PETROLEUM" of 
 
 ITS DEVELOPMENT AND tTSES 
 
 BY 
 
 K. NELSON BOYD 
 
 i 
 
 MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF ( IVIf. ENGINEERS 
 
 or THE 
 ( UNIVERSITY ) 
 
 iiJFORN\ 
 
 WHITTAKER AND CO., 
 
 2, WHITE HART STREET, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, LONDON, 
 ANP 66, FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 
 
 1895. 
 
 [All rights resen-fJ] 
 

 RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITED, 
 LONDON & BUNG A v. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE enormous and increasing consumption of petroleum 
 of various qualities in this country has created a special 
 interest in this useful natural product, and the author has 
 met with frequent inquiries from users of oil outside the 
 trade as to its origin, manner of production, and mode of 
 preparation. The following pages have been written with 
 a view to giving some general information on the subject. 
 It has not been attempted to compile a text-book, but 
 simply to collect a few facts about petroleum which may 
 prove of interest to the reader. 
 
 Mr. A. H. Rowan, A.M.T.C.E., has kindly written a 
 special chapter on "Petroleum Engines," which will be 
 found useful and interesting. 
 
 R. N. B. 
 
 London. Febnuvru 1895. 
 
 160 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 <'HAP. PAGE 
 
 I. INTRODUCTORY .... . 1 
 
 II. HISTORICAL ....... 4 
 
 III. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 11 
 
 IV. THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM, AND GEOLOGICAL 
 
 STRATA IN WHICH IT is FOUND . . .,19 
 
 V. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION . . . ... 23 
 
 VI. WINNING PETROLEUM L )( J 
 
 VII. STORAGE AND TRANSPORT 34 
 
 VIII. LIQUID FUEL 38 
 
 IX. THE FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS . 50 
 
 X. PETROLEUM ENGINES. . . . . .58 
 
 XI. THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM 76 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 PAO-K 
 
 (A) TABLES MOLESWOUTH AND UN WIN 80 
 
 (B) CIRCULAR OF LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL ON THE 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF PETROLEUM 
 LAMPS 
 
 (C) CALORIFIC VALUE OF CRUDE OILS . , . 
 
 (D) IMPORT DUTIES ON CRUDE AND REFINED OILS IN- 
 
 DIFFERENT COUNTRIES . 84 
 
PETROLEUM 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 SINCE the introduction of petroleum into this country 
 the consumption has continuously and enormously in- 
 creased. In 1859 the imports into the United Kingdom 
 amounted to 2,000,000, and in 1893 they had reached a 
 total of 155,126,667 gallons. The Board of Trade returns 
 do not specify the various kinds of oil which are included 
 in the above figures. As a matter of fact, very little crude 
 petroleum, if any, is imported into the United Kingdom. 
 By far the largest proportion consists of illuminating oil, 
 termed "petroleum oil" by the trade in Great Britain, and 
 " kerosene " in the United States. A certain quantity of 
 petroleum spirit or gasoline, and lubricating oils, and so- 
 called solar oil for the enrichment of gas, are included 
 in the above figures, leaving probably in round numbers 
 130,000,000 gallons of oil consumed for lighting and heat- 
 ing purposes, and also for the production of power in 
 the motors known as petroleum engines. To the quantity 
 of petroleum imported must be added the mineral oil 
 
2 PETROLEUM 
 
 produced >n Sc&ilkttdi from the 2,000,000 tons of shale 
 raised and treated* whiphjwili .probably amount to 20,000,000 
 gallop of MiirsiriatiRg toL , f 
 
 The large amount of petroleum oil now used for pur- 
 poses other than lighting may be roughly computed by 
 comparing the quantity imported ten years ago, when 
 the petroleum stove and motor were almost unknown, with 
 that recorded for 1893. We find that in 1883 the imports 
 of petroleum oil amounted to 50,000,000 gallons, and in 
 1893 to about 155,000,000 gallons. It is hardly necessary 
 to point out the numerous advantages to be derived from 
 a regular supply of this useful product. For illuminating 
 purposes, more especially in the smaller houses, it stands 
 without a rival ; and in recent years the oil-stove has come 
 into very general use, more particularly in households 
 where gas is not laid on. The petroleum-oil engine is 
 now applied to many purposes in place of the steam- 
 engine or the gas-engine. One great advantage possessed 
 by these motors lies in the fact that an oil-engine can be 
 applied in any situation where a cask or a ten-gallon jar 
 of oil can be delivered. The oil-engine may prove of 
 great advantage to the gold-mines in Western Australia, 
 where water is scarce, and is already in use at some 
 mines. 
 
 The transport and storage of such a large quantity of 
 inflammable oil are matters requiring the most careful 
 consideration, with a view to safety. At the wharves 
 and stores in London the stocks sometimes amount to 
 over 20,000,000 gallons, and at a single wharf as much 
 as 4,000,000 gallons have been stored at one time. As 
 
INTRODUCTORY 3 
 
 the law stands at present, no regulations exist as to quan- 
 tities stored or the manner of effecting such storage 
 for petroleum having a flashing point 73 F. close test. 
 Yet it is obvious that certain precautions are necessary 
 to prevent accidents in handling enormous quantities of 
 inflammable liquid ; and in view of opinions expressed by 
 authorities in these matters, a Select Committee of the 
 House of Commons was appointed last session to inquire 
 into the subject of petroleum. This Committee has met 
 on several occasions, and collected some evidence before 
 adjourning until this session, when it will probably be 
 re- appointed. 
 
 Considering the large quantity of petroleum consumed 
 in the United Kingdom for various purposes, and its great 
 value as a source of light and heat to the millions who 
 have to study economy, it is presumed that a few pages 
 on such a subject may prove acceptable to the reading 
 public. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 HISTORICAL 
 
 ALTHOUGH the general use of petroleum as an illumin- 
 ant, lubricant, heat and power producer, etc., dates from 
 a comparatively recent period, it has been known, and to 
 some extent used, from times of the greatest antiquity. 
 There are numerous references in the Bible to pitch and 
 slime, which must refer to some variety of bitumen, and as 
 mention is also made of liquid pitch and burning gas, it 
 is not unreasonable to conclude that the pitch of the 
 Bible may have been nothing else than petroleum exud- 
 ations dried by the heat of the sun. We are told, 
 among other allusions to the substance, that Noah's ark 
 was pitched " within and without," and that in the con- 
 struction of the Tower of Babel " slime had they for 
 mortar," which in all probability was petroleum dried by 
 the heat of the sun. Asphalt or pitch was known to the 
 ancient Egyptians, who used it for embalming their dead, 
 and also for pavements, as the latter have been found 
 among Assyrian ruins. These very ancient records do 
 not directly allude to the application of liquid pitch, 
 although its use either for lighting or other purposes 
 may have been known to people in remote antiquity. 
 
HISTORICAL 5 
 
 One of the very early applications of petroleum was 
 undoubtedly as a medicine, and it is mentioned as such 
 by Arabian writers as far back as 370 B.C. Without 
 tracing minutely the historical references to petroleum, I 
 may mention that Posidonius refers to the dark oil used 
 in lamps, and in the Talmud the burning of white naphtha 
 is forbidden on the Sabbath, on account of the danger of 
 fire. Pliny, in writing about naphtha and its uses, refers 
 to it as a lubricant, and Strabo records the presence of 
 asphaltum in the Dead Sea, anciently called " Asphaltites 
 Lacus." The first allusion to the existence of petroleum 
 in Europe is probably made by Herodotus, who minutely 
 describes the occurrence of petroleum springs in the island 
 of Zante. Different Latin authors frequently allude to 
 the petroleum of Sicily found near the present town of 
 Girgenti. The first records during the Christian era are 
 by Mossadi, who died A.D. 950, and Marco Polo, who 
 visited Baku in the latter part of the thirteenth century. 
 The burning petroleum jets of the peninsula of Apsheron 
 were undoubtedly the object of adoration by the degener- 
 ate followers of the religion of Zoroaster, and the remains 
 of the temples erected for the purpose of fire-worship may 
 be traced at the present time. These temples have been 
 proved to have a strong resemblance to those of the 
 Punjaub, admittedly constructed for the use of fire- 
 worshippers. It is singular to have to record that of all 
 the points mentioned by ancient writers as yielding 
 naphtha or petroleum, the great South Russian field is the 
 only one where it is raised in quantity at the present 
 time, excepting perhaps China and Burmah. 
 
6 PETROLEUM 
 
 Apsheron has had many rulers. Originally it belonged 
 to Persia, then the Emperor Heraclius captured it A.D. 
 620 627, and destroyed the temples' of the fire-worship- 
 pers. Afterwards it fell into the hands of the Arabs. 
 It subsequently reverted to Persia, and in the middle 
 ages the raising of petroleum at Baku formed a monopoly 
 of the Persian monarch, who derived a considerable 
 income from persons who farmed the mines. It appears 
 to have been principally used for lighting purposes, as 
 Marco Polo says that people came from a great distance, 
 even from Bagdad, to purchase oil to burn. The working 
 of these mines seems to have been continuous, for in 
 1728, when Peter the Great conquered Baku, he found a 
 flourishing trade in existence, which had to be regulated. 
 The Persians recovered Baku after the death of Peter the 
 Great, and held it until 1806, when it was definitely 
 occupied by Kussia. The working of petroleum was then 
 declared a monopoly and leased, and in the year 1850 
 the income derived from this source amounted to 80,000 
 roubles (about 7000). The Government tax at that time 
 was 35 kopeks, say^. per pood of 36 Ibs., equal to about 
 6s. per barrel of 42 gallons. It is worthy of notice that 
 this development of the trade in Russia took place before 
 the discovery of kerosene or lamp-oil by distillation. The 
 crude oil was burnt in open earthenware lamps, and was 
 also used as fuel. The manner of raising the petroleum is 
 described as follows by Rossmasler in 1860 " The naphtha 
 was raised by hand or horse-power, according to the depth 
 and yield of the well, in buckets made of goatskin, with 
 an iron ring fixed on the open end. It was then carried 
 
HISTORICAL 7 
 
 by means of open channels to underground tanks with flat 
 roofs, and from these it was delivered to the purchasers, 
 who filled their so-called burdgugi, and loaded them on 
 camels or arbens, which are small wooden carts with 
 wheels six or seven feet in height. A burdgugi is made 
 of the entire skin of a goat or ox." The introduction 
 of boring in the Baku district dates from the year 1860. 
 
 The first attempts at distillation were made in Russia 
 in 1850, but with pitch, not oil ; it was not until 1860 that 
 the crude oil was distilled. The Russian trade increased 
 rapidly, more especially after the trade had been declared 
 free by ukase dated February 17, 1872. 
 
 Although Baku is the oil-field most largely developed 
 in Europe, it is not the only district where petroleum has 
 been known to exist for centuries. 
 
 In Bavaria it was known in 1430, and raised and sold 
 by monks under the name of "oil of St. Quirinius" for 
 medicinal purposes. 
 
 In Hanover it was known and used in the sixteenth 
 century. Agricola, writing in 1546, refers to liquid 
 bitumen in the neighbourhood of Brunswick. The 
 district of Oelheim, in Hanover, where oil has been known 
 to exist for many years, extends some forty miles in 
 length, the surface of which is covered with drift sand, 
 into which the oil at certain points filtrates, forming 
 pit-holes of oil, which has been used in the neighbour- 
 hood as a lubricator for cart-wheels, and also as a medi- 
 cine, Ir 1769 the oil was described by a professor of 
 that day, who stated that it contained 60 per cent, of 
 petroleum and some naphtha. Over twenty years ago the 
 
8 PETROLEUM 
 
 Hanoverian Government caused bore-holes to be sunk in 
 the vicinity of Celle and Peine to depths of fifty to two 
 hundred feet, which proved the existence of oil in small 
 quantities. Several attempts have been made to develop 
 this district in recent times by boring down to greater 
 depths, but no large quantities of oil have been found. 
 There is, however, a small production at the present time. 
 
 In various other places in Germany petroleum has been 
 discovered, but the most important is Pechelbronn in 
 Elsass. It is recorded in 1498 that bitumen had been 
 raised in this place for years, and in 1625 a book was 
 written on the "earth balsam, petrolei, and soft amber" 
 of Pechelbronn, and according to this book the oil was 
 mostly used as medicine, but also as a lubricant and 
 illummant. This district has in recent years been 
 developed, and proved to be highly productive. 
 
 In France it is known to exist, and the deposit of 
 Gabian in Herault was noted in 1752. 
 
 In Italy it was known to the ancients at Girgenti, 
 and the oil in Lombardy, near Parma and Modena, was 
 described by Frangois Ariosto in 1660, and it is raised in 
 small quantities at the present time, in those districts. 
 
 In Galicia, Austria, the oil industry is of ancient stand- 
 ing, and as elsewhere oil was first used as medicine. It is 
 mentioned by an author writing in 1506 as " earth balsam," 
 but it was also used as cart-wheel grease, and exported to 
 Russia for the purpose of rendering leather water-tight. 
 From this date on, there are numerous references to the 
 working of petroleum and earth wax or ozocerite in 
 Galicia, and the manufacture of candles is recorded in 
 
HISTORICAL 9 
 
 Drohobycz in 1817. It is even stated that about that 
 time, at the above-named place, an attempt was made to 
 distil the crude and produce a refined illuminating oil. 
 Certain it is that the Burgomaster of Prague referred to 
 the new illuminant in 1817 for street lighting, and ordered 
 300 cwts., at a cost of thirty-four florins, to be delivered. 
 The oil, however, was delayed in transit, and consequently 
 the practical distillation of petroleum was postponed for 
 years in Galicia. It was not until 1853 or 1854 that a 
 Jew named Schreiner, while heating crude oil in 'order to 
 produce an improved lubricant, observed a white liquid 
 which had condensed on the cover of the vessel contain- 
 ing the oil, and took the substance to an apothecary in 
 Lemberg, who discovered its value for lighting purposes, 
 and at once constructed a still and began perhaps for the 
 first time to manufacture illuminating petroleum oil. 
 From that time on, the oil industry in Galicia developed, 
 but on a comparatively small scale, until the modern 
 improvements from the United States were introduced 
 some few years ago. 
 
 In North America the existence and value of petro- 
 leum had been known to the aborigines, who used 
 it for medicinal purposes, and gathered it by spreading 
 their blankets over streams in the vicinity of outcrops, 
 where the oil was seen floating on the surface of 
 the water. The first notice of petroleum in North 
 America is contained in a letter from a monk named 
 d'Allion, written in 1629. General Montcalm in 1755 
 mentions that the Seneca Indians were in the habit of 
 setting fire to the oil floating on the surface of the river 
 
10 PETROLEUM 
 
 Alleghany during religious ceremonies. Towards the end 
 of the eighteenth century it was sold as Seneca oil for 
 the cure of rheumatism, at the rate of one dollar a gallon. 
 In those days the oil was collected either by spreading 
 thick woollen blankets on the streams carrying oil floating 
 on the surface of the water and then wringing them, or it 
 was skimmed with big spoons out of small shallow pits. 
 The production was self-evidently very small. It was in 
 boring for salt brine that the existence of larger quantities 
 of petroleum underground was discovered. In the year 
 1806 boring for brine was first introduced in West 
 Virginia, and this method of winning brine became 
 generally adopted. Many of these bore-holes yielded 
 petroleum as well as brine, so much so that it is recorded 
 that in 1856 from fifty to one hundred barrels of oil were 
 collected yearly. But the petroleum was looked on in 
 those days as an impurity and dreaded by the salters, 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 
 
 HAVING briefly glanced at the historical records con- 
 nected with petroleum, I shall now consider the discoveries 
 which have led to the present enormous production, and 
 the creation of the great industry connected with the 
 treatment of the crude oil. It is a curious fact that in 
 the main the uses to which petroleum is at present 
 applied are practically the same now as they were many 
 years ago; only formerly the oil was applied in primi- 
 tive appliances and rude fashion, whereas at present we 
 have the benefit of the numerous improvements and 
 inventions founded on experience and created by science. 
 
 The Persians used crude oil for lighting purposes 
 in open lamps as well as for fuel, the monks of the 
 middle ages applied it as a medicine, and the farmers of 
 Germany found it useful as a grease for their cart-wheels. 
 At the present day it is distilled and subdivided into 
 kerosene or burning oil, one of the most widely-distributed 
 illuminants, into heavy or lubricating oils, and lastly 
 into solid hydrocarburets, such as paraffin, which is used 
 for making candles and vaseline, and other pharma- 
 ceutical products used in medicines. Of course we now 
 have applications suited to modern inventions which 
 
12 PETROLEUM 
 
 could not have been thought of in olden times, for 
 example, the petroleum-oil engine and the gas enrichment 
 process. 
 
 Science and practical invention are extending the useful 
 application of the products obtained by fractional distil- 
 lation of the crude oil, and from day to day new products 
 are discovered and extracted from the decomposed crude 
 oil, now that the quantity produced is so abundant. The 
 great hindrance to the introduction of petroleum for 
 practical application, for years after its great value was 
 known, was the limited amount raised. The first step 
 towards an increased production was the bore-hole sunk 
 in 1859 near Titusville, in the United States. Long 
 before that date, the value of petroleum oil as an illumin- 
 ant and lubricator had been ascertained in Europe and 
 the United States, but owing to the small quantity pro- 
 duced it had not entered the markets as an article of 
 commerce. As a matter of fact the shale and coal oils 
 were t the precursors of petroleum*. The manufacture of 
 illuminating oil from coal or shale dates back to 1840, 
 when such oils were produced in France. Subsequently, 
 a large trade in shale oil was established in Scotland. In 
 Galicia the development of the petroleum-fields was 
 stimulated by a desire to replace the costly coal oil used 
 on the Northern Railway of Austria, and in the United 
 States shale oil was extensively used under the name of 
 rock oil or kerosene. 
 
 In 1853 the first attempt was made in the United 
 States to manufacture kerosene from petroleum ; and Mr. 
 G. Bissel founded the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company 
 
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 13 
 
 for that purpose, and proceeded to open out an oil property 
 near Titusville, by digging wells and trenches. The under- 
 taking was not successful, owing to the small quantity 
 of oil which was obtained from the shallow wells, and the 
 only result of the company's operations was an exhaustive 
 analysis and report by Professor B. Siliman, jun., on the oil. 
 Professor Siliman applied fractional distillation, and 
 used sulphuric acid for purification, a proceeding which 
 continues to be in use at refineries to this day. He 
 pointed out the valuable products to be obtained by dis- 
 tillation, and foreshadowed in this important report the 
 possibilities to be realized by a correct method of treating 
 petroleum. It was not, however, until some years later 
 that Mr. G. Bissel had the happy idea of tapping the sub- 
 terranean stores of crude oil by means of deep bore-holes, 
 and Mr. E. L. Drake, who had for some time given his 
 attention to the subject, was entrusted with the duty of 
 carrying out the scheme, and he put down a bore-hole 
 near Titusville which on August 28, 1859, struck oil at 
 a depth -of 169J feet, which gave about 25 barrels per 
 day. This date is an epoch in the history of the petro- 
 leum industry, which may indeed be considered to have 
 come into practical existence on that day. The tapping 
 of oil in the celebrated Drake well acted like an electric 
 spark on the spirit of American speculators, and they 
 made a frantic rush for the oil-fields which can only be 
 compared to the gold-craze of California. Well after 
 well was sunk, and soon flowing wells were struck, which 
 poured out oil at the rate of several thousand barrels per 
 day. This naturally increased the fever of speculation. 
 
14 PETROLEUM 
 
 Every farm within miles of an oil-well was bought up, 
 and the stillness of the forests soon became broken by the 
 jingle of the machinery and the thud of the chisel from 
 the numerous rigs at work. Towns rose up into existence 
 apparently from the soil, not in years or months, but in 
 days wherever oil was discovered, and disappeared as 
 rapidly from the surface on the subsidence of the flow. I 
 will cite Pithole City as an example of this ephemeral 
 existence : a town which in May 1865 contained ten 
 houses, when the celebrated well " United States " struck 
 oil, and in August of the same year, that is to say about 
 one hundred days later, it contained a population of 14,000 
 people, and was the centre of a daily production of 5000 
 barrels of oil. But the wells soon gave out, and within one 
 year the bustling population had migrated to better ground, 
 and left nothing but a few decaying wooden houses, which 
 were burnt to the ground by a fire, and all that remained 
 to mark the spot where the once busy town stood was a 
 heap of ashes. This is by no means a singular instance, as 
 hundreds of villages, towns, and cities were brought into 
 existence in haste by the magic-like power of the dollar- 
 flowing oil, and abandoned with equal alacrity when the 
 stream began to slacken. Not only towns sprang into 
 sudden life in formerly desolate spots, but whole districts 
 were covered with derricks, and the ground was perforated 
 by innumerable wells in an amazingly short space of 
 time, to be soon deserted and once more left to the 
 farmer or lumber-man. The intense speculation of the 
 day created an irrational development, and w?lls were 
 sunk all over immense tracts with little or no prospect of 
 
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 15 
 
 success, but on the chance not so much of striking oil as 
 of striking an over-sanguine purchaser, and this was 
 termed " wild-catting." This sort of swindle was carried 
 on to such an extent by the army of so-called mystery 
 men, scouts, and others, that at a meeting of oilmen held 
 at Bradford on September 30, 1884, the following reso- 
 lution was passed " Resolved, that the practice of barri- 
 cading and guarding derricks with bull-dogs and firearms 
 ought not to be tolerated in a civilized community." 
 This resolution gives an insight into the condition of the 
 oil districts in the early days of discovery. 
 
 Meanwhile, the development of the industry was pro- 
 gressing in the hands of more serious workers, and some 
 idea can be formed of its rapid growth by the returns of 
 oil raised. In the early years these were not accurate, as 
 a great deal of the oil was wasted owing to insufficient 
 tankage, and millions of barrels of oil may be estimated 
 to have been lost at the commencement of well-drilling. 
 Yet the figures speak eloquently to the rapidity of the 
 increase of production. In 1850, the year of the first 
 bore-hole or well, the production is returned at 2000 
 barrels; two years later, that is in 1861, it had increased 
 to 2,110,000, or one hundredfold ; in 1882 it was 30,460,000 
 barrels. Since then the production has further increased, 
 and in 1891 it amounted to 54,291,980, in 1892 the return 
 was 50,509,136, and in 1893 it fell to 48,412 3 666 barrels 
 of 42 American gallons. 
 
 This great development has necessitated : first, an 
 improved system of drilling ; secondly, a new mode of 
 transport; thirdly, the creation of extensive refineries. 
 
16 PETROLEUM 
 
 In drilling, the development took place after the intro- 
 duction of machinery, the first engine being used at 
 Tidiante in 1860, and the first pipe-line laid in 1863. 
 There are many thousand miles of pipe-line of different 
 dimensions in the United States at present. 
 
 The use of nitro-glycerine was introduced and patented 
 by Colonel Roberts in 1866, the object being to explode a 
 charge of nitro-glycerine at the bottom of the wells, in 
 order to shatter the rock and thereby increase the flow of 
 oil. The charge at first varied from 2 to 8 quarts of nitro- 
 glycerine, but was afterwards increased up to 100 quarts. 
 This new invention brought into existence an illicit trade 
 for the manufacture of nitro-glycerine and the firing of 
 wells without paying the patent Royalty, and the men who 
 carried on this business were known as " moonlighters." 
 
 Coeval with the development of the petroleum industry 
 in the United States, the opening out of the oil-fields of 
 Galicia (Austria) took place. Although the apothecary at 
 Lemberg, as previously mentioned, had erected a still 
 and made kerosene, and had even lit up the hospital at 
 Lemberg with it in 1855, the trade remained stationary 
 owing to the very small production, which then was raised 
 out of shallow shafts one metre square, by drawing the 
 oil in buckets by hand. In Galicia, as in every oil-field, 
 development followed improved drilling. An abortive 
 attempt at drilling by engine-power in this field was 
 made in 1867 ; but the first practical introduction of 
 machinery was in 1882, and since then the production of 
 crude oil has enormously increased, as the following 
 figures show : in 1882 the production was 319,500 barrels ; 
 
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 17 
 
 in 1888 it had risen to 2,400,000 barrels, and in 1893 to 
 about 3,000,000. In Galicia the industry is hampered 
 by want of transport, and nine-tenths of the oil is still 
 conveyed to the railway in barrels. 
 
 The oil-fields of the United States and of Galicia were 
 the first to become developed. These were succeeded by 
 the Baku field in Russia. This oil-field, although known 
 in times of remote antiquity and continuously worked for 
 centuries, has only recently been opened out to any extent. 
 In 1869 the first boring operations were undertaken ; in 
 1872 the raising and working of oil was declared free by 
 the Government, and from that date the development 
 has continued with amazing rapidity. In 1873 the pro- 
 duction was 450,000 barrels; in 1883 it had risen to 5| 
 million barrels, and in 1890 over 20,000,000 barrels. The 
 oil-fields of Southern Russia are the most productive of 
 any known, the wells are mostly flowing, and one of them 
 is recorded to have thrown up 112,000 tons of oil in the 
 first four weeks following the strike of the oil. 
 
 Although petroleum is known to exist in nearly every 
 part of the world, no great developments have as yet 
 taken place beyond those just recorded. The best ,field 
 which has been opened out to some extent and shows a 
 promising future is that of Pechelbronn in Elsass, Ger- 
 many. For many years solid bitumen has been extensively 
 worked in this neighbourhood, but very little oil. Only 
 within quite recent years have bore-holes been put down, 
 with the result that at present a flourishing industry has 
 been established. 
 
 In Canada the oil-field of Petrolia has been opened out 
 
18 PETROLEUM 
 
 simultaneously with the American fields. But the pro- 
 duction has never risen to any great importance, and at 
 present the output is about 500,000 barrels. 
 
 In the far East petroleum has been worked for centuries, 
 but only of late years has the development attained 
 considerable proportions, notably in Japan, Java, Burmah, 
 and some parts of India. As far as Great Britain is con- 
 cerned, the supply of petroleum, including all the oils of 
 varying densities and uses, comes from the United States 
 and Russia only. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM, AND GEOLOGICAL STRATA IN 
 WHICH IT IS FOUND 
 
 WITHOUT going into scientific details, it may be inter- 
 esting to record the principal hypotheses advanced to 
 explain the presence of bitumens of all kinds in the earth. 
 These may be divided into two classes, namely, the inorganic 
 and the organic, the former referring to chemical changes 
 in inorganic substances, and the latter to changes in organic 
 matter. These hypotheses are as follows. 
 Firstly, as to inorganic origin 
 
 1. M. Berthelot's theory is founded on contact of 
 carbonated waters with alkali metals. 
 
 ~2. M. Mendel ejef? depends on the contact of water with 
 highly-heated metallic iron and metallic carbides. 
 Secondly, as to organic origin 
 
 1. Bischoff assumes a primary decomposition of vege- 
 table substances contained in sedimentary strata. 
 
 2. Newbery advocates a slow decomposition at low 
 temperatures of organic matter (mainly vegetable), such 
 as is contained in shales. 
 
 3. Hunt's theory of origin is through the decomposition 
 of organic matter accumulated in limestone. 
 
 4. Coquand refers to the primary decomposition of 
 
20 PETROLEUM 
 
 organic matter in deep-lying strata, and accumulations 
 in newer strata at the time of deposition through the 
 action of springs. 
 
 5. Lartet's theory of origin is through the distillation 
 of organic matter in deep-lying strata accompanying meta- 
 morphism by pressure and the action of superheated water. 
 
 6. Peck ham believes that certain bitumens are of 
 animal origin and indigenous in the rocks, and others 
 of vegetable origin and the product of distillation under 
 the influence of heat generated by organic movement. 
 
 7. Orton modifies Hunt's hypothesis, and supposes the 
 origin to be through the primary decomposition of animal 
 and vegetable tissue contained in shales and limestone. 
 
 The recent researches have led geologists to reject the 
 inorganic theories and to admit the organic or animal 
 origin of bitumens, including petroleum and all hydro- 
 carbons, and to accept the views of Bischoff, namely, 
 that the various bitumens are produced by the natural 
 decomposition of organic tissue. 
 
 These different theories have been very clearly summar- 
 ized in the report of the United States Geological Survey, 
 1886-87, as follows 
 
 1. Petroleum is derived from organic matter. 
 
 2. It is much more largely derived from vegetable than 
 from animal substances. 
 
 3. Petroleum of the Pennsylvania type is derived from 
 the organic matter of bituminous shales, and is of vegetable 
 origin. 
 
 4. Petroleum of the Canada and Lima type is derived 
 from limestone, and is of animal origin. 
 
OF 
 
 ( uNlVERSn 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM 21 
 
 jr 
 
 5. Petroleum has been produced at normal earth 
 temperatures (in these fields), and is not a product of 
 destructive distillation of bituminous shales. 
 
 6. The stock of petroleum in the rocks is already 
 practically complete. 
 
 Scientific men in Europe ascribe nearly all the petro- 
 leum and bitumen deposits of the Continent, such as those 
 of Galicia, Germany, and Russia, to an animal origin, or 
 a mixture of animal and small proportion of vegetable 
 matter. The animal origin of petroleum is supported by 
 the fact that in most bitumens a certain percentage of 
 nitrogen is found to exist. 
 
 The fact that extensive deposits of animal fossiliferous 
 remains are found in many geological strata without the 
 presence of petroleum, must be explained by the suppo- 
 sition that the circumstances under which these animal 
 deposits were formed were not favourable to a decompo- 
 sition resulting in the production of petroleum. The 
 recent experiments of Dr. Engler confirm the theory of 
 the animal origin of some petroleums. He obtained what 
 may be described as petroleum, containing almost all the 
 hydrocarbons contained in the natural product, by dis- 
 tilling animal fats and oils at a moderate heat under 
 pressure, and these experiments go far to support the 
 theory of the origin of petroleum from the decomposition 
 of extinct animals. It may be pointed out that oil is 
 frequently found in strata devoid of any trace of past 
 animal life; but it is well known that petroleum flows 
 for long distances from the point of its production or 
 storage in the earth, and frequently comes up to the 
 
22 PETROLEUM 
 
 surface at a great distance from the spot where it is 
 tapped underground by the drill. 
 
 Whatever may be the origin of petroleum, its existence 
 has been demonstrated in more or less quantities in nearly 
 every stratified formation of the earth. We find it in 
 the Post-Tertiary or Pleistocene formation in Hanover 
 and Canada, in the Tertiary in France, Italy, Java, New 
 Zealand, and California ; in Rou mania, Turkey, Galicia 
 (Austria), Russia, Venezuela, and various localities in 
 Asia. In the Secondary or Mesozoic it is found in Spain, 
 Italy, Galicia (Austria), some places in Germany, Portugal, 
 and Argentina. The Palaeozoic formation yields petroleum 
 in France, Germany, England, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 
 Kansas. In the Devonian and Silurian in the United 
 States and Canada. The most important oil deposits are 
 found either in Tertiary strata, as in Russia and Galicia 
 (Austria), or in the Devonian, as in the United States and 
 Canada. This universal presence of petroleum points to 
 the great probability that it is not necessarily found in 
 the strata where it was originally formed. There are no 
 special geological features accompanying or indicating the 
 presence of oil. It announces its presence by coming out 
 of small fissures on the surface, either in the shape of 
 liquid or gaseous carburetted hydrogen. It has been 
 often assumed that there is some connection between 
 petroleum and rock-salt, because the water in petroleum - 
 fields is frequently saline. But there is no absolute proof 
 forthcoming that the presence of salt is essential to the 
 existence of petroleum. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 
 
 PETROLEUM, as it comes out of the earth, consists of a 
 mixture of different hydrocarbons, varying in consistency 
 from marsh gas to solid paraffin wax, in density from 
 0'550 to 0*980, and in the relative proportions of hydrogen 
 to carbon from 1 to 3 up to 1 to 5J. There are two well- 
 defined series of hydrocarbons to be found in petroleum ; 
 first, the paraffin series, represented by the chemical 
 formula CnH. 2 n + 2, and the olefin series, having for 
 typical formula CnHji. By far the greater proportion 
 of the hydrocarbons in all petroleums belong to the 
 former series, and in some mineral oils the latter series 
 are entirely missing ; as a rule they are found in oils of 
 high density, such as the Russian. In addition to the 
 hydrocarbons, petroleum generally contains small propor- 
 tions of other substances, such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, 
 and occasionally small quantities of mineral bodies such 
 as arsenic, lime, oxide of iron, alumina, and even gold 
 and silver. 
 
 The following table, showing the composition of some 
 
24 
 
 PETROLEUM 
 
 crude oils, is taken from Professor Hans Hofer's book on 
 petroleum. 
 
 LOCALITY. 
 
 CARBON. 
 
 HYDROGEN. 
 
 OXYGEN. 
 
 DENSITY. 
 
 Galicia 
 
 85 '3 
 
 12'6 
 
 9-1 
 
 A. OR,*. 
 
 Elsass 
 
 86*1 
 
 19.7 
 
 1 -9 
 
 
 Parma 
 
 84'0 
 
 1 ^vi 
 
 1 'A 
 
 u oyz 
 
 Baku 
 
 83'3 
 
 n-fi 
 
 3.1 
 
 U VJTU 
 
 n-o^/i 
 
 Burmah ,, 
 
 83 -8 
 
 12'7 
 
 3.K 
 
 u yo4 
 
 /-\.Ql7K 
 
 Java 
 
 87'1 
 
 12'0 
 
 A.Q 
 
 U o/O 
 
 Canada 
 
 84'5 
 
 13*5 
 
 9-O 
 
 U yzo 
 
 n S7n 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 82'0 
 
 14'8 
 
 0.0 
 
 rv.tyorv 
 
 Do. 
 
 84*9 
 
 13-7 
 
 1 -4 
 
 O'ftftn 
 
 
 
 
 
 U ooU 
 
 According to Crew, the American oil is assumed to con- 
 tain, on the average, 84 per cent, of carbon and 14 per 
 cent, of hydrogen. 
 
 The treatment of natural petroleum in order to separ- 
 ate it into commercial products consists in distilling the 
 crude oil in retorts of suitable construction, and condens- 
 ing the products passing over at different temperatures. 
 Thus, roughly speaking, the products may be divided into 
 three groups: first, the volatile oils passing over at 
 temperatures up to 150 C. ; second, the illuminating oils 
 from 150 to 300 C.; and thirdly, the residuum. The 
 distillation is a destructive one, and the condensed oils are 
 not in the same molecular condition as the crude oils 
 coming out of the earth. The distillation is, however, 
 carried on fractionally, so that a large number of products 
 are obtained, 
 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 25 
 
 I. Distillates Mow 150 C. 
 Rhigolene, gasolene, naphtha, benzine, ligroine, etc. 
 
 II. Distillates from 150 to 300 G. 
 Various qualities of lamp-oil or kerosene. 
 
 III. Residuum, distillates over 300 G. 
 
 Various heavy oils, such as the Russian solar distillate, 
 and a series of lubricating oils ; then paraffin oils out of 
 which paraffin wax is made, and very dense, pitch-like 
 oils used as fuel. The distillation leaves a residue of 
 coke. 
 
 The proportions of the substances obtained from differ- 
 ent oils vary considerably. Peckham gives the following 
 results for Pennsylvanian oil 
 
 Volatile oils 16'5 
 
 Kerosene 54O 
 
 Lubricating oils 17'5 
 
 Paraffin 2'0 
 
 Coke and loss . . . lO'O 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 According to Ludwig Nobel, the Baku oil contains 
 
 Volatile oils 4-0 
 
 Kerosene 270 
 
 Lubricating oils 44'< > 
 
 Vaseline 1*0 
 
 Residuum or astatki 14*0 
 
 Loss ., . 10-0 
 
 100-0 
 
26 PETROLEUM 
 
 Youngs' mineral oil, according to Mr. Boverton Redwood- 
 Volatile oils 6*0 
 
 Illuminating oils 38'0 
 
 Lubricating oils 14'5 
 
 Solid paraffin ll'O 
 
 Loss .. .. 30-5 
 
 100-0 
 
 It will be seen from these analyses that the volatile 
 oils are present in much larger quantities in the American 
 than in the Russian or Scotch shale oil. 
 
 The products obtained in the refining process of petro- 
 leum have every one a value, and the various distillates 
 are all applicable to different uses. The volatile oils for 
 surgical purposes, street naphtha lamps, oilcloth and var- 
 nish making ; the illuminating oils for burning in lamps 
 or stoves ; the heavy oils for lubricating and producing 
 paraffin wax, or for gas enrichment, and in Russia to a 
 great extent for fuel ; and lastly a residue of coke which is 
 burnt under the still. Nothing is lost, except the un- 
 avoidable waste in the process of manufacture. This 
 cannot be said of any other substance in or on the earth. 
 Our metals, for instance, are found in nature as ores, 
 generally oxides, and have to be extracted by some metal- 
 lurgical process ; thus the best iron ores yield only 50 per 
 cent, of metal, and even gold which is found as a metal 
 has to be separated from the sand of the alluvial deposit, 
 or the quartz of the reef in which it is contained. 
 
 The loss in the process of distillation is given at 10 per 
 cent, for American and Russian oil, whereas in the 
 distillation of shale oil as much as 30 per cent, is recorded. 
 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 27 
 
 In the early days of the petroleum industry the most 
 valuable product was the illuminating oil, and the atten- 
 tion of the manufacturer was directed to the extraction 
 of the largest possible proportion of this product. With 
 a view to the attainment of this object the so-called 
 " cracking " process has been largely adopted. This con- 
 sists in arranging the dome of the still in such a manner 
 that the vapour of heavier oils rising from the heated 
 liquid condenses and falls back into the oil in the retort. 
 Here it meets with a higher temperature than necessary 
 for volatilization, and is decomposed, giving a larger yield 
 of illuminating oil, and a deposit of carbon. This process, 
 which has given such good results, is said to have been 
 discovered by mere accident. A still-man at a refinery 
 at Newark, New Jersey, left his still at a time when the 
 distillate indicated 43 gravity, with a tendency to increase, 
 intending to return in half-an-hour to cut off the remain- 
 ing portion of the outflow into the heavy oil-tank, but was 
 detained by sudden illness for four hours. When he 
 returned he found a small stream of light-coloured oil 
 passing over, with a gravity of 48. This unexpected 
 and abnormal occurrence led to experiments being carried 
 out which showed that the upper part of the still had 
 become sufficiently cooled to condense the vapour, and 
 that the oil thus formed became decomposed or "cracked" 
 in contact with the hot fluid in the retort, with the result 
 of an increased production of kerosene, and in consequence 
 stills were constructed in such a way as to carry out this 
 reaction as a special process. 
 
 The great heat necessary to volatilize the heavier 
 
28 PETROLEUM 
 
 hydrocarbons has an injurious effect on the colour and 
 odour of the distillate. With a view to reducing the 
 temperature efforts have been made to distil under 
 reduced pressure, that is, by applying a vacuum pump in 
 a manner similar to that adopted in the manufacture of 
 sugar. This process has not, however, been generally 
 successful. Recently a vacuum still has been patented 
 by Messrs. Wanklyn and Cooper in this country, in which 
 the vacuum is produced not by a pump, but by a vertical 
 pipe 40 feet in length, into which the distillate flows, 
 and which has for effect to enable the distillation to be 
 carried on in approximate vacuum. This still has not 
 yet been used on a large scale. I have given a cursory 
 outline of the general system of separating the various 
 hydrocarbons contained in crude petroleum. A descrip- 
 tion of the methods adopted to purify and bfeaclTTtte 
 various distillates would be beyond the scope of this 
 pamphlet. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 WINNING PETROLEUM 
 
 IN past times petroleum was collected at the outcrops, 
 where it flowed to the surface in small quantities, or, as in 
 America, collected by the aborigines by spreading their 
 blankets on the streams which carried small quantities of 
 the oil on the surface of the water. In Hanover pot-holes 
 were dug where the oil collected, and in Galicia shafts 
 were sunk and the oil raised to the surface in buckets 
 by hand. At the present day in some localities, as for 
 instance in Mexico, the same rude process is followed, and 
 pot-holes are dug near the natural outflow of the oil, 
 where it collects and is then recovered by the natives and 
 used either for burning in open lamps or for medicinal 
 purposes. The shafts were succeeded by bore-holes, put 
 down by hand to moderate depths, and the oil scooped up 
 by means of long tubes with a valve at one end. By the 
 application of the steam-engine to the boring apparatus 
 great depths were attained, the drilling was performed at 
 a much more rapid rate, and at less cost. The apparatus 
 used is similar in principle, though differing greatly in 
 detail, in different countries. These differences are dic- 
 tated by the necessities of the existing circumstances. 
 
30 PETROLEUM 
 
 An apparatus which acts satisfactorily in strata nearly 
 horizontal and not very hard, would not be applicable 
 in a district where the strata is much contorted or 
 difficult to pierce. The main instrument used in all the 
 apparatus used for boring consists of a cutting-tool or 
 chisel, which has to be raised a certain height and is 
 allowed to fall on the bottom of the bore-hole, when by 
 the force of the blow thus occasioned it cuts into the 
 strata. The up-and-down movement is caused by a 
 mechanical arrangement on the surface connected with a 
 small steam-engine. This chisel or cutting-tool is con- 
 nected with the surface by means of iron rods, or wooden 
 poles, or a rope. In hand-drilling, iron rods were and 
 are to this day invariably used for all kinds of boring. 
 In the United States the iron rods were soon replaced by 
 the ropo, and in Canada by the wooden poles. On 
 the continent of Europe the iron rods are still gener- 
 ally used for all kinds of borings, including petroleum, 
 although the Canadian system has been successfully 
 introduced in Hanover and Elsass (Germany), and in 
 Galicia (Austria). 
 
 The arrangement of what the driller terms a " set 
 of tools " is somewhat different when iron rods are used, 
 or ropes and poles. In the former case the chisel 
 with its connecting pieces is lifted up by a contriv- 
 ance called a freefall tool, and allowed to drop a certain 
 height, usually from two to three feet, and the force 
 of the blow is equal to the weight of the tools about 
 18 cwt. multiplied by the distance of the fall. When 
 rope or wooden poles are used, the chisel is attached to 
 
WINNING PETROLEUM 31 
 
 a sliding-piece termed "jars" by the drillers, which 
 has the effect of taking off the jar on the apparatus 
 caused by the blow of the tools on the bottom of the 
 bore-hole. 
 
 In the United States petroleum-well boring has been 
 brought to great perfection. Several thousand wells are 
 bored every year for oil, and to depths down to 3000 
 feet, at a comparatively small cost. The outlay for a 
 well 1500 feet deep is usually estimated at about 800, 
 including the engine and boiler and all labour. These 
 wells are bored with great rapidity unless the work 
 is impeded through accidental circumstances, and in the 
 usual course a well is finished within three months. 
 The American system has been introduced in the Baku 
 oil-field, but has not met with unqualified success. 
 Owing to the nature of the strata and the condition 
 of the oil, which is thick and mixed with sand, the oil 
 has to be raised by means of scoops, and in consequence 
 the wells have to be drilled with a diameter of eighteen 
 inches, for which the Fabian freefall system is preferable 
 to the American jars. The lining-pipes in the Russian 
 field, although made of sheet-iron, represent a serious item 
 in the cost, owing to the wide diameter. 
 
 The Canadian method of boring is substantially the 
 same as the American, with the difference that wooden 
 poles are used instead of the rope. These poles are 
 joined together by conical screws, which have to be 
 screwed and unscrewed in lowering or raising the tools, 
 which causes great loss of time. Nevertheless, in 
 Canada the drillers are able to complete one hundred 
 
32 PETROLEUM 
 
 feet of boring in a day, which is a very satisfactory 
 result. 
 
 Either of these systems is preferable, in regard to time 
 occupied in boring, to the more antiquated method with 
 heavy iron rods, as these cannot be raised or lowered with 
 the rapidity with which a rope or the light Canadian 
 poles can be moved. 
 
 By whatever method the well is bored and the oil 
 strata attained, the next operation is to line the well, if 
 necessary. It is always usual to put in a certain length 
 of casing to keep out the surface water, but in many 
 districts, notably in America, it is not necessary to case 
 the entire well. This is a considerable saving in cost. 
 In most petroleum districts the nature of the ground 
 requires the well to be cased from top to bottom. This is 
 generally done with wrought-iron lap-welded tubing, with 
 screw joints. Sometimes, however, the casing is made of 
 sheet-iron, riveted, which is more economical but not 
 so durable. 
 
 As soon as the well is completed, a small pump spe- 
 cially constructed for the purpose of raising a liquid con- 
 taining considerable quantities of gas is put in, unless the 
 oil flows. When the oil-bearing strata is first tapped, it 
 frequently happens that owing to the force of the con- 
 fined gas a regular outburst takes place, and millions 
 of gallons of oil are thrown up in the shape of a fountain. 
 However, in a short time this effect subsides, and event- 
 ually the pump has to be put in. When a well yields 
 large quantities of oil, that is, from fifty to several 
 hundred barrels a day, a separate engine is applied, but 
 
WINNING PETROLEUM 33 
 
 when, as in most instances, only a few barrels are to be 
 raised, a central engine is erected, from which the wells 
 are pumped or " rocked," in the language of the Canadian 
 driller. The oil from the different wells is then con- 
 centrated by means of connecting pipes with a central 
 tank or tanks, from which it is conveyed to the 
 refinery. 
 
X 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 STORAGE AND TR AN SPOUT 
 
 THE rapid development of the means for storage and 
 transport of oil necessary to meet the large quantities 
 raised and bring it to market at a reasonable cost, is one 
 of the most interesting features connected with this re- 
 markable industry. At first the crude oil was put into 
 barrels and carted away from the mine to the nearest 
 railway-station, and this is still done at the present time 
 in some districts. Then the tank-car was introduced, by 
 which oil in bulk could be transported, each car holding 
 60 to 100 barrels. But at present, in all the great pro- 
 ducing districts the oil is forced for miles through pipe- 
 lines, and in the United States there are over 15,000 miles 
 of pipe-line laid down, connected with storage-tanks 
 holding some 40,000,000 barrels. The oil raised in Penn- 
 sylvania is collected at central tank-stations, and then 
 forced through six-inch pipes up to New York, where it is 
 refined. The pipe-line from Oban to New York is 312 
 miles in length, with twelve pumping- stations, giving an 
 average of 26 miles to each engine. In the United 
 States, the tanks in the producing districts are of wrought- 
 iron, circular, and hold up to 10,000 barrels of oil. These 
 
STORAGE AND TRANSPORT 35 
 
 tanks are placed on brick supports about two feet from 
 the ground, which enables them to be easily examined 
 with a view to detecting leakage. The tanks in the 
 petroleum districts of Pennsylvania are usually placed in 
 sets of four to ten in fields as remote as possible from 
 habitations or other buildings, and they present a some- 
 what dismal and forbidding aspect. Each tank is pro- 
 vided with a suitable gauge, and the quantity it contains 
 is accurately measured every day. Very few accidents 
 have occurred, owing to the great precautions which are 
 observed. The writer was informed that in case a tank 
 became ignited through some mischance, the fire was ex- 
 tinguished by firing blank cartridges out of a cannon at 
 the flame, and this appears quite natural, as we know 
 that the vibration caused by snapping a cap on a gun is 
 sufficient to extinguish a lighted candle at a distance of 
 several feet. Petroleum reservoirs are frequently placed 
 underground, and sometimes constructed of brick or 
 timber, lined with clay. But experience gives the pre- 
 ference to the wrought-iron tank for the storage of large 
 quantities. Small reservoirs holding 500 to 1000 barrels 
 may be made of timber in shape something like large 
 barrels, well caulked and pitched inside. Some of the 
 iron storage- tanks erected for storing oil on the wharves 
 on the Thames hold nearly 1,000,000 gallons. I am 
 indebted to Mr. A. G. Tait, the Westminster representa- 
 tive of the Pearson and Knowles Coal and Iron Co., 
 Limited, for details of three petroleum storage-tanks 
 erected for the Tank Storage and Carriage Company 
 at Purfleet. These are 89 ft, 3 in. in diameter, by 25 ft. 
 
36 PETROLEUM 
 
 6 in. in height, and have a capacity of 997,000 gallons, 
 and are, I believe, the largest constructed in this country. 
 The oil is pumped out of the ship into the tanks at the 
 rate of 1000 barrels per hour. From the tanks it is 
 transferred to barrels or tank-carts for distribution. The 
 latter were introduced in 1889. 
 
 The transport by sea has of late years undergone a 
 great change. Previous to 1878 the American petroleum 
 was carried in barrels, but in that year the transport in 
 bulk was tried on the Atlantic in sailing-ships. Since 
 then the tank-steamers have been introduced, and in 
 1886 the first was constructed on the Tyne, carrying 
 3000 tons of liquid cargo. These ships contain seven to 
 nine compartments or tanks, each holding about 4000 
 barrels, and are separated from the engines and boilers 
 by a safety- well or empty space, sometimes filled with 
 water, and the total number of barrels thus carried varies 
 from 28,000 to 36,000, representing a weight of about 
 4000 to 5000 tons. Every precaution is taken to render 
 the transport safe in the way of expansion trunks, 
 ventilating-pipes, etc. These steamers are capable of 
 attaining a speed of eleven knots per hour, and, strange 
 to say, as a rule burn coal as fuel. There are at 
 present a great number of these steamers engaged in 
 the trade of transporting petroleum, and it is remark- 
 able that so few accidents have occurred in the service. 
 The accidents which have been recorded are minutely de- 
 scribed by Mr. Boverton Redwood, in his paper on " The 
 Transport of Petroleum in Bulk " read before the Institu- 
 tion of Civil Engineers, and these have nearly all taken 
 
STORAGE AND TRANSPORT 37 
 
 place in harbour. The explosions and fires on board tank- 
 steamers have been clearly ascertained in nine cases out of 
 ten to have been caused by carelessness or ignorance. It 
 must, however, be stated that the steamship Lux was lost 
 in the Doro Channel, Grecian Archipelago, through fire 
 during stormy weather, and Mr. Redwood attributes this 
 accident to " the escape of oil from the expansion trunk 
 of the cargo-tanks into the port-side bunker, and the 
 overflow of such escaping oil through the bunker into the 
 stokehole where, or in the bilges, it became ignited." The 
 steamship Lux carried a cargo of Russian refined petro- 
 leum; but most of the accidents which have occurred to 
 steamers carrying petroleum in bulk have been when the 
 cargo has consisted of crude oil. This is easily explained 
 by the presence of the light hydrocarbons and gas in the 
 crude which are eliminated from the refined oil by the 
 process of distillation. We have seen that the quantity 
 of petroleum of various qualities imported into this 
 country in the year 1893 was over 155,000,000 gallons, 
 nearly all of which would be carried by tank-steamers 
 representing a freight capacity of about 550,000 tons. 
 
 This large quantity of petroleum is distributed in this 
 country mostly in tank-cars to the larger towns, and re- 
 tailed in tank-carts. The obsolete barrel, however, is still 
 to be found in small towns and villages, and on the 
 hawkers' carts in the metropolis. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 LIQUID FUEL 
 
 FROM the preceding cursory glance at the known 
 oil-fields of the world, it is evident that the quantity of 
 petroleum in different parts of the earth must be im- 
 mense, and if entirely converted into kerosene there 
 would be enough to light up the globe for centuries to 
 come. But mineral oil is destined to play another im- 
 portant part in the economy of the world, in becoming the 
 fuel of the future. It has been quite sufficiently experi- 
 mented with to demonstrate that it is practically perfectly 
 applicable and safe for all heating purposes. At present 
 the production is not sufficient to enable it to come into 
 competition with coal, but when we remember the im- 
 mense reserves known to exist, the time must come when 
 the further development of these important resources will 
 place an enormous quantity of liquid fuel on the markets 
 of the world. At present the total production is difficult 
 to estimate, owing to want of authentic records from 
 many countries; but it may be approximately taken at 
 about 100,000,000 barrels of crude oil. This produce is 
 at present refined, and it may be safely assumed that the 
 total production of kerosene is about 40,000,000 barrels. 
 The other products consist of light oils, lubricating 
 
LIQUID FUEL 39 
 
 oils, and residue; the latter constitutes the liquid fuel. 
 It is, however, almost exclusively produced in Russia, 
 and amounts to over 3,000,000 tons, and assuming a ton 
 of residue to equal in calorific effect two tons of coal, 
 we have at present a production of liquid fuel equal to 
 6,000,000 or 7,000,000 tons of coal a very insignificant 
 quantity as compared with the consumption of coal in 
 the world. In order to compete as a fuel, the pro- 
 duction of petroleum will have to be greatly increased, 
 and, as far as this country is concerned, this increased 
 production will have to come from fields lying on the 
 sea-coast, where it can be shipped in tank-steamers and 
 brought to the consumer at a reasonable cost. 
 
 The idea of applying liquid fuel in the place of coal is 
 by no means a recent one. Many years ago it was pro- 
 posed to use it in the Royal Navy, and Admiral Selwyn 
 made elaborate experiments, and strongly advocated its 
 advantages for ships of war. It may, however, be said to 
 have been practically applied first by Mr. Urquhart on the 
 locomotives in Southern Russia, and about the same time 
 on the steamers employed in the Caspian Sea for the 
 transport of petroleum from Baku to the Volga. The 
 principle on which the liquid fuel is burnt in locomotives 
 or steamships consists in breaking or pulverizing the liquid 
 fuel by means of a jet of steam, and all the different 
 inventions for the use of liquid fuel may be described as 
 modifications of this idea, 
 
 In a paper read by Mr. G. Stockfleth, at the Society of 
 Arts, on May 20, 1894, he thus describes the process as 
 adopted in Russia. 
 
40 PETROLEUM 
 
 " Many injectors or pulverizators in Russia, called 
 fasunkas, have been constructed and patented, but it has 
 been found that the most primitively constructed pulver- 
 izators answer as well as the more complicated kinds. 
 The apparatus used under the stills consists simply of two 
 half-inch pipes, one leading the oil from a tank, the other 
 steam from a boiler. The ends of the pipes are flattened 
 by a blow of a hammer, and then tied together with a 
 piece of wire; the steam-jet catches the outflowing oil 
 and forms the spray. It is well to keep the oil a little 
 warm to facilitate its passage in the pipes through which 
 it descends by gravitation. This pulverizator gives entire 
 satisfaction ; the flame is powerful and bright, and not a 
 drop of oil is wasted when once the flow has been regu- 
 lated. No smoke or flame ascends the chimney which, 
 by the way, can be very short as the steam-jet itself 
 creates sufficient draught. A somewhat neater appearance 
 can be given to the injector when the oil-pipe is arranged 
 inside the steam-pipe, and provided with a cast-iron or 
 brass nozzle which can be shaped to give the flame any 
 desired form. As far back as 1880 I had occasion to make, 
 on behalf of Messrs. Nobel Brothers, in St. Petersburg, 
 some experiments with oil firing before a committee of the 
 Russian Admiralty. At that time astatki firing was a 
 novelty. The object was to demonstrate its practicability 
 for firing marine boilers. The pulverizator was of a some- 
 what complicated construction. The results were, how- 
 ever, satisfactory; the boiler used belonged to a steam 
 launch. 
 
 "Experiments have been made with compressed air 
 
LIQUID FUEL 41 
 
 for spraying the oil, but the results have not materially 
 differed from those obtained with steam. Air must, of 
 course, in any case, have access to the flame, and openings 
 on the front of the flue must be provided for its admit- 
 tance. In most cases the hole in the furnace door through 
 which the nozzle of the pulverizator is introduced, is 
 sufficient for letting in the quantity necessary for the 
 combustion. The action of the steam is therefore solely 
 mechanical, and serves only for cutting up the oil into small 
 particles, which being surrounded by the necessary air for 
 their combustion, catch fire before they reach the bottom 
 of the flue. By using steam for spraying, no oil accu- 
 mulates in the flue when the flow is regulated, con- 
 sequently a complete combustion of the oil takes place. 
 If better results should be obtainable by using compressed 
 air for spraying, the reason would have to be looked for 
 in some chemical effect of the steam upon the oil which, 
 to some extent, could deprive the latter of its heat-creating 
 properties. There is, however, no probability for this 
 anticipation ; if the steam had this effect, it would already 
 have done its work in the still, where superheated steam 
 is admitted into the crude oil to facilitate the distillation 
 of the different crude oil products. Looking at the ques- 
 tion from the point of cost, it is not probable that the 
 compressed air can be produced cheaper than the necessary 
 quantity of steam taken direct from the boiler. It is, in 
 fact, but a very small quantity which is necessary for 
 doing this work, when the pulverizator is properly con- 
 structed; and no case has come to my knowledge in 
 Russia where the adoption of liquid fuel has augmented 
 
42 PETROLEUM 
 
 the quantities of feed-water used in a perceptible degree. 
 The chief point in the construction of the pulverizator is 
 to avoid waste of steam, that is to say, to construct the 
 nozzle in such manner that every particle of steam takes 
 care of a corresponding particle of oil. This objeot will 
 best be secured when the openings for the steam, as well 
 as for the oil, are made long and narrow, and are placed 
 as close to one another as possible. All the different 
 Russian constructions are made in this way. The openings 
 are about 1 J inches long, and \ inch to ^ inch wide. As the 
 oil sometimes contains paraffin, which is likely to choke 
 this narrow opening, it is essential to have an arrange- 
 ment by which steam can be led through the oil-passage 
 to clean it out. The rest of the construction may be 
 varied to suit particular cases, and with a view to facilitate 
 and cheapen the manufacture. 
 
 " At the present time a great many ships on the Blaclx 
 Sea, and all steamers on the Caspian Sea, as well as all 
 locomotives in Southern Russia, burn astatki. The general 
 advantages obtained by using liquid fuel in any boiler, 
 whether stationary, locomotive, or marine, are the follow- 
 ing. It can be adapted to any construction of boiler 
 without material change in the existing arrangement for 
 firing with coal, in fact coal and oil can be used alter- 
 natively if so desired. The fire-bars have simply to be 
 taken out or covered with thin slabs and cinders, the 
 furnace door has to be provided with a hole for introducing 
 the nozzle of the pulverizator, and the steam-pipe and oil- 
 pipe have to be connected respectively with the boiler and 
 the oil-tank. The steam-generating power of astatki is 
 
LIQUID FUEL 43 
 
 considerable ; one ton of oil is, in this respect, equal to 
 more than two tons of best steam coal, and is often claimed 
 to be equal even to three tons of coal; it depends, of 
 course, upon the quality of oil and coal used for the com- 
 parison. The fire can be extinguished instantaneously, 
 and is absolutely free from smoke or ashes. The frequent 
 opening of the furnace doors can be avoided, thus saving 
 heat and preventing leakage of tubes, due to currents of 
 cold air. Rapidity in raising steam, and complete control 
 over the fire, are secured, thus avoiding waste of steam by 
 the safety-valves, and the boiler pressure can be regulated 
 better than in the case of coal-firing. After mentioning 
 these general advantages a few words may be added about 
 the special advantages accruing to railways and steamships. 
 The valuable spaces at railway-stations, which have now 
 to be sacrificed for accommodating coal supply, could be 
 reduced by about two-thirds, as only half the tonnage 
 would have to be kept in stock, and this quantity can be 
 stored more economically in point of space than the same 
 quantity of coal. A considerable amount of labour 
 employed in storing coal and loading tenders can be 
 saved, and the oil can be taken in simultaneously with the 
 water supply, as quickly and in a like manner. The 
 avoidance of smoke and blowing safety-valves will greatly 
 add to the comfort of the passengers, a point for which 
 the railway companies are usually prepared to make 
 considerable sacrifices. 
 
 " The hard work of the stoker on an express train is 
 reduced, as far as firing goes, to simply giving the regu- 
 lating valve of the injector a turn from time to time, and 
 
44 PETROLEUM 
 
 the absence of dirt and smoke makes the service less 
 disagreeable than with coal-firing. 
 
 "For steamships, the advantages of using liquid fuel are 
 of still greater importance. Much valuable space which 
 has now to be sacrificed for the coal-bunkers can be 
 saved ; the oil can be kept in ballast-tanks at the bottom 
 of the ship, an arrangement which greatly augments the 
 stability of the vessel, and the oil can gradually, as it is 
 consumed, be replaced by water. The size of the stoke- 
 hole can be reduced considerably, and the number of 
 stokers diminished in the proportion of one to four. In 
 stormy weather, and in case water should gain access to 
 the stokehole and put the fire out, it is considerably more 
 troublesome and takes more time to re-light a coal fire 
 than to re-start the oil fire, and the risk of accidents by 
 scalding is diminished. The danger of fire in the coal- 
 bunkers will not be replaced by any similar risk connected 
 with the use of oil." 
 
 With reference to the use of liquid fuel on locomotives, 
 it is interesting to refer to the results obtained by Mr. 
 James Holden, locomotive superintendent of the Great 
 Eastern Railway, by the process invented and adopted by 
 him. On the locomotives using liquid fuel there is an 
 absence of constant and laborious firing; the requisite 
 pressure of steam is easily obtained by an almost im- 
 perceptible movement of the injector valve, there is an 
 absence of smoke, and a great uniformity of pressure. 
 Mr. Goodwin, in his inaugural address as President of the 
 Society of Engineers in February 1894, gave a description 
 of these locomotives, and their working cost, and stated 
 
LIQUID FUEL 45 
 
 that an express engine using 35*4 Ibs. of coal per mile, 
 consumed under similar circumstances 11 '8 Ibs. of coal 
 and 10-5 Ibs. of liquid fuel, or a total of 22'3 Ibs. of fuel ; 
 and assuming the liquid fuel to be equal in calorific effect 
 to double its weight of coal, that is, 1O5 x 2 = 21 Ibs. of 
 coal, the total consumption, namely, 32*8 Ibs., would be less 
 than the ordinary consumption of coal. The advantages 
 of this system are summed up as follows. First, with 
 an ordinary grate steam can be easily raised without 
 working the injector ; secondly, fuel can be interchanged 
 according to the state of the market; thirdly, with a 
 thin coal fire oil can be shut off at will without running 
 the risk of chilling the fire-box ; fourthly, when standing 
 the coal fire will maintain steam. For several years a 
 number of locomotive .engines on the Great Eastern 
 Railway have used liquid fuel, and one of these engines is 
 recorded to have travelled 47,000 miles without a single 
 failure or accident. The great difficulty in extending the 
 use of liquid fuel in England is the impossibility of 
 obtaining a sufficient supply at a low cost, otherwise it 
 would be very generally used, considering the great calorific 
 effect and the practical advantages of its application. The 
 primary advantage in using liquid fuel lies in its great 
 calorific value, which is due to its composition, namely, 
 a mixture of hydrocarbons of various densities. 
 
 In the United States the average composition of crude 
 oil is taken at 86 per cent, of carbon and 14 per cent, of 
 hydrogen, and the calorific value at 21,192 British heat- 
 units as compared with coal yielding 14,500 heat-units. 
 In practice it is found that petroleum refuse gives a 
 
40 PETROLEUM 
 
 comparatively better result than its theoretical value. This 
 has been sometimes erroneously attributed to the action 
 of decomposing steam supplied by the jet to spray the 
 oil. But any effect of this kind is an impossibility, because 
 if the steam were decomposed into its constituent elements 
 an absorption of heat would take place, in order to liberate 
 the hydrogen equal to that produced by the re-combination 
 with oxygen, and no effective result, as far as a develop- 
 ment of heat, would be obtained. The great calorific effect 
 of liquid hydrocarbons must be attributed to other causes. 
 Experiments upon the calorific value of coal show that 
 the heating power of coal is greater than the theoretical 
 value of the constituent elements, and this must also be 
 so in the case of Irydrocarbons. 
 
 Be this as it may, the results obtained in practice show 
 .that in round figures one ton of liquid fuel properly burnt 
 for heating purposes will be equal to two tons of ordinary 
 coal. The experience gained up to the present time in 
 the use of liquid fuel establishes the following facts 
 
 1. That it is a safe and economically manipulated 
 substance. 
 
 2. That its calorific value is much greater than coal, and 
 consequently it offers advantages of requiring less room 
 for storage. 
 
 3. That its cost at present delivered in England is forty 
 shillings per ton, equal to two tons of coal in practical 
 effect. 
 
 4. That the supply has to be obtained from foreign 
 countries, and that the price is unstable. 
 
 There is one great advantage in the use of liquid fuel in 
 
LIQUID FUEL 47 
 
 locomotives which has not been sufficiently brought for- 
 ward, and that is the diminished weight to be carried, which 
 would enable the locomotive to travel many more miles 
 without stopping for a fresh supply of fuel. The intro- 
 duction of the water-troughs by Mr. Ramsbottom on the 
 London and North-Western Railway was attended with 
 most beneficial results, by enabling trains to run for long 
 distances without stopping to take in water, and a simi- 
 lar advantage would follow the adoption of liquid fuel 
 on railways. 
 
 Considering that liquid fuel if properly consumed in a 
 locomotive does not emit either smoke or noxious vapours, 
 it seems surprising that it has not been adopted on our 
 underground railways. There must be some reason for 
 this ; perhaps the frequent stoppages may be supposed to 
 interfere with the combustion, and yet one would think 
 that any mechanical difficulties could be overcome. It is 
 certain that if a smokeless fuel could be adopted in the 
 tunnels of the underground railways instead of the sul- 
 phurous coke at present used, it would be a great 
 comfort to the millions of passengers who travel by these 
 lines. 
 
 The heavier grades of petroleum distillates have recently 
 been applied to the enrichment of gas in this country. 
 The idea of using petroleum for the production or 
 enrichment of gas is not new. Attempts to enrich water- 
 gas date as far back as 1824, and a process for the manu- 
 facture of high standard gas direct from petroleum was 
 introduced in this country in 1846. There are several 
 systems by which petroleum is retorted, so that the oil is 
 
48 PETROLEUM 
 
 subjected to a heat of about 1600 Fahr., and thus trans- 
 formed into gas, leaving liquid and solid residuals, one of 
 the best known being that of Pintsch, but this process is 
 generally applied to the preparation of gas for compression.: 
 The process of manufacturing what is termed carburetted 
 water-gas, which has been in use in the United States 
 for some time, was introduced into this country only three : 
 years ago, but since then has been rapidly developed. 
 The primary reason for the use of petroleum in the manu- 
 facture of gas lies in the high price of cannel coal, which is 
 generally used in order to bring the gas up to the legal 
 illuminating standard. The process of manufacturing car- 
 buretted water-gas consists in decomposing steam by 
 passing it through incandescent coke, thus producing 
 hydrogen and carbonic oxide, and forming what is denom- 
 inated " water-gas," which in burning produces great heat 
 but gives very little light. In order to bring it up to the 
 necessary illuminating power it is charged with a certain 
 quantity of carburetted hydrogen, in the shape of petroleum 
 which is gasified and rendered permanent in suitable 
 apparatus. The process adopted in this country is the 
 Howe process, by which less than four gallons of oil is 
 required per 1000 cubic feet of gas to bring it up to an 
 illuminating power equal to 20 candles. The kind of oil 
 generally used is that which is known as Russian solar 
 distillate, being a product passing out of the still after the 
 kerosene or illuminating oil has been extracted, and before 
 the lubricating oil is distilled over. But other grades of 
 oil from America and Scotland have also been successfully 
 applied. The total quantity of oil of different kinds at 
 
LIQUID FUEL 49 
 
 present consumed in this country in the manufacture of 
 gas may be estimated at from 15 to 20 millions of gallons 
 a year. 
 
 It has been stated that the Fire Brigade Committee of 
 the London County Council propose to try the experi- 
 mental use of oil fuel in one of the fire-engines. The 
 idea seems to be that the use of liquid fuel would be 
 convenient more especially on the river fire appliances. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 
 
 THE temperature at which petroleum oil for ordinary 
 use ought not to give off inflammable vapour is termed 
 the safe flashing point, and this degree of heat has been 
 for some years a matter of discussion, not to say contention. 
 Originally the limit of safety was fixed at 100 Fahr. open 
 test, that is to say, that any oil which heated up to that 
 temperature gave off inflammable vapour in the open air 
 was considered unsafe, the reason for this limit being that 
 very rarely in this climate the temperature of the atmo- 
 sphere in the shade reaches that degree, and this test was 
 fixed by the legislature. 
 
 The first Act of Parliament referring to petroleum was 
 passed in 1862, soon after the introduction of illuminating 
 oil from the United States. In this Act petroleum was 
 defined to include any product thereof which "gives off 
 an inflammable vapour at a temperature of less than 
 100 Fahr." But no special method of testing was pre- 
 scribed by which the degree of inflammability was to be 
 determined. The next Act, passed in 1868, contained a 
 detailed system of testing by which the degree of inflam- 
 mability was to be determined, and it was enacted to 
 
FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 51 
 
 include certain other specified oils and products which 
 gave off an inflammable vapour under 100 Fahr. The 
 apparatus adopted for testing was as follows: A few 
 ounces of the liquid to be tested were put in a small 
 metal cup, provided with a flat rim and raised edges a 
 quarter of an inch high, which was placed in a larger 
 vessel containing water, under which was a spirit-lamp. 
 A thermometer was placed in the oil, which became 
 gradually heated by the water-bath. A fine wire was 
 fixed to or resting on the edge, which was thus a quarter 
 of an inch above the rim, and a very small flame was then 
 passed along this wire, and the temperature carefully 
 noted at which an explosion of the vapours took place. 
 The apparatus was surrounded by a screen to prevent 
 currents of air interfering with the results. This ap- 
 paratus was not satisfactory, and so many discrepancies 
 occurred between tests made by different operators that it 
 was felt by the trade that some other method of testing 
 ought to be adopted. This led to the invention of the 
 close-test apparatus by Sir Frederick Abel, which was 
 introduced into the Petroleum Act of 1879. The flashing 
 point of 100 Fahr. with the old open test was taken as 
 the basis, but replaced by its equivalent, 73 Fahr., by 
 the new Abel close test. Previous to this Act, another 
 one, namely, in 1871, had been passed, and when intro- 
 duced as a bill contained a form of close test, but with a 
 flashing point of 85 Fahr. The petroleum trade desired 
 to have the flashing point fixed as low as possible, whereas 
 the paraffin trade and the Metropolitan Board of Works 
 were anxious to see it higher than the existing regulation. 
 
52 PETROLEUM 
 
 The opposition to the 85 Fahr. flashing point was so great 
 that the clause was left out of the Act. Although several 
 attempts were made to rectify this omission by inserting 
 a test of 82 degrees, these were not successful, and at; 
 present the test remains at 73 Fahr. In a proposed 
 Bill in 1888 this test was not changed. The object of all 
 these Acts is to regulate the storing and conveyance of 
 inflammable liquids in order to insure public safety, and 
 stringent regulations have to be observed in the handling 
 of such liquids having what is considered a dangerous 
 flashing point that is to say, giving off inflammable 
 vapour at a temperature which may be realized under 
 ordinary circumstances in this climate. Therefore the 
 petroleum or other inflammable liquids which come under 
 the Act are such as have a flashing point under 73 Fahr., 
 which is considered the safe limit, and no regulation 
 whatever is provided under the present Act for what 
 is called high-test petroleum namely, that which does 
 not flash at 73 in Abel's close test. In a bill which was 
 mooted and discussed in 1888, it was proposed to compel 
 the so-called " safe oil," namely that having a high flash- 
 ing point, to be stored on registered premises, except as to 
 retail traders, who were, however, limited to sixty gallons 
 of safe oil, three gallons of petroleum spirit, and ten 
 gallons of petroleum and spirit combined. This Bill was 
 founded on extended inquiries and conferences with the 
 trade, which had been suggested by the Select Com- 
 mittee of 1883, and it was introduced and read a first 
 time in the House of Commons on February 9, 189], but 
 never got any further. The effect of the Bill was not, 
 
NG POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 53 
 
 however, to alter the flashing point, but to introduce 
 some regulations for the storage of the safe oils in large 
 quantities. 
 
 That some excuse for legislation in this direction exists 
 must be admitted when we consider that the present 
 storage of safe petroleum at the wharfs must be about 
 600,000 barrels, equal to 20,000,000 gallons. The petro- 
 leum trade is opposed to legislation in this direction, except 
 as far as safety, as involving possibly a further outlay on 
 the present costly installations for the storage of petro- 
 leum at the wharves. Any alteration of the flashing 
 point as at present fixed would not generally be accept- 
 able, nor is any alteration necessary, for the accidents 
 caused by safe illuminating oil, other than those attribut- 
 able to negligence, are few among the list of such 
 occurrences. 
 
 Nevertheless, the subject of the safe storage and trans- 
 port. of an inflammable liquid like petroleum oil is one 
 which demands the attention of the legislature. Last 
 year a Select Committee of the House of Commons was 
 appointed to inquire into the matter, and held a few 
 sittings. The evidence which has been given so far tends 
 to show that the danger in burning mineral oil as an 
 illuminant lies more in the use of defective lamps than in 
 the flashing point of the oil. In 1893 there were 456 
 fires recorded in London as having occurred through lamp 
 accidents, and the great majority of these were caused by 
 the chance upsetting of the lamps; and in 1894 out of 
 seventy-three fires attended with loss of life, twenty- 
 seven were caused by mineral oil lamp accidents, involving 
 
54 PETROLEUM 
 
 the loss of thirty-two lives. The faulty construction 
 of the lamps was pointed out by Mr. Spencer in his 
 evidence, and certainly the cheap foreign lamp as sold in 
 this country is constructed in a way almost to court 
 misfortune. Generally these cheap lamps are furnished 
 with a glass or porcelain reservoir, which breaks when 
 upset, and then the petroleum oil spreads and ignites at 
 the burning wick. Therefore it is suggested that the use 
 of fragile reservoirs ought to be disallowed. Again, in 
 the common lamps, as at present in use, the flame of the 
 wick is not in any way protected from the petroleum 
 vapour which may be in the reservoir above the level of 
 the oil. This case is almost similar to an open light in a 
 fiery coal-mine. In order to obviate the danger, safety 
 lamps have been invented to protect the open flame from 
 the vapour, not by a wire gauze, but by enclosing the 
 wick in a metal tube descending to the bottom of the 
 reservoir through the oil, thus shutting off communication 
 between the vapour and the flame of the wick. With 
 such improvements in the construction of lamps it is 
 anticipated that accidents caused by petroleum oil will be 
 seldom recorded. The subject of petroleum lamps was 
 fully considered by Mr. Boverton 'Redwood in his admir- 
 able Cantor lectures some years ago, and there is not 
 much to add to what he then said. 
 
 The last development in lamps is perhaps the burning 
 of petroleum vapour instead of the oil itself. A lamp has 
 been recently introduced in Germany, in which the oil is 
 allowed to drop from a small reservoir in the upper part 
 of the lamp into a vapourizing chamber heated by the 
 
vmi VCKOI I Y 
 
 X. ~ or 
 FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 55 
 
 flame of the burning oil vapour. The initial heat to light 
 the lamp is produced by introducing at first a small 
 quantity of spirit. The light is very powerful, and it is 
 proposed to adopt these lamps for use in large structures, 
 such as railway-stations, and also for street lighting. 
 
 It must be pointed out that accidents caused by petro- 
 leum lamps are frequently erroneously attributed to 
 explosions of vapour in the reservoirs. Such explosions 
 do sometimes take place, although Professor Lambert 
 doubts their occurrence altogether. The following case of 
 a lamp explosion came within the writer's knowledge. 
 On a winter's evening three persons were sitting round a 
 table on which stood a common petroleum lamp, which 
 had been burning for about five hours, when it suddenly 
 exploded without being moved or touched. The frag- 
 ments of glass were blown in every direction, and the 
 burning wick dropped on the table, where it was promptly 
 extinguished. No oil appeared to have been spilt, and 
 the reservoir must have been empty, and under the circum- 
 stances would become filled with a mixture of air and 
 vapour sufficient to cause an explosion. It is needless 
 to point out that the lamp had been unintentionally placed 
 in a dangerous condition. Such explosions are, however, 
 rare. In general, lamp disasters are the result of acci- 
 dental upsetting of the lamp, and in such cases the 
 flashing point is not an important factor. That is to say, 
 a petroleum oil of high flashing point under such circum- 
 stances will ignite at the burning wick. The analysis of 
 the usual run of lamp accidents tends to show that the 
 most important requirements to prevent such occurrences 
 
56 PETROLEUM 
 
 are, first, a lamp made of metal which will not easily 
 be broken, and secondly, some safety contrivance to pre- 
 vent contact of the vapour in the reservoir with the flame 
 of the wick. 
 
 This is clearly pointed out in the circular of the London 
 County Council on petroleum lamps, containing sug- 
 gestions "partly founded on recommendations made by 
 Sir Frederick Abel, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., and Mr. Boverton 
 Redwood, F.I.C., F.C.S., after investigating the causes of 
 lamp accidents." The circular states that the wick should 
 be enclosed in a thin sheet of metal tube open at the 
 bottom, which should reach almost to the bottom of the 
 reservoir. That the oil reservoirs should be made of 
 metal without any opening other than that into which the 
 upper part of the lamp is screwed, and that every lamp 
 should have a proper extinguishing apparatus. If these 
 suggestions were universally carried out lamp accidents 
 would be of rare occurrence. But, as Mr. Alfred Spencer 
 pointed out in his evidence before the Committee of the 
 House of Commons, the London County Council may 
 make suggestions, but has no power to enforce them. 
 
 It must be added that a great number of the accidents 
 attributed to petroleum are caused by misuse and careless- 
 ness. Among the former is the very reprehensible practice 
 of pouring petroleum oil on the coals in a grate when 
 lighting a fire, in order to make it burn up quicker. The 
 following is one out of numerous cases recorded in the 
 daily press 
 
 " A girl, while kindling a fire at an early hour yesterday 
 morning, poured some paraffin oil on the fuel to make it 
 
FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 57 
 
 burn. The flames shot out and caught her clothes, setting 
 them on fire. She ran screaming into the passage, and 
 her cries attracted her employer and some passers-by. 
 Before medical aid could arrive she died in great agony 
 from the effects of the burns." 
 
 Another frequent cause of accident arises from the use 
 of the small penny lamps. Not long ago a child three 
 years old was burnt to death through playing with one 
 of these lamps which had carelessly been left within its 
 reach. 
 
 It would be difficult to prevent such want of prudence 
 by Act of Parliament, and all that can be done is to warn 
 people of the danger they run in misusing petroleum in 
 this manner. Fatal accidents from these causes have been 
 so frequent that it cannot be out of place here to revert 
 pointedly to the danger of using petroleum oil in a way 
 and for purposes for which it is not applicable. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 PETKOLEUM ENGINES 
 [Contributed by MR. ARTHUR EOWAN, A.M.I.C.E.] 
 
 THESE engines are the latest adaptation of means to 
 extract from petroleum the energy which lies latent in it. 
 As compared with gas-engines and steam-engines they 
 are still in process of development, but should the future 
 bear out their present promise of freedom from danger 
 and simplicity of action, it is not too much to expect that 
 they will be one of the most important, if not the most 
 important factor in the demand for petroleum, just as the 
 steam-engine is now the most important factor in the 
 demand for coal. 
 
 The gas-engine in its limited field has shown what a 
 demand for handy small-power engines exists ; and the 
 annual consumption of coal-gas has been increased by 
 many thousands of millions of cubic feet owing to their 
 invention. 
 
 But the field for the petroleum engine is unlimited. 
 It is an easy calculation that 100,000 engines of only 
 5 horse-power each would require an annual supply of 
 200,000,000 gallons of refined oil to keep them at full 
 work. When it is considered that it is quite possible that 
 
PETROLEUM ENGINES 59 
 
 before twenty years have passed two or three hundred 
 thousand petroleum engines may be at work in Europe, 
 the power-user may well begin to inquire where is the oil 
 coming from. Mr. Boyd has already given the answer, 
 to which the reader can refer. 
 
 Before going further it will be necessary for the sake 
 of brevity and clearness to define in some way the name 
 " petroleum engine." 
 
 The word petroleum is used in England in the loosest 
 manner. The residues of petroleum refineries are con- 
 stantly referred to as crude petroleum, whereas crude 
 petroleum is really an almost unknown product in this 
 country. A good deal of confusion has also been caused 
 in the minds of many commercial power-users by constant 
 references in journals and books to petroleum as fuel. 
 The progress of petroleum by distillation from its raw or 
 crude state to the well-known commercial products which 
 are in daily use is roughly as follows 
 
 1. Crude: Inflammable at very low temperatures; may 
 not be shipped or stored without special precautions ; is 
 not at present available for use in petroleum engines. 
 2. Volatile oils: Often sold as petroleum spirit or petro- 
 leum essence ; are dangerously inflammable ; much used 
 to carburet air for "so-called" petroleum engines. 3. Oils 
 for domestic use : Are known by different names, such as 
 kerosene, tea-rose, russolene, daylight, etc., etc. ; being 
 distilled and refined can be burnt inside the cylinders of 
 internal combustion engines without clogging. 4. Heavy 
 vise-id oils : Require a high temperature to gasify ; are 
 very little used as yet for petroleum engines. 5. Rcsidms. 
 
60 PETROLEUM 
 
 Petroleum (4 and 5 in above classification) can be and 
 is used in favourable localities as a fuel to heat furnaces 
 and boilers, and to produce steam. 
 
 The use of petroleum in petroleum engines is an en- 
 tirely different proceeding, requiring another class of oil, 
 and is conducted on totally different principles. 
 
 In the following pages the words "petroleum engine" 
 will mean an engine driven by the explosion of refined 
 mineral oil, such as may be legally used in England for 
 domestic consumption in lamps, stoves, etc., that is to say, 
 with a flashing point of 73 Fahr. (close test), and of a 
 specific gravity between *80 and '85. 
 
 Other engines which use the lighter volatile products 
 of petroleum refineries (Class 2 above), such as benzine, 
 naphtha, and gasoline, I shall refer to as ''so-called" 
 oil-engines. 
 
 This is a very important distinction to power-users, 
 because the technical conditions and performances of these 
 " so-called " oil-engines are often held up for comparison 
 with the petroleum engine. They were the forerunners 
 of the present commercial petroleum engine. They are 
 often good and economical engines, and very useful in 
 their proper place, but their field must always be a very 
 limited one, because in every Civilized country severe legal 
 restrictions are in force con/cerning the storage and sale 
 of the fuel which they use/! With the improvement of 
 the petroleum engine theijf use may be expected to die 
 out, except in certain countries where oil-refining is 
 carried out on a large scale,, and the minor products must 
 be utilized in some form. 
 
PETROLEUM ENGINES 61 
 
 These volatile oils are so well adapted for the manu- 
 facture of carburetted air, that, if the price of the oils is 
 sufficiently low, there will always be found power-users 
 to take the risk of their use. About 16 per cent, of 
 American crude mineral oil consists of these volatile oils, 
 which must be run off before the lamp oil is obtained, so 
 that a largely increased demand for lamp oil entails a 
 largely increased supply of the volatile oils. 
 
 It is quite outside the scope of this pamphlet to explain 
 the chemical and dynamical actions of the forces utilized 
 in the petroleum engine. Suffice it to say here that it is 
 an " internal explosion " engine. To explain this term I 
 may perhaps be permitted to take a cannon as a crude 
 analogy universally known. The cartridge chamber repre- 
 sents the engine cylinder, the cannon ball represents the 
 piston in the cylinder, while the explosive powder in the 
 cannon is represented by a mixture of oil and air in the 
 engine. A small quantity of oil, intimately mixed with a 
 certain quantity of air, forms an explosive, more or less 
 powerful according to the nature of the mixture, and this 
 explosive has great practical advantages over gunpowder 
 and other explosives, because both the constituents can be 
 handled or transported, or stored, without the smallest 
 risk, while one (air) costs nothing, and the other (oil) 
 costs very little. Also the power and rate of burning 
 can be accurately graduated by mixing the two sub- 
 stances in due proportions. For example, one part of oil 
 and four of air would give a quick, powerful explosion, 
 while one part of oil to forty of air would be feeble and 
 slow. 
 
62 PETROLEUM 
 
 Although in petroleum engines every maker uses an 
 explosive charge of oil and air in the cylinder as the 
 motive force, yet the explosion is obtained by methods 
 varying widely not only in detail but also in principle. 
 Two great divisions in principle may be emphasized with- 
 out going into technicalities: (1) Where the oil is me- 
 chanically divided and intimately mixed with air before 
 explosion ; (2) where the oil constituents are chemically 
 dissociated, and are converted wholly or partly into true 
 gases before mixture with air and explosion. 
 
 But it is not sufficient merely to obtain an explosion as 
 in a cannon. In a petroleum engine explosions must 
 follow each other rapidly and regularly, while their force 
 and rapidity must be either automatically controlled, or 
 capable of mechanical adjustment according to the power 
 which the engine is called upon to exert at a given 
 moment. 
 
 Further, the power derived from the motion of the 
 piston in the cylinder has to be divided, the minor part 
 doing the interior work required by the engine itself, 
 such as compressing air, pumping oil, imparting heat 
 where required, overcoming friction of moving parts, etc. ; 
 while the major part is transmitted to the exterior useful 
 work, of whatever kind required. 
 
 This being the case, it is evident that the more the 
 interior work is diminished the greater is the amount of 
 force available for useful work. Therefore it is the aim 
 of every manufacturer and designer (1) to get the maxi- 
 mum energy possible on the piston, consistent with the 
 economy of fuel] and material ; (2) to govern the force 
 
PETROLEUM ENGINES 63 
 
 produced ; (3) to reduce the interior work of the engine. 
 To effect these objects great variety of design is employed 
 by different makers. 
 
 The great majority of engines hitherto made have only 
 one cylinder, and work on the so-called "Otto" cycle, 
 which gives one explosion and impulse at every second 
 revolution of the crank. A good many are, however, 
 working with twin cylinders. These obtain an impulse 
 every revolution, while a few large marine engines between 
 75 and 105 horse-power are double-acting, that is to 
 say, they obtain two impulses to every revolution of the 
 crank. 
 
 In some engines the necessary quantities of air and 
 oil are injected or sucked into the cylinder together, then 
 compressed and fired. In some the air only is compressed, 
 and the oil charge in its chemically or mechanically sub- 
 divided state is injected just before ignition. Some 
 makers heat the air before admission to the cylinder, some 
 warm it, some admit it cold. 
 
 In some engines the oil is forced into the cylinders by 
 pressure varying in different engines from 8 Ibs. to 75 Ibs. 
 to the square inch ; in others it is merely sucked in by 
 the motion of the piston in the cylinder. Ignition of the 
 charge at the right moment is effected by widely varying 
 means. In some by an electric spark, in some by a red- 
 hot tube, in some by a naked flame, and in some by the 
 heat of the preceding explosion. 
 
 The reader who wishes to study the subject, and 
 appreciate the infinite ingenuity and care bestowed on 
 these details, will find various elaborate treatises published 
 
64 PETROLEUM 
 
 on the subject within the last three years, and many special 
 articles on the same subject in the technical journals. So 
 far as the general public and the petroleum industry are 
 concerned, it is sufficient to know that several of these 
 designs have passed out of the experimental stage into 
 the commercial, and have worked smoothly and successfully 
 for years. 
 
 The mechanical difficulties being conquered, rapid 
 development both in size and efficiency must follow. 
 Each type of engine will find its most fitting market. 
 In out-of-the-way spots, economy of fuel will be sacri- 
 ficed to simplicity of construction ; where artisans and 
 workshops are plentiful, simplicity may well be sacrificed 
 to economy of fuel. 
 
 The prime cost is at present a stumbling-block in the 
 way of many small power-users, but with an increased 
 demand and more numerous orders, prices will fall. 
 
 It is a curious fact that the price of these engines 
 remains relatively high, although the supply apparently 
 far exceeds the demand. Over thirty large engineering 
 shops in Europe are engaged in the manufacture, while 
 the patents applied for in 1894, for " Improvements in 
 Oil-engines," may be numbered by hundreds. 
 
 This relation between supply and demand might be 
 explained in various ways. I shall content myself with 
 pointing out the causes which are actually creating 
 or may be expected to create a rapid increase in the 
 demand. 
 
 A glance at the catalogues of well-known manufacturers 
 will show at once many causes " claimed." 
 
PETROLEUM ENGINES 65 
 
 No boiler. 
 
 No external -fire. 
 
 No sparks or lights of any kind. 
 
 No coal or coke required. 
 
 Absolutely free from danger. 
 
 No driver required. 
 
 Started in five minutes. 
 
 No water consumed. 
 
 Self-contained. 
 
 More efficient than any other engine. 
 
 More economical than any other engine. 
 All these claims and others may be grouped under the 
 three heads of relative safety, relative convenience, and 
 relative economy, as in comparison with gas- and steam- 
 engines ; and it will be of interest to follow out as briefly 
 as possible some of the reasons and facts on which these 
 claims are based. If they are well founded, then the 
 demand is insured, and with the demand will follow the 
 fall in price which the petroleum industry desires. 
 
 Relative safety. There is no doubt that the petroleum 
 engine has advantages. A carefully-driven and well- 
 maintained steam-engine is safe, but the safety depends 
 on the driver. His absence or negligence may lead to 
 disastrous explosions. 
 
 This is a truism, but an extract from a very recent case, 
 recording the opinion of H.M. Inspector of Factories, 
 shows that it cannot be repeated too often. 
 
 " MAJOR VAUGHAN : Unfortunately, this employment 
 " of boys to look after engines is very common at these 
 
 " small factories. The Home Office is not able to interfere. 
 
 r 
 
66 PETROLEUM 
 
 " JUDGE FRENCH : Is no certificate of competence 
 "required of an engineer in charge of an engine ? With 
 " an incompetent man or ignorant boy, the lives of all the 
 "workmen on the premises are endangered. 
 
 "MAJOR VAUGHAN: No, not under the Factory Act. 
 " I often call the attention of the employers to the fact that 
 " boys are engaged in such work. 
 
 "JUDGE FRENCH: What is the use of appealing to 
 " such employers ? You should impress the danger of the 
 " system on the Home Office. I hope you will report this 
 " to your Department. Under the Mines Act, a certificate 
 " of competency is required of engineers ; the Home Office 
 " might be induced to extend the system to Factories." 
 
 With coal-gas engines supplied from a main, when the 
 ignition is by naked flame, a certain amount of risk, 
 though it be small, must always be connected ; but a well- 
 designed petroleum engine has all the elements of safety. 
 If the attendant is negligent or absent, or the engine is 
 dirty, the worst that can occur is the stoppage of the] 
 engine and loss of time. 
 
 Fire Insurance Companies charge no extra premium 
 when petroleum engines are used in buildings, unless a 
 naked flame is used. 
 
 In " relative convenience," in working, petroleum engines 
 appear to have great advantages over steam-engines ; while 
 as regards erection, the absence of the boiler and other 
 appliances must be a distinct advantage, especially when 
 large engines are to be used. 
 
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68 PETROLEUM 
 
 Steam-engines must be constantly fed with fuel and 
 water, arid the smaller they are, the more often they 
 require attention when at full work ; whereas a petroleum 
 engine at full work may be arranged to run for days, or 
 even weeks, with no more attention than is necessary to 
 lubricate the bearings, and in some cases the cylinders. 
 
 Again, a steam-engine requires a trained attendant, 
 whereas it is an undoubted fact that any servant of ordinary 
 intelligence can learn in a day or two to work a petroleum 
 engine, at all events up to a certain size, and not only to 
 start or stop it, but also to find out what is wrong, and 
 do the necessary cleaning or replacing of parts. 
 
 In both petroleum and steam-engines the fuel must be 
 stored and carried to the engine. Certainly petroleum is 
 handier and cleaner than coal, though its peculiar odour 
 is not liked by most people. In storage it has a decided 
 advantage, inasmuch as one ton of oil and one ton of coal 
 each require about 40 cubic feet of store room, but one 
 ton of oil will do three or four times the work of one ton 
 of coal. 
 
 Relative economy. This is a most difficult point to 
 treat briefly, as so many factors have to be considered. 
 The main expense in a petroleum engine is the fuel itself. 
 At the present moment Russolene petroleum costs under 
 .V. per gallon ex quay English ports. 
 
 A gallon of Russolene weighs on an average 8J Ibs., 
 therefore 1 cwt. equals say 13J gallons, which at M. per 
 gallon equals 3s. 4Jd. per cwt. Therefore 3s. 4Jrf. plus 
 cost of delivery is the basis on which each power-user can 
 base his calculations for comparison with other engines. 
 
PETROLEUM ENGINES 69 
 
 I may here again point out that there is no waste in 
 handling this fuel, provided that the receptacles are well 
 made. 
 
 The price of the fuel is thus easily arrived at, but the 
 commercial power-user requires also a guide as to the 
 useful effect he will get from this expensive fuel. He will 
 naturally turn to the catalogues of manufacturers. 
 
 As a rule, however, engine-makers' catalogues are com- 
 piled more for the technical than the commercial public. 
 Some reckon by nominal horse-power, some by indicated 
 horse-power, some by brake horse-power, and some by 
 effective horse-power. 
 
 The term " nominal horse-power " is purely nominal, and 
 it is not easy to see why it should ever be used in connection 
 with oil-engines, unless to puzzle buyers. 
 
 The indicated horse-power is the sum of the interior and 
 exterior work (see page 62), which is the true measure 
 of the total energy exerted in the cylinder on the piston ; 
 while the brake or effective horse-power is, or should be, 
 the measure of the power available for transmission to any 
 given duty. 
 
 The ratio between the effective horse-power and the 
 indicated horse-power is called the mechanical efficiency of 
 the engine. 
 
 Again, every fuel gives out a certain amount of energy 
 or heat while burning. The amount of that heat or 
 energy which is eventually utilized on the piston of the 
 engine may be called the fuel efficiency. 
 
 A little reflection will show that the interior work of 
 any engine must depend not only upon the details of 
 
70 PETROLEUM 
 
 construction and general design, but also upon the amount 
 of friction, which is a factor varying from day to day, and 
 dependent on circumstances, such as speed, lubrication, 
 cleanliness, etc., and which can only be gauged by actual 
 experiment at a given time. It is quite a common ex- 
 perience that small steam-engines which may give an 
 effective horse-power for 4 Ibs. of coal on a fair trial in the 
 maker's shop, will be found to require 8 Ibs. after twelve 
 months' work in ignorant or careless hands. The fuel 
 efficiency has decreased through deposits on the heating 
 surfaces, and the mechanical efficiency has decreased owing 
 to increased friction. 
 
 Petroleum engines are not so liable to this form of 
 deception, because they are self-stoking, and may be self- 
 lubricating, while any dirt or deposit stops the engine, and 
 thereby calls attention very forcibly to the faults of the 
 attendant. 
 
 Nevertheless, some attention must be given, and no 
 maker can guarantee a continued effect from a cwt. of oil 
 unless the engine is under his care, and he supplies the 
 oil, but the effect which the buyer may fairly expect from 
 an engine can be arrived at in another way ; that is, the 
 maker can guarantee the indicated horse-power when a 
 certain kind of oil is used, or in other words he can 
 guarantee the fuel-efficiency. 
 
 If the purchaser has some information on the con- 
 stituents and heating power of various oils, he can analyze 
 the oil he intends to use, and form his own judgment as 
 to whether a given engine will suit his wants. 
 
 Thus, if a power-user asks the question, " What effect 
 
PETROLEUM ENGINES 71 
 
 i can I expect from a cwt. of Russolene oil in a petroleum 
 engine ? " he must make some such calculation as this to 
 obtain an answer. 
 
 One pound of Russolene oil will yield when exploded 
 say 19,000 heat-units. Of this say 60 per cent, will 
 escape through the cylinder, and say 25 per cent, through 
 the exhaust and chimney, leaving 15 per cent, as work 
 done in the cylinder on the piston, that is, 2850 (15 per 
 cent, of 19,000) heat-units have yielded up their energy 
 in moving the piston forward. Of these 2850, about one- 
 fifth may be assumed to be used in the interior work of 
 the engine, leaving 2280 heat-units available for exterior, 
 useful work. 
 
 It is hardly necessary now-a-days to point out that heat 
 and power are transposable terms. 
 
 One heat-unit is 772 foot-pounds. 
 
 One horse-power is 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 
 
 Therefore one horse-power hour is 1,980,000 foot-pounds ; 
 therefore if one pound of oil yields (2850 X 772) 2,200,200 
 foot-pounds, one cwt. will yield (2,200,200 X 112) 
 246,400,000 foot-pounds, which divided by 1,980,000 
 gives 124 horse-power hours, and therefore one cwt. of 
 oil, value 3s. 4>^d. plus cost of delivery, should keep a 
 petroleum engine at useful work for 124 horse-power 
 hours. 
 
 I have made this calculation at length, because any 
 fuel may be treated in the same way, if its heat value 
 is known. Thus, one pound of Scotch shale lamp-oil is 
 estimated to contain 19,700 heat-units, while one pound 
 of average coal contains about 14,000 heat-units. To 
 
72 PETROLEUM 
 
 present a comparison of the effect of the universal fuel: 
 coal, with the above figures 
 
 Take one cwt. of coal, value say 9d., one pound of which 
 will yield, when burned, 14,000 heat-units. Coal cannot 
 be burned like oil in the engine cylinder ; its heat has to 
 pass from a furnace, through metal, to water, transform 
 the water to steam, and in that form it arrives in the 
 cylinder. In these transformations 13,300 heat-units will 
 probably disappear. The exact amount lost will depend 
 on the design of boiler and engine, but in the best 
 designs 12,500 will be lost. 
 
 Assuming, however, 700 heat-units to survive and be 
 converted into work in the cylinder by motion of the 
 piston, one-seventh will be required for the interior work 
 of the engine, and 600 remain for useful work from one 
 pound of coal, as against 2280 from one pound of Russo- 
 lene oil. By calculation as before, one cwt. of coal would 
 yield 30 horse-power hours. 
 
 The above calculations are only to be taken as examples 
 of average results deduced from experience. In a small 
 cheap steam boiler and engine not half the above result 
 might be obtained. 
 
 Some relative efficiencies of different heat-engines are 
 given by Sir Guildford Molesworth, the well-known 
 engineer (see Appendix A, Table I.). 
 
 This table is a very useful one in giving the relative 
 values of various heat-engines, viz. steam, and gas, and 
 hot-air, which all use coal as primary source of heat, and 
 it includes one engine which uses petroleum explosively. 
 In compiling this table such an authority as Sir G. Moles- 
 
PETROLEUM ENGINES 73 
 
 worth may fairly be assumed to be correct in the relative 
 values, even though absolute values might be disputed. 
 It will be seen that with the exception of large steam- 
 engines which have all the best fuel and heat-saving 
 apparatus, the petroleum engine has a far greater fuel- 
 efficiency than any of the others. 
 
 It is highly probable that the fuel-efficiency will be 
 increased by further improvements, and should the fuel 
 cost decrease by even one-third, the petroleum engine 
 will take the highest rank in "relative economy " of fuel, 
 although the mechanical efficiency must always be less 
 than that of the steam-engine, as there is more internal 
 work to be done. 
 
 In the last competitive trials held by the Royal Agricul- 
 tural Society, the first prize was adjudged to a petroleum 
 engine the mechanical efficiency of which was 0'83. This 
 engine was selected as the best all-round engine for farm- 
 yard work, but there were others which showed a still 
 higher efficiency. One engine reached the very satisfactory 
 figure of 0'8S, and consumed only 0'73 Ib. of Russolene 
 oil per horse-power per hour. In the portable engine trials 
 the winning engine used only eighty gallons of water in 
 a three days' run of twenty-two hours. 
 
 The following table may be of assistance to power- 
 users. 
 
bO 
 
 
 
 
 pii 
 
 i I 
 
PETROLEUM ENGINES 73 
 
 No estimate of cost is shown in the preceding table, 
 because of the ever-varying prices of material in different 
 countries. Every power-user knows the prices in his own 
 district, and can fill up the estimates and make his own 
 comparisons. If he lives in a town where gas is sold at 
 a reasonable price, he will prefer a gas-engine ; if he lives 
 in a country where wood and water are easily obtained, he 
 will prefer a steam-engine ; but there are thousands of 
 places where there is no gas available, and where no 
 steam-engine is "even possible. There is the field for the 
 petroleum engine at present ; always provided that the 
 cost of petroleum is not excessive. And it cannot be too 
 much emphasized that in all parts of the world petroleum 
 might be a cheap and plentiful fuel if import dues were 
 abolished. Storage on a large scale at sea-ports is 
 absolutely necessary for a cheap and constant inland 
 supply, while cheap freights must be by tank steamer and 
 special appliances. 
 
 Unless foreign governments will put petroleum fuel, as 
 regards duty, on the same footing as coal fuel, capital will 
 not be forthcoming for those purposes. At present coal 
 is very properly admitted at low tariffs as being a necessity 
 of existence, while petroleum appears to be regarded as 
 a luxury to be highly taxed. If, however, petroleum is 
 found to be a cheaper and more effective fuel than coal, 
 it is hoped that these governments will re-consider the 
 tariffs, and admit petroleum free or at very low duties. 
 Then the future of the petroleum engine will begin. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM 
 
 IT would be very difficult at present to foretell the 
 future development of this valuable natural product. It 
 has already become the most generally useful illuminant 
 of the^day, and in this respect it will probably increase in 
 popularity. It fully realizes the demand for a cheap and 
 good light, and is independent of the costly installations 
 required for gas or electricity. When petroleum was first 
 obtained in large quantities, the only, or almost the only, 
 use it was put to was for the preparation of lighting oils. 
 The bye products, however, soon found a demand, and 
 lubricating oils, medical preparations, and paraffin wax 
 were manufactured. These were followed in Russia by 
 the application of the heavy residue remaining after the 
 lighter products had been distilled over to heating, and 
 this " liquid fuel " soon became greatly used on the South 
 Russian railways and Caspian Sea steamers. In the 
 United States a fresh field for some of the heavier dis- 
 tillates was found in the enrichment of gas. This appli- 
 cation has been recently introduced into Great Britain, 
 and has met with considerable success. In this direction 
 it may be anticipated that a much larger demand will 
 
THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM 77 
 
 follow on the first successful introduction. Perhaps the 
 most marked success in new adoptions of petroleum to 
 practical purposes is found in the motors generally known 
 as " petroleum engines," which but a very few years since 
 were looked on as toys by practical engineers, and which 
 have now become rivals to the steam-engine. These engines 
 are capable of being adopted for many varied purposes, 
 among others that of replacing the various methods of 
 transmission of power, because a petroleum engine can be 
 used in the most inaccessible places, where if necessary the 
 supply of oil can be conveyed through a pipe. 
 
 Another direction in which great advance has been 
 made of late is in the construction of stoves for domestic 
 and industrial use. Whatever novel applications may be 
 within the possible range of invention, the increase in the 
 consumption of petroleum will lie in the further develop- 
 ment of appliances for the production of light, heat, and 
 power in this country, provided we can obtain a sufficient 
 supply at a moderate cost. The reserves of petroleum 
 must not be considered as inexhaustible, but we have 
 sufficient evidence to prove that immense quantities of 
 crude oil are to be found in many parts of the world, and 
 with the present improved mode of transport, these supplies 
 can be, and no doubt will some day be made available and 
 brought to this market. The increased demand for 
 petroleum in this country is the more certain to take 
 place as it enters free of duty. In most other countries a 
 heavy duty is imposed on refined, and a light one on 
 crude oil. The result of this system is to protect the 
 trade of refining within the limits of the territory. There 
 
78 PETROLEUM 
 
 is no reason why crude oil should not be imported into' 
 the United Kingdom, and the process of refining carried 
 out here as elsewhere. In fact it appears strange that 
 this has never been carried out. 
 
 The process, as already briefly described, consists in the 
 fractional distillation of the crude oil, by means of which 
 it is subdivided into a number of distillates, according to 
 the temperature at which they pass from the still, thus 
 producing a variety of oils varying in density, flashing 
 point, and colour, and known by a corresponding difference 
 in designation. The different grades or divisions are 
 arbitrarily adopted by manufacturers to suit the kind of 
 crude oil treated, and the special requirements of the 
 market to be supplied. Hence in countries where crude 
 oil is imported and locally refined, it is divided into such 
 products as suit the needs of the public. This is clearly 
 in favour of local treatment. The future development of 
 the petroleum trade in this country depends primarily on 
 a good supply at moderate cost, and it appears to me that 
 the best way to insure this is to import crude oil from 
 points where it exists, and which lie within easy transport 
 of this country. The sources from which it might be 
 derived would be, for example, the West India Islands and 
 the South American Atlantic coast. Petroleum is known 
 to exist in Mexico, Venezuela, and Argentina, but has 
 not yet been raised in any quantity in these countries, 
 nor would there be much inducement to do so if the 
 object was confined to supplying these countries with 
 kerosene. But if we take into consideration the broader 
 view of the question, namely, that of supplying Europe 
 
THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM 79 
 
 with crude oil, an immense market would at once be 
 available. 
 
 There are many other parts of the world besides those 
 just enumerated where petroleum has been proved to 
 exist, and which might eventually be brought to the home 
 market. Prominent among these we must place the 
 large fields of North-west Canada, which are waiting for 
 some means of communication with the sea-board; and 
 among recent developments, mention must also be made 
 of those which have taken place in the far East, in Java, 
 Sumatra, Borneo, etc., which promise good results. Pos- 
 sibly a future supply to this country might be obtained 
 from these far-off fields in spite of the great distance, 
 which can be overcome by means of the comparatively 
 cheap transport by tank-steamers. 
 
 The future of petroleum in this country depends in a 
 great measure on development in this direction. It is 
 needless to point out that our present supply is derived 
 from two sources only, namely, the United States and 
 Russia, and any alteration in the existing circumstances of 
 the trade would indubitably lead to a rise in the price, 
 which, although probably not affecting the use of the 
 illuminating oils, would greatly impede an extended 
 consumption of petroleum for industrial purposes. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 (SIR G. MOLESWORTH.) 
 
 Shows the percentage of theoretical heat or combustion 
 which is rendered into useful work by different motors. 
 
 Percent. 
 
 By small high-pressure engine without expansion ... 1*8 
 
 Ericson's hot-air engine T8 
 
 ,, Lehman's hot-air engine ... ... ... ... 1*8 
 
 Lenoir's gas-engine 2*0 
 
 ,, portable steam-engine ... ... ... ... 2*8 
 
 high-pressure steam-engine with expansion ... 3*0 
 
 hot-air engine (Leavitt's) ... ... ... ... 3'5 
 
 - (Belon's) 4-1 
 
 condensing engine with expansion 4*5 
 
 gas-engine (Otto & Lan gen) 5*0 
 
 petroleum engine ... ... ... ... ... 8*4 
 
 large steam-engine, best make 9*0 
 
 Flashing point of mineral oils which may be legally 
 used as lamp oils in various countries. 
 
 United Kingdom 73 Fahr. (close test). 
 
 "Russia 82 
 
 America... 100 (open test). 
 
 France ... ]<)0 (open test). 
 
 Germany 70 (close test). 
 
 Switzerland 95 (open test). 
 
 Austria 100 (open test). 
 
 India 110 (close test). 
 
APPENDIX A 81 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 (MOLESWORTH AND UNWIN.) 
 
 Shows relative heats of perfect combustion of one pound 
 of various fuels. 
 
 Average coal being TOO 
 
 Wood is 0-58 
 
 Scotch shale oil (1st run) 0'80 
 
 Steam coal 1'15 
 
 Patent fuel briquettes ... 1'18 
 
 Anthracite coal 1'20 
 
 Kussolene lamp oil ... 1*35 
 
 Koyal Daylight lamp oil 1*40 
 
 Scottish shale lamp oil... 1'42 
 
 USEFUL MEMOKANDA. 
 
 1 Imperial gallon water weighs 10 Ibs. 
 
 1 Imperial gallon lamp oil, average weight, 8| Ibs. 
 
 1 American gallon lamp oil, average weight, 7 Ibs. 
 
 6 American gallons equal 5 Imperial gallons. 
 
 1 horse-power hour is equal to 1,980,000 foot-pounds. 
 
 1 horse-power hour equals 2570 heat-units. 
 
 1 kilogramme = 2*2 Ibs. 
 
 I hectolitre = 22 Imp. gallons. 
 
 1 pood (Russian) = 36 Ibs. = 3'6 Imp. gallons (water) 
 
 1 Oke (Egyptian) = 2'7 Ibs. 
 
 1 Cho (Japan) = 1*6 quarts. 
 
 1 Imp. gallon = 4*537 litres. 
 
 1 U.S. gallon = 3-80 litres. 
 
 1 U.S. barrel = 35 Imp. gallons = 42 U.S. gallons. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 Bonbon (Itouutn Council. 
 
 PUBLIC CONTROL DEPARTMENT, 
 
 21, WHITEHALL PLACE, S.W. 
 J-uly 1893. 
 
 PETROLEUM LAMPS. 
 
 In view of the numerous fatal and other accidents caused by 
 Petroleum Lamps, the Council considers it desirable to make public 
 the following suggestions, which are partly founded on recommenda- 
 tions made by SIR FREDERICK ABEL, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., and MR. 
 BOVERTON REDWOOD, F.I.C., F.C.S., after investigating the causes 
 of lamp accidents. 
 
 Suggestions as to the Construction and Management of 
 Petroleum (or Paraffin) Lamps. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF LAMPS. 
 
 1. The wick should be enclosed in a tube of thin sheet 
 metal, open at the bottom. This wick tube should reach 
 almost to the bottom of the reservoir containing the oil. 
 
 2. The oil reservoir should be of metal, and not of 
 china, glass, or other fragile material. 
 
 3- The upper part of the lamp which comprises the 
 burner, wick-tube, etc., should be constructed to securely 
 screw into the metal reservoir. 
 
 4. The oil reservoir should have no feeding-place nor 
 opening other than the opening into which the upper part 
 of the lamp is screwed. 
 
APPENDIX B 83 
 
 5. Every lamp should have a broad and heavy base, 
 and a proper extinguishing apparatus. 
 
 WICKS. 
 
 6. Wicks should be soft, and not tightly plaited, and 
 should quite fill the wick-holder without having to be 
 squeezed into it. 
 
 7. Wicks should be dried at the fire before being put 
 into lamps, and should be soaked with oil before being 
 lit. 
 
 MANAGEMENT. 
 
 8. The reservoir should be quite filled with oil every 
 time before using the lamp. 
 
 9. The lamp should be kept thoroughly clean, all oil 
 should be carefully wiped off, and all charred wick and 
 dirt removed before lighting. 
 
 10. When first lit, the wick should be partially turned 
 down, and then slowly raised. 
 
 11. Lamps which have no extinguishing apparatus 
 should be put out as follows : The wick should be turned 
 down until there is only a small flickering flame, and a 
 sharp puff of breath should be sent across the top of the 
 chimney, but not down it. 
 
 12. Cans or bottles used for oil should be free from 
 water and dirt, and should be kept thoroughly closed. 
 
 ALFRED SPENCER, 
 
 Chief Officer. 
 
 NOTE. These suggestions apply to ordinary Petroleum 
 or Paraffin lamps such as are generally used, and not to 
 Benzoline or Spirit lamps. 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 CALORIFIC VALUE OF CRUDE OIL ACCORDING TO DR. 
 GINTL. 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Java 
 
 Baku 
 
 East Galicia... 
 
 West Galicia 
 
 Roumania . . , 
 
 Methane 
 
 Ethylene 
 
 FRKNCH CALORTKS. BRITISH HEAT UNITS. 
 
 10,180 
 9,963 
 10,831 
 11,460 
 10,085 
 10,231 
 10,005 
 13,065 
 11,850 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 18,324 
 17,933 
 19,495 
 20,628 
 18,153 
 18,415 
 18,009 
 23,517 
 21,330 
 
 IMPORT DUTIES ON CRUDE AND REFINED PETROLEUM 
 IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 
 
 (Given approximately in English money and cwts.) 
 (1 c.wt. = 14 gallons.) 
 
 Austria 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Italy ... 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Spain 
 
 CRUDE. 
 
 2.s. 
 7s. 2 
 
 12*. 6<7. 
 5d. ' 
 12*. 6(/. 
 
 REFINKD. 
 
 IQa. 
 
 12s. 6(/ 
 
APPENDIX D 
 
 85 
 
 BRITISH COLONIES. 
 
 Canada 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 India 
 
 Newfoundland ... 
 New South Wale* 
 New Zealand 
 South Australia 
 Queensland 
 Tasmania 
 
 Victoria 
 
 West Australia . . 
 
 Kerosene 
 
 . . . 3]k/. per gallon. 
 . . . free 
 
 ... Gd. 
 
 Gd. 
 
 E. 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 London Show Rooms and Stores, 
 
 11 QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.G. 
 
 Works : Bourton 9 Dorset 
 
 ENGINES. 
 
 DYNAMOS. 
 
 MOTORS. 
 
 BOILERS. SAW BENCHES. 
 PUMPS. HOISTS. 
 
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 "Personally we look upon this book as a most valuable labour-saving invention, 
 for no questions are so frequent, or take so long to answer, as those about lenses " 
 Practical Photographer. 
 
 " Written so plainly and clearly that we do not think the merest tyro will have an \ 
 difficulty in mastering its contents." Amateur Phntnflraphfr. 
 
 LONDON: WHITTAKER & CO., PATERNOSTER SQUARE. 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
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