A pupil who gives up at slight difficulties, calls for teacher's aid unneces- 
 sarily, or is subject to "humors" is not self-reliant. A pupil may be 
 "excellent," "satisfactory" or "poor" in self-reliance, but this marking is 
 quite independent of the mark for "diligence" or "progress." A pupil 
 may be excellent in diligence, or even in progress, because the teacher is 
 continually at his elbow, forcing, admonishing or entreating, but his mark 
 would be "poor" in self-reliance. 
 
 To cover the preceding situation — "diligence" and "progress" — a pupil 
 is marked "excellent," "satisfactory" or "poor" in each. If he is very 
 diligent but makes poor progress the facts are duly recorded. Nothing is 
 more important in any situation than to have the facts and causes set forth, 
 to all concerned, in a clear and truthful wav. 
 
 r-n
 
 TYPICAL RECORD SHEETS. 
 
 In order to present in concrete form the data of individual rates of 
 progress, two tables of records are herewith submitted. The tirst comprises 
 the records of 100 pupils in primary reading and the second records of 100 
 pupils in grammar grade arithmetic. They are not selected records, but 
 taken in alphabetical order just as they come, from our card indexes. 
 
 The entries are not completely filled, due to two conditions : (1) the record 
 is complete as far as the pupil has yet made progress (note the right hand 
 date) ; (2) the pupil did not enter the school or was not put upon the indi- 
 vidual system until the date indicated at the left. 
 
 The Records in Reading. In the teaching of reading, we have three 
 courses, which for purposes of promotion are distinct and separate: 
 (1) al)ility to get the meaning; (2) phonics; (8) oral expression. The 
 records given are those of the first — ability to get the meaning. ]\Iost of the 
 slow records are accounted for l)y the fact that we made progress in phonics 
 a condition of promotion in al)ility to obtain the meaning. But for the past 
 six months, a pupil has been promoted in ability to get meaning regardless 
 of his progress in phonics. The basis of promotion is as follows : for each 
 half grade a number of books, or selected parts of books, are assigned as the 
 reading material of this half grade. One of these books is made the 
 standard or test for promotion. The others are used as drill material pre- 
 paratory for this te.st. For example, there are assigned as possible prepara- 
 tory material for the low third grade reading some twenty-five books ranging 
 in type from ^sop's Fables, Vol. II, Grimm's Fairy Stories, Adventures of 
 a Brownie, Adventures of Pinochio, Fox's Indian Primer, Eskimo Stories, 
 to Stories of the United States for Youngest Readers, and Stories of Great 
 Americans for Little Americans. The final test of acquired ability is power 
 to read at sight fluently and undenstandingly, typical selections of the last 
 half of the State Third Reader (Stepping Stones to Literature. Third 
 Book). 
 
 The test standard of each half grade is placed at the head of each column 
 in the table. It does not mean that every pupil must read all the prepara- 
 tory books, nor even, theoretically, that he should rc^ad any of them. The 
 principle is that he should read as many of them as will enable him to read 
 the test book fluently and with understanding. This requirement, of course, 
 varies with different puj)ils. One pupil may show, by his comprehension 
 of liis first preparatory book, liis ability to take the test, or it may be neces- 
 sary to read two, three or all tlu» preparatory books before he is ready for 
 the test book. But whenever the pupil is ready and does pass the test book, 
 he is given a certificate of promotion to the next higher half grade. The 
 test books have l)een arranged so that the test chapters represent, as fairly 
 as possible, graded stages in increased but usable vocabulary. Portions 
 which involve special and more or less unfamiliar vocabulary, or which show 
 no increase in vocabulary over the previous half grade are elided from the 
 test material. The pupil's i)romotion is thereby made to depend upon 
 
 (10)
 
 actual and usable lU'u aiquirouients of readiiifr power. By this device we 
 have cut out two diseased conditions conunon. and more or less necessary in 
 teaching readint; by the class system : (1) promotion upon a basis merely of 
 the amount of text the class as a whole has covered, or, the time of attend- 
 ance, with(mt accurate test of efficiency; for this we have substituted ability 
 to pass the tirade's i-c(|uirement whenever that standard may he reached; 
 and (2) we have cut out the injustice of requiring pupils to learn, in the 
 early grades, the inuisual or technical vocabidary to be found in nnu-h 
 poetry or some special descriptive chapter inserted by some incompetent 
 text-nu»ker to satisfy a thoughtless vagary of his personal judgment. 
 
 Explanation of Table. In the first colunui is given a symbol of the 
 pupil's name for purposes of reference. 
 
 The second and third columns give the age of the pupil, in years and 
 months, respectively, at the time of beginning the first record listed. 
 
 The eight succeeding columns give the number of days the pupil used in 
 completing the half grade indicated at the top, exclusive of absences. 
 
 The column of dates on the left indicates the date from the beginning of 
 the first record. The date upon the right is that of the completion of the 
 test record and the time intervening represents the period iLsed in com- 
 pleting the work indicated, inclusive of absences. 
 
 The column headed "Total" gives the total of the days. The column 
 headed "ab. " shows the number of days absence. The sum of the days and 
 absences accounts for the school days between the dates. The column 
 headed "average" gives the average number of days this pupil has used for 
 each half grade. It is obtained by dividing the total days i)y the number of 
 half grades indicated. 
 
 The number of days in our school half year is 95 and comi)ari.son of each 
 actual record with the 95 days furnishes the reader with a key to the rela- 
 tive progress made. 
 
 If the figures under the grade headings are read vertically, we may note 
 the variation in progress rates of different pupils doing the same luiit of 
 work. If they are read horizontally, we may note the variation in rate of 
 the same pupil as he passes through successive half grades. For illustra- 
 tion, let us take the second horizontal line: 2 J. A. conunenced the high third 
 grade at the age of 7 years and 5 months; completed the high third in 
 64 days, and the low fourth in 76 days. The date of beginning the high 
 third was August 3, 1914, and the completion of the low fourth was 
 ]\rarch 19, 1915, representing 140 working days and 23 days of absence. 
 The average time for each- half grade was 70 days, or 20 to 23 days less than 
 the grade standard of 95 days. 
 
 Or, take the longer record 7 O. B. below. This boy, at the age of 7 years 
 and 9 months entered the high first grade and by the successive records of 
 36, 28, 64, 59, 34, 26, and 64 days for each half-grade, respectively, entered 
 the low fifth grade :\Iay 2. 1915; he used 311 days in this progress and was 
 absent a total of 33 days. His average time was 45 days for each of the 
 seven half grades. If he had been in a graded class, it would Iwve taken
 
 him 6Go days (7 X 95; instead of 311 days, provided he made a half grade 
 each half year; and. as later will be shown, he would have completed not 
 the Fifth reader, but the Fourth at best. 
 
 Record of Individual Progress. Primary Reading. 
 
 1. C. 
 
 2. J. 
 
 3. E. 
 
 4. R. 
 
 5. B. A. 
 
 6. N. B. 
 
 7. O. 
 
 8. J. 
 
 9. J. 
 
 10. W. B.. 
 
 11. R. B.. 
 
 12. T. 
 
 13. S. 
 U. E. 
 
 15. C. 
 
 16. A. 
 
 17. R. 
 IS. R. B. 
 19. E. B. 
 
 A... 
 A... 
 A... 
 A... 
 
 B... 
 B... 
 
 B... 
 B... 
 B... 
 B... 
 B.„ 
 B... 
 
 •20. E. 
 
 21. R. 
 
 22. J. 
 
 23. E. 
 21. V. 
 
 B... 
 B... 
 B... 
 B... 
 B... 
 
 25. H. B... 
 B... 
 
 26. 0. 
 
 27. D. 
 
 28. E. 
 
 29. V. 
 
 30. E. 
 
 31. E. 
 
 32. W. 
 
 33. A. 
 
 34. F. 
 
 35. H. 
 
 36. R. 
 
 37. D. 
 
 38. D. 
 
 39. M. 
 
 40. G. 
 
 41. L. 
 
 42. M. D.. 
 
 43. H. D.. 
 
 44. A. 
 
 45. L. 
 
 46. X. 
 
 47. H. E.. 
 
 48. L. E.. 
 
 49. L. 
 .tO. R. 
 
 51. E. 
 
 52. O. 
 
 53. W. P.. 
 
 54. B. F.. 
 
 55. G. 
 
 56. R. 
 
 57. W. F.. 
 
 58. P. F.. 
 
 59. E. F.- 
 
 60. R. 
 
 61. J. 
 
 62. V. 
 
 63. M. 
 
 64. J. 
 
 B... 
 B... 
 C... 
 C- 
 C... 
 C- 
 C- 
 C- 
 C- 
 D... 
 G... 
 D... 
 
 D... 
 
 D.. 
 D.. 
 D.. 
 
 E... 
 
 E... 
 F... 
 F... 
 
 F.. 
 F.. 
 
 G... 
 G... 
 G... 
 G... 
 G... 
 
 10 
 
 6 i 
 9 
 
 6 
 6 I 
 
 5 I 
 
 6 I 
 8 I 
 6 1 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 { 
 6 
 6 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 87 
 
 67 
 
 70 
 
 84 I 38 
 
 44 
 
 92 : 53 I 
 
 89 j 71 ! 1 
 
 54 37 27 75 
 
 84 ! 89 
 85 
 
 14 I 77 
 
 73 30 
 
 93 , 85 
 
 1 I 62 138 
 
 6 87 I 162 
 
 10 
 
 9 76 113 34 
 
 ... 
 
 -. 63 54 
 
 61 60 1 
 
 86 ! 35 ; 
 
 21 
 
 54 
 
 64 
 
 59 
 
 34 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 43 
 
 57 76 
 
 26 64 
 36 60 
 
 93 108 
 
 113 52 
 
 47 76 51 
 
 49 
 
 60 100 99 
 
 76 45 
 
 136 
 
 - 72 
 
 31 27 
 
 60 
 
 75 59 
 
 88 26 
 
 85 
 
 44 25 I 35 
 
 72 
 
 34 26 
 
 34 
 
 , 1 65 
 
 —I—- 39 
 
 67 I ! 
 
 71 112 , 17 
 
 50 ; 67 
 
 . i 48 18 107 
 
 67 60 I 49 42 
 42 43 20 40 
 
 56 
 31 
 55 
 77 
 162 
 
 - ^ I 55 I 60 
 
 74 13 19 7 
 
 .1 ' 43 I 
 
 44 
 
 71 
 
 13 19 
 
 ' 43 
 
 23 j 27 101 
 30 29 
 
 105 35 
 
 43 108 
 . — 20 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 S8 
 
 38 
 
 45 
 48 
 36 
 98 
 73 
 80 
 42 
 61 
 86 
 78 
 63 
 51 
 52 
 51 
 87 
 100 
 125 
 116 
 35 
 
 256 
 309 
 240 
 
 65 
 274 
 
 87 
 134 
 270 
 106 
 
 85 ; 
 
 2-22 ] 56 
 272 54 
 
 43 
 45 
 60 
 33 
 92 
 29 
 67 
 
 53 
 
 239 
 67 
 262 
 260 
 204 
 114 
 115 
 162 
 210 
 43 
 305 
 162 
 144 
 254 
 250 
 71 
 96 
 200 
 81 
 179 
 355 
 
 33 
 44 
 
 68 
 57 
 58 
 81 
 30 
 
 64 
 125 
 
 13 I Jan. 
 
 23 Aug. 
 46 I Apr. 
 
 7 Jan. 
 
 24 Aug. 
 Nov. 
 
 33 Sept. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 4 Jan. 
 17 Jan. 
 16 Aug. 
 
 7 Aug. 
 
 3 Jan. 
 
 5 Jan. 
 
 6 Aug. 
 
 35 Jan. 
 15 Aug. 
 
 7 [ Aug. 
 
 48 Aug. 
 24 Nov. 
 
 14 Jan. 
 30 Feb. 
 13 Jan. 
 
 9 Jan. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 36 \ Jan. 
 18 Oct. 
 
 23 Aug. 
 41 Aug. 
 
 5 Aug. 
 
 1 Apr. 
 
 24 Jan. 
 34 ' Sept. 
 34 Jan. 
 
 8 Jan. 
 13 Jan. 
 
 5 Sept. 
 21 .\ug. 
 
 6 Sept. 
 
 5 Sept. 
 
 6 Aug. 
 1 Jan. 
 
 40 Aug. 
 
 25 May 
 
 26 Sept. 
 6 Jan. 
 
 28 Jan. 
 
 38 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 46 Aug. 
 
 21 Aug. 
 
 44 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 49 Aug. 
 18 Aug. 
 
 8 Aug. 
 
 15 Jan. 
 36 Jan. 
 
 6 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 17 Aug. 
 
 25 Oct. 
 
 15 Jan. 
 
 17 Aug. 
 
 14, '15- Apr. 
 
 3,'14-Mar. 
 20,'14-May 
 
 4, '14- Jan. 
 
 3,"14-May 
 30,'14-Apr. 
 19,'13-May 
 
 5,'15-May 
 
 4,'15-Apr. 
 
 5,'14-Jan. 
 
 3,'14-Apr. 
 
 4, '14- Apr. 
 
 5,'14-Dec. 
 
 5,'14-Mar. 
 
 3,'14-May 
 
 4,'13-Mar. 
 
 3,'14-Mar. 
 
 4,'13-Nov. 
 
 3,'14-Apr. 
 11,'14-May 
 
 5,'14-May 
 24, '14- Apr. 
 
 6,'14-Apr. 
 
 4,'14-Mar. 
 13,'14-Mar. 
 
 5,'14-Apr. 
 
 5,'14-Apr. 
 
 4,'13-Feb. 
 
 3,'14-May 
 
 3,'14-reb. 
 14,'13-Nov. 
 
 4,'14-May 
 
 3,'13-Apr. 
 
 4,'14-May 
 
 4,'15-Apr. 
 
 5,'14-May 
 
 3,'14-Feb. 
 
 3,'14-Apr. 
 
 3,'13-Feb. 
 16,'14-Mar. 
 
 3,'14-Jan. 
 
 4,'14-Feb. 
 
 4,'13-May 
 
 2,'13-Oct. 
 10,'14-Feb. 
 
 5.'14-Mar. 
 
 5,'14-May 
 18,'14-May 
 18,'14-Feb. 
 
 5,'14-Apr. 
 
 3, "13- June 
 
 4,'14-May 
 
 4,'15-Mar. 
 
 4,'13-Apr. 
 
 5,'14-May 
 20, '14- Apr. 
 
 5,'14-Apr. 
 
 4,'14-May 
 
 4,'15-May 
 
 5,'15-Aug. 
 12, 'i:^ Aug. 
 26,'14-Apr. 
 
 4,"14-Dec. 
 
 4,'13-May 
 
 3. 'IS 
 
 9, '15 
 18, '15 
 14, '15 
 24, '15 
 22, '15 
 
 2, '15 
 
 2, '15 
 27, '15 
 IS, '15 
 20,'15 
 30, '15 
 18, '14 
 18,'15 
 17, '15 
 19, '15 
 16, '15 
 17, '14 
 
 3, '15 
 21, '15 
 
 5, '15 
 
 5, '15 
 22, '15 
 12, '15 
 23, '15 
 30, '15 
 
 4,'15 
 26, '15 
 10, '15 
 19, '15 
 
 4, '15 
 26, '15 
 29, '15 
 10, '15 
 21, '15 
 25, '15 
 
 3, '15 
 14, '15 
 10, '15 
 16, '15 
 
 5, '15 
 
 4, '15 
 26, '15 
 15, '14 
 11, '15 
 
 5, '15 
 
 3, '15 
 17, '15 
 23, '15 
 15, '15 
 
 3, '14 
 24, '15 
 26, '15 
 21, '15 
 18, '15 
 26, '15 
 26, '15 
 
 2, '15 
 21, '15 
 IS, '15 
 20, '14 
 
 4, '15 
 17, '15 
 20, '15 
 
 (12)
 
 Record of Individual Progress. Primary Reading— Continued. 
 
 > 
 
 . . . ! . 
 
 H... 
 H... 
 H... 
 H... 
 
 65. E. G.. 
 
 C€. E. H.. 
 
 67. W. H.. 
 
 68. F. H.. 
 
 69. H. H.. 
 
 70. A. H.- 
 
 71. H. H.. 
 
 72. L. H.. 
 
 73. B. 
 7-1. G. 
 
 75. O. 
 
 76. G. 
 
 77. A. H... 
 
 78. E. H...| 
 
 79. F. H... 
 
 80. A. H..J 
 
 51. H. J...J 
 
 52. L. H.-J 
 
 83. E. J...' 
 
 84. H. J..-' 
 
 85. R. J... 
 
 86. D. J... 
 
 87. D. J... 
 
 88. H. J. .J 
 
 89. E. J..,| 
 VX). C. K...| 
 91. J. K... 
 9-2. K. K... 
 
 93. N. K...I 
 
 94. K. K...I 
 
 95. E. K... 
 
 96. W. K... 
 
 97. M. L... 
 
 98. H. L.-.; 
 
 99. J. M...t 
 100. E. M.. I 
 
 5 
 '. 
 
 ^i- 
 9 L 
 
 4 L 
 . 
 2 . 
 6 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 9 . 
 
 . 
 
 7 . 
 
 . 
 
 i 
 
 '. 
 
 7 . 
 
 6 . 
 
 8 . 
 
 5 - 
 
 1 . 
 
 9 . 
 
 7 . 
 . 
 4 . 
 
 6 . 
 4 . 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 ISO 
 
 73 54 
 
 81 I 20 
 
 90 
 
 178 
 64 
 85 
 93 
 
 93 
 
 .| 80 
 
 .1 77 
 
 111 
 83 
 63 
 
 37 
 
 100 122 
 37 j 60 
 
 77 ! 107 
 
 37 ! 
 
 95 ! 83 
 
 47 
 
 111 
 
 108 
 
 34 
 
 14 
 
 68 : 62 
 
 28 
 
 100 
 
 41 
 
 53 
 
 86 
 
 30 39 31 
 
 41 17 
 
 37 100 67 
 
 47 36 .. 
 
 47 
 
 &3 
 
 96 105 
 
 206 
 274 
 
 188 ; 
 
 233 
 278 i 
 151 1 
 127 
 101 1 
 100 ; 
 58 I 
 75 ' 
 312 j 
 301 
 178 ! 
 145 
 352 , 
 208 ! 
 263 ' 
 214 ' 
 271 I 
 182 ' 
 
 132 ; 
 
 138 ! 
 130 
 222 ' 
 90 I 
 159 
 202 i 
 201 1 
 259 
 276 I 
 111 i 
 167 I 
 115 ! 
 156 
 355 
 
 69 
 92 
 63 
 78 
 70 
 38 
 64 
 52 
 34 
 29 
 38 
 104 
 62 
 3 
 73 
 70 
 70 
 66 
 54 
 55 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Dee. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 5,'14-Mar. 
 
 5,'14-May 
 
 5, 13- Jan. 
 
 5,'14-JIay 
 
 5,'14-May 
 
 3,'14-Apr. 
 
 3.'14-Mar. 
 
 3,'14-Feb. 
 17,'14-Mar. 
 
 9,'13-Mar. 
 
 4,'15-Apr. 
 
 3,'13-Feb. 
 14, '12- Feb. 
 14,'U-May 
 
 3,'14-May 
 
 4.'14-Mar. 
 
 5,'14-Mar. 
 
 5, 14-May 
 26,'13-Xov. 
 13,'13-Apr. 
 
 3.'14-May 
 14,'14-May 
 
 8, '14-May 
 
 3,'14-Mar. 
 
 5,'13-May 
 
 5,'14-Apr. 
 
 3,'13-Feb. 
 
 8,'13-Feb. 
 
 5,'14-Jan. 
 
 4, '14-May 
 
 4, '14-May 
 
 3.'14-Feb. 
 
 4, '14-May 
 10,'14-Apr. 
 
 3,'14-May 
 
 4,'13-May 
 
 Records in Arithmetic (Grammar Grade). The second series dves 
 the ?rade records of the first 100 pupils from our alphabetical card lists. 
 The dates and absences are not given. Features similar to those in primary 
 reading are to be noted. 
 
 3—19474 
 
 (13)
 
 Record of Individual Progress. Grammar Grade Arithmetic. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Low 5 
 
 High 5 
 
 Low 6 
 
 High 6 
 
 Low 7 
 
 High 7 
 
 Low 8 
 
 Total 
 liours 
 
 .\verage 
 
 1 for haU 
 j grade 
 
 1 M 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 
 179 
 
 75 
 
 39 
 
 66 
 
 45 
 
 24 
 
 103 
 
 31 
 
 303 
 
 269 
 
 44 
 
 89 
 
 166 
 
 124 
 
 170 
 
 108 
 
 157 
 
 323 
 
 225 
 
 83 
 
 153 
 
 148 
 
 23;) 
 
 294 
 
 216 
 
 90 
 
 76 
 
 182 
 
 268 
 
 288 
 
 326 
 
 215 
 
 204 
 
 140 
 
 242 
 
 215 
 
 99 
 
 251 
 
 222 
 
 96 
 
 250 
 
 319 
 
 288 
 
 63 
 
 33 
 
 253 
 
 110 
 
 229 
 
 243 
 
 293 
 
 173 
 
 138 
 
 SO 
 
 173 
 
 319 
 
 130 
 
 232 
 
 275 
 
 272 
 
 128 
 
 60 
 
 266 
 
 279 
 
 81 
 
 180 
 
 228 
 
 262 
 
 309 
 
 315 
 
 234 
 
 53 
 
 327 
 
 89 
 
 2 J 
 
 A 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 K 
 
 A 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 F 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Q. 
 
 6. F. 
 
 7 M 
 
 A -. 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 ..1 .. 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 J 
 
 B 
 
 31 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 M 
 
 B 
 
 78 
 
 91 
 
 64 
 60 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 10 N 
 
 B. 
 
 30 
 
 74 
 
 105 
 
 68 
 
 11 L 
 
 B. -- - - 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 12. C. 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 46 
 89 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 13 E. 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 14 B 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 81 
 47 
 
 43 
 
 62 
 
 15 W 
 
 B 
 
 41 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 IS S 
 
 B. 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 
 36 
 
 17 G 
 
 B 
 
 94 
 
 o3' 
 
 22 
 
 83 
 
 63 
 24 
 72 
 
 
 79 
 
 18. B. 
 
 B.- 
 
 77 
 131 
 
 118 
 
 33 
 
 18 
 
 
 54 
 
 19 L 
 
 B 
 
 75 
 
 20 H 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 21 G 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 50 
 
 88 
 59 
 
 _ . 
 
 77 
 
 •79 p 
 
 B — - 
 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 50 
 
 23 G 
 
 B 
 
 96 
 
 86 
 79 
 33 
 45 
 38 
 67 
 81 
 63 
 83 
 
 57 
 77 
 65 
 
 
 SO 
 
 24. M. 
 
 B. 
 
 68 
 80 
 
 48 
 38 
 
 22 1 
 
 59 
 
 25 B. 
 
 B. — 
 
 
 54 
 
 •^6 D 
 
 B 
 
 45 
 38 
 115 
 
 
 45 
 
 27. N. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 28 M. 
 
 B. -. - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 29. B. 
 
 B. .. 
 
 100 
 46 
 85 
 
 87 
 80 
 79 
 45 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 30. H. 
 
 B.. 
 
 
 63 
 
 36 1 
 
 58 
 
 31. W. 
 
 B. .- - 
 
 79 
 
 82 
 
 .32. C. 
 
 B -- 
 
 54 
 43 
 
 62 
 
 110 
 
 54 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 33. F. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 .34. L. 
 
 B. .- -- -- 
 
 80 
 85 
 
 60 
 77 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 35. D. 
 
 C. 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 36. A. 
 
 C - 
 
 81 
 
 42 
 
 22 
 
 48 
 
 70 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 37. G. 
 
 C. - _. 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 .38 J. 
 
 C. 
 
 63 
 
 85 
 
 103 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 39. B. 
 
 C. 
 
 63 
 
 27 
 
 51 
 
 81 
 
 56 
 
 40 C 
 
 C 
 
 C. -- 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 
 48 
 
 41. A. 
 
 
 49 
 
 75 
 
 47 
 
 82 
 
 64 
 
 42. A. 
 
 c. 
 
 c 
 
 75 
 
 93 
 
 1.51 
 95 
 
 107 
 
 43. R. 
 
 61 
 
 46 
 
 86 
 
 
 70 
 
 44. A. 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 35 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 45. R. 
 
 33 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 46". S 
 
 C 
 
 c. 
 
 63 
 
 137 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 47. C. 
 
 10 
 69 
 
 87 
 30 
 
 65 
 66 
 112 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 48. M. 
 
 C. -. 
 
 
 
 94 
 44 
 66 
 47 
 
 
 49. 0. 
 
 c. - 
 
 
 
 SI 
 
 .50. A. 
 51. G. 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 C -.- 
 
 76 
 
 53 
 67 
 62 
 
 144 
 
 59 
 
 74 
 
 58 
 
 .52. B. 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 .5:^ E. 
 
 80 
 71 
 91 
 
 
 
 
 
 54. A. 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 70 
 70 
 
 102 
 80 
 60 
 62 
 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 :^o. A. 
 
 .56. F. 
 
 86 
 
 54 
 
 8 
 
 &4 
 
 (>5 
 
 .57. P. 
 58. R. 
 
 48 
 
 .38 
 78 
 63 
 
 24 
 86 
 
 56' 
 
 55 
 
 47 
 69 
 
 50. M. 
 60. M. 
 
 E .... 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 32 
 128 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 68 
 
 61. R. 
 
 
 60 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 62. H. 
 
 F... 
 
 
 
 95 
 108 
 
 96 
 67 
 
 42 
 35 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 63. G. 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 C4. F. 
 
 F 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 
 65. B. 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 66 
 31 
 34 
 
 122 
 128 
 
 44 
 
 77 
 91 
 62 
 
 29 
 
 74 
 34 
 76 
 
 41 
 
 77 
 62 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 rK). C. 
 
 F 
 
 77 
 
 GO 
 
 61 
 
 57 
 
 67. p. 
 
 F 
 
 66 
 
 68. H. 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 69. B. 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 70. W 
 
 
 49 
 
 98 
 
 91 
 
 78 
 
 71. P. 
 
 F. 
 
 53 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 72. L. 
 
 G... 
 
 81 
 
 96 
 
 78 
 
 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 (H)
 
 
 
 Record of Individual 
 
 Progress. G 
 
 rammar Gra 
 
 de Arithmetic — Continued 
 
 
 
 Low 5 
 
 High 5 
 
 Low 6 
 
 High 6 
 
 Low 7 High 7 
 
 T -.». i Total 
 LO"* 1 hours 
 
 1 
 
 Xver&ee 
 
 for half 
 
 grade 
 
 
 G. 
 M. 
 R. 
 H. 
 E. 
 M. 
 A. 
 L. 
 L. 
 R. 
 H. 
 F. 
 L. 
 M. 
 E. 
 R. 
 A. 
 V. 
 Z. 
 W 
 R. 
 M. 
 E. 
 R. 
 C. 
 L. 
 B. 
 R. 
 
 Q 
 
 7« 
 
 71 
 
 58 
 
 81 
 
 
 1- 
 
 
 184 
 
 210 
 68 
 262 
 170 
 142 
 293 
 269 
 286 
 131 
 81 
 2S6 
 233 
 31 
 239 
 255 
 41 
 38 
 276 
 123 
 299 
 241 
 250 
 319 
 213 
 239 
 246 
 168 
 
 67 
 
 74. 
 
 G 
 
 Q 
 
 58 
 
 1 
 
 
 70 
 
 26 
 
 42 
 
 
 34 
 
 7ti. 
 
 G - — 
 
 G. 
 
 4» 
 
 104 
 
 109 
 
 28 
 
 88 
 
 142 
 74 
 45 
 51 
 56 
 53 
 
 
 
 &5 
 
 78 
 
 
 
 
 68 ..-. 
 
 
 71 
 
 79 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 103 64 
 57 48 
 68 
 
 81 
 61 
 
 74 
 
 80 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 52 
 87 
 29 
 
 54 
 
 81 
 
 G. 
 
 ' 
 
 75 
 36 
 
 72 
 
 82. 
 83 
 
 G — - 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 13 
 81 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 70 
 154 
 
 51 82 
 79 
 
 52 
 
 64 
 
 85 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 117 
 
 36 
 
 H s - 
 
 H. 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 75 51 
 
 S3 
 
 m 
 
 88 
 
 H... 
 
 H. - - 
 
 104 
 
 151 
 
 
 128 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 <)0 
 
 H - 
 
 H 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 <n 
 
 
 61 
 
 85 
 
 59 71 
 37 66 
 84 21 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 69 
 
 <y> 
 
 H. 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 93. 
 
 H... 
 
 H 
 
 H. 
 
 
 
 29 
 32 
 
 72 
 62 
 46 
 95 
 
 93 
 67 
 129 
 76 
 
 m 
 
 61 
 
 95 
 
 75 
 
 
 84 
 
 93 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 H -— 
 
 H _ 
 
 H 
 
 96 
 86 
 32 
 88 
 
 82 
 117 
 92 
 75 
 80 
 
 66 — 
 
 
 SO 
 
 97 
 
 
 
 107 
 
 98 
 
 51 
 90 
 
 :::::::::::::-- 
 
 • 
 
 80 
 
 99 
 
 31 
 
 18 1 
 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 1 84 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 FEATURES TO BE NOTED. 
 
 Each Individual Varies, That the variation in the rates of the same 
 piipiL in. different grades, is often as great as that between different pupils 
 in the same grade. 
 
 The degree of general mentality does not show itself as a conspicuous 
 factor in many of our records. There are a very few records wliich arc 
 continuously rapid, continuously slow or continuously medium. Variation 
 is the rule — due to a chief extent to variation in ambition, diligence, interest 
 or to particular difficulties. Probably a more common cause has been, tlius 
 far, the imperfection of the course of study, exercise books, new methods of 
 instruction, unavoidable in the pioneer stages of breaking new ground. 
 The estimate may be ventured that over half the slow records are due to this 
 latter cause and they are therefore not likely to repeat themselves. 
 
 This wide variation of individual rates is a matter for serious considera- 
 tion by the many schools with systems of promotions l)ased upon the assump- 
 tion of definite groups of ' ' rapid, " " medium, ' ' and "slow ' ' pupils. Pupils 
 of tliis kind, all of our records indicate, are exceptional and represent a very 
 small per cent. If such "types" do not exist, such systems have no basis. 
 
 A Slow Record Not Permanently Disabling. That pupils recover 
 from the difficulties indicated by a slow record and seem thereafter none the 
 worse for the experience — under the class system a pupil who once gets 
 out of the lockstep rarely recovers from the shock and loss. He loses bricks 
 in the foundation and the only remedy (if it is one) is to require him to 
 
 (15)
 
 repeat the grade. Under the individual system, the pnpil who meets a 
 difficulty, wrestles Avith it. conquers it in his own time, and he proceeds with 
 the glory of conquest and is none the worse in point of thoroughness. Note 
 49 N. D., whose second record was 112 days, yet who completes the primer, 
 first, second, third, and fourth readers in 262 days or in less than a year and 
 a half. His struggle and delay with the second reader seems, in fact, to 
 give him strength, for he tosses off the others in short order. Under the 
 lockstep, possibly, this boy would have repeated the low second and have 
 become hopelessly" discouraged. 
 
 The Chief Cause of Retaxdation in Classes. That few pupils seem to 
 have their difficulties in the same grade — the difficulties, so far as slow 
 records may indicate therein, are distributed differently for each. This 
 fact signifies that slowness of any pupil at any particular point, so far as 
 the cause is a difficulty of comprehension, is due to his own difficulty — not 
 to that of others. The time he uses to repair his weakness is used to tamp 
 down his comprehension thoroughly — it is not wasted time due to waiting 
 for others to comprehend something he already knows. Fifty different 
 pupils may have fifty different sticking places and under the class system, 
 all wait for each ; or else drag one another ahead before the difficulties in 
 foundation are safely overcome. "We have here brought in view the chief 
 causes of retardation — the lockstep system can not permit each pupil to take 
 the time to repair his own shortcomings at the right times. Consequently a 
 large number must pass on, failing to grasp essentials which constitute the 
 foundation. 
 
 Ag-e Not an Important Factor. That the age of the pupil in years is 
 not an important nor significant factor. The age of pupils in years since 
 birth, within the limits of two or three years, has received altogether too 
 much emphasis. Children eight years of age are frequently only six years 
 in mental development, and vice versa. 
 
 (16)
 
 VARIATION IN RATES OF PROGRESS. 
 
 The vital question upon which hincres the essential issue of instruction 
 by classes is whether or not the variation in the rates of progress of different 
 pupils is really so great as to demand the overthrow of this system of 
 education. . 
 
 This variation is very easily and accurately demonstrable. It, m any 
 class, we arrange conditions to allow each pupil to make his progress at his 
 own rate, giving instruction individually, we may record the time each has 
 used in completing the same unit of work. These time records may be com- 
 pared one with the other and the variation becomes a matter of black and 
 white. In the fact subjects, such as number arithmetic, reading, etc., the 
 comparison admits of very exact measurements. 
 
 PRIMARY READING. 
 
 Such records are submitted below. The table gives such data compiled 
 from the records in reading. The number of days each pupil has iLsed to 
 complete the successive half grades is recorded. The records have been 
 arranged in the order of fastest to slowest. 
 
 Explanation of Tables. Taking, for illustration, the low first grade, 
 the table shows that the fastest pupil completed the low first grade (primer) 
 in 33 days, the next fastest used 43 days, the next 45 days, and so on to the 
 slowest (111 days) . The variation for completing the first half grade there- 
 fore is between the extreme limits of 33 and 111 days, from fastest to 
 
 slowest. 
 
 In the high first grade, the fastest pupil completed the State First 
 Reader (Progressive Road to Reading) in 14 days and the slowest in ISO 
 days. The fastest pupil completed the low second grade, the State Second 
 Reader (Brooks' Second Reader) in 17 days and the slowest in 172 days; 
 and so with each successive series. This does not mean, of course, that the 
 fastest pupil in the primer is the fastest in the first reader, as reference to 
 the preceding table will show. The fastest in the second reader was the 
 ninth from the slowest in the first reader. 
 
 Low 1 : State Primer (Free and Treadwell)— 33, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50, 54, 58, 
 61, 63, 63, 67, 67, 67, 68, 70, 71, 71, 72, 73, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 81, 
 83, 84, 84, 84, 86, 86, 87, 87, 89, 89, 89, 90, 91, 92, 111, 111. Total days— 
 3,327. Total pupils — 45. 
 
 High 1: State First Reader (Progressive Road to Reading. Book I)— 14, 
 20, 21. 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 35, 35, 36, 37, 38, 38, 46, 47, 49, 49, 50, 50, 51, 52, 
 53, 55. 56, 59, 60, 64, 65, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 76, 77, 77. 77, 78, 80, 80, 80, 
 82. 82, 83, 85, 85, 86, 89, 89, 90, 93, 93, 98. 98. 99. 112, 144, 162. 162, 165, 
 176, 178, 180. Total days— 4.785. Total pupils— 65. 
 
 (17)
 
 Low 2: State Second Keader (Brooks' Second Keader)— 17, 23, 27, 28, 
 30, 30, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 37, 37, 37, 37, 39, 43, 48, 50, 59, 59, 62, 63, 64, 
 65, 65, 67. 68, 68, 71, 73. 73, 73, 74, 77, 87, 88, 88, 89, 89, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 
 95, 96, 100, 104, 105, 108, 111, 113, 120, 144, 158, 164, 172, 182. Total 
 clays— 4,434. Total pupils— 60. 
 
 High 2: State Second Reader (Brooks' Second Reader)— 7, 13, 19, 20, 
 21, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 29, 29, 33, 34, 34, 35, 35, 35, 36, 36, 37, 39, 42, 44, 47, 
 47, 53, 54, 54, 55, 55, 59, 60, 60, 64, 67, 69, 69, 72, 75, 76, 83, 85, 87, 88, 91, 
 93, 102, 109, 109, 116, 117, 138. Total days— 2,954. Total pupils— 53. 
 
 Low 3: State Third Reader (Stepping Stones to Literature, Book III) — 
 0, 8, 14, 14, 14, 21, 21, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 37, 37, 37, 38, 39, 41, 41, 
 42, 43, 43, 43, 44, 47, 48, 48, 49, 49, 50, 53, 53, 53, 54, 55, 55. 56, 57, 57, 58, 
 59, 60, 60, 60, 62, 64, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 69, 72, 73, 75, 76, 83, 87, 88, 93. 97, 
 101, 106. Total days— 3,350. Total pupils— 65. 
 
 High 3 : State Third Reader (Stepping Stones to Literature, Book III) — 
 0, 0, 7, 17, 18, 18, 20, 24, 25, 26, 26, 27, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36. 37, 
 39, 39, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 44, 44, 44, 45, 45, 47, 47, 47, 49, 50, 51, 54, 54, 57, 
 
 58, 58, 60, 60, 60, 61, 62, 67, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 83, 84, 84, 88, 91, 96, 96, 97, 
 100, 100, 169. Total days— 3,396. Total pupils— 66. 
 
 Low 4 : State Fourth Reader (Stepping Stones to Literature, Book IV) — 
 0, 9, 17, 18, 24, 25, 26, 28, 31, 31, 34, 34, 36, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43. 43. 43, 
 44, 45, 46, 46, 47, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 54, 57, 57, 58, 59, 62, 62, 63, 64, 64, 65, 
 67, 69, 73, 75, 76, 80, 89, 89, 93, 94, 97, 98, 100, 107. 113. 133. 136. Total 
 days— 3,380. Total pupils— 59. 
 
 High 4: State Fifth Reader (Stepping Stones to Literature, Book V) — 
 2, 7, 9, 10, 13, 24, 25, 26, 27, 27, 35, 38. 39, 46. 47, 49, 51, 52, 52, 53, 55, 
 
 59, 59, 60, 60, 64, 65, 68, 72, 74, 76, 81, 86, 88, 88, 93, 93, 94, 98, 99. 103, 
 105, 106. Total days— 2.478. Total pupils— 43. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in Integer Numbers. 
 
 The second table gives the variation in the rates of different pupils in 
 the subject of the integer number — column addition, subtraction, multipli- 
 cation, short division, compound multiplication and long division. These 
 records begin in the second grade with column addition and extend through 
 subtraction, multiplication, short division, compound multiplication and 
 long division. Pupils enter school Avith varying degrees of number knowl- 
 edge. Each is taken at his point in progress and in a preparatory course 
 is taught, if he is not already proficient, to count serially, by 10 's. by 
 5's, by 2's, even and odd, to add 10 and any number, 20 and any luunber, 
 30 and any number, etc. When this preparatory course, which may take 
 any time from a month to the entire first j^ear, is completed the pupil is 
 rated as "low second grade." The work of this half grade is to learn all 
 the additive combinations and column addition represented by the com- 
 pletion of the first half of Exercise Book No. 21. 
 
 (18)
 
 The high second grade covers the completion of Exercise Book No. 21 
 and the first half of Exercise Book No. 22, representing snlitraetion and 
 iiniltiplication. 
 
 The low third grade covers short division; the high third, compound 
 Iiniltiplication and long division and integer problems. In the low and 
 higli fourth, we are now doing fractions, decimals with problems — the work 
 usually occupying the fifth grade of class systems. 
 
 The time spent by pupils in arithmetic varies somewhat in the different 
 grades and also with pupils. The usual time given to arithmetic by us has 
 been 30 minutes daily in the first grade, 40 minutes in the second and 60 
 minutes in the third and fourth grades, distributed in periods of 10 minutes 
 in the i)rimary grades. The ancient dogma that children can not and must 
 not l)e taught arithmetic before they are eight years old rests upon evidence 
 of doubtful tradition. In this instance, as in many others, it appears that 
 age, based upon years since birth, is not a very stable or reliable factor in 
 educational issues. Some people reach eighty years of life and never reach 
 eight years of comprehension. 
 
 Addition— 15, 16, 19, 20, 20, 21, 23, 23, 24, 26, 26, 27, 28, 29, 29, 29, 30, 
 30, 30, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 42, 42, 42, 43, 43, 43, 43, 44, 44, 
 44, 44, 45, 46, 46, 47, 48, 48, 48, 48, 49, 50, 51, 51, 51, 52, 53, 54. 55, 57, 58, 
 59, 61, 62, 62, 69, 73, 74, 74, 74, 85, 86, 87, 92, 96, 116. 117. 120. Total 
 days — 3,658. Total pupils — 76. 
 
 Subtraction and Multiplication— 26, 36, 38, 39, 41, 47, 47. 48. 50, 50, 50, 
 52, 52, 53, 54, 54, 58, 59, 59, 60, 61, 61, 62, 63, 63, 64, 65, 65, 65, 66, 67, 
 67, 68, 68, 74, 76, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 87, 88, 88, 93, 93, 95, 99, 102, 102, 104, 
 118, 120, 145. Total days— 3,786. Total pupils— 54. 
 
 Short Division— 17, 18, 23, 23, 25, 29, 29, 30, 31, 31, 32, 32, 32, 33, 33, 
 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 41, 41, 41, 42, 42, 43, 43, 44, 45, 45, 46, 47, 50, 
 51, 56, 58, 58, 59, 61, 62, 62, 66, 67. 68, 68, 68, 72, 73, 73, 74, 74, 77, 77, 79, 
 81, 82, 84, 85, 89, 92, 94, 97, 100, 100, 120. Total days— 3,715. Total 
 pupils — 68. 
 
 Compound Multiplication and Long Division— 15, 21, 25, 30, 31. 32, 33, 
 34, 35, 35, 43, 43, 43, 44, 44, 46, 46, 48, 50, 51, 51, 51, 53, 55, 55, 59, 60, 60, 
 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 67, 68, 69, 69, 69, 70, 70, 72, 80, 80, 82, 82, 82. 85, 91, 92, 
 95, 96, 96, 100, 100, 102, 105, 109, 119, 120, 126. Total days— 3,912. Total 
 pupils — 60. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in Arithmetic. 
 Addition and Subtraction of Fractions and Decimals, and Text Prob- 
 lems— 13, 19, 21, 21, 22, 23, 25. 27, 31, 31, 31, 32, 32, 33, 33, 35. 35, 35, 37, 
 38, 38, 39, 41, 44, 44, 45, 45, 45, 46, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 51, 53, 54. 55, 56, 57, 
 57, 57, 58, 58, 59, 59, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 63, 65, 65, 65, 65, 68, 70, 70, 70, 71, 
 71, 72, 72, 73, 73, 73, 74, 74, 74, 75, 75, 75, 76, 76, 76, 76, 77, 78, 78, 78, 78, 
 78, 78, 79, 79, 79, 80, 80, 80, 80, 80, 81, 81, 81, 81, 82, 83, 83, 84. 85. 85, 85, 
 85, 85, 86, 87, 87, 88, 88, 93, 94, 96, 96, 96, 99, 104, 108. 114. 115. 118. 120, 
 127, 128, 132. Total days— 8,380. Total pupils- 125. 
 
 (19)
 
 Multiplication and Division of Fractions and Decimals ; Denominate 
 Numbers. Text Problems— 11, 22, 22, 24, 28, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 36, 36, 
 
 37, 37, 38, 38, 40, 42, 42, 44, 45, 45, 46, 48, 49, 49, 49, 50, 50, 51, 51, 52, 53, 
 
 54, 54, 55, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 60, 61, 61, 62, 62, 62, 63, 63, 63, 63, 66, 66, 67, 
 
 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 75, 75, 76, 76, 76, 76, 77, 77, 78, 78, 78, 79, 
 79, 80, 80, 80, 80, 81, 81, 81, 81, 82, 82, 82, 82, 82, 83, 83, 84, 85, 86, 86, 87. 
 87, 87, 88, 88, 89, 89, 90, 91, 91, 92, 92, 93, 94, 94, 96, 98, 99, 100, 102, 102. 
 103, 103. 104, 108, 111, 115, 116, 117, 128, 131, 151. Total days— 9,126. 
 Total pupils— 130. 
 
 Advanced State Text to Percentage Review and Advance — 22, 24, 24, 
 26, 28, 29, 29, 29, 31, 31, 31, 33, 33, 33, 33, 36, 36, 37, 39. 41, 42, 43, 44, 44. 
 45, 46, 46, 46, 46, 47, 48, 48, 49, 50, 50, 51, 52, 53, 53. 53. 53, 53, 53, 54, 55, 
 
 55, 56, 57, 57, 58, 58, 59, 60, 60, 61, 61, 62, 62, 62, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 66, 66, 
 
 68, 68, 69, 71, 71, 72, 74, 74, 75, 75, 76, 77, 77, 78, 78, 79, 80, 80, 80, 80, 81, 
 
 81, 81, 82, 85, 87, 88, 89, 89, 90, 90, 90, 91, 91, 91, 91, 92. 92, 93, 94, 94, 94, 
 94, 95, 95, 97, 98, 100, 103, 106, 109, 109, 110, 113, 114. 118, 121, 128, 131, 
 132, 144. 151. Total days— 8,855. Total pupils— 128. 
 
 Cases I and II of Percentage, State Text and Exercise Book No. 29 — 24. 
 26, 29, 31, 31, 33, 33, 34, 38, 41, 43, 43, 43, 44, 44, 45, 45, 45, 45, 46, 46, 47, 
 48, 49, 51, 51, 52, 52, 52, 52, 53, 53, 54, 54, 56, 56, 58, 60. 60, 61, 61, 61, 62, 
 62. 62, 63, 63, 63, 63, 64, 64, 64, 65, 66, 66, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 71, 72, 72, 
 
 74, 74, 74, 75, 76, 77, 77, 77, 78, 78, 78, 79, 79, 79, 80, 80. 80, 81, 81, 81. 82, 
 
 82, 82, 82, 82, 83, 83, 83, 83, 83, 85, 85, 86, 86, 87, 87, 87, 89, 90, 90, 90, 91, 
 91, 93, 93, 93, 94, 95, 95, 95, 99, 100, 102, 106, 106. 108. 108. 110, 114, 115. 
 118, 121. 122, 128, 128, 129, 131, 137, 142, 150, 154. Total days— 10,116. 
 Total pupiLs— 135. 
 
 Case III of Percentage, Commission, Banking and Interest; Advanced 
 State Text and Exercise Book No. 30—10, 14, 18, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 30, 
 33, 34, 34, 34, 34, 34, 35, 37, 37, 37, 37, 38, 38, 38, 39, 39. 39, 40, 40, 41, 42, 
 42, 42, 42, 42, 43, 43, 44, 45, 45, 46, 46, 46, 47, 47, 48, 49, 50, 50, 50, 51, 53, 
 54, 54, 54, 54, 55, 57, 57, 59, 62, 62, 63, 63, 65, 65, 66, 67, 67, 67, 67, 67, 68, 
 68, 6S, 69, 69, 71, 75, 75, 75, 75, 76, 77, 77, 79, 80, 80, 81, 82, 82, 83, 84, 84. 
 86, 87, 88, 91, 95, 95, 96, 103, 125, 144, 146, 151. Total days— 6,197. Total 
 pupils — 106. 
 
 Trade Discount, Insurance, Taxes, Duties with Review — 8, 13, 13, 16, 17, 
 18, 19, 19, 21, 21, 22, 22, 25, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 35, 35, 36, 36, 36, 37, 37, 
 
 38, 38, 39, 39, 42, 42, 44, 46, 46, 46, 47, 48, 48, 50, 50, 51, 51, 51, 52, 52, 54, 
 
 56, 57, 57, 57, 58, 62, 63, 64, 64, 65, 65, 66, 66, 67, 69, 69, 70, 70, 71, 71, 72, 
 73, 74. 74, 76, 78, 81, 82, 82, 83, S6, 87, 89, 99, 110. 112. 121. Total days— 
 4,416. Total pupils— 84. 
 
 Areas of Plane Figures, Square Root, and Applications (Exercise Boolvs 
 Nos. 31 and 32)— 20, 23, 26, 35, 35, 35, 36, 38, 40, 40, 41, 42, 42, 44, 45, 46, 
 47, 49, 51, 51, 52, 52, 53, 53, 54, 54, 54, 55, 55, 57, 59. 59, 61, 62, 62, 64, 65, 
 
 67, 69, 70, 77, 77, 80, 81, 81, 82, 86, 87, 88, 100, 101, 105. Total days— 2,996. 
 Total pupils— 52. 
 
 (20)
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in History. 
 Primary Text ^Tliomas' Primary United States History)— 30. 32, 33, 33, 
 
 35, 35, 35, 36, 38, 38, 39, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 41, 41, 42, 42, 42. 43, 43, 45, 45, 
 48 48 48, 49, 49, 49, 49, 49, 49, 52, 52, 53, 55, 55, 56, 56, 57, 58, 58, 58, 59, 
 60', 6l| 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 68, 68, 69, 72, 72, 73, 74, 74, 74, 75, 79, 82, 82, 83, 
 83^ 84, 90, 93, 95, 97, 100, 105, 111, 113, 115. Total days— 4,657. Total 
 pupils — 78. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Prog:ress in History. 
 
 Completion of first half of State Series Text (Mc:Ma.ster's Brief)— 19, 
 26, 28, 28, 29, 31, 32, 38, 38, 38, 38, 39, 39, 40, 40, 41, 41, 43, 43, 44, 45, 45, 
 47, 48, 50, 50, 52, 53, 53, 54, 55, 59, 59, 61, 62, 64, 64, 65, 65. 6S, 68. 71, 72, 
 74, 76, 76, 78, 78, 78, 79, 79, 81, 82, 82, 82, 85, 85, 86, 86, 88, 89. 89, 89, 90, 
 91. 91, 92, 92, 92, 92, 93, 93, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100. 101. 101. 102, 102, 
 102, 104, 105, 106, 109, 111, 113, 118. 119, 120, 122, 123, 123. 123. 124. 129, 
 liSO, 130, 136, 140. Total days— 7,981. Total pupils- 103. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in American History. 
 
 Last half of State Series Text (MeMaster's)— 24, 28, 30, 32, 33. 33, 36, 
 
 36, 38, 40, 40, 41, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 51, 51, 52, 52, 53, 53, 54, 54, 54, 56, 56, 
 57, 57, 59, 61, 61, 62, 63, 63, 63, 63, 63, 64, 64, 65, 66, 67, 67, 68, 68. 68. 68, 
 
 69, 70, 71, 71, 71, 71, 71, 72, 73, 73, 74, 74, 74, 75, 75, 77, 77. 77. 77. 79, 79, 
 79, 79, 80, 80, 84. 85, 86, 88, 89, 91, 91, 93, 93, 96, 99, 99, 99. 101. 101, 102, 
 104, 106, 106, 107, 108, 134, 152. Total days— 6,743. Total pupils— 97. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in Grammar (1). 
 20, 23, 30, 36, 36, 36, 37, 38, 38, 40, 45, 45, 46, 46, 46, 46. 46, 47, 47, 47, 
 
 49, 49, 50, 50, 50, 52, 52, 52, 52, 52, 52, 52, 53, 53, 54, 54, 54, 55, 55. 55, 55, 
 
 56, 56, 57, 57, 57, 58, 58, 58, 58, 58, 58, 59, 59, 60, 60, 61, 61, 62, 62, 62, 63, 
 63, 63, 63, 64, 64, 64, 65, 66, 67, 67, 70, 70, 71, 71, 72, 72, 74, 75, 75, 75, 79, 
 79, 79, 81, 83, 87, 90, 92, 98, 106. Total days— 5,380. Total pupils— 92. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in Grammar (2). 
 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 39, 39, 39, 39, 41. 41, 41. 41. 42. 42. 42, 
 43, 43, 44, 44, 45, 45, 46, 46, 46, 46, 47, 47, 47, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48. 49, 50, 50, 
 
 50, 51, 51, 51, 51, 52, 52, 52, 52, 53, 54, 55, 55, 55, 56, 56, 57, 57, 57, 57, 57, 
 
 57, 58, 58, 59, 59, 60, 62, 62, 63, 63, 64, 65, 65, 65, 66, 66. 67. 67. 69. 69, 70, 
 
 70, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 78, 79, 87, 95. Total days— 4,936. Total pupils— 93. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in Grammar (3). 
 
 24 25, 27, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 35, 36, 37, 37, 37, 38, SS, 39, 40, 41, 41, 43, 
 43 44 45, 46, 46, 46, 46, 46, 47, 48, 49, 49, 49, 49, 51, 51, 52, 52, 52, 53, 54, 
 54 55', 55, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 61, 62, 63, 63, 64, 64, 65, 66, 6S, 69, 70, 72, 72, 
 73! 74, 74, 74, 74, 75, 75, 77, 78, 78, 81, 82. 83, 84, 85, 87, 87, 88, 91, 91, 94, 
 102, 102, 107, 110. Total days— 5,153. Total pupils— 87. 
 
 4—19474 (21)
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in Language (Exercise Book No. 42). 
 
 15, 18. 19, 20. 21, 23, 23, 25, 27, 28, 28, 28, 28, 28, 29, 29, 29, 29, 31, 31, 
 32, 32, 32, 32, 34, 35, 35, 36, 36, 36, 37, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 43, 43, 45, 
 45, 46, 46. 47. 47, 49, 49, 54, 54, 54, 56, 57, 57, 58, 58, 58, 58, 59, 60, 60, 61, 
 63, 64. 68, 68, 68, 73, 73, 81, 82, 85, 87. 88. Total days— 3,330. Total pu- 
 pils — 74. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in Language (Exercise Book No. 43). 
 
 Low 6 and High 6—9, 13, 14, 14, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17, 17, 18, 18, 19, 19, 20, 
 20, 21, 22, 23, 23, 23, 23, 23, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 26, 27, 27, 28, 28, 
 29, 29, 31, 34. 35, 36, 36, 36, 37, 38, 38, 38, 39, 39, 40, 41, 42, 42, 42, 43, 43, 
 44, 44, 45, 45, 45, 45, 45, 46, 46, 46, 46, 46, 48, 48, 49, 50, 50, 50, 53, 53, 53, 
 54, 54, 54, 55. 55, 56, 56, 57, 57, 57, 58, 59, 61, 61. 61. 63. 63. 64, 64, 69, 70, 
 71, 93. Total days— 3,951. Total pupils— 101. 
 
 Variation in Rates of Progress in Language (Exercise Book No. 44), 
 
 Low 7 and High 7—33, 35, 36, 36, 36. 37, 37, 37, 37, 37, 38, 38, 39, 40, 
 40. 41. 42. 42. 43. 43, 43, 44, 44, 44, 45, 46, 47, 54, 54, 55, 55, 56, 56, 57, 59, 
 60, 63. 67. 72. 79. Total days— 1,867. Total pupils— 40. 
 
 FEATURES TO BE NOTED. 
 
 The Excessively Rapid and Excessively Slow Records. While the 
 total variation, in most series, is extremely wide, it will be noted that the 
 first few rates at the beginning, and the last few at the end, are exceptional. 
 They do not conform to the usual evenness of variation. Most of these may 
 be regarded as sporadic and due to accidental conditions not likely to be 
 repeated. In fact, as will be later shown, few records of either great 
 rapidity or great slowness are repeated by the same pupil. The amount of 
 work assigned to a half-grade has already been determined by previous 
 records and this has been fixed by what the slowest pupil, under normal and 
 legitimate conditions, has accomplished in 95 days (one-half a school year), 
 allowing one hour's work per day. In a few cases these records show that 
 perfect adjustment of the amount of work assigned to a grade has not yet 
 been reached, but changes in quantity of work have already been made and 
 will show in later records. Consequently, the records exceeding 95 days 
 may be regarcled of little significance except that they show need of adjust- 
 ment. The fastest legitimate records are usually in the vicinity of 19 or 20 
 hours (or days), making the range of variation between the extremes of 
 19 or 20 and 95 or 100— a ratio of 1 to 5. 
 
 Variation Is Evenly Distributed. The rates between the extremes of 
 19 to 95. when there are enough of them, are usually very evenly distributed. 
 There is a .slight unevenness approaching either extremity, but as a rule the 
 evenness of this distribution is singular. Rates are nowhere bunched in 
 groups in any way to offer justification for group teaching. 
 
 (22)
 
 Subjects Follow the Same Law of Variation. The features of varia- 
 tion arc practically the same in every .sul)ject when the number of pupils is 
 approximately the same. 
 
 The General Significance. These figures forcibly display their own 
 significance. They at once declare the futility of making the lockstep class 
 system, by any modification or patching, serve the purposes for which 
 schools are maintained. When we once realize that in every class of fifty 
 pupils, proceeding in monotonous lockstep. there is one pupil who can do in 
 one month what another pupil will require five months to finish, that the 
 other.s are very evenly distributed between these extremes, and the reason- 
 ably slowest can make faster progress than the class in lockstep, we can no 
 longer be content with schooling l)y the lockstep. It makes clear why there 
 are so many repeaters. Avhy there are so many disinterested, bored pupils. 
 
 There is only one line of argument possible — to di.spute the facts. If 
 any one questions them, it is easy to disprove or verify thera. It would cost 
 very little for any city to try out a group of 50 pupils upon the individual 
 plan for six moiitlis. At most, under unfavorable conditions, it would cost 
 only the salary of an additional teacher and a few dollars' Avorth of extra 
 aids. Fix no set lessons, agree to promote pupils upon completion of the 
 half-grade and take care of the situation. Then any one may learn the 
 facts at first hand. 
 
 (2S)
 
 RECORDS OF SAME PUPILS THROUGH SUCCESSIVE GRADES. 
 
 AVe may now take up the data concerning the progress of the same pupil 
 through successive grades in the same subject. The figures upon this phase 
 of the subject are necessarily limited because our records extend baclavard 
 only two years at best, and the majority are for shorter periods. Of some 
 pupils we have the time record for only one half-grade ; for others we have 
 records for two, three, four, five, six and, in a few instances, for seven half- 
 grades. We have grouped in each subject the records according to the 
 number of half-grades completed. The standard time for records of one 
 half-grade Avill, of course, be 95 hours; for two half-grades, 190 hours 
 (95 X 2) ; for three half -grades, 285 hours (95 X 3) ; for four half -grades, 
 380 hours (95 X 4) ; for five half -grades, 475 hours (95 X 5) ; for six half- 
 grades, 570 hours (95X6); for seven half -grades, 665 hours (95X7). 
 Records which exceed these standards are excessive and represent retarda- 
 tion. Those which fall below these standards are accelerated rates. 
 
 For convenience of ready significance, we have given the average time 
 each pupil has used in completing a half -grade— found by dividing the 
 total hours by the number of half -grades. In the first table (Primary 
 Reading), the records are in days, not hours, for reasons already ex- 
 plained. All other tables are in hours. 
 
 Explanation of Tables. The first series means that, taking all pupils 
 in primary reading, of whom we have as yet only records for one half- 
 grade, each has completed this half-grade in the days represented— 43, 
 43, 58, and so on. Each could have used 95 days, the grade standard; 
 those M'ho have exceeded 95 days are retarded to the extent represented 
 by the excess of days. 
 
 In the second series, we have the records of those who have completed 
 two half-grades. The sum of each has been taken as shown in upper line ; 
 the maximum standard is 190 days, with which each may be compared. 
 The average of each as shown in lower line is obtained by dividing the 
 upper number by 2 and disregarding fractions. Thus, the fastest pupil 
 completed two half-grades (one year) in 65 days or 3^ months (20 days in 
 school month) ; this is an average rate of 33 days per half- grade or a 
 little less than 1^ months. The slowest pupil finished in 265 days, exceed- 
 ing the standard of 185 days by 80 days, a retardation of four months. 
 There are 11. pupils who exceed the standard maximum assumed for the 
 slowest. 
 
 The third series represents pupils of whom we have records for three 
 half-grades (1| years). The fastest completed these three half-grades in 
 81 days and the slowest in 312 days. The standard maximum is 285 days. 
 The average of the fastest was 41 days per half-grade (81 -f- 2), and the 
 average rate of the slowest was 104 days. The fastest therefore finished 
 with a saving of 220 days (285 — 65), and the slowest wdth a retardation 
 of 27 days (312 — 285) ; or in terms of average, the fastest saved, on the 
 average, 54 days (95 — 41), per half- grade, and the slowest lost 9 days 
 per half-grade (104 — 95). The other series may be similarly interpreted. 
 
 (24)
 
 Table showing the number of hours used by different pupils m completing: 
 one to six half-grades (upper line), and the average time of each (lower 
 line) . The standards are shown for each ; excessively slow records are 
 printed in black type. 
 
 PRIMARY READING. 
 
 Number of days used in completing one half-grade (standard maxi- 
 mum, 95 days)-43, 43, 58, 67, 67, 67, 68, 72, 76, 77, 81, 93, 98, 111, HI. 
 169, 178, 182. 
 
 Xumber of days used in completing two half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 180 days). Average number of days^per half-grade (95 days) : 
 
 65 70 71, 75, 95, 96, 96, 100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 112, 114, 115, 
 
 33, 35', 36, 38, 48, 48, 48, 50, 51, 51, 52, 53, 06, o/, d8, 
 115 115 120, 121, 122, 126, 127, 130, 131, 134, 137, 139, 140, 144, 145, 
 
 58! 58^ 60, 61, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 70, 72. 73. 
 145 150, 153. 157, 160, 162, 162, 164, 166, 172, 182, 186, 196, 221, 232, 
 
 73', 75. 77, 79. 80, 81, 81, 82, 83, 86, 91, 93, 98, 111, 116, 
 
 233, 243, 249, 249, 250, 260, 262, 265. 
 117, 122, 125, 125, 125, 125, 131, 133. 
 
 Xumber of days used in completing three half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 285 days). " Average number of days per half-grade (95 days^ : 
 
 81, 87, no, 113, 132, 138, 159, 164, 165, 165, 188, 189, 195, 200, 201, 
 27. 29. 37, 38, 44, 46, 53, 55, 55, 55, 63, 63, 65, 67, 6t, 
 
 '■>0''> 204 --^06 208, 222, 223, 243, 259, 264, 274, 274, 276, 312. 
 6S. 68. 69, 70. 74, 75, 81, 87, 88, 92, 92, 92, 104. 
 
 Xumber of days used in completing four half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum. 380 days). Average (95 days) : 
 
 107, 113, 154, 156, 162, 163, 167, 169, 178, 179, 214, 222, 
 27, 29, 39, 39, 41, 41, 42, 43, 45, 45, 54, 56, 
 
 224, 240, 243, 246, 254, 255, 263, 270, 278, 311, 331, 339. 
 56, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 6^5, 68, 70, 78, 83, 85. 
 
 Xumber of days used in completing five half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 475 days). Average number of days per half-grade (maximum, 95 
 days) : 
 
 122, 207, 254, 255, 267, 271, 272, 279, 301, 302, 316, 333, 355. 
 25, 42, 51, 51, 54, do, 55, 56, 61, 61, 64, 67. 71. 
 
 (2.5)
 
 Xnmber of daj's used in completing six half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 570 days). Average number of days per half-grade (maximum. 95 
 days) : 
 
 239, 256, 260, 267, 270, 305, 307, 366. 
 40, 43, 44, 45, 45, 51, 52, 61. 
 
 Number of days used in completing seven half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 665 days). Average number of days per half-grade (maximum, 95 
 days) : 
 
 210, 309, 311. 
 30, 45, 45. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing one half-grade (standard maxi- 
 mum, 95 hours)— 15, 20, 21, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31, 31, 33, 34, 36, 41, 42, 43, 43, 
 43, 44, 46, 46, 47, 50, 51, 53, 55, 56, 59, 59, 59, 62, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72. 74. 74, 
 79, 82, 84, 92, 92, 96, 56, 99, 100, 117, 122. Total pupils— 48. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing two half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 190 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 95 hours) : 
 
 48, 50, 50, 57, 61, 65, 67, 77, 80, 89, 90, 93. 
 
 24, 25, 25, 29, 31, 33, 34, 39, 40, 45, 45, 47, 
 
 99, 101, 104, 107, 109, 113, 114, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 
 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 57, 60, 60, 61, 62, 62, 
 
 129, 132, 133, 133, 133, 143, 144, 148, 148, 149, 153, 156, 
 65, 61, 67, 67, 67, 72, 72, 74, 74, 75, 77, 78, 
 
 157, 166, 167, 172, 179, 179, 182, 189, 193, 200. 
 79, 83, 84, 86, 90, 90, 91, 95, 97, 100. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing three half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 285 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 95 hours) : 
 
 81, 115, 116, 119, 126, 142, 144, 160, 163, 171, 173, 175. 
 27, 39, 39, 40, 42, 48, 48, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 
 
 178, 207, 207, 231, 266. 
 60, 69, 69, 77, 89. 
 
 Xuiii])er of hours used in conipleting four half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 280 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 95 hours) : 
 
 145, 160, 168, 179, 180, 189, 202, 207, 209, 214, 217, 253, 268. 
 37, 40, 42, 45, 45, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 64, 67. 
 
 (26)
 
 ARITHMETIC (GRAMMAR GRADES). 
 
 Number of hours used in completing: one half-y:rade i slaudard maxi- 
 mum, 95 hours)— 19, 24, 27, 31, 31, 33, 35, 37, 38, 39, 39, 39. 41. 44. 44, 45, 
 46, 46, 49, 50, 51, 51, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 02. 63. 63. 65. 
 66, 6S. 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 81, 81, 83, 85, 87, 87. 103, 108, 120, 128. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing two lialf-grades (standai-d maxi- 
 mum, 190 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum. 
 95 hours) :, 
 
 63, 68, 75, 76, 83, 89, 90, 96, 99, 113, 113, 120. 122. 123, 124. 
 32, 34, 38, 38, 42, 45, 45, 48, 50, 57, 57, 60, 61, 62, 62, 
 
 127, 130, 131, 131, 134, 137, 138, 140, 142, 143, 143, 146, 148, 150, 152, 
 . 64, 65, 66, 66, 67, 69, 69, 70, 71, 72, 72, 73, 74. 75, 76, 
 
 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 168, 168, 169, 170, 173, 174. 175, 175, 
 
 77, 77, 78, 78, 79, 79, 80, 84, 84, 85. 85. 87. 87. 88, 88, 
 
 178, 179, 182, 185, 188, 198 201, 213, 221, 233, 255. 
 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 94, 101, 107, 111, 117, 128. 
 
 Number of hours nsed in completing three half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 285 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 95 hours) : 
 
 108, 108, 110, 122, 123, 130, 142, 143, 144, 148, 150, 159, 161, 164, 166, 
 36, 36, 37, 41, 41, 47, 48, 48, 48, 50, 50, 53, 54. do, 56, 
 
 167, 169, 170, 173, 178, 180, 191, 198," 201, 202, 204, 206, 210, 211, 221, 
 57, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60, 64, 66, 67, 68, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 
 
 222, 225, 225, 227, 229, 230, 234, 236, 237, 238, 239, 239, 239, 241, 242, 
 
 74, 75, 75, 77, 77, 77, 78, 79, 79, 80, 80, 80, 80. 81, 81, 
 
 242, 243, 245, 246, 250, 251, 251, 253, 255, 255, 259, 259, 260, 262, 268, 
 
 81, 81, 82, 82, 84, 84, 84, 85, 85, 85, 87, 87, 87, S8, 90, 
 
 274, 274, 286, 288, 292, 308, 319. 
 92, 92, 96, 96, 98, 103, 107. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing four half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 380 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 95 hours) : 
 
 108, 131, 149, 167, 180, 191, 196, 200, 200, 202, 215, 215. 216. 222, 228, 
 27, 33, 38, 42, 45, 48, 49, 50, 50, 51, 54, 54, 54. 36, 57, 
 
 228, 234, 237, 237, 239. 239, 241, 242, 242, 243, 243, 248, 253, 255, 257, 
 57, 59, 60, 60, 60, 60, 61, 61, 61, 61, 61, 62, 64, 64, 65, 
 
 260, 260, 262, 264, 265, 266, 269, 272, 275, 276, 278, 278, 27J). 282, 283, 
 65, 65, 66, 66, 67, 67, 68, 68, 69, 69, 70, 70, 70. 71. 71. 
 
 (27)
 
 283, 286, 286, 287, 288, 293, 293, 293, 298, 303, 304. 309, 311, 313, 315, 
 71. 72, 72. 72, 72, 74, 74, 74, 75, 76, 76, 78, 78, 79, 79, 
 
 315, 319. 323. 326, 327, 328, 348, 363. 
 79, 80, 81, 82, 82, 82, 87, 91. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing five half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 475 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 95 hours) : 
 
 215, 216, 223, 232, 232, 246, 253, 262, 265, 269, 
 43, 44, 45, 47, 47, 50, 51, 53, 53, 54, 
 
 271, 281, 288, 294, 299, 305, 319, 324, 330. 
 55, 57, 58, 60, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing six half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 570 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 95 hours) : 
 
 241, 289, 315, 323. 
 41. 50, 53, 54. 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 The amount of time allowed for the study of grammar is one-half hour 
 or 47^ hours per half-grade. The maximum standard is therefore 47^ 
 hours instead of 95. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing one half-grade (standard maxi- 
 mum, 47^ hours)— 7, 10, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 13, 13, 15, 16, 16, 16, 17, 18, 18, 
 19, 19, 20, 20, 21, 21, 22, 22, 22, 23, 23, 25, 27, 29, 33, 33, 33, 34, 34, 36, 
 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 44, 48, 49, 69. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing two half -grades (standard nuxxi- 
 mum, 90 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 47^ hours ) : 
 
 10, 25, 26, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 41, 41, 43, 44, 47, 49, 50, 
 5, 13, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17, 21, 21, 22, 22, 24, 25, 25, 
 
 50, 50, 50, 52, 52, 53, 53, 53, 53, 54, 55, 55, 56, 56, 57, 
 
 25, 25, 25, 26, 26, 27, 27, 27, 27, 27, 28, 28, 28, 28, 29, 
 
 58, 58, 58, 60, 60, 61, 61, 62, 62, 63, 63, 65, 65, 65, 71, 
 29, 29, 29, 30, 30, 31, 31, 31, 31, 32, 32, 33, 33, 33, 36, 
 
 74, 74, 81, 82, 84, 97, 100, 102, 105, 111. 
 37, 37, 41, 41, 42, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56. 
 
 (28)
 
 Number of hours 
 mum, 142^ hours). 
 47^ hours) : 
 
 29, 
 
 32, 
 
 35, 
 
 46, 
 
 10, 
 
 11, 
 
 12, 
 
 16, 
 
 70, 
 
 70, 
 
 71, 
 
 72, 
 
 24, 
 
 24, 
 
 24, 
 
 24, 
 
 87, 
 
 87, 
 
 88, 
 
 89, 
 
 29, 
 
 29, 
 
 30, 
 
 30, 
 
 100, 
 
 100, 
 
 101, 
 
 101, 
 
 34, 
 
 34, 
 
 34, 
 
 34, 
 
 121, 
 
 121, 
 
 130, 
 
 132, 
 
 41, 
 
 41, 
 
 44, 
 
 44, 
 
 used in eompletinc: three half-grades (standard maxi- 
 Average number of hours per half -grade (maximum, 
 
 46, 51, 52, 54, 54, 56, 60, 60, 60, 65, 67, 
 16, 17, 18, 18, 18, 19, 20, 20, 20, 22, 23, 
 
 73, 76, 77, 78, 80, 80, 81, 83, 84, 84, 85, 
 25, 26, 26, 26, 27, 27, 27, 28, 28, 28, 29, 
 
 90, 91, 91, 92, 92, 93, 93, 94, 98, 98, 99, 
 30, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 32, 33, 33, 33, 
 
 103, 108, 108, 108, 109, 109, 111, 112, 115, 116, 117, 
 35, 36, 36, 36, 37, 37, 37, 38, 39, 39, 39, 
 
 134, 134, 135, 144. 
 45, 45, 45, 48. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing four half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 190 hours. Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 47^ hours) : 
 
 46, 68, 71, 73, 77, 77, 80, 83, 90, 91, 92, 97, 97, 101, 103, 105, 
 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 20, 20, 21, 23, 23, 23, 25, 25, 26, 26, 27, 
 
 106, 106, 108, 110, 110, 111, 117, 118, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 123, 123, 
 27, 27, 27, 28, 28, 28, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 31, 31, 31, 31. 31, 
 
 126, 127, 127, 131, 134, 135, 138, 138, 140, 143, 143, 144, 144, 147, 158. 
 32, 32, 32, 33, 34, 34, 35, 35, 35, 36, 36, 36, 36, 37, 40. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing five half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 237^ hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 471 hours) : 
 
 68, 82, 85, 93, 94, 97, 102, 102, 103, 105, 105, 106, 110, 111, 116, 
 14, 17, 17, 19, 19, 20, 21, 21, 21, 21, 21. 22, 22, 23, 24, 
 
 116, 116, 118, 118, 119, 121, 122, 128, 128, 132, 135, 140, 142, 144, 146, 
 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 25, 25, 26, 26, 27, 27, 28, 29, 29, 30, 
 
 148, 161, 169. 
 30, 33, 34. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing six half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 285 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 47^ hours) : 
 
 76, 96, 107, 117, 119, 123, 134, 146. 
 
 13, 16, 18, 20, 20, 21, 23, 25. 
 
 5—19474 
 
 (29)
 
 Number of hours used in completing seven half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 285 hours). Average number of hours per half -grade (maximum, 
 47-J hours) : 
 
 291, 136, 291. 
 42. 20, 42. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 The daily allowance of time is one-half hour or 47^ hours per half- 
 grade, as in grammar. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing one half-grade (standard maxi- 
 mum, 47i hours)— 15, 16, 19, 19. 24, 25. 26, 27, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 32, 33, 
 34, 38, 38, 41, 42, 44, 46, 48, 49, 55, 55, 60, 66, 92. Total pupils— 29. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing two half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 95 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 47| hours) : 
 
 18, 24, 31, 33, 35, 35, 37, 38, 39, 39, 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, 
 9, 12, 16, 17, 18, 18, 19, 19, 20, 20, 20, 21, 21, 22, 23, 
 
 49, 49, 49, 52, 53, 55, 55, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 65, 66, 66, 
 25, 25, 25, 26, 27, 28, 28, 30, 31, 32, 32, 33, 33, 33, 33, 
 
 67, 68, 69, 70, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 74, 75, 78, 81, 81, 82, 
 34, 34, 35, 35, 35, 36, 36, 37, 37, 37, 38, 39, 41, 41, 41, 
 
 82, 86, 89, 91, 92, 94. 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 107, 115, 115, 
 41, 43, 45, 46, 46, 47. 50, 50, 51, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 58, 
 
 121, 123, 123, 124, 126, 128, 130, 136, 140, 146, 158. 
 61, 62, 62, 62, 63, 64, 65, 68, 70, 73, 79. 
 
 Number of hour 
 mum, 142^ hours). 
 47| hours) : 
 
 40, 66, 71 
 14, 22, 24 
 
 87, 89, 90 
 29, 30, 30 
 
 99, 100, 101 
 33, 34, 34 
 
 122, 122, 123 
 
 41, 41, 41 
 
 134, 136, 136 
 45, 46, 46 
 
 145, 147, 148 
 49, 49, 50 
 
 s used in completing three half-grades (standard maxi- 
 Average number of hours per half-grade (maxinuim. 
 
 , 71, 
 
 72, 
 
 , 24, 
 
 24, 
 
 , 90, 
 
 91, 
 
 , 30, 
 
 31, 
 
 , 101, 
 
 104, 
 
 ^ 34, 
 
 35, 
 
 , 123, 
 
 123, 
 
 , 41, 
 
 41, 
 
 i, 136, 
 
 136, 
 
 ;, 46, 
 
 46, 
 
 i, 150, 
 
 151, 
 
 ). 50, 
 
 51, 
 
 72, 
 
 73, 
 
 78, 
 
 79, 
 
 80, 
 
 80, 
 
 82, 
 
 83, 
 
 84, 
 
 86, 
 
 24, 
 
 25, 
 
 26, 
 
 27, 
 
 27, 
 
 27, 
 
 28, 
 
 28, 
 
 28, 
 
 29, 
 
 92, 
 
 92, 
 
 93, 
 
 93, 
 
 95, 
 
 96, 
 
 97, 
 
 97, 
 
 98, 
 
 98, 
 
 31, 
 
 31, 
 
 31, 
 
 31, 
 
 32, 
 
 32, 
 
 33, 
 
 33, 
 
 33, 
 
 33, 
 
 107, 
 
 108, 
 
 108, 
 
 109, 
 
 114, 
 
 115, 
 
 115, 
 
 117, 
 
 119, 
 
 120, 
 
 36, 
 
 36, 
 
 36, 
 
 37, 
 
 38, 
 
 39, 
 
 39, 
 
 39, 
 
 40, 
 
 40, 
 
 125, 
 
 125, 
 
 127, 
 
 128, 
 
 128, 
 
 131, 
 
 131, 
 
 132, 
 
 132, 
 
 134, 
 
 42, 
 
 42, 
 
 43, 
 
 43, 
 
 43, 
 
 44, 
 
 44, 
 
 44, 
 
 44, 
 
 45, 
 
 137, 
 
 137, 
 
 138, 
 
 139, 
 
 139, 
 
 139, 
 
 140, 
 
 140, 
 
 143, 
 
 144, 
 
 46, 
 
 46, 
 
 46, 
 
 47, 
 
 47, 
 
 47, 
 
 47, 
 
 47, 
 
 48, 
 
 48, 
 
 156, 
 
 158, 
 
 159, 
 
 160, 
 
 162, 
 
 165, 
 
 167, 
 
 167, 
 
 169, 
 
 178. 
 
 52, 
 
 53, 
 
 53, 
 (30) 
 
 54, 
 
 54, 
 
 55, 
 
 56, 
 
 56, 
 
 57, 
 
 60.
 
 Number of hours used in c-ompletiug four half-grades (standard niaxi- 
 niuni, 190 hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maxinuim. 
 47^ hours) : 
 
 92, 95, 99, 100, 100, 101, 102, 102, 105, 106, 107, 111, 112, 115, 116, 
 23, 24, 25, 25, 25, 26, 26, 26, 27, 27, 27, 28, 28, 29, 29, 
 
 116, 119, 119, 120, 120, 124, 126, 126, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 140, 141, 
 29, 30, 30, 30, 30, 31, 32, 32, 33, 34, 34, 35, 35, 35, 36, 
 
 144, 145, 148, 148, 152, 153, 159, 159, 160, 160, 161, 167, 168, 168, 172, 
 36, 37. 37, 37, 38, 39, 40, 40, 40, 40, 41, 42, 42, 42, 43^ 
 
 175, 176, 180, 182, 183. 
 44, 44, 45, 46, 46. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing five half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 237^ hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 47 i hours) : 
 
 93, 99, 107, 109, 112, 114, 117, 118, 118, 124, 125, 130, 13'^ 
 19, 20, 22, 22, 23, 23, 24, 24, 24, 25, 25. 26. 27,' 
 
 134, 134, 136, 143, 145, 146, 151, 157, 161, 173, 184 186 "^05 
 27, 27, 28, 29, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33. 35, 37. 38, 41. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing six half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 285 hours). Average number of hours per half -grade (nuiximum. 
 47^ hours) : 
 
 131, 163. 
 22, 28. 
 
 Number of hours used in completing seven half-grades (standard maxi- 
 mum, 332^ hours). Average number of hours per half-grade (maximum, 
 47| hours) : 
 
 108, 132. 
 16, 19. 
 
 (31)
 
 , FEATURES TO BE NOTED. 
 
 1. That with longer periods of time, the average rapid record grows 
 slightly slower, and the average slow record grows very much faster. 
 
 This is unexpected and seems singular. With our general theory of 
 types of "slow" and "fast" pupils, we should expect the fast to go faster 
 and the slow at least to remain slow. But by examining the general record 
 sheet, it appears that practically all pupils tend to vary widely in their 
 own rates. 
 
 2. That while in the records for one half-grade, two half-grades and 
 three half-grades, there are always some averages which exceed 95 hours, 
 there are no averages exceeding 95 hours among the pupils who have com- 
 pleted four, five or more half-grades. This might be interpreted upon the 
 ground that since our plan has only been in operation for two years, or less, 
 the pupils who have completed four or more half-grades represent the 
 "fast" tj^pe and that they have not made any slow records. To a certain 
 extent, this explanation is probably valid, but as will be shown in a subse- 
 quent paragraph, the pupils who have completed four or more half-grades 
 nevertheless are burdened with a considerable percentage of excessively 
 slow records; the slow rates have been averag?d out. 
 
 Are There Slow and Fast Types? It is clear that if the pupils who are 
 exceptionally fa.st in the first half-grade should maintain these same rates 
 continuously, they would complete the eight grades of this subject in short 
 order. They would, therefore, constitute a "rapid" type. Similarly, if 
 the pupils who are excessively slow should continue, through each successive 
 grade, to move at the same retarded rate, they would slip further and 
 further behind and require years to complete the eight grades. They would 
 eon.stitute a "slow" type. Seemingly we might also establish a "medium" 
 type. These are terms of popular pedagogic presumption, and when we 
 commenced the work of individual instruction, we confidently anticipated 
 the records to run upon this plan. But the figures have not run upon this 
 plan. We would have a difficult task to put a finger definitely upon any 
 considerable number of pupils who, judged by their records, could be 
 adjudged "rapid," "medium," or "slow." We have found few pupils 
 Avho have made progress through successive grades at a continuously rapid, 
 continuously medium, and fewer at a continuously slow rate. The rule is 
 that of constant variation in rate, even hy the same pupil. For illustration, 
 we may take pupils in grammar grade arithmetic who have completed at 
 least three successive half-grades. We have 154 such records, some for 
 three half -grades, some for four half -grades, some for five and six. Let us 
 designate as exceedingly rapid any rate which is less than half the standard 
 minimum (95 hours) or 47^ hours; as "medium," any rate which falls 
 between 474 and 95 hours; and as excessively "slow" any record which 
 exceeds 95 hours. Of these 155 pupils, there are 16 whose average rate is 
 rapid, and 95 whose record contains one or more rapid rates for a half- 
 grade, but only 3 are continuously rapid. There are 132 whose average is 
 
 (32)
 
 medium, and 152 whose records contain one or more medium half-grade 
 rates, but only 38 which are continuously medium. There are 45 whose 
 records contain one or two slow half-grade rates, but only 6 average slow 
 and none are continuously slow, even for three half-srades. There are 24 of 
 the 155 whose records contain mixtures of all three types. 
 
 Of course, we know there are pupils inherently deficient— there are 
 idiots, imbeciles, morons, and, in all probability, backward pupils among the 
 normal. Also we do know there are prodigies. But the evidence of our 
 experience simply minimizes the undue emphasis which has been placed 
 upon the theory of slow and fast "types" for practical purposes. The 
 factor of inherent qualities is evidently not so dominant and all-determining 
 in the regular school subjects as we have assumed. Doubtless, in subjects 
 of marked congenital origin these types do exist. These up-and-down 
 variations, in the same pupil, can not be due as the rule, to inherent rapidity 
 or slo^^•ness, but far more to some temporary and external conditions. 
 Progress in arithmetic, more than any other school subject, is popularly 
 supposed to be controlled by hereditary predisposition. What our records 
 would indicate is that this factor has been greatly overestimated, that the 
 differences among pupils, in native arithmetical ability, are much less than 
 popular pedagogy has taught and that as a rule the variations are due to 
 simpler external conditions. 
 
 What Becomes of Pupils Who, for a Half Grade, Exceed the 
 Maximum Standard in a Given Subject? At least, in an individual sj's- 
 tcm. there need be no perpetration of the preposterous absurdity of sending 
 the pupil back over the grade to do completely over again not only the 
 subject in which he is partially deficient, but also those in which he is not 
 at all deficient. So far as the pupil has gone, under the individual plan, he 
 is as thorough as the most rapid. He is simply behind. He may continue 
 to lag behind, or, possibly, he may redouble his efforts and catch up. Yet. 
 if, as popular pedagogy assumes, pupils who make slow progress for a half- 
 grade belong to a "slow" type, by mental inheritance, they will continue to 
 fall even further behind. But this condition, in our limited experience, 
 does not appear to be the rule, nor even a noticeable tendency. 
 
 To make clear this situation, there are grouped below the successive rates 
 of all pupils who have completed at least three half-grades of grammar 
 grade arithmetic and who have made one or more records exceeding 95 hours 
 for a half-grade. The total number of hours and the average rate are 
 also given. 
 
 Explanation of Tables. Each horizontal line is the record of a single 
 pupil. The first used 43 hours in his first half-grade, dropped to 110 hours 
 (excessively slow) in his second half-grade, and returned to 51 hours in his 
 third half-grade. His total Avas 204 hours or an average of 6S hours — 27 
 
 (33)
 
 hours less than the standard 95 hours, though he was excessively slow in one 
 half -grade. 
 
 Number of hours for three 
 half-grades 
 
 = o 
 2 3 
 
 Average i 
 per half - 
 
 Number of hours for four 
 half-grades 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 
 
 =r3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 2 
 
 ^ro 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 ?3 
 1 c 
 1 ^ 
 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 " i. 
 
 in p 
 
 f a 
 
 c 
 
 43 
 
 110 
 
 51 
 
 204 
 
 68 
 
 23 
 
 49 
 
 132 
 
 33 
 
 237 
 
 60 
 
 22 
 
 72 
 
 131 
 
 225 
 
 75 
 
 31 
 
 100 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 239 
 
 60 
 
 84 
 
 99 
 
 42 
 
 225 
 
 75 
 
 114 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 67 
 
 267 
 
 66 
 
 115 
 
 65 
 
 50 
 
 230 
 
 77 
 
 33 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 42 
 
 266 
 
 67 
 
 45 
 
 98 
 
 91 
 
 234 
 
 78 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 74 
 
 105 269 
 
 68 
 
 96 
 
 86 
 
 57 
 
 239 
 
 80 
 
 102 
 
 76 
 
 69 
 
 35 i 282 
 
 71 
 
 44 
 
 87 
 
 112 
 
 243 
 
 81 
 
 108 
 
 67 
 
 35 
 
 69 ! 279 
 
 70 
 
 87 
 
 45 
 
 110 
 
 242 
 
 81 
 
 58 
 
 77 
 
 113 
 
 45 
 
 293 
 
 74 
 
 81 
 
 116 
 
 44 
 
 241 
 
 81 
 
 53 
 
 144 
 
 66 
 
 30 
 
 293 
 
 74 
 
 63 
 
 85 
 
 103 
 
 251 
 
 84 
 
 45 
 
 103 
 
 64 
 
 81 
 
 293 
 
 74 
 
 46 
 
 129 
 
 75 
 
 250 
 
 84 
 
 122 
 
 91 
 
 34 
 
 62 
 
 309 
 
 78 
 
 65 
 
 89 
 
 97 
 
 251 
 
 84 
 
 128 
 
 62 
 
 76 
 
 49 
 
 315 
 
 79 
 
 63 
 
 53 
 
 137 
 
 253 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 96 
 
 78 
 
 72 
 
 327 
 
 82 
 
 125 
 
 78 
 
 52 
 
 255 
 
 85 
 
 93 
 
 151 
 
 58 
 
 26 
 
 328 
 
 82 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 150 
 
 255 
 
 85 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 121 
 
 62 
 
 348 
 
 87 
 
 55 
 
 111 
 
 94 
 
 260 
 
 87 
 
 79 
 
 146 
 
 38 
 
 100 
 
 363 
 
 91 
 
 49 
 
 104 
 115 
 
 109 
 
 81 
 
 262 
 274 
 
 88 
 92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 
 
 132 
 
 89 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 75 
 
 110 
 
 274 
 
 288 
 286 
 292 
 
 92 
 96 
 96 
 98 
 
 
 
 127 
 
 80 
 
 108 
 131 
 106 
 
 Number of hours for five or six 
 half-grades 
 
 o o 
 
 ll 
 
 3-3 
 
 76 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Ptrs 
 
 81 
 
 100 
 
 87 
 
 268 
 
 98 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 i §■ 
 
 '^E 
 
 118 
 
 76 
 93 
 
 114 
 151 
 
 308 
 319 
 
 103 
 107 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 '~i 
 
 C." 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 76 
 
 98 
 
 46 
 
 82 
 
 99 
 
 34 
 67 
 
 19 
 36 
 
 
 271 
 324 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 121 
 
 37 
 
 19 
 
 
 330 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 24 
 
 77 
 
 118 
 
 33 
 
 18 
 
 323 
 
 54 
 
 Features to Be Noted. 1. That no more than two excessively slow 
 rates are contained in any one pnpil's record. (This is thus far true of 
 every pupil's record in every subject.) 
 
 2. That no excessive average is found in any series except those of two 
 and three half-grades. In all records continuous for four or more half- 
 grades, all rates in excess of 95 hours as an average are elided by the averag- 
 ing process. (This is true without exception so far for every pupil in every 
 subject.) In other words, we have no pupil who, having completed at least 
 four half-grades, is behind his grade in any subject. 
 
 3. That the 154 pupils who have completed three or more half-grades do 
 not constitute an exceptional type, since 45 of them (between one-fourth and 
 one-third) have made at least one excessively slow record. 
 
 4. That of the 45 who make records containing at least one excessive rate, 
 all except 6 slow records are averaged out and no pupil exceeds an average 
 of 103 days. 
 
 5. That the records of these 154 pupils contain 47 slow rates, 75 medium 
 rates and 32 fast rates. This condition otfers no indication of an inherently 
 "slow" type. 
 
 (34)
 
 So, in conclusion, we may say that the rates of excessive slowness, shown 
 in all the half-grade records are, as a rule, sporadic, due to transient and 
 removable causes. There will be very few pupils, if any, who are pro- 
 ceeding at a rate whieii will cai-ry them through the eight grades of the 
 elementary school in excess of seven years and the bulk are proceeding at a 
 rate to finish in six years and less. There are practically no pcrmaneniUj 
 slow pupils (though a large percentage of them at one time or another 
 exceed the maxinnim standard of 95 days per half-grade), because faster 
 rates average out the.se excessive rates. 
 
 (35)
 
 WHY AND HOW INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION CAN BE CHEAPER 
 THAN CLASS INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Nine persons out of ten, when confronted by the proposal of individual 
 instruction, immediately offer the off-hand conclusion that it is a good idea 
 theoretically — in fact the only way, ideally — but, of course, it could never 
 be put into practice on account of the expense! "How can you possibly 
 apply individual instruction to classes of fifty pupils with one teacher?" 
 is asked. 
 
 This question is offered as a clincher. It looks like a clincher and the 
 final end of argument. Apparently more teachers would be required and 
 more teachers would mean more dollars. 
 
 There is, however, a fatal weakness concealed in this question. Its 
 axiomatic assumption that there must be fifty pupils in a class in order that 
 the expense of schooling shall not be increased will bear scrutiny. Para- 
 doxical as it may seem, we may very materially reduce the number of pupils 
 per teacher, and yet actually decrease the cost of schooling. Our hasty con- 
 clusionists have entirely overlooked the fact that the largest item of school 
 expense — and the one which makes fifty pupils to a teacher necessary under 
 class instruction — is the expense of needless waste. 
 
 Some of these fifty pupils are repeaters ; if we remove the cause of 
 repeating grades, they will not be in the class — they will be further along 
 and perhaps be graduated from the school. Another part — and almost half 
 of them — also would not be in the class were it not for the fact that they 
 are being held back, by the lockstep system ; they also would be further along 
 and perhaps graduated. In short, the condition of fifty pupils to a teacher 
 is not a necessity, but a disease created hy the class system itself. Any 
 remedy which enables pupils to make progress faster, reduces automatically 
 the number of pupils assigned, to each teacher. Let us then first consider 
 these wastes specifically. 
 
 I. The Waste of Retardation. It costs as much to carry a pupil 
 through a grade for the second time as for the first time. The administra- 
 tors of the school system seem never to have been acutely conscious, nor even 
 conscious at all, of the enormous expense to the school system incurred by 
 the requirement that pupils who fail to keep the lockstep stride shall repeat 
 the grade. There is a peculiarly exasperating feature of this waste. It 
 makes no difference whether the pupil has learned nothing during the entire 
 grade or term or is merely behind to the extent that he might make up the 
 deficiency in a few weeks' work. In either case he must repeat the entire 
 year or term's work at extra expense to the school treasury. The situation 
 is especially exasperating when the pupil is only partially deficient in one 
 subject and must now be given an extra year or term's instruction in the 
 five or six other subjects in which he is entirely proficient. 
 
 "Well," says the schoolmaster, helplessly, "Avhat can we do about it?" 
 There is nothing, under the class system, which can be done about it except 
 to do what is being done — the pupil must pay the penalty in time, ambition 
 and energy ; and the school treasury must foot the cost in money. There are 
 
 (36)
 
 many cities in the United States in which 40 to 50 per cent of the pupils 
 are repeating grades. There are few cities in which the percentage of 
 repeaters is less^than 25. .Alany of these repeaters are repeating two, three, 
 and even more years. 
 
 The Russell Sage Foundation has sliown that in twenty-nine scattered 
 cities of the United States, representing 2U6.495 pupils, repetition of grades 
 requires 98,000 extra years of school instruction and its cost! At the 
 average annual cost of $29.27 for schooling of each pupil, it will cost these 
 twenty-nine cities at least the tidy sum of $2,868,400.* 
 
 The annual loss, due to repetition of grades, is a matter upon which there 
 is yet little relialile data. In some cities, it would .seem that the annual 
 retardation amounts to as many as 20 out of every 100 pupils. In others, 
 the percentage appears low, but a low percentage does not mean consequent 
 higher efficiency. In some cities, the order has gone forth to promote pupils 
 regardless of whether or not they have reached the standard. This device 
 :^?s inefficiency but does not remove it. In fact, we may assume that 
 the cit^So'hich have the higher rate of retardation are likely to be the more 
 eonscientioK and therefore in all probability also the more efficient. 
 
 Under ai^ individual plan there need be no repeaters. The rate of 
 progress of some pupils will be slower than that of others, but such 
 absurdities as that of requiring a pupil, at public expense, to repeat five 
 subjects because he is behind in one, or to do over in one subject not only 
 what he has failed to learn but also that which he has learned, are elim- 
 inated. If the grade standards are set at what the slowest pupil can 
 accomplish there can not be even laggards. As our figures have shown, the 
 rate of the slowest pupil (not subnormal) under individual instruction, is 
 faster than the rate of the class system. 
 
 II. The Waste of Unused Acceleration. The pupil who completes in 
 20 days an amount of work for which the grade standard permits him 95 
 days, advances himself 75 daj'S. He also saves to the school system the cost 
 of instructing him for 75 days. As we see, in the records of variation, all 
 pupils with rates less than 95 days, advance themselves, and save to the 
 school treasury the cost of instructing them the full 95 days each. When 
 we add the hours of instruction each pupil thus saves to the school system, 
 by acceleration, we have saved a huge percentage of the school time. 
 
 For illustration, let us take the records of teaching 76 pupils addition of 
 integers (p. 39). By adding the time each used in completing this work, 
 we find the sum to be 3,658 hours. But each could have used 95 hours and 
 yet not have fallen behind the standard grading; for all the 76 pupils the 
 total time permissible would have been 7,220 hours (95 X ''^G). The differ- 
 ence between the actual time is therefore 3,562 hours (7,220 — 3,658). In 
 other words, the combined accelerated rates of the 76 pupils have saved to 
 the school treasury the cost of imtruciion of 49 per cent of the standard 
 allowance. 
 
 *Mr. Ayers of the Russell Sage Foundation has complicated his estimates by counting 
 acceleration (by "skipping grades") as an asset. It is a questionable asset in any sense. 
 But certainly skipping grades should not be figured as an offset to retardation. They are 
 two separate items, in no causal relation to each other, and must be figured separately. 
 
 (37) 
 
 43252
 
 This saving' by acceleration over the standard rate is an asset wholly 
 unknown, and impossible, under the lockstep method (except in the form of 
 the questionable feat of "skipping grades"). The class system entirely 
 Avastes this huge item of saving. All pupils are crowded down to a single 
 rate — and this is a rate xvliich is slower than that of the slowest pupil, 
 inclividually instructed. 
 
 The following tables undertake to illustrate the amount of this saving. 
 AVe will take first our variation records in reading. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 pupils 
 
 Actual 
 number 
 of days 
 
 standard 
 number 
 of days 
 
 Saving 
 of days 
 
 Saving 
 in per 
 cent 
 
 Low 1: Primer - _ 
 
 45 
 65 
 60 
 53 
 65 
 66 
 59 
 43 
 
 3,327 
 4,785 
 4,434 
 2,954 
 3,350 
 3,896 
 3,380 
 2,478 
 
 4,275 
 6,175 
 5,700 
 5,035 
 6,175 
 6,270 
 5,605 
 4,085 
 
 948 
 1,390 
 1,266 
 2,081 
 2,825 
 2,874 
 2,225 
 1,607 
 
 22 
 
 High 1: First Reader — _ _ __ 
 
 22 
 
 Low 2: Second Reader. _. . -- 
 
 22 
 
 High 2: First half Third Reader _ _ 
 
 41 
 
 Low 3: Last half Third Reader 
 
 45 
 
 High 3: First half Fourth Reader. . 
 
 45 
 
 Low 4: Last half Fourth Reader 
 
 39 
 
 High 4: Fifth Reader completed 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 Totals — _- 
 
 456 
 
 28,104 
 
 43,320 
 
 15,216 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 Explanation of Table. Following the first horizontal line, the figures 
 state that there are records of 45 pupils, completing the low first grade. By 
 adding the actual number of days each used in completing this half-grade, 
 we obtained a total of 3,327 days as the combined time used by the 45 pupils 
 in completing this half-grade ; but, each pupil could have used 95 days and 
 yet not have fallen below the standard time; so we may multiply 95 days 
 by 45 (number of pupils) and our result, 4,275 days, represents the time 
 these 45 pupils might have legitimately used without retardation ; the saving 
 is obtained by subtracting the actual time used from the standard allow- 
 ance; we obtain 948 days as the school time saved by the surplus of 
 accelerated rates over the retarded rates, or a net saving of 22 per cent 
 (948^4,275). 
 
 The saving of the time allotted to giving instruction in reading has a 
 money value to the school system. This saving is nearly one-fourth of the 
 cost of giving reading instruction to a class of 45 pupils for one-half year — 
 cost of teaching, school plant, maintenance and administration. 
 
 The totals show that 456 pupils actually used 28,104 days in completing 
 various half-grades of reading progress. They could legitimately have used 
 95 days each, or (95 X 456) 43,320 days. The difference between the actual 
 time used and the allotted time, 15,216 days, represents the saving, by 
 acceleration, of these 456 pupils. The records indicate approximately the 
 large saving in the expense, possible under an individual system, but wholly 
 wasted under the class system. So far as our records go, it is shown that 
 35 per cent of the school time and energy allotted to instruction in reading 
 is saved, and is available for other purposes. The next tal)le shows the 
 saving in integer arithmetic time. 
 
 (38)
 
 Integer Arithmetic. 
 
 Nu.n'jer 
 
 of 
 
 pupils 
 
 Addition of integers --.- 
 
 Subtraction and multiplication ot integers.-. 
 
 Short division ;t"'". 
 
 Compound multiplication and long division.. 
 
 Totals 
 
 76 
 54 
 68 
 60 
 
 Actual Standartl 
 hou.a number 
 used of hours 
 
 3,658 
 3,786 
 3,715 
 3,912 
 
 7.220 
 5.130 
 6,460 
 5,700 
 
 Saving 
 in hours 
 
 3,562 
 1.844 
 2.745 
 1,788 
 
 258 ' 15.071 24,510 i 9,439 
 
 Sarins 
 in per 
 cent 
 
 49 
 26 
 42 
 31 
 
 38 
 
 Advanced Arithmetic. 
 
 Low 5: Addition and subtraction of fractions 
 and decimals 
 
 High 5: Multiplication and division of frac- 
 tions and decimals, denominate numbers 
 
 Low 6: Problems and review in State Text to 
 
 percentage 
 
 High 6: Cases I and II of percentage 
 
 Low 7: Case III, of percentage, interest, com- 
 mission and banking. State Text 
 
 High 7: Taxes, duties, insurance, discount — 
 
 Low 8: Plane figures, areas, square root and 
 
 applications 
 
 Xumljer 
 
 uf 
 
 puplU 
 
 Totals 
 
 125 
 
 130 
 
 128 
 135 
 
 106 
 
 84 
 
 52 
 
 Actual 1 standard i ggving 
 hours number j^ i,ouis 
 
 used of hours 
 
 8.380 
 
 9,126 
 
 8,855 
 10,116 
 
 6,197 
 4,416 
 
 2,996 
 
 11.875 
 
 12,350 
 
 12.160 
 12,825 
 
 10.070 
 7,980 
 
 3.495 
 
 3.224 
 
 3,3a5 
 2,709 
 
 3,873 
 3.564 
 
 4,940 1.944 
 
 Savins 
 in per 
 cent 
 
 760 50.086 1 72,200 1 22,114 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 21 
 
 38 
 44 
 
 39 
 
 30 
 
 History. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 pupils 
 
 Fifth: Elementary 78 
 
 Sixth: Advanced text (McMaster's Brief), first 
 
 half 103 
 
 Seventh: Advanced text, completed 9< 
 
 Actual 
 number 
 of hours 
 
 standard 
 numbe.- 
 of hou;s 
 
 4,657 
 
 7,98r 
 6,743 
 
 Totals 278 | 19.381 ! 26,410 
 
 7,410 
 
 9,785 
 9,215 
 
 Saving 
 in hou.s 
 
 2,753 
 
 1,804 
 2,472 
 
 7,029 
 
 Saving 
 in per 
 cent 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Fifth grade .. 
 Sixth grade _ 
 Seventh grade 
 Eighth grade 
 
 Totals 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 pupils 
 
 134 
 
 Actual Standard gavlng 
 number number jjj hours 
 of hours of hours 
 
 3,259 
 2,271 
 1,263 
 I.107 
 
 5,225 1,966 
 
 3,420 I 1,149 
 
 2,375 1,112 
 
 1,710 I 603 
 
 7,900 1 12.730 4,830 
 
 Saving 
 in per 
 cent 
 
 37 
 33 
 46 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 pupils 
 
 Fifth grade .. 
 Sixth grade _ 
 Seventh grade 
 
 Totals .— 
 
 Actual 
 number 
 of hours 
 
 92 5.380 
 
 93 ! 4.936 
 87 ; 5,153 
 
 272 15,469 
 
 standard 
 number 
 of hours 
 
 Saving 
 in hours 
 
 8,740 3,360 
 8,835 \ 3,899 
 8,265 3,112 
 
 25,840 1 10,371 
 
 Saving 
 In per 
 cent 
 
 38 
 44 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 (.SO)
 
 The Significance of These Tables. The confusion must not be made 
 that this saving in accelerated rates represents the entire difference between 
 individual and class instruction. The next section will show there is 
 another considerable factor in this difference. The present figures show 
 merely the saving in acceleration upon the basis of our own grade standards, 
 represented by the rate of the legitimately slowest pupil (95 days). 
 Although there is considerable variation in the amount of acceleration in the 
 different subjects, due to inequalities in standardization, we may say with 
 some assurance of approximation that this acceleration, is between 35 and 
 40 per cent inclusive of the few heavy losses by retardation. It means that 
 we may expect to save by acceleration alone, some 35 to 40 per cent of the 
 school time based upon an eight-year course for the slowest pupil. The 
 saving in money expense is proportional. 
 
 III. Frictional Wastes of the Class System. There is another con- 
 siderable waste by the class system, not clearly explicable as to cause, by 
 which the rate of the class is slower than the rate of the standard set for the 
 slowest pupil under the individual system. Probably the fairest comparison 
 of .standards between the usual class requirements and those we are using is 
 in reading and arithmetic. 
 
 In reading (p. 38), it will be noted that our standard for promotion 
 from the high fourth grade is ability to read understandingly the State 
 Fifth Reader (Stepping Stones to Literature, Book V). But throughout 
 the United States generally this book is completed at the end of the fifth 
 grade, and, in San Francisco at least, is the standard for completing the low 
 sixth grade. Our standard, therefore, means that our pupils are completing 
 in four years what the class system is completing in five, and five and one- 
 half years. 
 
 But, further, our standard of four years is the rate of the slowest pupil 
 and the present records indicate that none will take longer; our fastest 
 pupils are upon the road to complete this work in less than two years, and 
 the others are distributed evenly between these extremes. In public schools 
 using the class system, on the other hand, over 50 per cent are falling by the 
 wayside in the effort to finish this unit in five years — five or five and one- 
 half is the rate of the survivors! 
 
 Similarly in primar}' arithmetic the standard which our slowest pupils 
 are meeting is that of completing integers, fractions and decimals at the 
 end of the fourth year. The fastest pupils finish in much less time. Yet 
 under the class system this amount of work is only reached by the survivors 
 of the fifth grade, and in some schools a part of the fifth — after 30 to 40 per 
 cent have become laggards to the extent of one, two, three or more years! 
 
 The.se are illustrations. It is evident that there are frictional factors 
 operating in the class system which retard its speed, over and beyond the 
 mere unused factor of acceleration. If we reduce these facts to figures, we 
 shall find that the actual gain of acceleration by our pupils under an 
 individual system over the rate of pupils in the public schools is, at least, 
 considerably over 50 per cent. It means we are saving considerably over 
 
 (40)
 
 50 per cent of teaching time, and therefore considerably over 50 per cent of 
 
 the cost of instniction. , , • ^ 
 
 It does not, however, mean that, necessarily, the saving m school instruc- 
 tion of considerably over 50 per cent will also reduce the time required by 
 each pupil to complete the eight grades by four years. A certain portion 
 of the waste is confined to administration and does not affect the rate of 
 individual pupils' progress. 
 
 IV The Wastes of Attempting to Teach All Pupils That Which Only 
 a Few Can Learn or Have Occasion to Learn. The teaching of music, 
 art and literature in the school classes is greatly handicapped by the 
 effort to teach all the pupils what only a few, by the gifts of native endow- 
 ment can accomplish. Encouraged by the ambitions of teachers, the stand- 
 ards in these subjects have been set by the school system, as a rule, for the 
 lifted The non-gifted can not reach them because they have not the native 
 abilities The gifted, on the other hand, can not reach them because they 
 are locked in step with the non-gifted. The result is a general bankruptcy 
 of these subjects Avhich makes them wastes of time with no benefit to any, 
 and general injury to all. 
 
 We are at present handling the types of exceptions by this device : in 
 the regular morning session we give the minimum course for all. In the 
 afternoon pupils may return for additional work upon specialties or subjects 
 in which thev have marked talent. We first save a large amount of school 
 instruction by cutting out a large part of the pupils who have manifested no 
 • abilities. From this saving we expend a part by giving thoroughly and in 
 an advanced degree what it is profitable for each to acquire. This pro- 
 cedure is so new that it would be impossible to estimate the saving in time, 
 or the increase in efficiency. A similar series of wastes occur in other sub- 
 jects which may be illustrated by grammar grade arithmetic. About two 
 years of our arithmetic might be termed vocational arithmetic. At least it 
 assumes to prepare the youth of the land to do the arithmetic pertaining 
 to some vocation— shingling, carpeting, paper hanging, surveying, brick 
 laying, banking, commission, brokerage, bond buying, stock jobbing, buying 
 and selling horses in mystifying terms of per cent and indulging in other 
 transactions by processes unknown outside school texts. Of course, most of 
 us know that these school processes are not the processes of the vocations 
 themselves and that, even if they were, no end, save time-killing ends, is 
 served by these school inflictions. But under the class system none can be 
 excused because aU must pursue the same course, and because, so our theory 
 runs, a few might become bricklayers, or bank clerks, etc. Therefore, we 
 require all to learn the alleged arithmetic of each trade in the fear that 
 some might not be able to do the arithmetic of his own. Little girls "go 
 through" (but do not learn) the school arithmetic of brick laying, shingle 
 laying, etc., because they are in the class, and they can't be promoted unless 
 they have covered the class course. The individual system at least will be 
 an entering wedge to cleave this pedantic folly. When, individually, we 
 require little girls to master the arithmetic of shingle lajang, etc., the 
 
 (41)
 
 absurdity will be more pertinent and more forcible. We will then tend to 
 excuse each from at least large parts of this "vocational" arithmetic since 
 we can do so as easily as not. Each pupil excused from the task means also 
 that the school treasury will be excused from the cost of so much useless 
 instmction. It is probable that in time most pupils would be sensibly 
 excused from most of this two years' profitless arithmetic. Similarly, we 
 may excuse from writing all pupils who once acciuire the habit of legible 
 writing ; from spelling those who spell ; from composition those who once 
 acquire the forms of correct written language. In fact, the sum of these 
 various small economies of school time attains very considerable proportions 
 in bulk. 
 
 V. The Waste in Permanent Plant. If, as our records indicate, prac- 
 tically the slowest pupils will complete the elementary school of eight 
 grades in seven years, the fastest in five years and the mass somewhere 
 between these extremes, it follows that the number of pupils attending 
 school at any given time will be very materially reduced — probably 40 to 
 50 per cent. Pupils who are now spending eight to twelve years in 
 school will not attend more than five to seven years by reason of the 
 elimination of wastes. The school plant can give the same service and 
 yet be 40 to 50 per cent smaller, reciuiring fewer buildings and less eciuip- 
 ment. The administration and maintenance, janitor service, repairs, and 
 depreciation costs will be proportionately reduced. 
 
 VI. The Unmeasured Waste. There is one other waste of the class 
 system to which I have not alluded, although while its money cost is the 
 largest and most overwhelming, yet this money cost is the least of its evils. 
 Statistics show that considerably more than fifty per cent of the pupils of the 
 American public schools leave before they complete the elementary depart- 
 ment. In other words, considerably over fifty per cent of our citizens, 
 fathers and mothers, enter life without completing the rudiments of school- 
 ing! If school education has only a fraction of the value the American 
 people have emotionally placed upon it, this single fact is one to justify a 
 general national alarm. What must be the effect upon the ability of each 
 to provide for himself, to receive the wages of right and healtbful living, to 
 avoid the pitfalls of ignorance, social evils and wrong citizenship? What 
 is the effect of ignorant citizenship, unproductiveness, dependency, crime, 
 and degeneracy upon the nation? What, indeed, is the money cost to the 
 nation that over half its people and voters have not the capital of intelli- 
 gence represented by a rudimentary schooling? 
 
 There is nothing so profitable, so economical, so asset-producing, as 
 human intelligence; and on the other hand, there is nothing so profit- 
 consuming, so wasteful, so bottom-scuttling to any enterprise — be it indus- 
 trial, social, civic, or moral — as human ignorance. Intelligence or ignorance 
 are the commodities for which the school system is, or may be, the respon- 
 sible manufacturing plant. If it produces intelligence — intelligence to meet 
 life's problems, adequate to the world's accumuhited wi.sdoiii — then its value 
 
 (42)
 
 is incalculable. But, on the other hand, our school system throws out fifty 
 per cent of our people into lives of i^'-norance — and its cost is fearful at 
 any price. 
 
 Nothing Which Is Inefficient Can Be Cheap. These enormous wastes 
 which have been enumerated are inherent in the class system; they are the 
 necessary consequences of it. The individual system removes the cause of 
 them and therefore, their cost. The arju'ument of cost is a boomerang 
 against those who, with more haste than reflection, have raised this issue. 
 The farmer who attempts to save money by using inefficient tools stands to 
 lose his crop. In no form of modern business, public or private, do we 
 admit that an inefficient or w'asteful tool or process can be cheap — why in 
 the school business? If the individual system can do the school business 
 without waste, then its money co.st must be less than the present class lock- 
 step carrying a waste of considerably over fifty per cent. Let no one 
 defend lockstep schooling upon the delusive plea that it is cheap! 
 
 The Size of the Class. With the data upon wastes by schooling pupils 
 in groups, let ils return to the question stated in the beginning of this 
 chapter, "How can Ave possibly apply individual instruction to classes of 
 fifty pupils with one teacher?" The fallacy that it is necessary to have 
 fifty pupils to a teacher, contained in this form of the question, is the only 
 obstacle in the minds of most people, for not uprooting the lockstep. If 
 we divest the schools of the wastes occasioned by the lockstep, it will not be 
 necessary to have anything like the ratio of fifty pupils to a teacher, and yet 
 nevertheless reduce the expense of schooling. For illustration, let us sup- 
 pose that in a city there are ahvays 1,000 pupils in the schools under class 
 instruction and that upon the average they require ten years to complete 
 eight grades. This number of pupils at fifty pupils per teacher would 
 require twenty teachers. Let us now suppose that the rate of progress is 
 so hastened that upon the average only five years, or one-half the time to 
 complete the school is required. As soon as this condition is established, 
 there will be in school, at one time, not 1,000 pupils, but only 500. The 
 1,000 pupils will all receive their schooling as before and therefore there is 
 no need to reduce the number of teachers. Conse(iuently, each of the 
 twenty teachers would have, not fifty pupils, but only twenty-five. The 
 salary expense remains unchanged. 
 
 The above situation is an illustration. It is not probable that individual 
 instruction will reduce the rate of progress quite to the extent of one-half, 
 but we may re.st with some assurance upon a reduction of 30 to 40 per cent. 
 This would mean a reduction from classes of forty to fifty per teacher to 
 twenty-five to thirty-five per teacher; if the ratio is forty to fifty, classes of 
 thirty to forty would be reduced. The (piestion now arises upon what ratio 
 of pupils to teacher we can operate an individual system. This question 
 can be answered with any exactness only by experience. AVhat we are 
 doing in a normal training school would be no index of what could I)e done 
 by experienced permanent teachers. But. in the event it should prove 
 necessary to employ some additional teachers, the cost could be abundantly 
 
 (43)
 
 met by the savings of the wastes of the class system. The reduction in the 
 size of classes would be accomplished by the elimination of retardation and 
 the establishment of acceleration. The savings from the other wastes 
 enumerated would create a fund which would far more than meet any 
 special expense of individual instruction. Under "Application to City 
 Schools" in the next chapter this matter will be more specifically discussed. 
 
 Summary of the Saving in Cost of Schooling by the Individual Plan. 
 
 1. That the extra instruction by repetition of grades necessary under 
 the class system and amounting to 12 to 20 per cent of the cost of present 
 schooling will be entirely eliminated by the individual system. 
 
 ,2. That by permitting pupils to make progress individually, there will 
 be introduced the factor of acceleration. The combined acceleration will 
 accomplish a saving of 25 to 40 per cent in the time and cost of elementary 
 schooling. 
 
 3. That the more rapid progress of pupils through school will reduce 
 the number of pupils in attendance at any one time and thereby reduce the 
 size of the school plant necessary by 30 to 50 per cent. The saving of 
 interest upon excess investment, maintenance and repairs, janitor service 
 and administration will be appreciable. 
 
 4. That by giving each pupil just the training his abilities and possible 
 needs justify, and cutting out the waste of the attempt to train all pupils 
 to the same degree in every subject, regardless of need or ability, will yield 
 a saving of at least 10 per cent or more. 
 
 5. That all these savings combined are considerably in excess of one- 
 half the cost of present schooling by the class lockstep. 
 
 6. That by reason of the faster progress of pupils and the consequent 
 smaller number of pupils in school, at any one time, the number of pupils 
 per teacher will be decreased — probably 30 to 40 per cent. In city schools 
 the class of 40 to 50 would be reduced to 25 to 35. If, after experience, it 
 should be deemed desirable to employ some extra teachers, still further to 
 reduce this ratio of pupils to teachers, the cost would be abundantly met by 
 the savings enumerated and yet a tidy balance left in the treasury to the 
 credit of the individual plan. 
 
 Advantages to Education by Individual Instruction. 
 
 1 . All pupils, without any conspicuous handicaps of mind and body, or 
 of regularity in attendance, would complete the elementary school of the 
 present eight grades in five to seven years; if these pupils entered school at 
 six years of age, they would graduate at ten to thirteen years. 
 
 2. The present appalling drop in school attendance, before the majority 
 complete the elementary school, will be avoided because practically all will 
 complete the school before the ages at which this drop now occurs. 
 
 3. Practically all children will complete the elementary school, thereby 
 acquiring the rudiments of an education, and whatever this fact may mean 
 to self-support, social advancement, personal comfort, greater intelligence 
 
 (44)
 
 of citizenship, better government, lessening of dependency, disease, crim- 
 inality, etc.. will be reaped. 
 
 4.' A new type of high school would by necessity be created, to receive 
 pupils at ten to thirteen years of age; this would mean the teaching of 
 languages, mathematics and sciences earlier and extending at the latter 
 end. into vocational preparation and collegiate grades. If this school also 
 were operated upon the individual system, double or nearly double the work 
 of the present secondary school would be accomplished, giving a broader, 
 firmer and more thorough preparation for college or life— a much needed 
 reform. 
 
 5. Elementary night schools, except for the foreign born and those who 
 are victims of special accidents in educational opportunity, will be 
 unnecessary. 
 
 6. The percentage and degree of illiteracy in present citizenship will 
 be greatly eliminated. 
 
 In re 
 
 EVERYCHILD, a minor, ) 
 
 vs. > 
 
 LOCKSTEP SCHOOLING. ) 
 
 Figure out in any way we will the far-reaching significance of the facts. 
 Do they not mean that, by official decree of school administration, for 
 every five hours of school time, some pupils are marking time for one. two, 
 three and even four hours? Do they not mean that if the cause of this 
 time waste Avere removed, most pupils will have two, three, and four times 
 as nuich time in which to learn other useful things in life preparation? 
 Do they not mean that over ope half of the school children, now graded 
 out as school misfits, to become life misfits, could, if permitted to work at 
 their own rate, get just as much out of their schooling as those who now 
 mark time? Do they not mean that the present school plant could, under 
 individual instruction, accomplish what it is now accomplishing, with at 
 least half the expense, and use the other half for improving itself? If 
 these things, as presented, be true — and tliey easily may be verified in any 
 school — then argument is at end. 
 
 Be you parent or citizen, school administrator or teacher, the case of 
 Everychild upon the threshold of life, floundering in the coils of red tape 
 of traditional schooling for the opportunity to make his life worth the living 
 of it, is up to you. And the cause of Everychild, let us not forget, is not 
 a personal cause alone, but it is a cause which is the root of social pros- 
 perity, of safe citizenship for the State, and of human progr&ss. 
 
 (45)
 
 APPLICATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL PRINCIPLE TO VARIOUS 
 
 TYPES OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 The principle of individual instruetion has been shown. The practical 
 applications of this principle to the various types of schools — the rural 
 school, city schools, high schools, night schools, etc. — are matters of adminis- 
 tration. The special application of individual instruction to a normal 
 school training department, M'hile probably the most complex and difficult 
 of all. offers few suggestions for city schools. The conditions and pur- 
 poses are in most cases altogether different and in some particulars directly 
 reversed. HoAvever, with the exception of the large city cla.ss. existing 
 administrative conditions are such that an easy beginning could be at once 
 made with slight modification. 
 
 1. Application to Rural Schools. The form of the rural school of 
 usual size, say twenty to thirty pupils, is sufficiently like the conditions of 
 our training school to justify assurance that, at least with printed exercise 
 l)Ooks for pupils and manuals for teachers, the general methods of operation 
 we are now using can be applied to the rural school with little or no modifi- 
 cation. The larger rural classes, forty to fifty pupils, offer greater diffi- 
 culties, but most teachers of these schools seem to agree that with the 
 exercise books the individual plan lessens their labors, for these books pro- 
 vide means of independent work by pupils. 
 
 The principle of the reduction of the size of classes, by virtue of the 
 faster progress of pupils, would doubtless finally assist the movement 
 toward transportation of pupils to central schools. Already there is a 
 large number of rural schools of only six to fifteen pupils and their farther 
 reduction in size would mean approach to extinction. 
 
 2. Application to Night Schools. To the night schools the individual 
 method offers i)ar'tieular advantages. It is to these schools that a percentage 
 of the "misfits" turn after realization of their predicament. The night 
 school is a poor educational idea, for its pupils are usually youths and men 
 who already have put in a hard day's work and are in no condition 
 physically or mentally to forego rest and sleep. But as a cla.ss. they are 
 extremely eager, self-reliant and capable of independent, self-directed study. 
 ^Moreover, as a matter of fact, the night school work is necessary individual 
 because th^ students come to the school in all stages of progress and capa- 
 bilities of advance. The loekstep cla.ss system, when rigorously applied in 
 night schools, is little short of brutal. If any class of students in the Avorld 
 need and should have the opportunity to use their time profitably and 
 effectively then it is this class. The Self-Instruction Series which has been 
 prepared fits these needs because it enables each student to work without 
 nnich or any assistance from teacher. The pu})ils have the eageriu^ss and 
 maturity, as a rule, to make efficient use of this opi)ortunity. Further, by 
 the use of these exercise books, students can work individually outside the 
 school. In fact, the materials are here offered for a new type of night 
 school — a school which should devote its energies chiefly to giving help to 
 
 (46)
 
 individuals ovci- liard i)lai'('s. Studnits need not attend every night but 
 could work in their homes during' spare hours of the day and at their con- 
 venience, and go to the school merely for occasional help from the teacher 
 and to have work corrected. Such a plan would make the night school 
 several times more eflficient. 
 
 3. Application to High Schools. Anything to be said upon the appli- 
 cation to high schools is, of course, conjectural. But there are certain con- 
 siderations Avhich justify assurance that the high school is peculiarly 
 adapted to individual treatment and that the results in rapidity of progress, 
 development of self-reliant habits, and thoroughness would be, if tried, even 
 more startling than in the elementary school. 
 
 1. The pupils are older, more mature, and will even more keenly com- 
 prehend and appreciate the opportunities offered. Our- experience shows 
 that the motive for progress is the most powerful of all motives when once 
 aroused. 
 
 2. The pupils being more familiar with reading, can better and more 
 easily work from texts unassisted by teachers. Special pupils' exercise 
 books probably would not be so necessary to assist comprehension, but some 
 system of elastic lesson should be devised so that students who do not need 
 as much exercise to impress a given principle as others may not be unneces- 
 sarily delayed. 
 
 3. The subjects of mathematics, the various sciences, especially in 
 laboratory form, much of language teaching, wide literary readings, voca- 
 tional training, especially lend themselves to individual instruction and the 
 adaptation is manifest and easy. 
 
 4. The increased interest, greater rapidity of progress, al)sence of dis- 
 ciplinars" friction and the sense of self-reliance, characteristic of individual 
 instruction, would each be poAverful incentives to hold pupils in the high 
 schools and give them greater grasp upon life when they leave school. Let 
 some one try it. 
 
 4. Application to the "Special Class." It has been the habit in some 
 schools for many years to nuiintain what are called "special classes" for 
 the benefit of "misfits." They are the only device, aside from repetition 
 of grade, which the class system has used to remedy the evils of the lockstep. 
 These classes, as a rule, are already operated under a crude forin of indi- 
 vidual teaching. Generally, only a limited number of pupils are permitted 
 to a class. A superior teacher is assigned to each class, and the method has 
 been that of individual instruction. Without other tools than the usual 
 texts, the teachers of these classes have, as a rule, rendered good account of 
 their charges, and frequently have brought backward pupils forward so 
 rapidly that they regain their original grades. Our plan would further 
 assist such classes. There is a suggestive lesson to be drawn from these 
 special classes : This use of the individual principle has been used as a 
 "cure" for lockstep evils. Why not as a preventive? If the principle 
 ujion which they operate succeeds in advancing pupils who have been graded 
 out by the lockstep, why should the principle not be used as the regular 
 
 (47)
 
 principle of all classes? AA^hy should we wait for the damage to be done, 
 and to be recognized as particularly atrocious before we invoke the prin- 
 ciple ? The idiocy of the man who locks the stable door after the horse has 
 escaped, has its bearing upon this ease. If the principle is good, all pupils 
 should have the benefit of it. The existence of the "special" class is evi- 
 dence of an existing disease — the lockstep. Why not use the fact as a 
 warning lesson and proceed to the source of the disease in the class system 
 itself? What our schools need is an abatement of an evil, not merely the 
 cure of a very few of the occasional examples of it, which happen to become 
 conspicuous. 
 
 Application to the Teaching- of Subnormal Pupils. The problem of 
 what to do in the school with subnormal pupils is one which already has 
 been taken in hand by many cities. As a rule, they have been segregated 
 into special classes and the effort made to teach them by instructors trained 
 for this purpose. There has been no question but that the teaching must 
 be individual. The class sj^stem with its lockstep of movement, its single 
 standard of method, and its necessary principle that those whose mental 
 construction does not meet fairly well these fixed conditions must be 
 regarded as misfits to be eliminated, finds itself at unavoidable war with the 
 mentally deficient. There can be no compromise, because both the school 
 system and the individual mental qualities are fixed. Until a system of 
 schooling is devised and constructed in detail to permit variations among 
 pupils, we must expect in every group to have listless, idle, uninterested 
 pupils, a burden upon the progress of others and a ceaseless drain upon the 
 teachers' energies. Not all of these pupils are subnormal. Some are pupils 
 to whom have not been offered the suitable method or stimulus. If a pupil 
 is distinctly feeble-minded, we may not expect ever to teach him, but it is 
 important not to mistake a pupil who merely has not been stimulated by the 
 right method for one who is distinctly lacking. We certainly must not 
 relax effort until we are certain. It is useless, for example, to attempt to 
 teach a true monotone to sing, but we must be first sure the pupil is a true 
 monotone, and not merely one in whom tone has not been developed. 
 
 The class system is helpless to deal with either type — either the pupil 
 M'ith the undeveloped Ciuality or the pupil fundamentally lacking. It can 
 do nothing except to eliminate such pupils from the class, where they can 
 nO't be other than a nuisance and drag upon their fellows. But the policy 
 of segregating backward pupils is open to severe objections. To segregate 
 those who are supposed to be subnormal is to designate them as such. 
 Whatever the administrative subterfuge employed, the pitiless fact, sooner 
 or later, reaches the pupil and years afterward he may be called to face the 
 stigma that he ivas taught in a class "for idiots." Parents very properly 
 object to this segregation. The situation is aggravated by the fact that only 
 a small percentage of the suspects placed in these classes are truly deficient 
 — more often they are merely the accidental victims of the lockstep. The 
 true subnormal has no place in the school system under any conditions. 
 There is no value in attempting to teach him school work, for in any 
 
 (48)
 
 adequate degree, this is impossible. He is born a dependent and must 
 remain one under some form of family- or state protection. The important 
 problem is first to determine, in the borderland eases, the truth, definitely 
 and finally. This must be done in the school, and, desirably, without segre- 
 gation. 
 
 In very recent years, a flood of light has been let in upon the physical 
 causes and conditions of the mentally deficient. By such exhaustive and 
 practical studies as have been made by Doctor Plenry 11. Goddard of Vine- 
 land, we are brought face to face with the realization that the range of 
 mental powers is limited in a fixed way by heredity. In many respects 
 these facts are unpleasant and contrary to what Ave would like to have true, 
 because the possibilities in many human lives seem predetermined and 
 foreordained. No idiot, imbecile or moron has ever yet, by any process of 
 education or training, been lifted from one of these classifications into a 
 higher order. Their whole lives mu.st be compassed by their hereditary 
 limitations. They may be trained and developed, ivitliin the limits of the 
 classification, but can not cross the boundary. 
 
 These are depressing facts to face. AVe may wish and hope that there 
 may yet be found some avenue of escape, for those so limited, but the struc- 
 tures of education must be built upon a basis of truth, however unwished 
 for, and not upon hopes, however desirable. 
 
 A prominent administrator of a state school system recently argued 
 "you will still have, under the individual system, the subnormal pupil to 
 deal with, just as we have him now in the class system. These subnormals 
 are one chief cause of the clogging of the school system with repeaters — 
 especially in the lower grades. They will also be with you in the individual 
 system and will overburden the average rate in the same way. ' ' The sub- 
 normals overburden the class system because the class system is hopelessly 
 attempting to force them to do ivliat is impossiUe for them to do and 
 because, by the rigidity of its lockstep, they can not be given work which 
 they can pursue with the greatest profit to themselves. 
 
 The individual system makes a condition which relieves all these diffi- 
 culties. If the deficient remain in the same classroom they affect no other 
 pupil's progress. Provided the teachers are properly trained to use 
 different types of methods adapted to them, there is no need for segregation. 
 Or, teachers of special training may come into the rooms to give instruction. 
 The condition is entirely possible that different courses of study, suitable 
 to each individual, could be provided and when this provision is made, the 
 deficient pupil ceases to bo a school problem at least. 
 
 5. Application to Large Classes in City Schools. It has already been 
 shown in previous chapters tliat the cost of schooling by individual instruc- 
 tion in city schools would be cheaper by rea.son of the elimination of wastes. 
 It also has been shown that without increasing the number of teachers, the 
 number of pupils per teacher, by reason of faster progress, would be very 
 materially reduced— in all probability that with the same total of pupils to 
 
 (49)
 
 be schooled, the ratio of forty to fifty pupils per teacher would be auto- 
 matically reduced to twenty-five to thirty-five, and that any increase of 
 teachers or other possible costs would be amply met by the saving of waste. 
 
 The problem of introducing the individual principle is therefore sim- 
 plified to one of administrative remodeling with the assurance that there 
 will be no increase in cost, and a probability of a substantial decrease. 
 What the most suitable framework shall be can only be determined by 
 experience, trial and successive adaptations. That it will be anything like 
 the present classes would seem the furthest removed from desirability and 
 likelihood. It is true that the automatic reduction of the present large 
 classes to those not exceeding twenty-five to thirty-five would suggest the 
 possibility that one teacher could handle such classes by individual instruc- 
 tion without difficulty. But there are other considerations which point to 
 the greater advantages of a complete remodeling. For example, the modern 
 tendency toward the employment of special teachers is working out merely 
 to superimpose a corps of special teachers upon classes already provided, to 
 the limit of cost, with regular teachers. There is consequent lack of 
 economy because either special or regular teacher must be idle while the 
 other has the class. We need a system by which adjustment of instruction 
 can be made economically. There is nothing so sacred about our class 
 organization that w^e need to have anj^ aversion to casting it into the junk 
 pile if a better plan is visible. 
 
 As the administrative system under an individual plan is taking shape 
 in mj' own mind, I see, not a small classroom of forty to fifty pupils with a 
 single teacher, but a large room containing 200 to 500 pupils. Around it 
 are small offices; and also shops, laboratories, libraries, workshops and other 
 rooms for various special purposes. In these offices will be the teachers and 
 a new type of school officer — an expert examiner. Each teacher will be a 
 skilled expert in some one field who will take a pupil into his office for 
 individual instruction whenever necessar}-. Pupils will work individually 
 by themselves, in workshops, laboratories, study halls, etc., will be much 
 more self-reliant than under the class system, and will recjuire the teacher 
 only for help in critical difficulties. The examiners will be experts in 
 testing the progress of pupils and will determine their promotion, necessity 
 for study upon special difficulties, etc. The smaller classrooms will be used, 
 not for recitations, but for training in oral discussions, for laboratory study, 
 music, etc. 
 
 It would be the purpose of this administrative system to meet each indi- 
 vidual jiupil's needs, to provide, in much greater variety, means of educa- 
 tion thi'ough studying things rather than books, through activities rather 
 than through memorizing, through personal initiative rather than through 
 teacher-imposed tasks. Above all, such an administration would be con- 
 stantly upon the alert to prune out wastes, to see to it that each pupil is 
 doing what is clearly profitable to himself in an individual sense. 
 
 AVhen we first come at the problem of applying the individual principle, 
 we naturally assume that the preservation of certain old furniture of the 
 class system is a vital consideration. Let us realize at once that it is not 
 
 (50)
 
 part of the problem of adapting the st-hool system to the use of the indi- 
 vidual, to preserve the wasteful and cumbersome administrative junk which 
 has been the special paraphernalia of the class system. It is true we will 
 have upon our hands this litter of the old tools and structures of the class 
 systems — dogmatic notions of mind, texts, classrooms of a certain size, duties 
 of teachers, size of classes, types of in.structors and instruction, disciplinary 
 rules and regulations. Do we now expect to operate an entirely different 
 principle and yet retain these cumbersome implements created and shaped 
 specially for the class lockstep ? It is natural that the first series of ques- 
 tions should be combined with groping attempts to preserve the old 
 machinery along with the new principle. We are constantly asked such 
 ciuestions as these: ITow can you promote a pupil to another room? How 
 can one teacher hear fifty pupils recite? How do you keep pupils from 
 being in the eighth grade in reading and in the sixth in arithmetic? If 
 your pupils graduate from the grammar school at eleven years of age, where 
 are they going to go to school— they 're too young for the high school ? How 
 are you going to transfer pupils from an individual school to a class school? 
 If pupils are studying dift'erent subjects at one time, how could you send a 
 class out to manual training or cooking? The situation is not unlike that 
 of the old farmer who for forty years had accomplished transportation by 
 means of a buckboard and a mule. Automobile transit tempted him and he 
 conceived the notion of buying merely a gasoline engine and of tying it to 
 the buckboard. The thing did not work and he kicked it to pieces, declaring 
 the trouble was with the engine. "Besides," he said, "there ain't no place 
 to hitch the mule. ' ' It does not at first readily occur that all these ques- 
 tions as.sume the retention of the cla.ss machinery which bears as much 
 necessity to an individual system as the old buckboard bears to an auto- 
 mobile. It is hard to realize that it is the buckboard and mule which must 
 be changed — not the new engine. 
 
 The first thing in planning reconstruction is to get firm hold of the fact 
 that considerahlif more than lialf the money now expended in maintaining 
 the class system is expended in maintaining wastes which individual instruc- 
 tion eliminates — waste of repeating grades, waste by making no u.se of 
 acceleration, waste of nuiiiitenance of a plant almost double the necessary 
 size, waste of unnecessary friction, wastes of attempting to educate all 
 pupils in lines for which they have either no ability nor use, because some 
 may possibly have the ability or use, etc. Most of the class machinery has 
 been used to perpetuate these wastes. Let's away with it. 
 
 Objections to Individual Instruction in Class Divisions. The simple 
 notion of ti-ansforming the cla.ss system into an individual plan, merely by 
 having the class teacher do individual work, seems to us an impracticable 
 project. It is true there are practically no recitations and the time usually 
 devoted to them may be saved; but this condition greatly increases the 
 amount of written work even if pupils make no faster progress. Pupils 
 will, on the average, make nearly double the progress, Avhich again greatly 
 increases the amount of work to be corrected. The plan of having 
 
 (51)
 
 "readers" of written work to assist the teacher has been suggested and 
 this device would perhaps do as a temporary expedient until the classes are 
 reduced in size by virtue of more rapid progress. However, since there is 
 no visible reason why the plan of classes of fifty pupils should be retained, 
 it would be better in our judgment to plan at once for a radical remodeling 
 of the entire administrative plan. It might be stated in this connection 
 that, during the past year, one large parish school in San Francisco, St. 
 Peter's Parish, has adopted the individual plan and is noAV carrying it out 
 very successfully though the smallest class is over fifty pupils and only one 
 teacher is assigned to a class. The teachers are enthusiastic, yet I can not 
 but feel that these results are accomplished by a labor and devotion which 
 we ought neither to expect nor permit. In summation, Ave may say that the 
 establishment of an individual system in city school systems will probably 
 best be reached by radical remodeling of the administrative system. The 
 exact form will have to be worked out in a city school system by experience. 
 The suggestions made are merely by way of illustration of possibilities. 
 The problem can not be difficult for, in any project of this kind, the financial 
 element is a determining factor, and we have shown that the wastes of 
 expense by the class system, which the individual system would eliminate, 
 would provide ample means even for the most radical remodeling. It is true 
 that for the four or five years during which the changes were being accom- 
 plished, while the supply of repeaters was being worked out and the gains 
 of accelerated rates were being established, the cost would be temporarily 
 increased. In four years at most, however, the change could be entirely 
 accomplished and thereafter the saving of pupils' time and the school 
 expense would be operative. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY FEATURES. 
 
 There are certain consequences of individual instruction of such impor- 
 tance as to deserve mention. Thej^ are stated as follows : 
 
 Self-Reliance. There is no more vital factor of success than the 
 quality of reliance upon self. Without it, education, wealth, native abilities 
 and other advantages, important as they are, are well-nigh worthless. 
 Success is to him who creates opportunity' by his own energy, and failure is 
 born of tlie expectation that opportunity is fed to us by a spoon. The man 
 of self-reliance is he who says that if this thing is to be done, then he is the 
 one who shall do it. Failure is by him who complains that others failed 
 liim. Self-reliance is an attitude toward life, born of habits. The pioneer, 
 and the boy and the girl reared upon the farm a generation ago, usually had 
 the advantages of this training. Self-reliance has rarely been a product of 
 the school, and when we ask ourselves why this is so, Ave see that it is prac- 
 tically impossible for self-reliant attitudes and habits to be developed by 
 the dependency necessary under the class system. Schooling by class is 
 training chiefly in dependency upon others. The individual learns to move 
 only when the class moves, and in the set manner in Avhich it moves. The 
 individual therefore waits passively until the class is told what to do. and 
 
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 how to do it in unison. Conformity and obedience to dictated, uniform 
 procedure are necessarily the chief goals of the school, and individual 
 diversrence of any kind must be sharply suppressed. To think for one's 
 self, to do for one's self, to use self-initiated energy in the school class. 
 nece.s.sarily are "verboten." The pupil is daily trained passively to be led. 
 to be urged, to move by order, and only when ordered. The motor of his 
 action is outside himself. Necessarily the class method of instruction must, 
 day in and day out, teach that false and most debilitating lesson, that the 
 thing to do in life is to do what is measured out for one to do — never more 
 under any circumstances, and as much less as possible under all circum- 
 stance's. "We have, through our schools, carried the spoon-feeding process 
 of infancy forward into the hunting period of youth. Yet the time comes 
 when youth must go into the forest alone, shape his own tools and weapons 
 and make his own kill. The wolf pack which reared IMowgli knew more of 
 true schoolmastership than we. 
 
 Can we measure the silent force of twelve or more years of school train- 
 ing of this kind upon the later man 1 Can we wonder that the spines of our 
 school-bred products too often are gristle instead of bone, and that their 
 heads are filled with undigested sap ? Is ther& anj'^ reason to doubt that this 
 attempted suppression of self-reliance and initiative are chiefly responsible 
 for the instinctive spirit of rebellion against the school, so common among 
 the more virile typas of young boyhood? And which is truly right — the 
 intuitions of the boy. or the perverted system of our schooling? 
 
 That the self-made man has a something which often overbalances the 
 vastly superior advantages of the school-bred product, is an anomaly which 
 long has puzzled the schoolmaster. The quality is self-reliance. 
 
 The individual method elides the lockstep. It therefore opens the door 
 for training in self-reliance. It teaches the truth that for ' ' every day, and 
 every hour, we receive a just reward for all we are." Each step forward 
 must be the child's own step, secured by his own exertion, dictated by his 
 own ambition, and accomplished by his own individual thinking. There can 
 be no explanation to self, or to others, that his shortcomings are due to 
 others or that success is an accident of chance. 
 
 It is as valuable that the pupil should acquire the attitude of self- 
 direction during his school life, rather than the attitude of a galley slave 
 obeying orders under exaction by outside force, as that he should learn the 
 school knowledge. It is the difference between slavery and freedom. 
 
 Thoroug-hness. Under the class system, the class, as a whole, moves 
 forward, but the comprehension of the lessons by the pupils varies greatly 
 in degree. The teacher is continually addressing a more or less abstract 
 composite — "the class" — but what any particular individual thoroughly 
 grasps, is a very indefinite matter. A few pupils recite upon different parts 
 of the lesson, but no one pupil, much less, all the pupils, recite upon all the 
 lesson. "What each obtains from the lesson is necessarily very doubtful. 
 The realization is present in the minds of the best that whatever they do not 
 comprehend, ncverthele.ss the class as a whole moves on. 
 
 (53)
 
 It is altogether the reverse with the individual plan. Each pupil must 
 work through the whole of every lesson, must personally pursue every item, 
 and must work out for himself every "thought" question in an intelligent 
 manner. He can, in no way, be carried, hy class momentunu over ground 
 which he has not thought out for himself, and which he does not under- 
 stand. No pupil — and each realizes this fact — can pass over a lesson by the 
 momentum of others' thinking. The progress of each must be made by the 
 thinking of each. 
 
 We may say, with some assurance, that all pupils, from the slowest to 
 the fastest, who complete the same unit of a formal study such as arithmetic, 
 have approximately the same degree of thoroughness. The system of tests 
 and reviews makes it practically impossible to progress unless each exercise, 
 advance and review^, is thoroughly mastered as it is passed over. Conse- 
 quently, completion of an exercise book is evidence of thoroughness. 
 
 Under the class plan all members of the class coinplete the work of a 
 grade in the same time, hut they vary widely in thoroughness. Under the 
 individual system the thoroughness is practically the same for all. but the 
 pupils vary icidely in the time they require to finish the work. This is the 
 important and vital distinctio*n between the two systems. 
 
 No Repetition of Grades. There is a most important consequence of 
 the condition brought out in the last paragraph, that all pupils passing over 
 a given unit accomplish practically the same thoroughness, but vary in time. 
 This means that the individual system does away with repetition of grades. 
 "What a pupil finishes is thoroughly done, and there is no need or occasion 
 to rec[uire him to repeat it. His memory may fail in particular facts, but 
 the system of reviews which follows, picks up these matters and holds him 
 until he relearns the specific thing he has lost. 
 
 Pupils under the individual plan may go slower than the class rate 
 stipulates, but the fact that they are never obliged to repeat entire units of 
 work, but constantly are making forward progress, makes their rate faster 
 in the long run. It is upon the principle of the race between the hare and 
 the tortoise. Our records seem to indicate that, Avith very few exceptions, 
 the slowest pupils cover the ground of a grade in less time than the estab- 
 lished class rate assumes to cover it. Further, t\\ey are approximately as 
 thorough as the fastest. 
 
 Training in Selecting the Essential and Pertinent. The usual direction 
 of the class teacher in assigning lessons in history or geography, for 
 example, is to tell the class to study the "essential facts" from page 47 to 
 page 51. But what are the "essential facts" from the viewpoint of the 
 pupil? To the pupil, unfamiliar with the subject, all facts look alike. The 
 allusions, accidental facts, and unessential facts are as likely to be selected 
 as the "essential." Very conscientious little girls, in this dilemma, 
 memorize every word, in the hope thereby, that they have not missed an}'. 
 Our exercise books meet this difficulty by offering Cjuestions, more or less 
 definite, to draw out the essentials. These questions can be, and are, varied, 
 as the pupil progresses, to call for more and more judgment as to what is 
 
 (54)
 
 pertinent The pupil's study is thereby made intelligent, and the pupil is 
 Uaduallv trained in ability to distinguish for himself the e.ssential and 
 pertinent. Sueh a devi.-e is valuable, either under the class or individual 
 •system. 
 
 Both Slow and Rapid Pupils Are Benefited by Individual Instruction. 
 The advantage to rapid pupils is manifest. They do ui one. tw.. ..r three 
 months the amount of ^vork set as the required standard for five months 
 and proceed to the work of the next unit. The advantage to pupils of 
 slower grasp is not so manifest, but it is probably of greater value. Lnder 
 the cla.ss svstem. the pupils who can not keep up the class pace-those who 
 bv reason" of sickness or absence or other causes fall behind the class in 
 lockstep. and those who are behind in one or two subjects but up in the 
 others— fail of promotion and must repeat the grade. There is no possible 
 alternative. Therefore, a year or half year must be lost. But under the 
 individual system, there is no repetition of gradas. The pupil may make 
 dailv progress slowly but he can not pass over any day's work until he has 
 mastered it ; if he forgets, the reviews will require him to relearn it at once. 
 When he finishes a grade, his thoroughness is approximately equal to that 
 of all others. He never repeats grades. :\roreover, even if he is the slowest 
 pupil, he should complete the eight grades, barring absences, in eight years, 
 for it is his rate which is taken as the standard requirement of a grade. 
 Pupils who are sick or absent for other causes have full opportunity upon 
 return to recover lost ground by extra exertion, whereas under the class 
 system to get l)ehiiid the class makes repetition of a grade imminent. 
 
 The Individual System Lays a Basis for Exact Grading. There is 
 nothing so indefinite as the notions which, under the elass plan, we possess 
 regarding the amount of work we should specify the work of a gi-ade. 
 Judged by the retardations gathered in recent years over the entire United 
 States, there is a strong suspicion that our first grades are probably over- 
 loaded to nearly double their capacity, but no individual teacher knows the 
 truth. Some pupils seem to finish it— the mass do not. The individual 
 system gives us exactly the time each pupil has spent in completing a given 
 unit of work with thoroughness. We have the time records of all. For 
 example, the time records of the seventy-seven pupils who finished addition 
 show that, with the exception of four pupils, all finished in less than eighty 
 hours' work. We do know that one of these was unwell and that we failed 
 to arouse normal interest or ambition with the other three. It is quite clear, 
 therefore, we should allow eighty hours for formal addition in order that 
 the normally slowest pupils shall not drag; the others will do the work in 
 less time. 
 
 Or, to take anothcn- example: the figures show that to fini.sh with 
 thorough comprehension what we had originally laid out as the low fifth 
 grade work in grammar, eight out of sixty-six pupils required nearly double 
 the time allotted to them, and very generally all records were nearly double 
 the time required in other half-grades of the same subjeet. We had been 
 
 (55)
 
 making the requirement of the same amount of ground for low fifth grades 
 under the class system for some years, and had not before suspected the fact 
 that it was too much. Biit now the condition stands out in plain black and 
 white under the individual plan. There were at least two alternatives — 
 either Ave must cut the allotment of work seventy-five per cent, or, find 
 some easier and more rapid method of covering this ground. The exercise 
 books of a very large majority of pupils showed difficulty with certain 
 lessons and we were stimulated to discover devices which would ease these 
 difficulties. The result is a revised exercise book remedying these difficulties. 
 
 This consideration can not receive too much emphasis. By this means 
 the allotments of school work to each grade can be definitely regulated in 
 some exact degree of relationship to what we may reasonably anticipate 
 pupils can accomplish. Under the class system an undue amount is often 
 required with the result that many pupils pay the penalty of our inaccuracy 
 by retardation. 
 
 We therefore have the exact time which is recj[uired for a number of 
 different pupils to finish a given unit of work. Striking out the few records 
 which for particular reasons are too slow, we can set the record of the justly 
 slowest rate as the recjuirement for the half-grade. This will be the estab- 
 lished standard for all later pupils unless subsequent records show it is too 
 low or too high. The grade requirement can then be changed. 
 
 Types of Teachers and the Individual System. As far as we can now 
 
 determine the individual plan will do two things of immense value to the 
 schools. 
 
 1. By developing self-reliance, a large majority of pupils make progress 
 despite weaknesses in teacher ; i. e., poor judgment, improper and inadequate 
 skill in instruction or lack of proper training. The small minority of 
 pupils who do not respond, who remain dependent, and who require con- 
 stant stimulation will be no worse off tlian under the class system, and at 
 least, the teacher will have the time to give them special attention for the 
 majority need little. 
 
 On the other hand the individual plan, in the hands of a magnetic, 
 inspiring teacher can work greater wonders. She can lift the usual progress 
 of the ambitious pupils to the level of wonder-working enthusiasm. She 
 can also lift the dependent minority and redeem many of them. In brief, 
 under the individual plan, the weak or inefficient teacher can do much less 
 damage to pupils than under the class system which makes all depend upon 
 the teacher; and on the other hand, the limits of what a competent, inspira- 
 tional teacher may accomplish are extended far beyond the possibility of any 
 class teacher. 
 
 Reducing the School Day. The gratifying l)ut singular fact has 
 developed that while pupils are making the fa.ster progress, they nevertheless 
 are requiring less time per day. With the new term (1915), ive arc 
 reducing the regular school day to three and one-half hours, with no 
 required home study. Our session opens at 8 :45 and closes at 12 :45 with 
 one thirty-minute recess for all grades, and an extra ten-minute recess 
 
 (5G)
 
 for primary pupils. No home work is prescribed in any regular subject, but 
 pupils are encouraged to read widely along the lines of literature, history, 
 travel, science, etc. Only for exceptional reasons and upon petition of both 
 parents and pupil is any home study of a regular subject permitted. The 
 .shortening of the time of school work is due to the intensified character of 
 study under the individual method. 
 
 Exceptions, however, are made to this single morning session plan. 
 There is an afternoon session from 1:45 to 3 o'clock which two types of 
 pupils are permitted to attend: (1) pupils whose parents personally wish 
 additional school time in regular subjects, for various reasons, and (2) pupils 
 with distinctly supernormal gifts in the subjects of music, art or dramatic 
 ability, or a special interest in science. Some parents wish to avoid the 
 dangers -of having children upon the streets in the afternoon ; other pupils 
 are over-age and are desirous of making up lost time. In any case, the 
 afternoon session is a privilege, and attendance is granted only upon appli- 
 cation of the pupil through the parent. In the case of the supernormal 
 abilities, the suggestion of extra training is made by the faculty and if pupil 
 and parents desire it, as almost without exception they do, the permission is 
 granted. Out of a total school attendance of 650 pupils, there are now about 
 150 pupils attending, for one or more days per week, the afternoon session 
 in music, in drawing, in dramatic art, in science, in arithmetic, in compo- 
 sition, in history, in geography. 
 
 The Futility of ' ' Group Remedies ' ' for the Lockstep. The chief efforts 
 which have been made to mitigate the evils of the class lockstep have been 
 upon the theory of dividing the class into smaller groups. There is some 
 mitigation in this device, due to lessening losses by administrative frictions, 
 but the essential evil of the lockstep — the linking of unequals into a forced 
 equality of stride — is not mitigated at all. We can have just as much lock- 
 step by chaining two unequals together as by chaining ten or fifty. The 
 trouble does not arise from the number chained together, but from the 
 futility of chaining together any nnequals. Our data abundantly proves 
 this fact bj^ two chief features. 
 
 1. Progress by Fits and Starts. Two pupils rarely make the same 
 progress even for a week. "What is a sticking point or difficulty for one 
 pupil is not for the other. Little Billy is ambitious and keyed with 
 enthusiasm upon IMonday, while Tommy's day is Tuesday. Mary can spell 
 "eat" but wants to put a "w" in dog, while Susie prefers a "k" in cat but 
 is satisfied with any "dog" as it is. "While any pair may disagree today 
 upon one of these facts, tomorrow they disagree upon an entirely different 
 fact. Their ambitions, their stomachs and motives may also vibrate disso- 
 nantly. So, reduction of the number in the group does not bring unity and 
 harmony. The profits of individual instruction can only be gathered by 
 completely individual teaching. Children in school, as in play, move by 
 fits and starts and bear a treacherous suggestion of kinship to Kipling's 
 banderlog. 
 
 (57)
 
 2. The Group System Rests Upon the "Type Theory." The usual 
 group remedies are based upon the theory of "rapid" and "slow" types. 
 This theory has not been supported by any evidence. As our figures have 
 shown, rapidity and slowness, to an almost exclusive degree are intermittent 
 conditions having little to do with a fixed native rate. Many years ago, 
 while superintendent of schools in a small city, the writer became seized 
 with the notion of one of these group remedies upon a basis of fixed types 
 of "rapid." "medium" and "slow" children. Each class was divided into 
 the three types and each type was allowed to make a separate promotion 
 rate. The thing looked well upon paper, but it did not work off paper. 
 The groupings quickly developed a fluid weakness for dissipating themselves 
 into the air in a most unaccountable way. The fast pupils went slow, the 
 slow pupils went fast, the mediums went both ways, and no one would stay 
 put. I did not understand, then, as the present data make clear, that the 
 number of pupils falling into these fixed classifications is exceedingly few 
 and not sufficient to make practicable these mitigating group schemes. 
 
 (r>S)
 
 THE INDIVIDUAL SYSTEM A MEANS OF TRAINING TEACHERS. 
 
 We are frequently asked the question Avhy, as a normal sehool, we are 
 using the method of individual instruction to train our students in view 
 of the fact that, as schools are now organized, they must become "class" 
 teachers. The San Francisco Normal School uses the individual system 
 as a means of training its students for only about half their course. Most 
 of our students are trained for the remainder of their course in the class 
 system, through assignment as assistant teachers and student substitutes 
 in the public schools of the surrounding cities. As a partial means of 
 training young teachers, the individual system offers to the problem, 
 especially during the "brealdng-in" period, some very marked and almost 
 indi.spciisable advantages : 
 
 1. Developing the Teaching Heart. Individual insti-uction of pujiils 
 is the most effective means of training teachers in the chief difficulties of 
 teaclier training, whether they are to teach "classes." or pupils. The first 
 and fundamental problem in teacher-training is to quicken in the young 
 teacher, the "teaching heart," to put her emotionally en rapport with the 
 pupil, to divest the l)eginner of the ingrained notion that teaching is merely 
 the problem of "bossing the class." The atmosphere of a "class" exag- 
 gerates and increases this difficulty. The individual plan brings the teacher 
 in human and personal contact with the child, and .stirs the undeveloped 
 impulses of the teaching instinct through the heart. 
 
 2. Training in Specific Difficulties of Subject. The second purpose 
 lies in the fact that disciplinary control of a class must first have a firm 
 foundation in a trained knowledge and personal skill in overcoming certain 
 specific difficulties which every subject contains. There are, for example, 
 probably a dozen such "sticking" points in teaching arithmetic, and as 
 many more in primary reading. Each subject has its quota. Young 
 teachers can never learn them by being told or by memorizing them with 
 glazed interest in the "methods" classes. "Class" teaching does not make 
 them stand out clearly and a young teacher with "class" discipline upon her 
 hands can not get down to them and she is glad to escape the whole issue by 
 "hearing the class recite." 
 
 The class teacher is only rarely brought face to face with the individual 
 difficulties^ach pupil has in learning. She assigns the class lesson and may 
 proceed, by class exercise, to elucidate the problem in a way, according to 
 the doctrines of general pedagogy, the human mind ought to learn. Her 
 chief work, however, is to appraise the result as shown by class recitation. 
 She is ever trying to make minds fit the lesson. The teacher under the 
 individual system is ever being trained by experience in sJiaping the lessons 
 to fit the minds of the varions pupils. Such experience is invaluable. It is 
 the only thorough and efficient means of teacher-training. 
 
 3. Preparation for Rural Schools. Tlie third chief reason for using 
 the individual system for one-half the training of our normal students is 
 that it offers special preparation for teaching in rural schools. The large 
 
 (59)
 
 majority of rural schools have an enrollment of less than twenty-five or 
 thirty pupils with only a few pupils in each grade. Their attendance in 
 many cases is irregular. Many of them are ambitious to make up lost time 
 or to make rapid progress. To all of these conditions the individual system 
 which we are developing is directly fitting, and can be used by teachers 
 without serious modification of the existing administrative system. More- 
 over, up to a generation ago, rural schools generally, were taught by 
 individual instruction and no attempt was made to maintain grade restric- 
 tions. It is only in very recent years that the rural school adopted the loek- 
 step grading and promotion of its pupils in foolish imitation of the city 
 schools. There never was any occasion for it and there is not now. 
 Despite the primitive conditions and the inefficiency of teaching, we do 
 know that the bone and muscle of American citizenship was created in these 
 schools. To this condition, the rural schools owe their ancient strength. 
 Let them return to it. 
 
 When once the young teacher acquires the "teaching heart" and has 
 mastered the chief difficulties involved in the teaching of the various sub- 
 jects, she is ready to undertake with some confidence of usual success the 
 problems of class instruction. We have provided for both by giving one 
 year of each type of teaching experience. By this arrangement, the 
 students in the San Francisco Normal School obtain one year's teaching in 
 our training school, operated upon the individual system, as preparation for 
 rural schools. The second year of the normal school course they spend 
 chiefly in the city schools where they are trained in the class system. Thus, 
 in the two-year normal course, they receive training fitting them both for 
 rural schools, under the individual plan, and for city schools, under the 
 class system. 
 
 (60)
 
 TRAINING IN SPEECH USAGES. 
 
 Correct Speech is Important. Some of our critics have professed 
 themselves as i?reatly perturbed lest the individual system, by eliding the 
 class recitation^ also elides oral expression from schooling. We wish par- 
 ticularly to plead an alibi to this charge upon the simple ground that the 
 usual class recitation never was an exercise in oral expression. 
 
 A quarter of a century ago when Latin was first seriously attacked, the 
 crv went up from the Latinists, that Latin, whatever its sins, must be 
 retained on account of "the value of translation to written and oral expres- 
 sion. " ' It was an unfortunate cry, for it drew attention to the real effect of 
 Latin translation upon English expression. It then at once became evident, 
 when we came to think about it. that the usual literal translation is about 
 the worst thing which can happen to expression. For producing habits of 
 contortion and distortion of the English language, the usual translation 
 exercise of the Latin class is the most perfect contraption ever invented by 
 pedagogues. Since that time the Latin teachers have had nothing further 
 to say upon this subject and have discreetly devoted themselves to the culti- 
 vation of the "free" translation. 
 
 For analagous reasons, it is perhaps a good thing now to bring into the 
 limeliffht the effect, upon langLiage expression, of the usual class recitation. 
 Probably nothing equals its jerky, word-angling, tongue-tying, eye-rolling, 
 body-wriffgling, leg-twisting accompaniments. The usual spectacle of dear 
 teacher trying to worm "language" out of little Billy by means of a recita- 
 tion in grammar, or in stocks and bonds, is one over which sweet charity 
 draws a shroud and closes this line of argument. 
 
 The essential prerequisites of any exercise in oral expression must be 
 that the orators have (1) something to say, (2) an active desire to say it. 
 (3) proper words with which to say it. The usual class recitation upon a 
 text lesson has not one of these prerequisites. It is essentially a penal 
 inquisition to discover whether or not little Billy obediently memorized his 
 le-sson. So far as the quality of oral expression is evidence of fact, the 
 inference is generally pretty conclusive that little Billy did not. When we 
 undertake to train pupils by habit to express themselves fluently and 
 logically in English sentences we must aim at this goal specifically and 
 systematically. We can not make it the tail of some other exercise, such as 
 history or . arithmetic, and expect it to wag by synchronous sympathy. 
 When pupils are cloudy as to facts and ideas, are dealing with unfamiliar 
 temis. and over anxious to sit down, they are in no condition to be linguistic. 
 In searching for examples of success in oral expression, we can not do better 
 than to copy the principles of the Jesuit schools. These schools make a 
 success of oral expression — at least in the one feature of forensic argument. 
 Their trained graduates can be picked out in a crowd. And this is the 
 principle of it — forensic discussion is (1) a special definite subject of study 
 and drill quite distinct from other subjects; (2) the subject matter and its 
 terminology are first made thoroughly familiar and definite and even the 
 lines of argument are tamped into habit; (3) the selection of words and 
 balance of sentences are then made the goal of definite, concentrated effort. 
 
 (61)
 
 If the individual plan cuts out the class recitation, then it performs a 
 most needed excision to the benefit of training in oral expression. The next 
 .step is to frame a course, the single definite purpose of which is oral 
 expression. This implies that (1) subject matter and words to be used are 
 within the pupil's familiar range; and (2) that motives for corrections of 
 form be stimulated by effective devices. During the past year we have 
 undertaken the working out of such a systematic course. It has no special 
 connection with individual instruction and we expect that when perfected, 
 it shall be made the topic of a special monograph. 
 
 (('.'.' I
 
 THE INDIVIDUAL METHOD IN RELATION TO OTHER 
 EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 
 
 We are not offering individual instruction as a panaeea for all the dis- 
 eases of which the schools are suffering. There are wastes and neiyrlects. 
 (luite apart from those of method, to which the individual system is contined. 
 We wish to mal<e this distinction quite clear. There are many school 
 reforms now on foot which have for their purpose the pruning of dead and 
 useless materials from the present school courses, and others for tlie intro- 
 duction of newer tields of schoolinji;. With these movements, we are more 
 or less in vigorous sympathy, but the project we are now presenting is not in 
 this direction and is only indirectly connected with them. Nearly all of 
 these newer projects have to do with the subject matter, but it is generally 
 assumed that the same }>if<nis of instruction, heretofore employed, will con- 
 tinue to be employed. Our present project has to do strictly with the 
 means of schooling and is applicable to the teaching of all subjects. These 
 newer projects, however right, will always be handicapped by the ancient 
 error of putting new wine into old bottles. TTnless we also reform the 
 means, schooling will continue inefficient, and whether the goal and materials 
 of education are old or new. useful or useless, the results must always be 
 vitally handicapped. 
 
 Therefore, while our project is in no way in conflict with these other 
 modern projects, nor in competition with them, we earnestly off'ei- that it 
 takes precedence, and is the condition of efficiency of any project. 
 
 The Supernormal. Singularly enough, the teaching which at present 
 is giving us the most serious difficulty is not how to deal with the sub- 
 normalities but with supernormalities in pupils. W^e are all more or less 
 familiar with supernormal types in music, in drawing, in color appreciation, 
 in dramatic ability, in memorizing powers, in language, in fluency of poetic 
 expression, and, rarely, in numerical computation. Unquestionably, there 
 are also marked instances of supernormality which seemingly are the 
 products of experience and training — those of mechanical invention, of 
 scientific observation and application, of social and civic philosophy, of 
 literary appreciation and expression. While these latter complex powers 
 superficially seem the products of training, there is no reason to doubt that 
 if the elemental factors were exposed, they also would prove to be con- 
 genital. There are a number of pupils, frecjuently normal or even slow in 
 some qualities, but who in certain other fields, seem to get by a flash of 
 intuition what their fellows must reach only by methodical plodding. They 
 are not usually noticed in the class system since the class moves as a unit, 
 and such pupils have no excitation of their abilities. But. by the individual 
 system, such pupils are thrown clearly into relief. It has taken us some 
 time to learn the practicality of passing these supernormals along upon 
 their intuitions. "Pedagogic ju.stice" .seemed to require that in order to be 
 fair to all alike, we must force them through the same laborious stages of the 
 method required for the normal pupil. The systematic cour.ses of our exer- 
 cise books are not fitted for these pupils ; for. while they may make credital)le 
 
 (03)
 
 progress, they are yet far from reaching' their natural rates. They seem to 
 do their thinking in reahns of which pedagogy has yet made no surveys. 
 We may get some ilhistration of it from the geniuses of computation in 
 numlier who, with a glance at several columns, immediately write the correct 
 answer. They have never been drilled upon combinations, reviewed and 
 relearned ! None of them has ever been able to make any explanation of 
 how he arrives mentally at his results nor give the slightest inkling of his 
 processes. The answers well suddenly forth from a submerged mind. Or, 
 in art, the supernormal knows by inexplicable intuition the congruent and 
 noncongruent factors which we spend years in the schoolroom, more or less 
 fruitlessly. trA'ing to drill into the heads of the normal and subnormal pupils 
 alike. In science we again get glimpses of this other kind of thinking which 
 make our studied laboratory step-by-step methods, invented by pedagogic 
 system, seem grotesque caricature. Some pupils seem to have flashes of 
 comprehension which make logical reasoning a tortoise in the race with a 
 hare. In music, poetry, in the use of language and in other fields we con- 
 tinually catch these glimpses of the workings of a submerged mind which ' 
 proceed, not statically, but dynamically, to their goals. 
 
 It is this kind of thinking by which invention and discovery proceed, 
 heroes are molded, poems are thought, and miracles are wrought. Our 
 schooling, by uniform lockstep, has never been aware of these conditions, 
 has suppressed them by every known device of pedantry, and has sought by 
 uniformity to extinguish what little Olympian fire human mentality 
 occasionally manifests. 
 
 Practical cjuestions arise which we are far from answering. For 
 example, in arithmetic, should we attempt to teach a supernormal pupil 
 how to "reason out" an example, or should we simply accept his result 
 without explanation? We know that most pupils detest such "help," and 
 only learn the explanation of how they think by memorizing what we think 
 is the way they ought to think. We know, moreover, that as a rule they 
 never think as we think we teach them to think, and they arrive at goals by 
 altogether different mental routes. If we make this exception for super- 
 normals, should we not make it also for normals and subnormals'? 
 
 In all culture subjects, such as literature, history, geography, science, 
 should we not tear out and burn root and branch, the written examination 
 except for brief statement of fundamental facts of a formal character? 
 Examinations are efforts to reduce thinking to dictated formula and as such 
 deceive every one concerned as to what they really represent, and mean 
 little of what they assume to signify. 
 
 AYe feel that the greatest gains in progress yet to l)e made will be by 
 finding a means of permitting pupils of certain supernormal characteristics 
 to reach their natural rates. In various subjects, sucli as nu^sic, art, litera- 
 ture, composition, discussion of science, we have, after formal foundation 
 has been laid, segregated, regardless of grade, pupils showing sparks of 
 genius. They are offered opportunities of a suggestive character and of 
 varied assortment, put into situations which call for impromptu or original 
 solution, stimulated to invention, etc. In the absence of definite knowledge 
 
 (C4)
 
 of how to develop these pupils, wf liave felt the pedagogue could at least 
 remove restraints, clear the obstructions from the road of each individual, 
 oil the wheels, kindle enthusiasm, and organize the applause. These types 
 of study, we hope to make later the subject of a special monograph. 
 
 The Problem Beyond. The individual systcin, by i-eleasing the pupil's 
 ambition, and freeing inborn abilities from imposed restraints, ott'ers a new 
 impetus to education. Under it the child, the teacher and the school become 
 different — they become natural. New conditions, new problems and new 
 possibilities present themselves. The individual system, while it has not 
 done more than to make natural education possible, nevertheless, in doing 
 this, is doing all that is possible. While, probably, many of us can not 
 follow Dr. Montessori into the mystic labyrinths of miraculous psychology, 
 nevertheless all of us are brought to our feet in approval of the substitution 
 of the child's initiative for dictated thinking. We recognize at once the 
 dynamic power of the child in a state of mental absorption, as compared 
 with the static thinking of a group of children performing a dictated task, 
 for a dictated period, and by a dictated process of thought. We here stand 
 at a crossroads and down one lane we see the galley slaves who represented 
 so much muscle power^and nothing more ; we see the human automatons 
 in the submarine who, at the dictation of the man at the periscope, perform 
 their duty, unthinking and irresponsible ; we see duml). shackled, unhuman 
 labor, of all ages, reducible to mathematical terms of gravity — and nothing 
 more; and Ave also see, in the same light, in the same dumb attitudes, the 
 children of our schools, performing in the same way, upon the same prin- 
 ciple, their dictated tasks in the name of education — is this education ? But, 
 down the other lane the human race has trod, we see, absorbed in thought, 
 Prometheus, the prophets, the discoverers, the inventors, the doers of deeds, 
 and in their faces and in their work are evidences of a distinctly different 
 kind of thinking; it is d^'namic, self-initiated, self-absorbed, drawing 
 directly from the well-springs of that universal mind by which all things 
 are created. It is now and here that, whatever our regret that the ^Montes- 
 sori movement should be encumbered by unfortunate accompaniments, we 
 must honor the spirit of the woman who, rising from the seven hills of 
 ancient Rome, is calling the attention of the twentieth century to that 
 simple touchstone of education which, new to the schools, is yet as old as 
 human progress upon those hills. The new problem of education pounding 
 at our doors is how to put the pupil into a state of self-initiated processes 
 of thinking and how to avoid that thinkingless form of mentality which 
 schools have ever been content to accept, and even to force. Once we realize 
 this point of view, the future of schooling streams out in unlimited oppor- 
 tunities. The hard problem of this generation of school teachers is to cut 
 loose from our traditional point of pedagogical view which makes .schooling 
 a treadmill of dictated thinking. 
 
 The Handwriting on the Wall. The class system of schooling was 
 modeled, several centuries ago, upon the military conception. The most 
 efficient examples of class instruction, today, are to be found in military 
 
 (Go)
 
 ■schools — notably in Germany. Under this military conception, pupils' minds 
 are expected to move through the grades in perfect platoons, just as their 
 physical bodies are moved in military procession. A century or less ago 
 people believed that all minds were created alike and that the differences 
 were due to subsequent education. 
 
 But now, from a number of sources, of science and experience, the light 
 is breaking in that minds are born different, that they are made up of parts 
 as varied in origin as their ancestry, and that each individual represents a 
 combination of hereditary qualities probably never before assembled in one 
 individual, and perhaps never to be repeated. Under the more modern 
 conception education is not a creation of new parts, but a development of 
 what ancestry has given, and must therefore be a separate and distinct 
 process for each individual. 
 
 The sciences akin to education have been rapidly abandoning in practice 
 the theory of uniformity in mentality. Pathology has already left far 
 behind the notion that "insanity" represents a single type of disease, to be 
 cured by confinement or by a single remedy. There are now many 
 "insanities" and treatment is assuming a purely individual basis. 
 
 Less than half a century ago, the students of criminology were in hot 
 pursuit of "types." We heard of the "atavistic type," the "recidivistic 
 type." etc.. but now we are dealing with each delinquent as an individual. 
 The new standard authority, as a text, is entitled "The Individual Delin- 
 quent." 
 
 Similarly it is only a generation ago that all persons mentally deficient 
 were commonly called "idiots" and later this uniformity was broken into 
 types — "the idiot," "the imbecile," the "feeble-minded" or "the moron," 
 and again these were broken into subtypes, the "Mongolian type," the 
 "Malay type," etc. But modern practice, in treatment, is learning that 
 these types are mere word classifications without fixed definition, and prac- 
 titioners are treating each case as individual and peculiar to himself. As in 
 all movements of modern progress, the schools are laggards and we nuist 
 expect that they will be the last and the most resistant to individualism. 
 But the certainty that this step must be taken eventually is plain, llu 
 handirrifing is upon the wall. Aside from the general movement toward 
 individual treatment in all sciences dealing with mentality, the actual bank- 
 ruptcy of education by group instruction is laid bare by its own results. 
 There must be education of the educators. There will be resistance and 
 protests. An intelligent civilization will not long suffer its schools to be 
 operated by false and abandoned dogmas and at the fearful cost in failures 
 at the outset of life which the figures of the system itself frankly reveal. 
 The tide is now at the turn. 
 
 Need of a New Point of View. A new point of view is needed for 
 schooling. By this I do not mean we are suffering for an additional doc- 
 trinaire, for we already have a rare collection. But all our doctrinaries 
 rest upon the one alluring, but unsubstantial, hope that if we can discover 
 the process by which all people think, we can hitch a system of education to it. 
 
 (6G)
 
 All pupils could then he educated willi dctinite and exceptionless certainty, 
 and young minds sent upon the road to omniscience with the exactitude of 
 train dispatching. From Plato down, philosophers have heen "discover- 
 ing" these universal laws. The trouble has been that the hiws will not 
 stay discovered. Each new discoverer feels it tirst duty to demolish all 
 previous discoveries and set up his own in their place. As a consequence, 
 there are now about as many sets of "laws" as there have been discoverers — 
 and none of them has ever been known to have a practical application. At 
 best they have been merely ornamental illustrations of those sad words — the 
 "saddest of tongue or pen — what might have been." 
 
 Our existing school theory is the product — a hopeless snarl of conflicting, 
 interlacing, jangling phrases, which the web-combing philosophers of all 
 ages have contributed to this word museum. The commercial text manu- 
 facturers have put this entangled mess into paragraphic form, and for 
 twenty years normal schools and university pedagogical departments have 
 been peddling it out as training for teachers! Jn order to have groups of 
 words which have no meaning, it is convenient to have a vocabulary which 
 has no sense. This need has been met admirably by what its various pur- 
 veyors call the "scientific terminology" of pedagogy, but which has been 
 more accurately named, by one thoughtful observer,* as "pedaguese. " 
 This pedaguese has fulfilled the purpose of its manufacturers. Professors 
 of pedagogy whose mentality is sufficiently anaemic to be honest in teaching 
 the stuflt' are exhilarated by a buoyant sense of their own erudition. 
 Students are awed by its impressive unintelligibility into a state of 
 respectful doubt as to their own mental capacity. Lay observers have 
 vibrated between the theories that pedagogues are a band of fakirs and that 
 they are a flock of harmless lunatics with a penchant for large words. After 
 all, the difficulty in finding the universal process of thinking may be due to 
 the alternative that there is none. Therefore, we need a new point of view 
 which brings this alternative above the horizon. At any rate, let us abandon 
 the pretension to a "science" of education until Ave can taste a scientific 
 flavor. Let us be honest with truth even if we must appear poor in wisdom. 
 In the mean time, individual teaching in practice is very suggestive that 
 each man's process of thinking is his own, that he borrows only from his 
 ancestry and lends only to his posterity. 
 
 *\\ elland Hendricks — ' A .Joysome History of Education." Mr. Hendricks offers anion" 
 his samples of pedaguese, the following quotation from a standard te.xt of wide use bv 
 normal schools and universities: "Upon what basis shall the agency of formal educatioii 
 select the experiences that are to function in modifying adjustments?" Mr. Hendricks 
 comments as follows : 
 
 •'This typical sentence illustrates a remarkable feature of the language, namely its 
 peculiar interchangeability of words. For instance, as we are assured by one of the most 
 learned pedaguese scholars in the United States, including Guam, the expression 'experiences 
 that are to function in modifying adjustments' means the same as the adiustments that are 
 to modify in functioning experiences, or the functions that are to adlu'st in experiencing 
 modihcations, or the modifications that .are to experience in adjusting functions If vou 
 don t see tlie meaning of it in any form read this: 
 
 "Tlie fact that the organization of experience in coherent systems is a fundamental 
 factor in promoting the application of experience to the practical improvement of adjust- 
 ment IS profoundly significant to the process of education.' " 
 
 (67)
 
 The Real Difficulties in Introducing the Individual System. The real 
 impediments to be overcome in eliding the lockstep in our schooling are 
 quite other than actual impracticability in making a change : 
 
 I. The inertia of the administrative departments of the school system. 
 This is natural. We schoolmasters have grown up in our system. We are 
 part and parcel of it, as it is of us. "The virtue in most request.'' said 
 Emerson, "is conformity. Self-reliance is its aversion. It loves not 
 realities and creators, but names and customs. ' ' 
 
 Our first and most forcible reaction to any proposal for change is defense 
 and argumentative objection to change. We are willing to work our fingers 
 to the bone to make productive the primitive machinerj^ we have, but our 
 natural tendency is to attack any proposal to substitute new machinery. 
 We are not willing to give the new proposals a hearing, much less a trial. 
 This is all natural, human, and, in the majority of cases, the safe thing. 
 It is a condition with which all reform must justly wrestle and 1)y which 
 finally be tested. 
 
 II. The teaching body, with a minority of exceptions, is naturally, and 
 more or less justly, fearful that change will mean personal inconvenience. 
 Teachers have experienced the ravages of many new nostrums, most of 
 which have come to naught. There is usually justice and sanity in their 
 suspicion. 
 
 III. The public mind is ever ready to condemn an existing system. 
 but is as extremely suspicious of any proposal of remedy. The public mind 
 is enthusiastically destructive, but always pessimistic as to reconstruction. 
 The above are natural, and more or less legitimate difficulties in the way 
 of school reforms. But there are a number of illegitimate impediments. 
 There are vested personal interests — (1) officials who are not interested in 
 schools, except for personal advantage, and it matters nothing to them 
 whether or not schooling is efficient, provided they are not disturbed; 
 (2) incompetents who do not grasp the facts of existing evils, and feel that 
 such agitation "hurts business"; (3) commercial book publishers whose 
 l)usiness would require expensive changes, etc. 
 
 A Word of Personal Privilege. The faculty of the Normal School very 
 earnestly believes in the significance of the results of this effort to eliminate 
 the evils of the lockstep from our school system. We believe that the prob- 
 lem of adaptation of the plan of individual instruction to all forms of 
 schooling contains no very serious obstacles. In putting forth what has been 
 done, we are more concerned to arouse the force that will elide the manifest 
 and fearful evils of the lockstep, in any way, than that our particular con- 
 structive remedy should be adopted in its stead. 
 
 We are aware that the natural conservatism of many of our fellow 
 workers in educational fields and their sentiments of commendable loyalty 
 to the school system make it difficult to present the case without offending 
 their sensibilities. We especially regret that in order to overcome the 
 inertia of general acceptance of school evils, to which the world has been long 
 accustomed, we have felt obliged to state these lockstep evils without apology 
 
 (GS)
 
 or palliation, and to lay bare the truth, as we see it. in its unexcnsed 
 enormity. "We regret exceedingly that many of our fellow workers, with 
 these sentiments and this loyalty, have failed to recognize that we are 
 attacking an impersonal system, not persons. Further, we would insist, in 
 the interest of the real issue raised, that argument against, or even disproof 
 of the practicability of the individual plan which we offer as a constructive 
 remedy, in no way nor degree mitigates the appalling character of the evils 
 of the lockstep. To prove that individual instruction is impossible in no 
 way excuses lockstep .schooling. And this much is significant: the pamphlet, 
 "Lockstep Schooling and a Remedy" has now been issued nearly two years. 
 It has been widely read and discussed. We have heard much approval, or 
 admission of the truth of the charges against lockstep schooling. We have 
 heard some argumentative doubt and denial, some ridicule of the prac- 
 ticability of the individual system in its application to large classes upon 
 the grounds (assuming no change is to be made in administration) that it 
 w^ould cost more or the teacher 's work would be harder ; we have noted con- 
 siderable irritation and vexation against ourselves for arousing hostile 
 criticism of the school sj'stem, and some personal and malignant resentment 
 in consequence. But — and this is what is significant — throughout this dis- 
 cussion, iw u'ord has reached us showing even an attempt to dispute the 
 facts, truth or conclusions, in general or in any single detail, of the indict- 
 ment of the lockstep evils of the school system! 
 
 There is then no real issue. The large majority who approve and 
 support the truth of this indictment, and the minority who have been per- 
 sonally vexed only by immaterial side issues, seem quite agreed upon the 
 one essential. There is therefore no reason, so far as all honest and genuine 
 persons are concerned, why there should not be one combined movement to 
 uproot from the schools the lockstep system which has sapped the strength, 
 and vitiated the efficiency of our schools, which has driven half the pupils 
 out of the schools without an adequate education, and Avhich now is respon- 
 sible, very largely at least, for the army of life "misfits," and for the failure 
 of social, civic and industrial civilization to accomplish legitimate and 
 reachable goals. 
 
 leU"
 
 SAN FRANCISCO STATE NORMAL SCHOOL PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 The Teachers' Manuals. 
 
 Some years ago the San Francisco State Normal School undertook the publication 
 of courses of study for teaching the various subjects of the curriculum of the elementary 
 school. These courses were prepared by members of the faculty and were the outgrowths 
 of daily experience in directing and supervising the teaching by student teachers in the 
 Normal Elementary School. The original purpose of these publications was to furnish 
 to these student teachers directions for teaching each of • the subjects. An essential 
 necessity in their construction was that they should be very explicit, specific and 
 practicable in use. Gradually there grew a demand for them by teachers in the public 
 schools, and the Normal School began to print larger editions in order to fill this new 
 need. The demand from the public school sources has now grown to such proportions 
 that one chief service of the institution is that of its publications. 
 Pupils' Exercise Books. 
 
 Up to 1912 the publications had been confined to courses of study for the assistance 
 of teachers. During 1912 the publication of pupils' exercise books, accompanying the 
 teachers' bulletins, was commenced. In one type of these exercise books the pupils 
 write directly in printed lessons. This device saves a large amount of labor and time 
 of the teacher in copying upon the board and in oral instructions. Further, it saves the 
 pupils' time in copying from the board. But pupils can make progress two or three times 
 faster than by the usual method, and the work is done much more effectively and without 
 the sense of drudgery either to pupil or teacher. The exercise books are printed upon 
 paper that will take ink. They cost little or no more than the common blank books 
 of the same quality of paper. 
 Monographs. 
 
 There is now commenced a series of monographs of a practical nature, aimed to 
 assist or suggest further development of a greater efficiency of school instruction. 
 Three Series. 
 
 There have been three series of publications in time — one issued prior to the great 
 fire of 1906, of which no numbers now remain; a series begun in 1907 and continued 
 to 1914, and, finally, the Pupil's Self-Instruction Series, begun in 1914. The latter two 
 will be found listed below. 
 System of Publication. 
 
 The expense of these publications is borne chiefly by a revolving fund obtained by 
 their sale. They are printed in the State Printing Office and sold practically at manu- 
 facturing cost. They are issued merely upon the authority of the individual authors and 
 the editor of the series, and do not represent a general or necessarily permanent policy 
 of the school, nor a consensus of its faculty or trustees. 
 How to Order. 
 
 All orders must be accompanied by school district warrant check, money order or 
 stamps. We cannot fill orders which require keeping of accounts. As most of the 
 purchases of bulletins and pupils' exercise books are now made by the school districts, 
 teachers who send orders should be careful to secure the signature of trustees to warrants 
 in payment for orders, so that delays may be avoided. Be careful, also, in filling out 
 orders that the bulletins are listed and are not out of print. We cannot exchange 
 publications once purchased unless error has been made and the request is made within 
 three days. Kindly avoid, so far as possible, conditions which require special corre- 
 spondence in the business department. 
 
 MONOGRAPHS. 
 
 Monograph A. A remedy for Lock-Step Schooling; a preliminary report upon the 
 weakness and impossibilities of the class system of instruction, and progress to date in 
 suljstituting tiierefor an individual system of teaching. By Frederic Burk. Price, post- 
 paid, l:j cents. 
 
 Monograph B. Outline courses in general information and general intelligence. This 
 monograph undertakes to map out the beginning of a reorganization of the high school 
 course of study, not only for the better preparation of those intending to become teachers, 
 but also in the general cause of wider preparation of all students in industrial, civic and 
 social intelligence. To students intending to enter the San Francisco State Normal School 
 the monograph will l)e sent free. Tlie .subject.s are printed a.s separate pamplilets:. Ameri- 
 can History and Civics; pamphlet for General History, Science, and Literature, Arithmetic, 
 Geography, and Music; Spelling, Language, and Grammar. Price — tlie set will be sent for 
 25 cents, postpaid; separately, 5 cents each. 
 
 Monograph C. Everychild versus Lockstep Schooling; Data of Two Years' Experience 
 in the operation of a system of Individual Instruction showing accelerated rates of pupils, 
 elimination of wastes, actual saving in cost of schooling, etc. Compiled by Frederic Burk. 
 Price, postpaid, 15 cents. 
 
 Monograph D. Critical Difficulties in the Teaching of Arithmetic. For teachers, 
 and for students of Normal School. By Mary A. Ward. Price, 15 cents, 3 cents added for 
 postage, (70)
 
 PUPIL'S SELF-INSTRUCTION SERIES. 
 
 (Adapted to an Individual Method of Teaching.) 
 The occasion and general plan for this series is set forth in Monograph A. To con- 
 form to this plan we are undertaking the publication of a series of pupils' exercise 
 books and teachers' manuals adapted to use under the individual system of instruction. 
 They of course, may also be used under the class system and will assist in teaching 
 by the state series texts. Their plan of construction embodies the features outlined in 
 Monograph A-the "elastic" lesson, by which the number of exercises to secure compre- 
 hension or accuracy varies according to individual need; the adaptation to simplicity of 
 language- the lesson directions whereby the pupil can make his own rate of progress and. 
 to a large extent, independently of prescribed lessons or help from the teacher; the 
 cumulative reviews by which all principles once learned are carried forward automatically. 
 This series will be found invaluable, especially for the rural school where Pupils must 
 depend largely upon their own resources. The teachers' manuals will give full directions 
 for operation of the system. 
 
 ^"^""^Except where specially stated, the price of the numbers of the Self-Instruction Series 
 
 win be as follows: 
 
 At the Normal School, 10 cents each; 
 By mail, 12 cents each, postpaid; 
 
 By express or freight, 10 cents eacli, transportation charges paid by buyer. 
 Arithmetic. Bv Frederic Burk and Mary A. Ward. 
 
 No 20— Teachers' Manual to accompany pupils' books, Nos. 21, 22, and 23, giving 
 directions, answers to examples and supplementary examples. Price— 25 cents each, post- 
 paid. 
 
 No. 21— Pupils' Exercise Tablet in addition and subtraction. 
 No. 22— Pupils' Exercise Tablet in multiplication and short division. 
 No 23— Pupils' Exercise Tablet in compound multiplication and long division. 
 No. 29— Problems in Percentage. Double number. Price— 20 cents each at Normal 
 School; 24 cents by mail; ?20.00 per hundred by express. 
 No. 30 — Applications of Percentage. 
 No. 31 — Problems in Mensuration, Part I. 
 No. 32 — Problems in Mensuration, Part II. 
 Language. By A. S. Boulware and Ethel G. Smith. 
 
 No. 42— Pupils' Exercise Tablet in Language, Part I (for fifth grades). 
 No. 43— Pupils' Exercise Tablet in Language, Part II. 
 No. 44 — Pupils' Exercise Tablet in Language, Part 111. 
 Grammar. By Ethel G. Smith and Frederic Burk. 
 
 No. 51 Part I. Analysis, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs. 
 
 No. 52 — Part II. Prepositions, number, and review. 
 No. 53 — Part III. Verbs, principal parts, predicate forms. 
 No. 54 — Part IV. The verb, be; attribute complements, helpers. 
 No. 55— Part V. Participles. 
 
 No. 56 — Part IV. Infinitives imperative, possessive comparison, connectives, com- 
 pound parts, clauses, review. 
 
 No 57 Part VIL (By A. S. Boulware). Corrective exercises for curretit errors. ^ 
 
 No 58— Part VIII. (By A. S. Boulware.) A series of pads, supplementary to No. 5i, 
 with exercises to correct specific errors of grammar, as follows: 1. Recognition oT Predi- 
 cates; 2. Time of Predicates; 3. Nouns and Pronouns; 4. Recognition of Phrases; 5. Infin- 
 itives' and Participles; 6. Relative Pronouns; 7. Comparison; 8. Clauses; 9. Connectives; 
 10. Parts of Speech. Price — 10 cents each, postage 5 cents. 
 History. By P. F. Valentine. 
 
 No. 80— Pupils' Exercise Book, Part I, to accompany advanced state text. (Columbus 
 through Jefferson.) 
 
 No. 81 — Pupils' Exercise Book, Part II, to accompany advanced state text. (Madi- 
 son through Civil War.) 
 
 No. 82 — Pupils' Exercise Book, Part III, to accompany advanced state text. (Civil 
 War to present.) 
 
 No. 83— Difficulties of history texts simply explained. (Democracy, the Constitution. 
 Centrahzed Government, Religious Toleration, Monroe Doctrine, Spoils System, Civil 
 Service Reform, the Tariff, etc.) 
 Geography. By F. W. Hoffman. 
 
 Bulletin No. 18, Teachers' Manual, with two pupils' exercise books in Map Geography, 
 is partly constructed upon the individual plan. It is already published and may be 
 obtained upon application. (See next list.) 
 
 IN PREPARATION. 
 
 There are in preparation, for publication during the year, the following: 
 
 Phonics. A series of exercise books. 
 
 Writing. A series of exercise books. 
 
 Drawing. A series of exercise books. 
 
 Music. A series of exercise books in formal note work. 
 
 (71)
 
 TEACHERS' MANUALS AND PUPILS' EXERCISE BOOKS. 
 
 (Series Published 1907 to 1914.) 
 (Out of print; Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13 and 14. The materials of these have largely 
 been absorbed in revised editions represented by the later numbers of the Self Instruction 
 Series.) 
 
 No. 4 — A Course of Study in IVIap Geography; paper bound, 52 pages. By Allison 
 Ware. Price — by mail, postpaid, 30 cents. 
 
 Outline Maps — In connection with Bulletin No. 4, the school publishes a series of nine 
 outline maps from which pupils may trace outlines for use in location. These maps are 
 9 by 12 inches in size. They represent the following areas: North America, South 
 America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, United States, California, and the hemispheres. 
 Price — by mail, postpaid, for set of nine, 15 cents. (See also Bulletin No. 18.) 
 
 No. 9 — A Course of Study in Language; 174 pages. (Out of print; order Nos. 42, 43, 
 44.) By Effie Belle McFadden. 
 
 No. 10 — A Course of Study and Teachers' Handbook In the Common Literature of 
 Life; 207 pages, paper bound. By Allison Ware. Price — postpaid, 40 cents. 
 
 No. 11 — A Course of Study In Formal Arithmetic and Teachers' Handbook. By David 
 Rhys Jones. This bulletin is published in various parts as follows: 
 
 Part I. Teachers' Handbook and exercises for integers; 109 pages, paper bound. 
 Price — by mail, postpaid, 30 cents. 
 
 Part II. Teachers' Handbook and exercises for common fractions, decimals, per- 
 centage, denominate numbers and mensuration; 84 pages, paper bound. Price — by mail, 
 postpaid, 30 cents. 
 
 The Pupils' Exercise Books, Nos. 1, 2, and 4, accompanying the Handbooks, are out 
 of print; a limited stock of No. 3 (fractions and decimals) is still on hand. Price — 10 cents 
 by mail; the pupils' work, however, is included in the Teachers' Handbook. Individual 
 Series No. 21 takes the place of No. 1; No. 22 and No. 23 take the place of No. 2. 
 
 No. 12 — Review Courses of American History by means of Composition Topics, and 
 Teachers' Handbook to the use of the California State Series Texts. By P. F. Valentine. 
 Part I. Teachers' edition containing introduction and directions for use of the com- 
 position method, the pupils' topics of the primary text, the pupils' topics of the advanced 
 text, a paragraph directory to the text, and a cumulative fact review of the advanced 
 text; 73 pages. Price — postpaid, 25 cents. 
 
 Part 11. Pupils' edition containing the composition outlines which follow the state 
 primary text in history; 10 pages. Price — postpaid, 5 cents; in lots of 25 or more, freight 
 or expressage paid by purchaser, 4 cents per copy. 
 
 Part III. Pupils' edition containing the composition outlines which follow the state 
 series advanced text in history, the paragraph directory to the text, and the cumulative 
 fact review for the same; 48 pages. Price — postpaid, 10 cents; in lots of 25 or more, 
 freight or expressage paid by purchaser, 8 cents per copy. 
 Out of print — order No. 29, Self-Instruction Series. 
 
 No. 14 — A Course of Study in the Teaching of Composition, Language and Spelling; 
 paper bound. By Effle B. McFadden, assisted by Ethel G. Smith. Teachers' edition for 
 first three years. Price — postpaid, 25 cents. Nos. 1 and 2 of the pupils' exercise books 
 heretofore accompanying this handbook are out of print; they are replaced by Nos. 40 
 and 41, Self-Instruction Series. A small stock of Nos. 3 and 4 still remains. Price — 10 
 cents, postpaid. 
 
 No. 16 — A Course of Study In Phonics. By Corrine H. Johnstone and Frederic Burk. 
 Teachers' Edition, Part I, 90 pages. Price — postpaid, 20 cents. 
 
 Pupils' Phonic Exercise Book No. 1 (containing exercises reprinted from teachers' 
 edition). Price — postpaid, 10 cents; in lots of 25 or more, freight or expressage paid by 
 purchaser, 7% cents. 
 
 No. 17 — A Composition Course in American Government and Pupils' Handbook to the 
 State Series Text (Dunn's Community and Citizen) with Supplement containing revised 
 or additional paragraphs upon conservation, some California laws, Interstate Commerce 
 Commission, California's compulsory education, direct election of United States senators, 
 direct primary, township and county, the commission form of city government, the 
 initiative, referendum and recall, the cabinet; paper bound, about 40 pages. By P. F. 
 Valentine. Price — postpaid, 15 cents; in lots of 25 or more, expressage or freight paid 
 by purchaser, 10 cents per copy. 
 
 No. 18 — A Course of Study In Map Geography; can be used in grades as low as fourth. 
 By F. W. Hoffman. 
 
 Teachers' Manual containing directions for use of exercise books. Price — 10 cents, 
 postpaid. 
 
 Pupils' Exercise Book No. 1 — With maps and blanks in which pupils write directly. 
 Price — 12 cents, postpaid. 
 
 Pupils' Exercise Book No. 2 — Constructed upon plan of Individual Instruction, with 
 maps and blanks In which pupils write directly. Price — 10 cents, postpaid; In lots of 25 s' 
 more, freight or expressage paid by purchaser, 7^ cents per copy, for both exercise books 
 Outline Wall Maps, 24 by 32 inches, unmounted (directions given for mounting); 
 No. 1, world hemispheres; No. 2, Mercator's projection of world. Price — 10 cents each, 
 postpaid. 
 
 Pupils' Atlas (9 maps of the continents, United States, Mercator and California). 
 Price — 10 cents, postpaid. (72)
 
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